*fyr
mLL
-TTMT~T7i~MIIII|w ¦' ' ' ¦* i II ' " " — "T t— IJTS^g* STiT
of \%t
S. G. GOODRICH.
m
5§®gS,®M
OTIS, BROADERS & COMPANY,
PICTORIAL GEOGRAPHY
OF
THE WORLD.
ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS.
494
EUROPE.
CHAPTER LXX. GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE.
jimmm
1. Boundaries and Extent. Europe is bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean ; E. by the
Ural Mountains, the river Ural, the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and the Archipelago ; b.
bvthe Caucasus and the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by tbe Atlantic Ocean, it lies be
tween 35° and 71° N. lat., and between IO5 W- and 64° E. long., exclusive of the islands ;
its greatest length from east to west is 3,300 miles ; its greatest breadth 2,500 miles ; area
3,720,000 square miles.
57 67 77 87 97 LOT ll7honS..127freml37-WasK.147
2. Seas and Gulfs. On the northern coast is the White Sea, a large and deep bay, but
frozen over a considerable part of the year. Between Great Briiain and the continent is the
German Ocean, or JVVrt/i Sea, an arm of which, between Jutland and Norway, is called the
Scagerac ; and another, between Jutland and Sweden, takes the name of the Cutlegat. The
German Ocean covers an extent of 200,000 square miles, and is divided into two parts by
the Dogger Bank. The navigation of this sea is dangerous, being exposed to violent and
EUROPE.
495
Crossing the gulf of Bothnia on the ice.
Comparative Height of the Mountains of Europe.
BRITISH ISLANDS.— 1. Cheviot Hill., England, 3,000 feet. —2. Snowdon, Wale., 3,557 do. — 3 Ben
Nefifl, Scotland. 4,380 do. —4. Carran Tual, Ireland, 3,400 do.— FRANCE. — 5. Auvergne, 6 230 do. —
S.Vosges, 4,680 do. -SPAIN -7 Sierra Nevada, o, Snowy Range, 1 1.660 do. -8. La Maladetti, highest
of Audalusian, 11,405 do. — NAPLES. — 9. Ml. Corno, or Cavallo, 9,5-JO do. — 10. Vesuvius, (volcanic )
3,450 do. — II. Mt. Etna, or Mongihello, (volcanic,) 10,870 do. — SARDINIA. — 12. Mt. Olan, 13 819 do
— SWITZERLAND. — 13. Finsteraarhorn, 14,111 do. — 14. Mt. Blanc, 15,730 do. — 15 Ml Rosa
15,730 do. — 16. Jungfrau, 13,718 do. — 17. Rhetiau Alps, 12,000 do. —AUSTRIA — 18 Ortler 12 850
do. —SWEDEN. — 19. Scagsiloslind, 8,400 do.— *0. Sneehffilun, 8,120 do.— GERMANY —21
Hartz, 3.620. du. —22. Highest Summit of Carpathian Chain, 10,000 do.
variable winds. Its encroachments upon its
southern coast have formed the Gulf of Dol-
lart and the Zuyder See. The Baltic Sea
extends between Sweden and Russia, and
Germany. It is 600 miles long, and has an
area of 120,000 square miles. In many
places it is shallow, and it is exposed to sud
den changes of the wind and violent storms ;
its tides are inconsiderable, and it discharges
its waters through the Sound and the two
Belts into the ocean. The gulfs of Bothnia
and Finland are its principal arms. The
Bay of Biscay is an open bay on the western
coast. The Gulf of Bothnia extends northerly,
between Sweden and Finland,
350 miles, with a breadth of 50
to 140. It is frozen so hard
during winter, that travelers cross
it from Sweden to Finland in
reindeer sledges.
The Mediterranean Sea is a
large inland body of water, about
2,000 miles in length, and vary
ing from 200 to 800 in breadth,
covering an area of 1,000,000
square miles. The tides in this
sea are slight, nowhere exceeding
two feet. A strong current
through the Dardanelles, brings
the waters of the Black Sea into
this basin, and while a central
current sets into it through the
Straits of Gibraltar from the At
lantic Ocean, two lateral currents
pour its waters through that chan
nel into the ocean. The Adri
atic Sea or the Gulf of Venice,
and the Archipelago, are its prin
cipal arms. The Black Sea is a
sort of large lake between Eu
rope and Asia, which discharges
its waters by the Bosphorus,
through the sea of Marmora and
the Dardanelles, into the Medi
terranean. Including the Sea of
Asoph, which is properly a gulf
of the Black Sea, the latter cov
ers an area of 200,000 square
miles. It is so tempestuous and
boisterous as to be difficult of
navigation. 3. Mountains. Four great sys
tems of mountains spread their
numerous branches over this con
tinent. The Pyrenees separate
France and Spain, and extend in
several parallel chains through the
peninsula ; their greatest eleva-
496
EUROPE.
tions are from 10,000 to 11,400 feet. The Alps are the principal trunk of the second great
European system of mountains, whose branches stretch into France, Germany, Italy, Hun
gary, Turkey, and Greece. The Vosges, the Jura, and the Cevennes, in France, are its
western spurs. The Alps, which extend between France and Italy, and the latter and Swit
zerland, send off a long southern chain through Italy, under the name of the Apennines, and
stretching easterly through the country to the south of the Danube, reach the Black Sea
under the name of the Balkan, and the Morea under the name of the Pindus. The highest
summits are in Switzerland and Savoy, and attain an elevation of from 14,000 to 15,730
feet. A third mountainous system is the Carpathian, which nearly surrounds Hungary, and
extends along the frontiers of Moldavia, sending off several low ranges into Germany. Its
highest summit is not quite 10,000 feet high. The fourth system of mountains is the Scandina
vian, which traverses the peninsula of Scandinavia, and nowhere exceeds an elevation of 8,500
feet. 4. Capes. The most northerly extremity of the mainland is North Kyn in Finmark ; Cape
North is the extreme point of Mageroe, an island of Norway. Cape Skagen or the Skaw,
the northern extremity of Jutland, gives names to the Scagerac. Cape Lindesnces, or the
Naze, is the southern point of Sweden. Cape Wrath on the northern coast of Scotland, Cape
Clear in Ireland, and Land's End in England, are the most noted capes of the British Isles.
Cape La Hogue on the northwest coast of France, Cape Finisterre in Spain, capes Roca and
St. Vincent in Portugal, project into the Atlantic Ocean. Cape Spartivento in Italy, and
Cape Matapan in Greece, are the principal points in the Mediterranean.
5. Peninsulas. Europe is much indented by arms of the sea, which form numerous penin
sulas. The Scandinavian peninsula, comprising Norway, Sweden, aud Lapland, is the larg
est ; the isthmus, between the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea, is less than 200 miles
across. The peninsula of Jutland is much smaller. In the south, Spain and Portugal form a
large peninsula, with an isthmus of about 220 miles across. Italy, the Morea, joined to the
continent by the narrow isthmus of Corinth, and the Crimea, projecting into the Black Sea, are
the other most remarkable projections of this nature.
6. Islands. The principal islands are the groups of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, in the
Arctic Ocean; the British Archi
pelago, comprising Great Brit
ain, Ireland, and the adjoining
isles, on the western coast; and
Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and
Candia, in the Mediterranean.
Most of these will be elsewhere
described. Candia belongs politically to
Africa, as it now forms a part of
the Egyptian state. It is 160
miles long, and from 15 to 50
broad, with an area of 4,000
square miles, and 275,000 in
habitants. Enjoying a fine cli
mate, excellent harbors, and a
favorable position, Candia has
been deprived of the benefit of
its natural advantages, by Turkish tyranny. The chief town is Candia, with 15,000 inhabit
ants, much declined from its former prosperity and splendor. Canea is at present the most
commercial place in the island ; it has 12,000 inhabitants. Sphakia is remarkable as the
chief place of a district, inhabited by a warlike people, called Sphakiots, who have preserved
their independence.
The Azores, in the Atlantic, midway between Europe and America, are, by some geogra
phers, considered as belonging to Europe, to which they are politically attached, being a Por
tuguese colony. The group consists of nine small islands, with about 200,000 inhabitants.
lhe principal are St. Michael's, Terceira, Pico, and Fayal. Angra, on Terceira, is the
capital, and has a population of 16,000. Ponta Delgada, on St. Michael's, has about 18,000 in
habitants.
EUROPE.
497
7. Rivers. The principal river of Europe is the Volga, the only stream whose course ex
ceeds 2,000 miles in length.
The Danube was long consid
ered the largest European river,
but it has a course of less than
1,600 miles. The Danube rises
in the Black Forest in Baden,
becomes navigable at Ulm in
Bavaria, passes through the
Austrian empire, and separates
Austria, Wallachia, and Rus
sia, from the Ottoman empire ;
after receiving 30 navigable
streams, it enters the Black
Sea by five principal mouths.
The Dniester, the Don, the
Vistula, the Niemen, the Oder,
the Elbe, the Rhine, the Loire,
Source of a river. anfj tne Rhone, are the next
most considerable rivers of Europe.
8. Face of the Country. The central part of this continent is, in general, mountainous.
The whole northern part, extending from London and Paris to Kazan, and comprising the
northern part of France and Germany, the Dutch and Belgian Netherlands, Prussia, Poland,
and a great part of Russia, is a vast plain, little elevated above the level of the sea, and scarcely
broken by any considerable elevations. There are several elevated plains or plateaus in Eu
rope, but of no great extent. The Swiss plateau, lying between the Jura and the Alps, has an
elevation of from 1,800 to 4,000 feet. Central Spain forms an elevated table-land, 2,200 feet
high, and the central part of Russia forms a similar plateau, about 1,200 feet high.
9. Climate. In general, the climate of southern Europe may be described as mild, and that
of the north severe, with long and cold winters, and hot but short summers. The climate
of the western coast is, however, tempered by the vicinity of the ocean, and the same cause
renders it liable to sudden and violent changes. That of the eastern part of the continent is
rendered much colder, in corresponding latitudes, by its exposure to the icy winds of northern
and central Asia. The heat, brought by the burning winds of the African deserts to the
southern countries, is, in general, tempered by their great exposure to the sea, occasioned by
their peninsular formation. The mountains of Switzerland, Spain, and Hungary, also modify
the character of the climate in the extensive districts, which they cover.
10. Minerals. Europe is less rich, in the precious minerals, than the other quarters of the
globe, but it produces great quantities of coal, iron, lead, tin, copper, and salt. Gold, silver,
platina (in the Ural Mountains), and mercury or quicksilver, which is of great importance in
working gold and silver mines, and diamonds (Ural mountains), and some other precious
stones, are also found in considerable quantities. 11. Vegetable Productions. The most south
ern parts of Europe have a vegetation resem
bling that of Africa, and here we find the date-
tree (Phoznix dactylifera) , dwarf-palm (Chamm-
rops humilis), and pisang (Musa paradisiaca) ,
giving a tropical aspect to the country. In
these latitudes the fig, the olive, the orange,
the vine, and the maize, find a congenial cli
mate, and even the sugar-cane is cultivated in
Sicily. The olive will not thrive, even in val
leys, higher than 44° 30', nor will the vine yield
good wine north of 48°, except in a few shel
tered spots. At about the northern limits of
Olive Tree.
the olive, that is, in the parallel of the south of France, the southern forms of vegetation dis
appear : the Qjuercus cerris, so common in Italy and Turkey, is hardly seen, and evergreen oaks
(Q. Ilex), and common oaks (Q. Pedunculata and sessifiora), supply its place. Clusters of pines
Do
498
EUROPE.
(P. pinaster), and Scotch firs (P. sylvestris), now occupy the position held by the stone-pine
' (P. pined), further south ; while sweet
chestnuts (Castanea vesca), narrow-
leaved ash (Fraxinus oxyphylla), the
flowering ash( Ornus Ewopasa),mastich-
trees, &c, do not thrive further north,
in a wild state. Still more to the north,
where the vine begins to languish, its
place is occupied by fields of wheat and
European Oak.
Rye and Oats.
other corn ; the hardier trees, elms, lime (Tilia Europmd), oaks, ashes, alders (sambucus),
beeches (fagus), birches (betula), willows (salix), and poplars (populus), are found every
where. At last, in the more northern districts, aspens (Populustremula), bird-cherries (Pru-
nus Padus), birches, lime-trees, alders, junipers, spruce-firs (Abies excelsa), and pines, are the
principal trees that remain ; barley and oats are the only corn-plants, but potatoes continue to
be reared in the short cold summers. To the north of the limit of the olive, turnips and buck-
Barlcy and Wheat. Hops. Hemp.
wheat (Polygonum fagopyrum) are cultivated advantageously, as are also hemp, flax, hops,
carrots, parsnips, common clover, beans, vetches, and lucerne, as common field-crops. Instill
higher latitudes, the predominant forms of herbaceous vegetation are numerous species of ranun-
EUROPE.
499
Buck Wheat.
White Clover.
Comparative Size of the Animals of Europe.
1. Wild Bull. — 2. Stag. — 3. Wild Boar. — 4. Fallow Deer. —5.
Reindeer. — 6. Brown Bear. — 7. Ibex. — 8. Chamois. — 9. Lynx. —
10. Wild Cat. — 11. Roe Buck. — 12. Musmon. — 13. Great Bustard.
— 14. Stork. — 15. Lammergeyer. — 16. Falcon. — 17. Nightingale.
— 18. Marmot.
Meadow Clover Lucerne.
cuius, saxifrages, primula, moss,
lichens ; and there also occur abun
dance of stunted or pigmy trailing
shrubs, such as bilberries ( Vaccinium
myrtillus), and whortleberries (V.
uliginosum), dwarf willows (Salix
herbacea), crowberries (Empetrum
nigrum) , bear's foot ( Uva ursi) , and
the like. These changes occur with
the change of latitude in the low
country, but similar alterations take
place, if we ascend from the plains
to the mountains. In Sicily, for in
stance, from the tropical vegetation
of the valleys, you may ascend
through that of the temperate and
frigid zones, by climbing the lofty
flanks of Etna.
12. Animals* The Wild Bull
or aurocks (Bos urus) is chiefly
to be met with in the extensive
forests of Lithuania. It is black,
and of great size ; the eyes are.
red and fiery ; the horns thick
and short, and the forehead cover
ed with a quantity of curled hair.
This animal greatly resembles the
tame kind. The Musmon (Ovis
musmon) is considered as a link
between the sheep and goat, resem
bling both of them. It is found in
Greece, Sardinia, Corsica, and
Tartary. It is strong and muscu
lar, and runs with great agility over
the most dangerous precipices. It
is very timid, and seldom taken
alive. The Goat is very abundant
in Great Britain ; and the north of
England and Scotland are much re
sorted- to for the purpose of drink
ing the milk, which is of great ben-
* The native animals of Europe are not very numerous,
nor greatly varied in their kinds ; many, however, have
been introduced from other countries. The horse, which
was brought from Arabia, has, by cultivation and educa-
500
EUROPE.
efit to invalids. In the mountainous parts of Europe, the goat supplies the natives with many
of the necessaries of life. The Ibex (Capra ibex) inhabits the highest Alps, and is found
also in Candia ; it is very wild, and the chase of it is attended with great danger. The
Chamois (Antilope rupicapra) is very abundant in the mountainous parts of Europe, where
it is found in flocks among the rocks. The hunting of this animal is very laborious and diffi
cult, but followed with great ardor by the hunters, who frequently lose their lives in the pursuit.
The Elk (Cervus alces) is the largest and most formidable of the deer kind of Europe. It
inhabits the northern parts. It is 7 or 8 feet high, and its horns are of a large size.
It is timid and inoffensive, and runs with great swiftness, in a high shambling kind of trot. The
Reindeer (C. tarandus) inhabits the northern regions of Europe, and is of the greatest im
portance to the inhabitants, particularly to the Laplanders, who derive from it all the necessa
ries of life.
The Stag or Red Deer (C elapkus) is found in the forests and mountains of the north
of Europe ; but it is not as numerous in its wild state as formerly in England ; yet many of them
are kept in parks. The hunting of the stag has always been a favorite diversion.
The Stag or Red Deer.
The Fallow Deer.
The Fallow Deer (C. dama) differs from the stag in the size and form of its horns, but in
other respects these two animals are nearly the same. The Fallow Deer is found in nearly
all the countries of Europe, with a slight variation of color. The Roe Buck (C. capreohs)
was formerly common in England and Wales, but it is now only found in the Highlands of
Scotland, and other northern parts of Europe. It is the smallest of the European deer ele
gant in us form, and light and easy in its movements. It runs with great swiftness, and shows
great artihce in eluding its pursuers.
The Wild Boar (Sus aper) is the original stock of the varieties of the hog. He is nearly-
black and armed with formidable tusks in each jaw. He will not attack an animal if unpro
voked. The hunting of the wild boar is a dangerous but common amusement, in the countries
where he is found.
tion, been here carried to ils greatest refinement. In
England, more attention has been paid to the subject than
elsewhere. The three kinds of horses best known in that
country, are the Race horse, the Hunter, and the Carriage
horse. It is a curious circumstance, that in the mixture
of all these races, the influence of the Arab blood is ob
servable. The Persian, Barbary, and Turkish horses, are
those which come nearest to the Arabian, in conformation
and qualities ; and the Spanish horses long enjoyed a high
character in Europe, probably from the breed being kept
up by the intermixture of horses from Barbary. In France
are numerous varieties, and most of them are serviceable
animals. The other European races, it would be impossi
ble to enumerate.
EUROPE.
501
Wild Boar.
in ha
The Lynx (Felis lynx) is very common in the
north of Europe, and its fur is valuable for its soft
ness and warmth. It is a long-lived, destructive
animal, lives by hunting, and pursues its prey to
the tops of the highest trees. Its sight is remark
ably acute, and it sees its prey at a great distance.
The Wild-cat (F. catus) exists with little variety
in every climate of Europe, where it frequents
the mountainous and woody regions, living in
trees, and hunting small birds and animals. It is
very fierce-, and defends itself with great spirit
from any attack. It is larger and stronger than
the tame cat, of which it is the original stock,
and its fur is much longer. The Weasel (Mus-
tela vulgaris) is very common. The Stoat
(M. erminea) is often met with in the north
ern parts of Europe, and is of a yellowish brown color in summer, and nearly white in winter,
when it is called ermine. It is then much sought after for its valuable fur, which makes a
considerable article of commerce. It resembles the weasel in its habits and manners. The
Pine Weasel (M. abietum) is found in the north of Europe, living in large forests, and feeding
on the tops and seeds of pine trees. The skins of these animals form an article of commerce.
The Marten (M. fagorum) is very common, and lives wholly in the woods and feeds on
small animals and birds. The Sable (M. zibeUina) is highly esteemed for its fur, and is a
native of the cold regions of the north. It lives in holes in the earth by the banks of rivers,
and is very lively and active in pursuit of its prey. Immense numbers of them are taken in
Russia. The Polecat (M. putorius) resembles the marten in appearance, but differs from it
a most offensive smell. The Genet (Genetta vulgaris) is met with in Turkey, and
Spain, where it is found to be useful in destroying rats,
mice, and other vermin. It yields an agreeable perfume.
Tbe Badger (Meles vulgaris) is a native of the temperate
climates of Europe, but does not exist in warm countries.
It is an indolent animal and sleeps much, and feeds only in
the night. It lives in holes in the ground, and subsists on
roots, fruits, grass, and insects. Its skin and hair are used
Genet- for various purposes. The Glutton or Wolverene (Gulo
luscus) is found in the northern countries of Europe. It is famous for its gluttony and strength.
It attacks large animals by fastening itself on their necks ; it then sucks their blood and de
vours the flesh. It is hunted for its skin, which is very valuable.
The Brown Bear (Ursus Arctos) is found in almost every climate, and is a savage and solitary
animal, living in inaccessible preci
pices, and unfrequented places. This
animal will often climb trees and de
vour fruit in great quantities. It climbs
with surprising agility, keeps itself
firm on the branches with one paw,
and, with the other, collects the fruit.
It is remarkably fond of honey, which it
will encounter great difficulties to ob
tain. Its voice is a deep and surly growl,
and it is easily irritated. It is often
tamed and taught to perform various
tricks. The Brown Bear is very
widely diffused, being found in moun
tainous districts from the Pyrenees
and Alps to the Arctic circle, and as
far east as Kamtchatka. The Lap
landers hold it in great veneration,
and call it the dog-of God, and among
Brown Bear.
502
EUROPE.
Black European Bear.
the Norwegians there
has long been a prov
erb, that it has the
strength of 10 men,
and the sense of 12.
They never presume
to call it by its own
name, lest it should
be offended, but men
tion it as " the old
man with the for
cloak." It is a curi
ous fact, that the
North American Indi
ans seem to hold the
bear in the same re
spect, as has already
been stated, under the
head of North Amer
ica. The bear, which
figures so often in the
accounts of the old
English sports, as af
fording the cruel pastime of bear-bating, and as being taught to dance for the amusement of
the people, was the brown bear. Some authors have thought, that there was another species
found in Europe, to which they gave the name of the Black Bear (Ursus niger), but this
is now considered to have been a mistake.
The White or Polar Bear ( U. maritimus) is much larger than the Brown Bear, and is of
a yellowish white color. It inhabits only the coldest parts of the globe, and sometimes lives
on large islands of ice. It feeds on the carcasses of whales, fish, and seals. It is very
ferocious, and is remarkable for its attachment to its young.
The Fox (Vulpes vulgaris) is spread over Europe, and everywhere displays the same
activity and cunning. The chase of the fox is a very favorite diversion in Great Britain,
where it is pursued with great ardor. The Greyhound Fox is found in the mountainous
parts of England and Scotland. He is very bold and wild in his appearance. The Cur
Fox is the most common and the smallest
-^ .--jSte w? - 'SijW fflt%£ S§&s\!1^6 species. It lurks about the houses, and
^^^^^s^^^^^^S.'^i^cM^[^«^^i^^fe^.' steals every thing within its reach. It is
very playful and familiar when tamed. The
Black Fox ( V. argentatus) is found in Rus
sia, and its skin is esteemed superior to the
finest sable. The Cross Fox (V. decussa-
tus) is found in the coldest parts of Europe,
where its fur is very valuable. The Arctic
Fox ( V. lagopus) is found in the frozen re
gions of the north, and is of a whitish color.
It burrows in the ground, and sometimes
lives in clefts of rocks.
The Wolf (C. lupus) is found in al
most every country in the world, and is
very common in Europe. Its appetite for
every kind of animal food is excessive, and
, . when hungry it will attack all sorts of ani
mals ; even man himself has sometimes fallen a victim to its rapacity. The Jackal (C. aureus)
is found in Greece. It goes in packs, and hunts like a hound in full cry. It destroys poultry
and flocks, and carries off all it can find. It also seeks for dead bodies, and devours them.
It hides in holes during the day, but hunts its prey in the night.
"'• ir.Jf^si&sy 'f[\; '\gi,
The Common Fox.
ws^^
EUROPE.
503
mmm
Wolves attacking Cattle.
Dogs. Of these tnere are
a great variety in Europe, the
principal of which are the Shep
herd's Dog, common in the
northern parts of Scotland ; the
Cur Dog, the Bull Dog, Mas
tiff, Ban Dog, Dalmatian or
Coach Dog, Irish Greyhound,
Grey-hound Terrier, Beagle,
Harrier, Fox-hound, Old Eng
lish Hound, Blood-hound, Eng
lish Setter, Water Spaniel,
Springer, Turnspit, and Pug
Dog. The Hare (Lepus timidus)
is a harmless and inoffensive
animal, fearful of every danger,
but provided with means of eluding its pur
suers by its great swiftness. It is much hunt
ed by man, and by beasts of prey, and is
seldom permitted to enjoy a long life. It
is found in all parts of Europe. The Al
pine Hare (L. variabilis) changes in winter
from gray to white. It lives in the moun
tains of the north of Europe. It is easily
tamed, and is very playful and frolicksome.
The Rabbit (L. cuniculus) though it resem
bles the hare in appearance, differs from it
in its habits and propensities. It is common
in various parts of Europe, and abounds in
Great Britain, where its skin is used in the
manufacture of hats.
Squirrels. The Gray Squrrel (Sciurus
Vulgaris) is common in the northern countries
of Europe, and changes its color in the winter. Its tail is long and bushy. It makes its
nest in hollow trees, and lays up stores of provisions for winter use. Its fur is very valuable.
The Fat Squirrel is found in France and the southern parts of Europe. It is of an ash color,
and its fur is very soft. The Greater Dormouse is common in the south of Europe, where it
infests gardens, and lodges in holes in walls. It is very destructive to all kinds of fruit.
The Lesser Dormouse lives in woody or thick hedges, and makes its nest with grass or dried
leaves. The Flying Squirrel (S. volans) is found in the northern regions of Europe ; it
sleeps in the day, but is extremely active at night. It frequently takes leaps of twenty or
thirty yards, and where numbers of them are seen at a time leaping, they appear like leaves
blown by' the wind.
Marmots. The Marmot (Arctomys marmottd) inhabits the highest regions of the Alps, and
is likewise found in Poland. It lives in holes formed in the side of a mountain. There are
two entrances to each, and the chambers to which they lead are deep and spacious. In winter
they shut themselves up by stopping up the entrance to their holes, roll themselves up in hay,
and lie torpid till the warm season. The Lapland Marmot or Leming ( Georychus) are found
in the northern, parts of Europe, in immense numbers, overspreading large tracts of country in
their march from one place to another. Neither fire nor Water prevents their progress ; they
go straight forwards, swim-across lakes and rivers, and overcome every obstacle, or die in the
attempt. Their march is mostly in the night. They rest during the day, and devour all the
herbage that they meet with. Foxes, lynxes, and weasels destroy great numbers of them.
The Hamster (Cricetus vulgaris) is found in various parts of Germany and Poland. It is
of the size of a large water rat. It lives in the ground, where it lays up a great store of pro
visions for the winter.
The Soulisk (Spermophilus citillus) is about the size of a large rat ; it is found on the banks
European Hare.
504
EUROPE.
of trie Vol°-a, and burrows in the ground. The Rat (Mus Rattus) is of two kinds, the Black
and the Brown ; the last is known by the name of the Norway rat. The Water Rat (Arvi-
cola amphibius) frequents the sides of rivers, ponds, and ditches, where it burrows and forms
its nest. The Muscovy Musk rat is a native of Lapland and Russia, where it frequents the
banks of rivers, and feeds on small fish.- It has a strong flavor of musk.
The Beaver (Castor fiber) is found in the northern parts of Europe. The Mouse (Mus
musculus) is well known over all parts of the world. It is sometimes of a pure white color.
The Long and Short-tailed Field Mouse are found only in fields and gardens, where they feed
on nuts, corn, and acorns. The Mole (Talpa Europea) is found in wet and soft soil, where
it burrows with remarkable quickness with its broad and strong paws. It is very injurious to
meadows and cultivated grounds.
The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata) resides in thickets and hedges, and lives on fruit, worms,
beetles, and insects ;' it conceals itself in
the day and feeds during the night. It
is provided by nature with a spinous ar
mor, which secures it from the attacks
of all the smaller beasts of prey.
The Otter (lutra vulgaris) is found in
most parts of the world. The Sea Otter
(L. marina) is found in the northern parts
of Europe. Its skin- is of great value,
and is of a beautiful, shining, black color.
The Walrus or Sea Horse ( Trichecus) is
found in the northern seas. Great herds of
them are sometimes seen together on the
shore, or on an island of ice. This ani
mal is hunted for its teeth, which are
equal to those of the elephant for white
ness. The Seal is found in the northern
seas of Europe, and in great abundance
on the coasts of Great Britain It swims with great swiftness, is very playful, and feeds on fisb.
13. Birds. In the following enumeration of European birds, we shall only name those that
are original natives of the country. Among those which are domesticated from foreign cli
mates, are the Turkey of America, the Peacock and domestic cock of India, and the Pintado
of Africa. Of those which live in a partly domestic state, and are of foreign origin, are the
common Pheasant and Golden Pheasant.
Wmmk
"&?%£
Porcupine.
fC^r
Sea Eagle. Golden Eagle of Europe.
Eagles. The Golden Eagle (Aquila Chryscetos) is found in most parts of Europe, but abounds
EUROPE.
505
in warm regions. The White-tailed Eagle inhabits all the northern parts of Europe. The Sea
Eagle (Haliozelus albicilla) is found in various parts, and lives on fish. The Osprey or Bald
Buzzard (Pandion Halicetus) is scattered over Europe from Sweden to Greece. The Common
Buzzard (Buleo vulgaris) is well known. The Honey (Pemis apivorus) and Moor Buzzards
(Circus ceruginosus) frequent the northern parts. The Kite (Milvus iclinus) is found in the
northern latitudes, and is very common in England.
The Goshawk (Astur palumbarius) is found in Scotland, France, and Germany. Great
use was formerly made of this bird in Falconry. The other hawks common in Europe, are the
Kestril (Falco tinnunculus) , Merlin (F. cesalon), Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter fringillarius) ,
Lanner, Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus), and Hobby
(F. subbuteo). The Lammergeyer (Gypcetus barbatus) is often seen in the high Alps.
Peregrine Falcon?
Lammergeyer.
Owls. Many species of Owl (Strix) are known in Europe, among which are the Great
Eared Owl, Long Eared Owl, Short Eared Owl, White or Screech Owl, Tawney Owl, and
Little Owl.
The Great Ash-colored Shrike (Lanius excubitor) is common in France and other parts.
Tbe Red Backed Shrike (L. rufus) and Wood Chat are also found in Europe. The Raven
(Corvus corax), Carrion Crow (C. corone), Hooded Crow, Rook (C . frugilegus) , Jack Daw
(C. Monedula), Red Legged Crow, Nut Cracker (Nucifraga caryo$atactes) , Magpie (Pica
?#^§8EPS-lra
mesmuftf - <>,.',»r, .1-. if, ¦ '
Great Eared Owl.
64
Rooks.
506
EUROPE.
caudata), Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Chatterer, Roller (Coracias garrula), and Starling
(Sturnus), are spread in great numbers over many parts of Europe. Many species of Thrush
Jack Daw. European Jay.
(Turdus) are common, as the Blackbird or Black Ouzel, Ring Ouzel, Missel Thrush, Water
Ouzel (Cinclus aquaticus), Fieldfare, Throstle, and Redwing. All these are sweet singers.
The Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) and Wryneck (Junx) are found in various countries.
There- are many species of Woodpecker (Picus), the principal of which are the Great Black
Woodpecker, Green Woodpecker, Greater Spotted Woodpecker, and Lesser Spotted Wood-
Water Ouzel.
Hoopoe
EUROPE.
507
pecker. The Hoopoe (Upupa) is a
beautiful bird, and is universally met
with. The Creeper (Certhia famili-
aris) and Nuthatch are very common.
The Wood Grouse or Cock of the
Woods ( Telrao urogallus) is a fine
bird, found in the high, mountainous
parts of Europe, where it lives in pine
forests, and feeds upon the leaves of
fir-trees. The Black Grouse or Black
Cock (T. letrix), Red Grouse or
Moor Cock (Lagopus Scoticus), and
White Grouse or Ptarmigan (Lagopus
mutus), are found, like the preceding,
in high wooded situations. The Par
tridge (Perdix cinerea) and Quail (Co-
turnix dactylisonans) are universally
diffused. The Corn Crake (Crex) is
found in the northern parts of Europe.
It lives among the long grass, and sel
dom permits itself to be seen.
The Great Bustard ( Otis tarda) is
the largest of the European birds, be
ing almost four feet long. These birds
run with great rapidity, but fly with
Black Grouse.
Red Grouse.
White Grouse.
Partridge.
508
EUROPE.
Lark.
Great Bustard.
difficulty. They are sometimes hunted by greyhounds, which is said to be excellent sport.
They are rare in England, but more common in the middle parts of Europe.
The Crossbill (Loxia), Grosbeak (Coccothraustes), Pine Grosbeak, Green Grosbeak, and
Bulfinch (Pyrrhula vulgaris), are curious and beautiful birds, found in various parts of Europe.
Several kinds of Bunting (Emberiza) are common, as the Yellow Bunting, Black Headed
Bunting, Snow Bunting, and Tawney Bunting. Finches (Fringilla) are very common, and
distinguished for their song. The principal are the House Sparrow, Mountain Sparrow,
Chaffinch (F. Calebs), Mountain Finch, Goldfinch, Canary Finch, Linnet, Siskin, and Red
Pole. The Larks (Alauda) are among the sweetest songsters, and many kinds are found.
The principal are the Sky Lark (A. Arvensis), Field Lark, Wood Lark, and Tit Lark.
The Red Wagtail (Motacilla), Gray Wagtail, and Yellow Wagtail (Budyles), are numerous.
The Pied Fly Catcher (Muscicapa luctuosa) is found in some parts of Europe. The
Warblers are all distinguished for their powers of song.
The principal are the Nightingale (Curruca luscinia), Red
breast (Erylhaca rubecula), Redstart (Pltanicura ruticilla),
Black Cap (C. atracapilla), two or three species of Wren
(Troglodytes), the Wheatear (Saxicola rubetra), and Whin-
chat (S. ananthe). There are several species of the Titmouse
widely diffused over Europe, all of which are active and
sprightly. The Chimney Swallow (Hirundo ruslica), Martin
(H. urbica), Sand Martin (H. riparia), and Swift (Cypsehs
Murarius), are common in all parts. One species of Goat
Sucker (Caprimulgus Europceus) is common. The Wild
Pigeon, Ring Dove (Columba palumbus), and Turtle Dove (C. Turlur), are very generally
diffused. The Great Plover ( CEdicnemus) , Peewit (Vancllus), Golden Plover (C. Pluvialis), and
Nightingale.
EUROPE.
509
Sand Swallow.
Night Heron.
Swallow.
Gray Plover, are all common, and valued
for their flesh, which is very delicate. The
Dotterel, and King Dotterel, Sanderling
(Arenaria), and Long Legged Plover,
frequent the seacoasts in all the northern
countries. Tbe Oyster Catcher (Hamato-
pus ostralegus) is the constant inhabitant of
the sea shores. The water Crake and Water
Rail (Rallus) are found in the northern
countries. The King Fisher (Alcedo hispi-
da) is very common, and frequents streams
of water. The White Spoonbill, Crane
(Grus cinerea), and White Stork (Ciconia
alba)^ are found in different parts. Of
Herons (Ardea), there are several kinds ;
as the Common Heron, Night Heron, and
Egret (Arquatus). The Bittern (Botaurus)
and Little Bittern are also common. The
Curlew (Numenius) and Whimbrel
(N. phmopus) are found on the sea
shores in most parts of Europe.
To the preceding, we may add
the following enumeration from Be
wick, which embraces the principal
species, viz. of the Snipe (Scolopax)
kind, five species: Woodcock, Great
Snipe, Common Snipe, Judcock,
and Knot. Of the God wit (Limosa),
eight species: God wit, Red God wit,
Cinereous Godwit, Cambridge God-
wit, Lesser Godwit, Greenshank,
c Spotted Redshank. Of the Sand
piper ( Tolanus) , fifteen species, viz.
Ruff Shore Sandpiper, Green Sand-
WpP^ piper, Gambet, Ash-colored, Com
mon Brown, Greenwich, Black,
Spotted, Redlegged, and Red Sand
pipers, Dunlin (Tringq variabilis),
Purr, and Little Stint (T. minuta).
One species of Waterhen (Gallinula chloropus).
Two species of Turnstone (Slrepsilasj
Two species of Coot (Fulica). Two species of Phalarope
Of the Grebe (Podiceps), seven species, viz. Great Crested, Tippet, Eared, Dusky, Red
Necked, Little, and Black Chin Grebe. One species of Avoset (Recurvirostra avocetta).
Of the Penguin, five species, viz. Great Auk (Alca), Razorbill, Blackbilled Auk, Puffin,
Little Auk. Of the Guillemot (Uria), four species, viz. Guillemot, Lesser, Black, and
510
EUROPE
1 /-iiBij.
Arctic Gull.
Crested Grebe.
Puffin.
rock, and La Grande Mouette blanche.
Fulmar, Shearwater, and Stormy Petrel.
Spotted Guillemot. Of the Diver (Co-
lymbus) , seven species, viz. Great North
ern Diver, Imber, Lesser Imber, First
and Second Speckled Diver, Red and
Black-throated Diver. Of the Tern
(Sterna), five species, viz. Common
Tern, Lesser Black, Sandwich Brown
Tern, &c. Of the Gull (Larus), thir
teen species, viz. Black-hacked, Her
ring, Winter, Black-headed, Black-toed,
Common, Brown-headed, and Arctic
Gulls, Kittiwake, Skua, Wagel, Tar-
Of the Petrel (Procellaria), three species, viz.
Of the Mergus, six species, viz. Goosander,
Wagel
Goosander.
EUROPE.
511
Dun Diver.
Dun Diver, Red-breasted Merganser,
Smew, Red-headed Smew, Lough-
diver. Of the Anas, thirty species,
viz. Wild Swan (Cygnus), Tame
Swan, Swan Goose (Anser), Canada
Goose, Egyptian Goose, Red-breast
ed Goose, Gray Lag, Tame Goose,
White-fronted Wild Goose, Bear
Goose, Bernacle, Brent Goose, Eider
Duck (Anas), Musk, Velvet, Tame,
Hookbilled, Scaup, Bimaculated, Fer
ruginous, Pintail, Long-tailed, and
Tufted Ducks, Teal, Garganey, Mo-
rillon, Golden Eye, Pochard, Wid
geon, Gadwall, Red-breasted Shovel-
er, Shoveler, Shieldrake, Mallard,
and Scoter. Of the Pelican (Pele-
species,
Corvorant
or Cormorant, Crested Corvorant,
Shag and Gannet.
Of Reptiles, there are very few species in
Europe. Venomous Serpents are rare. Fish
of various kinds abound upon the coast, and
in the rivers. There are several, as the Sole,
Turbot, and others, particularly valued for the
table, which are not found in America, or very
rarely.
14. Population. It is difficult to estimate the precise amount of the population of Europe,
notwithstanding the accuracy with which the census of some countries has been taken : for we
512 EUROPE.
do not possess a census of contemporary surveys, and in Turkey the population can only be
loosely estimated from the number of hearths paying tax to the Porte. The population-returns
of Hungary, Spain, and Transylvania, are very old. In 1787, Zimmerman estimated the pop
ulation of Europe at 144,000,000; Make Brun, at 205,000,000; Balbi, in 1826, stated it at
227,000,000, and the best recent estimates make it, at present, about 233,000,000 This pop
ulation is not equally concentrated throughout Europe. Thus, in the Duchy of Lucca, it is in
the ratio of 2S8 to a square mile; while in Iceland and Faroe it is only If ; in the Nether
lands it is as 212, in Great Britain as 178, and in Sweden and Norway as 10 to the square mile.
Upon the whole, the south of Europe is more populous than the north, in proportion to its ex
tent : and must continue so, as the means of subsistence are procured with so much greater
facility in the countries of the former, than in those of the latter. The climate of Norway is
quite as favorable to longevity as that of Lucca ; but the one comprehends a vast tract of rug
ged, untillable surface ; the other is a garden throughout.
15. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Europe belong to 20 different races, but 5 of these
comprise the great bulk of the population. 1. The German or Teutonic race comprises the
Germans, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, English, and a part of the Swiss ; these people
speak Teutonic dialects. 2. The Greco-Latin race comprises the Greeks, Albanians, Wala-
chians, Italians, French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, with a part of the Swiss. 3. The Scla
vonic race embraces the Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Bohemians, Servians, Bosnians, Dal
matians, Bulgarians, with the Wends of Prussia, the Sorbians of Prussia and Saxony, the Lettes
of Russia, &c. These three races are the most numerous. 4. To the Uralian or Finnic race
belong the Finns, Laplanders, Esthonians, Magyars or Hungarians, and some smaller tribes io
, Russia. 5. The Turkish race comprises the Ottoman Turks or ruling people of Turkey, the
Turcomans of the same empire, and several tribes often called Tartars, in Russia.
Beside these principal races, are the Biscayans of Spain ; the Celts, comprising the High
landers of Scotland, the native Irish, the Welsh, and the Bretons of western France; the
Samoiedes ; theMonguls,of whom the only tribe are the Calmucks of Russia ; Jews ; Armenians;
Gypsies, &c. The Gypsies, called Bohemians in France, Gitanos in Spain, and Zigeuner in
Germany, are a roving tribe, supposed to be originally from Hindostan ; they are scattered all
over Europe, and their number is estimated at 600,000 or 800,000. They live sometimes in
tents, often in caves, or in huts half under ground, and covered with sods. They rarely pursue
any regular trade, but are often jugglers, fortune-tellers, &c. They have a peculiar language,
but no religion.
16. Religion. There are three great monotheistical systems of religious belief predominant
in Europe, viz :
(1 .) Christianity, of which the principal seat and centre, though not the birth-place, is Europe.
The Christian nations in Europe, are divided into three leading sects, viz. 1st. The Greek
Catholic, or Eastern Church, which prevails in Greece, part of Albania and Bulgaria, in Servia,
Sclavonia, Croatia, Walachia, Moldavia, Russia, &c. 2d. The Latin or Roman Catholic
Church, of which the Pope, one of the sovereign powers of Europe, is the head. This creed
is predominant in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Austria, the half of Germany and of Switzer
land, Belgium, Poland, and Ireland, and numbers some adherents in Great Britain, Holland,
and Turkey. 3d. The Protestant Church, which predominates, under different creeds, in
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain, Prussia, a part of Germany and of Switzerland.
This faith has also numerous professors in Hungary, Transylvania, and France. Its principal
branches are the Lutheran, the Presbyterian or Reformed, and the Episcopalian Churches.
(2.) Mahometanism, or Islamism, is professed by the Turks. (3.) The Mosaic or Jewish
religion. There are about 2,500,000 Jews scattered throughout Europe. They are not tol
erated in Spain, Portugal, and Norway. In the Austrian States they have few privileges. In
Great Britain their situation is not quite satisfactory. In Russia the laws relating to them have
recently become very intolerant. In the States of the German confederation, in France, Prus
sia, and the Low Countries they enjoy the rights of citizens, and, in Poland, they are eligible
to public employments. The Calmucks, and many of the Samoiedes, are Pagans.
View of Religions in Europe.
MlSS. r„..„ ?°P«¥i?°-
Roman Catholics . . . 112,000,000
Greek Catholics . • . 54,000,000
Protestants .... 52,000,000
Mahommedans . ... 6,000,000
Jewa 2,500,000
Armenians . ... 300,000
Pagans, (Buddhists, Hindoos, &c.)
EUROPE. 513
17. Classes of Society. In almost every European state, we find the citizens divided into
four distinct classes. The first is, that of the nobility, which exists in every state, with the
exception of Norway and the Turkish empire. Nobility is, in most cases, viewed in Europe
as an hereditary rank ; but it can be acquired by the will of the sovereign, and even, in some
instances, purchased by money. The clergy form the second class of the community. The
third is that of the citizens, or inhabitants of towns, which, in most countries, enjoys peculiar
rights and privileges. The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and forms the mass
of -the population in every country.
18. Industry and Commerce. With the exception of the Nogaiens, Lapponians, and Sa
moiedes, in Russia, who yet lead the life of herdsmen or hunters, all the nations of Europe have
been permanently located for many centuries. The cultivation of the soil has, therefore, been
carried to great perfection in this part of the earth. Husbandry is pursued with the greatest
industry, in the British empire, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of Italy,
Denmark, and Sweden. The agriculture of the east of England, and Scotland, the Nether
lands, Germany, and the northern parts of France and Italy, is most distinguished ; although
Russia, Hungary, and Poland, whose agriculture is not nearly so advanced, are the granaries
of Europe. The rearing of cattle is, in some countries, pursued only in connexion with agri
culture ; in the mountainous districts alone, it forms the principal branch of rural industry. The
cultivation of fruits belongs to the temperate districts, particularly France and Germany ; but the
finer fruits can only be extensively reared in the southern parts of Europe. The manufacture
of wine is most considerable in France, the south of Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy,
and the Turkish empire. The finest kinds are produced in Tokay, upon the Chalk Hills of
Champagne, the Gold Hills of Burgundy, the banks of the Rhine and Garonne, in Spain, the
two Sicilies, the banks of the Upper Douro, and some islands of the iEgean Sea. The olive
belongs to the warmer regions, particularly Apulia, Atino, in the Neapolitan territory of Terra
di Lavoro, and Spain ; the other vegetable oils are produced in the temperate parts of Europe.
The rearing of silk-worms is also peculiar to warmer climates, and is chiefly carried on in Lom-
bardy. The cultivation of forests has been greatly neglected in most countries, and in many, a
very sensible want of wood begins to be felt, although Europe is, on the whole, well-stocked
with wood.* Fishing is peculiarly ipiportant to the coast-nations of Europe, who take her
rings, tunnies, anchovies, mackerels, and various other species of fish, from the surrounding
seas. Hunting forms a principal occupation only to a few small tribes in Russia. Mining is
conducted with great skill in England, Germany, Hungary, and Sweden.
European industry is rivalled by no other part of the world, either in the diversity or the
extent of its productions, although the Japanese and Chinese have cultivated some branches of
art for many thousand years. Europe not only manufactures its own raw produce, but also
that of almost every other region of the earth. The principal seats of European industry are
Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland. The best woolen
fabrics are made in England and France ; cotton, in England, Saxony, and France ; linen, in
Germany ; lace, in Brabant ; silks, in France ; paper, in Holland and Switzerland ; leather,
in Turkey and Russia ; china, in Germany ; earthen-ware, in England and France ; glass, in
Bohemia and England ; hardwares, in England ; bijouteries, in France and England ; milli
neries, in France ; straw-hats, in Italy ; and jew»elry-work, in France, Germany, and England.
The internal commerce of Europe is carried on in all countries with considerable animation,
and is facilitated by well-constructed highroads and canals, which are particularly good in the
British empire, the Netherlands, France, Lombardy, Prussia, and Russia. The British,
French, Danes, Netherlanders, Swedes, Hanseates, Ragu'sans, and Hydriots, are most dis
tinguished in maritime commerce. But no nation can in this respect be compared with Great
Britain, whose fleets are in every sea, and colonies in almost every region of the earth. As a
medium of exchange, all European states coin money. Many states likewise support a paper
* Europe was doubtless covered with primitive forests, ests, for fuel, less necessary. Greater attention is paid to
previous to its being populated from Asia. These forests the growth of wood in Germany and Switzerland, than in
disappeared before the gradual advance of the original No- Italy and France. Austria is covered with forests. Mo-
made tribes, from northeast to southwest. France was ravia. is well- wooded ; Bohemia less so. Hungary has
pretty well cleared of forests in A. D. 950, though they much wood ; and Transylvania possesses it in abundance.
existed a much longer time in Germany. Mountainous But the best wood for ship-building is furnished hy Russia,
districts preserve their forests longest, on account of the Norway and Sweden. Britain affords some noble timber,
difficulty of transportation. The mildness of the climate but in small quantity.
in Spain and Turkey, renders the destruction of the for-
65
514
EUROPE.
currency, the imaginary value of which is maintained upon public credit. A prodigious quan
tity of money has been coined in Europe ; but the ready money in circulation can scarcely
exceed 2,000 millions of florins, of which the greater part is in circulation in Germany and
France. 19. Political Divisions.* Europe comprises 3 empires : Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman
States of Europe, with the Form of Government, Square Miles, and Population.
States and Titles.
Andorra, Republic, -
"Anhalt-Bernberg, Duchy, -
"Anhalt-Cothen, do.
*Anhalt-Dessau, do.
"Austria, Empire, -
* Baden, Gr. Duchy, - -
"Bavaria, Kingdom, -
Belgium, do. - -
"Bremen, Free City,
"Brunswick, Duchy, - -
Church, Stales of, Popedom,
Cracow, Republic,
tDenmark, Kingdom, -
France, do. -
Frankfort, Free City, -
Great Britain, Kingdom,
Greece, do. - -
"Hamburg, Free City, -
"Hanover, Kingdom, -
"Hesse-Cassel, Electorate, -
"Hesse-Darmstadt, Gr. Duchy,
"Hesse-Homberg, Landgraviate,
"Hohenzollern-Hechingen,.PriracipaKr«/,
"Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, do.
Holland, with Luxemburg,
Ionian Islands, Republic, -
Kniphausen, Lordship,
"Lichtenstein, Principality,
"Lippe-Detmold, do.
"Lubeck, Free City, ...
Lucca, Duchy, - - - - -
"Mecklenberg-Schwerin, Gr. Duchy, -
"Mecklenberg-Strelitz, do.
Modena and Massa, Duchy,
Monaco, Principality, ...
"Nassau, Duchy, ....
"Oldenberg, Gr. Duchy, -
Parma, Duchy, .....
Portugal, Kingdom, - -
"Prussia, do. ....
"Reus, Principalities of,
* Russia, Empire, ....
San Marino, Republic, ...
Sardinia, Kingdom, -
"Saxony, do. ...
*Saxe-Altenburg, Duchy, ...
"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, do.
"Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen, do.
"Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, do.
"Schwartzburg, Principality of \ -
"Schauenburg-Lippe, Principality,
Sicilies, The Two, Kingdom, -
Spain, do. -
Sweden and Norway, do.
Switzerland, Republic,
§ Turkey, Empire, ....
Tuscany, Gr. Duchy,
"Waldeck, Principality,
"Wurtemburg, Kingdom, -
Form of Government.
With two syndics, and a council,
States having limited powers,
Do. do.
Do. do.
Absolute monarchy, except Hungary, &c,
Limited sovereignty ; — two chambers,
Limited monarchy ; — two chambers,
Do. do.
Republic ; — senate and convention,
Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber,
Absolute elective sovereignty,
Senate and chamber of representatives,
Absolute monarchy ; — with provincial states,
Limited monarchy; — two chambers,
Republic J — senate and legislative body,
Limited monarchy ; — lords and commons,
Absolute monarchy,
Republic ; — senate and common council,
Limited monarchy ; — two chambers,
Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber,
Limited sovereignty ; two chambers,
Absolute sovereignty,
Limited ; — one chamber,
Do. do.
Limited monarchy ; — two chambers,
Under British protection ; — council and chamber,
Absolute,Limited monarchy ; — with one chamber,
Do. do.
Republic ; — senate and common council,
Limited sovereignty ; — with one chamber,
Limited monarchy ; — with one chamber,
Do. do.
Absolute sovereignty,
. Do. do.
Limited sovereignty ; — two chambers,
Absolute sovereignty,
Do. do. J
Limited monarchy ; — one chamber of represen.
Absolute monarchy; — provincial states,
Limited sovereignty; — one chamber,
Absolute monarchy,
Senate and council of ancients,
Absolute monarchy,
Limited monarchy; — two chambers,
Limited monarchy ; — one chamber,
Do. do.
Limited monarchy ; — one chamber,
Limited monarchy ; — one chamber,
Do. do.
Do. do.
Limited monarchy : — with a council,
Limited monarchy ; — with a legislature,
Limited mon. ; — with a diet and storthing,
Confederation of republics ; — a diet
Absolute monarchy,
Absolute sovereignty,
Limited sovereignty ; — one chamber,
Limited monarchy ; — two chambers,
Sq. Miles
190
336
310
337
255,226 5,712
28,43512,569 67
1,525
17,048 490
59,762
202,125 91
116,700 16,200 149
14,600 4,386 3,198 154136
383
13,890 998 17
52
432
142
410
4,701 1,094
2,073 50
1,736
2,470
2,184
34,500
106,302 588
2,041,809 21
28,830 5,705 491 790
880
1,403 756205
41,521
176,480
284,530 17,208
183,140 8,302 455
7,568
Population.
Total.
15,3C045,5u0
36,400 57,600
34,100,000 1,240,000
4,300,0004,230,000 57,800
250,000
2,590,000 124,300
2,097,400
33,600,000 56,000
25,300,000 810,000153,000
1,679,000 699,000 765,000 24,000
21,00042,800
2,820,000 242,000 2,859
5,800
79,000
46,500
145,000
472,000 85,300
390,000 6,700
372,700260,000
440 000
3,400,000
13,800,000 83,400
51,100,000 7,500
4,500,000 1,680,000 113,700132,000146,400
243,000118,500 26,000
7,650,000
11,963,000 4,150,000
2,116,000
12,000,000 1,330,000 56,000
1,610,000
3,708,87l'233,884,800
» Member of the Confederation of Germany
EUROPE.
515
empire ; 1 elective, ecclesiastical monarchy, the Papal state ; 16 kingdoms: Great Britain and
Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Wurtem-
berg, Bavaria, Saxony, Sardinia, Naples, Greece, Spain, and Portugal ; 7 grand-duchies,
Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxe-Weimar, Mecklenberg-Schwerin, Mecklenberg-Strelitz, Ol
denburg, and Tuscany ; 1 electorate, Hesse-Cassel, the sovereign of which, though styled
grand-duke by the congress of Vienna, retains his former title of elector ; 11 duchies ; 15
principalities ; 1 landgraviate, Hesse-Homberg ; 1 lordship, Kniphausen, and 9 republics.
The last mentioned are mostly based on aristocratical principles. Of the other states it may
be observed, that in regard to government they are monarchies, bearing different designations,
merely in reference to the titles of the respective sovereigns. There are several provinces or
countries which are also styled kingdoms, but do not form independent states : as the kingdom
of Norway, forming part of the Swedish monarchy ; that of Poland, in the Russian empire ;
of Hungary, in the Austrian empire, &c.
A Map of a Part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, in Ancient Times.
20. History. The earliest historical notices, which we have of Europe, are derived from
the traditions of the Greeks, and relate to the settlement of various colonies from Asia and
Egypt on the southeastern coasts. These events appear to have taken place between 12 and
15 hundred years before the Christian era ; and the fable of Europa, a Phoenician princess,
from whom the name of this quarter of the world is said to have been derived, is no doubt
founded on fact. The Celts seem, at this time, to have occupied nearly the whole of Europe,
and to have be«n gradually driven westward by the encroachments of the Teutonic and Scla
vonic races, untilthey have become nearly extirpated. The Phoenicians, at an early period,
explored the coasts of the Mediterranean, passed out of the Pillars of Hercules, along the
Atlantic shores, to Britain, and probably even reached Denmark. The Greeks afterwards
followed in their course, and penetrated to the Baltic and the coasts of Norway. Under
Alexander, that brilliant people conquered a great part of Asia in the fourth century before
our era, but the Romans were the first to found a great European empire. From the Clyde
to the Hellespont, all southern Europe obeyed their imperial decrees.
516
EUROPE.
But the spirit of liberty was kept alive in the old forests of Germany or Deutschland, and
after the division of' the Roman empire into the Western or Latin and the Eastern or Greek,
the Teutonic hordes poured all over the Western countries, occupying Britain, France, Spain,
and Italy. Thus commenced a new era in the history of Europe, called the Middle Ages.
The Greek empire of Constantinople was not completely overthrown, by the Ottomans, until
Tournament.
the middle of the 15th century. During the Middle Ages the crusades, or religious wars
of Christendom and of the Islam, in the 11th and 12th centuries, are the most memorable
uitEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
517
events. Christianity had become the religion
of the Roman empire, under Constantine
in the 5th century, and, in the course
of the next four centuries, the bishops of
Rome, under the title of Popes, succeeded
in causing themselves to be recognised as
the supreme head of the church in all west
ern Europe. This spiritual empire re
ceived a fatal blow from Luther in the mid
dle of the 16th century, when the Protes
tants asserted the great principles of re
ligious liberty. The feudal system, which
had oppressed all classes of society, under
its iron yoke, also began to relax its hold
at about this period ; letters revived, and
with the aid of the art of printing, knowledge
became more diffused. From this era, then,
dates the epoch of the Modern history of Europe, which has been, and still is, characterized
by the slow, but sure and general progress of reform and improvement in religion, politics,
morals, letters, and art.
Battle between a Crusader and a Saracen.
CHAPTER LXXI.
THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND
IRELAND.
Lona^East c9From.Washington 73
(BSMil® . MBUmHKk
&Lonf/itude W. b-om.'lX.andon
1. Boundaries. The United
Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland is composed of
England, Wales, Scotland,
and Ireland, with the islands
lying upon their shores, and
the Anglo-Norman Islands.
The British Islands are
bounded by the North Sea
on the north ; the German
Ocean washes the eastern
shores. On the south, they
are divided from France by
the English Channel, which
extends 350 miles from
northeast to southwest. Be
tween Dover and Calais it
is narrowed to a strait 25
miles in width, but this
widens toward the Atlantic.
At the entrance- from the
west, are the Eddystone
rocks, 14 miles from the
English coast. A lighthouse,
upon these rocks, has long
withstood the tremendous
violence of the sea, which
often, during a storm, buries
the lantern in its waves.
St. George's Channel and
the Irish Sea constitute a
navigable gulf of irregular
dimensions between Great
Britain and Ireland, open
518
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND-
Eddystone Lighthouse.
both to the north and south. The
western shores of the British Islands
are washed by the Atlantic. Area,
120,000 square miles.
The island of Great Britain lies on
the western coast of Europe, and ex
tends from 50° to 58° 30' N. latitude,
and from 2° E. to 6° W. longitude.
The island is 580 miles long from north
to. south, and 270 wide at the broad
est part, which is along the south
ern coast. It is very narrow in some
of the northern parts. Its whole
area is estimated at 88,800 square
miles. Ireland is a little more than
one third of that area, and is de
scribed separately.
The Anglo-Norman Islands lie upon the coast of France, and are a remnant of the British
dominion over the ancient Duchy of Normandy. They are Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, and
Alderney. The largest is about 12 miles in length. Guernsey and Jersey are covered with
orchards, and the latter has produced 24,000 hogsheads of cider in a year. The town of St.
Helier, in this island, contains 7,000 inhabitants. The population of all the islands is about
50,000. The inhabitants enjoy great political liberty, and their laws are based upon the
ancient Norman customs, but an appeal lies from their courts to the king in council. Their
language is French, and no act of parliament is binding upon them until sanctioned by their
magistrates. They are exempt from naval and military service, and their commerce is un
shackled ; the free port of St. Helier allows them an open trade with the enemies of Great
Britain, even during war. The Orkneys, Shetlands, and Hebrides, belong to Scodand, and
will be described under that head.
England Wales Scotland
Ireland
Totals
Extent and Population of the Principal Divisions.
Sq. miles.
50,210
8,125 . . . .
29,787 . . . .
31,200
119,322
Pop. 1830.
13,089,338 805,236
2,365,807 7,784,536
24,044,917
2. Agriculture. In most parts of the kingdom, but more particularly in England, agricul
ture is carried on according to the most improved and scientific processes, whether originated
in the country, or borrowed from abroad. The best breeds of cattle have been assiduously
selected, whether of foreign or domestic origin, and cultivated with the greatest care, and the
land has been industriously and skilfully treated according to the rules of the most intelligent
husbandry. Agricultural Statistics of the British Empire.
Persons employed in Agriculture.
Families. Occupiers Occup. not Laborers. 744,407 55,468 87,292
564,441
emp. Lab.
emp. Lab.
England
761,348
141,400
94,883
Wales
73, 195
19,728
19,966
Scotland
126,591
25,897
53,966
Ireland
884,339
95,339
564,274
Distribution of Land.
Cultivated
Not cultivated
Acres.
England and Wales 28,750,000
Scotland . . . 5,043,450
Ireland . . . 14,603,473
Acres.
8,000,000
13,900,000 5,340,736
Totals 1,845,473 282,414 733,089 1,451,608
The total annual value of the agricultural produce is estimated to be about 990 millions
of dollars, of which England and Wales yield about 650 millions, Scotland about 115 millions,
and Ireland the remainder.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
519
Horses Horned Cattle
Sheep
Number of Domestic Cattle.
Great Britain.
1,500,000 5,220,000
40,000,000
Ireland.
unknown. a
2,000,000
3. Mines and Manufactures. The unrivaled prosperity and extent of the manufactures of
Great Britain are owing, in no small degree, to the abundant supply of coalfiron, limestone,
salt, lead, copper, and tin, which different parts of the country afford. Coal, indeed, is the
food, as iron is the muscle, of her vast manufacturing industry ; which has, perhaps, never been
surpassed in the variety, amount, beauty, richness, and value of its products, in the ingenuity
and perfection of its processes, and in the skill, method, promptitude, and energy displayed
in the management of its gigantic machinery. Annual Produce of Manufactures. Persons empl.
CoalIron TinCopperLeadSaltTotal, inc
Annual Produce of Mines.
Tons.
26,200,000 800,000 4,500
13,300
50,000
500,000
Value.
S 50,000,000
30,000,000 1,600,000
6,000,0005,000,0002,000,000
uding various other articles
$100,000,000
Woolens
$ 100,000,000
400,000
Cottons
165,000,000
900,000
Linen
40,000,000
200,000
Silk
50,000,000
208,000
Hard Ware .
80,000,000
300,000
Leather and articles
65,000,000
235,000
Earthen Ware
12,000,000
60,000
Glass - .
10,000,000
50,000
Paper
7,500,000
30,000
Hats and Caps
12,000,000
20,000
The other principal items of manufacture are beer, spirits, soap, candles, refined sugar,
furniture, starch, dye stuffs,. &c.
4. Commerce. History has nothing to show, either among the commercial people of an
tiquity, or the Middle Ages, or in modern times, that can compare with the value and extent
of the commercial operations of the British people. Carrying on, probably, the richest and
most active home trade of any nation ; seeking, from foreign parts, the various materials
of their innumerable manufactures ; distributing over all the world the surplus products of
their industry ; covering all seas with their merchantmen, and ruling all by their vast fleet,
and admirably chosen military and mercantile posts, they have expanded their commercial
activity even beyond the limits of their mighty political sway. The annual value of the
imports is about 250 million dollars ; of exports 270 millions ; of this last sum, above 200
millions are of domestic produce and manufactures. The following table shows the countries
to which the value of the exports is greatest.
United States
$ 50,000,000
Holland
.
.
12,000,000
British American Colonies
25,000,000
Italy, &c.
-
-
15,000,000
Germany - - -
22,000,00
Brazil
-
.
12,000,000
East India and China
20,000,000
Principal Articles Exported
Shipping
of the United
Kingdom in
1837.
Cottons and Cotton Yarn
$96,000,000
Woolens
22,000,000
*
Vessels.
Tonnage.
Men.
Linen ...
10,000,000
England
14,998
1,821,994
105,075
Iron and Steel ...
10,000,000
Scotland
3,244
334,870
24,292
Hardware and Cutlery
8,000,000
Norman Isles
335
30,387
2,843
Earthenware ...
2,800,000
Man
265
6,907
1,387
Silks
4,000,000
Ireland
1,694
139,363
' 9,865
Refined Sugar ...
3,000,000
Colonies
5,501
457,497
30,044
Clothing ....
Haberdashery and Millenery
2,800,000 2,500,000
Totals
26,037
2,791,018
175,306
Glass - -
2,500,000
Brass and Copper Manufactures
5,01)0,000
An attempt has been made by a distinguished statistical writer to estimate the whole ani
mate and inanimate power applied to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures in France
and Great Britain ; converting the animal power, or that exercised by beasts of burden and
draft, and the inanimate power, or that derived from machinery, into their equivalent human
power, or that exercised by effective laborers, he gives the following results : -
520
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
In France.
Human power
Horses
Oxen and cows
Asses
In Great Britain.
Human power
HorsesOxen, cows, &c.
Power applied to Agriculture.
21,056,667 equivalent to 8,406, 03S effective laborers,
1,600,000 " 11,200,000
6,973,000 240,000
u
u
Total,
17,432,000 240,000
37,278,038
a a
Total of Great Britain
Add for Ireland
5,000,000 equivalent to 2,132,446
1,250,000 " 8,750,000
5,500,000 " 13,750,000
24,632,446 7,455,701
32,088,147
Taking the whole. force in each country and comparing it with the human force, we find the
proportion in Great Britain to be as 12 to 1, and in France less than 5 to 1 ; that is, the
agriculturists of Great Britain have created and applied a force twelve times greater than their
own corporeal force by the use they make of domestic animals, while the addition so made '
in France, does not amount to five times their own.
Power applied to Commerce and Manufactures.
Animate force
Mills, &c. -
Wind-mills Wind and Navigation
Steam-engines
France.
6,303,019
- 1,500,000 253,333
3,000,000 480,000
men-power. it ita
tt
Add for Ireland
Great Britain
7,275,497 men
1,200,000 240,000
12,000,000 6,400,000
27,115,497 1,002,667
-power. t.tttttt
Total
11,536,352
28,118,164
In France, the whole animate and inanimate force applied to commerce and manufactures,
is only about double that of the laborers themselves, while in Great Britain the whole force so
employed is about four times that of the actual human force. The whole power so created
in Great Britain, in all branches of industry, is equivalent to about 45,000,000 men-power ;
in France to about 35,000,000 men-power.
5. Government. These islands are under one government. The peculiarities of each
division are pointed out under their respective heads. The Parliament of England, or as it
is now called, the Imperial Parliament, is the sole legislative body. The form of govern
ment combines, according to theory, the three principles of monarchy, aristocracy, and de
mocracy. The powers of the king, as described in the chapter upon England, apply to the
whole empire. The right of voting for members of parliament, depends on the laws for each
particular part of the kingdom.*
* Sinecures. These are offices without employment,
but with salaries They consist, in the first place, of em
ployments fallen into disuse, as the chief justices in Eyie,
who enjoy salaries of £4,506; the Vice-Admiral of Scot
land ; the keeper of the Privy Seals of -Scotland ; and
Chancellor and Justice-General of Scotland ; the keeper
of the Signet in Ireland ; all which have salaries of 1,500
to 5,000 pounds. The master of the hawks in the royal
household has £1,500. In the second place are the offi
ces, with salaries vastly disproportioned to the employ
ments, and in which the duties are wholly discharged by
deputies. Some of these exceed £10,000. Some are
nominal duties of a menial nature. A right honorable
lady, a Baroness, has held the office of sweeper of the
Mall in the Park. Noble lords hold the offices of wine-
tasters, store-keepers, packers, craners, &c. The sine
cures amount in the whole to £356,555.
Pensions, &c, There are about 1,500 pensioners, who
receive £777,556 per annum. This is exclusive of colo
nial pensions, grants, allowances, -half pay, and superan
nuations for eivil, military, and naval services. Pensions
are granted for all sorts of service. Almost every high
public functionary on retiring from office enjoys a pen
sion from £ 4 ,000 downward. The Duke of Wellington
has received successively under the title of " national re
wards " the sum of £700,000. He had, while premier,
£13,140 yearly. Lord Maryborough, his brother, as
master of the hounds, had £3,000. Lord Cowley, and
Marquis Wcllesley, also brothers, had £12,000 and
£4,000. A natural son of the last, £1,200. Another
brother in the church, £7,000. Lady Mornington, a
cousin, £1,000. Lady Anna Smith, a sister, £801). Her
husband, £1,200. Lord Burghersh, a nephew, £4,000.
Lord Fitzroy Somerset, a nephew, £2,000. Sir Charles
Bagot, a nephew, £12,000. Thus the whole family of
the Duke of Wellington received £62,000 annually.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
521
6. Corn Laws. These laws form a peculiar feature in the system of British legislation.
They prohibit the importation of foreign grain, and allow the exportation of English grain only
when it is sold under a certain price in the home market. This price is determined by the
average sales in certain specified places for a given time. Corn, also, may be imported when
the home market is above a certain price. The design of these laws is to bring the poor lands
of the kingdom into cultivation, and free the cultivator from foreign competition, while corn is
at a moderate price. The operation of these laws, however, is often oppressive to the poorer
classes, and the distress, which occasionally exists in the country, is, in a great measure, at
tributed to them.
7. Army and Navy. At the close of the war, in 1814, the British army, including subsid
iary troops, exceeded a million of men ; this embraced the army in India, the local militia,
volunteers, &c. The land forces of Great Britain, on the peace establishment, amounts to
about 110,000 men. The only means employed for raising regular troops, is that of voluntary
enlistment. But in the defence of the country, the militia, comprising all able bodied men,
between 18 and 45, are drafted by ballot. The marine force of Great Britain, during the late
war with France, included more than 1,000 vessels, manned by 184,000 seamen. This force
is much reduced, and there are now about 200 ships in commission. Sailors are enlisted like
soldiers ; but during war, when seamen are in high demand, the odious press-gang is resorted
to ; that is, sailors are taken by force, in the streets, and from on board merchant ships, and
compelled to serve on board the men of war. The royal navy employs about 30,000 men.
8. Revenue. The revenues of Great Britain are immense. The first source of income is
the customs, which yield about 75 million dollars. The second is the excise, or duties upon
the internal consumption of various articles, as tea, beer, spirits, soap, candles, &c. These
produce about the same sum. Next are stamps, and taxes of various sorts, the poundage on
pensions, salaries, &c, with the post office, all of which yield about 90,000,000. The total
revenue amounts to about 220,000,000 dollars. The greatest sum ever raised in a single year,
was in 1813 ; this was 470,000,000 dollars.
Principal Items of Expenditure.
Charge of collecting Revenue . .£2,850,000
Public Debt (Interest, payments, &c.) 29,300,000
Civil List (Queen 390,000, Koyal family
280,000, Annuities, &c.) . 1,720,000
Justice ..... 1,326,000
Diplomatic ..... 316,000
Army ..... 6,520,000
Navy ..... 4,750,000
Ordnance ..... 1,444,000
Miscellaneous ..... 3,800,000
Principal Heads of Revenue.
Customs .... £23,951,719
Excise (on glass 602.500J., on malt5,700,000,
on soap 980,000, on spirits 5,485,880,
&c.) .... 16,073,299
Stamps (on deeds 1,622,000, on wills
2,040,000, &c.) . . . 7,350,000
Land Taxes .... 1,200,000
Assessed Taxes (on windows, 1 ,254,000, ser
vants, horses, carriages,
dogs, &c.) . . 2,721,500
Post Office .... 2,350,000
Miscellaneous ..... 500,000
9. Debt. The national debt of Great Britain is 3,800 million dollars. This enormous
amount has been accumulated by borrowing money, and anticipating each year's revenue to pay
the interest.^ The debt is of two kinds, funded and unfunded. The unfunded debt consists
of deficiencies in the payments of government, for which no regular security has been given,
and which bear no interest ; and of bills, or promissory notes, issued by the exchequer, to de
fray occasional expenses. When debts of this kind have accumulated, and payment is demand
ed, it becomes necessary to satisfy the demand, either by paying the debt, or affording the
creditors a security for the1 principal, and regular payment of the interest. Recourse has been
always bad to the latter method, and a particular branch of the actual revenue is mortgaged for
tbe interest of the debt. Money borrowed in this manner, is said to be borrowed by funding.
The public funds, or stocks, are nothing more than the public debts ; and to have a share in
these stocks, is to be a creditor of the nation.* There are 300,000 holders of public stock
in Great Britain. Three-fifths of the current yearly expenditure are taken up in the payment
of the interest of the national debt.
" The value of public stock depends upon the stability
of the government, and fluctuates, in a small degree, ac
cording to the accidents of war, or political changes. There
are many persons in London, whose occupation it is to
watch these fluctuations, and by buying and selling, as
they foresee a rise or fall of the slocks, realize great profits.
These are called stockjobbers. When the government, by
a new loan, contracts an additional debt, bearing a certain
fixed interest, it is usual to add this capital to that part of
66
the public debt which bears the same interest, and to unite
the taxes raised for the payment of the interest of both.
These bear the name of consolidated annuities, or consols.
The contract between the government and the original
subscribers to a loan, generally consists of different pro
portions of 3 or 4 per cent stock, and terminable annuities.
All the articles included in the contract, bear the denomi
nation of omnium.
•v22 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Principal, and Annual Charge of the Debt at several periods.
Principal. Interest and Management.
Debt at the Revolution in 1689, £ 664,263 £ 39,855
At accession of Anne, 1702, 16,394,702 1,310,942
At accession of George IL, 1727, 52,092,238 2,217,551
At peace of Paris, 1763, 138,865,430 4,352,051
At commencement of American war, 1775, 128,583,633 4,471,571
At close of the war, 1784, 249,851,628 9,451,772
At beginning of French wars, 1793, 239,350,148 9,208,495
At close of French wars, 1817, 840,850,491 32,038,291
In January, 1838, 792,306,442 29,461,528
10. Banks and Currency. The banking system is very extensive, and in no country in
the world is the circulation of money so quick and effective. The Bank of England was char
tered by William and Mary, in 1693, and was at first an engine of government, rather than a
commercial establishment. It is still connected with the government by large loans. The
concerns of the public debt, and the collection of the revenue, are in the hands of the bank.
It has an available loaning capital, of about £20,000,000. The system of private banking and
discounting, is also very extensive. There are, in London, above 70 private banking houses.
These hold, in deposit, a large proportion of the active capital of the country. The daily
payments made to these bankers amount, on an average, to £4,700,000.
11. Taxes. Almost every article of use, convenience, or luxury, is taxed in Great Britain.*
The annual average tax of every individual in England, including women and children, is £3
2s. That of each individual in England, Scotland, and Wales, taken together, is £2 15s.
12. Foreign Possessions. Great Britain possesses colonies in all quarters of ihe world, and
her vast dominions circle the globe. In Europe, she holds the small island of Heligoland,
lying opposite the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser ; the Norman isles, on the coast of
France ; the fortress of Gibraltar, on, the Mediterranean coast of Spain ; and the isle of Malta
with its dependencies, in the middle of the Mediterranean sea. Beside this, the Ionian
islands, also in the Mediterranean Sea, are under her protection. In Africa, she has
cqlonies upon the coast of Guinea, and Senegambia, the large and valuable colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, the islands of Fernando Po, Ascension, Tristan d' Acunha, and St.
Helena in the Atlantic, and Mauritius, with its dependencies, in the Indian Ocean. In Amer
ica, the vast regions of New Britain, the Canadas, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia ; the Bermudas, Bahamas, Jamaica, and other West India islands,
with the Guiana colonies in South America, are appendages of this powerful empire. In Asia,
her possessions include the greater part of Hindoostan, with Ceylon, large tracts in Further
India, Prince of Wales' island, and Sincapore ; and in Oceania, New Holland and Van Die-
man's Land. The total area of the British Empire has been estimated at upwards of 6,000,000
square miles, with a population of about 156,000,000 of inhabitants.
13. Church Establishment. The income of the established church of the United Kingdom
exceeds $40,000,000, being more than that of the established clergy of the whole christian
world beside. The income of the bishops varies in different years, according to the number
of fines, leases, &c. The income of the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is primate of all
England, is about 100,000 dollars, and that of the Bishop of Durham is little less, although pro
vision has been made for the reduction of the latter ; that of the Bishop of London is about
65,000 dollars, and those of the bishops of York, Ely, and Winchester, are above 50,000.
* " Taxes upon every article which enters into the mouth, schoolboy whips his taxed lop : the beardless youth man,
or covers the back, or is placed under the foot. Taxes ages his taxed horse, with a taxed bridle, on a taxed
upon everything which it is pleasant to see, hear, feel, road. The dying Englishman pours his medicine, which
smell, or taste. Taxes upon warmth, light, and locomo- has paid 7 per cent, into a spoon that has paid 15 per cent;
tion Taxes on everything on earth, and the waters un- flings himself back upon his chintz bed, which has paid22
der the earth ; on everything that comes from abroad , or per cent ; makes his will on an ei^ht pound stamp, and
is grown at home Taxes on the raw material ; taxes on expires in the arms of an apothecary, wlio has paid a li-
every fresh value that is added to it by the industry of man. cense of a hundred pounds for the privilege of putting him
^T,,?^ w™ !,' !TP ul " ma.i 8 aPP.e,i"\a"d to ^ath. His whole property is then immediately taxed
fZnZL ,£ if,H™ „nL ° ;, °" u\° erm,,!e w,,.,oh from 2 to 10 Pcr cent- B™°es the probate, large lees are
fn,l n„ ,hP n^rfn^l Ti.Wh!0|h '"T ihc Ct'm- dpmllnded for b«ving bjm in the chancel ; his vi.tuesare
nal , on the poor man s salt, and the rich man\ spice ; on handed down to posterity on taxed marble and he is then
the brass nails of the coffin, and the ribands of the bride, gathered to his fathers uf be taxed no more ."-Edinburgh
At bed or board, couchant or levant, we must pay. The Smew, vol. 33.
ENGLAND.
523
Several of the deans also receive from 15,000 to 20,000 a year, while there are several hun
dred benefices, of which the incumbents receive less than 200 dollars. There is also a large
number of parishes without churches or pastors, while there are no fewer than 70 sinecure
rectories.*
CHAPTER LXXII. ENGLAND.
Public Works of Great Britain.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. England is bounded N. by
ocean ; S. by the British Channel, separating it from France
Scotland ; E. by the German
and W. by St. George's
Channel and the Irish Sea, by which it is separated from Ireland. It extends from 50° to 55°
40' N. latitude, and from 1° 40' E. to 5° 40' W. longitude. It contains 58,000 square miles.
Wales occupies 7,425 miles of this territory, and forms a part of the western coast.
2. Mountains. The general direction of the mountain ranges is from north to south. The
Cheviot Hills, in the north of England, which is the narrowest part of the island, approach
within 18 miles of the sea. The Cumberland Hills are a continuation of the same range.
Helvelyn and Skiddaw, in this ridge, exceed 3,000 feet in height. The Welsh Mountains lie
* Ecclesiastical Patronage. The king's patronage is the
bishoprics ; all the deaneries ; 30 prebends ; 23 canonries ;
the mastership of the Temple, &c, and 948 livings. The
Lord Chancellor presents to all livings under the value of
£20 in the king's books, which are 780, also 21 prebendal
stalls ; 1,250 places of church preferment are in the hands
of the bishops ;' above 600 in the presentation of the two
universities ; 57 in the colleges of Eton and Winchester ;
800 in the gift of cathedrals and collegiate establishments ;
and 4.850 in that of church dignitaries, and 0,000 in the
gift of the nobility and gentry.
Ecclesiastical Sinecures. The Parochial Clergy are for
the most part a mass of sinecurists. In 1814, it was ascer
tained, that there were 6,311 church livings held by non
residents. Of these, 1,523 employed resident curates,
leaving 4,788 totally neglected.
Revenues of the Established Clergy. It is impossible to
produce a complete and accurate statement of the reve
nues of the clergy. The bulk of the ecclesiastical revenues
consists of tithes ; but, besides these, an immense income
is drawn from other sources. The clergy are in almost
entire possession of the revenues of the charitable founda
tions. They hold exclusively the professorships, fellow
ships, tutorships, and masterships of the universities, and
public schools.
Immense landed property is attached to the sees, cathe
drals, and collegiate churches. There is also a considera
ble income from glebe lands, surplice fees, preacherships
in the royal chapels, teacherships, town assessments,
Easter offerings, rents of pews, stipends of chapels of
ease, chaplainships in the army and navy, embassies, cor
porate bodies, commercial companies, &c. Besides which
they monopolize nearly all profitable offices in public insti
tutions : as trustees, librarians, secretaries, &.c. A mem
ber of the established church in Yorkshire has received a
yearly income of 900 pounds for teaching one scholar.
524 ENGLAND.
further south ; the Snoiodon range occupies their centre ; and its chief summit is the highest
mountain in England, being 3,570 feet in height. The general elevation of these heights is
from 1 to 3 thousand feet. There are several detached groups in the southern and cen
tral parts of the kingdom. All these eminences, with little exception, are covered with vege
tation, and enclose many sequestered glens, some of them gloomy and solitary, and others in
terspersed with fertile and romantic valleys, affording the most picturesque scenery. Wales
is remarkable for the beauty of its mountain landscapes, and the number of streams and lakes
with which it is watered. Most of the mountains of England abound in valuable minerals.
3. Valleys. There are no valleys of any great extent. The basin of the river Severn is
skirted by the Welsh mountains on the west, and by some lofty eminences on the east. The
valleys of the smaller streams are too inconsiderable for notice.
4. Rivers. The largest river of England is the Severn, which rises near Plinlimmon, a
high mountain in Wales, and flows at first easterly, and then south and southwesterly to the
sea. Its embouchure forms a wide bay, called the Bristol Channel. It is 200 miles long, and
is navigable in the lower part of its course. The tide rolls up this stream in waves 3 or 4
feet high. The Thames rises near the Severn, in the lower part of its course, and flows east
into the German ocean. It is 160 miles long, and is navigable for ships to London, 60 miles.
This is the most important river of Great Britain for navigation. The Mersey is a small
stream flowing southwest into the Irish sea at Liverpool ; it is navigable 35 miles. The Det
rises in Wales, and flows northwest into the Irish sea near the mouth of the Mersey. The
Trent and Ouse rise in the north, and by their junction form the Dumber, which is a good
navigable stream, and falls into the German ocean.
5. Lakes. These are small, and would be styled ponds in the United States. They are,
however, very celebrated for their natural beauty, heightened by cultivation and the charming
country seats around them. The largest, and the greatest number,"are in the counties of
Cumberland and Westmoreland, near the northern extremity of England. Winandermere is
about 10 miles long, and from 1 to 2 broad ; it contains several islands. Ulsuater is somewhat
smaller. The handsomest is Derwentwater, or Keswick, 4 miles in length ; the approach to
it, in one direction, is embellished by a beautiful cascade. There are many other small lakes
in this neighborhood.
6. Islands. The Isle of Wight lies upon the southern coast. Its shape is an irregular
square, and its surface contains about 270 square miles. A little stream divides it north and
south, and a chain of hills crosses it from east to west. The soil is fertile, but the shores are
rocky. The Isle of Anglesey, or Anglesea on the west coast of Wales, is 24 miles long and
17 broad. That part toward the main land is covered with forests, the ancient sanctua
ries of druidical superstition, where barrows and heaps of stones remain to remind us of its
bloody ceremonies. The rest of the island is naked, but contains a copper mine. The Isle
of Man lies between England, Scotland, and Ireland ; the nearest is Scotland, which is 20
miles distant. It is 30 miles long, and less than half as broad. A mountain, called Snsefel,
occupies the centre ; the soil is tolerably fertile. Man was long an independent kingdom, but
the sovereignty was bought by the British Government, in 1765, to prevent smuggling. Near
the southwest extremity of England lie the isles of Scilly, known to the ancients by the name
of Cassiterides. They are 145 in number, but only 5 are inhabited ; the rest are mere barren
rocks. Numbers of druidical monuments are found upon them. The Anglo-Norman islands
lie near the French coast, and constitute the remnant of the British dominion over the ancient
Duchy of Normandy. These are Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark. The largest is 12
miles in length, and they are all well inhabited.
7. Bays and Harbors. The largest bay is the Bristol Channel, 20 miles wide and 60 in
extent. The Thames, at its mouth, enlarges to a considerable bay. The Wash is a wide bay
on the eastern coast. Small harbors are numerous in every part.
8. Shores and Capes. The shores are generally rocky, and in many parts are composed
of high, chalky cliffs, whose white appearance gave this island in ancient times the name of
Albion. In some quarters are level, sandy beaches. There are no islands on the eastern
coast, and here the shore is bolder than on the west. A long cape, which comprises the
county of Cornwall, forms the southwestern extremity of England. Its termination is called
the Land's End.
9. Climate. England has an atmosphere of fogs, rain, and perpetual change ; yet the cli
mate is mild. The rigors of winter and the heats of summer are less felt than on the conti-
ENGLAND.
525
nent under the same parallel. The winds from the sea temper the extremes of heat and cold ;
the changes, however, are sudden. Westerly and southwesterly winds are most prevalent,
and also the most violent. Next are the north and northeast. The perpetual moisture of the
air is sometimes unfavorable to the crops, but its general effect is to cover the whole island
with the deepest verdure. The meadows and fields are usually green throughout the winter ;
and the transient snows that occasionally fall upon them are insufficient to deprive them of their
brilliancy. Many kinds of kitchen vegetables, as cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, and celery,
often remain uninjured in the gardens through the winter.
10. Soil. Of this, there is every variety ; but the most common constituents of the soil
are clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel, and peat. Mossy soils are very common and extensive in
the northern parts, and here are the widest tracts of barren territory. On the eastern coast
are extensive fens and marshes. The most fertile districts are in the centre and sou,th. There
are also very large heaths and plains, wliich are nearly unsusceptible of cultivation, and only
serve for the pasturing of sheep. On the whole, England may be regarded as not naturally a
fertile country.
11. Geology. If we pass from Torbay in Devonshire, to the Land's End in Cornwall, and
• thence northward, along the western side of Wales to Scotland, we shall find all the rocks that
border the sea, with the exception of a small extent of the coal strata in St. Bride's Bay, and
near Whitehaven, to be either primary or transition, chiefly the latter. Granite, sienite, clay,
and other slates, and grauwacke, are here the prevailing rocks. The granite of Cornwall is
liable to decomposition, and by the operation of time, several singular phenomena have been
formed here, which were once considered the remains of druidical superstition ; such are the
Cheese Wring, consisting of a heap of large stones, piled one above another, the upper ones
being so much larger, as to overhang them on all sides, and the Logging or Logan stones, which
are so poised, as to be easily set in motion. The rocks of the secondary class, however, form
the largest portion of the surface, and the
districts composed of them are generally
flat and hilly, never assuming the moun
tainous character, unless where the old red
sandstone or mountain limestone appears.
From the Tyne to the eastern extremity
of Kent, and thence along the southern
coast to Devonshire, not a single rock can
be found, similar to those that compose
the whole western coast ; but they consist
chiefly of red sandstone, magnesian lime
stone, beds of gray limestone, called lias,
and of yellowish limestone, called oolite,
intermixed with beds of clay, sand, and
sandstone, and lastly of chalk. Over the
chalk, in a few situations, there are tertiary
beds of sand, clay, and limestone, such as
compose the harder basin. The primary
rocks yield tin and copper, as well as
felspar, valuable in the manufacture of por
celain, slates, &c. The lowest secondary
rocks, contain lead and iron ; higher up,
are the coal measures ; still higher, the'
rock salt ; while the upper secondary, and
the tertiary beds, are more remarkable for
their curious organic remains, than for their
economical value.
12. Minerals, Mines, and Quarries.
,. Salt and coal are the most common mine-
Kocking Stone, Cornwall. , „ . . .
rals. Coal is most abundant in the north,
but is also plentiful in the central and western parts. Mines of iron and lead are numerous,
both in the north and south. In the tin mine of Carglaise, in Cornwall, the ore is surround
ed by masses of decayed granite ; this rock is much softer than the ore, and is washed to pow-
526
ENGLAND.
Copper Mine.
Salt Mine at Northwich, England.
Mules carrying Copper-Ore in Cornwall.
der by the rills of water produced by the
rain. The tin mines of Cornwall are very
productive, and with those of copper,
yield a product of 3,000,000 dollars year
ly. The coal mines of Newcastle afford,
annually, above 1,500,000 tons of coal,
and employ, in the digging and transpor
tation, 70,000 men. The copper mine
of Parys, in Anglesey, consists of the
greatest solid mass of that metal hitherto
discovered. It is 60 feet thick, and
worked in tbe open air, like a quarry. In
Cumberland, is a mine of the best plum
bago or black lead, in the world. Cheshire
produces rock salt in great plenty. This
is the Liverpool salt of commerce.
13. Animals. The English horse has
been greatly improved by crossing with
the finest foreign breeds, till in spirit,
strength, and speed, he is fully equal or
superior to that of any country. The
different breeds of sheep, too, have been
greatly improved, by the care and skill of
the breeder. Dogs of every variety have
been naturalized here ; but the bull-dog is
said to be peculiarly English, and it pos
sesses strength and courage in an extraor
dinary degree. Of savage animals, since the
extirpation of the wolf, which was effected
in the reign of James the Seventh, the
largest and strongest are the fox and wild
cat. The badger is frequently met with,
as also the stoat, the martin, of which
there are two species, the otter, the squir
rel, and the dormouse. Rats are numer
ous, particularly the brown rat of India,
falsely called the Norway rat, which has
nearly extirpated the native iron-gray rat.
Mice of various kinds are common. The
hedgehog is not rare, and the mole is still
a nuisance in every rich and well-cultivat
ed field. The stag is yet found in its na
tive state upon the borders of Cornwall,
and two species of fallow deer are still
preserved. Hares are abundant. The
sea-calf and great seal are frequently seen
upon the coasts, particularly the coast of
Wales.
The larger birds of prey have now almost everywhere disappeared, as indeed they gene
rally do, from a country well-cultivated and well-inhabited. The golden cas;le is still found on
Snowdon in Wales, and the black eagle is sometimes seen in Derbyshire ;" but the osprey or
sea-eagle, seems to be extinct. The peregrine or foreign falcon, is confined to Wales ; but
the various kinds of hawks are numerous all over the country. The largest wild bird is the
bustard ; it is found only in the eastern counties, and weighs from 25 to^? lbs ; the smallest
is the golden-crested wren, which sports in the branches of the loftiest pines. The nie.hling-
ale, celebrated for its plaintive tones and extraordinary compass of voice, is confined chiefly
to the eastern and middle counties, and is rarclv observed to the north of Doncaster. The
domestic birds of England seem to be wholly of foreign origin ; the poultry from <\sia, the
Guinea fowl from Africa, the peacock from India, the 'pheasant from Colchis in Asiatic Tur-
ENGLAND. 527
key, and the turkey from America. The English reptiles are the frog, the toad, a species of
tortoise, lizards of several kinds, and serpents, some of which have been found 4 feet in length.
The viper alone is venomous. On the coast are found turbot, dace, soal, cod, plaice, smelt,
mullet, pilchards, and herring ; the basking-shark sometimes occurs on the Welsh coasts. The
river-fish are the salmon, trout, the char, the grayling, the samlet, the tench, the perch, and
many other kinds. Various parts of the coast afford shell-fish of different species. The most
esteemed oysters are the green oyster from Colchester in Essex, and the white oyster from
Milton in Kent. According to Pennant, the number of genera of British animals is 10 ; of
birds 48 ; of reptiles 4 ; and of fish 40, exclusive of Crustacea and shell-fish.
14. Mineral Springs. The most famous are those of Bath, which have been known from
the time of the Romans ; the Hot Wells of Bristol ; and the Springs of Tunbridge, Buxton,
Harrowgate, Epsom, Scarboro, Leamington, and Cheltenham. These are much frequented
by invalids, and that numerous class of wealthy and fashionable idlers, who swarm in every
place of amusement and recreation in England.
15. Natural Productions. A few only of the vegetable productions of England are indi
genous. The most useful plants have been imported from the continent. The oak is a native
tree, and produces timber of the first excellence.
16. Face of the Country. The general aspect of England is varied and delightful. In
some parts, verdant plains extend as far as the eye can reach, watered by copious streams. In
other parts, are pleasing diversities of gently rising hills and bending vales, fertile in grain,
waving with wood, and interspersed with meadows. Some tracts abound with prospects of
the more romantic kind; embracing lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep, narrow dells, and
tumbling torrents. There are also, here and there, black moors and wide, uncultivated heaths.
The general aspect of Wales is bold, romantic, and mountainous. It consists of ranges of
lofty eminences and impending crags, intersected by numerous and deep ravines, with exten
sive valleys, and affording endless views of wild mountain scenery.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Divisions. England is divided into 40 shires or counties ; and Wales into 12.* These
are subdivided into Hundreds. The hundred is a division varying in size ; it was established
probably by the Saxons, originally, it is thought, comprising 100 free heads of families. These
are subdivided into parishes. Some large parishes are divided into townships. A city is a
town incorporated, which either is, or has been, the see of a bishop. Every town, that sends
a burgess to Parliament, is a borough.
2. Canals. Almost every part of England is intersected by canals. Their total number
is between 2 and 3 hundred, but many of these are small. Their total length amounts
at present to more than 2,600 miles. The longest extends from Liverpool on the Mersey, to
Leeds on the Humber, 130 miles, affording a navigation for vessels of 30 tons completely
across the island. It has 2 tunnels and many locks. The Grand Junction Canal extends
from the neighborhood of London, to tbe Oxford Canal ; it is 93 miles long, and has 2 tun
nels ; one above a mile, and the other nearly 2 miles in length ; it has 101 locks. The
Grand Trunk is a part of the same communication ; it is 93 miles in length, and has 4 tun
nels, amounting to 2 miles. The Ashby de la Zduch Canal is 40 miles long, extending from
the Coventry Canal .to an iron railway. It has 2 tunnels, 2 aqueduct bridges, and an iron
railway -branching from it. The Bridgewater Canal is 40 miles in length, and extending from
the Mersey, divides into 2 branches one terminating at Manchester, and the other at Pen
nington. This, with the Trent and Mersey Canal, forms a communication of 70 miles ; 16
miles of this canal are under ground among the mountains. Our limits will not permit us to
give further details. The canals of England communicate with one another, and afford im
mense facilities for internal commerce.
* Northern Counties. Northumberland ; Cumberland ; Cambridgeshire ; Norfolk ; Suffolk ; Essex ; Hertford
Durham ; Yorkshire, with 3 divisions called Ridings; shire ; Middlesex ; Kent.
Westmoreland ; Lancashire. Southern Counties. Surrey ; Sussex; Berkshire ; Wilt-
Western Counties. Cheshire; Shropshire; Hereford- shire ; Hampshire ; Dorsetshire ; Somersetshire ; Devon
shire ; Monmouthshire. shire ; Cornwall.
Midland Counties. Nottinghamshire; Derbyshire ; Staf- Wales. Worth. Flintshire ; Denbighshire ; Caernarvon-
fordshire; Leicestershire; Rutlandshire; Northampton- shire; Anglesey; Merionethshire; Montgomeryshire.
shire; Warwickshire; Worcestershire; Gloucestershire; South. Radnorshire; Cardiganshire; Pembrokeshire;
Oxfordshire; Buckinghamshire; Bedfordshire. Caermarthenshire ; Brecknockshi.e ; Glamorganshire.
Eastern Counties. Lincolnshire ; Huntingdonshire ;
528
ENGLAND.
3. Railroads. There is an immense number of railroads in England, but most of them
are short, not exceeding 6 or 8 miles in length, and serving merely for the transportation of
coal, &c, from the mines, or quarries. The first employment of this species of road, on a
public thoroughfare, for the transportation of passengers and merchandise, was in the Stockton
and Darlington Railroad in the county of Durham, finished in 1825 ; and locomotive steam-
engines were not successfully used instead of horse-power until several years later. The
Newcastle and Carlisle Railroad crosses the island from sea to sea ; it is 61 miles in length,
exclusive of several branches. The Liverpool and Manchester Railroad is 30 miles in
length, exclusive of the great tunnels at the Liverpool end ; these are excavations in great
part through solid rock, through which the road passes. The Manchester and Sheffield Rail
road is a continuation of the above, and connects it with the Cromford and Peak Forest
Railway, which passes over the Peak of Derbyshire. The Manchester and Leeds Railroad
is a northern continuation of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, and is itself connected
with* the. eastern coast by the road from Leeds to Selby. A railroad is now in progress
from Liverpool and Birmingham to London, a distance of upwards of 200 miles. The East
ern Counties Railroad from London, the Western Railroad from London to Bristol, the
London and Southampton Railroad, &c, are also in progress.
The Liverpool and Manchester Railroad, beginning at Liverpool, enters an open cutting 22
MinWffl8(MEllilWWWSS^M!^^s^'>' ^- ^*eet deep, witn 4 lines of railway,
jdU ' |& and leading to the mouth of the Great
Tunnel, which is 22 feet wide and
16 high. The sides are perpendicu
lar for 5 feet above the floor, and
surmounted by a semicircular arch.
This tunnel is cut through strata
of red rock, blue slate, and clay,
and is 6,750 feet, or above a mile
and a quarter, in length. The
whole extent of this vast cavern is
lighted with gas, and the sides and
roof are whitewashed, to give a
greater effect to the illumination.
The road in the tunnel curves
and begins a gentle ascent toward
the east. At this extremity, the
Great Tunnel. road emerges into a wide area, 40
ggaEsspa, ., . feet below the surface of the ground, cut
Bliti^jr-' B?rjjf^/* •!..-. out °f tne s0'id rock, and surmounted on
AMY'lJ]i,,,,n£^^^A, every side by walls and battlements. From
this area, there returns a smaller tunnel
towards Liverpool. Proceeding eastward
from the area the traveler finds him
self upon the open road to Manchester,
moving upon a perfect level, the road
slightly curved, clean, dry, free from ob
struction, and the rails firmly fixed upon
massive blocks of stone. After some time
it descends almost imperceptibly, and
passes through a deep marl cutling, under
large stone archways thrown across" the ex
cavation. Beyond this, the road passes
through the great rock excavation of Olive
Mount, a narrow ravine 70 feet deep, with
little more space than suffices for-two trains
of carriages to pass each other.
After leaving this, it approaches the great
Roby embankment, stretching across a val
ley 2 miles in width, and varying from 15
to 45 feet in height. Here the traveler
'11'
Great Rock Excavation of Olive Mount.
ENGLAND.
529
finds himself mounted above the tops of the trees, and looks round over a wide expanse of
country. The road then makes a slight curve, and ascends an inclined plane a mile and a half
long, in a straight line ; but the rise is very gradual. Half a mile beyond this plane, the Liver
pool and Manchester turnpike road passes over the railway, on a stone bridge. Beyond this,
is an inclined plane, descending as much as the last-mentioned rises. The road then crosses
a marshy tract, and passes over the Sankey
valley and canal, by a magnificent viaduct 70
feet high, with 9 arches, each 50 feet span.
Beyond this is another bridge, a cut through a
hill, a junction with the Kenyon and Leiglf
Railway, and a wide marsh called Chat Moss.
Several other bridges and embankments carry
the road into the city of Manchester. The
track is double. The rails are of wrought
iron, laid sometimes on stone, but where
the foundation is less firm, upon wood. The
The Liverpool and Manchester Railroad across Chat Moss, ^yhole work COSt 820 000 pounds Sterling.
4. Cities. A stranger may approach the city of London by land, or by way of the
Thames. In either case, everything is calculated to impress him with the vastness of the
capital which he is about to enter. If he is mounted on the top of a stagecoach, and whirls
along over the smooth road at the rate of 12 miles an hour, the thickening tide of villas and
villages, which seem to swim by him on either hand, announce the vicinity of the great
metropolis. Everything now assumes a hurrying, apd almost portentous aspect. Multitudes
of stagecoaches, loaded with people on the outside, dash by, like the billows that break
around a whirlpool, or the waters which are about to rush over a cataract. Tilburys, coaches,
and carriages of various forms are passing and repassing. -A cloud of dust hangs over the
scene, and a loud roar pervades the air. The spectacle has a bewildering effect upon the
traveler, and weary, dejected, and oppressed, he reaches the city, which he expected, to
enter with delight. The voyager, as he enters the Thames and ascends that river is scarcely
less affected with the scene. The whol^ valley on either side is sprinkled with towns, vil
lages, country seats, and palaces. The river is thronged with vessels of every size," and the
thousands of sails that are spread before the wind, suggest to the imagination, that the great
metropolis has a magnetic power by which it draws them, from every ocean and every sea on
the face of the globe, into its harbor.
London lies on both sides of the river Thames. It is 7 miles long, 5 miles wide, and con
tains an area of about 30 square miles More particularly, it is considered under 3 divisions:
the City proper in the east, Westminster in the west, and Southwark on the south side of the
river. The buildings are generally of brick.
The streets in some parts are wide, and few
are so narrow as not to admit two carriages
abreast. At the west end they are mostly
straight, and sufficiently broad for 5 or 6 car
riages. Here are the residences of the nobil
ity and the rich. Regent street, in this quar
ter, is probably the most magnificent street in
the world. In the city, or the central and
oldest part, the streets are narrow and crooked,
but here the great business of London is
transacted. Temple bar is one of the old
city gates. The east end is occupied by
shops, victualling-houses, and people con
nected with commerce. Here are immense
timber-yards, docks, and magazines.
London contains a great number of squares,
the handsomest is Grosvenor square, an area
The buildings around
Temple Bar.
of 6 acres, and containing an equestrian statue of George the Second.
it are the most superb in London. The largest square is that called Lincoln's Inn Fields, which
occupies a space just equal to that covered by the great pyramid of Egypt. The finest public
walks are at the west end ; Green Park, Hyde Park, St. James's Park, and Regent's Park,
are beautiful fields or gardens, ornamented with trees ; these are the resort of thousands who
67
530
ENGLAND.
Entrance to Hyde Park Corner. Statue of Achilles, in Hyde Park.
walk for exercise or pleasure. These parks are very extensive. Hyde Park contains 394 acres,
and, in the afternoon of Sunday, is thronged by crowds of fashionable people, who pour along the
promenades like the ebbing and flowing tide. In Regent's Park is an immense edifice called the
Coliseum, in which may be seen a panorama of London as viewed from the dome of St. Paul's.
The gardens of the Zoological Society are also in this Park. They are elegantly laid out, and
contain an interesting collection of rare animals from all parts of the world. Adjoining it are Ken
sington Gardens, also a favorite resort ; Vauxhall Gardens are on the south side of the Thames.
Zoological Garden.
The churches of London have
the most prominent and imposing
share in its architectural splendor.
St. Paul's Cathedral is the most
, , , magnificent edifice in die city, but
is pent up in a narrow area, and surrounded by shops and buildings of a mean appearance.
It is in the form of a Greek cross, with 3 grand porticos. The western nm- '
The western portico and principal
ENGLAND.
531
Vauxhall Orchestra.
entrance is formed of 12 Corinthian columns, on an elevated marble basement, with 8 coupled
columns above, supporting a pediment, an entablature representing St. Paul's conversion in
bas relief, a colossal statue of the Saint at the
top, and statues of the evangelists on the
sides. The dome, resting on the mass of
building, is surmounted by a lantern, and
adorned with Corinthian columns and a bal
cony ; the whole is surmounted by a cross.
The interior of the cathedral does not equal
its noble exterior. It would be little else
than an immense vault with heavy columns,
were it not relieved by monumental statuary.
Westminster Abbey, some distance higher
up the river, is one of the noblest existing
monuments of Gothic architecture. The
south front combines grandeur with grace in a
remarkable degree. The northern part has a
magnificent window of stained glass, and is very imposing. The exterior of the building is
perhaps somewhat deficient in that airiness and beauty which distinguish some of the Gothic
edifices of the continent ; but the interior cannot be too highly extolled. It is in the form of
a^long cross ; the roof of the nave and cross aisles is sustained by two rows of arches, one
above the other ; the lower tier springing from
a series of marble pillars, each principal pillar
formed by the union of 1 main with 4 slender
pillars. It has a vast, airy, and lofty appear
ance, which inspires feelings of awe and vene
ration. The chapel of Henry the Seventh, at
the east end of the church, is unrivalled for
gorgeous magnificence. The city of Westmin
ster and northwestern suburb of London contain
many splendid modern churches, almost all in
the classic style. London has few public edi
fices compared to its great size and wealth.
Westminster Hall was once a palace ; here the
kings of England are crowned, and here the
parliament hold their sittings. It has the largest
hall without pillars, in Europe. St. Saviour's is a beautiful specimen of the Gothic architecture*
St. James's Palace is an ill-looking, brick building, but contains spacious and splendid apart
ments. A new palace, called Buckingham Palace, is now building in St. James's Park, with
a triumphal arch in front. The Banqueting Hall, in Whitehall, is the remains of a royal pal
ace, which was consumed by fire. At Lambeth, on the southern side of the Thames, is the
Westminster Abbey.
^MtM&
mm
St. Saviour's Lady Chapel.
&&&Mm^j.
Buckingham Palace.
palace of the Archbishop of Canterbury, which has been recently rebuilt at a great expense,
and with much splendor. The Tower, in the eastern part of the city, is an antique fortress,
532
ENGLAND.
v l, f„, » Ions time was a royal residence, and is still used as a prison for state criminals.
W'th n it- extensive waUs are comprised several armories, containing the greatest collection
Within it. pensive waus ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^^ f ; a cnurch ; the
of arms in the world , the jewel o ^ , ^ q{ ^ the Engllsh sovereigns, in
royal menagerie, &c. In the horse ar™°'£ Mj6 j di H the. Mansion
£Td JraU^Ae C^tom House/fcc, deserve notice. The Monument, a hollow Done
The Bank of England. The Admiralty.
column 200 feet high, was erected in commemoration of the great fire, which destroyed a
ereat part of the city in 1666. A stairway in the inside leads to the top.
6 Tblre are 6 bridges over the Thames. Of these, we may mention Waterloo Bridge of
granite ; and Southwark and Vauxhall Bridges, of iron. A more remarkable object ,s the
film5
The Custom House.
i i i I i i i I i I II I I 1 1 i i i I i I I 1 1 I I I TTT-T
The Shield.
Southwark Bridge.
Tunnel, a passage under the river at a
point where a bridge would be too detri
mental to the navigation. This work was
performed by sinking a perpendicular
shaft near the river, and working hori
zontally under the stream. The labor
ers in this process were aided by a
frame work, called a Shield, which pre
vented the earth from caving in around
them, and was pushed forward as the
work proceeded. As fast as the exca
vation was made, the tunnel was formed
by mason-work into two arches ; and
in this manner the work has been car
ried beyond the middle of the river, al
though the water has several times
burst through. The enormous expense
ENGLAND.
533
View of the Tunnel.
of the undertaking has caused a sus
pension of its progress, and there are
doubts whether it can be completed,
owing to the looseness of the soil which
remains to be worked. Should the
tunnel be finished, it would exhibit a
work without a parallel either in an
cient or modern times. The engraving
below will show the manner in which
the tunnel is proposed to pass under
the river, should it ever be completed.
The wet docks, or basins of water
surrounded with warehouses for mer
chandise, are on a scale commensurate
with the wealth and grandeur of the
metropolis of the world. The West
India docks alone, with their basins,
cover an extent of 68 acres, excavated
by human labor, and, in
cluding the warehouses
and quays attached, cov
er an area of 140 acres.
The East India, London,
and St. Catherine's docks
are also extensive, but
inferior in size to the
first mentioned.
The principal institu
tions for education are
King's College, West
minster School, Christ's
Hospital or the Blue Coat School, &c.
No city in the world has so great a number
of learned societies, and literary and sci
entific establishments, and none can com
pare with London in its charities for the
poor, the sick, the ignorant, and the suf
fering. Asylums, hospitals, relief socie
ties, charity schools, and philanthropic
associations of every form, combine the
efforts of the benevolent to alleviate human
misery. The British Museum is one of the
richest collections in the world, compris
ing works of art, cabinets of natural sci
ence, and the largest and most valuable
library in Great Britain.
London has 13 theatres, of which Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and the King's theatre
or Italian Opera, are among the first in Europe. It has 147 hospitals ; 16 schools of medi
cine ; as many of law ; 5 of theology ; 18 public libraries ; 300 elementary free schools ;
1,700 dispensaries, where the poor receive medicine and attendance gratis ; 14 prisons ;
and 50 newspapers, printing 50,000 daily. 15,000 vessels lie at a time, in the docks and
at the wharves ; 1,500 carriages a day leave the city at stated hours ; 4,000 wagons are
employed in the country trade ; the annual commerce of the city is estimated at £ 130,000,000
sterling. The water works, for supplying the inhabitants with water, are calculated to excite wonder
at their magnitude. The streets are perforated by upwards of 350 miles of main pipes,
through which a daily supply of 30 million gallons of water from the Thames and the New
River is furnished. The city is lighted with gas, which is conveyed through nearly 400
Manner in which the Tunnel is to pass under the River,
St. Catherine's Docks.
534
ENGLAND.
miles of pipes, communicating with 80,000 lamps. Manufactures of all sorts are carried on
within the precincts of the metropolis, including every article of elegance or utility.
The number of ships belonging to this port in 1830, was 2,663, of 572,800 tons ; and
the amount of customs collected 75 million dollars. A statement of the annual consumption
of several articles of food will help us to form a conception of the extent of the city ; 8 mil
lion gallons of milk, 2 million lobsters, 3 million mackerel, and as many herrings, 1 million
quarters of wheat, 20,000 hogs, 160,000 oxen, and 1,500,000 sheep, form but a part of the
food consumed here.
London presents a striking contrast of wealth, intelligence, luxury, and morality, with igno
rance, poverty, misery, and vice. The most disgusting and appalling scenes of filth and
crime, and the most distressing pictures of squalid wretchedness, throw a dark shade over
this picture of human life. Thousands live by theft, swindling, begging, and every sort of
knavery, and thousands of houseless wretches here drag out a miserable life, half-fed and half-
clad, and sunk to the lowest degree of debasement.
The population of the city is 1,500,000;* 20,000 individuals here rise in the morning
without knowing how they shall live through the day, or where they shall sleep at night.
Sharpers are innumerable. The public beg
gars, are 116,000 ; the thieves and pick
pockets, 115,000; the receivers of stolen
goods, 3,000 ; servants out of place, 10,000,
and 8,000 criminals are annually sent to prison.
It is not a rhetorical exaggeration, but a sta
tistical fact, that every tenth man in London
is a habitual and professional rogue.
The head of the corporation of London is
styled the Lord Mayor, and his entrance into
office is celebrated by the citizens with much
pomp. The environs of.London present a succes
sion of beautiful and populous villages and
towns, the roads leading to which are throng
ed by wagons, stagecoaches, and other vehi-
and which, during the day, is devoted to business. On
his left is the west end, where fashion, luxury, and taste
hold their empire. At evening, this part of the city is
tranquil, or only disturbed by an occasional coach, while
the eastern part of ihe metropolis yet continues to send
forth its almost deafening roar. Coaches and carriages,
carts and wagons, of every kind, are still rolling through
the streets, and, ere the busy scene closes, appear to send
forth a redoubled sound. But as the darkness increases,
and long lines of lamps spring up around you as by en
chantment, the roar of the city begins to abate. By
almost imperceptible degrees, it decreases, and finally,
the eastern half of the city sinks into profound repose.
But the ear is now attracted by a hum from the west
end of the city. At first, a distant coach only is heard,
and then another, and another, until at length a pervad
ing sound comes from every quarter, — at midnight the
theatres are out, and the roar is augmented. At two
o'clock the routs, balls, and parties are over, and for a
short period, the din rises to a higher and a higher pitch.
At length it ceases, and there is a half hour of deep repose.
The whole city is at rest. A million of people are sleep
ing around you. It is now an impressive moment, and
the imagination is affected with the deepest awe. But
the dawn soon bursts through the mists that overhang
the city. A market woman is seen groping through the
dim light to arrange her stall ; a laborer with his heavj
tread, passes by to begin his task : a wagoner, with his
horses, shakes the earth around you, as he thunders by.
Other persons are soon seen ; the noise increases, the
smoke streams up from thousands of chimneys, the Bun
rises, and while the west end of London remains wrapped
in silence and repose, the eastern portion again vibrates
with the uproar of business.
The Lord Mayor's Barges.
"It is impossible by any written description to convey
adequate ideas of the real magnitude of London. Indeed,
it is not till after a person has been in the city for some
months, that he begins to comprehend it. Every new
walk opens to him streets, squares, and divisions which
he has never seen before. And even those places where
he is most familiar are discovered day by day to possess
archways, avenues, and thoroughfares, within and around
them, which had never been noticed before. Even peo
ple who have spent their whole lives in the city, oflen
find streets and buildings, of which they had never before
heard and which they had never before seen. If you
ascend to the top of St. Paul's church, and look down
through the openings in the vast cloud which envelopes
the city, you notice a sea of edifices, stretching beyond
the. limited view that is permitted by the impending va
pors. It is not until many impressions are added together,
that this great metropolis is understood even by one who
visits and studies it. It is not until the observer has seen
the palace of the king and the hovel of the beggar ; the
broad and airy streets inhabited by the rich, and the dark
and dismal abodes of the poor ; the countless multitudes
that ebb and flow like the tide through Borne of the prin
cipal streets ; the thousands that frequent the parks and
promenades during the day, and other thousands that shun
the light, and only steal forth in the hours of darkness. It
is not until all these, and many other spectacles have been
witnessed, that he can understand the magnificence and
meanness, the wealth and poverty, the virtue and the
vice, the luxury and the want, the happiness and misery,
which are signified by that brief word, London.
To one disposed to study this metropolis, we should
recommend, that at the approach of evening, he should ,
take his station on Waterloo bridge, facing the north.
On his right hand lies that part which is called the City,
ENGLAND.
535
Richmond.
cles, horsemen, and glittering equipages, and lined with handsome houses, so that it is difficult
for the traveler to determine where the metropolis may really be said to end. Immediately
above and adjoining Westminster is Chelsea, with 32,371 inhabitants, containing the great
national asylum for invalid soldiers, connected with which is the royal military asylum for the
education and support of the children of soldiers. Directly north lies Kensington, with 20,900
inhabitants, the beautiful gardens of which,
belonging to the palace, adjoin Regent's
Park. A few miles further up the Thames are
Kexo, containing a royal palace and gardens ;
Richmond, celebrated for its beautiful park
and fine views ; Twickenham, a pretty vil
lage, once the residence of Pope ; and
Hampton, containing the royal palace of
Hampton Court, which is famed for its fine
gallery of paintings. A little to the north is
Harrow-on-thc-Hill, where there is a well-
known school or college.
Twenty-two miles above the metropolis is
Windsor, containing the magnificent royal
residence of Windsor Castle, attached to
which are the mausoleum of the royal family, a vast park and gardens, and a forest 50 miles
in circuit. Opposite to Windsor is Eton, with the celebrated college, in which so many dis
tinguished men have been educated. Near the latter place is the little village of Slough,
once the residence of the famous Herschel, who here erected his great telescope, 40 feet in
length. Below London are Deptford, Greenwich, and Woolwich, now forming one borough, with
a population of 64,336. Deptford is noted for its royal dock-yard and immense warehouses ;
there are also a number of private ship-yards, in which are built many merchantmen. Green
wich contains the great Naval Hospital for infirm seamen, with which a naval asylum for the
education of the orphan children of seamen is connected. It was formerly a royal residence,
and Queen Elizabeth was born here. Here, also, is the royal observatory, celebrated in the
history of astronomy for the valuable observations made from it, and for being in the prime
meridian of English geographers. Woolwich is remarkable for its spacious dock-yard, "its vast
arsenal for ordnance, including an extent of 60 acres, its royal military academy, its extensive
barracks, and laboratory, &c.
Liverpool, the second commercial town in England, situated near the mouth of the Mersey,
is well built, with spacious and regular streets, pretty squares, and handsome houses. The
public buildings are elegant ; among them are the town hall, the custom house, exchange, mar
ket, &c. ; the churches, chapels, and
meetinghouses are numerous and handsome,
and the charitable institutions are numerous
and well conducted. But the most remark
able feature of Liverpool is its vast docks,
of which there are 8, with an area of 92
acres. These, with the wharves and ware
houses, extend in an immense range along
the river, while the opposite quarter of the
town is prolonged into numerous suburbs,
composed of the villas and country houses
of the wealthy. The trade, of Liverpool is
very extensive, being exceeded by no place
in the world but London. The most im
portant branch is the trade with Ireland ;
next, that with the United States, more
than three fourths of the trade of this coun-
Cotton is the staple article of the Liverpool trade,
View of Liverpool.
try with England centering in Liverpool.
536
ENGLAND.
and of 793,000 bales imported into England annually, no less than 700,000 are brought into this
An extended system of canals opens a water communication with the North Sea, and with
the inland counties. The shipping belonging to this port, in 1830, amounted to 161,780 tons.
The manufactures, which are extensive, are chiefly those connected with shipping and the con
sumption of the inhabitants. They comprise iron and brass founderies, breweries, soap works,
sugar refineries, ship-building, watch and instrument making, &c. Population, in 1831,
165,171, or, including the suburbs, upwards of 200,000. In the beginning of the last century,
Liverpool was an insignificant village ; her merchants then engaged in the American and West
India trade, and the growth of the manufactures of Manchester promoted its increase. The
chief portion of the African trade also centered here, and more recently, its trade with East
India has been rapidly increasing.
Thirty-three miles east of Liverpool, with which it is connected by a railroad, stands Man-
Chester, a great manufacturing town, whose population is inferior only to that of London. The
number of inhabitants is 187,000, or, including Salford and the immediate neighborhood,
233,380. It presents nothing re
markable in an architectural point of
view ; the streets are filthy and nar
row, the houses and buildings in gen-'
eral mean, and the great mass of the
people poor. It is, however, the
centre of the great cotton manufac
ture of England, and various other
manufactures are carried on here,
which consume great quantities of the
coal abundant in the neighborhood.
There were upwards of 300 steam
engines, and 30,000 looms here, in
1828. To the north of Manchester, lies
Bolton, also a great manufacturing
town, with 43,400 inhabitants, and
Rochdale, noted for its great flannel
manufactures, with 41,300 inhabitants. To the south is Oldham, with its slate quarries, its
coal mines, and its extensive cotton and woolen manufactures, and containing a population of
50,500. Ashlon, 33,600 inhabitants, and Stockport, 40,700, also have extensive manufactures.
Birmingham is the second of the great workshops of the British empire. Here is made
every sort of articles of hardware, whether curious, useful, or ornamental, from the more pon
derous productions of the rolling mill and casting furnace, down to polished watch-chains and
delicate instruments. Buttons, buckles, trinkets, and jewelry, plated, enamelled, japanned,
and brass works of every description, steam-engines, pins, swords, and fire-arms, &c, are
here produced. Tbe manufactures are upon the largest scale, and constructed with the greatest
ingenuity. Steam is the chief moving power. The town, although in the centre of the
country, is connected with the different coasts by means of canals, through which its various
productions are sent to all parts of the world. The lower part is ¦composed of crowded
streets and mean buildings, but the upper part has a better appearance. Population, 147,000.
Wolverhampton, about 15 miles from Birmingham, is also distinguished for its extensive man
ufactures of hardware. The whole country between the two places, is a little more than a
succession of collieries, iron mines, forges, and cabins, black with smoke. The borough of
Wolverhampton includes several townships, comprising 67,500 inhabitants.
Leeds, a large trading and manufacturing town of Yorkshire, is situated on a navigable branch
of the Hurnber, and is connected with Liverpool by a canal. The old part of the town is
dirty and crowded, but the modern streets are spacious and handsome. Leeds is not only the
principal seat of the woolen manufactures and trade of the kingdom, but it also contains foun
deries, glass works, and linen manufactures. Here are 30 churches and meetinghouses, 2
great wool markets, called the White Cloth Hall, with .1,200 shops, and the Mixed Cloth
a bazaar, theatre, &c. Population, 123,400. In the neighborhood, are
Manchester.
Hall, with 1,800,
ENGLAND.
537
Wakefield,Mvhh 24,530 inhabitants ; Huddersfield, 20,000 ; Halifax, 34,500 ; and Bradford,
43,500, all great woolen marts, and having large piece or cloth halls for the sale of woolen
goods. Bradford also contains large founderies.
Bristol is a very old city, situated near the confluence of the Avon and the Severn, and is
accessible for vessels of 1,000 tons. The old town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and
mean houses, but the modern part of the city is laid out with spacious streets and squares, and
contains many handsome buildings. Its foreign trade is considerable, and its distilleries, sugar
refineries, glass works, and brass works are extensive. The cathedra], several churches, the
council-house, commercial rooms, &c, are among the principal public buildings. There are
extensive wet docks here. Population, 117,000. Clifton, near Bristol, built on St. Vin
cent's Rock, is celebrated for its mineral
waters. Sheffield is a well built, and flourishing
°' "= manufacturing town, but the smoke of ils
numerous manufactories gives it rather a
sombre appearance. It is noted for the ex
cellence of its cutlery, which is also made
in all the surrounding villages. The manu
facture of plated goods is also extensive,
and there are numerous large iron foun
deries in the town and vicinity. Popula
tion, 91,700.
Newcastle, a large trading and manufac
turing town, is a place of great antiquity,
and of considerable note in history. It is
Clifton. situated upon the Tyne, 10 miles from the
sea, and is accessible to large vessels. The
collieries in the vicinity employ 40,000 men, and have for centuries supplied the eastern and
southern parts of the island, and, in part, the opposite coast of the continent, with fuel. Up
wards of 800,000 chaldrons are exported annually. Lead is also exported in large quan
tities. The glass works and iron works here are very extensive, and ship-building, the potteries,
and various manufactures of hardware employ many laborers. In point of tonnage, New
castle is the second port in Engalnd, its shipping amounting to above 200,000 tons. The town
is well built, and contains many handsome streets and edifices. Population, 53,600. At the
mouth of the river lies Tynemouth, with 23,200 inhabitants.
Sunderland is a thriving town near the mouth of the Wear, in Durham county. It is the
fourth port in England in point of shipping, which amounts to 108,000 tons. It is the depot
for the coal trade of the valley of the Wear, which employs 30,000 men, and furnishes annu
ally 560,000 chaldrons. The glass works are extensive, and ship-building is also an important
branch of the industry of the inhabitants. Population, 40,700.
Kingston-upon- Hull, generally called Hull, stands upon the Humber, and has the greatest
inland trade of any English port. Its foreign trade is also extensive, and it*is the chief place
in England for the whale fishery. The harbor is artificial, and Hull is remarkable for its fine
quays and its extensive docks, which cover an area of 23 acres. The shipping amounts to
72,250 tons ; population, 54,100. A few miles above Hull, is the port of Goole, which has
recently become an important trading place, by the construction of extensive docks, ware
houses, and basins.
Norieich, an ancient and populous city, has been, for several centuries, noted for its woolen
manufactures, to which, in later times, have been added those of cotton, linen, and silk. The
castle and the cathedral are the most remarkable buildings. Population, 61,100.
Yarmouth, formerly the port of Norwich, has been one of the stations of the British Navy,
and presents one of the finest quays in the world, upwards of a mile in length. But in conse
quence of the obstructions -in the navigation of the river Yare, between Yarmouth and Norwich,
a canal, navigable by sea-borne vessels, has been made from the latter place to- Lowestoft,
where an artificial harbor has been constructed, capable of admitting large ships. Population
of Yarmouth, 21,100.
Dover, on the coast of Kent, is an old town, which gives its name to the straits, separating
68
538
ENGLAND.
Dover.
England from the continent. It
acquires importance from the his
torical recollections connected with
it, and from its extensive military
works, among which is the castle,
built upon a lofty cliff, rising 320
feet above the sea. Population,
12,000. To the north, betweeir
the coast of Kent and the sandbank
called Goodwin Sands, is the cele
brated road called the Downs, which
affords safe anchorage for ships, and
is a rendezvous for the British fleet
in time of war.
On the channel stands Bright-
hclmstone, or Brighton, a famous
bathing-place, remarkable for tbe
elegance, richness, and variety of
its architecture. Population, 42,000.
Portsmouth is the chief naval station in Great
Britain, and one of the strongest fortified
places in Europe. The harbor is the first in
the kingdom for depth, capaciousness, and se
curity, being deep enough for the largest ships,
and of extent sufficient to contain the whole
navy of England. The famous roadstead of
Spilhead, between Portsmouth and the Isle of
Wight, can accommodate 1,000 sail of ves
sels in the greatest security. The dock-yard,
which is the grand naval arsenal of England,
and the general rendezvous of the English fleet,
Dover Castle. is the largest in the world, including an area
of 100 acres. Population, 50,400. Cowes is
a safe harbor on the northern coast of the Isle of Wight, a little west of Portsmouth, into
which vessels often put to water, to repair damages, or to wait for favorable weather for sailing.
Plymouth, one of the finest harbors in the world for security and capacity, is also an impor
tant naval station. The fortifications and barracks are extensive, and the Royal dock-yard is
on a very large scale. The Breakwater, a vast mole 1 mile in length, stretching across the
entrance of Plymouth Road, and Eddystone Lighthouse, built upon rocks lying off in the
Channel, are the most remarkable works of the kind in the world. The lighthouse is 80 feet
_ in height, yet such is the swell of the ocean,
. pwsiaB,:;^^^, caused by meeting the rocks, that it dashes
up over the summit of the tower. Popula
tion of Plymouth, including the adjoining
town of Devonport, 75,500.
The city of Exeter is the capital of Dev
onshire, and was once the residence of the
Saxon kings. Its cathedral is a magnificent
Gothic structure. Population, 2S,200.
Salisbury, the capital of Wiltshire, is
also an Episcopal city ; the spire of its cel
ebrated cathedral is the highest in England,
exceeding 400 feet. Salisbury Plain is an
extensive tract of level, unwooded coun
try, chiefly used as a sheep-walk, and con
taining the famous ruin, called Stonehenge.
Winchester, the chief town of Hamnshiro or <s„ ^Jisbury l"s 10,000 inhabitants.
town oi wampshne or Southampton, and an "Episcopal city, is a place
Exeter.
ENGLAND.
539
of historic interest. It was once the metropolis of England, but, since the suppression of the
monasteries by Henry the Eighth, it has much declined. Its fine cathedral and its ancient
college are still celebrated. Population, 9,200.
The ancient city of Canterbury, in Kent, with 15,300 inhabitants, is the see of an archbish
op, who is primate of all England, and first peer of the realm. Here vvas formerly the mag
nificent shrine of Thomas a Becket, a Roman Catholic saint, to which pilgrimages were made
from all parts of the kingdom. The Canterbury Tales of the famous Chaucer, the father of
English poetry, describe the manners and characters of the pilgrims of his age.
Bath, near Bristol, is an episcopal city, but is chiefly known as a watering-place ; its mine
ral waters have been celebrated for many centuries, and, combined with its delightful situation,
have rendered it a favorite place of resort. The" elegance of its streets and the magnificence
of its public buildings, — its cathedral, its churches, its hospitals, and its baths, entitle it to
be considered the handsomest city in England. Population, 50,800. _,
Gloucester, an episcopal see, and chief place of a county, is noted for its extensive manu
facture of pins, which, minute as is the article, employs 1 ,500 persons. It contains a fine
cathedral, and has a population of 12,000. In the vicinity is the borough of Slroud, with
42,000 inhabitants, engaged principally in the woolen manufacture. The dyers here are cele
brated for the excellence of their scarlet and dark-blue colors, which is attributed to the supe
rior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroud water.
Cheltenham, delightfully situated to the northeast of Gloucester, a few years ago an incon
siderable village, is now a flourishing town with 23,000 inhabitants. Its sudden growth is
owing to its medicinal waters. Tewksbury, a small town in the neighborhood, once contained
a celebrated monastery, and was the scene of a bloody battle during the war of the roses.
Oxford, an episcopal see and capital of a county, though a small city, is equalled by few in
architectural beauty. It is delightfully situat
ed, in a luxuriant country on the banks of the
Isis and Cherwell, and contains a celebrated
University, which surpasses all similar estab
lishments in the wealth of its endowments, the
extent of its institutions, and the splendor
of its buildings. The edifices belonging to
the university are 19 colleges and 4 halls, the
theatre, in which the public exhibitions are
held, an observatory, the Bodleian library, one
of the richest in Great Britain, a botanic gar
den, &c. The city is of great antiquity, and
has often been the residence of the English
kings, and the seat of the Parliaments. Pop
ulation, 20,500.
Cambridge, also an episcopal see, and the
seat of a university, contains 21,000 inhabit
ants. The university buildings are 13 colleg
es, 4 halls, and the senate-house, some of
which are remarkable for the magnificence of
their architecture. There are also an observ
atory, a valuable library, &c. here. Newmar
ket, in the vicinity, is celebrated for its races.
Nottingham is a large and flourishing manu
facturing town, situated upon the Grand Trunk
canal, and having a water communication with
Liverpool, Hull, and London. Its picturesque
situation, its neat and spacious streets, and
handsome square, rank it among the prettiest
towns in England. Its staple manufacture is
that of stockings ; lace and glass are also made
extensively. Population, 50,700. Leicester,
with 39,500 inhabitants, is also noted for its
extensive manufacture of stockings, and Derby, with 23,600 inhabitants, is distinguished for
City of Oxford.
•v^<
si»
Peak Cavern.
540
ENGLAND.
its manufactures, particularly of silk, porcelain, spar, &c. The Peak cavern in the vicinity is
much visited.
Coventry, a city of considerable antiquity, in which the English kings have occasionally
resided and held their parliaments, contains some interesting edifices. It carries on manufac
tures of ribands and watches, and a great fair of 8 days is held there. Population, 27,100.
Warwick Castle.
Ruins of Kenilworth Castle.
Warwick, a small town in tbe neighborhood, is a place of great antiquity, and contains a fine
castle. Kenilworth, an inconsiderable place in this vicinity, is celebrated for its magnificent
castle and park, the former of which is now in ruins. It formerly belonged to the crown, but
Elizabeth gave it to her favorite Dudley, Earl of Leicester. The area enclosed within the
walls of the castle was seven acres, and the circuit of the park and chase was no less than 20
miles. Leamington, in this neighborhood, which ten years ago was an insignificant village, is
now a favorite watering-place, and has become a considerable town.
Worcester is a city of much historical interest. Its trade is considerable, and the porcelain
and glove manufactures are extensive. The cathedral is its principal edifice. Population,
18,600. Kidderminster, in the neighborhood, has been long noted for its woolen manufac
tures, the most important branch of which is that of carpets. Population, 20,900.
Shrewsbury, the chief town of Shropshire or Salop, is a place of great antiquity and of his
torical importance. The ruins of the ancient castle and of the celebrated abbey, which once
contained the shrine of St. Winifrid, and was much visited by pilgrims, are still visible.
Shrewsbury has considerable trade and some woolen manufactures. Population, 21,200.
Litchfield, a city of Staffordshire, contains a magnificent cathedral, and a grammar school,
at which were educated Addison, Johnson, and Garrick. Population, 6,500. In the northern
part of the county is the borough of Sloke-upon- Trent, comprising several townships, in which
are the celebrated Staffordshire potteries. The porcelain and other ware, made here, are well
known for the taste displayed in the
forms, as well as for the excellence
of the workmanship. Population of
the borough, 52,100.
Lincoln, a city formerly distin
guished for its splendid ecclesiastical
establishments, and interesting as the
scene of some important historical
events, is now much declined. Its
cathedral is one of the largest in the
kingdom. Population, 12,700.
York, one of the oldest cities of
England, is the see of an archbishop,
and ranks as the second city of the
realm. It formerly contained a great
number of churches and a wealthy
abbey, and its cathedral, styled York
¦n i • ~r c-r. m, . minster, is a magnificent edifice.
Population 25,350. The curious dropping well of Knaresborough is in this vicinity.
Dropping Well, Knaresborough,
ENGLAND.
541
Carlisle, the county town of Cumberland, is an ancient city, defended by walls and a castle.
Population, 20,000. Whitehaven is an important place in the same county, the coal mines
in the vicinity of which give it an active trade. Population, 15,700. In Lancashire are Lan
caster, the county town, with 12,600 inhabitants, and Preston, a thriving town, with extensive
cotton manufactures, and 33,S70 inhabitants. Chester, the county town of Cheshire, with
21,400 inhabitants, is a city of some note in history, containing a cathedral and a fine castle.
Durham is also an episcopal see. Population, 10,125. Berwick-Upon- Tweed, situated on the
frontiers of England and Scotland, became famous in the frequent wars between the two
countries. It is regularly fortified, and was at one time declared a free town. It is now in
cluded within the limits of England.
The Welsh towns are mostly inconsiderable. Swansea is a thriving trading towm on Bristol
Channel, with 13,250 inhabitants. Caernarvon is interesting from its fine old castle. Merthyr
lv54-iS»
suite ' ' ^ ?$
*m
Caernarvon Castle.
Devil's Bridge.
Tydvil has lately become important on account of its extensive iron works. The whole
neighborhood is filled with iron and coal mines and forges, furnishing annually 50,000 tons of
iron. Population, 23,000. Milford Haven, on the western coast, is distinguished for its fine
harbor, and a royal dock-yard has lately been established here. Cardigan is a small old
town, which carries on a considerable trade. In the vicinity is the Devil's Bridge, an arch
thrown over a deep, rocky chasm, at the bottom of which rolls the Mynach, after rushing down
three lofty cascades. 5. Agriculture. Notwithstand
ing the general inferiority of the
soil, England is under such ex
cellent cultivation, that the coun
try may be considered as one
great garden. Farming is, in
many parts, conducted on a great
scale, by men of intelligence,
enterprise, and capital ; and the
science, as well as practice, of
agriculture, is carried to a high
degree of perfection. In the
northern counties, the farms are
large, and are leased generally
for 21 years. In the southern
counties, the farms are smaller,
and the tenants are often propri
etors. The field-pea and the
tare are often sown as a field
crop. Saffron, which was formerly cultivated in various parts of the kingdom, is now grown
almost solely in Essex ; another singular product of Essex, is a kind of treble crop of corian-
Field Pea.
Tare
542
ENGLAND.
der carraway and teazle, the two first on account of their aromatic seeds, the last for its prickly
heads, used by the manufacturers in raising the nap on woolen cloths.
Saffron.
Coriander.
Teazle.
6. Commerce. The commerce of England is unrivaled by that of any other nation in the
world. Every quarter of the globe seems tributary to the enterprise and perseverance of this
great commercial people. It has been usual to consider the commerce of England as connect
ed with that of Scotland and Ireland ; we therefore refer the reader to the view of the com
merce of Great Britain for further particulars.
7 Manufactures. The manufactures of England far surpass, in amount and variety, those
of any other nation that has ever existed ; and form the most astonishing display of the fruits
of human industry and skill. The vast numbers of people employed in them, give no ade
quate idea of their immense extent, as the great perfection to which labor-saving machinery is
carried in England, enables one man to do the work of 150. The cotton manufacture alone
would have required, half a century ago, 50,000,000 men. The power employed in the man
ufacture of cotton alone, in Great Britain, exceeds the manufacturing powers of all the resJ of
Europe collectively. The most important branches are cotton, woolen, silk, linen, and hard
ware. In the northern counties of England, are great manufactures of broadcloth and every other
kind of woolen goods, principally in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at Leeds, Wakefield,
Bradford, Halifax, and Huddersfield. Sheffield has manufactures of cutlery and plated goods.
Manchester, and its neighborhood, is the great seat of the cotton manufacture.
In the midland counties, are the Cheshire manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, iron, and china-
ware. The stocking manufactures of Nottingham ; the woolen of Leicestershire ; the pottery
of Staffordshire ; the hardware of Birmingham ; the ribands of Coventry ; the carpeting of
Kidderminster ; the broadcloth of Stroud. Flannels are the chief article of Welsh manufac
ture. In the southern counties are the cotton, paper, and blankets of Berkshire ; the flannels
of Salisbury ; the cordage of Dorsetshire ; the woolens of every sort in Devonshire ; and ev
ery kind of goods, particularly the finer articles of upholstery, jewelry, and every material of
luxury, are manufactured in and about London. For further particulars, see the general view
of the manufactures of Great Britain.
8. Inhabitants. Among the inhabitants of England are very few foreigners, and these are
mostly in the seaports. The stock of the present English was various : the original islanders
have been mixed at different times, by means of conquest, with the Romans, the Saxons, the
Danes, the Goths, and the Normans. There are but few of the people called Gypsies, but
there are many Jews, chiefly resident in London. Negroes are seldom seen, and what few
there are, are much prized as servants. They are not degraded in public estimation, as in the
United States, and a detent white female is sometimes seen leaning on the arm of a negro.
In person, the English are robust, and they have clear and florid complexions. The higher
classes, from the prevalence of athletic exercises, are among the best specimens of the human
ENGLAND.
543
form. Generally, in other countries, the higher orders are less hardy and athletic than the
lower, but it is the reverse in England. The human race dwindles not, either in mind or body,
in England. On the whole, the English may be pronounced the handsomest and best formed
people on the face of the earth. They are, perhaps, in the average, nearly an inch shorter than
the Americans.
9. Classes. In England, the nobility are a highly privileged class. They are comprised in
the following orders: — Dukes, Marquises, Eails, Viscounts, Barons. The Baronets, have
an hereditary title ; the Knights have not. Knighthood is a common reward of public service.
The Bishops, and other dignitaries of the church, constitute a favored class. The distinctions
of the two general classes of men, the rich and the poor, are far greater than in other coun
tries. The weahh of the world seems to be brought into England, as it once was to Rome ;
but there is no country where poverty is so general and so hopeless.
10. Dress. The general costume of the English is neat and convenient. In fashionable
life, the fashions are constantly changing, though more in details than general forms. This
variableness of taste has been expressed in a picture of an Englishman without his coat, but
holding his cloth and shears as in doubt what fashion to make it in ; or unwilling to cut it at all,
lest the fashion should change before the coat were finished. The general mode of dress is
that which we adopt from England, in the United States ; though some of the more extreme
fashions do not cross the Atlantic. The Americans, however, indulge in some anomalies of
dress, that would not be tolerated in London. The changes of English dress seem to have
been exhausted, and there is nothing new in it that has not once been old. The same gar
ments have indeed been used at every era ; and the change operates chiefly on the forms of
these. At one time the collar is low, at another it is raised ; the skirts are varied in length
and breadth, and the waist is sometimes long, and at others short. If an Englishman is
obliged by change of fashion to sacrifice a good coat for the present, he may lay it by, and
be sure that in time it will come again in fashion. The mail-coach guards wear the royal
livery, which is scarlet and gold. The clergy wear generally a large hat, and some have
wigs, but the time is past when a wig was "supposed to be as necessary a covering for a
learned head, as an ivy bush for an owl." In wet weather the women who go abroad, wear
clogs, raised an inch or two from the ground, and these make a great clattering on the pave
ments. In London, there is, every day, a Rag Fair, where the lower class may buy a dress
according to their means. It is held principally by the Jews, who go about buying old
clothes, which they display at the Fair. The dead are buried in woolen, to encourage agri
culture and manufactures.
The Welsh, though they have long lived under the English government, still remain an
unmixed race, and adhere to the customs of their forefathers. The higher class dress like the
English ; but in more humble ranks the national
costume is preserved, which, for both men and
women, is composed of home-made woolen
cloth. The coat, breeches, and stockings of
the men are always blue, and their waistcoats
red ; their shirts are of blue or red flannel, ex
cept in some parts of the northern counties,
where they are striped. The common dress
of the females in South Wales consists of a
jacket made tight to the shape, and a petticoat
of dark brown or striped linsey-woolsey, bound
with different colors. Young women wear mop-
caps pinned under the chin, and small, round
felt or beaver hats like the men. The elder
women commonly wrap up their heads in two
or three colored handkerchiefs, over which
they put a large felt hat. Both young and old
throw a scarlet whittle across thejr shoulders, which completes their dress. In North Wales
the costume is similar, except that the whittle is superseded by a large blue cloak, descending
nearly to the feet, which is worn at all seasons, even in the hottest weather. Linen is rarely
used ; flannel being substituted in its place ; nor are shoes or stockings worn, except some
times in fine weather, and then they are carried in the hand, if the woman be going any dis-
Ancient Welsh Harpers.
544
ENGLAND.
tance, and put on only at, or near the place of destination, the feet being first washed in a
brook. 11. Language. The English language is, in many parts of England, so perverted, that it
can hardly be understood by one who knows it only as it is written ; in Wales, the Welsh
language is the medium of communication between the common people, many of whom un
derstand no other. In general, the English language is preserved in greater purity as spoken
in the United States, than in England itself. We have, as has been elsewhere remarked, no
patois, and our Americanisms are generally words to express something peculiar in our state
of society, and for which there was no previous English word ; while in London, the com
mon* class of people wantonly perpetrate more outrage upon the orthodox English, than is
committed from necessity in the United States. The language of the common people in
different counties in England, varies so much, that the inhabitants can with difficulty understand
each other. An American, in Yorkshire, or Lancashire, cannot much better understand the
common people than if they spoke a foreign language. Besides these dialects, the flash lan
guage, as it is called, is extensively used by gentlemen of the Fancy ; and it is affected by
many others. It consists in new, and often ludicrous, or witty names, given to everything
that relates to horseracing, boxing, gambling, drinking, and other modes of dissipation. Thus
the worst crimes have often a pleasant name, and the most shocking scenes are deprived of
their revolting character by the light language in which they are described.
12. Manner of Building, &c. The manner of building among the rich in England, is not
so much national, as it is a collection of all that is national in other countries, or of what
remains of former ages. Costly and magnificent piles of architecture are spread over the
whole country, and there is scarcely a neighborhood that has not some edifice that attracts tbe
visits of travelers. The Gothic, the Grecian, the Chinese, the Saracenic, the Egyptian,
and various other styles of building for which art has no name, are found in England. The
convenience of an English
man's house is unrivalled ;
everything is perfect in its
kind ; convenience is more
studied than economy, and
there is not a door or a win
dow that is not jointed with
the nicest art. The very
farmhouses have an air of neat
ness and comfort, that makes
no part of the picture of the
farmer's dwelling in the Unit
ed States. The walls are
covered with creeping and
flowering plants. The roofs
are frequently thatched with
straw, and in some of the old
er towns, whole streets of
thatched houses may be seen.
England is the country of
unequal wealdi, and the cot
tage of the poor is strongly
contrasted with the mansions
ihcic ¦ : luxury in one, there is often comfort m the other. The cottages
The villages are generally old
English Farm-House.
of the rich, yet if
are both of brick and stone, and though small, they are neat.
and dingy. Every family occupies a separate house, and a traveler may '"go far ,' wfthoutleeing
an old hat in a broken window. On the houses of the rich no expense is spared. Their
country seats are generally at some little distance from the road, and they are often approached
through plantations of trees. The grounds are not fancifully laid out, but art only appears,
the better to display nature and not to do violence to it. It is in
the wealthy part of the English are seen to the best advantage
may well he envied.
the country mansion that
and here they lead a life, that
ENGLAND. 545
13. Food and Drink. The " roast beef of old England " * is indeed a palatable and invig
orating food, and it is a pity that any should want it ; but the laborer who fattens the ox, sel
dom tastes the beef. The poorest of the laborers and manufacturers cannot have in the week
as much animal food as the American laborer consumes in a day. In other respects, the kind
of food is similar, and the potato is general with both. The price of beef is from 9d.
to Is. and 6rf. sterling, the pound. Mutton is from Id. to ]Qd. Common fowls are from
8s. to 15s. a pair ; turkeys, 10s. and 9s. each, and geese, 6s. Butter is from Is. to Is.
6rf. a pound, and eggs are from 20d. to 3s. a dozen. Rabbits are Is. a piece. The common
wages of a day laborer are Is. 6rf. to 2s. Country wages are by the year : £15 to £20, for
men, and for women, from £3 to £9. The wages of manufacturers are much lower.
The English consume much more animal food than the French, and the number of sheep
consumed in London is about three-fourths more than in Paris. The number of rabbits con
sumed is immense ; one person alone, in London, sells 14,000 weekly ; they are sent in from
all parts of England. Immense numbers of geese are driven from Lincolnshire. Droves of 2
and 3,000 are common, and even 9,000 have been seen in 1 drove. The poor in Eng
land have little beyond the bare necessaries of life, and many are supplied with these by the
parishes. In seasons of scarcity, there is, what is never known in the United States, a famine,
and riots are the consequence. The lot of the rich is more enviable ; the commerce of Eng
land brings them the productions of every climate, and wealth enables them to rear, even in
England, the fruits of the tropics. Turtles are brought from the West Indies, and salmon
packed in ice from Ireland and Scotland. The growth of peas and other vegetables is forced
in hot-houses, and peas are often sold at a guinea a quart. The best of pine-apples and grapes are
produced by careful cultivation. The wines of Portugal are the most used, from the commer
cial relation of the two countries, but all wines are dear. A bottle of the ordinary wine cannot
be~ had for less than a dollar, and the price is often greater. " Superior-London-picked-par-
ticular-East-India-Madeira wine " is advertised, and every epithet of it, says Southey, must be
paid for. Of course, adulterations must be common, and a brisk business is carried on in
making wines of mixtures which are often deleterious. Cider is much used, and in many
places it is the common drink. There is a good deal of perry consumed ; but the great na
tional beverage is beer or porter. The quantity made is enormous; Barclay & Co., alone,
successors to Thrale, pay to the excise £400,000 yearly. Besides the public breweries,
every good housewife has the art of making good beer.f The laboring classes dine at 1 o'clock,
but the dinner hours of the higher orders are 5, 6, 7, and 8.
14. Diseases. Consumptions are frequent, and dyspepsia, with its train of hypochondria,
more so. It is the Englishman's malady. The gout is perhaps more common than in any
other country. There are few diseases of a malignant type, and a great many people live
to the greatest age of man .
15. Traveling. An Englishman is excusable for complaining of the inconveniences of
traveling in other countries, and he should be allowed some license to abuse the accommoda
tions for travelers in the United States. In England, the roads are excellent, the coaches
easy, the speed great, and the inns of more excellence, than is found in any other country.
The houses for these are commodious, the furniture good, the servants quick and attentive, and
the host civil and obliging. All this is crowned with the neatness and propriety of arrange -
* The beef of England has its reputation from compar- the consumption of it increased, in 2 years, 12,000,000 of
ison with that of the continent, which is greatly inferior, gallons. The excessive consumption of this deleterious
It is also better than the average of the beef in the United drug is indeed a curse to England, and the sheriff of Lon-
States ; but the best beef in England is in no respect su- don and Middlesex declared, that he had so long been in
perior, and probably not quite equal, to the best beef of the the habit of hearing criminals refer all their miseries to
United States. this, that he had ceased to ask the cause of their ruin.
t Till the reign of William and Mary, ale was the com- Were any new and unknown cause to arise and produce
mon beverage of the laboring class ; but an act for the en- the same ruin upon bod v and soul, that ardent spirit pro-
couragement of distillation increased the consumption of duces in England and the United States, it would break
ardent spirits so much, that it was necessary to restrain it down the pillars of society, and men would flee to the
by another law, and the evil continued till 1751, before woods and mountains to escape what is more terrible than
which, says Smollett, " such a shameful degree of profli- cholera or plague, inasmuch as the power of these ex-
gacy prevailed, that the retailers of this poisonous com- tends to the destruction only of life.
pound (gin) set up painted boards in public, inviting the There are Temperance Societies lately organized in
peopletobedrunkforthesmallexpenscofapenny, assuring England, which have distributed 100,000 tracts, and the
them, that they might be dead drunk for two pence, and government no longer furnishes the soldier with spirits
have straw to lie on till they recovered, for nothing." In throughout the provinces, but gives him in place of it a
1827, the restrictions on the sale of gin were removed, and penny a day.
69
546 ENGLAND.
ments that distinguish the private dwellings of the English. As these conveniences are for
hire, it is but natural, that he whose appearance denotes the most wealth, should have the great
est attention. The traveler who arrives in the stagecoach will not have to encounter such a
rush of servants to welcome his arrival as he that comes in a post chaise, and the pedestrian
may often be left to wait upon himself, if he is even so fortunate as to be admitted to the house.
There is no kind of traveling more agreeable than that of posting. The traveler may hire a
post coach or post chaise with two horses, at any of the inns. In fashion, it very much re
sembles a common coach, excepting that it contains but two seats, and the body is shaped
like half the body of a common coach. The usual rate of traveling is about 10 miles an hour,
but the post boy can easily be bribed to make it 12. The post is about 10 miles, at the end
of which you get another establishment, which is furnished with great celerity, and you proceed
as before. This is a very common method of traveling among the rich, who seldom are found
in the stagecoaches. The English are inclined to travel much, and the life of the higher
classes is almost migratory. It is passed between London, the country, the watering-places,
and the continent. There are, even among the yeomanry, few of any substance who have not
been at. London.
The servants at the English inns are excellent, and indeed all over England ; as it is consid
ered no discredit to serve ; and as places are desirable, there is no lack of servants ; nor is
there in England, as in the United States, the standing topics among matrons, of the difficulty
of obtaining good help. At inns, the servants have no wages, and they depend for support
upon the liberality of the guests ; of course they are obsequious and obliging. They are al
ways well dressed, and many of them are coxcombs. Some of them give a premium for places
instead of receiving a salary for services. On the arrival of a coach, there is a general rush of
the servants to assist the passengers in alighting. Two footmen stand at the door, and proffer
an elbow ; the chamber-maid comes to show the rooms, and even " Boots," who gets his tide
from what he brushes, shares in the hospitable impulse- On the departure, the servants
range themselves in a line, and if any guest forgets a douceur, he is gently requested to re
member the chamber-maid, " Boots," &c. Sally, originally the name of an individual, now
designates a class, and every chamber-maid is called by that name. The English inns are in
deed so excellent, that they well deserve the commendation of Shenstone, which is so often
scribbled upon the wainscot and windows.
" Whoe'er has traveled life's dull round,
Whate'er his stages may have been,
Must sigh to think he still has found
His warmest welcome at an inn."
The inns of England, however, are not the hospices of poverty. The alehouses are the
resorts of the more numerous class, that cannot afford the luxuries of the inns, and they are
often neat and commodious. A traveler who desires to see the unsophisticated English character,
will find it more at the alehouse, than at the inns.
The most common vehicles for traveling are the mail-coaches, some of which carry 4 pas
sengers within, and 10 or more upon the top. Others, however, carry more within and without,
and the roads are so good, that 4 horses easily carry 18 passengers. The mail-coaches go, in
cluding stops, 8, 9, or 10 miles an hour. The top-seats are often preferred, as they are
much cheaper, and as they enable the passenger more to enjoy the beauty of the country. At
first, it seems perilous to ride at such an elevation, when the velocity is so great, for there is but
a single iron railing to hold by ; but in a short time the traveler suffers himself to be moved
with every motion of the coach, instead of resisting it, and to feel a perfect security in his ele
vation. The coachman is well acquainted with the people who live on the road, whom he sa
lutes in passing ; and to the passengers he is communicative and civil. The guard, who rides
in the rear with pistols at hand in case of need, and a bugle to give notice of his approach,
is also obliging, and it has grown into a custom for every passenger to give him a shilling for
every 20 miles. The coachman is also paid in a similar way.
The coaches are of various forms ; some are of a cylindrical shape, and are very long and
large ; many have names like ships, painted on the pannels, together with the towns through
which they pass. The guard, and sometimes the coachman, wear the royal livery, and the
whole makes a gay appearance. On the road, each carriage passes another on the left ; which
is better than our custom of taking the right, as it gives the coachman a better chance to see the
ENGLAND. 547
distance between the vehicles. England has been called the " hell of horses,"* and it cer
tainly is not their paradise. The racer too often passes through all gradations of misery, from
the turf, which is no quiet life, to the coach, the dray, and the mill.
The Canals, which pass over many parts of England, offer a cheap and easy conveyance,
and there are, on the Thames, a great many boats for passengers. More than 4,000 have been
known to pass upwards on a Sunday. They are sharp and long, and go through the water rap
idly. The fare is regulated by law ; the boats themselves are numbered, and the boatmen
have a costume. On Sundays, the outpouring from London is prodigious ; the laborers are
delighted to go into the fields"; and the gentry, on that day, often go to their villas. They have to
pay, however, on the Sabbath, double tolls. In the cities, there are sedan chairs, which carry
one person. They are borne by two men by means of poles. They are not now much used,
except for carrying persons who are dressed for occasions of ceremony.
Besides the modes of conveyance described above, there are huge wagons, for passengers
and merchandise. They have 8 or 10 horses, and the driver sometimes rides on a poney
by their side. There are, in the appropriate seasons, many pedestrian travelers in the pic
turesque parts of England ; and they may be seen about the castles, lakes, and mountains, each
with his umbrella and knapsack, in search of the picturesque.
16. Character, Manners, Customs. " Pride in their port, defiance in their eye."
This is the description of Goldsmith, and no one who is acquainted with the people, called by
the general name of John Bull, will deny that they have at least pride ; this, and reserve,
are traits in the character of the English, so obvious, that a stranger may see them. They
are too ungracious to be overlooked or forgotten. An Englishman is so little disposed to
hold discourse with strangers at ordinaries, coffee-rooms, or places of amusement, that he is
apt to consider their address to him, as involving some sinister design upon his purse or dig
nity, and if he reply without rudeness, it is in the coldest manner. This trait of English char
acter has been somewhat softened in the people of the United States who inherit it, and it is less
repulsive than in England. A Frenchman and most other Europeans will readily and cheer
fully converse, with whatever people he may chance to be placed ; but an Englishman draws
himself in like a snail from any contact with strangers, and he operates upon the spirit of cheer
fulness among them as water acts upon fire. This is partly the effect of pride ; it arises, also,
in part from the want of that early introduction to society f which is common on the conti
nent. An English boy is sent to a distant school, of a republican character, where he is
thrown upon his own resources ; while a French stripling, under the care of his mother, is
conversant with gay and fashionable society.
It must be admitted, however, that an Englishman has some ground or excuse for pride,
and that in many European countries he may reasonably have a feeling of superiority. He
feels that he is a member of that great empire to which Europe looks with respect ; his country
holds the trident of the ocean, or at least of the seas that wash the old world. Britain holds the
keys of the Mediterranean, controls the commerce of India, and has an empire there ; upon
her dominions the sun never sets, and all these pour their countless riches to swell the wealth
of England. The Englishman may also feel, in his own person, some pride, that he is a
countryman of Shakspeare, Newton, and a thousand renowned names in science, adventure,
and charity ; he may appropriate to himself a portion of the fame of the Nile, of Blenheim,
and of Waterloo ; and these are surely some incentives to pride. One of the purest men that
ever lived, and himself an Englishman, declares, that it is distinction enough for the ambition
of a moderate man, " That Wolfe's great name 's cotemporal with his own,
And Chatham's language is his mother tongue."
But this propensity of an Englishman to rate highly his own'merits, and the dignity of his
* The horses in the stagecoaches are usually animals croachments, from the impertinent, obtrusive, and design-
of fine blood, but having some blemish are bought at a low ing, and a haughty demeanor is perhaps worn abroad, as
price. They are often excessively overdriven. a defensive armor against such characters. This seems a
t It is probable, that the repulsive manner of the Eng- more probable solution, from the fact, that the moment
lishman to strangers, is somewhat the result of the state you cease to stand in the relation of a stranger to an Eng-
of society in England. The crowded manner in which the lishman, and become his guest, nothing can be more frank
people of that country live, exposes them to constant en- and hearty than his treatment of you.
548 ENGLAND.
country, is connected with the less excusable practice of underrating the merits of others.
It was an unsophisticated expression of Mr. Bull, that, for aught he could see, " all foreigners
are fools • " and the English comedies abound in this trait. Were the French, or the people
of the United States, known to others only from the description of the English, the trench
would be considered as universally vain, unstable, and insincere, and Brother Jonathan would
be even less favorably esteemed, as a selfish, coarse, and boastful demi-savage.
In truth, it is the unreasonable national pride and vanity of the English, that make them
so intolerant to a spark of the same flame in others ; were they not more proud, they
would not be moved by the harmless pride of others. This spirit is seldom allayed in an
Englishman by a visit to the United States, or by a favorable description of this republic. If
he but hear a farmer in New England express his contentment in living under a government of
equal rights, he looks back to his own country, and because he was not oppressed there by
poverty or the laws, reflects not that others were ; or he is stung by the honest Yankee's re
marks, because he remembers that there are in England, taxes, game laws, and a code of 200
capital crimes. An Englishman in our country, nothing can satisfy ; he loses both his sense
of justice, and his desire to be just ; his judgment may be convinced, but not his will. The
more he is courted, the more hospitably he is entreated, the higher does the spirit of rebuke
and sarcasm rise within him. Yet one of the most intolerant of British travelers has remarked,
that though he oftentimes provoked the national pride, and sometimes sought to wound, he
never saw an American out of temper.
The political intolerance is far greater in an Englishman than the religious, and he will
sooner forgive in us an erroneous religion, than a sound and prosperous government. An
Englishman loves and venerates the very name of old England ; but it is a pity that so good a
principle as patriotism should ever be severed from justice, or that of two countries of the
same stock, and so much alike, an Englishman should " love the one and hate the other." He
is indeed placable to an individual, but a nation it is harder for him to forgive ; and the authors,
the statesmen, the philosophers, the clergy, and the people of England, cannot yet forgive the
descendants from their ancestors, for thriving under an independent government, and for hav
ing been the first to break forever the charm of Britain's naval invincibility. We are not well
pleased, that the brothers of the house whence we sprung, should hold us as aliens and ene
mies, or underrate and revile us. It is not our fault, that an Englishman is not received in
this country with more favor than any other stranger, or rather, not like a stranger. For
merly it was a passport to esteem, that a man came from England, but we are now obliged to
require some better title. In the English character, however, though there are some unfavor
able and ungracious points, it is but fair to balance them against some other peculiarities of
character in other countries.
The institutions of England are not only favorable to liberty, but they are such as develope,
in a great degree, individual character, and prompt the intellect to its highest and boldest flights.
The higher classes of the English may, and will compare with any body of men on earth, for
elevated and honorable sentiment. The road to distinction is also open to all, and it is not
possible, in England, for authority to depress the aspiring. Power would, by attempting it,
defeat its object, and raise him whom it intended to oppress, by interesting public opinion in
his favor. The seats of honor are for those who will " come and take them." There is suf
ficient incitement to ambition, perhaps there is too much ; a coronet for himself and his descend
ants for ever, is the glittering prize before the fancy of the subaltern, as he mounts the breach;
and this, too, animates the sailor to moor his ship against a battery, or this also may sustain the
student in threading the mazes of the law. Yet, where there is such distinction of classes, and
such inequality of wealth, as in England, the best of life is for the higher orders,* and we re
publicans may well prefer for ourselves and posterity, a country where one grade comprises
the whole people, and where, if there are no privileged classes, with inalienable wealth and
hereditary titles, there is a more general and equal diffusion of knowledge, prosperity, and hap
piness, among all. It has been abundantly shown, that a government of equality can supply a
.1«irTi,lJ«° U6taf I S°me /the Br'r.t!.Sh rble™eni o0m noWem" live, that the whole income is usually appropri-
fcS ^S- «^Tl.P S^nnr, ?*? MaT,fU°f, SM: ** to meet fixed and necessary expenditures* and one.)
Ni,H ?*e feSn i ' *,£ n ' lS '' ^ Du,ke °/ the rPvenue of the comin* 7"* » encroached upon to pay
£K> Ofi H. n.b™ .Lt ? of Buccleugh, the expenses of this. Almost all the nobility are deeply
Yetsuch is U,e {rale of m^nffi "t, > eqUSl ZTT'' in, deM' and raan7 estates «» held in tnirt for the benefit
Xet such is the scale of magnificence, upon which these of creditors.
ENGLAND.
549
sufficient stimulus for exertion and genius in the approval of public opinion. The praise of the
enlightened is better than titles, and history is more just than heraldry.
Though there are many grades of dignity in England, there is a certain arena in society in
which all gentlemen are equal. The title of a gentleman is not to be defined ; yet it is under
stood in England even by the vulgar.* No rank, under that of Majesty, has been held sacred
enough in England, to take away the accountability of an insult ; and a son of the king has
been held by a subject answerable in the field. The nobility of England are not, generally,
ostentatious. They dress more plainly than the tradesmen, and their houses in town are ex
ternally neither showy nor grand. They are like the houses of the thriving merchants of Bos
ton or Philadelphia, and not like the palaces of the bankers at Rome and Naples. In the
country, however, the mansions are often more costly, and here is the place to test the boast
ed, but decaying "old English hospitality." f
* The original signification of the word gentleman, was,
one of gentle blood. In later times, it seems to imply a
character worthy of high descent. Yet it has a technical
sense, which embraces not only persons of rank, but ofii
cers in the army and navy, and, generally, those who are
able to meet the expenses of fashionable life, without en
gaging in any gainful employment. In this sense, the
term rather indicates a man's condition ; while in Ameri
ca, we use it rather as applying to character.
t We subjoin an account of the manner in which an
English nobleman usually passes his time. Owing to the
meeting of Parliament, the London season, as it is called,
takes place during the finest months in the year. Wo sooner
has the spring begun to put forth her blossoms, than car
riages and four may be seen hastening in every direction
towards the metropolis. Green fields are exchanged for
smoky streets, the lowing of cattle for the voices of
statesmen, and the song of the lark for the warbling of
Pasta or Sontag. The noble mansions in Cavendish or
Grosvenor Square, and the elegant fabrics of Park-Lane
and May-Fair, which all winter have looked forlorn and
deserted, now begin to assume an appearance of business
and gayety. The unmarried nobleman usually hastens to
his favorite hotel, in Berkeley or St. James's Square,
Albemarle street or Piccadilly. The bowing waiters wel
come the arrival of the coroneted britschka. The Morning
Post announces his Lordship's arrival, and his fashionable
friends hasten to welcome his return to the metropolis.
In an incredibly short period, his table is covered with
petitions from authors who request the permission of ded
icating their works to him ; from actresses who request
his patronage on a benefit night; from half-starved
younger sons wishing for promotion in the army or navy ;
from men out of place who are desirous of preferment ;
tickets for Almacks, tradesmen's bills, showers of invita
tions, letters from his agents, from his steward, &c. It
is seldom, that the noble lord has either time or inclina
tion to attend to these multifarious matters. While tak
ing his chocolate in dressing-gown and slippers, he opens
a few, answers those from ladies, commits a portion to
the flames, and intrusts the rest to the discretion of his
secretary or confidential valet.
If he is a man of political consequence, his society is
courted by men in power, by ministers to whom his vote
may be of service, and who endeavor by invitations to
their select dinners, and other marks of attention, to draw
him over to their party. If Parliament has met, his lord
ship drives to the House of Lords, and takes his seat
among his Peers. When the debate is over, he mounts
his horse, and gallops to the Park ; renews his acquaint
ance with the ladies of his own circle ; makes his appear
ance at the windows of the most fashionable club ; chooses
his box at the opera ; patronizes the new singer, or ballet
dancer, and repairs from thence to a select supper at lady
J y's, or perhaps terminates the evening by disposing
of some of his loose cash at Crockford's. A soirie at
H House, is one which his lordship would by no
means omit. This splendid mansion is situated in Park
Lane. On festive occasions nothing can be more brilliant
than the appearance it presents. The stair is an inclined
plane, winding through the house by a gentle ascent,
and richly covered with turkey carpet. The light is en
closed in pillars of crystal, which have a very brilliant
and novel effect. The rooms are magnificently furnish
ed ; and even the dressing-room and boudoir of the Mar
chioness are thrown open on gala nights for the inspec
tion of the curious. The furniture of the boudoir is com
posed entirely of Indian shawls of immense value. The
chairs and sofas are covered with the borders of these
shawls. All the toilet ornaments are massive gold ; and
pages dressed in pink and silver are in constant attend
ance. If the nobleman is married, he prefers his family
mansion to an hotel. His society is more extensive, yet
more recherchee. The duke of D., though an unmarried
nobleman, yet being of a certain age, and possessed of a
stupendous fortune, is in the habit of giving balls, sup
pers, and private theatricals, to which ladies of the high
est rank consider it a distinction to be invited. They do
not even expect his grace to exert his memory bo far as
to call upon them, but leave their cards with his porter,
who inscribes their names in his book. It is also the
duty of a nobleman to attend the levees and drawing-
rooms at court, on which occasions he displays every
possible magnificence in dress, equipage, and liveries.
But Parliament at length is up, London gayety ends,
" And tradesmen, with long bills, and longer faces,
Sigh as the post-boy fastens on the traces."
Every one who has the least pretensions to fashion
hastens from town, as if the plague or cholera morbus had
suddenly made their appearance in its populous streets.
As Lord Byron says,
" The English winter, — ending in July
To recommence in August, — now is done,
'T is the postilions paradise ; wheels fly ;
On roads, east, south, north, west, there is a run."
The Morning Post announces the departure of the
noble lord and his family for his seat in the county of
, as the shooting season is about to commence. His
lordship, however numerous his estates, gives the prefer
ence to that where the best sport can be furnished. But
to enliven the solitude of the country, a select and nu
merous party of his fashionable and sporting friends are
invited to join him. Dukes and Duchesses, Earls and
Countesses, foreigners of distinction, Greek Counts, and
Polish Princes, sporting characters, men of talent and lite
rature, or who wish to pass for such ; wits, poets, and
hangers on, of every description, and frequently the last
celebrated actress or singer, who has consented to warble
a few notes at an enormous expense, all follow in his
train ; some to amuse, and some to be amused, some to
kill time, and others to kill birds ; fortune-hunters and
fox-hunters, some from the love of gaming, and others
from the love of game. A French cook, an Italian con
fectioner, and a German courier have been sent down to
prepare for the reception of the guests. The country
squires and their wives look out anxiously for the arrival
of the nobleman and his London train ; the ladies in the
hopes of seeing the last London fashions and London airs,
gay breakfasts and county balls; the gentlemen in the
more substantial expectation of good dinners and choice
550
ENGLAND.
The nobility are, generally, on more familiar terms with the tenantry and the poor, who
find them more easy of access, than retired merchants or manufacturers. The servants of a
household are frequently born, and often die, in the house. The coachman, like Sir Roger
de Coverly's, is gray-headed, and the butler's son is often the companion or tutor of the young
6Much has been said of the English phlegm, yet this is not so much a want of feeling, as a
suppression of the marks of feeling. Besides, it is now the fashion to affect an utter nonchal
ance. An English fashionable would feel shame if any exclamation of passion should escape
him ; everything is transacted with the most imperturbable coolness, whether a duel or a dance.
This frigid demeanor would have little favor at Paris, where everything is earned by enthusi-,
asm, or the affectation of it. It is said, that an English lady of rank asked one of these stoics
wines. The villagers rejoice at seeing the curling smoke
once more ascend from the chimneys of the great house.
The gamekeepers clean their rusty firelocks and shot
belts. The grooms look well to the condition of their
stud, and the gardeners arrange their hot-houses, con
servatories, and pineries for my lady's approbation. The
family seat of an English nobleman usually combines
ancient grandeur with modern elegance.
The principal entries are guarded by gates of solid iron,
with porter's lodges constructed with much taste ; some
times castellated to suit the architecture of the house
itself, or low Grecian buildings with rows of marble
pillars, entwined with jasmine and roses. The avenue
winds through the park, which is a vast inclosure, fre
quently 20 miles in circumference, and adorned with
scattered clumps of noble trees, oaks which are the
growth of centuries,
" And oaks, as olden as their pedigree,
Told of their sires, a tomb in every tree."
Summer-houses, cottage-ornees, and temples are scat
tered in every direction. Perhaps a noble river winds its
course through the grounds, with wooded banks sloping
downwards to its brink ; or a broad, transparent lake with
islands and pleasure-boats, adds to the variety of the
Bcenery. Numerous! herds of deer may be seen lying un
der the forest-trees, startling at the slightest sound, and
sweeping by to hide themselves in the thickest shade.
Then there are gardens with heated-walls, shrubberies
. and plantations of vast extent, green-houses and hot
houses, graperies, pineries, and aviaries. But little rural
beauty is enjoyed by the proprietor of the estate. The
flowers have faded, and the leaves grown yellow with the
autumnal tint, before fashion permit him to pay any
lengthened visit to his country seat. Within the mansion
there are long suites of rooms, furnished with all the re
finement of modern luxury, turkey carpets, low ottomans,
damask hangings, and walls draped with silk, and pan-
neled with mirrors ; statues, vases, and candelabras, ta
bles of mosaic and or-molu ; long galleries,' and huge
halls which retain a more ancient and feudal taste ; the
walls hung with family-portraits, descending from gen
erations long since passed away, barons in steel, and
ladies in antique court-dresses ; judges in ermine, and
generals in armor; beauties from the pencil of Vandyke
and Sir Peter Lely ; frequently mingled with paintings
from still greater masters ; Claude Lorraines, Titians, and
Salvators. It might be thought, from the heterogeneous
mixture of guests assembled at the nobleman's villa, that
little harmony would subsist among them. But there is
one rule observed by the host which is seldom broken in
upon. He never interferes with the pursuits of his guests,
but leaves them to follow the bent of their own inclina
tions, whether grave or gay.
The man of literature and the sportsman, follow their
respectives tastes undisturbed. Here is a library for the
studious, music rooms for the lover of harmony ; for the
connoisseur there is a gallery of paintings, and billiards
for those who prefer that amusement. Horses ready sad
dled are at the disposal of all who wish for exercise ; and
numerous servants are ready to attend the call of those
who remain in their apartments, and prefer their own
society to that of others. If the morning is fine, and
fitted for the enjoyment of the chace, his lordship rises
betimes and joins the sportsmen. The court now pre
sents an animated scene ; there are game-keepers ; gen
tlemen in shooting-jackets or hunting-coats; grooms
giving gentle exercise to the hunters ; greyhounds in
leashes ; pointers, &c. A substantial breakfast is spread
for the keen appetite of the sportsmen. The side-tables
are covered with game, cold meat, and wine. A hasty
breakfast is interrupted by the shrill blast of the horn.
The huntsman rides round at the head of his yelling pack
of fox-hounds, cracks his whip, and calls each dog to or
der by name. The nobleman and his sporting guests
hurry out, mount their hunters, and gallop after the
hounds. But, if the morning is dark and rainy, and no
sport can be enjoyed out of doors, other amusements are
resorted to. The breakfast-room is filled with idlers and
loungers. The first interesting moment is the arrival of
the newspapers and letters. The eagerness with which
the bag is opened, and the avidity with which its con
tents are received, would lead one to suspect, that wher
ever the guests may have strayed, their thoughts are in
London. As his lordship enjoys the same liberty that he
leaves to his guests, he probably passes the morning in
his apartment, receives his steward, looks over his bills,
listens to the complaints of his tenantry, or consults with
his architect in regard to the repairing or embellishing
his mansion. Perhaps an hour at billiards, or a visit to
the stables, passes away the time till luncheon, where
the ladies meet to eat, and the gentlemen to look at them,
for no true gourmand will spoil his dinner by an inter
vening meal. But the dinner hour in the country is the
time for sociability, when English reserve thaws, when
the company meet together probably for the first time in
the day, and the courteous host presides at his table with
the cares of the morning erased from his brow.
The large hall is brilliantly lighted up, and a cheerful
fire blazes in the grate. The tables and sideboard shine
in all the luxury of massive gold plate, with the family
arms emblazoned in every direction. The refined French
cookery is mingled with more solid fare for the hungry
sportsman and the country squire The conversation
sparkles like the champaigne ; and brilliant wit, which
had been corked up all day, now flows unchecked. In
the evening, the long suite of rooms are in a blaze of
light, and the delicate exotics of the conservatory shining
in the light of the lamps produce a kind of artificial sum
mer. Music and dancing, cards and conversation are
resorted to hy turns. The sportsmen recount their feats ;
the gourmand discusses the merits of his dinner; the pol
iticians sit in a nook apart, calculating upon the prob
abilities of a continental war. The company usually dis
perse by midnight, the ladies to recruit their looks for the
next London season, the gentlemen to recruit their
strength for the next pheasant battue, or fox-chase.
When the sporting season is over, the guests disperse,
and his lordship is left at liberty to dispose of his time,
either in remaining to cultivate the acquaintance of his
country neighbors, or in visiting his other estates. The
Christmas festivities bring a renewal of country gayety.
A tour to the continent frequently disposes of the remain
ing months till politics and pleasure recall the noble loid
to London.
ENGLAND.
551
of the saloons to dance with her friend, — " Well, trot her out," was the characteristic reply;
In England, as well as in Europe generally, the life of young, unmarried females is one of
seclusion. Marriage is tliere the state of freedom, and a matron is held to a less strict rule
of life, than a maiden. In the United States, this principle is reversed, and the effect is not
unfavorable. The English have reduced convenience and comfort to a system unknown in other coun
tries. Every piece of furniture is perfect in its kind. The table furniture is costly, and the
windows and doors are joined with the utmost nicety. The very grate is made to shine like a
mirror, and it is commonly of some elegant form. It is an Englishman's delight to stir the fire,
as it is also the pleasure of his transatlantic brethren. The two great practical philosophers of
New England, Franklin and Rumford, speculated much on the principles of stoves and fire
places. In America, where wood is the general fuel, the amateur often takes down the whole
fabric, that he may build it up in a better form ; but the Englishman's operations are more
simple, and he confines them to giving his sea-coal fire, a " rousing stir." In New England it
has been said, that serious domestic disputes arise from the question of the privilege of moving
the fire. It is certain that a countryman, whoever he may be, who discovers a brand that may
be better placed, will seldom fail to exercise his benevolence in putting it right. The Eng
lish are a domestic people, and there is a vast amount of quiet happiness in England. The
business of the day is concluded before the social hour of dinner, and the cares of the world
are dismissed for the night. Dinner is the principal meal, and it is not swallowed in the
ravenous haste that is so common in America.
The hours of the fashionable world in London, for London is a world, are those of night,
and all the night. At ten, there is a constant roar of carriages, and it subsides not till long
after midnight. The fashionable assemblies and routs are crowds, so dense, that it is hard to
penetrate them, or to escape from them. The houses are often stripped of furniture to the
garret, the better to contain the " troops of friends," who come on a previous intimation, that
the hostess is " at home." There is here a confusion of tongues, but little conversation.
The rooms are in a blaze of light, and the shutters thrown open for the gazing crowd in the
streets. When an American in London invited half a dozen friends in an evening, the ser
vants opened the blinds, thinking it to be a rout after the American mode. In London, it is the
numbers, and not the enjoyment, that give eclat.
On particular occasions, the English dress with great splendor, and the ladies are often
oppressed with the weight of jewels and diamonds.* But in general the linen drapers, mer
cers, &c, are the finest dressed persons about London. The
court dress is in fashion that was general 70 years ago. The
coats are without collars, and have wide sleeves and broad skirts.
The ladies have hooped petticoats and high head-dresses. There
is, however, so little of the paraphernalia of royalty, that a stranger
may live long in London, without seeing that it is the seat of the
court. There is in England such a commercial competition, that a
tradesman's arts are numerous, and his perseverance infinite,
to attract customers. The shops are in themselves a show, and
the contrast of colors, and arrangement of goods, are managed
with much effect. The system of puffing is of course as well
understood as in the United States ; but it is practised with more
delicacy and effect ; it is not so direct, and the puff is often con
tained in a sort of practical metaphor. A pair of shoes are seen
at a window, floating in a vase of water, to intimate that they are
water-proof; and at another window is seen a wooden leg, booted and spurred, to show that
" In the establishment of an English gentleman, the
men-servants are divided into two distinct classes ; ser
vants in livery, and servants out of livery. The ser
vants who wear no livery, and who are considered superior
to the others, are the butler, the underbutler, and the
gentleman's valet. The livery servants are the coach
man, the footmen, and the grooms. To all families of
any consequence, a certain livery belongs.
A livery is a coat and small-clothes of a particular color
and stuff. The coat is of fine cloth, and the small-clothes
of plush. Some wear a silver or gold epaulette on the left
shoulder, or an aiguilette, which is a long silver or gold
chord depending from the shoulders, and looped up with a
gold or silver pin ; also a hat with a gold or silver band.
When the family is in mourning, the footmen wear black
livery with a black epaulette or aiguilette on the shoulder.
If the master of the house is a military man, or the lord-
lieutenant of a county, his footmen wear black cockades in
their hats. There is one livery which may be adopted by
any family, as belonging to no peculiar one ; this is a
552 ENGLAND.
such legs are made within to the life. Happy is the tradesman who can display over his door,
the ensigns of royalty, as hatter, cutler, &c, to the king. There are a great many tradesmen
thus favored, and there is a sign of « privileged bug-destroyer to his Majesty,' and another,
« vender of asses' milk to the Duke of York." In a monarchy, the favor of the sovereign is
the road to wealth. It is also a great desire with a London tradesman, to have a country-
box " in some of the villages about the metropolis. ...
In England, as Trinculo says, " anything passes for a show," and the national curiosity
finds gratification in the numerous spectacles of London. Some of these are peculiar, others
are common to all cities. A shaven bear, dressed in a robe and turban, and made to sit up
right, was once shown as an Ethiopian savage ; and a small monkey, shaven and shorn, was
dressed in green, and successfully exhibited as a fairy. An exhibition was made, too, of the
fork belonging to the knife, with which Margaret Nicholson intended to kill the king. Quackery
is in England, as in America, a certain way to wealth, if followed with sufficient zeal and im
pudence. There is no country that produces so many humorists as England, or so many per
sons who grow up with marked peculiarities of character. Men generally, in most enlightened
countries, are much assimilated ; but in England, the impress of the medal is often entire, and
there we find the strangest whims and caprices as boldly acted upon as if they were general
principles. .
Of course, there are some few contradictions in the English character. Ihe people are lib
eral ; yet there is hardly a museum, collection of pictures, or national monument open to the
public, where there is not some douceur to be paid to the attendants. An Englishman at
Genoa or Florence, is sensible to the ridicule that should pertain to the grandees for selling oil or
wine at retail, in the basement of their palaces ; yet, when he does not occupy for the evening
his own opera box, he will let it out for hire. In England, too, where so many have the
touch of Midas, where wealth is told by millions, few people write letters, except on business,
without a frank from some privileged person, to save the amount of postage. To receive an
unfranked letter is, on many occasions, a matter of less pleasure than surprise, and yet it would
be resented, should the writer pay the postage. All men seem willing thus to detract from the
revenue. There is nothing in England, that strikes an American more forcibly than the difference in
the situation of women there and here. As he arrives in a vessel at Liverpool, he notices
white cloth coat and scarlet plush small-clothes. Many men do their duty, and to superintend at the serving of
families, who dislike the color of their own liveries, dress the table, upon which he usually places the first dish.
their servants in this. The livery servants leave their liv- The duty of an under-butler is nearly the same. The gen
erics when they leave their places. The footmen must tleman's valet attends solely to the personal appearance of
wear powder ; so generally does the butler. his master. It is his duty to keep the gentleman's ward-
The king's livery is crimson and gold ; so also is that of robe in order ; to curl his hair ; arrange his whiskers ; re-
the Duke of Hamilton. The Fife livery is green and crim- mind him of his engagements ; and to take care that his
son, with gold lace; that of the earl of Weymess, dark dress and appearance are exactly according to the last ftsh-
blue and yellow, with a profusion of silver. Pale blue and ion. In a large establishment there are usually several
silver is the livery of several noble families. The coats footmen. Of these, one belongs exclusively to the lady.
are lined and faced with silk the color of the small-clothes. He attends her wherever she goes, with a cane in his
The dress of the grooms is a frock coat, top boots, and hand, silk -stockings, and a nosegay in his coat. He
white corduroy small-clothes. When they ride as postil- stands behind her carriage ; attends her to the opera, the-
ions, their dress is altered from a frock coat to a colored atre, &c., &c. ; and walks behind her in the Park; stands
jacket agreeing with the livery, and the hat is changed to behind her chair at table, and should be six feet high.
a black velvet cap, called a jockey cap. The under Footmen of this altitude tire in great demand. The other
grooms, who are usually very small, light boys, are those footmen stand behind the carriage, serve at table, clean
chosen as postilions. The coachman wears the same liv- the plate, and keep everything appertaining to the table in
ery as the footman ; but is distinguished by his frock coat, order. A separate table is usually kept for the upper and
To this is added, when he mounts the box, a bag wig under servants, as the butler and gentleman's personal
powdered and curled like that of a judge, to increase his servant consider it a degradation to eat with the footmen
dignified appearance ; also a cloth great coat with seven or grooms.
capes, three of the same color as his coat, the other four Ladies of high rank in London are frequently attended by
the same as his small-elothes. The duty of the coachman chasseurs and hussars, especially by the former. The dress
is to superintend the carriage and horses, to see that the of a chasseur is very splendid. It"is either green and gold,
grooms do their duty, and to drive with grace and dexter- or green and silver. He wears a dress coat covered with
lty. Ihe duty of the grooms is to rub down and feed the gold lace, loose trowsers striped with gold, a cocked hat,
horses, and keep them in good condition ; to brighten the and an enormous black plume, and moustaches; also,
harness, and keep the saddles, bits, stirrups, &c, in order, half boots of chamois-colored leather, and gloves of the
They are usually assisted by stable-boys and helpers, same, and a gold belt, in which is stuck a couteau-de-
When the coachman mounts his box, two grooms should chasse. The tallest men are chosen for this office, and
be in readiness to place his wh.p in his Hands; and to they are often Italians. The hussar wears the dress of
hold the reins for him while he puts on his white gloves, a hussar officer, with a cap, cloak, and boots. It is the
A coachman of taste seldom appears without a large bo- duty, both of the huzzar and chasseur, to stand behind
?W»nnflLC«li t ,r?S.rf ^ b»tl«iBt0J <*•«> ^e carriage, and attend upon the lady, supplying the
charge of the cellar, to see that the under butler and foot- place, and doing the office, of a lady 'a footman.
ENGLAND. 553
among the crowd, that press to the wharf, nearly as many women as men. These are of the
lower order, and mingle with the men as if there were no distinction of sex. They listen to
the coarse jokes and rude oaths of the multitude without shame, and as freely join in the laugh
and retort as if they were sailors and porters. As the, stranger passes along through the town,
be sees a multitude of women abroad, most of them without any other head-dress than a
cap, and carrying bundles, or going in haste, as if on business. He proceeds to the vegetable
market, and there he finds it almost exclusively attended by women ; many of them with in
fants in their arms, or laid on the floor at their side. The traveler proceeds on his way to
Manchester, and on the public highway, in the meadows and fields, and in every street through
which he passes, he still sees women of the lower class abroad, attending to various occupa
tions. Instead of shrinking from the gaze, as American women of the same class would do,
they look the coachman and passengers boldly in the face, and seem not a whit abashed at im
pertinent looks, and more impertinent speeches. At Manchester and at Birmingham the
women are seen engaged in various kinds of severe bodily labor. Not only are the manufac
tories filled with them, but in some instances they drive the horses attached to the drays, work
iron in the smithies, and shovel coal to feed the fires of the steam engines. These women are
in the constant habit of mixing with the men, and it is perfectly obvious, that they can possess
no part of the delicacy and modesty, which are so common, and so nearly universal, among the
humbler classes of females in our country.
There is a correspondent difference in the condition of the females of the higher classes of
England and America. The women of the middle ranks, as well as the ladies of quality in
England, are more accustomed to mix freely in the society of the other sex. Their lives are
less secluded, less domestic. The married ladies, in particular, are less confined to the soci
ety of their husbands, and often mingle in matters of business, which are here left exclusively
to men. If the English females are therefore better acquainted with the world, they are infe
rior to ours in delicacy. The rules of decorum in their state of society are somewhat relaxed,
and topics, which would here be considered improper, are freely discussed or alluded to, as
legitimate themes of conversation, between the sexes, there. But if our ladies have the ad
vantage in natural delicacy, we must admit that, in artificial refinement, those of England sur
pass them. Their education is more thorough ; their accomplishments more numerous and
perfect. In the art of conversation they excel, and bestow upon fashionable society that ex
quisite polish which is never found here.
The crimes most common in England are frauds, though there are many of violence. In
London, the pickpockets-are proverbially adroit, and they are seldom idle in a crowd. There,
too, it is common, before a family retires to rest, to place bells so, that they will be rung by
the entrance of house-breakers. The thieves and rogues about London form a large com
munity, and they have a peculiar language, called St. Giles's Greek. " To nab a kid," is to
steal a child ; to be " twisted " or " scragged," is to be hung ; and execution is the " sheriff's
ball," and Newgate is the " bower " or the " stone pitcher." To " stifle a squeaker," is to
murder a child ; to " rap," is to swear falsely ; " Philistines," are bailiffs ; " persuaders," are
spurs ; " one in ten," is a parson, and an " amen-curler," is a parish clerk. In Cornwall, the
wreckers have often an opportunity to pillage, but they consider the plunder of the sea as
lawful. They are not cruel ; they relieve the mariner, and they rob him as gently as they can,
or like Isaak Walton, when he hooked the frogs, " as though he loved them." A miner's
life, however, is not so easy, that he would not be much tempted by the wreck of a ship. It
is said, that the clergy there do not know half their parishioners, till they come up to be buried.
It is probable, that most of the stories of the wreckers have as little foundation as the current
tales concerning our honest fishermen of Cape Cod.
There is in England one peculiarity, characteristic of the state of society, which is the mob,
the incarnation of John Bull. It is, in general, by no means malicious, though it is absolute. On
seasons of rejoicing, it breaks the windows that are not illuminated, and it breaks the windows,
also, of obnoxious persons. There is no regular organization, yet there seems to be some
general mind or intelligence in the collective body, which usually acts with discrimination. In
the United States we have no mob ; there is not even a probability that we ever shall have one,
but if we should have, it is not probable, that it would be more moderate or restrained than sim
ilar assemblages in England.
There is no country with so many princely, charitable, and religious foundations as Eng
land ; but generally they are the growth of ages, and many of them have existed for centuries.
70
554 ENGLAND.
It is only in a country where property is secure, that such could exist. It is surely a noble
disposition of wealth to leave it to charitable corporations, where the testator may live forever,
if it be life to do as much posthumous good to the end of time, as he could have effected had
he really been immortal. On the whole, in the English character, if there is not a little to
censure, there is much to praise ; and nations must be judged in the same indulgent spirit as
individuals ; neither can arrogate perfection ; and of England we may well say,
" England, with all thy faults, I love thee still."
The manners and customs of Wales, are somewhat dissimilar to those of England. The
Welch are extremely national, and though their country is not fertile, they are greatly attached
to their barren hills. It is not common to see in America, the great centre of emigration, a
native of Wales. The temperament of a Welchman is somewhat ardent. He is industrious
and frugal, and history attests that he is persevering and brave. The vale of Clwyd, which is
one of the most charming on earth, is several miles in extent ; and it is remarkable for being
the residence of only the wealthy. The laborers that dress it like a garden come to their toil
a distance of several miles, for the lords of the soil, it seems, are unwilling that the cottage of
the poor should rise near the palace of the rich. The improvements of modern life make their
way in some parts of Wales more slowly than in any other corner of the island. The Welch
have retained, also, their own language, and a few harpers are yet still found wandering about
the country.
It is impossible to pass through Wales, however, without the conviction, that it is one of the
happiest countries in the world ; the people give the traveler a cheerful nod, and they are ex
tremely neat in their personal appearance and dwellings. Every cottage is white-washed till it
is of a resplendent whiteness. Every cottage, too, has its roses, honey-suckles, vines, and
neat walk to the door. There is no doubt that the same grade of people in the United Stales
have more wealth, but it is certainly an indication of a mind at ease, and of habits of neatness
and order, as well as of comfort, to have the humble dwellings of so much studied neatness
as in Wales.
17. Amusements. The English are not a cheerful people, though they have many amuse
ments, and some of them are peculiar. Some ancient sports that used to be pursued with
zeal, are now disused, and others have grown into favor. The invention of gunpowder has
destroyed hawking and archery ; and pugilism, that was unknown in the days of Robin Hood,
has now risen to the dignity of a science, with a nomenclature of its own. Hunting has in
some sort been neglected, for racing ; though there are still many Nimrods of the manor, who
urge the chase at full speed for 30 miles. The English are good horsemen, and much of
their training comes from the chase. The smaller game, such as pheasants, woodcocks, and
partridges, are now chiefly killed by the sportsmen of England, who have wonderful skill with
the towling-piece. There are books printed with blank columns for a sportsman's chronicle,
in which he notes the number and description of game, when and where killed, &c. Hunt
ing is so common in all nations, that men hardly regard it as a cruel sport.
But there are many popular sports in England which an English traveler must forget, before
he car, censure the bull fights of Spain . A bull baiting is little better than a bull fight! The
animal is in England tied to a ring, and dogs are set upon him. They fasten upon his nostrils,
and he gores them or tosses them in the air. In the arenas of Spain, the bull has in some
action ZfT, h T^ the ^§1'sh F°Verb admits' is a J^el- He i« allowed space for
own InFTZrlh r;tan?e sometimes mingles the blood of his persecutors with his
own. In England he is tied to the rack and tortured
fo™£mbe°foref isShlPUrSHeiWitt inCred''ble ™h A match is announced in the papers
A The £ht everv ort if' w " ch™V0?* are P"' in a regular course of diet or training-
on iht HmZJ f VIh-'Cle '? Wh'ch horse was ever etched, is put in requisition, and
"orstand upon them Th? '" ! T'* ""^ ,he SpaC6 al'°t,ed ^ the rinS' and the sPec,a"
flTsV^o^eTttTugiliSl0^ ™ 'XT- ^ and alwa^ -"guLry. WhL the
in the stomach is SrLd a hit^e ° Li^ba ^V^to^^^T^p"^
^S^oSX^ ot "^[r ^ ^ -f T of his^nta^ist: es
« the Pane," &J sportivetguage^ sS a^Ts J ft l*™^ £E
ENGLAND.
555
scribes ; and to be merry and malicious at the same time, is, it has been said, the strongest
evidence of a depraved heart.* Among the rural sports are wrestling, running, cudgel play
ing, pitching the bar, and other games of agility and strength.
In London one of the favorite amusements of the wealthy, is the Italian opera, which is one
of the best in Europe. The distinguished performers assume much state, and it is a matter of
delicate negotiation to engage them, or to reconcile their jealousies when they are engaged.
To the opera, it is usual to go in a full dress. f The theatres, though often full, are less fre
quented than at the Other capitals of Europe. There are provincial theatres in all the larger
* The following is a description of a battle between two
pugilists, in the style that is common in the English pa
pers. It is to be remembered, that there is a vast crowd
about the ring which is cleared in this way. The ama
teurs make a regular onset upon them, and although it is
taken as a jest, there is no lack of heavy blows. It is for
a moment a scene of the greatest uproar, after Which
every one lakes his place. The fight seems not to have
been one of the most desperate ones, though perhaps it is
a fair specimen of a battle by people under the grade of
the professors. It was between deaf Davis and a feather
bed maker named English.
Round 1. The deaf-one had hardly put himself into
attitude when he went to work like a hammer-man and
floored English like a shot flat upon his back.
2. The feather-bed hero, before he could look round
him again, received three facers in succession and was
again floored.
3. English came up gamely to the scratch, when Da
vis punished him in all directions and put in such a blow
over one of his peepers that he was positively electrified.
He put up his arm to feel if he had not lost his head,
turned his back and was stopped only by the ropes. Here
Davis caught his adversary and once more leveled him.
" Take him away," rang from all parts of the ring, " he
will be killed."
4. Contrary to all expectation the " feather-bed maker"
was not such a flat as he seemed ; he met Davis like a
trump, and after a terrific rally Davis was hit down almost
senseless. 5. English put a new face, or rather one of another
color on Davis ; he milled him from one end of the ring
to the other, and by a flooring hit, levelled the deaf-one
in his native dust.
6. Davis again took the lead, and nobbed the feathered
hero to a stand still; when English in turn gave him a
hit that was almost a finisher, on the knowledge-box.
7. This round was fighting '¦ with a vengeance." The
claret run in streams from both their mugs. Davis was
floored, and on being called, said to his second " he could
not stand." It was over in 12 minutes.
t Almacks, the best public assembly in London, is held
twice a week during the season, in Willis's Rooms, St.
James's street. It is under the direction of 12 ladies of
the highest rank and fashion, who are called patronesses.
These lady patronesses have the privilege of accepting or
rejecting all candidates for admission. They regulate the
hours, the music, the refreshments, &c.
At the approach of the season, and at other times, if
anything urgent demands their attention, they meet in
solemn conclave, in the apartments of Mr. Willis. Seats
are placed for them round the table, where the debate is
to be held. If one of their number has died, or resigned'
her office in consequence of ill health, absence from Lon
don, or a disagreement with her associates, the choice of
a successor occasions as much debate, as the election of a
new pope. Or if an application has been made by any
lady, or gentleman, or family newly arrived in town, for
admission to their weekly assembly, the condition, con
nexions, and fashionable character of the individuals are
discussed with a warmth which not unfrequently termi
nates in universal dissension. Great is the consternation
of the officious Mr. Willis, when he perceives these signs
of intestine discord. He flies about uneasily from duchess
to countess, pokes the fire, makes a pleasant remark upon
the weather, and hopes that nothing which he has said
or done has caused offence to their ladyships. A lady
with a large family of daughters is their aversion ; or if
fortunate enough to obtain a subscription through some
powerful interest, is precluded from bringing more than
one on the same night. A young unmarried nobleman,
or single gentleman of fashion and fortune, or a foreign
count with a long name and a star, find little difficulty in
winning their favor. They have, however, not unfre
quently repented of their extreme partiality to foreigners,
since a Greek count carried off one of their greatest heir
esses, and proved to be a mere adventurer whose Alba
nian capote and moustaches a la grec, had given an air
distingue; or since the great Russian prince with his
ferocious air, and diamond buttons, turned out to be a
discarded courier, who had made free with his master's
wardrobe. The assembly-room is a large and lofty apart
ment, handsomely but plainly fitted up, with no furniture
to impede the dancing, but tiers of benches covered with
red stuff, and rising one above the other; splendid lustres
of cut crystal, with smaller lamps variously disposed,
give an equal and brilliant light to the apartment. The
orchestra, which is in a gallery on one side, is occupied
by Collinet and his celebrated band, unequalled, for the
beauty of their quadrilles, waltzes, and mazurkas. The
staircase is well lighted and covered with scarlet cloth,
and when the folding-doors are thrown open, the general
effect is striking and brilliant.
As the society is thus carefully sifted, it consists of all
that London can produce of fashion and high rank.
The royal dukes seldom fail to attend. The princesses
with their ladies in waiting, frequently honor Almacks
with their presence. The dress of the ladies is usually
more splendid than at a private party, and there is a
greater display of fine jewels than is probably to be
met with in any othei assembly of the same description
in Europe. Diamonds shake on the brows of the anti
quated dowagers, or add a new lustre to the sparkling
eyes of the younger peeresses. The full dress uniforms
of field-marshals or guardsmen, add variety to the scene,
and many of the greatest statesmen and ministers, relax
their minds from the cares of the morning, by a frequent
attendance at Almacks. The Duke of Wellington seldom
fails to make his bow to the patronesses, though upon one
occasion rather hardly treated by their despotic govern
ment. Their ladyships have made it a rule, that nobody
should he admitted after eleven. One evening the fatal
fates had just closed, when the carriage of the Duke of
Wellington drove to the door, with a thundering knock
for admittance. Up flew Willis to make known the dis
tressing fact. " Keep him out," said a dowager peeress ;
" he knows the rules, and must abide by them." Willis
bowed before the decrees of Fate; but in a few minutes
returned. " His grace presents his compliments. He is
in full dress and the night is cold. The House of Lords
sat late upon an interesting debate, moreover he is but 5
minutes past his time, and is now standing in the pas
sage." The patronesses looked at each other, "Keep
him out ;" exclaimed the young ladies M . "The
Duke of Wellington has no more right to transgress the
rule than any one else." " The House of Lords, ladies,"
said Willis imploringly. " Let the House of Lords meet
earlier on an Almacks night," said the Countess of S .
Willis descended with this last reply. " So much for the
discipline of petticoat government," said his grace good-
humoredly, as he drew his military cloak round him, and
drove off. An air of formality is more observable al
Almacks than at any other. party in London. Fashion
and rank being usually preferred to youth and beauty,
there is a greater proportion of antiquated nobility than
of the young or the gay. Besides which, young men of
556
ENGLAND.
towns, and there are companies of strollers, that, for want of better accommodations, will per
form in a barn** .
The holidays may be included under the bead of amusements, as generally the religious ob
servances are obsolete, and only the games and feasts retained. But it is a pity, that the two
great festivals, one of the church, and the other of the spring, Christmas and May-day, should
fall into neglect. Christmas is no longer what it was in the olden time of " Merry England,"
and May-day is honored chiefly by the chimney sweepers. A turkey is always on the table
at Christmas, and a goose at Michaelmas. Buns, marked with a cross, are baked on Good
Friday, and pancakes are made at " Merry Shrove-tide." But the good old customs that
brought landlord and tenant together, to be " merry in hall " ; the Christinas pranks, pageanis,
and gambols are no more, and thus one more bond is broken, that united in feeling the high and
the low. The maypole may be sometimes seen in a village, but seldom is there a joyous com-
fashion are apt to prefer the ease of their own club, to the
full dress necessary for these reunions. Or when they do
bestow their presence upon the society, few of them will
go through with the exertion of performing a set of quad
rilles. A few turns in the waltz with a fashionable married
beautv, with the wife of a cabinet minister, or the daugh
ter of the premier, suffices them for the evening. The
gallopade, however, has begun to add a little life to the form
ality of Almacks. Sixty couples galloping at once round
the room, are apt to lose a little of their reserve in the
mere absurdity of their employment. The refreshments are
little attended to. Tables with weak green tea and sugar
biscuits shock the lover of a good supper. Many attempts
have been made to throw this assembly into discredit.
Former patronesses, who have quarreled with their col
leagues in office, have given select parties on the same
night, in the amiable hope of drawing away the most dis
tinguished persons from Willis'B. But, as a select public
assembly, it is still without a rival in the annals of London
gayety. "
* The Clubs of London deserve notice here. Among
the most fashionable are Brooke's, White's, Crockford's,
Boodle's, and the Wyndham. The United Service Club
and the Traveler's are also very celebrated ; for admission
to the latter, an individual must have been a traveler.
These clubs are supported by an annual subscription from
each of the members ; as also by a sum of money paid by
each member on entering. A club is formed by the asso
ciation of a certain number of gentlemen, who fix upon a
house, which they either buy or rent, and choose a master
to manage it, in whose name the establishment is carried
on. They agree upon certain rules which are written
down, and which every member is bound to observe. By
this means a single man finds himself enabled to enjoy the
benefit of the best and most select society, together with
every luxury that he can possibly desire, without the ex
pense or trouble of maintaining an establishment of his
own. When any innovation or amendment is about to be
proposed, a committee of the members is held to deliberate
upon its expediency. When one of the members proposes
the introduction of any gentleman, he is balloted for by
the others. Two black balls are sufficient to exclude hirn.
The black-balled member may be again proposed for, and
returned the next year. A good deal of interest is re
quired to obtain admittance into the most fashionable
clubs. Each member may have a sleeping apartment.
There are several public rooms ; one allotted exclusively
for smoking, where cigars and coffee are always in readi
ness ; another for billiards. A variety of servants, and a
first rate French cook, are maintained by the master of the
establishment. The arrangements of the fiist rate London
clubs have now arrived at such a height of perfection, that
young men of fashion not only spend the greatest part of
their time there, but care little for any other society.
Newspapers, breakfast, and billiards, conversation upon
sport, gayety, or politics ; lounging at the windows, and
quizzing the passers-by, usually fill up their morning
hours; and pass away those dull moments, during which
no votary of fashion can with propriety be seen out of
doors. Returning either from his attendance at the House
or from a fatiguing ride, a member has the satisfaction of
having dinner al a moment's warning, without the trouble
some necessity of dressing or of pulling off his boots. Or
if he gives a dinner to a party of his fashionable friends, a
private apartment is provided for him, together with every
luxury and delicacy that London can afford ; the most
perfect attendance, the best cookery, and the rarest wines.
Gambling is usually carried to a great extent; cards and
dice are brought in after supper, or after a lengthened din
ner, which has terminated in a call for supper, and daring
which the bottle has circulated freely. Immense sums
are lost and won at whist and ecarte. The excitement
and dissipation, the total absence of ceremony mingled with
refinement, which characterize these associations; com
bined, perhaps, with the insipid reserve which is observa
ble in the circles of the modem aristocracy, have induced
the young men of fashion in some measure to withdraw
themselves from these more polished reunions, and to pre
fer an evening spent at their own club to the best society
elsewhere. Those sinks of vice and iniquity, known under Ihe ap
propriate denomination of Hells, which disgrace the neigh
borhood of St. James's, and other fashionable parts of the
metropolis, are unfortunately the resort of nearly half of
the young men of rank and fortune in London. As they
are not under the protection of government, like similar
gambling establishments in Paris, Milan, &c, a certain
degree of secrecy is necessary in conducting them. They
are usually opened by some needy adventurer, who is as
sociated with sharpers and other notorious characters.
The society is of the most mixed description ; the peer
and the blackleg sit familiarly at the same table. Gam
bling levels all distinctions ; and the proudest and most
aristocratic nobleman is not ashamed to pass night aller
night in the company of the lowest and most infamous
characters. No sooner has a young man of fortune set
foot in London, than the members of the Hells fix their
eye upon him as a fit subject for fleecing, and unless he
has sufficient good sense to be warned by the experience
of others, it is seldom that he can avoid the snare. But a
gambler who has lost his fortune, too often has a pleasure
in reducing all others to the same condition. A young
man is induced to visit these gaming-houses from curios
ity and a love of novelty. He plays at first with caution,
and it is seldom that the company do not contrive that he
shall win for the first few nights. Excitement soon fol
lows ; loss after loss at length renders him desperate ; and
he soon finds himself upon a level with those whose very
names he would have scorned to pronounce but a few
months before. The light of the sun is excluded from
these asylums. The shutters are closed, and night suc
ceeds day, and day follows night, and yet the gamblers
continue in fierce and desperate contest. Hazard and
e'earte are the principal games. The lights, cards, and
dice are supplied by the master of the establishment, with a
casual refreshment to those who find it necessary. If the
young man who has been inveigled into these haunts can
by an effort of courage shake himself free before it is too
late, the experience he has gained maybe of service to
him ; otherwise he is plunged into irretrievable ruin, both
of fortune and principles.
ENGLAND.
557
pany of youths dancing around it, and May has no longer its ancient festival. In London, a
company of chimney sweepers may be seen on the first of May, with their sable rags, stream
ing with ribands, and their soiled faces shining with patches of gold leaf. They dance and
solicit charity. It is the only day in the year in which they are drawn from their horrid slavery
to seek for enjoyment.
On the 5th of November, the anniversary of the famous gunpowder plot, troops of boys may
be seen bearing about what passes for an effigy of Guy Fawkes, cutting all sorts of antics, and
singing the old verses, " Don't you remember, the fifth of November,
Gunpowder treason and plot ; I see no reason
Why gunpowder treason should ever be forgot," &c.
Beating the bounds is also a curious relic of olden times, still kept up in some parishes. .til,.
Guy Fawkes.
Beatincr the Bounds.
18 Education. In late years, the greatest exertions have been made to spread knowledge
among the common people, though the laboring classes are less intelligent than the same grade
in Scotland or New England. Various series of cheap and admirable books for the instruction
of the common people have been much spread, and some of them are now republished in the
United States. There is also a great circulation of newspapers, and although few people in
England take them, compared with the numbers that do so in this country, yet a paper passes
through so many hands, that a great deal of intelligence is thus circulated. In the towns and
villages there are reading clubs and circulating libraries.
About half of the children in England are educated at free schools. It is, however, those
who are engaged in the manufactories who reap the least advantage from schools ; yet, after
the hours of labor are over, which make from half to two-thirds of the twenty-four, half an hour
or an hour is devoted to instruction. The higher English schools have practically a republican
tendency. The boys are sent to them young, and at a distance from home. Their consider
ation among their mates depends upon the manner in which they treat them, for there is little
deference paid to wealth or rank. Each one is thrown on his own resources, and thus ac
quires a greater stability of purpose and civility of demeanor. The system of fagging is not
indeed a republican one, but it is so far one of equality, that every fag has in time his own fag,
as every dog is said to have his day.* The boys at school sometimes resist the lawful author
ities, and rise in the rebellion of a " barring out." They rail up and barricade the doors and
windows, collect such provisions as in haste they may, and often sustain a siege of several
days so well, that they are admitted to honorable conditions of surrender. If, however, they
are taken by storm, they have little to expect, but a thorough execution of the laws of the
schools, which are no less severe than the articles of war. The English favor severe pun
ishments in all things, and the practice of flogging is universal in the schools. Wealth and rank
claim no exemption, and a boy under the 6th form at Eton is liable to this degrading punishment.
'At Eton,~ every boy under the 6th form may be flogged
on the back, and the discipline is administered by the head
master, who is commonly a gentleman of talents and ac
quirements ; and all boys under the 5th and 6lh forms are
subjected to fagging, that is, they must obey, if they have
not the personal strength to resist, all the orders of the two
upper classes ; force and custom regulate fagging. The
fag is held to brush clothes, get tea and breakfast, fetch and
carry, stop balls at cricket, and to be beaten if he should
refuse.
558
ENGLAND.
¦>•¦ urNew England, for a poor scholar to enjoy the advantages of the Universities by perform
ing certain menial services, and some of the greatest names in England were serv.tors in the
Universities. The ancient discipline is somewhat relaxed, and though there are many excel
lent scholars, some youths there are who go to Oxford and Cambridge, only because it is the
custom to go, and who carry away as little knowledge as they bring. There are in all parts
of England, a great many private schools, under the direction of eminent scholars, but
fewer of the endowed public schools like those in the United States called academies.
Some of the most profound of the English scholars have kept these private schools ; and the
advantage could not be slight, to a zealous student, of having the instruction of such men as
Johnson and Parr. . .
19. State of the Arts. The arts, in England, have received their greatest impulse and
advancement, within the last half century. There has, indeed, always been a sufficient degree
of taste to lead to the purchase of foreign or ancient collections, but there was not sufficient
encouragement to the artists at home. The Royal Academy has done much to improve the
taste in the arts, and to encourage the professors. Excellence now meets with munificent
reward, greater perhaps than in any other country, and artists of great merit have sprung up
in all branches, and some of them of great originality.
There are a great many collections of paintings by the old masters, and many modern and
antique sculptures. Greece has been plundered of
what time and barbarians had spared, and the sculp
tures of the Parthenon have been transported to
London. An English artist can find much to assist,
in forming his taste in England, and Sir Thomas
Lawrence did not see the monuments of his art in
Italy till past the meridian of life. Sculpture has
been as much advanced as painting, by Flaxman,
Chantrey, and others ; and the features of the great
and good of England will be faithfully transmitted
in marble, to posterity.
The English have a passion for music, if their ¦
fondness of the Opera be a test ; and all musical
performers of excellence receive splendid rewards.
But it is in the useful arts that the English are most
distinguished ; wherever commerce has freighted
a ship, in the remotest corner's of the earth, are
to be found the products of English ingenuity. The cutlery, the porcelain, and the thousand
articles of luxury and show, have been brought to such perfection, that all improvement seems
impossible. The sciences are much indebted to England, and the natural sciences are nowhere so suc
cessfully cultivated, except perhaps at Paris. Bacon seems to have diverted the inquiries of
the English philosophers to these, though the philosophy of the mind has not of late been
neglected. There are at present many luminaries in England, in the sciences of chemistry,
geology, and anatomy. The government has despatched several expeditions, to penetrate to
the Pacific Ocean, around the northern part of America, and though without success, still
much has been gained to science. Other expeditions have greatly increased the stores of
geographical knowledge, within a few years.
In no former age, has the press been so prolific, or literature so much spread and rewarded.
The public is now the munificent patron, that discovers and rewards excellence, and it is no
strange sight, though it was never seen in the days of Goldsmith and Fielding, to see an
author made rich by the labors of his pen. The profusion of new books is, upon the whole,
more remarkable than their excellence ; and, though there are many authors of the present
day, with whom posterity will be familiar, the great mass, like those of every age, will be
neither read nor remembered. The greatest change that a few years have made in English
literature has been effected by a form of writing unknown to the ancients, that is, the novel.
Several of the most gifted minds of the age have compressed in the narrative form, all their
The Clarence Vase.
ENGLAND. 559
vast knowledge of character, manners, morals, and everything that is connected with a deep
knowledge of human nature.
20. Religion, &c. The earliest religion in Britain of which any account has reached us,
was that of the Druids ; a gloomy and sanguinary superstition. It included a belief in trans
migration, and enjoined human sacrifices. The temples were the deep recesses of a grove,
or a circle of upright stones, for the Druids held it unlawful to worship the Deity under any
roof raised by human hands. TertuUian, who died A. D. 202, was the first who asserted the
existence of Christianity in England. But the irruption of the pagan Saxons suppressed it till
570, when it was renewed and extended, in consequence of the marriage of one of the mon
archs with a princess of France.
The Protestant religion is now established by law, and the king is the head of the church.
There are 2 archbishops, and 24 bishops, all of whom, except the Bishop of Sodor and
Man, are peers of the realm, and have seats in the House of Lords. The archbishop of
Canterbury is called the Primate of all England, and his rank is that next below the royal
family. The archbishop of York is called the Primate of England. The bishops have some
temporal authority, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction extends to all questions of births, mar
riages, deaths, probate of wills, and delinquencies of the inferior clergy. Under the bishops,
are the deans prebendaries, archdeacons, rectors, priests, curates, and deacons. The church
wardens overlook the alms for the poor. A plurality of benefices is not uncommon, though
the incumbent can perform only the duties of one ; and a slight excuse sometimes serves for
a neglect of even these. The wealth and patronage of the church is immense. For a further
view of this topic, the reader is referred to the article on Religion, under the head of Great
Briiain. In a wealthy parish, there are lectureships, or preaching, after the ordinary service,
and the expense is defrayed by contribution. A clergyman has sometimes a chapel of his
own, conveniently fitted up with stoves and easy seats, and, if a popular preacher, he lets out
the pews to great advantage. The clergy of the established church are a learned and pious
body, though there are many individuals in it, who have neither learning nor piety. Where
the right of presentation to a church is held by a layman, he will too often be moved by con
siderations of friendship or affinity, more than by a desire to preserve the purity of the church.
Hence there are so many sporting parsons in the country, and in London so many clergymen
to be seen at theatres and balls.
The Dissenters are a numerous body, and have many ministers of great learning and purity
of mind. The Dissenters are chiefly Methodists, Baptists, and Quakers. The Catholics are
numerous, and have several colleges and convents. A description of all the different creeds
would of itself make a volume ; the following list of the denominations is given by Mr. Southey :
Arminians, Socinians, Baxterians, Presbyterians, New Americans, Sabellians, Lutherans,
Moravians, Swedenborgians, Athanasians, Episcopalians, Arians, Sabbatarians, Trinitarians,
Unitarians, Millenarians, Necessarians, Sublapsaiians, Antinomians, Hutchinsonians, Sande-
manians, Muggletonians, Baptists, Anabaptists, Paedobaptists, Methodists, Papists, Universal-
ists, Calvinists, Materialists, Destructionists, Brownists, Independents, Protestants, Hugo-
nots, Nonjurors, Seceders, Hernhutters, Dunkers, Jumpers, Shakers, Quakers, &c. Eng
land has had a share of those enthusiasts, who first delude themselves and then lead others
astray. Within the present century a madman -named Richard Brothers, who had been a
lieutenant in the navy, called himself the king of the Hebrews, and found many to believe in his
title. He called the earth hell, and he taught that all men were created, and that they fell
with Adam, but had since transmigrated into different bodies. A first-rate engraver became
a convert to this doctrine, and engraved the head of Brothers ; a member of Parliament, who
was a profound oriental scholar, was another believer. London, however, would not come
over to the faith, and Brothers threatened it with an earthquake and foretold the day ; but the
city stood firm, and he pretended that he had saved it by prayer. Numbers, however, were
alarmed, and it was said, that some looked for the general conflagration. It was said, too,
that fire insurance advanced, and that some merchants made preparations for additional fire-
engines, with directions for the firemen to " keep a sharp look out on the Bank of England."
But the case was bad enough without ridicule, and the government caused Brothers to be
confined as a lunatic.
His mantle fell upon Joanna Southcote, who seems to have had the requisite share of assu
rance for a false prophet. She asserted, that redemption hitherto extended only to men, and
that she had been sent to redeem women. Nothing was too monstrous for her to feign, or for
560
ENGLAND.
her numerous followers to believe ; the credulity was equal to the imposture. Among a great
many books written or dictated by her, is one giving a full account of her colloquy with the
Devil. They met by agreement to hold a dispute of seven days. It was agreed, that Joanna
should come alone, but that Satan might bring as many followers as he would. The confer
ence was held in a solitary house, and Joanna has left a full report of it. The language, es
pecially on the part of Joanna, was not adapted to " ears polite." Satan complained of her
volubility, and reviled the whole sex.
The Sabbath is much more strictly observed in England than in the rest of Europe, though"
it is not uncommon to see athletic and other games on that day ; the laboring classes pour out
from London, to pass the day in the fields, and during the fashionable season, Sunday is the
time particularly chosen for promenading in the parks. Bibles are not in England so univer
sally scattered among the people, as in New England. The right to print the Scriptures is
restricted to the two universities and to the king's printer. No others may print it without a
commentary. But a most splendid edition has been published in which the commentary was
contained in a single line on a page, and that so low in the margin, that it was cut off by the
binder. The marriages in England, to be lawful, must be solemnized by a clergyman of the estab
lished church, and not without a previous publication of the banns, unless by a special license
from the primate. There is a superstition, that Friday is unlucky, and there are few marriages
on that day. The number of marriages is about 98,030 yearly, and 1 in 20 have no issue.
The married women outlive the single. In the country, the average number of children to
a marriage is 4 ; in the cities, it is 7 to 2 marriages. Every sect bury the dead after their own
manner, and there is some pomp and parade, especially in processions at funerals. The dead
are deposited in the vaults of a church, or buried in the churchyard ; all are dressed in woolen.
Gray's elegy is the best possible description of a country churchyard. The yearly number of
deaths is 332,708, or 25,592 monthly, 6,398 weekly, 914 daily, and 40 hourly. One half die
before the age of 17, and 1 in 3,126 attains to 100 years.
21. Government. The government of Great Britain is a limited or constitutional monarchy,
composed of the King and Parliament. The
succession is limited to the Protestant line, and
females may succeed. The prerogatives of the
king are, to make war and peace, to conclude trea
ties, and, in times of urgency, to levy soldiers, to
grant pardons, to impress seamen, to command
fleets, armies, forts, and magazines, to appoint
officers, and to assemble, prorogue, and dissolve
parliament. The king is the head of the church,
as well as of the state. His person is sacred,
and it is a capital crime to intend his death.
He can do no wrong ; that is, his ministers
only are answerable for his measures ; and the
House of Commons may impeach them, and di-
Royal Coach. rect them to be tried by the peers. The king's
power is, however, much limited by the House
of Commons, which has the sole right of granting all supplies of money. Parliament is the
great council of the nation, and the members hold their seats seven years, unless the parlia
ment be dissolved. It is composed of the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.
The archbishops, and all the bishops of England except one, the bishop of Sodor and Man,
and all the peers of England, have seats in the House of Lords ; 16 peers, chosen for one par
liament, in Scotland, represent that country, and Ireland is represented by 2S peers, chosen
for life. There are also 4 Irish bishops and archbishops representing the Irish Church. Some
of the privileges of peers are, exemptions from arrests, except for treason, felony, &c. ;
they are tried only by a jury of peers, who return their verdict, not upon their oath, but upon
their honor. A peer may vote by proxy ; a member of the House of Commons cannot. The
House of Peers at present consists of 24 Dukes, 20 Marquises, 111 Earls, 18 Viscounts, 196
Barons, 2 Archbishops, and 24 Bishops, beside the representative peers.
„r^he House of Commons, consists of 658 members, of whom 500 are from England and
Wales ; 53 from Scotland, and 105 from Ireland. The members are chosen by counties,
ENGLAND.
561
cities, boroughs, and the 2 universities. Freeholders of 40 shillings yearly value, and persons
occupying property at a rent of not less than £ 50 a year, or holding property on copyhold, or on
lease of at least 60 years, of £10 yearly value, have the right to vote for the county members.
In the cities and boroughs, the qualifications were very various, and some boroughs, which had
ceased tocontain any inhabitants, continued to return one or more members until the passage of
the reform act in 1832. By that act, the rotten boroughs, as they were called, were disfranchised,
and the right of suffrage is extended in the others to all JE 10 householders. The number of
voters in England is now about 620,000. The members of the House of Commons have
freedom of speech, and cannot be questioned out of the house for any words uttered in it. They
are exempted from arrest in civil suits, together with their servants, while in parliament, or in
going and returning. The ministers are compelled by custom to have a seat in parliament ;
and the Premier is commonly first Lord of the Treasury, as the direction of the revenue gives
great influence. Composition of the House of Commons. Members.
England,
Wales,
40 counties, ....
185 cities, boroughs, and towns,
Total, for England,
C 12 counties,
14 districts,
Total for Wales,
Members. 144
- 327
- 471 1514
29
Scotland,
Ireland,
33 counties, - -
16 cities and boroughs,
Total, for Scotland,
32 counties,
34 cities and towns,
Total, for Ireland, Total,
3023
53 6441
105
658
22. Laics. The laws of England are divided into the statute law, or the enactments of the
legislature, and the common law, which is the most ancient, and which has gradually grown up
from the exigencies of society. The common law derives its authority from immemorial usage,
and the origin of it is lost in remote antiquity, though some of it may have come from acts
of Parliament, that have not been transmitted to us. This law lies in precedents and the de
cisions of courts ; the evidences of it are in the records of courts, the reports of cases decided,
and the treatises of learned and ancient sages. This venerable law constitutes the basis of the
jurisprudence of all the United States, except Louisiana, where there is a code..
The great monuments of English law and bulwarks of justice, are the writ of "Habeas Cor
pus" and the trial by jury. This writ, as it now stands, was granted in the 31st year of Charles
the Second, and it has been adopted in substance in all the United States ; where, as in Eng
land, it may be suspended in emergencies, requiring the executive to have great powers, as in
rebellion or invasion. Any person, restrained of his liberty, even by command of the king,
shall, upon the demand of his counsel, have a writ of Habeas Corpus to bring his body before
the Court of King's Bench or of the Common Pleas ; which shall, within three court days,
determine whether the cause of commitment be just. No subject can, therefore, be kept long
in prison without legal cause.
The trial by jury is of Saxon origin, and, in England, the jury is composed of 12 persons,
who are required to be unanimous. In Scotland, the number is 15, and a majority is taken
instead of unanimity.
If the English are judged only from their amusements and laws, we have reason to call them
a savage people. The capital offences are in number about 200. In the reign of George the
Third, 17 capital punishments have been made by one act, and by the marriage act, 5 capital
felonies are created in one line. Well may it be said, that a mere word slayeth.* The great-
* Sir William Meredith said recently in Parliament,
" By this nickname of treason, there lies at this moment,
in Newgate, under sentence to be burnt alive, a girl just
turned of 14 ; at her master's bidding she hid some white
washed farthings behind her stays, on which the jury
found her guilty as an accomplice. The master was
hanged last Wednesday, and the fagots all lay ready for
her; no reprieve came till just as the cart was setting
out, and the girl would have been burnt alive, had it- not
been for the humane and casual interference of Lord
Weymouth. Good God ! are we taught to execrate the
fires of Smithfield, while we are lighting them now to
71
burn a poor harmless child for hiding a whitewashed
farthing. " When a member of Parliament brings in a new hang
ing law, he begins by mentioning some injury that may
be done to private property, for which a man is not yet
liable to be hanged, and then proposes the gallows as the
specific, infallible" means of cure and prevention ; but the
bill in its progress often makes crimes capital, that scarce
deserve whipping. For instance, the shop-lifting act was
to prevent banker's and silver smiths' shops, where there
are commonly goods of great value, from being robbed ;
but it goes so far as to make it death to lift anything off a
562 ENGLAND.
est crime known to the laws is Treason, but under this head is included, besides the offence
towards the king's life, that of slaying his chancellor, or judge, in the execution of their offices,
and that of counterfeiting the king's coin, or of bringing false money into the realm. The
penalty for treason, is, that the offender be drawn to the gallows, on the ground or pavement,
that he be hanged by the neck, and then cut down alive, that his entrails be taken out, and burned
while he is yet alive, that his head be cut off, that his body be divided into four parts, and that
his head and quarters be at the king's disposal.
In the Tower burying-ground, it may puzzle some future antiquary to discover so many buried
trunks wanting the heads ; for executions for treason have generally taken place near the Tower.
It is petty treason for a servant to slay his master, or a wife her husband, and instead of a cart,-
as in other capital offences, the criminal is drawn on a hurdle. The bodies of robbers are
often hung in chains, till they fall to pieces. For adultery, there is no penalty in the criminal
code ; but for " Grand Larceny," or the taking goods from another above the value of twelve
pence, the punishment is death. Death is, indeed, much honored in the English code. It is
punished with death to steal an heiress, to forge deeds, notes, &c, for a bankrupt to refuse to
surrender his effects, to pick pockets of above the value of one shilling, to steal bonds or bank
notes, to steal above 40 shillings on a river, to steal or destroy linen in bleaching grounds, to
lay in wait and disfigure or maim any person, to maim or kill any cattle maliciously, to break
down the head of a fish pond, whereby fish may be lost, to cut down trees in an avenue or gar
den, to' cut hop binds, to return from transportation, to conceal the death of an illegitimate child,
to steal from a ship in distress, to stand mute, or to challenge above twenty jurors in capital
felonies, to commit perjury under the insolvent acts, to personate bail, or acknowledge fines or
judgments in another's name, and to send threatening letters.
The following enactments are some of them similar to the statutes in New England. Rogues
and vagabonds are to be committed to prison, and among these are ranked persons going about
soliciting alms, under pretences of loss by fire, fencers, bearwards, strolling players, minstrels,
except those licensed by Lord Dutton in Cheshire, gypsies, fortune-tellers, persons threaten
ing to run away and leave their wives and children on the parish, and persons wandering abroad,
lodging in ale houses, out houses, or the open air, and not giving a good account of themselves.
For many offences, the penalty is transportation to distant colonies.
The game laws are a peculiar trait in English jurisprudence. They are the relics of a darker
age than the present, though the present age has by no means relaxed their severity. The os
tensible reason is the preservation of game, but an incidental one may be the disarming of the
great body of the people, as it is unlawful for one not qualified to kill game, or keep a gun, and
his house may be searched, on suspicion. Any person is qualified to kill game, who has a
freehold of £ 100 a year, or a church benefice of £ 1 50. The sons of esquires, and of persons
of higher degree, have the same privilege, and a privileged person may take another with him
who is not qualified. Often, therefore, a man cannot kill the partridge that lives upon his own
estate, though a stranger may enter his enclosures and do this without trespass. The richest
merchant or manufacturer in the kingdom, may also be unqualified to kill game. The penalty
for selling game is severe, yet nothing is more openly or extensively sold, and poaching is a
regular and a profitable trade. It has been proved, too, that the very " Nimrods of tbe manor "
sell their game in defiance of honor -and law. Several of the severest penalties are imposed
by what is not miscalled the Black Act. The Bankrupt laws form a considerable code, and
they afford relief to the tradesman who has conducted a fair, though not a thriving trade.
Some similar system seems to be necessary in every commercial country.
There is much legislation under the head of poor laws, for the relief of that great body of
people who cannot support themselves, and who require parish aid. The tax raised for
Jones waTitcuted ""The9 wnn^n^b" K^' ^ M"I tJh™> S,,e had n° bed to ^ °"> "°"^g *° *« her chi'"
their .roods setzed for It aZTJ v / iT" T H' dren to eat> and tlley were ^ost "^ed : ant perhaps shs
smallgchildre„ turned ^o th -wi ' ,"* ^ "t W° might ha™ d°«« something wrong, for she hardly knew
circumstance not ? ^ be forl„tfPn iL» F'"^ h " a what she did'' The parisl^officerf testified to the truth
SndT itand'remU^y^hand^ome41 She TeriTTa tr^V^'^, t' f "" ^ h"d T" & g°.°d *£ *
linen-draper's shop, took some coarse inen off The coun tZl lftlnS ab°ut LudSate i «» "ample was thought ne-
ter and sliDDed it under her nlnnk Th. k cessary, and this woman was hanged for Ihe comfort and
her' and stekid it down • for tht <lJ,t ? PT i?W rtisfaction of Bome shopkeepers inLudgate Hill. When
SeLce was have Te'tfkl t ^TollT^U she br°Ught '° rece --ente'nce.she behave! in such a frantic
had lived in credit and wanted JLThing/till a press JTS" pr°Ved h.er ™nd *» ta ™ " djslrac,ted stale' '??
gang came and stole her husband from ifer buVsTnce Tyburn? ™9 "^^ *' ^ bleaSt' Whe° ^ "* °Ut
ENGLAND. 563
this purpose is not far from 8 million pounds, and about 1 ,200,000 people, in a population
of 11 millions, receive assistance from it, though it is by no means shared by all who are
miserably poor. Some accounts make the poor one third of the whole. Southey says,
" There is no liberty for the poor in England ; they are no longer sold with the soil, it is true,
but they cannot quit the soil, if there is any probability that age or infirmity will disable them.
If they remove from a crowded parish, to find a more profitable residence elsewhere, the par
ish to which they go may often send them back, to avoid the remote liability of burying them.
Sometimes they die upon the road. The overseers are not men chosen to the office, because
they show the indications of benevolence, nor is it common to see parish aid offered in such a
manner, that the favor is increased by the manner of bestowing it. Great are the miseries of
the poor, and hardly one third of their offspring is reared. A life of labor is closed in the
almshouse, among rogues and lunatics. To this," says Southey, " the poor look as their last
resting-place on this side of the grave."
The execution of the laws in England being much milder than the spirit of them, the good
sense of the community is in advance of the humanity of the laws. Two persons, who at
tempted the life of the king, after a fair trial, were confined as lunatics. Notwithstanding the
penalty of treason, no traitors are dismembered till after they are dead. Some offences are
visited, besides other penalties, with attainder and corruption of blood ; so that the estate is
forfeited, and the children incapable of inheriting. The law of primogeniture, by which the
eldest inherits the estate, is a necessary part of the system of aristocracy, and it keeps togeth
er, for ages, the immense territorial possessions of the nobility and others. The law is still
in force, that inflicts the punishment of ducking on scolds, though it is never enforced. In
China, this offence is a sufficient reason for divorce. In fact, there is but too much resem
blance in spirit, if not in letter, between parts of the English law and the code of China. In
England, a monarch would be at once deposed, who should inflict, arbitrarily and wantonly, a
tenth part of the cruelty prescribed by the laws.
The elections in England may be said to be pure, that is, the voters are overawed by no
force, or threats ; but there is another species of influence, to which they are peculiarly liable
in a country where both wealth and poverty are in extremes. This is, bribery ; and though
there are heavy penalties against it, as well as against entertainments, it is practised with scarce
a shadow of concealment. In some places, where the votes are few, the price of one is £50.
No stranger can see an election in England, with a favorable opinion of a voter's estimate of
the elective franchise. The elections are sometimes continued for weeks, and are scenes of
riot, and drunkenness. The candidates, like Coriolanus, have to interfere and advance their
own election, when they are found at the polls, adapting themselves to the popular humor, and
haranguing the electors. There can hardly be too severe a description of an English election.
23. Antiquities. The antiquities of England are chiefly architectural, and those that are
referred to the Druids are such as men would erect in the infancy of art, though they imply
the power of moving large masses. The most simple of the druidical monuments are single
upright stones, together with cairns or heaps of stones, some of which contain 100 cart loads.
The cromlechs are huge flat stones, laid upon supporters like a table ; and the rocking stones,
which may have been somewhat indebted to art for their facility of motion, were probably
used in the rites of the Druids, as near many of them basins or baths are dug in the rock.
Near Penzance there is a rocking stone, called Logan Rock, of 320 tons, so poised that a
man may move it like a cradle by applying his shoulder, and this could formerly be done
with the force of one hand ; it moves only in one direction. But the great monuments are
the circles of stones, of which there are many ; one at Abury, in Wiltshire, had 652 stones.
Stonehenge, however, on Salisbury plain, is the most frequently visited. The whole is
inclosed by a broad ditch, forming an exact circle. The structure was composed of different
circles, or rather of 2 circles and 2 ovals, all concentric. The outward range of columns
formed a circle, 310 feet in circumference, and consisted of 30 upright stones, 4 feet apart ;
each of these was about 17 feet above the ground, 6 feet in width, and 3 feet in thickness.
These pillars had horizontal stones laid on their top, and were connected as in a ring or fence.
They were secured by mortices and tenons, and their whole height was 30 feet. Of this
outward circle, there are now standing 14 perpendicular stones, with 6 horizontal ones ; 11
of the 14 are contiguous, and 5 of the 6. The next circle is 9 feet within the last ; the
stones are much smaller, being but 6 feet high, and 1 foot in thickness. They had no hori
zontal caps ; only 8 or 10 of these now remain. The next inner range was an ellipse, in
564
ENGLAND.
which the stones were arranged in pairs ; each pair joined by a horizontal slab above, and
making a complete gateway. The height, including the whole, was 26 feet. There were 5
of these gateways. Within these, was another range of 19 upright stones, tapering like obe-
Ancient Druid Temple of Stonehenge revived.
lisks ; 6 of these are now standing. At one end of this innermost range, are the fragments of
a huge stone, 16 feet long, 4 feet broad, and 20 inches in thickness. Stonehenge is indeed
but a rude monument, but it is impossible to survey it without some of the awe which arises
from beholding more classic temples. Near the main structure of Stonehenge, are several
detached columns, that form no part of the original structure. In the structure, the largest
stones are of the weight of 30 or 40 tons, and there is no quarry of similar stone within several
miles. Ihe vicinity is covered with great numbers of barrows or mounds of earth.
1 here are a few rude Danish monuments extant, but the vestiges of the Romans are nearly
ob iterated in England. There is the line of the wall, called the wall of Severus, running 68
miles from the Tyne to the Solway Frith. It was built A. D. 209. The facing stones have
long been removed, and the plough has passed over many of their places. We know the
description of the wall chiefly from Bede, who lived while some part of it was in good
preservation. r s
nar^l ^ °f CheSt!r' asu we" as in vario1" parts of England, are other remains. The
parapet here "supposed to have been originally a Roman work. There are also the remains
this iSSn 'v i ^V°?i 'S Cr°Vered Wkh Cement ; and an altar bas been found with
Z fcv o? I f TrT °ntlrUS Leg' XX K V- The old Part of Chester, is an anti-
ale ThP Lt T 3re 7ery macena1' and mm? of them ™ "early Ming with
Sic a so of Z* '" H f.eC°nd S,t0,T °J the h°USeS' and the Sround fl°°r » °Pen t0 the
Se Welch Vi rJZ Sf r7'« Sa'd t0 be devised for better defenc* i" the incursions of
manner 0f buiwfn; h, F 1 , Sax°°s are, not numerous, but they indicate strength in the
Zced b the °No man, S ?< * '"i^u" Ule S°thic edifices' the stY]* °<" ^hich was intro-
e"«7 man's ho™ w« hi^r T ^ f^T " Stl11 3S needfulaS in those un<Iuiet time^ before
LTbeT laX aToL'LbS e'orrc st e' S SSf t $£*"*. ^ f» "*"
mencement of dprav «,r,;ni, ;r . u , , ^n?land- A little repair will check the com-
Ted as m t?opo tan' church'/ ar „ "til T^' becomes di'aP'dation. The cathedrals,
siderable expense. M^^l^Z^^J'^T^^^ *"* m k<3pt S° * ^
forts, and assailed by cannon. Some of £ Ij" ^iT* V*> When ,hey W6re "Sed **
erected several centuries after. Tbev are of aTl form °i 8S ,he Jcon(5uest' and °tbers were
xney are of all forms and magnitudes, and generally in places
ENGLAND.
565
well chosen for defence. Dover castle, which, notwithstanding large sums expended to pre
serve it, is dilapidated, covers 30 acres, including all its appurtenances ; and Kenilworth,
which was built by Henry the First, and repaired in the time of Elizabeth, is but a shape
less ruin. There are, however, various castles that are entire, some of which are now used as
prisons.
Tintern Abbey.
Ruins of an Ancient Feudal Castle.
The abbeys, except in cities, have suffered ho less than the castles. Many of them were
magnificent in the extreme, and the very ruins strike the beholder with admiration. These
are numerous, and generally placed in situations of great fertility and beauty. Tintern Abbey,
on the river Wye, is, like many other ruins, overgrown with ivy. The roof is gone, and
within, the edifice is seen to great advantage. The walls, pillars, and abutments are perfect.
The grass is cropped within, and every loose stone is removed. It is as if Westminster
Abbey were unroofed. There are many other abbeys, whose ruins are much visited and
admired. The cathedrals are noble structures. The cathedral at Canterbury is a rich gothic
building, 514 feet long, and 74 broad. One of the towers is 235 feet in height. The spire
of the Salisbury cathedral is 410 feet in height. York catbedral, called by the citizens the
Minster, was built in the time of Edward the First, and is an elegant and magnificent structure,
not encumbered with buttresses without. The length is 525 feet, and the greatest br.eadth is
222 feet. It is 235 feet in height, and the largest window is 75 feet by 32. There is nothing
that so much attracts the admiration of Americans in England as the cathedrals. There is
nothing like them in his own country,' and few edifices are more imposing in Europe. " Did
man make it ? " was but a natural thought of the Esquimaux at the sight of St. Paul's.
Britons Romanized.
24. History. The earliest inhabitants of England appear to have been Celts, who peopled
this island from the Continent, about 1 ,000 years before the Christian era. The Goths after-
566
ENGLAND.
wards visited the island, and drove the Celtic inhabitants into the interior parts. When Ju
lius Caesar invaded the country, he found it possessed by various rude tribes, who dif
fered very little from the modern savages of America. The Romans subdued the country
and held possession of it for a period of 475 years from the first landing of Caesar. It was
Romans invading Britain.
then invaded and conquered by the Saxons, who parceled out the territory into several dis
tinct kingdoms. These were united in 827, into one kingdom under Egbert, king of Wessex,
or the West Saxons, who was properly the first king of England.
Saxons in the time of Canute.
Under the Saxon kings, Endand wt= lln,.0„o„.j i. r
in 1066, William, Duke of No mani n X A Y ^^ i,,Vas,'0ns from tbe Danes- But
Harold, the Saxon king, at the ffi S descent"P°n Ae island, defeated and killed
event is what is denominated, i End h W £' C ^"l ^ Wh°le C0Untry- TWS
, ^ngnsn n.stoiy, the Conquest. It produced a total change in
SCOTLAND.
567
the laws, policy, and language of the Eng
lish. The legitimacy of the recent king of
England consisted in his descent from this for
eign conqueror, although the exact order of
succession has been occasionally disturbed.
Wales was conquered and united to England
towards the end of the 13th century. The
Parliament, which, from obscure and incon
siderable beginnings, grew by degrees into
significance, attained to such importance in
1648, as to condemn and put to death Charles
the First. A republic, under Oliver Crom
well, as Protector, followed this event, but
the death of Cromwell restored royalty.
James the Second, the last of the Stuart
kings, was a bigoted Catholic, and, attempt
ing to force his religion upon the people, was
driven from the throne. William of Orange
received the crown by act of'parliament, and
the political liberties of England may properly
be dated from this period.
With the outward forms of a monarchy, the government of England has been, to most prac
tical purposes, an aristocracy or -oligarchy, not greatly different from that of the republic of
Venice. While the king possessed the right, nominally, to make war and peace, and appoint
his ministers, he was completely under the control of the House of Commons, who, by grant
ing or withholding the supplies of money, that great instrument of power, were enabled to bend
him to their will. On the other hand, while the Commons proposed to represent the body of
the people, the election of a large portion of their number fejl into the. hands of a few individ
uals, and that body lost the character of a popular assembly. A more equal representation of
the people has lately been introduced by the right of suffrage, and is confined within narrow
limits.
CHAPTER LXXIII. SCOTLAND
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. Boundaries and Extent. Scotland is everywhere surrounded by tbe ocean except in the
southeast, where it is joined to England. It is 280 miles in length from north to south, and
130 miles is its greatest width ; but the' coast is extremely irregular and indented by large arms
of the sea. It contains 30,800 square miles. It liesietween 54° 57' and 58° 36' N. latitude,
and.l° 40' and 6° 10' W. longitude. Tn shape, it has been fancifully compared to a hump
backed old woman, sitting upon the ground.
2. Mountains. Scotland is in part mountainous, and in part hilly. The mountains are
scattered over the surface, without running in uniform
chains. They are generally from 2 to 4,000 feet
in height, and a few peaks exceed 4,000. The
Grampians are the most southern group. In the
north are the Highlands of Caithness and Inverness,
and here is Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in
Great Britain, 4,370 feet above the level of the
sea, and capped with perpetual snow. On one
side, it exhibits a precipice 1,500 feet perpendicu
lar, and the prospect from its summit is indescri
bably grand and magnificent. The Pentland Hills,
in the south, are very picturesque, but not lofty.
Most of the mountainous parts abound with craggy
rocks, deep, narrow dells, and tumbling torrents ;
and their ruggedness and sterility must ever defy
the utmost efforts of human industry to render
them productive.
Scotch Mountain.
568
SCOTLAND.
3 Rivers The rivers are numerous, and, descending from a high region, their Currents are
broken ana rapid. They are of little use in navigation The Forth runs easterly into the
G man ocean%nd at its mouth expands into a wide bay or Frith. It is a very crooked
stream and through all its windings has a length of 200 miles ; part of it >s navigable for small
vessel The Tay has the largest body of water, with a shorter course. It flows in the same
Section, and has a navigation "near the sea for ships ; ,t particularly abounds in salmon. The
Clyde flows to the sea on the opposite side. It is much broken by falls, but its mouth admits
vessels of 400 tons. The Tiveed is a beautiful stream, running into the German ocean near
<the English border. It flows 60 miles in a straight line, and abounds m trout and salmon.
4. Lakes. These are called Lochs in Scotland. The most remarkable is Loch Lomond,
near the sea in the southwest. It is 30 miles long, of an irregular breadth but generally nar
row. It is sprinkled with islands, some of them large and finely wooded ; the shores are
everywhere highly beautiful and picturesque. The mountain of Ben Lomond which over
looks the northeastern part, presents a prospect of unequalled grandeur. Loch Katrine i ,„ the
same neighborhood, is another beautiful sheet of water. Loch Leven, in Fife, is about 12 miles
in circuit, and contains several small islands, upon one of which Mary, Queen of Scots, was
confined by her nobles. In Ayrshire, is Loch Doon 7 miles in length, the waters of which
flow into the sea by a river of the same name. The banks, of both river and lake, are
much admired for their beautiful scenery,
and have obtained celebrity-from the muse of
Burns, who was born here. There are many
other charming lakes in different parts of the
country. 5. Islands. The Hebrides or Western
Islands lie on the western coast of Scotland.
They are about 300 in number. The largestis
Lewis, 87 miles long. The next in size are,
Skye, Mull, and Islay, Arran, South Ufct, and
Jura. Most of them are small. They are
rocky and barren, with hardly a single tree or
even a bush upon them. On the shores are some
swampy tracts and peat bogs. The vegetation
consists principally of heath and moss. But the
most remarkable feature of these islands is the
great number of lakes which they contain ; these,
however, rather impart gloom than beauty to the landscape ; their sullen brown waters present
the idea of unfathomable depth, and their borders exhibit no cheerful verdure to relieve the
eye. The most westerly of the Hebrides is St. Kilda. It is small and rocky, yet inhabited.
Its shores are composed of enormous precipices, worn by the sea into caverns, often with
roofs more lofty than the ceiling of a gothic cathedral. These shores are the resort of vast
varieties of sea-fowl, which the islanders pursue at immense hazards, by swinging with ropes
from the perpendicular cliffs. There are
87 of these islands inhabited, and several
under good cultivation, producing tolerable
crops of grain, pulse, and potatoes. The
inhabitants are about 70,000. Their only
articles of trade are horned cattle, sheep,
fish, and kelp. One of the smallest of these
islands, called Staffa, is remarkable for a
singular basaltic cavern, called Fingal's
Cave, 227 feet in length and 42 wide. The
entrance resembles a gothic arch, and
the floor of the cave is covered with water.
The walls of the interior are formed of
ranges of basaltic columns, irregularly
, , , , grouped. This natural architecture is
Bending Pillars of Staffa. -j . • j j „„„;fi
, j x • saia t0 surpass In grandeur and magnin-
cence the most splendid artificial temples and palaces in the world. Many of the columnar
rocks in this island are bent and twisted in a remarkable manner.
Burns's House.
SCOTLAND.
569
Sea Fowl.
lie about 60 miles
They have a wild
but 17 of them are
At the northern extremity of Scotland, lie the
Orkneys, or Orcades, about 70 in number, but less
than half of them are inhabited. They are rocky
and have a melancholy appearance, with little vege
tation besides juniper, wild myrtle, and heath.
The soil is boggy or gravelly ; some of the islands
contain iron and lead. The sea in this neighbor
hood is very tempestuous. In June and July, the
twilight, which continues through the night, is suffi
ciently strong to enable the inhabitants to read at
midnight. The population is about 30,000. They
have some manufactures of linen and woolen, and
have a trade in cattle, fish, oil, and feathers. Vast
numbers of sea-fowl frequent tne rocky cliffs of these islands, and one of the chief employ
ments of the inhabitants is bird-catching. The Shetland Islands
northeast of the Orkneys.
and desolate appearance
inhabited. Their vegetation is more scanty
than that of the Orkneys, and their soil, for
the most part, is marshy. The shores are
broken and precipitous, and excavated by the
sea into natural arches and deep caverns.
From October to April, perpetual rains fall,
storms beat against the shores, and the inhab
itants are cut off from all communication with
the rest of the world ; but the aurora borealis
exhibits, at this season, a brightness equal to
that of the full moon. The population is about
28,000 ; the people live by fishing, and the
manufacture of coarse woolens.
6. Bays, Straits, and Harbors. The coast is everywhere rocky, and indented by inlets
and arms of the sea. The Firth of Forth extends a considerable distance inland, and affords
good anchorage and shelter in every part. The Firth of Tay is much narrower. Towards
the north, are the Firths of Murray and Dornock, the former of which is 80 miles in length ;
the latter is the Partus Salutis, or safe haven of the ancient geographers. All these northern
shores are cold and dangerous, with formidable and rocky headlands. A narrow and tempes
tuous sea, at the northern extremity, called the Pentland Firth, divides the Orkneys from the
main land. Proceeding south, along the western coast, deep inlets and rocky islands occur at
every step. In the south, is the Firth of Solway, a wide bay, forming part of the boundary
between Scotland and England, in which the tide rises with astonishing rapidity.
7. Climate. The distinguishing feature in the climate, is the excess of moisture. Fogs
and drizzling rains prevail in most parts for the greater portion of the year. Considerable
snows fall in winter, but are soon melted ; sleighs or sledges are never used, but the waters are
sometimes so frozen, as to permit skating.
8. Soil. In many of the valleys or straths, there are tracts which are productive, but the
soil is much inferior to that of England. A great part of the country may be considered as
absolutely barren. The mountains are naked, and trees of native growth are scarce in every
part. 9. Geology. Scotland not being separated from England by any great natural boundary or
intervening sea,, the geology of the' adjacent districts in each is nearly the same ;,but, if we
take a general survey of the whole country, we shall find the great features of the geology of
Scotland very different from those of England. If a line be drawn in a northeast direction,
from the mouth of the Clyde to Stonehaven, on the eastern coast, nearly the whole of Scot
land, south of that line, is composed of transition rocks, covered in many parts by coal-meas
ures, traps, or red sandstone. On the north of this line, nearly the whole country is compos
ed of primary rocks of granite, gneiss, and mica slate, covered, at the feet of the mountain
chains, with beds of conglomerate and red sandstone. The upper secondary strata, so abun-
72
Bird Catchino in the Shetland Isles.
570 SCOTLAND.
dant in England, scarcely appears in Scotland. The general bearing of the different mountain
ranges, is from northeast to southwest.
10. Minerals, Quarries, &c. Lead, iron, and coal, are the most abundant minerals. The
lead mines are in the southern parts. Coal is very plentiful, and it is supposed the largest un
touched bed of coal in Europe, is in the south of Scotland. Antimony and copper, in small
quantities, also occur. Cobalt is now afforded by a mine which formerly yielded silver.
11. Face of the Country. Two thirds of the country are mountainous. It is generally con
sidered as divided into two parts ; the mountainous region, called the Highlands, in the north
ern and central part ; and the comparatively level country in the south, called the Lowlands.
In the north, the mountains present nothing to view, but heath and rock, with innumerable lakes
and pools, darkened by the shade thrown from enormous precipices ; the whole forming a land
scape wild and desolate beyond conception. In the central parts, the aspect of the mountains
is less forbidding. In the south, is every kind of rural variety, hills, vales, and cultivated plains.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Divisions. Scotland is divided into 33 counties* or shires. These are subdivided into
984 parishes.
2. Canals. The Caledonian Canal extends from Inverness to Fort William, uniting the
Moray Firth with the Atlantic. Its length is 59 miles, including several lakes, through which
it passes ; the artificial navigation is 22 miles. This canal is 100 feet wide at the surface, 50
feet at the bottom, and 20 feet deep, being passable by 32 gun frigates. At one place, is an
ascent of 94 feet by 13 locks, and a descent of 90 feet by 12, called Neptune's staircase.
This canal cost nearly a million sterling. The receipts afforded by it, do not pay for keeping
it in repair. Since its construction, upwards of a million of forest trees have been planted
along its borders. The Forth and Clyde Canal unites the river Carron, running into the Forth,
with the Clyde, at Glasgow. It is 35 miles long, and has 39 locks. Its width, at the surface,
is 56 feet, and its depth 8 feet. It has 15 aqueducts over roads, streams, &c. This canal
was begun in 1777, and finished in 1790, at an expense of above £200,000 sterling. Tbe
Union Canal is a branch of this work, extending to JPort Hopeton, near Edinburgh. The
Monkland Canal extends from the Forth and Clyde canal to Monkland, and is used for the
transportation of coal and limestone to Glasgow. The Crinan Canal crosses the peninsula of
Kintyre. The Androssan Canal, from that place to Glasgow, is not yet completed.
3. Cities and Towns. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, stands upon the southern shore
of the Firth of Forth, a mile and a half from the sea. Its situation is remarkably picturesque.
It occupies three high ridges of land, and is surrounded on all sides, except the north, by na
ked, craggy rocks. The middle ridge is the highest, and on either side is a deep ravine. The
- i^^^B3_,^^ ^^^_ more ancient part of the city occupies the
Jjp^Sj --- |§j ~J — _ fe_ two southern ridges. High street runs
,s" '--==JMIp-~ j Eg j1' J Jjjfe £§j& *^S5^ along the middle eminence, in nearly a
.1jj|j§fe i*K^^^Hpff;;S " "' Z^jUk^&iR straight direction, for about a mile, and
JlllBlIll :¦-" ...JUrM!! -~ exhibits a very grand prospect. With the
SssfiBf ^,^ exception of the principal avenues, the
^^^^Bl'WP21!' '¦fir-^' sE otner streets of what is called the Old
}|.'^-w|'LJ|i)', ,,, i.,,: ' \r ^p Town, are only narrow, dirty lanes,
Jyd§§' i un i\\, )»>,(i „ , 5§ among; houses, some of them 10 and 11
j|jj|||p||f ^apy55ti ifcH stories high. The New Town presents
jipjJU - '-*'^^^^^^^^B quite a different aspect. It is built on the
«^jraifl'ffi' i. - - ' f' ' 8U? northern ridee, and ils streets and squares
^^S^Sl^^^^m0"i'''''(';Z''' ¦ - -i'- ~^*SlfP't' are not surPasseQ> m regularity and ele-
I^SipliK^I 1r4'tfiih ^Z ^Sl|| Sance> in any part of the world. It com-
"^^^^^^^^^^^^Hj^S^^^^^^p^1 municates with the old town by a bridge,
'^' St. Antics Chapel * ' ' ' and f in™e°se mound of earth crossing
_. , , the deep loch or ravine between them.
On the slope of Arthur's seat, toward the East, may still be seen the ruins of the ancient chapel
and hermitage of St. Anthony, mentioned in Scott's tale of the Heart of Midlothian.
* Northern. - Orkney Islands, Caithness, Sutherland, Southern. - Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Haddington, Ber-
ZltilT Ja' In7rnrtss- „. „.„„.,. wick, Renfrew, Ayr, Vigton, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk,
Midland. — Argyle, Bute, Nairn, Elg.n, Banff, Aber- Roxburg, Dumfries Kirkcudbright
deen, Kincardine,Torfar, Perth, Fife, Kinross, Clackman- "°*uurg' uumme8> U-irKcuaDrigiit.
nan, Stirling, Dumbarton.
SCOTLAND.
571
The Fish Market at Edinburgh.
The castle of Edinburgh is an ancient fortress on a rugged rock, mounting abruptly to the
height of 200 feet. It stands at the western extremity of High street, and the view from its
summit always excites the admiration of a traveler. Holyrood House, for many centuries
the residence of the kings of Scotland, is a quadrangular edifice in the eastern part of the city,
and at present offers a shelter to the
dethroned king of France, as its
neighborhood does to the insolvent
debtors of Edinburgh. In the centre
of the city, is a vast pile, comprising
several edifices around Parliament
Square, which contain a number of
large libraries, one of which, called
the Advocate's Library, has 150,000
volumes. The Fish Market occupies a very
convenient spot under the arches of
a bridge which crosses the ravine be
tween the old and new town. It is
surrounded by covered stalls.
From the plain on the east of the
central bridge rise the Calton Hill
and Arthur's Seat ; the latter reaches
the height of 800 feet, presenting the
rocky outlines of Salisbury Crags ;
on the summit of the former, is a
monument to Nelson, a circular col
umn, 108 feet high, and upon both heights public walks have been laid out. The royal
exchange, the register office, the university building, and some of the churches, are among
the principal public edifices. There are 48 churches and meetinghouses, numerous hospitals,
&c. in Edinburgh. The manufactures of the town are chiefly those intended to supply the
consumption of the inhabitants ; the trades of bookselling and printing are carried on to a great
extent ; the Edinburgh Review and Blackwood's Magazine are the most celebrated journals.
The town is chiefly supported by its courts of justice, whose jurisdiction extends over all
Scotland, and is noted for its literary character, a distinction which has acquired for it the sur
name of the Modern Athens. Leith, the port of Edinburgh, is about 2 miles distant from it, but
the two places are now connected by
continuous ranges of buildings. Leith
carries on an active trade with the Bal
tic and other parts of Europe, and has
an extensive coasting trade. The Green
land whale fishery is also prosecuted
from Leith. Its docks, pier, and break
water deserve. mention. Population of
the two places, 162,150. In the neigh
borhood of Edinburgh is a rock called
Samson's Ribs, which attracts the curi
osity of strangers, by the singular ap
pearance of one of its faces, which ex
hibits a mass of strata nearly vertical,
and bearing some resemblance to the
ribs of an enormous giant.
Glasgow, the principal city of Scot
land in point of population, extent, man
ufactures, and commerce, is situated upon the Clyde. It is well built, with straight, spacious,
and neat streets, and contains several pretty squares and handsome public buildings. Its
cathedral is the finest Gothic church in Scotland, and its university is much celebrated.
There are several handsome bridges over the Clyde, and the quay extends a quarter of a mile
down the river, which is navigable for vessels drawing 8 feet of water, to Glasgow. The
mm
572
SCOTLAND.
trade of the place is important and flourishing, and its cotton manufactures are very extensive.
Pooulation 202,426. Large vessels stop 20 miles below Glasgow, at Port Glasgow, a
pretty little town with 5,200 inhabitants. The shipping of the two places amounts to 48,000
0DThe name of Aberdeen is applied to two distinct places, which, however, are situated near
each other, and now form one borough. The city of Old Aberdeen stands on the Don, and
the town of New Aberdeen on the Dee. Aberdeen is the principal commercial port of Scot
land, and is inferior only to Glasgow in the extent of its cotton manufactures. The citizens
are also largely engaged in the Greenland whale fishery. Shipping of the port, 46,200 tons ;
population, 58,000. The harbor of Aberdeen is spacious and safe, and a large pier has been
erected. There are two universities here, King's College in Old Aberdeen, and Mariscbal
College in New Aberdeen. To the north of Aberdeen is Peterhead, a small town, with a
good harbor, engaged in the whale fishery. Its mineral springs are much resorted to.
° Dundee is an important trading town on the Firth of Tay, with a good harbor improved by
piers and docks. The shipping of the port amounts to 32,000 tons, and the population is
45,350. The manufactures, commerce, and population are increasing. Opposite the mouth
of 'the Tay, at the distance of several leagues from the shore, is the Bell Rock lighthouse,
erected upon a rock, which is covered by the sea at high tide.
Perth, higher up the Tay, an old city, has been the scene of many interesting transactions
recorded in Scottish history, and was once the residence of the kings of Scotland. It is sit
uated under the Grampian Hills ; the scenery around is highly picturesque, and the approach
to the city is remarkably beautiful. Its cotton and linen manufactures are extensive, and there
are several literary establishments here. Population, 20,000.
Paisley is a large and opulent manufacturing town, near Glasgow, with 57,500 inhabitants.
Muslins, silks, and coarse cotton goods are extensively manufactured, and there are also dis
tilleries and founderies here. A few miles north of Paisley is Greenock, a flourishing, trad
ing, and manufacturing town, with one of the best harbors in Scotland. Tbe shipping of this
port amounts to 36,250 tons ; population, 27,600.
Inverness, the most important town in the northern part of Scotland, and considered the
metropolis of the Highlands, is situated at the eastern termination of the Caledonian canal. It
contains a royal academy and other public institutions. Population, 14,300. A few miles
from Inverness, is Culloden Muir, celebrated as the scene of the defeat of the adherents of
the Stuarts, in 1746.
Stirling, on the Forth, is a place of great antiquity, and of much note in Scottish history.
It is situated on an eminence, terminating in a rock, upon which stands Stirling castle. Pop
ulation, 8,350. In the surrounding districts are Bannockburn, where Bruce defeated the
English forces ; Falkirk, celebrated as the scene of two famous battles, with 12,800 inhabit
ants, and Carron, noted for its extensive iron foundery ; the species of ordnance, called
carronades, derives its name, from being first cast here.
Among the other towns of Scotland, Dunfermline, noted for its linen manufactures, con
tains the remains of a celebrated abbey, and has a population of 17,100 ; Montrose, on the
eastern coast, is an active trading town,
with 12,050 inhabitants ; Dumfries, in
the southwest on the Nith, has consider
able trade and manufactures, with 11,600
inhabitants ; St. Andrews, once a large
town, but now reduced to an inconsider
able place, contains a celebrated univer
sity ; Kilmarnock, a flourishing and in
creasing manufacturing town in Ayrshire,
has 19,000 inhabitants ; Lanerk contains
extensive cotton mills ; Dumbarton is
celebrated for its castle. Lerwick, the
capital of the Shetland Isles, and Kirk
wall, capital of the Orkneys, have each
about 3,000 inhabitants.
The name of Gretna Green must be
well known to every reader of romances.
Gretna Green
SCOTLAND. 573
It is a little village on the English border, where, for a hundred years, fugitive lovers have
been accustomed to resort from England to avail themselves of the ready convenience, of a
Scotch marriage. In this country, it is only required of a couple to declare their wish
before a justice of the peace, or other competent witness, and the marriage is legally effected.
Sixty or seventy pair of runaways are usually married every year at Gretna Green. An
old blacksmith was, for a long time, the priest of Hymen at this noted spot.
4. Agriculture. The articles cultivated are generally the same as in England. Oats are
the principal crop, except in the most fertile districts. Potatoes are cultivated somewhat ex
tensively, and in some places hemp.
5. Commerce. Both the commerce and manufactures of Scotland have grown into im
portance since the union with England. Commerce has flourished chiefly since the middle of
the last century. Greenock and Aberdeen are the most important commercial places. The
shipping of Scotland amounts to 300,000 tons, or about one fourth less than that of the State
of Massachusetts ; annual value of imports, 24,000,000 ; of exports, 28,000,000.
6. Manufactures. These consist of cotton, woolen, linen, iron, hats, paper, sailcloth, pot
tery, and small quantities of most of the articles made in England. The localities of many of
these establishments have already been designated. At Carron, in the southern part of the
kingdom, are the most important iron founderies in Great Britain. They employ 2,000 work
men, and cast above 4,000 cannon annually. The total value of the yearly manufactures of
Scotland is estimated at 70,000,000 dollars, employing 300,000 persons.
7. Fisheries. The whale and herring fisheries are considerable sources of wealth. The
whale ships are principally employed in the Northern Seas. The gathering of kelp on the
shores of the Western Islands once employed 120,000 persons ; but the business has now de
clined in consequence of the substitution of a cheaper alkali in manufactures. The number of
herring taken on the coast is immense ; the fishermen go in small craft, called Busses.
8. Inhabitants. There are, in Scotland, but few residents except the natives ; though
these differ much in the lowlands and highlands. The Scotch are more bony and lean than the
English, and corpulence is rare. They have generally hard faces, and high cheek bones, and
their countenances have a hardy and sometimes a weather-beaten appearance. The classes are
substantially the same as in England, though, as there is much less wealth, there is less dis
tinction between the rich and the poor.
The Scotch fishwomen, or fishwives, as they are called, are worthy of notice, forming a
distinct and separate race, who associate almost solely with one another ; and whose features,
dress, habits, and occupations are different from those of all the lower classes in Scotland.
They are of Norse extraction ; and although their language is broad Scotch, it is distinguished
by a peculiar slang, understood only by themselves. They reside entirely at Newhaven.
When their husbands return from a fishing expedition, it is" their office to be in readiness to
mend and dry the nets, and to carry the fish up to the Edinburgh market in baskets, called
Creels. They also cry the fish through the streets, carrying the creels upon their backs, and
by these means collect a considerable quantity of money, which they usually spend in dress.
Their love of finery, and of bright, sbowy colors, is excessive. Their dress is a tri-cornered
handkerchief, of a bright color, pinned round the head in a very becoming manner ; short, red,
woolen petticoats, and checked aprons. There are several shops in the old town of Edin
burgh, chiefly resorted to by these women, where they buy prints of the most extravagant and
showy pattern, to wear on Sundays. They are, when young, remarkable for the brightness of
their complexion, fine eyes, and white teeth, and even for grace and regularity of features ; but
hard work and intemperance render them prematurely old. They are an immoral race, pro
verbial for their love of profanity, cheating, drinking, and fighting. When George the Fourth
visited Edinburgh, the first persons who congratulated him upon his arrival were a band of
Newhaven fishwives, who rowed out in boats to the side of , the royal yacht, attired in all their
finery, and saluted the royal ears with three cheers, more remarkable for noise than harmony.
9. Dress. The dress of the higher and middling classes, in Scotland, is in every respect
similar to that of persons of the same rank in England, with perhaps this difference ; that as
London takes the lead in all matters of taste, the Scotch may be a few days or weeks behind
their English neighbors with respect to the last fashionable novelties. The dress of the low
land peasants is also pretty similar to that of the lower classes among the English, although the
costume of the women in Scotland seems to retain a more marked and distinctive character.
It consists of a white mob cap, a short gown, made of coarse print, and a coarse, woolen pet-
574
SCOTLAND.
Scotch.
ticoat, either dark blue or red. The sleeves are usually tucked up above the elbow. Some
times 'they have coarse shoes and stockings, but not unfrequently bare feet. On Sundays, they
wear bonnets and gowns in imitation of their betters. Although the lowland dress is now
adopted in most parts of the highlands, there are still many parts of Scotland, in the neighbor
hood of the Lochs, in the west of Argyleshire, &c, where the ancient costume is preserved,
though loose tartan trowsers, called trews, are usually substituted for the kilt. The dress of a
Scotch shepherd is a jacket and trews of coarse, gray tartan, a gray tartan plaid, and a flat
highland bonnet. In the Western Islands,
where the inhabitants have necessarily less com
munication with the lowlanders than the high-
landers on the main land, the dress is somewhat
different. The men wear the highland bonnet,
blue jacket, and trowsers, usually manufactured
in the island, sometimes composed of tartan, and
at other times of a coarse woolen stuff; the
women wear a piece of tartan over their heads,
something in the form of a veil ; a piece of tartan
round their necks, fastened with a large broach
of tarnished silver, in the form of a heart : an
ornament which is carefully handed down from
one generation to another ; extremely short,
woolen petticoats, with jackets of the same, the
sleeves of which are tucked up above the elbow, for convenience in Working ; all the drudgery
being performed by the women, while the men lie at ease, chewing tobacco.
The true Highland costume consists of a tartan jacket, a kilt, which is a short petticoat of
tartan, plaited all round, and descending within two inches of the knee. Tartan hose are
stockings coming near the knees, and gartered with red, worsted riband. A Highlander has a
peculiar pride in the manner of tying this garter, which, it is supposed, no Lowlander can succeed
in doing perfectly. Large, silver buckles are worn in the shoes. In the dress of a gentlemaa,
the bonnet is of tartan velvet, with a diced border ; the common Highlander's is of tartan
worsted. This is surmounted by a large, black plume, fastened with a cairngorm. A chief
tain wears, instead of this plume, a long eagle's feather, which no other has a right to adopt.
Round the waist is a leathern belt, to which is attached the sporran, a purse made of long,
white goat's hair, intended for holding tobacco. In the belt, is also stuck a pair of pistols, a
snuff-mill, and a dirk. If the wearer is a person of distinction, the handle of the dirk is highly
studden with jewels. A scarf or plaid is wrapped around the waist, and thrown over the
shoulder, where it is frequently fastened with a large cairngorm or Scotch pebble. The dress
of a Highland Regiment is similar, except that the jackets are red, instead of tartan ; the caps
are considerably higher, and the black plume larger, and there are no ornaments of jewelry.
Gentlemen who have property in the Highlands are generally extremely fond of adopting the
native costume, upon any occasion which may warrant a similar exhibition ; such as a public
assembly, a fancy or Caledonian ball at Almacks, or a dinner given by tbe Highland Society,
whether in Edinburgh or London. Young exquisites, who have probably never visited their
barren estates, may be seen walking down Bond street, followed by a gigantic Highland piper
in full costume, who seems to look upon the passing multitude with an eye of sovereign con
tempt. If the laird gives a dinner to a party of fashionable guests, the piper marches up and
down before the windows or through the apartment, blowing with all his might ; the drone of
the bagpipe effectually drowning the hum of conversation.
r i!°u La^Suage- The language used in the Lowlands is somewhat different from the Eng
lish, but though a stranger is puzzled at the pronunciation, the natives understand whatever is
spoken in English. A knowledge of this dialect has been spread wherever English is known,
by the novels of Scott and Gait, and the poems of Burns. In the highlands and Hebrides,
the general language is the Erse or Gaelic ; and little English is known except by the higher
classes. Ihe Gaelic is used by more than 300,000 people. In the Orkney and Shetland
Isles the English is universal.
11. Manner of Building. The private dwellings in Scotland are less elegant and commo-
d.ous .I.:.., ... I ...gland. In the ancient towns, which have a dismal appearance, the houses are
in some, the entrance is in the
_ — 0 „. „.,„ utl„IV,MI, lvJ,vUb) wu.cn nave a
generally ol stone, and many have the ends to the street ;
SCOTLAND. 575
second story, by means of exterior stairs, and the descent to the ground floor is within. The
cottages are many of them mere hovels, in which there is little comfort, and no attempt at
neatness. These are thatched, and the smoke is conducted out through a barrel placed in the
thatch. At the front door is the dunghill, which is often the favorite station for the children.
In the Highlands, which term includes all places where the Erse language is used, they are
more miserable still ; there is no chimney, and the smoke of the peat fires is left to escape by
a hole in the roof, which is not over the fire, lest the rain should extinguish it. The smoke is
allowed to circulate through the building, and the whole interior is glistening with soot. Some
have no other door than a blanket or hide. There is often but one small window, and this is
frequently without glass.
12. Food and Drink. In these, the Scotch differ considerably from the English. Potatoes
are universal, and oatmeal is generally made into a coarse, but favorite cake, which is consid
ered so national, that Scotland is sometimes called the Land of Cakes. It is preferred to the
bread of maize, which has been imported in seasons of scarcity. It is made, also, into a por
ridge of a consistency rather less than that of mush or hasty-pudding. The haggis is a dish
peculiar to Scotland, where it is much esteemed, though it seldom has the favor of strangers.
It is made of the entrails of a sheep chopped small, with herbs, onions, suet, and spices ; it is
enclosed in the maw, boiled, and brought upon the table in tije envelope. A sheep's head
singed is another peculiar dish ; it is not skinned, but the wool is burnt off with a hot iron.
Kail is more consumed than any vegetable of a similar kind. In Scotland, as in England,
there is less profusion of food than in the United States.
Whisky, in the Erse language, signifies water, and, in the Highlands, it is almost used as
such. It is generally distilled from barley ; and no man there is so abstemious as to omit a
morning dram, which is called a stalk. The consumption of whisky is very great ; and this
spirit is perhaps the least deleterious of all the forms of alcohol, and less hurtful in the humid
climate of the Highlands, . than elsewhere. It is drank in large quantities, yet there is
not a great proportion of the intemperate in Scotland. Even in Edinburgh and Glasgow, raw
whisky and punch are found at dinner parties ; and the ladies, as well as gentlemen, some
times partake moderately of each. This, however, is less common than formerly ; amoii
the refined classes, there is little departure from the customs of England.
13. Diseases. These are such as are common to a cold and humid climate, as pulmonary
complaints and rheumatism. Scotland is, however, in the main salubrious, and the people are
hardy and exempt from disease.
14. Modes of Traveling. The roads in Scotland are excellent, and some of those made
over the mountains, designed to render intercourse with the Highlands more frequent, and thus
gradually remove the barbarism of the people, are monuments of labor and art. The coaches
and steamboats in the southern parts are good ; but the steamboats are, in no part of Great
Britain, so commodious and elegant as in the United States. The inns are of a lower grade
than those of England ; and in the Highlands there are few of any kind, and what there are,
are mere alehouses, little better in accommodations than the common huts. In some of them
there are no beds, and the beds that are found are not the exclusive privilege of one traveler.
Johnson relates, that as he was stepping into one of these, there started up from it " a High
lander, black as a Cyclops from the forge." Among the Highlands, and under this term we
include the Hebrides, there is no traveling but in boats and on horseback. The traveler
mounts one of the small ponies, and a Highlander runs by his side as an attendant. It is to be
remarked, that in Scotland the " real and nominal distances rarely agree," and when a traveler
asks the distance of one place from another, he seldom receives any very definite information.
15. Character, Manners, &c. The Scotch are adventurous, yet cautious ; they have much
shrewdness, though they practise little cunning or deceit. They are persevering, thrifty, in
telligent, and moral. They are grave and sedate, and the Highlanders so much so, that they
seem almost melancholy. The wild solitude in which they live contribute to this. The
Scotch are much attached to their country, and are always reluctant emigrants ; in foreign coun
tries they are distinguished for their attachment to each other. They are the most loyal subjects
of the crown, though they-have heretofore been often in rebellion. They have, in a great de
gree, the principle of fidelity ; and a Highlander, like an Arab, knows not how to betray.
When Charles Edward was wandering about the Highlands, and a price of £30,000 was set
upon his head, his retreats were known to numbers, and he was sheltered for awhile by two com
mon thieves, one of whom was afterwards hanged for stealing a cow of the value of 30 shillings.
576
SCOTLAND.
Before he was executed, he took off his bonnet, and thanked God, that he had never be
trayed confidence, never plundered the poor, and never refused to share his bread with the
needy and the stranger.
The Highlanders are even now much attached to the persons of their chief, though the
time is past when they would avenge his quarrel without examining its merits. The Scotch
are very hospitable, and in this the traveler sees a favorable difference between Scotland and
England. They are also very social, and their suppers are delightful meetings'. They are
held at about nine, and the company separate before twelve. These meetings have little form
ality, but great freedom and cheerfulness. When they separate, they join hands and sing some
little song of adieu. The dinners are more formal ; wines are circulated freely, and when the
cloth is removed, the lady of the house asks the individual guests, without circumlocution,
" will you take a dram? " This consists of whisky, and is taken unmixed ; even the women
drink. Suppers, as well as dinners, are closed with hot toddy. All this must be understood,
however, as now applicable to fewer families than in former days. Though Edinburgh has
ceased to be the seat of a court as in former days, yet its society possesses a peculiar and
somewhat national' character. It is the focus of learning and letters , many of the nobility re
side in the town and immediate vicinity, and though Holyrood* is deserted, or but the transient
* During the visit of the late king, George the Fourth,
to Edinburgh, he held what is called a " Drawing-Room "
at Holyrood House, the following sketch of which has
been furnished us by an individual who was present.
The description of the dresses and etiquette is equally
applicable to the drawing-rooms held at St. James's, and
affords a vivid picture of what may be regarded as the
highest occasion of mere court ceremony in Europe.
Holyrood, which for a long period of years had seen her
self deserted by her sovereigns, was now about to be en
livened by the royal presence. His Majesty had made
known his intention of holding a drawing-room, and a
general note of preparation was sounded throughout the
kingdom. All the taste of the Scottish upholsterers was
submitted to the judgment of the Edinburgh dignitaries,
and various consultations were held as to the most appro
priate method of rendering the apartments fit for his Ma
jesty's reception. The ducal chambers were at length
fitted up with a temporary, but befitting magnificence.
The large hall, which was allotted for the presence-cham
ber, was decked in all the splendor of gold and crimson
drapery. A throne and canopy of crimson velvet and
fold, was erected at the upper end of the apartment.
'he road between Dalkeith and Holyrood was covered
with couriers and messengers whose important faces of
consultation and deliberation showed their fears, lest any
breach of etiquette should offend the criticizing eye of the
most polished sovereign in Europe. But while the Lord
-Provost, with the bailies and magistrates laid their heads
together to commune upon these weighty matters, a fairer
portion of the community were engaged in deliberations
of another description. All that Scotland had of beauty
or fashion, of rank or wealth, had congregated to the me
tropolis on the occasion of the King's visit. The peer
left his hall, and the peasant his cottage, to welcome their
sovereign to the land of his forefathers. Every hotel,
every lodging, every corner of every house was crowded
to excess. The difficulty of obtaining any mode of con
veyance became so great, that various fashionable and
distinguished characters had made their entry in carts
and wagons.
A drawing-room, however common in London, even
there excites a sensation ; and on no occasion is greater
rivalry displayed whether of dress or equipage. Loyalty
and vanity go hand in hand ; the former serving as an
excuse for the latter. But in Edinburgh, where no court
has resided for centuries, the feeling was totally different.
Even among those to whom the charm of novelty was
worn off, the idea of a court in Holyrood conjured up a
thousand romantic feelings. Around that ancient palace
is thrown a spell which time can never dissolve. Sur
rounded as it is by mean and uninteresting buildings,
who can forget, that these grass-grown entries have echo
ed to the tread of Scotland's proudest chivalry ? that by
that gate, Scotland's fair Queen has rode forth with hawk
and hound and hunting-horn, surrounded by her gallant
train ? The walls still seem to ring to the silver tones
of her voice, and the blood-stained-floor yet gives evi
dence of the fierceness of those tumultuous spirits who
darkened her youthful days. A king of the Hanoverian
line was now about to tread the halls of the Stuarts, and
Highlander and Lowlander, forgetful of all ancient feuds,
alike prepared to do him homage. Old peeresses, who
since the days of hoops and of Queen Charlotte, had
resided in their mouldering family mansions, now began
to pull out their faded court finery, and to sigh over the
manifest necessity of procuring new dresses. Their fam
ily coronets looked antique and lustreless. The change
was in the brows that bore them. Young peeresses, who
had not yet been presented at court, rejoiced in the pros
pect of displaying their new coronetted carriages, and
new set jewels, and all the elegance of white and silver,
which a bride must of necessity wear, when she first
comes into the presence of her sovereign. Nearly every
lady in the kingdom, whose family or fortune could in
any way entitle her to appear at court, felt a flutter of
expectation, either as to her personal appearance, or suit
able deportment, in a situation which was entirely new
to her. Some there were, indeed, to whom there was
little novelty in the prospect. Young ladies who had
passed the ordeal of a London spring; or antiquated dow
agers who had carried their rouge and their diamonds
through twenty or thirty successive London seasons.
Yet, generally speaking, the occasion was one of unusual
interest and excitement. The important matter of choos
ing a train of a becoming color caused many a sleepless
night. Velvets and satins, feathers and finery of every
description, floated in bright disorder before their vision
both mentally and bodily. The tradesmen disposed of
their goods as if by magic. The milliners' rooms were
thronged from morning till night with a fair bevy of eager
and anxious faces. The dancing-masters gave private
lessons in the most approved mode of performing acourt-
curtesy ; and then came the important question of how
the train was to be managed. Ladies who had been at
court instructed their daughters how to hold the long
drapery under one arm until they came to the door of the
presentation-room, how then to let it fall with grace, and
majestically sweep the dust off the palace floors. Day
and night the milliners labored incessantly, yet unable to
meet the increasing demands which were made upon
their nimble fingers. Of the milliners' girls, some grew
pale, and others grew sick, and some died ; the shears of
fate snapping the thread of their life, while their scissors
were yet in the unfinished gown.
An African would have thought, that an universal
ostrich hunt had taken place in some neighboring desert,
or that a tribute of white plumes had been exacted from
some monarch of Lybia. It was decreed, that no lady
should wear more than 25 ostrich feathers in her hair «t
SCOTLAND.
577
residence of a fugitive prince, there is much elegance, taste, and refinement in the town. In
the London circles, he who has the highest title has the greatest consideration. In Edinburgh,
the society of Scott, Jeffrey, and Wilson is more esteemed than that of mere dukes and mar-
quisses.
once ; and, that no one could appear with less than 12.
It is said to have been a remark of his majesty, that since
his accession to the throne, he had not seen so many un-
soiled dresses, unrouged faces, and white white plumes,
as were displayed in his Scottish drawing-room.
The eventful morning arrived ; and we will venture to
say, that a more sleepless night than that which preceded
it was seldom passed by the inhabitants of a great city.
The provost anrTthe baillies rubbed their hands with an
important air, looked at each other's solemn faces, and
hoped that all would go off well. By G in the morning,
there was a universal stir, although the drawing-room
was not to take place till 11. It would be difficult to
compute with any degree of certainty how many eyes
were at the same moment fixed upon the mirror. The
gentlemen had one advantage over the ladies. They had
already kissed hands at the levee ; on which occasion an
amusing mistake was made by a deputation of Edinburgh
lawyers, who being desired to kiss hands, instead of kneel
ing to salute the royal fingers, kissed their own familiarly
and passed on. The hair-dressers might have had the
hundred arms of Briareus, and yet found them insuffi
cient for the various operations of curling and frizzing
and tastefully arranging jewels and plumes. The court-
dress of a lady consists of a gown of some rich material,
perhaps white satin, embroidered in gold; the train,
which is several yards in length, is composed of velvet,
silk, or satin, either white or colored, and embroidered to
suit the dress. The sleeves are short, with lace ruffles.
Lappets of Brussels lace are fastened to the top of the
head, and depend as low as the waist. The head-dress is
a lofty plume of ostrich feathers, usually mingled with
aigrettes of diamonds, and other rich ornaments, such as
necklaces, earrings, bracelets, belts, and stomachers of
diamonds are worn in the greatest profusion. The gen
tleman's court-dress is infinitely less graceful and becom
ing. A coat, cut in a peculiar antique fashion, usually
composed of claret-colored cloth, and embroidered at the
pockets, collar, and wristbands ; point lace ruffles ; an
embroidered waistcoat; white silk stockings, and knee-
breeches of white casimir ; shoes with silver or diamond
buckles ; a long sword, and a chapeau de bras, form a
costume which may be suited to an elderly and courtly-
looking person, giving him the air of a Sir Charles Grand
ison, but which is very apt to bestow upon a young gen
tleman the appearance of having stepped into a suit of his
grandfather's clothes. By 10 o'clock the streets were
covered with carriages hastening towards Holyrood.
Probably at no period had such a scene of varied magnifi
cence been displayed in Edinburgh. Bodies of cavalry
and infantry ; the Lancers, with their gay scarlet uni
forms ; the Scotch Greys, with their heavy helmets and
handsome horses ; the Highland regiments in blue bon
net and philabeg ; the Royal Archers in their suits of
Lincoln green ; the Earl-mareschal with his pages in
black velvet and silver; these, together with the tasteful
and splendid equipages, the innumerable foot passengers,
the windows and balconies crowded with heads, all com
bined to form a prospect which almost fatigued the eye
by its variety and magnificence.
Both the court-yard of the palace, and the streets in its
vicinity were covered with an endless file of chariots and
coaches ; from the windows of which innumerable plum
ed heads were bending, and eyes anxiously watching the
moment when their turn to enter was likely to arrive. It
came at last ; and through long files of guards, and pages,
and ushers, bespeaking all the mingled bustle and eti
quette of a royal mansion, the company passed on to the
gallery allotted for their reception. And again old Holy-
rood echoed to the tread of light and joyous footsteps. And
again bright eyes, and sparkling jewels lit up her desolate
chambers. And her moss-grown court-yard rang to the
tramp of the war-horse, and the neighing of the proud
73
steed was mingled with the loud notes of martial music.
Forests of white plumes were waving through the ancient
galleries. To a fanciful mind, it seemed like the invasion
of a sanctuary, and like treading upon the ashes of the
dead. All eyes were anxiously turned towards the win
dows which commanded a view of the Dalkeith road, by
which the royal carriage was expected to arrive. Now
was the moment of expectation. Some grew pale ; and
some grew red ; some talked of their fears ; and some
bravely tried to laugh them off. Various officers of the
household, ushers, and pages, passed and re-passed through
the apartments, re-assuring the ladies, and observing, in a
consequential whisper, that his majesty would speedily ar
rive. The approach of a carriage and six, occasioned a
general rush to the windows, and as general an expression
of disappointment. It was the equipage of the first Lord
of the Bedchamber, the Earl of F. ; and was, perhaps, one
of the most remarkable specimens of an outre taste, exhib
ited during his majesty's visit. The carriage itself was
green, covered with gilding, the F e arms emblazon
ed on the panels. It was drawn by 6 grey horses, with
their postilions dressed in tartan. A fat English coach
man looked uneasy upon his box, in the novel acquisition
of a kilt. Beside him, sat a foreign chasseur, with a plum
ed cap. Two footmen, in kills, stood behind the carriage.
Four out-riders, in tartan trews, galloped beside il. Four
runners, in tartan kilts, exerted all the speed of their long
Highland legs, to keep up with the prancing greys. The
Earl himself in full Highland costume, with kilt, dirk,
and bonnet, completed the incongruous appearance of the
whole. At last, the royal carriages were seen approaching
at full speed ; the King in a crimson colored coach, drawn
by six white horses, the Dukes of M e and A e
on either side of him, and the Lords of the Bedchamber
in separate carriages, with the royal liveries. In a few
minutes, the doors of the gallery were thrown open, and Sir
Hussey Vivian, a tall and fine-looking person, in a com
plete dress of black sable, and holding a white staff in his
hand, announced, that his majesty requested the honor of
the ladies' company in the presence-chamber.
Now came the rustling of trains, and the movement of
plumes ; and for once, even ladies of rank were disposed
to yield precedence to each other. The company passed
along through two files of guards, stationed in the ante
chamber. The utmost silence prevailed, broken only by
a few anxious whispers, either of inquiry or information.
Among the first who entered the presence-chamber, was
the young and lovely Countess of G y, attired in
all her bridal splendor, yet pale and shrinking, like a white
rose half concealed in its silver leaves.
At the door of the royal apartment, the lady relinquishes
the arm of the gentleman who escorts her, gives her card
to an usher of the white rod, stationed for the purpose of
receiving it, pulls off her left glove, and lets down her
train. Her name is then called out by the usher, together
with that of the Lady, under whose auspices she is pre
sented. " Miss or Mrs , by the Countess of ."
She then proceeds up the room, and it must be confessed,
that she requires some courage to advance alone, through
a large apartment, with the eyes of the King and his suite
fixed upon her. His majesty stands in full dress, surround
ed by the officers of his household, and by several ladies of
rank, who have the privilege of the entree. Having ad
vanced up to the King, the lady gives another card to the
Lord in waiting, who stands benind him. Her name is
again read out, upon which his majesty comes forward,
takes her hand, salutes her on the left cheek, says a few
words to her, either of compliment or inquiry, and makes
a low bow; a sign that the conference is ended. The lady
curtseys very low, and retires backward towards the door.
As this operation is somewhat difficult to perform with a
long train, the ushers of the white rod are in attendance to
beat it back, and rescue the wearer from the inevitable
578 SCOTLAND.
The Scotch are obliged to be frugal, yet they are not without charity. It is said, that in
England, there is more public spirit, and in Scotland more individual charity. There are no
legal provisions for the poor, and except in the large towns, no hospitals or almshouses, yet
charity affords a sufficient relief. The beggars are neither importunate nor clamorous ; for a
Scotchman solicits charity with the dignity of a Castilian. Orphans are often distributed and
brought up in families. There are some points of resemblance in the character of the Scotch
and that of the people of New England. If the Scotch are not cheerful, they are even-tem
pered, and at times they are given to merriment. At Edinburgh, on the last night of the year,
it is the custom to sup abroad : at 12 o'clock, on the striking of the bells, -the people sally forth
in such numbers, that all seem to be abroad. It is a night of revelry. The watchmen retire
from their rounds, and any lady, who is abroad by accident, or design, is liable to be saluted,
and the severity of the custom is seldom relaxed in favor of any rank.
The domestic comforts of the Scotch are increasing by communication with the English,
though many of the Highlanders are still in a condition hardly superior to barbarism. The
useful arts are comparatively little known, and a traveler may see a horse drawing home the
harvest in a crate, with a stick under his tail for a crupper, held at each side by a twist of straw.
It is, perhaps, peculiar to a part of Scotland, " to have attained the liberal, without the manual
arts." Families of refinement and education, and not without means, have lately lived in the
Highlands with fewer conveniences than an English cottager, and with no floor in their houses,
but the damp earth. . In these houses, however, the stranger would be received with true hos
pitality, and the proprietors are, in the strictest signification of the word, gentlemen. All the
relatives of a chief are his equals, or, according to the Spanish proverb, " as good gentlemen
as the king, only not so rich." Boswell relates, that when he was at Inverara, the Duke of
Argyle asked one of his remote cousins, of the name of Campbell, and of course gentle, to
bring something from the next room, which he did readily, though he whistled, as if to show
the visiters that he was no menial, but was willing to oblige Macallumore. The country gen
tlemen are often called by the name of their estates. It is not needful to commend the Scotch
character to the people of the United States, where they are excellent citizens, and the most
desirable class of emigrants. Many of them have settled in Canada, and they appear to be fond
of associating in such a manner as to form communities of their own.
The natives of the Hebrides are a hardy race, remarkable for their strong attachment to their
native islands, and for retaining in their character much of that ancient Highland pride, and feudal
fidelity, the traces of which are growing fainter, and less marked, every successive generation.
Nothing can be more singular to the eye of a stranger, than the first view of a village in the
Hebrides. At a distance, a large volume of black smoke is seen slowly ascending, apparently
tumble, which would be the consequence of her becoming lord in waiting for the king. It was said that his lordship
entangled in it. Finally, they gather it up, and put it into usurped the royal privilege, and then informed her of her
her hand at the door. mistake. A very fat personage, whether from excess of
The gentlemen merely pass with a bow, unless the King, awe, or from having stumbled over some unknown oh-
being acquainted with them, detains them a few moments stacle, no sooner came up to the king, than she fell upon
in conversation. On the present occasion, his majesty her knees before him. It was too much, even for courtlj
wore a field marshal's uniform, a dark blue coat and dia- etiquette. The suite bit their rods, and tittered. The king
mond star, with a broad green ribbon. The Earl of applied his handkerchief to his face. The unfortunate
, who stood behind him, reminded him as the ladies little woman remained in the same position, her face grad-
entered, that such a one had formerly been a celebrated ually assuming a darker hue of purple, until some humane
beauty, and had appeared at the late Queen's drawing- person, blessed with a strong pair of arms, placed her upon
rooms ; that such another was the widow of a celebrated her feet ; whereupon she made a hasty retreat. " Mrs.
general or admiral The king's memory, and the king's B ," said his majesty, casting a sad glance on an old
politeness, were, therefore, equal themes of admiration, beauty with a frizzled wig, false teeth, and corked eye-
Upon the whole the lad.es looked fresher, and more able brows, " I cannot help remarking, that we are neither of
to bear the light of the sun, than in a similar assemblage us so young as we have been."
?L ™^eB v M°Dge' W^'fl I 'J,'? bil?k dU9t by A few Privileged persons remained in the presentation
£aTZ g g k 7k v v,7 JC^.fi,"ed t0 °ld and shriv- room during the ceremony, but the generality returned to
twJ™Z hlA^W^ -o, h"le °co™°n J" use the the other apartments, andmuch amusement was excited
white pocket handkerchief, with which he sometimes finds among the guard of archers in the ante-rooms, at the ap-
vZ Z2 l° rUb °ff tht T,^ adhfes to his lips, prehensive faces of those who went in, and the relieved
u^ualltturJd VuZZ kwhard,,bh'ndCTB(; but his majesty air of those who came out. One of he most striking
TS Z -„«.? broad shoulders on the offender, and looking persons was the Duchess of A., in a complete
affected to perceive nothing that was disagreeable. A dress of gold brocade, with a head dress of black plumes
ffieSrir3d^gBhe,nwWrlS1™ J*1,11' r,0d:S,had and diamonds" After rtand.nrforup3softhreePhours,
I°T£ Jr^Lfflir. f \^i j £Und,a1d round 1,ke a his m».iesty having received and dismissed his company,
horse entangled in his bridle nnd finally became literally made a general bow to the assembly and hastily took his
Z Zt™ nWCt t'„ ft n fWh'° ^T WaS "° eeCaJ)f • Just deP«t>»e by an opposite door. One by one ^carriages
^hlna^^ &off,a„yd Hofy rood was, once more^left to silence and
SCOTLAND. 579
out of 'the ground. The traveler approaches a little nearer, and perceives, that it proceeds
from a collection of low mounds, or hillocks of mud, and it is only upon a closer survey, that
he discovers them to be human habitations. These black huts, as they are appropriately named,
consist of 4 low mud walls, with a roof of ill-thatched heather ; the smoke coming out of the
door, which serves as a chimney, or not unfrequently the people going in at the chimney, which
serves as a door. Within this miserable dwelling, the whole establishment, consisting of men,
women, and children, 7 or 8 lank-looking Highland ponies, called shelties, and half a dozen
starving cattle, are usually assembled promiscuously round a peat fire, in the middle of the
room ; a few rude wooden benches, and one or two chaff beds, in niches, with coarse blankets,
manufactured by the people, form the articles of furniture. The whole is enveloped in a cloudy
atmosphere of smoke, with an overpowering smell of peat, tobacco, and whisky.
The better tenantry are contented with the luxury of a separate chimney and door ; and the
addition of an outhouse for the cattle and ponies. Individuals, worth 4 or 5,000 dollars, are
often perfectly satisfied with a similar habitation. When they are obliged by order of the propri
etor to leave their huts, they carry most of the rude materials along with them, for the con
struction of others upon the same plan. Till within late years, they had no gardens attached
to these dwellings. A few cabbages and onions are now cultivated in a spot of ground near
each hut ; but this being considered an innovation, was introduced with difficulty ; and a stand
was made against it by all enemies to reform. Carts are unknown ; a crooked spade with a
long handle, serves instead of a plough. A laboring man will work for a whole day with no
other food than a few handfuls of oatmeal moistened with cold water. Their principal food
consists of cakes made of barley or oatmeal, dry and burnt, with a strong smell of peat smoke ;
salt herrings, when they can be procured, and miserable potatoes. They also eat a species of
sea-weed, called dulse-and-tangle, either raw or boiled, and prepared like spinach. In years
of scarcity, whole families have subsisted upon sea-weed and small shell-fish, such as cockles,
buckies, and periwinkles.
The chief source of profit to the West Highland proprietors, is in the manufacture of kelp,
which is used in making soap, glass, &c. The kelp is made from sea-weed, which grows on
the rocks, and produces a regular crop, cut down every second year with sickles, in the same
manner as corn. It is collected when the rocks are uncovered at low tide, and carried out in
boat-loads to the nearest island. It is then left to dry in the sun, and afterwards burnt. On a
dark night, the numerous kelp-fires produce a singular effect. On these occasions, all the vil
lages are deserted, and the inhabitants bivouac in the open air till the kelp harvest is ended.
Vessels are sent from Liverpool to take in the cargoes. A great part of these islands is cov
ered with large tracts of sand which, it is feared, will eventually overspread a great portion of
the arable land. Various attempts have been made to stop the progress of this flying sand,
which frequently blows from one island to another. The only experiment which has in some
measure succeeded, has been in the planting of bent, a species of long grass, with a remark
ably strong root, which not only fixes the sand, but renders it capable of producing rich clover
and excellent pasture for cattle.
Gaelic is still tbe universal language of the Highlands, though English is spoken by those who
are in the habit of visitingthe Lowlands. The religion is Roman Catholic and Presbyterian.
In North and South Uist, and Lewis, the former is "most prevalent. Presbyterianism is more
common in the other islands. The women, with a few exceptions, are almost universally ugly,
owing to hard work and constant exposure to bad weather. The men are better looking, lazy,
and not strong. They are an unprovident race ; careless of the future, and extravagantly fond
of dancing to the bagpipes and singing. Tobacco and whisky are their great luxuries. The
poverty of their food and wretched manner of living, render rheumatic complaints and premature
decay very common ; yet there are various intances of extraordinary longevity among the inhab
itants. They are all good seamen, fearless, and daring ; and where they have been induced
to emigrate, they have been usually remarked for quickness of perception, and a good natural
capacity. But no land, however favored by nature, or adorned by art, appears to the High
lander equal in beauty to his own barren rocks and beathery moors ; and in these Western
Islands, scarcely an instance is known of any individual, however distant his wanderings, who
has not returned to lay his bones in the shadow of his own native hills.
It is a common sport, or rather a frequent employment, at St. Kilda, and other islands, to
gather among the crags the eggs of the sea-fowl, and catch the birds themselves ; compared
580
SCOTLAND.
Bird Catching.
with this, the part of him who "gathers
samphire " on the Dover cliffs is one of
safety and pleasure. In the cavities of the
beetling crags the sea-fowl resort, and the
natives, by means of a rope about theirbody,
overhang precipices nearly one fourth of a
mile in height, merely to look over wliich
would disorder any common nerves. Yet
the adventurer, with a line of many fath
oms, held by several companions above,
descends, and disengaging himself from
the rope, enters cavities in the rock,
higher than the arch of any gothic church. '
This is not without danger ; and many
perish from falling stones, and other casu
alties. It is recorded, that one of these
adventurers discovered that the rope by
which he was suspended was so much
chafed by an edge of the rock, that he
hung by a single strand ; he could not give immediate signals to his comrades, and when he
was drawn up, it was found that the extremity of his terror had been such as to blanch his hair.
From the tops of these dizzy precipices, the mountainous waves breaking below seem like. rip
ples, and the roar can hardly be heard.
16. Amusements. These are chiefly such as are common in England, except hull-baiting,
cock-fighting, and pugilistic combats. Quoits are common, and there is a favorite game of
ball, called golf, which' is often played with great animation on the beach. Tbe field sports are
not neglected, and the streams abound with excellent fish, while the heath and mountains have
much game. Dancing is a general amusement, but except in the cities it displays more agility
than grace.
17. Education. The Universities of Scotland are somewhat different from those of Eng
land. Instruction is communicated by professors, who deliver public lectures, and not by the
private lessons of tutors, as in England There are also many minor points of difference.
There are 4 Universities in Scotland. That of St. Andrews was founded in 1458, and is
composed of 3 colleges with 11 professors. That of Glasgow was founded in 1453, and has
18 professors. That of Aberdeen has 2 colleges, each of which is styled a University; both
have 18 professors. That of Edinburgh was founded in 1581, and has 27 professors; its
medical classes are attended by students from all quarters of the world, and the whole number
usually exceeds 2,000. The High School, and Academy of Edinburgh contain together above
1,000 scholars. Common schools are established by law in every parish, and in many of the
larger towns are charity schools and academies.
In some districts there is more intelligence among the laboring class, than in that of any
other country. In the Highlands it is very different. In 1822, there were 70 in 100 of the
inhabitants of the Hebrides who could not read, and in Argyleshire and the interior of Caith
ness, there were but 30 in the 100, and in Orkney and Zetland 13 in the 100, that could
read. In these districts, above one third of the inhabitants are not within 2 miles of a school,
and many thousands not within five.
The laws provide for one school in every parish, besides which there are numbers of pri
vate schools. The peasantry of the Lowlands have made admirable use of all the advantages
within their reach. Tbey are to a great degree intelligent ; and have more taste and refine
ment than can elsewhere be found in the same class. In Iceland, the common people may be
equally or more learned, but they have infinitely less taste. The popular ballads and songs,
and the sweet music, necessarily circulate much taste, feeling, and poetry. The Scotch have
the advantage of excellent books, adapted to their own dialect, which is read wherever the
English language is known. From one of their cottages has arisen a peasant, one of the most
extraordinary memof his age, who wrote upon things familiar to his countrymen and class, and
whose works are indelibly fixed in their hearts. His fame has gone over the earth, and who
is there in Scotland, that can read, who is not as familiar with the thoughts of Burns, as his
own ; those who cannot read also are familiar with his strains, which are more tender than
SCOTLAND. 581
any inspired by the muse of Tibullus. The novels of Scott are in every cottage, and cannot
but elevate the character of the peasantry. James Hogg was a shepherd, and Wilson, our
ornithologist, was of an humble grade of life. There is among parents a great desire to give
their children a good education ; and often, by great parsimony, one is sent to the university.
Edinburgh is called, and not without reason, the Northern Athens.
18. Arts, Sciences, &c. The useful arts have not until lately been much encouraged ; the
division of labor has not been understood. Most things used in a family have generally been
manufactured in it. In painting, the Scotch have produced few masters. Wilkie, however,
is unrivalled in his scenes of familiar life. Music is a national passion. The bagpipe will
excite a Scotchman, as the fandango animates a Spaniard. It is, however, an imperfect instru
ment, and to be well played must be in the hands of a master. The old national airs which
Burns has " wedded to immortal verse," are known beyond the limits of Scotland. Their
origin is lost, though some of them are supposed to have been composed by Rizzio, and other
Italian masters of that age. Some of them are unrivalled in pathos, and others in liveliness.
Much of the music is of a melancholy cast, and even the convivial songs have a touch of this,
though eminently adapted for convivial purposes.*
19. Religion. This is Presbyterian, and the church government was secured by the
treaty of union. This government is founded on an equality of authority, among the pres
byters, or pastors. There are 903 parishes ; though there are more pastors than parishes.
In matters of discipline, a pastor is aided by ruling elders. The latter watch over morals,
catechize and visit the sick, and manage the funds of the poor, which are chiefly collected at
the church door. The ministers and elders compose a kirk, or church session, the lowest
ecclesiastical court. It inflicts ecclesiastical censures on parishioners convicted of immoral
conduct, &c, though there is an appeal to the presbytery, which is the next higher court.
This is composed of pastors of several contiguous parishes, with a ruling elder from each parr
ish. Synods are composed of several presbyteries, and a ruling elder from each kirk session.
The General Assembly! is the highest council, and is composed of 200 ministers and 89
elders, representing presbyteries, 69 representing royal boroughs, and 5 ministers or elders
* The following remarks on Scottish music by Dr. their circumstances. And so we find in fact that their
Beattie, are beautifully descriptive of Scotland, and hap- music is. The wildest irregularity appears in its compo-
pily illustrate the subject to which they refer. " There is sition ; the expression is warlike and melancholy, and
a certain style of melody peculiar to each musical coun- approaches even to the terrible. Some of the southern
try, which the .people of that country are apt to prefer to provinces of Scotland present a very different prospect.
every other style. That they should prefer their own is Smooth and lovely hills covered with verdure ; clear
not surprising; and that the melody of one people should streams winding through long and beautiful valleys ; trees
differ from that of another is not more surprising, per- produced without culture, here straggling single, and
haps, than that the language of one people should differ there crowding into little groves and bowers, with other
from that of another. But there is something not un- circumstances peculiar to the districts I allude to, render
worthy of notice in the particular expression and style them fit for pasturage, and favorable to romantic leisure and
that characterize the music of one nation or province, and tender passions. Several of the old Scotch songs take
distinguish it from every other sort of music. Of this their names from the rivulets, villages, and hills adjoin-
diversity, Scotland supplies a striking example. The ing the Tweed near Melrose, such as Cowden Knows,
native melody of the Highlands, and Western Isles is as Galawater, Etlrick Banks, Braes of Yarrow, Bush above
different from that of the southern part of the kingdom, as Traquair, &c. All these songs are sweetly and power-
the Frith or Erse language is different from the English fully expressive of love and tenderness, and other emo-
or Scotch. tions suited to the tranquillity of pastoral- life. It is a
"The Highlands of Scotland are a picturesque, but in common opinion, that these songs were composed by Da-
general, a melancholy country: Long tracts of moun- vid Rizzio, a musician from Italy, the unfortunate favorite
tainous desert, covered with daik heath, and often obscur- of a very unfortunate queen. But this must be a mistake ;
ed by misty weather; narrow valleys thinly inhabited, the style of the Scotch music was fixed before his time:
and bounded by precipices, resounding with the fall of for many of the best of these tunes are ascribed by tradi-
torrents ; a soil so rugged, and a climate so dreary, as in tion to a more remote period."
many parts to admit neither the amusements of pasturage, t In the discussions of the Assembly at Edinburgh,
nor the labors of agriculture ; the mournful dashing of there is perhaps more personality, and less decorum than
waves along the friths and lakes that intersect the coun- in the House of Commons, or almost any other body of
try ; the portentous noises, which every change of the the same dignity. The speeches are often vehement
wind, and every increase and diminution of the waters is and not unfrequently angry. Many of the members are
apt to raise in a lonely region, full of rocks, and caverns ; men of great talent, and the eloquence of Chalmers is
the grotesque and ghastly appearance of such a landscape sometimes displayed here to the best advantage. The As
hy the light of the moon ; objects like these diffuse a sembly is opened by the king's commissioner, who is
gloom over tbe fancy, which may be compatible enough usually a nobleman of high rank. He has an elevated
with occasional and social merriment, bnt cannot fail to seat, where he appears every day during the session. But
tincture the thoughts of a-native in the hour of silence he is railed out, and takes no part in the proceedings of
and solitude. the Assembly. When the business of the session is done,
" What would it be reasonable to expect from the fan- he proceeds to close it in the name of his Majesty, the
ciful tribe, from the musicians, and poets of such a region ? Head of the Church, &c. The moderator then rises and
Strains expressive of joy, tranquillity, or the softer pas- says, " In the name of Jesus Christ, the only true head of
sioris i No, their styles must have been better suited to the Church, I declare this Assembly now closed."
582
SCOTLAND.
from universities. The Assembly sits annually at Edinburgh, in May, 10 days. The pastors
are all entitled to a house and glebe land, equal to £40 a year, and to receive from parish
tithes or the exchequer, £ 150 a year ; some have much more, or nearly £ 1,000, though.
the average income is £ 300. In populous parishes there are chapels of ease, where the min
isters are elected by the heads of families, and paid chiefly by the rent of seats. There are
38 missionaries in remote parts of the Highlands, supported by the crown, and the Society
for propagating Christianity has a few. There is, besides, a large and respectable body -of
Dissenters, chiefly Catholics and Episcopalians.
The Scotch are a very pious, as well as moral people ; there are few children of 10 years
who have not by heart the Assembly's Catechism ; and there is generally family worship
twice a day. On Sundays, the roads are thronged with people in their best dresses, going to
church ; and at church, they are remarkable for their close attention to the services; When
George the Fourth visited Edinburgh, he went to church on Sunday. He is said to have re
marked with astonishment as he went through the streets, that tbe people did not follow him,
but that each individual went straight to his accustomed place of worship. The monarch is
said to have expressed great respect for conduct which seemed to display such steadfastness
of principle, while at the same time their loyalty was unquestionable.
20. Funerals. These generally are conducted somewhat as in New England ; though in
the highlands the dead are sometimes buried after the Gaelic manner, with feasting and festivity,
with the coronach or funeral dirge, and with the shrieking of women, as in some eastern coun
tries. The funeral festivity, which is carried to great excess, is called the Lyke-wake. In
Edinburgh, and in most of the towns, there are great processions at funerals, and all the rela
tives of the deceased, including the most remote, are expected to attend. It is said, that every
man keeps a black coat ready for such occasions.
21 . Marriages. These are usually performed by the clergy as in our country, but a justice
of the peace is allowed to perform the ceremony ; even a declaration of the parties before a
competent witness is sufficient to answer the law. The blacksmith at Gretna Green was resorted
to by the English fugitives, as such a witness, only because he happened to be upon the border,
at a point easily accessible.
22. Superstitions. The Scotch had formerly, and even recently, many superstitions, that
were so deeply rooted as to have an influence in common affairs. These are fast disappearing,
though many of them are of a highly poetical character. The Highlanders, in a particular
manner, were liable to this influence, both from their ignorance, and the solitudes in which
they lived. They dwell among the wild and grand scenes of nature, among lakes, mountains,
and waterfalls. Many of the natural phenomena of these were referred to supernatural causes,
and the glens and mountains were peopled, in the Highlander's fancy, with imaginary beings,
who were not always supposed to be benevolent.
The principal of these were the fairies, who were supposed to exchange children with the
people, and to take away some, of great purity of mind, to fairy land. They were called,
when spoken of, " the good people," from a wish to conciliate them. There was, and there
is now much belief among- the rustics in omens and other indications of futurity, and many a
lass goes forth at Halloween with certain ceremonies, to look for the image of her future hus
band. There were several kinds of divination, the most solemn of which was this. A man
slept at night near a waterfall, wrapped in the fresh hide of a bull, and in the morning his an
swers were taken for responses. The " second sight " was the faculty bestowed on a few of
seeing the representation of a future event ; as a death, a funeral, a massacre, or a mere casual
visiter passing before their eyes. It would come upon the seer unawares, as
" Coming events cast their shadows before."
23. Government. Scotland, notwithstanding the accession of James the Sixth to the throne
of England, was nevertheless a separate kingdom for above a century afterwards- In 1707, a
union was effected between the two kingdoms, under the name of Great Britain. The United
Kingdom is represented by one parliament ; and it is settled by the articles of union, that when
Britain raises by a land tax £2,000,000, Scotland shall raise £48,000. The laws relating to
trade, customs, and the excise, are the same in both countries ; but all the other laws of Scot
land remain in force, though alterable by the parliament of Great Britain, yet with this caution :
that laws relating to public policy are alterable at the discretion of the parliament : but laws
SCOTLAND. 583
relating to private right are not to be changed, but for the evident utility of the people of
Scotland. As the municipal laws of Scotland are generally preserved, those of England are
not in force. Acts of parliament extend to Scotland, except when it is declared by express
proviso to be otherwise.
Scotland was formerly but very imperfectly represented in the imperial parliament, and even
at present, the number of her representatives is small, although that of the voters has been ma
terially enlarged by the reform act of 1832. It now has 53 members in the House of Com
mons, who are returned by the inhabitants paying a yearly rent of 10 pounds, or possessing
property yielding that sum. Scotland has also 16 peers in the House of Lords, who are
elected from time to time by the whole body of the Scottish peerage. A few of the ancient offices
peculiar to the country, have been retained since the union, among which may be mentioned
the Lyon king at arms, or Grand Herald of Scotland, formerly an office of great splendor.
The old custom of wappen showing, in which the sheriff of the county mustered the militia, is
also retained, and the officers receive their commissions from the sheriff.
24. Banks. The Bank of Scotland has a capital of a million and a half sterling. No indi
vidual can possess more than £ 40,000 of the stock. The Royal Bank has also stock of a
million and a half. The British Linen Company, and the Commercial Banking Company, are
similar institutions. The capital of the latter is three millions. They all issue notes ; but not
under one pound. There are several private banking institutions, but they do not generally
issue notes. Their transactions are confined to discounting.
25. Laws. These have a similar origin with those of England, and much resemble them.
The jury is composed of 15, and a majority is sufficient for a verdict.
26. Antiquities. The reformation in Scotland was attended with so much violence, that
among the antiquities are many ecclesiastical ruins ; Knox taught his disciples, that the best
way to exterminate the rooks, was to " pull down their nests," and many a noble abbey and
cathedral were destroyed. Some of these buildings remain entire, and of the ruins, Melrose
Abbey is the most visited. There are ancient castles of various forms, and different degrees
of preservation. Some are entire and occupied. There are a few circles of upright stones
as in England, though of less size, and there are circular Danish forts, and some round, narrow
towers, upwards of 100 feet in height. The vitrified forts are curious ; one of them in Ros-
shire is 120 feet in length, and 40 in breadth. It is glazed on the inside, but whether by art
or casual fires is not known. The Roman remains are indistinct. The fortified line, between
the Forth and Clyde, may be barely traced in many places. It is called Agricola's Wall and
Graham's Dyke. Roman highways may be traced as far north as Angusshire, and there are
several camps, though nearly obliterated.
27. History. Little is known of the state of Scotland before the 11th century. At
this time, the country had its king, and was engaged in wars with England. The aggressions
of the English kings were at first repelled, but Edward the First succeeded in bringing the
country into a state of dependence, and placing a creature of his own upon the throne of Scot
land. The celebrated William Wallace roused his countrymen to resistance, and waged a
deadly war against the English, but was betrayed, taken, and beheaded in London. Robert
Bruce consummated the revolt begun by Wallace, and the victory of Bannockburn, in 1314,'
reestablished the independence of Scotland. Notwithstanding this success, the kingdom was
long afterwards the theatre of perpetual turbulence, and the Stuarts, who shortly afterwards came to
the throne, were the most unfortunate monarchs that ever reigned. James the Sixth of Scotland
received the crown of England by legacy, from Queen Elizabeth, who had put his mother, the
celebrated Mary Queen of Scots, to death upon the scaffold. Scotland and England, though
distinct kingdoms, were from this period governed by a single monarch. In 1707, the two
kingdoms were, by legislative acts, united, under, the name of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
584
IRELAND.
CHAPTER LXXIV. IRELAND.
Dublin ; view on the Liffey.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Ireland is an island separated on g^f™£*^J£
George's Channel and tbe Irisl , Sea an Ur , * e nor* ^^^ to &#
wp^u^^ greatest breadth 160. There is not a spot upon it 50 miles from the sea.
30,400 square miles. . . , „,.„., iiv ;n <;bort lines, or detached
2. Mountains. The highest r.dges of this island a.e usually u short ^1 me ,
groups. They are not sufficiently numerous or connec ted tt , gwe J^e character o
tainous country. They are not bold or Prec'P'^' JJ" JheirTJ'edehiKte8t mountain is Gur-
1"^ inte"^ oT^ifland 3,400 feet above
the sea The shores, particularly in the west, are the most mountainous parts
3 Ler. The largest is the Shannon, which flows southwest n.to the Atlant c. 1 «
abo'utm milelin length, runs through several ^s or Lou^ ^ widen^ a^u*
the sea at the northern extremity ; the latter discharges the waters of Lough INeagn
^ll^Th.0 IriTname for lake is Lough. There are large numbers of them in the
island. Lo«gfc Neagh in the northeast is the largest ; it is 15 miles long and * broaa
waters deposit a calcareous sediment ; the shores are tame and uninteresting ^ V *
I little to the west of this, consists of two lakes o.ned by a canal ; the first . 20 m. les »$
ana the second 15; they are comparatively narrow. They contain many elands, and the
Joresare pleasant but not bold; Lough Corrib, on the western coast, is an "«J^J££
water 20 miles in length. The most noted are the three lakes »?. ^J^^.'Sb-
western extremity of the island. They are small, but very beautiful, and will bear
IRELAND.
585
parison with the finest lakes of Scotland and Eng
land. Their banks are high, and covered with
wood ; numbers of verdant islands are scattered
over their surface, and the mountains resound with
the roar of waterfalls.
5. Bays. The western coast is the most deeply
indented. The largest bays are Galway and Done*
gal. On the eastern coast, are the bays of Dub
lin and Dundalk.
6. Climate. The climate is damper than that
of England, but otherwise similar. Westerly winds
Lake ofKillamey. are frequent and violent. Snow is rare in winter,
and passes rapidly away. The fields have a green appearance throughout the year.
7. Soil. A great part of this island is covered with immense bogs, or sterile tracts, pro
ducing nothing but heath-bog myrtle and sedge grass. They form a broad belt across the
centre of the island, widening toward the west. The remainder of the soil is stony, but the
moisture of the climate preserves the herbage, and renders the land excellent for pasturing.
8. Geology. A considerable part of the surface of Ireland, amounting to 3,000,000 acres,
is covered by peat bogs to the depth of from 5 to 30 feet, which conceal many of its
mineral treasures. The island is almost completely surrounded by groups and ranges of
primary and transition mountains, the inland and central counties being comparatively low,
and composed of secondary formations. On the northeast side there is also a small extent of
upper secondary strata, and nearly the whole of Antrim is covered by basaltic rocks. The
older rocks are chiefly mica slates, hornblende slates, and clay slates, with limestone and
grauwacke, but granite porphyry and gneiss occur. Copper, lead, and gold are found in
these districts. The great central secondary district, comprises more than a third part of
the island, and is often called the Great Limestone Valley of Ireland, because limestone is
the prevailing substratum. Coal beds abound in this region.
9. Minerals. Coal is the most abundant mineral. It is found in Kilkenny, in the south.
Marble and slate occur in the same quarter. Iron was formerly produced in many parts, but
at present few or no mines are worked. Copper, silver, and gold have also been found in
small quantities.
10. Face of the Country. The surface of Ireland is almost entirely level. The general
appearance of the country is varied and pleasant, although bare of trees. In some parts, are
rich and fertile plains, and in others, gentle slopes and waving hills.
Ireland was once covered with forests which are now replaced by immense bogs. These
form a remarkable feature, characteristic of the country. They afford abundant supplies of
peat, used by-the inhabitants for fuel. From their depths are also taken quantities of wood in
complete preservation, which indicate, that these bogs are the remains of the ancient forests.
The skins of animals and men that have been swallowed up in them, have been found con
verted into a sort of leather by the tanning matter, which the moisture contains.
mm
mmmmm&M&»
Giant's Causeway. Singular Caverns.
11. Natural Curiosities. The greatest curiosity in Ireland is the Giant's Causeway, an
74
586
IRELAND.
immense mass of basaltic columns upon the northeastern coast. This stupendous work of
nature first strikes the spectator with the impression, that an enormous pier or mole was begun
upon the beach, the foundations laid.and the stones hewn out for building ; but, that the work
was suddenly abandoned. This appearance has given rise to its name ; and there is a tradi
tion among the natives, that the giants once began to build a causeway across the sea of
Scotland, but were stopped in their undertaking by the ancient Irish heroes. The causeway
consists of three piers projecting from the base Of a cliff. The pillars are of a dark color,
and so closely united, that it is difficult to thrust the blade of a knife between them. Each
pillar is a distinct piece of workmanship ; some of them have 9 sides, but the most have 6.
In some places, the causeway rises into cliffs 250 feet above the sea.
In the neighborhood, are two singular caverns, which admit the entrance of boats. The
roofs form almost a regular pointed arch and produce an effect similar to that of a gothic
aisle. Some of these caverns are formed of rounded stones and others of walls of basalt.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. Divisions. Ireland is divided into 4 Provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Con-
naught. These are subdivided into 32 counties.*
2. Canals. The Dublin and Shannon Canal extends from the Liffey at Dublin, across
the island to Moy, on the Shannon, 65 miles, 24 of which are across a marsh. The Royal
Canal extends nearly parallel to this, and is about 10 miles distant from it. The Newry
Canal passes along the southern part of the county of Down, and is used for the transporta
tion of coal. The Ulster Canal is intended to unite Loughs Earn and Leagh, and has but
recently been projected. A ship canal has also been planned between Dublin and Galway.
3. Cities and Towns. Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is delightfully situated at the bottom of
a bay on the eastern coast, about a mile from the shore. It is divided by the little river Liffey
into two equal parts. The city is nearly square, being about 2\ miles in extent. The houses
are generally of brick, and the streets irregu
lar ; but those that run parallel with tbe river,
are, for the mos.t part, uniform and spacious.
In the more modern part, they are from 60 to
90 feet wide. There are several fine squares,
one of which, called Stephen's Green, occu
pies 27 acres, and has a magnificent appear
ance. Sackville- Street is one of the finest in
Europe. No city, in proportion to its size,
has a greater number of elegant buildings. A
vast number of country seats and villages, are
scattered over the country in the neighborhood,
and are displayed in a charming manner by the
slope of the ground down to the bay. The high
lands of Wicklow bound the prospect in the
interior, and render the view in every quarter
delightful. Yet the stranger will not fail to
observe, in Dublin, the most painful marks of indigence and distress. Men, women, and chil
dren, of all ages, are seen in the streets, partially covered with rags, so loosely attached to each
other, as to seem on the point of dropping off. Whole streets are filled with wasted mothers,
bearing in their arms their pallid offspring ; attenuated and gray-haired men, tottering from age
and want ; and others, bearing in their countenances the evidences of hopeless poverty. The
suburbs of Dublin are occupied by the hovels of the poor, which are far inferior in cost and
comfort, to the cow-houses of the United States. Yet there is a quietness and resignation
about these Irish poor, which, to an American, is astonishing. They seem to submit to their
condition, as if it were their just lot, and cheer their misery with wit and merriment, whenever
an opportunity offers.
Dublin.
* Counties of litEf.AND. Province of Ulster. — - An
trim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Lon
donderry, Monaghan, Tyrone.
Province of Connaught. — Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Ros
common, Sligo.
Province of Leinster. — Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kil
kenny, King's County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's
County, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow.
Province of Munster. — Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
Tipperary, Waterford.
IRELAND.
587
Dublin has a considerable trade by sea, and the canals, which extend from this point to dif
ferent parts of the island. The banks of the river are lined with elegant quays, and shipping
of 200 tons may come up to the lower part of the city. Here are large manufactures of linen,
cotton, woolen, and silk. The
monument to Nelson, 130 feet
high, and the obelisk, erected
in honor of the Duke of Wel
lington, 210 feet in height ; the
old parliament house, now
the national bank ; the castle or
residence of the viceroy ; the
vast pile of Trinity college ;
the docks, capable of contain
ing several hundred vessels ;
the enormous piers, which de
fend the harbor from the en
croachments of the sea ; the
custom-house, &c, are among
the most remarkable structures.
The hospitals, and other char
itable institutions, are numerous
and well endowed, and there
are many learned societies.
Dublin contains 24 churches
and chapels of the establish
ment, 26 Roman Catholic
chapels, and 1 5 dissenting meet
ing-houses. In contrast with
all this splendor, the miserable
hovels of the poor present the
most painful scenes of filth,
poverty, and distress, and the
beggars are very numerous.
Population, 263,316.
Cork, the second city of Ire
land, lies upon the Lee, about
14 miles from the sea ; its har
bor, called the Cove, is safe
and capacious, and is strongly
fortified. The city is irregu
larly built, the houses are old
and mean, the streets narrow
and dirty. Its commerce is
extensive, and it exports great
quantities of salted provisions. Population, 107,000. Cork harbor is the principal naval sta
tion for Ireland.
Limerick, a city on the Shannon, about 60 miles from its mouth, has a good harbor, and is
connected, by canals, with Dublin. The surrounding country is remarkable for its fertility.
Limerick carries on an extensive commerce. Population, 66,000. To the southeast of Lim
erick is Cashel, the see of the archbishop of Munster, containing a fine cathedral.
Belfast, in the northeast of Ireland, on a bay of the same name, with a safe and commodious
harbor, is a flourishing place. Its manufactures of linen and cotton, and its situation, in a re
markably populous and highly cultivated district, give it an active trade. The shipping of the
port amounts to 25,000 tons. Population, 53,387. To the southwest of Belfast stands Ar
magh, once a populous city, the seat of learning, and the metropolis of Ireland, now much re
duced. It is at present, however, the see of the archbishop of Ulster, who is primate of all
Ireland, and contains a fine cathedral and the archiepiscopal palace.
Waterford, stands on the Suir, just above its junction with the Barrow. Its harbor is ex-
Nelsoris Pillar, Sachville Street, Dublin.
588 IRELAND.
cellent, and it has one of the handsomest and finest quays in Europe. The city is well built,
and its commerce is extensive and flourishing. Waterford now communicates-with Dublin,
Limerick, and Cork, by railroads and canals. Population, 28,820. In the vicinity is Wex
ford, a trading town, with 11,000 inhabitants.
Galway, on the western coast, is a place of some trade, with 33,120 inhabitants. In the
vicinity, are Tuam, the see of the archbishop of Connaught, and Ballinasloe, noted for its great
cattle fairs, at which 120,000 sheep, and 40,000 cattle, are sometimes collected.
Other principal places are Kilkenny, now reduced from its former importance, with consid
erable woolen manufactures, and 23,740 inhabitants ; Drogheda, a trading town upon the
Boyne, in the neighborhood of which, James the Second was defeated by William the Third,
17,365 inhabitants ; Dundalk, with linen and muslin manufactures, 11,000 inhabitants ; Newry,
Londonderry, and Sligo, places of considerable trade with about 10,000 inhabitants each, and
Valentia, a village on the southwest coast, with a good harbor, remarkable as the most western
in Europe.
4. Manufactures. The linen manufactures have long been the most important branch of
manufacturing industry in Ireland, but for some years have been on the decline. The cotton
manufacture has been more recently introduced, and is rapidly increasing. The distilleries of
Ireland are extensive, and a considerable quantity of whisky is exported. The industry and
resources of the country have been greatly developed during the last twenty years.
5. Agriculture. Agriculture is very backward. The cultivators are generally not proprie
tors of the soil, and studiously avoid any permanent improvement of the land, lest the rent
should be raised. The Irish are idle, and their implements of husbandry very rude. Wheat
is not generally cultivated, and what is raised is often inferior. Barley is now common, but
oats are raised in a tenfold proportion to that of any other grain. The Irish staff of life, how
ever, is another article, which is so extensively cultivated, as to confer upon this island, the
name of the " land of potatoes." This root furnishes to the poor the greatest part of their
sustenance. It is remarkable, that a plant, brought originally from America, and hardly known
in Europe a century ago, should now be so universally cultivated in Ireland, and grow in such
perfection there. Even in the United States, this vegetable is called the Irish potato; this,
however, is to distinguish it from the sweet potato of the south.' The dairy is the best managed
part of Irish husbandry.
6. Commerce. The coasting trade between Great Britain and Ireland is active ; the latter
receiving from the former almost every sort of manufactured articles, coal, &c, and exporting,
in return, potatoes, salted and other provisions, butter, corn, linen, spirits, and fish. The
foreign trade of Ireland is not very extensive, but is on the increase. The shipping amounts
to 100,000 tons.
7. Inhabitants. In the eastern part, the people are chiefly of English descent ; in tbe west,
the originally Celtish race is less mixed, and in the north, there are many people of Scottish
descent. The common classes are strongly marked with the national peculiarity of features,
and by this they are readily recognised in other countries. These classes have little beauty,
for their indigence exposes them to many physical wants and hardships. This observation,
however, will not apply to the class in more easy circumstances. The Irish have clearer
complexions than the Scotch, and they are hardy and strong ; they are rather less in height
than the English ; the orders are the same as in the rest of the United Kingdom.
8. Dress. There is no national form of dress, except that of England, and this is some
what varied. It consists in a coat of frieze, a waistcoat of the same, a shirt of linen, made at
home, and breeches, purchased at the shops, seldom fitting, and never buttoned at the knee.
Some districts are marked by the color of the frieze. A traveler concludes at once, from the
common dress, that he is in a country of extreme poverty. The dress is often but a broken
patchwork of rags, sometimes not entirely hiding the skin ; and children, of neither sex, have
stockings or shoes ; many of these, indeed, go half naked, and some go entirely bare ; shoes
and stockings are, with many adults, but things of ostentation, worn as in Scotland, at church.
On Sunday, few are ill-dressed ; one suit is kept sacred for festivals, at which, there are both
shining faces and goodly apparel. The men wear their hair long and shaggy, though they dress
better than the women. On holidays, the women wear white gowns and colored petticoats,
and have a cloak thrown over the arm. Vast quantities of old clothes are imported from Eng
land, in every grade of shabbiness.
9. Languages. The English is the general language, though not always spoken even by the
IRELAND. 589
intelligent, without some of that well-known intonation, which is called the brogue. In the
south and west, the Erse or Gaelic is so general, that a stranger, who knows only English,
can neither communicate nor understand.
10. Building. The houses, even of the rich, are far less elegant and comfortable than in
England ; they are square and gloomy edifices. The cabins of the poor are as slight protec
tions from the climate as were ever reared in civilized countries. They are without chimneys
or floors, and are made of mud and straw, and covered with sods or heath; many have no
windows, arid few have more than a single pane. The door is often but a straw mat. The
furniture is in keeping with the house, and if there be any besides the crock, it is but a chest,
a bench, a table, and a bed. There is but one room, and this is free, not only to any person
to enter without knocking, but equally open to " the fowl and the brute." The villages often
consist of whole streets of mud cabins. The city of Dublin, the centre of which is hardly
surpassed in Europe, for the beauty and splendor of its edifices, is surrounded by miserable
hovels, inferior in comfort to the wigwam or tent of the western savage.
11. Food and Drink. There is little variety in the food of the greater part of the Irish,
which consists principally of buttermilk and potatoes, though in spring, there is not always a
sufficiency even of these, and the scarcity often rises to a famine. A cow is kept in almost
every cabin, but neither butter, cheese, nor even poultry and eggs, are ever thought of by the
common people as articles of food for themselves ; these go to pay rents, taxes, and tithes,
and the buttermilk only is reserved for the proprietors. Every family has, if no other furni
ture, at least one capacious article, called a crock, or kettle, which is convertible to many uses.
The water is brought home, clothes are washed, potatoes boiled, and the harvest of potatoes
often brought home in the crock. The crock or potato bowl is placed in the middle of the
floor, and the family gather round it, squatting on their hams to eat ; at least, this is the prac
tice where there are no tables or movable seats. The beggar is as welcome as an inmate of
the cabin, and is never turned from the door ; such inhospitality, it would be feared, would
bring a curse upon the cabin. Animal food is seldom tasted, or indeed anything as food but
potatoes, by the mass of the people.
The number of the indigent in Ireland, and the degree of misery to which they are often reduced
for food and other necessaries of life, can hardly be imagined in this country, where famine
never comes, and where pauperism scarcely exists, except what is created by the improvident
emigrants from Europe. Many of the towns in New England are without a single pauper, and
there are but few in the whole United States. But the " Cork Reporter," of a late date, says,
that " in three parishes of that city alone, there have been found no less than 26,000 paupers,
and the whole city is supposed to present an aggregate of 60,000 persons, without the means
of providing for themselves. The number of persons who die of mere starvation in a country
like this, must be considerable.
The Irish are temperate from necessity, as their poverty seldom permits them to have the
dignity of denial. Whisky, however, is a constituent part of festivals, and acting on the ardent
national temperament, leads to quarrels, which are called rows. Many of the hard-earned
gains are expended for whisky, though the consumption of this is on the decrease. Up to
1829, there was a progressive increase in the consumption of spirits in Ireland. In 1830,
there was a decrease, of home made spirits alone, of 210,903 gallons, and in the first half of
1831, a decrease of 721,564 gallons ; while in Scotland, during the same time, the decrease
was 513,687 gallons.
12. Traveling. All that used to be so uncomfortable and ludicrous in Irish posting, has
disappeared, and in the frequented parts, the traveler finds good roads, vehicles, and accom
modations. The inns, indeed, are inferior to those in England, and in the more humble kinds
it is not unusual to see a sign which promises the traveler " dry lodgings," or " entertainment
with beds."
In the remote parts, the traveler must shift as he can, and he must sometimes travel on a
small car with very low wheels. Some of these have but a flat bottom, fastened upon the
axletree. The jaunting car, in which the common people of Dublin take their family excur
sions, is a large cart, that will carry a great many people, who sit on two long seats and ride
sideways. 13. Character, Manners, and Customs. It must be admitted, that the sway of the British
government in Ireland has been of a kind to depress the spirit and debase the character of the
people. It has been thought to be a good measure for the security of the union, to keep the
590 IRELAND.
Irish ignorant and poor, rather than intelligent and prosperous. Disabilities, political, civil, and
ecclesiastical, have been imposed upon them, and it is only of late, that they have been in some
degree emancipated. The country has been divided, and sometimes by the policy of the gov
ernment,, into internal parties, which have committed the most ferocious murders and mas
sacres. These, however, have been the effects of oppression, acting upon a temperament
naturally ardent, rather than the outbreak of a character, in itself cruel and ferocious.
The Irish, then, are ardent, brave, generous, and, to a great degree, faithful to their trusts.
Of this latter trait, many instances have occurred in the course of the various armed and other
political associations in which they have been engaged . They are cheerful, and no people will on
festivals so completely throw off all remembrance of care, to enjoy the passing hour. They
are, however, easily offended and prompt to resentment ; duels are not rare among the gentry,
or less dangerous appeals to force unfrequent among the lower class. The club, under the
name of a shillala, is a general accompaniment at fairs, where it is sometimes put to other uses
than those of a staff. This facility with which the Irish fall into anger, was supposed, by some
writers, to have supplied the name of their country ; Ireland or Land of Ire. Selfishness,
however, hardly enters into their composition, and it is so much an Irishman's impulse to give,
that charity in him is scarcely a virtue. He has indeed little to bestow, but in times of plenty
or famine, and' at all times, the beggar is held to have as good a title to whatever the cabin
contains, as the master himself.
An Irishman has great quickness of apprehension, and it appears in nothing more than in
sudden retorts and repartees. It may almost be affirmed of him, that
" He never said a foolish thing,
And never did a wise one."
The very beggars have a natural eloquence and tact that is irresistible ; and when solicitation
fails, they employ no measured degree of sarcasm or imprecation. They have indeed great
incitement to importunity, for a penny is a provision for a day. Girls and boys will run by the
side of a stagecoach for half a dozen miles, in the hope of a few halfpence from the passengers.
In Scotland, it is rare to find an importunate beggar, or in Ireland one of any other description.
To a stranger, the common Irish are obliging and civil, and in this respect are different
from the same class in England. Nothing can be more rude and insolent than the boys and
men of the lower class in the latter country. In Ireland you can hardly ask a favor within
the power of an individual, that is not cheerfully granted. An Irishman is loquacious and has
sometimes a strange confusion of speech, or a sort of transposition of ideas, known as a bull.
He speaks as he acts, upon the first impulse, and begins to express a thought the moment it
strikes him, and sometimes before he understands what it is. His mind is a mirror, and his
speech discloses all the figures, whether distinct or confused, that pass before it. He gener
ally answers a question, not like a New England man, by asking another, but by repeating it.
When a traveler inquires for post horses, he will get this reply ; " Is it post horses you are
asking for ? we have." The Irish are a people of great humor and wit, and Steele, Gold
smith, Farquhar, Sheridan, Curran, Grattan, and Swift were natives of Ireland.
The domestic affections are strong in the Irish, and there is not in the whole island, so
much desertion of parents by children, or of children by parents, as there is evidence of in
England, within the walls of one poor-house. Orphans are distributed among the cabins,
where there is little distinction made between them and the children of the family. There is
little reverence or affection in the lower class, towards the gentry, and the Irish peasant, unlike
the English, will seldom salute on the road, one of the higher orders; where many of the
landlords are absentees, there can be little kindly feeling between them and the tenants ; and
the leases are often held by middle men, who underlet the lands to those who cultivate them.
Though many of the leases are sufficiently long for the advantage of the cultivators, there are
few who will make improvements. In the general estimation, a slight advantage to day over
balances a greater one that may accrue to-morrow. Of course, under such discouragements,
the Irish are not greatly inclined to agricultural labor, and they take every advantage of the
holidays in which the Romish church is so liberal. A traveler asked one of the considerable
is the country of expedients ; the remedy for bad fences "is tt "tie togethe^XTlegs of quadru-
IRELAND. 591
peds, with ropes of straw ; two goats are as inseparably yoked as Chang and Eng, and even
fowls are fettered. A sheep is connected by a running ring to a rope, which is tied to two
stakes, and removed when the pasturage is consumed. The higher orders of the Irish are
distinguished for hospitality and frankness. They are much given to convivial pleasures, and
one of the most favorite employments is that of a wine merchant. Our remarks, however, on
the Irish character, are chiefly drawn from those who make by far the greatest class. The
Irishman who would advance his fortunes must pass beyond the limits of his country ; and
those of his country are found high in station in every nation in Europe. The qualities that
depress him at home, elevate him abread. In the northern and northeastern portions of the
island, the inhabitants are chiefly of Scottish descent ; they are Protestants ; many of them
belong to the Church of England, and others are Presbyterians. There is little difference of
character between these and the people of Scotland.
14. Amusements. The Irish are a very cheerful people, and dancing is the favorite national
amusement. There is no assemblage of the common people without a dance, and few are so
poor as not to entertain a dancing-master, whose charges, however, are exceedingly low.
The athletic exercises which are general in England, are many of them common in Ireland.
Sunday is the day which is most devoted to amusements among the Catholics ; and two baronies
or counties will sometimes have their champions for hurling stones, or pitching bars. The Sun
day cake never fails in its attractions. This is a huge cake, purchased by subscription, and
placed on a distaff, in a field near an alehouse ; and it is the prize of the best dancer, or arch
est wag, of the company. The piper is a necessary part of the festival, and he is seated on
the ground, with a hole dug before, in which he receives the presents.
15. Education. The condition of the Irish has been much improved, with regard to the
advantages of education, though there is much to be done before they will be as well educated
as the people of Scotland. In 1825, there were 1,702 schools, though, since then, the number
has much increased. More than 1,300 were founded by the Hibernian Society, which was
formed at London. The Protestant Society has upwards of 500 schools, and the Christian
Brotherhood 24. These are kept by men who throw all they have into a common stock, and
devote themselves to celibacy, and the education of the poor, to which they bind themselves
by a vow. There are 46 female schools connected with nunneries, besides which there are
350 day schools supported by subscription, and many Sunday schools. There is a Roman
Catholic college at Maynooth and Carlow, and a Jesuit college at Clongows. There is but
one university ; this is at Dublin, it has about 400 students, and is an institution of very high
character. 16. State of the Arts. The arts are not in a flourishing state in Ireland, principally from
the want of the encouragement that the residence of the rich proprietors would give. The
useful arts are far lower than in England or Scotland, and the ornamental ones are little culti
vated. A taste for music is common, and no man is more welcome in an Irish house than a
piper or a harper. Many of the old national airs are sweet, but they are not so widely spread
as those of Scotland.
Ireland has contributed her full share to the literature and sciences of the United Kingdom,
and there are no names more celebrated than Burke, Swift, Goldsmith, Sheridan, and Moore.
The great national bent of genius seems to be towards wit and eloquence, and this appears not
only in the distinguished men, but in the mass of people ; for the very beggars pursue their
vocation with a union of these two qualities that is often irresistible.
17. Religion, &c. The general religion is the Catholic, though the established church is
that of England. The Catholics of Ireland are therefore taxed for the support of two hier
archies. Four fifths of the inhabitants are Catholics, and the other fifth is composed princi
pally of Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists.' . The established church has 4
archbishoprics, and 18 bishoprics ; attached to which are 670,000 acres of land. The income
of the church is about 5,000,000 dollars. Provision has lately been made by the Imperial
Parliament for the diminution of this enormous abuse, by the gradual abolition of 2 archbish
oprics, and 8 bishoprics, thus leaving 2 of the former and 10 of the latter. This arrangement
is to take place on the death of the incumbents, and is already partially effected. Only one
ninth of the population belongs to the established church. There are 27 Catholic archbishops
and bishops, 1,500 parish priests, 3,000 curates, and 984 benefices, averaging 6,000 souls.
In every parish there is a chapel. The established church is chiefly supported by the pay
ment of a composition for tithes, and the Catholic church by contributions and fees for mar-
592
IRELAND.
riages, burials, masses, &c. The Irish pay their own clergy willingly, but they look upon
the money which goes to the English clergy, as cruel extortion. The last cow and the last
pie are often forced away by the officer to satisfy the demand of an English clergyman whose
doctrines they disbelieve, and from whom they receive nothing but evil. Ihe Catholic
religion and the Catholic clergy afford them their best comforts and consolations ; while the
Protestant religion is made to bring upon them their greatest sufferings.- It is but natural, that
they should cling to the first, and hate the last. The Catholic clergy are exceedingly zealous,
and live on terms of familiarity with their flocks. They advise them on worldly affairs, and
generally act as their lawyers. The churches have few pictures or images. The stipend of
a priest is about £ 1 50 a year. The fee for a marriage is from 5s. to a guinea ; for a chris
tening, from 2s. to half a crown ; for visiting the sick Is., and for burials and masses, from 2s.
to several pounds. Numbers of each Religious Sect.
Roman Catholics 6,427,712
Established Church ------ 852,000
Presbyterians ------ 642,350
Other Protestants ------ 71,800
18. Funerals. The funerals of the common Irish are peculiar. They are preceded by a
wake, where the friends sit up all night with the corpse, eating and drinking, as if on an occa
sion of festivity. Female mourners are paid for the ulalulu, or howling at the burial ; a cus
tom which is common in some eastern countries. They address questions to the corpse, as
" Why did you die, or why did you leave us ? " The processions are long and clamorous.
Many who walk in them are covered with long blue cloaks.
19. Government. Ireland is still denominated a distinct kingdom, but it is governed by a
viceroy appointed by the king, called Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. There is also an Irish
chancellor, a secretary of state, a commander of the forces, and attorney-general. The island
was incorporated with the kingdom of Great Briiain, in 1800. There is now no separate par
liament, but Ireland is represented by 32 peers and 105 members of the House of Commons,
in the parliament of Great Britain. The citizens of Ireland are entitled to the same privileges
with those of England, in all matters of commerce and provisions under treaties. By the cath
olic emancipation bill, certain restraints and disabilities are removed. This bill was passed in
the year 1829, and by it, all catholics are eligible to all offices of state, except the Chancellor
ship, the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland, the Regency of the United Kingdom, and the High
Commission of the church of Scotland. Catholics are still excluded from the right of present
ing to a church living. Connected with the emancipation bill, was another law, which disfran
chised the 40 shilling freeholders, and raised the qualification~of electors to an income of 10
pounds from real estate. By the reform act, the elective franchise was extended to persons
occupying a tenement of ten pounds' yearly value, and to copyholders, and some other tenants,
but the number of electors is small. >
20. Bank. There is a national bank at Dublin, called the Bank of Ireland, with a capital
of 3 millions sterling. Its profits arise from a trade in bullion, and the discounting of bills of
exchange. It is under the superintendence of a governor, deputy governor, and 15 directors,
all chosen yearly.
21. Laws. Generally, the laws are the same with those of England. There are, however,
no poor laws, and the indigent have no aid but from charity ; Ireland is, therefore, the country
for mendicity.
22. Antiquities. In the north of Ireland, are several of the round towers, that are found in
Scotland ; but there are few architectural or other antiquities in the island.
23. History. The history of Ireland has been the theme of much discussion and dispute.
It has been contended, that the island was colonized by the Phoenicians, who brought hither
their religion ; and it is maintained, with some plausibility, that the round towers, and other
monuments, with certain manners and customs, still lingering among the Irish, bearing an ori
ental cast, are witnesses of the fact. The traditions of the people, seem also to support the
theory. It is certain, that the island was known, and was populous, several hundred years be
fore Christ. The first inhabitants were doubtless Celts, and the Celtic stock still maintains
the ascendancy in the country. Ireland presents, in the native tongue of its living inhabitants,
LRELAND. 593
the purest specimen, and, indeed, the only tolerably pure example, of the language of the
Celts, while the people are the lineal descendants of the first settlers of Europe. These facts
are to be accounted for, from the spirit of independence, which has ever characterized the
people, and which prevented even the Roman Empire, that swallowed up the other portions
of Europe, from setting the foot of her soldiery on Irish soil.
The annalists of Ireland, carry back their history to Kimboath, who reigned 200 years be
fore Christ. From this period, down to the times of authentic history, they furnish a regular
succession of kings. These, however, are, many of them, apocryphal. St. Patrick, who
was first made a captive on the Continent, and carried to Ireland, effected his escape, and hav
ing been appointed to that service by the See of Rome, returned in 432, for the express pur
pose of Christianizing the people. He found them governed as they had been for centuries, by
several petty kings, generally acknowledging one principal sovereign. The Saint ad
dressed himself to them, as well as to the druidical priests, and in 30 years, by his zeal, dis
cretion, and piety, Christianity was spread over the whole island.
The ancient system of government was still continued,. and though monasteries rose up,
which, in the 7th and 8th centuries, became the seats of learning, and shone with considerable
brilliancy, while the rest of Europe was shrouded in darkness ; — still, there was no great im
provement in the condition of the people. In the 9th century, the country was overrun by
the Danes, who harassed the people for 200 years. They were at length defeated in the 11th
century, by the celebrated Brian Borohm, and soon after expelled. But the country had been
so weakened by its northern invaders, that Henry the Second, of England, made an easy con
quest of a portion of the island in 1172. From this period, England has claimed the sove
reignty of the country, though for three centuries her dominion was scarcely more than nom
inal ; and even down to the present day, the mass of the people continue to be opposed to
British sway. Ireland, having been treated as a conquered country, the hostility of the peo
ple has been kept alive ; and while they were too numerous and too independent to be easily
held in this State of subjection, it seems that measures of the utmost severity have been uni- .
formly adopted by the British government. The country has, therefore, been often excited to
rebellion, during which the most shocking scenes have been exhibited. As examples of the
sufferings of this unhappy country, it may be stated, that in Cromwell's time, all the posses
sions of the Catholics were confiscated, 20,000 of the people were sold as slaves in America,
and 40,000 entered into foreign service. After the battle of the Boyne, 1689, which restored
the protestant ascendancy, King William proscribed the adherents of James the Second, and
confiscated their estates to the amount of millions. Gr"eat numbers of the Irish entered foreign
service, and it has been computed, that from 1691 to 1745, nearly half a million fell in foreign
service. In 1782, a short respite from these measures of tyranny was granted to Ireland. The Irish
parliament was then placed on the same footing as is that of England. Under these circum
stances, Dublin became a centre of attraction, and the gentry, instead of living in England,
now resided on their estates. The effect of this state of things was magical. The country
rose from its state of depression with astonishing rapidity, and Ireland began to display the
resources of the country, as well as the genius of the people. But this happy prospect was
soon eclipsed. A rebellion broke out in 1798, which being suppressed, Ireland was united to
the British crown, in 1801. Since that period, there has been an almost constant succession
of rebellions, and riots, — either excited by the oppression of government, or the starvation of the
people. Within a very few years, some alleviation has been granted, by the removal of the
Catholic disabilities, but the Irish people, at home, and those who seek their fortunes in other
lands, seem destined to bear that heaviest of burdens, — the conviction, that their country is
the victim of tyranny. «
75
594
FRANCE.
CHAPTER LXXV. FRANCE.
A Street in Paris.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. France is bounded north by the English Channel and the
Netherlands ; east by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy ; south by the Mediterranean and
Spain ; and west by the Atlantic, or rather an open gulf called the Bay of Biscay. From
Switzerland, Italy, and Spain, it is separated by mountains. It extends from 42° 3W to 51°
N. latitude ; and from 18° E. to 5° W. longitude. Its greatest length from north to south is
590 miles, and its breadth is about the same. It contains 205,000 square miles.
2. Mountains. The Cevennes form the central chain. They rise in the south, on the west
of the Rhone, and extend northerly between that river and the Loire. They diverge into
various branches easterly and westerly. About the head streams of the Loire, west of the
main chain, is a branch called the Puy de Dome, which contains some extinct volcanoes.
The southern branch is called the Cantal, and between these are the Monts d' Or, the highest
mountains in France. These branches are called the mountains of Auvergne. The highest
point is the Puy de Sansi, 6,330 feet above the level of the sea, which approaches within 98
feet of the height of Mount Washington in New Hampshire. This group of mountains covers
an extent of 120 miles, and is composed chiefly of basaltic rocks. In winter they are expos
ed to dreadful hurricanes of snow, which fill up the ravines and confine the inhabitants to their
houses. Sometimes communications throughout a neighborhood are effected by means of
long arches under the vast masses of snow. In summer, thunder-storms with torrents of hail
are frequent: On the eastern borders of France are the Vosges, a chain of low and rounded
elevations running north and south. They are covered with rich pastures, and on the south
ern and eastern slope with vines. They abound in minerals, and one of the valleys affords a
precious green granite. The highest summit of these mountains is 4,580 feet. On the bor
ders of Switzerland is a range called the Jura ; and further south are the Alps, which separate
France from Switzerland and Italy ; some of them are granitic, and others calcareous.
In the south are the Pyrenees, separating France from Spain. They run nearly east and
west, and the western extremity of the range extends into Spain. They will be described in
the chapter on that country.
FRANCE. 595
3. Valleys. The valley of the Garonne is formed by the Pyrenees on the south, the
Cevennes on the east* and the Cantal and some other ranges on the north. The valley of
the Rhone is formed by the Jura on the north, the Alps on the east, and the Cevennes on the
west. The valley of the Loire is bounded by the Cevennes on the north and west, and by
the Cantal and Monts d'Or on the south. The valley of the Seine is bounded by a branch of
the Cevennes on the south, and a range of chalky hills on the north.
4. Rivers. France is a well watered country. It is computed, that it contains 6,000
rivers, 300 of which are navigable. In the north is the Seine, flowing northwesterly into the
English Channel at Havre. It is 450 miles in length. Its borders for the most part are
exceedingly fertile and beautiful. It flows by Paris, but is not navigable for large vessels up
to this city. The Loire is the longest river of France, and has a course of 600 miles. It
rises among the Cevennes and flows north and west into the Bay of Biscay. It is navigable
by boats to within 90 miles of its source. Between Angers and Nantes it is one of the finest
rivers in the world, with a wide current, woody islands, and bold and cultivated shores. Its
depth is from 7 to 10 feet. The alluvial deposits form shoals at its mouth which are contin
ually increasing.
The Garonne rises in the Pyrenees within the limks of Catalonia, and runs northwesterly
into the Bay of Biscay. Its course is 350 miles. Near the sea it is joined by the Dordogne
from the east, and the united stream is called the Gironde. Its mouth is full of shoals. Bor
deaux stands upon the Garonne, just above the junction with the Dordogne ; and Toulouse
is on the upper part of its course. Between these cities it is navigated by the largest boats,
and from Bordeaux to the sea by ships. The tide flows nearly 90 miles up the stream ; and
is sometimes preceded by a huge billow, that sweeps destructively along the shore. The
scenery between Toulouse and Bordeaux is beautiful ; the river passes through extensive
plains of luxuriant fertility. The land about its mouth is rocky and barren.
The Rhone, for swiftness and depth, is distinguished among the rivers of France. It rises
from a glacier on the western side of Mount St. Gothard in Switzerland. It flows 100 miles
in that country to- the lake of Geneva, through which it passes westerly into France. At
Lyons it is joined by the Saone from the north, and the united streams under the name of
the Rhone, flow south of the Mediterranean ; it joins the sea by two principal mouths. Only
small vessels enter by the western channel ; the eastern is deeper, but on account of the
swiftness of the current, the navigation up the river is difficult. The entire course of the
Rhone is 500 miles. Its waters are of a light blue. From Lyons to Avignon, a distance
of 140 miles by the course of the river, the banks of the Rhone are extremely picturesque,
winding among rocks and mountains, and offering to the eye a romantic and perpetually vary
ing scenery. Between Lyons and Vienne, are seen forests, vineyards, chateaux on com
manding eminences, and cottages embosomed in trees, retiring from the view ; these, with the
busy traffic on the majestic river, and the prosperous villages along its banks, afford an en
chanting spectacle to the eye of the traveler. The Saone which flows into the Rhone below
Lyons, is so tranquil, that it is difficult to perceive which way the current sets. The swift
current of the Rhone refuses to mingle with the Saone for some time after their junction, and
a distinct line of separation can be seen between them for many miles. The Isere and Dur
ance rise among the mountains of Savoy, and flowing westerly fall into the Rhone. The
Somme flows into the English Channel ; the Charente and Adour into the Bay of Biscay.
The Escaut or Scheldt, the Meuse, and the Moselle rise in the northern part of France and
pass into Belgium. The Rhine washes a small portion of the eastern boundary.
5. Lakes. There are no lakes that deserve the name in France. Near the coast of the
Mediterranean, are some shallow ponds or etangs, in which salt is manufactured.
6. Islands. The island of Corsica, in the Mediterranean, forms a part of the kingdom of
France. It is about 100 miles from the French coast. It is 116 miles long, and about 59
in width. It is mountainous, and one elevation rises to the height of 9,246 feet. At a distance
the island has the appearance of an enormous pyramid of mountains. Fertile vales lie among
the ridges in every part. The slopes are covered with forests of oak and fir, and they contain
rich silver mines, with iron, copper, lead, antimony, alum, marble, porphyry, and jasper.
The soil produces wine and olives. The inhabitants amount to 185,000. Bastia, the
largest town, has 9,316. Ajaccio, on the western coast, was the birth-place of Napoleon.
The land in Corsica is mostly public property. The commerce consists chiefly in the expor
tation of coral, which abounds on the coasts. A narrow strait on the south divides this island
596 FRANCE.
from Sardinia. The main land of Italy is within 50 miles of the northern part. In the Bay
of Biscay, are the isles of Noirmoutier, Oleron, Re, and Belleisle, which are productive ih
wine. Ushant, or Ouessant, lies off the northwestern extremity of France, and is the most
western spot in Europe occupied by the French.
7. Bays and Gulfs. The Bay of Biscay is an open gulf on the west, formed by the
coasts of France and Spain. On the coast of the Mediterranean is the Gulf of Lions,* so
styled in the middle ages from the frequent tempests which occurred there. The Gulf of St.
Malo, in the English Channel, contains the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, and Sark.
8. Shores and Capes. Two large promontories lie on the northwestern coast. That of
La Hogue projects.into the English Channel, and that of Raz forms the westernmost point of
France. The coasts rise gently from the sea, and in some places exhibit high cliffs. In the
southern part of the Bay of Biscay, the coast is flat and sandy.
9. Climate. The air of the northern part is moist, and there are considerable snows and
sharp frost in winter. At Paris, the Seine is frequently frozen so as to admit of skating. In
the central parts, no snow falls, sometimes for many years ; frosts seldom occur, and the air
is. pure, light, and elastic. The harvests begin from the latter part of June to the middle of
July. The south of France, from the Loire to the Mediterranean, is subject to violent storms
of hail and rain, which destroy the crops. One tenth of the produce, upon an average, is
yearly damaged by these storms. Thunder-storms are frequent and violent ; they produce cat
aracts, which rush down the mountains, burying the meadows under heaps of stone and masses
of mud, and cutting the sides of the mountains into deep ravines. In most parts of France,
frosts are common late in the spring and early in autumn, which do great injury to vegetation.
The high country of Auvergne is bleak and cold, and all the districts of the Vosges are affected
by the snow, which sometimes continues to fall upon these mountains as late as the end of June.
In the southern provinces, the summer is exceedingly hot. The vintage is in September.
At the end of autumn, violent rains fall ; but October and November are the pleasantest
months in the year. In December, January, and February, the weather is fine ; but after Feb
ruary, a strong northeasterly wind, called the Mistral, blows, sometimes with snow, but gener
ally with a clear sky. It is sometimes so violent upon the mountains as to blow a man off his
horse. At Avignon, the olive-trees are frequently killed by it. The south of France may
be characterized as possessing a mild and salubrious climate. Montpelher, on the shore of the
Mediterranean, is celebrated for the purity of its air.
10. Soil. France is generally a fertile country, but the soil varies much in different prov
inces. The northeast is the richest part ; there are admirable corn districts along the Seine,
Rhine, and Moselle. The hills of Champagne and Burgundy produce the most excellent
vines. The valley of the Garonne has a warmer soil, but it is less productive than that of tbe
northern districts.
11. Geology. The Cevennes are composed of granitic rocks, supporting basalt. Granite
also constitutes the foundation of most of the other mountains. Some parts of the Alps are
calcareous. Chalk formations are common in the north. Gypsum is abundant in the country
around Paris, and from this city it has received its popular name.
12. Natural Productions. The common forest trees are oak, birch, elm, ash, and beech.
Forests of pine and fir extend along the Atlantic coast, and upon the Vosges and Jura moun
tains. The only fruit-trees indigenous to the country are, the fig, apple, pear, and plum.
The cherry-tre*e and vine were brought from the East by the Romans. The Greek colonies
on the shores of the Mediterranean transported thither the olive, a native of Mount Taurus, in
Asia. The orange, lemon, and white mulberry were brought from China, the black mulberry
from Asia Minor, the apricot from Armenia, the peach from Persia, the almond, walnut, and
melon from different parts of Asia, and the pomegranate from Africa.
13. Minerals. Coal is abundant, but the beds lie at a distance from the sea, and are little
worked. There were formerly many copper mines, but they are now chiefly abandoned.
1 here is a gold mine, unwrought, in the eastern part. Lead is found in Brittany, and manganese
abounds in sufficient quantities to supply the whole of Europe. Silver, iron, cobalt, nickel,
cinnabar, and arsenic are sometimes found. Among the stones and earths are the hyacinth,
emerald, beryl, tourmaline, amethyst, chalcedony, and turquois, porcelain earth, chalk, marble,
and gypsum. r
f^^^JlX&S* L*°nB>which ^ led to the general belief, that it wa, called after the city of
FRANCE.
597
14. Mineral Springs. There are no less than 240 mineral springs in France. Those of
Aix, in the south, were known to the Romans ; they contain sulphur, lime, and salt. At
Bagneres, are several warm springs. The greater part of the mineral springs are under the
superintendence of physicians appointed by government. Accommodations for the sick are
provided at 151 of them. There are salt springs in the Department of Jura, from which salt
is manufactured. 15.- Animals. Bears are numerous in the Pyrenees, and in the Alpine districts ; and com
mit frequent ravages among the corn-fields. Wolves and wild boars are found in the forests,
in various parts. The ibex and chamois inhabit the Alps and Pyrenees. The fox, otter,
wildcat, martin, squirrel, and beaver, are known in different districts ; scorpions are common
in the southern provinces.
16. Face of the Country. France generally exhibits a level, but not undiversified surface.
The most level tracts are in the north. The picturesque beauty of the hilly parts is heightened
by the rich and luxuriant verdure of the chestnut-trees. In the south, the deep hue of the
olive gives rather a sombre look to the landscape. From the mouth of the Garonne to the
border of Spain, the coast consists of a flat, sandy, barren tract, called the Landes, extending
30 miles into the country, and producing nothing but heath, broom, and juniper. The remain
der of the country is, in general, agreeably diversified with gentle undulations.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. Divisions. France is divided into 86 Departments ; these are subdivided into Arron-
dissements ; these, into Cantons ; and these, into Communes.*
* Before the Revolution, France was divided into 32
Provinces, the names of which, as they are connected with
many historical associations, still continue in popular use,
although their political significance has ceased. The fol
lowing are the names of the Ancient Provinces, with the
Departments into which they were changed.
Ancient Provinces.
Flanders,Artois,Picardy,
Normandy,
Isle of France,
Champagne,
Lorraine,
Alsace,
Brittany,
Maine,
Anjou, Touraine,Orleannais,
Berry,
Nivernais, Burgundy,
Departments.
North.
Pas de Calais.
Somme.
f Lower Seine,
Calvados,
1 La Manche,
Ome,
(.Eure.f Seine
I Seine and Oise,
< Oise,
1 Seine and Marne,
(Aisne. Marne, Ardennes,Aube,
Upper Marne.
{Meuse, Moselle,Meurthe,
Vosges.
( Upper Rhine,
( Lower Rhine.
{Ille and Vilaine,
Cotes du Nord,
Finisterre,Morbihan,
Lower Loire.
C Mayenne,
I Sarthe.
Maine and Loire.
Indre and Loire.
{ Loiret,
< Eure and Loire,
Loire and Cher.
Ancient Provinces.
Franche Compte,
Poitou,
La Marche,
Limousin,Bourbonnais,Saintonge and Angou-
mois,
Aunis and Saintonge,
Auvergne,Lyonnais, Dauphiny, Guyenne, with Gascony,
Navarre, with Beam,
County of Foix,
Roussillon
i Indre,
1 Cher.
Nievre.
' fYonne,
J Cote d' Or,
} Saone and Loire,
Ain.
Languedoc,
Provence,
County of Venaissin, and
Avignon,
Corsica,
Departments.
C Upper Saone,
< Doubs,
( Jura.
i Vendee
< Two Sevres,
( Vienne.
C Creuse,
( Upper Vienne.
Correze.
Allier.
< Charente. Lower Charente.
C Puy de Dome,
{ Cantal.
( Rhone,
( Loire.
C Isere,
< Upper Alps,
f Drome.
Dordogne, Gironde,
Lot and Garonne,
Lot,
¦ Tarn and Garonne,
Aveyron, Gers,
Landes,
Upper Pyrenees.
Lower Pyrenees.
Arriege. Eastern Pyrenees.
'Upper Garonne,
Aude,Tarn,Herault Gard,Lozere,
Upper Loire,
Ardeche.
Lower Alps,
Mouths of the Rhone,
Var. Vaucluse.
Corsica.
598
FRANCE.
2. Canals. There are 86 canals in France, having a total length of 2,350 mile,s ; only the
principal can be mentioned here. The Canal of Languedoc extends from the Garonne, near
Toulouse, to Cette, on the Mediterranean, which it thus connects with the Atlantic. It is 142
miles in length, 60 feet wide, and 6 deep, and passes through the hill of Malpas, by a tunnel
720 feet long. The Canal of the Centre, or the Charollais Canal, connects the Loire with
the Saone, at Chalons, and is 72 miles in length. The Canal of Mousieur connects the Saone
with the Rhine, at Strasburg, passing by Dole, Besancon, Montbeliard, and Muhlhausen, with
a branch to Bale; total length, 215 miles. The Canal of Burgundy, 150 miles in. length,
connects the Yonne, a tributary of the Seine, with the Saone, passing by Dijon, and thus
forms a communication between the English Channel and the Mediterranean. The Brian
Canal connects the Loire, at Briare, with the Seine, passing by Montargis ; length, 67 miles;
the Orleans Canal, which terminates near that town, and connects the Loire with the Briare
Canal, may be considered a branch of the latter ; it is 45 miles long. The Canal of Brittany
extends from Nantes to Brest, a distance of 230 miles. The St. Quentin Canal connects the
Oise, at Chauny, with the Scheldt, at Cambray, passing by St. Quentin ; length, 58 miles.
The Somme Canal connects the last mentioned with the Channel, passing by Ham, Peronne,
and Amiens, in the valley of the Somme, and terminating at St. Valery, at the mouth of tbat
river. ,
3. Towns. Paris, the capital of France, and the second city of Europe, in point of pop
ulation, stands upon both sides of the Seine, having a circuit of about 15 miles, and containing
900,000 inhabitants. It is upwards of 200 miles
from the mouth of the Seine by the course of tbe
river, though but 1 12 miles from Havre, at its
mouth, by the post roads. The environs do not
present the same variety of gardens, parks, and
villas, as those of London, nor is the stream of
life in the great streets, the crowd of carriages,
horsemen, wagons, and foot passengers, so great
as in the neighborhood of the British capital. But
it may be considered the capital of the world for
the sciences, arts, and politeness. It is enclosed
by a wall 17 miles in circuit, and is more closely
built and inhabited than London. Surveyed from
a central point, it presents a form nearly circular,
with the river flowing through it. In the river are
3 small islands, one of which, in the "time of Julius
Caesar, was inhabited by a tribe of barbarians, called Parisii, and from them the city, which
gradually grew up around their cottages of clay and straw, received its name. By the Romans,
it was called Lutetia, and the Emperor Julian made it his residence. Clovis made it the seat
of his court ; it was enlarged by many of the French Kings, and Napoleon added those vast
improvements and embellishments which render it the admiration of every visiter.*
The eastern part is the most ancient, and most irregularly built ; here the streets are narrow
Paris.
• Paris is under eternal obligations to Bonaparte ; he did
more for it than even Louis the Fourteenth. He combined,
in a greater degree, the useful with the magnificent. Des
potic as he was, he saw that the mass of people consti
tuted a power which must not be dazzled merely, as in the
time of Louis the Fourteenth, but conciliated and served.
His designs are said to have been essentially his own. It
seems most probable, that they could have been conceived
only by the same mind which had the force, energy, and
resources to execute them. He freed the bridges and
banks of the Seine from the embarrassment and deformity
of the old houses, by which they were still crowded;
built magnificent quays and wharves, and erected four
bridges of remarkable beauty, as monuments of art ; be
fore the Garden of Plants, from the He St. Louis to the
He de la Cit6 ; from the Louvre to the palace of the In
stitute ; from the Q.uai de Chaillot to the Champ de Mars.
He not only conceived (for even the conception was a
great merit) but had nearly executed, at his fall, the Ca
nal del'Ourcq, a gigantic public work, commencing at the
river of that name, receiving tributary streams, communi
cating with other canals for the convenience and transport
of inland commerce, and conducted over a line of 15
leagues, to the plain of La Villette, 83 feet above the level
of the Seine, for the purpose of supplying water to the
capital. He distributed the public supply of water by 15
new and abundant fountains, of which some are beautiful
specimens of architecture. The people, not merely of
Paris, but of the whole kingdom, are indebted to him for
the spacious markets, so commodiously arranged for the
sale of every kind of produce ; for public stores, espe
cially the wine stores, which surprise, by their vastness,
the happy ingenuity of their distribution, and their
architectural grandeur. He erected, near the barriers,
5 abattoirs or slaughter-houses, and thus relieved the city
from the inconvenient and dangerous presence of herds
of cattle, the revolting spectacle of blood, and the noxious
miasmata of butchery and tallow melting. He cleared the
Place du Carousel, between the Louvre and the Tuilenes,
of its obstruction and nuisances ; adorned it with a tri
umphal arch, and filled its Gallery with sculptures and
paintings ; he built a second gallery from the adjacent an
gle, so as to complete the square of the vast area of the
Carousal, and the junction of the Louvre with the Tuile-
FRANCE.
599
and crooked. The western part is modern and well built. The Boulevards constitute a wide
mall, with four rows of trees passing. in an irregular course around the central part of the city ;
they occupy the site of the ancient walls of Paris, rendered useless by the growing up of the
city around them and are two miles in extent. There is nothing in Paris more striking than
the Boulevards. The exterior Boulevard is a broad street on the outer side of the wall
which encircles the city. But a small portion of this is built upon. The Boulevard most fre
quently mentioned, is in the midst of the city. Different parts of this are called by different
names, as the Boulevard des Italiens, from its vicinity to the Italian opera, Boulevard du
Temple, &c. It is impossible to convey an adequate idea of the liveliness of the Italian Bou
levard at night. Multitudes of gayly dressed people are sauntering through it, while parties of
both sexes are sitting beneath the trees, sipping coffee, lemonade, and liqueurs. The air is
filled with music, and the magnificent buildings on either side are lighted as if for an illumina
tion. In any other city, a scene like this would have something of bustle in it, but the Pa
risians live in public, and while they are always cheerful, they have seldom a busy air. They
pass to and fro, as if contented and happy, and manifest little excitement, except by their ani-
imated conversation. To an American, this place wears the aspect of enchantment.
The Champ de Mars is an oblong park bordered by rows of trees, and extending Jrom the
Military School to the river ; it is the spot commonly appropriated to the reviews of troops
and great public festivities. The
gardens of the Tuileries, to the west
of the palace, are elegantly laid out
with graveled walks, terraces, plots
of flowers, shrubs, groves of trees,
and basins of water, interspersed
with beautiful statues in bronze and
marble. These are the favorite
walks of the Parisians, and on Sun
days, they resort hither in crowds.
The Luxumbourg gardens, in the
southerly part of the city, also af
ford beautiful walks. The Champs
Elysees form a spacious common
in the western part, and the entrance
to the city in this quarter is one of
the finest avenues in the world.
Walks are laid out in various parts
of these fields, and superb national
fetes are given here, on which oc
casions the trees are brilliantly il
luminated. The subjoined cut
represents the appearance of this
spot in" winter. The finest square
in Paris is the Place Vendome, in
the centre of which stands a col
umn erected by Napoleon, in
commemoration of the Austerlitz
campaign ; it is covered with bas-
reliefs in bronze, made from the
cannon taken in the campaign.
The banks of the Seine are beau
tified with noble quays, and the
stream is crossed by 16 bridges,
Champs Elysees. *? of which are of stone, and 2 of
iron. On the Pont Neuf stands
an equestrian statue of Henry the Fourth, in bronze, one of the finest ornaments of the city.
A similar one of Louis the Fourteenth occupies a small area, called the Place des Victoires.
Champ de Mars.
ries. The Garden of the Tuileries owes much of its mag
nificence to the noble vista which he opened by the Rue
Castilione to the triumphal column in Ihe Place Ven
dome ; the opposite view of the Chamber of Deputies,
with its noble portico ; and the unfinished, but grand tri
umphal arch of Neuilly.
600
FRANCE.
A Scene in Paris.
Notre Dame.
Tlie Exchange at Paris.
A great number of elegant fountains adorn
and purify the streets and markets. An
immense fountain, in the shape of an ele
phant, in bronze, was begun by Napoleon
on the spot occupied by the Bastile, but
still remains unfinished.
The church of Notre Dame is a noble
gothic edifice, 390 feet in length, with tow
ers 204 feet high. It was 200 years in
building, and was finished about the year
1200. It stands in the most ancient part
of Paris, on the island in the Seine, called
la cite. The church of St. Genevieve is
now called the Pantheon, and is designed
as a mausoleum for the ashes of celebrated
men ; it is a magnificent edifice in the mod
ern style. The Hospital of Invalids is an
immense building, designed for the residence of
disabled soldiers. It is surmounted by a splen
did gilt dome, which alone was 30 years in
building, and is esteemed one of the master
pieces of French architecture.
The Jardin des Plantes is the noblest collec-.
tion of interesting objects in Natural History,
that has ever been formed. The public build
ings in Paris, which deserve notice for their size
and magnificence, are too numerous even to be
mentioned here. In this respect, Paris is far
above London. The Tuileries form an exten
sive and somewhat irregular pile, nearly one
fifth of a mile in front, which has a noble effect.
The Louvre is a model of symmetry, and is
thought to make the nearest approach to perfec
tion of any modern building. It contains 1,000
paintings, 1,500 statues, and 20,000 drawings.
Here the whole population of Paris are admitted
on Sundays, and it is thought, that the refined
and polished manners of the Parisians are in a
great degree owing to the familiar contemplation
of these masterpieces of art. The Palace of
the Luxembourg is chaste and elegant, but less
Uj^ striking than the Tuileries. The
Palais Royal, in the busiest part of the
city, is an immense quadrangle, sur
rounding an open garden or court, and
constitutes a grand assemblage of shops,
galleries, coffee-houses,- and saloons,
in a style of magnificence that aston
ishes a stranger. In these brilliant
purlieus, the visiter will find, com
bined with the utmost elegance and
taste, whatever man has been able to
invent for the satisfaction of his lux
ury and pleasure. Here fashion has
established her empire, and here she
reigns over Paris, France,and the whole
civilized world. Here are crowded
together, merchandise of every kind,
FRANCE.
601
the richest stuffs, the most precious trinkets, and every production of the arts. A general
intoxication of pleasure may be said to prevail in this enclosure of luxuries,. which is the con
stant resort of strangers always flocking to Paris. ¦ It is the centre of trade, the focus of wealth,
business, idleness, festivity, literature, the arts, and of every species of industry, talent, and
dissipation. The world has nothing elsewhere like it. The Bourse, or Exchange, is the
handsomest building of the kind in Europe.
The libraries of Paris are very large, and formed upon the most liberal principles. Most
of them are public, and accessible at all times to the rich and poor. The Royal Library con
tains above 500,000 volumes, besides 80,000 manuscripts, 100,000 medals, many hundreds
of thousands of tracts, and 1,000,000
engravings. This library is crowded
constantly by persons of all classes, in
pursuit of knowledge. The other libra
ries have from 150,000 volumes down
ward. There are about 30 theatres, large
and small, in Paris. All the theatres
in France pay a tenth part of their re
ceipts to the poor. The houses in the
older parts of Paris are very high. The
streets are generally without side-walks,
and some are paved with flat stones.
All those parts without the Boulevards
are called fauxbourgs. The gates of the
city are denominated barriers, and here
passengers must exhibit their passports,
and merchandise pay a duty on enter
ing the city.* The most famous of the ceme
teries, is that called Pere La Chaise
(Father La Chaise) , from the name
of a priest, to whom' the ground
formerly belonged. It is prettily
laid out, with shaded walks, adorn
ed with flowers, and contains many
handsome monuments.
The manufactures of Paris are
various and extensive. "The book
trade and printing business exceed
those of any other city in the world.
The shawls, clocks, and watches,
jewelry, gloves, furniture, and in
numerable articles of luxury, fash
ion, ornament, and use, which are
made here, occupy great numbers
of the inhabitants. The catacombs
View of one of the Entrances~to Paris.
Pere La Chaise.
* Paris exports, annually, objects of industry to the
amount of 47,000,000 francs ; of which, 14,000,000 are in
shawls, and 6,000,000 in jewelry. There are, in the city, ,
520 watchmakers, who employ 2,056 workmen, and man
ufacture annually 80,000 gold watches, 15,000 silver
watches, and 15,000 clocks, valued at 19,765,000 francs.
There are 10,053 vehicles for the interior service of Paris,
and 733 for the exterior ; 500 water carriages, drawn by
horses,,and 1,300 drawn by men; 484 diligences', 249
small stages, and 500 cabriolets for the exterior ; making
13,919 vehicles of every description. Among the strangers
who visit the city, the English are the most numerous; in.
1821, there were 20,184 English at Paris.
An eighth part of the paving of Paris is renewed annu
ally. The streets,' bridges, and squares are lighted by
4,553 lanterns, which consume annually 608,397 pounds
76
of oil. The ordinary watering and cleaning of the streets
is done by the inhabitants. In air average year, there are
consumed, in Paris, 71 .800,000 bottles of wine; 659,154
gallons of cider; 2,034,263 gallons of beer; 359,298 gal
lons of vinegar; 71,750 bullocks; 8,500 cows; 76,500
calves; 339,650 sheep; 70,500 hogs; 931,000 pigeons;
174,000 ducks; 1,289,000 chickens; 251,000 capons;
549,000 turkeys; 328,000 geese; 131,000 partridges;
177,000 rabbits ; 29,000 hares ; butter and eggs to the value
of 10,348,800 francs; oysters, 599,400 francs; sea-fish,
3,417,600 francs ; fresh-water fish, 333,400 francs. There
are 3,500 coffee houses in Paris. The receipts of the the
atres, balls, gardens, and public spectacles, amount annu
ally to 6,500,000 francs. Thus the public amusements
of the capital pay annually to the poor a' sum equal to
120,250 dollars of American money.
602
FRANCE.
of Paris are a remarkable series of subterranean galleries and caverns, extending several miles
under the city. They were originally quarries, from which the materials for the edifices of the
city were obtained ; but about 50 years ago, the bones of ten generations were collected, from
the different churches and burying-grounds of the capital, into these caverns, and the remains
of from 4 to 6 millions of human beings are here arranged along the walls. In this subterra
nean city of the dead, you find mausoleums, altars, candelabras, &c, constructed of bones,
with festoons of skulls and thigh-bones, interspersed with numerous inscriptions.
There, are several places of historical interest in the neighborhood of Paris, which deserve
notice. St. Denis, with 9,680 inhabitants, contains a celebrated abbey, in the church of which
have been deposited the remains of the long line of French kings. Vincennes, with 3,000 in
habitants, a village of great antiquity, was long the residence of the kings of France, and con
tains a castle, surrounded by a fine park. Neuilly, with 5,600 inhabitants, is remarkable for its
magnificent bridge over the Seine, its superb gardens, and delightful views. At Boulogne,
with 5,400 inhabitants, near the wood or park of the same name, is a favorite promenade, called
Longchamps. Saint Cloud, in a picturesque situation on tbe Seine, is celebrated for its beautiful prospects,
and the splendid gardens and park attached to the royal palace here. It was the favorite resi
dence of Napoleon, whence the imperial court was called the court of St. Cloud. Sevres is
famous for its beautiful porcelain. Versailles, about ten miles west of Paris, was, for upwards
of a hundred years, the residence of the French court ; and its sumptuous palace, park, and
gardens, display all the splendors of art. Statues, temples, pavilions, sheets of water, cascades,
and fountains, enchant the eye in every direction, and the splendid saloons are decorated with
paintings, gilded and marble columns, &c. Tliere are also several other remarkable edifices at
Versailles, which now contains 28,500 inhabitants. ¦St. Germain-en- Lay e, about the
same distance to the northwest of
Paris, with 10,600 inhabitants, is
pleasantly situated on the borders
of the forest of Laye, the largest
in France. Here is an ancient
palace, or hunting castle, of the
French kings. Rambouillet, 25
miles southwest of Paris, has a roy
al chateau, with a fine park, and a
large forest attached to it. Here,
also, is the royal farm, the dairy of
which is entirely of white marble.
Population, 3,150. At JWntne-
bleau, 30 miles south of Paris,
stands a royal chateau, in a pictu
resque situation, in tbe centre of
the forest of Fontainebleau. It has
been the scene of many important events. Population, 8,000.
Lyons, the second city of France, is delightfully situated in the midst of a thickly peopled
district, at the confluence of the Saone and the Rhone. Twenty quays, some of which are
adorned with handsome buildings, and planted with trees, line the banks of the rivers, and 10
bridges pass them in different directions. Among the 56 public places, or squares, that of
Bellecour is one of the most magnificent in Europe ; and the hotel de ville, or city hall, has no
superior, except that of Amsterdam. The commerce and manufactures of Lyons are exten
sive, and numerous and extensive docks and warehouses facilitate the commercial operations of
the city. The most important article of manufacture is silk, which is raised in the vicinity, and
imported in great quantities from Italy and other parts of France. The silks of Lyons are
celebrated for their beauty and firmness. The manufacture of silk and cotton, and silk and
woolen stuffs, paper hangings, artificial flowers, jewelry, &tc, also employs many laborers.
Population of the city, 133,700. There are here numerous hospitals and churches, several
earned societies, and institutions for education, among which is a royal college, a fine public
library of 90,000 volumes, &c.
St. Etienne, an active and flourishing manufacturing town, is connected with Lyons by a rail-
Palace of Fontainebleau.
FRANCE. 603
road, which extends from Lyons to Andrezieux on the Loire, 35 miles. The manufactures
of St. Etienne, and its vicinity, are arms, jewelry, silk and cotton stuffs, &c. Population of
the town and adjacent country, 50,000. To the southeast of Lyons, is Grenoble, upon the
Isere, with 25,000 inhabitants, a strongly fortified place, with extensive manufactures of gloves
and liqueurs. It has several important literary establishments, and is interesting in history, as
the former capital of Dauphiny ; in its neighborhood is a celebrated Carthusian monastery,
called the Great Chartreuse.
Marseilles, the principal commercial city of France, is delightfully situated upon the Lion's
gulf, with a spacious harbor. The new city is handsomely built, with wide, straight streets,
and many fine promenades and public squares. The old part of the city consists of narrow
streets and mean houses. The lazaretto, or quarantine hospital, is esteemed the finest in Eu
rope ; and the ancient cathedral, the hotel de ville, the numerous hospitals, the 21 churches,
&c, are among the ornaments of the city. The extensive quays are crowded with merchants
and mariners from all parts of the world. The manufactures are also extensive. Marseilles
is one of the most ancient cities of France, having been founded by a Giecian colony 2,400
years ago. Population, 121,300.
The other principal cities in this quarter, are Toulon, with 2S,500 inhabitants, remarkable for
its commerce, its excellent port, arsenals, docks, &c. ; it is strongly fortified, and is the chief
station of the French navy in the south of France ; Aix, with 22,600 inhabitants, lying to the
north of Marseilles, once the residence of the Counts of Provence, whose court was the most
refined and splendid in Europe, and still distinguished for its literary institutions ; Aries, with
20,000 inhabitants, interesting for its antiquities, and once the capital of an independent king
dom ; and Avignon, with 30,000 inhabitants, for some time the residence of the Popes, and
now a flourishing manufacturing town ; near Avignon, is the little village of Vaucluse, celebrated
by the muse of Petrarch.
To the west of Marseilles, is Montpellier, with 36,000 inhabitants, a flourishing commercial
and manufacturing town, celebrated for the beauty of its situation, the elegance of some of its
public edifices, its delightful public walk, esteemed the finest in Europe, the salubrity of its air,
and its famous university. Nimes, to the north of Montpellier, is a place of great antiquity,
and still contains many relics of its ancient magnificence ; it has 41,300 inhabitants, who are
engaged in extensive manufacturing and commercial operations.
Bordeaux, or Bourdeaux, is situated upon the Garonne, 60 miles from its mouth. The river
is navigable to this place by the largest ships, and forms, at Bordeaux, a spacious harbor, which
is connected, by the canal of Languedoc, with the Mediterranean. Bordeaux is one of the
handsomest, and most flourishing and commercial cities of France, and contains 100,000 in
habitants. In the new part of the city, the streets are spacious and elegant, and there are
many delightful promenades, beautiful squares, and splendid edifices. The manufactures are
extensive, comprising sugar refineries, distilleries, vinegar works, &c. Ship-building and the
whale fishery are also carried on largely, and Bordeaux is the great wine and brandy mart of
the south and west of France. Its literary institutions are also numerous and important, and
its public library contains 110,000 volumes.
Bayonne, on the Adour, a pretty town, with 15,000 inhabitants, a good harbor, and an active
commerce, — and Rochelle, a commercial and strongly fortified town, with about the same num
ber of inhabitants, are both places of historical interest.
Nantes, on the Loire, 25 miles from its mouth, is one of the largest, richest, and most flour
ishing-commercial cities of France, with a population of 87,200 souls. Its manufactures are
extensive and increasing, and the fisheries are actively prosecuted by the inhabitants. Nantes
. is very pleasantly situated, and handsomely built, and contains many elegant squares and public
edifices. It is famous in history, from its giving name to the edict issued here, in. 1598, by
Henry the Fourth, granting to the Huguenots, or French Protestants, the free exercise of their
religion ; this edict was revoked by Louis the Fourteenth, nearly a century later. Above
Nantes, on the Loire, are Angiers, with 32,750 inhabitants ; Tours, with 23,250 inhabitants ;
and Orleans, with 40,000 inhabitants, cities of some note in history, and which, at present,
contain some literary institutions, and have considerable manufactures.
Rouen, upon the Seine, 70 miles from its mouth, is the centre of a populous manufacturing
district, and has, itself, extensive manufactures and a brisk trade. It was formerly the capital
of Normandy, and is meanly built, although it contains some remarkable edifices. The neigh
borhood is filled with flourishing, manufacturing towns and villages. Principal articles of man
ufacture, cotton, linen, and woolen goods. Population of Rouen, 89,000.
604 FRANCE.
At the mouth of the Seine stands Havre, with 24,000 inhabitants, which may be considered
the port of Paris and Rouen. It has constant communication with all parts of the world, by
means of regular packet ships, and the Seine is navigated by numerous steam vessels, some of
which run up to Paris.
Lisle, or Lille, situated in a rich and highly cultivated plain, upon the river Deule, is one of
the best built cities in France. Its neat and spacious streets, its formidable fortifications, its
fine citadel, the master-piece of the celebrated French engineer, Vauban, its canals, and its
numerous public edifices, give it an imposing appearance. Its extensive trade and manufac
tures rank it among the most flourishing French cities. Population, 70,000 ; the immediate
neighborhood, to the distance of 30 miles, is the most populous district in France.
Upon the Channel to the north are Dunkirk, a place of historical interest, with a good harbor
and a flourishing commerce, 25,000 inhabitants ; Calais, 10,500 inhabitants, remarkable as the
nearest point of approach between England and France, being but two and a half hours' sail
from Dover ; and Boulogne, with 21,000 inhabitants, a strongly fortified town, and celebrated
bathing-place. Arras, with 23,400 inhabitants, a pretty and flourishing town, noted for its citadel ; Cam-
bray, 17,700 inhabitants, upon the Scheldt, the see of a bishopric once occupied by the illus
trious Fenelon ; and Amiens, 45,000 inhabitants, once the capital of Picardy, are among the
most remarkable places in this quarter of the kingdom.
Caen, upon the Orne, with 40,000 inhabitants, distinguished for the number of its learned
institutions, and its extensive commerce ; Cherbourg, 18,500, one of the principal stations of
the French Navy, and remarkable for its vast docks, and its magnificent breakwater, extending
upwards of two miles into the sea ; Rennes, upon the Vilaine, formerly the capital of Brittany,
with flourishing manufactures, and a population of 30,000 souls, communicating with the Chan
nel at St. Malo, by a canal, and with the Bay of Biscay by the navigable river upon which it
stands ; and Brest, upon the western coast of France, the principal French naval station, with
a fine harbor, splendid quays, and extensive docks, hewn out of the rock, are the chief places
of interest in northern France, not previously mentioned.
Toulouse is pleasantly situated upon the Garonne, at the termination of the Languedoc Ca
nal. It is an ancient town, and was once the capital of the Visigothic kingdom, and afterwards
of Languedoc. Its manufactures are flourishing, and it contains several important literary es
tablishments. Population, 60,000. To the north are Montauban, 25,000 inhabitants, and
Limoges, 27,000, and, to the northeast, Clermont, 28,250, places important for their popula
tion, manufactures, and literary institutions.
There are several cities in the east of France, which deserve notice. Strasbourg, with 50,000
inhabitants, is a handsomely built and strongly fortified city, pleasantly situated in a fertile plain
upon the 111, near its confluence with the Rhine. It was once the capkal of Alsace, and the
language and customs are chiefly German. Its trade and commerce are extensive, and its lit
erary establishments numerous and respectable. A bridge of boats across the Rhine, connects
it with the German territory. The Cathedral or Minster of Strasbourg is one of the finest
specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe ; the tower, in particular, is a master-piece of
architecture, and is remarkable for its height, which is 474 feet. Its clock is also a curious
piece of mechanism, indicating tbe motions of the planets, as well as the hours of the day.
Besanpon, formerly capital of Franche Compte, is one of the best built and oldest cities of
France. Its manufactures, particularly of clocks and watches, are extensive, and it contains
several literary institutions of note. The canal of Monsieur passes by Besancon, and renders
it the depot of the trade between the towns of Switzerland and the north of France, and those
of the south. Population, 29,200.
Dijon, formerly the capital of Burgundy, is pleasantly situated in a fertile plain, and is hand
somely built, with spacious streets and elegant houses. Population, 25,550.
Troyes, with 23,750 inhabitants, stands upon the Seine ; its trade and manufactures are ex
tensive. To the north is Rheims, distinguished for its noble cathedral, in which the French
kings have hitherto been consecrated, until the late revolution ; in this ceremony, a vial was
used, called the sacred ampulla, said to have been brought down from heaven by a dove. The
wine cellars of Rheims, excavated in limestone rock, and in which are preserved the fine wines
of the district, destined for exportation, are also a curiosity. Population, 36,000.
Metz, with 44,400 inhabitants, upon the Moselle, and Nancy, with 30,000, upon the Meurthe,
are important towns in the ancient province of Lorraine. The former is remarkable for its
FRANCE.
605
strong military works, and its manufactures are considerable. The latter is distinguished for
its splendid buildings and its beautiful promenades.
4. Agriculture.' Two-thirds of the population of France are agricultural, and a much
greater proportion of the cultivators are proprietors than in most other European countries.
The agricultural products of the northern part of the country are corn, pulse, and potatoes, ;
of the southern, corn, grapes, mulberries, and olives. Beside the common grains of Europe,
wheat, rye, oats, and barley, maize is also extensively cultivated. The horses and cows are
Oats.
Sainfoin.
Winter Barley. Common Wheat. Spring Wheat.
fed chiefly on clover, lucern, sain
foin, and other artificial grasses, of
which no greater quantity is raised
than is absolutely necessary. The
rotation of crops is little attended
to, and fallows still hold a place in
French husbandry, which is there
fore proportionately less productive
than the English. The French are,
however, the best wine-makers in
the world ; the principal varieties
of the French wines are those of
Champagne and Burgundy; the Mo
selle and Rhenish wines, so called
from the rivers upon whose banks
they are produced ; the hermitage of
Dauphiny ; and the clarets of the
neighborhood of Bordeaux*
Table of Cultivated Land, and Agricultural Products.
Arable land in France,
Annual produce of Wheat,
" Rye,
" " Maslin or mixed
corn,
" " Maize,
56,810,000 acres.
20,800,000 quarters.
12,700,000 "
10,400,000 "
2,160,000 "
Annual product of Buckwheat,
" " Oats,
" " Potatoes,
Land occupied by vines,
Produce of vineyards,
2,900,000 quarters.
J 1,000,000
6,900,000 "
5,000,000 acres.
924,000,000 gallons.
5. Commerce. Much of the foreign commerce of France is transacted by foreign vessels,
and the amount of shipping is much less than that of the United States. The annual value of
imports is about 100,000,000 dollars, consisting chiefly of raw materials for manufactures, and
of natural productions for food ; the value of the exports is a little less, consisting principally
of manufactured articles, wines, brandies, &c. The coasting trade and internal commerce
between the different regions of this rich country, are extensive.
6 -Manufactures. The products of French manufacturing industry are exceedingly various
606
FRANCE.
and numerous, and they combine great excellence of quality with great elegance of taste.
The annual value-is about 300 million dollars. The porcelain of Sevres Pans, &c, the
silks of Lyons, Nimes, Avignon, &c. ; the woolens of Elbeauf, Louviers, Rheims, Amiens,
&c he cotton stuffs muslins, gauzes, &c, of Rouen St. Quentm, Tarare Paris, Cam-
fray Valenciennes, &c. ; the lace of Alencon, Caen, Bayeux, &c. ;. the shawls, jewelry
cloS., and watches, musical and scientific, ^^^ >™' !KSoS3
of color.*
Total Amount of Products of French Industry.
Flax and Hemp
Domestic Animals
Manufactures
Total
. $ 10,000,000
130,000,000
. 300,000,000
$ 1,220,000,000
Products of mineral kingdom . . $20,000,000
Corn and other grain • • • f^gg
Meadows •.".'. ¦ ¦ ™>Z'Tc>
Fruits, kitchen vegetables, &c. . . 52,000,000
ForesU ^»,U0U,OUU
7. Colonies. The foregoing possessions of the French are now inconsiderable. They
are in America, the isles of St. Pierre and Miquelon ; Martinique; Guadeloupe, with its
dependencies ; a part of St. Martin, and Guiana ; in Africa, the kingdom of Algiers; the
colony of Senegal ; the Isle of Goree, and some factories ; m the Indian Ocean the Isle of
Bourbon, and that of St. Mary near Madagascar ; and in Asia, Pondicherry, Kankal, Ya
naon, Chandernagore, Mahe, and some factories. .
8. Revenue and Expenditure. The revenue is derived from direct and indirect taxes, sales
of wood from the public forests, customs, &c, and amounts to about 200,000,000 dollars,
the revenue under Napoleon amounted to 300,000,000.
Revenue.
Land Tax
Poll Tax, assessed Taxes
Stamps -
PatentsSale of public domains, wood, <fcc.
Customs and Excise
Works carried on by government
Miscellaneous Total
Budget for 1838. Expend itoke.
Justice and Public Worship
Foreign Affairs -
NavyPublic Instruction - - -
Finance (sinking fund, interest of debt,
of collecting revenue)
Army . - - -
Commerce and Public Works
Interior . - - -
Chamber of Deputies Total
$ 52,500,00017,000,000
41,200,000 7,000,0008,000,000
57,000,000
26,000,000 2,600,000
211, 300,000
- $13,000,000 1,500,000
- 12,600,000 3,800,000
charge 109 800,000
44,600,00010,200,000
15,000,000 136,000
212,636,000
9. National Debt. This amounted in 1829 to 821 million dollars, but was increased by
the Revolution of 1830, and is now about 1,000 millions. In 1797, it was 4,440,000,000
dollars. Two thirds of this sum were annihilated by a decree of the revolutionary govern
ment, and subsequently two thirds of the remainder. The public funds consist of bank shares
and the tiers consolide, a 5 per cent, stock.
* Rouen is the Manchester of France, and its proximity
to Havre de Grace, the great American port, gives it the
same advantage in point of situation, that Manchester
derives from the neighborhood of Liverpool. The cotton
trade of Rouen supports from 55 to 60,000 persons. The
Corduroy and velveteen of Troyes are well suited for la
borers' clothing. Caen produces cambric muslins, equal
to those of Switzerland. The ginghams from the Upper
Rhine are stout and well dyed ; and the printed muslins
of Versailles rival those of England. The delicacy and
perfection of the French cambrics have long been unri
valed. The French laces are made both of silk and thread.
The point lace of Alenijon and Argentan has long enjoy
ed a great name. The parchment made in France is
esteemed the best in Europe. In clocks and watches the
Parisians are rivaling the Swiss. The manufacture of
surgical and mathematical instruments, and of all sorts of
expensive and tasteful toys, are carried to high perfection.
The porcelain of Sevres has a great reputation. The
glass manufacture of St. Gobin retains its high preemi
nence for large and beautiful mirrors. The crystal man
ufactories in and about Paris are very numerous. 1 rencn
furniture is cheaper than English. Dyeing is carried on
largely in the neighborhood of the several cloth manu
factories. The waters of the Saone are excellent tor
scouring, and possess a soapy quality. Those ^ot
Rhone are pure and equally fitted for dyeing. 1 he supe
rior excellence of the French cloth as regards color, arises
in a great measure from the great purity of the water
used in dyeing. The raw cotton spun in France in I wo
amounted to 83,993,210 pounds. The wool to I02,d0l ,™
pounds There were 3.000 cashmere shawls, and 41, wo
woolen shawls exported the same year. The value °
the silk annually worked up is equal to 26,640,000 dollars
of A i no r i on n money ; more than one half the raw ma •
rial is of native production. The China silkworm nas
long been naturalized in France, and the French wniw
crapes now rival those of the East, so long inimitab ei
brilliance and purity. Red and blue embroidered stun!
have recently been largely exported to Persia andlurisey.
FRANCE. 607
10. Bank. The Bank of France was established in its present form in 1801, with a cap
ital of 30,000,000 francs. Its dividend has always exceeded 5 per cent. Its notes are not
a legal tender, and nearly all its business is transacted in gold and silver. It is strictly a
public institution, and the chief officer is appointed by the government. It is a bank of dis
count, deposit, and circulation, but none of its notes are lower than 500 francs. Private
bankers in France do not issue notes.
11. Army and Navy.* In 1838, the Budget exhibited the number of troops at 300,000
men. According to the same document, the French navy consists of 49 ships of the line ;
62 frigates ; 31 corvettes ; 49 brigs ; and above 130 smaller vessels, including 21 steamboats.
There is a royal marine college at Angouleme, a marine school at Brest, and several schools
of navigation.12. Population. According to the official estimates for 1837, the total population of
France, including Corsica, was 33,600,000. Two thirds of this number are engaged in
agriculture, and about half the remaining third are mechanics. The French empire in 1812,
previous to the Russian campaign, comprised a population of 43,000,000. France has en
tirely recovered from the losses occasioned by the wars of the Revolution and the Empire,
and was never so populous as at present.
13. Inhabitants, Classes, &c. The principal part of the inhabitants are descended from the
Celts or Gauls, the Romans, and the Franks, but chiefly from the latter. The Bretons who are
mostly in Lower Brittany, are the descendants of the people who were driven from England by
the Anglo Saxons, in the fifth century. After a lapse of so many centuries, they are still distin
guished from the French in dress, customs, and language. The German inhabitants of France
are in part Walloons, and live for the most part in Alsace, and a part of Lorraine. The
Basques are descended from the ancient Cantabrians, and dwell at the foot of the Pyrenees.
The remainder of the inhabitants are Jews ; Gypsies, who lead a settled life on the Rhine and
Moselle, and Savoyards who wander over the country. The French are a well formed and
active people. In cornplexion they are not so clear as the English, and they are less robust
in frame ; though there are many who would be considered corpulent even in England. In
the southern provinces, the skin is darker, and the eye more restless and brilliant.
Hereditary peerage in France is abolished. The titles of nobility are princes, dukes, mar
quises, counts, viscounts, and barons. There were formerly no less than 365,000 noble fami
lies, though of these only 4,120 were of the ancient nobility. The most ancient order is that
of St. Michael, founded by Louis the Eleventh, and conferred on distinguished artists and sa-
vans. The order of the Holy Ghost, is like the last, limited to 100 chevaliers, and it includes
the royal family and the princes of the blood. Louis the Fourteenth established the Order of
St. Louis, as a reward for military services. Under the consulate, the Legion d'Honneur
was instituted, and the members were both military and civil. At the Restoration it was
reorganized. It has 80 grand crosses, 160 grand officers, 400 commanders, 2,000 officers,
and an unlimited number of chevaliers. There are three schools for the education of 900 of
the daughters of the members.
14. Dress. France has long been looked up to as the standard from which there is no ap
peal, in all matters of taste or fashion, whether as regards dress or cookery ; and it must he
owned, that the French have earned their reputation in this respect by the unremitting atten
tion, which they have bestowed upon these subjects. From ihe highest to the lowest indi
vidual, from the duchess to the grisette, there is a universal, and, it would seem, an intuitive
esprit de coquetterie, which in no way displays itself more forcibly than in the frequent and
tasteful arrangement of the toilet. The " Courrier des Dames," and the "Journal des
Modes," have carried their laws through every part of the civilized world. In all the great
cities, whether of Europe or America, the dress of the upper classes is an intended imitation
* The mountain party originated the military conserip- of January, 1809, the French army consisted of 900 000
tion. Carnot, the revolutionary minister at war, or- infantry, and 100,000 cavalry, without including au'xil-
. ganized in 1794 no less than 14 armies, amounting to iaries. It was afterwards still more augmented. In
1,400,000 men. The decree of conscription was declared 1812 and 1813, France called out by extraordinary con-
a permanent law of the republic, and afterwards of the scriptions in her own territories, 1,280,000 men • and
empire, and this engine whether wielded by a Carnot from other countries 700,000, making a total of 1 980 000.
or a Napoleon, like the lever of Archimedes, for a time In the beginning of 1812, when Napoleon had' reached
moved and overturned the balance of the political world, the pinnacle of his greatness, he had a standing army of
The annual conscription after the incorporation of Bel- 1,200,000 men, a force greater than Rome ever possessed
gium and the Italian States with the empire, averaged in the zenith of her power
from 1806 to 1810, 360,000 men. By the official report
608 FRANCE.
though often a caricature, of Parisian costume ; and now, that these arbiters of fashion have
carried their arms into the African deserts, it is probable, that the Arab maidens, laying aside
the white veil with its tinkling bells, will begin to sigh for blouses, and cashmeres, and Chan-
tilly lace, and chapeaux de gaze ariophane. It is certain, that an innovation has already taken
place in the dress of the Algerine fair, since the entry of the French heroes into their capital,
and that upwards of- 50 ladies were persuaded to attend a ball given by their conquerors, with
the novel incumbrance of shoes and stockings.
Every event of importance, sad or glorious, a war, a revolution, or the downfall of a dynasty,
is immortalized in France by a pate or a riband. When the Opera House in the Palais
Royal was burnt down, in 1781, the fire of which lasted for more than a week, and in which many
persons perished, the Parisian elegantes displayed dresses of a flame color, entitled il couleur
feu de I' Opera ! " The modistes find it advantageous to give a singular name to a color.
" Couleur giraffe" had a meaning in it ; but the exact " couleur d'araignee meditantune
crime," which was for some weeks the rage in Paris, could only have been imagined by the
fantastic brain of a French modiste. After the fall of Robespierre, ihe surviving victims of
his tyranny, being released from their dungeons, resolved to celebrate the tyrant's deajb after a
truly French fashion, viz. by giving a ball. No one could be admitted who could not prove
that he or she had lost a friend or relative in the late massacres. It was entitled the " bal des
victimes." The rooms were hung with red drapery, and the dresses were couleur de sang.
History does not record, that any steps faltered among those who partook of this strange fes
tivity ; that the pas de bourrees were performed with less grace than usual, or the pas de vabe
with less vivacity. It is related, that two ladies, who had been united by the sentimental bonds
of female friendship, each of whom had believed the other to be among the victims of the
guillotine, and who had both obtained their tickets of admission upon this unfounded report,
met in the ball-room, to their mutual surprise. They rushed into each other's arms ; when
the director observed, that they had lost their right to remain, and they were requested to with
draw. Their joy was suddenly checked. " It is charming to recover one's friend," said one
of the ladies, sighing deeply ; " but — it is sad to lose so excellent a ball."
Fashion, in France, is a despot whose laws are blindly obeyed. For each season there is
a costume, and a deviation from the mode is looked upon as the violation of a moral duly.
Indeed, a sin against etiquette is more severely visited than a sin against propriety. If the
offender is a foreigner, a civil contempt is expressed by that ineffable shrug, which can only be
executed by a French shoulder. Times are by no means altered since the days of Madame
de Genlis, when a devoted lover broke off his engagement with a lady, from making the dis
covery, that her shawl, which he had firmly and fondly believed to be a real cashmere, was a
peau de lapin. When the peace, that followed the restoration of the Bourbons, permitted the
English to visit Paris, the English ladies, in their short waists and poke bonnets, excited as
much consternation as the appearance of a tribe of South Sea Islanders, in their skins, would
have caused to a less sensitive nation. Les Anglaises pour rire was an amusing caricature of
English dress and manners, as they acted upon the risible nerves of the French nation at that
period. Upon one occasion, when crowds had assembled according to custom, to see Louis
the Eighteenth feed in public, a titter suddenly arose among the well-bred mob, gradually in
creasing, and terrpinating in a burst of laughter, such as had never before invaded the precincts
of the royal ear. The cause was hastily inquired into, and a sufficient apology for mirth was
discovered in the unexpected appearance of an English poke bonnet.
The ladies in the country, and in the provincial towns, follow the Paris fashions, and are
more or less well-dressed, according to their facilities of communication with the capital.
During the Bonaparte dynasty, Madame le Roi, the couturiere of the Empress Maria Louisa,
presided over the empire of taste. But long waists were restored with the Bourbons, and Na
poleon and Madame le Roi fell together. Victorine became the legitimate sempstress, and
long reigned without a rival. The morning dishabille of a French lady is the perfection of co
quetry or of slovenliness, according to her intention of being visible or otherwise. If the
tormer, her peignor, or white muslin dressing-gown, is arranged with scrupulous neatness.
±ler morning cap is simple, but becoming ; and, down to the points of her red slippers, the
nicest eye can discover no fault. If the reverse, there is more ease than elegance in her toi
let, and the hour of promenade in the Tuileries finds her exhibiting a personification of the
grub transformed into a butterfly. Great judgment is displayed by a Parisian lady in her
choice of a seat in these gardens, where the sun shall throw a becoming shade over her eoufor
FRANCE. 609
de rose hat. The same regard for her complexion induces her to fit up her boudoir with a
suitable color, according as she is a blonde or a brunette. One superlative merit must be
granted to the French ladies ; their toilet is the perfection of simplicity. The dress of
an English or American lady would furnish materials for that of half a dozen moderate French
women. Thus far we have been speaking of female dress. The French gentlemen, instead of at
tempting to give the law in dress, rather affect the English fashions. The imitation, however,
runs into caricature, and while the. English gentlemen are the best dressed men in the world, the
French are almost the worst. But it is not among the higher classes alone, that dress is con
sidered a matter of importance in France. Every station has its peculiar costume. The wife
of a shopkeeper, or a milliner's girl, wears a dress equally distinct from that of a peasant or of
a lady. It generally consists of a chintz or stuff gown, a colored fichu, black-silk apron, and
a cap of a fixed form, ornamented with lace and ribands. A bonnet is considered as the exclu
sive privilege of a lady, and no severity of weather would induce a Frenchwoman to depart'
from this rule. The peasants in the different departments of France have a costume peculiar
to themselves. The most remarkable variety is in that of the women in Upper Normandy,
where the cauchoise cap is worn. It is made of starched muslin, and is from half a yard to a yard
in height. It stands up nearly perpendicularly, and is ornamented with long lace lappets, called
coquilles. The hair is braided in front, and gathered up in a mass behind. Upon a young and
handsome woman, these high caps have a pretty effect. They are called Cauchoises, Mar-
mottes, and Pierrots, according to the height and form. The rest of the dress consists of a
bright scarlet petticoat, extremely short, a black jacket, called an Apollon, and a colored apron;
long gold ear-rings, and gold hearts and crosses, fastened either to a black velvet riband or gold
chain. In the town of Bolbec, the greatest luxury is frequently displayed by the peasant
women on Sundays and fete days ; not only in the lace and ornaments of the cauchoise cap, but
in their gold trinkets, which are frequently of no mean value. In Lower Normandy, the
peasants' dress is nearly the same, with the exception of the cap, which is low and flat in
the crown.
In the other departments, there are different varieties of costume ; and in some places, such
as the neighborhood of Lyons, the peasant women wear, a flat, round, black hat, either of cloth
or velvet, and not unlike those worn in some parts of Switzerland. The men are dressed
pretty much as the laboring classes in England, or the United States. The village dandy is
shaved and curled on Sundays and holidays, and at other times, usually wears a blouse of blue
stuff, like a wagoner's frock, buckled in at the waist, and embroidered in white at the wrists
and collar.
15. Language. Two dialects grew out of the corruption of Latin ; which language was
introduced by the Roman conquest ; the Southern one was called the Langue d' Oc, and the
Northern, the Langue d'Oil. The former, though much changed, is still the language of Pro
vence, Languedoc, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca, Minorca, and Sardinia. The literature of
this language, is principally in the songs of the Troubadours, which were chiefly confined to
the two great themes of chivalry ; love, and war. The modern French, is derived from the
Langue d'Oil, and it is so well adapted to elegance and social life, that it has long been the
language of courts, diplomacy, and the higher classtes in many countries. A knowledge of it
will carry a traveler over all civilized Europe. Besides the French, and the Provencal lan
guages, the Bretons have their ancient British tongue, and the Germans have a corrupted Ger
man. The French, however, is general, in all the towns.
16. Manner of Building. In France, are some of the most magnificent edifices in the
world, but these are principally in the cities, for a country life is seldom led by the wealthy.
The great power of the kings, before the Revolution, and of Napoleon, since, enabled them to
expend large sums in buildings, and other public monuments. The Revolution dispersed many
of the rich landed proprietors, and the class of rich merchants and manufacturers reside chiefly
in towns. There are, trrerefore, few elegant and commodious country houses in France, com
pared with the number in England. The old chateaux are gloomy and without taste ; but the
cottages are generally substantial and comfortable. They are thatched, and have windows and
chimneys ; the floors are of clay, beaten hard. In some parts, the houses are of mud, mixed
with straw, which is cut into large square pieces, and hardened by-drying. A house of this
kind is sometimes of three stories, and has window frames of stone. The pise is a common
mode of building, and it is a process by which all kinds of earth, except sand, are compressed
77
gj0 FRANCE.
and hardened. They are laid in mortar, like stones. The cottages have, invariably, a garden,
and they are often ornamented with flowers.
17. Food and Drink. French cookery is known throughout the world, and is unrivaled in
variety and delicacy. The expedients are innumerable for giving various flavors to the same
material, and it frequently requires a scientific palate to discover the original nature of this ma
terial, under its various disguises. Monsieur Grimod de la Reyniere observes, in his Alma
nack des Gourmands, " There are, in France, 685 ways of dressing an egg, without counting
the new methods, which our savans imagine daily." At the Hotel of this gentleman, a weekly
meeting used to be held, called the Jury Degustateur, where new sauces and dishes were sub
mitted for their inspection, and sentence pronounced upon their merits. A French chefde cui
sine, is considered an indispensable appendage in the establishment of a person of fortune in
Europe ; and the salary given to artistes, frequently exceeds that bestowed upon the private
tutor, or governess of the family. The names of Very and Beauvilliers, the famous French
Restaurateurs, are well known. The brother of Very, who was also a proficient in the art of
cb-okery, has a magnificent tomb in the Cimetiere Montmartre, with a pompous inscription,
concluding with these words : Toute sa vie fut consacree aux arts utiles. The Cafe Hardy, in
' Paris, is famous for the excellence of its dejeuners a la fourchette, where Cotelettes d'agneau
au points d'asperge, Rognons saute a la vin de champagne, &c, may be had in perfection;
with Beaune, Chambertin, coffee, parfait amour, and all the necessary ingredients of a French
breakfast. The pates de foie gras, made chiefly at Toulouse and Strasburg, are a celebrated article of
French cookery, and the cruel process by which the liver of the geese is enlarged, in order to
produce this renowned dish, is thus described in the Cours Gastronomique : " The geese are
plucked, placed before a slow fire, and fed for several days. Heat and captivity produce an
enlargement of the liver, which renders them peculiarly excellent." A stranger, visiting Paris,
finds some difficulty in seeing his way through a Restaurateur's carte, and in choosing between
the Pates de Perigord, the Thou marine (pickled tunny), a fish which is taken chiefly in the
Gulf of Lions, the Poulet a la Marengo, Langue de boziif a la sauce piquante, pates a lafinan-
ciere, Anguilles a la Tartare, Tranches de Bceuf aux Tomates, fyc, fyc, <^c. If he is a John
Bull, his national taste may be gratified by observing Bifstek aux pommes de terre, Bifstek ou
mouton, or mutton-chop, and Rosbifd I'Anglaisc, among these varieties.
Frogs are esteemed a great delicacy. It is the legs and thighs only, of the animal, which
are dressed, and the flavor is somewhat like that of boiled chicken. They are caught in the
frog-ponds in the provinces, and sent up to Paris, where a dish of frogs is reckoned a rarity,
and is expensive in proportion. A dish made entirely of the combs of the domestic cock, is
also often served up. Tortoni's celebrated cafe glaciere, on the Italian Boulevard, is well
known to all who have visited Paris, as a fashionable lounge, where the topics of the day are
discussed, over grappes a la jardiniere and ponche a la glace. Notwithstanding the importance
attached to cookery in France, there is no country in the world, where economy in that de
partment is so well understood, and so universally practised.
The proportion of animal food consumed there, is much less than in England. The climate
is milder in France ; there is a variety of delicious fruits, and the wines are cheap and invigo
rating. Nothing can exceed the moderation and temperance of the laboring classes, in their
food. Bread, fruit, eggs, milk, coffee, and vegetables, form their chief subsistence. Even
among the better classes of farmers, animal food is scarcely ever in use, except on Sundays.
Their dinner generally consists of omelets, or vegetable soup ; pottage of onions, sorrel, or
cabbages. It is not uncommon to see a family of French children assembled to dinner, round
a dish of cherries, a loaf of bread, and a jug of water ; or a woman, who has labored all day
in the fields, dining upon an apple and a slice of bread. In the vintage provinces of France,
where the climate is good, this temperance probably conduces to the health of the peasantry ;
but on the sea-coast, and marshy lands, where shaking fever and ague are very prevalent, these
maladies are attributed by the physician, in a great degree, to the. extreme poorness of the
living. The French are temperate ; and with a cheerful temperament, with wines of great variety
and excellence, and with the best of brandies and liquors, it is, still, seldom that a person
is seen intoxicated. The brandies are unrivaled, and they are generally made wherever the
wine is produced, though the best are at Nantz, Cognac, and Poitou. In the cities, beer is
much used, and it is made in France of an excellent quality. Where the grape does not flour-
FRANCE. 611
ish cider is made, and there is none superior to that of Normandy. But France is the country of
the grape ; the product of the vineyards is delicious, and so abundant, that it supplies the demand
of every less fortunate climate. The choicest wines, however, seldom pass the frontiers. The
Champagne is a sparkling wine, and the best is not to be had for less than 5 or 6 francs a bottle;
and this quality is in too much demand to be easily obtained. The Champagne river wines
are generally red, and the mountain wines white. Those of Sillery are the most esteemed.
Some of the choice Burgundy has been sold on the spot for 12 francs a bottle. The wines of
Burgundy are both red and white ; they are light and delicious, both in taste and perfume.
The best are those raised in the departments of the Cote d'Or, Yonne, Saone, and Loire.
Some of the red wines are the Chambertin, Romanee Conti, Richebourg, Romanee de St.
Vivant, Tache, and St. George. The Mont Rachet is a white wine of great celebrity. The
Hermitage is a delicious red wine, produced on the Rhone.
Among the clarets, the La Fitte, the Latour, the Chateau Margaux, and Haut Brion, are
sold for about 25 per cent, more than the common qualities ; and even at Bordeaux, a bottle
of the best of these is not to be had for less than 6 francs. These are the wines that are the
most known and esteemed. The common vin du pays, or country wine, is of various quali
ties, and great quantities of it are consumed. The bare names of all the various wines of
France, would hardly be contained in one of these pages. There are more than 250 different
kinds. It is estimated, that about one twenty-sixth part of the territory is taken up in the cul
tivation of the vine. ' The price of vineyard land is very high. An arpent, or rather more
than an English acre, which produces 800 bottles, is sometimes sold for 3,000 dollars. It is
undoubtedly true, that the people of countries abounding in wines are far more temperate than
those who cannot cultivate the grape. All the inventions of man to supply the want of wines
are deleterious. It has been contended, that wine is everywhere an evil, yet we believe it may
be safely stated, that, in the country of vineyards, it is seldom perverted to a curse. But,
when it becomes an article of commerce, it is mixed, adulterated, and dashed with spirits,
for better preservation. In the United States, a deleterious manufacture of wines is carried
on to a great extent ; and the use of this poisoned beverage is often the beginning of intem
perance, which is the less suspected, because the enemy conies in the seeming guise of a
friend. 18. Diseases. France is, in general, a salubrious country, and there are few diseases of a
malignant type. The plague has been imported at Marseilles, where it made fearful ravages ;
but perhaps the most common of the local diseases is the fever and ague, which prevails in
many places.
19. Traveling. There is less internal communication in France than in England. The
method of posting extends over France, as well as Europe generally. The postmasters are
appointed by the government, and furnish horses and carriages at a moment's warning. The
postilion, by certain notes of his horn, gives notice to the post-houses ; and when the traveler
arrives, the horses are in readiness. This mode of traveling is expensive ; and the rate is about
6 miles an hour. The diligence is a cheaper and a much slower method. The Diligence,
the name of which promises little speed, is something between a wagon and a coach ; its stops
are brief, and it goes from 4 to 6 miles an hour.
There are usually 5 horses. One is within a heavy
pair of shafts, another is harnessed without the shaft,
at the side of the first, and three are leaders harnessed
with ropes, abreast. The postilion is himself a char
acter. He wears a little round hat, a green jacket,
hair en queue, and jack-boots, that may well be called
enormous. The nature of his equipments calls upon
Diligence. n'm f°r perpetual expedients, and he seems to be al
ways joining a bridle, knotting a whip, or knocking on
a saddle with a stone; He is off and on his horse's back many times in a stage, without stop
ping the vehicle. If a passenger calls, he dismounts, pops his head into the window, or runs
by the side. The diligence has a conductor, who sleeps in the cabriolet, or forward apart
ment, and who sits at the head of the table with the passengers.
Some of the great roads of France are paved with stone, in a very superior manner. They
were made in times when the peasantry were compelled to labor upon them, and many are
shaded with rows of venerable trees. Yet they are far less agreeable to travel upon than the
612
FRANCE.
English Macadamized roads. They seem almost deserted, and even the great avenues that
lead from Paris have little of the traveling, that fills the roads for miles about London. The
roads, generally, are in a wretched state, and the practicable ones not more than one-third of
the extent of those of England. The cross roads are few and neglected. Where there is
little internal circulation or traveling, the inns must be of a humble class, and those of France
are distinguished for the general want of accommodations. In England, there is scarcely a
village so remote, that an excellent inn is not supported by travelers, social parties, and civic
feasts ; but there are in France many considerable towns without an inn that would be deemed
tolerable in an English village, and in the
hamlets the traveler will fare still worse.
In the province of Landes,* in Gascony,
there is a singular mode of traveling ; as the
district is very sandy, the shepherds and
country people walk on stilts, by which they
are elevated from 3 to 5 feet. This is' a
strange sight, when a man is so distant, that a
spectator cannot see the stilts, as it seems
that he is walking in the air. The people go
in this way, 8 or 10 miles an hour, without
much fatigue. The stilts are long poles, with
a projection for the foot to rest on ; they are
strapped at the knee and at the ancle. By
means of a pole, which they always carry, the
walkers can let themselves down, take any
thing from the ground, and recover their
standing position.
20. Character, Manners, &c. An Amer
ican in France who has previously known the
French only from descriptions by the Eng
lish, is forcibly struck with its unfairness;
the description in many points has not the
resemblance even of a caricature. It seems
to be the instinct of the English to hate the
French, and this accounts sufficiently for the
calumny. Goldsmith hit not only upon the
English feeling, but he exemplified the na
tional fairness, in making one of his charac
ters say, " I hate the French, because they
are slaves, and wear wooden shoes."
Julius Cesar described the ancestors of the
Walking on Stilts.
* The Landes, or desert in the south of France, is a
tract of country between the mouths of the Adour and Gi-
ronde, along the seacoast, and, according to tradition, was
once the bed of the sea itself, which flowed in as far as Dax.
It is a bed of sand, flat, in the strictest sense of the word, and
abounding with extensive pine woods. These woods af
ford turpentine, resin, and charcoal for trade, as well as a
. sort of candles, used by the peasantry , made of yarn dipped
into the turpentine. The road is through the sand, unal
tered by art, except where it is so loose and deep as to re
quire the trunks of fir-trees to be laid across to give it firm
ness The villages and hamlets stand on spots of fertile
ground, scattered like islands among the sands. The ap
pearance of a corn-field on each side of the road, fenced by
green hedges, a clump of trees at a little distance, and the
spire of a rustic church tapering from among them, giveB
notice of the approach to an inhabited spot.
The shepherds are mounted on stills, and stride like
storks along the flats. These stilts raise them from three
to five feet; the foot rests on a surface adapted to its sole,
carved out of the solid wood ; a flat part clasped to the out
side of the leg, and reaching to below the bend of the
knee, is strapped round the calf and ancle. The foot is
covered by a piece of raw .sheep's hide. In these stilts they
move with perfect freedom and astonishing rapidity ; and
they have their balance so completely, that they run, jump,
stoop, and even dance with ease and safety. We made them
run races for a piece of money put on a stone on the ground,
to which they pounced down with surprising quickness.
They cannot stand quite still without the aid of along staff,
which they always cany in their hands. This guards
them against any accidental trip, and when they wsJL'0
be at rest, forms a third leg, and keeps them steady. The
habit of using the stilts is acquired early, and it appeared,
that the smaller the boy was, the longer it was necessary
to have his stilts. By means of these odd additions to the
natural leg, the feet are kept out of the water, which lies
deep, during winter, on the sands, and from the heated
sand during the summer ; in addition to which, the sPJJe'e
of vision, over so perfect a flat, is materially increased by
the elevation, and the shepherd can see his sheep much
further on stilts, than he could on the ground; Once,
when Napoleon was on a journey through the south ot
France, he traveled faster than his guard, which these
shepherds observing, 200 of them assembling about his car
riage, formed a guard of honor, and kept pace with it on
their stilts, at the rate of 7 miles an hour for 2 hours to
gether.
FRANCE. 613
French as the most polished barbarians he had conquered ; and what the ancestors were
among the barbarous, the descendants now are among the refined. Strabo describes the an
cient inhabitants as so jealous of their honor, that each one of them felt it incumbent upon him
to resent an insult offered to his neighbor. Like the English, the French are not without
pride, though it is not like that of the English, personal, but national ; the dignity of the indi
vidual vanishes before the glory of France. Glory is the passion of the French, and if the
national honor be advanced, a private or even a public calamity is little heeded. This passion
for glory has had ample gratification, though at a tremendous sacrifice of human life. Napo
leon owed his elevation to this passion in the French and to his power of ministering to its
gratification ; he gave them glory, and they bartered freedom.
The French are more sensible to the impressions of joy than of sorrow ; they feel the good
and forget the evil. The present outweighs the future, and the existing impulse is the ruling
one ; this is the instability which the English call insincerity. This also produces a facility
of adaptation to circumstances, that enables them to bear reverses better than any other people,
and that makes them feel at home, wherever they are ; in courts, or camps, or among the
wildest savage tribes. It is noted in America, that the French settler in the forest, sooner
than any other European, becomes identified with the Indian. The natural cheerfulness of
the French is sustained by a general urbanity, that exists in no other country ; their politeness
then is both a feeling and a habit, and it is a better guard of social order than an armed police.
There can be few quarrels and little calumny, where there is no offence ; and pugilism, which
is in England held to be so necessary for self-defence, would seldom be called into action in
France. The forms as well as the spirit of politeness pervade all classes, and a laborer has as high
a sense of what is due in this way from him to his equal, as a nobleman can have of what is
due to and from his peer. Beggars take off their hats to salute each other, and if two porters
jostle each other in the street, the first impulse of each is to beg the other's pardon ; whereas
in England a similar rencontre would give occasion for at least hard words. This universal
civility, or regard to the feelings of others, is seldom ridiculed by any but the English, who
very naturally undervalue what they do not possess themselves.
The cheerfulness of the French is not boisterous, or occasional ; it is constant, and con
nected with great kindness of feeling. There is so little separation of families, that the man
ner of life seems almost patriarchal, and several generations often live under the same roof, as
at La Grange. It is a common and a delightful sight to behold the whole family group from
youth to age, come out and enjoy themselves on some holiday or fete-. The very terms by
which these address each other show a mingled simplicity and kindness of heart. The grand-
sire is called le bon papa, or the good father, and the grandmother la bonne maman. The wife
speaks of her husband as notre mari, " our husband " ; the children are called petit, or petite,
and the maidservant is known only as la bonne. Wherever the French congregate, there is
a spirit of enjoyment spread over them ; there is joy and animation in every face. Wrangling
or intoxication, that are so often seen in an English or an American concourse, are almost
unknown in France. Dancing is as much the expression of joy as weeping is of grief, and a
traveler cannot go far in France without beholding a village dance, to which, as there are no
refreshments, the national cheerfulness is the only incentive. In other countries it is not
common to see the aged even sitting to behold the dances of the young ; they are too unin
terested in pastime to be present ; but in France the aged have scarcely less vivacity than the
youthful ; and the grandfather, surrounded by his offspring,
" Has frisked beneath the burden of threescore."
This social disposition has raised conversation to the dignity of an art. Genius and wit are
better titles than nobility, and those who have neither, may successfully cultivate their powers
of conversation, till they become good raconteurs, or relaters of stories. A soiree is not
esteemed like an English rout according to the number of visiters who cannot find seats, but
according to the actual social enjoyment, and the lively conversation ; the best talkers, there
fore, are not the least welcome. It is said, that a lady of rank after a death in her social
circle, exclaimed on meeting a friend, " Alas, Madam ! I have suffered a severe loss." The
other thinking it could be little less than a husband, was about to condole with her, when the
bereaved continued,, " I have lost. my best talker," (causeur.) The French ladies
carry this art of conversation to a point little short of fascination. Animation or enthusiasm
614
FRANCE.
is never checked ; the expression of no emotion is suppressed, and the voice is- as much
trained and modulated in talking, as in singing. Napoleon feared the salons of Paris more
than the armies of his enemies. He knew the taste and talents of the Freinch for epigrams,
of which he dreaded to become the object, as he was aware of the influence of ridicule over
his subjects. It must be allowed, that these Parisian squibs are sufficiently pointed and poised
to wound, but they are more generally political than personal. There is much satire, but little
calumny .
In France, the condition of females is peculiar. In the fields they labor, and perhaps even
more than in England, with the men ; but it is not the toil of compulsion, or poverty. They
are allowed to feel at least an equal interest in all matters of property, and in many cases, they
have the entire management ; the shops, the cafes, &c, of Paris, are under the charge of
females, and in these, their realms, the husband is little more than a subject. The salique law,
that regulates the succession of the crown, has no force in the shops, or salons. In French
society, woman is placed on an elevated pedestal, and if, by reason of her good sense, she is
not spoiled, it is not because flattery is not offered, and incense burned. The boudoir is the
sanctuary of a married dame, and the husband, who should enter it unbidden, would regard his
power more than his character ; he would bear the reproach of society, and be deemed a brute;
for it is a great evil, in French society, that the unmarried females have too little freedom, and
the married, quite too much. The boudoir is a fit retreat for the graces, and other females of
the mythology. Paintings, statues, vases, and flowers, nature and art, combine to adorn it.
It is the palace of Armida, the bower of Calypso ; but it breathes of Helicon less than of
Paphos.
French Peasantry.
It is the character and condition of the most numerous ciass, that has the greatest influence
upon a country ; and in France, the peasantry are truly a respectable body. They constitute
a great majority of the people, and their condition has been exceedingly improved by the Re
volution. The abrogation of all feudal service, which was severely exacted, is alone of vast
advantage. The corvee compelled the peasant not only to labor on roads and bridges, but to
do other service, to which little pay was attached, at the bidding of his feudal lord. With the
dissolution of the monasteries, and the confiscation of the property of the emigrants, there
came a division of lands, that enabled the peasants to become landholders. They were allow
ed 5 years, in which to pay for the land, and they were permitted to purchase in the smallest
quantities. This circumstance alone has vastly improved their characters. It has given them
FRANCE. 615
a'n independence, without which, no virtue is secure. They have many comforts, and poverty
is seldom so extreme among them, as to harden the heart, or depress the spirits. They are
almost universally above want.
There is a cow to every cottage, and as there is little pasturage, it is the employment ofthe
family, on part of the Sabbath, to go forth, and cut grass in the woods, and the way-side.
Every cottage has its grande chambre, where all the articles of finery are bestowed. A high
and neat bed is indispensable ; this is well furnished with curtains, and mounted by steps. At
the head are the relics, the image of the Virgin, and there is generally a clock. The garden
produces a variety of flowers, for which there is a national taste. In the season, everybody
has a boquet, and children stand ready to toss bunches of flowers into the passing coaches, with
the good wish of " bon voyage." Fontenay-aux-Roses had the privilege of supplying the
court and the parliament with roses. The peers and magistrates, in their assembly, in May,
received a bunch of flowers, in which the roses were arranged according to the rank of the
individual. It is unsafe to draw general or sweeping conclusions, in writing of national character. We
are too apt to forget, that the substance of all character is the same, and that the accidents only
differ. Individuals of the same nation, differ much more, than the general character of two
nations. The difference of language, manners, and dress, is so apparent to the senses, that it
is often extended to other points, in which there is no dissimilarity. It would be well for our
species, could there be, in one nation, a union of what is estimable in the English character,
with what is amiable in the French ; that the asperities of the one, could be softened by the
gracefulness of the other ; that unbending principle and inflexible faith, could be blended with
innocent gayety and happy simplicity.
21. Amusements. There is no country in the world, where there is such a variety of amuse
ments, as in France ; and no people in the world are so easily amused. A stranger, who visits
Paris for the first time, finds himself in a perpetual whirl of petty diversions, which, however
childish, are amusing, as long as the charm of novelty lasts, but which never become insipid to
a Frenchman of any age or rank. One of the chief resorts of persons of every condition, in
Paris, are the public gardens at Tivoli. They are thrown open twice a week, and brilliantly
illuminated with colored lamps, and are somewhat in the style of Vauxhall, in London, but
animated by diversions, which could never be imagined by a sober Englishman ; such as sailing
in wooden boats, slung to wires ; swinging in balangoirs, which go so high as nearly to take away
the breath, &c. There are, also, small temporary theatres, filled with mountebanks, buffoons
of every description, fortune-tellers, dressed like hermits, and jugglers, all exciting the laughter
and admiration of the assembled crowds.
In some parts of the gardens, groups of well-dressed persons, of the lower class, are dancing
to the sound of the violin, with that native ease and grace, which seem inherent to the French
peasantry. There are, also, cafes, with ices and lemonade, for those who wish for refresh
ments. Tivoli is the resort of every class, the highest and the lowest ; yet there is neither
riot nor excess of any kind. The utmost mirth, and gayety, is mingled with the most perfect
decorum. The evening concludes with fireworks of the most brilliant description, and the
whole scene, the lights, gay dresses, and sounds of merriment, are lively in the extreme.
Sometimes a "fete extraordinaire" is announced for Sundays, and more is then paid for ad
mission, except by the regular subscribers for the season. On these occasions, there is usually
a mock-siege, with all the accompaniment of cannon and fireworks, and which generally ends
in a mock battle between the French and English, in which the latter are beaten, and dead
bodies, in red coats, are strewed about in all directions.
Beaujon, was another garden of the same description, famous for its Montagues Russes, and
lately suppressed, by order of government, on account of the numerous accidents, which hap
pened in the flying cars. A scaffolding was erected, in the form of a steep mountain. Over
this, ran an iron railroad. Small cars were drawn up to the summit, by means of ropes attach
ed to the cars, and pulled round a wheel by horses. When they reached the top, they were
pushed down with amazing rapidity. The smallest obstruction, a pebble or a piece of wood,
on the road, occasioned their overturn. Nothing could exceed the enthusiasm of the Parisians
for this amusement. The cars were engaged for hours before the fete began, and anxious
crowds stood waiting for their turn, with breathless anxiety. The Czar of Russia, when he
visited Paris, under his traveling name of Count Ruppin, used to make frequent journeys oven
the Montagnes Russes. There are similar mountains at Tivoli, but the descent is less steep,
616
FRANCE.
and consequently less dangerous. There are many inferior gardens of this description in Paris,
equally gay, but less celebrated.
The fete of St. Louis was kept with peculiar magnificence in Paris during the latter days
of Louis the Eighteenth. The city was illuminated ; and the whole road, from the palace of
the Tuileries, to the Barriere de VEtoile, at the end of the Champs Elysees, had the appear
ance of a brilliantly lighted avenue. The gates of the Tuileries were thrown open, and the
gardens presented a blaze of variegated lamps. The fountains played. Innumerable crowds
filled every part of the Champs Elysees, the Tuileries, and the neighboring avenues. All the
Marchands de Plaisir in Paris had ranged their booths along the gardens, with ices, comfi-
tures, and refreshments of every description. Bands of music, consisting of harps, violins,
and horns, filled the air with sounds of gay music, tyroleennes and vaudevilles. Women, en
veloped in thick black or white veils, sat in corners of the gardens playing on guitars and sing
ing, attracting crowds by their air of mystery. The fireworks exhibited in front of the Chambre
des Deputes were unusually splendid.
The operas and theatres in Paris are constantly crowded, notwithstanding their number.
The French Opera is famous for its ballets ; the Italian Opera, for the excellence of its music;
Theatre Frangaise and the Odeon, for the best tragedy and comedy. Besides these, there are
the Opera Comique, the Theatre de la Porte St. Martin, the Variete, the Gymnase, and many
others. The Palais Royal, of which the principal part belongs to the Duke of Orleans, con
sists of the palace itself, and a long range of arcades, celebrated for the beautiful display and
variety of shops, and for its gambling-houses, more especially the salon. These gambling-
houses were, till lately, under the protection of government ; gambling is, perhaps, the only
amusement, of a vicious description, that the French are partial to.
But though Paris is the centre of gayety, the same love of amusement is observable through
every part of France. Nearly all the money made by the laboring classes is spent at the nu
merous fetes enjoined by their religion. The Fete-Dieu is one of the most solemn ; and is
celebrated on two successive Sundays. In every town and village in France, the inhabitants
are employed, for days before, in erecting and embellishing the reposoires, so called, as being
resting-places for the possession of the Host. They are stands covered with white, embroidered
muslin and lace, adorned with silver candlesticks, flowers, branches, and ornaments of every
kind. The path by which the Host is to pass is strewed with flowers and green branches.
The peasants are all dressed in their best attire. The interior of the churches is ornamented
with flowers. Garlands are placed on the figures of the Madonnas and Saints ; and the priests
are all dressed in their most splendid robes, to do honor to the solemnity. The Host, re
garded as the real presence, is carried in a vase by a priest, who conceals the divine symbols
under the folds of an embroidered veil. A canopy of crimson velvet is held over his head by
four other priests. The rest follow, singing a hymn in Latin, suitable to the occasion. Crowds
of well-dressed persons follow. In Paris, the late king and royal family, the Duchesses of
Berri and Angouleme walked in solemn procession behind the priests. As the Host passes, the
whole assembled multitude uncover their heads, and prostrate themselves before it. When the
procession arrives at the reposoires, the priests stop and pronounce a prayer. These proces
sions are now forbidden at Paris, by order of the French government, in consequence of some
seditious persons having taken advantage of them to occasion a riot, and hoist the drapeau
blanc, but in the provinces they are still continued.
Nearly every amusement in France terminates by dancing. In the most remote parts of
the country, groups of peasants may be seen every evening dancing quadrilles and waltzing
under the trees, to the sound of a rustic, violin, and frequently singingin chorus. In most of
the villages, there is a public house, where the village politicians assemble every evening,
and frequently engage in fierce and vehement debates, but which usually terminates by loud and
convivial songs, with the chorus of " Vive la Liberie."
22. Education. There is no Catholic, country with a general diffusion of education. There
are about 48,000 elementary schools in France, attended by 2,500,000 children, or about half
the whole number between the ages of 6 and 15 years. It has been calculated that more than
half the individuals in the nation cannot read ; though they are more intelligent than the same
class in other countries; probably, because they are more social. Education is now receiving
the attention of the government, and schools upon the Lancasterian plan have been introduced
into every large city. The establishments for education consist in academies, which have the
right of conferring degrees, as in Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine, Mathematics, National
FRANCE. 617
Philosophy, and Belles-Lettres. In the Royal Colleges, (which are a grade lower,) and of
which there are about 40, lectures are delivered gratis to the students, and instruction given in
the classics, history, rhetoric, mathematics, &c. The District Colleges or High-schools are
preparatory to these colleges, and are 322 in number. Reading, writing, and arithmetic, &c,
are taught in them.
In Paris, there is a great diffusion of knowledge ; it is the spirit of the place, and of the
age, to throw open to the public the vast collections in science and art ; and there are public
lectures on various scientific subjects. It is common in Paris to see fruit women, coachmen,
and others of the same class, reading while on their stand ; and the book, if examined, would
be found to be a volume of Racine or Corneille, or of some author of that grade.*
23. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. France is rich in scientific works, espe
cially in zoology, botany, chemistry, and mathematics. Among many other names distinguished
in these sciences, are Buffon, Cuvier, La Place, Lacepede, Jussieu, Lavoisier, Fourcroy,
Geoffroy, &c. The French literature abounds in excellent works on morals and law ; and in
memoirs and letter-writing it is unrivaled. The ornamental arts are in a high state, and Paris
is richly endowed with painting and sculpture. Many of the monuments of ancient art collected
by Napoleon, in the capital, are yet in France. The king's museum, in the Louvre, affords
a greater display of fine paintings and fine statuary, than any other collection in the world. Yet
these do not seem to have had the effect upon the national taste which might naturally have
been expected. A dry and insipid imitation of the Greek style distinguishes both the paint
ing and sculpture of the present day in France. David, born in 1750, was the founder of the
modern school of painting. In his desire to correct the florid and unmeaning style which had
existed since the days of Louis the Fourteenth, he fell into the contrary extreme. He ap
plied himself tt the study of antique sculpture, and with much success. His drawing and de
sign are correct and noble, but his works are in general devoid of simplicity and nature. In
his style, he resembled Pouissin, but that great artist represented the simplicity and repose of
the ancient statues. David added forced attitudes, and exaggerated expressions to his figures.
Yet, the Horatii of David, his Funeral of Patroclus, and his Coronation of Napoleon, are
fine performances ; and his portraits of his Imperial patron Napoleon, can hardly be criticized.
Those who have followed in tbe style of David, have in general adopted his faults, and their
want of talent renders their errors more glaring.
The French sculptors of the present day have more science than feeling or invention. Their
works display the correct proportion and symmetry of the Grecian statues, but are totally
wanting in the divine expression and sentiment which animated these works. In the useful
arts, the French have many ingenious inventions, but they are, on the whole, much behind the
English. Jn copper, steel, and wood engravings, they are also inferior ; tut they have brought
the lithographic art to great perfection, and by means of this, we are supplied in the United
States with beautiful copies of many of the best paintings in Europe, as well ancient as
modern. 24. Religion. Until the revolution of 1830, the Roman Catholic was the established
religion ; but no one sect has now any advantage over another. The following are the prin
cipal clergy ; there are several cardinals, all of which have 30,000 francs a year, except the
archbishop of Paris,, who has 100,000. There are 14 archbishops, who receive (except
those who are cardinals) 25,000 francs a year. There are .66 bishops, with salaries of 15,000
francs ; 174 vicars-general, who receive from 4,000 to 2,000 francs ; 660 titular canons, or
prebendaries, receiving from 2,400 to 1,500 francs ; 1,788 honorary canons and 3,085 cu
rates or rectors, receiving from 1,600 francs to 1,100 francs. 26,800 desservans who perform
the duties of the titular clergy, receiving from 900 to 750 francs ; 5,756 vicars, 439 chap
lains, 839 almoners, 1,976 priests, resident in parishes, and 1,044 directors, and professors
of seminaries. The total number of Catholic priests actually doing duty is nearly 40,000.
The number of women in religious establishments is about 20,000. There are 1,983 of these
• France had 23 Universities before the revolution. Of the Acadimie Francaise.-composed of 40 members ; that of
these, the Sorbonne, founded at Paris in 1250, by Robert Inscriptions and Belles-Lettresr a\so of 40; the Royal Acad-
-de Sorbonne, was the most celebrated. The academies emy of Sciences, with 63 ; and that of the Fine Arts, with
and literary societies were 29. The universities were sup- 40 ; Napoleon's Imperial University has been retained with
planted at the revolution by the icoles centrales, primaires some modification. It includes 26 acadimies universi-
and secondaires. The academies of Paris were united into taires, preparatory to which are the colleges or high-
one, and denominated the National Institute, soon after the schools.
revolution. This institution is divided into 4 academies :
78
618
FRANCE.
establishments.* The Catholic church costs the government annually 7,000,000 dollars. In
Paris, there are 30,000 Protestants, and in France upwards of 2,000,000. They have 96
consistories, 438 churches, and 305 pastors, paid by government. The Protestant church
costs the government annually 200,000 dollars.
The marriages are contracted early, and among the higher classes too often by the parents.
The bride brings a truly liberal portion of all the various kinds of clothing, &c, called the
trousseau, and it is the province of the bridegroom to furnish the jewels. No people are so
poor that they have not ornaments of gold. Divorces are not common ; but there are many
separations, which are settled by contract. The funerals and cemeteries in France are worthy
of imitation. The dead are not laid in a dismal, and " neglected spot " ; but their place of
rest is adorned with classic monuments, shaded with trees, and planted with flowers. In an
English or American burying-ground, a person is seldom seen unless at burials ; but in France
many of the graves are daily strewed with fresh flowers, by surviving friends ; and family, and
other groups, are often seen among them. The cemetery of Pere la Chaise, at Paris, is one
of the most remarkable and interesting objects attached to the capital.
* There are now few monasteries in France ; but
scarcely a town of any note, where there are not one or
more convents for nuns. Sometimes these convents are
attached to the hospital, and the time of the nuns is ex
clusively devoted to attendance upon the sick. In this
case, they are not-cloistered, as their duty frequently calls
them to different parts of the town or country upon er
rands of charity. They merely wear a peculiar dress,
divide their time between acts of benevolence and reli
gious duties, and do not mix in society ; such are the Sanirs
de la Churiti, and the Sieurs de la Providence, of whom there
are societies all over the continent of Europe, and who
may be seen with their downcast looks and folded arms
gliding along the streets of the populous cities, apparently
unconscious of all that is passing around them. Still
more frequently, they devote themselves exclusively to
the education of girls, and almost all the ladies both of
France and Italy are brought up in these Pensionnats.
There are also convents, where the nuns employ them
selves both in attending the sick, and in the education
of youth ; such, for example, is the Convent of Les Sours
Hospitalieres at Bayeux, a town which has now dwindled
into comparative insignificance, but which is still the res
idence of a bishop, and remarkable for the elegance of its
cathedral. The streets of Bayeux are mean and dirty, and on ar
riving at the convent gates, the mind is totally unprepar
ed for the quiet and beautiful scene of seclusion which
the interior presents ; and which is rendered doubly
striking from its existing in the very heart of a manufac
turing town. Upon ringing at the gate, the door is open
ed by the portress, and after passing through a long stone
passage, the stranger is conducted into a small parlor,
advancing from the building with an iron grating in front,
a few chairs, and a stone floor. Behind the grating is a
dark-red curtain, which, by its air of mystery, excites a
degree of impatient curiosity for its removal. In a few
minutes, the curtain is drawn aside, and one of the nuns,
probably a Satur Superieure, dressed in the habit of the
order, and distinguished by the large bunch of keys hang
ing at her girdle, appears at the grating and enters into
conversation with the visiters. No gentleman can be
admitted into the interior, but an order frc*i the superior
can be obtained for the admission of ladies, who wish to
view the establishment. In the mean time, nothinir can
be more striking, than the scene which is visible through
the grating, which seems like a glimpse into a world
totally distinct from that which we have left behind us.
In the large and beautiful garden, tastefully diversified
with trees and flowers of every hue and variety, groups
of nuns, with long black veils, may be seen gliding
among the trees and through the winding alleys. Some
are employed in tenching the pensionnaires, some are em
broidering under the shade of the trees. All seem cheer
ful and contented; all are occupied, and pursuing their
various tasks with assiduity. When the order for admis
sion is obtained, the inner gates nre opened, and the Mere
Supdricurc, a venerable old lady, leaning on a staff, re
ceives the strangers, and conducts them into the garden,
where a nearer view of the inmates tends to dissipate still
more effectually those ideas of gloom, which seem con
nected with a conventual life.
The convent is a large stone building of great antiqui
ty, and formerly one ofthe wealthiest in France. It con
tains upwards of two hundred nuns, governed by a supe
rior, chosen from among their body ; and at whose elec
tion is a solemn religious ceremony. The superior is
appointed for a certain number of years, but at the end of
that period, the same is usually reelected. Of these
nuns, the greater part are cloistered, but there are some
lay-sisters, and numerous novices. Though there are
many of their number belonging to the oldest families in
France, and some of a much lower rank, there are no dis
tinctions of that nature among them. By turns they
make the beds, sweep the floors, and attend upon the
others at table. Nothing is more deserving of attention
than the hospitals which form part of the building. They
consist of two large and airy apartments ; the one destin
ed for the reception of men, the other for that of women.
There are a hundred beds in each, and the scrupulous
neatness and cleanliness which reigns throughout; the
kindness with which the nuns talk to the invalids; the
pleasure which their visit seems to afford to these poor
people ; and the respect and gratitude with which they
are regarded ; cannot fail to impress the stranger with a
favorable idea of the establishment. Two small labora
tories are attached to these rooms ; in each of which a
nun is in constant attendance, to mix up medicines, and
have in readiness all that may be wanted for the invalids.
They are very skilful, both in surgery and medicine ; and
dress the wounds of their patients with their own hands,
watch by them all night, and spare neither trouble nor
fatigue in their service. Persons with malignant diseases,
such as small-pox or typhus fever are not admitted, on
account of the pensionnaires, who would thus be exposed
to infection.
The dormitory for the pensionnaires is a noble apart
ment, a hundred feet in length, having two long ranges
of small beds, with curtains as white as snow. A large
lamp hangs from the roof, and is kept burning all night.
Two nuns sleep in the apartment, to take charge of the
boarders. The oilier nuns sleep in separate cefis, small
rooms with no other furniture than a bed, a chair, a cru
cifix, and a few prints of saints or Madonnas. A hand
some chapel belongs to the convent, where the Bishop of
Bayeux officiates upon great occasions. The hours of
prayer are numerous. At 12 o'clock, when the augelus
is rung, they meet in the chapel ; also in the afternoon,
for vespers. At all hours of the day some of the nuns
may be seen in the chapel, kneeling on the floor, like
motionless figures of stone, muttering their prayers before
the altar. A confessor belongs to the convent, chosen by
the bishop, nnd admitted at all hours. Occasionally, tjie
superior receives the visits of other priests, and permits
the nuns to see him, according to her discretion. The
lay-sisters are permitted to walk with the boarders, and
FRANCE. 619
25. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, and the succession of the
crown is limited to the male line. The king commands the forces by sea and land, declares
war, makes treaties, and appoints to all offices under the responsible advice of his ministers.
There is no monarchy in Europe so limited as the French. The legislative power resides in
the king, the house of peers, and the house of deputies of the departments ; each branch may
propose a law. The number of peers is unlimited, and the nomination of them belongs to
the king. By a late law the peerage is no longer hereditary. The Chamber of Deputies is
chosen by the electoral colleges. A citizen to be eligible to these, must pay 200 francs
direct tax, yearly, either in his own person or by delegation for his mother, grandmother, or
mother-in-law ; and, if there are not 50 of this description in a department, the right devolves
upon the 50 who pay the highest taxes. There are but 130,000 of these electors in France.
26. Laws. Several hundred particular systems of customs have been reduced to five
codes, with general principles ; the civil code, or general law of the country ; the commercial
code, the penal code, and the codes of civil and of commercial procedure. They embody
what was before loose, voluminous, and little known ; the old laws of France are, therefore,
necessarily referred to, for the illustration of these codes. The civil code has not been
changed by the Restoration, except in its name, which was before that event, the Code Na
poleon- The criminal code is not sanguinary, though it has been charged with giving too
much power to the officers of government, in the selections of jurors. The courts are mod
eled on the English plan.
27. Antiquities. The antiquities are principally architectural, and are generally included
in our description of towns. There are, however, many Roman remains. At Paris, there
is one apartment, 60 feet long, and 42 wide, vaulted, and having 3 interior arcades, the sole
remnant of the Palace of the Warm Baths, built by Constantius. At Lyons, there are sev
eral antiquities, especially the remains of two aqueducts, ascribed to Mark Antony, or
Agrippa ; a beautiful mosaic, the ruins of a theatre, and of subterraneous reservoirs. Many
medals, coins, vases, statues, &c, have been found in the vicinity. At Nimes, are more
perfect monuments. The beautiful edifice, miscalled the Maison Carrie, is in almost perfect
preservation. It was some public edifice with a portico of six Corinthian columns in front,
and three on each side. The cornice, frieze, capitals, and carved acanthus leaves, are perfect
models in architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Diana has also much of the noble
simplicity of ancient art.
But the greatest monument, though not the most beautiful of ancient Nimes, the altera
Roma, is the amphitheatre, which has no superior, but the Coliseum, and which is in a better
state of preservation than that. It is of cut stones of prodigious size, which have the marks
of the fire made by Charles Martel, to dislodge the Saracens. The porticoes are perfect,
with columns, pilasters, and decorations, especially two bull's heads, two gladiators, and the
she wolf with Romulus and Retnus. There are also baths, mosaic pavements, and various
fragments. The Pont du Gard, 7 leagues from Nimes, is a stupendous Roman monument.
This was an aqueduct across a river, composed of three several bridges, one above the other,
may be sent on errands, when anything is wanted for the nun who breaks her vows is no longer built up in a wall
use of the convent. The novices are strictly watched, as in, days of old, yet there is a brazen wall of prejudice
and seldom allowed to leave the gates. They are distin- and public opinion, which is almost as formidable to her ;
guished from the others by their white veil. Their no- and it is probable, that along period will elapse before any
viciate lasts three years, and a considerable sum is paid female will have courage to break through these barriers,
by them on entering, after which they are maintained by and to expose herself to the scorn of her companions, and
the establishment. The ceremony of taking the black the indignation of the Church.
veil is one of the most solemn and beautiful in the Roman The dresa of the Sceurs Hospitalieres is a robe of white
Catholic religion. casimir ; a white muslin bandeau which crosses their
High mass is celebrated in the chapel. The Bishop forehead, with two long pieces of white muslin, which
officiates in his splendid robes. The novice appears dress- fold across the breast; a long veil of black crape, which
ed in white, and sometimes decked with jewels like a conceals part of the face, ana hangs down to the knees ;
bride. She kneels before the altar while the Bishop pro- a black and gold rosary with an iron cross upon which is
nounces a discourse upon the solemnity of the vows an image of the crucifixion, and which usually contains
which he is about to pronounce. She then retires behind relics, such as small pieces of the bones of saints; a piece
the altar. Her long hair is cut off and she is invested of the true cross, &c. &c. The nuns read no books
with the nun's garment. She is then led forward to the which are not first examined by their confessor, and these
Bishop, and having pronounced upon her knees, her in- are usually limited to the lives of the saints, and other
tention of abjuring the world, and devoting herself to the works of a religious nature. Their evenings invariably
service of God, she receives his benediction. The black conclude with psalms and prayers, performed in a large
veil is thrown over her. A solemn hymn is chanted to parlor, where they assemble when the duties of the day
the notes of the organ, and the gates of the convent are are over. The beauty of their embroidery is famous all
henceforward closed upon her forever, It is true, that by over Europe. It is usually employed in robes for the
the order of government, all nuns are now regarded as priests, and hangings for the altars.
free from their vows after a certain period ; but though a
620
FRANCE.
of which the arcades successively diminish in space, and increase in number. The first range
of arches has 6 openings, 83 toises in length,. and 10 toises and 2 feet high ; the second range
has 11 arches of the same height, but 133 toises, 2 feet in length ; and the third range has 35
arches, on a much smaller scale, and this was the canal or aqueduct. There are many other
Roman remains in different parts of France, but these near Nimes are by far the most inter
esting. Rousseau thus describes his own sensations on beholding- the Pont du Gard. "I
came," says he, " prepared to behold a monument worthy of the hands which had reared it.
For the first time in my life, the reality surpassed my expectations, and it belonged only to
the Romans to produce this effect. The aspect of this simple and noble work struck me the
more, as it is in the midst of the desert, in which silence and solitude render the object more
striking, and admiration more lively. One asks himself, what force can have transported these
enormous stones so far from any quarry, and brought together the strength of arm of thousands
of men, where there is not one man now ? I went over the three stories of this superb
edifice with a sentiment of respect which made me almost fear to tread it ; the echoes of my
footsteps beneath its immense vaults seemed as if I heard the strong voice of those masters of
the world, who had built it."
28. History. France was originally inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic tribe. Julius Cesar
subdued them, and the country
became a Roman province The
Franks, a people of Germany,
invaded Gaul in the 5th centu
ry and Clovis, their king, may be
considered as properly the first
sovereign of France.* - His de
scendants are called Merovingi
ans, from Merovius, one of tbean-
cient sovereigns. This race of
kings became extinct in 754 ;
when Pepin the Short, matre of
the Palace, became king. This
second race of sovereigns are call
ed Carlovingians, from Charles the
Great, or Charlemagne, son and
successor of Pepin, who became
not only sole monarch of France,
but Emperor of the West, and was
crowned by the Pope at Rome.
The Carlovingian dynasty ended
in 987, by the accession of Hugh
Capet, Duke of France, to the
throne. The houses of Yalois,
Bourbon, and Orleans, which
have subsequently reigned in
France, are different branches
of the Capetian stock.
The Franks were a free peo
ple ; and the feudal system was
established under Hugh Capet.
The early wars with the English
generally resulted to the disad
vantage of the French ; and Hen
ry the Fifth of England, so far
subjugated the country as to win
for his successors the title of
king of France. In the beginning
Pepin.
Bertha, wife of Pepin.
Charlemagne.
of the 16th century, however,
1 Louis, the name borne by so many of the French sovereigns, is a corruption of Clovis.
FRANCE.
621
Louis XIV. Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV. Louis XV.
Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Louis XVIII.
the power of France was developed,
and her influence upon the affairs of
Europe began to display itself in the
conquest of Italy by Charles the
Eighth. From this period, the
kingdom gained power and ascen
dancy in the political system of Eu
rope. Louis the Fourteenth main
tained great armies, and carried on
wars for the amusement of the ladies
of his court. Coalitions arose against
him, and the power of France was
crippled for half a century. Louis
the Sixteenth espoused the cause of
American Independence, and intro
duced liberal notions of government
among his people. The finances
became embarrassed, all ordinary
methods of retrieving them were
found ineffectual, and the States Gen
eral, or ancient assembly of the repre
sentatives of the people, were summon
ed. From discussing fiscal affairs, they
passed to debates upon the principles
of government, and the French Revo
lution began.
A new era commenced, marked by
a political fanaticism, of which histo
ry affords no other example, and by
crimes, the recital of which fills the
mind with horror. Louis the Six
teenth, and his wife Marie Antoinette,
fell upon the scaffold, and France was
governed by a few persons, who estab
lished the most sanguinary despotism,
under the name of liberty. A crusade
against revolutionary France was raised
among the powers of Europe ; but though anarchy reigned within, France repelled foreign
armies, while the different parties in the National Convention proscribed, banished, and massa
cred each other. The government of the Directory succeeded, but was overthrown by Bona
parte, who became consul of the French Republic. He put an end to factions, added new
glory to the national arms, closed the gulf of the revolution, and gave a short peace to France.
In 1804, the Consul converted his
laurels into an imperial diadem. Wars
and coalitions against him only served to
increase his power, and add territories to
the French empire. Napoleon ruled over
the greatest part of Europe. When Con
sul, he changed kingdoms into republics.
When Emperor, republics were changed
into kingdoms. He founded monarchies
in Germany ; he gave crowns to his, gen
erals. Twice he saw the crown of
Prussia at his feet without seizing it, but
lavished the best blood and treasure of
the empire to place his brother on the
throne of Spain. In 1812, he marched
Bonaparte's Retreat from Moscow. with an army of 400,000 men into Russia,
622
FRANCE.
and reached the ancient capital of the Czars, only to be a witness of its conflagration. A
severed winter destroyed his whole army ; and the man, who shortly before, had the mos pow
erful ho! in the world at his disposal, beheld himself in a paltry sledge, fleeing obscurely home-
ward across the frozen deserts of Poland. Yet never was the genius of this extraordinary
person more strikingly manifested than in his unexampled reverses. A few months saw him
Buonaparte crossing the Alps.
again at the head of 300,000 men, and though abandoned by his allies on the field of battle, he
made a glorious resistance against the combined efforts of Europe. His capital was occupied
by the enemy in March, 1814, and he abdicated the crown, and retired to Elba.
The Bourbons, in the person of Louis the Eighteenth, returned to the throne, from which
the revolution had expelled them, but the disgrace of a foreign occupation wounded the national
pride. Napoleon availed himself of the general discontent, and landed at Frejus on the 1st of
March, 1815. The sight of his face drove everything that was Bourbon out of the country,
aud he entered Paris at the head of the troops sent to take him prisoner. He levied an army
for the national defence, gained the victory of Ligny, and was defeated the next day at Wa
terloo. He again abdicated, threw himself upon the generosity of the English, and died a
prisoner and an exile, at St. Helena, in 1821.
SPAIN.
623
After the second restoration, France had need of repose, and the Bourbon dynasty, although
twice forced upon the people at the point of the bayonet, might, with wisdom and moderation,
have kept upon the throne for many years ; but Charles the Tenth was so foolhardy as to at
tempt the restoration of absolutism. He annihilated the charter by a stroke of his pen ; the
people rose in insurrection, and fought his troops in the streets of Paris. A three days' battle
ended in the overthrow of the king, on the 30th of July, 183Q. France is now a republic in
all but the name. The king rules by the will of the people. Hereditary nobility is abolished,
and hereditary monarchy may soon share the same fate.
CHAPTER LXXVI. REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA.
This little state is situated on the southern declivity of the Pyrenees, betweep Catalonia, in
Spain, and the department of Arriege, in France. The population of the republic is 15,400,
occupying 34 villages, and 190 square miles of territory. The capital, Andorra, has 2,000
inhabitants. Iron and wood are the principal productions. The government is administered
by a council, over which presides a syndic ; two judges, one appointed by the king of France,
and the other by the bishop of Urgel, in Spain, preside over the administration of justice in the
retired and peaceful valley of Andorra.
CHAPTER LXXVII. SPAIN.
Court of the Alhambra, Seville, Spain.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. Boundaries and Extent. Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and France, east
and south by the Mediterranean and the Straits of Gibraltar, and west by Portugal and the
Atlantic. It extends from 35° 57' to 43° 44' N, latitude, and from 3° 20' E. toV 40' W.
longitude. Its greatest length, from east to west, is 640 miles, and its breadth 530, and it con
tains 183,000 square miles.
624
SPAIN.
2. Mountains. The Pyrenees separate this kingdom from France, and run east and west,
from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, skirting the whole southern shore of the bay of Biscay.
In common language, the name of Pyrenees is applied only to that part of the range between
France and Spain ; the western portions are known by the appellations of the Mountains of Biscay,
the Sierra of Asturias, the Mountains of Mondonedo, Santillana, and Vindho. They were
known to the ancients by the name of the Cantabrian Mountains. This range is, in some
parts, 120 miles in breadth. The eastern peak of the Maladetta, the loftiest summit, rises to
the height of 11,441 feet. On the south, the Pyrenees have a sterile appearance ; but their
northern sides are less precipitous, and afford many woods and pastures. Their highest sum
mits are capped with perpetual snow. The level country on the French side is much lower
than on the side of Spain. The most important defiles through these mountains, leading from
France to Spain, are from St. Jean de Luz to Irun ; the pass of Roncesvalles, and the pass
near the Mediterranean, from Perpignan to Barcelona.
Proceeding south from these mountains, we cqme to a second range branching off irregularly
from the Pyrenees, first southeasterly, and then southwesterly. This is called the Iberian
Chain, and, as it approaches toward Portugal, takes the name of Monte Gata. It divides Old
from New Castile, and bears, in different parts, the names of Guadarrama, Urbia, Oca, Mon-
cago,-&.c. Nearly parallel to the southern part of this, is another range, called the Sierra de
Guadalupe, in the north termed the Mountains of Toledo. Still further south is the Sierra
Morena, or Brown Mountain, which, in the time of the Saracen dominion, was the boundary
between Moorish and Christian Spain. The most southerly range is the Sierra Nevada, or
snowy ridge, which skirts the Mediterranean. These are the highest mountains in Spain.
The Cumbre de Mulahacen, their loftiest point, rises to the height of 11,698 feet. The high
summits are covered the whole year with snow and ice, and may be seen from the distant coast
of Africa.. On the other mountains of Spain, the snow seldom lies longer than a few months.
Many of them are entirely barren, and exhibit nothing but a naked assemblage of crags thrown
together in the most picturesque manner. Some are covered with a scanty crop of grass and
brushwood, and others are clothed with magnificent forests. Firs, oaks, and cork-trees grow
in the higher regions.. Chestnuts, tamarisks, pines, and birches clothe their bases.
The Mountain of Montserrat, is a detached eminence of the eastern Pyrenees, about 30
miles northwest of Barcelona. It consists of a cluster of sharp peaks, rising to the height of
3,300 feet, and always capped with clouds. The whole mountain is 24 miles in circumference.
There are 14 hermitages upon different parts of these heights, and about half way up," is a mag
nificent convent of Benedictines. The scenery, in every part of this remarkable eminence, is
strikingly bold and romantic.
3. Valleys. The great valleys of this country, are traversed by the 5 principal rivers, de
scribed under the next head ; their general outlines may be understood, from the preceding de
scription of the mountain ranges, which mark their limits.
4. Rivers. The Tap, or Tagus, rises in the Sierra de Albarracin, in Arragon, and flows
west, between the Iberian chain of mountains and the Sierra de Guadalupe, through Portugal,
into the Atlantic. It is a large river, with steep banks and a rapid current ; but is not naviga
ble, On account of its rocks and shallows. The Guadiana rises in La Mancha, and flows
southwesterly, between the mountains of Guadalupe and the Sierre Morena, to the Atlantic,
intersecting the southern part of Portugal, and, at its mouth, forming the boundary between the
two kingdoms. It is navigable for 45 miles from its mouth. The Guadalquivir flows between
the Sierra Morena and the Sierra Nevada, southwesterly, to the sea. It is a beautiful stream, and
is navigable in the lower part of its course. In the north of Spain, is the Duero, flowing west,
through Portugal, into the Atlantic. The Ebro rises among the mountains in the north, and
runs southeasterly into the Mediterranean ; its mouth is shallow and sandy. The Guadahwar
and Xucar, are smaller streams, running in the same direction. Most of the rivers of Spain
have shallow and stony beds, and dry up in summer to such a degree, as to be nearly useless
lor navigation.
5. Islands. The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, consisting of Majorca,
Minorca, Iv.ca, and Fromentera, with some smaller ones. Majorca, the largest, is about 100
miles from the coast. It is 40 miles in extent, each way, and is mountainous. Minorca pos
sesses the valuable harbor of Port Mahon. These islands have generally a good soil, and pro
duce oranges, olives, wine, &c, and they have 240,000 inhabitants
6. Coasts. The shores are generally bold, and are furnished with many safe and commodi
ous harbors, but there are no very large bays, or gulfs.
Spain. 625
7. Climate. This country lies in the southern part of the temperate zone. The cojd is
never excessive, even in the riorthern parts. In the south, the heats of midsummer would be
intolerable, but for the sea-breeze, which begins to blow at 9 in the morning, and continues till
5 in the evening. The interior is so elevated, as to be much cooler than might be expected,
from the latitude. The two Castiles form a raised plain, nearly 2,000 feet in height. The prov
inces, along the Mediterranean, are the paradise of this kingdom. An everlasting spring
seems to reign in this delightful country. The sky of Andalusia is pure azure and gold ; the
inhabitants of Seville affirm, that a day was never known, when the sun did not shine upon
their city. Two kinds of winds are sometimes unpleasant in Spain. The Gallego, from the
northwest, is piercing and cold ; the Solano, a southwest wind, from Africa, is so hot, as to
relax the human system, and produce giddiness and inflammation.
8. Soil. The greater part of the country is fertile, and covered with a luxuriant vegetation.
The fruits and plants offer a greater variety than is afforded by any other region of the same
extent. The land is everywhere favorable to the cultivation of the vine. The greater part of
Spain may be regarded as naturally the most fruitful country of Europe ; but there are exten
sive wastes in the interior.
9. Geology. The Pyreriean mountains are granitic, as are also the central ridges ; schistus
and calcareous rocks, as well as sandstone, abound among them. The low plains are covered
with alluvial deposits, mixed with fossil bones. In the south, the mountains contain schistus,
sandstone, and gneiss ; and in this quarter, are vestiges of volcanic craters.
10. Natural Productions. There are 8 species of oak among the forest trees. Three of
these are particularly valuable ; the evergreen oak, or quercus bellota, with edible fruit ; the
cork oak, and the cochineal oak, on which the false cochineal, yielding a fine crimson color, is
found. The other common trees, are tamarisks, pines, birches, chestnuts, pistaches, firs, pop
lars, &c. The fruits of the south are lemons, oranges, pomegranates, figs, olives, almonds,
&c. The date palm grows upon the shore of the Mediterranean, and the exportation of dates
from Spain forms a thriving branch of trade.
11. Minerals. Spain supplied the ancient inhabitants of Europe with the greater part of
the precious metals they possessed, but her mineral products are small at the present day.
Mines of quicksilver are wrought at Almaden, in La Mancha, and iron is furnished by the pro
vinces of Biscay. Coal is wrought in Catalonia and Asturias. Crystafized sulphur is found
in the neighborhood of Cadiz. 200 species of marble are enumerated in the kingdom.
12. Mineral Springs. These are very numerous, and are estimated, by some, at 1,200;
but regular watering-places, and bathing establishments, do not exist in Spain. A hospital is
the only common accompaniment. The springs of Trillo, or Guadalaxara, are used for drink
ing and bathing. Those of Sierra Vermeja, in Grenada, contain iron and sulphur. Those of
Buzot, in Valencia, sulphur, iron, and salt. The baths of Archena, in Murcia, and Caldar de
Monbuy, were known to the Romans.
13. Animals. Almost all the wild animals of Southern France, are common to Spain. The
plains and mountains abound in game. The wild boar, the bear, and various kinds of deer, are
found in the mountains of Galicia, and the Asturian forests. Hares, rabbits, partridges, fla
mingoes, and bustards, are common in Andalusia. The wolf still frequents neatly all the wood
ed and mountainous districts of the country. The 'chamois and the lynx find a shelter in the
Pyrenees, and the other mountains of the east. The moufflon is found in the kingdom of
Murcia. The genet, porcupine, scorpion, and chameleon, may also be mentioned. Cantha-
rides,, tarantulus, and mosquitoes, abound. Estremadura and Andalusia, are sometimes deso
lated by swarms of locusts from the African coast.
14. Face of the Country. Spain is' an elevated, mountainous, and beautifully picturesque
country. It exhibits an alternation of mountain ridges and wide plains, everywhere watered
by rivers and small streams. The hills are covered with vineyards, and the valleys display the
most luxuriant vegetation. The southern part looks like a garden in perpetual bloom. In ex
ternal beauty, few countries in the world equal Spain.
79
626 SPAIN-
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Divisions. Spain is divided into 13 captaincies, some of which have the title of king
doms, and most of them are subdivided into several smaller provinces,* for civil purposes.
2. Canals. There are only two navigable canals of any importance. The Imperial Canal
was begun with the intention of uniting Navarre with the Mediterranean, and is finished to
below Saragossa. It is 74 feet wide, and 10£ feet deep, being navigable for vessels of 100
tons. The Canal of Castile is partly executed, and is designed to connect the Duero with
the harbor of Santander, on the Bay of Biscay. There are several other small canals in dif
ferent parts of the kingdom.
3. Towns. Madrid, the capital, stands in the centre of the kingdom, in the midst of a
barren plain 2,200 feet above the level of the sea, and surrounded by mountains. It has a
handsome appearance ; the streets are regular, and many of the buildings magnificent. It has
42 squares and many beautiful public walks. The Prado is an elegant promenade on the east
side of the city, planted with trees, and ornamented with fountains. Here the wealthy and
fashionable display their equipages, and hither all ranks resort in quest of amusement. Many
of the squares are adorned with fountains ; the handsomest is the Plaza Mayor, where the
markets are held. The houses are generally of brick, and few of them have glass windows.
Several royal palaces adorn the city and neighborhood. Tbe new palace, considered the
finest royal residence in Europe, forms a square of 404 feet, and 86 feet high ; the Buen
Retiro, another palace, is famous for its beautiful gardens. There is a magnificent bridge
over the Manzanares, a little stream which runs by the city. Madrid contains 75 convents,
77 churches, 3 theatres, 18 colleges, &c. The learned societies, and cabinets of seience
and art are numerous, and give this city a high rank among the first capitals of Europe, in
regard to learning and the arts. The Royal Library is rich in manuscripts, models, and
antiquities, and contains 130,000 volumes. The charitable institutions are numerous; they
are richly endowed, and the buildings pertaining to them are spacious and well attended.
Madrid is a place of considerable trade and industry , the inhabitants manufacture woolen stuffs
of every sort, carpets, silks, printed linens, and muslins. Population, 201,000.
Twenty-two miles northwest of Madrid is the Escurial, the most magnificent monastery in
the world ; it is built in a wild and rugged region, and forms a quadrangle 740 feet long, by
580 wide. It contains the royal apartments, a fine library and collection of paintings, and the
sumptuous vaults in which are deposited the remains of the Spanish kings. The Escurial was
built by Philip the Second, a stern and superstitious prince, in fulfilment of a vow, and dedi
cated to St. Lawrence, who suffered martyrdom by being burned to death upon the gridiron:
the building is, therefore, made to represent that instrument. At St. Ildefonso, 40 miles north .
of Madrid, is a superb palace, celebrated for its beautiful gardens ; here is also a royal manu
factory of mirrors, which are made of great size and superior quality.
Seville, the capital of Andalusia, is beautifully situated on the Guadalquivir. It stands in
the midst of a plain, covered with olive plantations, hamlets, villages, and convents. It was
formerly very rich and populous, being the chief mart for the American and India trade. The
public buildings are very elegant. The general appearance of the city indicates the Moorish
character of its former possessors. The streets are often so narrow, that a person can touch
the houses on both sides at once. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, the largest
gothic edifice in Spain, with 82 altars and a fine tower ; the archbishop's palace, a magnificent
structure ; the alcazar, or palace of the ancient Moorish kings ; 84 convents ; 24 hospitals ;
29 churches ; the Exchange, &c. Seville contains a university, 9 colleges, and a school of
tauromachy, in which the bull-fighters are trained. Its manufactures are extensive, compris-
* ^ SKSt"- ^Zancies. "' ^^ ^^SfcTStfS
1. New Castile, "&&<»¦«**»«. Toledo, £ &££¦""
I Old Castile and Leon, B^^ffiSV £ & and Murcia, vSa,tu^and Cat-
gov.a, Av.la, Leon, Palen- ' ,haaenl
c.a Valladolid, Salamanca, 9. Catalonia, Barcffona
and Zamora. in Arm.™ Barcelona.
3. Asturias, Oviedo. , S"' Sarragossa.
4. Galicia,' Santiago. 'rZ":,™' x £lmP<:Iona-
5. Estremadura, Badajoi g SffffiiStK ' £KT
SPAIN. 627
ing silks, woolens, and tobacco. Several steam vessels navigate the river, but its commerce
has been mostly transferred to Cadiz. Population, 91,000.
Barcelona, the principal manufacturing city of Spain, and one of the prettiest on the penin
sula, is regularly built upon the shores of the Mediterranean. Its commerce is extensive, but
the immense mole, designed to protect the harbor from the accumulation of sand, is unfinished.
Cotton, silk, linen, lace, and arms are the principal products of its manufactories. Here are
4 public libraries, 8 colleges, several hospitals, numerous churches, and some remarkable
public edifices. Population, 120,000. In the vicinity are Tarragona, with 11,000 inhabit
ants, and Tortosa with 16,000, remarkable for the ruins of their ancient splendor ; Reus, an
active manufacturing town, with 25,000 inhabitants, and Figueras, celebrated for its vast and
impregnable fortifications.
Valencia is a rich and elegant city, situated in a fertile and delightful country on the Gua-
dalaviar, not far from the sea. It is one of the most flourishing manufacturing towns in Spain,
and is inferior only to Madrid in the activity of its printing presses, and the extent of its book
trade. Its literary institutions are numerous, and its beautiful walks are perfumed with the
orange and lemon groves, by which they are shaded. Population, 66,000.
The other principal places in the captain-generalship of Valencia are Orihuela, with 26,000
inhabitants, and extensive manufactures ; Alicant, a strongly fortified and active commercial
town, with a fine harbor and a population of 25,000 ; Murcia, with 36,000 inhabitants, con
taining numerous literary institutions, and extensive manufactures of silk ; Lorca, a manufac
turing town, with-40,000 inhabitants, and Carthagena, with 37,000, noted for its docks,
arsenals, observatory, and excellent harbor.
Granada, situated in a plain renowned for the fertility of its soil, the beauty of its scenery,
and its delicious climate, is an ancient Moorish city ; severaL magnificent edifices, its exten
sive squares, and numerous fountains attest its ancient splendor. The cathedral and the
palaces of the archbishop and of the captain -general are spacious and elegant ; but the boast
of Granada is the Alhambra, or palace of the Moorish kings, which is admired for the richness
and beauty of its vast colonnades, its splendid courts, its halls and arcades. Every traveler has
been struck with admiration at the sight of its splendid halls, golden saloons, courts, alcoves,
fountains, colonnades, and mosaic pavements, which alm'ost realize the description of fairy
land. No wonder the Moors never ceased to regret the loss of Granada. Even to this day,
they are said to offer up prayers every Friday for the recovery of this city, which they esteem
a terrestrial paradise. The Generalife is another palace, which afforded a summer retreat to
the Moorish princes. Granada is now the seat of a university, and various manufactures. Its
population is 80,000. On the coast of Granada is Malaga, a commercial city, situated in a
rich district, producing almonds, figs, and oranges, which, with dried raisins and wines from
the hills, and cork from the mountains, constitute its principal exports. Population, 52,000. •
Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, is an ancient town, partly of Roman and partly of Moorish
origin. Many of the buildings are in ruins, and it contains extensive gardens ; the population,
therefore, does not correspond with the extent of the city. The archbishop's palace, for
merly the residence of the Moorish kings, and the cathedral, originally a mosque, ornamented
with rows of cupolas, which are supported by 850 columns of jasper and marble, are remark
able buildings. Cordova has always carried on considerable trade, and has long been noted
for its manufactures of leather. Population, 57,000. Ecija, with 35,000 inhabitants, and
Jaen, with 20,000, are important manufacturing towns in tbe vicinity.
Cadiz, situated on a fine bay, at the extremity of a projecting tongue of land, is a well built
and strongly fortified city, with an extensive commerce. The trade of the rich colonies of
Spain in India and America, formerly centered in Cadiz, but after their separation from the
mother country, the place sank in importance. It is now, however, a free port, and has
somewhat revived. Population,' 53,000.
Opposite Cadiz is Port St. Mary, and to the southeast is San Fernando, containing an
observatory and the custom-house of the port of Cadiz. Each of these towns has 18,000 in
habitants. Fifteen miles northeast of Cadiz, in a rich district, is Xeres, noted as the depot
for the excellent wines, called from this place, Sherry. It is a flourishing town, with 34,000
inhabitants, and contains a celebrated Carthusian convent. On the coast to the south of Cadiz
is Cape Trafalgar, near which Nelson gained a celebrated naval victory over the united Span
ish and French fleets ; and to the north is the little village of Polos, from which Columbus
sailed on his first voyage of discovery.
628
SPAIN.
Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, stands upon both sides of the Ebro, over which there is
a superb stone bridge of 7 arches. Before the memorable siege of 1808, its churches were re
markable for their magnificence an'd wealth, but, with the other public buildings, they suffered
much injury at that time. The church of Our Lady of the Pillar is remarkable for its splen
dor, and for its miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, which attracts numerous pilgrims from
all parts of the country. The university of Saragossa is one of the principal in Spain. Pop
ulation, 43,000.
Santiago, or St. Jago de Compostella, the principal city of Galicia, has extensive manufac
tures of silk and cotton, and contains one of the principal Spanish universities. Its cathedral,
consecrated to St. James, (in Spanish, Jago,) the patron saint of Spain, is supposed to contain
his remains, and is visited by great numbers of pilgrims. Population, 28,000.
Corunna, the capital of Galicia, is a flourishing and strongly fortified town, with extensive
trade and manufactures. Population, 23,000. The harbor is spacious and safe, and is es
teemed one of the best in Spain. Here are an arsenal and an ancient tower of great height
and solidity, by some attributed to the Phoenicians, by others to the Romans.
Valladolid, capital of Old Castile, and the scene of many interesting events in Spanish his
tory, is now much declined from its former splendor, and contains but 21,000 inhabitants. Its
university is the second in Spain, and there are here 8 colleges and 46 convents. The royal
castle, in which several of the Spanish kings were born, and the cathedral, are the most re
markable edifices.
The other principal places in Old Castile are Santander, a flourishing commercial town, on
the northern coast, with 20,000 inhabitants ; Burgos, with 12,000 inhabitants, containing a
great number of churches andconvehts ; Segovia, a very old town, with numerous Roman and
Moorish remains, 1 3,000 inhabitants ; and Salamanca, formerly the seat of one of the most
celebrated universities of Europe, which has now lost its ancient importance.
Bilboa, the capital of Biscay, and one of the principal commercial towns of Spain, Las
15,000 inhabitants.
Oviedo, capital of the Asturias, and Badajoz, capital of Estremadura, have each a popula
tion of 10,000.
Pampelona, a strongly fortified place, with 15,000 inhabitants, is the capital of Navarre.
Palma, on Majorca, is the capital of the Balearic isles, and has an extensive commerce.
Population, 34,000. Port Mahon, on the eastern coast of Minorca, has one of the safest and
most convenient harbors in the Mediterranean. It is strongly fortified, and contains a naval
hospital, an arsenal, and one of the finest lazarettos in Europe.
Gibraltar is an important fortress, situated on a rocky promontory, at the entrance of the
straits of the same name, and rendered impregnable by nature arid art. The promontory is
7 miles in length, and nowhere half a mile in width, and the rocky wall rises precipitously to
the height of above 1 ,400 feet. Every point bristles with batteries, which communicate with
each other by covered ways hewn out of the solid rock. The town of Gibraltar stands at the
foot of the promontory, upon a spacious bay, which forms a convenient naval station. Its
commerce is extensive ; population, 15,000 ; English, Moors, Jews, Italians, and Spaniards.
This fortress was taken by the British in 1704, and has ever since remained in their pos
session. 4. Agriculture. The greater part of the land in Spain, belongs to the nobility, the church,
the towns, or corporate bodies. The state of agriculture is wretched, and the implements of
husbandry are very rude ; hardly two-thirds of the productive soil is under cultivation. Hemp
and corn are raised in almost all the provinces ; olives and the sugar-cane are cultivated in tbe
southern parts, and in this quarter may be seen large fields of saffron, rice, and cotton. Every
part of the country yields wine. The rearing of sheep is an important branch of industry,
and the wool is distinguished for its fineness. The Merinos, or fine-wooled sheep, pass the
summer in the mountainous districts of Castile and Arragon, and the winter in the plains of
Andalusia and Estremadura. They are driven this distance of nearly 700 miles, in 40 days,
in flocks of 10,000. The Mesta, or society composed of the owners of the sheep, has the
right to drive them over the land which lies on the route, and to feed them on the pastures ;
where the land is cultivated, the proprietor is obliged to leave a space 250 feet in breadth for
their passage. The whole number of sheep in Spain is about 18 millions, more than half of
which migrate annually.
5. Commerce. The foreign commerce of Spain is not extensive ; wine, oil, fruits, wool,
SPAIN.
629
and manufactured goods, are the principal articles of export. The coasting trade is very ac
tive and important ; but the want of good roads, navigable rivers, and canals, is fatal to the
internal commerce. The anchovy, tunny, and coral fisheries are actively prosecuted.
6. Manufactures. The system of taxation, founded upon production, and the privileges of
particular classes and societies, tend to discourage industry in Spain ; yet her manufactures are
by no means inconsiderable. The most important are those of wool, silk, leather, and cotton.
Paper, hats, soap, earlhern, iron, and steel wares, brandy, &c, are also among the products
of Spanish industry. The manufacture of barilla, from which soda is obtained, is extensively
carried on in tbe districts bordering on the Mediterranean. It is made by burning a vegetable,
which is sown for the purpose. When grown, the plant is pulled up, stacked, and dried.
Circular pits are then made in the ground and heated ; bars are laid across these, and the weed
piled upon them, where tt melts, drops into the pit, and hardens into a mass. The land for the
cultivation of this plant requires much dressing.
7. Inhabitants. The Spaniard is compounded of various races, principally of the Celtic,
the Roman, the Gothic, and the Arabic. In the north, the Gothic is the most pure, but in
the south the Moorish predominates. The distinctions between people of the different prov
inces are equal to the general difference between those of separate nations. The Biscayans are
light and graceful, though hardy ; the Galicians, lofty in stature, and laborious ; the Castilians,
tall and dark ; the Murcians, lighter in complexion, and there are many points of difference in
the other provinces. But it is of the mass, that we have to speak ; and those are the Basques,
in Biscay and Navarre, descended from the ancient "Cantabrians ; the descendants of the
Moors, chiefly in the Alpujarras ; the Gypsies, who are scattered over Spain under the name
of Gitanos ; and lastly, and principally, the general inhabitants or Spaniards. The Spaniards
are tall and generally slender ; or less thick-set than the people of the north of Europe.
Their complexion is an olive, their faces are somewhat long, their hair is black, and they have,
almost universally, brilliant and
piercing eyes. The women, if
not models for beauty, are distin
guished for their attractions ; but
these arise rather from glow of
sentiment, ardor of feeling, and
wonderful grace of motion, than
from regularity of feature, or the
training in the arts of pleasing,
which is a part of female education
in France. The classes are, generally, the
nobility and the plebeians ; and in
no country is .the accidental, differ
ence of birth so strictly enforced:
a hidalgo, or a " son of some
body," is one of the small nobil
ity, without a particular title ; and
nine promotions in the army are made in favor of the nobility, before the tenth chance is
open to the brave sergeant, who has, perhaps, led the forlorn hope, and mounted the breach.
The titled nobility consist in dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons. These are
chiefly styled "illustrious," and addressed as "their eminences," and they prefix the Doii to their
Christian names. The nobility are ambitious of having in their family several " hats "; or of
uniting in their own person, the right of several titles, each one of which gives the privilege of
wearing a hat in the presence of the king. Some have, by inheritance or marriage, the right
of wearing 8 or 10 hats. A nobleman " on four sides," is one whose parents, their parents,
and their parents' parents, were all noble ; and such only are knighted. But as the proof of
the lineage comes through the notaries, it is not difficult for- any rich aspirant for honors to ob
tain a favorable certificate. A person of a pure lineage, without Jewish, Moorish, or hereticaf
blood the law calls " an old Christian, without taint." It is a calamity for even a peasant to
have had a remote .ancestor a Jew, an Indian, an African, or a Moor. To such, even the
social religious fraternities are closed. Where the original of a family must be so pure,
Serenading.
630
SPAIN.
Spaniards.
creation of nobility, by patent, is rare. There are 4 military orders of knighthood, those of
St. Jago, Calatrava, Mbnteza, and Alcantara.
8. Dress. The dress of the different provinces is, in many instances, various ; though some
peculiarities of costume run through all Spain. Generally, the cloak is worn, and it is univer
sal in Castile ; it is very large, and so full, that one end is thrown over the shoulder. It is said,
that none but a Spaniard can wear it gracefully, and he draws it
into many elegant folds. The very children wear it, and are
often encumbered with it at play. The females seldom appear
in public, in any but the national dress ; the color of which is
principally black. The priests watch, with great jealousy, all
innovation in dress. The mantilla is a black scarf, of various
degrees of richness, thrown over the head, yet so as to display a
large and costly comb. It reaches to the waist. Few ladies
wear veils, except at mass. The basquina is a black petticoat,
and it is as general, as the mantilla, or shawl. Neither bonnet nor
ribands are worn, though in carriages, and at some assemblies,
ladies may be seen dressed in the French mode. The fan is
carried by all females ; as well by the lady in her carriage, as the
servant, with a bundle, in the street. It is an instrument of fas
cination, in the hands of a lady, and all its motions are graceful;
it has even a language of its own, which is said to be rich in terms
of favor and endearment. It is a great study in a Spanish female, to set out her foot to the
best advantage ; and the neat stocking, and small shoe, are, therefore, important points of
dress. The various ecclesiastical costumes, the common Spanish dress., and the costumes of the
provinces, give a lively appearance to a concourse in Madrid. The Catalan wears a velvet
jacket, with silver buttons, and long pantaloons, from his shoulder to the ground ; and the
Valencian, loose breeches of linen, reaching from the waist to the knee. He also wears along
sack, or manta, unlike the full cloak, in which he partially wraps himself. In Castile, the peas
ant wears a black-velvet cap, which exposes his high, manly forehead. He wears, also, a jacket
of black sheepskin, with the wool outward ; light breeches, sustained by a girdle about his
waist ; gaiters of embroidered leather, and stout, nail-shod shoes. In the north, the red woolen
cap is common, which hangs partly down the back. In La Mancha, the tall montero cap is
worn ; and in the south, the low-crowned Andalusian hat, with the wide rim turned up.
9. Language. The Castilian is so widely spread over Spain and the colonies, that it is
called the Spanish language. But in Catalonia and Valencia, the Provencal language is gen
eral ; and in Biscay, the Basque, a harsher dialect. The Spanish language is rich and sonor
ous, and admirably adapted to poetry. It is founded on the Latin, which is better preserved
in it than in the Italian. It is mixed with the Teutonic and the Arabic. The approved pro
nunciation, is that of Castile.
10. Manner of Building. There are noble edifices of Roman, Gothic, and Arabic archi
tecture, which are mentioned under the head of towns. There is some variation in building,
in the different kingdoms ; but the general form of houses is a quadrangle, with flat roofs, and
an area in the middle, surrounded with colonnades, or galleries. In the centre, is often a tree,
or a fountain ; and in summer, a canopy is drawn over the top, and kept wet, to cool the air.
Sometimes the lower windows have grates, or what the French call jalousies. There are few
chimneys in the south, and the rooms are warmed by a brazier, or pan of charcoal.
11. Food and Drink. The Spaniards delight in mixed dishes, in which there is no want of
pepper or garlic. The olla, or puchero, is a universal dish : it is a mixture of beef, chicken,
peas, other vegetables, garlic, and pepper. Pork is generally added, and it is an article of food
as universal as in Mexico and Brazil. The Spaniard has a catholic pride, as well as a pleasure,
in eating it ; as it shows that he is no Jew. Chocolate is general, at breakfast, with a little
toast, or a roll, but neither milk nor cheese are much used, the bread is unrivaled ; it is more '
than a mere staff to support life ; it is so light and sweet, that it is better than cake elsewhere.
In the markets, the fowls are cut up and sold in separate pieces ; and a row of wings, breasts,
legs, &c, are hung together. This is to supply materials for the olla. Mutton is very gen
eral, and rabbits are more used than in other countries. The food of the poor is meagre, and
includes acorns and chestnuts.
SPAIN. 631
When a Spaniard gives a dinner, which is a rare occurrence, it is cooked at the inn, and
knives, forks, and dishes, are sent with it, for there is no large supply of these in Spanish houses.
It is not proper for a guest to accept, at once, so important an invitation. He replies, by giv
ing " a thousand thanks," which is declining respectfully. On the second asking, he says to
his inviter, " do not engage in such a concern ;" and it is only the third invitation, which he
feels at liberty to accept.
The wines of Spain are hardly inferior to those of France ; and if the best of them are un
known to commerce, it is only because they are raised in the interior of a country, that is with
out roads or canals. The wine most esteemed is the Valdepenas, raised in La Mancha; but
the Sherry, the Malaga, and the wines of Catalonia, ate more known out of Spain. The
Sherry is a costly, but excellent wine. The wine is often kept in bags of skins, and these are
invariably the bottles. The manner of drinking, is to throw back the head, and pour the liquor
into tbe mouth from a distance: One leg of the skin is prepared to be the mouth of the bottle.
12. Diseases. Fevers are not uncommon, but there are few peculiar diseases. In the hu
mid province of the Asturias, leprosy is common, under various forms. Some of the lepers
seem covered with white dust, like millers ; others are black. In some, one leg swells to an
enormous size ; in others., the hand or face. In the Asturias, there are 20 hospitals for lepers.
The remedy of Sangrado survives, in spite of the satire of Le Sage, and bleeding is resorted
to as a general remedy, and with little better success, than under the administration of Gil Bias.
The surgeons and physicians have little skill ; they are appointed by the municipality of towns,
so that there is no competition. The municipality is appointed by the king, so that physicians
may be established against the will of the people. They have a fixed salary, which is generally
paid by a tax on brandy.
13. Traveling. Spain is little visited by those who travel for health, or pleasure ; and
Townsend makes it one of the requisites of a traveler here to have a good constitution; The
Spaniards have no favors to foreigners, especially those of the Protestant religion ; and the
roads are of the kind generally found in the infancy of civilization. There are but about 12
good roads in Spain, but these are made upon the principle of McAdam, which has been fol
lowed there from time immemorial. The principal of these roads, are from Madrid to Bayonne,
to Barcelona, and to Seville. From Madrid to Toledo, a large city distant but about 100
miles, there is no road, and the route lies through fields, woods, and rocks. This want of
internal communication is the bane of agriculture and industry, and the foe to# all improvement.
It however preserves .the natural and local character unmixed and unaltered. On the prin
cipal roads the traveling by post is not disagreeable, nor is there anything in it worse than in
other European countries, except greater danger from robbers. The diligences are found
only on the principal roads ; and they are as good as the same vehicles in France. They are
drawn by seven, eight, or nine mules, at the rate of seven miles an hour, and the muleteers
are punctual and accommodating. Every mule has a name by which the muleteer addresses
it, as Coronela, Arragonesa, &c. The chief muleteer is called Mayoral, and the postilion
Zagal. The mules are obstinate to a proverb, and the Zagal has often full employment in
beating them. He seats himself on one in the rear to belabor the other next before.it. The
mules are generally in good case and well used. The galera or galley, as it is not unaptly
called, is a long, covered wagon, for passengers and merchandise. The bottom is a net
work of ropes, which in some degree supplies the place of springs. On many routes there
are no other modes of traveling, but on horseback, on mules, or the more humble animals
called borricos.
In the Spanish language there are no less than six sounding words, to express the distinc
tions of public houses of several grades of accommodations. There is, however, little differ
ence between the best and worst, or rather, all are bad, and there are, not even in cities, any
tolerable hotels. On many of the roads the inns are so unfurnished, that the regular answer
to the question for dinner is, we can give you " what you have brought with you." At no
inn is the traveler welcomed by either host or servant ; no one asks his wants, or shows him
into the house. He is left to grope his way into the kitchen, where, if he is cold, he may
join the circle of muleteers, standing around the fire, and if hungry, he will not be served so
well, or so soon, as these regular customers of the host. The hall is chiefly used as the
sleeping-room, and the beds are arranged around it. In some provinces there is a tariff of
prices fixed by law, together with an allowance for the ruido della casa, " noise of the house,"
or attendance. The price of a slight breakfast of chocolate and bread is thus fixed at two reals.
632
SPAIN.
For a late and more substantial breakfast, like the French dejeuner a la fourchelte, eight reals
is charged, and for dinner, twelve reals. The provisions, or equivalents, are specified. The
dinner, it is ordered, shall consist in a soup, an olla of fowl, bacon, beef, sausage, beans, and
pot herbs, a fritter, or ham and eggs, two dishes of chopped meats, a pudding, peppers, hari
cots, or beans, a roast, a salad, a dessert of three dishes, a glass of brandy, and bread and wine
" at discretion." The bed is four reals, and must consist of a mattress of straw, and another
of wool, two clean sheets, two pillows, a quilt, and a blanket.
The traveler in Spain may have, from one end of the land to the other, the feeling of dignity,
that danger is said to bestow ; for there is no part free from robbers. They do not often
murder unless they are resisted, yet the traveler on whom they find little to plunder, seldom
escapes without a severe beating. It is, therefore, not uncommon to carry a silver watch of
small value, and a few dollars in silver, to be surrendered as a peace-offering ; this is one of
the usual expenses of the road ; and the rest of the money is taken in drafts. On the receipts
that are given at some of the diligence offices, a caution is indorsed, that the traveler should
not take too much money, on penalty of being answerable for any consequent damage done to
the diligence by robbers. There are often guards to the diligences, but they have sometimes
an understanding with the robbers, and the danger of the traveler is thought to be in proportion
to the strength of his escort. Some diligences compound with the robbers, who are some
times well known, by paying black mail, for security. The robber, who has followed for years
his trade of violence, is, it may be, a dweller in some hamlet, where men know more of bis
trade than they will testify ; sometimes when outlawed, he surrenders himself upon pardpn,
and becomes a trusty guard to the diligence. The " Young American " had, in his single
" Year in Spain," the chance to be twice robbed ; once by such gallant cavaliers, that they
scorned to touch the lady's baggage, and again by miscreants so hardened, that they murdered
the muleteers, probably because they belonged to tbe same village with themselves. In the
dangerous defiles, crosses are erected close together, each marking the place of a murder,
and bearing the inscription, " here they killed John, Thomas," &c. The established formula
of the robbers is to call to each passenger " a tierra ladron," " on the ground, you thief" ;
where the sufferers lie quietly on their faces, while they are pillaged.
14. Character, Manners, and Customs. For centuries there has been little change in the
Spanish character, and every inlet to innovation or improvement is closed. There is a say
ing, that Adam returned to the earth, where he recognised no country but Spain. "Ah, this,"
said he, " is exactly as I left It." There is a tradition too, in Spain, that he was king of the
country, and that his capital was Toledo.
The Spaniards are an honorable race, and in Spain the spirit of chivalry is not extinct,
though the institutions have passed away. The national songs and ballads, and the popular
romances of chivalry, but particularly the former, have a great influence in forming the char
acter ; they are sung by all ; they are of high poetic excellence, and rich in the sentiments
that incite a Spaniard to die for his mistress, his country, or his faith.
Pride and courtesy are inseparable from a Spaniard ; but it is not the pride of an English
man ; it is the accompaniment of a lofty character, in which meanness cannot exist. He is
not deceitful, for falsehood is a part of meanness or fear, and he has neither. His individual
self-respect is associated with a pride for his country ; "we are not all old Castilians," is his
saying, when he would reprehend an act of baseness in another. It is not without some rea
son, that he boasts of his provinces, where all are nobles, or gentlemen. The very peasants
have great independence of spirit, and dignity of manner ; and, though they readily admit
equality, they acknowledge no superiority. The poorest laborer seems to think, that fortune
only has depressed him from his proper station, and he raises his soul above his humble con
dition ; « as good a gentleman as the king, only not so rich," is the national proverb. But
the proudest Spaniard exacts no greater tribute than he is ready to pay. The courteous Don
of Cervantes was in this, and other respects, a picture of his countrymen ; punctilious in
rendering courtesy, and strict in exacting it. There is much of the national character embodi
ed in Don Quixote and his Squire; and this chivalric phase of madness, is probable and
natural m Spain, though it would not be so in any other country.
Ihe humblest person in Spain, will take offence to be addressed under a lower title than
benor or Maestro. No circumstances or reverses can deprive a Spaniard of his dignity of
carriage. Ihe very beggars are so easily repulsed, that they seldom repeat a solicitation.
Ihe characteristic reply of a mendicant, who was advised to work, was, "I asked your char-
SPAIN. 633
ity, Sir, and not your counsel." The Spaniards are slow to change ; and the want of roads
prevents innovation. It is well for the people, that, under every disadvantage, they have
retained so much of their ancient character ; they have fallen from their high estate, and they
have fallen upon evil times, but they are still the same invincible, inflexible race with tijeir
ancestors, of the age of Cortez and Pizarro. A thousand heroic incidents in the Guerilla
warfare, and the glorious defence of Saragossa, were outbreaks of the national spirit. Indi
vidually, though not collectively, the Spaniards still resemble their ancestors of Arragon, who
promised their king to obey, if he would protect their rights, " and, if not, — not;" y si no, —
no. The Spaniards are distinguished for good faith. One of their kings, who wished to confis
cate French property, published an edict, giving half to the factors who would inform ; but in
all Spain there was not found one dishonest but the king, or who, when thus tempted, would
betray his correspondent. Oppression has debased the Spaniards less than superstition. The
king could not for a day oppress the subjects which it is his duty to protect, but for the aid
of the clergy, whose influence over the people commences at childhood, and ends only with
life. The clergy, though ignorant, have yet the instinct of ignorance, and perceive, that their
power would be reduced in a people brought up in knowledge and virtue. Every effort of
genius is therefore discouraged, for philosophy is no friend to fanaticism, and poetry has noble
aspirations. The schools are in ecclesiastical hands, and the confessional gives even a greater
influence to the clergy. To a priest no door is closed, and no secret is hidden. The big
otry of the Spaniards is, unfortunately, beyond all parallel, and some of the effects of it will
be described under the head of religion.
The Spaniards have an hereditary contempt for trade, and agriculture cannot flourish in a
country without roads. There are few chances, then, that labor will have its reward ; the
religious holidays are numerous, and thus a people of great energy of character, and an ardent
temperament, have little employment, and no resource from ennui but in pleasure, or frivolous
amusements. Their very virtues are politically oppressed, while their vices may lead them
to honor and preferment. To be honest and true, to express their opinions boldly and freely,
will but lead to captivity or banishment ; but to dissemble in religion, to feign bigotry if they
have it not, to show outward reverence to friars whom they may despise in their hearts, is the
much traveled road to safety and shame. There are, indeed, many who neither reverence a
dissolute monk, nor honor a fanatie and faithless king ; but they conceal their sentiments, as
they love liberty and life. The Spaniards have been called indolent, but it is a calumny ; and
yet many of them live in idleness ; for few men will much care to sow, where they may not
be sure to reap. Pleasure, then, is a pursuit, especially among the higher classes, and the
consequences are indeed lamentable. Jealousy, which our romances have represented as the
passion of a Spaniard, is unknown, or it exists only between the matron and her cortejo. The
liberty of married females has no limit but their own discretion, a frail barrier against a defec
tive education, a pernicious custom, and an ardent temperament. This evil is deplorable ; for
the Spanish females are, in many respects, worthy of admiration ; and when they have the ad
vantage of a correct training, and indeed often when they have not, they prove themselves,
both as wives and mothers, worthy of a fellowship with Portia and Cornelia. They are gen
erous, vehement, and self-devoted ; they love like Othello, "not wisely, but too well." They
have all the elements of a great character, and under favorable circumstances, there are no
women that walk through the world by the side of man, to cheer him in sorrow, and excite
him to duty and honor, that are comparable with the dames of Spain. The gallantry of a
Spaniard is proverbial ; his salutation to a lady is, " Madam, I am at your feet," and his
whole bearing to her is one of deference, humility, and devotedness.
In Spain, those whose duty it is to be the censors and conservators of public morals, are the
corrupters. The flock is indeed unhappy, when the shepherd has an understanding with the
wolf. The celibacy of the clergy has made them dissolute, and they have spread depravity
over the land. Of all classes in the country, perhaps that which has the least pretensions to purity
is the clergy. Ferdinand would not sign a warrant for the execution of an ecclesiastic. It is
but a few years since, that a priest, who had conceived a passion for a lady that was contracted
to another, murdered her at the confessional. The ferocious wretch, who afterwards expressed
his joy, that another should not possess her, was punished by an easy imprisonment.
The Spaniards, with all their ardor of character, are perhaps the most temperate people in
Europe ; and a traveler may pass through Spain and not see one intoxicated. They have,
80
634 SPAIN-
unfortunately, less control over passion than appetite. They are irascible and vindictive, both
from temperament and climate ; it is said, that during the prevalence of a certain wind, which is
peculiarly disagreeable, the number of murders is increased. Where the laws do not secure justice
to every individual, men become both their own protectors and avengers It is not uncommon
in Spain to see men armed with guns, to protect their property and persons ; and long clasped
knives are almost universal. It is with these, that so many murders are committed. In 1826
there were 1,233 convictions for murder, 1,775 for attempts to murder, and 1,620 for robbery,
while the actual crimes were perhaps many more than the convictions. At Seville, is a hos
pital for the relief of such as are wounded in sudden frays, or by assassins ; the seat on which
the patient is placed is called the " bully's chair." A traveller relates, that in one week of
his residence, 21 were carried to this hospital, exclusive, probably, of those who were killed
outright, or who had homes of their own. The murders are the most frequent in the south of
Spain. It is needful to remark, that the foregoing description of the Spanish character is very gen
eral, and that, in the various provinces, there is as much difference as among different nations.
The Andalusians are cheerful, yet boastful and irascible. The Valencians are light, cheerful,
and vindictive ; and the hired ruffians and assassins, that were formerly common, came prin
cipally from Valencia. The Catalans are independent and laborious ; the Murcians, indolent
and superstitious ; the Castilians grave, just, and honorable ; and the people of Biscay, Na
varre, and Arragon, are independent, frugal, and attached to liberty.
The aspect of social life is widely different in France and Spain ; the principal of the social
meetings in Spain are the evening tertulias, where the lady of the house receives a few regular
visiters. It is to the lady, that all visits are paid, and the visiter may go many times without
making the acquaintance of the husband. There is little of country life, like that of the gentry
in England. The few grandees, however, who live in the country, are upon terms of great
familiarity with the peasantry. The Spaniards have few of the observances of hospitality, that
are general in the north of Europe ; they seldom invite a stranger even to dine. They, how
ever, say to him, that their houses, and everything they contain^ are his ; and having been thus
introduced, he may always call without ceremony, and enter without sending in his name.
When a person knocks at a door, it is demanded from within, " who is there ? " to which the
established reply is gente de paz, or "peaceful people." Peasants and beggars call at the
doors, Ave Maria, to which the reply from within is sin pecado concebido. This is a general
formula in several parts of Spain.
15. Amusements. The Spanish amusements are peculiar. The Spaniards are the gravest
people in Europe, except the Turks, and public dancing is, in Spain as in Turkey, a favorite
amusement. The Spaniards, however, dance with much grace and animation in their social
circle, which the Turks consider disgraceful. But it is the bolero or fandango, which is the
great national dance ; and the influence of it over a Spaniard is marvelous. It has been
supposed, that, should the bolero be struck up in courts or churches, the very judges and clergy
could not refrain from joining in the general tarantula excitement. The bolero is, in fact, a
new edition of the fandango, in which the exceptionable parts are omitted, but all the graceful
ness is retained. It is danced with castanets, and the Spaniards are indebted to the Moors for
it. It is performed by two persons, who stand opposite each other ; and advance, retreat,
and pursue. The female flies, like Galatea, to the willows, that she may be pursued. There
is a ruinous degree of gaming in Spain, and the
government furnishes the aliment by its lotteries.
The tickets are hawked about the streets by the
blind, who are supposed to attract to them the
favor of fortune.
The bull-fights are derived from the Romans;
and there are several ancient amphitheatres extant,
of great magnificence. This barbarous amuse
ment has a deeper hold upon the Spaniard than
the bolero or gaming. The arrival of a " bull-
day " convulses the whole city ; and dense
crowds collect around the arena, too poor to
pay for admission, but too zealous altogeth-
._„.„,„„ er to relinquish the amusement. They learn
Bull-fighting. the events within, and echo the cheers of the
SPAIN. 635
more happy spectators. The bull-feasts are often dedicated to St. John and the Virgin ; and
the gains are bestowed in charities. The fights are held only in summer, as the arenas are
open, and the bull has then the greater courage. The worst places in the arena cost 2 or 4
reals, and the best a dollar. In some places, as in Valladolid, the public square is the imposing
arena; the streets are shut, and balconies are erected along the houses. After a procession of
all the combatants, who are to engage the bull, 2 alguazils advance, with great gravity, to the
president, to ask permission for the sports to begin. The arena is then cleared, and the door
is thrown open for the bull to come forth, when he is received with deafening shouts. He
advances to the centre, and stands amazed. He has little time, however, left for wonder.
The picadores, combatants on horseback, wait for him with their long lances. Theirs is a
service of danger, though so little disgraceful, that the grandees have followed it. Sometimes
the bull darts upon them ; at others, it is necessary to excite him to rage. He braves the
wounds of the lance in his neck, and attacks the innocent horse, who still continues the com
bat, though he may be gored so dreadfully, that he treads upon his own entrails. The horse
and rider are often overthrown, when the combatants on foot divert the boll's attention, by
shaking before him pieces of colored cloth. Sometimes, however, the animal pursues them,
and then they require the best of their speed ; they leap the barrier, 6 feet in height, but a
moment before the bull dashes his horns against it. So narrow are their escapes, that Town-
send thought, that the men actually raised themselves on the horns of the bull. The animal
often attempts to clear the barrier, and he sometimes succeeds. This is the signal for speedy
retreat to the spectators, some of whom, however, have been killed. Sometimes several
horses are killed beneath the same rider.
The next act in the tragedy, is commenced by the banderilleros, who go before the bull, and
when he plunges at them, step a little aside, and stick into his neck little darts, having fulmi
nating powders, which explode, and drive the persecuted animal to frenzy. This is a danger
ous part to perform, as the horn of the bull, in his plunges, passes within a few inches of the
banderillero's breast. Exhausted, at length, by the loss of the blood, that streams from nu
merous wounds, the last moment of the brave animal approaches, for the hard laws of the circus
are, that he shall not go forth alive.
The president gives the signal for death, and the matador advances with a long dagger in
one hand, and in the other a flag, which he waves before his adversary. Both stop and gaze
several minutes at each other, and the concourse are silent as the grave. The fight is now to
become a single combat, in which one party, at least, must die. The animal recalls his ener
gies, makes a last desperate plunge at the matador, who steps lightly aside, and strikes his dag
ger into his adversary's neck, with so true an aim, that the spine is divided, and the animal fails
bleeding upon his knees. The circus swims before his glazing eyes, and he falls dead,
" Ere ceased the inhuman shout, that hailed the wretch who won."
16. Education. There are few establishments in Spain, for the diffusion of the first rudi
ments of knowledge. The lower classes seldom learn to read and write ; and those above
-them, are as seldom instructed in anything but reading, writing, and arithmetic. Those who
are designed for the learned professions, attend a Latin school for 3 or 4 years ; but classical
literature has made little or no progress, and Greek has been for several centuries almost un
known in Spain. There are 11 universities, but they are very far behind the literary institu
tions of other European countries. There is, indeed, little encouragement for education, or
even safety for learning, in a country, of which it has been truly remarked, that to learn the
names of its best scholars and finest geniuses, we need only to go to the dungeons of the In
quisition. There are many associations, called learned societies. There are 12 public libra
ries, besides those belonging to the monasteries. There are botanic gardens at Madrid, Cadiz,
Cartagena, and St. Lucar ; a cabinet of natural history, coins, and antiquities, at Madrid ; and
several observatories, as at Madrid, Ferrol, &c. The books, which it is the policy of the
monastic Mecamases to spread, are lives of saints, deaths of martyrs, and legends of the 1 1 ,000
virgins. The contents of the newspapers may be surmised, from the nature of the books. There
are few, however, of any kind. The capital boasts of the Gazette and Diario, or Daily ;
small quarto sheets, mainly taken up with the names of the saints, whose festivals fall on that
day. .Under the saints ' days, the following notice has its turn : — " To-morrow, will be cele-
636 STAm-
brated, the feast of the glorious martyr, San Poncio, advocate and protector against bed-bugs."
The Gazette commences, by announcing the health and occupation of their majesties, and in
serts the quantity and kind of news, that is pleasing to the government.
17. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. In the time of the troubadours, and in the
middle ages, there arose, in Spain, a profusion of ballads and songs. Of the ballads concern
ing Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, or the Cid, alone, there are about a hundred. After the conquest
of Naples, the introduction of the Italian literature gave a better form to the literature of
Spain. Spain has never produced an epic poet of much eminence. The drama is exceed
ingly rich, though irregular ; it is a mine, to which the writers of other nations have freely re
sorted. The Spanish division of the drama is peculiar ; it is not into tragedy and comedy,
but into plays divine and human. The former, includes legends of the saints, &c. The
b.tter, includes historical or heroical plays, comedies " of the cloak and sword," founded on
tne intrigues of high life, and other comedies, in which the characters are rogues, pickpockets,
and their ladies. Lope de Vega excelled in all these, and his principal plays are contained in
no less than 25 volumes. But Don Pedro Calderon de la Barca, is the boast of tbe Spanish
theatre. He wrote 127 dramas, besides an incredible number of smaller pieces. There are
a great many of the romances of chivalry ; and one novel, ridiculing them, has pervaded the
world. Don Quixote is unrivaled in wit, philosophy, and the painting of human life and char
acter. There are few writers at the present day, and the sciences are almost entirely neglect
ed. Natural philosophy, chemistry, and mathematics, are, in Spain, centuries in arrear.
The Moors, in Spain, were so polished and gentle a people, that their expulsion was a na
tional calamity. They had a library at Cordova, of 600,000 volumes, and there were 70 pub
lic libraries in the Andalusian kingdom. This was at a time, when the rest of Europe was
sunk in the deepest ignorance. Many Spanish Jews, of great learning, flourished at the same
time. Painting has been more successfully cultivated, than the rest of the arts, and the Spanish
school is much celebrated. Ribera, better known as Espanoleto, excelled in the most perfect
representation of sufferings and of sorrow, such as are furnished by the death of martyrs. Ve
lasquez was so excellent in portraits, that he is ranked with Titian and Vandyke. Murillo,
who never left Spain, is yet correct, and has great finish and warmth of coloring. Morales is
called the divine, from the excellence of his heads of Christ. The Spaniards have a passion
for music, and many, in all grades of life, perform on some instrument, generally the guitar.
The national airs of Spain are numerous and beautiful, though her composers are few in
number ; and the chief singers at Madrid are imported from Italy. The music of Spain par
takes of the character of her language, described, by a modern writer, as being " grave and
decent, like the dances of ancient chivalry." It is as pathetic as the Italian, but it has an en
ergy and romantic character, which the former has not. It speaks of a more mountainous
country, of a more high-souled and chivalrous people. The Italian airs breathe of little but
of love. The sorigs of Spain are mingled with romance, devotion, and glory, as well as ten
derness. Music is not cultivated, as in Italy ; but it is the amusement of all ranks and condi
tions in Spain. The muleteer sings, to beguile the long hours as he speeds on his way, and
his rude carol is mingled with the wild jingling of the bells. The peasants sing, as they dance
the seguidilla, to the sounds of the Castanet and guitar. The cavalier joins his voice to the
music of his guitar, when he serenades his high-born beauty beneath her latticed window.
The guitar is universally played by the Spaniards ; and suits well with the wild, romantic
melody of the Spanish airs. The Moorish ballads, which remain, are mournful and tender,
breathing the very spirit of gallantry and impassioned devotion. The conquest of Granada,
called forth all the musical strains of her minstrels, whether in lamentations over the fallen city,
or in reproaches of the conquerors ; and the ballad entitled " The Siege and Conquest of Al-
harria," had such an effect, that it was forbidden to be sung by the Moors, on pain of death,
within the walls of Granada. J ' r
18. Religion. The religion is strictly Roman Catholic. The number of archbishoprics is 8,
and there are 51 bishoprics. The archbishop of Toledo is primate of Spain, and his income
is nearly $ 450,000. The ecclesiastics of all classes, including monks and nuns, are 188,625,
or more probably near 200,000. There are 32,000 females confined in cloisters. The
k.ng nominates to all ecclesiastical dignities, and even to the smaller benefices. The clergy
are rich, ignorant, and dissolute. They are the most powerful body in Spain, but their influ
ence is diminishing. Thev retain a strong hold upon the favor of the lower class, and dis-
SPAIN. 637
tribute from monasteries daily alms or food to the poor. Yet they give back but little of what
they receive, and a monk passes a life of indolence and abundance in Spain.
" I' 11 give thee, good fellow, a twelvemonth or twain,
To search Europe through from Byzantium to Spain ;
But ne'er shall you find, should you search till you tire,
So happy a man as the barefooted friar.
" He 's expected at noon, and no wight ere he comes,
May profane the great chair or the porridge of plums ;
For the best of the cheer and the seat at the fire,
Is the undenied right of the barefooted friar."
In Spain, however, the clergy have greater privileges than those recounted in the song.
They hold the power of superstition over ignorance, and make it the means of an immense
revenue. There is not in Spain a wretch so poor that he does not pay something to the
church. The Bull of the Crusade is a document more generally sold than stamps are in Eng
land. It is founded on a supposition, that there is a continual war waging with the infidels.
The virtues of this bull expire at the end of a year, when it is necessary to purchase another.
One half of the proceeds go to the king, and never was bigotry so well taxed, or an imposture
more cheerfully paid. This bull, among other things, concedes permission to eat eggs, milk,
and butter during Lent ; and no priest is so ignorant of his craft, that he will administer the
sacrament, or grant absolution to any one who has not the Bull of the Crusade.
The Flesh Bull is more expensive, as it is intended chiefly for the rich, who are made to
pay roundly for eating flesh in the interdicted seasons. The Bull of the Dead is a passport
required at all burials, and without it no priest will officiate. Marriages, christenings, absolu
tions, and funerals, swell the wealth of the church, and there is a profitable trade in masses.
Those who die, pass their last hours under the eye of the church, and the ghostly advisers
often suggest a bequest to the convent, to found a perpetual mass for the departing soul. The
friends of the deceased readily purchase masses to shorten his abode in purgatory. Gener
ally, a Spaniard is very tender in this point, and never refuses to give when solicited " for the
souls." Societies are formed in every town for these suffering spirits, and there was a lottery
scheme invented for them, in which the pious adventurer by performing the penance inscribed
on his ticket, might transfer the merit of it to some soul in purgatory. The Pope has estab
lished certain days when every Spaniard may, by kneeling at five different altars and praying
for the extinction of heresy, release the soul of a friend. The name of the soul must be
mentioned, to prevent mistakes ; but, if not, the prayer is addressed " for the most worthy
and the most disconsolate."
The revenues of the clergy are swelled by the sale of relics, consecrated heads, crucifixes,
scourges, &c. The relics are numerous ; generally the bones of saints. At Oviedo the
highest church dignitary shows the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias, the olive branch borne
by the Saviour, a great part of the cross, eight thorns of the crown, a vial of the Virgin's
milk, and the hood she gave to the archbishop of Toledo.
The Virgin Mary is the great Diana of the Spaniards, and alms are often solicited for the
" queen of heaven." Commercial partnerships are entered into, and a share of the profits set
aside for her honor. An insurance company which entered into a partnership with several of
the saints, had sufficient faith to insure a West India fleet in time of war, when insurance had
been declined in Holland at 50 per cent. The fleet was captured and the company broken.
The most usual penances are flagellations, hair shirts, and bracelets, with points of wire on
the inside. Every Friday there is a penitential scene in many of the churches. After an
exhortation, the lights are suddenly extinguished, and every penitent scourges himself accord
ing to what he supposes to be his deserts. The silence is interrupted only by weeping and
sighing, and the blows of the scourge.
Whenever the little bell is heard, which accompanies the host or sacrament going to the dy
ing, all who hear it kneel and utter a prayer. At theatres, balls, and in the mud of the streets,
there is no exemption ; all who hear it, must remain kneeling till the sound is past, and to
refuse would incur danger from the populace. The play stops, and the actors kneel upon the
stage, as well as the audience in the boxes ; when, however, the sound is heard in bed, it is
only necessary to sit upright.
The Inquisition has been so intimately connected with the religion of Spain, that we shall
give some account of the tribunal which punished thoughts with more severity than it is ever
638 SPAIN-
right to inflict upon crimes. It is, however, due to the Spaniards to say, that, though bigqted
to a great degree, they resisted the introduction of the inquisition. They murdered the Do
minicans, stoned the inquisitors, and stabbed them at the foot of the altars. There were such
tumults, that the whole power of the church and authority of the king were barely sufficient to
restrain them. After Castile was united with Arragon, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isa
bella, the modern inquisition was established over Spain, from the year 1481. The king was
a bigot, but in this he had not even the excuse of bigotry ; he thirsted for the property
of the Jews. It was a successful, and to him not an objectionable, way of filling the treas
ury. The gentle and good Isabella, the friend of Columbus, the protector of the Indians,
refused to permit the inquisition to be established in Castile ; but her confessor, Torquemada,
overcame her scruples. The first destruction scattered by this infernal engine was among the
Jews. A hundred thousand families emigrated, many professed Christianity, and almost all the
new Christians began to emigrate to the lands of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, Marquis of Ca
diz, and other noblemen. Torquemada, however, the head of the inquisition, was too thirsty
for blood, to let them so easily escape ; and it was declared, by proclamation of the holy
office, that emigration should be held as sufficient proof of heresy. The proclamation ordered
the noblemen before named to arrest the flying, and sequester their goods. The prisoners
were more than the numerous convents could contain. Four days after the establishment of
the inquisition in Spain, six of the condemned were burned, and ten more in a few days.
In less than six months, 298 of these unfortunates were burnt at the stake in the single city
of Seville. During the same time, more than 2,000 of the condemned were delivered to the
flames in other parts of the province. Among these were, of course, many persons of great
wealth, and their riches only led them into danger. The prefect of Seville, to save time in
the numerous executions, erected without the city a scaffolding of stone, on which were raised
four hollow statues of plaster. In these, the newly relapsed Christians were slowly burned.
This scaffold was extant until the revolution of 1820.
Among the articles or laws of the inquisition, one decreed, that voluntary confessions
should be written down in the presence of the inquisitors ; this enabled them to compel the
confessor to denounce others whom he might suspect of heresy ; and thus this act of grace
became an act of accusation. Another law made it necessary to ascertain the time of falling
or relapsing into heresy, that it might be known what portion of goods belonged to the treasury.
Many of course lost the dowry of their wives, when these were paid after the heresy of their
fathers-in-law. The inquisitors were empowered to condemn all who had been reconciled,
provided their repentance seemed pretended, so that life depended on opinion. Half proof
subjected a man to the trial ; if, under torture, he confessed, and afterwards confirmed bis con
fession, he was condemned ; if he retracted, he was subjected to a second torture. An entire
copy of the testimony was never given to those accused. All persons summoned, and failing
to appear, were condemned. The conduct of a deceased person was examined, and when a
posthumous conviction followed, the bones were dug up and burned, and the whole estate con
fiscated in the hands of the heirs. For a relapsed heretic, no promises of faith were sufficient.
The inquisition never pardoned him ; and the only mercy allowed was to strangle him before he
was burned. Many of these regulations were made to gratify the grasping disposition of the king,
and the king, in return, was willing to barter his subjects' lives to the monks. The accused
never saw those who testified against him. There was the mockery of a counsel allowed, yet
he was not permitted to be seen alone, or to speak but to confess. Besides, what counsellor
would dare defend a prisoner in the inquisition ? Suspicion was divided into three classes ;
and the prisoners were registered as lightly suspected, strongly suspected, and violently sus
pected. The light suspicion subjected its object to stand upon a scaffold with his head un
covered, to walk in the procession en chemise, with bare feet and crossed arms, to be scourged
by the bishop or curate, to be stationed at the church gate till reconciled, and to carry on his
right breast two crosses of a color different from lhat of his dress. This penance lasted 3
years for the first class, 5 for the second, and 7 for the third.
The proceedings in these courts had little delay, though there were many long imprison
ments ; when there was any process, it was a summary one. In one year, the inquisition of
Toledo finished 3,327 trials. There were but two inquisitors and two registers to perform
this labor. When the tribunal had become well established, it had its spies all over Spain.
There was no safety, either m heresy or faith ; to have an enemy, or to have wealth, was dan
gerous to the best citizen and the most faithful Catholic. It was the reign of terror and sus-
SPAIN. 639
picion ; the Romans, under Tiberius, were less to be pitied than the Spaniards, under Ferdinand
and Torquemada. It is a satisfaction, however, to know, that the fanatic monk felt deeply what
he had deserved from the people. He lived in constant fear of death ; he had always on his
table a unicorn's horn, to detect the presence of poison ; and when he moved, he was sur
rounded by guards. He passed 18 years as Inquisitor-general ; caused 10,220 persons to be
burned, and 97,371, to be otherwise punished, and their estates confiscated.
The prisons of the inquisition were so damp, that the mats and cloths soon decayed. The
prisoners were literally crammed in them ; those who came forth were walking skeletons, while
others confessed all they were charged with, to escape from such confinement by death.
In the chamber of torment, every person accused, who refused to confess, received his trial.
This was deep under the ground, and lighted by two flickering flambeaux, which, with their
unsteady light increased the gloom of the dungeons. The inquisitors and executioners were
clothed in long robes of sackcloth, and their faces were covered with hoods of the same, hav
ing holes cut for the eyes. The poor sufferer could not even look up in a human face, for a
vain search after mercy in its lineaments. The refusal to confess was the signal for the torture.
This was applied in three ways, by the cord, by fire, and by water. In the first mode, the
hands were tied behind the hack of the prisoner, by means of a cord passed over a pulley above
his head. He was raised by the cord as high as the roof, where he was permitted to hang for
some time, when the rope was suddenly relaxed, and he fell within a foot and a half of the
ground. This dislocated all the joints, and the cord entered to the sinews. This punishment
was renewed every hour, till the sufferer was left without strength or motion ; when he was
remanded to his cell, to die or to revive for a punishment more horrible. In the second trial,
the patient was stretched and tied on a wooden spout so contrived as to bend his back and
raise his feet above his head ; this much impeded respiration. The executioner then
introduced at the bottom of the throat a piece of fine linen, a part of which covered the nostrils ;
poured water into the mouth and nose, and left it to filter so slowly, that an hour passed before
the sufferer could swallow a drop, although it trickled constantly. There was no interval for
respiration. He attempted constantly to swallow, hoping to give passage to a little air, which
the linen constantly prevented. The linen was often, when taken from the throat, stained with
the blood of vessels ruptured in this attempt to breathe. Besides this, at every moment a
powerful arm turned a lever, and made the cords on the arms and legs penetrate even to the
bones. Fire was the next means employed to make the accused criminate himself. The feet
were rubbed with oil and lard, and placed before the fire till they were so roasted, that the bones
and sinews appeared . Death was a relief, and confession gratified the inquisitors at last. Few
of the tortured ever returned to tell the hideous secrets of their prison.
The condemned were executed at an Auto da fe, an Act of Faith, which was both general
and particular. The former took place on great occasions, as the accession of a Prince, his
marriage, or the birth of an Infanta. This was reserved as an offering worthy to be presented
to a king. ' A balcony of great extent was erected, in which the seat of the grand inquisitor
was placed above that of the king, who was surrounded by grandees and ladies of the court.
There was a long procession, ecclesiastic and lay, in which the prisoners came last, many of
whom were gagged. The condemned were shut up in a pen, and each one knelt as his sen
tence was read. The grand inquisitor then surrendered all who were to be executed, to the
secular arm, and they were conducted to the plaCe of burning, or Qjuemadero. Here there
were as many funeral piles as victims. Napoleon suppressed the inquisition, and Ferdinand
revived it. But public opinion had, even in Spain, become too strong for it to exist. In
1820, when the popular outbreak restored the constitution, the people everywhere rose against
the inquisition, forced the gates, delivered the prisoners, and demolished the dungeons and in
struments of torture. The institution is now at an end in Spain. From 1481 to 1820, the
number of persons burned alive was 34,658, and the number of others condemned to the galleys
or imprisonment, 288,214.
The dead are buried in Spain in the dress of a Franciscan or Dominican, with the hands
holding a crucifix ; children under seven years old are supposed to be taken at once to heaven,
and their funerals are celebrated like joyful events, with festivity and the ringing of bells.
19. Government. Spain was long an absolute monarchy, in which the power of the king
had no limits but the slender barrier that public opinion could, in a country without education
or a press, interpose. The evils of this kind of government have, in Spain, been peculiarly
aggravated by the individual character of the monarchs. The title of Most Catholic Majesty
640
SPAIN.
which was granted by the Pope to Ferdinand in 1496, has been continued to the succeeding
sovereigns. In the king's title, are enumerated all territories which he holds, or at any time
has held. The heir apparent is called Prince of Asturias. The other royal children are
called Infante or Infanta. During the present century, several attempts have been made to
revive the old cortes, or great council of the nation, once the most powerful of European legis
lative assemblies. In 1837, a new constitution was proclaimed, intended to meet the more
liberal spirit of the present age. By this act, the Cortes, consisting of a senate, appointed by
the crown from a list nominated by the electors, and a congress of deputies chosen by the qual
ified electors, forms the legislature, and has the power of enacting laws with the royal sanction.
The* deputies are chosen for three years, and the senators for nine ; the crown, however, has
the right of dissolving the Cortes, and on each dissolution, one-third of the senators must be
renewed. 20. Laws. Either the spirit or administration of the laws must be defective, for neither life
nor property is universally safe. There are several ancient codes, and the civil and canon
laws have some authority. Justice, in Spain, carries with it more terror than mercy ; and is
avoided as a pestilence. It is now, as in the time of Gil Bias, perilous alike for the guilty
and the innocent to enter its courts. When a murder is committed, all run from the dying
victim, as they would from the murderer ; and when one is found murdered in a house, the
very walls of the dwelling are stripped by the hungry followers of justice. One of the greatest
obstacles to public and private justice is found in the notaries, or escribanos. A more efficient
system could hardly be devised for the obstruction of justice. The notaries only, receive the
testimonies of witnesses, putting what questions they will, and reading such replies as may the best
advance their own interest ; and often in the absence of the judge. Tbe notaries are, there
fore, sometimes bribed before the commission of the crime. The clergy often interfere, to
obtain the pardon of an offender ; but when he has no friend among the notaries or clergy, the
execution of justice is generally certain and severe. The manner of executing criminals is
worthy the country where condemnation has so often been wrested from the groans of the in
nocent. Death is inflicted by the garotte, which is an iron chair with a collar fitting close
about the neck ; this is tightened by a lever or screw, and causes instantaneous death.
Hanging by the neck is, however, the most infamous and the most common. The Verdugo,
or hangman, is dressed in green, from an ultra catholic aversion to the sacred color of Mahomet.
He posts himself on the second round of the ladder, while the criminal, with pinioned arms, is
brought to the first. He grasps his victim under the arms, with an alacrity that shows his duty
and his pleasure to be the same, till both arrive at the proper height, while a clergyman in sack
cloth, and girded with a scourge, follows closely, continually exhorting the criminal. The
hangman places two cords of equal length over the shoulder of the shivering wretch, seats him
self firmly about his neck, with his feet in the crossed wrists, as a stirrup, and both swing off
and fall together. In this position, the Verdugo jumps up and down, while the assistants hang
upon the malefactor's legs below. Thus die the patriots as well as the malefactors of Spain,
and thus perished Riego.
21. Antiquities. Spain abounds in the antiquities of three powerful nations ; of the Ro
mans, the Goths, and the Moors. As the remains are chiefly architectural, all but those of tire
Romans will be mentioned in the account of cities. The Roman antiquities are in good pres
ervation, and some of them are monuments of art. At Corufia, is a columnar pharos, with an
inscription which somewhat confirms a tradition, that it was consecrated to Hercules by the
Phoenicians, and afterwards repaired by the Romans, who dedicated it to Mars. One half of
tne bridge over the Tormes, at Salamanca, was built by the Romans, the rest was made by
Philip the Fourth. Segovia retains its Latin name, and it has a magnificent aqueduct, built by
Trajan. This has a double range of arcades, and it has conveyed water to the town for up
wards of 1,700 years. It has 109 arches, the largest 90 feet from the ground to the conduit,
and the length of the space they cover is more than 2,530 feet. In Barcelona, are several
Roman remains. Near Villa Franca, is an ancient aqueduct, forming a line between two steep
mountains. Near Villanova, are the ruins of a fortress, and numerous sepulchres dug in the
rocks. These indicate the site of Carthago Vetus, a town mentioned by Ptolemy. There is
a triumphal arch beyond the town of Vendrell, and near Torre-dam-Barra, a magnificent tomb,
which, according to a popular tradition, contains the ashes of Scipio. At Tarragona, is an
other Roman aqueduct still used to convey water. At Alcantara, there is a noble bridge over
the Tagus, built by Trajan. It rises to the height of 211 feet 10 inches above the river ; its
SPAIN. 641
length is 568 feet, and its breadth, 27 feet 6 inches. Of the 6 arches, the 2 central ones are 94
feet wide. There is an inscription in honor of the Emperor, and a mausoleum for the archi
tect, at the end of the bridge. It is built of stones enormously large, and is at present conse
crated as a chapel to St. Julian. In Merida, the Roman remains are little inferior in number
or interest to those of the towns in Italy. There are 2 ancient bridges of great solidity,
and in good preservation ; one has 60 arches, and extends 2,800 feet. Among the antiquities
within the walls, are a fine triumphal arch, the ruins of temples, columns, inscriptions, &c.
Without the walls, are a theatre, a naumachia, a circus, the remains of three aqueducts, and
of four Roman ways. There are many other antiquities, of inferior magnitude and interest, in
various parts of Spain.
22. Revenue, Debt, Army, &c. The revenue of Spain was once the largest in Europe, but
is now greatly reduced, not exceeding 30,000,000 dollars. The debt is 350,000,000, and is
rapidly accumulating. The system of taxation is very defective, and varies according to the
exigencies of the government.* The long civil wars, that have distracted this unhappy country,
make it impossible to assert anything with certainty on these heads, or in respect to the mili
tary forces.
23. Colonies. The vast territories which formerly belonged to the Spanish crown, in dif
ferent parts of the world, were officially styled the Indies, and it was said, without exaggera
tion, that upon its dominions the sun never set. But the only remains of this colossal power,
at the present time, are the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, in America ; the Canaries, and
the presidios or fortresses on the northern coast of Africa, of which Ceuta is the principal ;
and the Philippine and Marianne or Ladrone islands, in Oceania. The entire population of
these colonies is about 4,000,000.'
24. Population. The number of inhabitants in Spain was estimated, in 1826, at 13,732,172.
Of these, 127;345 belonged to the clergy ; 100,732 were soldiers, and 14,064 sailors. The
population has probably decreased since that time.
25. History. The early inhabitants of Spain were various Celtic tribes. The attempts of
the Carthaginians to establish colonies in the country gave rise to the second Punic war with
the Romans, which resulted in the acquisition of the whole peninsula by the Romans. It con
tinued a Roman province for 500 years. At the fall of the Roman empire, the Vandals,
Alani, and Suevi invaded Spain ; and, in 419, the empire of the Visigoths was founded. In
the early part of the 8th century, the Saracens invaded the country from Africa. Roderic,
the last Gothic king, was defeated by them, at the battle of Xeres, and the Gothic inhabitants
were driven into the mountains of Asturias and Biscay. The Moors established themselves
in the southern part of the country, and their sovereigns reigned in great splendor at Granada.
The Spaniards were roused to resistance by Don Pelayo, and maintained a struggle against
the Moors, which the Spanish historians dignify with the name of a continual war of 700
years. The territories gained from the enemy, were formed into several distinct kingdoms.
These were gradually amalgamated ; and, in 1469, the marriage of Ferdinand, king of- Arra
gon, with Isabella, queen of Castile, united the whole of Christian Spain into one kingdom.
These sovereigns conquered Granada, and completed the total subjugation of the Moorish
power in the peninsula, at the same time that Columbus, under their auspices, discovered
America, and gave them a new world in the west. *
In the 16th century, under Charles the Fifth, who was King of this country and Emperor
of Germany, Spain was the most powerful monarchy in Europe. Philip the Second, the
successor of this monarch, expelled all the Moriscoes, or descendants of the Moors, who re
mained in the country, which caused an immense loss to the kingdom, in wealth and popula
tion. The war of the Succession, in the early part of the 18th century, completed the im
poverishment of the country, and Spain has been only a second-rate power since that time.
In 1808", Napoleon seized the kingdom, and placed his brother Joseph upon the throne ;
but the resistance of the people, who were assisted by the armies of Britain, and his reverses
in Russia, frustrated his plans. This event caused *the revolt of nearly all Spanish America.
* The revenue is ordinarily derived ii-om the following granted by the pope, for the revenue of the clergy ; the
sources : customs ; duties on tobacco and salt ; stamps ; lot- noveno, a ninth part of the tithes ; the tercias, two ninths
teries ; lanzas, or contributions, exacted from the grandees, of the tithes ; the diezmo, a tax on the river-fishings at
as an equivalent for the lances, or horsemen, which they Seville ; half the annats of the secular clergy ; fines, posts,
formerly furnished to the crown ; the crusada, an ancient capitation tax, and duties on gunpowder, saltpetre, and
tax, levied for the crusades ; the excusado, a subsidy, other products,
81
642
PORTUGAL.
In 1820, an insurrection of the troops and the people, against the tyrant Ferdinand, produced
a liberal constitution, which was sworn to by the king, in the ancient assembly of the Cortes.
But the Holy Alliance expressed their disapprobation. France interfered ; the constitution
was put down by the bayonet, and despotism restored. On the death of Ferdinand the Sev
enth, in 1833, his infant daughter, Isabella, was proclaimed queen, in compliance with the tes
tamentary directions of her father ; but Carlos, or Charles, brother of the late king, laid claim
to the crown, on the ground that, by the constitution of the Spanish monarchy, a woman could
not succeed to the throne of Spain. The rival claims of the uncle and niece, have led to a
long and desolating war, which seems destined to complete, for a time, the impoverishment and
depression of this once opulent and powerful monarchy ; but perhaps, ultimately, to effect the
regeneration of an oppressed, but gallant and high-spirited nation.
CHAPTER LXXVIII. PORTUGAL.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. Portugal is bounded north and east by Spain, south and west
by the Atlantic. It lies between 37° and 42° 1 1' N. latitude, and 6° 20' and 9° 40' W. lon
gitude. It is 360 miles in length, and 150 in breadth, and contains 38,800 square miles.
2. Mountains. The mountains of Portugal are prolongations of the ranges we have already
described in Spain. The Sierra de Cintra is the extremity of the Iberian chain, and reaches
to the sea, a little north of the mouth of the Tagus, where it forms the celebrated Rock of
Cintra. The Sierra de Guadalupe extends to the sea at Cape St. Vincent.
3. Rivers. The Duero rises in Spain, and passing into this country, takes the name of
Douro, and flows into the sea at Oporto. The Tagus passes from Spain through Portugal, to
the sea, at Lisbon. The Mondego is a small stream, between the above rivers, which has the
whole of its course in Portugal. The Minho forms part of the northern boundary, and the
Guadiana passes into the kingdom, and forms part of its southeastern limit.
4. Capes. Cape St. Vincent is a very prominent headland, forming the southeastern ex
tremity of the kingdom ; it is the termination of one of the mountain ranges, already descnb- .
ed. Cape Roca, a little to the north of the Tagus, is the extremity of another chain. It is
a celebrated sea-mark, known to mariners as the " Rock of Lisbon."
5. Climate. The climate is more agreeable and healthy than in the most of Spain. The
air of Lisbon is famed for its salubrity, and that city is resorted to by invalids from different
countries. The heat of summer, and cold- of winter, are tempered by the neighboring ocean.
At Lisbon, there are commonly 200 days in the year completely fair. The rainy days are not
more than 80. When rain falls, it is very violent. If October is rainy, it is not uncommon
to see the fruit-trees blossom anew in November. '
6. Soil. Portugal is a fertile country ; the soil is light, and easily cultivated. The moun
tains are mostly barren, but some of them are covered with a fine vegetation.
7. Minerals, The Romans had mines in this country, vestiges of which are still to be
PORTUGAL. 643
seen ;, yet Portugal is not, at present, productive in minerals. There have been found here,
gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, iron, coal, quicksilver, rubies, hyacinth, beryl, manganese, bis
muth, and arsenic. The salt is obtained from sea-water.
8. Face of the Country. This country has not so great a proportion of mountains as Spain.
There are 2 extensive plains ; that of Beira, in the north, and that of Alemtejo, in the south.
The coast is low in the north, but grows high and rocky toward the south. In the wildness
and grandeur of mountain scenery, Portugal is inferior to Spain, yet in general appearance, it
is esteemed a more pleasant country. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Divisions. Portugal is divided into 6 provinces, namely, — Entre Douro e Minho,
Tras os Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alemtejo, and Algarve, which last has the title of a
kingdom. The population is estimated at 3,400,000.
2. Cities and Towns. Lisbon, the capital, stands on the north bank of the Tagus, 10 miles
from its mouth. It rises gradually from the water, and makes a magnificent appearance from
without. The harbor, formed by the expansion of the river, is 9 miles wide, and is one of
the finest havens in the world. The interior of the city, disappoints the expectation created
by the first view. It is ill built, with dirty, narrow, and crooked streets ; yet some parts, of
modern construction, are not wanting in elegance. There are 13 large squares, the finest of
which is the Praca do Commerico ; this is fronted by elegant buildings, and bordered, toward
the river, by the handsomest quays in Europe. In the centre, is an equestrian statue of Jo
seph the First. The cathedral is magnificent, and remarkable for the boldness of its dome.
The Royal Hospital is an excellent institution, and there is a large foundling hospital. Lisbon
has, also, 3 observatories, many colleges and academies, 180 churches and chapels, 75 con
vents, and a royal library of 80,000 volumes. But the most remarkable edifice which it con
tains, is the aqueduct of Bemfica. It is 10 miles in length ; some of its arches are 200 feet
high and 100 feet wide. Altogether, this is one of the most magnificent structures, that have
been erected in modern times, and is not inferior to any ancient work of the same kind.
There are 3 royal palaces in Lisbon and the neighborhood, and around the city are between 6
and 7 thousand quintas, or country houses. Population, 260,000.* Not far from Lisbon, is
the rock or mountain of Cintra, which consists of towering pinnacles, composed of loose
blocks of granite heaped together. Its environs exhibit the most beautiful scenery in the king
dom. Mafra, on the western side of the mountain, is remarkable for a convent, church, and
palace, adorned with painting and sculpture, and regarded- as the most superb edifice in Portugal.
Coimbra, on the Mondego, is celebrated for its university. It has a delightful neighborhood,
but the town is a dismal place within. Population, 15,000. On the Mondego, near the town,
is the Qjuinta de legrimas, or house of tears, where Inez de Castro was imprisoned and mur
dered. Oporto, on the Douro, is an important seaport. Its harbor is excellent, and the town
is strongly fortified by nature. It has some fine squares and churches, but the houses gener
ally are mean, and the streets narrow. It has a great trade in the exportation of oranges, lem
ons, and the wine called, from this place, Port wine. Population, 70,000.
Setubal, or, as it is improperly called by seamen, &t. Ubes, has an excellent harbor, and an
extensive commerce. It exports wine, oil, and oranges, and particularly salt, of which a large
quantity is made here. Population, 15,000.
Braga is a commercial and manufacturing town, in the northern part of the country, with
14,000 inhabitants. It contains an ancient cathedral, remarkable for its great size, and some
remains of a Roman temple, amphitheatre, and aqueduct.
Lamego, in Beira, with 9,000 inhabitants, and Santarem, in Estremadura, once the residence
of the Portuguese kings, with 8,000 inhabitants, are places of historical interest.
Elvas, in the west, is a strongly fortified town. Population, 10,000. Here is a remarkable
n ^LH?011 hS bfen ^rrjbly.d,fsolated by earthquakes. In ble two or three times a day. A conflagration added its de-
ll ,' ,, w tlenMed.' ,wlt'1 'nt«yals, for a year. On structive ravages to that of the earthquake. The heights
the 1st of November, a violent shock laid the city in ruins, about Lisbon were covered with people escaped from the
In the lower part of the city, not a street could be traced city, and their innumerable multitude of tents resembled
but by the fragments of broken walls The cathedral fell, the encampment of an army. Dead bodies lay unburied
.u rym&,an ,lmmen!e q^ntity of wealth in its ruins. More among the ruins, and others were dug out alive, after be-
than 100 palaces churches, and convents were ruined, and ing buried for several days. It is remarkable, that the
the property of all kinds destroyed is incalculable During great aqueduct, notwithstanding its enormous height and
the whole month of November, the earth continued to trera- extent, remained unhurt.
644 PORTUGAL.
aqueduct, which leads the water into an enormous subterranean cistern under the ramparts of
the town.
Evora, to the east of Setubal, has many Roman remains, among which is a temple of Di
ana, now converted into public shambles. Population, 9,050.
Leiria, a little to the north of Lisbon, is beautifully situated in the midst of a narrow valley
and has a famous annual fair. Population, 7,000. The convent of Batalha, 6 miles from this
place, is one of the most remarkable Gothic structures in Europe. Alcobapa, 12 miles from
this place, was the richest monastic establishment in the world ; the kitchen is 100 feet in
length, and is supplied with water by 8 fountains. Its domains comprised a tract of country 20
miles by 15, containing 13 market towns and large villages, with 2 seaports, and as many fortresses.
3. Agriculture. Portugal, though rich in natural productions, wants the cultivation of in
dustrious hands. The wealth of the colonies and commerce withdrew the attention of the in
habitants from agriculture, which has been for several centuries in a low state. Excellent fruit
is raised and exported in considerable quantities, and several sorts of wines of excellent quality
are produced ; the red Port wine is much drank in England and the United States. Although
the country affords excellent pastures, grazing is little attended to. Corn is raised in so small
quantities, that it is necessary to import it.
"4. Commerce. The want of roads discourages internal commerce ; there are no canals, and
the navigable rivers are few, and often too low for boats. The foreign commerce, once ex
tensive and profitable, is now insignificant ; the troubles, revolutions, and civil wars that have
distracted the country since 1820, have depressed every sort of industry. Manufactured
goods are imported from Great Briiain, and salted and dried fish from the United States. The
exports are wine and fruit. The commerce is mostly carried on by British and American ves
sels. The annual exports amount to about 10,000,000 dollars.
5. Manufactures. There are a few manufactories of woolen cloth at Covilham, Portalegre,
and Azeitao, and of hats and paper at Lisbon ; but they are not sufficient for tbe supply of the
country. Salt is made in the marshes upon the coast to the amount of 140,000 hogsheads annually.
6. Fisheries. The rivers and coasts abound in fish similar to those of Spain. The fishe
ries employ 18,000 men, and are heavily taxed by the government. They are much less pro
ductive as a source of wealth, than formerly.
7. Inhabitants. These have not for centuries been mixed ; they are well formed and slen
der, and dark in complexion. The females are distinguished for gracefulness. The privi
leged classes are the nobility and clergy ; after which, rank the traders and peasantry. The
nobility seldom live on their estates ; but reside at court, where they hold all the offices.
There are five orders of knighthood, with many commanderies, viz. the Order of Christ, of
St. James, of Avis, of St. John, and of the Tower and Sword.
8. Dress. The common mode of dress is similar to that of Spain, though among the higher
classes the English or European dress is common. The ladies wear a black garment over a
black petticoat, and at Lisbon cover the head and breast with a manto. The common class
of females wear cloaks and petticoats of woolen, edged with ribands or gold lace ; women
of all ranks wear many trinkets and jewels. Many of the common people still wear the an
cient habit, the petticoat and jacket. The fashion of dress is subject to little change, and mil
liners or mantau-makers do not thrive at Lisbon.
9. Language. The language is somewhat similar to the Castilian, and has a few French
and Arabic words. It is devoid of the guttural sounds so common in the Spanish ; yet its
nasal terminations somewhat detract from its harmony.
10. Manner of Building. There are few monuments of architecture, and the general man
ner of building is similar, though inferior, to that of Spain.
11. Food and Drink. The Portuguese are temperate; the men do not generally drink
wine, and the females never do ; little tobacco is used in any way. Bread, called broa, made
of Indian corn, forms the principal food of the common people, and vegetables are much used.
The wines of Portugal are sold under the direction of a company who mix them ; for which
reason, those of the best quality can never be had pure. The port wines and the white wines
are thus mixed. The wines of Setubal are of a good quality, both dry and sweet. Bucellas,
near Lisbon, produces a delicate white wine resembling Barsac.
12. Diseases. Fevers are not uncommon in many parts of Portugal. Rheumatism and pleu
risy are somewhat frequent in the north. The salt marshes of the coast produce dropsy and
obstructions. The working classes, in some parts, are subject to a sort of leprosy. In the
south, an inflammatory disease is occasioned by eating unripe figs.
PORTUGAL. 645
13. Traveling. The traveler in Portugal is obliged, on many of the routes, to carry all his
accommodations with him, even beds, on sumpter mules, if he should be fastidious in point of
lodging. The facilities for traveling are less than in Spain, though there is less danger from robbers.
14. Character, Manners, &c. With some resemblance to the Spanish people, the Portu
guese have yet a great antipathy to them. The different ranks of society are as distinct as in
Spain ; and the influence of the clergy is as great, and may be traced in the ignorance and
bigotry of the people. The Portuguese are not particularly social ; but they are gentle, do
mestic, and fond of retirement. Their character and customs are not liable to change ; trav
elers are few, and there is little intercommunication between different parts of the country. In
the absence of improvement, the Portuguese are greatly bound to ancient ceremony and usage.
No person, who regards his own dignity, would walk to make a call of ceremony on another ;
and it would be an insult upon those he visits, to appear Without a sword and chapeau, or with
out spurs to his boots. The peasants are civil, and salute everybody, by taking off their hats
and saying, " the Lord preserve you many years." The common people have some peculiar
traits of pride. They will draw, but not carry a burden. The Gallegos, however, are the
common porters, and have no such scruples. The country is overrun with beggars, who are
to the last degree importunate, and solicit as if demanding a right. The females are more se
cluded than in Spain, and seldom breathe the fresh air but in going to church. When married,
they retain their own names. All people are addressed by their Christian names. The useful
arts are in a low state, and labor everywhere supplies the want of skill. All the implements
•of agriculture denote an unenlightened state of society.
15. Amusements. Bull-fights, billiards, cards, and dice, are common amusements, and the
guitar and fandango are general among the peasantry. The bull-fights are similar to those of
Spain, except in a more adventurous practice of one of the players, whose part it is, when the
animal plunges at him, to seize him by the horns, and to be thus carried round by the bull till
his comrades relieve him.
16'. Education. Education is in the lowest state. The task of teaching is imposed upon the
monks, who are themselves grievously' ignorant, and whose interest it is to keep others so. There
is but one university, which is at Coimbra, and has a library of 60,000 volumes, and a good
botanical garden. There is a small college at Evora ; also, at Lisbon, a college for the no
bility ; and there are in the kingdom 800 elementary schools.
17. Arts, Sciences, and Literature. The arts have hardly an existence in Portugal, and
science and literature are much circumscribed. The literature consists chiefly in poetry, and
excludes all philosophy. The very Latin partakes of the state of knowledge. The Latin of
monks is unintelligible to the learned. Little has been done in Portugal for the mathematics,
though something has been effected for geography, natural history, and botany. The music is
simple and sweet, and it is chiefly confined to songs'. All the best foreign works are prohib
ited, and everything published is subjected to a strict censorship.
The principal dramatic writer was Gil Vicente, who preceded Lope de Vega and Calde-
ron. But the great poet of Portugal is Camoens, whose Lusiad is well known beyond the
limits of the Portuguese language. Yet so little regard is paid to the memory of this great man,
the brightest ornament of his country, that he has not a monumental inscription in the kingdom
to remind the Portuguese of their former glory. His tomb was demolished a few years since,
in repairing a church, and the spot where he lies is unknown !
18. Religion. The strictest Roman Catholic religion is established in Portugal. The
clergy are neither enlightened nor pure in life, and. the force of their evil example is as perni
cious as that of the priests in Spain. There is a patriarch, subordinate to the Pope. There are
3 archbishops and 15 bishops, and 4,262 parishes. Previous to 1834, when the religious houses
were suppressed, and their,property seized by the government, there were 360, convents and 140
nunneries. The number of the secular clergy is 22,000 ; that of monks was 5,800 ; of nuns,
6,000. There was an order of friars " of Divine Providence," who trusted to Providence, and
never went forth to beg. When in want of provisions, they sounded the alarm upon the con
vent bell, and supplies were poured in by the faithful. The mendicant orders were the most
numerous, though much land was held by different convents.
19. Government. The government, until 1838, was in effect an absolute monarchy, for
the constitutional charter of 1820 was but a dead letter, though the nominal provisions of it
were liberal. In 1828, a new constitution was adopted ; but it seems doubtful whether it will
prove a reality. The state of the country has been so unsettled during the last 15 years, that
646
ITAL*.
it is impossible to give any authentic statements as to the revenue, debt, and military force.
The laws are founded on the civil law of the Roman empire, and the canon law. The edicts
of the king have also the force of laws.
20. Colonies. Even since the loss of Brazil, the colonial possessions of Portugal are ex
tensive and valuable. In Asia, she possesses Goa and Diu in Hindostan, Macao, and part of
the island of Timor, forming together the viceroyalty of India, with 600,000 inhabitants. In
Africa, the Cape de Verd and Madeira islands ; the isle of St. Thomas and Prince's island, in
the Gulf of Guinea ; some factories in Senegambia ; Angola, on the western coast, and the gov
ernment of Mozambique, on the eastern, with about 1,400,000 inhabitants, are occupied or
claimed by Portugal. The Azores also belong to Portugal.
21. History. The early history of Portugal is connected with that of Spain. Alphonsothe
Sixth, king of Castile and Leon, bestowed this country upon Henry of Transtamare, a brother
of the Duke of Burgundy, with the title of Count of Portugal, at the same time declaring the
country independent of Castile. Henry's son, Alphonso the First, won a victory over the Moors,
and was crowned king of Portugal by his soldiers, on the field of battle, in 1 139 ; Philip the
Second of Spain conquered the kingdom and annexed it to his own crown in 1581 ; but the in
dependence of Portugal was restored in 1640. The kingdom was overrun by the French ar
mies in 1807, and the royal family fled to Brazil ; but the French evacuated it the following year.
The usurpation of the crown by Don Miguel threw the affairs of Portugal into a state of great
disorder, and has been followed by a disastrous series of civil wars and revolutions.
CHAPTER LXXIX. GENERAL VIEW OF ITALY.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. Italy is bounded on the north and northwest by the Alps.
Square Miles.
Population.
States of the Church, - - - 17,050
2,590,000
Two Sicilies, - - - 41,521
7,650.000
Tuscany, - ... 8,300
1,330^000
Lombard-Venetian Provinces of
Austria, .... 30,000
4,440,000
ITALY. 647
which separate it from France, Switzerland, and the Austrian empire ; on the east by the
Adriatic sea, and on the south and west by the Mediterranean. It is comprised between 6°
and 18° E. longitude, and 37° and 47° N. latitude, forming a long peninsula, about 700 miles
in length, with a general width of nearly 150 miles. Area, 120,000 square miles ; population,
21,400,000. Italian States.
Square Miles. Population.
Sardinia, - - 28,830 4,500,000
Monaco, - - - 50 6,700
Parma, 2,184 440,000
Modena, 2,073 300,000
Lucca, 410 145,000
San Marino, ... - 21 7,500
2. Mountains. The Alps occupy the northern and northwestern border. The Apennines
extend through the whole peninsula, from the valley of Savona to the strait of Messina, sending
off a branch to Otranto. They nowhere rise to the limit of perpetual ice, but are covered
with snow in winter, and are crowned to their summits with trees. The highest mountains are
Mount Corno, or the Gran Sasso, 9,520 feet, and Mont Velino, 8,183 feet high;
3. Rivers. The only large river is the Po, which drains nearly the whole of the northern
part. Most of the other streams rise in the Apennines, whose vicinity to the sea on both sides
prevents their having a long course.
4. Islands and Seas. On the northeast, is an arm of the Mediterranean, called the Adriatic
Sea, or the Gulf of Venice. It is about 600 miles long, and 150 wide, and its narrow entrance
is commanded by the island of Corfu. It has several good harbors, but in some parts the
coast is dangerous. Its principal bays are the gulfs of Trieste and Manfredonia. To the
southeast of Italy, between Sicily and Greece, is the Ionian Sea, which is connected by the
strait or faro of Messina with the Sicilian Sea, lying between Naples and Sicily, and contain
ing the Lipari Isles. The part of the sea between the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and the
Tuscan shore, is often called the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian Sea, and between Nice and Lucca is
the Gulf of Genoa. The principal islands are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. To the south
of Sicily is the Maltese group, comprising Malta, Gozzo, and Comino, and belonging to Great
Britain. 5. Vegetation. There is a wide difference between the vegetation of northern and that of
southern Italy, owing more to the increased height and breadth of the Apennines, than to the
difference of latitude. The olive tree, however, reaches to the northern limits, and the pis
tachio {Pistacia lentiscus), pomegranate, Zizyphus vulgaris, Diospyros lotos, Celtis australis,
and ostrya vulgaris, abound in the north, as well as in the south. The orange and lemon do
not thrive north of Samnium, except in some favorable exposures near the coast. The plains
and slopes of southern Italy produce olives, tamarisks, arbutus, myrtle, jujube, pistachios,
and'terebinths (Pistacia terebinthus) , oleander, sweet bay or laurel, carob (Ceratonia siliqua),
the palmetto, rhanonus ; the stone pine (P. pinea), whose picturesque outlines and dark hue
have recommended it so much to the artist, that it farms a striking feature in almost all Claude
Lorraine's landscapes, manna ash, chestnut, mulberry, plane, willow, poplars, &c. The
Apennines of this section are covered with oaks and cone-bearing trees, especially the
common oak, cork oak ( Qjuercus suber) , yew, horse chestnut, larch, Scotch fir, pinaster, &c.
The oaks continue also in the north, but the coniferous trees are scarce. In Sicily we find a
tropical vegetation ; even the sugar-cane is cultivated, and the orange, citron, myrtle, laurel,
prickly fig (cactus tunaj date-palm, custard apple, pomegranate, &c, abound. Maize, millet,
and rice, are common objects of cultivation throughout the country, and caper (capparis
spinosa) is a valuable plant. The Arundo donax, a gigantic grass, of which fishing-rods and
walking-sticks are made, is common.
6. Animals. In the mountainous parts are found the lynx, the chamois, the wild goat,
ferret,, dormouse, lemming, and porcupine. There are many oxen called buffaloes, which
are tamed in the southern parts. The Neapolitan horses are strong and well made ; the ass
and mule are of an excellent kind, and the sheep are equal to the Spanish. Birds are numer
ous. Some of the reptiles of the south are common to Africa. The most noxious serpents
648
ITALY.
The Nautilus.
are the asp and viper.. The taran
tula, or poisonous spider of the
south, has been the subject of many
fables ; its sting yields readily to
different remedies. The seas
abound with fish and molluscs. In
the Gulf of Taranto is found the
shell fish which affords the Tyrian
purple, so highly prized by the an
cients. In these seas also the
Nautilus spreads its thin sail.
7. Canals. It was in Italy, that
the great improvement of construct
ing locks and sluices in canals, so
as to pass boats from one level to
another, was first introduced. The
canals of Italy are in part intended
for purposes of irrigation, and -in
part for navigation. The former are numerous in Sardinia, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom,
Tuscany, and the northern part of the Papal dominions. Of the latter, the principal are the
Naviglio Grande, from the upper part of the Ticino to Milan, which has been continued from
Milan to Pavia by the Pavia Canal ; total length, 30 miles ; the Martesana Canal, from
Milan to the Adda, 24 miles ; the Pisa Canal, from Pisa to Leghorn ; the Cento Canal, from
Bologna to Ferrara, 34 miles, whence it is continued to the main branch of the Po ; and the
canal from Modena to the Panaro.
8. Roads. The mountain roads which connect France with Savoy, and Valais with Italy,
from the difficulties overcome in their construction, and the immense labor necessary in erect- '
ing bridges, excavating tunnels, &c, rank among the greatest productions of human energy and
art in modern times. The road over Mont Cenis, which was formerly passed only on mules, or
in sedans, is 30 miles long, and passable by carriages ; it rises to the height of 6,775 feet. The
road over the Simplon, from the Valais near Brieg, to Piedmont near Arona, rises to the
height of nearly 7,000 feet, and passes through six galleries or tunnels hewn out of the rock;
one of these is 683 feet long. The road is 36 miles in length, and crosses many tremendous
precipices by means of bridges. The road from Bormio, in the Valteline, over the Stelvio
or Stilferjoch, forms the communication between Innspruck and Milan, and is the highest road
in Europe, reaching an elevation of upwards of 8,000 feet. Several other Alpine roads have
been constructed from France to Sardinia, and from the German into the Italian provinces of
Austria. 9. Inhabitants. The Italians are descended from different nations, which, at various times
overran Italy, though they are now blended into one race. A few Greeks live on the coast
of the Adriatic ; there are Germans in Lombardy, Venice, &c, and Jews scattered over the
country ; but there are not probably 200,000 inhabitants who are not Italians. The Italians
are distinguished for their animated and expressive countenances, and they have very brilliant
eyes. They are generally of dark complexions, well formed, and active. The women have
black or auburn hair, and most of the requisites for beauty. Among the inhabitants are many
cripples and deformed ; for the poor in Italy suffer many hardships and privations ; but among
the lowest class, and especially at Naples, the human form is seen in its greatest perfection,
and the half-clad lazzaroni are the best models for a sculptor.
In all the States of Italy there are the usual grades of European nobility ; and the individ
uals are more numerous than those of the same class in any other country. In some of the
States of Italy all the sons of the nobility and their sons, bear the original title. Of course
numbers are indigent ; and many of them are known to solicit charity.
10. Dress. The higher classes wear the common European dress. At Genoa, however,
females of all ranks, wear very gracefully, the mazzaro, a kind of shawl thrown over the head
and shoulders and folded round the arms. - In Savoy the French fashions are generally fol
lowed by the upper class ; butthe common people all over Italy have their local peculiarities
of dress. The fashions vary even in small districts or towns. The shepherds wear the skins
of their flock, with the wool outward in summer, and inward in winter. These garments are
ITALY. 649
rudely formed, and have sometimes only holes pierced for the head and arms. In Sardinia
and Tuscany, the females have many ornaments
of pearl, coral, and gold ; and even the poorest
are rich in these. In Tuscany the females of
the common classes wear black beaver hats, with
high crowns, and stiff plumes of black feathers.
On holydays they are streaming with ribands.
At Naples the lazzaroni have gaudy holyday
dresses, but some of them may be seen lying
naked in the sun, and many have no other
covering than breeches that end above the knee'.
In the island of Procida, the females to this day
wear the Greek costume, which, in that seques
tered nook, though within a few miles of Naples,
has descended from their ancestors.
Inhabitants of Modem Italy. 11. Language. The written language of
Italy is uniform, though there are various dialects
spoken in different districts, and in Savoy the more general language is the French. The
Italian is founded on the Latin, which it nearly resembles, except in the articles and auxiliary
verbs. All foreign, or barbarous words, are said, by Muratori, not to exceed 1,000. The
language is so sweet and liquid, that it is consecrated to music in all European countries ; yet,
though soft to a great degree, it is distinguished for force, as will be allowed by all readers of
Dante. The language is spoken with the most purity at Rome, Siena, and Florence ; but the
Venetian dialect is the most musical.
12. Manner of Building. In Italy, are the most splendid and perfect monuments of archi
tecture. The churches are the most costly and magnificent ; the monasteries capacious, and
the palaces unrivaled. Many of these latter, however, in the Venetian territory, though built
by PallarJio, are suffered to decay, and some are razed, for the sake of the materials. Archi
tecture, painting, sculpture, and other arts, are exhausted on the churches. Many of them
have a minuteness of finish, that is nothing less than wonderful. The pillars of some are en
crusted with mosaic pictures, or precious stones ; the walls covered with frescoes, and the
doors inimitably carved in bronze. The gates of the Baptistery, at Florence, were pronounc
ed, by Michael Angelo, to be "worthy of Paradise" ; they are divided into compartments, and
carved in bronze, with scriptural histories. There is no part of the churches, that is not richly
ornamented. The cities of Italy are all well built, and Genoa is named, from its palaces,
" the superb." It is almost a city of palaces, many of which are very striking in effect. In
Florence, the architecture is of a more solid character ; the indication of a time, when factions
convulsed the city, and every house was designed to resist an assault, and stand a siege.
There are few windows, or columns, in the Tuscan palaces. Some of the chief buildings,
have been for ages unfinished ; the Pitti palace wants a wing ; the Cathedral is not completed,
and the vestibule of the Laurentian Library has still the scaffolding erected by M. Angelo.
At Rome, many of the 300 churches are worthy of admiration, and one of them is the
greatest monument reared by the hand of man. The palaces are numerous and elegant. They
are generally quadrangles, with an area within, and a wide staircase of marble. The windows
are numerous. The palaces, however, seem to be designed as much for the spectator as the
tenant ; and none of them are devised for tbe English principle of comfort.
At Naples, the churches, though rich, are of an inferior architecture, but the palaces are
imposing. The roofs are flat, and covered with a cement, that endures the climate. The
roofs are terraces ; at some seasons the people sleep upon them ; and every window has a bal
cony. At Rome and Naples, there are few chimneys ; the climate is so mild, that little fire
is necessary. The ladies, however, have, in winter, a little vase of coals, which they place
under their dress ; they call it a marito, or husband. The leaning towers, are one of the pecu
liarities of Italy. There are 2 at Bologna, side by side, overhanging the most populous part
of the city. One is slender, and 350 feet high. It was formerly 476, but was reduced, from
caution, after it bad withstood an earthquake. It was erected A. D. 11-10. The other is 130
feet high, and 8 feet out of the perpendicular. At Padua, is a hall, built in the 12th century,
which has withstood several earthquakes ; it is 300 feet long, 100 feet wide, and the same in
height. It is larger than Westminster Hall, yet the walls are insulated, and not strengthened
82
650
ITALY.
by abutments, or mutual binding of any sort. The Leaning Tower, at Pisa, is elsewhere de
scribed. 13. Food and Drink. The food of the Italians is light ; neither the climate, nor the na
tional indolence, requires any other. Chestnuts are used, in many parts, as food, made into a
heavy bread ; and, in several of the cities, roasted chestnuts are sold hot. They are 6 times
as large as the same nuts in America. Potatoes are growing somewhat into use with the -com
mon people. At Rome, polenta, or hasty pudding, made of the flour of Indian corn, is a
general dish with the common people. Macaroni is a common food only at Naples, where it
is both a luxury and a necessary. It is, however, much used over all Italy. It is a dried
preparation of flour, in long tubes, which are boiled till they become swelled and soft, when
they are eaten with a sprinkling of grated parmesan cheese. It is, with the lazzaroni, the hap
piest time of their happy 24 hours, when their toil, their tricks, or their importunity, have ob
tained a few grains, to purchase macaroni, which they hold in long vermiform strings, above
the head, which is thrown back, and feed themselves, as it were, by a measure of length.
Fruit and vegetables form considerable articles of food. Coffee is a common beverage, and
no shops are more frequent than coffee-rooms. A traveler is surprised to see a course of
small birds on the table, not larger than wrens. They make a part of every dinner, in the
south of Italy.
The wines of Italy, in spite of the want of skill in making, are excellent. They are light,
and reach their perfection in a year. The wines of Sicily are the most exported. The Mar
sala, or Sicily Madeira, made from the Madeira grape, is a strong white wine, and much of it
is consumed in the United States. The wines of Sardinia and Corsica, might, with care, be
made of a superior quality ; and those of Tuscany are of established reputation. The Ale-
atico is a red muscadine, and the best is produced at Montepulciano, in the Val de Nievole,
and in the Lucchese territory. The sweetness of the wine is tempered with an agreeable
sharpness. At Artimino, is produced an excellent claret. The Verdea is a pleasant, white
wine, made in the vicinity of Florence ; and the Trebbiano is so sweet, that it is almost a
syrup. The Orvieto is a delicious table wine, and the best which is produced in the states of
the church. Montefiascone, in the vicinity of Orvieto, produces a most luscious Muscat wine.
The Neapolitan territory produces the Vino Greco, a sweet wine ; the Lachryma Christi,
sweet and luscious ; and a muscadine wine, very aromatic. TheGragnano, is an agreeable
red wine, produced at Castellamare, in the vicinity of Pompeii. The Lachryma Christi is
raised in a soil, mixed with the lava, or ashes, of Vesuvius. All these wines are cheap ; for
the narrow policy of several of the governments imposes restrictions on exportation, and the
inland transportation to the cities is not easy. The Italian wines seldom improve after a year.
The domestic consumption of them is great, yet the Italians are as temperate, nearly, as the
Spaniards.
places. 14. Traveling
The rosoglio, a cordial, is drank at Naples ; and various cordials in different
The most expeditious way of traveling, is by post ; which is somewhat
cheaper than in France. But a common
method is, to go with a vetturino, in a coach,
containing 6 or S persons. There is no want
of this conveyance on all the principal routes.
It is cheap, and as the rate is but 30 or 40
miles a day, affords the best opportunity of
seeing the country. The vetturino looks
out among foreigners for his passengers, to
each of whom he tenders a ducat in pledge,
to be forfeited if he should fail to go; but
if the passenger should fail to be ready, he
also forfeits his ducat. The bargain with
the vetturino, generally includes the passage,
and accommodations at the inns ; and this
arrangement saves the traveler much over
charging and wrangling. The route from
Rome to Naples, perhaps 1 50 miles, costs
Hannibal Crossing the Alps.
about 6 dollars, and the vetturino is held to furnish a supper of several courses, and a single bed
room, to each passenger. It is common, to make him sign a contract, specifying the particu-
ITALY. 651
lars ; and to give him a certain sum, perhaps half a dollar, at the end of the journey, if he has
been civil and obliging. The main roads are good, but the cross roads are hardly passable ;
and in Sicily, there are hardly any interior roads. The custom-houses, and the passports, are
great annoyances. The custom-houses are at the frontiers of the states, and at the entrance to
cities ; the officers well know how to visit the traveler with manifold vexations, if he should
fail to purchase their forbearance with a few pauls, generally less than half a dollar.. When
this preliminary is adjusted, the traveler is permitted to pass with his baggage unopened.
There is no escaping the Doganieri. " They stop the chariot, and they board the barge."
The vexations of the passports are of more frequent occurrence. The passport is taken at
the gate of all considerable towns, carried to the commandant, endorsed and returned by a
soldier, whose low bows are generally rewarded with a small coin. When a stranger resides
in a city, he surrenders his passport and receives a written permission to remain for a certain
time, and this must be renewed when the time has expired. Before quitting one independent
State, to visit another, it is necessary to have the permission of the minister or consul of the
State to which the traveler is going. These various endorsements and seals on a passport soon
cover every part of it, and new paper must be added to it, which in time becomes a long roll.
The inns are few of them good ; but generally on the main routes the accommodations are
equaFto those in France. The beds are almost universally good ; and the bedsteads are of
iron, with a network of thin iron bands to support the bed. In cities, the hotels generally sup
ply only lodgings. A furnished room is let, and the occupier receives his meals from a trat-
teria, or goes to one himself.
In Italy, which is cut up into so many States, with inefficient governments, robbery is or has
been almost a profession, and committed on a scale unequaled, except in Spain. The robber,
in Italy, seems to be shielded by popular favor, and he is celebrated in ballads. Fra Diavolo,
of Itri, was renowned and feared beyond the limits of his country, and many other brigands
have raised themselves to " that bad eminence." The frontiers of the kingdom of Naples,
beyond Terracina, were the most dangerous defiles for the traveler, who, if he failed to satisfy
the robbers with sufficient plunder, was held to ransom himself by a draft on his banker ; and
the brigands seldom omitted to keep their threat of murdering him when the draft was pro
tested. Not only travelers were thus seized, but wealthy residents ; the wife of one of these
sent for ransom a sum less than that demanded, and received in return the captive's ears, with
an intimation, that the knife would next be directed against his throat. _ The house of Lucien
Bonaparte was robbed within 15 miles of Rome, and his secretary carried away and held to a
ransom of several thousand ducats. It was intended to capture the prince himself, who hap
pened on that day to be absent. The weakness of the government is the strength of the bri
gands, though at the present time the roads are. generally safe. A cardinal, the secretary of
state, was sent to Terracina, to confer with the robbers, and an offer of amnesty to all that
would surrender, and suffer a limited imprisonment in the castle of St. Angelo, with a certain
allowance or salary from the government. Some leaders, their wives, and many followers sur
rendered, but the government broke faith and held them after the stipulated time. While in
prison they were much visited. They were a fine race of men, but hardened and ferocious.
The wife of the chief was celebrated for beauty, and the little son went through the brigand
exercises with his musket, for the amusement of visiters. Sicily was formerly impassable, by'
reason of robbers ; but when the English had possession, they introduced the code of Alfred,
making districts answerable for crimes, and the success was so complete, that Sicily is not much
infested with robbers, even now.
Before closing this article, it is proper to mention some of the peculiarities of Italian trav
eling. In Sicily, where there are hardly any roads, the common conveyance is the lettiga, a
sort of sedan on long poles. It is carried by two mules, one before and one behind it, with
the poles supported over their backs, like common shafts. At Naples, there is a small, but
very spirited breed of horses, driven about at full speed in a little open chair, or caleche. The
driver stands on a board behind, and holds his reins over the passengers' heads. There are
seats but for two passengers ; but persons often cover the little carriage, holding on wherever
they can find space to plant a foot. Eight or ten may be seen thus, carried swiftly by one
horse. Before the present stupendous roads over the Alps were made, it was toilsome and danger
ous to cross the mountains. It was the labor, without the glory, of Hannibal. The trav
eler, in going from Savoy, often descended the mountains to Lans le bourg, on a trainean or
652 ITALY.
sledge, guided by a mountaineer. In this way, two leagues were passed over in a few
minutes. '
15. Diseases. Some of the most fertile parts of Italy are depopulated by the fevers, that
arise from the malaria. The most extensive maremma, or marshy, low land, "extends from the
vicinity of Leghorn to Terracina, and few of the inhabitants remain in it during the summer.
The Pontine Marshes, near Terracina, have been noted from remote antiquity for their pesti
lential vapors. It is fatal for the traveler to sleep on them for a night in summer ; and it is
dangerous for him to fall asleep in his carriage by day. With every precaution, indeed, and
the greatest speed, it is not possible to pass them in summer without peril. The wasted
inhabitants of these pestilential districts have the marks of disease imprinted deeply upon them.
They are thin, livid, and unwilling to move. They have hard, protuberant waists, and sunken
eyes. In some places, they pass their summer nights in the mountains, and a few come
down by day to discharge their duties at the post houses. An ascent of ten minutes'
walk up the mountains, places them in an air of perfect purity. The malaria seldom rises more
than 200 feet. Where it prevails, the vegetation is often enchanting, all flowers open their
petals, and every noble tree extends its branches. Yet the agent that produces all this veget
able beauty is fatal to human life, though, like the sword of Harmodius, the danger is concealed
in flowers. Rome is more exposed to the ravages of the malaria than any other city. It is
besieged, and the'salubrious spots are annually diminishing in extent ; 4,000 people, die of fe
vers annually in the Roman hospitals, and 60,000 perish in Italy by the same scourge. Ostia,
with buildings to contain many thousand people, has but 12 men remaining.
Blindness and opthalmia are common in the south of Italy, and, in the mountains of the
north, scrofula and goitres. A goitre is an enlargement of the glands of the neck, which some
times swell to such an extent, that they overhang the breast. In some districts among the
Alps, few people escape an enlargement of the glands. A recent traveler in the Alps says,
" In this route, we remarked a great many goitrous swellings ; some hanging hideously down
like the bag of a pelican, and others just beginning to swell, like an alderman's double chin.
I never beheld one without raising a hand to my own neck, to see if all was right ; and a pretty
woman in these regions runs to a glass in the morning, (though our ladies do this,) to see if
that foe to beauty has not appeared during the night. In some parts, however, it is said that
goitres are so common, that it is an unfortunate singularity to be without one, and a young
woman who is so unlucky can have few admirers." The goitres are not dangerous, nor, unless
when very large, troublesome. Cretins, a peculiar kind of idiots, are generally found in the
same districts with goitres.
16. Character, Manners, and Customs. Italy has a common language, literature, and re
ligion, but no common national character. There is no bond of union, no feeling of interest,
or affinity, that binds one state of Italy to another. On the contrary, there is a reciprocal an
tipathy, a sort of moral centrifugal force, which has dropped the violence, though it has lost
none of the intensity, of the feudal times. It is kept alive by sarcasms and proverbial sayings,
and the inhabitants of neighboring towns have some general name of insult for each other.
These local divisions produce great acrimony, and they are fortified by local customs, dialects,
and dress. This disunion of those who should be united, sufficiently accounts for the facility,
with which the best part of Italy has admitted the domination of foreign masters.
The revolutionary changes of 30 years, have, however, given an impulse to the public mind,
and they have raised the Italian character, especially in the north. In this part, there is an
almost infinite moral distance between father and son ; there is the difference of centuries,
between those who formed their character before the residence of the French, and those who
formed it since. Such are the local character and divisions, that, to describe Italy truly, it
should be described in detail ; for there are many traits of character, that do not pervade all
the separate states. The enmity of petty states, is greater than that of empires; for the
jealousy partakes somewhat of personal dislike. In Italy, the minor states are ridiculed by
the larger ones, and by each other ; it is an old jest of Punch, upon the stage, in ridicule of
a small territory to light a candle at both ends, when a petty duke orders him bevond his fron
tiers, on pain of death, before the candle should be consumed
The modern Italians are the successors, rather than the descendants, of the Romans. Italy,
says her poet, was cursed with the fatal gift of beauty, and she has ever been the spoil of the
strongest. Clouds of barbarians have overrun her plains, and the original nations became so
blended with foreigners, that the lineage is no longer to be traced. Some few families, indeed,
ITALY. - 653
with an excusable pride, pretend to trace their descent from the Romans ; and 2 there are,
who boast the blood of Fabius Maximus, and Publicola. Heraldry, however, is seldom pre
cise. The Italians have ardent temperaments, and poetic imaginations ; and they act more
from impulse or passion, than reflection or principle. ' No people, who have lived since the
best days of Athens, have) had so much perception as the Italians, for the beautiful. The first
natural objects, that draw their eyes, are peculiar to their own beautiful country. The skies
are so soft and clear, that it is said, proverbially, and almost without hyperbole, that the moon
of Naples is brighter than the sun of England. Every distant mountain, or headland, is
bathed in purple light, and every sun rises and sets "trailing clouds of glory." The genius
of Claude can be estimated only in Italy, for nowhere else are found the skies that he
painted. The language in which the infant Italian first lisps, is like the murmur of music ; every
sound is open and labial. The first country, over which his eye ranges, is unsurpassed on the
earth ; it has festoons of vines, purple with gushing grapes ; and groves of oranges, bending
with golden fruit. The churches, where the youth pays his wondering devotions, are the
perfection of human art, the most splendid and "solemn temples" ever reared by human
hands. The ruins, in which he plays with his mates, are remains, in which no time can
obliterate the beauty ; and the paintings, the frescoes, and the sculptures, that often chain his
attention, all combine to give the direction of his genius to the graceful, the beautiful, and the
ideal. " We gaze and turn away, we know not where,
Dazzled, and drunk with beauty : till the heart
Reels with its fulness ; there, forever there,
Chained to the chariot of triumphant Art."
The statues, those calm and majestic intelligences, the impressive congregation of the silent,
exert a magic influence over the soul. Feeling and thoughts, they have not ; but they unlock,
in the beholder, the fountains of both.
f The place became religious, and the heart run o'eF »
• With silent worship of the great of old; j \
/ The dead, but sceptred sovereigns, who still rule ,{ I l \
; Our spirits from their urns." • _ ' /
Few of the Italians lead a domestic life ; their fine climate permits them to pass almost all
the time without shelter, and their social organization gives them little taste, or capacity, for
domestic enjoyment. A state of society, execrable in itself, and pernicious in all its conse
quences, is too general in Italy. Marriage is not a bond, but the reverse ; — it is perfect free
dom from all restraint. Unmarried females are generally excluded from society, in convents,
or in the garrets of palaces. The married have everywhere more freedom, than an evil cus
tom has rendered consistent with- modesty. The custom of cicisbeism, is on the decline ; yet,
in all places, the married dame is allowed to retain the cavalier servente ; and in some, it is not
easy for a married lady, who has none, to avoid ridicule. Napoleon, indeed, directed, that no
married parties should be received at court, if they came not together ; but this innovation
lasted but for a short time. In a state of society like this, the females will, of course, excel
in the syren accomplishments ; and the Italian ladies have few rivals in dancing, singing, and
poetry. It is a consequence of a depraved state of society that morals are, in Italy, without the cog
nizance of public opinion. Offences against taste may be visited with censure, but no outrage
against good morals ; no offence against honor or honesty will exclude a man from society, or
abate his welcome ; nor will a dereliction of modesty bring any discredit on a woman. To
be virtuous in such a state of society, is far more difficult, than in better communities ; and
common virtue here, deserves the honors of heroism. Yet, though the substance is lost, the
shadow is preserved ; and the Court of Rome, especially, is solicitous to preserve appear
ances. Here is, at least, an appearance of decorum. A person, indeed, may pass through
Italy, or live there for years, and not once be shocked with such undisguised vice, as in one
night will intrude upon him in an English city. In England, good and evil are kept distinct ;
they exist in their greatest height and depth in the same society, but they are never so blended,
that one could, for a moment, be mistaken for the other.
In Piedmont, the character, manners, language, and dress, are generally French. The in-
654 ITALY-
habitants, like all mountaineers, are much attached to their country, and though many of them
wander over Europe with a hand-organ, a marmot, or a dancing-bear, they return, when after
many years their frugality has obtained a small sum, which is independence in their own indi
gent country. In Lombardy, which has for many years in the present century had more
freedom than the other States of Italy, the traces of it are found in liberal principles, a better
system of education, and a better organization of social life. Since the expulsion of the
French, the old distinction of classes has been somewhat revived ; the highest class is the no
bility, but an equally respectable and intelligent one, the Cittadini, was admitted by Napoleon,
at court. This class is composed of the liberal professions, the small-landed proprietors, &c,
and it embraces a great portion of the worth of Milan.
The Tuscans are a gentle and kind people, and seldom yield to violent impulses, like their
southern neighbors. They are, to a great degree, charitable ; and some of their benevolent
institutions have been in uninterrupted operation for 500 years. The Misericordia is a so
ciety highly characteristic of the Tuscans, and is extended over all Tuscany. The members,
who are of all ranks, even the highest nobility, hold themselves ready, at the sound of their
bells, to assemble ;br purposes of charity. These are generally to remove the sick or wound
ed to their hospitals, and to bury the dead. Each member has a loose robe, which covers him
entirely, and in which 2 holes are left for the eyes. These societies have large funds, which
they bestow in charity. The exertions of the associations have not been relaxed in several
plagues. The amiableness of the Tuscans is shown in the scarcity of crime, and dread of
capital punishments. There is not, for years, an execution ; and at the last, in Florence, the
city was deserted by half its inhabitants. Those, who could not go, crowded the churches,
and their appearance indicated a general calamity. The character of the people, the fine cli
mate, and lively cities, make Tuscany the residence of many foreigners, who generally esteem
Florence the most delightful city of Italy. The society at Florence is intelligent and refined.
The nobility have lost much of their ancient wealth, acquired in commerce, and they hold it
to be derogatory to engage in commercial pursuits. Pride, however, is seldom consistent, and
they feel no shame, even princes, in selling wine and oil at retail, under the direction of their
stewards, in the cellars of their palaces. The signs, in this petty traffic, are broken oil-flasks,
hung at the window.
At Rome, it has been said, that the greatest ruin is that of the national character. Certain
it is, that at Rome there are few Romans like Cato or Regulus. The few, who arrogate to
themselves the characteristics of the ancient Romans, are the Trasteverini, who live across the
Tiber. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and ferocious ; and more ready to shed blood bn
slight provocations, than any others of their irritable countrymen. They call themselves Emi-
nenti, as all barbarians designate themselves by a term of superiority. The murders most
common in Rome, as in all Italy, are those which arise from sudden impulse, and are chiefly
confined to the lower classes, all of whom are easily heated by wine, though few are intem
perate. Simond states the number of murders in Rome to be about one a day, but this com
putation seems quite too large. There is little disposition in the people to arrest a murderer,
or indeed in any case to interfere to aid the execution of the laws. The churches and con
vents are sanctuaries, and even the streets and squares in front of them. One murder is often
avenged by another, when it is not atoned for by a sum paid to the family of the deceased.
The murders are almost always committed with knives, the use of firearms being universally
considered atrocious.
The Romans, generally, are the least cheerful of all the people of Italy, though at the Car
nival their gayety is without bounds. It would seem, from their dispositions, that to live among
the wrecks of former greatness, has a depressing effect upon their spirits. On the many holy-
days that abound in the capital of the Catholic Church, the common people are seen listlessly
standing or sauntering about the streets, with no outward sign of cheerfulness ; whereas, on
holydays, or on all days, at Florence and Naples, the inhabitants seem to be animated by some
joyous impulse. But no extremes are more distant than the character at Rome and Naples.
But the Romans have much to depress them, besides the ruins of former greatness, which, in
deed, make no part of their regrets. They are oppressed, pillaged, bound in ignorance, and
steeped in poverty. They live in a gloomy city, surrounded by a desert, and the malaria in
vades their very dwellings. There is open to them no ennobling pursuit ; to talent there is
neither excitement nor reward. There are neither the amusements of the French, nor the
ITALY. 655
domestic life of the English ; and if the Roman is not cheerful by temperament, he has little
in his circumstances to make him so.
The relaxations of other nations make the business of the Romans. Poetry is their pursuit,
and their discourse is full of it. Every family has its versifier, with sonnets and epigrams for
every occasion ; and every circle has its improvisatore, or extemporaneous poet, who versifies
to a crowd of listening admirers. The epigram is now the chief outlet for the keen sarcasm
of the Romans. Speech is restricted, the press is bound, and even Pasquin and Marforio have
ceased to correspond ; but sharp epigrams, directed even against the authorities of the
church, circulate freely in society. In those squibs, which were so annoying to Napoleon, the
Romans excel.
There are in Rome about 20,000 Jews, who are less strictly dealt with than in common
Catholic countries. They are, indeed, shut up at night in their own quarter, which is some
what, crowded ; but so little do they regard this, that when the restraint was once removed,
-the elders requested to have it again imposed. The Jews are so devoted to traffic, that a
stranger is persecuted with invitations to enter their shops. They preserve, even here, in that
city which was the instrument of subverting their own, a remnant of national pride, and
none of their race have, for eighteen centuries, passed under the arch of Titus, which com
memorates the destruction of Jerusalem. They pass the arch by a path at the side. Two
Jews make a part of some pageant of the church, in which they are exhibited as converts to
Christianity. Yet so hard is it to get new converts annually, that the Pope is sometimes com
pelled to exhibit the same on several occasions.
Society is not very accessible at Rome, and the Romans are not hospitable. They seldom
invite strangers to entertainments ; their houses have little furniture, and their palaces are built
less for use than for show. Many of them are let for lodgings, and the proprietor occupies
some obscure corner. No court or vestibule is lighted, and all visiters at night carry a lantern.
In Rome, wherever the stranger visits, the servants of the house, who usher him in or out, or
take his hat and cloak, come, on the next day, for the standing vails established by custom,
or about three pauls each. In Bologna, all visits are made at the boxes of the theatres,
and this is the only city in Italy where young unmarried females are admitted to society as
in England.
None of the higher class in the Roman State, and few in all Italy, live in the country. All
dwell in cities, and the peasants are deprived of the advantage which is always derived from
the residence of the landed proprietors. All the operations of agriculture are imperfect, and
all the implements rude. The very wine and oil are often spoiled from want of skill. Agricul
ture is not the road to wealth ; it -is hardly a means of support ; and the peasants are generally
beggars. Rome, Naples, and the towns of the south, are infested with mendicants, whose dis
tress is not always assumed, for in this country of fertility many are without food. The stairs
of palaces, the porticoes, and the churches are the lodgings of the miserable many who live on the
scanty avails of public charity. The poverty extends to all ranks ; and the traveler is solicited
to relieve the noble as well as the peasant. Veiled females kneel in the streets, holding out
their hands in supplication ; others cover their blushes with masks ; while the monks solicit for
the souls of the dead, the alms of which are forthwith applied to the comforts of the living.
The inhabitants of the Neapolitan territory preserve the levity and cheerfulness of their
Greek ancestors ; and they have a vehemence of character that seems suited to their volcanic
soil. All their pursuits, whether of pleasure, devotion, or gain, inspire them for the moment
with the ardor of a ruling passion. The Arnauts of Calabria are a fine race of men, hardy,
and brave, but less cheerful than their countrymen of the plains. Naples is one of the gayest
cities in Europe, as Rome is one of the most gloomy. The climate is delicious ; and the
Neapolitans, with as few domestic tendencies as the Romans, and with a better climate than
that of Rome, live principally in the streets and squares, and on the quays. There, in the
open air, are the benches of mechanics, the fires of cooks, and the stages of mountebanks.
The streets swarm with crowds of all ranks, all active, yet all idle ; doing nothing, and yet sel
dom at rest. Everything that is said or done has a spice of violence ; two people talking to
gether gesticulate like madmen ; the little calashes are driven up hill and down, at full speed,
and a salesman announces his wares as fire is cried ih more quiet cities. It is easy for a
stranger to see, that he is among a people much disposed to enjoy to-day at the expense of
to-morrow. In no other city are seen so many groups of the poorest rabble in boisterous merri-
656 JTALi.
ment. A few grains to purchase wine and macaroni, will raise one of the lazzaroni above all
the ills of mortality for a day.
The lazzaroni, a race of idle vagrants, are a large class at Naples ; and the city would lose
half its characteristics to be without them. One of these is the model of Diogenes, and though
he may never require the shelter of the tub, it is his pleasure, as it was that of the cynic, to
lie in the sun. The wants of nature in this climate are few ; less food is needed than in colder
countries, less clothing is worn than in any other civilized capital, and less shelter is necessary
than that which is sought by some of the birds of the air. The lazzaroni are ignorant, but
shrewd. The circle of their thoughts is limited ; but if they are attacked within this compass
their adroitness,- wit, and drollery are invincible. Madame de Stael remarks, that some of
them are so ignorant, that they do not know their own names, but go to the confessor to ac
knowledge anonymous sins, being incapable of telling him the name of the transgressor. But
they are not stupid ; they are sagacious demi-savages, living on the confines between civiliza
tion and barbarism, in one of the largest capitals of Europe. No stranger, unless a king, is titled
under his merits, and a plain man is even sometimes addressed as Majesty. The lazzaroni
address every one from whom they expect to extract a grain, as " Excellency," and the title
is liberally applied on all occasions, even in a simple negative or affirmative, as " si Excellenza,
no Excellenza."
They are without hypocrisy, for they make no pretensions to virtue or honesty. If detected
in picking a pocket, they will but laugh, and if accused, will say, that a poor man is not ex
pected to be a saint. A stranger perceives, in all people with whom he deals, an intention,
and often a combination, to cheat him, and soon learns to offer but a small part of what prices
are demanded, and to settle the price before purchasing. His valet de place takes him to
tradesmen, with whom he shares the profit ; and when, unattended, the stranger enters a shop,
a Neapolitan sometimes follows him, making a sign to the dealer, that he has brought one to
be plucked, and subsequently demanding a small sum for the pretended service.
The animal spirits of the Neapolitans are the best gifts they receive from nature, and they
are sufficient to disarm every want of its power of annoyance. It is surely no slight accession
to agreeable sensations, to live under a sky forever brilliant and soft, and surrounded by objects
of surpassing magnificence and beauty. The tendency of these is to promote cheerfulness.
It is an era in the life of a foreigner when he first beholds that unrivaled bay, with its natural
pharos, Vesuvius ; that noble city, to which the ancients prefixed a word expressing pleasant
ness ; and that enchanting region of vines, aptly called the campagna felice, or happy country.
These things, that are so striking to a stranger, cannot be lost upon the native, though they
may dispose him to a life of indolent enjoyment. This seducing climate has ever enervated
the courage of men, and subverted the modesty of women. It was the region to which the rich
and luxuriant Romans tended, and the shores of Baia were lined, as with a colonnade, by the
continued porticos of villas and temples. Men who held provinces elsewhere, were solicitous
of possessing a villa here.
17. Amusements. The opera is tbe great national amusement of the Italians, and a taste for
it has spread over Europe. The decorations and dresses are splendid, and in perfect charac
ter or keeping, while the music is of the highest grade. An opera is a play set to music, and
sung ; and the ballet which follows it, is a play performed in pantomime, by a corps of dancers.
Othello itself has been performed as a ballet. Though unnatural combinations, the opera and
the ballet are capable of affording much entertainment. The most splendid operas are La
Scala, at Milan, and San Carlo, at Naples. There are minor operas in every considerable
town. Italy can hardly be said to have a drama, though theatres are numerous ; the plays of Al-
fieri and a few other good writers, are not adapted to the stage, or to the political state of It
aly. The drama, however, has been cast into a regular form, chiefly by Goldoni, and the old
national commedie dell ' arte are becoming disused . These are the mere plots or incidents in
which the dialogue is left to the invention and humor of the actors, which, in this improvising
-.country is seldom found wanting. The characters are seldom varied, though the plots are
changed. Ihe persons represented give opportunities to ridicule the different dialects and
local characters ; they are the Pantaloon of Venice, the Policliinello of Naples, the Rogue of
i'errara, the Doctor of Bologna, &c.
Actors are low in the estimation of the Italians. A prima donna goes round to solicit at
tendance at her benefit, and sits at the door to receive the money for tickets. The prompter
ITALY. 657
appears on the stage, and often talks with the females in the pit. The musicians, in the minor
theatres, extinguish their candles between the acts, and put them in their pockets. At Rome,
the theatres are built only of wood, from a fiction of state, that they are temporary. The
police even pretends to know nothing of the existence of them, yet the authorities take offence
when parties are given on play nights, which detract from the profits of the theatre, and the
consequent revenue to the state. No word or sign of disapprobation is allowed at an Italian the
atre • and to hiss at one in Rome would subject the offender to be taken to the cavaletto, a
kind'of stocks, whipped, and carried back again to his seat. The theatres have names and
devices like ships, and also mottoes. The fantoccini, or puppets, are a general amusement,
and the best are at Rome. They are managed with much skill and effect. The Italians are
somewhat addicted to gaming, and this disposition is increased by standing public lotteries ;
though averse to risks in all things else, in gaming they lose all prudence, and venture upon
the most ruinous stakes.
The amusements of the Carnival, though somewhat on the wane, are still sufficiently attrac
tive to draw 7 or 8,000 English to Rome, where the Piazza di Spagna has the appearance of
an English town. The sports of the Carnival are ushered in by a public execution, for which
a malefactor, or more than one, is reserved. The Corso, the principal street of Rorne, is the
scene of the Carnival. The windows and balconies are filled with people, and there is in the
street a dense and ever-moving crowd, all in masquerade. The carriages are, many of them,
devised for the occasion, and some of them represent ships, temples, and classic pageants.
The coachmen are commonly disguised as old women. All dresses and characters may be
assumed, except those of the clergy. The masks are worn for defence as well as for conceal
ment or show, for there is an incessant tempest of sugar-plums, or rather of a base counterfeit,
made of lime. The people have bags or baskets full of these, and all pelt each other. Child
ish as this is, it is followed with so much zeal, that it becomes very amusing.
At the close of day, several spirited horses, without riders, are started from the head of the
Corso, and goaded by little points, that are made to flap against the flanks. The crowds open
to give space, and the horses are stopped at the foot of the street, after running about a mile.
Then each one of the immense concourse lights a candle, with which he has furnished himself,
and a scene of uproar commences, each one trying to extinguish his neighbor's light, and to
preserve his own. These amusements of the Carnival last 3 days, and they are similar in all
the cities. It is extremely creditable to the Italians,, that in these saturnalia, where all people
mingle, there is never a breach of order, or of decorum. The same could not be said of such
a masked multitude in any other country. " In Venice, Tasso's echoes are no more ;" but
they still resound in Naples. It is very common, on the quay, or in a square, to see a motley
crowd collected round a man, who reads a portion of the Jerusalem Delivered, which he sea
sons with a great degree of action. Tasso, of course, is a favorite, and the common people
call him Rinaldo. Stories are read or recited in the same way, at the most interesting passage
of which, the reader or relater pauses, to collect his dues, by passing round his hat.
18. State of the Arts, Science and Literature. A history of Italy, would include a full
account of modern art, of which the monuments are chiefly in Italy, or so many of them, that
this country is the only school for artists. Sculpture has, at the present day, attained to great
er excellence than painting. Thorwaldsen, a Dane, the son of an Icelander, is the greatest
living sculptor. He has an original, but somewhat erratic genius ; his statues have much merit,
and his reliefs have not been surpassed, but in antiquity. Had he lived 50 years before, he
would have secured a greater fame ; for it is perilous, even for excellence in the art, to be con
temporary with the works of Canova, who has drawn from marble the most perfect forms,
that have been created since the best age of Grecian sculpture. Of an obscure parentage'
poor, and seemingly destined to be a village stone-cutter, at the age of 15, the aspirations of
genius carried Thorwaldsen to Venice, and in 15 years more, he erected, in St." Peter's the
monument to Ganganelli. Some of the works of Canova are so beautiful, that it has been de
nied, that he had sufficient versatility of powers to express majesty or grandeur. But his
- Perseus, Pugilists, Hector, and Washington, are incontrovertible proofs to the contrary The
Pugilists are the only modern statues in the Vatican. One figure stands defenceless/with his
hand raised over his head, while the other is about to deal a single blow, in which by a previ
ous agreement, he was not to be resisted, and which, according to the Greek storv that Ca
nova has represented occasioned immediate death. The statue of Washington was lately
burnt in the Capital of North Carolina. It was a favorite work with the artist! The Venus,
DO
658 ITAL*.
at the Pitti palace, is, perhaps, the most admired, of all the works of Canova. It represents
like the Venus de Medicis, a shrinking female ; she has been surprised, without her dress, and
has caught it up, and presses it before her. The statue of the princess Pauline Borghese is
said to be exceedingly beautiful, but it is not permitted to be seen.
Sculpture, as well as painting, revived with the dawn of liberty, in Italy ; and it attained to
its perfection in the republics of the middle ages. The founder of modern sculpture, was Ni-
colo Pisano, before the close of the 13th century ; and, in a succeeding age, his grandson
carried the art to Florence, which became its home. In the 15th century, 6 great masters
became competitors for the same work, at Florence, the carving of the bronze gates of the
Baptistery, which was assigned to Ghiberti, a youth of 22 years, and which, in 40 years, he
completed so well, that M. Angelo pronounced the gates to be "worthy of Paradise;" an
admiration that posterity has justified. At this period, Donatello was conspicuous for his own'
worlds, and the merits of his pupils. In the 16th century, and for about three-quarters of it
Michael Angelo Buonarotti presided over painting, sculpture, and architecture, and left imper
ishable monuments in all. The Last Judgment, is the boast of modern painting. It has more
than 300 figures, and the subject is well suited to the terrific genius of the artist. The statue
of Moses bears the impress of the same original mind ; and the vast dome of St. Peter's, the
most wonderful work of human hands, is the only production of art, that awes the beholder
like the works of nature.
The sculptures of M. Angelo are few, and the most of them are unfinished. He generally
cut boldly into the marble, without the usual models in clay, and with rapid strokes brought
forth the form, of which there existed no image, but in the vivid conception of his own mind.
His genius was wonderful, but it was not of the kind that attracts human sympathy and feeling.
It does not act upon the affections, like the milder power of Raphael. His genius has been
called the epic, and that of Raphael, the dramatic, of the art. The best of the imitators of
M. Angelo, were Bandinella, and John of Bologna, who was the most eminent of his pupils.
Sculpture afterwards passed into the affected hands of Bernini and others, who robbed it of
simplicity ; and it was losing its graces, and almost its existence, when Canova raised it to its
ancient glory. The modern sculptures of Italy, are too numerous even to be named in our
limits. They are in churches, palaces, museums, and squares. They are in conspicuous
places, and open to the inspection of all. There are, at this time, many sculptors in Italy,
inferior, indeed, to Thorwaldsen, whose works adorn the houses of the wealthy in Europe and
America. Painting was revived at Florence, under the pencil of Cimabue, early in the 13th century.
Giotto, Massaccio, and others, advanced it ; but Leonardo da Vinci raised it to a perfection,
that has hardly been exceeded. His sweet Mona Lisa, has been surpassed only by Raphael.
His Medusa's head, the work of his wondrous boyhood, is one of the chief treasures of the
Florentine Gallery. It is painted on a shield, and the terrific snakes, which form the hair, owe
their appalling effect to his diligent study of the reptiles, collected from the fens, and kept in
his closet. The Last Supper, of Leonardo, is more generally known ; it is multiplied in
prints, and especially in the matchless engraving of Morghen. The original is much defaced;
but fortunately, there exist excellent copies. It is in the refectory of the Dominican Convent,
at Milan ; it has suffered from damps, neglect, repairs, and wilful violence. Soldiers have -,
used it, as a target ; and the monks, to lessen the distance between the kitchen and the refec
tory, or the spit and the table, have caused a door to be cut through the princial figure, that of
the Saviour. About 20 years later than Leonardo, Michael Angelo Buonarotti was born,
whose great works, in this art, are the Last Judgment, and the frescoes on the walls and ceiling
of the Sistine Chapel.
Contemporary with the great Florentine, was Raphael, who died on his 37th birthday, be
queathing to the world many works, the perfection of all that is excellent and tender in senti
ment, or glowing in art. In 12 years, he completed the frescoes of the Vatican, and the Far-
nesina, and others, amounting to many hundred figures ; designed the Cartoons, and produced
numerous oil paintings, which are now scattered over Europe. The most wonderful of all, is,
perhaps, the Transfiguration, which was his last work, finished just before his death. The
school of Athens, one of his frescoes in the Vatican, is encyclopedic ; it contains 52 figures,
admirably grouped, in front of a Grecian portico. Aristotle and Plato are engaged in argu
ment ; Diogenes, an inimitable figure, is lying on the steps, and Socrates is chiding and ex
horting Alcibiades. This, like all the frescoes at Rome, is injured by the damps, and the
ITALY. 659
smoke of torches, while its preservation is utterly neglected. No other human being has been
able, like Raphael, to give such glimpses of sinless purity, that seem to have been breathed
upon him from a better world.
Our limits will not allow any other, than the most general view ; and the bare outlines of
Italian paintings would require volumes. Italy is peopled with "beings of the mind"; off
springs of the genius of Correggio, Tintoret, Claude, Caravaggio, the Caracci, Domenichino,
Carlo Dolci, Guercino, Guido, Salvator Rosa, and many other masters. The number of good
paintings seems immense ; collection after collection, and museum after museum, open upon
the traveler ; and the walls of hundreds of edifices are covered with frescoes, to examine
which, is the work of months. The frescoes contain the best productions of the art. The
best living painters are Cammucina, at Rome, and Benvenuto, at Florence. The former is
the best draughtsman in Europe, but neither of them have the great requisites for excellence.
The art of Engraving, with the exception of Morghen's works, is not in so high a state in
Italy, as it is in Great Britain. Morghen, however, is without a rival. At Rome, the art of
cutting cameos from oriental shells has attained to a high perfection. There is here too a
public establishment for mosaic, by which any picture may be copied with the utmost delicacy
and fidelity, in materials not subject to fading or decay. The materials are small pieces of
glass of every shade of color, and they are laid in a durable cement. The scarpellini or workers
in stone, are peculiar to Rome, where foreigners supply them with many orders for miniature
models of various antiquities. It is characteristic of Italy, that taste is cultivated before com
fort is secured, and that, though the arts of ornament are high, those of use are almost unknown.
Music is as natural to Italy as sunny skies. Her vocal performers and composers are cele
brated throughout the world, and the chief graces and beauties of modern music have been
derived from them. Vocal music, as not necessarily requiring either study or exertion, ap
pears peculiarly adapted to the indolent character of the Italians. A fine voice is a gift from
heaven, which man enjoys in common with the birds, and which seems to arise like a sponta
neous voice of gratitude from amidst the vineyards and orange-blossoms of their cloudless land.
Yet we do not find that music was cultivated as a science by the Italians so soon as by
many other nations. It was not till the beginning of the 17th century, that the opera or musi
cal drama was introduced in Rome and Venice ; nor till the beginning of the present century
at Naples. Till the time of the elder Scarlatti, Naples was less diligent in the cultivation of
dramatic music than any other Italian state. Since that time, all the rest of Europe has been
furnished with composers and performers from that city, and the opera of San Carlo at Naples
is unrivaled even by the Scala at Milan. The Italian opera has been imported into all the
great towns in Europe, and the singers are engaged at an enormous sum. Nicolino Grimaldi
the Neapolitan, was the first great Italian singer who appeared on the London stage ; soon
after the two celebrated rivals, Faustina Bordoni, and Francesca Arzzoni, excited as violent
and inveterate a party spirit in London as any that had ever occurred relative to matters either
theological or political. The caprice of a prima donna is proverbial ; and the famous Fari-
nelli, celebrated for the force, extent, and mellifluous tones of her voice, was heard to ex
claim in rapture, " There is but one God, and one Farinelli ! " Gabrielli, the daughter of a
cardinal's cook in Rome, was long famous for her exquisite voice, and unbounded caprice.
The flood of harmony with which the voice of Catalani used to enchant her auditors will
long be remembered ; though the powers of that splendid singer are beginning to decline.
Giudita Pasta is now unrivaled by any modern cantatrice. Her powers of execution are
perhaps less wonderful than those of Catalani, but her taste is infinitely superior, and the judg
ment of Talma pronounced her to be the greatest singer and actress, together, who had yet
appeared in Europe. The Italians are sensible of her merit, and a medal was struck in her
honor some years since, by order of the late Pope ; but the Italians are apt to be ungrateful
towards those who have exerted themselves for their amusement, and when Grassini a ' few
years ago, forgetful of the effect of time upon her once splendid voice, reappeared on the
boards of La Pergola at Florence, the ungrateful audience who had so often listened entranced
to her melodious notes, unanimously hissed her off the stage. Rossini, the great modern
composer, has long reigned unrivaled in Italy, and since the death of Weber, in Europe.
lhere are not, indeed, wanting those who accuse the grand maestro of having corrupted the
modern taste, of having lowered the standard of music from the tender dignity of Mozart's
style, and bestowed upon it a redundancy of ornament fatal to science.
Rossini frequently copies himself., His style may be seen through all his numerous works,
660 ITALY.
but although he is perhaps too uniformly flowery, gay, and tender, he has given proofs of
higher powers in his Tancredi, Semiramide, and Moise in Egitto. It is probable, however,
that the music of Rossini which now enchants the world, will be forgotten long before that
of Haydn or Mozart, or at least that posterity will bestow a more sober judgment upon his
works, than the present age, bewildered by his succession of glittering melodies, is capable of
pronouncing. The national airs of Italy are suited to her soft and mellifluous language, which Metastasio
has pronounced to be " la musica stcssa." Singing is common among the Italian peasantry.
The Venetian barcaroles, and the songs of the Venetian gondoliers of alternate stanzas from
Tasso's Jerusalem, give proof of that love of music and poetry which is there inherent in the
lowest classes. Even among the tuneful sons of Italy, the Venetians are remarkable for their
taste in both. The songs of the gondoliers, which are rude and hoarse when near, are inex
pressibly charming when heard from a distance. The sound is not dismal, but plaintive in
the extreme.
The ancient literature of Italy has overspread the world, and the Latin has become a uni
versal language. Italy was the first country in which knowledge was cultivated after the dark
ages. The magnificent remains of the Romans, tended to excite in the Italians a desire to
investigate their learning. For two centuries Italy was again the luminary of Europe. Poets
and other writers of excellence preceded Dante, who was born in ,1265. He wrote in a new
and unformed language, and his use of it is still a classic standard. Posterity has estimated
him better than his own age, and perhaps ranks him higher than he rated himself, though in
his great poem he assigns his own place after Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, and Statius. Pe
trarch was the ornament of the 14th century, and it is one of the least of his honors, that he
was crowned in the capitol. Boccaccio, his friend, with inexhaustible invention and wit, did
much in his Decamerone to polish his native language. Ariosto marks the 16th century, and
he was followed by Tasso ; their works are known in every language that has a literature.
Galileo, Machiavelli, Davila, and Guicciardini, are great names in science, politics, and his
tory ; and there are many others in almost every department of literature and science. With
the Italian governments of the present day, it is a part of the policy of self-preservation, to
depress the soarings of intellect ; yet Alfieri stands forth the monument of his age in Italy ;
and the works of Casti, Monti, Pindemonte, Muratori, Botta, and others are honorable to
Italian literature.
19., Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is established throughout Italy, and nowhere
else has it so many splendid accessories, addressed to the senses and the imagination. There
are Protestant communities in Piedmont, which, however, are much restricted, though gen
erally the Italians are not intolerant, and Protestants, Greeks, and Mussulmans may approach
the Pope himself. The English at Rome, have on the great festivals of the church a con
spicuous place assigned them. This gave occasion for one of the Italian pasquinades. Mar-
forio is supposed to warn his correspondent Pasquin, that he would find no place at the solem
nities to be held in St. Peter's ; the reply was, " pardon me, I have turned heretic."
The clergy are numerous ; many of the churches are rich, and all of them are highly orna
mented. The Italians are fond of religious processions, in which they have much faith. On
occasions of public calamities, as fires, pestilence, and, at Naples, eruptions of Vesuvius, long
processions go through the streets carrying images of saints and consecrated relics. There
are many shrines, which many pilgrims visit. To St. Peter's a few poor peasants annually
come, with staff and scallop shell, induced by a small gratuity given by the Pope. But the
most numerous pilgrims at St. Peter's are those of taste, and not of devotion. The Holy
House at Loretto has a greater reputation with the devout. It is believed to be the actual
house of the Virgin Mary, brought by an angel to the spot on which it stands. A scribe is
employed to register the gifts made to the altar, which include not only the mites of the poor,
but the donations of kings. At Rome the Scala Santa, or marble stairs of Pilate's house,
which, as the people believe, Christ ascended, are now ascended by his followers on their
knees. All classes may be seen toiling up them in this way, though there is another passage
by which they come down. Relics of all kinds abound in countries where there is more faith
than knowledge ; and they are as numerous in Italy as in Spain. Some of them, indeed,
have returned to u strange uses." The chair of St. Peter, which is kept in his church, too
sacred for inspection, was yet examined by the sacrilegious French ; and there was found
upon it in Arabic, the Mahometan confession of faith ; " there is no God but God, and Ma-
ITALY.
661
hornet is his prophet." It was probably some pillage of the crusades. But heathen relics
have always been converted to the uses of the sanctuary, and many classic observances are now
repeated as rites of the church. The. Metamorphoses of Ovid are represented on the doors
of St. Peter's ; and the bronze image of the Saint within, whose toe the devotees have kissed
away, received, eighteen centuries before, the incense of heathen priests, as a statue of Jupi
ter. An Englishman once took 'off his hat to it, not as St. Peter but as Jupiter ; and re
quested of him, that, should he ever recover his power, he would reward the only individual that
ever bowed to him in his adversity. Other images have been converted ; Apollo has become.
David, and Minerva, Judith, while antique vases are used as baptismal fonts.
The Italian sailors, like the Grecian, put themselves under the protection of the Virgin
Mary ; and ships have the images of saints at the bows. In storms, they trust as much to
prayer as to exertion or skill, and in calms, if impatient for a wind, do not fail to abuse St. An
thony and others in the calendar. This, however, is more frequent among the Spanish sailors.
Marriages in Italy are seldom arranged by those the most interested. Young females are se
cluded in convents, or at home, till a match is agreed upon by the parents, when the marriage
is celebrated with considerable show. The funerals at Rome are attended with long proces
sions, and the dead are buried in churches. At Naples, the deceased is carried to the grave
in an open carriage, splendidly dressed, and with the faded color restored by paints. At the
grave, the finery is stripped off, and the corpse tumbled in the general tomb without ceremony
or decency. There are 365 pits in the Campo Marzo, of which one is opened every day, and
then -shut and sealed till the year brings round the day for it to be open." All who die are
thrown promiscuously into these pits. Perhaps no people are so indifferent as to the fate of
their own bodies or those of their friends, as the Neapolitans. Burking could never exist at
Naples ; and the abundance of subjects has much advanced the science of surgery there.
20. Laws. The Institutes of Justinian, found at Amalfi, in the 12th century, and still pre
served at Florence with great care, form the foundation of the Italian laws. In Tuscany, the
code is extremely mild ; the punishment of death is at present unknown, and all crimes are
rare. But in few of the Slates of Italy are the laws so well administered, that the subject can
appeal to them with much confidence of obtaining "justice.
21. Antiquities. " The ruins of Italy," it has been said, " are the field of battle, where
Time has fought against Genius, and those mutilated limbs attest its victory and our losses."
Of the Roman antiquities, we can mention but few; the most interesting are at Rome, where
there are still many yet undiscovered ; for the government employs only a few galley slaves in
excavating ; and although foreigners are allowed to search, they are not permitted to carry any
sculpture away. Many of the best ancient sculptures were found under the ruins of the edi
fices where they stood, or imbedded in the accumulation of earth, that now lies above the level of
the ancient city. The Roman Forum is 15 or 20 feet above the ancient surface, and else
where the difference may be from 12 to 30 feet ; the hills have been sunk, and the valleys
raised. In many places where this accumulation has been examined, valuable antiquities have
been found ; and the earth of Rome yet contains mines richer than those of gold. That the
city which received the wealth of the world was profuse in all ornaments of elegance and taste,
is apparent from the numbers of those that
remain, and from the quantity found even
in the distant towns of Pompeii and Her-
culaneum. The' bed of the Tiber is supposed to
contain treasures of art, as well as of
wealth, as the inhabitants, when an enemy
was at hand, would naturally throw their
valuables into the river. The Jews of
fered to divert the stream from the chan
nel, if they might be allowed to possess
what they should find.
The temples are in various states of
preservation ; some are indistinct ruins,
others have a few pillars standing, and
others still retain their original form. The
most perfect, and perhaps the most beau-
Mil
662
ITALY.
tiful of all, is the Pantheon of Agrippa. It is a circular edifice, with a dome and colonnade.
The light is admitted from above only through a circular aperture in the top. The gilding, the
bronze, and the statues are all removed. The Pantheon was anciently ascended by 7 steps,
but it is now on a level with the earth. The architecture of the portico is perfect ; every
moulding is a model of art, and is whitened with the plaster of casts. Over the portico is the
original inscription of Agrippa, and there is but one other inscription on a temple in Rome.
The names of many temples are doubtful, though antiquaries decide with promptness, for in
Rome they are as credulous as the devotees. On each side of the portico are two hideous
belfreys, erected by the authorities of the Church. The temple of Antoninus and Faustina
has also an inscription. It has a fine portico, and a part of the inner wall of the ancient edi
fice. It has been repaired and used as a church. The temple of Vesta has around it a cir
cular colonnade of 20 fluted Corinthian columns. About the Roman Forum are the less per
fect remains of other temples, as the Temple of Peace, of Jupiter Stator, Jupiter Tonans,
Concord, Janus, &c. The ruins of temples are found in all Italy, but perhaps the most im
pressive are those of Psestum. They are little more than 50 miles from Naples, discoverable
by a telescope from Salerno ; a distant view is. had from the high road of Calabria, yet they
remained undiscovered until the last century. They are not vast in extent, yet the proportions
are such, that they have an air of grandeur and majesty. In simplicity and grandeur, they are
some of the most impressive monuments on earth. The pillars and entablatures remain ; the
inner walls have fallen.
Of the amphitheatres, the most magnificent is tbe Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus.
The area is about an acre. The circumference is 1,612 feet. Here were combats of wild
beasts with each other or with men, the gladiatorial combats, and here the early Christians
were cast into the arena to be devoured by beasts. The form is an ellipse ; there are 3 rows
of columns above eaeh other, each of a different order. The entrances were so numerous,
that each spectator went at once to his seat, and the immense multitude were quickly and safely
discharged. It was no ruin in the 13th century, but it was afterwards pillaged for building ma
terials, and would not be safe perhaps even now but for a sagacious rite, that consecrated it as
a church. There is an altar and a hermit in the Coliseum. The rents in the walls give support
to numerous plants, and there are little less than 300 different kinds. At Verona is another
vast and splendid amphitheatre, in far better preservation, and at Pompeii is one more perfect
still. At Capua, Puzzuoli, and elsewhere, are the indistinct ruins of others. The only
theatre at Rome is that of Marcellus, of which part of the three lower arcades remain; so
perfect in style, that they have often been used as models. The theatres of Pompeii and
Herculaneum are in perfect preservation. They are of a semicircular form, and have not
deep stages. Only one circus remains, the walls of which, though shattered, indicate the
form. The chief triumphal arches are those of Titus, Constantine, and Septimus Severus. Tbe
arch of Constantine is the most imposing, from its better preservation ; but that of Titus,
erected to commemorate the conquest of Jerusalem, is of better architecture and sculpture.
On it are represented the spoils of the temple, as the tables of the law, and the seven golden
candlesticks. The column of Trajan is one of the most perfect remains of antiquity. It is
a circular pillar, rising to a great height, and encrusted even to the top, with a spiral succes
sion of has reliefs. The subjects are the emperor's actions ; and he appears at a hundred
different points as emperor, general, or priest. Ancient costume and tactics may be studied
in these sculptures. . It formed but one edifice, in the Forum of Trajan, the most splendid in
Rome. The rest are prostrated and buried, except a colonnade of broken granite pillars,
excavated by the French and set upon their bases. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, called
also that of Antonine, is imposing but of inferior sculpture. It stands on the Corso.
The Romans were more attached to cleanliness than their successors are. There were in
ancient Rome 754 private baths besides those public ones, whose ruins are so impressive.
The city has now but a single bath which is attached to a hotel ; yet Rome, though in an
and situation, is better supplied with water by aqueducts than any other city.
After the Coliseum the greatest ruin in Rome is that of Caracalla's Baths ; they are of pro
digious extent, and one hall is 188 feet by 134. The baths of Diocletian were also vast; and
something of them remains. The baths of Titus were worthy of Roman magnificence. Some
of the roofs of the vaults are painted in arabesques, which were favorite studies of Raphael.
His own arabesques in the Vatican have suffered more in 300 years than these in 1,700.
ITALY.
663
Caracalla's Baths.
Some of the figures are admirable, but
there is no perspective, or light and shad
ow. At Pompeii the baths are the per
fection of elegance and convenience.
The obelisks were antiquities to some
of the ancients ; they were of remote an
tiquity when Rome was in her splendor.
All were brought from Egypt with incred
ible labor and expense. Yet, when in mod
ern times one (and not the largest) was to
be removed a short distance to the Piazza
of St. Peter's, years of preparation elaps
ed, and application was made for advice
to men of science over Europe. It was
set in its place after fifty-two trials. The
obelisks are of one shaft of granite. The
largest, though broken and reduced, that in front of St. John de Lateran, is upwards of 100
feet in height. It is contemporary with the Trojan war. To transport it, the Romans
diverted the course of the Nile. The obelisk on Monte Citorio, formerly served as a gnomon
in the Campus Martius. The other principal obelisks are on the Esquiline and Pincian, and
Ccelian hills, in the Piazza del Popolo, and before the church of St. Mary the Greater.
The tombs of the Romans partake of the magnificence of their public works ; the ruins of
them line the Appian Way for miles. The most perfect and beautiful is that of Cecilia Me-
tella, the wife of Crassus ; the only tomb which has an inscription. It is a circular edifice,
composed of huge blocks of stone ; and the walls are 24 feet in thickness. The sarcophagus
has been removed to the Vatican. The tomb of Augustus is large enough for an amphithe
atre, and it has circular ranges of vaults, for it was intended for all the emperor's dependants.
The tomb of Adrian was also of great magnitude, and so strongly built, that it is at this day
the citadel of Rome, the castle of St. Angelo. The pyramid of Caius Cestius perpetuates
the name of a man unknown to history ; it is 113 feet in height and 60 in breadth, at the base.
At Mola di Gaeta is a ruin supposed to mark the spot where Cicero was killed. The tomb
of the Scipio family is a vault, and the sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus is so elegant that it is
often copied. The sarcophagus of the empress Helena is celebrated ; but nothing is more
common than these sarcophagi. There are thousands of them, and the swine may be some
times seen feeding from them. Various funeral inscriptions both in Greek and Latin are set
in the walls of an entry, at the Vatican. The catacombs are passages excavated for miles in
extent under the city of Rome, and in various directions. They are supposed to have been
dug out for materials for building, and they sometimes offered retreats to the persecuted Chris
tians. They were used also as cemeteries, and the bones were formerly seen on a sort of
shelves hollowed out in the walls. But they have all been converted to pious uses, and ex
ported as the relics of saints, over the Catholic world. A cardinal had the care of this
lucrative traffic. At Naples a great attraction is the tomb of Virgil, or what tradition affirms,
to be such. It is near the grotto of Pausilippo, in a charming spot, halfway up the hill. It
is a small arched dome, with a few niches or columbaria.
There are some remains of ancient roads, especially of the Appian Way, which is the most
distinct at Terracina. It consists of hard hexagonal stones, fitted exactly to each other. At
Rome is preserved the first mile-stone on this road. At Rimini, there is an ancient bridge,
a great monument of architecture ; but at Rome none of the ancient bridges are entire. The
Pons Fabricius has much of the old part remaining, and there is a vestige of the Pons Tri-
umphalis. There is a single fallen arch of the bridge where Codes fought. The piers and
arches of the bridge of St. Angelo are ancient. At Pausilippo, near Naples, the road passes
under a hill by what is called the grotto of Pausilippo, which was of remote antiquity in the
time of Strabo. It is straight and level, and a little lighted by two orifices from the top of
the hill. It is wide enough for three carriages to pass abreast, 40 or 50 feet in height, and
about a quarter of a mile in length. Twice in the year the sun shines through it. Nothing
can be more enchanting than to pass through the grotto from the Pozzuoli side, and to come
at once from its darkness to all the glories of earth, sea, and sky, that belong to the Bay of
Naples. The grotto of the Sybil at Cuma, is a similar passage but smaller.
664
ITALY.
The aqueducts were, perhaps, the greatest works of the Romans. There were 2 of great
magnitude, the Martian and Claudian ; and a single arch of the latter, makes now the Porta
Maggiore, the most imposing gate of Rome. This aqueduct brought the water, in all its wind
ings, about 50 miles ; and ranges of«rches still stretch across the campagna, that excite the
wonder of the beholder. The outlet of the Lake of Albano, is a monument of what the. Ro
mans effected in the comparative infancy of the State. It is excavated through a mountain,
principally of rock, for a mile and a half, and it is still an outlet for the lake. It was made 400
years before the birth of Christ. The Cloaca Maxima, or common sewer of the city, in
which, though much obstructed by accumulation of earth, the water still flows, was the work
of the kings, and was completed by Tarquinius Superbus. It has stood about 3,000 years,
and may yet outlast every edifice in Rome. The passage, when clear, was wide enough for a
load of hay ; but this should not have too liberal a construction. It is built of large masses of
stone, and arched, at least at the outlet. Pompeii and Herculaneum have
been the great " quarry of antiqui
ties " ; here we are admitted into
the dwellings of the Romans,
where everything is so fresh, that
we almost expect to see the mas
ter enter. He has been dead more
than 1,700 years, yet we admire
the pictures on his walls ; and we
gather, from his household arrange
ments and ornaments, something
of his individual character. He
was a man contemporary with Ti
tus, and perhaps a soldier, who
beheld the destruction of the Jew
ish Temple. Pompeii was cover
ed with light scoriae and ashes, by
a blast of Vesuvius, from which it
is1 distant 6 miles, and its place was discovered only in the last century. The circuit of the
walls, and one-third of the city, only, are excavated. The ashes are carried away, the streets
are swept, and nothing but the roofs seem wanting. The streets are narrow, and paved, and
the ruts of the wheels are about 4 feet apart. There is a narrow sidewalk for foot-passengers,
though there is none in the modern cities of Italy. The houses are small, and of the form
now common in Italy, with a court, and rooms opening from it. The rooms were not well
lighted, and some received light only from the door. The public places are commodious and
elegant ; and the Romans, without doubt, lived much abroad, like their successors, and like
the French. The temples are all elegant, and some are magnificent. The forum, and the
:t
very rostrum, with the steps, are entire. c(/
In the furniture, 'even that of the
kitchen, we are struck with the ele
gance, that the Romans carried into
the most humble department of life.
There is not a lamp or a vase of an
inelegant form. The kitchen uten
sils were of bronze, though some of
them were silvered within. Many
of them were neatly carved. The
signs remain over the doors, and the
very scribblings of idlers, on the
walls, may still be read. Oil mills
were found, such as are now used ;
steelyards, like ours ; and Cupid is
,,, , , „ „ represented, in a painting, under a
Sketches on a Wall, at Pompeu. ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ rf the
paintings are excellent, and some represent familiar things. There is a family at dinner, in
ITALY. 665
which the woman sits, and the man reclines. He is pouring wine into his mouth from a ves
sel, which he holds at some distance, as is still done in Spain. The students at Eton, when
they undergo flagellation, may be certain that they suffer a classic punishment ; for there is a
picture of horsing at school, in which the sufferer is on the shoulders of another boy, while
his feet are held by others, and the master flogs. There are stamps for marking ; the nearest
possible approach to the art of printing. The familiar and common furniture, or ornaments,
found at Pompeii, are numerous, far beyond our limits even to name, and they throw much
light upon the domestic life of the Romans, and show the wonderful elegance of that polished
people. Herculaneum, being at the foot of the mountajn, was covered with lava, and the town of
Portici stands directly over it. It is impressive to hear the noise of carriages, like distant
thunder, 80 feet above. Herculaneum is, therefore, a mere cavern, which has been partially
excavated. The statues, and other antiquities, are in the museum in Naples. The manu
scripts were found carbonized, and nearly as hard as stone ; but a method has been invented,
by which they are unrolled, and several unimportant treatises have been published.
Before describing the sculptures, it is proper to mention a few remains, that cannot well be
classed. At Rome, are still to be seen the consular Fasti, the bronze geese of the capital,
and the very she wolf, that was ancient in the time of Cicero ; it has the mark of the electric
fluid, which once struck it, and of the gilding, mentioned by Cicero. The Etruscan remains,
are the works of a people who were distinguished in the arts, long before the Romans attempt
ed them. The most common, is a kind of Porcelain, or vases of baked earth, ornament
ed with great elegance. The ancient walls of Rome are 14 miles in extent, though they
inclose, at present, much of the desert. In general, they are principally as built by
Aurelian. The sculptures are the most numerous and wonderful remains of the Romans, as well as
of the Greeks. Many of great excellence remain, though the best have been lost ; and
it is certain that those which exist, are but an inconsiderable part of what once ex
isted. They were the favorite ornaments of a people, devoted to elegance and art. The
sculptures, with the medals, coins, seals, &c, are, a great part of them, materials for history.
The long line of Roman emperors, the good and the worthless, have left their features, as well
as character and acts, to posterity. The series is complete. In them, as in the other busts
and statues, is every variety of countenance, that may be seen in the present age; though,
perhaps the features that we call Roman, predominate. Julius, and Augustus Caesar, Tibe
rius, Titos, Marcus Aurelius, are common. There are, however, few sculptures of the re
public. Cicero yet lives in statuary, and the statue of Pompey remains ; the very marble,
before which Caesar fell, and which was found at the place where the great sacrifice was made
to patriotism, — on the spot " Where Brutus made the dagger's edge surpass
The conqueror's sword, in bearing fame away."
It is the statues, that embody the grand moral conception of the ancients. The best are of
Greek sculpture, of which many were carried to Rome. The greatest collection of sculp
ture, as well as of all the arts, are in 3 vast museums ; the gallery at Florence, the Vatican at
Rome, and the Bourbon Museum at Naples. At the gallery, in the room called the Tribune,
stands the Venus de Medicis, which embodies every human conception of the graceful and
beautiful. It is the form of a female, of a woman rather than of a goddess, in an attitude of
the most shrinking modesty and grace. It is an era in the life of a person of taste and feeling,
to see it ; the impression it makes, is indelible and unrivaled. It marks its excellence, that
the most exact copies or casts cannot convey an adequate conception of the beautiful original,
though they are scattered over the world. It is above imitation.
The Whetter, in the same room, is a statue much admired, representing a man stooping to
sharpen a knife on the floor ; supposed to be the slave, that, while thus employed, overheard
Catiline's conspiracy. The Wrestlers form one of the best groups of ancient sculpture ; and
these, also, are in the Tribune ; they represent 2 men struggling on the ground, in a manner
that gave the sculptor an opportunity to show the greatest development of the muscles ; and
they make a study for. painters, in drawing. The Niobe, in the gallery, is tragedy itself, and
shows the superiority to which the ancients attained in the ideal, above the natural. Her
84
666 SARDINIA.
numerous children are represented as dying around her ; the youngest clinging to her knees as
the most helpless. She encircles her with her arms, yet despairing to save her.
At Rome, the Apollo Belvidere is preeminent for grace and majesty. It has the calmness
so common and so impressive in the Grecian statues. He is represented as standing, and
watching the flight of his arrow, which he has just discharged. It is its greatest wonder, that
in looking at this cold and lifeless marble, the spectator is more moved than with anything that
has life. He sees before him the creation of a sculptor formed on the conception of immortal
ity ; the human form, and all that it can express, as it might have existed before evil reduced
it as the habitation of the fallen mind. Our conceptions of the dignity of human nature are
elevated in the presence of the Apollo.
" A cornbination, and a form indeed,
Where every god did seem to set his seal,
To give the world assurance of a man."
The Laocoon is a group exactly described in Virgil ; it represents Laocoon and his two
children in the folds of the two serpents, in which they are still struggling. It was one of the
most admired groups of antiquity. The dying gladiator is a recumbent statue of a dying man
leaning upon his hand. It is justly held to be one of the best remains of antiquity. Next to
actual sight, the description of Byron gives the most perfect conception of it. The statues are
well nigh innumerable ; but our limits are already exceeded. On the Esquiline hill are two
colossal statues, each holding a horse of the same proportions ; on one is engraved the name
of Phidias, on the other, that of Praxiteles. In the capitol, is a bronze equestrian statue of
Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for good effect, though it has some individual faults. Sculp
ture was, with the Romans as with the Greeks, associated not only with architecture, but it
was carried into every department of life. Vases, urns, sarcophagi, and familiar ornaments,
are numerous, and many of them are exquisitely sculptured.
CHAPTER LXXX. KINGDOM OF SARDINIA.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and Divisions. This kingdom takes its name from the island of
Sardinia, yet the most important part is upon the continent. This portion forms the north
western extremity of Italy, and consists of 4 principal divisions, namely, 1st. the Principality
of Piedmont, with Montferratand a part of the Milanese ; 2d. the County of Nice or Nizza ;
3d. the Duchy of Savoy ; and 4th. the Duchy of Genoa.* The continental portion is
bounded by Switzerland on the north ; by Austrian Italy and the Duchy of Parma on the east ;
by the Mediterranean on the south, and by France on the west. It extends from 43° 44' to
46° 20' N. latitude, and from 5° 40' to 10° E. longitude, being 200 miles in length from north
to south, and 135 in breadth. The Island of Sardinia, constituting the 5th division, lies to the
south of Corsica, and is separated from it by a narrow strait. It is 162 miles in length, and 70
in mean breadth. The continental dominions contain 19,125 square miles, and the island 9,675.
Total 28,800.
2. Mountains. Sardinia contains several chains of the Alps, comprising the highest sum
mits in Europe. The Maritime Alps rise near Savona, and, extending west, separate Genoa
and Nice from Piedmont ; then bending north, they divide the latter country from France,
terminating near Mount Viso. Their highest summits do not much exceed 10,000 feet. The
Cottian Alps extend from Mount Viso to Mount Cenis, separating Piedmont from France and
Savoy. Several of their summits rise to the height of 12,000 feet and upwards ; the loftiest,
Mount Olan, has an elevation of 13,819 feet. The Graian or Grecian Alps extend from
Mt. Cenis to the col or pass of Bonhomme, separating Aosta from Savoy. They have about
the same elevation as the preceding. The Pennine Alps separate Piedmont from the Valais
in Switzerland, and contain the highest points in the Alps, rising into regions of perpetual
snow ; Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet high, and Mount Rosa, 15,152. In this chain is the Great
M. Bernard, 11,000 feet high, remarkable for its hospice, which, standing upon a barren height
7,668 leet in height, and surrounded by an eternal winter, is inhabited by a few monks, who
• The official political division is into 10 intendancies, Aosta, Nizza, Genoa, and Savoy : and 2 on the island of
8 on tbe continent; Turin, Com, Alessandria, Novora, Sardinia; Cagliari and Sassari.
SARDINIA. 667
here devote their lives to the service of humanity. They provide travelers with food, and, if
poor, with clothing, and serve them as guides. In the midst of tempests and snow-storms,
they issue forth, accompanied by their large dogs of a peculiar breed, for the purpose of dis
covering and relieving those who have lost their way. If they find the body of one who has
perished, they deposit it in their burial vault, where, on account of the cold, it remains for years
undecayed. 3. Rivers. The Rhone forms the northwestern boundary, and receives several tributaries
from the Graian and Pennine Alps. The principal are the Isere, which enters France, and
the Arve, flowing through the celebrated vale of Chamouni, which lies at the foot of Mont
Blanc, and is unrivaled for the beauty and grandeur of its scenery. The Po rises at the foot
of Mt.. Viso, and receives several large streams from the north and the south, among which are
the Tanaro, from the Maritime, and the Dora, from the Pennine Alps. The Var flows down
the southern declivity of the Maritime chain, and empties itself into the Mediterranean, after
separating Nice from France.
4. Lakes. The Lake of Geneva borders this territory on the north, and Lago Maggiore on
the northeast. There are many smaller lakes. That of Bourget, in Savoy, is 627 feet above
the sea ; it is 10 miles in length, and discharges its waters into the Rhone.
5. Island of Sardinia. More than a third of this island is composed of a sandy and stony
land, called macchie. A considerable part consists of forests and pastures, and the remainder,
amounting to 4,400,000 acres is laid out in cornfields, vineyards, olive grounds, orchards, and
gardens ; 800,000 acres are devoted to the culture of wheat. The mountains are from 1,000
to 3,000 feet high, and produce silver, copper, lead, bismuth, antimony, and loadstone. Lead
is most abundant. The moufflon or wild sheep is common here.
6. Climate. In the valleys of Savoy, there is often fine spring weather when the high
grounds are covered with snow. In this part, the climate is too severe for the southern fruits.
The valley of Piedmont is subject tt the cold northerly winds from the Alps ; yet the air is
healthy, and the vine flourishes. In the south, the Apennines afford a shelter against the
northern blasts ; here the olive and the fruits of the south prosper. Sardinia has a hot climate;
and in the marshy spots putrid fevers are common in summer.
7. Soil. The soil of Savoy is stony, and unfavorable to agriculture. The fertile earth
lies in a thin strata on the rocks, and is often washed away by the torrents. In Piedmont,
Montferrat, and the Milanese, are level and rich alluvial tracts. The soil in the island of
Sardinia is extremely fertile ; but the canals which formerly drained it are neglected, and
many parts have become pestilential swamps.
8. Minerals. Mining is almost entirely neglected ; though the mountains are rich in min
erals. Copper is most abundant. Gold and silver are found in the mountains and valleys ;
and gold is found in the sands of Tanaro.
9. Face of the Country. This country exhibits very diversified scenery. Savoy is an
Alpine country, separated by an enormous mountain ridge from the Italian peninsula, and
intersected by lofty mountains covered with snow and ice. Piedmont and Montferrat form
the western extremity of the wide valley of the Po. The maritime districts are mountainous,
and the island of Sardinia is intersected by several mountain ridges of small elevation.
10. Roads. One of the most remarkable objects in this country is the road over Mont
Cenis in Savoy. It was begun by Bonaparte in 1803, and was completed at a cost of
7,460,000 francs. It is cut through the solid rock, and is furnished with 26 houses of refuge
in the most elevated and exposed parts, so that the road is safe even in winter ; these houses
are provided with bells, which during fogs are rung from time to time to direct the traveler
from one refuge to another. Between France and Savoy is another road called Les Echelles ;
nearly two miles of it consist of a gallery or tunnel through a solid rock of limestone. This '
road was begun and the greater part of it accomplished by Napoleon. But the Sardinian
government had the honor of finishing it.
11. Cities and Towns. Turin, the capital of the kingdom, is situated in a pleasant valley,
on the western bank of the Po, at the foot of a range of beautiful hills. It is the most regu
larly built of all the Italian cities, with broad, straight, and clean streets. It is admired for
the symmetry of its squares, the splendor of its hotels, and the general elegance of its houses.
It has 4 splendid gates, adorned with pillars and cased with marble ; 110 churches, a univer
sity and many fine palaces. The royal palace is spacious, and surrounded with delightful
gardens. The outward view of the city is very imposing, and it has no mean suburbs or
mouldering walls. Population, 112,000.
668
SARDINIA.
Genoa stands on the shore of a broad gulf to which it gives its name. This city spreads
over a wide semicircular tract of rocks and declivities, and the aspect of its white buildings
ascending in regular progression from the sea, is highly magnificent. The interior consists of
streets or rather lanes, 8 or 10 feet wide between immensely high palaces. When you look
up, their cornices appear almost to touch across the street, leaving a strip of blue sky be
tween. Two of the streets only are accessible to carriages. The Strada Balbi is one of the
most magnificent streets in the world, and is full of splendid palaces. Genoa has a public
library of 50,000 volumes, and a university. Its harbor is one of the finest in Europe, and it
has a considerable trade. Genoa was once the capital of a powerful republic, the naval and
commercial rival of Venice, and its beautiful situation its magnificent churches, and splendid
palaces, amply entitle it to the surname of the Superb, given it by the Italians. Popula
tion, 80,000. Columbus was born in Genoa or an adjacent village.
Alessandria, on the Tanaro, is a place of some trade, with 35,000 inhabitants. In its
neighbourhood are Marengo, the scene of one of the victories of Bonaparte, and Asti with
22,000 inhabitants, a commercial and manufacturing town.
Nice or Nizza, situated on the Mediterranean, has a good port and an active commerce,
with 25,000 inhabitants. Its delightful situation and its mild climate render it a charming
winter residence for many foreigners. Coni or Cuneo with 18,000 inhabitants, Novara, with
15,000, Vercelli, 15,000, and Savona, 12,000, flourishing manufacturing and trading towns,
and Chamberry, the capital of Savoy, with 11,000 inhabitants, are places of some interest.
Cagliari, the capital of the island of Sardinia, stands upon a large bay in the south. It is
well built with some splendid palaces, a cathedral, 37 churches, a university, and a library of
18,000 volumes. It has little commerce, but the surrounding country produces cotton and
indigo. Population, 27,000. Sassari, in the northern part, has a university and 20,000-
inhabitants. 12. Agriculture. The arable land is held by large proprietors who divide their estates
into small portions among farmers. The farmers seldom become proprietors, but in general
the land descends from father to son. The proprietor receives half the product for rent and
the use of the cattle, which are his property ; for the meadows he is paid in money. Part
of the tools also commonly belong to the proprietor. The farmers are in general very poor.
The landed proprietors are rich. In the Apennines and a part of the Genoese territories,
the peasants are proprietors, but their only
wealth consists in chestnuts, sheep, and
olives. Wheat, maize, and other grain,
rice, beans, and tobacco are cultivated.
Excellent grapes are raised, but the making
of wine is not well understood. The olive
is cultivated along the coast, and Genoa is
productive in oil. Piedmont raises annually
fc- 20,000 cwt. of silk.
13. Commerce. The only important ar
ticles of exportation are silk, rice, and oil.
SP Genoa is the only port which has any for-
5^ reign commerce. The island of Sardinia
supplies the continental states with salt, and
some grain and vegetables.
14. Manufactures. There are manufactures of silk at Genoa to the amount of 1,000,000
to 1,400,000 dollars annually. This city also manufactures paper, soap, chocolate, macaroni,
&c. In Piedmont are some manufactures of silk. Nice produces perfumes and scented
waters. There are some smelting furnaces in Piedmont and Savoy.
15. Fisheries. The tunny fisheries of the island of Sardinia are said to produce 200,000
dollars a year. The coral fishery is also a considerable source of revenue.
16. Education and Religion. Public instruction is entirely in the hands of the clergy and
Jesuits. Gymnasiums and high schools exist in most of the large towns, but little except
Latin and scholastic theology are taught in them. The universities, with the exception of
those at Turin and Genoa, are very insignificant. It is estimated, that there are not 5 individ
uals in 100 who can read, write, and cipher. The censorship is severe. Few foreign books,
and hardly any pamphlets or newspapers, are allowed to enter the kingdom. With the excep-
Silk Worm.
AUSTRIAN ITALY. 669
tion of about 20,000 Waldenses, a sect somewhat resembling the Calvinists, the inhabitants are
Roman Catholics. The clergy is neither very numerous nor very rich.
17. Government. The king of Sardinia is an absolute, hereditary monarch. The govern
ment is directed by a Supreme Council of State, a Council of Finances, a Council of Govern
ment, the Council of Savoy, the Senate of Turin, the Council of Nice, and the Council of
Genoa. Justice is administered by the nobles.
18. Revenue, Debt, &c. The yearly revenue is about 12,000,000 dollars; the debt,
24,000,000 dollars. The army consists of 46,000 men; and the navy of 2 ships of 54 guns,
and 6 or 8 smaller vessels.
19. History. The Sardinian monarchy grew from the little district of Savoy. The duke
of Savoy obtained many accessions of territory, in the early part of the 18th century. In 1720,
he obtained the island of Sardinia, with the title of king.
CHAPTER LXXXI. AUSTRIAN ITALY, OR THE LOMBARDO-VENE-
TIAN KINGDOM.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and Divisions. The Austrian dominions in Italy occupy the east
ern part of northern Italy. They consist of two divisions ; the Republic of Venice, in the
east, and Lombardy, in the west.* They are bounded N. by the Tyrol and Carinthia ; E. by
Istria, Carniola, and the Adriatic ; S. by the States of the Church, Modena, and Parma ; and
W. by the Sardinian dominions. They extend from 45° to 47° north latitude ; and from 9°
to 14° east longitude. Their greatest length from east to west, is 220 miles, and their breadth
140 miles. They contain 20,000 square miles.
2. Rivers. The Po washes the southern limit of this territory. This river is denominated
the prince of the Italian streams. It rises in the western Alps, on the confines of France and
Italy, and passes easterly through the Sardinian States, receiving innumerable streams on either
hand, from the Alps and Apennines. Continuing east, it divides Parma, Modena, and the
ecclesiastical territory from the Austrian dominions, and falls into the Adriatic, after a course
of 375 miles. It is everywhere deep, with a rapid current. Its branches are the Doria, Le-
sia, Ticino, Adda, Oglio, and Minero, from the north ; and the Tanaro, Trebbia, and Pa-
naro, from the south. It is navigable from Turin to the sea. The sand and gravel washed
down from the mountains, have raised the bed of the river, in modern times, to such an eleva
tion, that in some places banks 30 feet high are necessary to preserve the country from inunda
tion. The Adige rises in the Alps of Tyrol, and flowing south, enters this territory, after
which, it turns to the east, and falls into the Adriatic ; it is 200 miles in length. The Piave,
and several other small streams from the north, flow into the Adriatic.
3. Lakes. Lago Maggiore extends from Locarno, in the Swiss canton of Tesino, to Se-
sto, in the Milanese, 37 miles ; it is 3 miles in width, and 1,800 feet deep. Its shores abound
with Alpine beauties. In it lie the Borromean Isles, laid out in gardens and pleasure-grounds,
and containing handsome villas. East of this is the Lake of Como, 32 miles in length ; and,
still further east, the Lake of Garda, celebrated by Virgil under the name of Benacus ; it is 30
miles long, and 8 miles wide. There are several other smaller lakes in the neighborhood. All
of them flow into the Po, and are highly beautiful.
4. Climate and Face of the Country. The country is for the most part level, but towards
the north is broken by spurs of the Alps. To the west of Padua are the Euganean hills, from
1,500 to 1,800 feet high, of volcanic origin. The climate is mild and healthy ; near the Alps
it is cold, and even in the other parts, the rivers are sometimes frozen in winter, and the
southern plants are injured by frosts. The heats of summer are tempered by refreshing breezes
from the Alps.
5. Soil. Lombardy is a level country, and consists entirely of an alluvial plain, with one
of the richest soils in the world. Near the mountains, gravel is mixed with the earth, but al
most the whole tract is composed of a deep black mould.
* The present political divisions are : 2. The Government of Venice, comprising eight Pro-
1. The Government of Milan, comprising nine Lombard vinces ; Venice, Verona, Padua, Vicenza, Rovigo, Tre-
rrovinces ; Milan, Pavia, Lodi, Como, Cremona, Sondrio visa, Belluno, and fjdine or Friuli.
or The V alteline, Bergamo, Brescia, and Mantua.
670
AUSTRIAN ITALY.
6. Canals and Railroads. The Lombardo- Venetian provinces contain a great number of
canals, partly designed for navigation, and partly for irrigation ; there are not less than 243 in
the government of Venice alone. The Naviglio Grande and the Martesana Canal have been
mentioned in the general view of Italy. The Cavanella Canal joins the Bianco to the Po,
and the Loreo Canal unites the Adige with the former. The Brenta Canal occupies the an
cient bed of the Brenta, the course of which was changed by the Venetians some centuries
since, to prevent its deposites from choking up their lagoons. An important project for a railroad
through these provinces has lately been formed by the imperial government. This railroad will
connect the 7 richest and most populous cities of Italy with each other, Venice, Padua, Vicen-
za, Verona, Mantua, Brescia, and Milan ; the most gigantic portion will be the bridge over the
lagoons, connecting Venice with the main land. The length of the railroad will be 190 miles,
passing through a population of three and a half millions, the 7 cities having alone a population
of half a million.
7. Cities. Milan, the capital of the kingdom, and the residence of the viceroy, is a large
and splendid city, 1 1 miles in circumference. It stands in the middle of a vast plain, on a spot
without any natural advantages, yet the
4^WB^»-, fine canals from the Ticino and Adda,
make it the centre of a considerable trade.
It is considered the most elegant city in
Italy, and was very much improved and
beautified by Napoleon. The finest build
ing is the cathedral, which, after St. Pe
ter's, is the largest and most sumptuous
church in Italy. It is built of pure white
marble, and while the exterior dazzles the
beholder by the brilliancy of its material,
the richness of its Gothic ornaments, and
its 4,000 statues, he is not less struck
with admiration by the splendid interior,
resting upon 52 marble columns. The
college of Brera, now called the Royal
Palace of the Sciences, with its fine li
brary of 170,000 volumes ; the viceregal
palace ; the vast and magnificent barracks ;
the theatre della Scala, one of the largest
in the world ; the triumphal arch at the termination of the Simplon road, and the great hos
pital, with the numerous elegant palaces and houses of private persons, constitute some of the
ornaments of this city. The literary institutions of Milan are in high repute. Its manufactures
are extensive and various, comprising silks, jewelry, &c. Population, 150,000. The hospi
tals and charitable institutions are numerous. Milan was founded 584 years before Christ, by
the Insubrian Gauls. It has been 40 times besieged ; 40 times taken, and 4 times destroyed.
It has above 200 churches, and more than 100 monastic institutions.
Brescia, situated in a fertile and highly cultivated plain, has extensive manufactures of silk,
cutlery, and firearms. Population, 31,000. Bergamo, a manufacturing place, with a flourish
ing trade in silk and iron, is remarkable for its great annual fair ; the fair hall is a large building
containing 600 shops. Population 24,000. Cremona, on the Po, is a large city, famous for its
manufacture of violins. Its cathedral is a remarkable Gothic edifice of great dimensions, with
one of the loftiest towers in Europe. . Population, 26,000. To the north is Lodi, with 18,000
inhabitants, and manufactures of silk and porcelain. The Parmesan cheese is made in the
neighborhood. Mantua, on a lake near the Mincio, is a large and handsome city, but its population, 27,000
inhabitants, is disproportionate to its extent. Its situation and military works render it one of
the strongest fortresses in Europe. In the neighborhood is shown the birthplace of Virgil.
Pavia, on the Po, contains many elegant edifices, and a celebrated university. The Carthu
sian monastery, in its neighborhood, is one of the finest in Italy. Population, 21,000.
Venice is certainly the most singular city in the world. It is built upon piles in the midst of
a large lagoon or lake, covered with a great number of little isles, which are separated from each
Cathedral at Milan.
AUSTRIAN ITALY.
671
other by narrow canals.* These are crossed by 500 bridges, and as the streets are so extremely
narrow as to render the use of carriages impossible, the usual vehicle of transportation is a sort
of little bark called a gondola, which plies back and forth upon the canals. A great number of
sumptuous palaces still remind the visiter of the glorious times of the now fallen city, once the
commercial capital of the world, the mistress of the seas, and the cradle of modern civilization.
Among the bridges is the famous Rialto, one of the most magnificent in Europe ; it is 187 feet
Venetian Galley.
Rialto.
long, and of a single arch. There are 41 public squares, but that of St. Marie, surrounded by
splendid buildings, and commanding a fine view of the sea, is the most remarkable. There
stand the church of St. Mark, an ancient building in the Oriental style, and the ducal palace, a
vast and magnificent edifice, ornamented with the splendid masterpieces of the Venetian paint
ers, and connected with the prisons called the leads (piombi, lead roofs), by the Bridge of
Sighs. The arsenal, long famous as the largest in Europe, still contains everything necessary
for equipping a fleet. There are several literary institutions and learned societies, of reputation,
and the library of St. Mark's is one of the richest in Italy. The commerce and manufactures
of Venice, though much declined from their former importance, are yet considerable. The
book trade is extensive, and glass, silk, woolen, and linen goods, artificial flowers, gold wire,
&c, are manufactured here. Population, 150,000. The Square of St. Mark is 800 feet in
length, and has a magnificent appearance. The traveler at evening may view this fine square
in all its marble beauty, with the domes and minarets of its ancient church, the barbaric
gloom of the Doge's palace, and its proud, towering campanile ; he may here see the
Corinthian horses, the workmanship of Lysippus, and*the winged lion of the Piraeus; he
may walk in the illumination of a long line of coffee-houses, and observe the variety of cos-
* To the very nature of the country which they inhab
ited, the Venetians, like the Dutch, were mainly indebted
for their independence. The Adriatic Gulf receives in
its upper part all the waters which flow from the southern
declivities of the Alps. Every one of them carries down
in the rainy season enormous quantities of mud and sand,
so that the head of the gulf, gradually filled up with their
deposite, is neither sea nor land. The Laguna, as thia
immense tract of shoals and mud is called, comprising a
space of between 30 and 30 miles from the shore, is cov
ered with about 2 feet of water, but is intersected by chan
nels which afford a passage and safe anchorage to the
largest vessels. Amid these shoals and mud-banks, are
certain firmer and more elevated sites, which have been
inhabited from remote antiquity. When Rome was in
vaded by Alaric, these islands were peopled by refugees
from the continent, and this was the commencement of
the powerful republic of Venice.
672
AUSTRIAN ITALY.
View in Venice.
tume ; the thin veil, covering the pale Venetian beauty ; the Turks, with their beards and
caftans, and long pipes, and chess playing.;
the Greeks, with tlieir skull-caps and richly
laced jackets. Venice is in everything de
lightful, and may be called a great pleasure-
house. It is the chief book-shop of the^south,
and prints for Italy in general, as well as for
Greece and Germany. It -has a public library
of 150,000 volumes.
Verona, on the Adige, is a large manufac
turing city, with an extensive trade and 55,000
inhabitants. It is pleasantly situated, and,
though many of the streets are narrow and
dirty, contains several fine buildings. Here
are 93 churches, 41 convents, and, 18 hospi
tals. The scene of Shakspeare's Romeo and
Juliet is laid in Verona, and a sarcophagus is
still shown here as the tomb of Juliet. Ve
rona also contains the remains of an ancient
Roman amphitheatre, built of enormous blocks
of marble, 1,290 feet in circumference, and
capable of accommodating 22,000 specta
tors. Padua is a flourishing city, with an exten
sive trade and manufactures. It is remark
able for the number and excellence of its
learned establishments, among which is its
celebrated university, formerly visited by stu
dents from all parts of Europe ; attached to it
are an observatory, a botanic garden, and rich
cabinets of natural history and physics. Pop
ulation, 50,000. Vicenza, situated in a ferule
plain, has extensive manufactures of silk. It is
adorned with the works of the celebrated archi
tect Palladio, who was born here. In its vici-
1 nity is the .sanctuary of Our Lady of the Mount,
I the entrance to which is through an arcade a
I mile in length. Population of Vicenza, 30,000.
8. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief de
pendence of the inhabitants, but the implements
and operations of husbandry are imperfect. The artificial irrigation of lands is a striking fea
ture of agriculture in Lombardy ; the canals for this purpose are very numerous, and water is
thus employed for grass and corn lands and vineyards, and also to flood lands sown with rice.
It is also used, when charged with mud, for depositing a layer of it as manure. The lands in
Lombardy are generally farmed on the metayer or half-profit system. The landlord pays the
taxes and keeps the buildings in repair, while the tenant provides the cattle, implements, and
seeds, and cultivates the ground, and the produce is equally divided.
9. Manufactures and Trade. _ The chief manufactures are silk, glass, and hardware.
Venice and Murano, beautiful mirrors are made. Hardware and firearms are made at Brescia.
Jewelry and plate are wrought at Milan and Venice. There are some manufactures of woolen,
musical instruments, china, carpets, paper, artificial flowers, perfumes, vermicelli, macaroni,
glass beads, &c. Venice has been made a free port, but its commerce is trifling. The inter
nal trade is pretty active.
10. Government. Religion. Education. The government is arbitrary, and is administered
by an Austrian viceroy. There is a show of representation, yet everything is controlled by
the authorities at Vienna. All the taxes are imposed by the Emperor. The administration
of justice is arbitrary and wretched in the extreme, and the censorship is very rigid. The re
ligion is the Roman Catholic. Education in this kingdom is wholly under the control of the
Street in Verona.
At
DUCHIES OF PARMA, MODENA, AND LUCCA.
673
government. Every town is required to have its elementary school, which is supported at the
municipal expense. The higher schools are the gymnasia, in which are taught the learned lan
guages and rhetoric, and the lyceums, in which are added history, and natural philosophy. The
universities of Padua and Pavia are among the most distinguished in Italy.
11. History. The ancient republic of Venice was founded in the 6th century, and from the
marshy islands of the Adriatic, it gradually extended its limits so as to embrace a large portion
of the neighboring continent. In the 13th century, this republic had become one of the most
~ flourishing and powerful States in the world.
The discovery of the passage to India by the
Portuguese, at the end of the 15th century,
ruined the commerce of Venice with the East,
and from that time, the republic began to de
cline. It had become totally insignificant on
the breaking out of the French revolutionary
wars, in the course of which, it fell into the
hands of Austria. It was long the custom of
the Venetians, in sign of their dominion over
the Adriatic, to celebrate a splendid pageant,
which they called wedding the sea. The State
galley, or Bucentaur, sumptuously adorned, and
filled with the principal men of the republic, and
accompanied by innumerable feluccas and gon
dolas, moved down to the mouth of the harbor,
where the doge dropped a ring into the bosom
of the sea, with these words, "we wed thee
with this ring, in token of our perpetual sove
reignty." But even this poor relic of departed
glory has perished ; "the spouseless Adriatic mourns her lord," and the Bucentaur lies rotting
in the arsenal.
Lombardy was conquered by the Langobards or Lombards, in the 6th century, and made a
kingdom. Charlemagne annexed it to his empire. The Milanese was for a long time an ob
ject of contention between the French and Austrians. The Lombardo- Venetian kingdom,
with its present limits, became fixed under the Austrian rule, at the Congress of Vienna, in
April, 1815.
Bucentaur.
CHAPTER LXXXII. THE DUCHIES OF PARMA, MODENA, AND. LUCCA.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and Divisions. These three territories are distinct and indepen
dent of each other. They are bounded north by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom ; east by
the States of the church ; south by Tuscany, and west by the Mediterranean and the Sardinian
territory. 2. Parma. This duchy comprises a surface of 2^200 square miles, and is washed on the
northern limit by the Po. The Apennines bound it on the south. The climate is temperate
and -healthy. The soil is rich, and produces corn, fruits, the vine and olive. Silk is every
where raised, and there are manufactories of this article and of iron. The government is abso
lute, and the duchy is divided into four districts. Maria Louisa, the widow of Napoleon, is the
reigning duchess. By a certain contingency, the country may fall to Austria and Sardinia.
The population is 440,000.
Parma, the capital, stands on a river of that name. Its walls are 3 or 4 miles in circumfe
rence. The streets and squares are spacious, but they contain little that is remarkable for archi
tecture. Almost every other building is a church, rich within, but seldom finished without.
Here are a university, a public library of 110,000 volumes, and the celebrated Bodoni press.
Population, 30,000. Piacenza, on the Po, is a fortified town, occupied by Austrian troops.
Population, 28,000. The citadel is occupied by an Austrian garrison.
3. Modena. This duchy lies also upon the Po, to the east of Parma. It contains 2,100
square miles. The climate is like that of Parma. The soil produces corn and wine. The
government is arbitrary, and the revenue is about 70,000 dollars. A military force of 1,600 men
85
674 PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO. — TUSUAW x .
is maintained. The duchy is divided into three districts. It contains some iron mines, and
stone and marble quarries. The population is 380,000.
Modena, the capital, stands in a pleasant plain, and has a neat, handsome appearance. Its
general architecture is striking to a stranger, the greater part of the streets being-built with open
arcades. The ducal palace is a large and elegant structure, with a gallery of pictures and an
tiquities, and a library of 80,000 volumes. Here is also a university. Population, 26,800.
Reggio, a handsome town, with 18,000 inhabitants, was the birthplace of Ariosto.
Massa stands on a small elevation a mile or two from the seashore. Its situation is perfectly
delightful. At the entrance of the town, is the most beautiful bridge in the world, being a sin
gle arch of the finest proportions, built of the purest white marble. The ducal palace is a
magnificent pile, fronted by a large inclosure bordered by orange trees. Population, 7,000.
Carrara, 5 miles distant, is an ill-built town, but growing rich from its commerce in fine
statuary marble. Population, 6,000.
4. Lucca. This duchy lies upon the Mediterranean, and is bounded on the south by Tus
cany. It contains 418 square miles, and a population of 143,000. It has a senate, which
exercises the legislative power. The revenue is 28B,000 dollars, and the military force, 1,400
men. It is the most populous and best cultivated part of Italy. It is divided into three
districts. Lucca, the capital, stands in a plain, and is surrounded by walls. The towers of its churches,
rising above the ramparts, have a fine effect in the rich and beautiful landscape ; the view is
bounded by vine-clad hills, and spotted with villas, over which tower the craggy Apennines.
The ramparts are planted with rows of trees, between which is an elevated road round the
whole city. The streets are narrow and crooked, and the public buildings without beauty.
The churches are streaked and adorned with patches of different colored marble. Here is a
university. Population, 22,000.
CHAPTER LXXXIII. PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.
This State, situated on the Sardinian coast, is under the protection of the king of Sardinia.
It has an area of 50 square miles, with 6,500 inhabitants. The prince usually resides in Paris.
Monaco, the capital, is a small town, built upon a rock, with 1,000 inhabitants. The largest
town in the principality is Mentone, which has 3,000 inhabitants.
CHAPTER LXXXIV. TUSCANY.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and Divisions. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany is bounded north
and east by the Roman States, southwest by the Mediterranean, and northwest by Lucca. It
contains 8,300 square miles, and is divided into 5 provinces, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Arezzo,
and Grossetto, containing 36 towns, 135 villages, and 2,570 parishes.
2. Rivers. The chief river is the Arno, which rises among the mountains in the eastern
part, and flows westerly to the sea. In summer, it is a shallow stream, flowing in the middle
of a broad channel ; but when swelled by rains or the melting of the snowrs, it becomes a broad
and deep river. It is navigable by barges from Florence to the sea. It supplies with water
above 1,000 canals. The Ombrone in the south, is not navigable. The Tiber rises in the
mountains of this country.
3. Islands. The island of Elba is 9 miles from the coast of Tuscany. It is 60 miles in
circumference, and contains 160 square miles. It is very mountainous, and instead of wood,
the mountains are covered with aromatic plants and bushes. The climate is mild, and the sea
sons change regularly ; autumn and winter are only distinguishable by the greater quantity of
rain which falls. The chief production is iron, taken mostly from a single mountain, consisting
of one immense mass of iron-ore. The island contains also copper, lead, and silver mines, and
produces excellent wine. The chief town, Porto Ferrajo, has a good harhor, and contains
600 houses, all built of granite, with 3,000 inhabitants. In 1814, this island was given in en
tire sovereignty to Napoleon, who resided here from May, 1814, till February, 1815. Popu
lation, 13,700. The island of Gorgona, near Leghorn, is famous for the fishing of anchovies.
4. Climate. The climate is exceedingly diversified. On the mountains the snow lies for
TUSCANY.
675
weeks during the winter ; in the valleys it scarcely continues a day. Ram is not common, but
the dews are copious. On the Apennines, and in the delightful valley of the Arno, the air is
always healthy. In summer the southerly winds are very oppressive, and the region ol the
Maremma is unhealthy. ... „ , . , m, ¦¦ , a ¦ „ :„
5 Soil The vale of the Arno is rich and well cultivated. The soil on the Apennines is
stony The coast is low, sandy, and in some parts, swampy. In the southern part begins that
desolate region called the Maremma, the soil of which consists of white clay impregnated with
sulphur and alum, and emits constantly mephitic vapors. The Malaria or unhealthy exhala
tions of this region have obliged the population to emigrate, or swept them oft by disease. In
those parts which are cultivated, the peasants from the mountains come down to gather in the har
vest but they often fall victims tt the insidious air. This region extends from nsar Leghorn to
Terracina about 200 miles, and from the sea to the foot of the Apennines, from 25 to 30 miles.
6. Minerals. Sulphur is produced here in great quantities, as also saltpetre, alum, and vitriol.
The Tuscan marble is highly valued. .
7 Face of the Country. Tuscany is admired for its romantic scenery. I he boldness,
grandeur, and rich luxuriance of the country are hardly anywhere equaled. The Valdarno or
vale of the Arno is one of the most delightful regions in the world. One half of Tuscany
consists of mountains, producing only timber ; one sixth is composed of hills covered with
vineyards and olive gardens ; the remainder consists of plains.
8 Cities. Florence, the capital, stands on the Arno, 50 miles from the sea. It is 6 miles
in compass, and, next tt Rome, is the most beautiful city in Italy. It is built in a plain skirt
ed by the Apennines. Antique towers and remains of fortifications, old convents, and other
picturesque ruins crown the inferior eminences around the city, and recall the remark of Arios-
to, that, on seeing the hills, so full of palaces, it appears as if the soil produced them. Ihe
city is surrounded by walls ; the buildings are magnificent, and the streets well paved and kept
remarkably clean. The Via Larga or Broadway, is full of noble palaces. Most of the other
streets are narrow. The Ducal palace, the cathedral, the church of Santa Croce, and many
other edifices are noted for their size and splendor. The Medicean gallery is rich in those
treasures of painting and sculpture, which draw to this city visiters from every quarter of the
civilized globe. Here stands that Venus which enchants the world. The Maghabecchian libra
ry has 120,000 volumes ; others have 90,000 and 50,000. There are many splendid private
galleries and libraries. Florence contains a great number of English residents. It was the
cradle of the arts at the time of their regeneration, and the birthplace of Dante, Machiavelli,
Filicaja, Guicciardini, Michael Angelo, Galileo, and Amerigo Vespucci. Population, 80,000.
Pisa, on the Arno, near the sea, was once the capital of a republic, the rival of Genoa and
Venice. It is now decayed, but can
still boast some marble churches, a mar
ble palace, and a marble bridge. Its an
cient towers may be traced in the walls
of modern houses. The streets are
broad, and the Lung' Arno, which .ex
tends along both banks of the river, is
much admired. The cathedral is a large
Gothic edifice of marble. Near it
stands that remarkable structure, the
Leaning Tower. It is 1 90 feet high,
and overhangs its base 15 feet, seeming
to threaten a fall at every instant ; yet,
it has stood 400 years, and endured the
shock of earthquakes which have over
thrown many a perpendicular structure.*
Leaning Tower. To a spectator, looking down from
the top, the effect is terrific. Pisa has a university with a library of 60,000 volumes. In the
* Much dispute has arisen, whether the obliquity of this
tower was designed or accidental. There is now little
doubt that it was occasioned by accident ; and that the
tower having been carried up about half way perpendicu
larly, the foundation sunk on one side, and the building
was finished in its present condition. A belfry in Ihe
neighborhood declines to the same side. The soil is soft,
and water springs from it at the depth of six feet. Mr. Si-
mond states, that the holes left for the scaffolding, are still
visible in the wall, and are at right angles with it, which. '
proves the building to have been upright at its commence
ment.
676 STATES OF THE CHURCH.
neighborhood are celebrated baths. Population, 20,000. Leghorn is the chief seaport of
Tuscany. It is a neat, well-built, and busy town, with a tolerable harbor. The streets are
filled with Europeans, Turks, Jews, Armenians, Greeks, and Moors, exhibiting a most pic
turesque variety of costume. Works of art and architectural monuments do not exist here.
The commerce of the place is very active. Population, 66,000.
Sienna, a large and handsome city, was also once the capital of a flourishing republic ; but,
like many other cities of Italy, -it is now much reduced, having only 18,000 inhabitants. Its
university and academy of science have much celebrity. Pistoia has a celebrated manufacto
ry of organs, and manufactures of wool, gold, silver, and firearms. Population, 12,000.
9. Agriculture. Corn, wine, and oil are common productions. The valley of < the Arno
is divided into very small farms, separated by rows of trees or small canals. The Maremma
pastures great numbers of sheep and horses. Chestnuts are an important production ; in some
parts they are used for bread.
10. Commerce, Trade, and Manufactures. Tuscany is one of the most industrious coun
tries of Italy. Silk manufactures are the principal branch of industry in the Florentine cities.
Straw hats are made in great numbers by women, in the valley of the Arno. The other man
ufactures are linen, broadcloth, soap, perfumes, letter paper, china, marble, coral, alabaster,
and mosaics. Leghorn has a considerable commerce with the Levant, Europe, and America.
11. Government, Population, &c. The government is an absolute monarchy. The reve
nue is above 3,000,000 dollars. There are 4,000 regular troops, besides militia. Tuscany
has no navy, and her vessels are protected by the Austrian flag. The population is 1,330,000.
Of these 15,000 are Jews.
12. Religion and Education. The religion of the people is Roman Catholic ; the number
of priests is about 8,000, and education is exclusively in their hands. There are universities
at Pisa, Florence, and Sienna. There are also many secondary institutions or colleges, and
females are instructed in the convents. Schools for elementary instruction have also been es
tablished in all the towns, but though Tuscany is the best educated country in Italy, not one
half of the population can read or write.
13. History. Tuscany was anciently called Etruria. Florence, Pisa, and Sienna were
important -republics during the middle ages. The Medici of Florence amassed great wealth
by commerce, and finally obtained the sovereign authority of the city. This family became
extinct in 1737, when the Grand Duchy passed to the Duke of Lorraine. This territory was
in 1792 made a republic under the name of the Commonwealth of Etruria. Afterwards it
became the kingdom of Etruria, and then a part of the French empire. In 1814 the Grand
Duchy was reestablished.
CHAPTER LXXXV. STATES OF THE CHURCH, OR THE PAPAL
DOMINIONS.
1. Boundaries, Divisions, &c. This territory occupies the centre of Italy. It is washed
on the northeast by the Adriatic and on the southwest by the Mediterranean. On the north it
is bounded by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, on the southeast by the kingdom of Naples,
and on the west by Modena and Tuscany. Its extreme length is 260 miles from north to
south, and its breadth from 20 to 95 miles. It contains 17,500 square miles. The Duchy
of Benevento, and the principality of Ponte Corvo are two small districts belonging to this
territory, insulated in the kingdom of Naples.
2. Rivers. The Tiber, though not the largest stream in Italy, is the first in classical celeb
rity. It rises in the Apennines, near the source of the Arno, and passes through the city of
Rome to the Mediterranean ; it is 200 miles in length, and has a full stream but narrow ; it is
only 300 feet wide at Rome. There is no other river of importance within this territory. The
northern boundary is washed by the Po.
3. Lakes. The lake of Perugia near the city of that name, is the ancient Thrasymenus,
and is famous for a battle between Hannibal and the Romans. It is a beautiful sheet of water,
4 miles across, bordered with gently sloping hills, everywhere covered with woods or cultivated
fields, and rising at a distance into mountains. The lakes of Albano and Nemi are charmingly
situated among hills. There are other small lakes.
4. Climate. The climate is mild, but tne mountains are covered with snow from October
STATES OF THE CHURCH.
677
to April The Sirocco, or hot wind from Africa, is felt on the shore of the Mediterranean.
In the mountainous parts the air is healthy, but in the Maremma on the coast, and in the neigh
borhood of the Pontine marshes, are pestilential exhalations, which cause fever and ague. Ihe.
northern parts near the Po are also unhealthy.
5. Soil. The soil does not differ materially from that of Tuscany. The oranges and
lemons, produced in the plain of Rome are the best in Italy.
6 Face of the Country. This territory is intersected by the Apennines. The mountains
are as barren as those of Tuscany and Genoa, but higher. The Campagna di Roma is a con
tinuation of the Tuscan Maremma, and is noted for its unhealthy malaria. It exhibits an un
dulated surface bare of trees. The Pontine marshes are in the south. The ancient Cesars
and modern Popes have in vain attempted to drain them.
7 Natural Curiosities. The cataract of Velino near Terni, is a beautifully picturesque
cascade, and has been celebrated in the verses of Byron. It is, however, partly artificial.
The mountain stream of the Velino was turned into the Nar through a bed cut in a limestone
rock.* The cascade of Tivoli is also artificial.
8. Divisions. The States of the Church are divided into 14 provinces, bearing the names
of their chief towns. They are the province of Rome, styled comarca or county ; those of
Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli, styled legations ; and those of Urbino, Ancona, Mace-
rata, Fermo, Spoleto, Perugia, Viterbo, Frosinone, and Benevento, styled delegations.
9. Towns. Rome, the capital of the State, stands upon both sides of the Tiber, 15 miles
from the sea. It is situated on several low hills,
and is 16 miles in circumference, comprehend
ing, however, within this space much open
ground, gardens, vineyards, and fields. Once
the capital of an empire, which embraced nearly
the whole of the known world, and for centuries,
the residence of the popes, who have adorned it
with all the splendors of painting, sculpture, and
architecture, there is no place that can compare
with Rome in its majestic ruins, its associa
tions with the past, the solemn grandeur of its
churches and palaces, and its endless treasures
of art. It has, indeed, a sombre appearance,
rendered still more striking by large squares, spa-
View of Modem Rome. cious and deserted streets, and the majestic ruins
which are seen at every step. Some of the streets are of immense length ; others are only
half built ; many are narrow and crooked. In one part are noble palaces half hidden among
miserable huts. In another part all is gorgeous and magnificent. Other places may be more
beautiful, but Rome is one of the most richly picturesque cities in the world. The hills, in
significant in themselves, seem made to display the buildings to the greatest advantage. The
architecture, both ancient and modern, is often faulty and incongruous, but always combines
well with the landscape. The spectator is dazzled with the multiplicity of objects, and de
caying ruins are relieved by modern magnificence. *It contains at present a population of
154,000 souls, 364 churches, 30 monasteries, 46 public squares, and 125 palaces. The mod
ern city is a little north of ancient Rome, the site of which is principally covered with gardens
and vineyards. Fifteen gates, several of which are distinguished for their magnificence, form
* " The channel in which the water runs above the falls
is 51 feet in width. The descent is 1 foot in 20, and the
rapidity of the current about 7 miles an hour. The trav
eler is conducted to different points to look down on this
tremendous cascade. The best view is from a little sum
mer house on a projecting point considerably below the
brow, said to have been built for the accommodation of
Napoleon. The lower part of the cataract is riot visible
at this point, but the river is seen rushing among rocks
and precipitating itself in a succession of (alls over a per
pendicular precipice, tossing itself in thunder amid the
foam and spray of the gulf below. The first fall takes
place where the stream is yet confined among the rocks
of the channel, which is there much broken, and may
have an elevation of 40 or 50 feet. The second fall is a
perpendicular descent of between 500 and 600 feet. It
afterwards strikes against a rock, and rushes down re
peated falls, so close as to form almost one continued sheet
of foam for S!40 feet more, into the Nar ; so thatthe whole
descent is upwards of 800 feet. ***** Altogether the
tremendous height of the fall, the vast column of water,
the color and shape of the ' rocks of jet,' or velvet black
in contrast with the pure sparkling white of the spray,
the vivid green of the grass and mosses which it perpetu
ally moistens, the grotesque eonfigu ration of the calcare
ous incrustation which it forms, and the brilliant rainbow
which, ' beneath the glittering morn,' or in the evening
sunshine, arches the stream, combine with the richness
and beauty of the surrounding scenery to form a picture
of perhaps unequaled beauty." — Conder's Italy.
678
STATES OF THE CHURCH.
the entrances into the city. Several of the principal streets are spacious and of great length ; •
among these is the Corso, in which the races are held, and which forms the favorite promenade
of the Romans.
The church of St. Peter, built at the expense of the whole Roman world, is the glory of
modern architecture. The symmetry and
beauty of its proportions cause such sen
sations of delight, that the traveler, on
leaving Rome, finds his most painful regret
to be that he shall see St. Peter's no
more. It is fronted by a circular colon
nade surrounding an Egyptian obelisk and
2 magnificent fountains. The immense
dome, the boldest work of modern archi
tecture, rises to the height of 520 feet ;
under this is the high altar, with a colossal
canopy, supported by 4 bronze pillars, 120
feet in height. The church was 111 years
in building, and cost a sum equal to
160,000,000 dollars at the present day.
No other church in Rome can be com-
Church of St. Peter. _ pared to this, yet there are many remarka
ble for magnificence and antiquity. The Pantheon is the most perfect edifice of ancient Rome ;
it is now converted into a church ; its portico is unrivaled. The St. John's of Lateran, in
which the Popes are crowned, and Great St. Mary's, are also magnificent edifices.
The winter residence of the popes is the Vatican, the largest palace in Europe, containing
4,420 halls and galleries, filled with the treasures of ancient and modern art. The library is
one of the largest and richest in the world. The Quirinal palace is the summer residence, and
its gardens are the most beautiful in Italy. The palaces of the rich Romans, and the villas, or
palaces surrounded with gardens, groves, and parks, resemble rather the residences of princes,
than of private individuals ; and many of them are adorned with a profusion of the finest works
of statuary and painting ; the edifices themselves are the productions of the greatest geniuses
of modern times.
The number of literary institutions and societies in Rome is very great, and there are acade
mies for all branches .of the fine arts. The University della Sapienza, the Roman College, the
Propaganda, for the education of missionaries, and 21 colleges, are the chief establishments
for education.
There are many
remarkable monuments of ancient
¦Ill
mm
Coliseum.
Rome, which should not be for
gotten in an account of the modern city.
The iElian bridge over the Tiber, now
called the bridge of St. Angelo, is one of
the finest in Italy. The mausoleum of
Adrian, a rounded pyramid of white mar
ble, called also from its great size Adrian's
Mole, now bears the name of the Caslle of
St. Angelo ; it has been converted into a
citadel, and in it are kept the treasures of
the popes, and the bulls and documents of
the papal court; the prisoners of state are
also confined here. The Coliseum, a vast
amphitheatre, 1,600 feet in circumference,
and capable of containing 100,000 specta
tors, is much decayed.* Several temples,
the columns of Antonine and Trajan, the
triumphal arches of Titus and Constantine,
and numerous obelisks are in good preser-
There is authority to say, impossible ns it may seem, the fox to the lion and the tiger, from the elephant to the
that when Titus for the first time opened the door of this gazelle, which perished in the games of a single day,
'r,lliliv.1 "h>< '•¦' ':":i ¦¦'¦'" l"-; i -"I" ¦¦ .""l i'..' slaughtering and slaughtered, amounted to 5,000. -&•
prodigious edifice, begun by Vespasian his father, and fin
ished by himself, the number of beasts of all sorts, from
nond.
STATES OF THE CHURCH. 679
vation. The Cloaca Maxima or Great Sewer is of colossal dimensions, and is one of the
oldest Roman constructions ; it is composed of enormous stones, and its vaults are from 10
to 16 feet high, and from 12 to 14 wide.
Bologna, a large and handsome city, delightfully situated at the foot of the Apennines, is the
second town of the State. The houses are mostly built of stone with arcades in front, so that
foot-passengers can pass through the city under cover. There are many churches and palaces
here remarkable for their architecture and their treasures of statuary and painting. Bologna
has long teen famous for its learned institutions, and the university is the oldest in Europe,
and one of the best in Italy. The Scientific Institute is a magnificent institution, with a rich
library of 160,000 volumes, an observatory, and valuable cabinets of art and science. Popu
lation, 71,000.
Ferrara, to the north of Bologna, is a large and superb city, but is rendered unhealthy by
the marshes which surround it ; it is now half deserted, and the grass grows in front of its no
ble palaces. Its polished court was once the resorts of the most famous wits of Italy, and there
are a university and a valuable library here. Ferrara contains a strong citadel, now occupied
by Austrian troops. Population 24,000.
Ravenna, formerly a populous city, and successively the residence of the emperors of the
Western Roman Empire, of the Gothic kings, and of the exarchs of Italy, is now much re
duced. The neighboring marshes render it unhealthy, and its fine port, in which the Roman
fleets wintered, is now filled up with mud. It still contains many remains of its ancient mag
nificence, and here repose the bones of the divine Dante. Population, 16,000.
Rimini, is a large and handsome city, containing numerous remains of antiquity and several
fine churches. Its harbor is now choked up, and the sea has receded more than two miles
from the ancient lighthouse. Population, 15,000. Ancona, is a place of considerable com
merce, with a good harbor upon the gulf of Venice. Its manufactures are also extensive ;
population 30,000. Sinigaglia, to the north of Ancona, with 8,000 inhabitants, is famous
for its fair. Loretto, to the south, is celebrated for its cathedral, in which is shown the house
of the Virgin Mary, said to have been brought hither by angels.
Perugia, situated upon the Tiber," in the midst of a fertile and highly cultivated district, con
tains a university, and has a population of 30,000 inhabitants. Its silk manufactures are im
portant, and its library, museum of antiquities, ruins, &c, render it interesting. Civita
Vecchia, on the Western coast, with 7,000 inhabitants, is a strongly fortified port, with a dock
yard, and considerable commerce. Benevento, within the Neapolitan territories, with 14,000
inhabitants ; Spoleto, 7,000 inhabitants ; and Urbino, 7,000, are interesting from the important
part they have played in the history of modem Italy.
10. Agriculture. The lands are commonly held by great proprietors. In the plain of the
Po, cultivation is active, but the rest of the country is neglected. The Romans are less in
dustrious than their northern neighbors. The vine and olive grow everywhere. Onions are
raised in immense quantities in the marshes of Ancona. Hemp, saffron, and beans are exten
sively cultivated.
11. Commerce and Manufactures. The commerce is chiefly in the hands of foreigners,
and the only seaport of consequence is Civita Vecchia. The manufactures merely supply the
home consumption. Some silk is manufactured at Bologna, besides many miscellaneous arti
cles. Gallnuts and cantharides are articles of exportation.
12. Government. The government is an elective monarchy. The pope possesses both
the legislative and executive power, and is chosen by the College of Cardinals from among
themselves. The number of cardinals is about 70. Constitutionally, the pope is an absolute
sovereign, but in practice he is only the head of an oligarchy. Since the time of Adrian the
Sa ' W3S °btruded upoa the throne b^ Charles the Fifth, all the popes- have been
13. Revenue, Army, &c. The revenue is 10,000,000 dollars. The debt is 70,000,000.
The mihtary force is about 9,000 men. There is no navy. The population is 2,590,940.
J* ilT r , ^ °frthe ancienrr, Roman rePublic is now bec°me the seat of the
e pfof f ,reh§1°n, °- pelC\ The R°man P°wer' hy an almost uninterrupted
bvIL nTf a* ° leS,' I,™5 wh>ch„300 triumphs celebrated the victories of their arms
in 11 Jf- ' T # adua% sPr'ead f over «he countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
till TpnlvirlT' T u°Pe', ,AfleVhe dreT0llne 0f this colos^us' ^ name of Rome wa
still venerated by the world, and the bishop of Rome, better known by the title of pope, came to
680
REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. — KINGDOM UF MAruxto.
be looked upon as a sort of -
head of the Christian church.
The pope claims the absurd
title of successor of St. Pe
ter, and God's vicegerent
upon earth. The supremacy
of the apostolic see at Rome,
dates from a remote period.
The pope became a tempo
ral prince with the acquisi
tion of the Exarchate of
Ravenna in the 8th centu- .
ry. In the 11th and 12th
centuries, those territories
were acquired which now
constitute the patrimony of
St. Peter ; Ancona and Ur-
bino were obtained in the
16th and 17th. Though the
Ancient Roman Wars. papal territories were incon
siderable, yet the popes maintained armies, and exerted great influence in the affairs of Europe.
Their power received a severe blow by the Reformation in the 16th century, and the papal au
thority is now quite insignificant. One of the consequences of the invasion of Italy by Bona
parte in 1796, was the overthrow of the Pope, and the establishment of a republic in Rome ;
but this government was of short continuance. The Roman,States were annexed to Napoleon's
Kingdom of Italy in 1808, and in 1810 they were united to the French Empire. In 1814
the pope was restored to all his former possessions.
CHAPTER LXXXVI. REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO.
This little republic is an independent State, but is under the protection of the pope, and is
inclosed in the Papal States. It consists of a mountainous tract among the Apennines, con
taining 22 square miles, and a population of 7,000. It is productive in wine and corn. The
town of San Marino stands on the summit of a mountain, and is accessible only by a narrow
path. The constitution is a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. The punishment of death
lias never been inflicted within this territory.
CHAPTER LXXXVII.
THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES, OR KINGDOM OF
THE TWO SICILIES.
1. Boundaries, Extent, &c. This kingdom comprises all the south of Italy, with the
Island of Sicily, and a few small islands in the neighborhood. The continental portion is
bounded northwest by the States of the Church ; northeast by the Adriatic ; southeast by the
Ionian sea, and southwest by the Mediterranean. It extends from 37° 50' to 42° 55' N. lati
tude ; and from 13° to 19° E. longitude. Its extreme length is about 360 miles. Its width
varies from 20 to 8 miles. The Island of Sicily is separated by a narrow strait from the
southern extremity of the continent ; it extends from 36° 40' tt 38° 15' N. latitude ; and from
12° 30' to 15° 40' E. longitude ; its extreme length being 250 miles. The continental part
contains 32,000 square miles, and the island 10,200. Total 42,200.
2. Mountains. The continental part is traversed from north to South by the Apennines,
which terminate at the Straits of Messina, separating Sicily from the continent. The highest
summit, Mount Como, or Cavallo, reaches the height of 9,520 feet. Vesuvius, a volcanic
mountain near the city of Naples, 3,450 feet high, belongs to this chain. The first recorded
eruption of Vesuvius was in A. D. 63, a few years after which it overwhelmed the 2
large and populous cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with lava and ashes. Since that
period, it has been in constant activity, and has frequently caused great ravages. Its
KINGDOM OF NAPLES.
681
Vesuvius.
sides are mostly barren, but in some parts vines
and fruits are seen amidst fields of burning lava,
and its base is inhabited and cultivated. Sicily
contains two ridges extending across the island ;
the one from east to west, in which is the volcanic
Mount Etna, or Mongibello, 10,870 feet high, and
the other from north to south.
3. Rivers and Lakes. The rivers descend from
each side of the Apennines into the sea. They
are all small; the Volturno and the Garigliano,
flowing west into the Mediterranean, are the princi
pal. The principal lake is Celano, in the northern
part of the kingdom.
4. Islands. Sicily is the largest island in the
Mediterranean. It is shaped like a triangle, and
was called, in consequence, Trinacria by the ancient Greeks. It seems to have been
separated from the continent by some violent convulsion. The Strait of Messina, dividing it
from the continent, is 5 miles broad. This is the ancient Charybdis, although the whirlpool
which rendered it such a terror to mariners, no longer exists. The mountains of this island
may be regarded as a continuation of the Apennines. Mount iEtna is near the eastern shore.
_ This celebrated volcano has thrown out
jjfjljg flames, at intervals, for more than 2,000
years. Its immense size and solitary ele
vation, the beauty and magnificence of the
surrounding scenery, and the terrific gran
deur of the convulsions to which it has been
subject, have made it one of the wonders
of the world. At a distance, it appears
like a truncated cone. Upon a nearer ap
proach, the traveler is astonished at the
wild and grotesque appearance of the whole
mountain. Scattered over the immense
declivity, he beholds innumerable small co
nical hills gently rising from the surface to
the height of 400 or 500 feet, covered with
rich verdure and beautiful trees, villages,
scattered hamlets, and monasteries. As
his eye ascends, he discovers an immense
forest of oaks and pines, forming a beauti
ful green belt round the mountain. Above
this, appears the hoary head of the volcano,
boldly rising into the clouds, and capped
with eternal snow. The crater is a hill of
an exact conical figure, composed of ashes and scoriae. From this opening, smoke is continu
ally ascending.* There are several mud volcanoes in the island. The principal one is at
Mount JEtna.
* " The ascent from Catania to the Bummit is thirty miles,
requiring a journey of thirty days. Fifteen miles are al
lowed for the cultivated region, which is remarkable for
the great number of conical hills, generally two or three
miles in circumference. All of them have craters, and
one of them threw out an immense torrent of lava, in 1669.
The second part of the ascent, called the woody region,
extends eight or ten miles toward the summit of the
mountain. The most remarkable object here is the cas-
tagno dei centi cavalli, or chestnut-tree of a hundred horses,
which is 204 feet in circumference at the root. It is di
vided into five branches, but they all unite in one root.
Near this, are to be found two others, seventy-six feet in
girth, and an oak of forty feel. As the traveler ascends,
the trees diminish in size and beauty, and presently vege
tation looks withered and stunted. Alter this, he passes
86
into the desert region, or upper zone of vEtna ; this is over
spread with snow and ice, and intersected by torrents of
melted snow. In the midst of this desert, the lofty sum
mit of the mountain is descried, rearing its tremendous
headabove the surrounding snows, and vomiting torrents
of smoke. The most difficult and dangerous part of the
ascent now begins. Violent gusts of wind chill the tra.
veler, and as he proceeds, the snow gradually increases in
depth and hardness^ till it appears one continual sheet of
ice. Sometimes, from the partial heating of the surface,
pools of water are formed by the melted snow, which ar
rest his progress ; the sand and ashes, at first thinly spread
over the surface of the hardened snow, deepen as he ad
vances, and are at the same time so loose, that he is in
danger of being swallowed up at every step. Sulphure
ous exhalations, constantly arising from the crevices of
682 KINGDOM OF NAPLES.
Maccaluba, near Girgenti. The rivers of Sicily are mere rivulets. The heavy winter rains
set the mountain torrents running, but when dry, their beds become tolerable roads, to the dis
tance of 3 or 4 miles inland.
The Lipari Islands lie between Sicily and the continent. They are 12 in number ; a part
of them only are inhabited. Lipari, the principal isle, contains 112 square miles ; it is moun
tainous, and the soil is rendered fertile by a subterranean fire. There was once a volcano here.
The island of Stromboli is a volcano, that burns without ceasing. Volcano constantly emits
smoke. The island of Capri, in the Bay of Naples, contains 10 square miles. It consists of
two high rocky mountains, enclosing a fertile valley. In the time of the Romans, it was adorned
with magnificent palaces. Ischia and Procida are fertile islands, in the same neighborhood.
5. Bays and Gulfs. The Gulf of Taranto is a semicircular bay at the southeastern ex
tremity of Italy ; it is 100 miles in extent. The bays of Naples and Salerno, on the western
coast, are much smaller.
6. Climate. On the continent, a perpetual spring seems to prevail. Vegetation is neyer
interrupted ; in the depth of winter, the fields are green, the orange trees in blossom, the balmy
air is filled with the fragrance of blooming shrubs and flowers, and the sea reflects a clear, blue
sky. From May to September the heat is intense. On the highest mountains the snow some
times lies from October till May. In Sicily, the heat of summer is diminished by sea-breezes,
but when the Sirocco blows, all vegetation dies away. Rain seldom falls, but the dews are co
pious. The nights are cold, but it never freezes except upon the mountains.
7. Soil. There is an indescribable richness of vegetation throughout this country. Here
flourish the fig-tree, the almond, the cotton plant, and sugar-cane. Sicily is one of the most
productive spots on the earth. The soil is calcareous, and its fertility is much increased by
volcanic fire.
8. Minerals. This country does not appear to be rich in minerals, and among those that
have been discovered, few are wrought'. There are some iron mines near Naples, and sulphur,
alum, marble, alabaster, puzzolana, and salt are produced here.
9. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into 21 provinces, which are subdivided into 75
districts. Of the former, 15 are in the continental part, and compose the Domains this side
the Faro (Dominj al di qua del Faro) ; and 6 in Sicily, constituting the Domains beyond the
Faro. The Sicilian provinces are Palermo, Messina, Catania, Syracuse, Caltanisetta, and
Trapani, called from their chief towns. Those of Naples are the First and Second Farther
Abruzzo, Hither Abruzzo, Terra di Lavoro, Molise, Naples, the Farther and Hither Princi-
pato, Capitanata, Bari, Otranto, Basilicata, the First and Second Farther Calabria, and Hither
Calabria. 10. Cities. Naples, the capital, is the largest city in Italy. It stands at the bottom of a
bay, and with its suburbs and contiguous villages extends 6 or 8 miles along the water. On
the land side it is surrounded by mountains. Nothing can surpass the beauty of the bay or the
prospect of the city viewed from the water, where it appears broken into great masses, and
crossed by long lines of palaces, hanging gardens, and terraced roofs ; the outline upon the sea
is strikingly indented, , the shipping is clustered behind the moles, and castles and towers rise, on
the points of projection. The shores of the bay are covered with interesting ruins, and broken
into graceful inlets. The dark towering summit of Vesuvius rises, frowning over the landscape,
while its lower regions are covered with the richest vegetation, and dotted with white country
houses. The whole circuit of the bay is edged with white towns, and covered with cultiva-
the mountain, irritate his lungs, and threaten suffocation, tude, and their light appears uncommonly bright, while
Clouds of smoke, issuing from the crater, roll down its the milky way shoots across the heavens like a pure
side, and involve him in a pitchy atmosphere ; and to add flame. On ascending the summit of the crater, all that is
to the horror of the scene, terrific sounds are continually wonderful, sublime, and beautiful in nature bursts upon
issuing from the very centre of the mountain, resounding the astonished eye." Bell.
like discharges of artillery in the vast abyss. This part of The diameter of the visible horizon from this spot, is
the journey is generally performed in the night, in order 260 miles. The island of Malta appears on the edge of the
to arrive at the summit at an early hour. The traveler, horizon ; but it is not true, as stated by Brydone, that the
an hour before sunrise, reaches a ruined structure called African coast may be discovered The greatest eruption
the Philosopher's Tower. Here, sheltered from the fury of JEtna, in late years, took place in 1812. Another, hi
of the blast, he may sit down to recruit his exhausted 181!), formed a current of lava 60 feet in breadth on the
strength, and examine the objects around him. The for- mountain, and 1,200 at its base. It desolated the country
ests below still appear like a dark gulf encompassing the to the distance of six miles, and set fire to the trees which
mountain ; the unclouded sky is faintly irradiated, and it touched. Stones were thrown out of the crater to the
the immense vault of heaven is stretched above in awful height of 1 000 feet.
majesty. The stars seem increased in number and magni-
KINGDOM OF NAPLES.
683
tion and the abundance of nature. The magnificence of the whole scene is beyond the most
gorgeous description.
The streets of the city are strait but narrow ; some are refreshed with fountains ; others are
decorated with statues and sculptured obelisks. The houses are high, the roofs flat,,more than
half the front consists of windows, and every window is faced with an iron balcony. Naples
in its interior has no parallel on earth. The whole population is out of doors and in incessant
motion ; no street in London or Paris has anything comparable to it ; it is one everlasting tu
mult. The Slrada dr Toledo is a perpetual fair, and on Sundays the crowd is so immense
that it is difficult to walk through it. This street is very splendid, and the shops gay and
showy. Every trade, occupation, and amusement is here going on in the midst of a tumultu
ous crowd rolling up and down. In this region of caricature, every bargain sounds like a bat
tle ; the popular exhibitions are full of the grotesque, and some of the church processions
would frighten a war-horse. The Mole is on holydays an epitome of the city, and exhibits
most of its humors. The number of lazzaroni, or vagabonds, is immense. They are idle
from choice ; their tatters are not misery, for the climate requires hardly any covering, and 2
cents value of macaroni is sufficient food for a day.
Six strong castles defend the city, and an excellent mole shelters the port. The commerce
is not very active. There are above 300 churches in Naples, remarkable for their ornaments
and rich jewelry. The nobility are numerous and are much addicted to show and parade ;
100 of them have the title of princes. Population, 365,000.*
The environs of Naples combine almost everything grand and beautiful. Many of the towns
scattered along the bay have 10 and 15,000 inhabitants. Mount Vesuvius, which forms so
striking a feature in the landscape,
rises in a pyramidal form, on the east,
in the midst of a large plain. The
traveler, in ascending it, passes among
cultivated fields and vineyards, trav
ersed by old streams of lava, black,
rough, and sterile. f The ascent is
gradual and extends 3 miles. On one
side the mountain is cultivated nearly
to the top. The conical summit is
composed of ashes and cinders. The
crater is about a mile in circuit, and
is 3,800 feet above the sea. The
view from the summit is enchanting.
The soil of the mountain is extreme
ly fertile, and cultivated with the
spade like a garden. The crater
throws out continual smoke, and often bursts forth in terrible eruptions. In this direction are
Portici, Herculaneum, and Pompeii.
On the west is Mount Pausilippo, through which is cut the tunnel or arched way, called the
grotto of Pausilippo, 90 feet high, 30 feet wide, and upwards of a mile long. Passing through
this tunnel you come to the lake of Agnano, which emits sulphureous vapors, and has the sin
gular property of boiling up in some places, without being hot. On its banks is the Grotta del
Cane or Dog's Grotto, the bottom of which is covered with carbonic acid gas. On plunging
Mount Vesuvius.
* " To a mere student of nature, to an artist, to a man
of pleasure, to any man that can be happy among people
who seldom affect virtue, perhaps there is no residence in
Europe so tempting as Naples and its environs. What
variety of attractions ! a climate where heaven's breath
smells wooingly ; the most beautiful interchange of sea
and land ; wines, fruits, provisions, in their highest excel
lence ; a vigorous and luxuriant nature, unparalleled in
its productions and processes ; all the wonders of volcan
ic power spent or in action ; antiquities different from all
other antiquities on earth ; a coast which was once the
fairy land of poets, and the favorite retreat of great men.
Even the tyrants of the creation loved this alluring re
gion, spared it, adorned it, lived in it, died in it." — For
syth.
t " The short eruption of December last, opened the
new crater on the brink of which we stood ; the old one
it filled up, and 4 streams of lava descended in various
directions, but did not reach any of the towns or villages
or even the cultivated fields ; so that the inhabitants, after
placing sentinels to watch the progress of the glowing
fluid, and packing up their effects to be ready to decamp,
quietly went to bed as usual, while the fiver of fire slowly
rolling on, advanced towards them, for lava does not,
strictly speaking, flow, but the upper part continually
tumbles over the lower, which, adhering to the ground, is
retarded. Those houses which are most exposed find
purchasers, although at a somewhat reduced price." —
Simond's Travels, 1818.
684 KINGDOM OF NAPLES.
a dog into this gas he is suffocated and appears lifeless ; but revives on being withdrawn. Be
yond is the Solfatara, a volcanic cone, from which issue sulphureous vapors. Then succeeds
Pozzuoli, a town of 8,000 inhabitants, remarkable for its ruins and its charming situation. In
its vicinity are the river Acheron, the lake Avernus, and the Monte Nuovo, which suddenly
rose out of the ground in 1588, to the height of 500 feet. Here is also Baice, once a favorite
resort of the Romans, now covered with magnificent ruins. On the east the road leads to
Portici, Vesuvius, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. At the foot of Vesuvius is Torre del Greco,
a considerable town, with 13,000 inhabitants.
Near the coast, to the south, are Cava, with extensive manufactures, a celebrated monastery,
and 20,000 inhabitants ; Salerno, a commercial city, renowned for its ancient medical school,
with 11,000 inhabitants; and Amalfi, now a little village with 3,000 inhabitants, but interest
ing from its historical importance. Further south stand the magnificent ruins of Pmstum, an
ancient Greek city, celebrated by the poets for the fragrance of its twice-blowing roses, and its
mild and balmy air. The remains of 3 temples of a colossal size and beautiful architecture
were discovered here in 1755, and in 1830 a whole street, lined with a long colonnade, was
found. Bari, on the Adriatic, has a good harbor and considerable commerce, with 19,000 inhabit
ants. Lecce, 14,000 inhabitants, Tarentum, 14,000, and Reggio, with 17,000, are important
manufacturing and commercial towns. Foggia, in the Capitanata, with 21,000 inhabitants,
Trani, on the Adriatic, remarkable for its cathedral, with 14,000 inhabitants, and Barletta,
noted for its salt works, and its flourishing commerce, with IS, 000 inhabitants, are also impor
tant towns.
Palermo, the capital of Sicily, stands on a. small bay in the northwestern part of the island.
The streets are regular- and wide ; the houses elegant, and several of the public squares very
beautiful. The city is built in a semicircular plain or valley surrounded by mountains. This
little nook of land is called Conca d' Oro, or the " Golden Shell," and abounds with fragrant
groves of orange trees and acacias. Palermo has a university and considerable commerce.
Population, 168,000.
Catania stands at the foot of Mount iEtna. Its streets are strait, spacious, and paved with
lava. It is the busiest town in Sicily, and has a university, public library, museums, acade
mies, &c. It was founded 700 years before the Christian era, and has suffered severely from
eruptions of the mountain and from earthquakes. Population, 47,100.
Messina, upon the strait of that name, at the northeastern extremity of Sicily, is regularly
built, and has one of the best harbors in the Mediterranean. Its fine quay extends more than
a mile along the port. It is the first commercial town in the kingdom, and its trade extends to
the North of Europe and America. It was completely destroyed by an earthquake in 1783,
but has been rebuilt. Population, 40,000.
Syracuse, on the eastern coast of the island, is a strongly fortified town, with a good harbor.
It has many Grecian antiquities. Population, 15,000. Girgenti, the ancient Agrigentum, on
the south coast, has an indifferent harbor, but considerable trade. Population, 14,882. Tra-
pani, at the western extremity, has some commerce and coral fisheries. Population, 24,330.
Marsala, on the western coast, south of Trapani, is noted for its wines. Population, 21,000.
Caltagirone, with 20,000 inhabitants, near the southern coast, is important for its manufactures
and commerce.
11. Agriculture. The land belongs mostly to the clergy and nobles; the cultivators are
poor, and the country is imperfectly cultivated. On the continent wine, oil, silk, wheat, and
maize, with the various fruits of warm regions, are produced ; in Sicily they raise the same
articles, with flax and hemp.
12. Commerce and Manufactures. The maritime commerce is confined chiefly to the ex
portation of natural productions, and is mostly carried on by foreigners. Inland trade is ob
structed by the want of good roads, navigable rivers and canals. Manufactures are more
flourishing in Naples than in Sicily. The silk, woolen, and cotton manufactures are consider
able ; linen, metallic wares, and articles of marble, and precious stones, are also produced.
13. Government. The government is an absolute monarchy, hereditary in the male and fe
male line. The revenue is about 15,000,000 dollars, the debt 100,000,000. The army con
sists of 51,000 men ; the navy of 2 ships of the line, 5 frigates, and 10 smaller vessels.
14. Religion. The religion of the natives is the Roman Catholic, but there are some Jews,
and members of the Greek Church. The clergy are in possession of nearly two thirds of the
IONIAN ISLANDS. 685
landed property of the kingdom. There are 27 archbishops, 98 bishops, 410 abbots and pri
ors, 60,000 secular priests, and about 70,000 monks and nuns.
15. Education. There are 3 universities, at Naples, Palermo, and Catania, and in all the
principal towns both of Naples and Sicily there are lyceums for preparatory instruction, and
especially for classical studies. Some primary schools have been established in Sicily, but the
common people are extremely ignorant, being rarely able to read.
16. History. This part of Italy was anciently occupied by Greek colonies, who covered
it with flourishing and splendid cities. It afterward formed part of the Roman Empire, and
subsequently underwent various vicissitudes, and belonged to different foreign powers. The
Norman knights who expelled the Greeks and Saracens from this country in the 11th century,
were the founders of the kingdom of Naples. Roger the Second, in 1130 assumed tbe title
of King of Naples and Sicily. The better to confirm his title he received the kingdom as a
feif from the Pope. From this period till within a few years, the Roman Pontiff" has received
an annual fee of a horse and a purse of ducats, as an acknowledgment of liege duty from the
king of Naples. The sovereignty was even transferred by the Pope to the House of Anjou.
Sicily came into the hands of the king of Arragon in the 13th century, and the two countries
were divided for some time. Ferdinand the Catholic conquered Naples, and for two centuries
the united kingdom remained a Spanish province. Naples fell to Austria at the peace of
Utrecht, but was re-conquered by Spain, and in 1759 became an independent kingdom under a
Spanish prince. The French revolution caused the establishment of the Parthenopeian Re
public at Naples, in 1799, but this was quickly overthrown. Napoleon gave the kingdom of
Naples to his brother Joseph, in 1806, and transferred it to his brother-in-law Murat, in 1808,
but the year of Waterloo restored the ancient king. In 1820 a constitution was accepted and
sworn to by the king, but an Austrian army abolished it at the point of the bayonet.
CHAPTER LXXXVIII. THE IONIAN ISLANDS, MALTA, AND GOZZO.
Ionian Republic. This republic consists of several islands,* lying near the coast of Greece
and Albania, between 35° 50' and 39° 57' N. latitude. They contain 1,000 square miles,
and 240,000 inhabitants. The republic is in fact a dependency of Great Britain, having been
placed under the immediate protection of that power by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815.
There is a legislative assembly consisting of representatives from the several islands, hut their
acts are subjected to the approbation of a British Lord High Commissioner. The British also
maintain garrisons in all the fortresses, and all the military forces of the republic are under the
direction of the British commander-in-chief. The inhabitants are Greeks, with some Italians
and Jews. The climate is mild, and the olive, lemon, orange, and fig flourish throughout the
year. The revenue of the republic is about 450,000 dollars ; the national militia, 4,500 men,
and the British troops in the different garrisons amount to 2,400.
Corfu. This island is the Phceacia sung by Homer ; it is separated from the mainland of
Albania by a strait 6 miles in width, obstructed by shoals. It is 60 miles in length and 30 in
extreme breadth, and contains a population of 70,000. The chief wealth consists in olive
trees, of which the islands contain 3,000,000. The oil yearly exported amounts to 300,000
jars, containing 33 pounds each. Corn and wine are also produced in small quantities. The
town of Corfu contains 15,000 inhabitants, and has a harbor strongly fortified. Here is a col
lege with a library of 30,000 volumes. Paxo lies 8 miles southeast of Corfu. It is 7 miles
long and 3 broad, and nearly covered with olive trees. It has some commerce and a population
of 4,000.Santa Maura is the ancient Leucadia ; the channel which separates it from the continent is
only 50 paces broad, and was cut by the Carthaginians or Corinthians. The island is 50 miles
in compass, and contains 22,000 inhabitants. Amaxiki, the principal town, has a population ol
5,500. Cephalonia is the largest of the group ; it is 40 miles in length and 30 in mean breadth,
containing 364 square miles and 70,000 inhabitants. A lofty ridge passes across it, one of the
peaks of which is 4,000 feet in height. Oil, muscadine wine, cotton and honey are produced
here, and the inhabitants have some manufactures. Argostoli, its capital, has 5,000 inhabitants.
* Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zante, Cerigo, Merlera, Fano, Antipaxo, Calarao, Meganisi, Ce-
ngotto.
686
MALTA AND GOZZU
Ithaca or Theaki lies between Cephalonia and the continent. It is 50 miles in circumference,
and is rocky and mountainous. Population, 8,000.
Zante, the ancient Zacynthus, lies near the Morea, 17 miles southeast Of Cephalonia. It is
24 miles long and half as broad. It is pleasant and fertile. Its chief production is currants,
of which it exports annually 7,000,000 or 8,000,000 pounds, being somewhat more than half
the quantity produced in all the Ionian islands. Here is a spring of bitumen which affords
100 barrels yearly. The population of the island is 50,000. Zante, the capital, is the only
large town ; it has a good harbor and 20,000 inhabitants.
Cerigo, the ancient Cythera, lies on the southern coast of the Morea. It is 17 miles long
and 10 broad. It is mountainous, and abounds with hares, quails, turtle, and falcons. Large
flocks of sheep and goats are reared here. Population, 10,000. The capital is Capsali.
These islands, after having been under the sway of the Greeks, Romans, Venetians, and
French, were taken by the British, in 1810, and remained in their hands till 1815, when they
were declared an independent State under the protection of Great Britain.
Malta, Gozzo, and Comino. These islands
belong to
the British.
St. Paul's Bay.
They lie about 50
miles south of Sicily.
Malta is 20- miles
long and 12 broad,
and was originally
nothing but a barren
rock, but such quan
tities of soil have
been carried to it from
Sicily and Africa,
that it is now fertile
and well cultivated.
Oranges, lemons, figs,
cotton, and wine are
produced. Here is
still pointed out the
scene of St. Paul's
shipwreck, on his
voyage to Rome, al
though some writers
think, that the island
of Melita mentioned
in Scripture, is in the
Adriatic Sea. The
population is S0,000 ;
they are of Arabian
descent, mixed with
Italians and Greeks.
Their language is a
medley of different
tongues, among which
Arabic is predomin
ant. The religion is
Catholic. The capital, Valet-
ta, is remarkable for
the magnificence of
its buildings, and the
strength of its fortifi
cations. The church
of St. John, and the palace of the grand-master of the knights of St. John, are noble build
ings ;_ the latter contains a magnificent armory. The hotels of the knights, the" great hospital,
with its accommodations for 2,000 patients, who were attended by the knights, and its vessels
of solid silver, and the immense granaries, cut out of the rock, and capable of containing corn
GREECE.
687
enough to maintain
the garrison for 20
years, are among the
remarkable objects.
Population, 40,000.
The island of
Gozzo is separated
t from Malta by a
strait four miles in
width. It is twenty-
four miles in circuit,
i and produces sugar
cane. Its popula
tion is 13,300. The
capital is Rabatto.
Comino lies between
Malta and Gozzo ;
it is fortified and has
View of Malta. 600 inhabitantS.
These islands were possessed by the Carthaginians, Romans, and Saracens, successive
ly. On the expulsion of the Saracens, they became a dependency of Sicily. In 1530, Malta
was given by the Emperor Charles the Fifth, to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in
whose possession it remained till 1798, when it was taken by the French under Bonaparte on
his voyage to Egypt. It was captured by the British in 1800, who at the peace of Amiens
agreed to restore it to the knights, but their refusal to do this occasioned a renewal of the war.
At the treaty of Paris, in 1814, these islands were ceded to Great Britain, and now form one
of the most important naval establishments of that power.
CHAPTER LXXXIX. GREECE.
BBMSI
mmm \msmkmk
¦PMililj' IIBSft
„ ..^^^^JBI
ifftfHBIi
Ruins at Athens.
I. Boundaries and Extent. Independent Greece comprises the Morea and a portion of
territory north of the isthmus, with the islands in the southwest part of the Archipelago. The
688
GREECE.
tude. 2.
Mount Parnassus.
continental part is bounded N. by Turkey, E. by the Archipelago, S. and W. by the Mediter
ranean or Ionian Sea. The northern boundary being a winding line drawn from the Gulf of
Volo on the E. to the Gulf of Arta on the W. It extends from 36° 22' to 39° 20' N. lati-
The territory, including the islands, contains about 18,000 square miles.
Mountains. North of the isthmus is Mount Parnassus or Liakoura, consisting of a
ridge running northwest and southeast. The
name is more strictly applied to one of the
eminences near the village of Delphi. The
summit consists of limestone with veins of
marble containing imbedded sea shells. It
is bleak, and almost destitute of herbage ; its
height is about 5,700 feet. To the south
east of Parnassus is the ridge of Helicon,
separated from it by the plain of Livadia.
Its form is remarkably picturesque and
graceful. It is lofty and steep, but its gran
deur is softened to the eye by the figure of
the cliffs and intervening hollows, by the
woods which still cover them as in ancient
times, and by the beautiful slopes connecting
them with the subjacent plains. The Morea
has numerous mountain ridges, the highest
of which is Zeria or Trikala, the ancient
m- Cyllene ; it surrounds the famous lake
g2 Stymphale, the scene of one of the ex
ploits of Hercules. In Arcadia are the
mountains of Lycceus and Menalus, upon
which Apollo mourned the loss of Daph-
nis. They are covered with magnifi
cent trees, and with oaks of an extraordi
nary height. Mount Taygetus is a lofty
ridge extending to the south, and termi
nating at Cape Matapan, the southern ex
tremity of Greece. Another range of
heights occupy the ancient territory of
Argolis. Mount Geranion runs across
the isthmus of Corinth. These moun
tains are everywhere traversed by narrow
defiles impassable to artillery or cavalry.
The valleys are immense basins surrounded by the mountains, and exhibiting the appearance
of a great number of distinct craters, each containing a spacious level.
3. Rivers. The Aspropotamos, or ancient Achelous, flows into the Ionian Sea. The Ct*
phissus runs into the Lake of Livadia. The Alpheus and Eurotas are the chief rivers of the
Morea. All these are small streams.
4. Islands. Negropont, the ancient Eubcea, is a narrow island 100 miles in length, separated
from the mainland of Greece by the Euripus, a strait so narrow, that it is crossed by a draw
bridge. The tides in this strait are subject to a remarkable irregularity, which has never been
explained. The island contains 50,000 inhabitants, and has several good harbors. It abounds
in corn and vineyards, and maintains numerous flocks of sheep. The hrfney produced here is
delicious, and owes its fine quality to the abundance of roses on the island. Marble and asbes
tos are found here. Negropont or Egripo, the capital, stands on the western shore of the island,
where the bridge connects it with the continent. It is well fortified. Population, 10,000.
Hydra is the most important of the islands, although one of the smallest. It lies close to
the eastern coast of the Morea, and is little more than a barren rock. It does not appear to
have been inhabited in ancient times, but is now the most important naval station in Greece, and
its fleets gained many victories over the Turks during the revolution. The town of Hydra
stands on the northwestern side of the island, and has a good harbor. Its white houses rising
in ranges from the water up the side of a rocky hill, make a very picturesque appearance. The
Mount Helicon.
GREECE.
689
town is well built, and the houses display much neatness and elegance. The inhabitants are
occupied exclusively in maritime affairs. There is no other town on the island. Hydra con
tains 20.000 inhabitants. * Spezia, near Hydra, is another rocky island, distinguished by its
naval warfare with the Turks. Population, 18,000. Poros has a good harbor, and a town with
3,600 inhabitants. Tino, Andros, Scopelos, Zea, Miconi, Siphnos, Seriphos, Syra, Naxos,
Santorini, Egina, Salamis, Paros, Milo, are inhabited by a population varying from 3,000 to
10,000 ; Tino with 22,000, and Syra with 30,000, being the only ones which exceed the
latter number.
Paros has 2,000 inhabitants, and produces marble, which has been celebrated from all anti
quity. Antiparos, in its neighborhood, is
celebrated for its grotto, which is one of
the most remarkable in the world. The
traveler enters first into a cavern, but af
ter advancing a short distance, frightful
precipices surround him on every side.
The only way of descending these steep
rocks is by means of ropes and ladders
which have been placed across wide and
dismal cliffs. Below them, at the depth
of 1800 feet from the surface, is found a
grotto 360 feet long, 340 wide, and ISO in
height, covered with the most beautiful
stalactites, f This cavern was discovered
in the 17th century, by Magni, an Italian.
5. Bays and Gulfs. The Gulf of Le-
panto is a long narrow inlet of the sea,
bounding the Morea on the north. The
Gulf of Egina lies between Attica and
the Morea and is separated from the Gulf of Lepanto by the isthmus of Corinth. The gulfs
or bays of Napoli, Coron, and Colocythia, are also in the Morea. The Gulf of Volo in the
northeast, and that of Arta in the northwest, form a part of the boundaries.
6. Capes. Cape Matapan, the ancient Tmnarium, forms the southern extremity of the
Grotto of Antiparos.
* " Its present inhabitants had the same general origin
as their Albanian neighbors of the Argolic peninsula, and
retired here to escape Moslem oppression. Before the
Russian war of 1769, they were few in number, but when
the Ottomans came again into possession of the Morea
alter that war, Hydra was'one of the asylums of those
who fled from the proscriptions which ensued. At the
beginning of the French revolution, there were only a
few latin vessels' and fishing-boats belonging to the isl
and. But this event threw into their hands a lucrative
carrying trade, gave spirit and boldness to their enter
prise, increased the number and size of their vessels, and
extended their commerce from the Black Sea and Egypt,
to the western countries of the Mediterranean, and one
of their vessels even ventured across the Atlantic to our
shores. Some of the inhabitants, and especially the two
Condurioltis, became exceedingly rich. At home', the
Hydriotes enjoyed perfect liberty under a domestic gov
ernment of their own creation, and the protection of the
Captain Pasha, and no Turk was allowed to do more lhan
set his foot on the island. But on the sea, their commerce
enjoyed no protection, and, to defend themselves from the
Barbary pirates, they invariably went armed with from 8
-to 30. cannon, and were manned with from 35 to 70 men.
* * * The result was, that at the commencement of the
Greek revolution in 1821, the Turks, to their great sur
prise, found this little island prepared, in money, ships,
and arms, to take sea against them with a respectable
squadron. One of the most intelligent of the citizens
told us, that they then had 80 square-rigged vessels. He
said the number had since been reduced to little more
than 30, though less than 300 Hydriotes were slain during
the war. The enemy never attacked the city, nor ventured
between the island and continent." — Anderson's Observa
tions upon the Peloponnesus, and Greek Islands.
87
t " The roof, which is a fine vaulted arch, is hung all
over with icicles of a white shining marble, some of them
10 feet long and as thick as one's middle at the root, and
among these there hang a thousand festoons of leaves and
flowers of the same substance, but so very glittering, that
there is no bearing to look up at them. The sides of the
arch are planted with seeming trees of the same white
marble, rising in rows one above another, and often inclos
ing the points of the icicles. From these trees there hang
also festoons, tied, as it were, from one to another, in vast
quantities ; and in some places among them, there seem
rivers of marble winding through them in a thousand me
anders. The floor we trod upon was rough and uneven
with'crystals of all colors growing irregularly out of it,
red, blue, green, and some of a pale yellow ; these were
all shaped like pieces of saltpetre, but so hard, that they
cut our shoes ; among them, placed here and there, are
icicles of the same shining white marble with those
above, and seeming to have fallen down from the roof and
fixed there, only the big end of them is to the floor. To
all these our guides had tied torches, two or three to a
pillar, and kept continually beating them to make them
beam bright. You may guess what a glare of splendor and
beauty must be the effect of this illumination among such
rocks and columns of marble. All round the lower part
of the sides of the arch are a thousand white masses of
marble in the shape of oak trees ; one of these chambers
has a. ,fair white curtain, whiter than satin, of the same
marble, stretched all over the front of it. In this we cut
our names and the date of the year, as a great many peo
ple have done before us. In the course of a few years
the stone blisters out like this white marble over the let
ters." — British Magazine, February, 1746.
690 GREECE.
Morea, and is also the most southerly point of the European continent. Cape Colonna, the
ancient promontory of Sunium, is the southeastern extremity of Attica.
7. Climate. The climate of Greece resembles that of Spain and Italy, except that the
extremes both of heat and cold are somewhat greater. In Attica, winter begins in January,
and snow seldom lies longer than a few days, except upon the mountains. February begins
with gentle rains, and in this month is the commencement of spring. In the beginning of
March, the vines and olives bud, the almonds blossom ; the corn reaches a considerable height
during this month, and is reaped in May. The zephyr, a west wind, is famed for its balmy
softness. The south and southeast winds are humid. The sirocco is felt in Greece, and is
attended here with its common effects. The coldest weather is accompanied with a northeast
wind. The north and northwest winds are severe and dry. The sky is in general cloudless
and at the end of summer the fields are parched with excessive heat.
8. Soil. A great part of the country is rocky and mountainous ; yet -the cultivated parts
have generally an excellent soil. In Attica the soil is light. Boeotia, Argos, Messenia, and
Arcadia are the most fertile districts. Nearly the whole soil rests on a stratum of limestone.
9. Vegetation. The most common and remarkable trees and shrubs from Cape Matapan to
Mount Olympus, are on the plains and hills ; the olive, the shrubby jasmine (Jasminum fruti-
cans) , the Styrax officinale, the strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) , and Arbutus Andrachne, the
myrtle and pomegranate, the cherry laurel, and locust-tree (Cercis siliquastrum) , the pistachio
(Pistacia lentiscus) and terebinth (P. terebinthus) , yielding, the former the celebrated mastich,
and the latter gum-terebinth, the Cistus creticus, from which is obtained gum laudanum, the
caper bush (Cappara spinosa) supplying caper of commerce, the sweet-bay or poetical laurel
(Laurus nobilis), the fig (Ficus carica), the white and black poplarSj aspen, celtis australis, the-
cypress (Cupressus sempervireus) and stone-pine (Pinus pinea) , the juniper and savin, &c, on
the banks of running waters and in damp spots are found the oriental plane (Platanus orienta-
lis), the white, weeping, and crack willows, alder, the chaste tree (Vitex Agnus castus), and
the oleander. The mountains produce the Abies taxifolia, the beech, willow, Scotch fir, yew,
common oak, ash, chestnut, hazel, the flat-leaved lime (Tilia platyphillus) , horse-chestnut
(Ausculus hippo castanum) , service-tree, mountain-ash, wild apple and pear trees, several oaks,
&c. The orange and lemon are found within the limits above indicated, but north of the
Morea only in favorable exposures ; a few date-palms are seen near Athens, and the prickly
fig does not extend beyond the Morea. The true mistletoe of the ancients (Lorantus europa-
us), of which bird-lime is made may be seen on the Arcadian oaks, and the banks of the
Alpheus are covered with a profusion of the narcissus of the poets (Narcissus tazettd).
10. Minerals. This country formerly contained mines of gold, silver, iron, lead, and cop
per, but at present is not productive in minerals. Marble of almost every variety is abundant.
11. Face of the Country. Half the surface of Greece consists of mountains. The coun
try is in general bare of wood,* and from the want of inclosures, the profusion of weeds and
bushes, the thinness of the population, and the ruinous condition of the few cottages, combined
with the crumbling remains of the noble structures of the ancients, has a desolate and melan
choly aspect. Yet every feature essentia] to the beauty of a fine landscape is to be found here.
The mountains, though not lofty, aue imposing from the abruptness of their elevation. At their
feet lie rich and sheltered plains, or romantic valleys ; these, with spacious bays, islands, and
seas, broken by headlands, inclosed by mountains and studded with islands in every possible
variety of magnitude, form and distance, render Greece superior in scenery to almost every
other part of Europe.
12. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into 10 districts or nomoi, which are subdivided
into 48 eparchies. f Population, 800,000.
13. Towns. -Athens, the capital, about 5 miles from the Gulf of iEgina, is one of the most
celebrated cities in the world ; long the seat of ancient learning and art, and decorated with innu
merable masterpieces of architecture and sculpture, it still retains in its ruins some traces of its
past splendor ; but it has suffered much during the late war of the revolution, having been sev-
" The Egyptian army , which ravaged the Morea in 1825, JVmnm Cnntah
cut down more than half a million olive trees in the sin- Ar„ri;. ^°mM- TlX'
gia province of Upper Messenia. &cad£ T^ohzza.
iJYomoi. Capitals. Acarnania and ^Etolia, Vrachori.
Argohs (Corinth, Hydra, ) Napoli or Nauplia Phocis and Locris, Salona, or Arophissa.
Spetzia Poros), $ "apo" or maupna Attica (Breotia, .Egina), Athens.
Achaia and Elis, Patras. Eubcea (with Northern Sporades),Chalcis.
JVlessenia, Cypanssa, or Arcadia. Cycladea Hermopolia in Syra.
GREECE.
691
eral times attacked by the contending parties. The modern city occupies only the northern and
central parts of the ancient Athens. Some vestiges of the ancient walls are visible ; the Acro-
Athens.
Tlie Acropolis.
polis, or citadel, stands upon a high rock, and is still susceptible of defence, but its walls have often
been renewed ; within is the Parthenon, the temple of Athene or Minerva, now in rums ; to
Mars' Hill.
the west, is the Areopagus, or Mars' Hill ; below, to the east, stand the remains of ihe once
splendid temple of Jupiter Olympus, which was one of the largest in Greece, combining Attic
Mt.Parnes. Temple of Theseus. Acropolis. Temple of Jupiter Olympus. Mt. Hymettus.
692
GREECE.
elegance with Oriental magnificence ; it contained a famous colossal statue of Jupiter, made of
gold and ivory. The temple of Theseus ; the octagonal tower of the winds ; the monument
of Philopappus, near which is shown the Pnyx, or place in which the popular assemblies were
Isle and Gulf of Salamis. Monument of Philopappus ; in the foreground the Pnyx. Mt. Fames.
held, and whence the Athenian orators of old "thundered over Greece;" the choragic- monu
ment of Lysicrates, called also the Lantern of Demosthenes ; Adrian's Gate, and some other
edifices are in a more or less complete state of preservation. The population of Athens before
the late war, was about 15,000, but is now much reduced.
In the neighborhood are Lepsina, the ancient Eleusis ; Marathon, a small village, upon the
plains of which the Persians were de
feated by the Athenians, under Miltia-
des, B. C. 490; and Megaris, before
the late war a flourishing town, with
12,000 inhabitants, but now deserted.
Livadia, near the lake Copais, has also
been completely ruined by the war, pre
vious to which, it was a busy place,
with 1 0,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity
are the ruins of the ancient Thebes, once
one of the most important cities of
Greece. Salona, in Phocis, situated
near Parnassus, has some manufacturing
industry, with from 5,000 to 8,000 in
habitants. In the neighborhood, at the
foot of Parnassus, is Castri, the ancient
Delphi, which contained the oracle of
Apollo, resorted to, in ancient times,
from all parts of the world. Here is the fountain of Castalia. Lepanto, Missolonghi, where
Lord Byron died, in 1824, and Anatolico, are in Acarnania and iEtolia, of which the capital
is Vrachori.
The walls and other ruins of the ancient Platcea are still discernible, at the foot of Mount
Cithseron. In the plain adjoining this town, the Persian army, under Mardonius, was totally
defeated by the Athenians and Lacedemonians.
Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, the capital of Argolis, is the most important town of the
Morea, but its situation is unhealthy. It is the strongest fortress in Greece ; its vast citadel is
Marathon.
GREECE.
693
called the Gibraltar of the Archipelago.
The town is meanly built, and dirty.
Population, 12,000. In the neighbor
hood are the ruins of Argos, Mycence,
Tyrinthus, and Trcezene. The Cyclo
pean walls, found in the vicinity of these
places, composed of large blocks of stone,
are of a remote, but unknown antiquity.
Tripolitza, capital of Arcadia, was
the residence of the Turkish authorities,
and the capital of the Morea, previous
to the revolution ; but its mosques, its
seraglio, and castle, have been destroyed,
and its population reduced to 2,000 or
1 ,500 souls. In the vicinity are the ruins
of Tegma and Megalopolis, ancient capi
tals of Arcadia, and of Mantinea, cele
brated for the victory gained by Epaminondas over the Spartans.
Mistra, or Misitras, the capital of Laconia, was reduced to a heap of ruins by the Egyptian
forces during the revolution. It is picturesquely situated at the foot of mount Taygetus, and
its citadel is still standing. The population does not exceed 2,000 souls. The ruins of Sparta
.M
Sparta, now Mistra.
are in its vicinity Monembasia, or Napoli di Malvasia, important for its port and its fortifi
cations, is noted for its excellent wines, called Malmsey F
forS"' Near^tnrtL°vi,£SSefni^iS * • ^ «"?> bm haS B S°°d harbor> and '» Wrongly
fortified. situated in Messenia, has a good harbor, and is strongly
Pyrgos, like Calamata, is beginning to recover from its late desolation. Near it are the ruins^
694
GREECE.
of Olympia, in which the Olympic games were celebrated s here was the magnificent temple of
Jupiter Olympus, containing the colossal statue of the god, 60 feet high, made of gold and ivo
ry, by Phidias. Patras, the capital of Achaia, stands upon the shore of a gulf which bears its
name. It is the centre of the commercial relations of the Morea with the rest of Europe, and
contains 8,000 inhabitants. The monastery of Megaspikeon, in the neighborhood, is celebrated
for its riches, its fortifications, and vast vaults ; it contains 200 monks. Calavrita, to the
southeast, is a small town.
Corinth, situated upon the isthmus of the same name, between two seas, once proverbial for
Modern Corinth.
its wealth and luxury, is now an inconsiderable place, but is rapidly recovering from tie disas
ters of the war. Its citadel, or Acrocorinth, is a fortress of great strength. In the neighbor
ing district stand the ruins of the ancient Nemaea and Sicyon.
Syra, on the island of the same name, is the capital of the Cyclades, and the principal com
mercial place in Greece. The commerce of Turkey, Europe, and Egypt, with the whole
kingdom, centres here ; the almonds of Scio, the wines of Naxos, the grapes of Patras, the oil
and silk of the Morea, the wool of Romelia, the rice of Alexandria, &c.-, are collected in its
harbor, thronged with vessels. Here also the pirates, that long infested these seas, disposed
of their ill-got, but rich merchandise. Population, 25,000.
14. Agriculture. „ The long oppression which this country has endured from its Turkish
masters, and the ravages of the recent war, have almost extinguished agriculture, notwithstanding
the fertility of the soil. The vine and olive have always been the most important articles of
cultivation. There are nine species of olives. Excellent wine is made in the islands. The
raisins of the Morea are much esteemed. Cotton was extensively cultivated before the revolu
tion. The sugar-cane and banana are raised occasionally. Oranges, lemons, almonds, and
figs, are produced of high excellence. Maize, wheat, and barley are the most common grains.
The plains of the Morea are well adapted to the culture of maize, and readily admit artificial
irrigation by canals from the rivers. But a small proportion of the arable land is occupied, and
the tools of the husbandmen are exceedingly rude.
15. Commerce and Manufactures. The revolution nearly annihilated the commerce of
Greece, but it has somewhat revived, and the Greek marine now comprises about 1,000 ves
sels. The exports are fruit, oil, wine, dye-woods, gum, nut-galls, and drugs. There are
GREECE.
695
manufactures of coarse linen and cotton stuffs in the Morea, and fine silks, gauzes, and morocco
in the islands. In mechanical skill and industry, the islands surpass the continental districts.
16. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Greece are almost entirely Greeks and Albanians ;
there are also a few Jews, Armenians, Bulgarians, and Wallachians. The Greeks are above
the middle size, and retain the distinguished personal beauty of their ancestors. Their eyes are
large and dark, and their complexions clear. Their faces are of an oval form. They wear
a moustache on the upper lip, and generally the hair is permitted to grow, except in front.
The women are thought to be inferior in beauty to the men ; but they have a graceful and dig
nified carriage. There are, at present, no distinctions of classes, though the dragoman or in
terpreter at the Porte, and the governors of Moldavia and Wallachia, had formerly the title
of princes.
17. Dress. The dress is showy. The capote is a large woolen garment, with a hood,
shaggy with short threads of yarn. It is heavy when dry, but nearly insupportable when wet.
Albanians.
Arcadian.
It often serves the wandering Greek for both house and bed, and it is a perfect defence against
cold and dew. The prevailing dress consists of a short, embroidered jacket, without collar v
and with sleeves open from the elbow ; an embroidered vest, a cotton shirt, a tunic of several
folds, secured by a
sash or shawl about
the waist, and reach
ing to the knee ; loose
brogues, or trowsers,
short socks, and slip
pers between sandals
and shoes. On the
head is a red cap, with
a tassel in the top.
The girdle or shawl is
H sometimes very expen
sive ; and in one cor
ner of this sash, the
common people gen-
Greek Soldier.
Greek Merchant.
erally carry their money. The rich carry their money in purses, which, with their handker
chiefs, watches, and snuff-boxes, they put in their bosoms. They affect to have their vests
puffed out, as if distended with money, trinkets, and papers. The above dress, however, is
not universally worn. The female costume is similar to the Turkish ; a vest fitting closely to
the breast, and a gown flowing off loosely behind. The sleeves, which are slit towards the
waist, are longer than the arms, and are turned back. A zone circles the body once, loosely
resting on the hip, tied in a spreading knot, or secured with a plate ornamented with jewels.
696
GREECE.
Gold and silver trimmings are worn to excess ; and bracelets of precious stones or strings of
gold coins round the arm and neck. The younger girls often let their hair fall down their
backs, and it is combed over their brows and cheeks. A little red cap with a gold tassel, stud
ded with zechins, is fixed on one side of the crown, in which girls wear a bunch of flowers
Greek Woman spinning.
Athenian Peasant.
Greek Woman.
and matrons heron plumes, or jewels. In many places, the young women dye .their hair an
auburn color, with the plant called henna. The females when abroad are muffled up in a cloak,
and they wear a veil, which is, however, not scrupulously closed.
18. Language. The modern Greek has so much resemblance to the ancient, that in gene
ral a native will comprehend what is said to him in the original language, if spoken according
to the modern pronunciation. There is, however, some difference of construction. Italian is
common. 19. Manner of Building. On this subject the Turks, the Arabs, and the Greeks them
selves, have left us little to describe. The villages have been destroyed, and the habitations
wantonly razed, in the same barbarous spirit that cut down hundreds of thousands of olive trees.
The houses are of brick, stone, or wood, are whitewashed, and have terraces, but they are
seldom large. At present, however, many of the poorer class, who have suffered in the deso
lation of the country, live in hovels and other temporary shelters. At Napoli and some other
towns, the houses are many of them Turkish, the basements being occupied as stables, which
are imagined to keep off the plague. The churches are numerous, beyond all parallel in other
countries ; but many of them are mere oratories open only on a particular holyday. They are
generally small, and built of stone, without much pretension to elegance.
20. Food and Drink. The food of the greater number consists principally of bread and
vegetables, and all use a simple diet. Pilaf, or rice boiled with a little meat or butter, is com
mon, and in the pastoral districts yagourte, or milk, coagulated in a particular way by lemon
juice. There is little animal food consumed ; mutton is preferred to beef. In the numerous
fasts, the food is principally olives, garlic, and fish. Wine is not scarce, but it is not used to
much extent. Temperance is the national virtue. Tobacco is much used and chiefly in
smoking. A visiter to a family of wealth, is always offered a pipe, water, coffee, and sweet
meats. 21. Diseases. The whole of Greece is subject to pestilential fevers, which lose none of
their malignancy by the means adopted for cure. The ignorant seem to think, that sickness is
the visitation of a demon, and charms and exorcisms are employed to dislodge him ; and these
ceremonies are but faintly assisted by jalap, manna, and salts, given in the smallest quantities.
The physicians are ignorant, except a few who have been educated in the west of Europe.
There is some leprosy and elephantiasis, which is seldom attempted to be cured. In autumn,
the people in many places shut themselves up, and will hardly look into the street. Plague,
the most terrible of all maladies, is personified in the form of a decrepit hag, that sometimes
comes at midnight to the window, and knocks.
22. Traveling. There are few foreigners who travel in Greece, and these generally visit
the remains of antiquity. There are no roads in the Morea for carriages, though there are
some traces of ancient ways. Travelers generally go with mules and carry their own beds,
GREECE. 697
cooking utensils, and some of their food, for the khans furnish little but a miserable shelter and
a board to sleep on. At the best they afford only coffee, native wine, and bread and cheese.
There are now no robbers in Greece, though before the revolution they were numerous. The
country is so much impoverished that it costs little to travel in it ; a traveling attendant will en
gage at 4 dollars a month, and board himself. Distance is marked by time ; a form borrowed
from the east, where the caravans are so regular, that it is a correct manner of expression. An
hour's distance is 3 miles, and when a Greek would say that a place is distant 18 miles, he de
scribes it at 6 hours. There is a strict system of passports, which secures the safety of a
traveler. A line of stages has been recently established between Napoli and Argos.
23. Character, Manners, and Customs, Four centuries of slavery under the hardest, the
most ignorant, and the most bigoted nation in Europe, every individual of which held almost
absolute power over a Greek, must have had some unfavorable influence on the national char
acter. Yet the national traits of the ancient Greeks are as plain in their descendants as the
cast of countenance, that has come down to us in medals and statues. There is a great nation
al similarity among all the Greeks. The very severity of the Turks, and the contempt in
which they held the Greeks, had, however, its advantages, for had the conquered been allowed
any equality of civil or religious rights, they might long since have been blended by inter
marriages, and otherwise, wilh the conquerors.
The modern Greeks prove their descent, by possessing some of the virtues and all the faults
of their ancestors. Slavery is but a bad school for morals, and in it the Greeks have acquired
hypocrisy, obsequiousness, and such a tendency towards falsehood, that, generally speaking,
their assersions are not to be relied upon, unless it is for their interest to speak the truth. Aris-
tides, who displeased some of his countrymen in being called the just, would be little envied
at the present day for such a trait of character. But the situation of the Greeks under the
Turks was favorable to a profitable trade, though it was not safe for them to appear rich ; this
and other motives for dissimulation, which the oppressed always have, have left a trace on the
national character that better institutions will remove.
The Greeks are vain, passionate, and versatile, but they have proved themselves as brave as
the bravest of* their ancestors. Their enterprise and invincible endurance in the unequal strug
gle of the revolution, was confined to no class, and the females themselves were worthy of
Sparta. The " Sacred Band," composed of 500 young men, the flower of Greece, assumed
on their banner, " Liberty, Death, or Freedom," and were destroyed on their post by the en
emy's cavalry. They bore also on their banner, the charge of the Spartan mother delivering
a shield to her son, " Either this, or upon this."
The vanity and ostentation of the Greeks are invincible. At Constantinople it used to be
accorded to the Princes of the Fanal, to wear yellow slippers, as an honorable distinction, to
assume which, by a common Greek, was punished with the greatest severity. The late Sultan,
in one of his walks, discovered a Greek in yellow slippers, which he had assumed to gratify a
momentary feeling of vanity, and caused him to be immediately beheaded ; yet it was not un
common to see others running the same risk. A dragoman, against the remonstrances of all his
friends, would display his wealth in a magnificent house. His riches tempted the cupidity of
the authorities, and he was beheaded ; yet another of his countrymen immediately occupied the
same house. Another dragoman had the prudence, when he erected a large house, to paint it
in 3 divisions, of separate colors, so that to passengers it seemed to be 3 houses, though he oc
cupied the whole.
The Greeks are fond of money, but not from a principle of avarice, for they are ostentatious,
profuse, and generous. They are kind and indulgent ; and the females are characterized as un
commonly amiable in disposition. A great man, or in other words, a rich one, when he meets
an inferior in the street, omits none of the usual ceremonies of salutation. Both stand with
their right hands upon their breasts, bowing for several minutes, while they inquire of each oth
er's family and welfare. The manners of the Greeks are exceedingly engaging, though too
much mingled with an air of obsequiousness. They are very attentive to the rights of hospi
tality. In the.inland towns a stranger seldom sees the females, who are nearly as much seclu
ded as those of Turkey. They occupy a separate part of the house, and are seldom seen but
by members of the family. After marriage, they have the privilege of being introduced to
people of their own rank and to travelers.
The patriotism of the Greeks is undoubted, though it is not always directed by prudence.
Their love of country was formerly necessarily connected with hatred to the Turks, not the
88
693 GREECE.
less intense from the necessity of concealment. The elements of their revolution have ex
isted for many years. It was common, when one heard the chanter from the mosque announce
the death of a Turk, to say to another, with satisfaction, " a dog is dead." They are ani
mated in conversation, and use frequently many forms of oath. A Greek swears li by my
bread," " by my father's head," " by the life of my children," &c. The females say, " by
my eyes," and "by my soul." " My son," is a general term of endearment, used even by
the young.
24. Amusements. Cards are common, and the Greeks are often seen intently engaged with
them at coffee houses. Dancing also is much practised, and also the story-telling so common
in the East. There are, however, no professed story-tellers, but each one in a circle relates
a tale. 25. Education. The most of the means of instruction have been swept away by the war
of the revolution. There were several printing presses. There was a college at fiaivali of
200 students, and another at Scio of more than 500. The " Sacred Band " was composed
principally of young men who returned from foreign universities, chiefly those of Germany
and Italy. The females receive but little instruction, and few of them can read. Educa
tion, though at a low ebb, is receiving much aid from foreign sources, and the Greeks them
selves are as liberal in its support as their poverty will allow. A university has lately been
founded at Athens, and there is a general desire to send the youth to schools. In languages,
the youth have always been distinguished for proficiency, and many are familiar with 5 or 6.
There are 12 newspapers in liberated Greece, 1 in French, and the others in the language of
the country.
26. Arts and Sciences. The arts are wellnigh extinct in the country where they were
once the most perfect. The Turks hardly tolerated them, and during their sway, the state of
property was too insecure for the encouragement of the fine arts, or for the collection and
preservation of ancient models. The music is simple, but monotonous, and it has hut one
part. The songs are numerous, for the Greeks delight in poetry, and have the facility of the
Italians in versification. Their amatory pieces, in which they chiefly delight, though not
formed on the model of Sappho, yet, (says Hobhouse,) speak the very language of love, be
ing exceedingly extravagant.
27. Religion. The Greek Church has a great resemblance to the Roman Catholic. The
laws, however, secure religious toleration. The number of ecclesiastics is very large ; they
are supported chiefly by gifts, and fees for the various sacraments and ceremonies. They are
not compelled to live in celibacy. They wear their beards, and a peculiar dress. On Mount
Athos are several communities of recluses, called caloyers, amounting to nearly 6,000. They
cultivate the ground, have vineyards and orchards, and exercise mechanical trades ; mendicant
brothers from these, as well as from the monasteries of Patmos, are to be found throughout
Greece. Among other absurdities, they administer the extreme unction, by anticipation, to
whole households. The Virgin Mary is the great object of veneration, and there is no cottage
without her picture with a light before it. Statues, which are so prevalent* in the Roman
church, are inadmissible in the Greek, where paintings are universal. The churches are small
and plain, such as might have been common in the Apostolic times. Men and women sit
apart, and have separate entrances. In praying they face to the east, and seldom kneel ; prob
ably from original dislike to the Turks, who are very precise in their posture for prayers. There
are only 130 days in the year free from fasts, which are strictly kept. The lent at Easter lasts
2 months, and at Christmas 40 days. Wednesdays and Fridays are fasts throughout the year ;
the former day, because on that day Judas received the money for his treachery. Much of
the joyful part of religious festivals is retained.
The weddings are celebrated with rejoicings, and a procession attends the bride to her future
home. In the procession are often many young girls, dressed in white, preceded by music,
and who scatter flowers in the path. The funerals are attended with show. The body is
richly dressed and strewed with flowers. A long procession is formed, and two or three old
women hired for the occasion walk by the side of the bier, howling, and asking of the dead
such questions as these, " Why did you die ? you had money, friends, a fair wife, and many
children. Why did you die ?" On the 9th day after, a feast is given by the nearest relative,
accompanied with music and dancing. The cemeteries are not in churches, but generally near
a town, on the highway. They are shaded with cypress or yew.
28. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, the crown being heredita-
GREECE.
699
ry in the descendants of the present Otho, a Bavarian prince, who has been seated on the
throne by the great powers of Europe. There are two legislative houses, a Senate, and a
House of Representatives, chosen by the qualified electors. The revenue is small, and insuffi
cient for the support of the government.
29. Antiquities. In ancient Greece, art embellished what nature had made beautiful.
Greece and the islands are in the most favored climate, and in the temples the richest marbles
retain their beauty, while the sculptures have preserved for ages their most delicate carving.
The surface of the statues is now as smooth as when they came from the hands of the sculptor.
No country was ever adorned like ancient Greece, and none can be again. She has left no
monument that is not now a model in literature and art. The elegance, simplicity, and
grandeur of her temples, standing frequently upon some hill or headland to which they seemed
appendages, attracted the eye of the mariner at a distance from the shore. Wherever a Greek
went, in his own country or colonies, he beheld among architecture and sculpture, objects that
refined his mind, and gave new aliment to its natural taste for the beautiful. A temple was then
more than any temple is now. The frieze, and other parts that would permit sculptures, were
peopled with figures, that, mutilated as they now are, are the best preservative and school
of art.
The antiquities of Greece are chiefly architecture and sculpture. Yet all but the very tem
ples have been exported to different parts of the world. The best, even of the temples, the
Parthenon itself, has been dilapidated and pillaged by a British Ambassador, and her best orna
ments are now in England. Vases, statues, &c, are often found in excavations, at the ancient
cities, and it is probable, that hereafter many of great excellence may be recovered, and form
a national museum for Greeee.
In the Peloponnesus, whose ruins we shall first describe, the traveler cannot go far without
falling among the remains of greatness. The most of them are so broken, that scarcely a per
fect column now exists, but others are in such a state of preservation, that, at a distance, they
seem entire. At Bassae is the temple of Apollo Epicurius. The frieze representing the
Ruins of Ancient Corinth.
wars of the Centaurs and Lapithse, and of the Greeks and Amazons, has been carried to Eng
land. The temple is 125 feet long with a front of 48 feet. There are 13 columns in the
side, and 6 in the front. It is one of the most impressive remains of the ancient Greeks. At
700 GREECE.
Nemsea, are three Doric columns of a temple of Jupiter ; the breadth of this edifice was 65
feet, and the length more than double the breadth. The columns are more than 5 feet in diam
eter, and nearly 32 feet high. At Mycenae the gate of the sun is the earliest authenticated
sculpture in Europe. A circular wall of large blocks incloses an area of 62 feet diameter,
and in this are the two gates. The architraves are fallen, but one is unbroken, and leans upon
the wall, from the ground. It is 19 feet long.
The subterranean edifice covered with a mound of earth, and called the Treasury of Atreus,
has been supposed also to be the tomb of Agamemnon. The form is that of a bee-hive.
The interior shows many brass nails, which were probably used to secure metal or marble
plates. The'dome is 50 feet high, and 47| in diameter ; over the entrance is an enormous
stone, 27 feet by 17. At Jero are many ruins, and a cistern in good preservation, 40 feet in
length and more than 100 in breadth. There is the vestige of a great temple to iEsculapius,
with inscriptions on some loose marbles of some of his cures. There are good sculptured
marble's, and the theatre is the most perfect in Greece. The proscenium only is gone. The
orchestra is 89 feet in diameter, and there are 55 rows of seats remaining. Tausanias de
scribes this theatre as the most beautiful he had ever seen.
The walls of Tirinthus, a sort of fortification on a hill, are nearly perfect, though erected
1379 years before Christ. They are" nearly 25 feet in thickness. At Sparta, Argos, and
Corinth there are few distinct ruins. Near the latter is,an amphitheatre, cut in the rock; and at
Sparta are the remains of a large theatre, which has some marks of Roman architecture or re
pairs. But the ruins of Sparta are hardly to be traced. At Corinth are 7 columns, supporting
their architraves, of the Doric order. They are of stone. They are heavy and inelegant, and
of great antiquity. (See cut on page 699.)
The islands have many ruins. At Caularia are the remains of the Temple of Neptune,
where Demosthenes expired, and his monument remained in the precincts of the temple, in
the second century. At iEgina is the Temple of Jupiter Panhelleneus, one of the most an
cient and remarkable ruins of Greece. The inhabitants of iEgina, in a very remote age, at
tributed it to iEacus. There are 23 Doric columns standing on a mountain, and rising among
trees. In several other islands are theatres, in good preservation, and dilapidated temples.
Continental Greece, however, has the most perfect and interesting remains. Delphi has many
mouldering ruins, but none in such preservation as to show how ancient art delighted to adorn
that seat of the muses. The Castalian spring, issuing from a rock is received into a large
square basin, with steps to it cut in the rock. There are niches cut also in the face and sides
of the precipice. The present Delphians season their casks in the fountain, by which, says a
traveler, they seem to preserve the ancient connexion between Bacchus and Apollo. There
is no vestige of the Temple of Apollo, nor can its site be identified. The theatre has disap
peared, but there are some traces of the stadium and gymnasium. The prophetic cavern is
sought for in vain. The brazen pillar, that supported the tripod, is at Constantinople.
Athens, however, is the only place in Greece in which the traveler may, on a distant view,
suppose, that he is not in a country of ruins. The distant view of the Acropolis and its tem
ples, is, in general effect, what it was in the days of Pericles ; but with the distance the de
lusion vanishes. The vicinity is seen strewed with ruins, among which are standing columns,
and in the town, ancient marbles are found in the pavements and walls of houses. The first vis
it of a stranger is to the Acropolis, or citadel, as at Rome it is to the Forum. Tbe top of the
hill is surrounded by walls. The space is about 800 feet long and 400 broad ; a noble espla
nade for the magnificent structure that crowns it. The color of these monuments is of a golden
tint, like autumnal foliage. The Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, the great fountain of art,
whose form and proportions are so often copied in Europe and America, is on the most elevat
ed ground. It is an oblong parallelogram, with a vestibule and portico. The columns of these
rest immediately on the steps of the temple, of which there are three. They are without bases,
fluted, of the Doric order, 42 feet in height and at the bottom \7\ in diameter. The whole
structure was 218 feet in length and 98£ in breadth. The portico or pronaos occupies about
one third of the length of the edifice. The frieze ,of the vestibule was decorated with trigliphs
of the Doric order, and between these were metopes, or tablets of marble, sculptured by Phi
dias or his pupils, with the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithas. The top of the wall of the
temple was decorated with other long basso relievos. Lord Elgin, the British envoy at Con
stantinople, caused the best of the sculptures to be taken down and removed. Within the
walls are also included the relics of the Propytea, and the ruins of the Temple of Victory.
Behind the former, towards the city, is the Pandrosteum, and the double Temple of Neptune
GREECE. 701
and Minerva. The Temple of Theseus, in a large space on the plain, is in better preservation
Ruins of the Parthenon, Athens.
than the Parthenon, which it somewhat resembles, though it is more like the temples at Pactum ;
with the exception of the sculptures it is almost entire. The Areopagus was on an eminence
Ancient Greece and Asia Minor.
west of the citadel, but the ruins only are to be seen on the rock ; a little valley separates thi
702
GREECE.
hill and that of the Pnyx from the hill of the citadel. The Pnyx is an esplanade, where the
Athenians first held their assemblies ; a rostrum, with an ascent of four steps, is cut in the
rock ; and here Pericles, Demosthenes, and Socrates harangued the Athenians. The hill
of the museum is crowned with the tomb of Philopappus, an obscure person of the -age of
Trajan. The Temple of Minerva, at Sunium, is of the Doric order, and the materials are of the
whitest marble ; it is one of the most finished specimens of attic architecture. Fifteen columns
are yet standing ; and though the marble nearest the sea is somewhat decomposed, yet such is
the mildness of the climate, that the pencil marks made by travelers on the columns years ago
are as distinct as when first written. The Temple of the Winds is an octagonal edifice, of an
imposing character, with figures sculptured in relief upon the sides. The monuments that are
called Hadrian's Pillars, are, from their situation and magnitude, to be seen from almost every
quarter. They are sixteen columns of white marble, of the Corinthian order and of exquisite
workmanship ; each is six feet in diameter, and nearly six feet high. These are sometimes
described as the' remains of the temple of Jupiter Olympus.
30. History. Greece is the most celebrated country of all antiquity, and the land from
which the arts of civilization were
$j£E£BBG&$
Young Alexander.
diffused over Europe. In its ear
liest ages it comprised many small
political divisions, independent of
each other, but uniting to avert any
common danger, or accomplish any
purpose of general interest, as evinc
ed in the Trojan war, and the strug
gles against the invading Persians.
At a later period Alexander carried
Grecian arms to the Indus and the
language became prevalenf in Syria
and Egypt by means of his conquest.
The whole country was conquered
by the Romans and formed a portion
of their great empire. It continued
under the dominion of the Greek
emperors till the establishment of the
Ottoman power in Europe, when it
became a province of Turkey ; and for four centuries lay under the grinding oppression of its
Mahometan conquerors.
In 1821 the Greeks rose in insurrection and declared their independence. A long and bloody
conflict ensued, in which they received indirect
aid from many parts of Europe, and from the
United States, although no government offer
ed them any open encouragement. After the
country had been thoroughly devastated, and
abundant scenes of bloodshed, rapine, and des
olation had evinced the determination of the
Greeks not to submit, the governments of Rus
sia, France, and England thought fit to inter
fere from motives of humanity. The negotia
tions for this purpose would, .perhaps, have
resulted in nothing, but for a fortunate blunder
of the British admiral, who, not understanding
the niceties of the matter upon his hands, at
tacked the Turks at Navarino, and annihilated
their marine at a single blow. This event es:
The Turks were unable to make head against their
revolted subjects from this moment, and the allied governments finding themselves fairly com
mitted in the business, persisted till the Sultan was brought to terms. By the protocol of
March, 1829, Greece was left to its own government, with a tribute of a million and a half of
piasters to be paid annually to the Porte.
Struggle between a Turk and a Greek.
tablished the independence of the Greeks
EUROPEAN TURKEY.
703
CHAPTER XC. EUROPEAN TURKEY.
KflPf
Mahometan Mosque.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. European Turkey is bounded N. by the Austrian and Russian
territories ; E. by the" Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora, and the Archipelago ; S. by Inde
pendent Greece ; and W. by the Adriatic. 'The continental part extends from 39° to 48° N.
latitude,~and from 16° to 30° E. longitude. It comprises 183,325 square miles.
2. Mountains. The Carpathian Mountains form a part of the northwestern frontier ; but
the first great mountain barrier of Turkey, on the north, is the chain called the Balkan, or
Emineh Dag, anciently called Mount Haemus. It extends from the western limit of Turkey
to the Black Sea, and its numerous branches intersect the whole of the territory south of the
Danube. The loftiest point is Mount Orbelus, 9,660 feet in height. The defiles of these
mountains are nearly impassable during winter. The summits generally consist of masses of
naked granite, but in some parts they are covered with thick forests. The Hellenic Mountains
constitute a range extending from the
Balkan, southerly and southeasterly, into
Greece, and terminating at the promon
tory of Sunium, in Attica. This range
divides the northern part of ancient
Greece into two portions of nearly equal
breadth. Pindus, Cithaeron, and Par
nassus were the ancient names applied
to different branches of this range. The
celebrated Mount Olympus, which the
ancients considered the loftiest summit
in the world, is near the western shore
of the Gulf of Salonica, and is between
6,000 and 7,000 feet high. Its base
and sides are covered with thick woods
of oak, chestnut, beech, and plane trees,
and the higher parts with pines. There
were many other mountains called Olym
pus, in different parts of Greece. Further east, a second branch leaves the main chain of the
Balkan, and traverses Bulgaria and Rumelia, terminating on the Archipelago and Sea of Mar
mora, in numerous spurs. It is called Mount Rodope, or Despoto Dag, and reaches an eleva
tion of about 6,500 feet. Mount Athos is an insulated hill, on a promontory of the Archipelago,
but it has- principally attracted notice for its conical shape, and for the numerous churches and
monasteries, that adorn the picturesque declivities near its summit.
3. Rivers. The basin of the Danube includes more than a third part of Turkey in Europe.
It receives numerous streams, the principal of which are the Pruth and the Sereth. The Marti
na, which was the Hebrus of ancient geographers, rises in the mountains of Haemus, and enters
Mount Olympus.
704 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
the Archipelago, after a course of nearly 250 miles. The Albanian Drino discharges itself into
the basin of the Adriatic ; and the southern branch of that river, or the Black Drino, receives
the waters of the lake Ochrida. The Axius, or Vardar of the moderns, flows through a space
of about 200 miles, into the Gulf of Salonica. Achelous, now the Aspropotamos, rises in the
mountains of Pindus, and, flowing towards the south, enters the Ionian Sea. The Peneus, has
its source near that of the Achelous, and, traversing the plain of Thessaly, pursues its course to
the Archipelago. Before entering the sea, it passes the gorge or defile of Tempe, where the
precipitous mountain cliffs of Ossa and Olympus approach each other so close, that the inter
vening space does not exceed 200 and sometimes 100 feet. The length of the vale is about 3
miles, and its greatest breadth 2\.
4. Lakes. Turkey contains several lakes, but those in the southern part are rather of clas
sical fame than of geographical importance. In the northern regions, ".they are either too small
or too imperfectly known to demand description. Several occur near the mouth of the Danube,
formed by the overflowing of that river, but they are destitute of picturesque beauty.
5. Islands. In the Archipelago are the small islands of Thassos, Samothrace, Imbros, and
a few others, which may be considered as a part of European Turkey. None of them are of
any political importance.
6. Seas and Gulfs. The Mgean Sea, or Grecian Archipelago, is remarkable for the nu
merous peninsulas which project into its waters from the neighboring continent, and form many
bays and gulfs, and for the innumerable isles which are scattered throughout its whole extent,
and which impede the navigation. The Hellespont, or Strait of the Dardanelles, connects the
iEgean Sea with the Sea of Marmora ; the mouth of the strait is 5J miles wide, and is defend
ed by castles, built in 1659. The Sea of Marmora, so called from its blue marble, is about
140 miles long, and in some places 50 broad. The Thracian Bosphorus, or Straits of Con
stantinople, the Euxine or Black Sea, the Ionian and the Adriatic seas, wash different parts
of the coast. The Gulf of Salonica makes a deep opening into ancient Macedonia.
7. Climate and Soil. The climate is superior to that of almost every other European re
gion, being uniformly salubrious and delightful. The infectious diseases which prevail in the
larger cities, are rather attributable to the negligence and habits of the Turks, than to the un-
healthiness of the atmosphere ; the soil is extremely fertile, and capable of yielding all the vege
table productions of the south in rich and varied profusion. Many of the valleys are composed
of fine alluvial earth, the deposite of successive ages.
8. Vegetable Productions. Besides herbs and plants of almost every kind, this country pro
duces, in great perfection, oranges, lemons, citrons, pomegranates, grapes, figs, almonds, olives,
and other fruits. In addition to these, many drugs, not common in other parts of Europe, are
produced here. Lofty forests of oak, ash, elm, &c. grow on the side of the mountains^ whose
summits are crowned with larches, firs, and yews.
9. Animals. The horses of Turkey have long been esteemed for their size, form, and
spirit, but the camel is the most common beast of burden. Cattle and sheep are numerous in
many districts, and the sheep of Wallachia are noted for their fine form and beautiful spiral
horns. Jackals are found in some of the deserted tracts near the Bosphorus. The forests are
well stocked with deer, wild boars, chamois, and hares ; there are besides a great many bears,
wolves, foxes, and martens, of which the skins are exported to different parts of Europe.
10. Minerals. Mines of iron, lead, and copper, are found in several parts, but are neglected
through the ignorance and indolence of the people. In Macedonia were anciently gold mines,
which annually produced to Philip nearly 13,000,000 dollars. Alum and sulphur, perfectly
pure, are met with ; and quarries of beautiful marble are abundant.
' 11. Face of the Country. Many districts are covered with rich pastures or extensive for
ests, but the general character of the country is mountainous. Long ranges intersect it in vari
ous directions, and their lateral branches, with several detached hills and groups, extend over
many of the other districts. The northern provinces are the most level, and the southern the
most hilly and diversified. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1 . Divisions. The country is often described by geographers under the divisions Bulgaria,
Bosnia, Albania, Romelia, Macedonia, and Livadia. But by the Turks, it is divided into 4
eyalets or principalities, which are subdivided into sangiacs or banners. The eyalets are; 1. Si-
EUROPEAN TURKEY.
705
listria, comprising Bulgaria ; 2. Romelia or Rumeli, comprising Romelia, Macedonia, and Al
bania ; 3. Bosnia ; and 4. Dshazair, composed chiefly of the islands and Asiatic possessions.
Beside these divisions, are the 3 tributary principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia,
which are rather appendages to the empire than integral parts of it. Servia has now a heredi
tary prince, with its own laws, and an independent administration, but pays an annual tribute,
and is obliged to receive a Turkish garrison in certain posts. Moldavia and Wallachia are gov
erned by hospodars appointed by the Sultan, and pay an annual tribute, but no Turkish troops
are allowed to enter their limits. The population of these principalities is 1,800,000.
2. Towns. Constantinople, the metropolis of this extensive empire, is situated at the con
fluence of the Bosphorus with the Sea of Marmora, and stands on the site of the ancient By
zantium. Constantine, sensible of the immense advantages of its position, fixed his residence
here, in 330, in preference to Rome. The 7 hills on which it is built, ascend as they recede
from the shore, and a beautiful green hill forms the back-ground. An arm of the Bosphorus
affords it an excellent harbor, with an open navigation to the Black Sea on the north, and the
Mediterranean on the south. The whole circuit of the city is about 12 miles. A wall from
14 to 20 feet high, flanked with towers, and having 6 gates, runs along the side next the sea,
while the ancient wall incloses the land side. The external appearance of Constantinople is
magnificent. Palaces, mosques, seraglios,
baths, bazars, domes, turrets, and spires,
tower one above another. But the magic of
the prospect disappears on entering the city.
Here is seen nothing but narrow, crooked,
dirty streets, and houses of wood, of brick,
and of mud, covered with cement. The num
ber of mosques has been stated at more than
340, most of which are built of marble, and
covered with lead. The grand mosque of St.
Sophia is the most renowned of the public
buildings ; it was formerly a Greek church,
dedicated to the Holy Wisdom, or Sancta
Sophia, and was built by the emperor Justi
nian. Its length is 270 feet, and its breadth
240. The cupola, which is lined with mosaic
work, rests on pillars of marble. Many of the
other mosques of more recent erection, though
of less magnitude, are handsome, and display
considerable taste.
The Seraglio of the Sultan is one of the
peculiarities of Constantinople. It includes
the harem, or apartment of the women, the
buildings inhabited by the Sultan and his court, and the public offices, which are separated from
the city by a vast wall, and entered by several gates, two of which are of magnificent architec
ture. It presents a confused assemblage of objects, houses, domes, trees, and pavilions. Con
nected with many of the mosques are madrasses or schools for the higher branches of education ;
imarets or hospitals for the sick ; places for the preparation and distribution of food for the
poor ; courts, with fountains for ablution, &c. There are also numerous monasteries for the
dervishes, sophis, and other monastic orders of Mahometans. The public places are called
meidans or plains ; the most remarkable of these is the Atmeidan, or ancient hippodrome, in
which the young Turks perform equestrian exercises. The baths, of which there are above
300 ; the khans or warehouses of the merchants ; the caravanseries, in which are lodged the
traders belonging to the caravans, &c, are also worthy of note. The principal suburbs are the
lophana, or cannon-foundery, containing the arsenal ; Galata, the residence of the Christian
merchants ; and Pera, which contained the houses of the European diplomatic agents, until its
destruction by fire, in 1831. The Fanar is a quarter of the city inhabited by the old and
wealthy Greek families, hence called Fanariots. Population of the city, about 600,000. Scu
tari is on the Asiatic side of the strait. The strait or Bosphorus is thronged with light caiks or
boats, and is remarkable for the picturesque beauty of its shores, covered with smiling villages,
Mosque of St. Sophia.
706 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
palaces, kiosks, and groves ; among the villages, Buyukdere, in which the European ambassa
dors pass the summer, and Belgrade, are the most remarkable.
Adrianople, which was long the residence of the sultans, and is considered the second capi
tal of the empire, is situated upon a small stream, near its confluence with the Maritza. The
mosque of Selim, the immense dome of which is supported by pillars of porphyry ; the bazar,
with its gallery a quarter of a mile in length, and the ancient palace of the sultans, a magnificent
edifice, are its principal buildings. It has a flourishmg trade and extensive manufactures, with
100,000 inhabitants.
The other principal towns of Rumelia are Philippopoli, with 30,000 inhabitants, who carry
on a brisk trade and manufactures of silk, woolen, and cotton ; Gallipoli, a large commercial
city, upon the Strait of the Dardanelles, with 80,000 inhabitants ; and Selimnia, near the Bal
kan, noted for its fairs, its rose-water, and its manufacture of arms, with 20,000 inhabitants.
The fortresses of Sestos and Abydos, the latter in Asia, upon the Hellespont, have acquired
celebrity in poetry.
Salonica, in the southern part of Macedonia, upon a gulf of the same name, is the second
city of European Turkey in commercial importance. It also has extensive manufactures of
cotton, silks, carpets, morocco, &c. It contains a great number of mosques, whose domes and
minarets give it a fine appearance from the sea. The Jews and Greeks are numerous here.
Population, 70,000. To the southeast of Salonica is Mount Athos, called by the modern
Greeks the Holy Mount, celebrated for its 22 convents, its 500 chapels and grottoes, inhabited
by above 4,000 monks ; they export wax, images of saints, &c. /Seres, with 30,000 inhabi
tants, is situated in an unhealthy spot, and is chiefly remarkable for its cotton trade.
Larissa, with 30,000 inhabitants, is the most important town of Livadia. Its manufactures
of cotton, silk, morocco, and tobacco, and its extensive dye-works, contribute to render its
commerce flourishing. In the neighborhood are the Meteora, or heights, a series of monas
teries hewn out of the precipitous rocks, to which the only access is by means of baskets drawn
up by ropes. Sophia, a large but meanly built city, has 46,000 inhabitants.
Shumla, one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, has important manufactures of copper,
leather, silk, and iron. Silistria, upon the Danube, with 20,000 inhabitants ; Rustshuk, 30,000,
an important manufacturing and commercial town ; Varna, upon the Black sea, remarkable for
its fortifications and fine harbor, with 16,000 inhabitants ; Widin, also a strong fortress, and a
commercial town, with 25,000 inhabitants ; Nicopolis, 10,000, and Sistova, with 21,000, are
the chief places in Bulgaria.
Yanina, capital of Albania, previous to the recent wars in that district, had a population of
40,000 souls. But the rebellion of Ali Pacha in 1822, involved this city in ruin. Suli, cap
ital of a rugged region of Albania, is chiefly remarkable for the heroic resistance of its inhab
itants, the Suliots, to the attacks of Ali. Arta, 9,000 inhabitants, upon the gulf of the same
name, and Prevesa, 8,000, upon the same gulf, are important commercial towns. Scutari,
upon the lake of the same name, contains 20,000 inhabitants, who are engaged in the fisheries,
ship-building, and the manufacturing of arms, and woolen and cotton goods. It is strongly for
tified, and is one of the principal fortresses on the western frontier.
Cettina is remarkable as the chief place of the district inhabited by the Montenegrins, a
warlike tribe of mountaineers, who have maintained their independence of the Turks. Bosna-
Serai, in Bosnia, is a large city with strong military works, numerous mosques and baths, and
an imperial palace. Its manufactures of arms, hardware, woolen and cotton goods, and leath
er, are important, and it is the centre of a brisk transit trade. Population, 70,000.
Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, is a large and dirty town, situated in a marshy plain, on
a confluent of the Danube. The streets, like those of Jassy, are not paved, but covered witfi
planks. It contains 60 churches, several convents, &c, and has a population of 80,000.
Tergovist, formerly a large city and the residence of the hospodar, is now on the decline, and
has but 5,000 inhabitants. Brailow, on the Danube, formerly remarkable for its fortifications,
which have been demolished, and Crajova, a place of considerable trade, with 8,000 inhabit
ants, are the other towns of Wallachia.
The capital of Servia is Smedreno, or Semendria, a small town with about 12,000 inhabit
ants, situated on the Danube. Belgrade, the principal city of Servia, is one of the strongest
fortresses of Europe, and is held by a Turkish garrison. It has manufactures of silk, cotton,
leather, carpets, and arms, and considerable trade. Population, 30,000.
Jassy, an irregularly and meanly built town, with 27,000 inhabitants, is the capital of Molda-
EUROPEAN TURKEY.
707
via. It was almost destroyed by the Janissaries in 1821, and it suffered much again from the
conflagrations of 1827. Its trade is active, but is carried on chiefly by Greeks and Armeni
ans, and the mechanic arts are chiefly exercised by Germans.
3. Agriculture. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, agriculture is little known and less
practised. In the northern provinces the pasture is luxuriant, and wheat might be raised in al
most any quantity. In the southern parts rice is common. Barley and a kind of grain called
durra, are likewise cultivated. Excellent grapes are produced, with abundance of dates and
olives. 4. Commerce. No country possesses greater commercial advantages than European Tur
key ; but they are neglected through the despotism of the government and the inactivity of the
people. The internal trade is almost entirely in the hands of Greeks and foreigners. The
principal exports are carpets, cotton, wool, silk, tobacco, currants, raisins, wine, hides, wax,
&c. The imports are chiefly cloths, coffee, sugar, spices, glass, hardware, jewelry, paper,
and slaves from Georgia and the Caucasus.
5. Manufactures. Few articles are made in sufficient quantities to supply the home con
sumption, and scarcely any for exportation, except carpets. Silks are manufactured in several
places, but not to any great extent.
6. Inhabitants. The Turks themselves do not form the chief part of the population of the
Empire. The great mass of inhabitants are Greeks, Armenians, Wallachians, Jews, Al
banians, Gypsies, &c. The Turks are perhaps, with regard to form and feature, the finest race
of men in Europe. Their life is one of ease ; their dress is loose and flowing, and without
the ligatures so common in the west of Europe ; their ablutions are frequent, and their women
have for ages been selected for beauty from the Greeks, Circassians, and Georgians ; with all
these circumstances it would be strange if the Turks were not a handsome race. The Turks
are well formed and have high foreheads, dark eyes, and finely cut features. Their complex
ion is dark ; nearly a copper color. They have much gravity of demeanor, and are seldom
seen to move quickly, except on horseback.
The distinctions of rank are those of office. There is no hereditary nobility except the -
Emirs or descendants of Mahomet, through his daughter Fatimah. They are scattered over
the empire, and have such a character for simplicity, that the Turks say of a simpleton, " he is
of the Emirs." This deterioration of intellect in the Emirs is perhaps occasioned by intermar
rying only in their own lineage. They wear Mahomet's color, green, which it is not lawful for
others to wear, and Christians are never suffered to assume it. The daughter of a foreign
consul was shot by a Mussulman, while she was inadvertently riding in a green dress, and the
murderer was not thought to be a fanatic. A blow to an Emir is punished by cutting off the
hand. 7. Dress. The dress of the Turks is not liable to sudden change ; it is hardly liable to, in
novation. It is, however, considerably different
from the prints in" books of travels in Turkey a hun
dred years ago. On the head is a turban, or a cap
surrounded by many folds of cloth. The form and
size are various, and denote the rank of the wearer.
The Turks abominate hats, and the populace nail
them to the doors of those whom they stigmatize as
traitors. The Turks never uncover their heads, and
the ambassadors wear their hats before the Sultan.
The head is shaven close, except a single long tuft
left on the crown, by which the devout Moslemin
supposes he will be lifted into paradise. The Ar
menians, Jews, and Greeks are distinguished by the
colors of their hats and slippers, and it is not per-
_ mitted them to wear any but the stated color.
The Turkish dress is loose and flowing ; the outward garment is a long and loose robe. Un
derneath is a wide vest bound with a sash ; loose drawers, and a shirt with wide sleeves, with
out wristbands. On the feet are worn slippers, which on entering a house are left at the door.
This is the usual dress, though many classes have a different one. An office is often denoted
by the dress. There are sumptuary laws regulating dress ; which is-, however, still very rich,
especially on the great religious festivals. The present Sultan has reduced the dress somewhat
Turk.
708 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
towards the European standard. The Emirs, or descendants of the prophet, dress in green.
The dress of the females has a general resemblance to that of the men ; though when the head
is covered, a stiff cap is worn instead of a turban. When abroad the women are so closely
veiled, that their nearest friends cannot recognise them ; and the veil perhaps encourages in
trigue as much as it defends modesty. The hair is worn long ; it is plaited in embroidered
gauze about the head, and then falls in tresses to the waist. It is fastened there with many
little knobs of gold. The females are always in full dress, and their hair loaded with ornaments
and sparkling with diamonds. The eyelids are tinged with a dark substance, which adds to
the effect of the long eyelashes by relieving the brilliancy of the eye.
8. Languages. The Turkish is a dialect of the language of most of the Nomade tribes.
Its rules are simple, and it has flexibility and harmony. It is written in the Arabic character.
There are about 30,000 works in this language, chiefly commentaries on the Koran. Besides
this, there are the Italian, Greek, Armenian, Sclavonic, and other languages, extensively used
in Turkey. The Italian, however, is the language of commerce, though so much mixed with
foreign words, that it is rather the lingua franca. In Wallachia, once a Roman province, there
has been so little communication with foreigners, that the language remains perhaps as much like
the Latin as it was under the Romans. It was probably never, in its most refined state, the lan
guage of the Augustan age at Rome.*
9. Manner of Building. The Turkish cities have all a splendid appearance, when seen at
a distance, but the delusion vanishes when they are entered. There are many towers, domes,
and minarets, and these seen over the line of walls always make an imposing show. But the in
dividual houses have neither elegance nor comfort ; and many of them are slightly built, of
perishable materials. The more substantial kind have verandas and courts, and on the flat
roofs the inhabitants sleep in certain seasons. A fire rages in a Turkish city. The general
apathy of the people, the want of concert or organization, and their creed of predestination,
are so many allies to the flame, which is seldom checked at Constantinople till it lacks fuel by
reaching an open place, or till a space is cleared by the removal of houses. This is not diffi-
cult, as the buildings are small. The houses have little exterior ornament, for in Turkey it is
not safe to make a display of wealth. The interior is finished with much finery but little taste.
The rooms have carpets, and there is a divan, or raised step, or platform, running round them,
which is covered with cushions, that make the only seats of the Turks, on which they sit cross-
legged like tailors. Sometimes several cushions are piled together and form a sort of raised
couch. There are no tables, but trays are used, which are placed upon the floor. There are
no fire-places, and though it is not rare, that persons are killed by the vapor of charcoal, the
rooms are warmed by nothing else.
Architecture is an art founded on necessity, and where this is neglected, the ornamental arts
can have no encouragement. Yet perhaps any other people than the Turks would in Turkey
have produced some monuments of good architecture. Asia Minor and Syria have more nu
merous and imposing remains of ancient art, than are to be found in Europe. The Turk views
them with his usual apathy ; and so much above his estimation of human means do they seem,
that he refers their erection to the agency of spirits, summoned by Solomon ; yet he feels no
admiration and attempts no imitation.
10. Food and Drink. The Turks are temperate in their food, of which rice forms the
principal share. . Sometimes it is boiled with mutton, or fowl, when it is called pilaw. The
fowl is boiled so much, that the master of the house easily separates the joints with his fingers,
which is his mode of carving. Curds, cheese, youart, and other preparations of milk are
common, but there is no butter. Many courses are often brought in at meals, one after the
other. Each person has 2 spoons and a flat cake of bread, and all help themselves from the
common dish. This has ever been the eastern custom, and the Saviour indicated his be
trayer as the one that dipped his hand with him in tbe dish. Coffee is universal throughout the '
East, in an Arab tent as well as the castle of a Pashaw. It is a strong, turbid decoction,
drank without sugar or milk. It is handed to every visiter whom the host would treat with com
mon civility. Among the Arabs and other tribes, that adopt their customs, it is the highest
pledge of confidence to eat together. It is seldom violated, either for interest or revenge, the
* Or. Walsh, on arriving at an inn, shrunk from a was answered, sun multi innumerable. Aim soror, esti
person, who approached him with a tumor, thinking it to uxor, was the reply of the host when asked if a female
be the plague j when the agent of the post said to the was his sister ; ago tibi gratias Domnee, was the manner
man, sepone, he stood aside; to Walsh he said, Tumor non of returning acknowledgments, and valete was the word
esti peslt, domnee, esti gunsha. On inquiring if there were of adieu.
many dwarfs, as several were in sight, the traveler
EUROPEAN TURKEY.
709
Turkish Women making Bread.
strongest motives of a barbarian. Travel
ers, who put themselves under an Arab
guide, first partake of food with him, be
fore they trust him in the desert.
Wine, which was interdicted by Ma
homet, is now freely drank, except by the
most fanatic and austere, and its use is be
coming more general still. After dinner,
ladies often take several small glasses of
. rosoglio, a distilled cordial. The pipe,
however, affords the chief pleasure, or rath
er employment, to a Turk. The use of it is
universal and almost uninterrupted. On
horseback, riding, sitting, walking, reclin
ing, or laboring at his art, it is a constant
companion. It is one of the few things
on which the Turks display much splen
dor or taste. It is always sumptuous,
with those who can afford it. The tube
is 6 or 7 feet in length, and the bowl is
richly ornamented. The bowl is some
times supported on wheels, that, in moving
it, the indolence of the smoker may not
be violated.
In a life as void of incident as that of a
Turk, some there are who seek the ex
citement of opium. There are coffee
houses for these Theriakis, or opium-eat
ers, where they may be seen sitting on
benches before the door, absorbed in their
- celestial visions. The composition used
at Constantinople to produce the excite
ment, is made of the pistils of the hemp
blossom, honey, powdered cloves, nutmeg,
and saffron. The dose varies from 3 grains
to a drachm, and the' effect lasts 4 or 5
hours. The gestures of men" under the
operation of the drug are frightful, and
their eyes have an unnatural wildness and
brilliancy. The Theriakis seldom live be
yond 30, if they begin tt use the drug
young, and their moral and physical de
bility is deplorable. They are not, how
ever, very numerous.
11. Diseases. Fevers are common in
the greater part of Turkey, and in Wallachia, goitres and other alpine diseases. Leprosy is
often found, and opthalmia is frequent. It is the plague, however, that is the bane of the cities.
This terrible destroyer has generally baffled air human- skill, both in its natural climates, and in
others to which it has been imported. It is, contagious, and it has been supposed also to be
infectious. The Turkish mode of life seems devised, especially to perpetuate the plague, the
virulence of which is much aggravated by putrefying animal and vegetable substances. The
streets have no scavengers ; they are receptacles of filth, and whatever animal dies, is left to
taint the air, in a burning climate. The science of medicine is unknown in Turkey, and a be
lief in predestination, with the general indifference of the Turks to all things but ease, suffi
ciently account for the unchecked ravages of the plague. The disease commonly runs its
course in 3 days, and the patient may have his system thoroughly invaded before he is sensible
of the presence of the disease ; generally, however, the glands are sore, and there are buboes
on the groin. When these break and are kept open, the patient recovers ; if they remain
Sellers of Vegetables.
710 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
hard, the disease strikes upon the inward parts, and he dies. The general custom has been to
reduce the inflammation by bleeding and otherwise ; but Dr. Madden has lately been emi
nently successful in the opposite course. He supposed, that nature should be assisted in the
formation of the sores, and gave large quantities of brandy, even in extreme cases, with the
greatest success. With this treatment 75 in 100 recovered.
12. Traveling. In European Turkey, posts are established, but the horses are very infe
rior, and they are to be had only on the chief routes. It is a service of, difficulty, endurance,
and danger to reach Constantinople by land from Vienna. In leaving Austria, the traveler's
hardships and perils are increased ; and his journey is always among those who have little re
spect for his life or property. There are but two reasons that lead Europeans to travel in this
country, curiosity or gain. But the gratifications to the former are so numerous, that many
adventurers have explored the parts where the danger and privation are greatest. Foreigners,
who do not travel in parties, generally go under the direction of a guide or attendant on horse
back. The r6ads are passable for rude carriages. The only accommodation that may be
generally relied upon is shelter, though this is not always to be had. There are, however,
inns, or caravanserais, at which may be had a shelter like that of a stable, with a provision of
chopped straw for the horses. It is seldom that they are furnished with food. It is well for
the European traveler to supply himself with a Janissary cloak, a thick garment of goat's or
camel's hair, and, if he is in haste, to put himself under the care of one of the Tartar couriers,
who are familiar with the route. It will conduce somewhat to his comfort, also, to assume a dress
of the country ; and the greater the poverty it indicates, the less is the danger from robbers,
or the vexation from extortioners. There is danger from robbers in many of the less settled
parts of Turkey, and there is extortion everywhere. It is to be lamented, that countries,
which it would otherwise be so agreeable to visit, and that have many interesting antiquities,
should be so difficult to explore. Most of these dangers have, indeed, disappeared of late
years ; still, there is little comfort or pleasure in traveling here.
13. Character, Manners, and Customs. In describing national character, it is of the Turks
only, that it is safe to speak in very precise terms. The character of a whole people is sel
dom so uniform, that it may be described in a few words ; yet almost all travelers in Turkey
concur in describing the Turks as ignorant, fanatic, arrogant, and sanguinary ; treacherous to
enemies, and perfidious to friends. The ignorance of a Turk is more than negative ; it is pos
itive hostility to knowledge. Those who know more languages than one, often conceal the
knowledge, to avoid the disgrace attached to it. These, however, are few, and, until the
Greek Revolution, none but Greeks were found capable of performing the duties of dragoman,
or diplomatic interpreter. With this passion for ignorance, it is not strange, that the Turks are
as little enlightened as they were before they " encamped " in Europe.* Wherever the Turks
have authority, commerce and manufactures have few followers ; art and science languish, the
very earth seems to be blasted, and agriculture itself has hardly an existence. The arrogance
and fanaticism of the Turks are at least equal to their ignorance. Their creed inculcates no
toleration for infidels, and it prefers extermination to conversion. The best epithet bestowed
upon a Christian, is dog ; and it is sometimes changed for other terms of reproach. A Janis
sary attendant upon foreigners, used to be called a hog-driver ; and when a European ambassa
dor communicated to the grand vizier the marriage of the imperial family that he represented,
he received for answer the gracious assurance, that the Sublime Porte did not concern itself in
the union of one hog with another. Madden, who had lately the best opportunities for esti
mating the Turks, fortifies our description in almost every particular. He says, that he never
* " A Turk, however, in the presence of a Frank, is that he had ascertained this by means of a sextant found
willing to receive credit for knowledge. This day, at in a drawer of the ward-room, and a calculation of the
noon, the author having found an excellent sextant in the ship's course, according to the common observations daily
ward-room, which had been taken from a French prisoner, made on board English and other ships, the Ragusan was
made an observation of the ship's latitude'; and oalcu- despatched to bring the thing called sextant instantly be-
laling, as well as he was able, the course she had made, fore the captain. This instrument being altogether in-
upon a chart belonging to one of the Ragusans, ascer- comprehensible to him, he contented himself with view-
tained her position, Tat. 34° 50', French long. 48°. As ing it in every direction, except that in which it might be
the pilot on board, being out of sight of land,lcnew noth- used; and, stroking his long beard, said to the Ragusan,
ing of her situation, he sent the chart, with a respectful ' Thus it is always, with these poor djowrs (infidels), they
message to the captain, telling him the ship's latitude, and can make nothing out without some peeping contrivance
her probable distance from Rhodes, Finica Bay, Cyprus, of this kind ; now roe Turks, require no sextans,— we,
&c. Upon this, he was summoned, with the Ragusan, (pointing with his finger to his forehead,) we have our
into the cabin, and immediately asked, how he could pre- sextans here.' " — Clarke's Travels.
tend to know where the ship then was ? Having stated
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 7 1 1
passed through a bazar, where the men did not set the dogs upon him, the boys pelt him with
stones, the women spit upon him, and all curse him and call him caffre.
No people have such indifference to shedding blood ; the streets of Constantinople show
many dead bodies, and others are often seen floating in the Bosphorus, At the massacre of
the Janissaries, when 20,000 were enclosed in their quarters and killed, and when the report
of the cannon shook the air at Pera, it was as quiet there as if the firing was only to celebrate '
a victory. No man was disturbed, or omitted his usual business. A late traveler with some
friends, came, unawares, across a road, over which a company of artillery were exercising at a
target. They were seen by the Turks, but the firing was continued, and the balls passed near
to the travelers. A Turk regards the life of a dog more than that of a man. This is from
respect to Quithmer, the dog of the seven sleepers, whom they believe slipped into Paradise,
where he now presides over letters missive, and a Mussulman writes Quithmer on the corner
of his letter, after cutting a piece from it, to shoW the imperfection of all human works. The
Turks are generally armed, and this, in a country where passion is checked by so few restraints
of law, leads to many murders. Any person of a different creed holds his life on the forbear
ance of a Turk.
The perfidy of the Turks is manifested in their public, as well as private relations. An
officer, whose death is determined upon, is sent to his government, with every demonstration of
favor, but an executioner is despatched with a party, to kill him on the way, or on his arrival.
Sometimes the executioner goes alone, and when, after a long course of dissimulation, he is at
last admitted to the presence of his suspicious victim, he stabs him in the divan, and takes from
his bosom the Sultan's firman or order, to shield him from the vengeance of the attendants.
Sometimes, however, the wary officer searches all suspected visiters, and, on finding the
order, sends back to the Sultan his messenger's head. Several of these messengers have been
sent to the Pacha of Egypt, but none have ever returned. Dr. Madden saw, in the course
of his short practice, many cases of poisoning ; a most formidable number, if taken as a pro
portion to the whole people, and the best proof of general perfidy and treachery.
It is evident, that all national character is the result of circumstances, but chiefly of civil and
religious- institutions ; and to judge from the result, these are nowhere worse than in Turkey.
But in describing the Turks by their faults, it should not be forgotten, that they have one na
tional virtue truly singular. Byron's description of an individual has a wider application.
" One virtue, and a thousand crimes," was not a personal peculiarity of the corsair ; it is
almost a national trait, for the Turks are distinguished for honesty. Their words are security
as good as bonds in other countries. Children are sent to make purchases at shops and are sel
dom wronged ; the shops are secured in the master's absence with a string. It has been said,
however, that the honesty of the Turks is not the offspring of justice, a principle for which they
have no reverence in the other relations of life. A late traveler supposes it to be a consequence
of the contempt in which the Greeks were held, who were so fraudulent in their dealings, that
the Turks would take an opposite course from spite, and form a character for honesty on the
foundation of a bad motive. This, however, is to consider it too curiously ; and the Turks
should be allowed the full credit of national honesty in their commercial dealings, though rapa
cious and unjust in their political and official.
The gravity of the Turks is in some degree a consequence of indolence ; and late travelers
represent them as cheerful in their private circle ; Dr. Madden often heard peals of laugh
ter at night from the women's apartments. A Turkish house is a castle of indolence, images
of rest, of " quiet and of sleep profound," invade the mind at the threshold. The murmur
of fountains soothes the ear, some simple and. monotonous tune is sounded for hours to compose
the master, the pipe is never from his hand, and he is seldom so happy as when all these means
have placed him in a state of reverie, in which, without being asleep, he can yet live without the
labor of thought, careless of the future, and forgetful of the present and the past. In all the
household arrangements and decorations, the gratification of the senses is more studied than
that of the imagination. There are no pictures, statues, or incitements to thought ; everything
tends to repose.
The Turks are said to be encamped in Europe, to show the insecurity of the tenure by
which they hold their conquest, and their reluctance to follow any European customs. The
barber pushes the razor from him in shaving, the carpenter draws the saw towards him, and sits
while at work, the mason is seated while laying stones, the scribe writes from right to left, and
712 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
the houses are finished first at the top. The upper story is often inhabited, while there is, of
the lower, nothing but the frame.
The polygamy and other indulgences permitted by the Koran, tend to the utter debasement
of the Turks. They are attended with various circumstances, which mark a very peculiar and
degraded state of society. For instance, the Kislar Aga, or chief of the black eunuchs, is an
important officer, not only of the household, but of the state. He is by nature ferocious, for
ugliness and ferocity are the best recommendations to his office. Mutes, or the deaf and dumb,
are sought for by Pachas, as acceptable presents to the Sultan ; there are 40 of these servants
at the seraglio, who can see, but not tell ; suffer, and not complain. Dwarfs and deformed
persons are also attached to the court, as in various eastern countries. Caliph Vathek is repre
sented to have been met and welcomed on a visit in the East by a " superb corps of cripples."
It sometimes forms the amusement of the great to vex these poor beings. If a mute has the
good fortune to be at the same time, deformed, and a eunuch, his welfare is established ; and
he becomes a favorite with those whose favor is fortune. The Kislar Aga is often a formida
ble enemy to the grand vizier ; he heads the plots of the seraglio, and naturally undermines the
credit of the vizier, that he may himself receive more bribes from applicants for offices, or par
dons ; his situation gives him great power to serve his friends or punish his enemies.
The seclusion of the harems or women's apartments is never invaded ; the great have eunuchs,
but the other classes trust to the security of locks, and the custom of seclusion. The harems
are generally fitted up with some attempts at splendor, for the poorest Turk seems to have some
hidden means of supply ; living at a rate of expenditure far beyond his ostensible income. The
overplus is made up by extortion upon the industrious classes, the Jews, Armenians, Greeks,
and Franks.
Madden, in his capacity of physician, had an opportunity to visit the market for female
slaves ; a deplorable consequence of the state of society in Turkey. This is a horrid slavery, to
which all other is as freedom. The young and the beautiful Greeks, Circassians, and others,
are sold to the highest bidder, and their beauty becomes the measure of their value. A Ne
gress sells for about 80 dollars, an Abyssinian, for 150, and a Greek or Georgian, for 300, or
more. 14. Amusements. The Turks are too grave and indolent to have many amusements. Games
of chance are forbidden in the Koran, but chess is common. The jereed, or exercise on
horseback with lances, is pursued with great adroitness and skill. Horsemen scour the plain
and throw the lance while riding at full speed, and catch it from the ground without checking
the horse. The lances are thrown with great precision, and the mastery of the rider over his
horse is perfect ; both seem to have but one will. The manner in which the Turks wrestle is
to grasp the waist, while one strives to lift the other from the ground and throw him on his
back ; a feat often accompanied by broken bones.
The baths form the chief amusement, especially of the females, for whom separate ones are
provided ; or the common baths are devoted to them on particular days, when none of the other
sex approach. The females go with a slave or two, and pass many hours in each other's so
ciety. The baths are here what the operas are in western Europe. Bathing is the luxury of
a warm climate, but, after the Turkish fashion, it is of no easy endurance tt a novice. The
bather undresses in an outward room, and enters an inner one with an atmosphere of steam ;
he can hardly draw his breath, till a profuse perspiration comes to his relief. He seats himself
on a slippery board, at the side of a fountain, while an attendant rubs him with a glove of horse
hair. This process is so' severe, that the skin of a new beginner, or foreigner, sometimes fol
lows the glove. After this comes the shampooning, in which the body is turned over as though
it were dead, the joints cracked, and the whole surface thumped and kneaded. The bath is
exceedingly refreshing ; it renders the joints supple, and removes all obstruction from the
pores. 15. Education. To read the Koran is the principal end of education in Turkey, and even
to do this is by no means universal. All religion, morals, and law, are supposed to be found
in the Koran ; and all education begins and ends with this. To be able to repeat many chap
ters is to have a character both for piety and learning. A Turkish female, that can read, is
hardly to be found ; and is considered a miracje of knowledge. A newspaper is printed at
Constantinople, under the direction of the Sultan, but there are few books of any kind in the
language, that contain useful knowledge. The Turkish books are chiefly commentaries on the
Koran.
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 713
16. State of the Arts, Science, and Literature. The Turks have no taste for the ornamen
tal arts, and have attained to no excellence in the useful ones ; their manufacture of swords is
the only one in which they have equaled the other nations of Europe. The religious creed
proscribes the imitative arts ; and the Turks must, moreover, lack all taste for them, or it would
have been excited by the remains of antiquity in Greece, Constantinople, and Asia Minor.
But every Turk is an Attila. The arts, then, may be said to be unknown in Turkey ; or their
highest efforts are to ornament a pipe, or the trappings of a horse, in which, if in anything, a
Turk is sumptuous. The Turks have done nothing for science ; though vaccination came to
the rest of Europe from Turkey. But it was accident, to which it owed its origin, and not to
science. There are about 30,000 volumes of Turkish books, which are chiefly commentaries
on the Koran, with some poetry and tales.
The physicians in Turkey rely as much upon charms as upon medicines. When neither
charms nor medicines avail, the friends collect round the dying man, assure him of the blissful
reward that awaits him as a believer, and intimate to him, that it is proper to enter paradise with
a cheerful countenance. A Frank physician, however, has the greatest credit with the Turks,
and there are many of them settled in the cities. They visit even the harems, forbidden to all
others, though the pulse is often submitted to them covered with gauze. Dr. Madden, who
has given an excellent account of the Turks, had, as a physician, frequent opportunities to see
them in their domestic circle. Before he could expect to be much employed, however, he
followed the custom of the country, in hiring an attendant, a sort of mountebank, to go with
him to the coffee-houses, eulogize his skill, and recount his cures, in no measured language. In
fact, the more surprising and incredible the cure related, the more readily was it believed.
There is no other way than this for a Frank physician to be called to practice in Constantino
ple. The pulse only is offered to the physician ; and from this alone, the Turks expect that
he will know the whole nature of the disease ; their backwardness in giving any other informa
tion, often endangers their lives.
17. Religion. The religion is chiefly the Mahometan, the Christian, and the Jewish. The
Christian is divided into the Armenian, the Catholic, and the Greek churches. Toleration,
however, is no part of the Mahometan religion, which prevails not only in Turkey in Europe,
but in a vast portion of Asia and Africa. It is so much blended with various points of Chris
tianity and Judaism, that it has sometimes been called a Christian heresy. The founder, Ma
homet, whom his followers call the Prophet, was born at Mecca, A. D. 569, and it is held by
his believers, that he was foretold by Christ, as the paraclyte, or Renowned ; and that the word
paraclete, or Comforter, is a perversion of the text. In his youth, he was employed as a
traveling merchant and as a soldier. His fortunes and influence were established by a marriage
with Cadijah, a rich widow. By her he had eight children, one of whom only survived him,
his daughter Fatimab, from whom the Emirs claim a descent. During the life of Cadijah, he
had no other wife. It was not until the age of 40, that Mahomet pretended to be commissioned
to reveal a new religion. At first, he had the fate of better prophets, the incredulity of his
countrymen ; and his very wife treated him for a time as a dreamer. By degrees, however, a
few influential men became his followers, and it was soon after extensively believed, that the
Angel Gabriel was the messenger who communicated the detached parts of the Koran ; for
this pretended oracle was produced at different times, and to suit various occasions. Mahomet
had thus a ready way to silence all cavilers, and even to rebuke the love of finery in his wives.
A new revelation, touching the individual case, was always at hand, and the mandate of to-day
might b& modified or repealed by that of to-morrow.
After the death of Cadijah, the wives of Mahomet became numerous and somewhat trouble-
best servants and earliest converts, found an immediate resource in another chapter, and she
became his wife. Another of his wives was a Jewess, who complained that her lineage was
contemned by her companions, and to her he said, « Canst thou not boast Aaron is my father
Moses is my uncle, and Mahomet is my husband ! " He usurped a posthumous authority, and!
with a spirit of mean jealousy, interdicted his wives from marrying after his death He or
dained in the Koran, that visiters should not look upon his wives ; but rather speak to them be
hind a curtain ; and he affirmed, "that it would be a grievous thing in the sight of God," for
any one to " marry his wives after him forever."
90
714 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
The Koran was indeed a ready convenience to Mahomet. If a visiter stayed too long, the
community was better advised in a chapter. "O, true believers," says the Koran, " enter not
into the houses of the prophet, without waiting his convenient time ; but when ye are invited,
then enter. And when ye shall have eaten, disperse yourselves, and stay not to enter into
familiar discourse, for this incommodeth the prophet. He is ashamed to bid you depart, but
God is not ashamed of the truth."
Persecution followed partial success, and Mahomet was obliged to retire from Mecca. This
flight, called in the Arabic tongue Hejira, has become the grand era of all Mahometan nations.
It answers to the year A. D. 622. At Medina, the fugitive became a monarch, and found an
army at his command. His doctrines varied with his fortunes, and, with force at his command,
his religion was now to be extended by violence, though hitherto he had employed only per
suasion. But he was now a legislator, judge, prophet, priest, and military chief. All the
chapters of the Koran were devised under peculiar circumstances, and for certain ends. The
most of these that were made at Medina, where the impostor had power to aid his fraud, are
intolerant and sanguinary. This spirit has generally animated his followers, and their principle
is, "the Koran, death, or tribute." Renegades, however, are distrusted and despised.
The wars that followed, were attended with various success ; but, in the end, consolidated the
power of Mahomet. He died in his 63d year, of the effects of poison, which had been con
cealed in a shoulder of mutton. On this occasion, some of his fanatic followers believe in a
miracle, or that the mutton spoke to warn him. The Mahometans, however, do not generally
believe in any miracles, but the great standing one of the Koran ; and on this, Mahomet him
self, when questioned as to his miraculous commission, chiefly relied. The chief doctrines of
the Koran are contained in the confession of faith, " There is no God but God, and Mahomet
is his prophet." The unity of the Supreme was the more insisted on, that the creed might the
more differ from the trinity of the Christians. Providence and predestination, universal disso
lution, and the death of even Azrael, the angel of death, a resurrection, judgment, the interces
sion of Mahomet, purgatory, hell, and paradise, are parts of the Mahometan creed. Paradise
is painted with the profusion of all that delights the oriental in this life ; with gardens, palaces,
fountains, and houries, or beautiful females, whose only study is to reward the pious believer.
It is indeed but a bad creed, that would crown a life of intolerance and violence with a martyr's
death, and a sensual paradise.* It is a vulgar error, that Mahomet taught the exclusion of
the souls of females from paradise. The reverse is held in the Koran, nor is the exclusion
believed in Turkey. The Koran corresponds with the Old Testament in the account of the
creation, the fall, the deluge, the deliverance of Noah, the call of Abraham, the histories of
Isaac, Ishmael, Jacob, and the patriarchs, the selection of the Jews as a chosen people, the
office and miracles of Moses, the inspiration of the prophets and psalmists, and in many other
particulars. It recognises Christ as the Messiah of the Jews, but all these truths are mixed
up with fables and puerilities.
The principal commandments of the law are to pray five times a day, to fast at Ramazan, to
give alms, to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and to perform ablutions. The minor requisitions
are circumcision, abstinence from swine's flesh, or the flesh of any animal strangled. There
are two sects, the followers of Ali, and the followers of Omar, as lieutenant of the prophet.
The Persians are of the sect of Ali. There are divers religious orders, of which the princi
pal are 32. There are a great many mendicants and itinerant dervises, who have many moun-
K (f '
' They shall repose on couches, the linings whereof a cup of flowing wine ; their heads shall not ache by
shall be of thick silk, interwoven with gold; and the fruit drinking the same, neither shall their reason be dis-
of the two gardens shall be near at hand together. There- turned. " Upon them shall be garments of fihe green
in shall receive them beauteous damsels, refraining their silk and of brocades, and they shall be adorned with brace-
eyes from beholding any besides their spouses, having lets of silver, and their Lord shall give them to drink of
complexions like rubies and pearls. Besides these, there n most pure liquor, — a cup of wine mixed with the m-
shall be two other gardens, that shall be dressed in eternal ter of Zenjebil. a fountain in paradise named Salsabil.'
verdure. In each of them shall be two fountains, pouring " But those who believe and do that which is right, we
forth plenty of water. In each of them shall be fruits, will bring into gardens watered by rivers, therein shall
and palm-trees, and pomegranates. Therein shall be they remain for ever, and therein shall they enjoy wives
agreeable and beauteous damsels, having fine black eyes, free from all infirmities ; and we will lead them into per-
and kept in pavilions from public view, whom no man petual abodes " " For those who fear their Lord, will be
shall have dishonored before their predestined spouses, prepared hi<rh apartments in paradise, over which shall be
nor any genius." "They shall dwell in gardens of de- other apartments built; and rivers shall run beneath
light, reposing on couches adorned with gold and precious them." " But for th,e pious is prepared a place of bliss ;
stones; sitting opposite to one another thereon. Youths, gardens planted with trees, and vineyards, and damsels ol
which shall continue in their bloom forever, shall go equal age with themselves, and a full cup." — Koran.
round about to attend them, with goblets and beakers, and
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 715
tebank tricks, which they practise adroitly. The Turks have a great respect for all things
connected with .Mahomet, and their reverence for the Koran is extreme. They will pick
up a piece of paper in the street, to see if it be not> a fragment of the Koran. The sacred
camel, that leads the pilgrimage to Mecca, is a descendant of Mahomet's camel, and the
great standard of the empire, seldom unfurled, and a sight of which is considered equal to a
pilgrimage, is no less a thing than the prophet's breeches.
The Koran prescribes the attitudes of prayer, and the time which the Muezzin calls from
the minaret of the mosque, for there are no bells. "Come to prayer," cries he in the morn
ing, " there is no God but God. Come to prayers ; prayer is better than sleep." At noon
he adds, " prayer is better than food." The Mussulmans, when they pray, turn towards
Mecca ; and they are much absorbed in their prayers, praying with great fervor and awe. The
fasts are strictly kept, and in that of Ramazan, it is not lawful to taste so much as a drop of
water during the day, from one new moon to another. During this fast, it is no time to solicit
a favor from the devout. After the fast, comes the feast of Bairain, which is carried to great
excess. The mosques are generally supported by bequests of money given for religious pur
poses, and this is one of the few safe dispositions of it in Turkey. Wells, fountains, inns,
hospitals, &c. are founded in the same way. The Turks are strict in rendering alms, which
are annually about 2\ per cent on their property.
Marriages in Turkey are mere contracts, made chiefly by the parents and friends of the
parties. Two children are betrothed at a tender age, sometimes at 3 or 4, and when the en
gagement is completed, at mature years, the bride is carried in a procession to the husband's
house. Divorces are had almost at the will of the husband ; for, though he have no cause, he
can find witnesses at every coffee-house ; as no crime is more frequent, or more lightly pun
ished in Turkey, than perjury. The wife's portion is retained by herself, after divorce.
The usual allowance, called in this country pin-money, is known in Turkey as slipper-money.
After divorce, however, it is not permitted to the parties to come together again, till the wife
has lived with another man. Courtship is much curtailed in Turkey. The sexes never meet
in society, and to salute a lady in the street, is the height of rudeness. Politeness prescribes,
that a gentleman should look the other way. A flower dropped in a lady's path, is an intima
tion of affection ; and the female pedler, or other emissary, may carry the swain in return, an
embroidered handkerchief ; but there is no correspondence, no billets-doux but those of
flowers. Flowers have an amatory and poetical meaning, sufficient to express the usual senti
ments of love and hope; suspense and favor. It is not, however, because it is poetical, that
this language of flowers is in Turkey that of love, for to Turkish ladies a written billet would
be an unfathomable mystery ; to read and write is no part of their education ; poetry and
romance they have none except in feeling.
" No bustlingBotherbys have they, to show 'em
That charming passage in the last new poem."
The Turks bury their dead naked, and place them with their faces towards Mecca. The
burying grounds are shaded with cypress trees, and neatly kept ; it is common to see females
in them placing flowers around the graves. A turban, rudely carved on a stone, is placed
over the grave of a male, and a vase over that of a female. On the tombs of unmarried
females, instead of the vase is a rose.
18. Government. The form of government is a pure, unmixed despotism, and there is
nothing to stay the authority of the Sultan but public opinion, a feeble interposition in Turkey.
The monarchy is hereditary, though the sultans are sometimes deposed. They are not
crowned, but girded with the sword of Mahomet ; and it is to their capacity of successors to
the prophet, that they owe the most of their power. It is considered martyrdom to die by the
Sultan's command, and utterly disgraceful to fly from the mandate of death. On such occa
sions a subject's very wives have often turned against him. The sultans have ever had in a
great degree the Turkish prodigality of life ; it is an established principle in public opinion,, that
they may take fourteen lives daily. The males, who are by collateral birth near the throne,
are either murdered or imprisoned. The sultana valide, or mother of the Sultan, has gene
rally much influence in the state. The Sultan is called by his subjects, in the way of rebuke,
the " son of a slave " ; and his education gives him a slave's vices, before he attains to a mas
ter's power. His palace is, at the same time, a prison and a shambles ; and no place in this
upper world has been stained with more violence and injustice than the seraglio ; there is al
ways some plot here to supplant a favorite, and the denouement of every plot is blood ; for in
716 EUROPEAN TURKEY.
Turkey, Death stands at the right hand of power, and many officers in resigning their places
yield up also their heads. The very terms of endearment used by the females of the Grand
Seignior express his formidable, rather than his amiable qualities ; they call him their Lion.
As the observances of despotism are kept up in the seraglio, all is prostration and fear ; and
even those who feel no awe, pretend it by confusion and hesitation of speech, when addressing
the monarch. All attendants walk quickly, as a slow gait is appropriated to majesty. The
present Sultan is one of the few monarchs, who ever ruled the Turks, that was bent upon im
proving them, and he has done something, though much remains to be done.
Some of the Sultan's titles are, " Son of Mahomet, King above all Kings, Seed of the
Great Alexander, Lord of the Tree of Life and of the River Fliskey, Prior of the Earthly
Paradise, Commander of all things that are to be commanded, Centre of Victory, Shadow of
God." The court is called the Sublime Porte, and all decrees or treaties are dated " from our
stirrup." The Divan, or Council of State, is composed of the Ministers of the Interior, Ex
terior, and Finance. The government of the provinces is delegated to pachas, waivodes, and
other officers. The military ensigns are horsetails, and the dignity of the pachas is measured
by the number they are permitted to assume, three being the most honorable. All offices are
sold ; the incumbents give to the treasury a certain sum, and indemnify themselves by extorting
from the subjects placed under them. The pachas divide their territories into districts, and
dispose of them as they have bought their pachalics ; so that the circle of extortion is com
plete. There is no security for property, and the last para is often rendered up under the
bastinado. To serve the state, is a principle unknown among Turkish officers ; to serve
themselves, with little choice of means, is the practice. They indemnify themselves for their
expense and brief authority, by all the wealth that their rapacity can collect. They live upon
a dangerous post ; and history has recorded that 33 viziers have been executed at the com
mand of their masters. The inferior officers are too numerous to be recorded.
19. Laws. The Turkish laws are contained principally in the Koran and the commentaries
of sages. They are not generally unjust, but the administration of them is utterly corrupt,*
and the judge decides in favor of the party which propitiates him by the greatest bribe. In oth
er countries, it is common to retain the lawyer ; in Turkey it is more necessary to retain the
judge. Everything is venal ; the complaint of the informer, the testimony of the witness, and
the sentence of the judge. Property is safe only when it is concealed. The edicts of the
Sultan have the force of laws, and it is safe for him to outrage all things but custom, the only
protection of those who live under a despotism. To custom the Sultan must himself submit ;
and it would cost him his crown to invade generally the private apartments of his subjects.
He has the property of all those who die in his service, a tax of 10 per cent upon all inherited
property, and as many confiscations as he is pleased to make executions. Some of the laws or
rather municipal regulations are, that nothing shall be charged for the novelty or fashion of an
article, and that even the early fruit shall be sold as low as tbe late. A baker, who defrauds in
the quantity of bread, is nailed to his door by the ears for 24 hours ; a law which, says a recent
traveler, if introduced into all civilized countries would raise the price of nails. A hole is cut
in the door for his head, and both ears are nailed to the board. The bastinado is the common
punishment for the lighter crimes ; it is inflicted by hard blows on the soles of the feet, or by
beating with a cudgel, the ribs, stomach, and loins. The bastinado is the common method of
collecting the taxes in provinces. Petty larceny is punished in thesame way, but this is in
* " A remarkable cause was tried while we were in Cos ; of Stanchio, eagerly sought to marry her ; but his propo-
and a statement of the circumstance on which it was sals were rejected. In consequence of his disappointment
founded will serve to exhibit a very singular part of the he bought some poison and destroyed himself. The Turk-
Mahometan law ; namely, that which relates to ' homicide ish police instantly arrested the father of the young wo-
by implication.' An instance of a similar nature was be- man, as the cause, by implication, of the man's 'death; un-
fore noticed, when it was related, that the Capudan Pasha der the fifth species of homicide, he become, therefore,
reasoned with the people of Samos upon the propriety of amenable for this act of suicide. When the case came
their paying for a Turkish frigate which was wrecked up- before the mngistrate, it was urged literally by the accu-
on their territory; ' because the accident would not have sers, that ' If lie, the accused, had not had a daughter, the
happened unless their island had been in the way ' This deceased would not hare fallen in lore ; consequently, he
was mentioned as a characteristic feature of Turkish jus- would not have been disappointed ; consequently, he would
ticc, and so it really was ; that is to say, it was a sophisti- not hare swallowed poison ; consequently, he would not have
cated application of a principle rigidly founded upon the died; — but he, the accused, had a daughter ; andthe deceas-
fifth species of homicide, according to the Mahometan law ; cd Imdfalltn in lore ; and had been disappointed ; and had
or 'homicide by an intermediate cause,' which is strictly swallowed poison ; and had died.' Upon all these counts
the name it bears The case which occurred at Cos fell he was cnlled upon to pay the price of the young man's
more immediately under the cognizance of this law. It was life; and this, being fixed at the sum of 80 piastres, was
as follows. A young man desperately in love with a girl accordingly exacted."— Clarke's Travels.
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 717
Turkey, as in Spain, a rare offence. The Turk, like the Spaniard, has too much pride, even
in his dishonesty, to commit so mean an offence. The common punishment for perjury, the
great promoter of all crimes, is only to ride backwards on an ass. The punishment of death
is inflicted in various ways. Sometimes the criminal or the victim, is strangled by a rope called
the bow-string, twisted with a stick at the back of the neck. Impaling is rare, but decapitation
by the cimeter is common. The bodies are thrown for three, days- into the street, and are of
ten devoured by dogs. For adultery it is at Constantinople the practice, after a brief consul
tation with the cadi, to tie the female in a sack, and drown her in the Bosphorus. It is not,
however, very common. All the operations of the judicial authorities are prompt and summa
ry, and if the guilty are -punished, it is little heeded, that the innocent may suffer. At Pera,
the Franks complained, that many robberies had been committed by the porters, and several
were in consequence strangled. The evil continued, and the porters were employed in a body
to carry grain on board the Capudan Pacha's ship, where all were seized, and drowned.
The ulemas are men learned in the laws, and include ministers of religion, doctors in law,
called muftis ; and judges, called cadis. The grand mufti resides in the capital and his person
is sacred ; the Sultan cannot condemn to death any inferior mufti, till he has first invested him
with some other office. The mufti expounds the law and gives a written decision, even to a
feigned case,' called " fetva." There are 55 volumes of these decisions, of which the following
are samples. " Can the son-in-law legally marry his mother-in-law ? He cannot. God knows
best. Can women and children of property be assessed ? Yes. God knows best."
20. Antiquities. The Turks are no conservators of antiquities ; and the best remains of the
conquered people have disappeared. The walls of Constantinople are still nearly perfect ; and
in several places they are inscribed with the names of the emperors. The mosque, which was the
church of Sancta Sophia, is preserved only because the conquerors convened it to the uses of
their own worship. In the Hippodrome, which is about 400 feet long by 100 wide, is a pyramid,
a needle of Egyptian granite, and the column of two twisted serpents, that supported the tripod at
Delphi. The heads of the serpents have been broken off. Several cisterns show the magnifi
cence of the ancient city. Some are filled up with sand, and used as gardens, and some, that
are still covered, are turned to other uses. One, called the Strangers' Friend, is a vast subter
raneous edifice, supported by marble pillars. It is of great depth, and has 672 marble columns,
each column being composed of three pillars. It holds 1,237,939 cubic feet. It will supply
the whole city with water for 60 days. Another cistern is like a subterranean lake, and extends
under several streets. The roof is arched and supported by 336 magnificent pillars. This
only is put to its original use, yet its existence is not generally known to the citizens. A num
ber of tubes ascend to supply the streets above, yet so incurious are the Turks, that the peo
ple who use the water know not whence it comes. The Aqueduct of Valens, stretching from
hill to hill, is a magnificent object. The streets run through it and beside it. Vines occupy
the crevices, and, nourished by the water, hang down in wide patches of green.
The Labyrinth of Crete, the residence of the fabled Minotaur, can now be explored with safety
only by the means furnished by Ariadne, that is, by a thread, to point out the way of return.
The entrance is natural but very narrow, and opens into a wider passage, somewhat obstructed
by stones, and with a flat roof cut in the rock above. On leaving this, it is necessary to creep
100 paces through a low passage. From this the roof rises again, and various roads both di-
yerge and cross each other ; they are about seven feet high, and from six to ten wide ; cut
with the chisel in the rock. The number and complication of them are beyond description.
Some curve gradually and lead to open spaces, with roofs supported by pillars. Savary un
folded 400 fathoms of line, without including lateral and other excursions, but did not examine
the whole labyrinth. The air is unwholesome, and there are no stalactites. The dark recesses
are peopled by millions of bats.
21. Population and Revenue. The population of this great empire is by no means equal
either to its extent or fertility ; nor is it possible to state it with perfect accuracy. The tyran
ny under which the natives groan, the practice of polygamy, and the prevalence of the plague,
all tend to check increase. It is thought that the number of inhabitants, including the 3
principalities, is about 12,000,000. The public income arises from uncertain sources. One
of the most permanent is a miri, or tenth of the produce of the lands of the whole empire.
A property-tax, and a poll-tax, levied on Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, together with the
customs, are the other permanent sources; The national income is augmented by confiscations,
casual contributions, and imperial exactions. The impositions on Christians are altogether ar
bitrary, and may consequently be extended to the most oppressive degree.
718
SWITZERLAND.
22. Army and Navy. The Turkish army in war has been estimated at upwards of 300,000
men. The present Sultan has succeeded in the attempt in which all his predecessors failed,
to introduce Enropean discipline. The navy has lately been stated at 20 ships of the line,
with 15 frigates, and a few smaller vessels. The sailors are inexpert and undisciplined.
23. History. The origin of the Turks, although comparatively recent, is obscure. Their
name begins tt appear in history, about the middle of the 6th century, when they attracted no
tice as a Scythian tribe, settled at the foot of the Altaian mountains, between Siberia and
China. The Saracen caliphs of Bagdad chose their body-guards from this tribe ; and the
Turkish chiefs, gradually assuming authority, at length engrossed the whole power of the state
and elevated themselves to the throne. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Turkish dynasties
reigned in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, but the proper founder of the Ottoman Empire was
Osman, or Othrnan, a predatory chief, who conquered Asia Minor, and assumed the title of
sultan, in 1300. Mahomet the Second conquered Constantinople in 1453, and this was the
overthrow of the Greek Empire.
The rapid progress of the Turkish arms, threatened the downfall of Christendom, but the
vigorous resistance of the Christian powers checked their incursions into the west of Europe,
and in the 17th century the Ottoman power began to decline ; it encountered, the following
century, a new enemy in the Russians, who first displayed to the world the secret of its intrin
sic weakness. The same nation may be considered as having accomplished the overthrow of
the Turkish influence in our own days, when in 1828 a Russian army crossed the Balkan, ad
vanced nearly to the gates of Constantinople, and dictated a peace to the Sultan. Turkey is
no longer considered a first-rate European power, and, since that period, has been obliged to
submit to the loss of Greece. Still more recently she has been subjected to the deeper humil
iation, of seeing her empire nearly subverted by the Pacha of Egypt, who has torn from her
some of her finest provinces.
CHAPTER XCI. SWITZERLAND.
IIImh
Chamois.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Switzerland is bounded north by the grand duchy of Baden
and the kingdom of Wurtemberg ; east by the Austrian province of Tyrol ; south by the
Sardinian and the Lombardo-Venetian States, and west by France. It extends from 45° 50*
to 47° 50' N. latitude, and from 5° 50' to 10° 30' E. longitude. Its length from east to west
is 200 miles, its breadth from north to south 130 ; and its superficial extent has been estimated
at 17,000 square miles.
2. Mountains and Valleys. Two distinct ranges of mountains traverse Switzerland. The
chain of the Jura stretches from southwest to northeast. The Alps form a more extensive
chain, and run nearly parallel to the Jura with numerous branches known among geographers
by the names of the Pennine, Lepontine, and Rhastian Alps. These mountains cover a great
part of the country and exhibit inaccessible peaks covered with snow ; eternal and boundless
wastes of ice ; valleys surrounded by immense precipices ; in contrast with wooded and undu-
SWITZERLAND. 719
lating slopes, vine-clad fields, and bright patches of vegetation. Mont Blanc, the highest
summit in Europe, overlooks the celebrated vale of Chamouni in Savoy ; a district not com
prised within the political limits of Switzerland, but wliich pertains to it in a geographical
character. This mountain is 15,814 feet in height ; it is capped with eternal snow, and the
approach to the top is so full of difficulty and hazard that it has never been ascended, except in
4 or 5 instances. The Helvetian,' or Lepontine Alps, extend from Mount Ross to Mount
Bernardino ; their most elevated branch forms the northern boundary of the Valais, stretching
from the Lake of Geneva to Mount St. Gothard. The loftiest summit is Finsteraarhorn,
14,111 feet high ; the Jungfrau, or Virgin, is 13,718 feet high. The Rhcetian Alps extend
through the Grisons and Tyrol, sending off a branch to Lake Constance. Some of their
summits in Switzerland attain the height of 12,000 fleet.
One distinguishing characteristic of the Swiss mountains is the Glaciers, which resemble a
stormy sea, suddenly congealed and bristling all over with sharp ridges.* The avalanches, or
slips of snow, form another peculiar feature in the scenery of this country. There are innu
merable valleys, entirely desolated, and almost inaccessible to anything having life, in conse
quence of these tremendous visitations from the surrounding cliffs. Not only the snow->fields,
but mountains themselves, occasionally, slide down upon the country below. In 1806, a piece
of the Rossberg, twice as large as the city of Paris, slipped down at once into" the Lake of
Lowertz, and occasioned the most dreadful devastation. Another accident of the same kind
occurred on the Lake of Lucerne, in 1801, when 11 persons were drowned at a village on the
opposite side of the lake, by the wave raised by the plunge of the falling mass. Switzerland
abounds in deep and romantic valleys, many of which are fertile and well-cultivated, and full of
wild and picturesque scenery.
3. Rivers. The Rhine has its three sources in the Rhsetian Alps, and, passing through the
Lake of Constance, flows to the westward, until it reaches Basle. The Rhone is formed by
different streams from Mounts Grimsel and Furca, and flows into the lake of Geneva. The
Tesino issues from Mount Griers and traverses lake Maggiore in Italy. The Inn rises in the
Grisons, runs northeast, and subsequently joins the Danube. The Aar is the principal stream
which has its course wholly in Switzerland. Rising in the Lepontine Alps, it traverses the
lakes of Brientz and Thun, and, after receiving the waters of the lakes of Neufchatel, Zurich,
Lucerne, and some other lakes, empties itself into the Rhine.
4. Lakes. The Lake of Geneva, called also Leman, is 40 miles long. It is 1,230 feet
above the level of the sea, and its greatest depth is about 1,000 feet. The waters of this lake
are beautifully transparent, and the surrounding scenery has long been celebrated for its magnif
icence. The Lake of Constance is about 45 miles in length, and 15 in breadth. The Lake
Lugano is at an elevation of 880 feet above the sea. The Lake of Lucerne, or the Four
Forest Cantons, is above 20 miles in length, and from 8 to 10 in breadth ; its greatest depth
is about 600 feet, and its navigation dangerous. Among the numerous other lakes are those
of Zurich, Neufchatel, Thun, Brientz, Moral, and Biel.
5. Climate. From the great elevation of Switzerland, the air is pure and salubrious ; and
though in some of the narrow valleys, where radiation is great, the heat is often excessive, yet
the atmosphere is in general much cooler than might be expected from the latitude. Three
different climates may be said to exist in this country ; viz. the cold in the Alps, the temperate
in the plains, and the hot in the canton of Tesino. In the valleys, however, the temperature
of districts at a short distance from one another, often varies extremely.
6. Soil. In the upper regions of Switzerland, which fall within the limits of cultivation, the
soil is chiefly composed of particles crumbled from the rocks that tower above them, and is
consequently stony and barren, or merely clothed with a scanty covering of short herbs ; but
in the lower tracts it is often rich and productive, and in a few places marshy.
7. Geology. The Alps afford the materials of continual study to the geologist who exam-
* A recent traveler, in describing them, says ; " You gulfs, and unfathomable fissures. Here there is no trace
cannot picture the scene ; but you can form some idea of of vegetation, no blade of grass, no bush, no tree; no
the awe struck astonishment which filled our minds, when, spreading weed or creeping lichen invades the cold, still
after surmounting all the difficulties of the way, we found desolation of the icy desert. It is the death of nature !
ourselves standing amidst a world of ice'extending around, The only sound which meets the ear is that of the loud
beneath, above us ; far beyond where the straining sight, detonation of the ice, as it bursts open into new abysses
in every direction, vainly sought to follow the inlermina- with the crash of thunder, and reverberates from the" wild
ble frozen leagues of glaciers, propped up in towering rocks like the voice of the mountain storms."
pyramids, or shapeless heaps, or opening into yawning
720
SWITZERLAND.
ines them. Granitic rocks, of a date posterior to the formation of organized beings, make up
the chain connected with Mont Blanc. Different calcareous ramifications of the same chain
extend a long way northwards, and rise to a great height, while the granitic rocks on the south
descend to the confines of Italy.
8. Natural Productions. Forests of larch, pine, and fir, intermixed with yew, mountain
ash, and birch, clothe the sides of the Swiss Alps ; the oak, elm, ash, beech, lime, and chest
nut flourish here.
9. Minerals. The mountains abound in marble, porphyry, and alabaster. Iron, lead, cop
per, zinc, crystal, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic, and antimony are found in veins and masses. Quar
ries of rock-salt are met with, particularly in the Pay£ de Vaud.
10. Animals. Cattle are plentiful, and form the cltief wealth of the inhabitants. The tame
animals are those common to Europe ; among the wild ones are the ibex, the chamois, and
the marmot, and in the unfrequented tracts, bears, lynxes, and wolves are common. Birds of
prey are not unfrequent ; among
which is the golden or bearded
vulture, or lammer-geyer, which
is often known to carry off lambs.
1 1 . Cataracts. The falls of
the Rhine at Schaffhausen, are
the most celebrated in Europe ;
they consist of a violent rapid of
about 80 feet in descent ; the
whole mass of water is broken
into foam in the fall, and resem
bles a cataract of snow ; the roar
and agitation surpass even Ni
agara. The falls of the Staub-
bach are produced by a small
mountain torrent, which falls SOO
feet into a rocky cleft ; the water
is dashed completely into vapor
before it reaches the bottom. There are many
other cascades among the mountainous parts.
12. Face of the Country. The general sur
face of Switzerland exceeds in rugged sublimi
ty any other portion of Europe. Nature seems
here to have formed everything on her grandest
scale, and offers the most striking contrasts.
Icy peaks rise into the air, close upon the
borders of fertile valleys ; luxuriant cornfields
are surrounded by immense and dreary plains
of ice ; in one step, the traveler passes from
the everlasting snow to the freshest verdure,
or from glaciers of chilling coldness to valleys
from whose rocky sides the sunbeams are re
flected with almost scorching power.
13. Roads. Some of the Alpine passes in
this country are the result of immense labor
and ingenuity. Those of St. Gothard and the
Simplon are the most frequented. The Sim-
plon is a mountain situated in the chain of the
higher Alps, between the Valais and Pied
mont, in which is found a passage to Italy.
The old road being practicable only for foot-
passengers and travelers on horseback, in 1801,
Bonaparte directed a magnificent road to be con
structed, which was completed in 1805. Be
tween Gliss, in the valley of the Rhone, where the road commences, and Domo d'Ossola, in
Mount Simplon.
H$K
Simplon Road.
SWITZERLAND.
721
Piedmont, where it terminates, there are 4 forests of pine, upwards of 30 cascades, severalgla-
ciers, 22 bridges, and 6 covered galleries, or tunnels, excavated through the solid rock. The
road is 24 feet in width, bounded by strong railings of larch, or parapets of granite^ with small
buildings erected at short distances, for the shelter of travelers. In many other places, roads
have been formed along the edges of precipices, bridges thrown over frightful chasms, and tun
nels cut through rocks ; and the mighty obstacles interposed by nature have been removed by
the skill and boldness of art.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1. Divisions. The Swiss confederacy consists of 22 cantons, which are subdivided into
various pohtical divisions. The following table contains a list of the cantons, ranged in order
of size.
Cantons.
Grisons .
BerneWallis, or Valais
Waadtland, or Vaud
Tessin
St. Gall
Zurich
Lucerne ....
Aargau .....
Fribursr .
Uri ".
Schweitz ....
Glaris
Neufchatel, or Neuenburg
Thurgau 81,000
Underwald 24,000
Soleure, or Solothurn . . . 53,000
Bale 54,000
Appenzell 55,000
Schaffhausen .... 30,000
Geneva 62,500
Zug 14,500
Population.
. 88,000
350,000
. 70,000
170,000
. 102,000144,000
. 218,000116,000
. 150,000 84,000
. 13,00032,000
. 28,000 51,500
Capitals. Population.
Coire 3,000
Berne 18,000
Sion, or Sitten 3,000
Lausanne 10,000
Lugano .¦ 4,000
St. Gall 9,000
Zurich 11,000
Lucerne ..... 6,000
Aarau 3,000
Friburg 7,000
Altorf 2,000
Schweitz 5,0(10
Glaris .... . . 4,000
Neufchatel 5,000
Frauenfeld 2,000
Sarnen 2,000
Soleure 4,000
Bale 16,000
Appenzell 3,000
ScharFhausen 6,0Q0
Geneva . . . . . . 26,000
Zug 3,000
The largest cantons have an area of from 2,000 to 2,500 square miles ; the smallest, of
from 100 to 125.
2. Canals.^ There are several canals in Switzerland, but none of great extent. The Ca
nal of Linth, 15 miles in length, connects the Linth, by a navigable channel, with lakes Wal-
lenstadt and Zurich. It has been proposed to unite the waters of Lake Neufchatel with those
of the Lake of Geneva by a canal.
3. Towns. Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne become alternately, each for the space of two
years, the capital of the confederation. Zurich has this privilege in 1839 and 1840 ; Berne,
in 1841 and 1842 ; and Lucerne, in 1843 and 1844.
Geneva is the most populous and flourishing city of Switzerland. It stands at the head of
the lake of the same name, just where its waters are discharged into the Rhone. Its environs,
filled with elegant villas, are remarkable lor the beauty and magnificence of their scenery. Ge
neva is enriched by the industry of its inhabitants, who are also favorably distinguished for the
interest they take in letters. This spirit pervades the laboring classes, and has acquired for
Geneva the title of the Swiss Athens. Watchmaking is the most important branch of industry,
occupying 3,000 persons, who make annually 70,000 watches. Other articles of gold and sil
ver, and scientific and mechanical instruments, silks, cotton goods, porcelain, &c, are also pro
duced here. The commerce is likewise extensive, and the learned institutions numerous.
Population, 26,000.
Berne is a handsome city, delightfully situated upon the Aar ; its trade and manufactures are
flourishing, and it contains a university, and various seminaries and scientific establishments. Its
population is 18,000. In the vicinity is Hofwyl, containing the celebrated farm-school of the
philanthropic Fellenberg. Fourteen miles west from Berne, is Morat, where, in 1476, the
freemen of Switzerland vindicated their liberty by a decisive victory over the invading hosts of
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. An obelisk has been erected here to commemorate the
event. Bale or Basel is the largest city of Switzerland, but its population, amounting only to 16,000,
91
722 SWITZERLAND.
is not proportionate to its extent. It is distinguished for its erudition and its industry, having
an active trade, a flourishing commerce, and many learned institutions. Zurich is pleasantly
situated on the Limmat, at the extremity of the pretty lake of the same name. Like Bale and
Geneva, it has long been distinguished for its cultivation of learning, and it has extensive manu
factures and a flourishing trade. Population, 11,000.
Lausanne, the capital of the Pays de Vaud, is much visited by foreigners, on account of its
delightful situation. It stands near the lake of Geneva, the banks of which are covered with
vineyards, while the snowy summits of the Alps rise in the distance. Gibbon resided here for
some time. Population, 10,000. In the northern part of the canton is Yverdun, where Pesta-
lozzi established his school. St. Gall contains a celebrated abbey, numerous manufactures,
and some literary institutions. Its trade is extensive. Population, 9,000. Friburg deserves
notice on account of its numerous literary establishments and its Jesuit's college. Popula
tion, 7,000.*
Lucerne, on the lake of the same name, occupies a gentle eminence, and is surrounded by a
wall and towers. Among its curiosities is the model of Switzerland, executed in relief by the
late General Pfyffer. Population, 7,000.
4. Agriculture. The nature of the country presents numerous obstacles to its cultivation ;
but they have been, in a great measure, overcome by the industry of the inhabitants. The
traces of the plough are visible on the sides of the precipices apparently inaccessible, and spots,
which nature seemed to have doomed to eternal sterility, are crowned with vegetation. The
produce of grain is generally equal to the consumption ; but pasturage is the chief object of
the farmer.
5. Manufactures and Trade. The chief manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, linen,
silk, leather, jewelry ware, and particularly watches. Though in the centre of Europe, Swit
zerland has been much restricted in its commercial intercourse, by the barriers of the Alps,
and the prohibitory systems of the neighboring States. Of late years, however, all the branch
es of industry have been flourishing, and the various roads over the Alps, and the introduc
tion of steam navigation upon the lakes, have facilitated the intercourse with foreign nations,
and between the different cantons. The principal exports are cattle, the productions of the
dairy, and manufactured goods. The imports are principally corn, flax, raw silk, cotton,
spices, and various kinds of manufactured goods.
6. Inhabitants. The Swiss have the beauty that comes from strength and health. They
are robust and temperate, but their countenances have little of the beau ideal. In the territo
ries that border on France, Germany, and Italy, there are French, Germans, and Italians, and
there are a few Jews, principally in Aargau.
7. Dress. The higher classes generally follow the French fashions ; but the common peo
ple have many peculiar forms of dress ; varying somewhat in the different cantons, and all pic
turesque. They are less becoming, however, than the common prints would lead one to sup
pose. They are generally simple and convenient. The dress of the females is the most pe
culiar, for the men have no longer a national dress. It consists partly in a short petticoat,
* The following description of the great suspension plete the union of the stones, and about 24 tons of iron
bridge at Friburg, the longest bridge of a single span in were used for this purpose. The width of the valley of
the world, is from a scientific journal. This great work the Savine, at the point where the bridge is built, or, in
was completed in two years and a half, at a cost of about other words, the span of the suspended roadway, is 871
112,000 dollars. feet.
The town of Friburg is built on the left bank of the Sa- The roadway is suspended by four cables of iron wire,
vine. Both sides of this small stream are very steep, and passing over the upper part of the gateways. Each cable
rise to the height of about 220 feet; and travelers were consists of 1,200 wires, each about 1-I0th inch in diameter,
formerly obliged to descend the hill in order to reach a and 1,140 feet in length. To avoid the difficulty of moving
small wooden bridge which crosses the river, and immedi- these heayy cables, each wire was brought separately to
ately after, by a steep ascent of about 200 feet, to reach its place, and they were united on the spot by the work-
the top of the opposite bank, before coming to the centre men, who were suspended during the work. It is calcu-
of the town. The passage through Friburg thus occupied lated, that the four united cables are capable of sustaining
nearly an hour. These difficulties were long considered a weight of 2,046 tons. The cables are fixed in shafts cut
the unavoidable consequence of the situation of the town, out of solid rock, on either side of the river; on each of
until Borne bold spirit conceived the idea of uniting, by these shafts, four cables pass through a vertical cylindric
means of a suspension bridge, the steep banks of the Sa- chimney or pillar, which bears three heavy domes resting
vine. It was necessary, that the bridge should pass over upon it, and at the same time abutting against grooves
a great part of the town itself, and the scheme was consid- cut with much care in the rock to receive the spnnging-
ered completely utopmn. Btonea. At the bottom of the pillars, the cables are made
u- V16 £ateway9 at eiyier end of the bridge, are 65 feet fast to blocks of very hard stone, which are cubes of six
high. The masonry of the gate is 46 feet in width, and and a half feet. The cables, therefore, cannot slide with-
its thickness is about 20 feet; and although the largest out lifting the whole of these enormous buildings, strength-
blocks ol hard limestone were employed, iron cramps com- ened as they are by their connexion with the solid rock
SWITZERLAND. 723
which shows the stockings as high as the knee, and a wide, flat hat, without a crown, tied under
the chin. Near Berne the hat gives place to a strange looking black cap, standing off the face,
and in shape like the two wings of a butterfly. In some parts, the hair is plaited and pieced
down to the heels. In Appenzel the modern invention of braces is not yet adopted ; the dress
is a scanty jacket and short breeches, and there is a preposterous interval between the two gar
ments, which the wearer makes frequent but ineffectual hitches to close.
8. Language. About two thirds of the Swiss speak the German language, but often of a
very corrupted dialect ; and the majority of the other third, French. The rest use the Ital
ian, and the Romanish, a corrupted dialect of the Latin, and not much unlike the colloquial
language of the Romans.
9. Manner of Building. There is some difference in this, in the various cantons and
towns. In the canton of Vaud (and in many other places), the houses are often 80 or 100
feet square, and though low they have a very high shingle roof, loaded with large stones, as a
defence from the wind, and projecting in the piazza shape, over an outside gallery, up a flight
of stairs. This is the part occupied by the family. The lower story, barricaded with fire
wood, and buried in snow in winter, is the cellar, where provisions are kept, and domestic ani
mals are housed. These houses are much exposed to fires, and are under the protection of a
mutual insurance, at three fourths their value. They are chiefly built of stones, and some of
them are thatched, or tiled.
At Berne and Neufchatel are a great many fountains of the purest water ; at the latter city,
they flow into gigantic basins. The lofty terraces at Berne have a very imposing look, and
the massy arcades, here and at Bienne, like the arches of a bridge, and on which the houses are
built, give the towns a strange and massy appearance. On the ends of many houses are writ
ten the names of the builders, or occupants, with verses from Scripture. There are few pub
lic buildings in Switzerland of much architectural grandeur, though there are many venerable
with age. The shepherds have rude chalets of logs, or stones, as temporary tenements.
10. Food and Drink. The Swiss are almost a pastoral people, and much of their subsist
ence is drawn from their flocks and herds. Bread is a luxury in many valleys in the Alps,
where milk and its preparations form the basis of nutriment. In the mountainous part of Berne,
a custom still exists, for many families connected by affinity or marriage, to make in common a
cheese of enormous size. On it are carved the names of parties about to be married, and
the cheese often serves for the marriage of their descendants. In some remote parts, every
family with a years' provision, may feel the dignity of wealth, and the people by way of osten
tation, offer to visiters mouldy food, to show that they have on hand the provision of a pre
ceding year. Wine and spirits are somewhat used in Switzerland, but the inhabitants are tem
perate. Much tobacco is consumed, chiefly in smoking. The pipes are of silver, with large
bowls, and hang down upon the breast.
11. Diseases. Switzerland is highly salubrious. There are, however, pulmonary complaints,
and the usual alpine diseases, particularly goitres, prevail in various parts.
12. Traveling. The facilities for foreigners to travel in Switzerland, are less than the in
ducements. The air of the mountains, however, will create an appetite for the plain and sim
ple food that is generally found at the inns. Within the present century there were no inns in
the mountains, and the traveler stopped at the house of a clergyman or substantial farmer. The
roads are of all kinds ; some hard and smooth, having seats and fountains, at regular distances ;
but more are impassable to carriages, and scarcely safe for the sure instinct of mules. On some
routes there are regular post coaches ; but generally the traveler, unless he walks, hires his own
conveyance. In the mountains a char-a-banc is used, a light carriage of 2 flexible bars on 4
wheels. Two or three people sit sideways upon the bars, and the driver sits in front. There
is but one horse. Many travelers prefer to explore Switzerland on foot, a cheaper and not
less expeditious mode of traveling.
13. Character, Manners, and Customs. The Swiss, like all mountaineers, are attached to
their country, which they have often defended against fearful odds. It is remarkable, that coun
tries the least fertile are the most beloved by the inhabitants ; an Italian or a Spaniard may be
contented in exile, but seldom a Swiss ; and an Esquimaux or a Greenlander finds nothing in
Europe to compensate absence from his barren rocks and icy seas. The Swiss nevertheless
emigrates, though he often returns- when he has acquired a competency, to his sublime, but un
productive mountains.
724
SWITZERLAND.
Swiss.
" And as a child, when scaring sounds molest,
Clings close and closer to the mother's breast;
So the loud torrent and the whirlwind's roar,
But bind him to his native mountains more."
The Swiss have a quiet temperament, and mediocrity of genius. The country has produc
ed few men distinguished for genius ; though collectively the
people have performed great achievements. They have nothing
of the melancholic, poetic character, that distinguishes the
Highlanders of Scotland, or their Italian neighbors on the other
side of the Alps. They are moral, faithful, industrious, and
brave, and they are the only people in Europe, who have habit
ually served as mercenaries in foreign armies. But in every
service they have proved their courage and fidelity. They re
tain much of their pastoral simplicity, and may be characterized
as a race of heroic husbandmen, worthy to be the countrymen
of Tell. They are familiar with the use of arms, and there is
a law that no one shall be married, who has not arms, uniform,
and equipments.
At Geneva, the mode of life is extremely social. The soirees
are constant, from November till spring. The ladies go to them
on foot, preceded by a servant with a lantern, for there are few
carriages or sedans at Geneva. These meetings resemble family assemblages, in their freedom
from the constraints imposed by etiquette. A stranger is struck with the affectionate terms by
which women of all ages address each other, such as mon cceur, ma mignonne, mon ange.
These come from the influence of certain " Sunday Societies," in which children meet at
their parents' houses, where they are left to themselves, and have a light supper of fruit, pastry,
&c. The friendships thus formed endure through life, and the youthful expressions of fondness
are never dropped.
At Zurich there is less social visiting. The men are inveterate smokers, and have their own
meetings, in an atmosphere of smoke, that no female could endure. In the canton of Berne
there is a custom of Saturday night visiting among young people, somewhat resembling a prac
tice unjustly attributed to New England. Young men who are there engaged in agricultural la
bors, have little time for visiting but on Saturday nights. The young women, who generally
expect company on that night, are seated at the windows neatly dressed, and they answer the
form of salutation, which is in verse, by another verse, either in the affirmative or the negative.
The visiter, if not repulsed at this stage of the siege, climbs up to the window of an upper
story, on certain projections of the wooden houses, where he sits a while, and further parley is
held, when he takes some refreshment, generally cherry-brandy and gingerbread. Sometimes
the visiter advances no further than the window, but often he is admitted to the chamber. This
proceeding is so open to observation, that it loses some of its indelicacy, while it subjects the
accepted swain on his late return, to the cudgels of his less fortunate rivals. For this reason,
young men frequently escort one another, on such occasions.
14. Amusements. Hunting the chamois is perhaps rather an employment than an amusement
in Switzerland ; for many pursue it constantly. The pursuit, though enticing and fascinating,
is full of danger, and few hunters attain to age, or receive Christian burial. They go to the
mountains and never return ; being crushed by falling ice or stones, or mangled by a fall into
some covered gap, or from some giddy and slippery precipice. The hunter must have steadi
ness of nerve, hardihood, and contempt of death. He must climb icy barriers, where a slip
of hand or foot would precipitate him down a fathomless abyss, or stand in a gale upon a pin
nacle of a rock, with the confidence of the chamois itself, where, as Gray said, a goat may
" dance and scratch an ear with its hind foot, in a place where I could not have stood still for
all beneath the moon."
The chamois is a timid and sagacious animal ; the hunter creeps toward a flock, with his
shirt over his clothes, and lies motionless in the snow, for half an hour, if the herd appear
alarmed. At the distance of about 250 steps, he aims at the darkest coat, which generally in
dicates the fattest animal. Accustomed to the detonations of the mountains, tbe chamois some
times stand a second shot, if they do not see the smoke, or scent the powder. The other
amusements of the Swiss are dancing, and the sports and games common in Europe.
SWITZERLAND. 725
15. Education. In this, the Protestant cantons excel the Catholic, though neither except
Geneva have kept pace with the spirit of the times. Basle has the only Swiss university, and
it has also a good Missionary Seminary. The superiority of education in Geneva is greatly
owing to maternal care and zeal, and to the effect of the Sunday Societies. At Yverdun is
the school founded by Pestalozzi, in which it is the great aim of the teacher to make the pupils
construct the sciences themselves, as far as they are able, without the artificial rules which
might facilitate their progress, but leave them in ignorance of the rationale of a science. At
Hofwyl, near Berne, is the school of De Fellenberg, who, in his celebrated institution, has
united agriculture, &c. with education, though education is the primary object. His system is
the best to show on a large scale, how the children of the poor may be taught, and their labor
at the same time profitably applied ; and if it were universal, would change the moral aspect
of the world. In executing it, however, much depends on the personal character of the teach
er. The pupils go to their work soon after sunrise, having first breakfasted and received a
lesson of about half an hour. At noon they return, and after dinner, which takes half an hour,
a lesson follows of 1 hour, and then work till 6. On Sundays the lesson takes 6 hours. The
boys seldom see books ; they are taught viva voce a few matters of fact, and rules of practical
application ; much of their education is moral, and they grow up in habits of industry, kind
ness, and veracity.
16. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. At Geneva, and in some other towns,
there is a general taste for the arts, -which is so far cultivated, that the ladies commonly draw
with much precision. Mr. Decandolle, at Geneva, having borrowed for a few days, a great
collection of drawings of American plants, S60 in number, and filling 13 folio volumes, had
them well copied in a week, by 114 female artists. Switzerland, however, has not produced
any leading artists ; the best have been Holbein, Graff, and Angelica Kauffmann. The talent
for music, especially in the German cantons, is general. The ranz des vaches is an air singu
larly wild and melancholy, and when sung, is broken by a sudden shriek, like the war-song of
an American savage. A peculiar strain like this is associated with the remembrance of home ;
and the impressive scenes of Switzerland have a powerful effect on the Swiss in foreign coun
tries ; in some military services it has therefore been forbidden to play the ranz des vaches.
The literature is merged in that of Germany and France. The French cantons have produced
Beza, Causabon, Necker, De Stael, Huber, Le Sage, Rousseau, Sismondi, Decandolle, &c,
and the German cantons, Haller, Gessner, Lavater, Paracelsus, and others.
17. Religion. The Reformed or Calvinistic Protestants form three fifths of the population,
most of the remainder being Catholics ; but there are a few Lutherans, Anabaptists, and Jews.
The Catholics have 190 cloisters, and 3,500 recluses. The Protestant form of church gov
ernment is Presbyterian. The Catholic religion predominates in 10 cantons, and the Protest
ant in 12. In several, however, both creeds are mingled, and all parties live in much harmony.
18. Government. Each canton is a sovereign state, but the 22 cantons are united by the
act of confederacy into a federal body for the preservation of order, and the security of liberty
and independence. The diet or federal congress is composed of deputies from the cantons,
each canton having one vote. The president of the diet, who is considered the chief magis
trate of the confederation, is styled the Landammann ; this dignity is borne by the chief of tbe
canton in which the session of the diet is held. The diet has power to make war and peace,
contract alliances, and make treaties with foreign States ; regulates the military contingent of
each canton ; provides for the general security, &c. The federal army amounts to 33,758
men. Each canton, like the States in this country, is governed by its own laws, and the con
stitutions of government are various ; Neufchatel is a constitutional monarchy, the king of Prus
sia being its executive head ; Berne, Lucerne, Friburg, and Soleure are aristocracies ; the
other 17 cantons have constitutions based on more or less democratic forms and principles.*
1 9. Laws. Justice is generally well administered in Switzerland ; but this is as much from
the good spirit of the people, as the excellence of the laws. The revolutions of the present
century have, however, much ameliorated the system. At Zurich, the legal proceedings are
secret ; and if there is corruption, it is not of the kind which comes from venality. The tor
ture by flogging, was until lately applied ad libitum, to extort confession ; now it is regulated
by a special order of court, prescribing the number of lashes ! The administration of justice
in France is better than in most of the Swiss cantons.
* The cantons of Appenzell and Schweitz, divided into Lower ; and that of Bale into the City and Country, ac-
Inner and Outer ; that of Underwald into Upper and tually form 8 separate governments.
726
EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.
20 Antiquities. At Augst, not far from Bale, are the ruins of a Roman city, partly under
the level of the Rhine. The theatre, aqueduct, and walls are indistinct ; but there are in the
library at Bale 12,000 medals, chiefly found in these ruins. It is supposed, that the city was
destroyed by an earthquake. At Avenche, the ancient Aventicum, are, among other antiqui
ties, mosaic pavements, sculptured cornices, &c. The bridge of St. Maurice, over the Rhone,
was built by the Romans ; it is very narrow but solid. It has a smgle arch of 200 feet, rest
ing on mountains on either side, gigantic abutments of 8,000 feet.
21. Population, Revenue, &c. The population is estimated at 2,000,000. The revenue
of the country, before it was conquered by the French, was 4,662,000 dollars. At present
it is about half that sum. It is raised from domain lands, taxation, and customs. Each can
ton supplies a certain contingent to the general army of the confederacy, which amounts to
about 33,000 men, and the internal strength of the country is further increased by a body of
militia. It is calculated, that above 30,000 Swiss are employed in the service of foreign
States. 22. History. The Swiss are the descendants of the ancient Helvetii, subdued by Julius
Cesar. They continued long under a nominal
subjection to Austria, till about the year 1300,
when the emperor Albert the First treated them
with so much rigor, that they rose in rebellion.
William Tell slew Gesler the Austrian viceroy,
and delivered his countrymen. On this occasion,
the three cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Un-
derwalden, in 1308, entered into a league for
mutual defence. At a later period, the other
cantons were successively included, and in 1513,
the federative republic was complete. Switzer
land was overrun by the French armies in 1798,
and the government experienced some altera
tions. Geneva and the Valais were, for a time,
annexed to France, but were subsequenUy re
stored. A new constitution was established in 1814. Switzerland is nominally'a neutral and
independent power, but the influence of Austria is felt and acknowledged in every part of the
confederacy.
Tell shooting at the Apple upon his son's head.
CHAPTER XCII. GENERAL VIEW OF THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.
1. Boundaries. The Austrian Empire is bounded on the N. by Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia,
and Poland ; on the E. by Russia and the principality of Moldavia ; on the S. by Wallachia,
Servia, the Ottoman Empire, the Adriatic, and the Po ; and on the W. by Sardinia, Switzer
land, and Bavaria. It extends from 42° to 51° N. lat., and from S° to 26° E. long., having
an area of 255,000 square miles, with 34,100,000 inhabitants.*
2. Mountains. Austria is traversed in different directions by numerous chains of the great
Alpine and Carpathian systems of mountains. The mountainous chains to the south of the
Danube belong to the former. The Rhetian Alps traverse the Tyrol ; of which the Order,
12,850 feet high, is the loftiest summit. The Noric Alps extend across Saltzburg and Stiria
to the neighborhood of Vienna ; principal summit, Gross Glockner, 12,755 feet high. The
Carnic Alps extend from the sources of the Brenta to Villach, separating Tyrol and Carinthia
from the Venetian provinces ; highest summit 1 1 ,500 feet. A continuation of this chain ex
tends to the southeast under the name of the Julian Alps.
The principal chain of the Carpathian Mountains surrounds the plains of Hungary like a
semicircle, separating Hungary and Transylvania from Moldavia and Galicia, and dividing the
waters of the Baltic from those of the Black Sea ; they terminate at Orsova on the Danube.
None of their summits exceed the height of 10,000 feet. A western branch of this system
extends from the sources of the Oder to those of the Elster, under the general name of the
Sudetic Mountains. They have an elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet.
* This includes the Italian provinces. The description
of the physical features of the empire will not extend to
them, as they have been separately described in the ac
count of Italy.
EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 727
3. Rivers. Austria abounds in navigable rivers, which find their way to the 4 great seas of
Europe. Those of Austrian Italy have already been described. The Danube traverses the
governments of Upper and Lower Austria, and part of Hungary, in an easterly direction, then
turning to the south, reaches the southern frontier of the latter kingdom, and, flowing easterly,
separates it from Servia, and enters the Ottoman empire at Orsova. Its principal tributaries in
Austria are the Morava or Marsch, and the Theiss from the north ; and the Inn, the Drave,
and the Save on the south. The Elbe traverses Bohemia, and passes into Prussia ; the Mol-
dau, which flows into it below Prague, is its principal tributary. The Oder rises in the Su-
detic Mountains, and passes north into Prussia. The Vistula, which rises iiuthe Carpathian
Mountains, enters Poland ; and the Dniester has its source in the same mountains, but takes a
contrary direction and enters Russia.
4. Divisions. Geographers often describe Austria as divided into four great sections : the
German provinces ; the Polish provinces, or that part of Poland, which has been annexed to
the empire ; the Hungarian districts ; and the Italian provinces. The political division of the
empire is into 15 governments, differently denominated and regulated, and variously subdivided
into circles, provinces, coimties, &c. The following table contains a view of these various di
visions. German Provinces. Governments. 1. Upper Austria ; 2. Lower Austria ; 3. Tyrol;
4. Duchy of Stiria ; 5. Laybach, and 6. Trieste (forming the kingdom of Illyria); 7. king
dom of Bohemia ; and 8. government of Moravia and Silecia :
Polish Province. Government. 9. Kingdom of Galicia :
Italian Provinces. Governments. 10. Milan ; and 11. Venice (forming the Lombardo-
Venetian kingdom) :
Hungarian Provinces. Governments. 12. Kingdom of Hungary (comprising the king
doms of Sclavonia and Croatia) ; 13. Transylvania ; 14. the Military Frontiers ; and 15. the
kingdom of Dalmatia.
5. Agriculture. Although Austria presents a great extent of good soil, agriculture is in so
backward a state, that it is not highly productive. The processes and implements of husband
ry are extremely imperfect. A considerable part of the country is covered with forests, which
supply the inhabitants with fuel, coal being little used. There are extensive pastures in the
Hungarian provinces, and natural forests, which contain vast herds of cattle in a wild state.
Some of the wines of Austria are highly esteemed, but the difficulties of transportation pre
vent them from being largely produced for exportation. The wine of Tokay, in Hungary, is
particularly celebrated.
6. Manufactures. The manufactures of Austria are extensive in the aggregate, but the ope
rations are generally carried on upon rather a small scale, and the Austrians have neither that
perfection of finish nor that ingenious machinery, which are to be found in the workshops of
western Europe. Woolen, linen, and cotton goods, paper, cutlery, and hardware, leather, and
glass, are the most important articles of manufacturing industry.
7. Commerce. Austria is unfavorably situated for foreign commerce ; her northern provinces
communicate with the sea only through the Elbe and the Vistula, by a long and difficult naviga
tion ; the eastern have navigable waters, which Jead to countries not adapted for commercial
operations, and the maritime coast on the Adriatic, although it has some good harbors, is sepa
rated from the interior by mountainous ranges, which render communication difficult. Trieste
is the principal port, and displays considerable commercial activity. Fiume is the inlet to the
Hungarian provinces, and Ragusa, to Dalmatia. The inland trade of Austria is active and
flourishing. 8. Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is professed by a very great majority of the in
habitants. The adherents of the Greek church are numerous in Transylvania, the southern
part of Hungary, and in Croatia, Sclavonia, and Galicia. There are many Protestants in Hun
gary, Galicia, and the German provinces, and some Socinians or Unitarians in Transylvania.
The number of Greek Christians it about 4,500,000 ; that of Protestants, 3,000,000, and
that of Catholics, 25,000,000. There are nearly 500,000 Jews, chiefly in Galicia, Moravia,
Hungary, and Bohemia. All religions are tolerated in Austria. The archbishop of Vienna is
the-head of the Austrian church ; the landed property of the church is extensive, and there are
300 abbeys, and above 500 convents in the empire. There are 13 Roman Catholic archbish
ops, and 66 bishops, and the property of the church is estimated to amount to 90,000,000 of
dollars.
728 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.
9. Education. There are six universities in the empire, besides those of the Italian prov
inces ; they are at Vienna, Prague, Pesth, Lemberg, Innspruck, and Graetz. High schools
and primary schools have also been established in some parts of the country, but in general the
national education is extremely deficient. The restraints upon the press and freedom of speech,
render the Austrian incurious upon many moral and political subjects, which occupy the minds
and pens of men in freer countries, and shut out large fields of literature from popular inquiry.
10. Government. The sovereign is styled the emperor of Austria, and the government, with
some diversities in the different parts, is absolute in all, except in Hungary and Transylvania.
In Hungary there is a diet, composed of the clergy, the nobility, deputies of the royal cities,
and of the boroughs, which has the right of making laws in concurrence with the king, as the
emperor is there styled, and of laying taxes. The constitution of Transylvania is similar.
There are assemblies of the estates in Bohemia and Galicia, but their powers are merely nom
inal. In the hereditary States, as the archduchy of Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola are
called, the power of the emperor is uncontrolled, but is exercised with mildness. The Milita
ry Frontiers have entirely a military administration, and, in fact, are nothing more than a vast
military colony, under the immediate management of the minister of war. They consist of a
narrow tract extending along the northern frontiers of Turkey and the southern boundary of
Hungary and Transylvania, and divided into four generalats or generalships. The inhabitants
enjoy the use of the land which they cultivate, on condition of rendering certain military servi
ces, and all are, therefore, trained to military exercises. Even civil affairs are here conducted
in a military form, and the magistrates have military titles. The purpose of this singular insti
tution is" to maintain a disciplined army of cultivators of the soil, always in readiness to defend
the frontiers against the Turks.
11. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of this great empire belong to several entirely distinct
races. 1. The Germans form the population of the archduchy of Austria, the greater part of
that of Stiria and Tyrol, and the minority in the Hungarian and Polish provinces, and in Bo
hemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 2. The Sclavonic race, comprising nearly one half of the popu
lation, consists of several different people ; these are the Tzechs, or Bohemians ; the Slowac ,
in Moravia and Hungary ; the Poles, in Galicia ; the Wends, in Stiria, Carniola, Carinthia,
and Tyrol ; the Croatians, Dalmatians, &c. 3. The Uralian race comprises the dominant
people of Hungary and Transylvania, or the Magyars. 4. The Latin race comprises the Ital
ians, and the Wallachians of Hungary, Transylvania, and the Military Frontiers.
The Sclavonians, scattered, as we have described, over a great extent, are the most hack-
ward and ignorant part of the population. They are commonly employed in mere rustic labors,
and many of them are still in a state of servitude. Thus in Bohemia and Moravia, the Ger
man population conducts public affairs, transacts commercial operations, and exercises the me
chanic arts, while the Sclavonians are the common laborers ; and in Hungary, the Magyars,
who, though in general illiterate, are a spirited and intelligent race, and fond of active employ
ments and a military life, leave the more servile kinds of labor to the Sclavonic inhabitants ; the
Sclavonians, in fact, are the conquered aborigines, who were reduced to slavery or kept in a
subordinate state by their conquerors. In the Polish provinces, where the Sclavonians form
almost the whole population, they evince an aversion from mechanic arts and commerce, and
the traders and dealers there, as in Poland, are mostly Jews.
Sclavonians . . 15,000,000
Germans . . 6,000,000
Italians . . . 4,500,000
Magyars . . 4,500,000
Number of different Races.
Wallachians . . . 2,000,000
Jews . . . 500,000
Gypsies (Zigeuner) . 100,000
Armenians . . 20,000
12. Revenue. Army. In an agricultural country, like Austria, the customs are small, and
the revenue is principally raised by land and poll taxes, ^n the Hungarian States, the nobility
are exempt from taxes. The revenue of Austria is much smaller than tiiose of England and
France, not exceeding 70 millions of dollars ; the debt is 320 millions. The army is com
posed of 270,000 men. '
HUNGARIAN STATES.
729
CHAPTER XCIII. THE HUNGARIAN STATES.
These States constitute a portion of the Austrian Empire, and consist 1st, of the Kingdom
of Hungary, with the provinces of Sclavonia and Croatia ; 2d, the Principality of Transylvania ;
3d, the Military Frontiers ; and 4th, the Kingdom of Dalmatia. The whole of these coun
tries together, have a surface of 130,000 square miles, with a population of 13,800,000.
1. Kingdom of Hungary. This country is bounded northwest by Moravia ; northeast by
Galicia ; east by Transylvania ; south by the Military Frontiers ; southwest by Ulyria ; and
west by Stiria and the Archduchy of Austria. Its length is 330, and its breadth 300 miles ;
containing 89,000 square miles. The Crapack or Carpathian Mountains extend along the
northeastern border. Near the centre of the chain, is the Lomnitz peak, which is about 8,640
feet above the level of the sea. Among the detached mountains are those of Matra, Avas, and
Farkas. An immense plain, comprehending all Eastern Hungary, lies between the Danube
and the Transylvanian Mountains. Another large plain, of a triangular form, runs from the
boundaries of Stiria to the Bakonian Mountains.
Hungary does not border upon any sea, but is watered by very large rivers. The principal
is the Danube, to the basin of which, all the others, except the Poprad, which runs into the
Vistula, belong ; the chief tributaries are the Leitha, the Raab, the Waag or Vag, the Gran,
the Drave, the Save, and the Theiss or Tisza ; the whole course of the Theiss is 350 miles,
and it abounds in fish. There are many lakes in this country ; the Flatten or Balaton,
near the centre of Lower Hungary, is about 45 miles long, and 8 broad ; the Neusiedler, on
the frontier of Lower Austria, is a salt water lake of about 60 square miles, and is surrounded
by fens.
The climate is, on the whole, warmer than that of Germany. In the valleys, snow falls as
early as September, and seldom disappears before the middle of June. In the middle regions,
the air is most pure and healthy. The flat country is unhealthy. The soil is sterile on the
highlands, but improves in quality as the elevation lessens, and is luxuriously rich on the plains.
Yet even in the most fertile tracts, there occur barren heaths of several miles in extent, where
not a shrub is visible. The Hungarian and Transylvanian forests cover a space of 11,644
square miles.
There are a great number of mineral springs, and mines of gold, silver, lead, and copper ;
very rich ore of antimony, coal, salt, and alum, are
abundant. About 40 miles to the south of the Cra
pack, are the gold and silver mines of Cremnitz ; and
20 miles further to the south, are. the silver mines of
Schemnitz. The gold mine at Cremnitz has been
wrought for 1 ,000 years and upwards, and is exceed
ingly rich. There is a mint here, where all the mine
towns of Hungary and Transylvania send their gold
and silver to be coined. The number of miners em
ployed by the crown at Schemnitz, is 8,000. A min
eral peculiar to Hungary is the opal, which is found at
Salt Mine. Czernwenicza, a short distance to the north of Kas-
chau. The hill in which the opals are found, consists
of a decomposed porphyry, and the gems occur at the distance of a few fathoms from the
surface. Hungary has in all ages been celebrated for its breed of horses, which are generally mouse-
colored, and highly esteemed in war. The horned cattle are large, active, and vigorous. Buf
faloes are not uncommon. Among the wild animals are wolves, bears, and boars ; but these
are very rare.
Hungary may be considered as a great oval plain, surrounded on all sides but the south by
lofty mountains, whence numerous and large rivers have their source, which gradually decline
in velocity as they approach the plain, where, owing to the extreme flatness of the surface, and
looseness of the soil, their currents are scarcely perceptible.
Near Szadelo, about 30 miles from Kaschau, is an extraordinary cavern, which is said to
reach several miles under the hills, but has never been completely explored. Near Szilitz, is
another celebrated cavern, about 100 feet in breadth, 150 in length, and 25 in height ; in one
92
730
HUNGARIAN STATES.
corner is a great mass of ice. There are two large navigable canals in this country, viz. the
Francis Canal, between the Danube and the Theiss ; and the Bega Canal extending from
Facset to Becskerek.
Buda, the capital of Hungary, stands upon the right bank of the Danube, opposite Pesth,
with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. It contains the palace of the viceroy of
Hungary, and several other public buildings. Pesth is the largest, most populous, and active
city of the kingdom, and each of its four annual fairs attracts 20,000 strangers from Hungary,
and other provinces of the empire, and from Turkey. It is well built, containing many elegant
public edifices, and mansions of the Hungarian nobility. Its university is one of the most
richly endowed on the continent. The population of the two cities is 96,000, of which
60,000 are in Pesth.
Presburg is a well-built city on the Danube, with 41,000 inhabitants. It was formerly the
capital of Hungary, andjhe Hungarian diet is still occasionally held here ; it is chiefly remark
able for the great number of its institutions for education.
Debretzin is the principal town in eastern Hungary, and the chief manufacturing place in the
kingdom. Population, 45,000. Its four annual fairs are attended by great numbers of traders ;
its manufactures comprise coarse woolens, leather, pottery, soap, &c. Theresienstadt and
Ketskemet are large towns with extensive manufactures of woolens, leather, soap, &c. ; the
former has 40,000, the latter 34,000 inhabitants.
Schemnitz, with 22,000 inhabitants, and Kremnitz, with 10,000, are remarkable for their
rich gold and silver mines. Mischkolocz is a large town, with an active trade in corn, wine,
and leather ; in its vicinity are numerous forges, glass-works, and paper-works. Population,
30,000. Temeswar, one of the strongest fortresses in the empire, owes its commercial activi
ty to a canal, which connects it with the Danube. Population, 12,000. Szegedin, on the
Theiss, has an extensive trade, with manufactures of tobacco, soap, woolen goods, and boots.
Population, 32,000.
Most branches of agriculture are still in their infancy here. Hemp, flax, poppies, and to
bacco are cultivated on a large scale, particularly the latter. Mulberry trees are plenty.
Manufactures are little attended to ; the raw produce being easily sold to the neighboring states.
The only article manufactured for exportation is leather. The commerce is subject to great
restrictions from the Austrian system of taxation. We have no certain accounts of the reve
nue, but it is thought to be about 13,000,000 dollars. The army consists of 46,000 infantry,
and 17,000 cavalry.
Sclavonia extends between the Drave and the Saave, and contains about 3,700 square miles.
Nearly 2,500,000 sheep are fed on the Sclavonian pastures ; and the annual produce of grain is
estimated at an average of
12,000,000 bushels. Cap
ital, Eszck.
Croatia comprehends the
maritime districts, denomi
nated the Littoral, and die
3 counties of Agram, Waras-
din, and Kreutz, forming an
area of about 3,650 square
miles. Agram, or Sagrab,
is the capital, and contains
20,000 inhabitants. The
country has several valuable
mines of iron, copper, and
lead, and produces salt, vit
riol, coals, and sulphur, in
abundance ; quarries of the
most beautiful marble exist
in different parts.
2. Transylvania. This
country is bounded north by
Upper Hungary ; northeast
by the Bukowine ; east by
' , ci(.iv ..
Transylvanian Girl.
Transylvanian Woman.
HUNGARIAN STATES. 731
Moldavia ; southeast and south by Wallachia ; and west by Hungary. It lies between 45°
25' and 48° N. latitude, and between 22° 30', and 27° E. longitude. Its length is 180,
and its breadth 150 miles ; and it contains 23,000 square miles. It is surrounded on all sides
by ranges of mountains, some of which are covered with perpetual snow. It contains many
delightful valleys, watered by innumerable streams, which enter the Marosch and Alauta, the
two main rivers of the country. There are several lakes and marshes ; among the latter of
which the Hellmorass, near Kovaszna, is remarkable on account of its unfathomable depth.
The climate is more temperate and wholesome than that of Hungary ; but the water in many
places is strongly impregnated with minerals, and is apt to produce cholics. The soil is good,
and the rich pastures feed vast numbers of black cattle. There are extensive forests, inhabited
by buffaloes, bears, lynxes, elks, wild asses, wild boars, chamois, ermines, and beavers. It has
valuable mines of gold, silver, and copper ; also of iron, quicksilver, lead, zinc, and antimony ;
and produces great quantities of fossil salt. Klausenberg, or Kolosvar, the capital of Tran
sylvania, on the Szamos, contains 20,000 inhabitants. Maros Vasarhely, or Neumarket, on
the Marosch, has several fine buildings ; among others, is the palace of Tekeli, with a library
of 60,000 volumes. Population, 9,500. Ilermannstadt, with 18,000 inhabitants, and Kron-
stadt, wjfh 25,000, are the other principal towns.
Agriculture is the principal occupation of the inhabitants, but it is still carried on in a very
primitive manner. The trade is in the hands of the Greeks and Armenians ; and the importa
tion probably exceeds the exportation. There are no manufactures of importance. Popula
tion, 2,000,000.
In 1004, Transylvania was subdued by Stephen, king of Hungary, who introduced Christi
anity. Some centuries afterwards, it was divided between two rival factions, one of which was
supported by the house of Austria, and the other by the Ottoman Porte ; and in 1606, the
successors of the latter power obliged the court of Vienna to acknowledge the independence
of Transylvania. It was ceded to the Austrians, by the treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, and all
claims were settled by the peace of Belgrade, in 1740.
3. The Military Frontiers. This country extends along the Turkish frontiers from the
Adriatic to Galicia, and surrounds the provinces of Croa
tia, Sclavonia, Hunagry, and Transylvania. The superficial
extent is 18,400 miles. The Sclavonians form the lafgest
proportion of the inhabitants, amounting to above 800,000.
There are also 122,000 Wlaches, 80,000 Magyars and
Szeckhelyi, 9,000 Germans, 1,500 Klementins, and about
1,500 Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies. There is no nobility,
nor any privileged class among the inhabitants of the fron
tiers, which yet form a complete military state, having ma
ny points of resemblance to the feudal institutions of the
middle ages. The frontier government was originally cre
ated to protect the empire, of which it forms a part, against
the invasion of barbarians, and in later times to form a
cordon sanitaire against the plague. All landed property
is held by a kind of fief, on condition of military service
in peace and war. Only such boys as are not fit for the
service are allowed to engage in any other occupation than
that of arms. There are 4 divisions of the military fron
tiers, containing in all 1 1 towns, 24 boroughs, 4 fortresses,
jMIPfflBK^ and 1,995 villages.
isses* £:•', «»»** ..^Jp 4. Dalmatia. This kingdom is bounded north by Hun-
, ' ., gary, east by .Bosnia and Kumeha, and south and west by
Guard of Military Frontier. ^ ^ Adriat;c. It ,jes between 42° 1 5', and 44° 25' N. lat.,
and contains about 5,800 square miles. The interior is intersected by high mountains. The
principal rivers are "the Zermagna, the Cettina, the Narenta, and the Kerka. On the latter
river, the whole course of which is 60 miles, are several fine cascades. There are numerous
lakes well stored with fish. The whole coast is indented with creeks and bays, and skirted by
a great number of islands. The bay of Cattaro forms the best harbor in the Adriatic.
The climate of Dalmatia is very mild, and, on the whole, like that of the south of Italy ;
732
HUNGARIAN STATES.
but the marshes on the coast render the air insalubrious. Snow and frost are almost unknown
in the valleys. The winter is rainy. The soil is mostly calcareous, dry, and barren, and but
in few places fit for cultivation. This country has quarries of marble and gypsum, and mines
of iron-stone. Wolves are found in the forest, and locusts occasionally infest the country.
Zara, the capital, is built on a neck of land separated from the continent by a deep ditch. It
has two seminaries, a theatre, and a good harbor. Population, 6, COO. Spalatro is a fortified
town with 7,000 inhabitants. Brazza, on an island of the Adriatic, produces a great quantity
of wine. Ragusa was formerly distinguished for its trade and manufactures, but at present
contains but 5,000 inhabitants. Cattaro, on the gulf of the same name, is so surrounded and
overhung by rocks, as for several hours in the day to be completely in their shade. It is well
fortified, and exports considerable wine and oil.
Agriculture is very much neglected, but wheat, grapes, olives, figs, almonds, &c, are pro
duced in some abundance. A kind of coarse cloth is manufactured from the threads of broom,
and employed in covering bales of merchandise. In all the islands along the coast, fishing is a
common occupation ; anchovies and mackerel are abundant. The population is about 310,000.
The majority of the inhabitants belong to the Catholic and the United Church ; of the rest,
61,164 are Greeks. Education is in a rude state. Dalmatia was once subject to Venice, but,
towards the end of the 15th century, was seized by the Turks. In 1797, it fell to the share
of Austria, which in 1805 surrendered it to Napoleon. In 1813. the Austrians reconquered
Dalmatia, and it now constitutes a part of their maritime possessions.
Inhabitants, Manners, &c, of the Hungarian States. Hungary has been called "Europe
in miniature ; " and it contains communities of 12 distinct people or nations. The principal
are the Magyars (or Hungarians), Slowacks, Bohemians, Germans, Greeks, Armenians, Walla
chians and Gypsies. The inhabitants of Transylvania and Dalmatia are also various. In
Hungary the people are not tall, but they are active and muscular. The women are more dis-
Hungarian Girl.
Hungarian Peasant.
Hungarian Woman.
fe Sirin? W tha" th<3 Autian fTaleS- The ,iUed nobility Js the same as in Austria.
^^t^OT7 " ' " RUSSla " P°land'L^ ^ey have too much
TWh aCn°rISr^Larf Vl!-riOUS ™ Pictures1"e> but »he higher classes follow somewhat the
nnT, 5i i ?erma"fa,sh'ons-. ,rhe °°.n™on dress is a fur cap, a close coat girded with a sash,
and a cloak, from whtch the right arm is free. This, with the moustache on the upper lip, give
HUNGARIAN STATES.
733
Man of the Frontiers.
Hungarian Peasant.
the Hungarian a military
appearance. The females
dress in black, and wear
long sleeves. The peas
ants wear a calpac, or felt
cap, and a large woolen
cloak. They carry a wal
let on their shoulders, and
generally have a hatchet.
Thus dressed and equip
ped, they generally sleep,
when traveling, in the open
air. In Transylvania, the
peasantry have nearly the
ancient Roman dress, that
was worn by their class ; a
tunic of white cloth belted
to the waist, and reaching to
the knee ; trowsers in wide
folds descending to the an
kles, and sandals on their
feet. Various languages are
in use in Hungary, but the
most general is the Hun
garian ; a dialect, it is supposed, of the Scythian and the Latin. The Latin is very general,
and much public business is transacted in it. It does not, of course, retain all its classical
purity among a people more given to arms than arts ; and the memorable shout of the Hun
garian nobility, moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa, had more of heroism than latinity.
In Transylvania, as in Wallachia, the language is a dialect of the Latin.
There is little that is peculiar in Hungary ; the villages are composed of small houses, with
ends to the street, and all, in
point of shape, exactly alike. In
Transylvania, it is common in
some places to have a homely
sentiment written over the door ;
as " May we never want bread,
nor the freedom to enjoy our do
mestic comforts."
Hungary is blessed with abun
dance ; but commerce affords
few outlets to her productions.
In Dalmatia, on the contrary,
some of the inhabitants at times
are compelled, for several months
in the year, to subsist on juniper
berries, and wild roots. Frogs
and snails are eaten in Hunga
ry ; and rice is common there,
and in Transylvania. A favor
ite dish with the common peo-
|K pie is an omelet mixed with boil
ed prunes ; in other respects the
diet is not peculiar. The wines
of Hungary are excellent ; some
Man of Upper Hungary.
¦w.%^N/#-"
Hungarian Girl.
of the sweet wines are equal to the Monte Pulciano, and the Tokay is generally admitted to
be the best wine in Europe. The grapes are not pressed, but the juice drips into vats from
nets suspended above. The true Tokay is produced but in a small district ; and it bears an
enormous price. As its excellence is much increased by age, it has been sometimes sold for
734 HUNGARIAN STATES.
100 florins a bottle ; and ten florins is a common price for a bottle containing about a pint.
The Tokay has in its favor " infallible " testimony, for the Pope himself, at the Council of
Trent, was sustained by the council, in pronouncing it to be the best of wines. Considerable
quantities of rosoglio are consumed, and also of Maraschino, a cordial made of acid cherries.
These are made chiefly in Dalmatia, where there is distilled also a spirituous liquor, from the
arbute tree. The Dalmatians are given to excess in the use of spirituous liquors. Tobacco is
universally used in smoking, and as snuff.
The chief maladies are gout, and the diseases occasioned by exhalations from marshes. In
Lower Hungary, epidemic disorders are not uncommon.
In Hungary there are inns, but they afford little beside shelter ; and the traveler has frequent
ly to purchase his provisions at the large towns. The post coaches are often but carts, and
generally the facilities for traveling are few.
The Hungarians are distinguished for a military spirit, but they are social and hospitable,
though proud and irritable. The two great pursuits are agriculture and arms, and there are few
trades. In a people so variously compounded, or rather in a country with so many distinct
races, the character and customs must be various.* Hungary may be considered the home of
the Gypsies, but even here, that singular race have the same restless, wandering disposition, that
distinguishes them elsewhere. They are the traveling tinkers and musicians ; and when they
have a settled or temporary residence, it is, in summer, a cave or a tent, and in winter, a hut
like the den of a wild beast, from which light is excluded. The most usual trades followed by
the Gypsies, are those of black and white-smiths, though they act as farriers, carpenters, and
turners. They are universally the executioners and hangmen. The Transylvanian character
is not widely different from the Hungarian, though less national, and the manner of life approach
es more to that of the orientals. In describing the character of the various people composing
the Austrian empire, geographers have seldom attempted to give any but the most general
views. There are more athletic amusements than in Austria, and dancing is equally common,
though with a greater variety of modes. Combats of animals, hunting, and the usual European
games are common. In Hungary the peasants who cultivate the earth are by no means enlight
ened. More of them, however, can read and write than those of the same class in some parts
of Germany ; and the schools are sufficiently numerous to scatter more knowledge. The
Catholics have 3,561 teachers, 1 university, and several colleges. The united Greeks and Ar
menians have 382 schools ; the Greeks, 1,226 schools and 2 gymnasiums ; the Calvinists,
1,600 teachers and 3 colleges ; the Lutherans, 1 lyceum, 1 college, and 629 teachers, and tbe
Jews 100 teachers. There are, besides, agricultural schools and schools of industry.
The arts are not successfully "cultivated except music. The national music, however, is
practised almost exclusively by the Gypsies, who have produced several eminent artists in this
department. Oeser, the painter, and Mind, the Raphael of cats, were natives of Hungary.
* " The Hungarian incontestibly possesses the most Wallachian protests to be his friend ; the Ruthenian feigns
hery temper, and is completely qualified both for uncom- to be stupid ; the Servian is submissive ; the Jew promises
monly good and bad actions. The Slowack is much cool- mountains of gold ; the Gypsy jokes. Whenever a quar-
er and still more so the German; then follows the Wal- rel arises, the German screams and threatens ; the Croat
lacnian and Servian, and last of all, the Ruthenian. The swears and curses ; the Ruthenian spits at his adversary,
poor Jew is totally destitute of courage, and may be fright- and seizes him by his hair : the Slowack makes use of his
ened with an empty meal-sack beyond the Carpathian fists, and boxes his enemy : the Mao-yar cudgels him till
mountains Ihe Hungarian soon forgets injuries, the Ger- blood begins to flow ; the Gypsy assails his face with his
man later, but the Slowack and Wallaclnan, never. The nails ; the Wallachian strives to strike him dead, and the
Ruthenian is continually quarreling the Jew le i for ever Jew screams and takes to his heels. When the Magyar
TJaIZJ ih t" I* r 1S -, y l° be .r~oncil;d- as s°?a swears. he al«'ays <»kes God to witness, while the STow-
MatvT^ n H f 1 ? 7 °r 7 * °f hil nau°n" T *e ack calls uP°n the devil l° take him. The cursing Mag-
SloSl 2 .. g-^T 0" " fi"e ^°rSe,; th,e yar- Wallachian, and Servian use an immense variety of
iarlv wUh oeonl, IfhS ran T lie"™™ rathe'; fam1'- ?b™*e ™™s i the Slowack hurls a thousand thunder-
ca ^"a oanPrf„]e Mh"£ ' ^Ifll' 7^e "»* b°lts, at >»! °PE"e? t, and the German ever calls the dev-
carry a cane in his hand (as judge of his villasrel • the .Ttohi, «M T „ M r 77 • . 7 v ,Z
Wallachian, when he can exhibit a shining iZTJ, '¦ k! „„,V° f.,^ ™?_^« V^rMj appropriates to bra
careless of his hie ; the S owack pretends to be" wittV- th* .7 n P. ," """''."> "¦»<=« "e ™s tor guiu , .......
German is talkativ'e and very tiresome ;t£ Wallalian is can -,"" W.W,t'r ' ^"'"V^0". P"*" "Wver £e
quarrelsome, and ready to shed blood thrRutlenhLn Sn ^K ''? ,thr SWack. Stains from steal.ng.he
mutters inwardly, and is reserved and p one to re yen™ fZ 'J*0a,u~ ^ M*V theft t°°<> criminal ; the Ruthe-
When the Magyar or Slowack is going to cheat S' nliin Z f °f Pn,»,h,ne»t Y. thA MaS-V«- because he is
he praises liimfthe German offer's him his try-L^the ano^porfunUy1 ? - Folel£ R^™™' ^ ^ *
GEEMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. 735
The literature of Hungary has added little or nothing to the general stock of European taste or
knowledge. In Hungary there is no established religion, according to the letter of the law, but
the Catholics are the most numerous sect. There are Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews, and others.
The Gypsies are without a creed. The Jews pay a tax called tolerance. In Transylvania,
there are Greeks, Catholics, various sects of Protestants, Jews, and Unitarians.
In Transylvania, as in other districts in that vicinity, there is a belief in vampyres, or
of demons, that animate the bodies of the dead, which come forth to steal away the life of
-the living, by sucking their blood. The victims are often supposed to be the nearest friends
of the deceased. It used to be the custom, when a vampyre was supposed to be the ten
ant of a particular new-made grave, to open it, and examine the corpse ; if this was found
with ruddyr cheeks, and fresh and undecayed, it was adjudged a vampyre and burnt. The
Wallachian population, to show affection forjheir departed friends, moisten their graves with
wine. They have also the custom, which prevails in many countries, of interrogating the dead ;
saying to a deceased friend, that he was so fortunately situated with his wife, children, and
friends, that he should not have died. They say to him that he acted foolishly, and call upon
him to change his mind. Hungary is an hereditary monarchy. The king has great power, but
there is a Diet, which has its influence in the State. In religious matters, the king has papal
authority. Transylvania is a limited monarchy ; and the king, like the king of Hungary, is the
Emperor of Austria.
Hungary, or Pannonia, as it was called by the Romans, was invaded and subdued by the
Magyars, a Caucasian tribe, towards the end of the 9th century ; about which time Christiani
ty was introduced. The kingdom was especially aggrandized during the administration of Mat
thias, who took possession of Vienna and many of the neighboring provinces, and died in 1490.
After his death Austria recovered the conquered provinces, and began to look to the prospect
of succession to the Hungarian crown. In 1 526, the greater part of Hungary was conquered
by the' Turks, in whose hands it remained until the peace of Carlowitz, in 1699. From this
period the country has remained united to the Austrian Empire.
CHAPTER XCIV. GERMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA.
Divisions. This part of the Austrian Empire consists of I. the Archduchy of Austria;
2. the Duchy of Stiria ; 3. the Kingdom of Illyria ; 4. the Tyrol ; 5. the Kingdom of Bo
hemia ; 6. the Margraviate of Moravia and Austrian Silesia ; 7. the Kingdom of Galicia.
1. Archduchy of Austria. This country is bounded north by Bohemia and Moravia, east
by Hungary, south by Stiria, and west by Bavaria. It contains 15,000 square miles, and a
population of 2,120,000. It lies upon the Danube, which rises in Bavaria and flows easterly
into Hungary. The Enns, one of its branches, divides the country into Upper and Lower
Austria. A branch of the Noric Alps, called the Soemmering Heights, separates it from
Stiria. Another range, called the Kahlenberg, extends from the source of the Drave toward
the Danube. Other eminences, of considerable elevation, are scattered over the country.
The rivers vary in color at different seasons, except the Danube, which is always yellow. The
others are of a beautiful lively green in the spring. The lake of Gmunden is celebrated for
the fine scenery of its shores, and the salt manufactured from its waters and the neighborhood,
which supplies the whole of Austria. There are many other lakes. The climate on the
mountainous borders of Stiria and Bohemia, is cold, with boisterous winds and a short sum
mer ; the ground is covered with snow from October to March. On the banks of the Danube
the heat of summer and autumn is excessive. The soil is generally good. Upper Austria
abounds in fossil salt.
Vienna, the capital, is pleasantly situated upon the Danube, in the midst of a fertile and
picturesque region. It consists of the city proper, which is small and surrounded with walls,
and 34 suburbs, whose spacious streets and elegant edifices form a striking contrast with the
narrow streets and mean buildings of the former. Vienna contains 18, public squares, 20 mo
nasteries, 5 theatres, 50 churches, numerous scientific and charitable institutions, palaces, &c,
and 300,000 inhabitants. The finest promenade is the Prater, on an island in the Danube,
which the rich equipages, the gay crowd, the fine walks, and the various amusements combine
to render unrivaled in Europe. The imperial palace is a splendid, but irregular building, con
taining numerous treasures of art, and a fine library of 300,000 volumes.
736
GERMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA.
Vienna.
Many of the palaces of the nobles are magnifi
cent, and enriched with galleries of paintings and
sculpture, cabinets of medals, scientific collec
tions, &c. Among the churches are St. Ste- -
phen's, a large and noble Gothic edifice, the tow
er of which, 450 feet high, is one of the loftiest
in Europe, and the church of the Capuchins,
which contains the burial vault of the imperial fam
ily. The great hospital is remarkable for its ex
tent, comprising 7 courts, planted with trees, 111
halls, and 2,000 beds, and receiving about 16,000
patients annually. The literary institutions are
important ; the university is one of the best in
Europe, particularly for the medical department,
and its library contains 110,000 volumes.
In Vienna and its environs are the greatest number of botanical gardens of any place of
equal extent in the world, and several of them are unrivaled by
any similar establishments. Pleasure is the great occupation of
the inhabitants of Vienna. In the environs are numerous parks,
and pretty towns. Schoenbrunn and Luxemburg are favorite sum-
r||||nl\ ^g met residences of the emperor.
If '^fcl If Other towns in the Archduchy of Austria are Neustadt, con-
- lUi -JL taining 8,000 inhabitants, with flourishing manufactures, and con
nected with Vienna by a canal ; Lintx, with 20,000, containing
extensive woolen manufactures, and connected with the salt works
of Gmunden by a railroad ; Steyer, 10,000 inhabitants, noted for
the excellence and cheapness of its cutlery, which is exported to
all parts of Europe, and Saltzburg, with 14,000 inhabitants, with
a cathedral, archbishop's palace, several literary institutions, and
manufactures.
y|J|||i § Agriculture is generally well managed. Wheat, barley, oats,
¦ ;jj I rye, peas, &c. are cultivated. In Lower Austria the vine is ex-
tBT j tensively cultivated Manufactures are pretty active, and Vienna
employs 80,000 artificers in different fabrics. The chief articles
are woolen, cotton, silk, leather, iron, steel, glass, porcelain, pa
per, toys, and furniture. A railroad extends from Mauthausen on
the Danube to Budweis on the Moldau, 70 miles in length, thus
connecting the Elbe with the Danube. Another great project has
received the approbation of the Austrian and Russian governments ;
it contemplates the connexion of Vienna with Warsaw, in Poland,
by a railroad. The Vienna canal extends from Vienna to Neu
stadt, 40 miles, and it is proposed to continue it to Trieste.
2. Duchy of Stiria. This province is bounded north by Aus
tria, east by Hungary and Croatia, south by Carniola, and west by
Carinthia and Upper Austria. It is 125 miles in length and 70 in
breadth. It is divided into Upper and Lower Stiria, and contains
8,380 square miles, and 860,000 inhabitants. Upper Stiria is moun
tainous ; many of its elevations are of great height. Lower Stiria
is more level. The rivers flow into the Danube and Drave. The
level parts are fertile ; cattle are pastured upon the mountains, and
these regions abound in wild animals. Minerals are abundant, as
iron, silver, lead, and copper; the iron mines of Eisenarz and Vor-
derberg are very productive. Fossil salt is also found here. Hot
baths and medicinal springs are common in Lower Stiria. Graetz,
a well-built town, and the capital of Stiria, contains a university,
with a rich library, and numerous other institutions for education,
among which the Johanneum, or college founded by the Archduke
Austrian Woman. John, is the principal. Its manufactures of cotton goods, hard
ware, silk, &c, are extensive. Population, 34,000.
Fireman of Vienna.
GERMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. 737
3. Kingdom of Illyria. This kingdom is bounded north by Austria, and Stiria, east by
Croatia, south by the Adriatic, west by the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom and Tyrol. It con
tains 11,000 square miles, and 1,145,000 inhabitants. The country is mountainous ; the rocks
consist of primitive limestone, hollowed out into a vast number of grottoes. There are said to
be 1,000 caves in Illyria, among which that of Adelsberg is celebrated for its dimensions and
crystals. It is thought the whole ridge of mountains intersecting the country is hollow ; many
rivers sink into the ground and appear in other places among them. The Save, Laybach,
Gurck, and Isonzo, water different parts of the kingdom. The lake of Zirknitz is a great cu
riosity ; it is 8 miles long, 4 broad, and is completely surrounded by steep mountains and for
ests. In June its waters entirely disappear, through holes in the bottom of the lake, which is
then ploughed and sown. In 3 months' time, an abundant crop of hay and millet is produced ;
the deer come down from the mountains and feed in the pastures. In September, the waters
rush violently back, and fill the lake ; it then abounds in fish. The waters have been known
to fluctuate 3 times a year, and in other seasons not at all. The climate in the mountains is
rigorous but healthy. On the coast it is warm, and vegetation is luxuriant. In other parts the
vine and olive flourish. Minerals are abundant. Iron, lead, and copper are exported. The
quicksilver mines of Idria are the richest in Europe, and yield annually 640,000 pounds of
quicksilver, and 378,000 pounds of cinnabar.
Illyria consists of 2 political divisions, the government of Laybach, including Carinthia and
Carniola, and the government of Trieste, comprising Istria ; these are subdivided into 7 circles.
Trieste, situated upon the northern extremity of the Gulf of Venice, is the principal com
mercial town in the empire. Including the immediate neighborhood, with its beautiful gardens,
vineyards, and country seats, it has a population of 42,000 souls. The commerce of Trieste
has rapidly increased since it has been declared a free port. In the vicinity is Aquileia, now
a small village, once the centre of commerce between the northern and southern parts of the
Roman empire, and a large city with 100,000 inhabitants.
Laybach, formerly capital of the duchy of Carniola, and at present of the kingdom of Illy
ria, has an active trade, and its manufactures are extensive. A congress of European sover
eigns was held here in 1820. Population, 10,000. Idria, in the same government, derives
importance from its rich mines of quicksilver. Population, 5,000. Clagenfurth, a busy man
ufacturing town, with 9,000 inhabitants, was the capital of the former duchy of Carinthia ;
Rovigno, with a good harbor, has an active commerce, and contains 10,000 inhabitants.
One of the most perfect and extensive works of the Romans is at Pola, about 40 miles from
Trieste. It is an amphitheatre, with 3 floors and rustic arcades. In height it is 97 feet, and
in length 416. The seats occupy but one side, and are formed on the declivity of a hill. It
is entire in its whole circuit, and is capable of accommodating 18,000 persons. The chief
productions of Illyria arise from the minerals above mentioned, the cultivation of the vine and
olive, and fishing of anchovies in the Adriatic.
4. The Tyrol, This district is bounded north by Bavaria, east by Austria, south by the
Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, and west by Switzerland. It contains 10,880 square miles,
and 790,000 inhabitants. It is very mountainous and much resembles Switzerland, being
traversed by the Rhelian Alps, some of whose summits belong to the highest European moun
tains. The Ortlerspitz reaches the height of 12,800 feet. There is a lower chain called the
Brenner, or Burning Mountain, from its glaciers, which appear in the sunshine like a blaze of
light. Many of the ridges are crowned with sharp pinnacles of granite, resembling obelisks ;
some are rent into deep and frightful chasms, and others covered with eternal snow, Numer
ous mountain torrents water the country, and find their way to the Rhine, Danube, Po, and- the
Adriatic. The largest river is the Inn, which rises in the canton of the Grisons in Switzerland,
and receiving numerous mountain streams in that country, falls into the Danube at Passau.
The Adige rises in this country and passes through the Venetian territory into the Adriatic.
The Drave, Lech, Iser, and Iller rise in this country.
The mountains have the climate of Switzerland ; the snow and torrents block up the villages,
and confine the inhabitants within doors in winter. The soil produces hemp, flax, tobacco,
and. grain ; the vine is reared in some parts. There are rich mines of silver, lead, copper,
iron, and salt ; precious stones to^ a considerable amount are obtained here, as agates, corneli
ans, rubies, amethysts, emeralds, and chalcedonies. The inhabitants are industrious, and, be
sides the occupation of hunting and agriculture, employ themselves in manufacturing boxes,
cases of instruments, toys, &c, which are exported even to America. The rearing of cana-
93
738
GERMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA.
considerable branch of industry ; the breeding of silkworms is confined to the
ry birds is a
southern parts. . . t> 1 ?• -» nnn
Innspruck, the capital, has an active trade, and a seminary of learning. 1 opulation,^,000.
Botzen, or Bobzano, has several manufactures and 4 annual fairs. Population,' 8,080. Rove-
redo, on the Adige has manufactures of silk. Population 10,000. Riva, on the Lago di
Garda, has manufactures of iron and jews-harps, and a trade in corn. Population, 3,097.
Trent, on the Adige, is famous for a council held here in the beginning of the Reformation.
Population, 11,000.
5. Kingdom of Bohemia. This country is bounded north by Saxony and Silesia, east by Sile
sia, Moravia, and the county of
Glatz, south by Austria, and Ba
varia, and west by Saxony and
Bavaria. It contains 20,400
square miles, and 3,900,000
inhabitants. High mountains
inclose it on all sides ; the dif
ferent ranges are called the
Sudetic, Moravian, Giant,
Woody, and Erzgebirge moun
tains. The whole country re
sembles an immense concavity
or basin, considerably elevated
above the level of the sea. The
Elbe receives all the waters of
this great basin, and bursting
through the Erzgebirge moun
tains in the north, passes into
Saxony. The climate is de
lightful. Italy itself has not a
more pleasant spring, and sum
mer and winter are only an
agreeable variety of tempera
tures ; the mountains shut out
every wind, and there are no lakes or marshes to infect
the air. The soil is equal to the climate, and yields
abundantly almost every production of the temperate
region. The mountains are covered with pines, and
other trees, and in the interior are extensive forests
of oak. In the mountains are wild boars, hares,
lynxes, bears, wolves, foxes, badgers, otters, beavers,
and martens. Wild fowl are in plenty. Mines of
gold, silver, iron, tin, copper, cobalt, and coal, exist
here. Marble, and many sorts of precious stones,
are also produced. The river Moldau furnishes
beautiful pearls.
Prague, the capital of Bohemia, is a large and
flourishing city, situated on both sides of the Moldau,
over which there is a splendid bridge of 16 arches.
It contains 48 churches, 16 monasteries, 9 syna
gogues, a number of elegant palaces, among which
are an imperial castle, and the palace of Wallenstein, and other public buildings. It is strong
ly fortified with very extensive works. The university is one of the oldest, and was long one
of the most celebrated, in Europe ; its library contains 100,000 volumes. Prague is the cen
tre of Bohemian commerce, and the depot of the active manufacturing district in which it is
situated. Population, 105,000, of which 7,500 are Jews. It is celebrated in history as the
residence of Huss, the Bohemian reformer, and the birthplace of his disciple, Jerome.
Reichenberg, with 10,000 inhabitants, a flourishing town, with extensive manufactures of
cotton and woolen ; Budweis, 6,000, with an active trade ; Joachimsthal, 4,000, noted for its
Bohemian Woman.
Bohemian Peasant.
Bohemian Gypsies.
GERMAN AND POLISH PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA.
739
mines of silver and cobalt, and the centre of a mining district, which furnishes lead and tin ;
Pilsen, 8,000 inhabitants, deriving an active trade from its woolen manufactures, and the mines
of iron and alum in its vicinity ; and Carlsbad, Toeplitz, and Seidlitz, known for their mineral
waters, are the other most important Bohemian towns.
The agricultural products are buckwheat, millet, pulse, saffron, ginger, &c, but hops are
the staple article, and their excellence is unsurpassed. The vine is cultivated, but to no great
extent. Manufactures are flourishing, and comprise linen thread, and cloth, lace, ribands, silk,
paper, cotton cloth, stockings, gloves, leather, iron, brass, tin, cutlery, and jewelry.
Bohemia was occupied by German tribes in the 4th century. An army of Sclavonians sub
dued the country in the 6th century. The first sovereign known by name was Przemislas, a
peasant, whom the princess Libussa married in 632, and raised to the throne. The sovereigns
were at first called dukes, but the title of king was granted in 1061, by the Emperor Henry
the Tenth. Bohemia was united to the German empire in 1310, but separated from it in the
next century. In the 17th century it became an appendage to the Austrian monarchy.
6. Margraviate of Moravia and Austrial Silesia. These provinces are bounded north by
Bohemia and Prussian Silesia, east by Hungary and Galicia,
south by Austria, and west by Bohemia. They contain
10,100 square miles, and 2,000,000 inhabitants. Half the
country is covered with mountains and forests. In the level
parts are bogs, lakes, and morasses. A number of small
streams here unite and form the Morava, which flows into
the Danube. In the mountainous parts, the climate is so cold,
that stoves are used all the year ; yet the air is salubrious.
Game and venison are plentiful, and the country had once
mines of gold,- which are now exhausted.
Brunn, the capital of Moravia, has a citadel on an emi
nence 806 feet high. The city is well built, and the pub
lic edifices are splendid. Population, 38,000. Olmutz,
with 18,000 inhabitants, is noted as the prison of Lafayette.
The village of Austerlitz, is 12 miles from Brunn, and is
celebrated for one of Napoleon's greatest victories. Trop-
pau, in Silesia, has 10,000 inhabitants, and is famous for a
congress held here, in 1820. The inhabitants raise corn
sufficient for their own subsistence and for exportation.
Hemp, flax, fruits, and vegetables, are also largely culti
vated. Moravia was part of a great kingdom partitioned, in
the 10th century, by the surrounding powers. Since the
11th century, it has been for tbe most of the time attached
to Bohemia. Silesia is a part of the duchy of that name,
the most of which was assigned to Prussia, in 1742.
This country is bounded north by the republic of Cracow and the
kingdom of Poland, east by Russia,
and south and west by the Hungarian
States. It contains 33,000 square
miles, and 4,550,000 inhabitants. The
Crapack or Carpathian Mountains
divide it from Hungary, and send off
several branches into this country, but
the greater part declines gradually from
the highlands into an immense plain.
The Dniester rises on the north of
the mountains, and passes southeast
erly into Russia. The Pruth also
rises here, and flows in the same
direction. The head streams of the
Vistula and Bug water the north
ern and western parts. The soil in
Mines of Widiczka. the north and west is only moderately
Peasant of Moravia.
7. Kingdom of Galicia.
740
AUSTRIA.
fertile, and in some parts marshy ; in the east and south, it is highly productive. In the de*-
partment of minerals, this region is distinguished for its fossil salt. The mines of Wieliczka
are the most celebrated in the world. They extend above a mile under ground, and are be
tween 700 and 800 feet in depth.* They employ 900 miners, and yield annually 300,000 cwt.
of salt. There are also mines of silver, iron, copper, lead, and sulphur.
Lemberg, the capital of Austrian Poland, or the kingdom of Galicia, is a large and well-built
city, with a population of 52,000 souls, among whom are 20,000 Jews. It contains a uni
versity and other literary institutions, and is the residence of Roman Catholic, Armenian, and
Greek archbishops, and of a superior Rabbi. Its woolen and cotton manufactures are im
portant, and it carries on an active trade with Russia, Turkey, &c. Brody, the second city,
and the most important commercial town of Galicia, has 20,000 inhabitants, of whom 16,000
are Jews. Jaroslav has some manufactures belonging to the government. . Population, 7,000.
Bochnia has salt mines, furnishing nearly 250,000 cwt. of salt. Population, 3,100.
Agriculture is much neglected. The articles cultivated are corn, flax, tobacco, and vegeta
bles. The forests furnish abundance of wood and potash. The Jews commonly buy the har
vest of the farmer while growing in the field. The manufactures consist of broadcloth and
cordage. There is little trade except in the natural productions of the country. Galicia formed
a part of the ancient kingdom of Poland, and was acquired by Austria at the partitioning of that
country, as related in the history of Poland.
Inhabitants, Manners, &c., of Austria. The Austrians are of a German stock, but darker
Peasant of Galicia.
T.S3tensS£ '
Woman of Galicia.
Gentleman of Galicia.
H,?™?16*^ i"d m°re aTTate,d' than £? Northern Germans ; they are somewhat mixed with
Hungarians, Bohemians, and Italians. The Bohemians have a resemblance both to the Ger-
* At the foot of the last ladder, the stranger is received
in a small, dark cavern, walled up perfectly close on all
sides. To increase the terror of the scene, it is usual for
the guide to pretend the utmost alarm on the apprehension
of his lamp going out, declaring that such an accident
must be attended willi the most fatal consequences When
arrived in this dreary chamber, he puts out his light, as if
by accident; but, after some time, catches the stranger by
the hand and drags him through a narrow creek into tho
body of the mine, when there bursts at once upon his view
a little world, the lustre of which is scarcely to be ima
gined. It is a spacious plain, containing a whole people
a kind of subterranean republic, with houses, carriaces'
roads, &c. This is scooped out of one vast bed of salt'
which is all a hard rock, as bright and glittering as crys
tal.; and the whole space before him is formed of lofty,
arched vaults, supported by columns of salt, and roofed
and floored w.th the same, so that the columns, and indeed
the whole fabric, seem composed of the purest crystal.
there are several lights in this place continually burning,
tor the general use ; and the blaze of those, reflected from
every part of the mine, gives a more glittering prospect
than anything above ground can possibly exhibit.
Were this the whole beauty of the spot, it were suffi
cient to excite astonishment and admiration ; but this is
only a small part. The salt (though generally clear and
bright ns crystal) is, in some places tinged with all the
colors of precious stones, as blue, yellow, purple, and
green ; there are numerous columns, wholly composed of
these kinds, and they look like masses of rubies, emeralds,
AUSTRIA.
741
mans and the Hungarians. The Austrian nobility are titled as princes, counts, and barons.
There are seven knightly orders, including one for ladies of princely or ancient noble families.
The dress is generally that of Germany, though French fashions are common in the cities. In
Bohemia, the general poverty of the peasants is apparent in their dress, which is often little bet
ter than tatters. In Austria, the German is the general language ; in Bohemia, the Sclavonic-
The French is generally understood by the higher classes in Austria.
Architecture has not attained to much excellence in the Austrian States. Some of the cities,
and especially Vienna, have many imposing edifices, and the mansions of the nobles are large,
though not in good taste ; the dwellings of the peasants are small and mean. There is little
peculiar in the common food, except the frogs, snails, and birds, such as sparrows, hawks, and
magpies, that are constantly seen in the markets of large towns. To Vienna, frogs are brought
in quantities of 30,000 or 40,000 at a time, and kept in conservatories. The livers of
geese are esteemed great delicacies. In Bohemia there is little wine, but much beer is used5
which is made there of an excellent quality. The most common diseases are fevers, and the
general maladies that prevail in the middle latitudes of Europe. The expense of traveling by
post is equal to that in France, but the inns, roads, and vehicles are bad ; the system of pass
ports and custom-houses is very strict and annoying.
The Austrians are more cheerful and affable than the Germans, and their capital is celebrated
for its splendor and various amusements. The higher classes
are fond of show. Quarrels are rare, and years pass without
the occurrence of a capital execution. The people are, of
course, distinguished for self-command and an even tempera
ment. The Austrians are ingenious in mechanism ; but their
greatest efforts in this way are not of practical utility. Auto
maton chess-players, and a head imitating the sounds of the
human voice, are Austrian inventions. In the United States
and in Great Britain, the same mechanical turn of mind is de-
-voted to projects of general utility, and adds new facilities to
science, commerce, and manufactures. It has been noted of
the Austrians, that they take no interest in public affairs, and
seldom converse upon them. From the time of Maria Theresa,
however, with few intervals, it has been the care of the gov
ernment to prevent the subjects from speculating too curiously
upon the right and the expedient in politics ; and the reason
why the Austrians do not now converse on public affairs, is
that they are not permitted to feel that interest which comes
from taking a part in them. The Austrians have been called
sensual ; and it is certain, that they are more fond of the
pleasures of the table than the other Germans.
The Tyrolese are hardy, brave, and of great simplicity of
character. They are practically republicans, respecting little
the distinctions of wealth or rank, and defending their rude mountains with a courage and con
stancy seldom found in a people dwelling on the most fertile plains. They are devout Catho
lics, but too kind to be intolerant. Their country is too barren to support them by agriculture
alone, though this is followed with great skill and perseverance. Many breed canary birds, and
wander into foreign countries to sell them. Almost every one is an artisan or manufacturer.
Woman of Upper Austria.
amethysts, and sapphires, darting a radiance which the
eye can hardly bear, and which has given many people
occasion to compare it to the supposed magnificence of
heaven. Besides the variety of forms in those vaults, ta
bles, arches, and columns, which are framed as they dig
out the salt, for the purpose of keeping up the roof, there
is a vast variety of others, grotesque and finely figured,
the work of nature ; and these are generally of the purest
and brightest salts. The roofs of the arches are, in many
places, adorned with salt, hanging from the top in form of
icicles, and having all the hues and colors of the rainbow.
The walks are covered with various congelations of the
same kind ; and the very floors, when not too much
trodden and battered, are covered with globules of the
same sort of materials.
In various parts of this spacious plain, stand the huts
of the miners and families, some single, and others in clus
ters, like villages. They have very little communication
with the world above ground, and many hundreds of peo
ple are born and live all their lives there. Through the
midst of this plain lies a road, which is always filled with
carriages, loaded with masses of salt out of the further part
of the. mine, and carrying them to the place where the
rope belonging to the wheel receives them ; the drivers of
these carriages are all merry and singing, and the salt
looks like a load of gems. A great number of horses are
kept here, and, when once let down, they never see day
light again ; but some of the men take frequent occasions
of going up, and breathing the fresh air.
742
AUSTRIA.
They execute many works in wood with great neatness. Shops and houses are framed, the
pieces numbered, and transported to the lake of Constance, and from thence to different coun
tries. Many of the Tyrolese follow the adventurous life of hunters, but all these employments
are insufficient to support the population, and it is supposed, that 30,000 leave the country
yearly. At six years of age, the Tyrolian often quits his country, and sets out for a fair in Ba
varia, where he gets employment in herding geese or cattle.
The Bohemians are hardy and cheerful ; they have great musical talents, and are found as
musicians all over Germany ; they have a disposition to travel, and visit in all countries, though
they often return to their own. They are inclined to superstition, and in no place is the reve
rence to the images of saints carried so far as in Prague ; the bridge is lined with ah avenue of
statues, round which numerous people kneel, or prostrate themselves, in the most humble pos
tures. The peasantry have the usual faults that spring from an unequal condition ; for every
landholder is a master, and every peasant in effect a slave.
Austria has many schools, of every grade ; but all are public ; and of course the institutions
are not so well conducted as in countries where rival institutions are permitted in competition.
The higher classes are intelligent, especially at Vienna ; and, of the people at large, the greater
part can read and write. There are universities at Vienna, Prague, and Pest, and lyceums at
several towns. There is a medical school at Vienna, and an academy for painting, sculpture,
architecture, and engraving. The Austrian States have not added much to the literature of
Europe, nor have any of the departments of science been much advanced by them. The
present emperor is known to make a distinction between good scholars and good subjects. The
arts of sculpture, painting, and even architecture, are in a humble state, but that of music is
more generally and successfully cultivated than in any other country. Haydn and Mozart are
names associated with harmony.
The Catholic is the established religion of Austria, but all others are tolerated. There are,
besides Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews, &c. In Bohemia, many of the ecclesiastics
are said to be dissolute. Austria is an absolute monarchy, in which the power of the crown is
impregnable. The censorship of the press is strict, travelers are subjected to annoyance, and
all means are taken to secure the dependence of the people on the government, and to prevent
all innovation or discussion of political institutions. Bohemia, as well as Hungary, is a distinct
kingdom, and limited monarchy, but under the immediate government of the emperor. In the
Tyrol, the four estates, including the peasantry, are convened to grant supplies for the expenses
of government. The laws in Austria are mild, and the administration of them just. The civil
code, introduced in 1811, is considered good.
8. History. Austria began to acquire significance in the 12th century, when it was made a
duchy. In the following century, the house of Hapsburg laid the foundation of the Austrian
greatness. New territories were subsequently acquired, and the electoral crown of Germany
was obtained by this dynasty in 1438. Austria was raised to an archduchy in 1453, and, with
the acquisition of Bohemia and Hungary, in 1526, it was allowed the rank of a European mon
archy. It was erected into an empire in 1804, and though much abridged of its territory and
influence, by the conquests of Napoleon, its losses were subsequently retrieved, and it is now,
both in name and effect, one of the chief powers of Europe.
Juniper.
PRUSSIA. 743
CHAPTER XCV. PRUSSIA.
Berlin.
1. Boundaries and Extent. This kingdom is composed of two distinct portions of territory,
separated by the German States. They are bounded north by the Netherlands, Hanover,
Mecklenburg, and the Baltic Sea ; east by Russia and Poland ; south by Austria, Saxony,
several of the German States ; and west by the Netherlands. The northern extremity is in
55° 46', and the southern in 49? north latitude. The eastern extremity is in 23°, and the
western in 6° east longitude. The eastern division contains 88,200, and the western 18,100
square miles ; total, 106,300.*
2. Mountains. Some parts of the eastern division are skirted by the Hartz and Sudetic
mountains. In the western part, there are some ranges of hills ; but in general, the country is
not mountainous.
3. Rivers. The Oder rises in Moravia and flows through the whole of eastern and south
ern Prussia northwesterly into the Baltic ; it is 460 miles long, and for the most part is navi
gable. The Elbe enters Prussia from Saxony, and flows northwesterly into Hanover. The
Spree, Saale, Havel, and Elster, are tributaries of the Elbe. The Pregel, Niemen, and Vis
tula, water the northeastern part. The western part is traversed from southeast to northwest
by the Rhine.
4. Coas* and Bays. Prussia has 500 miles of coast upon the Baltic, comprising two large
bays, the Gulf of Dantzic, and the Gulf of Rugen, and three Haffs, or Gulfs ; the Kurische
Haff, which receives the Nieman ; the Frische Haff, at the mouth of the Vistula ; and the
Stettin Haff, at the mouth of the Oder.
5. Islands. On the coast of Pomerania, on the Baltic, is the island of Rugen, the largest
belonging to Germany. It contains 370 square miles, and is partly covered with a forest of
beech trees. Many parts of it are fertile. It has 28,150 inhabitants. The chief town is
Bergen, with a population of 2,200. Several small islands are scattered around it.
6. Climate. The climate is temperate and healthy in general, though varying much in the
different provinces. Along the Baltic it is cold, damp, and variable. In the interior it is
much more agreeable.
7. Soil. In the eastern part there is little fertile land, except strips of low marshy territory
along the coast and rivers. The remainder is sandy and overgrown with heath. In the west
ern part the soil is much superior ; yet here are many tracts that are stony and unproductive.
8. Minerals. The mountainous parts contain iron, copper, lead, and silver. Salt is ob
tained from springs in Prussian Saxony. Eastern Prussia is the only country of Europe which
produces in any abundance the remarkable substance called amber ; naturalists are yet ignorant
of its origin, and it is uncertain whether it should be ranked among vegetable", mineral, or ani
mal productions. It is found on the shores of the Baltic, thrown upon the beach by the strong
northeasterly gales. Sometimes it is found in sand-hills near the sea, in regular strata, which
are worked as in a mine. It is also found in the interior, but in small pieces, and to a trifling
* The Canton of Neufchatel, in Switzerland, acknowledges the sovereignty of the king of Prussia ; but this is in his
own right, and not as king of Prussia.
744
PRUSSIA.
amount. The portion of the coast from which it is taken is 8 leagues in extent, from Pillau to
beyond Polangen. About 200 tons are produced annually, yielding a revenue of 22,000 dol
lars to the king.
9. Face of the Country. The eastern part is an immense plain, so flat towards the sea,
that the coast would be exposed to inundation were it not protected by downs of sand. The
rivers have so little descent to carry off their waters, that they run into stagnant lakes. The
western part is somewhat hilly. Forests of great extent exist in both divisions.
10. Divisions. The Prussian monarchy is divided into 8 provinces, which are subdivided
into 25 governments and 328 circles. Two of the provinces are in the western, and the re
mainder in the eastern section.
Provinces of Eastern Prussia.
Prussia, Grand Duchy of Posen,
Saxony,
Silesia,
Pomerania, Brandenburg.
Provinces of Western Prussia.
Westphalia,Rhine.
^._..fr-
11. Canals. The Bromberg Canal connects the Brahe, a tributary of the Vistula, with
the Netze, a tributary of the Oder; 16 miles long. The Frederic- William Canal unites
the Oder above Frankfort with the Spree, and the Plaucn Canal connects the Elbe and the
Havel. There are some other canals, but, as well as those above mentioned, they are of no
great extent.
12. Towns. Berlin, the capital, situated in the midst of a sandy plain upon the Spree, is
a handsome city, with spacious and regular streets, adorned with several fine squares and many
elegant edifices. The Royal pal
ace is one of the most magnificent
in Europe, and the arsenal is one
of the largest in the world. Sev
eral palaces of the royal princes
and of the nobility, and many pub
lic edifices and churches, are also
handsome buildings. Some of the
22 squares are adorned with stat
ues or other monuments, and Lime-
street, planted with 6 rows of lime
trees, is one of the most beautiful
^^^io^SRlSiiflfip^^^^^vii^^S^i^^^^^^^i streets in Europe. There is a
&r5'.{".-iKlli 'limmmmlmMt. M fflkXSfmMz - great number of literary institutions
and scientific establishments, which
are of a high order. The univer
sity, with its beautiful halls and ex
cellent collections, is perhaps equal
to any in the w-orld ; and there are
5 colleges, 7 gymnasiums, and ofher higher schools, with upwards of 100 elementary schools.
The Zoological Garden is a favorite promenade ; and the Parade-ground is an extensive field,
used for military reviews. Population, 240,000.
Royal Palace.
mous. Frankfort on the Oder, has a thriving commerce, and 17,000 inhabitants. Stettin, on
the Oder, is a fortified town, with one of the best ports in Prussia. Population, 32,200.
Large vessels stop at Swinemunde. Stralsund, in this vicinity, is an important commercial
town with 16,000 inhabitants. Breslau, upon the Oder, capital of Silesia, is officially styled
the third capital of the kingdom. Its university, with numerous scientific institutions and a val
uable library, the extent of its commerce and manufactures, and its population, amounting to
90,000 souls, render it the second city in Prussia
Posen is a large and flourishing city upon the Wartha. It is strongly fortified, and its three
annual fairs render its trade brisk. Population, 28.500. Koenigsberg, near the mouth of the
PRUSSIA. 745
Pregel, is a large city, with straight and spacious streets, and 70,000 inhabitants. It carries
on an active commerce, and it contains a university, observatory, several gymnasiums, &c. Its
port is Pillau, at which the largest vessels stop, as there is not sufficient depth of water in the
Frische Haff. Dantzic, formerly the capital of a republic, is the principal commercial port of
Prussia, being the outlet for the products of Poland. It is beautifully situated, but badly
built, and is one of the chief Prussian foitresses. Population, 63,000. The other most im
portant towns in this part of the country are Elbing, a manufacturing and commercial place,
with 20,000 inhabitants ; Thorn, the birthplace of Copernicus, with 11,000 inhabitants ; and
Tilsit, with a population of 12,000.
Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony, is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, and is a
commercial place of some importance. Population, 51,000. The other principal towns of
this province, are Halle, important from its salt-works, its manufactures, its book-trade, and its
celebrated university, with 26,000 inhabitants ; Halberstadt, with an active trade, and a
magnificent. cathedral, 16,000 inhabitants ; and Erfurt, noted for its literary establishments, its
flourishing commerce and its strong works, and containing 25,000 inhabitants. Munster, capi
tal of Westphalia, is interesting from its historical associations. The peace of Westphalia,
1648, was signed in the council-house of Munster. Population, 18,000.
Cologne, on the Rhine, the capital of the province of the Rhine, is a strongly fortified,
commercial, and manufacturing city. Its cathedral is one of the finest in Germany. Popula
tion, 65,500. In the neighborhood are Dusseldorf, with extensive manufactures, and 28,800
inhabitants ; Elberfeld, which has lately been rendered one of the most flourishing towns of
Germany by its manufactures of wool, silk, cotton, &c, and its brisk trade, 30,000 inhabit
ants ; Barmen, adjoining the latter, with 20,000 inhabitants, engaged in the same manufactures,
and Bonn, noted for its university, with 12,000 inhabitants. Coblentz, at the junction of the
Moselle with the Rhine, is chiefly remarkable for its immense military works, designed to
render it the bulwark of Germany on the side of France. Population, 15,000.
Aix-la-Chapelle, an ancient city, pleasantly situated between the Rhine and the Meuse, has
long been a place of historical interest, and the mineral waters in its vicinity have for centuries
been much resorted to. It was the favorite residence of Charlemagne, who built the celebrated
minster. The old town-house, in which 55 German emperors were crowned, is also an inter
esting object. The important treaty of peace', called the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, was con
cluded here, in 1748 ; and,' in 1818, a congress of the great powers was held in this city. The
inhabitants are actively engaged in manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, watches, and jew
elry, and carry on a brisk trade. Population, 37,000. In the neighborhood is Treves, with
15,500 inhabitants, which contains many remains of its former splendor, and a celebrated cathe
dral and church of Our Lady. The Roman bridge over the Moselle, and the vast structure
called the Black Gate, are the most remarkable monuments of antiquity. Crefield, with 16,000
inhabitants, and Wesel, 14,000, noted for their manufactures ; Saarlouis, an important fortress,
and Xanten, interesting from its magnificent cathedral and numerous antiquities, are also in this
section of the country.
13. Agriculture. In much of the eastern section, the implements of husbandry are rude,
and agriculture is in a backward condition ; but in the western section, much of the country is
skilfully cultivated. The raising of cattle and sheep is the employment of many of the inhabi
tants ; the vine is cultivated along the Rhine.
14. Manufactures. The principal articles of manufacturing industry are woolen, linen, and
cotton goods, and hardware. Silesia and the Rhenish governments are the most extensively
engaged in this branch of industry. Iron and steel wares are made largely at Berlin, Solingen,
and Iserlohn. The printing-presses of Berlin and Halle are numerous and productive.
15. Comtiierce. Prussia has little maritime commerce, and but a small commercial, and no
military marine. Corn, provisions, cattle, the Silesian linens, the Rhenish and Moselle wines,
the Westphalian hams, and amber and metallic ornaments, are the chief exports. Colonial or
India goods form the bulk of the imports. The inland trade is more extensive.
, 16. Religion. Perfect religious freedom exists in Prussia. Three fifths of the inhabitants
belong to the Evangelical or United Lutheran-Calvinist church. There is a Protestant arch
bishop of Koenigsberg, and there are bishops of Berlin, Stettin, and Potsdam. The Catholics
are most numerous in the provinces of Posen, Westphalia, and the Rhine. There are two
Catholic archbishops, of Cologne and Poseri; and six bishops.
94
746
GERMANY.
17. Education. There are six universities in Prussia, at Berlin, Halle, Breslau, Bonn,
Koenigsberg, and Greifswalde. Those of Berlin, Halle, and Bonn rank among the most ex
cellent institutions of the kind in Europe. The next inferior degree of education, called the
secondary education, is liberally provided for by numerous and excellent institutions, such as
gymnasiums or classical schools, Real-schulen or schools for instruction in mathematics, sciences,
&c. Elementary education is afforded by upwards of 22,000 common or primary schools, to
which all the subjects are required by law to send their children, after they reach a certain age.
On the whole, there is no country where the system of public education is so extensive and
complete as in Prussia.
18. Government. Army. The government is an absolute monarchy ; the revenue is about
35 millions of dollars ; the public debt, 140 millions. The military is composed of the regular
troops and the militia or landwehr ; the former amounts to 162,000 men ; the latter to 360,000.
Every subject is required to serve three years in the standing army, between the 17th and 23d
years of his age, with the exception of those who have received a certain education ; these
serve but one year. After this term of service, every person belongs, till his 30th year, to the
first class of the landwehr, which is drilled every Sunday, and is in active field service for the
space of three weeks, once a year. The second class of landwehr, composed of those above
'30, is exempt from further duty, except in war. Thus the whole nation is essentially military,
and Prussia has been called by a late traveler, "the classic land of barracks and schools."
19. Inhabitants. Five sixths of the whole Prussian population are Germans. In the pro
vinces of Prussia and Posen, the Sclavonic race is numerous,
comprising Poles, Lithuanians, &c. The Wends, in the pro
vince of Brandenburg are likewise Sclavonians. The Jews are
numerous in Posen, and there are some French on the west
ern frontiers of the province of the Rhine. The Germans of
Prussia are industrious and orderly ; but, though well educated,
the lower orders are without that civil and political freedom,
which alone can bring their knowledge and talents into activity.
The Sclavonic nations are very much behind the Germans in
the useful arts, intelligence, foresight, and the comforts of life ;
and even when surrounded by a German population, obstinately
adhere to their own language and customs. Population of the
kingdom, 13,800,000.
19. History. The present kingdom of Prussia has been
formed by various conquests, since the beginning of the 18th
Century, when it first assumed the rank of a kingdom. Frederic
William the First, who reigned from 1713 to 1740, laid the foundation of the military power
of Prussia. His son and successor, Frederic the Second, called the Great, augmented his ter
ritory by the conquest of Silesia, and the partition of Poland, and left the kingdom with a high
political influence in Europe. The battle of Jena, in 1806, threw the whole kingdom into the
hands of Napoleon. From this time, it was little more than a dependency of the French em
pire, till the Russian campaign. After the fall of Napoleon, the kingdom was established upon
its present footing, with great accessions of territory, and it is now the fifth of the great Euro
pean powers
Prussians.
CHAPTER XCVI. GENERAL VIEW OF GERMANY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. The States of the German Confederacy are bounded north by
the German Ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea ; east by Prussia, Posen, Poland, Cracovia,
Galicia, Hungary, and Illyria ; south by Istria, the Adriatic Sea, the Lombardo-Venetian
kingdom, and Switzerland ; and west by France, Holland, and Belgium. They extend from
45° to 54° 40' north latitude, and from 4° 50' to 20° east longitude, and contain 246,000
square miles, with about 37,000,000 inhabitants.
The following is a list of the States of the German Confederacy ; besides which, are the
duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, now belonging to Denmark ; the duchy of Luxemburg,
belonging to the king of the Netherlands ; all the kingdom of Prussia except the Polish and
GERMANY.
747
Prussian (Proper) provinces ; and all those provinces of Austria before described as the Ger
man provinces of that empire : —
Kingdoms.
Grand Duchies.
Duchies.
Bavaria, Wurlemberg,
Hanover, Saxony .
Baden,Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hesse-Darmstadt.
Brunswick,3 Anhalt States,
Nassau,
4 Saxon States.
Principalities.
Landgraviate.Lordship. Free Cities.
Hesse-Cassel,
2 Hohenzollern States,
Liechtenstein, Lippe-Detmold,
3 Reuss States,
2 Schwartzburg States,
Schauenburg-Lippe,
_ Waldeck.
Hesse-Homburg.Kniphausen. Hamburg,Frankfort,Lubec.Bremen.
2. Mountains. The Alps extend in several ranges through the south of Germany. The
Rhcetian Alps proceed from the Grisons and the Tyrol. The Noric Alps extend into the
plains of Hungary. The Carpathian Mountains occupy a portion of the eastern parts. The
Sudetic chain is a branch of these, extending westerly, and receiving, in different parts, the
names of the Riesengebirge, Erzgebirge, Fichtelgebirge, and Thuringerwald. The Hartz
Mountains are the most northerly, and may be considered as a continuation of these last. Many
parts of the Alps rise to the height of perpetual snow.
3. Forests. The great passion of the Germans for hunting the wild boar, is, perhaps, the
reason why this country abounds so much in forests. The Hercynian forest, which in Cesar's
time was nine days' journey in length, and six in breadth, is now divided into woods, which
bear particular names. The mountains are so generally clothed with wood, that the German
word wald signifies both mountain and forest. Most of the woods consist of pine, fir, oak,
and beech.
4. Rivers. The most celebrated river of Germany is the Rhine. It rises in Switzerland,
and, falling over two large cataracts, flows westerly to Basle, where it forms the boundary be
tween France and Germany, and begins its northerly course ; it then enters Germany, and
flows north and northwest to the Netherlands, through which it passes to the sea by several
mouths. It is in general a broad, deep, and rapid river, and its shores abound with the most
romantic scenery ; but as it approaches the sea, its waters become dispersed over a flat and
level country, and the grandeur of its appearance is totally lost. Its whole course is 685 miles,
for the greater part of which, it is navigable. Its chief branches are the Mayne and the
Moselle. The Elbe rises in the Sudetic mountains of Silesia, and flows northwesterly into the German
Ocean. It is 575 miles in length, and is a good navigable stream ; its chief branches are the
Saale and Havel. The Oder rises in the mountains of Moravia, and flows westerly and north
erly into the Baltic ; its length is 400 miles ; its chief branch is the Wartha. The Weser is
formed of several head streams in the northwest, and flows in that direction into the German
Ocean ; it is 270 miles in length. The Danube is a German river for the first half of its
course ; it flows easterly through the southern part of Germany into the Hungarian States.
5. Climate. The climate of Germany is modified by the elevation of the surface, and the
exposure of the different sections. For purposes of general description, it may be divided into
three regions. In the first, or that of the northern plains, the climate is humid and variable,
though not cold ; it is exposed to every wind, which conveys fogs and storms from two seas.
The northwestern plain, from its vicinity to the North Sea, is subject to frequent rains and de
solating tempests, while the influence of the Baltic Sea on the northeastern plain, is less power
ful, and the climate, though colder, is less variable. The second region comprehends all the
central part of Germany, which is sheltered by the mountains from the variableness and humid
ity of the maritime climate ; this zone, the most agreeable of Germany, extends from latitude
48° to 51°, but the general elevation of the surface renders it colder than other European
countries of the same latitude. The third general division is the Alpine section; here the
lofty heights and sudden depressions bring very different climates into contact with each other.
The eternal glaciers of the Tyrol and Saltzburg are contiguous to the vine-covered valleys of
Stiria and Carinthia, and but little removed from the olive groves of Trieste, and the ever-
blooming gardens of Italy. Vines, rice, and maize thrive as far north as 54° ; beyond that
748
GERMANY.
latitude, they do not arrive at perfection. The olive and silk-worm are successfully raised only
in that small part of Germany which lies south of 46°.
6. Soil. The soil is generally productive. The plains in the north have, indeed, much
arid land, but along the rivers are rich and fruitful soils, yielding abundant harvests. In the
south, there is much barren or slightly productive land on the mountains, but the beautiful val
leys and small plains rival in fertility the best alluvial lands on the banks of the northern rivers.
In general, the soil in the north is heavy, and best adapted for corn ; in the south light, and
best fitted for vines. The best soil is in the central section, between the mountains and the
sandy plains.
7. Animals. The chamois is found upon the Noric and Rhaetian Alps. Foxes, martens,
vveasels, polecats, and wolves descend from the mountains into Silesia and Moravia. Bears in
habit the Alps of Stiria, Illyria, and the Tyrol. Wildcats are common.
8. Face of the Country. The southern districts are traversed by lofty and steep mountains.
Toward the centre of the country they decrease in elevation, till they gradually sink into a
plain. The northern parts are level, and exhibit immense peat marshes and sandy districts.
The coast is so flat, that dikes are required to keep out the sea. The southern part of Ger
many presents every variety of romantic and picturesque scenery. The northern is a uniform,
undiversified level.
9. Cavern. At Gailenreuth, in Franconia, is a remarkable cavern with several chambers,
containing the bones of antediluvian
animals, buried in beds of gravel by
the waters of a flood. The entrance
is 8 or 10 feet in height, and is sepa
rated by a pillar of stalactite from the
larger chambers. The floors are of
stalagmite. 10. Inhabitants. The Germans
are descended from the ancient tribes
which formerly inhabited the forests
of the country, living in wild freedom,
and subsisting principally by the chase.
The Germans are hardy and robust,
and have generally light hair and com
plexions, with blue eyes, especially
in the north. In Prussia, they are
tall, and the hair and moustache are
often so white, that they look like
There are generally four classes of
the latter is the first step
Section of the Cavern at Gailenreuth.
cotton, when opposed to the glowing and ruddy cheek
nobility, which are thus titled, Prince, Count, Baron, and Herr Von
above plebeianism, and answers to the French addition of De.
11. Dress. The lower classes dress in the manner the most convenient for their occupations,
and without any very distinguishing peculiarities ; the higher classes follow English and French
fashions. Caps are nearly universal with the men ; they are made of cloth, with low crowns,
two or three inches only in height, and have a small projection over the eyes. The female
peasants and domestics wear, on holydays, gaudy caps of gold stuffs, and those who are too
poor to wear these, adorn their heads and arms with a few flowers.
12. Language. The German language has several dialects, but the high German is that
which is spoken by all educated men in the different States, and in which the literature is con
tained. The low German is the Frisish, used on the shores of the German Ocean, and more
properly, the dialect used in Westphalia, Mecklenberg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. The
German was hardly cultivated in Germany, in the middle of the last century. Science spoke
in Latin, and fashion in French. Voltaire, who always spoke in epigram, said, that he would
address his mistress in Italian, his friend in French, a dog in Dutch, and the devil in German.
The German, however, is a rich and copious language, containing more words than any other,
and having the power of making inexhaustible compounds. As the Latin was lately the lan
guage in which scholars communicated, the Germans are more familiar with it, as a classic lan
guage, than any other nation. French, also, is very common, and English is becoming a favo
rite study.
GERMANY. 749
13. Manner of Building. In the modern architecture there is little to interest a stranger,
in Germany. Generally, the old towns are dark, dismal, and mean in appearance. The mod
ern cities are, some of them, spacious and neatly built. The gardens attached to country hous
es are often in the English style. The Gothic churches are, some of them, wonderful monu
ments of labor and art.
14. Food and Drink. The Germans take more food than their southern neighbors, and of
a plain, substantial kind. The common people follow the plainest style of cooking, and are fond
of fat substances, which they use with sour cabbage.
The ancient character is not yet extinct, for the Germans are much addicted to intoxicating
liquors, especially in the north, where they consume great quantities of beer, porter, and ale.
Alehouses are but too well supported ; the sign over them in some of the States is, "Welcome,
friend," and few coachmen pass without taking schnaps. Smoke and beer make the atmos
phere of a common German. Drunkenness, however, is most frequent in the north. In the
south is a more genial beverage, produced on the banks of the " Father of wine," for so the
Germans delight to call the Rhine.
The wines of Germany are much esteemed. They are various, but the most celebrated are
the Hock and the Johannisberg. The Hock is produced so far north, that the river is frozen
for weeks in winter, and the vine would probably thrive well in the United States. The Jo
hannisberg is not easily to be had. It is produced only on a small domain, the property of
Prince Metternich, and it is chiefly sent as presents to sovereigns. Those of the alliance are
probably the most favored. It sells on the spot for little less than two dollars a bottle.
Smoking is almost an employment in Germany. The pipe is ever at hand, and it is seldom
out of use. The bowls are of porcelain, large and ornamented with views of German scene
ry, buildings, &c. The atmosphere of an alehouse is so filled with smoke of numerous pipes,
that the smokers are hardly visible.
15. Diseases. These are generally the same that are common in the United States, though
there are fewer pulmonary complaints in Germany.
16. Traveling. This is more expensive, and less expeditious, than in France. The coach
es in some parts go little more than three miles an hour, and the schnell wagen or velocity
coach, which is established on some routes, goes but six miles an hour. The coche d'eau or
water coach, which is found on the rivers, has little to recommend it but cheapness.
17. Character, Manners, and Customs. The Germans are descended from various tribes,
with similar features, languages, and manners, which anciently overspread nearly the whole
of what is now called Germany. They were rude and warlike, and successfully with
stood the Roman arms. The legions of Varus were the sacrifice to German patriotism and
valor. The Germans held, that the brave only enjoyed the favor of the gods after death.
They were more attached to their wild freedom than to life. They were implacable to foes,
though kind and gentle to each -other. They followed gaming to the most frantic excess, and
were much addicted to intoxicating liquors ; it was only when intoxicated, that they debated in
their public councils matters of general interest.
The Germans retain, in a high state of cultivation, some of the traits by which they were
marked while they were barbarous tribes ; they are hardy, brave, and attached to their country.
They are distinguished for great individual and personal independence, and the word " Father
land " never fails to touch the " electric chain," by which Hhey are bound to their country.
They are faithful and sincere, and deceit is foreign to their nature. They are imaginative,
though they have great powers of labor and reflection. They were formerly thought to be
plodding and dull, but this was a great error. One of their writers has said truly, that while
the English have the dominion of the sea, and the French that of the land, the Germans have
the empire of the air. The national character is so much founded upon justice, that the public
never forgives a want of probity, as it sometimes does in Italy or France.
" With few but signal exceptions, Germany, even at this hour, is not a country remarkable
for. the elegancies of domestic life. Its very palaces are of simple decoration ; its luxuries of a
homebred and inartificial kind, and its taste is rarely-superior, and, indeed, not always equal to
our own. There is still a shade of the Gothic in the habits and opinions of this constant peo
ple, who seem to cultivate the subtile refinements of the mind, in preference to the more obvi
ous and material enjoyments which address themselves to the senses."
The Germans are fond of titles, and exceedingly complaisant in bestowing them. A letter
to a count is addressed, to the high born Count, Count of B . To a plain citizen the ad-
750 GERMANY.
dress runs, to the well born Mr., Mr. R -. These customs, however, are going out of use
in some parts. There is a feminine substantive, corresponding to the masculine title, and the
wives are always addressed by the titles of their husbands ; as the Lady Professoress, the Lady
Counselloress of Justice, the Lady Generaless ; Gnadige Frau, or Gracious Lady, is the col
loquial title of one of the nobility. The Germans use many profane exclamations, and Lord
Jesus, and Dear God, are heard in every one's speech. The exclamations of surprise are
God's thousand, hundred, lightning, or thunder. Thunder und Doria, taken from Schiller's
Fiesco, is in use with the students. When the Germans part, they say, may you live happily.
In a passing salute they raise their hats high above their heads. Friends, when they are about
to part, or when they meet, kiss each other, not on the cheek, as in Italy, but on the lips,
which have generally an abattis of moustaches. The German ladies have a touchingvoice, fair
and dazzling complexions, with great sensibility and fancy. Madame de Stael remarks, that they
" coquet with-enthusiasm," not like the French and English, with pleasantry and wit. They
have an inveterate custom, high and low, noble and peasant, of knitting stockings, wherever
they are. It is as general as the custom of smoking with the sterner sex.
' The Germans though they have frequent quarrels, seldom come to blows ; a blow is an in
dignity, that nothing but the offender's blood can atone, and a man in common life would appeal
to arms to avenge it. Hard words are applied in profusion, and to scold is a common way of
quarreling ; " a mode," says Russell, " that annihilates the distinction between the sexes."
The German character, it must be remembered, is somewhat various, in the different States ;
and, as has been said, it is as much parceled out as the land, though there are certain traits that
run through the whole. The difference is greatest between the north and the south, and the
literary and the commercial towns.
The Germans of the south are, in general, less favorably distinguished for morality and intel
ligence than those of the north, and much less has been done in the former section towards
enlightening the great mass of the people ; yet there are many exceptions to this remark. In
many quarters of the country the moral condition of the peasantry is very miserable ; ignorant,
superstitious, dull, indolent, and dirty in their habits, and slovenly in their mode of cultivation,
they still bear the traces of their recent servitude.
18. Amusements. Many of the amusements are those which are common in England and
France. The favorite active sport is the chase of the wild boar, and although the game privi
leges may be, as in England, distinct from the soil, yet all classes are permitted to attend the
prince in the chase, but not otherwise to engage in the sport. Hares are exceedingly numerous,
and they are hunted not with grey-hounds, but with peasants. These form a large circle, and,
with great vociferation, close by degrees upon a centre, driving the hares before them. The
hunters shoot them down in great numbers, and a random shot sometimes hits one of those who
act as the pack. But dancing is the national amusement, and it is pursued with more enthu
siasm than in France. The waltz is the national dance, and it is introduced into most of the
foreign figures that prevail in Germany. Fathers and sons are seen in the same dance ; all
classes dance, except that which has the dignity of royalty to support. Royal personages only
polonaise, in a light, airy step, between a dance and a walk.
19. Education. In the means of education, the north of Germany far surpasses every other
country. The Protestant States are more enlightened than the Catholic, and in Saxony there
is hardly a peasant, that cannot read and write. In Prussia, there are upwards of 20,000 ele
mentary schools. The Gymnasiums of the north of Germany are celebrated ; they are schools
preparatory to the universities ; but the studies pursued in them are equal to those of the uni
versities, in some countries. The gymnastic exercises are pursued with ardor in some, though
in the most they are discontinued. The universities of Germany are the best in the world.
They have students from every European nation, and from America. The universities of Gottin-
gen, Berlin, Bonn, Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, are the most celebrated. The 21 universities of
Germany are attended by about 16,000 students ; there are at that of Berlin, 1,S00 ; of Vien
na, 1 ,950 ; of Munich, 1 ,300 ; of Prague, 1 ,450 ; of Leipsic, 1 ,430 ; of Halle, 1 ,600 ; of Got-
tingen, 850. The instructions are given in a great measure by lectures, and one professor often
lectures on several subjects. The libraries are the best and most extensive in the world ; and
any student may take out many books at a time, a hundred if he will. The libraries contain all
that is valuable in ancient or modern science. The library at Gottingen contains 300,000 vol
umes, all collected in less than a century. North of the Mayne, it is difficult to travel for a
day without finding a library ; at Carlsruhe is one of 70,000 volumes ; at the distance of a few
GERMANY. 751
hours' ride is another at Heidelberg, of 30,000 volumes. At the distance of 30 miles, is a third
at Darmstadt, of 90,000 volumes ; at Mentz is another of 90,000, and another still, at Frank
fort, of 100,000. Thirty miles from Frankfort is a small library of 20,000 volumes, but at
Marburg, 20 miles further, is one of 55,000. At Cassel the library contains 70,000 volumes,
and from this town the traveler may arrive in a day at Gottingen, where he finds a collection
of 300,000 books ; and at Wolfenbuttel, about 40 miles distant, is another of 200,000. At
Hamburg are 2 libraries, one of 25,000, the other of 80,000 volumes. At Weimar is anoth
er library of 95,000 volumes, and at Jena a second of 30,000. Dresden has one of 260,000
volumes ; Berlin another of 300,000, and Munich, one of the greatest, 540,000. Thirty-one
libraries in Germany contain more than 3,300,000 volumes, or, on an average, ] 07,000 each.
The 31 largest libraries in the United States do not contain 250,000 volumes. There are in
all Germany 150 public libraries, containing 5,000,000 volumes.
The Germans are indefatigable students, and many of the learned have devoted 15 hours
daily to study. The students at the universities have many peculiarities. Their dress is affect
edly uncouth, and it is worn with negligence. The coat is shapeless, the hair is worn long,
and a wide shirt collar is turned over the shoulders. Boots are always worn, and to these are
fixed spurs of enormous dimensions. One or more rings, as large as watch-seals, generally
adorn the fingers, and no student in full dress is without a ruffle of unreasonable length, though
many have no shirts. This, with a pipe 4 or 5 feet in length, completes the equipment.
The moustache is permitted to grow several inches long, and it is twisted to a point. The
students call themselves Burschen, or " young fellows," par excellence, and the town's people
they call Philistines. The students in the north of Germany are great consumers of beer ;
and those of the south are no less devoted to wine. In their evening potations, each one has
several tankards set before him, sometimes as many as 9, so that a line of students on each
side of a table, may look down upon 18 rows of tankards. In the south, the Burschen
songs are in praise of wine ; but in the north, they celebrate the virtues of beer. The follow
ing is a stanza ; " Come, brothers, be jovial, while life creeps along,
Make the walls ring around us, with laughter and song ;
Though wine, it is true, be a rarity here,
We 'IT be jolly as gods, on tobacco and beer.
Vivalleralleranera. "
The students unite in clubs called Landsmannschaften, composed of those of the same
country or district, and their club is generally indicated by the color or trimming of the cap.
They pay a few dollars on entering, for the expenses of the club, though the money thus
raised is generally applied to the purchase of duelling apparatus, and each Landsmannschaft
has a complete armory. Duelling may be said to be universal ; of course it is not attended
with much peril. It is an example of moderation to have passed several years at a university
without a duel. The party challenged has not the privilege of choosing his weapons ; he must
fight according to the established mode. The weapon is a straight sword, about 3 feet in
length, with a double edge near the point, that will cut both ways. The combats are generally
held in rooms, and few of them are fatal. A few friends and a surgeon are present, with the
two seconds, and an umpire chosen by them. The hands and arms are covered with thick
gloves, and a stuffed leathern breastplate completely protects the body. The face only is ex
posed. For a trifling offence, 12 blows are struck, and if no blood is drawn, the parties shake
hands and separate. For a greater offence, blood is to be drawn ; on its first appearance, the
umpire orders a suspension of hostilities, and the surgeon examines the wound. If it be two
inches in length, and opens of itself one fourth of an inch, enough has been done for glory, and
the parties are>eConciled. The seconds are dressed like the combatants ; they stand by the
side of their principals and are permitted to ward off the blows. The combatants sometimes
lose an eye or a nose ; many have scars on their faces, and some are miserably hacked. The
Landsmannschaften are the nurseries of duelling ; each club being exceedingly tenacious of its
own dignity. Fencing, very improperly, makes a part of the university instruction. All the
details of the duel are fixed in the comment, or Burschen Pandects.
12. State of the Arts, Science, and Literature. The Germans had Albert Durer and oth
ers in painting ; and , Schadow and Danneker are living sculptors of merit ; but music is the
national art ; the taste for it is universal, and at a German concert the deepest silence prevails ;
every eye is fixed on the performers, and a general disapprobation would be expressed should
any one interrupt the attention of the audience. At Berlin, the silence of night is broken by
752 GERMANY.
nightingales, hung in cages, on the lime-trees ; and which divide attention with the various mu
sical bands, that charm away the summer nights in that metropolis.
The inhabitants of Germany may rank next to the Italians as the most successful cultivators
of music ; and it is even doubtful whether, with regard to eminent composers, they do not carry
off the palm frOrn the most musical of nations. Instrumental music, especially, which requires
labor and perseverance, qualities for which the German character is so much distinguished, has
been brought by them to great perfection ; and if their composition is of a more labored char
acter than the Italian, it has also more science, and affords more pleasure than any other, to
those who are capable of appreciating it. The organs and organists of Germany, as well as
their violin performers, have long been famous over Europe. Before the 16th century, there
was little music in any country except masses and madrigals, the two principal divisions of
sacred and secular music ; and in the former, the Germans more especially excelled. In the
16th century, among their most eminent composers and theorists were, Keischius, Michael
Koswick, Henry Loris, Taber, and Hoffman. When dramatic music came into fashion, the
opera, imported from Italy, was introduced into the German capitals, and patronized by the
German princes. So late, however, as the 17th century, the performers in the German
operas, were tradesmen and handicrafts. Shoemakers performed the first parts ; and girls, who
during the day sold fruits and sweetmeats through the streets, appeared in the evening as
Armida or Semiramis. This exhibition soon rose to a more respectable character, and at about
the period when Handel began to acquire celebrity, the Italian opera, especially at Dresden, at
the court of Augustus, Elector of Saxony, was performed in the most splendid manner.
Handel himself, one of the most eminent composers, whether of Germany or of any other
country, was in the service of the Elector of Hanover, afterwards George the First, when his
fame began to be spread all over Europe. He was the first who introduced oratorios into
England, and, at his own risk, engaged a whole band of performers for the London opera.
His oratorios of the Messiah and Samson, his Acis and Galatea, and all his numerous compo
sitions, are too well known to require praise ; and, however the caprice of fashion, which brings
about nearly as many changes in musical taste as in any other, may neglect the harmony of
Handel for more brilliant melody, his name will always be venerated, and his compositions ad
mired, by all true judges of the art. The English were not ungrateful for the services which
Handel had rendered to music in their country, and the year 1784 was rendered memorable in
the annals of the art, by the splendid manner in which his birth and genius were celebrated in
Westminster Abbey, and the Pantheon, by fine performances of pieces, selected from his own
works, and executed by a band of more than 500 voices and instruments, in the presence of
the royal family and the first persons of the kingdom. The commemoration of Handel has
since been established as an annual musical festival for charitable purposes.
But the prince of German musicians, even among a host of eminent composers, is undoubt
edly Mozart, a rare instance of an infant prodigy, whose manhood more than surpassed the
promise of his early years. All his performances breathe the same sensitive and delicate spirit
with which nature had endued him, even to a degree of morbid acuteness, and to an extent
which incapacitated Trim for the labors and duties of life. There is more depth of feeling in
his works than brilliancy, and even his most lively compositions have a tinge of sadness. He
is dignified, without severity, and tender even in his most cheerful mood. He may rank among
musicians as Raphael among painters ; while Handel, with the severe majesty of an ancient
artist, has infinitely less grace and melody. But it would be tedious to enumerate the German
composers, who have enriched music by their splendid works. We can only mention Haydn,
who may be ranked next to Mozart ; Beethoven, whose compositions have afforded the utmost
pleasure to the lovers of science and harmony ; and Weber, whose untimely death has caused
a blank in the musical world, which the pleasure derived from his splendid operas can hardly
compensate. His style is truly German and original, full of striking passages, and capricious,
but beautiful changes. It speaks of dark forests, and frowning precipices, where the torrent
appears suddenly to stop the listener's progress, or where he rests for a while to breathe the
clear, pure air of the mountain tops ; or to hearken to the huntsman's horn, as it echoes among
the rocks. Among his countrymen his name is spoken with enthusiasm, and his death was a
signal for mourning throughout Germany, where the excellence of his private character was as
fully appreciated as the splendor of his talents. There is no country in the world where mili
tary music is carried to greater perfection than in Austria, where the bands surpass all others.
Of the ancient national music of Germany, little is known, and though their bards sung in the
GERMANY. 753
halls of princes, their music was probably, like the national character, rude and martial. The
native airs of the Tyrol breathe the very spirit of mountain freedom and wildness. The melo
dies are usually of a cheerful cast, but it is mountain mirth ; wild, inspiring, and untamed.
Several of the natives of the Tyrol, who have left their hills, and traveled through England in
hopes of profit, have been listened to with the utmost pleasure, by the most scientific audien
ces. The family of the Raiiiers especially, who some years since made their appearance in
London, were patronized by George the Fourth, and their melodies were collected and ar
ranged by an eminent composer. Some of these airs were already well known, though the
manner of singing them, peculiar to the natives, caused them to have all the effect of novelty.
Others were said to be the original compositions of Felix Raiiier, and exhibit much taste and
simple beauty. Upon the whole, if the Germans are inferior to the Italians as vocal perform
ers, and are, generally speaking, a less musical people, owing to their disadvantages of lan
guage and climate, they are, in musical science, decidedly superior to them.
The literature of Germany, though recent, is extremely rich ; yet it is less national, or local,
than that of any other country. It abounds in poetry and criticism, and the German poets have
been very successful in the principle of terror. But every department of science and literature
is filled with treasures, and the following are but a few of the German jurists, poets, critics, phi
losophers, and astronomers : Puffendorf, Klopstock, Wieland, Schiller, Gothe, Richter, Lessing,
Leibnitz, Werner, Herder, the Schlegels, Eichhorn, Kant, Humboldt, Herschel, and Kepler.
20. Religion. This is generally Catholic or Protestant ; but the Catholics are the most
numerous body. The States in which they form the majority, are Bavaria, Baden, Luneburg,
Hohenzollern, and Lichtenstein. There are many Catholics also in the Prussian States, Wir-
temberg, Hesse, and Hanover. In the other States the Protestants outnumber the Catholics.
There are about 250,000 Jews, who are variously restricted in the different States. In Prus
sia only, have they all the rights of citizens. The superstitions of the Germans are similar to
those of the English. The ignorant believe in a kind fairy, in the wild huntsman, and his
phantom hounds, urging the chase, and in the annual assemblage of witches in the Hartz forest.
In Prussia, persons betrothed give notice of the fact in the newspapers, and an addition to
the family is announced in the same way.* Divorces are of frequent occurrence, in some of
the German States. In Prussia alone there were 3,000 in the year 1817.
21 . Laws. The German character is generally a better safeguard to justice, than the per
fection of the laws. Open courts are rare. In some of the northern States, no criminal can
be executed till he has made confession ; but when convicted, he is shut up in a dungeon, more
dismal and cold than that of Trenk ; an abode of misery, in which innocence itself would con
fess for the alternative of the scaffold. In Prussia, the punishment of death is inflicted by de
capitation, with a large sword, by burning, and by breaking on the wheel. Instances of burn
ing are very rare. In breaking on the wheel, the head is sometimes crushed first, and after
wards the breast and limbs ; but the torture is much prolonged, when the limbs are broken
first. Peasants in Germany, are generally hereditary tenants. In Prussia, servitude was abol
ished in 1811, though before that time no person could hold land, unless he was ennobled.
22. Antiquities. These are mostly gothic. On the Rhine, and in some other parts, are
many gothic castles, in every state of decay ; in some the portals remain, as in the feudal ages,
while others are dilapidated, and shapeless. The la'rge towns have museums, in which are pre
served the figures of knights, clothed in mail, together with all the various arms and equip
ments of feudal warfare.
23. Government. The German confederacy was formed in 1815, to protect the indepen
dence and secure the tranquillity of the States which entered into it. Thirty-six monarchical
States, and 4 Republics or Free Cities, were the parties to the federal act. The organ of the
confederacy is the Diet, composed of the plenipotentiaries of the sovereign members ; it is con
stituted in 2 different forms. 1. The Plenum or general assembly, in which each member has
at least 1 vote, and the great powers have several ; Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hano
ver and Wirtemberg have each 4 votes ; Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel, Denmark,
(for Holstein and Lauenburg), and the Netherlands (for Luxemburg) each 3; Brunswick,
* The following are extracts from Prussian newspapers : As betrothed, present C Amelia R**".
"I have the honor respectfully to give notice of the be- their remembrance, J Edward P"*\"
trothing of my only daughter, to Mr. P. of Newstead, " The fortunate delivery of my wife, on the 6lh of this
Judge of the domain. month, of a healthy boy, I announce herewith to my
Signed, friends and relations.
The widowed Counselloress of Justice, R***. Signed F A R*** "
95
754 BADEN.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Nassau, each 2, and the others, one each,* making 71 votes.
2. The ordinary Diet is the other form of the assembly ; in this there are but 17 votes, the
principal powers (the 11 first named above), having each one vote, and the others voting col
lectively. This body discusses all questions, and proposes them for adoption to the plenum,
executes its decrees, and in general, manages the affairs of the confederacy. The general as
sembly decides upon the propositions of the ordinary diet, makes war and peace, &c.
24. Army. The army of the confederation consists of 300,000 men, each State furnishing
a contingent of troops, proportionate to its population. There are several cities considered as
federal fortresses ; these are Luxemburg, Mayence, Landau, Ulm, &c.
25. History. Germany, in ancient times, was divided into a number of principalities, inde
pendent of each other, though occasionally connected by a military union. The greater part
of the country was subjected by the Romans ; and in the beginning of the 8th century, Charle
magne extended his authority over the whole empire. In the 10th century it became an elec
tive monarchy, and princes of different families, according to the prevalence of their interests
and arms, were called to the throne. The houses of Saxony, Franconia, and Suabia, exer
cised the imperial power successively, but in the 15th century it became hereditary in the
House of Austria. The German Empire was broken up in 1806 by Napoleon, who formed
several of the States into a union called the Rhenish Confederation. TJpon the settlement of
the affairs of Europe at the Congress of Vienna, in 1814, the Empire was not reestablished,
but a new form of government was proposed, which resulted in the present act of confederation.
CHAPTER XCVII. GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN.
1. Boundaries and Population. The Grand Duchy of Baden is bounded on the N. by
ducal Hesse ; on the E. by Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and on the S. and W. by the Rhine,
which separates it from Switzerland and France. Area, 5,700 square miles ; population,
1,240,000. 2. Face of the Country, Rivers, &c. Baden consists mostly of a fertile plain, containing
excellent corn-fields and vineyards. On its eastern border extends the mountainous chain of
the Black Forest, in which rises the Danube. The Neckar, a tributary of the Rhine, flows
through the northern part of the Duchy. The Rhine washes its western and southern border.
The lake of Constance forms a part of the southeastern boundary. The climate is mild and
genial. The soil is good, and vegetation luxuriant. There are mines of silver and iron, and
quarries of freestone and marble. Mineral springs and hot baths are very numerous. In the
city of Baden are above 300 hot baths, some of which are scalding hot ; all of them spring
out of rocks of alum, salt, and sulphur. The State takes its name, signifying baths, from this
circumstance. 3. Industry. Its central position between the Swiss, French, and German territories, and
its situation upon the navigable waters of the Rhine, give Baden a considerable transit trade.
Its manufactures are not extensive ; toys, trinkets, and wooden clocks are the principal arti
cles ; these, with the products of its forests, vineyards, and pastures, are exported.
4. Religion and Government. The majority of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, but
the grand duke is himself a Lutheran. Liberal provision is made for the education of all
classes, by the maintenance of elementary and Latin schools, and gymnasia or higher schools.
There are universities at Heidelberg and Freyberg. The government is a constitutional mon
archy, the legislative authority being vested in 2 houses or chambers.
5. Divisions and Towns. The grand duchy is divided into 6 circles, which are subdivided
into aemte or bailiwics.
Carlsruhe, the capital, is a handsome and regularly built city, near the Rhine, with 18,000
inhabitants. The 9 principal streets diverge in different directions from the ducal palace, and
are intersected at regular intervals by cross-streets, forming concentric circles. The ducal li
brary contains 70,000 volumes, and there are fine gardens attached to the palace. In 'the vi
cinity is Baden, with 3,500 inhabitants, celebrated for its mineral waters, which are annually
resorted to by upwards of 8,000 visiters. There are here 26 warm springs, in some of which
meat can be cooked.
" Kniphausen, however, is joined with Oldenburg, and Reuss-Schleitz with Reuss-Lobenstein, in voting.
WIRTEMBERG. 755
Rastadt, with 4,000 inhabitants, contains a castle, once the residence of the margraves of
Baden ; here were held the congresses of 1713 and 1798. Manheim, the largest town in Ba
den, is a handsome city, situated at the confluence of the Neckar with the Rhine. It was once
the residence of the court of the elector palatine, and its palace, observatory, literary institu
tions, and population, 22,000 inhabitants, render it important. Freyberg is noted for its univer
sity, and its magnificent Gothic minster, the spire of which is nearly 500 feet high, being one
of the loftiest in Europe. Population, 10,000. Heidelberg contains one of the oldest and
most respectable universities in Germany. The situation of the town is delightful ; strangers
are here shown a tun of enormous size
CHAPTER CXVIII. KINGDOM OF WIRTEMBERG.
1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Wirtemberg is bounded N. and E. by
Bavaria, and S. W. and N. by Baden. Its southern border also touches lake Constance.
Area, 7,600 square miles ; population, 1,610,000.
2. Surface and Rivers. Two mountainous ranges traverse the country ; the Schwartzwald,
or Black Forest, extends through the western part ; many of the summits in this range, which
contains the sources of the Danube, are from 3,500 to 4,600 feet high ; the Alb Mountains,
or Swabian Alps, branch off from the Schwartzwald in the southwestern part of Wirtemberg,
and traverse the kingdom in a northeasterly direction, separating the waters of the Neckar from
those of the Danube ; they are less elevated than the former. The Neckar, which rises in the
Alb mountains, flows north and west into the Rhine, after a course of 160 miles. The mine
rals are silver, copper, iron, cobalt, sulphur, coal, limestone, alabaster, agate, &c. Warm
baths and medicinal springs are numerous, and those of Heilbron are particularly celebrated.
Wirtemberg is one of the most fertile and best cultivated parts of Germany, producing corn,
wine, and various fruits. Except in the mountainous tracts, the surface is agreeably diversified
with moderate hills and pleasant valleys, and the climate is mild.
3. Industry. This kingdom produces great supplies of grain, chiefly spelt ; for rye and
wheat are little cultivated. Flax and hemp are raised, and the mountains are covered with vines
which produce a rich and wholesome wine called Neckar. Cherries are cultivated extensively
in some parts for manufacturing the strong liquor callen Kirschwasser. Fruit trees are abun
dant ; cider and perry are made in great quantities. A singular yet considerable branch of in
dustry is the feeding of snails ; millions of which are fattened in the neighborhood of Ulm
during autumn, and exported to Vienna and Italy. Manufactures are not numerous ; but some
cloth and lace are made in a few of the towns ; and there are many large distilleries and oil mills.
The exports are cattle, corn, wood, tar, potash, oil, and a few manufactured goods. Iron
mines are worked in the Black Forest, and iron and salt are exported. The book-trade of Wir
temberg is an important branch of industry ; but the situation of the country is not so favorable
as that of Baden, for commercial operations.
4. Religion, Education, and Government. The Lutheran religion is professed by the great
majority of the inhabitants ; but nearly one third are Roman Catholics. There is one univer
sity, at Tubingen, and there are numerous lyceums, gymnasiums, and popular schools. The
government is a hereditary, constitutional monarchy, the king possessing the executive power,
and sharing the legislative with the two houses.
5. Divisions and Towns. Wirtemberg is divided into four circles ; the Neckar, the
Schwartzwald, the Danube, and the Jaxt.
The capital is Stuttgard, delightfully situated in a charming country, a few miles from the
Neckar. The royal palace is a noble structure, and the library, one of the richest in Europe,
containing 200,000 volumes, is particularly remarkable for its collection of Bibles, the most
numerous in the world, comprising 8,250 copies, in 68 languages. The Solitude or Hermit
age, the country residence of the king, is beautifully situated upon a hill, near the capital, and is
remarkable for its fine prospect, magnificent halls, and handsome gardens. Population of Stutt
gard, 32,000.
Ulm, on the Danube, is a place of some trade and considerable manufactures. Its cathedral,
though unfinished, is one Of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture. Population, 12,000.
Reutlingen, a manufacturing town, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Tubingen, 7,000 inhabitants,
756 BAVARIA.
noted for its university and other literary institutions ; and Hall, for its salt works, with 7,000
inhabitants, are the other principal towns.
This country was originally governed by counts and dukes. In 1806 it was erected into a
kingdom, and formed a part of the Rhenish confederation. The present constitution was es
tablished in 1819.
CHAPTER XCIX. KINGDOM OF BAVARIA.
1 . Boundaries and Population. Bavaria is bounded N. by Hesse, and the Saxon Duchies ;
E. and S. by the Austrian empire ; and W. by Wirtemberg and Baden. The circle of the
Rhine is separated from the rest of the kingdom, lying on the western side of the Rhine be
tween Hesse, the Prussia province of the lower Rhine, and France. Area, 28,500 square
miles ; population, 4,300,000.
2. Surface and Rivers. In the northeastern part is the mountainous range, called Fichtel-
gebirge, or Pine Mountains, which is neither extensive, nor very lofty ; yet it gives rise to riv
ers, which, flowing into the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube, find their way to three different
and distant seas. The Schneeberg, or Snowy Mountains, 3,500 feet high, is the highest sum
mit. In the northwest, on the right bank of the Rhine, is the low mountainous ridge of the
Spessart. The Danube traverses Bavaria from west to east ; its principal tributaries in this
kingdom are the Isar and the Inn from the southwest. The Mayne or Maine rises in the cen
tre of Bavaria, and flowing northerly and westerly through Baden and Hesse, empties itself into
the Rhine, after a course of 250 miles. It is navigable to Bamberg. Much of the soil is un
productive from the rugged or marshy character of the surface, and there are extensive bogs
and forests. The climate is mild and healthy.
3. Industry. Agriculture is much neglected, but a good deal of wine is produced. Bava
ria is not favorably situated for trade, and its manufactures are not very extensive. In some
parts, however, the people are distinguished for mechanical ingenuity ; and philosophical instru
ments, toys, and clocks, besides articles required for domestic consumption, are produced.
4. Divisions and Towns. The kingdom is divided into eight circles,* bearing tbe names of
the principal rivers which water them.
Munich (Muenchen), the capital, is situated on the Isar, and the embellishments and addi
tions, which it has received within the last 20 years, have rendered it one of the handsomest
cities in Germany. Its environs are pleasant, being adorned with numerous parks, gardens, and
walks, and the streets of the city are in general spacious, with many elegant buildings. The
literary institutions, scientific cabinets, collections of art, and the numerous publications issued
from its presses, give Munich a high rank among the learned cities of Europe. It is not dis
tinguished for trade or manufactures. The royal palace is one of the largest and most richly
furnished royal residences in Europe ; the magnificent glypthothek or sculpture-gallery ; the
pinakothek or picture-gallery ; the large and beautiful theatre, called the Odeon ; the New-
Palace, 6S0 feet long ; several of the 22 churches, &c. are sumptuous edifices. The univer
sity is one of the most respectable in Germany ; the public library contains 400,000 printed
volumes, and 10,000 manuscripts. Population, 80,000. At Schleisheim, in the vicinity, there
is a magnificent royal palace, with a rich collection of 1,500 paintings.
Nuremberg, in German Nurnberg, is an old town, and the antiquated appearance of its
streets and buildings reminds the visiter of the Middle Ages, when it was one of the principal
commercial and manufacturing cities of Europe, having been the great mart for the trade be
tween Italy and the north of Europe. The inhabitants have been distinguished for their inge
nuity and skill in the fine and useful arts, and philosophical and musical instruments, metallic
wares, looking-glasses, toys, &c, are made here. The Nuremberg toys amuse children in all
parts of the world ; they are made in great numbers by the peasants of the vicinity, assisted by
their children, and sold so cheap as to be exported to all countries. Population, 38,000.
Augsburg, on the Lech, is a place of some trade and considerable manufactures. The arse
nal, the principal in the kingdom, and its town-hall the finest in Germany, deserve to be men
tioned. Augsburg is interesting in the history of the Reformation as the place in which the
* Isar, Lower Danube, Rezat, Lower Maine,
Upper Danube, Regen, Upper Maine, Rhine.
SAXONY. 757
Protestants presented to the German Diet and Emperor their Confession of Faith, drawn up by
Luther, and known in history as the Confession of Augsburg. Population, 34,000. To the
northeast is the village of Blenheim, rendered famous as the scene of the victory gained by the
English general, Marlborough, over the united French and Bavarian armies, in 1704.
In Ratisbon or Regensburg, on the Danube, were formerly held the sessions of the German
diet ; the town-hall, in which that body sat, is still to be seen. Population, 26,000. Wurz-
burg, on the Maine, with 22,000 inhabitants, stands in the midst of a fertile and highly culti
vated district, and contains a university, and other literary institutions, a handsome palace, cita
del, &c. Baireuth, with 14,000 inhabitants, Furth, with 17,000, Anspach, 16,000, and
Passau, 10,000, have an extensive trade and manufactures. In the circle of the Rhine is
Spire, with 8,000 inhabitants, in which the German Diets were often held. It was at a Diet
held here in 1529, that the religious reformers entered a Protest against certain acts of the em
peror, whence their name of Protestants. Deux-Ponts or Zwei-Brucken, (i. e. Two Bridges,
in Latin, Bipons) in this circle, is noted for the editions of the Greek, Latin, and French clas
sics published there, and thence called Bipont editions.
5. Religion, Government, &c. There are three universities at Munich, Wurzburg, and Er-
langen, of which the two first are particularly distinguished ; and the government has paid much
attention to the improvement and extension of the means of education. The Roman .Catholic
religion is professed by the majority of the inhabitants, but the Lutherans are numerous. The
government is a constitutional monarchy ; the legislative body is composed of two houses, that
of peers, styled the counsellors of the realm, and that of the deputies of the clergy, cities, and
landholders. Bavaria was an electorate of the old German empire ; but, on the establishment
of the Confederation of the Rhine, by Napoleon, in 1806, it was erected into a kingdom.
CHAPTER C. KINGDOM OF SAXONY.
1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Saxony (Sachsen) is bounded N. by the
Prussian provinces ; S. and E. by the Austrian, and W. by the Saxon duchies and Reuss.
Area, 5,700 square miles ; population, 1,630,000.
2. Surface and Rivers. The southern part is somewhat mountainous, being traversed by
the Erzgebirge, a range of mountains, which separates Saxony from Bohemia in Austria ; the
northern part is more level. In the vicinity of Dresden rises a picturesque group of rocky hills,
interspersed with rivulets and vales ; this district is called the Saxon Switzerland, and is much
visited. The Elbe is the only navigable river of Saxony.
3. Industry. Much attention has been paid to sheep breeding, and the Saxony wool is noted
for its fineness ; the number of sheep is about 2,000,000, yielding 4,500,000 lbs. of wool.
The vegetable products are similar to those of the other parts of northern Germany. Saxony
has lost its principal agricultural provinces, and little is raised in the kingdom except corn.
Manufactures are active, and employ three fifths of the population ; they consist of thread, lin
en, cottons, printed shawls, calicoes, lace, ribands, woolens, velvets, carpets, paper, cutlery,
pottery, dye-stuffs, glass, and porcelain. The mountainous districts are rich in mines, which
are skilfully worked, and their productions are manufactured into various articles ; there are
cannon founderies, and mineral dyes, as verdegris, smalt from cobalt, &c, are made. The
book-trade is very extensive, and there are linen, woolen, and cotton manufactures. The pearl
fishery is prosecuted in the river Elster.
4. Religion, Education, and Government. The great majority of the inhabitants are Lutherans ;
there are about 50,000 Roman Catholics, and 1,600 Hernnhutters. In no country in Europe
has more attention been paid to education. There is a university at Leipsic,. with numerous
high schools and gymnasia, and there are common schools in all the parishes ; so that the lower
classes are, very generally, able to read and write. The government is a constitutional mon
archy. 5. Divisions and Towns. The kingdom is divided into five circles,* which are subdivided
into districts and bailiwics.
* Misnia, Leipsic, Erzgebirge, Voigtland, Lusatia.
758"
SAXONY.
Dresden, the capital, is a beautiful city, with spacious streets and elegant buildings, delight
fully situated, in the midst of a rich district, through which broad and well-shaded avenues lead
to the city. One of the
finest bridges in Europe has
been built over the Elbe,
upon the banks of which
Dresden is built. The pal
aces belonging to the royal
family, several of those of
the nobility, many of the 18
churches, its rich collections
of art, cabinets of science,
and learned establishments,
particularly the picture gal
lery, one of the richest in
the world, the collection
of engravings, comprising
200,000 pieces, and the li
brary, with £50,000 vol
umes, are among the orna
ments of the city. Dresden
has an active trade, support
ed by its extensive manufac
tures, including jewelry, mu
sical instruments, gloves,
cotton and woolen goods,
&c. Population, 70,000,
exclusive of many strangers
who reside here, attracted
by its treasures of art, its
excellent institutions for ed
ucation, and its agreeable
situation. In the vicinity
are Pilnitz, with a magnifi
cent summer residence of
the royal family, and Koe-
nigstein, an impregnable
mountain fortress, built up
on a rock rising out of the
plain to the height of 1,400
feet ; it contains a well 1,200
feet deep.
Leipsic or Leipzig is a well-built town, pleasantly situated in an extensive plain, and is chiefly
remarkable for its trade and manufactures. Three great fairs are held here annually, which are
considered among the most important in the world. The number of purchasers who assem
ble at these fairs, is 8,000 or 9,000, and the amount of the sales is between 15,000,000 and
20,000,000 dollars. The book fairs, in particular, are unique, and Leipsic is the greatest book
market in the world. The university here is one of the best in Germany. Two celebrated
battles have been fought on the plains of Leipsic ; in 1631, the Swedish king, Gustavus Adol-
phus defeated the troops of the empire here, and thus saved the Protestant cause in the north
of Germany ; in the great battle of 1813, one of the most important in modern times, Napo
leon was obliged to retreat before the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prus
sia, after a protracted resistance of several days. Population of Leipsic, 41,000.
Freyberg, with 12,000 inhabitants, a celebrated mining town, is surrounded by rich silver
mines, which, with those of copper and lead, employ 5,000 laborers. The mining academy
is the most remarkable institution. Chemnitz, noted for its cotton manufactures, has 16,000
inhabitants ; Meissen, with 4,000, is noted for its porcelain, and Bautzen, with 12,000, for its
Interior of the Palace, Dresden.
HANOVER. 759
trade and manufactures. The electorate of Saxony was raised to the dignity of a kingdom in
1806 ; but the limits of the kingdom were very much reduced by the Congress of Vienna, in
consequence of the adherence of the king to the cause of Napoleon.
CHAPTER CI. KINGDOM OF HANOVER.
1. Boundaries and Population. The kingdom of Hanover is bounded north by the Ger
man Ocean; east by the Elbe, which separates it from Denmark, by Mecklenburg- Schwerin,
and by Prussia ; south by Prussia and Electoral Hesse, and west by the Netherlands. Area,
14,600 square miles ; population, 1,680,000.
2. Surface and Soil. The Hartz Mountains extend through the southern part ; the highest
summit, the Brocken, has an elevation of 3,650 feet. These mountains are rich in minerals,
yielding some gold, with much silver, iron, lead, copper, &c. They are well-wooded, and the
forests are also a source of wealth to the inhabitants. The Brocken is famous as the supposed
resort of the German witches, and of the wild huntsman of the Hartz. What is called the
Spectre of the Brocken, is the magnified and distorted image of the spectator, reflected under
certain circumstances from an opposite cloud. The northern part of Hanover is level, form
ing a part of the great European plain, which extends along the North and Baltic seas, from
Paris to Moscow. In the south, the valleys are fertile ; in the north, are many barren heaths
and moors. There are many shallow lakes, and on the coast is a wide bay, formed by the
bursting in of the sea in 1277, when above 50 villages were destroyed. In East Friesland, is
a subterranean lake, so thickly overgrown, that wagons pass over it. The climate is not agree
able. The winters are severe, and even in the greatest heats of summer, frosty days are not
uncommon. The temperature is very variable.
3. Rivers. The Ems is a navigable stream, which flows northerly through the western part
of the kingdom into the North Sea ; the Weser, which traverses the kingdom from south to
north, and the Elbe, which washes its northern boundary, empty themselves into the same sea.
4. Industry. Agriculture is in general in a low state ; the heaths of the north are not sus
ceptible of cultivation, but they are used as sheep-walks, or for the raising of bees. The-
mines and forests of the Hartz are diligently worked, and boards, iron, and copper, are, with
cattle, the chief articles of export. The inland trade, favored by the Weser and Elbe, is con
siderable, but the foreign commerce is not extensive ; the articles imported are manufactured
goods. 5. Religion, Education, and Government. About four fifths of the inhabitants are Lutherans,
the rest are Roman Catholics, Mennonites, and Jews. The government is a limited monarchy,
but the representative principle is imperfectly in operation. There is a university at Gottingen,
one of the best in Germany, and the gymnasia and common schools are numerous.
6. Divisions and Towns. The kingdom is divided into 6 governments,* taking the names
of their capitals, and the captainship (Berghauptmannschaft) of Clausthal.
Hanover, the capital, situated in a sandy plain upon the Leine, contains a population of
28,000 inhabitants, employed in commerce and manufactures. Hanover belonged to the Han-
seatic league during the Middle Ages, and it has an antiquated appearance. The houses are
generally of brick and timber in alternate layers, and resemble in appearance the stern of a ship
of the 16th century. The date of their erection is always marked upon them. In those of
1565, each story projects over the one below it, and all are embellished with confused mixtures
of medallions, Pagan deities, warriors, and verses from the Psalms. The palace is an elegant
structure of hewn stone.
Gottingen, situated in a fertile valley on the Leine, is one of the literary capitals of the
world. Its university is the principal in Germany, or inferior only to that of Berlin. The
library, the richest in the world in the department of modern literature, has 300,000 volumes.
The observatory is furnished with excellent instruments ; the botanical garden is one of the
best in Europe ; the collections of natural history, the cabinets of natural philosophy, &c, and
the valuable journals published here, render Gottingen the resort of the studious from all parts
of the world. Population, 11,000.
Hildesheim, with 13,000 inhabitants ; Luneburg, with 12,000, and Osnaburg or Osnabruck,
with 11,000, have considerable manufactures.
" Hanover, Hildesheim, Luneburg, Stade, Osnaburg, Aurlch.
760 MECKLENBURG.— OLDENBURG. — SAXON DUCHIES.
Emden is the principal port and commercial town in the kingdom. Population, 11,000.
7. History. Hanover was one of the electorates of the old German Empire ; and early in
the last century the elector ascended the throne of Great Britain ; the two countries were not,
however, politically united. In 1815, Hanover was raised to the rank of a kingdom, and, as
the succession is in the male line, it became detached from the British crown on the succession
of the present Queen to the latter, the Hanoverian crown passing to the first male heir of the
late British king.
CHAPTER CII. GRAND DUCHIES OF MECKLENBURG.
1. Boundaries, &c. The two grand duchies of Mecklenburg lie between the Baltic on the
north, Prussia on the south and east, and Hanover and Denmark on the west. They are both
limited monarchies, and the inhabitants, with the exception of some Jews and a few Roman
Catholics, are Lutherans. The whole territory is a plain, interspersed with low hills. The
shore is protected by extensive downs of sand. The chief river is the Elbe ; there are a
number of lakes in the country. Agriculture is the chief occupation, and is well managed.
Great quantities of apples are exported. The rearing of cattle is carried on extensively ; the
horses of this country are much esteemed.
2. Mecklenburg- Schwerin. The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin has an area of
4,700 square miles, with 472,000 inhabitants. The capital, Schwerin, prettily situated upon a
lake of the same name, has 12,000 inhabitants. The grand duke usually resides in the village
of Ludwigslust, where is a magnificent palace. Rostock, the largest town in the duchy, has a
port on the Baltic, with considerable commerce and manufactures. It contains a university and
some other literary institutions. Population, 19,000. Wismar, with 10,000 inhabitants, has
a good harbor on the Baltic, and some trade and manufactures.
3. Mecklenburg- Strelitz. The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg- Strelitz lies to the east of
the preceding, and has an area of 1,100 square miles, with 85,300 inhabitants. New Strelitz
is the capital and residence of the grand-duke. Population, 6,000.
CHAPTER CIII. GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG.
1. Boundaries and Extent. This Grand Duchy consists of 3 distinct territories. 1st, The
Duchy of Oldenburg, bounded north by the German Ocean ; east, south, and west, by Han
over. 2d, The Principality of Lubeck, inclosed in the Danish dukedom of Holstein.
3d, The Principality of Birkenfeld, on the Rhine, nearly surrounded by the Prussian territory.
Oldenburg has the German Ocean on the north, and Hanover on the three other sides. Area,
2,500 square miles ; population, 260,000. Much of the country is low and wet, and is inter
sected by canals and dikes, to drain it, or to defend it from inundations.
2. Towns. The capital, Oldenburg, is a pretty town, on the Hunte, a tributary of the
Weser, which is navigable by small vessels. Population, 6,000. Eutin and Birkenfeld are
capitals of the detached territories, the former in the Danish-German provinces, and the latter
in the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. The government is an absolute monarchy.
CHAPTER CIV. SAXON DUCHIES.
1 . Boundaries. These States are bounded on the north by Prussia ; east by Reuss and
the kingdom of Saxony ; south by Bavaria, and west by Hesse-Cassel. The inhabitants are
Lutherans, with few Roman Catholics, and the forms of government constitutional monarchy.
2. Saxe- Weimar. The Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar consists of 3 detached parts, the
principalities of Weimar and Eisenach, and the circle of Neustadt. Area, 1,425 square
miles ; population, 243,800.
Weimar, the capital, is agreeably situated in a pleasant valley, and contains a number of
handsome edifices, and learned establishments. The theatre, the grand ducal residence, the
public library of 130,000 volumes, the geographical institute, and the fine English park, are
among the objects worthy of mention. Weimar has acquired much literary celebrity, from its
BRUNSWICK. — HESSIAN STATES.
761
having been, in the beginning of the
present century, the residence of
many distinguished German scholars
and authors, attracted thither by the
patronage of the court. Schiller,
Herder, Gothe, Wieland, and
Cotzebue, with others, were as
sembled here at the same time.
Population, 10,000.
Jena, in a charming valley, con
tains an ancient university, which
ranks among the first in Germany ;
the library comprises 100,000 vol
umes. In 1S06, Napoleon gained
a complete victory over the Prus
sians here. Population, 5,000.
Eisenach, 8,000 inhabitants, is a
well-built town, with some manu
factures. In its vicinity on the
Wartburg, is a mountain fortress, in which Luther was concealed by his friends, when put
under the ban of the empire for his religious doctrines. Here he spent nearly a year, and
occupied his time in translating the New Testament into the vernacular tongue.
3. Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg consists of 3 detached portions, the
principalities of Coburg, of Gotha, and of Lichtenberg. Area, 790 square miles ; population,
134,000. Gotha, the capital, is a manufacturing town, with 12,000 inhabitants ; here are the
ducal palace, and a fine public library of 150,000 volumes. In the vicinity is the celebrated
observatory of Seeberg. Coburg, with 8,000 inhabitants, has several literary establishments,
and considerable manufacturing industry.
4. Saxe-Altenburg. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg has an area of 500 square miles, with
1 15,200 inhabitants. Altenburg, the capital, is a place of some trade and manufactures, with
12,000 inhabitants.
5. Saxe~-Meiningen- Hildburghausen. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen has an area of 900
square miles, and a population of 148,000. Meiningen, the capital, is a manufacturing town,
with 5,000 inhabitants. Hildburghausen has a population of 4,000 souls.
Schiller's House, at Weimar.
CHAPTER CV. DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK.
This State consists of 3 entirely detached portions, surrounded by the Hanoverian and Prus
sian provinces. Area, 1,500 square miles ; population, 250,000. Brunswick, the capital, is a
large and well-built city, which contains a number of public edifices, and several literary institu
tions of some celebrity. Its trade and manufactures are important, and its fairs rank next to
those of Leipsic and Frankfort. Population, 36^000. Wolfenbuttel, in the vicinity, with
8,000 inhabitants, contains a very large and valuable library, considered one of the richest in
Europe ; it comprises 200,000 printed volumes, and 10,000 manuscripts. The religion of
the great majority of the people is Lutheran ; the government is a constitutional monarchy.
The breweries and distilleries, the manufactures of linen and leather, the porcelain works, and
the iron, lead, and copper mines, employ many of the inhabitants.
CHAPTER CVI. HESSIAN STATES.
1. Boundaries, &c. The estates of the House of Hesse consist of the 3 states of Hesse-
Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg. They lie between Prussia, Bavaria, Baden,
and Nassau. The inhabitants are chiefly Protestants, but about one fifth are Roman Catholics.
The government of Hesse-Darmstadt is a constitutional monarchy ; the others are absolute.
2. Electoral Hesse. Hesse-Cassel, or the principality of Electoral Hesse, has an area of
4,400 square miles, with 700,000 inhabitants.
96
762 NASSAU. — WALDECK. — ANHALT.
Cassel, the capital, situated upon the Fulda, has 26,000 inhabitants. It has several hand
some squares, and a great number of important public institutions, learned and charitable. The
palace is one of the most magnificent in Germany. Cassel was the capital of the kingdom of
Westphalia, erected by Napoleon, in 1807, and dissolved on his overthrow, in 1814. In the
neighborhood is the castle of Wilhelmshohe, one of the most beautiful and splendid princely
residences in Europe.
Hanau, an active manufacturing town, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Fulda, 9,000, with its lit
erary institutions ; and Marburg, 7,000, with its university, to which belongs a library of above
100,000 volumes, are places of some note. Smalkalden, with 5,000 inhabitants, is interesting
in history, as the place in which the Protestant princes of Germany united, in 1531, in a
league to defend their faith against the emperor and the Catholic princes.
3. Hesse-Darmstadt. Grand-Ducal Hesse or Hesse-Darmstadt is divided into 2 detached
parts by Hesse-Cassel. Area, 3,200 square miles ; population, 765,000.
Darmstadt, the ducal residence, has 20,000 inhabitants. Its library of 90,000 volumes, the
museum, the vast arsenal, the palace, &c, are the objects of most interest. To the south lies
Worms, with 7,000 inhabitants, one of the oldest cities in Germany, and long conspicuous in
the history of the empire. At the diet held here in 1521, Luther vindicated his conduct and
defended his faith before the emperor, princes, and prelates of Germany, by whom he was put
under the ban of the empire.
Mayence, Maintz, or Mentz, is an ancient city, situated at the confluence of the Maine with
the Rhine ; its dark and narrow streets, and its old buildings, give it a gloomy appearance, but
it is a place of historical interest, and its environs are remarkable for their beauty. Its cit
adel and vast fortifications, belonging to the system of military works erected by the German
confederation, render it the strongest town in Germany. Long the capital of a sovereign arch
bishopric, Mentz still contains numerous ecclesiastical buildings. Here is still shown the house
in which Faust and Guttemberg, natives of Mentz, made their first essays in the art of printing.
Population, 26,600. At Giessen, with 7,000 inhabitants, there is a university.
4. Hesse- Hamburg. The landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, consists of 2 distinct parts, the
one situated in Hesse-Darmstadt, and the other between the Bavarian circle of the Rhine, and
the Prussian government of Coblentz. Area, 166 square miles ; population, 22,S00. The
capital is Homburg, with 3,500 inhabitants.
CHAPTER CVII. DUCHY OF NASSAU.
Nassau lies between the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine and Hesse-Darmstadt. The
government is a limited monarchy ; rather more than half of the inhabitants are Protestants.
Area, 1,720 square miles ; population, 373,600.
Wisbaden, the capital, is a prettily built city, in a delightful situation. Its 16 hot springs,
which all the year round have a temperature of 140°, attract from 10.000 to 12,000 visiters
annually. Population, 7,000. Niederselters is noted for its mineral spring, the famous Selter
water, of which about 2,000,000 bottles are sold annually ; Ilochheim, Johannisberg, and
Rudesheim for their wines, and Langenschioalbach for its mineral waters.
CHAPTER CVIII. PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK.
This little State, with an area of 460 square miles, and 56,600 inhabitants, is surrounded by
the Prussian and Hessian Territories. The country of Pyrmont is a detached part, bordering
on Hanover and Lippe-Detmold. The religion is Lutheran ; the government constitutional.
Arolsen, the capital, has 1,700 inhabitants. Pyrmont, the principal town, is much visited for
its thermal saline waters. Population, 2,400.
CHAPTER CIX. THE ANHALT DUCHIES.
1 . Boundaries. These States are surrounded by the Prussian province of Saxony. The
inhabitants are Protestants ; the governments constitutional.
2. Anhalt-Dessau. The duchy of Anhalt-Dessau has an area of 358 square miles, and a
SCHWARTZBURG AND OTHER PRINCIPALITIES. 763
population of 61,000. Dessau, the capital, is a pretty town, in a charming situation, with
10,000 inhabitants.
3. Anhalt-Bernburg. The duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg has an area of 340 square miles, and
45,800 inhabitants. " Bernburg, the capital, has a population of 5,300 souls.
4. Anhalt-Coethen. The duchy of Anhalt-Coethen has an area of 310 square miles., and
36,700 inhabitants. The capital is Coethen, on the Ziethe, with a population of 6,800.
CHAPTER CX. SCHWARTZBURG PRINCIPALITIES.
1. Boundaries. These principalities are surrounded by the Prussian province of Saxony
and the Saxon duchies. The inhabitants are Protestants.
2. Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt. The principality of Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt has an area of
410 square miles, with 62,000 inhabitants. The government is constitutional in its forms.
Rudolstadt is the capital. Population, 4,000.
3. Schwartzburg- Sondershausen. The principality of Schwartzburg-Sondershausen has
52,000 inhabitants, on an area of 360 square miles. The government is absolute. The capi
tal is Sondershausen, with 3,300 inhabitants.
CHAPTER CXI. THE REUSS PRINCIPALITIES.
1. Boundaries. The States of the princes of Reuss are surrounded by the Saxon duchies,
Saxony, and Bavaria. The inhabitants are Protestants, and the forms of government consti
tutional. 2. Reuss- Greitz. The principality of Reuss-Greitz has an area of 145 square miles, and
25,100 inhabitants. Greitz, the capital, has some manufactures, and a population of 7,000.
3. Reuss- Schleitz. The principality of Reuss-Schleitz, has an area of 208 square miles,
and 31,400 inhabitants. Schleitz, the capital, has 5,000 inhabitants.
4. Reuss- Lobenstein. The principality of Reuss-Lobenstein is the largest of these States,
having an area of 242 square miles. Population, 28,500. The capital is Lobenstein, with
3,000 inhabitants. Gera is the capital of a district which belongs to the two last-described
States in common. Its trade and manufactures are considerable ; population, 8,000.
CHAPTER CXII. THE LIPPE PRINCIPALITIES.
1. Boundaries. The estates of the Lippe family are bounded by the Prussian government
of Minden, by Brunswick, and Electoral Hesse. They are governed according to constitu
tional forms ; the inhabitants are Protestants.
2. Lippe- Detmold. The principality of Lippe-Detmold has 79,800 inhabitants, with an
area of 440 square miles. Detmold, with 2,800 inhabitants, is the capital ; Lemgow, 3,800,
the principal town.
3. Lippe- Schauenburg. The principality of Schauenburg-Lippe has an area of 210 square
miles, with 26,000 inhabitants. Its capital, Buckeburg, has 2,100 inhabitants.
CHAPTER CXIII. THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEN.
This little State, with an area of 54 square miles, and 6,000 inhabitants, professing the Ro
man Catholic religion, is situated between Switzerland and the Tyrol. The prince usually re
sides at Vienna ; the village of Lichtenstein, with about 1,000 inhabitants, is the capital. The
government is a limited monarchy.
CHAPTER CXIV. THE HOHENZOLLERN PRINCIPALITIES.
1. Boundaries. These 2 States are nearly surrounded by the kingdom of Wirtemberg.
The inhabitants are Roman Catholics, and the governments limited monarchies.
764 THE FREE CITIES.
2. Hohenzollern- Hechingen. The principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen has an area of
130 square miles, with 20,000 inhabitants. Its capital is Hechingen ; population, 3,000.
3. Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen. The principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringeri has an area
of 390 square miles, with 42,600 inhabitants. Trochlelfingen, the principal town, has a pop
ulation of 2,000. The capital, Sigmaringen, is an insignificant town, with 1,500 inhabitants.
CHAPTER CXV. LORDSHIP OF KNIPHAUSEN.
This Lilliputian State, the smallest in Europe, has an area of 18 square miles, with 2,860
inhabitants. It lies upon the northern coast of Oldenburg. The capital, Kniphausen, is a
castle of the sovereign lord, surrounded by about 50 inhabitants.
CHAPTER CXVI. THE FREE CITIES.
1. Bremen. The Republic of Bremen comprises the city of that name, and the adjoining
territory, lying on the Weser, and surrounded by the Hanoverian territories. Area, 68 square
miles ^population, 58,000. The city of Bremen is a place of considerable commerce, though
the larger vessels are obliged to discharge their cargoes below. The government is adminis
tered by 4 burgomasters and a senate, all of whom are chosen for life. The town is surround
ed by gardens and walls, shaded with trees, which occupy the site of the old fortifications.
Population, 40,000.
2. Hamburg. The territories of Hamburg are surrounded by the German provinces of
Denmark. The bailiwic of Ritzebuttel is detached from the rest of the States, lying at the
mouth of the Elbe. The bailiwic of Bergedorf belongs to Hamburg and Lubeck in common.
Area, 150 square miles; 153,000. The government is aristocratic, being vested in 4 burgo
masters, and a council, which fill their own vacancies.
The city of Hamburg, on the northern bank of the Elbe, 75 miles by the river, from the
sea, is built partly on a great number of islands formed by the Elbe and the Alster. It is di
vided by a canal into the Old and New Town. The whole city is surrounded by a lofty ram
part, and a broad ditch. Most of the streets are narrow and dark, especially in the Old
Town, and the houses are mostly in the Dutch fashion, 6 or 7 stories high. A few of the
streets are handsome, and bordered by long and wide canals. The ramparts are planted with
trees, and are so wide that they admit several carriages abreast. The churches are mostly
Gothic, with beautiful altars, large organs, and lofty spires, covered with copper, which makes
a brilliant appearance in the sun. The exchange is a noble structure, and Hamburg has always
enjoyed a thriving commerce. It has manufactures to a considerable extent of cotton and
linen cloths, and refined sugars ; it has many schools, libraries, and literary institutions. Popu
lation, 122,000. Cuxhaven, upon the coast, is a little village important for its port, from which
sail regular packet and steam vessels to Amsterdam and Harwich.
3. Lubeck. The territories of Lubeck consist of several detached portions, situated on
the Baltic, and bounded by the Danish and Mecklenburg territories. Area, 140 square miles ;
population, 46,000. The government resembles that of the other free cities of Germany. The
city of Lubeck, on the Trave, is still a place of considerable business, though much declined
since the time when it was the head of the Hanseatic* towns, and its fleet commanded the
Baltic. Its fortifications are now converted into promenades. Population, 22,000.
4. Frankfort. This republic is principally bounded by the Hessian States. Area, 92
square miles ; population, 54,000. The burgomasters are chosen annually, and, with the legis
lative senate and executive assembly, administer the government. Frankfort on the Maine,
* The Hanseatic League was a celebrated association of London, Bruges, Novogorod, and Bergen in Norway, and
the Middle Ages. Toward the middle of the 13th century grew so powerful that'they ruled by their treasures and
both sea and land were covered with pirates and robbers, arms a great part of northern Europe. On one occasion
and the flourishing commerce of Germany was especially they armed a fleet against Denmark, of 248 vessels, and
exposed. This suggested a league for mutual assistance, 12,(1011 soldiers. When the dano-ers of trading by sea and
and a confederacy was formed in 1239, between Hamburg, land diminished, the league declined. The last assembly
and the districts of the Ditrnarschen and Iiadeln, which was held at Lubeck, in 1630. The most distinguished
was joined by Lubeck in 1241. In a short time, the league towns in the confederacy, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and
increased to such a degree, that it comprised 85 towns. Bremen. These 3 cities, with Dantzic, formed a new
They established 4 great factories abroad ; namely, at league after the dissolution of the forme*
HOLLAND.
765
the capital, is the seat of the German Diet, and the German emperors were crowned here, until
the dissolution of the empire, in 1S06. It is one of the most important trading towns in Ger
many, and its fairs, though not what they were when they attracted 50,000 strangers to their
stalls, are among the richest and most frequented in Europe. Frankfort contains several note
worthy buildings, collections, and institutions. Population, 52,000.
CHAPTER CXVII. THE KINGDOM OF HOLLAND, OR THE NETHER
LANDS.
1. Boundaries and Extent. This kingdom is bounded north by the German Ocean, east by
Germany, south by Belgium, and west by the German Ocean. It extends from 51° 10' to
53° 25' N. lat., and from 3° 23' to 7° 5' E. long., and contains 13,900 square miles.
2. Islands. A group of islands lie on the western coast, in the channels of which, the wa
ters of the Rhine, Maese, and Scheldt find their way to the sea. The largest are Beierland,
Man of Beveland.
Woman of Beveland.
Overftakkee, Schowen, North and South Beveland, and Walchcren. At the mouth of the
Zuyder Zee are the islands of Texel, Vlieland, Schelling, and Ameland. Schokland is near
the head of the. sea.
3. Rivers. The Rhine enters the country from Germany, and divides into two branches ;
766
HOLLAND.
Fisherman of Schokland mending his net.
the southern, or Waal, joins the Meuse ; the
northern sends off a branch under the name of
the Yssel, into the Zuyder Zee ; another, called
the Leek, to the Meuse ; a third, called the
Vecht, into the Zuyder Zee, and, after a course
of 850 miles, enters the North Sea, below Ley-
den, a feeble stream. The Meuse or Maese
rises in France, and, flowing through Belgium,
empties itself, by two principal branches, into
the North Sea. The Scheldt enters the Neth
erlands from Belgium, and divides into two prin
cipal branches, which carry its waters into the
North Sea.
4. Seas and Lakes. The Zuyder Zee is a
large inland bay, in the northern part, 60 miles
in extent. The Sea of Haarlem is a lake, 14
miles in length, to the west of the Zuyder Zee,
and communicating with it by the river Y,
which passes by Amsterdam. There are many
small lakes in the northern province of Fries
land. 5. Shores and Dikes. The shores are re
markably flat and low, and a great part of the
country would be laid under water by the tides,
were it not for the enormous dikes erected
along the coast. These dikes employ annually
more men than all the corn of the province of
Holland can maintain. They are mostiy 30
feet in height, and 70 broad at the bottom. They are built of clay, faced on the land side
with .wood and stone, and toward the sea with mats of rushes and sea-weed. In North Hol
land, during violent storms, they cover the outsides of the dikes with sail cloth. There is a
board of dike commissioners, whose duty it is to superintend all the embankments in the
country ; and there are many subordinate commissions all over the kingdom, who are required
to report from time to time to the High Board the condition of the dikes in their district.
Notwithstanding all these efforts to preserve the country, the sea is still gaining on the coast.
6. Climate. The number of lakes, rivers, and canals in Holland, generate a cold and
damp air. Chilling, northeasterly winds prevail during winter ; the Zuyder Zee is frozen
for several months. The weather is subject to sudden changes, and the climate, on the
whole, is insalubrious. Few of the Dutch live to a great age.
7. Soil. The soil is generally a sandy loam, sometimes interspersed with tracts of clay,
but more frequently with extensive districts of sand. Peat bogs are common.
8. Face of the Country. The whole country is low and flat, and was compared by Sir
William Temple to the sea in a calm. A great part of the territory is below the level of the
sea. From the top of a steeple, the eye ranges over a boundless plain, intersected by canals
and dikes ; meadows of the freshest verdure, covered by numerous herds of cattle ; towns, vil
lages, and detached houses, embosomed in trees ; numerous vessels continually gliding along
the canals, and by the animation which they give to the landscape, compensating in some de
gree for its want of bold and picturesque beauty. In some places, low marshy tracts or shallow
lakes have been drained, and their former beds are fenced round with dikes ; these spots are
called by the inhabitants polders. As there is a constant filtration of water from the sea and
rivers through the dikes, and there is no natural outlet for that which falls in rain, it becomes
necessary to keep these low tracts clear by artificial means. For this purpose pumps moved
by windmills are used in great numbers, and the water is pumped out, as from a leaky ship, into
the rivers and canals. Hence, Holland has been humorously described as a country drawing
50 feet of water.
9. Divisions. This kingdom consists of 1 1 provinces :
North Holland, Utrecht, Drenthe, North Brabant,
South Holland, Guelderland, Groningen, Luxemburg.
Zealand, Overyssel, Friesland,
HOLLAND.
767
10. Canals. Canals are as numerous in Holland as roads in other countries, and the coun
try is so level, that they scarcely need a lock in their construction. Some of them are as old
as the 10th century. The most noted is the Great Dutch Canal,. 50 miles in length, from
Amsterdam to the Helder. It is 124| feet wide at the surface, and 20 feet 9 inches deep. It
has two tide locks at the extremities, and two sluices with flood-gates in the intermediate space.
The width is sufficient to allow two frigates to pass each other. This canal was begun in 1819,
and completed in 1825, at a cost of about 4,400,000 dollars. It is highly convenient for ves
sels sailing from Amsterdam, which otherwise are liable to be detained by head winds for
several Weeks.
11. Towns. Hague, formerly the capital of the kingdom, situated not far from the sea, and
intersected by numerous ca
nals, is one of the best built
cities of Europe. It con
tains the royal palace, the
house of the States-General,
numerous private palaces,
&c. Population, 56,000.
In the neighborhood, is the
castle of Ryswick, where
was concluded the celebrat
ed treaty of 1697.
Amsterdam, the principal
city, and capital of the king
dom, and one of the chief
commercial places of Eu
rope, is a well-built town,
upon the Amstel. It is di
vided by that river into two
parts, and intersected by nu
merous canals, which form
90 islets, communicating with
each other by 280 bridges.
The streets mostly border
on the canals, and . are well paved ; several of them are remarkable for their rich display of
shops, filled with the productions of all parts of the world, and the houses are gayly painted of
different colors. The city
contains many literary insti
tutions, scientific establish
ments, and collections of art ;
among the public edifices,
the stadt-house, built upon
13,600 piles, and nearly 300
feet long, is the most mag
nificent. Amsterdam, once
the queen of the ocean, and
the centre of the commerce
of the world, is still impor
tant from the great wealth of
its mercantile houses, and
the extent of its commercial
operations. Its fine quays
along the river Y or Wye,
which forms its port, its vast
naval magazines and ship
yards, and the industry of its
inhabitants, together with its
population of 200,000 souls,
attest its former splendor and
present prosperity.
Fish-woman of Hague.
Woman and Boy of Amsterdam.
Match-woman of Rotterdam.
Woman of Rotterdam.
768
HOLLAND.
Rotterdam is the second commercial city in the kingdom, and, by its deep canals, will admit
the largest vessels to the doors of its warehouses. The style of Dutch architecture is more
particularly striking in this city ; the houses are very high, with projecting stories ; they are
built of very small bricks, and have large windows. This was the birthplace of Erasmus, and
on the bank of one of the canals stands his statue in bronze. Population, 66,000.
Harlem, with 21,000 inhabitants, is noted for its bleacheries, cotton and silk manufactories,
type-founderies, and particularly for its gardens, in which are raised an immense number1 of
flowers, forming an important branch of trade. Harlem disputes with Mentz the honor of the
invention of printing ; and the house of Laurence Koster, who claimed that glory, is .still shown
here. The town-house, one of the handsomest in the country, the celebrated organ, with
8,000 pipes, and the many scientific and literary institutions and collections, deserve to be
noticed. Leyden upon the Rhine, contains a celebrated university, long one of the most famous in
Europe, and its scientific establishments are numerous and important. Its manufactures, par
ticularly of salt, are extensive. Population, 30,000. Utrecht is also distinguished for its uni
versity and its manufactures. Population, 43,000. Here was concluded the important peace
of Utrecht, 1713, which placed England at the head of the European powers. Groningen is the prin
cipal place in the north
ern part of the kingdom.
It is a flourishing and
industrious town, and con
tains a university. Pop
ulation, 30,000. Leu-
warden, the capital of
Friesland, with 20,900
inhabitants, Hinlopen on
the Zuyder Zee, and
Bois-le-Duc or Herto-
genbosch, the capital of
North Brabant, and a
strongly fortified^ town,
with 20,500, are impor
tant trading and manufac
turing places. Dort or
Dordrecht, 20,000 inha
bitants, has an active
commerce, and is noted
in history for the Protest
ant synod held there.
Delft, 13,000 inhabitants,
gives its name to a sort
of earthen ware made
there in great quantities ;
the celebrated Grotitis
was born there. Middleburg, the capital of Zeeland, with 15,000 inhabitants ; Flushing,
noted for its excellent harbor, its fortifications, and its vast ship-yards, with 5,000 inhabitants ;
Breda, an important frontier fortress ; Schiedam, 10,000 inhabitants ; and Nimeguen, 15,000,
are important towns.
The small town of Texel, on the island of the same name, is an important naval station.
The German province of Luxemburg, which lies to the south of Belgium, belongs to the
king of the Netherlands. It contains few considerable towns, the largest, Luxemburg, having
a population of 10,000 inhabitants. It is one of the strongest places in Europe, and is one of
the fortresses of the German confederation.
Saardam, on the river Zaan, is a considerable town of wooden houses,' almost all of which
are painted green. It has considerable commerce and ship-building ; almost every house is
surrounded by water, and forms, with its garden, a small island. The house is still to be
Lady of Leuwarden.
Woman of Hinlopen.
HOLLAND.
769
House in which Peter the Great lived.
seen here, in which Peter the Great of Russia
lived, when learning the art of ship-building.*
12. Agriculture. The Dutch, by unwearied
industry, have conquered every disadvantage of
climate, soil, and territory. The humidity and
coldness of the air are unfavorable to the culture
of corn ; the water is equally bad ; the soil by na
ture produces hardly anything except peat, and the
very possession of the territory is disputed by the
sea. Yet the labors of the patient inhabitants have
converted their boggy, insignificant territory into
one of the richest spots in Europe. The corn
raised is insufficient for home consumption, but tbe
products of the dairy are abundant ; the objects of
culture being mostly connected with pasturage.
By draining the bogs and marshes, excellent meadows are created, upon which cattle fatten to
a vast size ; the utmost "attention is paid to their warmth and cleanliness, and even in the sum
mer these animals appear in the meadows clothed with apparently ludicrous care, to keep off the
flies. The four provinces of North and South Holland, Groningen, and Utrecht, have pro
duced, in butter and cheese, sometimes 31,000,000 dollars annually. Holland is, indeed, one
great meadow, intersected by canals, and traversed by rows and groups of trees. Wheat, rye,
barley, oats, peas, beans, and buckwheat are raised for internal consumption ; and madder, rape
seed, hops, tobacco, clover seed, mustard seed, flax, hemp, and poppy oil, for consumption
and exportation. Much attention is paid to horticulture ; the gardens and orchards are very
neat. Culinary vegetables are even exported to Norway and other countries.
13. Commerce. Holland became at an early period a maritime power, and established set
tlements in various parts of the globe. The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602,
and its prosperity was such, that the shares were afterwards sold at 1,000 per cent advance.
The manufacturing industry of the country, was one great support of its commerce, and the
linens, silks, and woolens of Holland were spread over all Europe. The political revolutions
of modern times have been ruinous to the Dutch commerce ; yet the trade is still considerable,
and extends to all parts of the world. The large capitals of the Dutch merchants, their central
situation, their extensive and valuable foreign possessions, and the considerable surplus of native
commodities for exportation, secure to them a large trade. Holland exports, besides its own
produce above mentioned, the herring, stockfish, whalebone, and oil furnished by its fisheries ;
the coffee, sugar, rum, cotton, and spices of its colonies ; the gin and tobacco-pipes of its manu
factories, and several articles, of German produce and manufacture. Much of the commerce is
carried on by native vessels. Vast floats of timber are received by the Rhine from Switzer
land and Germany.
14. Manufactures. The manufactures of Holland have been greatly checked by the rival-
ship of the English. Before the French revolution, there was scarcely a manufacture which the
Dutch did not carry on. In this they were assisted by the populousness of the country, the
cheapness of labor, and, above all, by the water carriage, which gives an immense facility to all
* The little village of Broek or Brock, in North Holland,
is the admiration of all visiters. Here Dutch cleanliness
and nicety seem to be carried to perfection, indeed proba
bly without a parallel in the world. No carriages of any
description are allowed to enter the village, one street only
excepted, which is considered as polluted, and is but thin
ly inhabited. The streets, with the above exception, are
clean beyond all comparison ; not a dog or a cat is to be
seen in them at liberty ; and there is a regulation by which
no person is allowed to smoke, either in or out of doors,
without a guard over the ball of the pipe, to prevent the
ashes from falling out ! Notice to this effect is posted up
at the entrances of the village. The pavement of the
street is inlay or mosaic work, formed of pebbles of every
shape and color, shells, pieces of glazed brick, &c. The
houses are painted in every part, within and without, of
the most costly colors, and their whole appearance be
speaks the most minute attention to neatness ; the windows
are without a speck ; everything has an air of freshness,
97
and a stranger looks in vain for a grain of dirt, or even a
particle of dust. The houses are roofed with tiles so
glossy, that, in the sunshine, they glitter like spar. Small
gardens extend from one end of a street to the other, all
ornamented in a way most suitable to the owner's taste,
and not a blade of grass or a withered leaf is allowed to
rest on the ground. The town is built partly round the
banks of a small, circular lake, and from this lake flow,
through most of the streets, small streams in a channel
lined with brick on both sides. The numerous bridges
over these small canals, afford an opportunity for exhibit
ing the taste of the inhabitants in fanciful devices, and in
the intermixtures of bright colors. The houses have each
two entrances, the one of which, generally painted black,
is never opened but in the case of death in the family.
The internal cleanliness of the houses corresponds with
the external, and the people are equally cleanly in their
persons, dress, and habits.
770
HOLLAND.
the operations of trade and industry. The manufactures are still considerable, and consist of
woolen, linen, silk, cotton, tobacco, snuff, pipes, leather, &c. The distillation of gin is largely
carried on.
15. Fisheries. The herring fishery has been prosecuted, on a large scale by the Dutch, ever
since the 12th century ; the art of curing and barreling these fish was discovered here in 1316.
In the middle of the 18th century, the business employed 100,000 fishermen. At present,
there are in Holland and Belgium 20,000 families and 200 busses in occupation. The whale
fishery is also prosecuted, but on a small scale, and with little success.
16. Inhabitants. The Dutch are hardy, and can endure much labor and fatigue. The
complexion of the females is not to be surpassed in clearness, but their forms are not universally
distinguished for lightness. There are some Germans and Jews settled in Holland. The no
bility are numerous, but not always rich.
17. Dress. The national dress is not much liable to the fluctuation of fashion ; it is nearly
the same as it was in the time of the duke of Alva. People of the higher class follow the
French fashions, but the peasantry dress in a peculiar manner. The men have jackets, and
of Guelders.
1^
Countrywoman of Guelders.
Bride ofMarkcn.
breeches of great capaciousness ; they wear many huge buttons on their dress,, and both sexes
have wooden shoes. The females in common life wear close caps and long-waisted gowns ;
the female peasantry wear short petticoats with very long waists, and their dress is much padded
and stuffed. There are many different costumes in the different districts.
18. Language. The general and written language is the Dutch, which is derived from the
German ; the Frisian is a dialect of the Dutch, used in some of the northern parts. The
Dutch merchants generally are familiar with several languages.
19. Manner of Building. The architecture of the cities is neat and imposing; the ends
of the houses are often placed towards the street, and the walls are filled with ornaments. The
country houses are stiff and formal; they have frequently a motto over the gateway or front.
The new buildings are few, but many old ones bear over their doors the date of the 14th or
15th century. The 1st of May is the time when tenants remove from houses ; a practice com
mon in New York, and which has there a Dutch derivation. At the windows in cities, are
large glasses, so placed at angles with others, that they reflect the passengers in the street to
the unobserved scrutiny of the parlor.
20. Food and Drink. A great part of the food of the common people consists in potatoes,
salt meat, and fish. The garden vegetables are excellent and abundant. Raw gin is a universal
HOLLAND.
771
Skipper of Friesland.
V ' MmmWigin
Skipper of Friesland' s Wife.
Woman of North Holland.
beverage, and takes the place of cider or beer, though some beer is used. The Dutch, how
ever, from a phlegmatic temperament, and from the humidity of the climate, can take much
spirits without injury ; they are not an intemperate people. No sign is more frequent over shops
than that of tobacco, for no Dutchman is long without his pipe. Even the females of the com
mon class are addicted to smoking ; the rooms of a public house, or of a trekschuyt, are filled
with the thickest smoke, from never-dying pipes, which, says Professor Silliman, the Dutch
"maintain, with vestal vigilance, under their noses."
21. Diseases. The diseases of Holland are not peculiar, though rheumatism and the mala
dies of a humid climate are common.
22. Traveling. Posting is less expeditious and convenient than in France ; but the roads
are not more numerous than the canals, and a general method of traveling is, therefore, by the
trekschuyt, or drag-boat; this is 10 feet wide, and 50 long; and in shape it resembles the
common representations of Noah's ark. The expense does not exceed three cents a mile, and
the rate of traveling is three miles an hour, which is so invariably the result, that distances, as
in the East, are reckoned by hours, and not by miles. When frozen, the canals are traveled
over by sleighs and skates. All persons skate ; the peasant girl skates to market, with her
merchandise on her head, the senator to his assembly, and the clergyman to his church.
23. Character, Manners, and Customs. If we estimate the national character from the de
scriptions of the English, we should do it injustice ; for the commercial islanders are never just
to commercial competitors, and the Dutch have often been their successful rivals. The Dutch
are distinguished for frugality, neatness^and industry ; they are of a cold, phlegmatic tempera
ment, but, when roused to passion, have as much ardor as any people. They are grave and
heavy in appearance, and even children are sedate. They are quiet and domestic, and enjoy
much happiness in their family circles. Generally they prefer gain to ambition, but in their
dealings they are honest. The very soil they till is a monument of their perseverance and in
dustry ; they live in a country of meadows reclaimed from the sea, and the acquisition is main
tained only by continual vigilance, toil, and expense. In Holland, neatness is carried to ex
cess ; in their kitchens, every metallic utensil is as bright as scouring can make it, and hung
upon the walls for show, for neatness here is ostentatious ; the very tongs and shovel are " hung
up for monuments." The principal utensils are of pewter and copper. One room in the
house is held too sacred for common intrusion ; and the neatness and arrangement of this, is a
peculiar study. In some of the villages, wagons are not permitted to pass through the streets ;
772 HOLLAND.
the front walks are scrubbed, sanded, and marked out in fanciful figures. The doors and
"porches are burnished, and the trees that shade them do not escape the brush. Little admit
tance is granted at the front door ; and even at the back entrance, a shoe not perfectly satisfac
tory to the genius of the place, must be laid aside, and a slipper, which is kept for this purpose,
worn during the visit.
The Dutch are profuse of time, but economical of money. All their conveyances, by sea
or land, are slow, and " Dutch speed," has grown into a saying for tardiness. The economy,
however, is not to be discovered in the public establishments, which are on a princely scale.
24. Amusements. The principal of the peculiar amusements of the Dutch are skating, and
dancing at the licensed houses, where the most infamous class resort. It is common, for staid
and respectable people, in family groups, to mingle in the dance, with those who have neither
character nor modesty to lose. Skating is followed by both sexes ; it is a graceful and health
ful amusement. The females are generally dressed in white, and each one is attended by a
man ; generally they move with each a hand resting on the other's shoulder. They step simul
taneously, as in marching. It is an interesting spectacle, to see many females, with florid com
plexions, and dressed in white, moving swiftly, and apparently without effort, like Camilla,
" When, like a passing thought, she fled
In light, away."
25. Education. There are 3 universities ; one at Leyden, another at Groningen, and a
third at Utrecht. There are several athenreums or gymnasiums, and many high .schools.
There are elementary schools in all towns and villages, and there are in many places mechanic
institutions. 26. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. Painting, only, has been cultivated with
great success ; and the Dutch School is distinguished by the most faithful and exact imitation
of nature. The greatest painters are Rembrandt, Wouvermann, Gerhard Douw, Ruisdael,
Mieris, Ostade, &c. Erasmus was the great restorer of literature in the West, and Grotius is
a great name in jurisprudence, theology, history, &c. The Dutch, however, have little' litera
ture, though they have done much for the sciences. Many of their most popular books, are
imitations of English, French, or German authors.
27. Religion. This is Protestant, and in the Calvinistic form. The church government is
somewhat similar to that of Scotland. There are many Walloon churches, belonging to Flem
ish Protestants, who have a Synod of their own. There are, besides, Lutherans, Baptists,
Jews, Quakers, Arminians, and Greeks. The Sabbath is observed in many places, nearly as
strictly as in New England.
28. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy ; the crown is hereditary
in the house of Nassau Orange. The two legislative chambers are styled the States-General ;
the upper house is composed of members nominated by the king for life, like the Chamber of
Peers in France, and the lower house consists of deputies chosen by the provincial estates, or
local assemblies of the 3 orders or estates of the realm ; viz. the nobility, the citizens, and the
landholders. 29. Colonies. The Dutch colonies, though less extensive than formerly, are still important,
comprising a population of nearly 10,000,000. They are the Islands of Curasao, and St.
Eustatia, and part of St. Martins, with Surinam, on the coast of Guiana, in America ; a
number of forts and factories on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, in Africa ; and the islands
of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Timor, the Moluccas, &c, in Oceania.
30. Population, &c. The population of Holland is 2,S20,000. From the confusion into
which the affairs of the kingdom have been thrown by the recent revolt of Belgium, nothing
satisfactory can be stated in relation to the finances.
The army of the Netherlands has been kept on a large footing, owing to the unsettled
relations with Belgium ; but as these troubles have lately been quieted, it is impossible to state
what the peace establishment will be. Besides the regularly paid, there is Schuttery, which is
a conscription of individuals in places containing 2,500 persons, who are called into service
by the king, and this is a protection to all places where such a population is not congregated.
The Schuttery may be termed the Dutch National Guard, and the call of these troops gives
the king of Holland 29 battalions, or 40,000 men. They are called at the pleasure of the
king only, but the Landsturm, which is a levy en masse, can only be made by consent of the
Chambers.
BELGIUM. 773
The Dutch navy is powerful, consisting of 29 frigates and ships of the line, 30 corvettes and
brigs, and about 80 small vessels, for the defence of the interior waters.
31. History. A portion of this country was occupied, a century before the Christian -era,
by a barbarous tribe called Batavi, who gave the name of Batavia to their territory. They
fell under the Roman power ; and their country was united to Germany in the 9th century. In
the 15th century, the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, or, as the name signifies, the Low
Countries, belonged to the dukes of Burgundy, but passed by marriage into the hands of the
Spanish branch of the House of Austria. The attempt of Philip the Second, king of Spain,
to crush the Protestant religion in the Low Countries, gave rise to a revolt of those provinces,
and, after a long and heroic struggle, the 7 northern provinces achieved their independence.
In 15S1 they renounced their allegiance' to Philip, and formed the republic of the United
Provinces of the Netherlands, often simply called Holland, from the name of the most exten-.
sive and powerful province. The war of independence was continued, however, with inter
ruptions, until the peace of Westphalia, in 1648. With liberty came industry, foreign com
merce, wealth, and power, and during the 17th century, Holland was one of the first European
States. After the French revolution, the Netherlands were conquered by France, and, in
1810, incorporated with the French empire. On the fall of Napoleon, in 1815, the Belgic and
Dutch Netherlands were united together as an independent kingdom, under the Dutch stadt
holder, but in 1830, the former provinces revolted, and now form the kingdom of Belgium.
CHAPTER CXVIII. BELGIUM.
Antwerp.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. This kingdom is bounded north by Holland, east by Germany,
southwest by France, and northwest by the German Ocean. It extends from 49° 40' to 51°
30' N. lat., and from 2° 40' to 6° E. long., and comprises 12,570 square miles.
2. Rivers. The chief, rivers are the Scheldt and Maese. The Scheldt rises in France,
and flows northeasterly into this country, where it turns to the north and northwest, and, di
viding into several channels, falls into the German Ocean. Though not remarkable for length,
it is a wide and deep river. Antwerp and Ghent are situated upon it. The Maese, or Meuse,
flows through the eastern part of the country from France to Holland.
,, 3. Forests. There are many large forests in the districts of Namur and Liege, and along
the French frontier, being the remains of the celebrated forest of Arduenna or Ardennes. In
Brabant is the forest of Soignies. They consist mostly of beech, birch, elm, and oak, and are
used principally for fuel. Most of the trees fit for timber have been cut down.
4. Climate, Soil, &c. The climate much resembles that of the south of England. In the
interior the air is salubrious ; but upon the coast of Flanders, and about the mouths of the
Scheldt, the air is moist and unhealthy. The soil, in general, resembles that of Holland. In
Liege and Namur are considerable stony and unproductive tracts. Flanders abounds with ex
cellent corn lands. In the south and southeastern pahs are mines of iron, lead, copper, and
coal, and quarries of marble. The whole country is low and level, but somewhat less so than
Holland. In the south are some hills of moderate height.
774
BELGIUM.
5. Divisions South Brabant
Hainault
Belgium comprises 8 provinces.
bant, Namur, Limburg,
Liege, Antwerp,
East Flanders,
West Flanders.
6. Canals. The canals of Belgium are numerous, spacious, and commodious, connecting
all the great cities, though not equal in number to those of Holland, and uniting every village.
The Great North Canal extends across the country from Antwerp to Venloo on the Meuse,
120 miles. The Brussels Canal connects Brussels and Antwerp, 50 miles. The Ostend Ca
nal, passing through Bruges, connects Ghent with the sea at Ostend, whence it is continued
to Dunkirk. Brussels is also connected with Mons and Charleroi by canals.
7. Railroads. These works were projected by King Leopold, who adopted the enlighten
ed policy of undertaking a great public work, for the encouragement of industry, the employ
ment of labor, for strengthening, consolidating, and enriching the country, and to serve as a
monument of his devotedness to the interests of the state. He ordered the whole country to
be surveyed by able engineers, the necessary plans and ¦ estimates formed, and, on the 1st of
May, 1834, a law was proclaimed, for the introduction of a system of railroads, through the
whole kingdom, in different directions, to be executed at the expense of the state. These
railroads lead to seaports at two points, — Antwerp and Ostend, — connect with France at two,
and with Germany at one ; and all unite in one centre. The portions completed are a rail
road from Brussels to Antwerp, 32 miles, and another from Ostend through Bruges, Ghent,
Malines, and Tirlemont to the Meuse, 150 miles.
8. Cities. Brussels, the capital, stands on both sides of the little river Senne, flowing into
the Scheldt. It is partly situated on a rising ground, and makes a fine appearance at a distance.
The city was formerly surrounded by a double wall and ditch, but these have been demolished,
and the space formed into a handsome public walk planted with trees. The suburbs are exten
sive, and there are many neighboring villages joined to the city by long avenues. The lower
part of the town consists of narrow streets and old houses. The upper part is modern and
regular, with fine buildings and a beautiful park laid out in large, regular walks, shaded with
trees and surrounded by palaces, public offices, and elegant private houses. Public fountains
are interspersed throughout the city, and a large canal here leaves the river. The Hotel de
Battle Ground of Waterloo, with Monuments erected to the Memory of the Slain.
Ville is remarkable for its exquisite Gothic spire, which looks like the work of fairy hands.
There are many fine squares and palaces, and in the Orange palace is a library of 100,000
BELGIUM. 775
volumes. Half a league from the city is the splendid palace of Schoonenburg. Brussels is
distinguished for its manufactures of laces, carpets, tapestry, woolen and cotton cloths, silk
stockings, gold and silver lace, and earthen ware. Population,. 100,000. Waterloo, about
10 miles from Brussels, and on the borders of the Soignies Forest, is a small village, near
which the fate of Europe was decided, in 1815, by the victory of the Allies over Napoleon.
Antwerp, on the Scheldt, is a large and well-built city, surrounded by a wall with carriage-
roads on the top, planted with rows of trees. The city is built in the form of a semicircle and
is intersected by canals. The cathedral is one of the finest Gothic structures in the world,
and its spire is unrivaled ; it is 441 feet high, and deserves, according to the saying of Charles
the Fifth, to be kept in a glass case and shown only on holydays. The stadt-house and exchange
are noble edifices. The harbor is deep and capacious. In the height of its prosperity, Ant
werp was one of the most flourishing and wealthy commercial cities in the world, and contain
ed 200,000 inhabitants. Its commerce has greatly declined, and the city has a decayed and
solitary appearance. Napoleon designed to make it a great naval station, and constructed here
some of the noblest dockyards in the world. The inhabitants carry on a few manufactures.
Population, 70,000. In the late revolution of Belgium, Antwerp was bombarded and set on
fire by the Dutch, and sustained much damage.
Ghent stands at the confluence of 3 rivers with the Scheldt, and is 7 miles in compass, but
contains within its walls many fields and unoccupied grounds. Many of its canals are bordered
with quays planted with rows of trees. The houses are large, but heavy and inelegant ; here is
a fine Gothic cathedral with marble floors and pillars. Ghent has manufactures of fine lace,
cotton, linen, woolen, silk, paper, and leather ; the trade of the city has lately increased.
Population, 80,000. Its citadel is one of the largest in Europe. The treaty of peace between
Great Britain and the United States was negotiated here, in 1815.
Bruges, 8 miles from the sea, stands in a fertile plain. It communicates with the sea and
the towns in the interior by canals. Here are a college, an academy for painting, sculpture; and
architecture, several literary societies, a public library, and a botanical garden. The manufac
ture of lace employs 6,000 people, and there are 200 schools, in which children are taught
this art. The town-house is a superb Gothic edifice ; its steeple is furnished with chimes of
bells, which play a different tune every quarter of an hour. Population, 36,000. It was for
merly one of the great commercial marts of the world, but is now much declined ; yet its com
merce, manufactures, and extensive ship-yards render it still important. Ostend, a few miles
west of Bruges, is one of the most important seaports in the country ; regular packets sail from
this place to England several times a week, and it has a great trade in the exportation of grain
and other products. Population, 10,554.
Liege, on the Maese, is divided into 3 parts by the river, and has extensive suburbs. The
houses are high, and many of the streets narrow, crooked, and gloomy. Most of the inhabit
ants are engaged in manufactures and trade. Iron, coal, and alum abound in the neighborhood,
and afford occupation for all the industry of the place. The manufactures consist of iron, fire
arms, clock-work, nails, &c. Population, 54,004. Liege contains a university, and numer
ous institutions of education and learned societies.
Tournay, the principal manufacturing town in the kingdom, is a flourishing place, with
33,000 inhabitants ; carpets, camlets, and porcelain, are among the principal products of its in
dustry. Mons, the capital of Hainault, is noted for the extensive coal' mines in its neighbor
hood. Population, 20,000. Louvain, with 25,000 inhabitants, is an active manufacturing
town, with a celebrated university. Namur, capital of the province of the same name, is ren
dered important by its manufactures of cutlery, leather, and earthenware, its extensive fortifica
tions, and its population of 19,000 souls. Malines or Mechlin, with 18,000 inhabitants,
Ypres, 15,000, and Courtray, 16,000, are among the other most considerable towns. Maes
tricht, an important town in the Belgic province of Limburg, with 21,000 inhabitants, belongs
to the kingdom of the Netherlands.
9. Agriculture. The agriculture of the Belgic provinces forms the principal source of their
wealth. The whole territory of Flanders is cultivated like a garden. A great proportion consisted,
originally, of harsh, barren sands, producing nothing but heath and fir ; yet by the application
of manure, these have been brought into a state of high fertility. The culture of artificial
grasses is the characteristic process of Flemish husbandry, which it has taught to the rest of
Europe. In general, the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical, antique
776
BELGIUM.
ig been adopted. But this system of hus-
pulation of Europe, with the standard productions of
madder, rape, clover, mustard seeds, hops, &c, for
Mustard.
Madder.
Foxtail Grass.
Fiorin Grass.
Spike Fescue Grass.
Cats' -Tail Grass.
10. Commerce and Manufactures. In the 14th century the Flemish were one of the most
commercial and manufacturing people of Europe. Bruges, and, afterwards, Antwerp, were
the centres of an extensive commerce, wliich finally passed mostly into the hands of the Dutch.
Manufacturing industry is the branch in which the Belgic provinces formerly most excelled and
in which their decay is most conspicuous. Three centuries ago the linens and woolens of
Ghent, Louvain, Brussels, and Mechlin, clothed the higher ranks in all the surrounding coun
tries. Since that time, the fabrics of France and England have attained such a superiority, and
are at once so cheap and so well suited to the taste of the age, that the Low Countries' manu
factures cannot sustain a competition. There are still, however, some fine linen fabrics, laces,
lawns, and cambrics, in which they continue unrivaled. The linens of Flanders, the lace of
Brussels and Mechlin, the woolens of Verviers and Mechlin, the smoking-pipes of Gonda, and
the cutlery and hardware of Namur and Liege, are among the products of Belgian industry.
11. Inhabitants. The Belgians are in part Flemings, of German origin, and in part Wal
loons, of the Latin race, and closely allied to the French. The former resemble the Dutch
BELGIUM.
777
in their character and manners, the latter are more like the French. The language of the high
er classes is French ; of the lower classes, Flemish, a dialect of the Low German, or the Wal
loon dialects, a sort of rustic French.
The modes of dress, manner of building, manners and customs, food and drink, generally
ft
iff «;<=:-
%li«ttm£EL .
Woman of Brabant
Man of Brabant
Coal Girl of Brabant.
present little that is peculiar, but rather exhibit the same mixture of French and Dutch. A
black-hooded cloak is worn by the women in many places, a remnant of the old Spanish sway over
these provinces. The common people generally wear wooden shoes, as in many other parts of
Europe. Some of the Belgian towns are hardly to be rivaled anywhere else for the neatness and
general pleasing effect of the buildings. As to the character of the Belgians, it may be ob
served, that, long subject to a foreign yoke, and in constant intercourse with foreigners, they
seem to have lost, in a great measure, the original Flemish character, and to present no very
distinctive features. A strong national antipathy existed between the Dutch and Belgians while
they were under the same crown, and the latter attempted to adopt the French customs and
manners, yet they have a greater resemblance to their northern than to their southern neighbors.
The amusements are much like those of Holland ; the great Flemish kermes or fairs, though no
longer subservient to commerce, exist still as festivals, at which there is a great display of hu
mor and character, such as we find happily illustrated in the works of the Flemish painters.
12. State of the Arts, &c. The fine arts were cultivated with great zeal and success in the
Belgic provinces, during the days of their opulence and prosperity. Wealthy merchants liberally
patronized the arts of design ; and the gentry and landholders being induced by the constant
wars, of which the Low Countries were the theatre, to live much in towns, acquired more re
fined tastes, than could have been formed in a country life. Antwerp, during its prosperous
period, became, in some measure, a Belgic Athens. The Flemish school of painting, under
its great masters Rubens and Vandyke, displayed great splendor of coloring, grandeur of com
position, and force of expression, although it never reached that grandeur of design and pure
taste, which were formed in Italy.
13. Religion and Education. The Belgians are mostly Catholics, the number of Protes
tants not exceeding 10,000. The Catholic clergy have shown a very intolerant spirit here, but
the great possessions of the church have been forfeited, and the monasteries have been suppress
ed, only a few nunneries having' been allowed to exist. The clergy now receive very mode
rate salaries from government ; they consist of an Archbishop of Mechlin, 5 bishops, 64 vicars-
general and canons, and 4,530 inferior officers. There are 3 universities, and the provision for
general education is extensive.
14. Government. The form of government is monarchical, and the power of the king is
limited by the constitution. There are 2 legislative chambers, both elected by the citizens pay-
98
778 DENMARK.
ing a certain tax ; the Senate is chosen for the term of 8, and the House of Representatives
_for 4 years. The population of Belgium is 4,500,000.
15. History. The history of Belgium is connected with that of Holland till the revolt of
the latter country from the Spanish dominion. Belgium or the Low Countries remained in the
possession of the Spaniards after the independence of Holland. Early in the 18th century the
country passed into the hands of the Austrians, and was held by them till the breaking out of
the French revolution, when it was conquered by the French, and incorporated with France in
1795. After the overthrow of Napoleon, it was united to Holland, and formed a part of the
kingdom of the Netherlands. This union was the work of the Congress of Vienna, and never
obtained the cordial acquiescence of the Belgians. The two nations differed in character,
manners, institutions, religion, and language, and the policy of William of Orange, who occu
pied the throne, was far from conciliatory. The Belgians were treated more as a conquered
people than as subjects on an equality with the Dutch ; few of them were appointed to impor
tant offices ; the education of their children was taken out of their hands ; their language was
proscribed ; the liberty of the press was abolished, and many other burdens imposed upon
them. The revolution of Paris in 1830 set them the example of revolt, and in August of the
same year they rose in insurrection at Brussels, and on the 4th of October, 1830, declared the
independence of Belgium. Bloody combats with the Dutch armies followed at Brussels, Ant
werp, and other places. The troops of the king were at length driven from the country, and
the independence of Belgium was acknowledged by the 5 great European powers. On the 4th
of June, 1831, the Belgian Congress made choice of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg for
king, who immediately accepted the crown, and took his oath to the Constitution, at Brussels,
July 21st, 1831.
CHAPTER CXIX. DENMARK.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Denmark is a peninsula, divided on the north from Norway by
the Scagerac, and from Sweden on the east by the Sound ; it is bounded on the south by Ger
many and the Baltic ; and the German sea divides it from Great Britain on the west. Includ
ing the insular portion, it lies between 53° 21' and 57° 42' north latitude, and 8° and 13° 30'
east longitude. Its length from north to south is nearly 300 miles, and its breadth 100. Area,
22,000 square miles..
2. Rivers. The most considerable river is the Eyder, which, rising near the Baltic, runs
westward, and after a course of 56 miles, falls into the German sea at Tonningen. The
Gudensal has its source between Skanderborg and Randers, and enters the Baltic at Radbye.
The other rivers, or more properly, rivulets, are numerous ; but too inconsiderable to require
mention. 3. Lakes. There are several lakes, but none of any magnitude. That of Ploen, in Hol
stein, is one of the largest, and does not exceed 1 0 miles in circumference. Among the oth
ers are those of Arre, Esrom, and Sial, in Zealand ; the lake of Wyborg and the Long Lake
in Jutland ; and the lake of Ratzeburg in Lauenburg.
4, Islands. The islands in the Baltic are the most fertile and populous parts of the king
dom, and of these Zealand is the largest. It is generally flat, and, except in a small part of
the coast, very little elevated above the level of the sea. It contains 3,000 square miles.
Population, 360,000. Funen, the next in importance, is separated from Zealand by the strait,
called the Great Belt ; and is about 50 miles long and 40 broad. Odensee is the capital. The
island of Bornholm is surrounded by rocks highly dangerous to navigators, and contains 7
towns, and 21 parishes. The capital is Roenne, known for its potteries and watch and clock-
making. Population of the island, 20,000. The "little isle of Moen, at the southern extremi
ty of Zealand, contains 7,000 inhabitants. The island of Langeland, between Funen and
Laaland, contains 1 1,000 inhabitants. Laaland or Lolland is peopled by 4,000 souls, and has
a considerable trade in grain. The isle of Falster, to the east of Laaland, numbers 16,000
inhabitants. 5. Bays, Straits, &c. The coasts of Denmark are indented by numerous branches of the-
sea, called fiords, or firths, the principal of which is called the Lymfiord. The Sound, or
Oresund, one of the 3 straits which connect the Cattegat and Baltic, is the most frequented
strait in the world. Its depth is from 10 to 19 fathoms ; but close upon the coast, and round
some of the islands, it is only 4 fathoms.
DENMARK.
779
6. Climate. The geographical situation of Denmark indicates severity of climate ; but the
vicinity of the sea renders the air more humid and temperate than in the interior of the conti
nent in the same latitude. The sky is often obscured by fogs, and rain falls at least on one
third of the whole number of days in the year. The summer is often oppressively warm, it
begins in June, and ends with September.
* 7. Soil. The prevailing soil is sandy. In some parts it consists of a very rich mould, of
which the component substances are marl, and a bituminous matter. The soil in the island of
Alsen is chiefly composed of a very rich vegetable mould. Marshes are found everywhere.- The
whole of Vendsyssal is one continuous marsh. Some fuller's earth, alum, and vitriol, found in
Jutland, and porcelain clay obtained in the island of Bornholm, seem to constitute the whole of
the mineral productions of Denmark.
8. Animals. Deer, foxes, and hares are numerous, and hunting is a common amusement.
Sea-fowl abound in the marshy districts. The horses of Denmark and Holstein are celebrated
for their strength, beauty, and speed.
9. Face of the Country. The general surface of Denmark is level, with slight undulations.
The coasts are in some parts steep, and bold ; but usually low and sandy. Towards the west,
where the Jutland peninsula terminates, the aspect of the country is exceedingly barren and
desolate. 10. Divisions. Denmark is divided into 3 parts, the first comprehending the kingdom of
Denmark Proper ; the second the 3 duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which be
long to the German confederation ; and the third embracing the Feroe Islands, and Iceland,
which are considered as foreign colonies. The kingdom of Denmark consists of the peninsula
of Jutland, and the islands contiguous.
1 1 . Canals. By the canal of Kiel, a communication is maintained between the German
Ocean and the Baltic. The canal of Steckenitz, unites the Elbe with the Baltic. The canal
of Odensee unites Odensee with the sea.
12. Towns. Copenhagen, called by the Danes Kiobenhavn, the metropolis of the Danish
dominions, is situated on a low and marshy promontory on the east side of the island of Zee-
land. Its harbor is excellent, and its quays and dock-yards extensive. The regularity of its
streets, the beauty of its squares, and the great number of its elegant buildings, render Copen
hagen one of the handsomest cities in Europe. The royal castle of Christiansborg is a mag
nificent palace with a rich gallery of paintings, and a fine library of 400,000 volumes. . There
are 3 other royal palaces, and many fine palaces of the nobility. The halls of the university,
the town-house, and numerous other public edifices are distinguished for the beauty of their ar
chitecture. Among the churches are that of Our Lady, adorned with some pieces of statuary
by Thorwaldsen, and that of the Trinity, the round tower of which, used as an observatory,
can be ascended by a winding path in carriages. No city of its size surpasses Copenhagen in
the number and excellence of its learned societies, its scientific establishments, and its institu
tions for education. The university has a good library of 100,000 volumes, and enjoys a high
reputation. Copenhagen is the centre of an active commerce and of flourishing manufactures,
and it contains a population of 120,000. Its vast docks and its massive and extensive fortifi
cations, are worthy of notice.
Sleswick, the capital of the duchy of that name, is a long, irregular, but handsome town,
with 8,000 inhabitants. Altona, on the
Elbe, about 2 miles from Hamburg, is a
place of considerable trade, and extensive
manufactures. Population, 30,000. Elsi-
nore, or Elsineur, at the narrowest part
of the Sound, is protected by the strong
fortress of Cronborg,' and contains about
30 commercial houses. It has an excellent
roadstead, in which ships anchor almost
close to the town. At this place the tolls
of the Sound are collected. Population,
7r000. Kiel, the capital of Holstein, is a
fortified town on a bay of the Baltic, and
is the seat of a celebrated university. Pop
ulation, 7,500.
Castle of Cronborg at Elsineur. Gluckstadt, near the mouth of the Elbe,
780
DENMARK.
has some trade, and is engaged in the Greenland fishery. Population, 5,200. Flensberg, in
the duchy of Sleswick, has a good harbor, and is a place of some commerce. Population,
16,000. Roeskilde, at the extremity of the Roeskilde fiord, has a very ancient cathedral, and
is the burial-place of the Danish kings.
13. Agriculture. Denmark produces barley, rye, and oats, in abundance ; also rape-seed,
wheat, oats, buck-wheat, and peas. A great quantity of excellent butter is manufactured.
The rearing of cattle is also an extensive branch of industry, and the rich meadows of Sles-.
wick furnish what is known and celebrated under the name of Hamburg beef. Over all Den
mark ihe dairy forms the basis of a large export trade, and butter, cheese, salted meat, and
live stock, with the different grains, make the bulk of the exports. All kinds of domestic
poultry are plentiful, particularly geese and ducks, the feathers of which are a valuable article
of exportation.
14. Commerce. This country is well situated for commerce. The principal imports are
cotton, tea, wine, brandy, and salt. The exports are timber, black cattle, horses, stock-fish,
tallow, hides, tar, pitch, and iron, with some produce.
15. Manufactures. There are a few hands employed in the manufacture of woolen stuffs.
Carpets, stockings, gloves, camlets, and lace, are also made to some extent. Sugar refineries
are common, and the produce is equivalent to the consumption.
16. Fisheries. The most considerable fishery is that of herrings in the Lymfiord. Seals
and porpoises are killed upon the coast and in the Eider.
17. Revenue and Population. The annual revenue of Denmark is 8,000,000 dollars. It
arises principally from the royal demesnes, tithes, land tax, poll tax, a tax upon titles, places,
and pensions, stamp duties, customs, and a toll on vessels passing the Sound. .. The public
debt is 75,000,000 dollars. The population of the Danish dominions is 2,050,000, beside
160,000 in the colonies.
18. Army and Navy. The present military force of Denmark consists of 38,819 men.
The Danish navy amounts to 7 ships of the line, 8 frigates, 5 sloops of 20 guns, 5 brigs, 2
schooners, 77 gunboats, and 1 steamboat. The Danes are expert seamen.
19. Colonies. The Faroe Islands lie between Iceland and the Shetland isles. They consist
. of 25 islands, 17 of which are inhabited, the rest being mere rocks. Their superficial extent
has been estimated at 500 square miles ; and the number of inhabitants at 6,800. The whole
of these islands are composed of basaltic rocks ; and some of the mountains rise to the height
of 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. In Osteroe is a range of basaltic pillars, almost as
regularly defined as those of Staffa. The principal minerals are copper, jasper, and coal.
The climate is rigorous. Trees are unknown, and the only fruit is wild berries. Cows of a
small breed, and sheep form the principal wealth of the inhabitants. The islanders are sup
ported chiefly by bird-catching and fishing ; the seal fishery in the month of September being
often very productive. They manufacture a few jackets, and upwards of 112,000 pairs of
stockings annually, which they exchange with the Danes for grain, timber, nails, coffee, salt, and
other necessaries. The Faroe Islands were discovered and colonized by fugitive Normans, be
tween the years 858 and 868. During the American war they became notorious for smuggling,
and continued so for some time. The language is a Danish dialect of the Norse. The inhabitants
are a laborious and simple race of men, and their ordinary food is barley, milk, fish, &c.
Iceland has been described in America. The other colonies
are Tranquebar on the coast of Coromandel, and the factories
of Portonovo, Friedrichsnager. Bassora, and Serampore in
Asia ; the forts of Christiansborg, Friedensborg, Konigstein,
and Prinzenstein in Africa ; the settlements of Greenland in
North America ; and the islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and
St. John in the West Indies.
20. Inhabitants. The Danes, like most of the northern nations,
are fair in complexion, of middle stature, and hardy in constitu
tion. The women have blue eyes, and auburn hair, and many
of them are beautiful. There is a nobility, which, though re
duced from its ancient splendor, contains many who live in ele
gance, if not in ostentation. There are 2 orders of knighthood.
The peasantry, poor and oppressed, has been but recently
Danes. emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to
NORWAY. 781
many vexatious and burdensome feudal usages, but they are beginning to raise their heads.
The Germans occupy Holstein, Lubeck, and the most of Sleswick, and there are a few Gyp
sies. The women of the middle classes are very fond of show in their dress, which is com
posed of many colors, red being the most prevalent. In summer, many of the people retain
their great-coats, and in winter they assume furs. The French fashions are common in the
cities. The Danish language is allied to the Swedish and Norwegian. The Frisish is used in
some of the islands, and the German in Holstein, Lubec, and a part of Sleswick. The houses
in the cities are generally of brick ; in the country, they are of wood, with piazzas ; few of them
have much pretension to elegance. The general food of the lower class is oat-cake, rye-
bread, potatoes, fish, and cheese. Much beer and spirits, chiefly brandy, are consumed, and
the use of tobacco is general, but less so than in Germany.
The mode of traveling is less convenient than in Germany, and few foreigners visit Den
mark. The common post vehicles do not exceed 4 or 5 miles an hour. The Danes are
brave, but not adventurous. They would do more for defence than for glory. They are less
cordial than the Germans, and less cheerful than their northern neighbors. They are faithful
and honest, but not strongly marked with national peculiarities. They are addicted to the use
of spirituous liquors, and the proverbial expression of a " drunken Dane," has some founda
tion in the national character.
The Danes are much less cheerful than either the Swedes or the Norwegians. Cards and
dancing are the most common amusements, but these are not followed with much spirit.
21. Education. There is a university at Copenhagen, and another at Kiel. There are many
gymnasiums, and every town has a primary school ; 2,302 of these schools are on the Lancas-
terian plan. The nobility are educated at Scroa. There is a school at Copenhagen for the
instruction of teachers, and there are several learned societies. The largest library has
410,000 volumes, of which 30,000 are of a date prior to 1500. There are 80 periodical
publications in Denmark, 70 of which are in Danish.
22. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. The arts are not in a flourishing state,
though Thorwaldsen, the sculptor, is by birth a Dane. The ancient literature is the Scandi
navian, which will be mentioned under another head. In the 12th century, Saxo Grammaticus
wrote his Danish history. Holberg and Pontoppidan were Danes, and Malte Brun was born
in Denmark. The sciences are cultivated with success, but the literature is limited. There
are some popular songs, and good dramas.
23. Religion. The religion is chiefly Lutheran, and the church government partakes of the
English hierarchy, and of the Calvinistic discipline. Few of the clergy have livings of more
than $ 1800, or less than $ 250 a year. In Jutland, however, some have but $ 130. There
are a few nunneries.
24. Government and Laws. The government is an hereditary and unlimited monarchy.
But though the king has power to make, interpret, and abrogate the laws, there is much practi
cal freedom. The laws are equitable, and justly administered. The police is strict.
25. History. Denmark^ Norway, and Sweden, were anciently called Scandinavia. A
century before the Christian era, the inhabitants of the peninsula of Jutland were known to the
Romans by the name of the Cimbri. The Gothic conquerors gave this country a new set of
rulers. In the Middle Ages, these people, with the Swedes and Norwegians, were called
Normans, or Northmen. They conquered Normandy in France, peopled the Faroe Islands,
the Orkneys, Shetland, and Iceland, and carried their arms into the south of Europe. Canute,
king of Denmark, conquered in the 11th century, the whole of Norway, and nearly all England
and Scotland. Under this prince, Christianity was introduced ; and the progress of civilization
begun. But the most brilliant era was the reign of Margaret, surnamed the Northern Semira-
mis, who effected the union of Calmar, which placed on her head the crown of Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden, in the 14th century. Sweden, however, shook off the Danish yoke in
the 16th century, but Norway was retained until 1815, when it was ceded to Sweden, under
the dictation of the allied armies.
CHAPTER CXX. NORWAY.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Norway is bounded north by the Northern Ocean, east by
Sweden, south by the Scagerac, west and northwest by the German Ocean. It extends from
782 NORWAY.
58° to 71° 11' N. latitude, and from 5° to 30° E. longitude. It is a narrow strip of territory,
for the most part not exceeding 60 miles in length, and contains 130,000 'square miles.
2. Mountains. The Norwegian Mountains form a grand chain, extending northeast and
southwest nearly 1,200 miles. The northern part of this chain forms the boundary between
Norway and Sweden ; in the south, it bears the name of the Seveberget, and Dovrefield, and
further north, the name of the Kioelen mountains; The highest point of the chain, is the
Scagstlostind, in the Dovrefield range, which is 8,400 feet above the sea. There are glaciers
in these mountains, presenting beautiful and fantastic masses of ice, which are ascribed by the
simple northern tribes, to the powers of magic. It is the peculiar character of the Norwe
gian mountains, that they combine the grandeur of Alpine scenery, with the luxuriant softness
of the vales of Italy.
3. Rivers. Numerous streams descend from the mountains, but none are navigable, and none
are considerable for length except the Glommen which rises in Lake Oesting, and flows south
erly into the sea at Frederickstadt. Cataracts and shoals obstruct its course in every part, and
the only use to which it is applied, is that of floating down timber from the mountains.
4. Lakes. The lakes are numerous, and many are of considerable size. The Micesen is
60 miles in length, and 18 wide. The Rundsion is 50 miles long, and 2 in width. The Lake
of Fo&mund is 35 miles long, and 8 wide. In many of the lakes are floating islands, or mar-
dynes, composed of pieces of turf, or sea-grass; torn from the shores by the water, and matted
together by the force of the currents.
5. Islands. The Loffoden Islands lie on the northwestern coast, and form a crescent round
a bay called the West Fiord. The largest is Hindooen. They consist of high mountains,
covered with perpetual snow. Nearly all the remainder of the coast is strewed with small
rocky islands, called, in the language of the country, holms.
6. Bays. The branches of the sea, which indent the whole coast of Norway, are almost
innumerable ; but they afford scarcely one good harbor. Among the Loffoden Islands is the
whirlpool of Maelstrom, which in rough weather is very dangerous to ships.*
7. Capes. The two most remarkable capes lie at the two extremities of the country. North
Cape, at the northern extremity, is formed by several islands lying close to the shore ; they
consist of high craggy rocks, and exhibit the most dreary and desolate appearance. The
southern extremity of Norway is called the Naze, and forms the northern point of the entrance
to a strait called the Sleeve, which communicates with the Baltic.
8. Climate and Soil. Norway extends within the Arctic circle, and its northern part is ex
posed to all the rigors of a polar winter ; here the sun continues above the horizon in summer,
for two months and a half, and in winter remains below for an equal space. There is hardly
such a thing in Norway, as spring or autumn, the summer's heat so suddenly succeeds the cold
of winter. In the southern parts are some tracts of considerable fertility, yet the soil of Nor
way, generally, is stony and barren ; and in many parts it may be said there is none at all.
9. Geology and Minerals. These wild regions consist almost wholly of the primary strati
fied rocks ; gneiss is the most frequent and abundant ; the mica-slates, clay-slates, and horn
blende rocks being subordinate to it. Veins of granite, sienite, and porphyry occur, and there
are beds of transition limestone, and old red sandstone. Norway possesses quarries of granite,
* An American captain gives the following description however, answered to her helm sweetly, and we ran along
of this celebrated phenomenon. " I had occasion, some the edge, the waters foaming round us in every form,
years since, to navigate a ship from the North Cape to Dron- while she was dancing gayly over them. The sensations
theim, nearly all the way between the islands or rocks, and I experienced are difficult to describe. Imagine to your-
the main. On inquiring of my Norwegian pilot about the selves an immense circle running round, of a diameter of
practicability of running near the whirlpool, he told me, one mile and a half, the velocity increasing as it approx-
that with a good breeze it could be approached near imated towards the centre, and gradually changing its
enough for examination, without danger, and I at once dark-blue color to white, — foaming, tumbling, rushing to
determined to satisfy myself. We began to near it about its vortex, very much concave, as much so as the water in
10, A. M., in the month of September, with a fine leading a tunnel, when half run out; the noise, too, hissing, roar-
wind, northwest. Two good seamen were placed at the ing, dashing, all pressino- on the mind at once, presented
helm the mate on the quarter-deck, all hands at their sta- the most awful, grand, and solemn sight, I ever expen-
tion for working ship, and the pilot standing on the bow- enced. We were near it about 18 minutes, and in sight
sprit between the night-heads. I went on the main- of it 2 hours. It is evidently a subterranean passage.
topsail yard with a good glass. I had been seated but a From its magnitude, I should not doubt that instant de-
few moments, when my ship entered the dish of the struction would be the fate of a dozen of our largest ships,
whirlpool. The velocity of the water altered her course were they drawn in at the same moment. The pilot says,
3 points towards the centre, although she was going 3 that several vessels have been sucked down, and that
knots through the water This alarmed me extremely for whales have also been destroyed."
a moment. I thought destruction was inevitable. She,
NORWAY.
783
marble, millstones, and slate, and these articles are exported. The silver mines of Kongs-
berg formerly afforded rich returns, but have ceased to be productive. There are valuable
copper mines 'near Raeraas and Drontheim ; the principal, iron mines are those of Arendal and
Krageroc in southern Norway, but there are numerous others ; the annual produce of the iron-
mines of Norway is 150,000 tons. There are also some mines of gold, lead, cobalt, plumba
go
and alum.
the
10. Vegetable Productions. Immense forests of pine, fir, birch, ash, &c, cover
mountains, and furnish the only important natural productions of the vegetable kingdom.
11. Animals. Norway has the same animals with Sweden ; but the glutton and the lem
ming or Norway mouse, are in some degree peculiar to this country.
12. Face of the Country. A great part of this territory is occupied by mountains, inter
spersed with romantic glens and fertile valleys, especially in the southern parts. It is intersect
ed by many ^streams full of cataracts, and lakes and ponds bordered with trees of variegated
foliage, and forests of tall and stately pines and firs. These afford the most striking scenery,
but the multitude of naked rocks and barren mountains, give the landscape rather the appearance
of grandeur than of beauty. Marshes and fens occupy large districts, and nowhere in Europe
are found such a number of precipices, cataracts, and glaciers as here.
13. Towns. Christiania, the capital, stands in a fertile valley on the shore of a bay. It
is built with regular streets, which are kept very clean ; there are many beautiful villas in the
neighborhood, and the country around it has several productive copper mines. The town
has a military hospital, a university, four churches, two theatres, and enjoys a considerable
trade in the exportation of deals, tar, and the pro
duct of the mines. Population, 20,500. Bergen
stands upon a small bay skirted by mountains. It
is built mostly of wood, and has a theatre, and two
printing offices. The commerce and fisheries of
the place are pretty active. The most noted build
ings are the castle and cathedral. Population,
20,800. Drontheim, or Tronyem, is one of the most
flourishing towns in the kingdom. It stands on an
arm of the sea, at the point of union of four great
valleys. The streets are wide and regular, and the
houses are mostly of wood. It exports iron, tim
ber, and fish. It is the residence of a bishop, and
has a magnificent cathedral in which the ancient
Population, 12,000. Kongsberg is a considerable mining
town, with a mint. Population, 10,000. Sta-
vanger and Drammen are seaports with some
trade. Christiansand, on the Scagerac, is
chiefly important for its excellent port, into
which ships often put for -repairs and shelter.
The little town of Hammerfest, on the island
of Hvaloe, near the North Cape, is remarka
ble for being the most northerly town in Eu
rope, in latitude 70° 36'. It is the capital of
the province of Finmark, yet contains but 77
inhabitants. Waarhuus, in 70° 22', is the most
northerly fortress in the world.
14. Agriculture. The soil of Norway is
often so shallow as not to admit of being plough
ed, yet vegetation is amazingly quick ; corn is
sown and reaped within 6 or 7 weeks ; and is
raised under the 70th parallel of latitude ; both
the soil and climate, however, are unfavorable to agriculture, and no part of the country yields
sufficient grain for the inhabitants.
15. Commerce. The exports of wood, fish, iron, copper, glass, alum, marble, kelp, dyeing
Watchmen of Bergen.
kings of Norway were crowned.
Hammerfest.
784
NORWAY.
lichens, pickled meat, hides, furs, feathers, oil, tar, and pitch. The imports are grain, wine,
spirits, salt, and dry goods.
16. Fisheries. These are largely carried on, and are very productive. They employ
80,000 men, and produce yearly, $ 1,500,000. Vaage, in the Loffoden Isles, is the central
point of the northern fisheries. ' The herring fishery is not so productive as formerly.
17. Divisions, Population, &c. Norway is divided into 17 bailiwics-, but on maps it is
often merely represented as consisting of 6 great divisions. Finmark, which is included in
Lapland, Nordland, Aggerhuus, Christiansand, Bergen, and Drontheim. The population is
1,200,000. The revenue is 1,500,000 dollars. The military force is about 20,000 men.
18. Inhabitants, Manners, &c. The inhabitants of Norway are hardy and robust, and the
women, like those of Sweden, are many of them beautiful. The
dress is plain, and generally of a stone color, with white metal
buttons and red buttonholes. Furs are much worn in winter.
The language has an affinity with the Danish and Swedish. The
usual food of the peasants is milk, cheese, and fish. Flesh and
oat-bread, made hard, as in Sweden, are more rare. In times
of scarcity the bark of fir trees is mixed with the oat-meal. A
common soup is made of oat-meal or barley-meal, seasoned
with a pickled herring or salted mackerel. The Norwegians, like
the Swedes, are much addicted to the use of spirits, though
without suffering the injurious effects produced by intemperance
in warmer climates. The use of tobacco is general. The peo
ple are far more sprightly than the Danes, and it would not be
easy to find a nation more cheerful than the Norwegians. They
are brave, energetic, and patriotic. The peasants are frank and
hospitable, and have great independence. Their mode of salu
tation, even to superiors, is by shaking hands, and this is the way also in which they return
thanks for a favor.
The Norwegians have some of the amusements common in Sweden, and they delight also in
recounting tales of their ancestors, which, in their social meetings, they often do by turns.
Skating upon the snow is a practice very common in this country. The skates are made of
wood, and are very large. The snow is frozen so hard, that the skaters pass over it as swift-
Norwegian.
A scene in Norway.
Skate-runners.
ly as upon ice. At Drontheim is a regiment of soldiers called skate-runners. They carry a
rifle, sword, and a long, climbing staff, shod with iron. They go 200 or 300 paces apart, and
move so swiftly, that no cavalry can approach them.
Without a great many establishments for education, the people, nevertheless, are not illite
rate, and there are few peasants who cannot read and write. There are two seminaries for the
instruction of teachers. There are many itinerant schoolmasters, who stay in a hamlet about
two weeks at a time. There is not much national literature ; and mathematics is the favorite
study. Ihe religion is Protestant, and there are some vestiges of paganism. At funerals a
violin is played at the head of the coffin, and questions, as in various countries, are addressed
SWEDEN. 785
to the corpse, the best part of which is to ask pardon for having injured or offended the de
ceased during life.
19. Government. Norway is united to the Swedish crown, and governed by a viceroy. It
is, however, so far independent, that the finances, legislation, and administration, are distinct.
The Storthing is the representative assembly, and has much higher powers and privileges than
the Swedish diet. It assembles frequently, and without awaiting the royal summons, and the
king has only a qualified veto on its proceedings. A highly republican spirit prevails in Nor
way, and the influence of the nobles is almost annihilated. The press is entirely free.
20. History. The early inhabitants of Norway were probably a tribe of the Finns, the an
cestors of the modern Laplanders, who were conquered and driven out by the Goths. In the
9th century the country was divided into 10 or 12 small States, which were formed into one
nation by Harold Hafager. It was repeatedly conquered by the Swedes and Danes, in the
10th, 11th, and 13th centuries. In 1380 it became, by marriage of the king, an appendage to
the crown of Denmark, in which state it remained up to the present century. It was arbitrarily
wrested from Denmark by the allied powers and transferred to Sweden, in 1814, much against
the will of the Norwegians, as a reward to that power for joining the confederacy against France.
CHAPTER CXXI. SWEDEN.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Sweden is bounded northwest by Norway, east by Russia, the
Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic, south by the Baltic, and west by Norway and the Cattegat. It
lies between 55° 20' and 69° N. latitude, and 11° and 24° E. longitude. Its greatest length is
1,200 miles ; and its greatest breadth 350. It contains 150,000 square miles.
2. Mountains. The principal mountains are found in the chain which separates Sweden
from Norway. Mount Swucku is the highest of this chain. Kinekulle, on the banks of lake
Wener, consists of a number of terraces, rising one above another. Raetrik, another moun
tain, is estimated to be 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. One of the highest glaciers in
Sweden occurs in the southern part of Lulea Lapmark, and has been long regarded by the
superstitious natives with awe, being denominated, in the Lapponean language, Sulitelma, or
the Hill of God. It forms three peaks, of the respective altitudes of 5,760, 5,870, and
6,178 feet.
3. Rivers. The principal river is the Dahl, which rises in the mountains between Sweden
and Norway, and, after a course of 260 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia. The rivers Go
tha and Motala are the outlets of the lakes Wener and Wetter. The other rivers are the
Tornea, the Kalix, the Lula, Pitea, Umea, and Angermanna.
4. Lakes. The largest lake is the Wener, which is 100 miles long, and 60 broad. It con
tains several islands, and receives 24 rivers. The Wetter is about the same length, but nowhere
exceeds 25 miles in breadth. It receives about 40 small streams. By the Gotha canal, be
tween the Wetter and Wener, the German Ocean and the Baltic are united, and the dangerous
navigation through the Sound is avoided. The Malar is 60 miles in length, by 18 in breadth,
and contains a great number of small islands. The Hielmar is about 40 miles in length, and
20 in breadth.
5. Islands and Seas. Gothland, on the southeast coast of Sweden, forms, with some small
islands surrounding it, a province containing 766 square miles. The island of Aland, in the
Baltic, is 70 miles in iength, and 6 in breadth. It is almost barren, but has some large forests,
which abound in deer, hares, and wild boars. Sweden is washed by two seas, the Cattegat
and the Baltic. The Baltic forms, in the northwest, the Gulf of Bothnia.
6. Climate. The cold of the winter in Sweden is intense ; the spring is a rapid and con
stant alternation of rain, snow, and frost ; the summer is short, but dry and pleasant, though from
the great length of the days, and the reflection of the sunbeams from the rocks and mountains,
the hpat is sometimes excessive. Autumn is the finest season.
7. Soil. The soil is in general very poor, though there are some fertile spots ; tbe greater
part of Swedish Lapland is sterile, and covered with rocks, peats, or moss, and gravelly plains ;
there are a few tracts of soil tolerably good in the southern parts.
8. Geology. Most of the mountains are composed of granite, calcareous stone, and slate ;
the basis of the majority is granite, which is frequently found in large separate masses, rising to
a considerable height. 99
786
SWEDEN.
9. Vegetable Productions. The spruce and Scotch firs are the most common tree. Vast,
forests of birch, poplar, and mountain ash overspread many parts. The oak, beech, and elm
flourish in the south. Fruit trees are not indigenous ; but a variety of berries are produced,
the most delicious of which is the Arctic raspberry {Rubus arcticus), which, when ripe, is su
perior in fragrance and flavor to the finest strawberries.
10. Mineral Springs. There are about 360 mineral springs in Sweden, among which the
baths of Medevi, and the wells of Loka Later, Rambosa, and Rottenby, are the most cele
brated. 11. Minerals. The mines of silver, copper, lead, and especially iron, constitute the chief
wealth of this country. In 1738, a
gold mine was discovered near Adel-
fors, which formerly yielded 40 marks
annually, but it is now nearly exhaust
ed. The principal copper mines are in
Dalecarlia ; that of Fahlun has been
worked upwards of 1 ,000 years, and
produces 2,000,000 lbs. of copper
annually. The iron mines at Danne-
mora, in Upsala, produce the best
iron in the world ; they were discov
ered in 1488, and have no subterra
nean galleries, but are worked in the
open air, like gravel-pits ; they con
sist of 12 excavations, the whole ex
tent of which collectively is 760 feet
Mine in Sweden. in length, by 500 feet in depth ; the
mines belong to 13 proprietors, who
maintain 1,579 workmen. The noted mountain of Taberg, in Smaaland, is one entire mass
of rich iron-ore, 400 feet high, and 3 miles in circumference, and has been worked 200 years.
The mines of Carlstadt are also numerous and productive ; the most remarkable are those of
Persberg ; these are 13 in number, dug into a mountain wholly composed of veins and beds of
iron-ore. In the wide abyss, suddenly appears a vast prospect of yawning caverns and prodi
gious machinery. Immense buckets, suspended by rattling chains, pass up and down ; lad
ders scale the inward precipices, upon which the workmen look like pigmies ; the clanking of
chains, the groaning of pumps, the hallooing of the miners, the creaking of the blocks and
wheels, the trampling of horses, the beating of hammers, and the loud subterraneous thunder
from the blasting of rocks, produce an effect that no one can witness unmoved. There are
rich mines of iron in other parts, which, owing to the difficulties of transportation, are not
worked. The whole annual produce of Sweden, is nearly 2,000,000 tons. Sweden likewise
produces porphyry, rock-crystal, coal, cobalt, alum, sulphur, vitriol, and antimony. Nearly
all the fine modern works in porphyry, are of the porphyry of Elfdal.
12. Animals. The wild animals of Sweden are wolves, bears, beavers, elks, reindeers,
foxes, hares, and squirrels. The Swedish wolves are not so fierce as those which infest the
southern parts of Europe. In winter, the foxes and squirrels become gray, and the hares as
white as snow. About 300 species of birds are found in the country. The rivers and lakes
abound in fish.
13. Face of the Country. Sweden is intersected by numerous marshes, hills, and lakes ;
and, beyond the 60th degree, appear vast tracts of wild and uninhabited land, approximating, as
we proceed northwards, to the sterility and bleak aspect of the polar districts. Nature in vari
ous places presents the wildest and most sublime features ; but in general the scenery is uni
form. The coasts surrounding the Bothnian Gulf and the Baltic are bold and rugged, indented
with numerous bays, and stretching out into imposing promontories.
14. Divisions. Sweden may be divided into 3 parts, viz. northern, southern, and middle
Sweden ; which are subdivided into 24 lams or provinces. The ancient divisions were Goth
land, Lapland, Norland, and Sweden Proper.
15. Cartels. The Canal of Trollhatta opens a communication between the North Sea
and Lake Wener, by forming a new channel where the Gotha is rendered unnavigable by cata
racts. Lake Malar is united with the Hielmar by the Canal of Arboga ; with Lake Barken,
SWEDEN. 787
by the Canal of Stromsholm ; and with the Baltic, by the Canal of Sodertelge. The Canal
of Gotha extends from Soderkoping, on the Baltic, across the peninsula, by the lakes Wener
and Wetter, to Gottenburg, on the Cattegat, 150 miles ; this canal is 24 feet deep, and 24
feet wide.
16. Towns. Stockholm, the capital, is situated at the junction of the lake Malar with an inlet
of the Baltic. It stands upon seven small, rocky islands, beside two peninsulas, and is built
upon piles. A variety of picturesque views are formed by numberless rocks of granite rising
boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted with houses, or
adorned with gardens and trees. The central island is bordered by a stately row of buildings,
the residences of the principal merchants. It contains the palace and other public buildings ;
but the houses being high, and the streets narrow, its appearance is somewhat gloomy ; the
number of bridges, great and small, in this capital, is 13. At a short distance from the royal
palace stands a fine statue of Gustavus the Third, in bronze, on a pedestal of polished porphyry.
Constantinople is perhaps the only city in Europe that surpasses it in beauty of situation ; the
royal palace is hardly exceeded in splendor by any on the continent. The city has likewise an
arsenal, a mint, an exchange, two theatres, the palace of the diet, numerous learned institutions,
&c. The hangar, or great iron warehouse, is remarkable for the immense quantity of that article
deposited in it. The commerce and manufactures are extensive ; the harbor is deep and capa
cious, though difficult of access ; a thousand sail of shipping may lie here in safety, and the
largest vessels can approach close to the quay. Population, 80,000.
Upsala, formerly the metropolis of Sweden, is situated on an extensive plain, upon the small
stream Fyrisa. In the centre is a square, from which the streets extend in straight lines. This
town is famous for its beautiful cathedral and for its university, which has a library of 60,000
volumes. Population, 5,000.
Gothenburg or Gottenburg, near the mouth of the river Gotha, has a circumference of three
miles. It is regularly fortified, and, in the upper part of the town, the streets rise above each
other like an amphitheatre. Some of the modern buildings are of brick, but the greater number
are of wood, and painted red. The harbor is spacious, and the commerce considerable.
Population, 25,000. Carlscrona, on a bay of the Baltic, is the station of the Swedish navy,
and has a harbor which is defended at its entrance by two strong forts. It is celebrated for its
docks, which are separated from the town by a high wall, and one of which is cut out of the
solid rock. ^Population, 13,800.
Oerebro, at the western extremity of Lake Hielmar, carries on an extensive iron trade.
Population, 3,400. Malmoe, exactly opposite Copenhagen, contains about 5,000 inhabitants,
and possesses some commerce, though the harbor is bad. Fahlun, 160 miles north of Stock
holm, is remarkable for its extensive copper mines. The number of forges here give the town
a very sombre appearance. Population, 4,700. Gefle, on the Gulf of Bothnia, is a well-built
town, with some foreign commerce. Population, 10,000. Norrkoping, 10,000 inhabitants,
with extensive woolen manufactures ; Lund, 3,500, containing a university, observatory, and
other learned establishments ; Wisby, on the island of Gothland, formerly one of the principal
cities of the north of Europe, and still, though much declined, carrying on a brisk trade, 4,000
inhabitants ; and Calmar, noted in Swedish history, are the other principal Swedish towns.
17. Agriculture. Much attention has been paid to agriculture, and the peasants are very
industrious ;, but owing to the deficiency of the soil, they are hardly able to raise enough of grain
for home consumption. Corn, rye, oats, potatoes, flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco are very
generally cultivated ; and several kinds of fruit are raised with success.
18. Commerce and Manufactures. Sweden has few manufactures, and Norway even less ; and
the products of their manufacturing industry cannot sustain a competition with those of other
countries. The working of the mines, the manufacture of glass and hardware, ship-building,
and the felling and preparation of timber, employ many laborers. The peasants in general make
their own rude implements and materials of dress. The fisheries form an important branch of
industry, particularly in Norway. The maritime commerce of this country is active and exten
sive ; and a brisk inland trade is carried on between Norway and Sweden, and between the
latter and Russia. The imports are chiefly manufactured and colonial goods ; the exports are
iron, steel, lumber, dried and salted fish, iron wares, cordage, &c.
19. Revenue, Population, &c The annual revenue of Sweden, arising from the rents of
crown-lands, capitation taxes, customs, and various other articles, amounts to 4,500,000 dol
lars. The national debt is 17,264,812 dollars. The military force amounts to 45,200 men.
788 SWEDEN.
The population is 3,000,000. Sweden holds as a colony the island of St. Bartholomew, in
the West Indies.
20. Inhabitants. The Swedes are of the middle size, and few of them are corpulent ; they
have ruddy complexions and flaxen hair, though the women often have auburn hair and blue
eyes ; the females are distinguished for beauty. There is little diversity of appearance in the
Swedes, and they seem to a foreigner rather as members of the same family than natives of a
large country. All have a very composed demeanor. There are four orders in the state ;
nobles, clergy, peasants, and burghers, or citizens of towns.
21. Dress. The Swedes have a national dress, established bylaw, about 60 years ago ; the
females, however, have little scruple to break this ordinance ; the general color is black, but on
gala days, it is blue lined with white. The dress of ladies is somewhat like the English, ex
cept in the sleeves, which are Spanish. Veils are common. The coats of the men are short
and close ; they are fastened around the body with a sash ; the cloak is black, but lined with
gayer colors. Galoches or outward shoes are worn in winter, and a. fur or sheepskin over-dress
is then indispensable and universal. The peasantry in Dalecarlia are called white or black, as
they are dressed in either color ; and almost all wear one or the other. They wear huge shoes
with thick wooden soles, and a hat like a quaker's. Generally, in Sweden, the hats have a
feather, and no gentleman is in full dress without a sword. The Swedes in general are com
fortably and neatly clad.
22. Language. The language is a Germano-Gothic dialect, similar to that of Denmark.
23. Manner of Building. The houses, except at Stockholm and in Scania, are of wood.
The peasants have log houses, and fill the interstices with moss ; the roof is covered with
birchen bark and turf. In summer the floors are sometimes strewed with odorous twigs. In
the mountains of Dalecarlia, the houses are very simple. Many of the country houses are of
several stories, and make a good appearance. Some of them are so constructed, that they may
be taken down and removed in a short time. The beds of the common people are placed one
above another, on shelves, as in the berths of a ship.
24. Food and Drink. The common people live chiefly on hard bread and salted or dried
fish ; they consume much beer and spirits, and a great deal of wine is drank by the higher
classes. The bread is baked but twice a year, and it is hung around the room in small loaves,
on strings, like dried apples in New England. It is extremely hard. The brandy is of a fiery
quality, and no dinner is complete without several glasses. Ladies, even, will take more than
one. Before a dinner, the guests are led to a side-table furnished with liquors and slight food,
as a preliminary to the more important repast. The dishes are all brought on the table at once,
and the guests dc not ask for any particular one. All are circulated in turn, and all are parta
ken, unless the guest prefers to sit with an empty plate till his favorite dish may arrive. After
dinner, the guests gravely thank the host for his entertainment. The Swedes, like all northern
people, use much tobacco.
25. Traveling. The roads of Sweden are hardly inferior to those of England, and the fa
cilities for traveling are better than in the other northern countries. The roads are kept in-re-
pair by the peasants ; each family of which has its portion marked with bounds. The inns
have few comforts, though all have a " traveler's room," with a bed, or at least a berth of
boards. The horses are small, but active and sure-footed ; they go at full speed down the steep
est and largest hills, and are seldom known to stumble, though in the busy seasons they are
driven by boys or women. The peasants are obliged to furnish the post-horses, and a traveler
who would not be delayed at every post-house, sends a forbode or courier, to notify the post
masters. There are no public carriages, and all travelers must furnish their own vehicles. At
the inns are kept registers, in which the traveler writes his name, &c. ; and, as one column is
made for complaints, it is usual for him to take this opportunity. A second column is appro
priated to the innkeeper's defence. These books are curious miscellanies, and display national
as well as individual character. Acerbi has extracted from one of them the remark of an
Englishman, that "the Swedes are all slaves, crouching to their masters ;" which is followed
by a more just and generous exclamation, "God bless this good and brave nation," signed,
Kosciusko. 26. Character, Manners, and Customs. The Swedes have many amiable traits in their
character, though they do not lack energy ; they are kind, cheerful, and faithful ; they love
their country, and are much attached to free institutions and principles of equality. In this and
in other respects, they sometimes resemble the Swiss. The mountains of Dalecarlia have
SWEDEN.
789
Swedes celebrating Midsummer Day.
always been the abode of freedom and simplicity of character. The Swedes are gentle, though
brave and warlike ; and the peasants are uncommonly civil and obliging. The .people are hos
pitable to a great degree, and the character of a stranger is a ready passport to their houses.
When the richer families leave their country-houses, a room and attendance is still appropriated
to travelers, who receive as much care as though the master were present. The Swedes are
descended from the hordes that overran the Roman empire, and they are no less brave and ad
venturous than their ancestors. In modern times, they have been the bulwark of the protestant
faith ; and one of their sovereigns has, with an inconsiderable army, conquered hordes as nu
merous and brave as the north ever sent forth to pillage the fertile south.
27. Amusements. The 1st of May and midsummer day are celebrated with general joy.
On the latter occasion, the young men and wo
men dance around a pole till morning. Dancing
is common, and all classes dance with great ani
mation and agility. Cards are a general amuse
ment, though the Swedes are not addicted to
gaming. All ranks play games at cards ; the
most common of which is that called Boston.
It is said (to illustrate the national fondness for
cards), that a nobleman, when his dinner-hour
had arrived without the dinner, went into the
kitchen to learn the reason of the delay ; when
he found all the domestics engrossed in a game.
He admitted the characteristic excuse, that the
game was at its most critical point, and could
not, therefore, be deferred, even for dinner;
but he took the cook's hand, and played it, while that domestic performed his duty.
28. Education. There are a good many elementary schools, and education is as generally
diffused as in Switzerland. There are few who cannot read and write. There are 2 univer
sities, one at Upsala, and the other at Lund.
29. State of the Arts, Science, and Literature. The Swedes, with some other northern
nations have an ancient literature, the Scandinavian, which has been noticed under the head of
Iceland. In modern times, they have done much for science, in which many branches have
been simplified and much advanced by Linnaeus. Works of merit are translated into the
Swedish language, in which the original works are chiefly scientific. There are several learned
societies in Sweden. Sergei, a sculptor of great merit, left many monuments of his art in
Sweden. He is one of the best of the northern sculptors.
30. Religion. The religion is Lutheran, and the Swedes are generally a devout people.
31. Government. This is a limited hereditary monarchy. The Diet has some resemblance
to the British Parliament, and it is composed of 4 bodies, which meet in different houses,, viz.
the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers or inhabitants of towns.
32. History. Sweden and Norway seem originally, to have been peopled by Finnic tribes.
The Gothic chiefs who conquered this country, assumed the title of Kings of Upsala, in the
5th century ; but the Goths and Swedes remained distinct tribes for some centuries afterward.
The whole peninsula was subject to Denmark in the 14th century, but in the 16th Gustavus
Vasa delivered Sweden from the Danish yoke, and was elected king by his countrymen. The
Reformation was soon after introduced into the country, and in the religious wars of the 17th
century, the Swedes, under their king Gustavus Adolphus, gained a brilliant military reputation.
Charles the Twelfth, in the beginning of the 18th century, after adding to this celebrity by a
series of victories, which exhausted the blood and treasures of his subjects, was defeated at
Pultowa by the Russians, and obliged to take refuge in the Ottoman dominions. Norway,
which had previously belonged to Denmark, was annexed to Sweden in 1814.
790
LAPLAND.
CHAPTER CXXII. LAPLAND.
Reindeer and Sledge.
Lapland Traveling.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Lapland is bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, east by the
White Sea, south by Sweden, and west by Norway and the Atlantic. It extends from 66°
to 71° N. lat., and from 15° to 40° E. long., and contains about 130,000 square miles.
2. Mountains, Lakes, and Rivers. Lapland is not intersected by very high mountains ; and
is crowned only on its western frontier by a mountainous chain, that forms the extremity of the
Scandinavian Alps. The river Tornea springs from the lake of the same name, and, after a
course of 300 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia. The Tana and Allen fall into the Frozen
Ocean. The lakes in Lapland are numerous ; the Great Lake, Tornea, Lulea, and Enara,
are distinguished for their romantic scenery.
3. Climate. In point of temperature, Lapland may be divided into two regions, the inland
and the maritime. In the former, the winter is very severe, and the summer very hot. In
the latter, the winter is comparatively mild, and the summer cold. During the summer sol
stice, when the sun con
tinues for weeks together
below the horizon, there
is only a twilight of a few
hours, instead of a clear
daylight. These dreary
nights are, however, in
some degree, compensa
ted by the aurora borea-
lis, which gleams here
with uncommon splen
dor. 4. Soil. The soil is
generally sterile. The
greater part of the coun
try is covered with rocks,
peats, or moss, and grav
elly plains. There are a
few tracts tolerably good
in the southern parts.
, . , , , , ... , , . , „ The trees are the fir,
birch, larch, and small beech, which form vast, but not very thick, forests
5. Vegetable Productions. Even these dreary regions, though strongly contrasted with
more favored climes, has its useful products. The spruce and Scotch firs cease to thrive
at about 70^, the , aspen and the bird cherry reach somewhat further, and the birch and
mountain ash to yet higher latitudes. Beyond, the dwarf willow and birch, no longer trees,
but shrubs, of 5 or 6 feet high, brave the rigors of the frigid zone. The Iceland moss (Lichen
Aurora Borealis.
LAPLAND.
791
islandicus), reindeer moss, cudbear (L. tartareus), collected for the dyers, the crowfoot
(ranunculus) , saxifrages, cranberry (empetrum), ling, winter-green, &c. are among the last
remnants of expiring vegetation. The root of the calla palustris, a plant of a poisonous
family, affords the Laplanders a kind of substitute for bread, called Missenbrod, or bread of
famine. 6. Minerals. Lapland abounds in metals and minerals. Native gold has been found at
Svappawara ; copper, iron, lead, zinc, and plumbago are found in various parts. Limestone,
marble, gypsum, rock-crystal, jasper, amethysts, and garnets, are also among the mineral pro
ductions of this country.
7. Animals. The reindeer is the most useful animal to the Laplander, and seems to have
been provided by nature to recompense him for the want of the other comforts of life. In
summer it provides itself with leaves and grass, and in winter lives upon moss ; and its milk
and flesh afford excellent nutriment, while its skin forms the chief clothing of its master. Its
speed is scarcely credible ; for it can run 200 miles in a day. In a kind of sledge, shaped
like a small boat, and with the reins fastened to the horns of the deer, the traveler may journey
with ease almost any distance. Besides this animal, bears, wolves, lynxes, and beavers are
often met with in Lapland. Innumerable insects are produced in summer ; and the inhabitants
are infested with mosquitoes to an intolerable degree.
8. Agriculture. Except in a few sheltered valleys, and on the banks of the rivers in the
southern districts, there is little cultivation. The grain which grows best, and is chiefly sown,
is barley, or rather bigg ; and oats are raised in small quantities. The tobacco plant flourishes
well. 9. Commerce. The Laplanders carry on some trade in the skins and furs of quadrupeds ;
such as ermines, sables, squirrels, foxes, bears, lynxes, and wolves, which they transport from
Traveling in Lapland.
Trading Company of Laplanders.
the interior to the coast by means of their reindeer. In return, they receive meal, cloth,
various utensils, spirituous liquors, &c. As the furs are of extreme fineness, they bear a high
price. 10. Population. Lapland is very thinly peopled. The whole population probably does
not exceed 60,000.
II. Inhabitants. The Laplanders are generally short in stature, and they have sharp chins
and prominent cheek bones. They differ from the Fins in having dark hair, though the com
plexions are frequently light. They have a tolerable share of strength, with great suppleness
and agility, and they endure much hardship with patience.
12. Dress. The materials are generally the skins of animals ; though the Laplanders who
have permanent habitations, wear in summer, woolen stuffs, and shirts, which the wandering
inhabitants have not. The men wear a conical cap, and in hunting, a hood, covering the
breast and shoulders, and with only a small opening for the eyes. They rarely wear any cov
ering round their necks, which are exposed in the severest weather, or defended only by a
piece of narrow cloth, going once round. They wear a tunic, or short coat of sheep-skin,
792
LAPLAND.
with the wool inwards, and close before, except on the breast. Over this, which is worn next
the skin, is a similar garment of woolen, or skins, with a stiff collar. The Laplander has no
Lapland Tent.
Manner of sitting in Lapland.
pocket, but hangs a small bag at his breast, in which he puts his little implements. The gloves
are of skins, and lined with cypress grass. There are no stockings, and the pantaloons do not
reach to the ankle. Instead of stockings, straw and
rushes are stuffed into the shoe, around the foot and
ankle. The men wear leathern belts. The dress of
the women is not very dissimilar to that of the men.
At night, even when the cold is most intense,, the
mountain Laplanders go to bed naked, and cover
themselves with their dress and skins. They put
their feet within a bag.
13. Language. The language is entirely distinct
from any other, except the Finnic, to which it has
some analogy.
14. Manner of Building. The Laplanders live
in huts, or, in summer, in tents. The huts are so
small, that the people cannot stand upright, except in
and stone, and covered with bushes, turf, and earth.
A Russian Laplander.
They are built of sods
the centre.
The household furniture consists in iron or copper kettles, and wooden cups, bowls, and
spoons. Some of the wealthy have tin, and even silver basins.
15. Food and Drink. The reindeer supplies the chief articles of food, though something
is obtained by fishing and hunting. In summer, the reindeer's milk is boiled with sorrel to a
consistence, and is thus preserved ; in winter, it is kept frozen in the paunch of a reindeer,
and mixed with cranberries. It is broken up with a hatchet. When cheese is made, the
milk is mixed with water, otherwise it is too rich to curdle. The rennet is the sound of the
codfish. In winter, the mountain Laplanders slaughter one or two reindeers weekly, according
to the numbers of a family. The marrow is boiled out as a present for the missionary. On
the seacoast, there is some beef and mutton ; besides which, the Laplanders eat all flesh,
except that of swine ; but pork is to them an abomination. Little bread is used ; but the
inner bark of the fir-tree, and the roots and, leaves of the herb angelica, are eaten with avidity.
The great luxury of a Laplander is tobacco ; and he will even chew strips of the bag, or chips
of the cask, that has held it. Brandy is indeed a great favorite with the people, but it is too
scarce for any, but for occasional indulgence. The office of cook in all its branches is filled .
by men, and in this the women never interfere.
16. Diseases. The only epidemic is a colic, attended with spasms, but it is not fatal ; chro
nic disorders, fevers, and dysenteries, are unknown. Chilblains are frequent, but in general
the Laplanders are free from disease.
17. Traveling. The Laplanders travel on sledges, drawn by the reindeer, as before de
scribed. In descending hills, in winter, long skates are worn. With these the Laplanders
FINLAND.
793
Lapland Snow-shoes.
descend the steep mountains so swiftly, that
the air whistles in their ears, and their hair
becomes erect with the downward motion.
18. Character, Manners, and Customs.
In Lapland, society exists in its primitive
elements ; men live in a state differing from
that of highly civilized countries ; there are
no crimes, and there is a perfect security of
property. The settlements are not near to
each other ; and whoever erects a hut with
out the limits of another, becomes possessed
of the land for 6 miles around. There is
no temptation to commit the crimes of vio
lence or fraud, that are so common in other
countries, and a lock as a security to proper
ty is unknown in Lapland. The Laplanders
are gentle and hospitable, and like the Esqui
maux, they have the greatest aversion to war. A Laplander has never been known as a soldier.
The people resist all inducements to leave their country. They are not without sensitive feel
ings, and are known to weep from sympathy and compassion.
19. Amusements. The Laplanders are expert wrestlers, and they have several athletic
sports. They throw javelins at a mark, leap over sticks held by two persons, &c. They have
the game of fox and geese, which is in great request.
20. Religion. The Laplanders have renounced their pagan creed, though some of its rites
and superstitions remain. They attend to the instructions of the missionaries with great atten-'
tion and seriousness. They never use profane language, and they observe the Sabbath strictly.
In 1738, the Bible was translated into their language, and there are now Lutheran hymn-books,
tracts, &c. Since the first translation of the Bible, a second and third have been made.
There are 23 churches, and 7 schools, chiefly under the care of the missionaries.
Marriages and funerals are not conducted with much ceremony. The family and friends of a
young man, go in a body to solicit, in court
ship for him, and' presents are made. Should
the parents of the female retract their consent,
the presents are restored, and even the brandy
that was drank, is replaced.
The Laplanders make professions of sorce
ry, and the females sometimes are distinguish
ed as witches. Their mode of divination is
with the Runic drum, and by a system of
omens. The pagan superstitions are, howev
er, gradually becoming extinct.
21. Divisions. Lapland is divided be
tween Sweden and Russia. Swedish Lap
land occupies the southwestern quarter of this
country, and is divided into 4 lapmarks, or
provinces ; Russian Lapland forms the eastern
part, and is included in the government of
Archangel ; Norwegian Lapland extends the whole length of the Severnoi, on their northern
side, and forms the province of Finmark. A large portion of the Laplanders are practically
under no government whatever.
Wedding Party.
CHAPTER CXXI1I. FINLAND.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. Finland is bounded north by Lapland, east by Russia, south
by the Gulf of Finland, and west by the Gulf of Bothnia. It lies between 22° and 32° east
longitude, and extends south to latitude 60° ; the northern limit is not very distinctly marked.
It contains 135,000 square miles. 100
794 FINLAND.
2. Mountains, Rivers, and Lakes. A tract of table-land in the interior, extends in a de
clivity toward the shore of the Gulf of Bothnia. There are other ranges in the eastern parts,
but they have not been explored. The country is intersected by an immense number of lakes,
giving rise to many rivers, but none of them are of great length, and the shallows, and cata
racts which they contain, render them useless for navigation. The Payance, or Peaceable lake,
in the central part of the country, is 170 miles long, and 13 broad. The lake of Saimer, in
the eastern part, is 250 miles long, and 22 broad, and is crowded with islands. It communi
cates with lake Ladoga, by the river Woxa, which falls over 6 cataracts. The coasts are
rocky, and strewn with small islands, separated by narrow and intricate channels.
3. Climate. In the north, the climate resembles that of Lapland. In the south the ther
mometer seldom falls so low as 25° below zero ; and the crops are exposed in summer to ex
cessive droughts.
4. Soil and Productions. The soil is more productive than might be inferred from the ge
ographical position of the country. It is for the most part a vegetable mould, and exceedingly
moist. Forests, similar to those of Sweden and Lapland, are abundant. Iron was formerly
produced here, but no mines are worked at present. The country furnishes great quantities of
nitre. 5. Face of the Country. The northern part is hilly. The eastern part is covered with
sand-hills and rocks, and intersected by marshes, lakes, and rivers, which diffuse cold and un
wholesome mists.
6. Divisions and Towns. Finland is divided into 7 circles. Viborg, Kymenegard, Ta-
vastehuus, Abo, Kuopio, Vasa, and Uleaborg. Helsingfors, the capital, is situated on the
Gulf of Finland, and has a good harbor, and considerable commerce. The university has
been removed to this place from Abo, since the destruction of the latter place by fire. Popu
lation, 8,000. Helsingfors contains a naval arsenal, but is chiefly important from the vicinity
of Sweaborg, the Northern Gibraltar. The fortress consists of 3 islands, connected by bridges,
mounts 800 cannon, and has accommodations for 12,000 men.
Abo, at the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, was formerly the capital. It was one of the
most agreeable towns in the country, and had manufactures of silk and woolen, ship-building,
and sugar refineries, with a population of 12,000 ; but it was almost totally destroyed by fire, in
1827. Siborg was the capital of the former Russian Finland, and of all western Russia, till
the building of St. Petersburg.
7. Inhabitants. The Finlanders are of small stature, light complexions, and fair hair, worn
Finlander's House.
uncombed down each side of the face ; they are sharp featured, and generally without any ap
parent beard. The appearance of one differs little from that of another. They wear woolen
kaftans, short to the knee, with loose black pantaloons and caps. The women wear a linen
robe over their clothes.
The houses of the peasants are well built and comfortable. The general food is milk, salt
herring, and salt meat. The Finlanders are cheerful, kind, and very hospitable. A stranger
receives much attention. He is always the principal person in a company, and much pains are
REPUBLIC OF CRACOW. 795
taken to please him. When he lias succeeded in rendering himself agreeable, it is a custom
at an assemblage for all the women present to give him a sudden slap on the back, when it is
least expected ; and the compliment is in proportion to the weight of the blow.
8. Education. Education is much less diffused than in Sweden, though there is a universi
ty at Helsingfors.
9. Amusements. Amusements are not rare among so cheerful a people, though they are not
much given to dancing. They have many athletic sports, and the bear dance, from the strength
required, may be considered one. It is practised sometimes by the peasants. It is perform
ed on all fours, or the dancer rests on his hands as well as feet, and by leaps and jumps keeps
time with the music. It is so fatiguing, that the dancer in a few minutes falls into a violent per
spiration. The peasants shoot the rifle with much skill, and seldom miss the smallest mark.
They hunt the wild animals in various ways, and engage the most dangerous of them singly,
and fearlessly. They sing to the harpu, or sort of harp ; two men sitting opposite, with locked
hands, accompany the song with alternate verses, raising each other alternately from their seats.
The violin is not uncommon, and the Finlanders have some turn for poetry as well as mu
sic. Every event of public or private interest, finds a poet to celebrate it. The poets con
dole with friends at a death, and rejoice with them at marriages. They have also satires and
tales. Almost all the peasants have a house built for the purposes of a bath, which they use
generally, and with little regard to delicacy. It is a small chamber in which are a number of
stones. These are heated till they become red-hot, when water is thrown upon them, and the
company is involved in a cloud of vapor. The bathers rub themselves and lash their bodies
with twigs, till they become red with scourging. In winter they go from the bath, which is so
hot that it is barely tolerable, and roll themselves in the snow. This they do in the coldest
days. 10. Religion. The religion is Lutheran, but there are some pagan superstitions. There
are charms for the bite of a serpent, for scalds, burns, wounds, &c. ; diseases are supposed by
many to be the effect of witchcraft. The marriages are attended with ceremony and rejoicing.
11. Agriculture, &c. The inhabitants cultivate barley and rye, and fell" timber. The fir
trees of the interior afford great quantities of tar ; and potash is manufactured to some extent.
The products of the forest are sufficiently abundant for exportation. Fisheries are largely
carried on.
12. Government, Population, &c. Finland is a portion of the Russian Empire, with the
title of a government. The population is 1,350,000. The prevailing religion is Lutheran.
The country was formerly a province of Sweden, but came into the possession of Russia in
1809.
CHAPTER CXXIV. REPUBLIC OF CRACOW.
This republic consists of a territory of 500 square miles, formerly a part of Poland, and
now~ surrounded by the Russian and Austrian territories. The country is a plain, extending
along the banks of the Vistula, which becomes navigable immediately under the walls of the
capital. The soil is fertile, and the climate warmer than in the rest of Poland. The general
appearance of the country is picturesque. The city of Cracow is the capital, and was once
the capital of Poland. It has a large dilapidated castle, and a cathedral remarkable for its 50 altars
and 20 chapels, and as the burial-place of many of the kings of Poland. Here are 70 churches
and several magnificent convents. The streets are irregular. The city contains a large square,
but the buildings which surround it are mean. The university is a magnificent edifice, and is
the most ancient seminary in Poland. A remarkable monument has lately been erected here in
honor of Kosciusko ; it consists of a mound, called Mogila Kosciusko, or Kosciusko's Mount,
300 feet in height, and 275 feet in diameter at the base. Population of the ciryT 26,000.
Kressovice has a population of 4,000. Krzano, 1,300. The whole population of the repub
lic is 100,000. l
The chief production is grain. The agriculture is superior to that of the other Polish coun
tries, yet in bad seasons the land doe's not produce sufficient corn for the subsistence of the
inhabitants. Cattle are raised in considerable numbers. Fruits are reared in the neighborhood
ol the capital, and the vegetables are in high reputation. At Kressovice are several iron works,
796 POLAND.
but there are no other manufactures except domestic fabrics. The government is an aristocrat-
ical republic. The assembly or legislative body consists of the representatives of the corpo
rations, the clergy, and the university ; the executive authority is vested in a senate chosen for
life by the assembly, and a president chosen by the same body for two years. The chief
magistrate is a President, chosen every 3 years. The revenue is 133,248 dollars ; the debt
10,000 dollars. The inhabitants are mostly Poles, and the Polish language is everywhere pre
dominant. The religion is Roman Catholic, but all sects are tolerated. There is no distinc
tion of rank among the inhabitants, except that the members of the chapter of the cathedral
and of the university possess a few unimportant privileges.
This little community owes its existence to the disputes of the three despotic powers, that
partitioned the kingdom of Poland. In 1815, when the final destiny of Poland was decided at
the congress of Vienna, the Austrian and Russian monarchs respectively laid claim to the city
and territory of Cracow, situated at the point where the newly acquired territories of these two
powers join those of Prussia. To this fortunate position, Cracow is indebted for its exemp
tion from the fate of the rest of Poland. The holy allies, unable to determine which of their
number had the best right to the territory, resolved that neither should possess it ; and Cra
cow was declared a republic under the protection of the three surrounding powers.
CHAPTER CXXV. POLAND.
1. Boundaries and Extent. The present kingdom of Poland is bounded north by Prussia,
east by Russia, south by Galicia and Cracow, and west by Prussia. It is nearly a square of
200 miles in extent, and contains 48,000 square miles.
2. Rivers. This country is intersected by the Vistula and its head streams, the Bug, Na-
rew, and Pelica. The Nieman forms a part of the northern boundary. There are a variety
of smaller streams, and the country is in general well watered.
3. Soil, Productions, &c. The soil is generally thin and sandy. There are many marshy
tracts, and the face of the country is diversified with fruitful fields, steppes, heaths, impenetra
ble forests, and wide moors. The forests are sometimes 15 or 20 miles in extent, and a great
part of the country is covered with wood. The general aspect of the country is that of an
unbounded plain ; there is hardly a hill or mountain in the whole territory. Poland, in the
Sclavonian language, signifies a plain, or flat country. The climate is everywhere temperate,
but as the land lies open to the north wind, the air is not so mild as in the neighboring parts of
Germany. 4. Divisions. This kingdom is divided into eight palatinates or waiwodships : Cracovia,
Sandomir, Kalisch, Lublin, Plock, Masovia, Podlachia, and Augustow.
5. Cities. Warsaw, the capital, stands on a bank of the Vistula, on a rising ground. It is
very irregularly built, and has several suburbs, the principal of wliich is Praga, with which it is
connected by a pontoon bridge. The city presents a heterogeneous aspect. It has above 100
splendid palaces, surrounded by a mass of wretched huts. Streets of noble dimensions, and
adorned with edifices in the finest Italian style, are contrasted with groups of beggarly wooden
piles, threatening every moment to fall. The palace of Sigismund is very spacious, and has a
colossal bronze statue of the Emperor Sigismund the Third. The Marieville is a large build
ing, constructed on the plan of tbe Palais Royal, at Paris, and contains the exchange, and up
wards of 300 booths, for the sale of goods. Warsaw contains a university and several con
vents and hospitals. Its population is as grotesque as its architecture, and resembles a perpet
ual masquerade ; long-bearded Jews ; monks in the garb of every order ; veiled and shrouded
nuns, self secluded and apart ; bevies of young Polesses, in silk mantles of the brightest
colors, promenading the broad squares ; the venerably ancient Polish noble, with mustaches,
caltan, girdle sabre, and red or yellow boots ; the new generation equipped to the highest pitch
of Parisian dandyism, w.th Turks, Greeks, Russians, Italians, Germans, and Frenchmen, in
an ever-changing throng. Warsaw has a considerable commerce by the Vistula, and manufac-
l"rnesnn°nf cloth linen carpets, stockings, carriages, and harnesses. The population is about
150 000, including the garrison and 30,000 Jews. The other towns of Poland are small.
Kalisch is a handsome and regularly built city, with manufactures of cloth and linen ; popula
tion, 10,000. Lublin has a population of 12,000 souls. .
6. Agriculture. Poland is a country of great agricultural resources. The productions are
POLAND. 797
corn, cattle, hemp, and flax. The greater part of the territory is extremely well adapted to
the rearing of sheep. The plains annually overflowed by the Vistula, afford perhaps the rich
est pasturage in Europe. Notwithstanding these natural advantages, the agricultural industry of
the country has been greatly reduced by political oppression. About half the territory is cul
tivated ; one fourth of the remainder is occupied by forests, and the remainder by marshes and
waste lands. ,
7. Commerce. The principal trade is in the exportation of corn, which is conveyed down
the Vistula to Dantzic, in large flat boats. Ths exportation is considerable ; the exporters are
Jews, who are the only capitalists in the country.
8. Population, Army, &c. The population is about 4,100,000. The Polish army pre
vious to the insurrection in 1830, was fixed at 50,000 men, and every Pole, without distinc
tion of birth or religion, was obliged to serve as a soldier, from the age of 20 to 30, although
members of the liberal profession, elder sons of families, and state officers, were exempted, and
any individual might serve by substitute.
9. Inhabitants. The Poles have an Asiatic cast of countenance, derived, probably, from
the Tartars. They are tall, and well formed, with good features, and often with fair complex
ions. The inhabitants may be divided into Poles, Jews, Germans, and Russians ; and, again,
into four classes ; nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants. The nobles have the titles of Prince,
Count, and Baron. All, however, are equal by birth, and the only distinction is that of office.
The nobles are exceedingly numerous, and generally poor ; of these there are 60,000 families.
The peasants are, in effect, slaves, though their condition is becoming better, and many have
been manumitted. They have a conditional estate in the land they till ; and generally render
in return to the landlord, three days' labor in the week. Dwarfs are said to be more common
in Poland than in any other country.
10. Dress. The dress is national ; though in Poland may be seen the costumes of various
nations. The heads of the men are shaven, all but a circle on the crown, and all wear musta
ches. A vest is worn, reaching to the middle of the leg, a gown lined with fur, and girded
with a sash, and wide breeches, of a piece with the stockings. The shirts are without collars
or wristbands, and neither stock nor neckcloth is worn. Boots are worn with thin soles. This
is the dress of the gentry, and the female costume does not essentially vary from it. The men
wear fur caps, and a hanger is indispensable to a gentleman. The Jews wear a tall cap of fur
over one of velvet, and a long tunic of black silk, girded with a wide sash. All suffer their
beards to grow. The peasants are often clothed but with rags. They wear in winter a coat
of sheep-skin, with the fur inward ; and in summer a coarse cloth. Their boots are frequently
but the rind of trees, wrapped about their legs, with a thicker piece of bark for the sole.
11. Manner of Building. The Polish towns are generally built around a square, with a
town-house in the middle. The dwellings of the peasants are mean huts of wood, of one story,
and with a single room for men and cattle. There is a stove in every house.
12. Food and Drink. The tables of the wealthy are well supplied, but the food of the
poor is scanty and coarse. The peasants live mostly upon black rye bread, potatoes, cab
bage, and peas. They eat little animal food, though they use much salt. Schnaps, or a coarse
kind of whisky, is taken by the peasants, when they can obtain it, to excess.
13. Diseases. The small-pox continues to commit occasional ravages, and siphilis is com
mon. It is the bane of the country, and of 100 recruits 80 have been known to have it. The
plica polonica is a peculiar and national disease. It is occasioned by humors, which seem to
have no other outlet but the hair. It is often fatal to cut off the hair during the disease, which,
if suffered to run, exhausts itself in a few months, when the hair is cut off and a new growth
comes. It. becomes, during the disease, matted and endued with life, and will bleed when cut
off. The disease is offensive but not dangerous. It is, however, sometimes fatal to the do
mestic animals, that have long hair.
, 14. Traveling. Hardship and privation must be suffered by the traveler in Poland. The
inns are kept by the Jews, and they contain but one room ; and this of such a kind, that a
lodging is often preferred in the stable. Neither beds nor provision are always to be had, and
the traveler generally carries both. The usual traveling- carriage is made of .wicker work, in
the form of a cradle.
15. Character, Manners, and Customs. The Poles are distinguished for bravery, military
spirit, and impatience of control. They are honorable, hospitable, courteous, and lively, but
not without licentiousness. The rich nobles live in much state, and entertain their friends, and
798
POLAND.
strangers, in a princely manner. The ladies are celebrated for attractions. The peasants are
poor, ignorant, and fanatical. They are stupid from the effects of servitude, and they have
little'conception of cleanliness. The Jews are the general traders, and the political freedom
they enjoy in Poland, has developed better traits in their character, as well as physiognomy, than
are found in countries where they are much oppressed. They have, however, a tendency to
wards extortion, and, like the peasants, they are offensively filthy.
16. Amusements. There are many manly sports in use, as leaping, hunting, &c. ; bear-bait
ing and bull-fighting are also common. Dancing is a favorite amusement with the higher classes.
17. State of the Arts, Science, and Literature. There are good poets and historians, who
have written in the Polish language, and Copernicus was a native of Poland. Literature con
tinues to be considerably cultivated ; and English works have grown into favor, above the
French, which were formerly the most popular.
18. Religion. The Catholic is the established religion, but all others are tolerated, and the
Greek church is organized. There is a considerable number of recluses.
19. Education. Since 1815 the lower classes have received some attention in point of edu
cation ; but they are still very ignorant. Before that time, all education was monopolized by
the nobles. There are now few schools in villages, and those in towns are not very efficient.
20. Government. Poland is a dependency of Russia, the emperor of which is king of
Poland. Previous to the insurrection of 1830, there was a diet assembled once in two years,
consisting of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies ; but even this shadow of liberty has been
taken away, and the government of Poland is now despotic in form, as well as in substance.
An imperial Russian ukase incorporated the
kingdom of Poland with Russia, in 1832,
and the administration is now conducted by
a Russian governor-general.
21. History. Poland has been, for a
thousand years, remarkable only for its
misfortunes. The ancient inhabitants were
a tribe of the Sarmatians. In the great
eruption of the Goths and Huns ; in a strug
gle of two centuries against the Germans ;
and in their own ceaseless intestine factions,
they became impressed with a character sin
gularly composed of passive and active fea
tures ; the submission of the slave and the
pride of the noble, the most abject senti
ment and patriotic spirit. Poland made a
slow progress toward civilization. It was
governed by elective dukes for two or three
centuries, when, in 840, the first dynasty of
Lithuania was united to Poland
in 13S6. Kings of different houses
possessed the throne amid a period of
aristocratical anarchy for some centu
ries. Poland was conquered by the
sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and
Prussia, and was subjected to three par
titions, in 1772, 1793, and 1795. At
the last partition the king was deposed,
the country blotted from the list of na
tions, and the whole territory divided
between the three powers above men
tioned. Napoleon wrested a portion
of this country from the conquerors,
and erected it into a State, with the
title of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, in
1807, but this government was over
thrown at his downfall. The 'Prussian
Polish Exiles leaving their country in 1831. and Austrian divisions of Poland were
Partition of Poland by the kings of Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
hereditary princes was established, which continued till 1370
RUSSIA. 799
attached as provinces to those monarchies, and the Russian division was formed into a kingdom
as a part of the Russian Empire.
The Poles remained in quiet submission to the Russian government till 1830, when, on the
29th of November, Warsaw rose in insurrection, and the whole kingdom was speedily in revolt.
The hope of assistance from some of the free governments of Europe induced them to spurn
at all attempts on the part of the Russian emperor to bring them to submission, and a bloody
struggle, with the armies of the autocrat, followed. The Poles at first obtained some signal
advantages, but no foreign power stirred in their behalf, the Russians poured in fresh armies,
and, in a year from the breaking out of the revolt, Poland was overpowered by numbers and
forced again to submit. The Russian despotism is now fully reestablished, and unhappy Po
land has felt its bitterest persecutions. Many of the Poles were murdered in cold blood by
the victors, and others, with their families, were dragged in chains, or driven with the lash, to
the distant wilds of Siberia.
CHAPTER CXXVI. RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
St. Petersburg.
1. Boundaries and Extent. This country is bounded north by the Frozen Ocean, east by
Asiatic Russia, south by the Caspian Sea, Caucasus, Sea of Azof, the Black Sea, and the
Danube, and west by Moldavia, Austria, Poland, Prussia, the Baltic, Finland, and Lapland.
It extends from 40° to 70° N. latitude, and from 21° to 68° E. longitude, and contains about
1,800,000 square miles.*
2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains form the boundary between Europe and Asia. They
consist of a chain 1,200 miles in length, extending from the Frozen Ocean, south, nearly to
the Caspian Sea. The Finnic Mountains are a continuation of the Scandinavian range, and
extend some distance into Russia between the White Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The
Alaunian Mountains are a series of gentle elevations southeast of the Gulf of Finland. In
the south are the Mountains of Taurida.
3. Rivers. Russia is watered by a great number of rivers, comprising the largest in Europe.
The Ural rises on the eastern declivity of the Uralian mountains, separates Europe from Asia,
and empties its waters, after a course of 1,300 miles, into the Caspian Sea. The Volga, the
largest river of Europe, rises in the government of Tver, and, passing in an easterly and south
erly direction by Tver, Jaroslav, Kazan, and Astrachan, it flows into the Caspian Sea, by 70
mouths. Its principal tributaries are the Oka from the west, and the Kama, a full, deep
stream, from the east ; its current is gentle and smooth, and it is navigated by more than 5,000
boats, while its valuable sturgeon fisheries employ even a greater number of fishing craft.
Length of its course, 2,500 miles. The Terek and Kuma are considerable streams rising in
the Caucasian Mountains, and flowing into the Caspian Sea.
* This statement does not include Poland, Finland, and try to the west of the Caspian Sea, and south of Caucasus.
Russian Lapland, which have been separately described, The northwestern part of America also belongs to thjs
and which carry the area of European Russia to 2.270,000 power. The whole empire has an area of nearly 8,000,000
square miles. Besides the European territories, the Rus- square miles, or one seventh of the habitable globe, with
sian Empire comprises vast tracts of Asia, including the a population of about 65,000,000 inhabitants
whole of the northern part of the continent, and the coun-
800 RUSSIA.
The Don rises in the government of Tula, and receives a number of large tributaries ; it
passes by Azof, into the sea of that name, after a course of 850 miles. The Dnieper, one
of the largest rivers in Europe, and a fine navigable stream, rises in the government of Smo
lensk, and has a course of nearly 1 ,000 miles, passing by Smolensk, Kiev, below which the
navigation is interrupted by falls, Cherson, and Oczacow, into the Black Sea. The Dniester,
rising in the Carpathian mountains of Galicia, also runs into the Black Sea.
The Vistula passes through Poland into Prussia, and the Niemen also enters the Prussian
territory. The Duna, or Southern Dwina, rising near the sources of the Volga, flows north
into the Gulf of Livonia. The Neva, the outlet of Lake Ladoga, is more remarkable for the
volume of its waters, than the length of its course ; it is a broad, full, deep river, and some
times does great mischief by its inundations. The Petchora, the Dwina, and the Onega, are
the principal streams, whose waters find their way into the Arctic Ocean.
4. Lakes. This country abounds in lakes. The Lake of Ladoga lies near the Gulf of
Finland ; it is 120 miles long, and 65 broad. It abounds in fish, and particularly in seals, and
is connected with the sea by a canal. Lake Onega, lies between this lake and the White Sea ;
it is 150 miles long. The other lakes are smaller.
5. Islands. Nova Zembla consists of two large islands in the Arctic Ocean, presenting a
dreary and sterile appearance, and covered with snow and ice the greater part of the year.
The soil produces some shrubs and moss ; the islands are uninhabited by man, but they abound
in reindeer, ermine, white bears, seals, and fish, and are much resorted to by fishermen and
hunters. To the northwest is the rocky and mountainous group of Spitzbergen, where an al
most perpetual winter reigns. The white bear, whales, seals, &c, abound here ; a company
of Archangel merchants have attempted to establish a fishing and hunting post here, on the
most northerly inhabited spot on the globe.
6. Seas and Gulfs. The White Sea in the north communicates with the Frozen Ocean.
It is sufficiently deep for navigation and is free from ice from July till winter. The Gulf of
Finland is an arm of the Baltic, extending easterly between Russia and Finland. The Sea of
Azof, in the south, is an arm of the Black Sea.
7. Climate. The White Sea, and the ocean which washes the northern coast, are covered
with ice from September to June, and the rivers in this quarter are frozen for a still longer
period. In the morasses and lakes, the frost seldom disappears at all, and the sun's heat does
not penetrate a span into the marshy soil. During the brief and cheerless summer tbe atmos
phere is loaded with fogs. The sun at this season appears like an enormous red balloon, hang
ing motionless in the air. The summer is damp, hot, and oppressive. At Petersburg, the
temperature is milder, but the Neva is frozen from November till March. In the south, the
climate is delightful, and vegetation is flourishing. In the plains, there is little rain in summer,
and the streams dry up.
8. Soil. The country watered by the Volga is tolerably fertile, but the richest districts are
those upon the Don and Dnieper. In Livonia the soil is excellent. In the north, the soil is
unfit for tillage.
9. Natural Productions. In the north, firs, junipers, and mosses, are all the productions
of the soil. The central parts abound in forests of linden, cherry, elm, birch, willow, poplar,
alder, aspen, maple, pine, cedar, and cypress. Upon the shores of the Black Sea grow the
turpentine tree, the balm and Byzantine poplar. Walnut trees are plentiful in the Crimea.
10. Minerals. The European part of Russia is not rich in minerals. Iron and marble are
found in some parts, granite is abundant, and salt occurs in large quantities.
11. Animals. In the north are found most of the animals described in the adjoining coun
tries. In all the other parts sheep are abundant. Wild horses are found in the steppes of
the Don. r
12 Face of the Country. The whole region is for the most part a champaign country, with
very few mountainous tracts. It abounds, in those great level plains, called steppes, sometimes
resembling deserts, and at other times savannas, waving with luxuriant grass.
13. Divisions European Russia is divided into 45 governments and 2 provinces, exclusive
of the territory of the Cossacks of the Don, which forms a sort of military republic the grand
duchy of Finland, which has _a distinct administration, and the kinedom of Poland. The
and Finland ; Great
Southern Russia,
geographical sections are, the Baltic provinces, comprising 4 governments, an
Russia, including 19 governments ; Little Russia, comprising 4 governments ;
RUSSIA.
801
containing 3 governments, and the province of Bessarabia ; Western Russia, composed of 7
governments and 1 province ; and Eastern Russia, comprising 8 governments.*
14. Towns. St. Petersburg, the metropolis of the Russian empire, is situated at the east
ern extremity of the Gulf of Finland, and is built partly upon the mainland, and partly upon
some small islands near the mouth of the Neva ; one of its entrances is adorned with a mag
nificent triumphal arch. The foundation of the city is extremely marshy, and so low as to
View of the Palace.
Entrance to one of the Palaces.
subject the city to frequent inundations from tbe waters of the gulf.f It was founded in 1703,
by Peter the Great, the spot being then occupied only by a few fishermen's huts. The streets
of the city are from 70 to 150 feet wide, and are mostly intersected by spacious canals, em
banked by parapets of hewn stone, and
spanned at convenient distances by arched
bridges of magnificent construction. The
quays along the Neva are remarkably magnifi
cent. The English Quay is nearly 3 miles in
length. The city is one of the most beau
tiful and magnificent in the world. The im
perial residence ; the Hermitage, another
imperial palace, of a beautiful construction,
containing a gallery of paintings, and a cabi
net of gems, ranking among the richest
known ; the numerous sumptuous palaces of
the imperial family ; the magnificent hotels
of the nobles, and the great number of pub
lic edifices, built on a large scale, of rich
materials, and in a style of great elegance,
* Governments : —
Baltic Provinces.
St. Petersburg
Esthonia, Livonia,
Courland. Great Russia.
Moscow, Sinolensko,
Pskof,Olonez,
Novogorod, Archangel,
Vologda,Kostroma,
t The most remarkable of these inundations occurred
in November, 1824. The Neva rose to an unusual height,
overflowed the city and swept away houses, furniture, and
goods, doing immense damage. The destruction of life
101
Nixni-Nch
'ogorod,
Tsehernigoff,
Volhynia,
Vladimir,
Pultowa.
Podolia,
Tula,
Southern Russia.
Bialystok, Province
Kaluga,
Cherson,
Eastern Russia.
Tver,
Catherinoslav,
Kazan,
Jaroslaw,
Taurida,
Viatka,
Kursk,
Bessarabia, Province.
Perm,
Orel,
Western Russia.
Simbirsk,
Riasan,
Wilna,
Penza,
Tambof,
Grodno,
Astrachan,
Voronetz
Witepsk,
Saratov,
Little Russia.
Mohilev,
Oremburg.
Kiev,
Minsk,
Slobodsk-Ukraine,
was enormous, and whole viltages near the city were to
tally submerged. At Cronstadt, the imperial fleet suffered
great injury, and a ship of 100 guns was left in the middle
of one of the principal streets.
802
RUSSIA.
render it a city of palaces. The ; houses a .usually of ^^^^T^fS^
^^T^KTS/d^ff; th?river7s Sep, rapid, and as transparent as
d banks are lined on each side with a continued range of noble buildings.
"Se ktne chief ub eCts worthy of attention here, is the equestrian statue of Peter the
Gr^at in bronze erected by Catherine the Second. The Kazan church, bu.lt of marble, is a
work o stupendous dimensions ; but that of St Isaac, lately erected, surpasses it in magn.fi-
Tence The Admiralty is a spacious and magnificent edifice, and the spire being covered with
The Admiralty
gilding, is seen from all parts of the city
Palace of Petrowski, St. Petersburg
Burning of Moscow in 1812.
The Exchange.
The Exchange is beautifully situated with a quay in
front ; it is surrounded with pil
lars, and decorated with marble
statutes. During the winter, no
part of the city is more crowd
ed than the Neva. Inclosed pla
ces are allotted to the skaters;
and sledge-races, and various
other amusements are general
ly practised. The population
of St. Petersburg amounts to
500,000. The literary institu
tions, and learned societies of
St. Petersburg, are numerous.
The university, the cabinet of
natural history, the imperial li
brary of 300,000 volumes, those
of the academy of sciences, of
the university, &c, the magnifi
cent botanical garden, &c, must not be passed
over in silence.
Cronstadt, on an island in the Gulf of Fin
land, about 20 miles from Petersburg, is the
port of the capital, and the chief naval station
of the empire. It is remarkable for its vast
works, fortifications, docks, arsenals, barracks,
&c. Population, 40,000.
Moscow, the former capital, stands on the
river Moskva, 487 miles southeast of St. Pe
tersburg. Before the French invasion, it was
the largest city in Europe, being nearly 20 miles
in circumference. The Kremlin is a superb
structure, or rather a motely mass of gaudy
buildings, comprehending the imperial palace
and chapel, the public offices, the cathedral,
RUSSIA. 803
and other churches, and the arsenal. At the French invasion in 1812, the city was set on
fire, and two thirds of it destroyed. It is now mostly rebuilt. The streets are, in gen
eral, broad ; and some of them are paved : others, particularly those in the suburbs, are
floored with trunks of trees, or boarded with planks. Wretched hovels are blended with
large palaces ; some parts of the city have the appearance of a sequestered desert, and others
that of a populous town. One of the curiosities of this place is the great bell, which is said
to be the largest in the world ; its circumference is 64 feet, and its height 1 9 feet. In the
cathedral the Russian emperors are crowned. Moscow contains a university with a fine library,
and many literary institutions ; the anatomical museum here comprises 50,000 preparations. It
is the residence of the oldest and wealthiest Russian families, and the operations of its mer
chants extend from London and Paris to the coast of North America and the capital of
China. Population, 250,000.
Riga, on the Duna, near its mouth, is the capital of Livonia ; it is one of the principal for
tresses of the empire, and ranks among the principal commercial cities of Europe. Here is a
bridge of boats over the Duna, remarkable for its length. The inhabitants are chiefly Ger
mans, or of German origin. Population, 42,000. Dorpat, 9,000, in the neighborhood, con
tains a university, with a celebrated observatory.
Tula is one of the principal manufacturing cities of the empire ; more than 7,000 workmen
are employed in the manufacture of arras for the government, and philosophical instruments are
also made here. The vast arsenal contains upward of 100,000 stand of arms. Population,
39,000. Kaluga, upon the Oka, has a great number of manufactories, and carries on an active
trade. It is a large, but meanly-built city, with 26,000 inhabitants. Orel is a flourishing city,
and is the great mart of the corn-trade for the interior of Russia. Population, 30,000. Jaroslav,
pleasantly situated upon the Volga, is one of the great workshops of Russia ; table-linen, paper,
and silk are the chief productions of its industry. Here is a scientific school with a rich libra
ry, and one of the most important theological seminaries of the empire. Population, 24,000.
Archangel, upon the Dwina, has a fine harbor, which, however, is closed 9 months in the
year by ice. Previously to the building of St. Petersburg, it was the chief commercial port
of Russia, and, although it has since declined, its inhabitants still prosecute the fisheries with
activity, and carry on an extensive commerce. Population, 19,000.
Tver, with 22,000 inhabitants, situated upon ,the Volga, at the junction of one of the canals
connecting that river with the Neva, is the centre of the commercial relations between Moscow
and St. Petersburg. It is one of the handsomest towns in Russia, containing a magnificent
imperial palace, a noble cathedral, town-house, &c, and adorned with superb quays along the
Volga. Smolensk, 11,000 inhabitants, and Novogorod-Veliki, or Great Novogorod, 8,000, are
chiefly interesting for their historical importance. Smolensk once contained 200,000 inhabi
tants, and Novogorod, formerly a member of the Hanseatic league, and the great mart of the
commerce between Asia and the north of Europe, ruled over a great part of Russia, and is
said to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. " Who can stand against God and Novogorod ? "
became a proverb. Nishni-Novogorod, on the Volga, with 14,000 inhabitants, is celebrated
for its great fair, the largest in Europe ; it is attended by from 120,000 to 150,000 persons,
who transact business to the amount of above 20,000,000 dollars ; in its vast and beautiful ba
zars meet the traders of the most distant parts of Europe and Asia.
Kiev, pleasantly situated upon several hills on the Dnieper, is an ancient town, and was for
merly one of the sacred cities of Russia. It contains a splendid cathedral, an imperial palace,
a celebrated university, and a famous monastery, in the catacombs of which are preserved, in a
dried state, the bodies of 110 martyrs ; thousands of pilgrims visit these relics yearly, and the
great fair of Kiev attracts annually 30,000 persons. Population, 56,000. Odessa, one of
the most flourishing cities of Europe, is the chief commercial mart upon the Black Sea, and
the outlet of the exports of Southern Russia. It is handsomely built, with regular and spacious
streets, and handsome public squares and -walks, and contains many elegant buildings, public
and private. The dry and sterile soil of the neighborhood has been Converted into a fertile
garden, by the increase of the city. Population, 40,000. Cherson, formerly the most impor
tant town in this section, is unhealthy, and has declined since the transfer of its commerce to
Odessa, and the removal of its dock-yard. Population, 12,000. Other important places in
Southern Russia are Bender, 5,000 inhabitants, and Ismail, 13,000, in Bessarabia, distinguish
ed for their fortifications, and Akerman, 13,000, in the same province, also a fortified town,
804 RUSSIA.
with extensive salt-works ; Nikolaiev, near Odessa, a small town, but important as the .princi
pal Russian naval station on the Black Sea ; and New Tcherkask, 1 1 ,000 inhabitants, capital
of the Cossacks of the Don.
Wilna is the principal city of Western Russia, and was the capital of the ancient duchy of
Lithuania. It contains many remarkable edifices, among which are the cathedral, numerous
churches, and the hotels of many Polish nobles. About half of the population, 56,000, are
Jews, who carry on an extensive inland traffic. Mohilev, 21,000 inhabitants ; Witepsk, 15,000 ;
and Minsk, 15,000, capitals of governments of the same names, are the other most considera
ble towns of Western Russia.
Kazan, on the Volga, a handsomely built and strongly fortified city, is the mart of the com
merce between Siberia and European Russia, and the seat of extensive manufactures of cloths,
leather, soap, and iron ware. It was once the capital of a Tartar kingdom, and is the most
important Tartar city of Russia. Its university, theological academy, observatory, library,
botanical garden, &c, give it also a certain literary importance. Population, 48,000. Saratov,
upon the Volga, is a flourishing town, which owes its rapid increase to its extensive trade, and
its manufacturing prosperity. Population, 35,000,
Astrachan, with 40,000 inhabitants, is built upon one of the islands in the mouth of the
Volga, and is the most frequented port on the Caspian Sea. Its numerous churches, its pretty
orchards and vineyards, its extensive suburbs, and its Kremlin, or citadel, give it an agreeable
appearance at a distance, but the houses are chiefly of wood, and the streets are irregular,
muddy, and badly paved. It is the chief Russian naval station on the Caspian Sea, and its
central position, which affords it a ready communication with the most remote parts of the em
pire, and with the richest regions of Asia, renders it the emporium of Russian commerce with
India, Bucharia, and Persia. Three bazars or khans, in different parts of the city, are appro
priated respectively to the Russian, Hindoo, and other Asiatic merchants. Other considerable
towns in Eastern Russia are Perm, 10,000 inhabitants, important for the rich mines of copper
worked in its neighborhood ; Ekaterinburg, 1 1,000, the centre of a rich gold district, contain
ing large cannon founderies, and manufactories of cutlery and other iron ware ; and Uralsk,
12,000, capital city of the Cossacks of the Ural, with important fisheries.
In Great Russia, besides the towns already described, are Kursk, a commercial town with
23,000 inhabitants, near which is a miraculous image of the Virgin, which attracts numerous
pilgrims ; Vologda, 13,000, which its central posjtion between St. Petersburg, Moscow, Arch
angel, and Kazan, and the canals and navigable rivers connected with it, render the great mart
of the inland trade of Northern Russia and Siberia ; Voronege, 26,000, and Riazan, 19,000
inhabitants, flourishing commercial and manufacturing towns ; Charkov, 13,000, noted for its
literary institutions ; and Pultava, 10,000, for the victory gained there by Peter the First,
over Charles the Twelfth, of Sweden.
15. Canals and Railroad. The system of canalisation, favored by numerous navigable
rivers and lakes, and by the seas, which border Russia on 3 sides, has been carried to a great
extent. It was projected by Peter the Great, who, in founding St. Petersburg, designed to
make it the commercial emporium of his vast empire. Several canals of no great length unite
the waters of the Volga with Lake Ladoga, and thus connect the Baltic and the Caspian Sea.
The Ladoga Canal, 66 miles, unites them with the Neva, and thus enables boats to avoid the
dangerous navigation of the lake. Two canals unite the Northern Dwina with different branches
of the Volga, and connect the White Sea with the Caspian. The Oginski Canal, 36 miles
long, connects the Dnieper with the Niemen, and affords navigation from the Baltic to the
Black Sea. The Canal of Peter the First, connects the Don with the Volga, and is 100
miles in length ; the Oka is also united with the upper part of the Don ; these canals afford a
double communication between the Black and Caspian seas. Another extensive system of
canals connects the Vistula with the Niemen and the Duna, and the latter with the Neva.
There is one railroad in Russia, extending from St. Petersburg to Paulovski, 20 miles, which
it is proposed to continue to Moscow, 450 miles further.
16. Agriculture. Russia raises much more corn than she consumes ; fruits and wine are
produced in abundance ; flax and hemp are staple productions. Mulberry trees have been
planted to a great extent, and the raising of cattle, horses, sheep, bees, and silkworms, occu
pies many of the inhabitants. Poland rears many cattle, and raises much corn, but the rich
plains of the Vistula are blasted by Russian tyranny.
17. Manufactures. Russia has for a long time possessed manufactures of leather, duck,
RUSSIA. # 805
cordage, cutlery, felt, candles, and soap. But during the last 10 years great progress has been
made in all the branches of manufacturing industry, and the more delicate productions of the
loom and the furnace are made in great perfection. In addition to the articles above mentioned,
silks, fine broadcloths, glass, porcelain paper, jewelry, and cotton, are among the principal.
The governments of Moscow, Vladimir, Nishni-Novogorod, Tambov, Kaluga, and Olonetz,
are the chief manufacturing districts. The cotton manufacture in particular, has of late ex
tended itself with great rapidity, owing principally to the substitution of free and well-paid
workmen for slaves ; in a single village in Vladimir there are 15,600 looms, employing 24,300
laborers. 18. Commerce. The inland commerce of Russia is not impeded by tolls nor staples, and is
facilitated by navigable rivers, canals, and lakes, and by the snow in winter. Great fairs are
held in different places. The foreign inland trade is with China, Persia, Bucharia, the Otto
man Empire, Austria, and Prussia. The maritime commerce is chiefly in the hands of the
English, the foreign inland trade is carried on by Armenians, Jews, and Bucharians. The
American Company has factories at Kazan, Irkutsk, Kamschatka, &c, and settlements in
America. The Steam Navigation Company has been formed with the design of introducing
steam vessels upon the Volga, the Caspian, and the Kama, and the Russian Company to extend
the navigation upon the Baltic and Black seas, and the great rivers of the interior. The for
eign commerce of Russia has doubled within 25 years.
19. Fisheries. The seal and sturgeon fisheries of the Ural, the Volga, and the Caspian and
Black seas, are extensive and highly productive. Upward of 10,000 fishing-boats are em
ployed on the Volga, and isinglass, caviare, and oil are made. Salted and smoked mackerel
form an important article of the commerce of the Crimea. The Cossacks repair to the Ural
to prosecute the sturgeon fishery, in great numbers. Thousands appear on the ice in sledges,
armed with spears, poles, and other instruments. As soon as the leader sets forward, the fish
ers, who have been drawn up in regular ranks, dash after him ; the ice is cut, the spears cast,
the ice covered with fish, which the fishmongers, assembled from all parts of the empire, carry
off, in all directions, in a frozen state.
20. Religion. No distinction is made in favor of any religious sect in Russia. The great
majority of the inhabitants belong to the Greek church. In the Polish provinces the inhabi
tants are Catholic or United Greeks. There- are many Lutherans in Finland and Esthonia.
The Calmucs are Mahometans. The government of the Greek church is administered by the
Holy Synod, or college of bishops and secular clergy ; under the Synod are the 4 metropoli
tans of Moscow, Petersburg, Kazan, and Kiev, the archbishops, &c, and 560 convents. The
service consists chiefly in outward forms ; preaching and catechizing being little regarded.
The clergy are generally little more enlightened than those whom they aspire to instruct.
Every house has a painting of a saint, or of the Virgin, before which the inmates offer prayers,
and perform many ceremonies. Most of the clergy are permitted to marry once. There are
many fasts, and festivals are kept with great rejoicings ; many pagan superstitions are still
cherished. Thus doves are not eaten, as they are considered sanctified, or emblematic of what is holy.
The marriages of the nobility are solemnized nearly as in other parts of Europe, but the court
ship of the peasants is singular. The suitor applies to the. mother, saying, " Produce your
merchandise, we have money for it." Should the bargain be concluded, the bride at the
wedding is crowned with a chaplet of wormwood, not an inapt emblem for the wife of a Rus
sian boor. Hops are thrown over her head, with the wish that she may prove as fruitful as the
plant. Second marriages are tolerated ; the third are considered scandalous, and the fourth
absolutely unlawful. The dead are buried with a paper in the hand, as a passport. It is signed
by the bishop or other dignitaries.
21. Government. The government is an unlimited monarchy ; all power emanates from the
emperor, who is considered to derive his authority from God. His title is Samoderjetz or' Au
tocrat of all the Russias ; he is at once the supreme head of the state and of the church.
There are, however, some differences in the administration of different parts of the empire ;
thus the kingdom of Poland, and the grand-duchy of Finland, have distinct constitutions ; the
Cossacks of the Don, and those of the Black Sea, form a sort of military republics, &c.
22. Army and Navy. The army of Russia is estimated to amount to about 680,000 men,
exclusive of the military colonists. The military colonies are a peculiar institution of this
country ; in these, the peasants or boors, who belong to the crown, are subjected to a military
806 RUSSIA.
government, and educated as soldiers. The navy consists of 40 ships of the line, 35 frigates,
and 204 smaller vessels, and 25 floating batteries.
23. Inhabitants. The population of Russia is composed of a great variety of different people,
who have nothing in common, but the government. The Sclavonic race comprises the greatest
part of the inhabitants, including the Russians, the Cossacks, and the Poles. The latter form the
majority of the population of the western governments, conqdered from Poland, and of the, king
dom of Poland. The Cossacks occupy the southern provinces on the Don and the Black Sea.
The Finnic race comprises the Finns, Esthonians, Laplanders, and other tribes scattered over
the country, from the Tornea to the Ural Mountains. The Tartars or Turkish race are spread
over the plains from the Dniester to the Caucasas, comprising the inhabitants of the former king
doms of Kazan and Astrachan, and various tribes mostly under their own government, without
agriculture or firearms, and often preserving their nomadic habits. To the Mongol race belong
the Calmucks, in the southeastern governments. The Samoides compose numerous small tribes,
wandering through the vast wilderness on the northeastern coast. Beside these there is a great
number of German colonists, Swedes in Finland, Jews, Armenians, Gypsies, &c. In the whole
empire there are no less than 80 tribes, differing in language, religion, and manners, from the low
est state of barbarism to the highest degree of European civilization. The population of Euro
pean Russia is divided into four classes ; the nobility, clergy, common people or freemen,
and boors or serfs. The boors are the property of the crown or of individuals, and are in a
state of abject poverty and ignorance. The laws, however, afford them some protection against
the caprice of their owners, and they are sometimes emancipated or permitted to purchase
their freedom. This servile class comprises the bulk of the population, amounting to about
36,000,000. The freemen, not nobles or clergy, are the inhabitants of cities, composed of
several distinct orders, as the members of the guilds, or capitalists, with a certain income, arti
sans, notables (artists, bankers, and learned men), &c. The noble families comprise about
750,000 individuals, enjoying certain exemptions and privileges.
24. Dress. The nobles dress chiefly after the English or French fashions ; but the burgh
ers, merchants, and peasants wear the national dress, of the Asiatic form. In winter all classes
are wrapped in sheep-skins, or furs. The common dress of the peasants is a hat or cap, with
a high crown, a coarse robe reaching to the knee, and girded with a sash, in which the wearer
carries his purse and often his hatchet ; a woolen cloth wrapped round the leg instead of stock
ings, and sandals of pliant bark. The higher ranks wear in winter pelisses of fur, and boots
of the same. The dress of the ladies is nearly in the English fashion. The women of the
more numerous class wear a saraphan, or long vest without sleeves, tight around the chest, but
flowing over the hips, and having a 'close row of buttons on the facing in front.
25. Language. The Russian language is a branch of the Sclavonic, rich, expressive, and
full of imagery. The French, however, is the language of courtly society ; and other Euro
pean languages are much used ; all which the Russians have a gieat facility of acquiring.
26. Manner of Building. The houses of the peasantry are similar in the sweater part of
Russia. They are made of logs, laid one upon the other. They have but "one room for
household purposes, and this in summer and winter is always occupied with a stove, constantly
kept hot. The villages have a dismal look, with the ends only of the houses to the street.
After Petersburg, there are few Russian cities well built ; and Moscow is imposing principally
from the great variety of oriental forms of architecture.
27. Food. The peasantry can seldom indulge in the luxuries of the table ; though the rich
live sumptuously. The general food of the lower classes is black rye bread, potatoes, salted
hsh, garlic, mushrooms, and cucumbers, in great quantities. The common drink is quass, a
ermented liquor, made by mixing flour with water, and letting it stand till the acetous fermenta
tion takes place. It tastes like vinegar and water. Mead is also a common drink, and whisky
and brandy are consumed in large quantities by the lower classes. Intemperance is not com
mon with the nobility but with the other class it is as universal as the means. The Cossacks
use much brandy, and they have excellent wines of domestic growth. The Calmucks have
~ll' a" a,rd.en' sP,nt' Lk? weLak ^andy, distilled from the milk of mares. Tobacco is not
pvT tLTi '" /f ",'¦ a"d' Whe" take"' !t is cKleQy in ,he f°>™ °f ^uff. Smoking, how
ever is not rare, and ladies may sometimes be seen with a cigar.
OniiT'-jf S6S °f RuSsia are those common in almost all European countries.
mil's LiZ a Sldet,feve.:s.are comm°n> and theplague frequently exists. The small-pox com
mits more ravages than it is permitted to make in other European countries.
Traveling in Russia.
RUSSIA. 807
29. Traveling. All the obstructions to traveling, that exist, separately in other coun
tries, seem to be concentrated in Russia.
The police, the extortion of postmasters,
the inns, and the roads, are all at variance
with a traveler's comfort. The inns have, in
general, no better accommodations than the
hut of a Laplander, and the Laplander is
a far more civil and friendly host than the
Russian. The traveler must not only carry
his bed, but his food and cooking utensils ;
and, with all his resistance, he will be obliged
at every post to pay more than the postmas
ter is entitled to ; as this functionary general
ly adapts his charges to the impatience of
travelers to proceed. The roads are exceed
ingly rough, except in winter, when all Rus
sia seems to be traveling to and from the cap
ital in sledges. The post-horses are harnessed to clumsy carriages, in the shape of landaus, five
or six abreast, with a single horse for a leader, and sometimes another in the shafts. The
sledges are of various forms and qualities. Many are gaudily ornamented. The Kibitki is a
rude carriage, without springs except to the seats, and in these the courtiers generally ride. It
is shaped like a boat. The Droski is a carriage represented in the preceding cut, and the
passenger is scarcely two feet from the ground. In some of these carriages, he sits astride as
on a saddle, and the motion is so great in going rapidly, that a novice holds by the sash of the
coachman, who sits before. Sledge races are common in the cities, and the general pace at
which the sledges move is very swift. They are driven nearly at full speed, while the passen
gers sit or recline, wrapped completely in furs. In severe winters, many travelers perish in
the roads. In 1789, 14,000 were frozen on the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow, and it
is common to see people who have lost an ear or a limb, by exposure to cold.
30. Character, Manners, and Customs. The character of a people reflects the nature of
the government, for man is the creature of circumstances. In Russia, property, liberty, and
life, are held at the will of the autocrat, and the nobles have nearly the same delegated power
over their serfs. This state of government has an unfavorable influence on the character of the
monarch, the noble, and the peasant, though the latter it the most degrades. The monarchs of
Russia have almost always been cruel and sanguinary, the nobles sensual, capricious, and indolent,
and the peasants degraded and brutal. It must be admitted, however, that the advance towards
a better state of society has, of late years, been rapid, and the change has been nowhere so
apparent as in the nobility. It must doubtless be communicated also to the peasantry. If the
state of morals at St. Petersburg be not unexceptionable, that of decorum and refinement may
compare with the majority of European societies. Intemperance, which used to be character
istic of a Russian nobleman, is now the vice only of his slaves. But the Russian empire is
too unwieldy to receive the same advancement in knowledge and refinement with smaller states.
In describing the Russians we must describe the two great classes, the nobility and the peas
ants, though many traits of character run through all. All are cheerful, social, and luxurious,
fond of novelty, and quick in apprehension.
The moral aspect of the higher classes has been much changed for the better, but it must be
many-years before the Russians can acquire the moral elevation, that distinguishes Germany
and England. The higher classes are animated and fond of amusement, but in a great degree
inaccessible to the high motives of principle or honor. They stand on the brink of barbarism,
and have quitted the virtues of that state too lately to have acquired those of refinement.
Their life is one of pomp and show, rather than one devoted to knowledge and the gentle emo
tions, which make the charm of a refined state of society. They retain vast households of do
mestic serfs ; 500 of these are often the attendants on one palace, in the capacity of servants,
cooks, butchers, tailors, shoemakers, artists, comedians, &c. They may be seen, when not
employed, sleeping like the domestic animals in the ante-rooms, or on stair-cases, and general
ly they have no other bed. At Moscow the nobles often retain dwarfs, who are splendidly
dressed, to stand behind their master's chair at feasts ; a remnant or rather an evidence of the
barbarity of past ages. Giants are in equal demand, but they are less numerous than the
dwarfs.
808 RUSSIA.
The Russians seem not to have much love of country ; they are willing exiles, often even to
Siberia, and they overrun the south of Europe. They have not the moral sentiments, that
bind man to his home as the scene of his childhood, and of his friendships and affections ; they
are. led by the senses and impulses, and wherever these may receive the most gratification, there
the Russian is the most at home. The burning of Moscow is not now considered a sacrifice
of patriotism. The governor of the city, to whom it has been attributed, supposes it to have
been committed by the wretches, who remained behind to plunder. Honesty seems to have
fled to a more genial climate, and extortion alone flourishes. The merchants almost invariably
cheat, and ask for their wares double what they may be induced to take, while the whole sys
tem, both of police and traffic, is one of overreaching and plunder. These are grievous charg
es, but they are supported by the testimony of almost every traveler. No profession is honor
able but that of arms, and to this only the nobility devote themselves.
The peasantry have the national facility of imitation, but as little of the inventive power as
pertains to their superiors. Though rendered in some degree stupid by their situation, many
of them have been found capable of imitating the best works of art. They are addicted to in
toxication, and their morals are in a most depraved state. The lower classes of Russians are
covered with filth and infested with vermin ; and the latter, it is said, have no respect for rank,
pertaining both to nobles and serfs. The women are the drudges, which they always are among
barbarians, and are as much subjected to the blows of their husbands, as these are to the
cudgels of their masters. All the operations and implements of agriculture denote an age far
behind the present. What the fathers did, that do the sons ; the harrows are but the lateral
branches of the fir tree, sharpened, and dragged over the ground, and many other implements
are equally rude.
The house of a peasant is a receptacle of filth ; neatness is unknown in Russia. The door
is closed in winter, and the air, heated by stoves and tainted by respiration, becomes excessive
ly offensive and noxious. The Russian of the lower orders makes his presence obvious to
more senses than one. Almost all Russia presents a picture of the same state of society ; for
the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg, form but inconsiderable parts of tbe whole. The
Cossacks, as much as they are to be execrated in war, form a pleasing exception. They live in
neat villages, in a highly social and not uncultivated state. They are, to a great degree, neat
in their houses, persons, and dress. They have books and musical instruments. Dr. Clarke
describes them as the most cheerful, kind, and honest of all the inhabitants of Russia. The
ladies are handsome, and intelligent ; many of them play on the piano forte, and have the other
European accomplishments. The Russians make good soldiers, and yet they have not a military
spirit. But their political situation makes them passive instruments in the hands of their rulers.
A serf gains his freedom, and improves his situation, by entering the army. Besides this, he is
strong, hardy, and constitutionally brave.
The Calmucks, who belong to the great Mongol family of Eastern Asia, roam over the
steppes between the Don and the Volga. They settled here toward the end of the 17th cen
tury, but about 100 years later, in 1771, the bulk of the nation returned to the banks of the
Hi, in the Chinese empire, only about 50,000 of their number remaining in Russia. They are
Buddhists in religion. They have no fixed abode, but dwell in movable huts called hybitkas,
which they carry from place to place, as they follow their herds to pasture. They do not cul
tivate the ground, living wholly on animal food, their herds consisting chiefly of camels, sheep,
and horses, with very few black cattle. The Calmucks are not in reality the immediate sub
jects of the princes in whose territories they live, but they have their own hereditary chiefs and
nobles, to whom they pay strict obedience.
The Cossacks are of Sclavonic origin, but seem to have been largely mixed with Tartars,
Calmucks, and Gypsies. After a long series of struggles with the Tartar khans, the Poles,
and the Russians, their hetman, or chief, sought the protection of the latter in the middle of the
17th century The heir apparent of the Russian crown now bears the title of hetman of the
Cossacks. Every Cossack between the ages of IS and 40 is liable to perform military duty,
and their troops are wholly composed of cavalry. They receive no pay but when in the field,
or engaged in guarding the frontier ; but they are essentially a nation of soldiers, having their
own local government. The dress of the soldiery is a short vest in the Polish style, large
trowsers of deep blue, and a black sheepskin cap. Their arms consist of a long spear, sabre,
musket pan- of pistols, and a whip with a leather thong, which they apply not to their steed, but to
the back of a flying enemy. The great body of the Cossacks live on the Don, and its branches ;
and their capital has already been described ; but there are some on the Ural, in Siberia, &c.
RUSSIA.
809
31. Education. Ignorance is nowhere more profound than in Russia ; yet much has been
done to spread the means of education. Steps have been taken, and at vast expense, that
must hereafter diffuse knowledge over the empire. Every parish, or two parishes, united, must
have a school, and, besides these, there are 503 general establishments, with 1,505 teachers,
besides 51 gymnasia, one in the capital of each government. In the latter, the students are
prepared for the universities, of which there are seven, viz. one at Moscow, St. Petersburg,
Wilna, Dorpat, Charkov, Kasan, and Helsingfors. There are several schools for the educa
tion of instructors, and upwards of 150 schools attended by students in theology. The Jews
have a celebrated national institution, and
there are besides, medical, mineral, mining,
marine, and other schools.
32. Amusements. Many of the amuse
ments in Russia are those of the children in
other countries. A large assembly will often
entertain themselves with forfeits and other
similar games. In the cities, ice mountains
form a favorite recreation. These are in
clined planes, high and steep, covered with
ice, down which the people descend in cars,
or on skates, and with the greatest velocity.
Swings are also used of various sorts, some
turning in a perpendicular, and others in a
horizontal manner. On certain festivals, all
Artificial Ice Mountain. these are placed in the public squares, and
the people mingle in the amusements, with much animation, and without distinction of rank.
It may be remarked, that in despotic countries the extreme ranks are on more familiar terms
than under free governments. There is no jealousy between them. At some masquerades all
persons have free admittance, who can pay a small sum for a ticket, and the laborer comes in
contact with the emperor. This kind of familiarity is exemplified in the national mode of salu
tation, which is by kissing. Peasants kiss each other, and the rank of a princess does not
shield her from a salute on the cheek, by the lowest boor, that presents her an egg at Easter.
Boxing and wrestling are not uncommon, and billiards and cards are general amusements. The
chief game, as in Sweden, is a kind of whist called boston. All classes frequent the baths,
which are numerous. Some of them are similar to those of Finland. The bathing is also
nearly as promiscuous.
33. State of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. No native Russian has produced great
works of art ; but many have successfully imitated them. The embellishments of cities and
palaces, are chiefly executed by foreigners. There is some taste for music ; and the national
instruments are the balalaika, a guitar with two strings, the gussla, a kind of harp, flutes, and
bagpipes. The national ballads are from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Vladimer and his
knights, are celebrated in them, as much as Charlemagne and his peers were celebrated by
southern minstrels. Nestor, a monk, wrote the annals of Russia, at the close of the 10th
century. Russia has, however, little national literature ; what there is, is principally poetry
and history. The mathematics are favorite studies. A recent traveller relates, that he was
present at a party, where the conversation of the ladies was chiefly upon the " polarity of the
rays of light." It is probable, that there was more affectation than knowledge in this, though
the female studies are not well selected.
34. Laws. The laws are voluminous ; but the Emperor Nicholas has promulgated a digest
in 16 volumes. Torture is abolished, and the common punishment is fine, the knout, and ban
ishment to Siberia. The punishment of death is nominally abolished. But torture may be
inflicted without the rack, and death without the scaffold. Justice is in Russia more uncertain
than fortune. It is a common saying, founded on suffering, " God is high, and the emperor is
far away." When the emperor is near, it is not always as the minister of justice, or the angel
of mercy. The trial of those who have enemies in power may be long delayed, or it may be
suddenly or unjustly held. Dr. Morton relates, that in the prison visited by him, among several
prisoners, whose trial had been delayed, one had waited 12 years. An order of the emperor
is stronger, and more sudden in its operation, than a sentence of court ; for the delays of testi
mony are avoided. The victim, who has offended the emperor or his informers, is taken, if in
102
810 RUSSIA.
the depth of a polar winter, to Siberia, where he is made to change his name, to hunt in the
arctic forests, or delve in the mines, with every species of malefactor. No tidings of him reach
home ; there is no transmission of letters, and the tracks point only towards Siberia, as they
pointed to the den of Cacus. Many an exile dies on the road, or, if he survives, it were
better that he had so died. " Alas ! nor wife, nor children, more shall he behold,
Nor friends, nor sacred home."
The roads to Siberia have of late been crowded with the brave and devoted Poles, of all
ranks, and of each sex. Victory could not allay the exasperation of the conqueror. At
Varna, the capitulation of which was bought, while it was vaunted as a victory, an English sur
geon was taken. The particular resentment of the emperor was directed to him, on the plea
that he was an engineer, though it would have occurred to a just prince, to be certain of the
fact. The surgeon was, in spite of the remonstrance of the English at Odessa, sent to Siberia,
in the depth of winter, so ill in health, and so thinly clad, that he could hardly have survived.
The peasants are by law subjected to the cudgel of the proprietor, and this "image of au
thority" is seldom at rest. The use of it is universal, and it is related, that when a gentleman
asked his slave why he always persisted in folding a newspaper with the title inwards, his an
swer was, "Please, Sir, because you never beat me." The emperors formerly held the same
instrument over the nobility, but this has given place to harder punishment : to banishments,
confiscations, and imprisonment. The knout is the peculiar punishment in Russia. It is tor
ture in the highest degree. To be " knouted without mercy" is to suffer the extremity of
human torture, applied in the most brutal manner. The sufferer is tied to a post by the neck,
arms, and knees. His only covering is a pair of loose drawers. The executioner brandishes
a whip, with a flat, hardened lash, of dried hide, and every blow smites the flesh from the
bones. In the first 10 or 12 lashes, the sufferer shrieks miserably, but he soon becomes weak,
and utters only faint groans, and, in a few moments, nothing is heard but the bloody splash of
the knout on the senseless body. A full hour is occupied in giving the greatest number of
blows (upwards of 200) and the body is taken lifeless from the post. But Russian justice is
not yet satisfied ; an instrument like a comb, with iron teeth, is struck forcibly into the temple,
and the marks rubbed with gunpowder, as a perpetual mark of shame, should the sufferer sur
vive. Then a pair of pinchers, like curling-irons, are fixed upon the nostrils, and each is cut
or torn away for the whole length. This is so painful, that it affords a momentary life to the
body in the last stage of exhaustion. The wretched man is then put into a cart, and removed
immediately to Siberia. In the execution here described, which took place at St. Petersburg,
he died on the second post of his journey.
35. Antiquities. Russia has no antiquities, except the tumuli or barrows that extend nearly
all over the country, though they are the most numerous in the eastern part. They are sim
ilar to the barrows in England, and the Indian graves in North America. Some that have
been opened, were found to contain human remains.
36. Population, Revenue, &c. The population of the European part of Russia, exclusive
of Poland and Finland, is about 55,000,000. The revenue of the empire is 65,000.000
dollars ; the debt, 180,000,000 dollars.
37. History. Russia did not acquire importance as an independent state, till the 15th cen
tury. Before this period, its sovereigns were often in a state of vassalage to the Tartan
Khans. Peter the Great laid the first permanent foundation of the Russian power, and intro
duced civilization and military discipline early in the 18th century ; Catherine augmented the
empire by the partition of Poland, and the acquisition of territory from the Turks. The lim
its of the empire were further extended at the close of the 18th century, and Russia became
one of the chief military powers of Europe. She joined the coalition against revolutionary
t ranee, but the victories of Napoleon for a while checked her power. The sovereignty of the
continent was divided between Fiance and Russia. Napoleon attempted to crush his rival, and
the disastrous issue of the Russian campaign shook the foundation of his own empire. The
decline of the French power brought the armies of Russia into the west of Europe, extended
her territorial limits, and developed her military strength. Russia is, perhaps, at the present
day, the most powerful empire of the European continent, and the weakness of her next
neighbors in Europe and Asia, (Turkey and Persia,) have lately given her new opportunities
lor aggrandizing herself in that direction, in which the northern hordes have ever been most
eager to make conquests. <
AFRICA.
811
CHAPTER CXXVII. GENERAL VIEW OF AFRICA.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Africa is a vast peninsula joined to the Asiatic continent on
the northeast, by the narrow isthmus of Suez. It is bounded north by the Mediterranean Sea,
east by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean
lantic Ocean. It extends from 38° N.
south by the Southern Ocean, and west by the At-
to 35° S. latitude, and from 17° W. to 51° E. longi
tude ; greatest length, from
Cape Blanc, in Tunis, to Cape
Agulhas, 5,000 miles ; great
est breadth from Cape Verd to
Cape Guardafui, 4,600 miles ;
area, 1 1,500,000 square miles ;.
population, 60,000,000. From
about 5° north to 25° south,
the interior of this country, com
prising a tract of about 3 mil
lions square miles, is wholly
unknown, and with much of
the remainder we are imper
fectly acquainted.
2. Mountains.
ranee of this vast
the globe renders it impossible
to describe these great natural
features w<ith any accuracy. But
Africa seems to have neither
the lofty mountain chains nor
the magnificent rivers of Asia
and America. In general, the
African mountains appear to be
more remarkable for breadth
than height. In the north is
the Atlas range, rising in some
places to the height of above
12,000 feet. The KongMoun-
Our igno-
division of
Map of Africa.
812
AFRICA.
tains extend along the western limits of Senegambia and the northern border of Guinea, and in
general have no great elevation, although some of their summits appear to reach the height of
12,000 or 13,000 feet. The Abyssinian Mountains, at some points, are of about the
same elevation, but their contin
uation across the continent under
the name of Mountains of the
Moon is merely conjectural.
Along the eastern coast, a con
tinued chain extends from the
Abyssinian range to the Ta
ble mountain, but of no great
height. It seems not improb
able, that the central part of the
continent forms one great plateau,
of which these littoral chains are
merely the sleep sides, descend
ing seaward.
3. Rivers. We are not ac
quainted with the whole course
of the largest rivers of Africa.
The sources of the principal
branch of the Nile are yet uncer
tain. The Quorra or Niger is
known to us only in the upper
and lower part of its course. The
Congo or Zaire is evidently a
large river, of which but a small
part has been visited, and the
Zambeze or Couama, on the
eastern coast, probably traverses
extensive regions of the unknown
interior. Tbe Orange and Sen-
egal are, after these, the principal
rivers. 4. Capes. The most prom
inent capes are Cape Blanc, in
Tunis, the most northern point of
Africa ; Cape Mesurata, in Tri
poli ; Cape Spartel, upon the
Straits of Gibraltar ; Capes Nun
and Boiador, on the coast of Sa
hara ; Cape Verd, in Senegam
bia, the most westerly point of
this continent ; Capes Mount,
Mesurado, and Palmas, on the
Guinea coast ; the Cape of Good
Hope, in the English Cape Col
ony ; Cape Agulhas, the most
the Portuguese territories, and
Comparative Height of the Mountains of Africa.
Mauritius,Cape Verd,
Cape,Canary, Peak of Ten-
eriffe,
3,764 feet.
7,890 "
io,aoo "
11,890 «
Atlas, Isle of Bourbon,
Abyssinian, Madagascar,
12,0110 12,500 14,72016,500
feet.
southern point of Africa ; Capes Corrientes and Delgado, in
Cape Guardafui, the eastern extremity of the continent.
5. Climate. With the exception of comparatively narrow tracts on the northern and southern
coast, the whole of this continent lies within the torrid zone, and presents the largest mass of land
within the tropics on the earth's surface. Africa is, therefore, the hottest region on the face of
the globe. The effect of its tropical position is still further heightened by the nature of the
soil and the surface ; the vast desert tracts of bare sand and shingle, serve as a great reservoir
of parched and heated air, the influence of which is often felt even in the more temperate re
gions of Barbary and the Cape Colony. The khamseen in Barbary and Egypt, and the har-
mattan in Guinea, are dry, burning winds from the deserts. The low country on the' seacoast,
AFRICA.
813
and in the river valleys throughout the tropical regions, is destructive to Europeans ; the great
heat and the exhalations of the swampy soil, covered by an exuberant vegetation, generating
fatal diseases.
6. Minerals. Little is known of the mineral productions of Africa. Salt is abundant,
except in Nigritia, and gold dust is found in many of the rivers. The following table shows
some of the most important minerals, with their localities, as far as is known.
Gold. Central Nigritia (Mandingo, Houssa, Wanga-
ra) ; Guinea coast ; Mozambique coast ; Abyssi
nia, &c.
Silver. Minps of Chicova on the Zambezi river ;
Elala in Morocco ; Nigritia (Begarmeh, Teembo.)
Copper. Morocco ; Nigritia (Molooas, Darfur, &c.) ;
Egypt, Cordovan, &c. ; Cape Colony ; Zumbo,
Cazembas, &c.
Iron. Egypt, Abyssinia, Darfur, Algiers, Madagas
car, Cazembas, Nigritia. ,
Tin and Lead. Loango.
Salt. Barbary (Morocco, Tunis) ; Egypt, Cordovan,
and Abyssinia ; Nigritia (Angola, Benguela, &c.) ;
Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Canaries, &c.
7. Vegetable Productions. The northern regions of Africa present much the same vegeta
tion as the southern parts of Europe, with some distinguishing features, however, that forbode
the transition to the tropics. On the Barbary coast we find groves of orange and olives ;
wide fields of wheat and barley ; thick woods of evergreen oaks, cork trees, and sea pines
(Pinus maritima), intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, and tree heaths (Erica arbored), while
palmetto trees and wild capers cover the hills and rocks. The principal objects of culture
in the Barbary States are a species of wheat (Triticum durum), the culm of which is solid,
and the kernel horny, rather than farinaceous ; barley, used for the horses instead of oats ;
maize and caffre-corn (Holcus sorglium), rice, tobacco; figs, pomegranates, jujubes, sugar
cane, &c. In the mountainous tracts to ihe south grows the sandarach tree (Thuya articu-
lata) whose durable wood is used in the construction of mosques, and is supposed by some to
be the shittim wood of Scripture. The borders of the great desert and the oases yield the date-
palm, affording the chief sustenance of the inhabitants. Egypt produces the vegetation of
both these regions, with the acacias (A. nilqtica), which yield the gum arabic, tamarisks, the
senna (Cassia obtusifolia), the doom palm (Crucifera Thebaica), the cardamoms, castor-oil
plant (Ricinus) ; safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), yielding an esteemed dye ; the papyrus
(P. antiquorum) , from which the old Egyptians made their material for writing ; the lotus
(Zizyphus lotos), of which the ancients related many fables, &c, in the equinoctial regions
exhibit new forms of vegetation. The huge baobab (Adansonia), the fruit of which affords the
natives a grateful drink, the cotton tree (Bombax pentandrum), groups of oil palms (Elais
guineensis), sago palms (Sagus rapha), the grotesque chandelier tree (Pandanus candelabrum),
with its long, rigid, channelled leaves, &c, are among the characteristic productions of the
tropical countries. The cassava (Tatropha manihoi), yam (Dioscorea), pigeon pea (Cytisus
cajan), and ground-nut (Arachis hypogaza), are the farinaceous plants which supply the place
of the cereal grains of temperate climates ; the papaw (Carica papaya), the tamarind, Sene
gal custard-apple (Anona Senegalensis) , the doura tree (Parhia Africana), the musanga,
cream fruit, monkey apple, mammee apple, &c, are among the useful trees. In the vast
karroos of Southern Africa, there are few plants that rise to the dignity of trees, but various
succulent plants, euphorbias, carrion flow
ers (stapelice), aloes, fig marigolds (me-
sembryan themum), orchideae, &c), with
numberless species of heath, geraniums,
cycadese, &c, usurp the place of forests.
8. Deserts. The Desert of Zahara
occupies a great part of Northern Africa,
extending from Egypt to the Atlantic.
The Great Southern Desert is supposed
to occupy most of the interior to the
south. These deserts form a prominent
feature of the country ; no other portion
of the globe exhibits anything comparable
to them. They are oceans of sand under
_,..,,„ a burning sky. No cooline breezes fresh-
Traveling in the Desert. u • i i •
en the air ; the sun descends in overpow
ering force ; the winds scorch as they pass, and bring with them billows of sand which some-
814
AFRICA.
times swallow up whole caravans and armies, and suffocate them in their pathless depths. A
singular phenomenon which these deserts exhibit is the Mirage, an optical deception produced
by the powerful rays of the sun upon the broad surface of sand, which often cheats the eye of
the thirsty traveler with the image of a lake of water in the midst of the desert. In Egypt it
is not uncommon to see the towers and minarets of a city reflected by the mirage upon the
plain before it, with such distinctness, that the spectator finds it impossible not to believe it a
wide sheet of water spread before his eyes, rather than a dry expanse of sand.
9. Animals. The animal kingdom of Africa has not been thoroughly explored, yet it is
known to abound in species which are either remarkable for their magnitude or their singular
qualities. We shall only attempt to describe a few of them. 1 . Elephant.
2. Hippopotamus.
3. Hyasna.
4. Two Horned Rhinoceros.
5. Chimpanzee.
6. Camelopard.
7. Zebra.
8. Lion.
9. Quagga.
10. Secretary Vulture.
11. Gnu.
12. Ostrich.
13. Crocodile.
Comparative Size of Animals of Africa.
The Chimpanzee or Pongo (Pitheca troglodytes) lives in Guinea and Congo, where it is
found in troops. It constructs huts of leaves and branches of trees, arms itself with stones
and clubs, and employs them to repulse from its dwelling both men and elephants. It ap
proaches the human form more nearly than any other animal. Naturalists have constantly
confounded it with the orang outang ; but it can walk upright, which that animal cannot do.
It is said by travelers to exceed the human stature. The Magot or Barbary Ape (Macacus
sylvanus), abounds in Barbary and in other parts of Africa. The Baboon (Cynocephalus) is
almost wholly confined to Africa, where there are several species inhabiting all the mountain
AFRICA.
815
ranges from the Atlas to the Cape Mountains. Many of them attain a large stature, and from
their strength and malicious disposition are much dreaded by the negroes. The Mandril
Monkeys.
Baboons.
(C. Mormon) is the largest and reaches the height of five feet ; they are morose and savage,
but have been ke'pt in a domestic state, and
are as fond of their pipe and mug of beer,
as the most inveterate smoker and toper
of the human species. Tbe Chacma (C.
porcarius) of the Cape of Good Hope, the
Derrias or Tartarin (C . hamadryas) of Abys
sinia, the Common Baboon (C. papio) of
Guinea, the Drill (C. leucophceus) , and per
haps some other species are found in this
continent. The true monkeys (cercopitheci)
swarm over the whole continent, enlivening
the woods with their gambols and chattering.
The Patas, Mangabey, Mona, Green Mon
key, and Mustache are inoffensive and play
ful, and one or two of them rather good
looking. Many beautiful species of Lemurs,
are found in Madagascar, of different colors,
Chacma or Pig-Faced Baboon.
and all possessing very long tails. They are particularly adapted for climbing trees.
Lemurs.
Red Lemur.
The African Lion (Leo Africanus) from his great strength and fierceness is placed at the
head of the beasts of prey. His roar is said to be tremendous, and when in the act of seizing
816
AFRICA.
his prey, this roar is heightened into a scream. The mode of his attack is generally by sur
prise. Approaching slowly and silently till within a leap of his prey, the lion springs with a
force which is generally
thought to deprive its
victim of life. His
muscular strength is
such, that he is capable
of carrying off a horse
or a buffalo, and by
the power of his limbs
alone, he is said to be
able to break the spine
of a horse. Fortunate
ly, however, the lion
seems to derive no
gratification from the
destruction of animal
life, beyond the mere
cravings of appetite. In
confinement, he shows
unequivocal marks of
gratitude and affection
to the person who
serves him with food ;
of this, several in
stances are on record.
Of the Cape Lion (L. Melaceps) there are two varieties, which, from the tint of their
coats, and particularly of their manes, are designated by the settlers as the Pale and the Black
The African Lion.
Mained Lion.
The latter of these is the larger and more ferocious of the two, and occasion
ally is found of the enormous length of eight
feet from the tip of the nose to the origin of
the tail. The tail is usually about half tbe
length of the body. The pale variety is the
more common.
The Jackal (Canis aureus) inhabits the
southern parts of Africa. Its voice is like
that of the wolf, but it is more voracious. It
never stirs alone, but always hunts its prey in
packs of thirty or forty by night. It attacks
almost every kind of beast or bird, and often
feeds on the carcasses of men and animals.
The Fennec (C. Zerba) is a curious ani
mal, first made known to naturalists by Bruce ;
The Jackal
The Fennec.
The Ichneumon.
AFRICA.
817
and Denham and Clapperton brought home a skin from Central Africa. Bruce describes it as
of a dirty-white color, and about 10 inches long. During the day, it was inclined to sleep, but
was exceedingly unquiet as night came- on. It builds its nest on trees. The Ichneumon (Man-
gusla Ichneumon), is domesticated in Egypt, where it is serviceable in destroying rats and mice.
It attacks almost every living creature, and feeds entirely on animal flesh ; it hunts alike birds,
quadrupeds, serpents, lizards, and insects. It is said to swim and dive occasionally.
The Leopard (Felis leopardus). This for
midable and sanguinary animal, is found nearly
throughout the whole of Africa-, and in eastern
and southern Asia. He usually measures about
3 feet in length, exclusive of the tail, but some
times reaches 4 feet. His appearance indi
cates his natural disposition. He has a rest
less eye and a sinister countenance, and all his
motions are hasty and abrupt. In rapidity,
agility, and precision of motion, he is unrival
ed by any other animal ; an advantage which
he owes to the strength of bis muscles, the
suppleness of his joints, the extreme pliabilily
of .his spine, the greater lateral compression
of his body, and the slender proportions of
his limbs. His prey, on which he darts from
his hiding-place, and even pursues up the trees,
consists of antelopes, monkeys, and the smaller quadrupeds. Usually, he shuns man ; but,
when closely pressed, he turns upon the hunter, and hunger will drive him to attack, though by
¦PHR
m
The Leopard.
stealth, the human race.
F. caracal.
The Caracal or Siya Gush (F. caracal) is larger than the fox,
and is remarkably fierce and strong. He generally feeds on what
is left by the lion, but sometimes attacks and devours hares, rab
bits, and birds. The Booted Lynx (F. caligata), and Serval (F.
serval), are found in different parts of Africa. The Tiger Cat of
Africa or Cape Cat (F. capensis). This beautiful animal was er
roneously supposed, by Buffon, to be the same as the Serval of
India ; but we have recently seen a living specimen in Boston,
from which the accompanying accurate likeness was taken, and
which enables us to testify to the accuracy of the following descrip
tion from Shaw. " This animal is extremely brilliant in color, it
being of the brightest fulvous yellow, with jet black
stripes and spots ; the chin, throat, and breast, pale
ash color ; along the back are black stripes ; on the
sides of the neck, and on the breast, numerous small
crescent-shaped spots, pointing upwards ; on the legs,
numerous roundish spots ; and the tail very strongly
and distinctly annulated with black and yellow."
The specimen of the Cape Cat to which we have
referred, was certainly one of the most beautiful ani
mals we have ever seen. Its motions were exceed-
African Cat.
103
Hycena Dog.
818
AFRICA.
ingly quick and graceful, and its countenance mild, lively, and pleasing. Its form was very
slender ; the head and body not being larger than those of a domestic cat ; yet its height and
length were nearly twice as great.
The Hyaena Dog (Hyoena venalica) is a native of southern Africa, and is exceedingly fierce,
swift, and active. It hunts in packs, chiefly at night. It is smaller than the wolf, and is
completely untameable. The African Blood-hound is used, in Africa, for tracking an enemy
to his retreat, and also for hunting the gazelle, in which it displays infinite skill. It is very
elegant in its form.
African Blood-hound.
Striped Hyana.
The Striped Hycena (H. villosa) is a native of Barbary, Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Syria,
Persia, and the East Indies. It generally resides in the caverns of mountains, in the clefts of
rocks, or in dens, which it has formed for itself, under the earth. It lives by depredation,
like the wolf ; but it is a stronger animal, and seemingly more daring. It sometimes attacks
man, carries off cattle, follows the flocks, breaks open the sheep-cotes by night, and ravages
with a ferocity insatiable. By night, also, its eyes shine ; and it is maintained, that it sees
better than in the day. If we may credit all the naturalists who have treated of this animal,
its cry is very peculiar, beginning with something like the moaning of a human being, and end
ing in a sound which resembles the sobs or retchings of a man in a violent fit of vomiting ; but
according to Kaempfer, who was an earwitness of the fact, it sounds like the lowing of a calf.
When at a loss for other prey, it scrapes up the earth with its feet, and devours the carcasses,
both of animals and men, which, in the Countries that it inhabits, are interred promiscuously in
the fields.
The Spotted Hycena (/f. crocuta) is a native of Southern Africa, and aboun9s in the neigh
borhood of the Cape of Good Hope, where it
is called the Tiger Wolf. It is somewhat in
ferior in size to the Striped Hyaena, but, in its
wild state, has the same manners and propensi
ties.
Spotted Hyama. Z(,jra.
The Zebra (Equus Zebra) is, perhaps, the handsomest and most elegantly clothed, of all
AFRICA.
819
quadrupeds. He has the shape and graces of the horse, the swiftness of the stag, and a striped
robe of black and white, alternately disposed with so much regularity and symmetry, that it
seems as if nature had made use of the rule and compass to paint it. These alternate bands
of black and white are so much the more singular, as they are straight, parallel, and very ex
actly divided, like a striped stuff; and as they, in other parts, extend themselves not only over
the body, but over the head, the thighs, the legs, and even the ears and the tail ; so that, at a
distance, this animal appears as if it was surrounded with little fillets, which some person had
disposed, in a regular manner, over every part of the body. In the females, these bands are
alternately black and white ; in the male, they are brown and yellow, but always of a lively and
brilliant mixture, upon a short, fine, and thick hair ; the lustre of which, still more increases
the beauty of the colors. The dow, and the quagga, are distinct species of this genus.
The African Elephant (Elephas Africanus) is a distinct species from the Asiatic. The
elephant is the most sagacious of all animals,
and the most easily tamed ; and yet the indo
lent inhabitants of Africa have never converted
this noble quadruped to any useful purpose.
Herds of elephants are frequently met with in
the middle regions of Africa. They are fond
of rivers, deep valleys, shady places, and
marshy grounds. It cannot subsist long with
out water, with which they often fill their
trunks, and sprinkle it about for amusement.
They suffer equally from excessive heat or
cold, and penetrate the thickest forests, to
avoid the burning rays of the sun. Notwith
standing their unwieldy figure and great size,
ihey walk so fast, that they can easily overtake
a man running. Their common food is roots,
herbs, leaves, and young branches ; they dis
like flesh or fish. As they go in large herds,
and need a great quantity of fodder, they often
change their places, and when they find culti-
African Elephant.
vated lands, they make prodigious waste ; their bodies being of an enormous weight, they de
stroy 10 times more with their feet than they consume for their food, which may be reckoned
at the rate of 150 pounds of grass daily. These animals are more numerous in Africa than in
Asia, and they are of a different species, not being so large, and being less wild, than the Asi
atic elephant. The latter, also, is distinguished from the African species, by having 5 toes on
each foot, instead of 3. Two species of the two-horned Rhinoce
ros (R. Africanus and Burchelli) are found
in South Africa. The horn of the female
is, however, much longer and more slender
than that of the male ; being sometimes 3|
feet long. Being a strong, ponderous, and
elastic substance, it is much prized by the
natives, for handles to their battle-axes.
The secondary horn is, in many instances,
so small as to be scarcely perceptible at a
little distance. The general figure of the
Rhinoceros, is that of an enormous hog.
His prodigious size and strength, and his
destructive horn, seem to point out this ani
mal, as the real unicorn of Scripture.
The Hippopotamus (H. amphibius) is
Two-horned Rhinoceros. abouf 6 f*>\ 9 inchfs lonS> f[om. thf eX;
tremity of the muzzle to the beginning ol
the tail ; 15 feet in circumference, and 6£ feet in height. He swims quicker than he runs,
820
AFRICA.
pursues the fish, and makes them his prey.
Hivpopotamus.
Three or four of them are often seen at the
bottom of a river, near some cataract, form
ing a kind of line, and seizing upon such fish
as are forced down by the violence of the
stream. He delights much in the water, and
stays there as willingly as upon land ; not
withstanding which, he has no membranes
between his toes, like the beaver and otter;
and it is plain, that the great ease with which
he swims, is only owing to the great capacity
of his body, which only makes bulk for bulk,
and is nearly of an equal weight with the
water. Besides, he remains a long time un
der water, and walks at the bottom as well as
he does in the open air. When he quits it
to graze upon land, he eats sugar-canes, rush
es, millet, rice, roots, &c.
Springer.
The Engallo or African Wild Boar (Phascochoeros) is, perhaps, the most hideous of all ani
mals ; its tusks are curved upwards, towards the forehead. When attacked, it will often rush
upon its assailant with great fury, and often inflicts fatal wounds.
The Springer (Antilope euclwre) inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and is there called the
spring bok, from the prodigious leaps it takes, when
any person suddenly appears ; when thus alarmed, it
has the power of extending the white space about the
tail, into the form of a circle, which returns to its linear
form when the animal is tranquil. When pursued, it is
pleasing and curious to see the whole herd leaping io a
considerable height over each others ' heads ; and they
will sometimes take 3 or 4 leaps successively. In this
situation, they seem suspended in the air, looking over
their shoulders at their pursuers, and forming the radius
of the white part about the tail, in a most beautiful man
ner. They are extremely swift, and it must be a good
horse that can overtake them. They migrate annually,
from the interior of the country, in small herds, and
continue near the Cape for 2 or 3 months, and then
retreat towards the north, in herds of many thousands,
covering the great plains for several hours in their passage.
They are attended, in these migrations, by numbers of lions, hyaenas, and other wild beasts
of prey, which commit great devastation among them. They also make periodical migrations,
in 7 or 8 years, in herds of many thousands,
from the north ; being, probably, compelled to
leave their haunts in the Terra de Natal, by
the excessive drought of that region, where it
sometimes happens, that not a drop of rain
falls for 2 or 3 years. In these migrations,
they spread over the whole country of Caf-
fraria, which they desolate, not leaving a
blade of grass. Their flesh is excellent, and,
with other antelopes, they furnish the venison
of the Cape.
The Common Antelope. Of this numerous
tribe of animals, there is, perhaps, no species
so truly elegant in its appearance, as this ; and,
although it is one of the commonest, yet its
habits are but little known. It is very numer
ous in Barbary, and in all the northern parts of Africa. In .size, it is rather smaller than
the fallow-deer.
Wm
Common Antelope.
AFRICA.
821
There are many species of Antelope in Africa, among which are the Harnessed Antelope, so
called from the markings on his skin ; the Striped Antelope ; the JVood Antelope ; the Blue
Antelope ; the Elk Antelope ; the Barbary Antelope ; the Flat-horned Antelope ; the White-
faced Antelope ; the Gambian Antelope ; the Gemsbock ; the Swift, Red, Senegal, Bezoar,
Gemsbock.
Harnessed Antelope.
African, Guinea, Eland, Chevrotain, and Corine Antelopes. The Hart Beest is found in vast
herds, often amounting to many thousands. Multitudes of the various kinds of antelope fall a
prey to the lion, leopard, and panther.
The Gnu (A. Gnu) is one of the swiftest beasts that range the plains of Africa. Though
a small animal, it appears of considerable size when prancing over the plains. It possesses, in
an eminent degree, strength, swiftness, weapons of defence, acute scent, and quick sight.
The Camelopard (Camelopardalis antiquorum), or Giraffe, is one of the tallest, most beau
tiful, and most harmless animals in nature. The enormous disproportion of its legs is a great
obstacle to the use of its strength ; its motion is waddling and stiff ; it can neither fly from its
enemies in its free state, nor serve its master in a domestic one. Several have been carried to
Europe. One was sent as a present to the king of England by the Pacha of Egypt, and ar
rived there in 1827. Several of the southern giraffes (C. australis) have recently been exhib
ited in this country. (See cut on next page.)
Two or three species of Buffalo inhabit the woods and marshy grounds, but little is known
of their forms or habits. The Wild Buffalo of the Cape (Bos coffer) has the base of the
822
AFRICA.
horps extending all over the top of the
head and forehead, like a helmet ; he is
a savage and dangerous animal.
The Ra'tel (Mellivora capensis) , nearly
allied to the gluttons or wolverenes, is
found in Southern Africa, and has long
been noted for his dexterity in robbing the
hives of wild bees, being extravagantly
fond of honey. In his search, he is said
to be aided, like man, by the Honey-guide
(Indicator Sparmanni), a bird which is
equally fond of this luscious food. The
note of the bird, well-known to the Hot
tentots, and it should seem, to the Ratel,
is peculiarly shrill at the feeding season,
and it flits along, by short flights, before
its companion in the chase, until it arrives
at the place where the sweet store is
hoarded up ; here it redoubles its cries,
and flutters round the spot, until the hive
is taken and destroyed, when it comes
in for a share of the booty.
The Common Crocodile is from 20 to
30 feet long, of a blackish brown color,
above and yellowish white beneath. It
inhabits the rivers of Africa. It is
supposed to live to a great age. Its
strength is very great, and its arms irre
sistible. Its principal instrument of de
struction is the tail, with a single blow
of this, it has often overturned a canoe. There is no animal but man, that can combat it with
success. The Land Crocodile is found in Egypt. It is not a dangerous animal, and is only
5 feet long.
Lizards, serpents, and other reptiles abound in every part of Africa. The enormous Py
thon, a serpent of 30 feet long, lurks in the fens and morasses, and the Chameleon (Chammleo
Camclupard. Seep. b'2l.
Crocodile.
vulgaris), may be seen on every hedge or shrub. Among the venomous species, the Dipsas,
the Asp (Vipera haja), and the Cerastes or Horned Viper, are often mentioned by the poets,
and -the Garter Snake and others are employed by the Bosjesmans to poison their arrows. Of
the insects, Africa also contains many thousand kinds. The Locust has been, from time im
memorial, the proverbial scourge of the continent ; Scorpions, scarcely less to be dreaded than
ARFICA.
825
Nests.
noxious serpents, are everywhere abundant ; and the Zebab, or Fly, one of the instruments
employed by the Almighty to punish the
Egyptians of old, is still the plague of the
low districts. The myriads of ants which
swarm in Western Africa can scarcely be
conceived by those who have not visited
those countries. The nests of the White
Ants (Termites), which are peculiar to
this region, form a singular feature in the
scenery, rising from the plains in the shape
of sugar-loaves to such a height as to
appear like villages of the natives. Those of one species (T. arda) are cylindrical, nearly 3
feet high, the top terminated by a round, vaulted dome, and surrounded by a prominent terrace,
the whole not unlike the shape of a mushroom. Two species of the edentalous mammals, which
feed upon ants, are also found here, adding one to the other thousand instances of design and
arrangement which pervades the order of nature. These are the Aardvark ( Orycteropus Ca-
pensis), and the Long-tailed Manis (Manis Africanus), the latter of which is destitute of teeth,
but is covered with a thick mail of hard scales.
10. Birds. The Ostrich (Slruthis camelus) is a native of the torrid regions of Africa. It
is generally considered as the largest
of birds, but its great size, and the
shortness of its wings, deprives it of
the power of flying. The weight of
this bird may be estimated at 75 or 80
pounds. It inhabits the most solitary
and arid deserts, where there are few
vegetables, and where the rain never
comes to refresh the earth. It is said
that the ostrich never drinks ; but it is
of all animals the most voracious, de
vouring leather, glass, iron, stones, or
anything that it can get. The savage
nations of Africa hunt them not only
for their plumage, but for their flesh,
which they consider a great dainty.
The Bustard (Otis) is similar to the
ostrich in many of its habits, and even
somewhat in appearance ; several spe
cies inhabit the karroos and arid plains
of Africa. Of gallinaceous birds
adapted to the poultry-yard, there are
few ; but the genus of Guinea Hens
(Numidd) is peculiar to Africa, and is
common in our barn-yards. There
are three or four distinct species, and
they are found in large flocks of 200
or 500. There are also several spe
cies of grouse and partridges. Innu
merable varieties of parrots and parro-
quets swarm in all the forests, which
resound with their hoarse screams.
The Bearded Griffin, or Lammer Geyer, (Gypcelus barbatus,) is found in the mountains of
Egypt and Atyssinia, occupying the loftiest and most inaccessible cliffs, and frequently com
mitting dreadful ravages in the neighboring plains. It seizes by preference on living victims,
chiefly quadrupeds ; such as rabbits, hares, sheep, and lambs.
The Golden Vulture (Perenoplerus) is abundant in Egypt and other parts of Africa, where_
it is of singular service in devouring all sorts of filth and carrion. The Griffin Vulture (Vul-
Ostriches.
824
AFRICA.
tur fulvus) is found in all parts of Africa, and feeds, like others of its tribe, on dead carcasses.
The Egyptian Vulture is very useful in destroying rats and mice.
The Secretary Vulture ( Gypogeranus serpentarius) is styled by the Hottentots the serpent-
eater, from the avidity with which it catches and devours those noxious reptiles. It may be
easily tamed. The Sociable Vulture (V. auricularis) is of gigantic size, and is very numerous
Secretary Vulture.
Sociable Vultures.
in the interior of Africa. In dimensions, it is full equal to the Condor. Like all other vul
tures, this is a bird of the mountains, the sheltered retreats formed by their caves and fissures
constituting its proper habitation. ' In them it passes the night, and reposes, after it has sated
its appetite, during the day. At sunrise, large bands are seen perched on the rocks at the en
trance of their abodes, and sometimes a continued chain of mountains exhibits them dispersed
throughout the greater part of its extent. Their tails are always worn down by friction against
the stones, between which they thrust themselves, or on which they perch.
The Dodo, formerly an inhabitant of Mauritius, is now extinct. The Crowned Crane (Ba
rnsf
Dodo.
Crowned Cranes.
learica pavonina) is a very splendid species, inhabiting swampy places in Guinea. Like other
cranes, it subsists on grain and insects, and at Cape Verd it is so tame as often to come, of its own
AFRICA.
825
accord, into the poultry yard, and feed with the domestic fowls. It walks with a slow and
stately gait, but, with the aid of its extended wings, is able to scud along with great rapidity.
Its voice is loud and sonorous ; in captivity, it is gentle and familiar.
The Egyptian Ibis (Ibis religiosa) is found in Lower Egypt, in places just freed from the
inundations of the Nile, where it is of great service in destroying insects, reptiles, &c. It is
frequently found in the sepulchres with the mummies, and was formerly held sacred by the
Egyptians. The Sociable Grosbeak (Ploceus socius), or Weaver Bird, of Southern Africa,
Sociable Weavers.
lives in communities of several hundreds. The Whidah Bird, or Widow Bird, ( Vidua para-
discea,) is a beautiful bird, of a closely allied genus, which is found on the Western Coast. It
is rare ; but, in captivity, is lively and
active ; it changes its plumage twice a
year. There are many other birds in
Africa which are worthy of notice, but
our space will not permit a description of
them here.
11. Inhabitants. The Arabs and
Moors, who are now scattered all over
the northern parts of Africa, are of Asi
atic origin. But there are, at least, four
great families of nations, strongly marked
by physical peculiarities, that appear to
be natives of the African continent. These
are the Berbers, in the north ; the Ne
groes, in the centre ; and the Hottentots
and Cafffes, in the south and east. Al
though the northeastern part of Africa, or
the Nile valley, was once inhabited by
civilized nations, who had carried the arts
and sciences to a high degree of improve
ment, and the northern coasts were, at subsequent periods, settled by numerous Phoenician,
Greek, and Roman colonies, and still later have been the seat of refined and polished Arab
States, yet the great mass of this continent has remained a stranger to the arts of improved life.
The natives nowhere have the art of writing ; no alphabet is found among them, and there is
nothing to indicate, that they have reached beyond some of the simplest useful arts. To the
Berber race, belong the Shilloos, Kabyls, Tuaries, Surhas, Tibboos, &c, of the Atlas moun
tains, and the regions to the south and east. There is a great diversity, however, among the
104 '
Whidah Bird.
826 MAGHREB, OR BARBARY.
nations referred to this race. The light-colored nations in the upper valley of the Nile are, by
some, referred to this, and by others to a distinct race ; the Nubians, Abyssinians, Gallas,
Ababdehs, Shihos, &c, are of this number. The Foulahs, Fellatahs, or Pouls, are by some
included among the Negro races, and by some considered as quite distinct, both from them and
from the Berbers.
The negroes are physically characterized by woolly hair, black skin, projecting lips, flat
tened nose, low and retreating forehead, and the form of the legs. Morally, they are indolent,
harmless, easy, and friendly in their disposition ; but even in their more civilized states, many
barbarous usages and savage customs prevail. For ages, the blacks have been sought for as
slaves in other parts of the world, and even at home the greater part of the population is the
property of the rest. Many of the negro tribes live in the most degraded state, without gov
ernment, without any religion but the most absurd superstitions, without the decencies and
proprieties of life, naked, and without habitations. Others are wandering shepherds, and still
others have organized regular governments, built towns, and cultivated the arts.
CHAPTER CXXVIII. MAGHREB, OR BARBARY.
1 . Boundaries. This section, comprising all the northern part of Africa to the west of the
Nilotic region, is bounded on the north by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea ;
east by Egypt ; south by Sahara ; and west by the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of a narrow
strip of fertile country along the Mediterranean, and a series of oases along the southern bor
der, and is traversed by a mountainous chain called the Atlas Mountains. It is politically
divided into three states, usually called the Barbary Powers, and the French colony of Al
giers ; but parts of the territory are also occupied by numerous independent tribes of Arabs
and Berbers.
2. Surface and Climate. The Atlas Mountains, which traverse the whole region from east
to west in several ranges, rise to their greatest elevation in Morocco, where some of the sum
mits exceed 12,000 feet. The rivers which descend from these mountains reach the sea
after a short course, but they fertilize the plains which they water. On the east and south are
extensive deserts, dotted here and there with cultivable and inhabitable wadys or oases. The
maritime region, sheltered from the burning winds of the desert by the mountains, and open
to the sea breezes, enjoys a pleasant climate.
3. Productions. The productions of the fertile soil of Barbary are not materially different
from those of southern Europe, the temperature being nearly the same. Wheat and barley
are chiefly cultivated ; beans and lentils are abundant, and in addition to the common fruits of
Europe are the date and lotus.
4. Tripoli. This state occupies the most easterly portion of Barbary, and is the most
advanced in civilization ; it has an area of 270,000 square miles, most of which is sterile, with
about 700,000 inhabitants. Tripoli Proper is an arid district, thinly peopled. Barca is little
more than a desert. Fezzan is traversed by the Soudah, or Black Mountains, and its surface
in general is a desert sprinkled with verdant oases. There is little productive soil in any part
of the country, and the cultivation is bad. Dates, maize, and barley are raised, and figs,
pomegranates, and lemons are abundant.
Tripoli, the capital, has a good harbor upon the Mediterranean. The streets are straight
and wide, and the houses regular and well built ; the architecture is more European than
Arabian, and the city is much handsomer than the generality of the Moorish towns. Many of
the houses are of stone, and the courts, mosques, and gates are adorned with marble. The
great mosque is a magnificent structure, with four cupolas supported by columns of marble.
The city is surrounded by a high wall and strongly fortified. Population, 25,000. Derne is
a small town, which was taken by the Americans under General Eaton in 1805.
^ In the Desert of Barca are several oases and fertile tracts containing the ruins of the ancient
Greek colony of Cyrenaica. The inhabitants of the oasis of Augelah. carry on a caravan
trade with Bornou and Timbuctoo ; slaves form the principal article of importation. Fezzan
is a large province consisting of several oases, which contain a considerable population.
Moorzook, one of them, with narrow streets and mud huts, is the great mart of the inland
trade of Northern Africa, and the rendezvous of the caravans from Cairo, Tripoli, Tunis,
Gadames, Timbuctoo, and Bornou.
MAGHREB, OR BARBARY. 827
Gadames, in the oasis of the same name, is also a place of much commercial activity. It
presents, like several other towns of Barbary, the singular spectacle of a small town, inhabited
by two separate communities, who are frequently at war with each other. A common wall
encloses the whole town, but the space within is divided by an interior wall into distinct sec
tions, occupied by distinct tribes. The two sections communicate by a gate, which is closed
in time of war. The commerce of the country consists in the exportation of dates, honey,
wax, madder, skins, oil, salt, saffron, gum, feathers, &c, some of which are brought by cara
vans from the interior. Most of the commerce is transacted at Tripoli. The government is
absolute. 5. Tunis. The smallest, but most populous and best cultivated of the Barbary States,
Tunis, is bounded north by the Mediterranean ; east by the same sea and Tripoli ; south by
the desert ; and west by Algiers. It contains an area of 54,000 square miles, with 1,800,000
inhabitants. A mountainous ridge traverses it from north to south. In the south is a large
lake, known to the ancients as the Palus Tritonis. The climate is healthy and the soil of the
valleys and the lower part of the mountains is fertile. It is watered by the Mejerda or Ba-
gradas, a considerable river, and on the coasts are several good harbors.
Tunis, the capital, is one of the best built towns of Africa, yet the streets are narrow and
dirty, and the houses low and mean. The palace of the bey is a large building in the Moor
ish style ; there are several mosques, and a number of schools, and the town is supplied with
water by an aqueduct. Commerce and manufactures of velvet, silk, and linen, employ
many of the inhabitants. Population, 100,000. Six miles from the town is Goletta, the port
and citadel of Tunis, with an arsenal and ship-yards. In the neighborhood is the site of the
ancient city of Carthage, long the mistress of the Mediterranean and the rival of Rome. The
only remains of this celebrated place are detached fragments, or portions of walls, aqueducts,
&c. Cabes, on a gulf of the same name in a fertile district, has a good harbor, and 20,000
inhabitants engaged in commerce and manufactures. Cairwan, in the interior, is the centre
of an important inland traffic. Its population is about 50,000.
6. Algiers. This rich and important territory, until 1830 the seat of a piratical state, is
now occupied by the French ; its fine climate, fertile soil, and central situation render it a
valuable acquisition.
Algiers, formerly the capital of the state, and now of the French colony, is built upon the
declivity of a hill in the form of an amphitheatre ; the harbor is good, the streets narrow, and
the houses low, with flat roofs. The principal public buildings are the palace of the dey,
consisting of two large courts, surrounded by large buildings, and adorned with spacious mar
ble colonnades ; the dshami or principal mosque ; the barracks, which are the handsomest
edifices in the town, and are decorated with marble and adorned with fountains ; the bagnios,
or prisons in which the slaves were shut up at night, and the bazars. The last dey resided in
the Cassaba or citadel, a strong fortress, in the vaults of which the French seized about ten
millions of dollars. The population of Algiers is now about 30,000.
Oran, on the coast, with about 10,000 inhabitants, has a good harbor. Bona, to the east
of Algiers, with 10,000 inhabitants, is in the province of Constantina. , Constantina is the
largest town of this part of Africa. It lies 20 days' march to the southeast of Algiers, and the
intervening tract is uninhabited. Population, 50,000. Bugeiah between Constantina and
Algiers, has a good harbor and rich iron mines. The Cabyles in this vicinity are remarkable
for their fierce disposition and warlike habits. Tremecen is the principal town in the prov
ince of Oran ; it has about 20,000 inhabitants, who carry on some manufactures. Medea, in
the fertile province of Tittery, and Blida or Belydah, delightfully situated in a productive
district, are important towns.
Algiers formerly had a considerable trade in the exportation of corn, dates, silks, copper,
handkerchiefs, rugs, feathers, &c. The manufactures are carpets, silk, cotton, woolen,
leather, and coarse linen. The French had, previous to the revolution, formed establish
ments upon several parts of the coast for commerce and the fishing of coral ; but these were
broken up by the late wars. Till this period most of the maritime trade was in the hands of
a French company at Marseilles. The population is 2,000,000.
This petty state has long been infamous for its piracies. Until the present century all the
nations trading to the Mediterranean were subjected to an annual tribute in order to protect their
commerce from plunder and their citizens from slavery. A severe blow was struck at their
naval power by the American and English fleets, in 1816. The French government in 1830,
828 MAGHREB, OR BARBARY.
despatched an army of 40,000 men, who landed, and effected an easy capture of the city .of
Algiers, in the autumn of that year. The province may now be considered as a colony of
France. 7. Empire of Marocco or Morocco. This State, bordering upon the Atlantic Ocean and
the Mediterranean Sea, is highly favored by nature in its mild climate, fertile soil, and advan
tageous position upon 2 seas ; but bad government and civil discord have deprived it of the
benefit of its natural advantages. It has an area of 175,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 in
habitants. It comprises the kingdoms of Morocco, Fez, Suz, Tafilet, and some other prov
inces ; but many of the tribes, within these limits, are entirely independent, and often at war
with the government of Morocco, and with each other.
Morocco or Marocco, the capital, is a large town, situated in a fertile and elevated plain, in
the rear of which rise the highest summits of Mount Atlas. It is much reduced, but still
contains many sumptuous edifices, which attest its former splendor. The imperial palace, con
sisting of numerous pavilions, courts, and gardens, covers a space 4,500 feet long, by 1,800
broad ; one of the mosques is distinguished for its lofty minaret, 220 feet high, and several
others are remarkable for their size ; the vast building, called Bel-Abbas, comprises, in its
precincts, a sanctuary, a mosque, a mausoleum, and a hospital, which accommodates 1,500
patients. The great morocco manufactory, the granaries, &c, are also worthy of notice.
Population, 70,000.
Fez, the capital of the province of that name, is the largest city in the empire. It stands
on the slopes of several hills, and is watered by a river. The streets are narrow ; the houses
are of brick or stone, and often adorned outwardly with mosaic work. The roofs are flat, and
many have high towers, decorated with carving and gilding. There are 200 mosques in the
city, and 2 colleges. The place was once a famous seat of learning, and the metropolis of the
Mahometan faith in the West. Almost all the houses have fountains, which are supplied with
water by canals from the river. The markets are excessively crowded, and the Arabs of the
surrounding regions resort hither for all their supplies. Population, 80,000.
Mequinez has frequently been the residence of the Sultans, who have here a handsome pal
ace. The city is surrounded by a triple line of walls, 15 feet high, and resembles the other
Moorish towns. The inhabitants are esteemed more polished and hospitable than those of the
other cities. On one side, stands a quarter inhabited by negroes. The surrounding country
is fertile, and well cultivated. Population, 60,000.
Mogador is a seaport on the Atlantic. It is built in a flat, sandy desert. The houses are
of white stone, and make a fine appearance from the sea; The harbor is shallow, and is de
fended by 2 batteries. There is considerable commerce carried on with the north of Europe,
and America. Population, 10,000. Sallee, a seaport on the Atlantic, has been famous for
its piracies. It stands at the mouth of a river, and is defended by a wall and battery. There
are many commercial houses established here by Europeans, but the trade is declining, in con
sequence of the filling up of the harbor. Population, 20,000. Tangier is a seaport, just
within the Straits of Gibraltar. It is the residence of many foreign consuls, but it has little
trade. Population, 10,000.
The commerce of Morocco is chiefly transacted at Mogador, from which place are exported
goat-skins, oil, almonds, gums, wax, wool, ostrich feathers, pomegranates, and dates. The
land-trade, with the Arab and negro tribes, is carried on by caravans. The manufactures are
carpets, woolen and cotton cloths, silk, morocco, leather, paper, and saltpetre.
8. Biledulgerid. Biledulgerid, or'the Land of Dates, is a district lying between Tunis and
Algiers on the north, and the Great Desert on the south. It is mountainous, sandy, and bar
ren, producing little vegetation. Some parts, however, are covered with thick groves of the
date palm. The climate is hot and unhealthy. The inhabitants are a mixture of the native
Africans and wild Arabs ; the former living in small villages, and the latter in tents, roaming
from place to place, in quest of plunder.
9. Inhabitants. These are principally of 3 great races. 1st. The Moors are of a mixed
origin, being descended from the ancient inhabitants, Arabs, Romans, &c. Their complexions
are lighter than those of the Arabs, and they are a well-formed race. 2d. The Arabs are
much like those of Asia, and are descended from the original conquerors, and from emigrants
from Sahara. They are pastoral, and live in tents. 3d. The Berbers are a race differing
from the two former in language and customs, and, therefore, probably of a different origin.
They are warlike and free. Of these, the chief tribes are the Shilloos, in the mountains of
MAGHREB, OR BARBARY. 829
Morocco ; the Cabyles, a white people, in the mountains of Algiers and Tunis ; the Tibboos,
and the Tuaricks.
The Berbers are probably the original inhabitants of a great part of Northern Africa ; some
of them are quite black, but they have not the negro physiognomy. The Jews are also nu
merous in the Barbary States, where they are treated with great harshness, and are a general
object of hatred and contempt. The Turks are the ruling race in Tunis and Tripoli, as they
were in Algiers, until its conquest by the French ; but they are not numerous. Beside these
various races, are the negroes, who are imported from Nigritia, as slaves ; in Morocco, how
ever, they form the standing army of the empire, and the garrisons of the fortresses.
10. Commerce. With a fertile soil, and a little manufacturing industry, the productions of
the earth must form the principal articles of export from this region. Barbary, in ancient and
even modern times, has been the granary of Europe ; but, as corn is not now allowed to be
exported, fruits, gums, hides, wax, and morocco, are the chief materials for the maritime
commerce. Haicks, a species of woolen cloth, always worn by the Moors, when they go
abroad ; sashes and silk handkerchiefs, carpets, and the conical woolen caps, called skull-caps,
and worn all over Barbary and the Levant, are manufactured, and furnish articles of inland
traffic. The caravan trade with the interior of Africa, is chiefly carried on from Morocco
and Tripoli ; the caravans carry salt, tobacco, and European goods, and bring back slaves,
ivory, and gold-dust.
11. Government. The government of Morocco is an absolute despotism ; but most of the
numerous tribes, which are found in all parts of Barbary, are governed by their own chiefs,
whose authority is limited, by the usages and free spirit of the respective people. The gov
ernment of Tunis and Tripoli is also despotic ; the Bey of Tunis, and the Pacha of Tripoli,
are nominally dependent upon the Porte, but really independent sovereigns. The monarchs
of Morocco claim the crown in the capacity of sheriffs, or descendants of Mahomet ; and
they attempt to increase the lustre of the regal dignity and the authority of their office, by as
suming the character of doctors, prophets, and saints ; which, however, they seem to regard
as not inconsistent with the most unbounded indulgence of cruelty and sensuality. The em
peror, claiming the supremacy in religion, which, in Mahometan countries, includes law, there
is no body that has any check or control over him, but everything depends on his caprice.
The Bey of Tunis, in 1816, not only emancipated himself from a dependence on the Porte,
but also got rid of the licentious and turbulent Turkish soldiery. The Pacha of Tripoli, in
the beginning of the present century, was merely a Turkish governor ; but, having seized all
the Turkish officers at a feast, he caused them to be strangled, and his adherents then massa
cred most of the Turkish soldiers. The government, though absolute, has been of a mild
character, and the country has assumed an orderly and civilized appearance.
12. Dress. The complete dress of a Moor, includes a red, pointed cap, with a turban, or
cotton sash, wrapped round it ; a shirt, with wide sleeves ; short, white drawers, of great
width ; a woolen waistcoat, or a small, cloth jacket ; a silk or woolen sash, and yellow slip
pers. The legs are always bare. The haick is a universal garment ; it is a piece of cloth, 5
ells long, and lj broad, thrown over the shoulder, and fastened around the waist. Many Moors
wear the caftan, a loose coat, reaching to the knee. The females dress loosely, and encumber
themselves with ear-rings, bracelets, and rings on the ankles. They dye the hair, feet, and
finger-nails, a deep saffron-color, with henna. ' The only paint they use for the face, is white.
13. Language. The common languages are the Turkish, the Hebrew, and the Arabic ;
the latter predominates, though it is not spoken with purity.
14. Manner of Building. Generally, the houses are rudely and unskilfully built. They
are square, with flat roofs, and an open area, or court, within, in which the cooking is perform
ed, for there are no chimneys. There are few windows. In some cities, the houses are
mostly whitewashed. The pastoral tribes dwell in tents, shaped like an inverted boat. In the
mountains of Tripoli, there are subterranean villages, with wells and space for cattle. They
are so constructed, that they can stand a siege.
15. Food and Drink. The chief articles of food are bread, mutton, poultry, fish, butter,
cheese, oil, olives, and fruits. Little beef is used. The common dish is the Kouskousou, a
kind of paste made of meal, formed into small rolls, and placed in a colander over the vapor
of a kettle, in which meat is boiling. The common people add to it milk or butter, the rich
a nourishing broth. Coffee used to be as general as in the East, but of late years it has been
superseded by the use of tea, which is now given to visiters at all hours. Wines and spirits,
830 BARBARY STATES.
though forbidden in the Koran, are drunk when they can be obtained, to excess. The duties
on opiiim are so great, that few use it ; but an extract is made from a narcotic plant, perhaps
a kind of flax, which exhilarates without intoxicating. Tobacco is somewhat used in smoking,
and as snuff.
16. Diseases. Blindness is common, and the plague has sometimes nearly depopulated
cities. The general means adopted for cure is by charms, amulets, &c.
17. Traveling. In the interior villages, a house is set apart for strangers, with a proper
officer to furnish one night's entertainment. In the cities, there are no inns. The general
mode of traveling is with mules, horses, or camels.
18. Character, Manners, and Customs. The Moors of Barbary have been very proverbial
in Europe for cruelty, indolence, ignorance, and fanaticism. If the country does not derive its
name from its barbarous inhabitants, the name is nevertheless equally well deserved on that
account. The inhabitants, except those of towns, are divided into tribes or clans, which are
often at war, and which offer insuperable obstacles to civilization. They pass an active life,
and are hardy and warlike. The inhabitants of cities carry indolence to a Turkish extreme.
In Morocco, and other western cities, where men meet in the street, to converse, they1 forth
with seat themselves on mats, and the streets are often filled with these groups. A shopkeeper
arranges his wares so that he can reach any of them without leaving his seat, and the very
watchman performs guard-duty in a sitting posture. The people of Tunis and Tripoli are the
least barbarous. The name of Algerine conveys to us the idea of a ferocious and bigoted
savage ; but Mr. Shaler, who has lived in Algiers many years, represents the people as insin
uating, courteous, and without much fanaticism, though not without humanity. They are,
however, like their ancestors, inconstant and treacherous. The common salutation in Bar
bary is, " Peace be with you." Merchandise is measured by the arm, from the elbow. The
females when they would honor a person, as the emperor, raise sudden and piercing shrieks,
and the manners and customs, generally, are those of a very rude state of society.
The Jews in Barbary are a numerous and much oppressed class. The house of a Jew,
and all its sacred relations, is open to every Moor who will violate it. A Jew may be beaten
by men, and pelted by boys. When riding he is forced to dismount, if he meet a Moor ; to
make humble obeisance to one of distinction, and to walk with bare feet in cities. Even the
females are compelled to do this. The Jews perform most of the trades, and monopolize the
commerce. They form the only industrious class in cities. In no other country are they so
much depressed as in Morocco ; yet here they are distinguished for being well formed, and
the females are considered as some of the most beautiful in the world.
The Arabs chiefly occupy the plains, and they exhibit the same pastoral and migratory
habits, the same simplicity of manners, and the same union of hospitality and plunder, that
characterize their countrymen in Arabia ; they live in tents, a number of which forms a camp
under a sheik, and several camps often acknowledge a chief, called emir.
Some of the Berbers or Brebers have the same migratory habits as the Arabs ; their food
consists of camel's milk and dried camel's flesh, that animal constituting their sole wealth.
They wear woolen gowns, which cover but a part of the body, and sometimes leather caftans
and shirts. Rush mats form their beds, and their tents are made of camel's hair, or a coarse
woolly substance, obtained from the date palm. Others cultivate the earth, and are stationary
in their habits. The Berbers, although Mahometans, do not scrupulously follow all the ordi
nances of their religion ; thus they drink wine and eat pork. The Maraboots are a sort of
priests or saints, who are looked upon with great veneration by the Berbers ; they often exer
cise great authority, and maintain a considerable military force. They alone understand
Arabic, and can interpret the Koran.
19. Amusements. There are many equestrian exercises, for all the Moors are much attach
ed to horses, and an Emperor of Morocco, improving on the example of his brother of Rome,
declared some of his horses saints ! The riders use a bit that will stop the horse in an instant,
when going at full speed. A Moor will spur his fleet horse at full speed towards a wall, and
when it seems that both must be killed by the collision, the animal is stopped within a few
inches of the barrier. Other amusements are juggling, exhibitions of dancing, story-telling,
and, about Tunis, hawking is practised.
20. Education. To read in the Koran, and to write, are the ends of education in most
Mahometan countries. Education is often advanced thus far in Barbary. The Koran,
however, is sometimes committed to memory, and the reader goes over it like a parrot, with
BARBARY STATES. 831
little aid from the characters. Boys at school have a board and piece of chalk, with which
they write ; and they instructed each other long before the time of Lancaster.
21. Arts. No art but that of music receives encouragement. There are some pretty airs,
and the common instruments are a rude hautboy, the pipe, tabor, mandoline, and drum. The
sciences, which anciently formed the glory of the Moors, are now extinct in this region ; phi
losophical instruments of excellent construction are still seen, but they are shown only as
curious relics, and even medicine is practised by physicians, whose skill reaches little further
than to dress a wound.
22. Religion. This is the Mahometan. In Barbary saints are common, and to be one
is a kind of profession or trade. There is at Fez a religious foundation, for the support and
burial of storks and cranes, which are supposed to be animated by the souls of men. The
marriages are attended with rejoicing ; the bride is carried home in a cage, placed on a mule
attended by music. Four wives are allowed, but polygamy is not general. Divorces are
easy to be obtained by the husband ; and the wife is entitled to one ; the third time she may
be cursed by her husband. For the first curse, he must pay her eight ducats, and a rich dress
for the second. A neglect to provide for the wife, is also a ground for divorce. At burials,
a concourse attends, and the women howl fearfully. Some are hired to tear their faces, and
utter lamentations. The dead are dressed as when they lived, and the tombs and graves are
neatly kept.
23. Laws. The administration of justice is in none of these States in favor of the innocent.
The maxim seems to be, that it is better that the innocent should suffer, than the guilty escape.
The cadis are the judges, and the execution immediately follows conviction, or sentence.
Small offences are punished by the bastinado ; great ones by burning alive, which is chiefly
inflicted on Jews and Christians ; and by impalement and tenter hooks, on the Moors. The
tenter hooks project from walls, and the culprit is thrown upon them, where he drops from
one to another, and sometimes lingers in agony for hours. In impalement, a stake is thrust
longitudinally through the body. The western Moors sometimes punish crimes by tying the
criminal between two boards, and sawing him asunder lengthways, beginning at the head.
Women are sometimes tied in a sack and drowned. At Algiers the post of executioner is
one of honor ; at Morocco it is a dangerous and infamous office. In the former city, this
officer of the law may aspire to a place in the state.*
* " I saw a great concourse of soldiers, and on inquiring pitch that stood near, or something that had the same
the cause, found that an execution was about to take place, appearance and smell. Is not this last circumstance an
and some malefactors were at the same time to be maim- improvement in surgery ? They then carried the lifeless
ed. The governor arrived at this moment, and the pris- trunk and mutilated bodies, with the head and other
oners were driven in with their hands tied ; the order for limbs, to the market ; the head and limbs were carried on
punishment was read by the cadi or judge, and the cui- a mat by six men, who were making as much sport as
prits told to prepare themselves, which they did by say- possible, for the spectators ; the bodies were thrown across
ing, Hi el Allali Shed a Mohammed Rasool Allah and jackasses, and they were exposed in the most public part
worshipping. They were then made to sit down in a of the market place, nearly the whole day. The two
line upon their legs on the ground ; a butcher then came governors, and other officers who were present during the
forward with a sharp knife in his hand ; he seized the execution of the sentence, were sitting on the ground
first in the line on the left, by the beard, with his left next to the wall, appearing quite unconcerned, and were
hand ; two men were at the same time holding the pris- conversing gayly on other subjects. The Moors, who
oner's hands ; the butcher began cutting very leisurely canje from mere curiosity, did not show the least mark
with his knife round the neck, (which was a very thick of disapprobation, or any signs of horror; they jested
one,) and kept cutting to the bones until the flesh was with the butcher, who seemed highly gratified with the
separated ; he then shoved the head violently from side part he was acting.
to side, cutting in with the point of the knife to divide " I how asked Rais bel Cossim, who attended me, con-
the sinews, which he seemed to search out among the cerning the mode of procuring an executioner, &c, &c.
streams of blood, one by one ; he finally got the head off" He told me, that when an order came to execute or main
and threw it on a mat that was spread to receive the mu- any culprits, it generally embraced several at the same
tilated limbs of the others. There were eight more, who time, so as to make but one job of it ; that the butchers
were sentenced to lose a leg and an arm each, and nine were called upon by the alcayd or governor, and forced
to lose only one arm. The butcher began to amputate the to find one out of their number to do this work ; that they
legs at the knee joint, by cutting the flesh and sinews round then made up a purse agreeably to a rule, made among
with his knife, which he sharpened from time to time on themselves in such cases ; that is, two and a half ducats
a stone ; he would then part the joint by breaking it short per man for cutting off1 heads, and two ducats per man
over his knee, as a butcher would part the joint in the for maiming ; (two and a half ducats make one dollar, or
leg of an ox. Having in this manner got off the leg, and forty cents per ducat ;) they then question each other to
thrown it on the mat, he proceeded to take oiFthe arm at know who will accept of the money, and do the job ; if
the elbow, in the same leisurely and clumsy manner ; he no one appears willing, they cast lots, and the one on
seemed, however, to improve by practice, so that he carv- whom it falls, is obliged to undertake it. This man is pro-
ed off the hands of the last eight at their wrists, in a very tecied by the governor for twenty -four hours after the
short time, — this done, they next proceeded to take up execution, when he is left to take care of himself, brave
the arteries, and apply a plaster, which was soon accorh- the public odium, and the revenge of the friends of the
plished by dipping the stumps into a kettle of boiling sufferer, or else to fly ; he generally goes off the first
832
SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT.
24. Antiquities. Carthage is an indistinct ruin ; though, in rowing along shore, Shaw could
see the outlet of the sewers. The cisterns, also, may still be seen. The aqueduct may be
traced 50 miles. Some of the arches are 70 feet high, and a man may walk upright in the
conduits. There are remains of other ancient cities in the eastern parts of Barbary, with pil
lars, arches, gates, tombs, and sculptures.
25. History. Barbary occupied a more conspicuous place in the ancient, than in the mod
ern world. Cyrenaica, its most easterly portion, was the seat of several flourishing Greek
colonies. Carthage, further west, was, at one time, the mistress of Spain, Smily, and the
whole of the western Mediterranean ; but she fell in the struggle with Rome. The southern
part of Tunis, with Con
stantina, formed the power
ful kingdom of Numidia, il
lustrious both as an ally and
an enemy of Rome. Mau
ritania and Getulia, to the
southwest, were distinguish
ed for the fierce valor of
their inhabitants. The Ro
man arms reduced nearly all
of these regions, which were
afterwards wrested from
Rome, by Genseric, the
Vandal. At a still later
period, the Saracen invad
ed them, and established
their religion permanently in
Northern Africa. At first,
Barbary was governed by
the viceroys of the Caliph
of Bagdad ; but when the
Destruction of Carthage.
empire of the Saracens began to crumble, it formed several separate kingdoms, which, for
more than 3 centuries, have been sinking deeper and deeper into ignorance and barbarism. In
the 15th century, the celebrated Turkish pirates, Barbarossa and Hayraddin, seized upon Al
giers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and made them dependencies of the Turkish empire, and from that
time they devoted themselves to general piracy. In the beginning of the present century,
Tunis and Tripoli freed themselves from the Turkish yoke ; but the flagrant piracies of Algiers,
drew upon her the vengeance first of the United States, and afterward of England and France.
CHAPTER CXXIX. SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT.
This great waste extends from the Atlantic to the Nile-valley, and from the Barbary States
to Senegambia and Nigritia. It stretches from latitude 16° to 30° North, and from longitude
29° East to 17° West, having a length of about 3,000 miles, a breadth of 800, and an area of
about 1,600,000 square miles. The eastern part is often called the Desert of Libya, and it
may be considered as forming a part of a great desert zone of sand and naked rocks, which,
with few and slight interruptions, reaches from the Atlantic Ocean, over Central Asia, to the
borders of China, through 130 degrees of longitude. Sahara consists of a table-land, raised a
little above the level of the sea, covered with moving sand, and here and there containing some
rocky heights and valleys, where the water collects and nourishes some thorny shrubs', ferns,
and grass. Along the shore of the Atlantic, are some mountains in detached peaks ; towards
the interior, the heights lose themselves in a plain, covered with white and sharp pebbles. For
a great part of the year, the dry, heated air, has an appearance of a reddish vapor, and the
night afterwards to Borne other place, and never returns ;
his wife, if he has one, can be divorced from him, by
applying to the cadi, or judge, and swearing, that as her
husband has served as an executioner, she is afraid to live
with him, lest he should be tempted to commit some vio
lence on her, in a similar way.
" The butcher, who acted on the present occasion, was
a voluntary executioner for 48 ducats, and he decamped
the next night, leaving, as I was informed, a wife and 7
children, to shift for themselves; he was poor, and car
ried away his wages of death with him." — Riley's Nar
rative.
SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT.
833
Killing a Panther.
horizon looks like the fire of a series of volcanoes. Rain falls, in some districts, in the latter
part of summer. An aromatic plant resembling thyme, acacias, and other thorny shrubs, net
tles, and brambles, are the ordinary vegetation. A few groves of the date, or other palm
trees, are met with here and there. On the southern border, are forests of green trees. Some
monkeys and gazelles support themselves, on the scanty vegetation. Numerous flocks of os
triches are also found here. Lions, panthers, and serpents, add to the horrors of these frightful
solitudes. The animals live almost without
drink. The flocks consist of camels, goats,
and sheep.
The coast contains some good harbors, as
the Rio do Ouro, and the harbor of St. Cyp
rian. Here is Cape Bojador, the terror of
the navigators of the middle age, and down to
the year 1553, the fatal limit of all voyages in
this direction. Cape Blanco, a little further
south, is thought to be the southern limit of
the Carthaginian discoveries.
The manner of traveling, is with camels ;
and every traveler, or, indeed, every Arab,
is constantly armed, for the tribes generally
live in that state of pillage and warfare, that
mark the descendants of Ishmael. The
camel, only, of all domesticated animals,
finds a support in the scanty vegetation of a
few spots in the desert. A common camel can easily travel 100 miles in a day. The cara
vans from Morocco take 130 days to cross the desert, 54 of which are traveling days, and the
others spent at the different stations, in rest. The desert is a shifting sea of sand ; there is
no track, and there are few landmarks. Drought, or clouds of sand, often destroy travelers.
In 1805, a caravan of 1,S00 camels, and 2,000 people, perished from drought, as there was no
water at the usual wadeys. Caravans of traders cross this immense desert, from the Barbary
States to Central Africa. The only animals capable of being employed in this service, are
camels, which, from their ability to travel many days without water, are admirably fitted for these
journeys. A few spots, scattered here and there, afford, occasionally, a pool or stream of
water, and a grove of palm trees. These are
called wadeys, or watering-places.
No part of the earth's surface seems so un
fit for the support of human life, as ihe great
Desert of Sahara ; yet it is inhabited by many
roving tribes of Arabs, Moors, Tuaricks, and
Tibboos. Existence, here, is a constant
struggle with hardship and want. The inhab
itants are composed of Arabs and their negro
slaves. The Arabs are of a reddish, copper
color, and they are hardy enough to endure,
without murmuring, the frequent extremes of
want, to which their situation exposes them.
W^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^U^M They are lean, but strong. Their -eyes are
. :MiiiwiIs3MilBi- WKmBiBr~~c -'i black and piercing, their hair and beard black,
their cheek bones prominent, and their noses
aquiline. The old women are represented as
ugly beyond all comparison, while the young
They take great pains to make the eye teeth project beyond the
others, and the lip is often held up by them ; this gives to a sharp and wrinkled face, a fero
cious expression. The dress consists chiefly in a piece of coarse camel's hair cloth, or a goat
skin, tied round the middle, and there is no covering for the feet or head. The language is
the Arabic. The dwellings ^re movable tents, covered with a coarse cloth of goat's hair, or
camel's hair ; and there is no furniture, but a few rude dishes, utensils, and mats to sleep on.
The common food is the milk and flesh of camels ; a camel gives, daily, more than a quart of
105
A Wadey.
are not deficient in beauty.
834 NIGRITIA, SUDAN, OR LAND OF THE BLACKS.
very rich milk. The Arabs, however, suffer greatly from scarcity of food and water, and are
often reduced to live on what will barely support life. In some parts, dates, millet, maize,
and gum are general articles of food. In an atmosphere perfectly dry, and with a manner of
life so simple, there can be few diseases ; and the Arabs, who do not fall by the sword, gene
rally die in extreme old age. The Arabs are high-spirited, rapacious, perfidious, and revenge
ful ; yet, within certain limits, hospitable and compassionate; — they have, however, no com
passion for a Christian, and it is chiefly from the unfortunate, ill-treated, shipwrecked mariner,
that we are acquainted with them. They are quick and sagacious, above all other barbarians,
and they have a great pride of independence ; feeling contempt for any people, who submit to
organized governments.^ The lot of a Christian, cast in this inhospitable coast, is deplorable.
He is seized, stripped, and perhaps wounded, or killed, by the cimitars of those who light over
him for his absolute possession. The master of the captive is uncommonly merciful, if he
allows his slave a remnant of his own clothing. Generally, the captives have to bear, on their
naked bodies, the burning force of the sun, and they have little shelter or covering in the cold
dews of night. They are forced to run beside the camels, in the long and constant marches
of the tribes, — or, if permitted to ride, it is hardly a desirable change. The Arabs have so
little food themselves, that frequently nothing is given to the Christian slaves, who must die of
famine, if they cannot support nature by a few snails and bitter herbs. Of late years, ship
wrecked mariners have generally been sold to persons who carry them, for redemption, to Mo-
gadore. The negro slaves are treated well ; eating of the same food, and sleeping on tbe
same mat, with their masters. Where life is a constant struggle with want, there is not much
disposition for amusement, and there is little in the desert. Drafts and chess, however, are
sometimes played. /
Education is confined to reading the Koran, and the schools are generally kept by the talbes,
or priests. The religion is so stiictly Mahometan, in spirit and practice, that there is no
human sympathy for any suffering of a Christian or Jew. Hospitality, however, is the virtue
of the desert ; and one Arab, who throws himself in a village, upon the protection of the tribe,
is certain of security and entertainment, though his hosts might have robbed him, had they met
him in their excursions. The government is that of sheiks or chiefs, who are elected, or as
sume the power, that superior courage or sagacity confers.
The eastern, part of the desert is chiefly, occupied by the Tibboos, a Berber race, who own
great herds of camel, and plunder the unlucky travelers, whom they encounter. Their country
contains numerous salt lakes, and yields large quantities of that valuable mineral, in which some
of the Tibboos now carry on a profitable traffic with Nigritia. In the central part, are the
Tuaricks, also a Berber nation. Some of their oases contain considerable towns. The Tua-
ricks are often engaged as guides to the caravans, as agents for foreign merchants, and some
times become traders themselves.
CHAPTER CXXX. NIGRITIA, SUDAN, OR LAND OF THE BLACKS.
1 . Boundaries, &c. This is an extensive region, which derives its name from the color of its
inhabitants, comprising numerous powerful States, and large tracts of country imperfectly
known. It lies between 6° and 16° north latitude, and between 32° east and 8° west
longitude, having the Desert of Sahara on the north ; Nubia and Abyssinia on the east ; the
unknown regions of Central Africa and Guinea on the south ; and Senegambia on the west.
It is about 2,600 miles in length, by 600 in breadth, and has an area of 1,500,000 square
miles. 2. Rivers. The Niger, which traverses a great part of this country, has been, for a great
number of years, an object of uncommon interest, and speculative and practical research. Its
origin, and a part of its course, have been known to the world for many centuries, but its ter
mination remained undiscovered ; and the researches of travelers, combined with the theories
and conjectures of geographers, only established the fact, that a great river of Central Africa,
rising in the mountains of Western Guinea, flowed eastward into unknown regions. The most
elaborate hypotheses were framed, to account for its termination. By some, it was supposed
to be swallowed up in the sands of the desert. By others, it was imagined to flow into vast
lakes, having no outlet, where its waters were dissipated by evaporation. Other theories con
nected it with the Nile of Egypt, the Zaire of Congo, and the streams flowing into the Bight
NIGRITIA.
835
of Benin. The celebrated Mungo Park lost his life in the attempt to travel along the stream
to its termination, and various other expeditions, despatched for a similar purpose, failed of
their object. The great question seemed to be shrouded in impenetrable mystery, when in
1S30 the discovery was effected by Richard and John Lander, the former of whom had been
the attendant of Captain Clapperton upon the journey in which he died. These two travelers
proceeded by land from the coast, to Boossa on the Niger, and following the course of the
stream downwards, reached the Atlantic Ocean in November, 1S30, through the channel of
the river Nun, flowing into .the Bight of Benin. This channel is one of the numerous mouths
of the Niger which intersect the country, forming a delta 240 miles in extent along the coast.*
3. Lakes. The discoveries of late English travelers have made known to the world a large
lake of fresh water called the Tchad, in the eastern part of Nigritia. It lies in about 14° N.
latitude and 15° E. longitude, and was first seen by Dr. Oudeney and his companions. It
was first visited by Major Denham, who traveled along a great part of its borders, but was ob
liged to leave 140 miles of it unexplored. He was informed that it had no outlet. His approach
to it is thus described. " By sunrise I was on the borders of the lake, armed for the destruc
tion of the multitude of birds, who, all uncon
scious of my purpose, seemed, as it were, to
welcome our arrival. Flocks of geese and wild
ducks of a most beautiful plumage were qui
etly feeding within half pistol shot of where I
stood, and not being a very keen or inhuman
sportsman, for the terms appear to me to be
synonymous, my purpose of deadly warfare
was almost shaken. As I moved towards
them they only changed their places a little to
the right or left, and appeared to have no idea
of the hostility of my intentions. All this was
really so new, that I hesitated to abuse the
confidence with which they regarded me, and
very quietly sat down to contemplate the scene
. before me. Pelicans, cranes four or five feet
in height, gray, variegated and white, were
scarcely so many yards from my side, and a bird between a snipe and a woodcock, resembling
both, and larger than either ; immense spoonbills of a snowy whiteness, widgeon, teal, yellow-
* We subjoin a few passages from the London Quar
terly Review, containing extracts from Lander's Journal.
" This morning 1 visited the far-famed Niger or Quor-
ra, which flows at the foot of the city of Boossa, about a
mile from our residence ; and I was greatly surprised at
its reduced breadth. Black, rugged rocks rose abruptly
from the centre of the stream, and its surface was agitated
by whirlpools. At this place, in its widest part, (the end
of the dry season,) it was not more than a stone's throw
across. The rock on which I sat overlooks the spot
where Mr. Park and his associates met their unhappy
fate." From Boossa to Yaoori thpy proceeded up the river by
u canoe ; it was divided into many channels by rocks,
sand-banks, and low islands, covered with tall, rank
grass, and some of the channels were so shallow, that
their canoe was constantly grounding. They weie told
at Yaoori, however, that, above that place and below
Boosa, the navigation was not interrupted by either rocks
or sand-banks ; and that, after the malca or wet season
(setting in with fourteen days of incessant rain), canoes
of all kinds pass to and fro between Yaoori, Nyffe, Boos
sa, and Funda. " It is immediately after the malca, also,
that the river, by the depth and velocity of its current,
sweeps off the rank grass which springs up annually on
its borders. Every rock and every low island are then
completely covered, and may be passed over in canoes
without difficulty, or even apprehension of danger."
" After leaving Layaba, we ran down the stream for 12
or 14 miles, the Quorra, during the whole distance, roll
ing grandly along, — a noble river, neither obstructed
by islands, nor deformed with rocks and stones. Ils
width varied from 1 to 3 miles, the country on each side
very fiat, and a few mean, dirty looking villages scatter
ed on the water's edge. Just below the town of Bajiebo
the river is divided by an island. At this town, which
we left on the 5th of October, for the first time, we met
with very large canoes having a hut in the middle, which
contained merchants and their whole families. At the
island of Madjie, where we were obliged to stop for canoe-
men, we found trees of hungry growth and stunted
shrubs, whose foliage seemed for the most part dull and
withering ; they shoot out of the hollows and interstices
of rocks, and hang over immense precipices, whose jag
ged summits they partly conceal ; they are only accessi
ble to wild beasts and birds of prey. The river below
Madjie takes a turn to the east by the side of .another
range of hills, and afterwards flows for a number of miles
a little to the southward of east. On leaving the island,
we journeyed very rapidly down the current for a few
minutes, when, having passed another, we came suddenly
in sight of an elevated rocky hill, called Mount Kesey by
the natives. This small island, apparently not less than
three hundred feet in height and very steep', is an object
of superstitious veneration among the natives."
At Rabba, a-large, populous, and flourishing town, with
a great slave-market, the river turns off to the eastward.
A little below they passed the mouth of a river of consid
erable size, which entered the Quorra from the northeast.
Lower down is Egga, a town of two miles in length,
populous, and the people clothed with Benin and Portu
guese stuffs, from whence it is inferred, that they have a
communication with the sea-coast, — the more probable,
as their canoes are large, and have a shed in the middle,
836
NIGRITIA.
legged plover, and a hundred species of, to me at least, unknown waler-fowl, were sporting
around me, and it was long before I could disturb the tranquillity of the dwellers on these
waters by firing a 'gun. The soil near the edge of the lake was a firm, dark sand ; -and as a
proof of the great overflowings and recedings of the waters, even in this advanced dry season,
the stalks of the gussub of the preceding year were standing in the lake more than 40 yards
from the shore. The water is sweet and pleasant and abounds with fish." It is about 200
miles in length and 150 in breadth, and receives a large river from the west called the Yeou,
and another from the south called the Shary.
4. Climate. This country being comprised between the parallels of 8° and 17° N. latitude.
must necessarily have a very warm climate. The more elevated parts, however, are tempe
rate. The rainy season, which begins in June, is ushered in by tornadoes ; it continues till
November, and ceases also with tornadoes.
5. Minerals. Many parts of this country are productive in gold ; but it does not appear
that any mines have been wrought by the negroes. After the annual inundations have sub
sided, great numbers of people are employed in collecting the mud brought down by the
streams from the mountains. By an operation somewhat tedious, the small particles of gold
generally called gold dust are separated from the mud and sand ; this is done by repeated
washings, the labor of which is performed by women.
6. Natural Productions. Nigritia, like all tropical countries, abounds in fruits ; but it seems
to be deficient in several of the species, which are found in America, in the same latitude.
Park did not observe, here, either the sugar-cane, the coffee, or the cocoa. The pine-apple,
was likewise unknown. The few orange and banana trees, near the coast, were supposed to
have been introduced by the Portuguese. The most remarkable productions of this country,
are the lotus, which furnishes the negroes with a sweet liquor and a sort of bread ; the shea, a
tree like an oak, the fruit of which, dried in the sun and boiled in water, yields a species of
vegetable butter, which Park thought superior to that of cow's milk ; various gum-bearing
trees, and the gooroo, or Sudan nut, called by the Arabs the Sudan coffee, are also valuable
trees. 7. Animals. The Lion, which is common to almost every part of Africa, grows, here, to
a very large size. Major Denham furnishes us with the following anecdote ; — " The skin of
a noble lion was sent me by the sheik, which
had been taken near Kabshary, measuring,
from the tail to the nose, 14 feet 2 inches.
He had devoured 4 slaves, and was at last
taken by the following stratagem; — the in
habitants assembled together, and with loud
cries and noises, drove him from the place
where he had last feasted ; they then dug a
very deep blaqua, or circular hole, armed with
sharp-pointed stakes ; this, they most cunning
ly covered over, with stalks of the gussub ; a
bundle of straw, enveloped in a tobe, was laid
over the spot, to w hich a gentle motion, like
that of a man turning in sleep, was occasionally
given, by means of a line carried to some dis
tance. On their quitting the spot, and the
noise ceasing, the lion returned to his haunt,
and was observed watching his trap for 7 or 8
'high. Having cleared the mountain pass, the voyagers
arrive at a town called Kirree, at which place the great
delta of the Quorra may be considered to commence, ex
tending southwesteily to the month of the river Beein,
and south-southeast to that of Old Calabar, the distance
between these two mouths being about two hundred and
forty miles, and that from Kirree to the mouth of the
river Nun, about the same. This great delta is intersect
ed with numerous branches of the Quorra, the banks
generally overflowed, and the mangrove trees growing in
the water ; the whole surface low, flat, and swampy,
abounding with creeks.
A Lion approaching his prey.
under which the owners and their families live. The
river now took a southerly direction, and, at the distance
of three or four days' navigation, was joined bv another
river nearly as large as itself, falling in from the north
eastward. This stream was also in a state of inundation
and from two to three miles in width. It was called the
Tshadda. Below the junction of the Tshadda the Quorra passes
through the mountains, which appear to increase in
height towards the southeast quarter, and probably termi
nate in those lofty peaks which are seen from the Bight
of Benin, and have been found by trigonometrical meas
urement to be from twelve to thirteen thousand feet
NIGRITIA.
837
Park meeting the Lion.
hours, — by degrees approaching closer and
closer ; and, at length, he made a dreadful
spring on his supposed prey, and was precipi
tated to the bottom of the pit. The Kabsha-
rians now rushed to the spot, and before he
could recover himself, dispatched him with
their spears."
Mr. Park gives us the following account,
in his first expedition to Africa; — "As we
were crossing a large open plain, where there
were a few scattered bushes, my guide, who
was a little way before me, wheeled his horse
round in a moment, calling out something in
the Foulah language, which I did not under
stand. I inquired, in Mandingo, what he
meant ; wava billi billi (a very large lion),
said he, and made signs for me to ride away ;
but my horse was too much fatigued ; so we rode slowly past the bush, from which the ani
mal had given us the alarm. Not seeing anything myself, however, I thought my guide had
been mistaken, when the Foulah suddenly put his hand to his mouth, exclaiming Soubah an
allahi, (God preserve us !) and, to my great surprise, I then perceived a large red lion, at a
short distance from the bush, with his head crouched between his fore paws. I expected he
would instantly spring upon me, and instinctive
ly pulled my feet from the stirrups, to throw
myself on the ground, that my horse might
become the victim, rather than myself. But
it is probable the lion was not hungry, for he
quietly suffered us to pass, though we were
fairly within his reach. My eyes, were so riv
eted upon this sovereign of beasts, that I found
it impossible to remove them, until we were
at a considerable distance."
That beautiful animal, the Giraffe, or Came-
lopard, is also common, according to the follow
ing relation of Denham ; — " On the 1 1th, we
arrived at Showy, after a very tedious march,
and losing our way for 3 hours ; the woods are,
indeed, most intricate and difficult; and, as
all the Shouaas had moved up towards Barca
Gana, we could get no guides. We saw 5
Giraffes to-day, to my great delight ; they
were the first I had seen alive, and, notwith
standing my fatigue and the heat, Belial and
myself chased them for half an hour ; we kept
within about 20 yards of them. They have a
very extraordinary appearance, from their be
ing so low.bebjnd, and move awkwardly, drag
ging, as it were, their hinder legs after them ;
they are not swift, and are unlike any figure of
them I ever met with."
The Hippopotamus is also found here, in
great numbers ; and a remarkable trait in their
manners, is thus described by the same trav
eler ; — "It was intended, this evening, 'to
have killed a hippopotamus, an animal which
Hippopotami in the lake. exists in great numbers in the lake, on the bor
der of which we were encamped ; but a vio
lent thunderstorm, to our great disappointment, prevented our witnessing so novel a
Giraffe.
838
NIGRITIA.
species of sport. The flesh is considered a great delicacy. On the morrow, we had a
full opportunity of convincing ourselves, that these uncouth and stupendous animals are
very sensibly attracted by musical sounds, even though they should not be of the softest
kind ; — as we passed along the borders of Lake Muggaby, at sunrise, they followed the
drums of the different chiefs the whole length of the water, sometimes approaching so close
to the shore, that the water they spouted from their mouths, reached the persons who were
passing along the banks. I counted 15 at one time, sporting on the surface ; and my servant,
Columbus, shot one of them in the head, when he gave so. loud a war, as he buried himself in
the lake, that all the others disappeared in an instant." The elephants of this country are ex
ceedingly fierce ; they are sometimes seen in droves of 150 together. Panthers, leopards,
and antelopes, are also natives of this country. Reptiles are numerous.
8. Bornou. The kingdom of Bornou appears to be the most important of the sovereignties,
respecting which we have any distinct knowledge. It is bounded on the north by Khanem and
the Desert ; on the east, by Lake Tchad ; on the south, by Mandara and Loggun ; and on the
west, by Houssa. It lies between 10° and 15° N. latitude, and 12° and 18° E. longitude.
The whole country is flat, and the greater part is covered with thick underwood, high, coarse
grass, and parasitical plants. The towns are, in general, well built, surrounded by walls, 30 or
40 feet in height, and 20 feet thick. Kouka is the capital, and Birnie is the residence of the
sultan. The other towns are Old Birnie, Kouka, and Angornou. At Kouka, Denham and Clap
perton attended the Sheik of Bornou, and made him a present. There is a trade in the ex-
felt • - ~ '*
Sheik of Bornou.
Den/iam and Clapperton with a Caravan.
portation of gold-dust, slaves, horses, ostrich-feathers, salt, and civet. The slaves are pro
cured from the neighboring districts to the south, where a regular system of slave-hunting is
carried on. The Bornouese manufacture the iron, which their country produces, into rude
tools. Of their hemp, they make a sort of coarse linen ; and of cotton, a kind of cloth, which
is dyed blue, and highly valued. They also manufacture carpets, for coverings to their horses
and tents, of wool, and the hair of camels and goats. They trade with Tripoli and Fezzan,
by caravans, which proceed across the desert. It was in this direction, that Denham and
Clapperton penetrated to the country, and gave the first distinct information of it to-the world.
Bornou abounds in domestic animals, such as cows, sheep, goats, and horses, camels and
buffaloes. Bullocks are a medium of trade for everything ; and 100 or 150 of them are given
for a good horse. Abundance of fowl are reared, and hives of bees are extremely plentiful.
No vegetables are raised, except onions ; nor any fruit, save a few limes. A species of small
grain, called gussub, is cultivated, which is boiled to a paste, and eaten with melted fat.
The population was estimated, by Denham, at 5,000,000 ; and when that traveler visited
the country, the sultan had an army of 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 infantry. The appearance
of a body of these troops, is thus described, in his approach to the capital. " I rode still on
wards, and on approaching a spot less thickly planted, was not a little surprised to see, in front
of me, a body of several thousand cavalry drawn up in a line, and extending right and left, as
far as I could see ; and, checking my horse, I awaited the arrival of my party, under the shade
NIGRITIA.
839
of a wide spreading acacia. The Bornou troops remained quite steady, without noise or con
fusion ; and a few horsemen who were moving about in the front giving directions, were the
only persons out of the ranks. On the Arabs appearing in sight, a shout or yell was given by
the sheik's people which rent the air ; a blast was blown from their rude instruments of music
equally loud, and they moved on to meet Boo Khaloom and his Arabs. There was an ap
pearance of tact and management in their movements which astonished me ; three separate
small bodies from the centre and each flank kept changing rapidly towards us, to within a few
feet of our horses' heads, without checking the speed of their own, until the moment of their
halt, while the whole body moved onwards. These parties were mounted on small, but very
perfect hprses, who stopped and wheeled from their utmost speed, with great precision and
exactness." 9. Begharmi. This is a large and fertile region, lying between Darfoor on the east, and
Bornou on the north. On the north it is bounded by deserts of dry sand, which in the spring
are frequented by herdsmen. On the south are many black tribes. The inhabitants of this
country have long maintained a fierce war with Bornou.
10. Mandara. This district lies south of Bornou. The sultan resides at Mora, 180
miles from Kouka. Major Denham passed
through a town in this country called Dee-
goa, with "30,000 inhabitants. The moun
tains here furnish abundance of iron. The
principal towns are 8 in number, and all
stand in a valley. The accompanying repre
sentation of the sultan of Mandara and his
principal officers, was drawn by the British
travelers. 11. Loggun. This country was discov
ered by Dr. O.udeney and his companions.
It lies upon the Shary, a river flowing into
Lake Tchad, and which these travelers
traced above 40 miles, and found it to be
half a mile broad. Amid the furious war
fare of the surrounding states, the inhabit
ants of this country have steadily cultivated
peace. They are industrious, and work steadily at the loom. Their cloth is steeped thrice
in a dye of indigo, and laid upon the trunk of a tree, and beaten with wooden mallets till it
acquires a most brilliant gloss. They have a coin of iron. The people are remarkably
handsome and healthy.
12. Fellatah Kingdom. This territory lies west of Bornou, and comprises Houssa, Zeg-
zeg, Kano, Cashna, and other districts more or less in subjection to the Fellatahs, a warlike
and predatory nation. The country is watered by the Yeou. Kano, in a highly cultivated
and populous district, contains from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, of whom a great proportion
are slaves ; it is famed all over Central Africa for dyeing cloth, and it is the commercial em
porium of Central Africa. The negroes here are exceedingly polite and ceremonious- The
district of Cashna is separated from Kano by a stream flowing to the west ; its capital is noted
for its fairs, which make it a commercial entrepot between Egypt and Fezzan, and Southern
Nigritia ; the chief articles of trade are slaves and salt.
The city of Soccatoo, the capital of the Fellatah dominions, stands on the river, dividing
Cashna from Kano, and is thus described by Clapperton. "It occupies a long ridge which
slopes gently toward the north, and appeared to me the most populous town I had visited in
the interior of Africa, for unlike most other towns in Houssa, where the houses are thinly
scattered, it is laid out in regular, well-built streets. The houses approach close to the walls,
which were built by the present sultan in 1818, the old walls being too confined for the in
creasing population. The wall is between 20 and 30 feet high, and has 12 gates, which are
regularly closed at sunset. There are two large mosques, besides several other places for
prayer. There is a spacious market-place in the centre of the city, and another large square in
front of the sultan's residence. The dwellings of the principal people are surrounded by high
walls, which inclose numerous coozes, and flat-roofed houses, built in the Moorish style, whose
"large water-spouts of baked clay, projecting from the eaves, resemble a tier of guns. The
The Sultan of Mandara and his principal officers.
840
NIGRITIA.
necessaries of life are very cheap ; butcher's meat is in great plenty, and very good. The
exports are principally civet and blue check tobes. The common imports are brought from
Ashantee, and coarse calico, and woolen cloth in small quantities, with brass and pewter
dishes, and some few spices from Nyffee. The Arabs from Tripoli and Ghadamis bring un-
wrought silk, attar of roses, spices, and beads.
Slaves are both exported and imported.
A great quantity of Guinea corn is taken
every year by the Tuaricks, in exchange for
salt. Population about 80,000.
On entering this torritory, the British trav
elers found themselves at once among a su
perior people. The fields were covered with
large crops of wheat, two of which were an
nually produced by irrigation. The country
exhibited numerous plantations, neatly fenced
as in England. The roads were thronged
with travelers, and in the shade of the trees
by the wayside, the women sat spinning coIt
ton, and offering for sale to the passing cara
vans, gussub water, roast meat, sweet poia-
Inhabitants of Nigritia. toeg? cashew nuts, &c. I„ niany parts „f
the kingdom, there is a regular system of taxation, which is paid in horses, slaves, cloth,
cowries, lead ore, cattle, &c.
13. Timbuctoo. This city, which has so long been the object of intense and unsatisfied
curiosity to Europeans, was first visited during the present century, by Adams, an American,
Laing, an Englishman, and Caillie, a Frenchman. Adams was shipwrecked on the coast and
carried to Timbuctoo as a slave in 1810 ; his relation, however, is not generally received as
authentic. Laing reached the city upon his travels in 1826, but was murdered on his return.
Caillie visited Timbuctoo in 1827, returned to France and published a nairative of his travels,
which, though doubtful on many points, is too interesting to be disregarded. According to
this traveler, the city stands about 8 miles from the Joliba or Niger, and forms a sort of trian
gle, measuring 3 miles in circuit. The houses are large, but not high, consisting entirely of
a ground floor. They are built of round bricks baked in the sun. The streets are clean, and
sufficiently wide to permit three horsemen to pass abreast. Both within and without the
town are many circular straw huts, inhabited by poor people and slaves. The following sketch
of Timbuctoo is presented by Caillie, as drawn by him from an eminence overlooking the
Inhabitants of Timbuctoo.
View of Timbuctoo.
city. It has no walls, and is surrounded by an immense plain of yellowish white sand. Its
population is 10 or 12,000. The inhabitants are principally Moors of the Kissoor nation,' and
carry on a trade in salt. The king or governor is a negro. The State, once powerful, is now
tributary to the Tuaricks.
14. Borgoo. This kingdom lies to the east of Dahomey in Guinea, and is 11 days' journey
NIGRITIA. 841
from north to south, and 30 from east to west. It is watered by the Niger, Moussa,
and Oli. It comprises the districts of Boussa, Kiania, Wawa, and Niki. The city of Boussa
stands on an island in the Niger ; it is walled, and has a population of 10,000. Here Park
lost his life. The city of Kiama contains 30,000 inhabitants, who are looked upon as the
greatest thieves and robbers in all Africa. The city of Wawa has a population of 18,000.
15. Youriba. This kingdom joins the preceding. The inhabitants cultivate cotton and
indigo, and carry on the slave trade. Eyeo, the capital, stands on the slope of a range of hills,
and is surrounded by a clay wall 15 miles in circuit. The houses are of clay, with thatched
roofs. There are 7 markets in the city ; and a trade is carried on with the coast of Guinea.
16. Bambarra. This kingdom lies to the west of Senegambia, and north of the Kong
mountains. It is 450 miles in length, and 300 in breadth. The Niger traverses it from west
to east. The inhabitants are negroes, and some Moors. Sego is the capital. Jenne, for
merly included within this kingdom, is now under the dominion of an independent Fellatah
chief. This city was visited by Caillie, and is described by him as 2\ miles in circumference,
and surrounded by a wall 10 feet in height. The houses are built of bricks dried in the sun ;
they are all terraced, and have no windows outward, but the air is admitted from an inner
court. The streets are crooked, and sufficiently wide for 8 or 9 persons to walk abreast ;
they are swept almost daily. The town is full of bustle and animation, being the resort of
numerous caravans. The population is 8 or 10,000.
17. Darfour. This country, consisting merely of a group of oases in the desert, is bounded
north by the Desert of Zahara, and east by Kordofari. Its surface is highly diversified, and
the climate partakes of that of the desert. The Bahr el Abiad, the head stream of the Nile,
flows through the southern part. The inhabitants raise millet, rice, maize, sesame, and beans.
The date, palm, and tamarind are found here, and tobacco grows wild. A great trade is
carried on by caravans with Egypt. The exports are slaves, which are taken in the countries
to the south, camels, ivory, the bones, teeth, and hides of the rhinoceros and elephant, ostrich,
feathers, gum, pimento, &c. There is a trade also with Mecca. Cobbe, the chief town, has
6,000 inhabitants. The people of Darfour are negroes, resembling those of Bornou, and
there aTe many Arabs, retaining their distinctions of color, feature, and < manner. They are
principally agricultural, and the king commences the labors of the seed time, by planting in
person. A large kind of grain called kassab, is much used as food. The dwellings are sim
ple, having walls of mud or clay. The religion is the Mahometan.
18. Cordofan. This district lies between Darfour on the west, and Sennaar on the east,
and was alternately subject to those States until it was conquered by the Egyptians in 1830.
On the south it is bounded by a chain of volcanic mountains. It is poorly watered, and ill
cultivated. The chief produce is maize and dourra. The inhabitants weave cotton stuffs,
forge iron, and carry on a trade in gold dust.*
* In 1839, the viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali paid a of the natives, saw that a furious and cruel engagement
visit to his States in Nigritia, and the following curious would be the result. He, therefore, thought it best to
passages are extracted from the official journal of his order the retreat of his troops, but they feeling their self-
tour : love wounded by the attitude of the negroes, begged his
" The inhabitants of Nigritia are Mussulmans of the Excellency to allow them to give them a little lesson.
sect Malitu, but the slaves are of no religion. They are Ahmet Pasha then authorized a chief of battalion to
divided into Beledi (inhabitants of towns), Bevadi (in- attack them, upon which that officer attacked Mount
habitants of tbe plain), and Gebeli (inhabitants of moun- Bakrih, a dependency of the Gebel Tag, and captured
tains). They are generally in a state of simple nature, 541 individuals, men, women, and children, together with
wild and wandering. Those who have no meriss or buUml all their cattle.
(the beverage bouza) eat the bark of trees. Nevertheless, " However, as nothing contrary to humanity was de-
they are fat and robust. A piece of stinking skin covers sired, these 541 were supplied with provisions, their cattle
them in front. were restored, and they were set at liberty. Their sheiks
" Life, that precious gift of heaven, is passed by them were clothed to the number of five, and returned to their
in ignorance; their thoughts tend to nought but the sale mountains contented and joyful.
of their fellow creatures. They pay no attention what- " At the Cordofan, in compliance with ancient usage,
ever to agriculture, and those who have a sorry bed, form- many negroes are enslaved, one by another. His High-
ed of some pieces of wood (which is called aucaril), or ness the Viceroy issued a severe order, in pursuance of
can afford to drink bouza, are envied by their fellows, who which all were set at liberty, and the choice was left them
come at night to rob them, the inhabitants of the interior of settling on the borders of the Nile or of returning to
committing outrages on those who dwell on the borders their own country without impediment.
of the Nile. Those latter believed, that the arrival of his " His Highness at the same time ordered, that hence-
Highness would be favorable to their desire of vengeance, forth all the inhabitants, who had cause of complaint one
and they looked to Ahmet Pasha, declaring, that they against the other, instead of taking justice in their own
wished to engage with their enemies. This governor- hands, should refer their complaints to the governor, who
general, aware of the pious intentions of his Highness, had formal instructions to treat them with humanity and
who was unwilling to shed blood, proceeded towards the justice, according to the laws. This order extends to
Gebel Tag, and, after having examined the dispositions Beledi, Bavadi, and Gebeli, without exception.
106
842
NIGRITIA.
i9. Inhabitants of Nigritia. These are either negroes or Moors, as the mixed races of
Arabs are generally called. The Moors are gradually gaining an ascendency over the more
timid blacks. They resemble the mulattoes of the West Indies more than the Moors of
Barbary. Park describes them as having wild and staring eyes, like a " nation of lunatics."
The negroes, in the various tribes or nations, are more or less dark, but in general, they are
perfectly black. Though subject to few diseases, they do not attain to old age. In different
parts the African physiognomy is much diversified ; and the thick lips, and broad, flat nose,
often give place to features of the European cast. In various nations the faces, or limbs and
body, are tattooed, in lines made by gashes.
20. Dress. The dress of the Moors is somewhat like that of Barbary, and the turban is
generally the mark of a Mahometan believer. The dress of the African nations is various ;
generally it is only a shirt or other garment of cotton. Many people have but a strip of cover
ing about the waist, and numbers have not even that. In Bornou turbans are worn, and the
women are exceedingly neat in their persons and dress. The following cut represents a Shoo
man and woman. The Fellatahs and Bornouese are the most remarkable among the negroes.
The latter are described as ugly, simple,
and good-natured, but utterly destitute of
intellectual culture ; only a few of the. great
doctors can read the Koran ; a writer is held
in the highest estimation, but his only com
positions are a few words written on scraps
of paper, to be worn as amulets. In the
absence of all refined pleasures, various rude
sports are pursued with eagerness, such as
boxing and wrestling ; gaming is also a favor
ite sport. The Bornouese cavalry are cov
ered with mail and iron plate, and their
horses are also cased in armor ; they are
armed with long spears, and are accompani
ed to war by bowmen and spearmen on foot ;
the latter carry large wooden shields.
The general dress in the Bornouese coun-
wings, and others of every shade of color. Vegetation
offers the vine and wild fig tree, from the branches of
which the birds, with their varied and melodious warbling,
cheer and entertain the traveler. Vegetation is surpris
ingly abundant and prolific ; a single grain of seed gen
erally multiplies from fifty to sixty fold.
" Cultivation is carried on at Dongolah by means of
small instruments, such as pickaxes, &c., but higher up
even these are unknown, the only utensil beinga small
pointed stick, which serves to make holes in the earth
for the reception of the seed. The doura and cotton
grow with extraordinary rapidity, the plant of the latter
exceeding the height of a man ; while in Egypt, notwith
standing the care bestowed on the cultivation of this
shrub, it is far from thriving as in Nigritiaf where it is
evident, that the plantations will produce an excellent
result. " Notwithstanding so many gifts of nature, strange to
say, these people have, from the creation of our father
Adam, remained in a state of inaction. This misfortune
is owing to the circumstance, that no person has ever
thought of them ; but such is now no longer the case, for
by this very misfortune they have attracted the special
attention of his Highness, who has hastened to their as
sistance as the prophet Elijah, and has consoled and de
lighted a people, who have for ages vegetated itt the
Bhadow of drai 1 1
" His Highness considers the region of the Nile to be a
yery fine country, but thinks that nigritia will, in a hun
dred years, appear like a new America. The beauty of
the country is wonderful ; the air is so pure and favorable,
that his Highness the Viceroy, who is seventy-one years
of age, appeared to have become as young as twenty-
five/'
Shoua Man and Woman.
" Before the departure from Cairo a message had arriv
ed from his Excellency Ahmet Pasha, informing his High
ness, that the king of Abyssinia had sent a letter with
presents, and that Ahmet Pasha had judged it right to
send in return other presents worthy of Egypt, and a
letter. " In consequence of this intelligence his Highness had
ordered at Cairo further presents, more conformable to his
own grandeur and munificence, with the intention of
sending them to Abyssinia by that old faithful servant of
Egypt, Colonel Rustem Bey. Having on his arrival at
Cartoum made known his intention among the sheiks,
his Highness was much astonished to see them look at
each other and smile. The foreign Vaissier, an old ser
vant of Egypt, then said, 'The Abyssinians are savages,
and it would be exposing yourself to treat with them thus.'
" These engineers were sent to visit the gold mines as
far as Houri Deheb, opposite Fasankor, near the banks
of the Nile. According to their report they found, that
the gold of these places is not inferior to that of higher
parts. " On the 17th day of Zilead and the eighth of his stay
at Fasankor, his Highness the Viceroy set out by the
shortest way, and found himBelf at his journey's end in
five hours. His tent was pitched immediately, and or
ders were issued, that as at this place a palace, barracks,
houses, bazars, magazines, vineyards, and gardens were
forming, and the whole was being surrounded by walls,
to erect a new city ui|d,er the name of Mehemet Ali, every
one should be alfowed to establish himself there freely.
This city was to be built in such u manner as to be un-
equaled by any other in Nigritia.
" The mountains and valleys of Nigritia abound in all
kinds of curious animals. There are birds with four
NIGRITIA. 843
try, is a loose robe, or shirt, of the cotton cloth made here, which is often fine, and beautifully
dyed ; and high rank is indicated by 6 or 7 of these, worn one above another. Many of the
people, however, have no dress but a girdle round the waist, and a piece of cloth wrapped
round the head. A protruding belly, and a huge, misshapen head, are the two features, with
out which, it is vain to aspire to the rank of a fine gentleman ; wadding is profusely employed
by the courtiers, to produce the one, and cloth is wrapped round the head, in fold after- fold,
to obtain the other ; thus padded and stuffed, a Bornouese courtier adds still further to his
bulk, by wearing 10 or 12 robes of cotton or silk ; and the whole of this monstrous creature
is decked with numberless charms, enclosed in green leather cases.
A Bornouese belle decorates her person by plaiting the hair, and attaching to it strings of
brass or silver beads, inserting pieces of amber or coral, in the nose, ears, and lip, and be
smearing her face with oil. In the great market of Angornou, there is plenty of their princi
pal grain, called gussub, much wheat and rice, bullocks, sheep, and fowls ; but no vegetables,
except onions ; and no fruits, of any kind, are to be seen. A similar picture of Fellatah
civilization might be drawn, but the traits are nearly the same, and it is unnecessary to repeat
the description.
21. Language: The language is the Arabic, and there are various separate African dia
lects. The Mandingo is the most generally diffused of the African languages, but the Arabic
will probably settle into the general medium of communication.
22. Manner of Building. The Moors, who do not live in tents, build their houses after
the manner common in Barbary, and keep them neatly whitewashed. The architecture of the
negroes is rude ; the houses are low and small, and made generally of mud or wicker-work.
They are mostly thatched.
23. Food and Drink. The food of the Central Africans is simple ; bread, which so much
supports life in most countries, that it may be called its staff, is hardly known here ; a paste,
however, like hasty-pudding, is common, and also the kouskousou of Barbary, under the name
of kouskous. Much grain is raised, but few esculent vegetables ; generally, only a few onions
and tomatoes. Little fruit is raised by cultivation. Poultry is general. Salt, from its scarce
ness, becomes a luxury, beyond the reach of the poor, and children may sometimes be seen
sucking it, as sugar is eaten in other countries. To say of a man, that he eats salt with his
food, is equivalent to calling him rich. The breakfast hour is generally about daybreak, and
2 is the hour for dinner ; supper is taken late. Tobacco is much used, in smoking and other
wise. Snuff is not taken in the nostrils, but chewed with a certain plant. The Moors and
the negro Mahometans, drink nothing but water, though pitto, or ale, is generally in use with
all others. In some towns, all the inhabitants seem addicted to intoxication. 'It tastes much
like the English ale, and a bitter plant is infused, in the place of hops.
24. Diseases. The most common diseases are fe
vers, fluxes, blindness, leprosy, and the guinea-worm.
25. Traveling, The mode of traveling from one
kingdom to another, is by kafilas or small caravans,
or associations. Duties on merchandise are paid in
the countries through which a kafila passes.
26. Character, Manners, and Customs. In the Af
rican character, timidity and gentleness are obvious
traits ; and this it is, which, together with their small
states, and the commerce of Christian nations, has re
duced Africans to slavery in every quarter of the globe.
The negroes are cheerful, kind, and generally pla-
P^=<~ f3£fi£22?*ii2§2£?' C£,ble. Their pursuits are pastoral or agricultural,
-ct-ggSte^Ta* though they are often engaged in petty wars, in which
Negroes, dancing. they show little mercy. The females are uniformly
kind and compassionate, and almost every European
traveler in this country, has owed his life to their assistance.* The Africans are generally
* The following is from Park's Travels. — "I waited who informed me, that the king could not possibly see me,
more than two hours, without having an opportunity of until he knew what had brought me into his country, and
crossing the river; during which time, the people who had that I must not presume to cross the river, without the
crossed, carried information to Mansong, the king, that a king's permission. He, therefore, advised me to lodge at
white man was waiting for a passage, and was coming to a distant village, to which he pointed, for the night; and
see him. He immediately sent over one of his chief men, said, that, in the morning, he would give me further in-
844
NIGRITIA.
much attached to their mothers ; " Strike me ! but do not curse my mother," is sometimes
said, in their quarrels, when either party would set a limit to exasperation. The Mandingo
mothers instil early, in their children, a reverence for truth ; the foundation of all virtue.
The principal expressions that grief, for the loss of her son, extorted from an African mother,
were, " He never told a lie, he never told a lie." Travelers find a universal disposition to
steal, but this is exercised only towards strangers, and it is the fault of most rude people.
The slaves in Africa are supposed, by Park, to be to the free, as-3 to 1. The system of
servitude is the scourge of Africa, no less than the curse of America. There is no safety for
liberty ; wars are made between neighboring tribes, from no other motives than to make cap
tures, though the aggressors commonly offer the excuse, that their victims are cannibals ; as if
any crime could be greater than kidnapping. Villages are attacked and burnt, and the people
jj^^=^=^_ ^_ led into captivity ; the huntsman is kidnapped
in the wood, and the husbandman in the field.
The domestic slaves, however, are well treat
ed, and generally live as members of the fam
ily. Among the Fellatahs, an agricultural
people, they work half the day in the fields,
and have the remainder to themselves. There
are 4 general causes of servitude. Captivity,
surrender, crimes, and insolvency. The cap
tured, as well as their descendants, are slaves.
But in famine, which is not of rare occurrence,
men not only sell themselves, but their chil
dren, to obtain present support. Some crimes,
in several places, subject the convicts to slave
ry, and insolvency is as hardly visited. In
Bornou, however, the laws are more merciful
and just. There, the creditor may take pos
session of his debtor's property, pay himself, and reserve commission for bis trouble. If the
debtor refuses his consent, he is pinioned and laid upon his back till he relents. When the
property will not pay the debt, the insolvent pleads his poverty, and the cadi says, " God send
you means," to which the bystanders respond, " amen," and the debtor is free. The creditor
may, however, at any time, have his debtor's property, even to the second shirt, or superflu
ous red cap.
Among a simple and ignorant people, we may expect to find some customs, that may seem
as ridiculous in polished nations, as" European manners in Africa. Thus, at Bornou, it is a
great recommendation, at court, to have a protuberant belly. It is considered the type of
abundance, and honored accordingly. All merit, however, has counterfeits, and the aspiring
courtier, whom a course of fattening diet cannot enlarge, deprived of the reality, indulges in
resemblance. He stuffs himself with cushions, so that the belly is out of all proportion with
Battle between two Negro nations.
structions how to conduct myself. This was very dis
couraging. However, as there was no remedy, I set off
for the village, where I found, to my great mortification,
that no person would admit me into his house. I was re
garded with astonishment and fear, and was obliged to sit
all day, without victuals, in the shade of a tree; and the
night threatened to be very uncomfortable, for the wind
rose, and there was great appearance of a heavy rain ; and
the wild beasts are so very numerous in the neighborhood,
that I should have been under the necessity of climbing
up the tree, and resting among the branches ; about sun
set, however, as I was preparing to pass the night in this
manner, and had turned my horse loose, that he might
graze at liberty, a woman, returning from the labors of the
field, stopped to observe me ; and, perceiving that I was
weary and dejected, inquired into my situation, which I
briefly explained to her; whereupon, with looks of great
compassion, she took up my saddle and bridle, and told
me to follow her. Having conducted me into her hut, she
lighted up a lamp, spread a mat on the floor, and told me I
might remain there for the night. Finding that I was very
hungry, she said she would procure me something to eat.
She accordingly went out, and returned in a short time,
with a very fine fish, which, having caused to be half
broiled upon some embers, she gave me for supper. The
rites of hospitality being thus performed towards a stran
ger in distress, my worthy benefactress, pointing to the
mat, and telling me I might sleep there without apprehen
sion, called to the female part of her family, who had stood
gazing on me all the while, in fixed astonishment, to re-
Bume their task of spinning cotton, in which they contin
ued to employ themselves great part of the night. They
lightened their labor by songs, one of which was composed
extempore, for I was myselfthe subject of it. It was sang
by one of the women, the rest joining in a sort of chorus.
The air was sweet and plaintive, and the words, literally
translated, were these. ' The winds roared, and the rains
fell. The poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat
under our tree. He has no mother to bring him milk ; no
wife to grind his corn. Chorus. Let us pity the white
man ; no mother has he, &c. &c.' Trifling as this recital
may appear to the reader, to a person in my situation the
circumstance was affecting in the highest degree. I waj?
oppressed by 6uch unexpected kindness, and sleep fled
from my eyes. In the morning, I presented my compas
sionate landlady with 2 of the 4 brass buttons, which re
mained on my waistcoat, the only recompense I could
make her."
WESTERN AFRICA. 845
the members, and in riding it hangs over the pummel of the saddle. It is the fashion, also, at
Bornou, to wear seven or eight loose garments, and a turban of vast dimensions. At the Eng
lish court, long trains, and hooped petticoats, distort the human figure little less than these
fashions at Bornou.
Among the Arabs, it is the female whose estimation is much increased by bulk. To be fat
among them is to be beautiful, and mothers cram their female children as geese are fattened in
England. The process, though painful, and often enforced by blows, is generally successful ;
and a perfect beauty with the Moors is, according to Park, " a load for a camel."
The Moors, which have so much sway in Africa, may be described as cruel, bigoted, mali
cious, and treacherous ; studying mischief, according to Park, " as a science," and eminently
successful in their studies. They live by plunder and extortion. They have little cheerfulness
and few amusements. The chief amusement of the negroes is dancing, which they often keep
up, like their enslaved countrymen in America, during the whole night. It is a pleasing sight
to see a whole village, thus engaged by moonlight, under the trees. The instruments most in
use are the guitar with 3 strings, a harp with 18, and a smaller one with 7. There are two
kinds of drums, one of which is large, and used to spread an alarm. Some of the dances are
peculiar. In Bornou, the female dancers suddenly turn their backs to each other, and thus
meet with much violence, endeavoring to destroy each other's equilibrium. The successful
one is much cheered. Just before the expected concussion, one dancer will sometimes step
nimbly aside, and leave her opponent to seat herself with considerable force upon the ground.
Sometimes, also, the smaller party, that would suffer in the shock, suddenly drops down,
leaving the larger to tumble over her. The negroes engage much in wrestling, at which they are
very expert, and would probably carry off the honors of any ring in Europe. They approach
each other on all fours. Boxing is common ; the blows are given with the right hand, and
warded off with the palm of the left. It is a favorite trick with the boxer to get his antago
nist's head under his arm, and to bruise it in that situation.
27. Education, &c. The education in Central Africa includes but the reading of the Ko«
ran in Arabic, and this degree of knowledge is rare. The religion is the Mahometan, which
is rapidly spreading, and Fetishism, which includes a belief in charms, conjurations, and divi
nation. The governments are many of them of a patriarchal kind, but undergo many changes ;
and deposed Sultans are said, by Denham, to be as common as bankrupts in Europe. The
dooty is the magistrate of towns, and the place of assembling is the bentang, a stage, or some
times a tree. The palavers are judicial meetings. In some places there are trials by ordeal.
23. Industry, &c. The inhabitants are much more civilized and industrious than the ne
groes of the coast, and they have formed large states with regular governments. Goldsmiths,
weavers, tanners, blacksmiths, and other skilful artisans are found among them. Many of them
hunt elephants and rhinoceroses for their teeth and horns, gather gums, collect gold, kidnap in
dividuals of neighboring tribes, whom, with their other articles of merchandise, they barter for
arms, silks, ornaments, salt, &c, with the caravans from Egypt, Barbary, Nubia, and the sea-
coast.
CHAPTER CXXX. WESTERN AFRICA.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and. Divisions. This territory is bounded north by the desert of
Zahara and Nigritia, east by Nigritia and unknown territories, and southwest and west by the
Atlantic. Its limits are undefined, but it may be described in general terms, as extending
from about 16° N. latitude, southward nearly to the tropic of Capricorn. The most general
divisions under which the country is known, are those of Senegambia, Guinea, Congo, Angola,
and Benguela ; these include many subdivisions and independent districts.
2. Senegambia. This territory is the most northern of the districts of Western Africa.
It is bounded north by the Desert, east by Nigritia, south by Upper Guinea, and west by the
Atlantic. It is for the most part flat and sandy. Magnificent forests of tall trees are scattered
over the face of the country. The palm, the cocoa, the tamarind, banana, fig, date, and the
butter tree are all indigenous. Oranges, lemons, and limes also abound. Reptiles are numer
ous. The climate is exceedingly hot ; the east winds, which reach this country after sweep
ing over the burning surface of Central Africa, are almost insupportable. During the whole
year, the heat of the sun at noon is intense ; the thermometer is sometimes at 131° at Senegal.
From June to October, heavy rains fall. This region is watered by the Senegal river, which
846 WESTERN AFRICA.
rises in the mountains of Kong, and flows northwesterly into the Atlantic, after a course of
about 100.0 miles ; and by the Gambia and Rio Grande, which have the same origin and di
rection, but are inferior streams. On the coast is Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Af
rica. This region is divided into a great number of small states. The English, French, and
Portuguese have some settlements and factories upon the coast ; the greater part of the coun
try is now in the possession of three nations, who have conquered nearly all of the other
tribes ; these ruling people are the Jalofs or Yalofs, the Mandingoes, and the Foulahs, or Fel-
latahs. Many of the Negro tribes of Senegambia are Mahometans, but there is also a great
number who worship fetiches, that is, certain natural objects selected as objects of veneration,
and there are some idolaters. The Mandingoes are the most industrious and most civilized of
the Senegambia negroes ; they carry on an extensive trade with the Europeans and Americans
on the coast, in gold, ivory, and slaves ; their women weave cotton and stuffs, which they dye
with indigo ; and the men are good honters, and cultivate the earth with some skill. They
dwell in villages, and their houses are circular mud huts, with a conical roof of bamboo, thatched
with leaves. The Mandingo is the commercial language of all this region. The Foulahs are
the same race as the Fellatahs of the interior ; they are, like most negroes, gay, gentle, kind,
and hospitable ; they raise indigo, maize, rice, &c, weave stuffs of wool and cotton, or pursue
the chase ; some of them are wandering shepherds.
The Jalof states occupy the northwestern part of Senegambia ; they are governed by he
reditary princes ; Wallo, Caior, and Jalof Proper, are the principal states. The Jalofs are of
a pure black color, with regular features, and they excel the Mandingoes in the manufacture
and dyeing of cotton ; they are fearless hunters, skilful horsemen, and brave warriors.
The Mandingo states lie to the south of the preceding ; they are Kaarta, Bambouk, Saloom,
Kaboo, &c, comprising the Soosoos, Biafaras, &c. ; the people of Bambarra, in Nigritia, are
also Mandingoes.
The Foulah or Fellatah states are a sort of theocracies, being governed by elective spiritual
princes, styled almamys, or chiefs of the faithful. The principal are Fouta Toro, Bondoo,
Fouta Jallo, of which the capital, Teemboo, has about 9,000 inhabitants, Casso, and Fouladoo.
The French colony of Senegal, upon that river, consists merely of several factories or
trading posts ; St. Louis, the principal town, has 6,000 inhabitants ; and Goree, upon the
island of that name, 3,000, mostly slaves or free blacks. The English factories are upon the
Gambia ; Bathurst, is the principal station. The Portuguese have some slave-trading posts
among the Bissagos islands, of which Cacheu is the chief station. The principal articles of
trade carried on by the two former settlements are spirituous liquors and tobacco, in return for
which, they receive gums, bees' wax, gold dust, and ivory.
3. Guinea. The country is bounded north by Senegambia and Nigritia, east by unknown
countries, south and west by Cimbebas and the Atlantic. It forms a crescent around the
Gulf of Guinea, and is intersected by the equator. It is separated from Nigritia and Sene
gambia by the mountains of Kong. The great river Niger, or Quorra, enters this country
from^Nigritia, and flows into the Atlantic by several mouths, which intersect a tract of country
240 miles in width along the coast. The principal of these mouths are known by the names of
the rivers, Nun, Benin, Formosa, Old and New Calabar. The other rivers are the Zaire, or
Congo, which flows into the Atlantic by so wide a mouth, and with so deep and rapid a cur
rent, that it was at one time imagined to be the outlet of the Niger. Its origin is not known.
The Coanza, which also rises in unknown regions, flows northwesterly into the Atlantic.
This country is commonly regarded under two general divisions, Upper and Lower Guinea.
These have a great number of subdivisions. Upper Guinea consists of the Grain Coast, Liberia,
the Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Slave Coast, or Whidah, Benin, Calabar, Biafra, Gaba, and
Calbangos, which are all upon the coast, and Kooranko, Kong, Dagomba, Killinga, Sarem,
Bunlakoo, Ashantee, Dahomey, and Eye.os, in the interior. Lower Guinea comprises Congo,
Angola, Benguela, Ergoyo, Cacongo, Loango, Mayemba, Sette, and Anziko.
The English colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 1778, with the benevolent purpose of
suppressing the slave-trade, and introducing civilization into this dark corner of the earth. But
the climate has proved fatal to the Europeans who have been stationed here, and the colony is
now in a declining condition. Freetown is the chief place ; it contains about 4,000 inhabit
ants, several schools, &c. In 1828 a settlement was made on Fernando Po, a fertile and
healthy island in the gulf of Guinea, wilh the design of transplanting the colonists thither from
Sierra Leone. The Grain or Pepper Coast is considerably frequented for Guinea pepper, its
WESTERN AFRICA.- 847
only production. The Ivory Coast has no good harbors, but is visited in boats for its trade in
ivory. Upon the Gold Coast are some Dutch settlements, of which El Mina is the capital ;
it has a population of 15,000. The chief British settlement in this quarter is Cape Coast
Castle, which contains 8,000 inhabitants. The Slave Coast is a beautiful country, covered
with a luxuriant and perpetual vegetation ; it is governed by a viceroy under the king of Da
homey. The slave-trade upon this coast is still actively prosecuted.
The American colony of Liberia was founded by the American Colonization Society, in
1821, for the purpose of facilitating the gradual emancipation of slaves in the United States.
The spot selected for the first settlement was a little elevated peninsula, lying between the
mouth of the river Mesurado or Montserrado and the sea, and terminating in a cape of the
same name. After suffering much from the hostility of the natives, with whom it had to sus
tain several severe conflicts, this little colony has at length obtained tranquillity, and is in an
exceedingly prosperous condition. The territory over which its jurisdiction now extends,
lies between Cape Mount and Cape Palmas, or between 4° and 7' N. latitude ; comprising
the tract above mentioned under the name of the Grain Coast ; it occupies about 225 miles
of coast, with a breadth of from 20 to 30 miles inland. The climate is found to be healthful,
although emigrants are liable to be attacked by the country fever on their first arrival. Its
fertile soil yields rice, cotton, coffee, sugar, indigo, banana, cassada, yams, &c. Camwood
is abundant, and the timber is durable and well fitted for building. The natives are the Deys,
an indolent and inoffensive people, occupying the coast on both sides of the Mesurado to the
number of 1 ,000 or 3,000 ; the Bassas, also a peaceful but more industrious and numerous
people further south ; and the Queaks and Condoes in the interior. There are also scattered
settlements of Kroomen, whose native country is near Cape Palmas, and who are a laborious
and hardy race, acting as pilots, porters, and oarsmen for the trading vessels on the coast ;
they commonly speak English. The settlement on Cape Mesurado, which received the name
of Monrovia is now a flourishing town, with about 2,000 inhabitants. Caldwell, New Georgia,
and Millsburg, higher up the river, also present proofs of the independent and comfortable
situation of the colonists. " From New Georgia to Millsburg," says an eyewitness in 1839,
"a distance of 17 miles, the right bank of the river exhibits an almost continuous line of culti
vated farms, many of them of considerable size. Millsburg stands on the St. Paul's, a large
tributary of the Mesurado, and consists of a single street, about a mile and a half long, running
parallel with the river. The town is pleasantly situated and exhibits a highly picturesque
appearance. Edina, about 60 miles from Monrovia, on the river St. John's ; Bassa Cove,
which, after having been desolated by some hostile natives, has since been reoccupied, and the
Maryland colony of Harper, a neat and thriving little village at Cape Palmas, are the other
principal settlements. The colonists consist of free blacks, emancipated slaves, and recap
tured Africans, taken from the slavers, to the number of about 4,000, beside whom about
1,500 of the natives have put themselves under the protection of the colony. Already neat
frame or stone buildings have been erected for houses and warehouses, school houses have
been provided and supplied with teachers, churches have been built, and a press set up, from
which is issued a respectable newspaper. The native traders from the interior have visited
the colony, and an active commerce is carried on partly in colonial shipping, and partly by
American and European vessels. Palm oil, ivory, dye-wood, hides, wax, and pepper, are
among the articles of export, in addition to the productions before enumerated.
Benin, or Adou. This State, of which our knowledge is very slight, embraces a great
part of the vast delta of the Niger. The capital of the same name is a large, though not
populous town, with about 15,000 inhabitants. Bonny, in one of the tributary States, is an
important commercial town with 20,000 inhabitants. The manners and customs of the inhab
itants appear to resemble those of the people of Ashantee and Dahomey.
The most important of the interior districts is the kingdom of Ashantee. It is about 800
miles in length, and 350 in breadth. The soil is fertile, and the country completely covered
with vegetation. Sugar-cane, rice, the butter tree, pawpaws, ananas, and bananas are culti
vated. The population is above 1,000,000, without reckoning the tributary nations, which
are 22 in number. The inhabitants weave and dye cotton with considerable dexterity, and
hold a trade with the coast in gold dust and vegetable butter. The immense forests of the
country afford abundance of palm oil.
The metropolis, called Coumassi, is large and regularly built ; it is insulated by a marsh,
which contains many springs, that supply the town with water ; and it is also encompassed by
848
"WESTERN AFRICA.
a fine forest. The figure is oblong, and the circumference between tnree and four miles ; the
principal streets are very long and wide. The walls of the houses are foTmed of stakes and
wattle-work, filled up and coated with clay. They have gable-ends, and thick poles support
a frame of bamboo, over which interwoven palm-leaves are placed for thatch. In general,
they have only one floor, and, where they have two, the lower part is divided by a wall, to
support the rafters for the upper room, which are usually covered with a frame-work thickly
stuccoed with ochre. The doors consist of an entire piece of wood, cut with great labor out
of the stems or buttresses of the cotton tree ; and the windows are open wood-work, carved
in fanciful figures and intricate patterns, and painted red. " The palace (says Mr. Bowditch)
is an immense building, of a variety of oblong courts and regular squares, the former with
arcades along one side, some of round arches symmetrically turned, having a skeleton of
bamboo ; the entablatures exuberantly adorned with bold fan and trellis work of Egyptian
character. They have a suite of rooms over them, with small windows of wooden lattice, of
intricate but regular carved work ; and some have frames cased with thin gold. The squares
have a large apartment on each side, open in front, with two supporting pillars ;" and this kind
of proscenium is a mark of distinction ; for none but military officers, beside the king,
are permitted to build in this mode. Chairs and stools embossed with gold, and beds of silk,
are among the articles of royal furniture. The population of the capital is about 15,000.
The Ashantees appear to be the most powerful, commercial, and warlike of all the tribes
of Western Africa ; yet, until the beginning of the present century they were not known, even
by name, to the Europeans. Since that period they have been visited by travelers from the
coast. They have recently carried on hostilities against the British with remarkable success,
and in 1823, they defeated, and totally destroyed a British army under Sir Charles McCarthy,
the governor of the colony at Cape Coast Castle.
The kingdom of Dahomey lies to the east of Ashantee, and is bounded south by the gulf
of Guinea. The soil is fertile, producing maize, millet, grain, potatoes, plantains, oranges,
citrons, and other tropical fruits, with indigo, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and spices. The wind
called karmatlan, blows in this country for three months in the year ; rains and hurricanes are
periodical. The inhabitants have some skill in manufactures. They make good cloth, and
dye it of various colors. Their smith work is quite respectable ; they use a bellows formed
of two goat skins, with a musket-barrel for a pipe ; a stone is used for an anvil, and a round
iron bar, a foot in length, for a hammer. With these tools they manufacture spears, cutlasses,
and other weapons; carpenters' tools, bracelets, rings, &c. Cowries are used for money, and
the king maintains a considerable standing army.
Loango was formerly a dependency upon that of Congo. The people are industrious, and
not only occupy themselves in various arts, but engage also in commercial pursuits. The
climate is remarkably warm, and a long, dry season regularly follows a long continuance of
rain. The cocoa and banana thrive beside the more common fruit-trees ; and the cotton plant
and sugar-cane are cultivated with success.
Congo is bounded on the north by Loango, on the south by Angola, and on the east by the
territory of the Giagas. The climate is extremely hot in summer ; but the winters are as
mild as the finest springs of Italy. The wild animals are elephants, lions, leopards, panthers,
wolves, zebras, buffaloes, &c. The country is likewise infested with a variety of serpents,
some of which are of a monstrous length and thickness ; with rattlesnakes, vipers, scorpions>
and venomous insects of various kinds, both flying and reptile. Among the insects the most
wonderful are the termites, or white ants, which construct works in the most ingenious man
ner and apparently in a scientific form, and compose an orderly and well-regulated commu
nity. Their earthen structures are sometimes raised to the height of seven or eight feet, and
appear like the huts of the natives. These little creatures not only destroy the fruits of the
earth, but in the night surround beasts, and sometimes men, in prodigious swarms, and devour
them in a few hours, leaving only the bones. This country was discovered, in 1487, by the
Portuguese, who formed settlements on the coast, and endeavored, but not with effective suc
cess, to convert the natives to Christianity.
To the southward of Congo is the kingdom of Angola, which used to supply the French
and other dealers in slaves with multitudes of those wretched and degraded beings, and still
furnishes the Spaniards and Portuguese with a considerable number, as those nations continue
the abominable traffic, in defiance of the general voice of Europe. In Loanda, which is the
chief town, the Portuguese have a settlement, which is the great mart of slaves.
WESTERN AFRICA. 849
Further to the south is the territory of Benguela, with which the Portuguese are also
connected. The climate of this country is particularly insalubrious, and the people are rude
and barbarous. Mines of copper exist among the mountains ; but they are not rendered, even
by the European colonies, subservient to general use. The other territories are insignificant.
The Portuguese have numerous factories and posts upon some parts of the coast, and claim
extensive territories in Congo, Angola, and Benguela ; but in many cases their claims are
merely nominal.
4. Inhabitants. There is considerable diversity in features and color, in the different
nations or tribes. The peculiar negro features are not found in all. The Mandingoes have
regular and open countenances, and among the Ashantees may be found faces of Grecian
shape and precision. The negroes are generally well shaped ; and among the females may
often be seen the most graceful forms. In all things but in color, they have what are allowed
in Europe to be the requisites for beauty. The dress is various, and different tribes and
people of the same tribe indulge in a diversity. In some places, nakedness is hardly covered,
and in others the dress is cumbrous. In Timannee, it is considered respectable to wear large
trowsers, of several spans of cloth ; and great breeches there are synonymous with great men.
A ruler in that country on seeing Laing take off his gloves, exclaimed in astonishment, " Alia
akbar, he has pulled off the skin from his hands ! "
5. Language. The languages are various, but the Arabic is gaining ground as the Mahom
etan religion spreads.
6. Manner of Building. The manner of building is slight, as the dwellings are intended to
be a defence from heat, and not from cold. In Ashantee, the houses are built with some skill
and regularity, and the rooms are rudely painted, in regular and pleasing figures.
7. Food and Drink. The general food is light, consisting chiefly of rice, honey, yams,
groundnuts, and fruits. Palm wine, and pitto, the country ale, are the chief intoxicating liquors,
though, on the coast, may be had the European spirits. On the coast, there is much beastly
intoxication. 8. Manners and Customs. The slave-trade has been fruitful in evil to this part of Africa,
and all over the continent it has perpetuated mischief, no less than in America. It has broken
up the foundations of society, and much depraved the character of the negroes. In the inte
rior, where the European traveler has never penetrated, may yet be found tribes, living in the
simplicity of innocence, but depravity may be measured by the approach to the coast. On
the coast, however, the African character remains, and the people are timid and cheerful.
They are placable, and will, in a moment after a quarrel, be perfectly reconciled. Some of
them are warlike, and all of them, under many circumstances of war, kidnapping, &c,
are cruel.
In Dahomey, the people are characterized as having a strange mixture of ferocity and po
liteness ; and in Ashantee, they live, with many of the comforts of civilization, in a state of
shocking barbarism. They have trade, wealth, and a regular government ; but the human
sacrifices, perpetrated in the capital, are almost beyond belief. The king, and grandees,
have vessels of silver and gold, and the English mission remarked a great natural politeness
among the courtiers. Suicide is not uncommon, in cases of disgrace. The people are ex
tremely neat in their persons, dress, and houses ; and they bathe daily. Cowardice is punish
ed as a crime, with death ; and in wars, the general places himself in the rear, to kill those who
may retreat. In some of the negro nations, there is an institution called the simo, or the pur-
rah. The chief, and the initiated, reside in woods ; and by the power of superstition, as well
as of force, render the neighboring people tributary. Some classes are generally privileged,
and may travel safely when the countries are at war ; these are orators, or lawyers, minstrels,
blacksmiths, and shoemakers. The palavers are judicial and deliberative assemblies, and "to
bring a palaver," is, in other words, to bring an action. On these occasions, the orators are
very adroit. In some parts, constructive damages are allowed to a great extent. Thus, when
eggs were stolen, after the lapse of years, the loss was computed on the supposition, that they
would have hatched and multiplied in the greatest ratio. There is a general deference to old
age, and there are no destitute old people to be seen.
The common amusements are dancing, story-telling, and singing. The dancing is often
continued by the whole village, during the night. ' The only education ever received, is that
degree of knowledge obtained by a few^ to read the Koran, and write a few sentences in Arabic.
The Mahometan religion has some followers in almost every tribe, and a reader in the Koran
enjoys considerable reputation. Generally, there is some notion of a Supreme Being.
107
850 WESTERN AFRICA.
There are many fetiches, or indefinable objects, principles of worship, or consecrated things.
The fetiche seems to resemble the obi of the West Indies, and the taboo of the South Sea
Islands. Charms, amulets, and saphies, or written charms, are in great use, as defence from
danger, &c. It is a general custom, in eating and drinking, to throw a little food or drink on
the ground, as an offering to the dead. At various places, but especially in Ashantee and Da
homey, there are human sacrifices, and Coomassie is the very court of Moloch. At the "yarn
custom," in September, when the yam is ripe, the convicts are executed ; but all chiefs, who
enter the city, have the right of sacrificing 4 slaves, one at each of the 4 corners of the city.
At the death of a chief, or one of his family, the grave is filled with the heads of the victims
who are sacrificed, that their spirits may be in attendance on the soul of the departed. When
the king's mother died, 3,000 people were slain ; and, on occasions when the king would pro
pitiate the higher or the lower powers, he offers these sacrifices ; and, as the victims are taken
promiscuously, the streets are deserted, or a few people only cross them by stealth, or run
through them at full speed. When a death takes place in a family, the slaves run forthwith to
the woods, for it is usual to sacrifice one on the instant, and more at the burial. The persons
to be sacrificed, are sometimes led in processions, with a knife through their cheeks and
tongue. In the Portuguese settlements, which are large, and divided into duchies, counties, and mar-
quisates, the Christian religion has been preached to the negroes since the 15th century. The
gospel, however, is not embraced by any free nation, and the Jagga negroes have associations
to prevent its spread. This cannot excite surprise, when we consider what Christians have
done in this part of Africa.
In Congo, Loango, and other countries, more or less subject to the Portuguese, the labors
of the Capuchin missionaries have been successful, and there are more than 100,000 converts,
including some native princes. It is probable, that their Christianity is not of the purest kind.
The outward forms of worship are those of the Romish church, though there are many pagan
observances. French ecclesiastics, also, founded missions in Cacongo and Loango, in 1766.
The missions are still kept up, though feebly, in these countries, and in Benguela. At Sierra
Leone, bibles are distributed by thousands in the native languages, and negroes of superior tal
ents trained for teachers and missionaries. Similar advantages are spread, also, from Liberia.
The king of Ashantee has 3,333 wives, and the number is religiously kept entire, though
many of them are infants, and but a few hundred of the wives are attached to the palace. Po
lygamy is common on the whole coast, but the Mahometan professors have generally but 4 wives.
When the wives of the king of Ashantee go out, they are preceded by boys with whips, who
fall upon every one in the street, that no one may see the ladies. These boys or pages, have
the right of pilfering in the market, and they are always busy in their vocation. They will
trip down a countryman, bringing his supplies, and when scattered on the ground, collect the
merchandise and run away. The market people, however, are very circumspect, and if they
can take the pages before they reach the palace, may inflict upon them any beating short of
death. The government of the different countries or tribes, is despotic, aristocratic, or republican.
The ordeal by poison is used in many places, and the poison must be taken both by the ac
cused and the informer. Few of either survive it. Lander, who was forced, on his return,
to swallow a bowl of the vegetable poison, walked off unharmed to his tent, where he dis
charged his stomach by a powerful emetic, and received little injury.
At Ashantee, the legal interest is 33£ per cent for 40 days, and if the debtor cannot pay,
he may be sold to slavery, subject to redemption. In charges of treason, if the accused is
acquitted, the accuser suffers death. It is forbidden, by law, to praise another man's wife ;
so that "honey-mouth," as flattery is called, is not in repute. Conjugal disputes are some
times settled by the interference of Mumbo Jumbo, a mysterious personage, who seems to he
in the interest of the husband ; his interposition is decisive. He is an incarnate bugbear,
dressed in the barks of trees, and sometimes surmised to be the husband himself. Mumbo
Jumbo comes at evening, and goes to the Bentang tree, where the whole village assembles,
though the females are the least pleased, for no one knows to whom the visit is intended. At
about midnight, Mumbo fixes upon the offender, who is stripped, tied to a tree, and scourged.
The people of the western countries have the art of smelting iron, though they do not use
the metal skilfully in any manufactures. They have some sweet and simple tunes, which they
play on a calabash guitar, with a few notes. Marriages, among the Mandingoes, are celebrated
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
851
Marriage Celebration.
by shouting, drinking, and firing guns, and the bride is carried to her husDand's house on the
shoulders of an old woman, who walks all the way upon mats spread before her. There are,
in the African concerts, also, pipes, horns, drums, and old brass pans.
CHAPTER CXXXII. SOUTHERN AFRICA.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Under this head, we include all the country extending from
the last described territories, southerly to the Cape of Good Hope, comprising the Cape Col
ony, Caffraria, and all the Hottentot and Cimbebas regions. It will thus extend from the Cape
of Good Hope, or rather Cape Agulhas, the southern extremity of Africa, in latitude 34° 55'
South, to about 16° S. latitude, on the Western Coast, and 26° S. latitude on the Eastern
Coast. Its boundaries are Guinea, unknown countries, and Monomotapa, on the north, the
Indian Ocean on the east, the Southern Ocean on the south, and the Atlantic on the west.
2. Cape Colony. This district occupies the southern extremity of Africa. The leading
feature in the aspect of the Cape territory, consists in 3 successive ranges of mountains, run
ning parallel to each other, and to the southern coast of Africa. The first range, which, at
least in a great part of its line, is called the Lange Kloof, or Long Pass, runs parallel to the
coast, at a distance of from 20 to 60 miles, widening towards the west. The second range,
called Zwarte Berg, or Black Mountain, is. considerably higher and more rugged, than the first,
and consists, often, of double or even triple ranges. The belt, interposed between the Zwarte
Berg and the Lange Kloof, is nearly of the same average breadth, as that between the latter
and the sea, and it is of considerably greater elevation. Beyond the Zwarte Berg, at an inter
val of 80 or 100 miles, rises the Nieuweldt's Gebirge, or Snowy Mountains, the highest range
of Southern Africa, and the summits of which are generally covered with snow. They have
not been accurately measured, but- are not supposed, in their greatest height, to fall short of
10,000 feet. The passes, between these mountains, are called Kloofs, in Dutch. The fol
lowing cut represents a pass, called Hottentot Hollands Kloof. The belt, or plain, interposed
between these two last chains, is considerably more elevated than either of the two others, so
that Southern Africa forms, as it were, a succession of terraces, rising above each other.
The plain next the sea, is covered with a deep and fertile soil, watered by numerous rivulets,
well clothed with grass, and with a beautiful variety of trees and shrubs. Rains are frequent ;
and from its vicinity to the sea, it enjoys a more mild and equable temperature, than the inte
rior and remoter parts of the colony.
852
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
The second terrace contains a considerable pbrtion of well-watered and fertile lands ; inter
spersed with large tracts of the arid
desert, called karroo. The third belt,
called the Great Karroo, is composed
of a vast plain, 300 miles in length,
and nearly 100 in breadth ; the soil
of which is of a hard and impenetra
ble texture, destitute, almost, of every
trace of vegetation. The plains of
South Africa, called karroos, -present
a dreary, listless uniformity of level
surface, except where broken by a few
straggling hills of schistus or slate,
which rise, like little volcanic cones,
out of a naked surface of clay, whose
tinge is that of a dull, ferruginous
brown. All traces of animated nature
are, in the dry season, obliterated from
Hottentot Hollands Kloof.
these dreary solitudes ; and the withered remains of the fig-marigolds, and other succulent
plants, sparingly scattered over the surface, crackle under the feet, and seem, from the faint
and feeble traces of vegetable life, to maintain a perpetual struggle for existence.
The northern front of Table Mountain overlooks Cape Town, and rises almost perpendicu
larly, like the ruins of some gigantic fortress, till it terminates in a line, nearly horizontal, and
of about 2 miles in extent, the highest point of which is about 3,585 feet above Table Bay.
The west side of this stupendous mass of rock, extending along the seashore, is rent into hol
lows, and worn away into pyramidal masses. The ascent of the mountain is very steep and
difficult, on account of the loose stones, which roll away under the feet of the traveler. Its
summit is nearly level, and very barren and bare of soil ; several cavities, however, are filled
with water, or contain a small quantity of vegetable earth, from whence a few odoriferous
plants, particularly the Ancea mucronata, an elegant frutescent plant peculiar to this region,
draw their nourishment. Antelopes, baboons, solitary vultures, and toads are sometimes to
be met with on the mountain. The view from the summit is very extensive and picturesque.
The bay seems a small pond or basin, and the ships in it are dwindled to little boats ; the
town under the feet, and the regular compartments of its gardens, look like the work of chil
dren ; all is dwindled into mere specks
and lines. The air on the summit, in
winter, and in the shade, is generally
about 15° lower than that of the town ;
but in summer the difference is still great
er, particularly when the southeast wind
blows, and a fleecy cloud, called " the
Table-cloth," appears on the mountain,
and gives indication of an approaching
storm. This cloud is composed of im
mense masses of fleecy whiteness. It
does not appear to be at rest on the hill,
but to be constantly rolling onward from
the southeast, yet, to the surprise of the
beholder, it never descends, because the
snowy wreaths seen falling over the pre
cipice towards the town below, vanish
completely before they reach it, while others are formed to replace them on the other side.
One of the most remarkable natural curiosities in this country is the Cango Cavern, of which
the above cut is a representation, as seen by torch-light.
3. Rivers. The colony is deficient in navigable rivers for vessels of any considerable bur
den. The two principal rivers on the western coast are the Berg, or Mountain River, and the
Olifant or Elephant's River. These streams are only navigable by small craft to the distance
of about 20 miles up the country. On the south coast of the colony the Breede or Broad
The Cango Cavern.
SOUTHERN AFRICA. 853
River discharges itself into St. Sebastian's Bay. Its mouth, now called Port Beaufort, allows
vessels of 200 tons to enter, and discharge or load in safety. The Gauritz, the next great
river on the coast, is a collection of waters from the Great Karroo and Black Mountains. In
the rainy season it is a rapid and dangerous stream. The Knysna is considered by Barrow
to have been a lake which has opened -itself a channel to the sea, and the tide now sets into it,
through a narrow passage, as into a dock. The arms of the Knysna stretch into the deep
valleys at the foot of the mountains, and are there lost in impenetrable forests. The Keur-
boom, like the Knysna, runs up into the midst of tall forests. The Camtoos River admits
vessels of 200 tons, and promises to be of great service to the colony, particularly if it prove
true, that coal is to be found on its banks. The Zwart-kops River is a clear, permanent stream
flowing into Algoa Bay. The mouth of the Kowie River is the next port to the eastward.
The Great Fish River, the Rio d' Infante of the Portuguese, takes its rise beyond (he Snowy
Mountains, and in its long course collects a multitude of tributaries. The northern frontiers
of the colony are watered by two large rivers ; the Lesser Fish River and the Gareip or Orange
River. The former, which waters the Great Namaqua territory, falls into the Orange River
about 70 miles from its mouth. The Orange River appears to be formed by two rivers which
unite their waters nearly 600 miles due east from their mouth. It falls into the Atlantic in
latitude 28° 30'. Most of these rivers, swelled by periodical rains, deposite much mud and
sand at their mouths ; some of them in the dry season are lost amid the sands and rocks.
Besides these principal rivers there are a number of small streams, which may be generally
crossed dry-shod, but after a fall of rain increase to a great size.
4. Climate. The seasons in this colony are divided into monsoons, of which there are
two annually ;,the one wet, the other dry. The dry monsoon is called summer ; the wet
monsoon constitutes winter. The former, or rather the spring season, commences in Sep
tember, the latter in March. During the dry monsoon, southeast winds are prevalent. The
wet monsoon is generally attended with- northwest winds. The weather, during the wet mon
soon, is disagreeable and moist, but the cold is never severe. Ice is never much more than
the eighth part of an inch thick. Thunder and lightning are rare, and seldom violent. The
atmosphere is healthy, and agrees well with European constitutions.
5. Soil, Productions, &c. Of the district occupied by the colony, a great part is moun
tainous and barren ; but it contains many fine and fertile tracts. The CaPe has long been
celebrated among naturalists and botanists as a fertile field for their, labors. Almost every
animal found on the African continent, may be found in the neighbourhood of this colony.
Two varieties of the lion are found in South Africa, namely, the yellow and the brown, or, as
the Dutch colonists often term the latter, the blue or black lion, which sometimes commit
great ravages among the cattle. The dark colored species is the stronger and fiercer. Ze
bras have become very rare in the colony. The elephants have also forsaken the countries
inhabited by Europeans, excepting the Sitschamma district ; the two-horned rhinoceros shows
itself still more rarely ; and the gentle giraffe seeks the more secluded districts. The Bos
Cafer, or buffalo of the Cape, is distinguished by enormous horns. Flax yields two crops in
the year, and hemp is abundant. Indian corn grows well ; cotton and coffee, rice and sugar,
are yet but little known ; European wheat and barley thrive well ; the flora is singularly rich.
6. Manufactures, Commerce, Towns, &c. There are few manufactures conducted at the
Cape, except the making of wine, of which about 7,900 pipes are annually exported to, Eng
land, while the colony itself consumes at least 6,500 within the same period. The wine called
Constantia, from the name of the small district where it is made, is much celebrated. The
quantity yearly produced does not exceed 100 pipes. The vines from which it is produced
were originally brought from Shiraz, in Persia. Vines have been transplanted from many dif
ferent places ; and, in several instances, the removal has improved them. Many kinds of
wine are extremely cheap. Next to agriculture and wines, the whale and seal fishery must be
ranked. The colonists are making rapid advances in several new experiments, the most
prominent of which is the introduction of the silk-worm. The mulberry tree grows sponta
neously, particularly on the southeast coast ; and the produce promises to be of the utmost
advantage to the trade of the Cape. Wool is also bepoming an important article of produce.
The Cape supplies various articles of provision and refreshment to ships sailing between Eu
rope and the East Indies. Among these articles may be enumerated corn, flour, biscuit,
beef, brandy, and wine ; and while they remain in Table Bay, mutton, greens, and fruits ;
aloes, hides, barilla, ivory, ostrich feathers, fruits dried in the sun for the Indian market, are
854 SOUTHERN AFRICA.
the other products for exportation. The inland trade carried on with the natives has not only
much increased in value of late years, but has essentially altered its character. The medium
of traffic was formerly trinkets and useless articles, but the natives now demand clothes, blan
kets, tools, and utensils, and the trade has become regular, and is rapidly growing in amount.
Cape- Town, the capital, is situated in a valley, at the foot of Table mountain, and at the
southeast angle of Table bay. It was founded in 1652, and is built with great regularity, and
with a considerable degree of elegance. The streets, which are wide, intersect each other
at right angles. The houses, about 1,500 in number, for the most part are of stone, cemented
with a glutinous kind of earth, and are generally whitewashed on the outside. Their height is
seldom more than two floors, frequent storms rendering a greater elevation dangerous. Many
of the houses have trees planted before them, which give a rural appearance to the town.
The castle is a large pentagonal fortress, on the southeastern or inland side of the town, close
to the water's edge. The colonial office possesses a fine collection of books. To the south
ward of the town a great number of elegant villas are scattered about, and the scenery resem
bles that of the rich and cultivated districts of England. Labor, house-rent, and fire-wood,
constitute a large proportion of the expenses of living at Cape-Town ; fruit, vegetables, and
sea-fish are abundant and cheap. Horse-races, balls, masquerades, and Sunday promenades
in the government gardens, form the leading amusements. Population, 20,000.
The colony is divided into 10 districts. The population amounts to 160,000 souls, of whom
36,000 are negro apprentices, formerly slaves, but emancipated in 1834. The annual value
of the imports is 5,000,000 dollars ; of exports 1,600,000. The Cape of Good Hope was
discovered by Diaz, a Portuguese navigator, in 1493, who called it Cabo Torraentoso, or
Cape of Storms, from his having experienced stormy weather there. Emanuel, king of Por
tugal, inspired with the hope of now reaching India by sea, gave it the more cheering name
of Cape of Good Hope, which it has ever since borne, and which it has communicated to the
surrounding region. The Dutch first formed a settlement on the coast in the middle of tbe
next century, but in 1806, the colony was conquered by Great Britain, and has since remained
in her possession. In 1834 and 1835, the colonists became involved in a severe conflict with
the neighboring Caffres, and the result of the war was the extension of the limits of the col
ony from the Keiskamma, the former boundary, to the Great Key River, by which a large
tract of fine country has been added to the colonial possessions.
7. Caffraria. This country lies along the coast of the Indian Ocean, and comprehends
various tribes on the Koussas, Tambookies, Hambounas, Betchuanas, Mashows, &c.
" The Caffre nations," says Malte Brun, " inhabit a region less known than any on the
globe. We there see, behind a marshy, unhealthy, but fertile coast, chains of mountains arise
that have been very imperfectly examined, which appear to be in a parallel direction with the
coast, that is, from southwest to northeast. Our missionaries inform us, that those parts of
Caffraria which they have visited, are mountainous and rich in water. The soil is argilla
ceous, tempered with fine sand, and very fertile. The whole surface, and even the tops
of the mountains, are covered with woods, shrubs, and grass ; never naked and parched, ex
cept in uncommonly dry seasons."
The winter, which is the rainy season at the Cape, is in Caffreland the driest ; and most
of the rain comes down by thunder-storms in the summer. The country, in general, is con
siderably elevated above the level of the sea, and much colder than, from its nearness to the
tropic, might be expected. Perhaps the plentiful rains, the high mountains, and the strong
electricity prevailing in the atmosphere, may be mentioned among the causes of its fertility-
The thunder-storms, which are more frequent and tremendous than in Europe, exhibit also
uncommon phenomena. The flashes of lightning, which in Europe diffuse a light through the
air, which dazzle the eye, and disappear in a moment, here consist of a stream of distinct
sparks drawn by the earth from the clouds, or from one cloud by another.
The most common animals in Caffraria are the ox and the wolf. Of the former (including
bulls and cows), the natives often possess several hundreds ; and some keep above a thousand.
Of the latter, there are two kinds ; the first spotted ; and, on that account, called by the colo
nists, Tiger-wolf; the other is the Strand-wolf. The first is most common, and very trouble
some. The lion and the buffalo are less frequent. These animals seem to be fond of each
other, and commonly keep company ; though the lion uses the buffalo for food. Elks grow
very large ; one of them affords more meat than two oxen ; they are easily taken. The ele
phant of this country is very tall, much more so than that of India ; his teeth are sometimes
SOUTHERN AFRICA. 855
8 and 9 feet long. There are no tame horses in Caffreland, except a very few which are
brought from the colony ; but there are two sorts of wild horses, the Douw and the Qjuagga ;
the former is more beautifully streaked than the latter. The quagga is an enemy to the wolf,
and drives him out of the field which he inhabits. The tiger of this country is not streaked,
but spotted with small brown spots. " I must also mention," says Dr. Vanderkemp, " an
animal, the name of which is not known in the colony, as they call it the Unknown Animal.
The Hottentots call it Kamma. It is sometimes seen among a herd of elks, and is much
higher than these. It was never caught nor shot, as it is, hy its swiftness, unapproachable ; it
has the form of a horse, and is streaked ; but finer than the douw. Its step is like that of a
horse. I looked upon this description as somewhat fabulous, till we came near the Teitjana,
among the Boschmen ; there one of our company saw an animal among some quaggas, which
he had never seen before ; he said, that it was like a most beautiful horse, but much larger.
The Boschmen pointed to a plain where they said these animals were found in great numbers.
This one had a tail like that of a n'gau, but with a much longer bunch of hairs at the point."
This appears to be the unicorn of Campbell and others. At Mashow, a town in the territory
of the Tamahas, an animal of the rhinoceros kind was killed in 1821, having a horn projecting
three feet from the forehead, arising about ten inches above the tip of the nose. A few'inches
of a small second horn, behind, did not affect its unicorn appearance. The head measured
three feet from the mouth to the ear. It is at present deposited in the British Musuem.
There are two sorts of wild hogs. The rhinoceros with two horns, and the sea-cow, are also
natives of this country. The latter has strength and courage enough to throw a rhinoceros
from the rocks, down into the river. The rhinoceros, however, is the terror of the elephant,
and sometimes puts many of them to flight. There is a variety of antelopes, distinguished by
the names of Steinbok, Springbok, fyc-
About 900 miles to the northeast of Cape-Town, is New Lattakoo, situated near the source
of the Krooman, a main branch of the Orange river ; and 50 miles beyond that, stands Old '
Lattakoo ; each of these towns contains about 4,000 inhabitants.
Campbell, in 1821, penetrated as far as Kurreechane, the capital of the Marootzes, and was
favorably received. The population of this town was estimated, by him, at 16,000 souls.
Mr. Campbell saw many founderies in Kurreechane ; but he regrets, that they were guarded
with so much jealousy, that he was not allowed to enter them. Kurreechane appears to be the
Staffordshire, as well as the Birmingham, of that part of South Africa. They manufacture
pottery ; and, in the shape and painting of their articles, show a superior degree of taste.
They appear to excel in the making of baskets ; and Mr. Campbell found the walls of their
houses ornamented with paintings of elephants, camelopards, shields, &c.
8. Inhabitants. The white inhabitants are Dutch, Germans, English, and a few French.
There is, also, a considerable number of the mixed race, and there are a few thousand Malays
at the Cape. The negroes are chiefly of the Hottentot, or Caffre race. The color of the
Hottentots is a yellow-brown, and their formation is peculiar. They have very small hands
and feet ; their faces are broad above, and narrowed to a point. Their cheek bones are prom
inent, and their lips thick. In some tribes, the wool grows in little tufts, like the teeth of a
shoe-brush, and when suffered to grow, hangs in fringes. The Bushmen are a tribe of Hot
tentots, anciently separated from the rest. To European eyes, the women are objects of hor
ror ; lean and gaunt, except over the hips, where all the flesh seems to be piled. A Venus,
drawn from the Hottentot model, would have little resemblance to that of Florence. The
Hottentots smear themselves with fat and soot, and are so used to it, that, when washed, one
seems to be without his clothes. The Caffres are of a black-gray color, and, like the Hotten
tots, have a few tufts of beard on the chin. They are exceedingly well-formed, hardy, and
active. They travel much, if for no other reason than to visit each other. The females are
small, but finely formed. The Bctchuanas are, in form, superior even to the other Caffres.
The native tribes dres9 chiefly in the skins of sheep, which the Hottentots wear, with the
wool, generally, in the form of a cloak, open before. This is called a carosse. The females
have a petticoat of skins, or leather. The Caffres dress in leather, which they have the art to
render very pliant. They wear many ornaments of beads, rings, carved bones, &c. The
following is a representation of the Queen of Lattakoo, in full dress. The Bushmen, when
they have any clothing, dress like the Hottentots. Their handkerchiefs are jackal's tails,
tied to a handle ; and, with these, they wipe the perspiration from their faces. The English
language is, now, that of all official proceedings ; but the Dutch is the general language in the
856
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
Qiieen of Lattakoo.
of them, excellent
colony. The language of the Hottentots, is harsh and shrill.
Their dwellings are rude, and of an elliptical form. A few
poles are bent over, and skins or mats thrown over them.
The entrance is low, and serves for door, window, and chim
ney. The Bushmen have huts still less convenient, consisting
of 3 mats, laid upon poles. The tribes, which have cattle,
pen them, at night, in the circle inclosed by the dwellings.
A village is called a kraal. Any food is acceptable to Hot
tentots, or Bushmen. When in want of flesh, they eat
roots, ants, larvae, grass, mice, and toads. They can go
long without food, and when it is obtained, eat as much as
the Esquimaux, without injury. The Caffres live upon
flesh, milk, melons, &c. They use no salt. They eat no
pork, geese, hares, or fish. The latter, they suppose, are a
kind of serpent. All the tribes are fond of tobacco ; which,
for the want of a better pipe, they smoke through the shank
bone of a sheep. They smoke, also, the leaves of a kind
of hemp, called dacha, which stupifies and intoxicates. The
colonists have a profusion of articles of food, though much
of their subsistence is drawn from their herds. Much bran
dy is consumed, which is spread over the colony by means
of traveling pedlers. The wines of the Cape are, some
The Frontignac, and Lavelle, are equal to those of France. The Con-
stantia is produced from the vine of Shiraz, in Persia. Some of it is exquisite. The wines,
in general, have a deleterious mixture of brandy. There are 150 varieties.
The mode of traveling is laborious, and slow ; in the greater part of the colony, there are
no roads, and the colonists travel in wagons, drawn by 6 or 7 pair of oxen, with relays in at
tendance. They carry, also, sheep for provis-
=^^*jjf%lf» ions, for there are no inns. This can, under no
circumstances, be called rapid traveling, except
by comparison. Campbell, who was familiar
with it, consoled himself with the reflection,
that the pace of an ox was swift, compared with
that of a snail or chamelion. The ox is also fre
quently used with a saddle ; and a recent trav
eler expresses his surprise at seeing, even in
Cape-Town, a " Hottentot chief, riding at full
speed, upon a roan ox." The Dutch colonists
have been subject to much animadversion from
travelers. Those who engage in agriculture are
called boors, and they are as hospitable, but
their coarse and ignorant. They are addicted, at
convivial meetings, to intemperance, and the
most boisterous merriment.. They are, however, more ignorant than depraved. The state of
society, at Cape-Town, has not been highly praised ; but all travelers admit, that the ladies are
distinguished for sweetness and affability. The Hottentots, who have been called a stupid race,
seem to be so, only from their oppressed condition ; they are gentle, and faithful, when trusted.
They are filthy in their persons, and indolent in their habits, but they make good servants to
the boors, who have many of them as slaves, or attendants. They travel much, and one of
them has been known to go 60 miles, on his ox, to recover a knife, of the value of 18 pence.
The Bushmen have been described as the lowest grade of human nature. Campbell met a
horde, in which only one had a name, and he was called the " Old Boy " ! The Caffres are
a pastoral, and, at the same time, a plundering people. A missionary asked one, "for what
he supposed men were created," and his reply was, "to go on robbing expeditions against
each other." In their huts, they sit on the skulls of oxen, with the horns attached. They
hold hospitality sacred. They are very kind to each other, and a whole kraal takes an interest
in accommodating a misunderstanding between individuals. They are excellent herdsmen, and
A Lion attacking Travelers in Southern africa.
EASTERN AFRICA. 857
the herds are made to stop at a whistle, being perfectly trained. In their wars, the women are
the heralds. The Betchuanas are superior to the Caffres, in intelligence and handicrafts.
They travel more than the Caffres, who, however, travel much.
Education is neglected in the settlements, though schools have been recently established.
The dominant religion of the colony, is the Calvinistic, and there is a church in every district.
There are several Episcopal churches, and many missions, under the direction of the London
Missionary Society, the United Brethren, and the Wesleyan Methodists. There are a few
Mahometans at the Cape, chiefly Malays. Circumcision is generally practised among the
tribes, "" though they give no reason for it, and have no tradition concerning it. There is,
among the natives, some indistinct conception of a Supreme Being, but not among the pagans,
any of a future state. They believe in sorcery and witchcraft, and that disease occasioned
by sorcery. There are rainmakers, who pretend to bring rain. The Hottentots have a hor
ror of matrimonial infidelity, and have little polygamy. This, however, is common with the
richer class of Caffres. The general amusement is dancing, though the natives are less fond
of it, and have less music, than the tribes of Central Africa. The government is that of chiefs,
whose authority, however, is very limited. The Caffres punish offences by whipping with
rods, by exposure to clusters of black ants, by burning with hot stones, by inclosing the offen
der in the cleft of a tree, and by death, inflicted by clubs, spears, or drowning.
CHAPTER CXXXIII. EASTERN AFRICA.
1. Boundaries, Extent, and Divisions. Under this head, we shall comprise all the African
coast, from the straits of Babelmandel to Caffraria. This territory is bounded north by Abys
sinia and the straits of Babelmandel, east by the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique channel,
south by Caffraria, and west by unknown regions. It extends from 12° North, to 26° South,
latitude, and may be regarded under 5 divisions ; Monomotapa, Mozambique, Zanguebar,
Ajan, and Adel.
2. Monomotapa. This district is the most southerly, and includes Sofala, Inhambane, and
Delagoa. It is watered by several rivers, the largest of which is the Zambeze, said by the
natives to rise from a great lake. The river Delagoa falls into a large bay and is navigable
200 miles for large boats. The soil is fertile, producing rice, maize, sugar-cane, and fruit.
Gold abounds in the interior, and Sofala is thought to be the Ophir of the scriptures. The
inhabitants carry on a trade in ivory, gold dust, and gums. The slave-trade was formerly
carried on here largely by the Portuguese, and has not yet entirely ceased. The country is
inhabited by various tribes, and the right by discovery to the whole territory is claimed by
the Portuguese.
3. Mozambique. This district lies to the north of Monomotapa, and is traversed by the
Lupata mountains, but its interior, as may be said of all the territory described in this chapter,
is very little known. The city of Mozambique is the emporium of Eastern Africa, and was
rich and flourishing long before the appearance of Europeans in these parts. It has a good
harbor, and is still visited by European ships, but the immense slave-trade upon which it de
pended for its support has declined, and it now affords hardly any articles of commerce.
Here are some manufactures of rope from the fibres of the palm tree. There is also a little
trade in gold dust. The shoals in the neighborhood of the city afford a vast variety of beau
tiful shells. The inhabitants are Moors. The population is about 6,000.
4. Zanguebar. The coast to the north of Cape Delgado is vaguely termed the Zanguebar
coast. It is well watered, fertile, and well timbered, and contains some excellent ports. Our
knowledge of it is extremely imperfect. The principal states seem to be Quiloa, Mombasa,
Melinda, and Magadoxo, so called by Europeans from their respective capitals, which are
petty towns. The whole of this coast belongs to the imam of Mascat.
5. Ajan and Adel. The coast from Zanguebar to Cape Guardafui bears the name of Ajan;
it is dry, rocky, and barren. The want of harbors, the sterility of the country, and the fierce
ness of the natives have prevented it from being much frequented by traders. North of this
from the Cape to Abyssinia is Adel, which is inhabited by the Somaulis, who also occupy the
coast of Ajan, and probably extensive regions of the interior. They are not negroes, but
have long hair, and an olive or blackish complexion ; and are probably either of the Caffre or
Breber race. They have ships of their own, and are active, enterprising merchants. Their
108
858 ABYSSINIA.
chief towns are Berbera and Zeila, which carry on a trade with the natives of the unknown
regions of the interior, and with the Arabs of the opposite shore.
6. Inhabitants. Of the people on the coast, northeastward from the Cape of Good Hope,
little is known. The inconsiderable European commerce that is held with them is carried on
by the Portuguese. In Botongo the king is called grand sorcerer and grand robber, and
he is constantly attended by 400 executioners. A better custom exists in four ministers
who yearly traverse the kingdom, one representing in eastern allegory the person of the
monarch, a second his eyes, a third his mouth, and a fourth his ears. The Mahometan
religion and the Arabic language are common on the coast. The people of Monomotapa are
as little known to Europeans as they were in the 16th century. They go nearly naked, and
are credulous in charms and conjurations. The king, as in Ashantee, is said to have a guard
of armed females. In Zanguebar the sovereign assumes the title of " Son of the Supreme
Lord," and goes to war with 300,000 troops mounted on oxen. The people are said to live
without a settled religion, or law. Each one has some different object of worship. There
are few fruits or vegetables, and millet forms the principal article of food. There are numbers
of the Moorish inhabitants. In Magadoxo, the king and principal people only are dressed ;
the common people go nearly naked. The king, except on journeys, has neither court nor
guards, and no one salutes him. The ashes of the kings and queens are collected in urns of
gold. Criminals are despatched with a club or exposed to wild beasts. The inhabitants rear
great numbers of cattle, and trade in slaves, gold, silver, ivory, oil, frankincense, pepper,
drugs, wax, ostrich feathers, &c.
CHAPTER CXXXIV. ABYSSINIA.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. This country is bounded north by Nubia, northeast by the Red
Sea, south by Adel and unknown districts ; and west by Nigritia. It extends from 8° to 16°
N. latitude, and from 34° to 43° E. longitude, and contains 340,000 square miles.
2. Mountains. Abyssinia is very mountainous ; and is sometimes described as a table
land with a gentle inclination to the northwest. A lofty range called the Lamalmon, extends
along the shore of the Red Sea. The mountains of Samen in Tigre are still higher. In the
south and west are several ridges, supposed to be branches of the mountains of the Moon.
These mountains do not rise to the height of perpetual snow. Their sides are steep and they
generally shoot up in sharp peaks. One of the most remarkable characteristics of its surface
is the ambas or hill-forts, isolated hills rising suddenly with steep and almost inaccessible sides
out of the plains, and often displaying on the top a level surface of considerable extent.
3. Rivers. The Bahr el Azrek, or Blue River, rises in the country of the Adows, flows
through the Lake Dembea, into Sennaar, where it joins the Nile. This is the stream whose
source was discovered by Bruce and considered by him as the main branch of the Nile. The
Taccazze is another stream falling into the Nile.
4. Climate. The level shores of the Red Sea have a very hot air, but in the greater part
of the country the numerous mountains produce a temperature seldom uncomfortably warm.
Thunder is frequent and violent, and the sort of whirlwind known in the Indian Seas by the
name of typhoon, is common. The rainy season lasts from April to September, during
which time the country is drowned by a continual deluge.
5. Minerals. This country seems quite destitute of metals, but it contains a great plain of
salt, four days' journey in extent. For about half a mile the salt is soft, but afterwards be
comes hard like snow partially thawed. It is perfectly pure and hard for two feet in depth.
The inhabitants cut it in pieces, which serve not only for food, but circulate as money.
6. Animals. Hyaenas are very numerous in this country, and render traveling highly dan
gerous. They even enter houses and often assemble in vast troops. Elephants and rhinoce
roses are common in the low grounds. Buffaloes and antelopes are common, and the zebra
is found in the south. The woods swarm with crocodiles and hippopotami. The horses are
strong and beautiful, and the domestic oxen have enormous horns.
7. Divisions. This country consists of several separate independent States. Tigre on the
Red Sea, Amhara in the west, and the districts of Shoa, Efat, &c, in the south. Three
centuries ago these countries were under a single government. The population is supposed
to be about 4,000,000. The powerful State of Tigre comprises an area of 200,000 square
ABYSSINIA. 859
miles, with a population of 2,000,000 inhabitants. The people are warlike and industrious.
Chelicut, the capital, has about 8,000 inhabitants. Adowa, the principal commercial town,
has about the same number of inhabitants. Axum, once the capital of a powerful empire, now
contains a population of 3,000 souls, and there are many ruins, and remarkable edifices, in the
town and its vicinity. In the great square alone, there are 40 obelisks, some of which are
remarkable for their dimensions.
On the western side of the Taccazze, is a colony of Jews, called Falashas, or exiles, whose
ancestors fled to this country, from the victorious arms of Nebuchadnezzar ; they preserved
their independence until 1800, when they fell under the dominion of Tigre.
The Kingdom of Gondar comprises the central part of Abyssinia. Gondar, the chief
town, has from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. The Kingdom of Ankober comprises the rich
est and most fertile provinces of Abyssinia ; but, like Gondar, is now governed by the Gallas.
The Kingdom of Amhara is also now in the hands of the Gallas.
8. Agriculture. The common article of agriculture is a grain, called teff, which grows in
almost every soil, and is made into a bread, used in every part of the country, and from which
a sort of beer, called bouza, is prepared. Wheat is raised upon the mountains. The papy
rus, which furnished the paper of the ancients, is produced here. The soil, along the banks
of the rivers, is uncommonly fertile.
9. Commerce, Manufactures, &c. Cotton cloths are manufactured in large quantities, the
fine sort at Gondar, and the coarse at Adowa. The manufactures of iron and brass are con
siderable ; the metals are procured from Sennaar, Wolcayt, and Berbera. Some leather and
parchment is also made. The exports are gold, ivory, honey, slaves, and rhinoceros' bones.
The foreign commerce is transacted chiefly at Masuah, a port on the Red Sea. This town
acknowledges the sovereignty of the Grand Signor.
10. Inhabitants. The Abyssinians are in general well made, and, though nearly black, they
have neither the nose, lips, nor hair of the negroes. They are considered to be of Asiatic
origin, and to be nearly related to the Arabs ; and the Amharic and Gheez languages, which
are spoken in Ankober, Amhara, Tigre, and other States, bear a considerable resemblance to
the Arabic. They are superior to most African nations* and their manufactures of carpets,
parchments, iron, and brass ware, leather, &c, show a good deal of skill. They have, also,
authors, and even painters. The Abyssinians are Christians of the Greek church ; the priests
are not well informed ; nor are the people, in general, well instructed in the principles of the
Christian religion ; but the sacraments of baptism, and the Lord's supper, are administered in
a decorous manner, and the ceremonies are conducted with much decency. Polygamy is com
monly practised, and the secular clergy are allowed to marry once. The Jews, who form a
considerable class, settled here in remote ages, and have nearly lost the Hebrew language.
They are considered as sorcerers, and it is believed, that they can transform themselves into
hyaenas. They are generally smiths, weavers, and carpenters.
The Abyssinians dwell in round hovels, with conical roofs, to conduct off the heavy rains.
The children go naked, till the age of 15. The common dress is a loose one, of cotton cloth.
The various grains supply a chief article of food, and the savage gayety of a feast is heightened
by draughts of hydromel, tinctured with opium. At the feasts, beef is eaten in its raw state,
swimming in blood. The soldiers, in a march, cut slices from tbe thighs of the cattle, cover
ing the place over with skin, and drive them on. It does not seem to be certain, that, at the
common feasts, it is usual to cut the steaks in this manner, from the living animal, though it is
recently killed. The great lords are fed by servants.
The manners and customs are those of a barbarous people. Their religion is mixed with
Jewish practices. Circumcision is practised, and the Jewish and Christian sabbaths are ob
served. Saints, angels, and especially the Virgin Mary, are objects of worship, and there is
a belief in transubstantiation, points derived from the Portuguese. The Abyssinian bible con
tains an additional book, called the book of Enoch. The priests are permitted to marry. It
will be perceived, that the religion is Christian, rather nominally, than, practically. There are
several negro tribes in Abyssinia, who have preserved their independence. Although speak
ing distinct languages, they are all called Shangallas, by the Abyssinians. Some of them live
part of the year in caves, and the remainder under the trees, feeding upon locusts, serpents,
&c. They are hunted like wild beasts by the Abyssinians, and there are many Shangalla
slaves in Tigre and Gondar.
The Gallas are a brown race, noted for their ferocity and deep barbarity. Some of them
860 NUBIA.
have, in a great measure, adopted Abyssinian manners ; but many of the tribes are wandering
shepherds and warriors : they are of small stature, but have long hair ; many of them have
embraced Mahometanism, and they have become the ruling people in several of the Abyssinian
States. They seem to have emigrated from Central Africa.
1 1 . History. Abyssinia was little known to the ancients, and the tradition which makes the
Queen of Sheba an Abyssinian princess, and the monarchs of the country descendants of Sol
omon, seems to be a mere fable. In the 4th century, the nation was converted to Christianity ;
in the 15th century, it was visited by the Portuguese, whose attempts to convert the Abyssi
nians to the Roman Catholic faith, led to furious civil wars, and since that period, little inter
course has been maintained with Europe. Abyssinia was governed by native princes, until the
inroads of the ferocious Gallas, who have made themselves masters of nearly the whole coun
try, and even they generally seat one of the native princes on the throne, to whom they leave
the form and shadow of sovereignty.
CHAPTER CXXXV. NUBIA.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. Nubia is bounded north by Egypt, east by the Red Sea, south
by Abyssinia, and west by Darfoor and Cordofan. It extends from 12° to 24° N. latitude,
comprising an area of about 375,000 square miles.
2. Mountains, Rivers, &c. From the borders of Egypt, the land rises gradually to the
south, through this whole country. In the south and east, are some high mountain ridges.
The land is everywhere intersected by large and small valleys. The Bahr el Azrek, from the
east, and the Bahr el Abiad or White River, from the west, here unite to form the Nile,
which, with its numerous head branches, traverse the country from south to north. In the
upper part of its course, this river flows between high rocks, which confine it to its bed during
the period of its highest inundation, and here it forms several rapids and cataracts. Part of
the country is a desert, covered with deep, loose sand, and sharp, flinty stones. In some
places the soil is sprinkled with rock salt. The water, during the rainy season, is black and
putrid. The climate -is intensely hot, but healthy. A great part of this extensive region is
now subject to Egypt, but the submission of some of the tribes is merely nominal.
3. Towns and Divisions. Sennaar, lately the capital of an independent and powerful State,'
has about 10,000 inhabitants. It is now merely a mass of mud huts and cabins, but there are
ruins which show it to have been formerly a considerable town. The kingdom of Sennaar,
which extended over a great part of southern Nubia, was conquered by the Egyptians in 1822.
Shendy, a small and meanly built town with about 7,000 inhabitants, is the commercial em
porium of Nubia and the greatest slave-mart in the country. In the neighborhood are the
ruins of Mero'c, anciently the seat of learning and science, and which some suppose to have
been the cradle of Egyptian arts and letters. Below Shendy is the country of the Sheygyas,
a nation of warriors and freebooters, containing no considerable town.
Dongola, capital of a small State, which previous to the Egyptian expedition had been con
quered by the Mamelukes, was formerly the richest and largest city of Nubia, but is now
reduced to a few hundred inhabitants. The northern part of Nubia, or Lower Nubia, called
also the land of the Barabras, contains Derr, with about 3,000 inhabitants, chiefly of Turkish
origin, and Ebsamboul, a petty village, remarkable for the magnificent cave-temples in its
neighborhood, enriched with historical sculptures and paintings, colossal statues, and columns.
Numerous ruins line the banks of the Nile throughout this region. The country between the
Red Sea and the Nile valley consists of vast deserts and rugged and sterile hills, occupied
by numerous wild and wandering tribes. Suakim, on the Red Sea, is an important commer
cial place, and a great slave-mart ; population 8,000, chiefly Arabians.
4. Agriculture. Dourra and bammia are the principal grains cultivated ; cotton and tobacco
are raised in some parts- The Nile does not rise sufficiently high to overflow its banks, and
the land is irrigated by means of water-wheels, as in the following cut ; the machinery is turned
by cows. The inhabitants make palm wine, beer, and distil a spirit from dates. Some
cotton cloth is manufactured. The chief articles of export are dates and slaves. The popu
lation is about 250,000.
5. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Nubia are composed of various races. The Nubians
proper, inhabiting the valley of the Nile, consist of two branches, the Kenoos and the Nubahs.
NUBIA.
861
They speak different dialects of the
same language, and are called by the
Arabs Berbers or Barabras. They
have long been subject to foreigners,
and are poor and ignorant. In the
villages, round huts of mud or loose
stones, and in towns, houses around
an open court, in the Egyptian fash
ion, are their habitations. A few
earthen jars and dishes, a hand-
mill, a hatchet, and some sticks to
form a rude loom, constitute the
whole furniture. A blue shirt or a
woolen cloak and white cap are the
attire of the men ; the women are
wrapped up in linen rags or woolen
gowns, with earrings and bracelets
of glass or straw. The weapons
are a club, a lance, and a shield
Water-wheels. (Page860.) covered with hippopotamus skin.
The Nubians are well made, muscular, strong, and handsome, with thick but not woolly hair,
and little beard. The women are often handsome, and have generally a sweet expression and
engaging manners ; they are favorably distinguished from the Egyptians by their superior
morality. The complexion of the Nubians is quite dark, but they have not the negro physi
ognomy. Coarse woolen mantles and mats, drinking-cups, and dishes woven from palm
leaves, are their only manufactures. Most of the Nubians are Mahometans ; but in the south
are some heathens ; the Arabs, -who are the ruling people in many of the States, are also
Mahometans. The ruling people in Sennaar are the Shillooks, a black race from Nigritia,
who conquered the country in the 16th century. The wandering tribes of the eastern deserts
ate Bisharians, Ababdes, &c. They are often at war with each other, and are faithless and
treacherous to strangers.
The chief article of food is a coarse cake made of dourra. Much tobacco is raised. Palm
wine is used, and also a liquor called bouza, resembling beer, and made of dourra or barley.
Burckhardt describes the Nubians as a well-formed race, though lean, and the women, though
not handsome, are the most virtuous of all the females of the East. The inhabitants with
whom Burckhardt traveled were not addicted to plundering or pilfering. That part of Nubia
which borders on the Nile, is strewed with antiquities, generally subterranean, or excavated
from rocks. One of the most interesting is the temple of Ebsambal ; it is cut from a perpen
dicular cliff. At the entrance are six erect colossal figures, measuring, from the ground to the
knee, six feet. Near the temple are four other statues nearly buried in sand. The one which
is the most exposed, measures seven yards across the shoulders.
The people of Sennaar are nearly negroes. Some are idolaters, others Mahometans, but
they eat pork freely. Sennaar is included in ihe recent conquests of the Pasha of Egypt.
The Shillooks, a race of negroes, in 1504 invaded the country and rendered the inhabitants
tributary. 6. History. Nubia was known to the ancients under the name of Ethiopia, and appears to
have been at a very early period, the seat of a powerful empire and a civilized people.
Egypt was repeatedly conquered from this quarter, and, indeed, according to some, she derived
her arts and wisdom from Ethiopia. Neither the Persians nor the Romans, the Saracens nor
the Turks who reduced Egypt, were able to subdue this country, which early received and
long retained the Christian religion, but by some unknown agency has in modern times become
Mahometan. But split up into numerous petty States, and torn by the dissensions of rival
chieftains, Nubia has sunk into a low state of barbarism, and the late conquest by Mehemet Ali
may be the first step of its regeneration.
862
EGYPT.
CHAPTER CXXXVI. EGYPT.
Architecture of Ancient Egypt.
1. Boundaries. Egypt is bounded north by the Mediterranean Sea ; east by Arabia, and
the Red Sea ; south by Nubia ; and west by the Great Desert. It extends from latitude 23°
to 32° N., and from longitude 24° to 35° E., being about 600 miles in length from north to
south, and about 400 in breadth ; and having an area of 1S6,000 square miles, and a popula
tion of 2,500,000 inhabitants.
View on the Nile.
EGYPT.
863
2. Rivers. The only river is the Nile, which is formed in Nubia by the junction of two
great streams, the Bahr el Azrek, which rises in Abyssinia, and the Bahr el Abiad', which is
supposed to have its sources in the Mountains of the Moon, to the southwest. Traversing
Egypt from south to north, the Nile, below Cairo, divides into several branches, which dis
charge its waters into the Mediterranean. The two principal mouths are that of Rosetta on
the west, and that of Damietta on the east. Its length is about 2,400 miles. It annually
overflows, and fertilizes the country upon its banks during the summer months.
3. Surface and Oases. The northern or lower part of Egypt consists of a rich alluvial
plain. Egypt to the south of Cairo, is a long valley, through which the Nile flows, shut in by
mountains, beyond which, on both sides, are vast sandy deserts. In some parts of these
deserts, at the distance of 100 miles
or more to the west of the Nile, are
small fertile spots of cultivated land,
situated like islands in the midst of
an ocean of sand ; they are called
oases, the name by which they were
known to the ancient Greeks, and by
the Arabs Elwah or Wady. The
Great Oasis west of Thebes, is 100
miles in length from north to south,
and 15 or 25 in breadth. That of
Siwah is about 6 miles long, and 4
wide. A large proportion of this
space is filled with date-trees, which
afford the chief food of the'inhabit-
ants. The dates are gathered in the
manner represented in the subjoined
cut. There are also cultivated pome
granates, figs, olives, apricots, and
plantains, and the gardens are remark
ably flourishing. A considerable
quantity of rice is cultivated here.
This has been supposed to be tbe
oasis where the famous temple of
Jupiter Ammon formerly stood. Mr.
Browne found here the ruins of an ed-
Gathering Dates.
ifice which appeared to be the work of the ancient Egyptians, as the figures of Isis and Anubis
were conspicuous among the sculptures. Here are also catacombs, or ancient places of
sepulture. The mountains, which border the Nile, in Lower Egypt, are of a calcareous nature ; but
this composition ceases about 60 miles to the northward of the cataracts, and is succeeded by
freestone, in beds ; and, near Syene, granite and syenite, which takes its name thence, are
the chief component parts. In the eastern chain, abrupt precipices frequently appear, resem
bling long walls, and approaching the banks of the river.
4. Lakes. In Lower Egypt are several lakes, the largest of which is the lake of Menzaleh,
which is separated from the Mediterranean only by an extremely narrow ridge of land, and
communicates with that sea, by 1 or 2 outlets. It is 50 miles long, and from 2 to 12 broad.
The lake of Bourlos, which adjoins, in like manner, to the Mediterranean, between Damietta
and Rosetta, is 25 miles long, and about 8 broad. The ancient lake of Mareotis, is now
almost dry, although the sea has been admitted into it. The Natron Lakes, in the desert,
produce natron, or soda, a substitute for barilla.
5. Minerals. Egypt appears not to be productive of any metals, except a small quantity of
iron ; but the mountains contain various kinds of marble, as porphyry, the celebrated verde an-
tico, or green marble, with white and dark spots, ^nd many valuable gems, as the emerald, to
paz, chalcedony, onyx, &c.
6. Climate. Rain rarely falls in Egypt, and only in light showers, for a few minutes ; thun
der and lightning are equally unfrequent. During 8 months in the year, from March to Novem
ber, the heat is almost insupportable to a European. The other months are comparatively
temperate. The southerly winds, which sometimes blow in Egypt, are, by the natives, called
864 EGYPT.
khamseen, that is, the hot winds of the desert. They are of such extreme heat and aridity, that
no animated body, exposed to them, can withstand their pernicious influence. During the 3
days of the southern blast, the streets are deserted ; and woe to the traveler, whom this wind ,
surprises, remote from shelter ; when it exceeds 3 days, it is insupportable. Very frequently,
the inhabitants are almost blinded with drifts of sand ; but these evils are, in a great measure,
remedied, by the rising and overflowing of the Nile.
7. Canals. Egypt contains a great number of canals, many of which are only adapted for
purposes of irrigation. The principal canals of navigation, are Joseph's Canal, about 100 miles
in length, and from 50 to 300 feet broad ; the Canal of Cleopatra, recently restored, under the
name of the Mahmoud Canal, connecting the Nile with the Mediterranean, at Alexandria, 48
miles long, but so unskilfully constructed, as to be already choked with mud ; and the AbuMe-
neggy Canal, passing from the Nile to the sea, on the northeast, about 100 miles in length.
8. Towns. Cairo, or Kahira, in a sandy plain, on the banks of the Nile, is a large town,
of the most irregular construction. The streets are so narrow, that the balconies of the oppo
site houses often touch each other, and many of them are roofed quite over. A part of the
town is annually inundated. The houses are, in general, built of mud and bricks, of 2 or 3
stories high, and, being without windows on the street side, they present a gloomy appearance.
Those of the public dignitaries, have a basement of stone, each layer of which is painted red,
or green, and each story is provided with a balcony. In the basement story, is a large hall,
where the master gives audience, and also another hall, paved with marble, and supplied with sofas
and jets d'eau. A great number of mosques, many of which are elegantly decorated with ara
besques, and light and rich minarets ; 1,200 coffee-houses ; 31 bathing-houses, remarkable for
their size or ornaments ; the vast cisterns, or reservoirs, containing a supply of water, for the
people, many of which are adorned with marble colonnades, and bronze balustrades, and have
schools attached to them, &c, deserve notice. Cairo is the centre of an extensive traffic be
tween Asia and Africa, and contains about 300,000 inhabitants. The viceroy resides, gener
ally, at Shoubra, a little village in the vicinity, where he has built a splendid palace, with fine
gardens. A little higher up the river, are the ruins of the ancient Memphis, once the capital of Egypt,
and the centre of Egyptian wealth, commerce, and art.
Alexandria stands upon the Mediterranean, and has a double harbor. Its site is a narrow
neck of land, between lake Mareotis and the sea. It communicates with the western arm of
the Nile, by a canal. This city was founded by Alexander the Great, and soon rose to wealth
and greatness. It was the capital of the Ptolemies, and, for science and literature, was second
only to Rome. It contained, at one time, 600,000 inhabitants. After its capture, by the Sa
racens, it began to decline, and the discovery of the passage to India, by the Cape of Good
Hope, destroyed its commercial importance. At present, it consists of narrow, crooked, and
dirty streets, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. It has considerable commerce, and its
markets are well supplied. Population, 25,000. The remains of ancient art, in Alexandria,
are not of Egyptian, but of Grecian or Roman origin, and, in comparison with the pyramids,
are quite modern. What is called Pompey's Pillar, is a Corinthian column of porphyry, about
120 feet high, of uncertain origin ; Cleopatra's Needle, is an obelisk of granite, about 64 feet
in length, and covered with hieroglyphics.
Rosetta stands on a branch of the Nile, 4 miles from its mouth. It is completely environed
in groves of orange, sycamore, date, banana, and other trees. The city has a considerable
trade, and upwards of 50 caravanserais. Population, 10,000. Damietta is situated between
the eastern branch of the Nile and the lake of Menzaleh, 10 miles from the sea. The houses
are all white, and are built in a crescent, around a bend of the river. The appearance of the
town is beautifully picturesque, and the country in the neighborhood is the most fertile and
best cultivated in Egypt. Here are vast magazines of rice, belonging to the government.
The commerce of the place is very active. Population, 25,000. Suez, on the shore of the
isthmus of that name, on the Red Sea, has a large trade with Arabia, by caravans and vessels.
It is surrounded by a sandy desert. Population, 5,000.
Ascending the Nile, from Cairo, we come to Medinet el Fayoum, the ancient Arsinoe, with
12,000 inhabitants, and connected with the river by a canal. Siout, remarkable for its sepul
chral grottoes, is a considerable town, with 20,000 inhabitants, from which the caravans of
Nubia and Nigritia start. Esne, with 4,000 inhabitants, is the rendezvous of Sennaar and Dar
fur caravans. Assouen, the ancient Syene, is the last town in Egypt, as you ascend the Nile.
EGYPT. 865
Cosseir is a seaport, on the Red Sea, and has some trade in corn. The country around it,
is a desert. Kenne, on the Nile, west of Cosseir, is a place of considerable trade. Thebes,
Luxor, Esne, Syene, Elephantine, Philce, Ghizeh, aud many others, are remarkable for their
antiquities. 9. Agriculture. Whoever is in the least acquainted with geography, knows, that the vast
fertility of Egypt is not produced by rain (little falling in that country) but by the annual over
flowing of the Nile. It begins to rise when the sun is vertical in Ethiopia, and when the an
nual rains fall there, from the latter end of May to September, and sometimes October. At
the height of its flood, in the Lower Egypt, nothing is to be seen in the plains, but the tops of
forests and fruit-trees, the towns and villages being, for that reason, built upon eminences, either
natural or artificial. When the river is at its proper height, the inhabitants celebrate a kind of
jubilee, with great festivity. The banks, or mounds, which confine it, are cut by the Turkish
pasha, attended by his grandees ; and, after this ceremony, the water is led into what they call
the khalij, or grand canal, which runs through Cairo, whence it is distributed into cuts, for sup
plying the fields and gardens. The irrigation is effected by machinery. This being done, and
the waters beginning to retire, such is the fertility of the soil, that the labor of the husbandman
is next to nothing. He throws his wheat and barley into the ground in October and May. He
turns his cattle out to graze in November ; and, in about 6 weeks, nothing can be more charm
ing, than the prospect which the face of the country presents, in rising corn, vegetables, and
verdure of every sort. Oranges and lemons perfume the air ; dates, grapes, and figs, cheer
the eye ; and palm-trees, which afford the means of making wine, are blooming and abundant.
The culture of pulse, melons, sugar-canes, and other plants, which require moisture, is sup
plied by small, but regular cuts, from cisterns and reservoirs. March and April are the har
vest months, and they produce 3 crops ; one of lettuces and cucumbers (the latter being the
ordinary food of the inhabitants), one of corn, and one of melons. The Egyptian pasturage is
equally prolific, most of the quadrupeds producing 2 at a time, and the sheep 4 lambs in a year.
Among the vegetable products of Egypt should also be mentioned the papyrus, of which the
ancients made their paper, though their mode of preparing it is now unknown ; and the lotus,
a kind of water-lily, abounding in the Nile. The pith of the papyrus is said to be a nourishing
food. The trees are the sycamore, acacia, willow, &c.
The Egyptian mode of hatching chickens in ovens is very curious, and has been practised
in Europe with success. Not less extraordinary and ingenious is the manner of raising and
managing bees in. that country. When the verdure and flowers fail in one part of Egypt, the
proprietors of bees put their hives on board of large boats, each marking his own hive. The
boatman proceeds with them gently up the river, and stops with them wherever he perceives
flowery meadows. The bees swarm from their cells at break of day, and collect honey,
returning several times loaded with what they have obtained, and in the evening reenter their
hives, without ever mistaking their abode. Cotton is raised in great abundance in Egypt. It
is sown in April, and the land is irrigated by the Nile. The neighborhood of the river is
preferred for its cultivation. The plough is generally used. The cotton is of two distinct
kinds, the common Egyptian cotton, and the maho ; both, however, are native.
10. Commerce. The exportation of cotton promises to constitute in future an important
item in the commerce of Egypt. Until 1822, the cotton raised here was of an inferior quality.
Since then a better sort has been introduced little inferior to the Sea Island. The crop is
now 20,000,000 lbs. Caravans perform the trade with Abyssinia, Darfur, Sennaar, Barbary,
and Syria. There is also a trade with the ports on the Red Sea.
11. Manufactures. The present sovereign of Egypt has made strenuous exertions for. the
promotion of manufactures. Cotton and woolen cloths are made in Esneh, Boulak, and other
places. Linen is manufactured at Siout. There are also some manufactures of silk, salt
petre, and earthen ware.
12. Population, Military Force, Revenue, &c. The population is about 2,500,000. The
military force is 75,000 men, disciplined and armed in the European mode, beside the irregu
lar forces of the country. The troops are chiefly Arabs and Syrians. The navy was nearly
annihilated at the battle of Navarino, but still consists of 12 ships of the line, 15 frigates, and
40 smaller vessels. The revenue of the government is estimated at 20,000,000 dollars.
13. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Egypt are various and distinct. Tbe most numerous
are the Fellahs or Arab cultivators, the descendants of the ancient conquerors, who form
more than four fifths of the whole population. These are well-formed and active, though lean.
109
866
EGYPT.
Egyptian Women.
They have fine teeth, and sunken sparkling eyes.
Wmwt w
The Copts are generally considered
as the "descendants of the ancient
Egyptians, though it is said, that
the ancient sculptures, and the
skulls of the mummies, have a
greater resemblance to the heads
and features of the Nubians than of
the Copts. The Copts are nearly
of the same color with the mulat
toes. They have small black eyes,
high cheek bones, short, elevated
noses, large mouths, thick lips,
slight beards, and half-woolly hair.
Some of the females are fair and
handsome, and they are generally
distinguished for a graceful car
riage. The Copts reside chiefly
in Upper Egypt, and do not ex
ceed 160,000souls. Besides these,
there are in Egypt Arabian Greeks,
Jews, Syrians, Armenians, Turks,
and Albanians, Franks, Ethiopi
ans, &c.
The Mamelukes, till lately, were a fourth race of people that inhabited Egypt. This extra
ordinary race consisted of Georgian and Circassian slaves, who, under the Fatimite Khalifs,
were brought into the country, and being trained to arms became part of the military power
of the state. They were thus enabled to rise against their masters, to massacre or expel
them, and to assume the dominion of Egypt. By an unheard of caprice they transmitted their
power, not to their children, whom they despised and neglected on account of their being
reared in a harem, but to new bands of slaves, brought from the same place, and in the same
manner as themselves. They were the rulers, indeed, but might with more propriety be
styled the plunderers of Egypt, filling it with scenes of violence, and extorting vast sums,
without affording any of those benefits or that protection which a government owes to its
subjects. They excelled, however, in feats of arms, and formed the best cavalry in the
Syrian.
Egyptian Woman.
EGYPT.
867
Turkish empire. They made a most vigo
rous resistance to the best troops of France,
but were considerably broken by repeated
defeats during the invasion by that power.
After the evacuation of Egypt by the Brit
ish, a war of extermination was waged by the
Turks against the Mamelukes. Ali Pasha
having succeeded in driving them from Ibrim,
where they made their last stand, compelled
them to retreat to Dongola the capital of Nu
bia, and, still more recently, into Darfur,
where it is probable they will soon become
extinct. 14. Dress. The modes of dress are as
various as the classes of people, and the cos-
Mamelukes. tume of many nations gives a lively appear
ance to the streets of Cairo. The usual dress has considerable resemblance to that of Turkey.
The Arabs, who are the most numerous class, wear trowsers of blue or white cotton, and a
long tunic of the same. Those who are able wear a red woolen cap. Turbans also are worn.
The females in public are closely veiled. The present ruler, however, has made great efforts
to introduce the European costume, and many of the inhabitants have substituted the hat for
the cap, and retrenched the fulness of their dress.
15. Language. The common language is the Arabic, and among merchants the lingua
franca. The Coptic is the most ancient tongue, but it is not spoken. It is used by the
Copts in worship, and there is in it a version of the Scriptures. It is- the oldest language,
being that of the ancient Egyptians, though it is mixed with Greek and Arabic.
16. Manner of Building. In the towns, the houses are generally square, with flat roofs,
and built without much regard to elegance. Many of the Arabs live in tents, or rude huts.
The Arabs of Goornoo live in the passages of the ancient tombs, which they divide with par
titions of clay.
17. Food and Drink. Egypt is the land of abundance. In many places, there are 3 har
vests. Food is extremely cheap, and yet many inhabitants suffer under privations. The
common food is pilau, or boiled rice and rancid butter, bread of millet, and dates. Some
mutton and poultry is consumed, and much buffalo-milk. The water is that of the Nile, col
lected in cisterns. It is considered very salubrious. Rakee is consumed in considera
ble quantities, and many drink it to intoxication. Smoking is as general as it is in Turkey.
In Upper Egypt, 1,000 eggs, or 14 fowls, may be purchased for a dollar. The same sum
will purchase a great number of pigeons. 18. Diseases. The most
common diseases are hydrocele
and ophthalmia ; the most fatal,
plague, dysentery, and fevers.
European physicians are in great
request ; though barbers are
generally the chief surgeons.
Charms and amulets are resorted
to, in cases of disease.
19. Traveling. The general
mode of traveling, is on camels,
horses, or in boats on the Nile.
The caravans will be described
under Asia. At present, trav
elers may go safely, though not
with much comfort, to the most
interesting ruins, including The
bes, Siwah, and Elephantine.
20. Character, Manners, &c.
The people are so various, that
Caravan resting at night.
868 EGYPT.
the customs are therefore different, in the different classes. The Arabs are cheerful, quiet,
and have many good qualities. The Jews are filthy .and avaricious. They, with the Copts,
are generally merchants and officers of the customs. The Bedouins, or pastoral Arabs,' are
warlike and free, living by plunder, as much as by industry. The inhabitants of the cities are
indolent and sensual. They have little employment, and their amusements are of a depraving
kind. Women are veiled and secluded, as in all oriental countries, but they have still much
freedom. Beauty is esteemed by weight, as in many Mahometan countries. The modern
Egyptians are so inert, that they have hardly a national character. They have many things in
common with the mass of orientals. The Copts are dexterous and adroit, and receive suffi
cient education for clerks and accountants, and they generally fill these offices. As in other
Mahometan countries, the Christian remarks various trifling practices, totally at variance with
those to which he has been accustomed. He will remark, that the beard is worn, and the hair
shaven ; that the men wear petticoats and trowsers, and the women trowsers. Fingers supply
the place of forks, a cushion is used instead of a chair, and a tray, instead of a table, is set
upon the floor. To inquire for the health of the ladies of a family, is a mortal affront to the
master, and to praise his children, is to be suspected of fascination, and the " evil eye." Fe
males hide their faces, and display their bosoms. Many things seem to be studiously adhered
to, because they are at variance with European usage. The morality and religion differ no
less than the manners ; and an Englishman, says Madden, calls oriental courage, ferocity ; re
ligion, fanaticism ; wisdom, craft ; policy, perfidy ; philosophy, taciturnity ; dignity, arro
gance ; sentiment, sensuality. On the other hand, a Mahometan considers European morality
to be infidelity ; science, witchcraft ; precaution, impiety ; peacefulness, imbecility, &c.
21. Amusements. In Cairo, the inhabitants delight in the exhibitions of wrestlers, rope-
dancers, &c. Swimming is a common amusement, and it is common to see a party of youths,
swimming far into the Nile, to visit a distant village. Sometimes they float downwards, on
their backs, holding a pipe in their mouth. The exhibitions of the serpent-charmers are ter
rific. They handle the serpents with perfect familiarity, and are seldom bitten, or have de
prived the reptiles of the power to do harm. The dancing women are numerous. They per
form in public, and also in the harems. Their exhibitions conform to the state of moral senti
ment, and are, of course, such as would not be tolerated in Europe.
22. Education. Among other means of raising the character of the people, the present ruler
has established a college at Boulak, near Cairo, which, several years since, had 700 students.
Various books were translated for the use of the institution, and instruction given in the French
and Italian languages. The general mass of the people, however, are sunk in ignorance. The
arts are in a state equally low.
23.' Religion. The general religion is the Mahometan. The Copts, however, profess
Christianity, though they practise circumcision. They have auricular confession. Marriages
are generally contracted by the intervention of friends, and frequently the parties do not see
each other till the ceremony. The wedding is attended with rejoicings. The females are
often married at 15, and at an earlier age, and are past their prime soon after 20.
24. Government and Laws. Egypt is an independent and absolute government, under the
rule of a prince, who, at present, styles himself a Pacha. He has passed many good and use
ful laws, but the country is, nevertheless, much depressed. Various losses have compelled
him to raise a revenue from the small gains of the industrious, and the Fellahs receive so little
of the crops, that they would cease to cultivate the earth, unless compelled to plant and to sell
the produce to the Pacha. Of course, he sets the price ; and, moreover, makes a part of the
payment in his own merchandise. He has mistaken the resources of the country, and the dis
position of the people, in establishing his immense manufactories of cotton. Agriculture is the
true wealth of Egypt, and the manufactures have impoverished the country. To Egypt be
long, beside the country of Egypt proper, part of Nubia and Nigritia ; Syria, and part of Arabia,
in Asia ; and Candia, in the Mediterranean. These possessions contain about 500,000 square
miles, and 5,000,000 inhabitants.
25. Antiquities. Egypt is to be seen in the past, more than in the present ; in the vast and
wonderful masses, shaped by labor and art into structures, that defy the power of time. Ev
erything raised by the ancient Egyptians, seemed to be designed for the latest posterity ; all
the designs were vast, all " the conceptions are those of men a hundred feet high." The me
chanical labors and monuments of the ancient Egyptians, are beyond not only the imitation,
but the conception, of modern times. The traveler, landing at Alexandria, will see, among
EGYPT.
869
Image of Osiris.
Image of Isis.
Ruins of an Egyptian Temple, dedicated to the god Isis.
other ruins, less distinct, the pillar which bears the name of Pompey, and the obelisk,
called Cleopatra's Needle. Alexandria has other magnificent remains, such as prostrate
rows of marble columns, and mutilated capi
tals. Pompey's pillar stands upon a pedestal,
12 feet high. The shaft is round, and, with
the Corinthian capital, 100 feet in height.
The diameter is 9 feet. Cleopatra's Needle
is of one shaft, of granite, covered with hiero
glyphics. It is about 64 feet high, and 8 feet
square at the base. The ruins of Alexandria
would,' in any country but Egypt, be, them
selves, antiquities ; but, in the country of
the pyramids, they are comparatively recent.
There are great numbers of pyramids scattered
over Egypt, but the most remarkable are those
of Djizeh, Sakhara, and Dashour. The most
wonderful of all are those of Djizeh. When
several leagues distant fiom the spectator, they
seem near at hand, and it is not till after hav
ing traveled several miles, that he is fully sen
sible of their size. They are on the platform
of a rock, situated 150 feet above tbe level of
the desert. The largest is ascribed to Che
ops. Ten years were consumed in preparing
a road, whereon to draw the immense blocks
of stone, and the labors of 100,000 men were
employed, who were relieved qnce- in three
months. Such is the account of Herodotus.
The great pyramid covers an area of about 11
acres, and rises 127 feet above the cross of
St. Paul's, in London, or 480 feet. The base
is 750 feet. The pyramids face the cardinal
points, and the entrances in those which. have
been explored, descend at exactly the same
Cleopatra's Needle. angle, and at the same part of the fabric. Vari
ous passages and chambers have been discov
ered by great labor, and wells or shafts conducting from above to the lower apartments. The
entrances were artfully concealed in the wall, 30 feet or less above the base. The passages
were sometimes stopped with a solid block of granite, made, however, to slide upwards, by the
force of a lever. In the Pyramid of Cephrenes, Belzoni found the central chamber 46 feet
in length, about 16 feet wide, and nearly 24 feet high, hewn from the solid rock. The pyra
mids are composed of immense blocks of stone, laid upon each other in the receding manner
of steps. It is supposed that these steps were formerly filled up with stones, which have been
870
EGYPT.
removed as the materials for other
edifices. The Sphynx, which is
near the pyramids, is almost buried
in sand ; the head and neck only
appear. Caviglia, however, caused
it to be excavated and measured.
The form is that of a woman's head
and breast, on the body of a lion,
in a recumbent posture ; the paws
stretched out 50 feet in advance of
the body. The whole, except the
paws, which are of masonry, was
cut from the solid rock. The fea
tures have the Nubian cast, and a
very placid expression. The head
and neck, all that is above ground,
**• Sphynx- are 27 feet high. The breast was
found to be 33 feet wide, and the entire length of the Sphynx about 130. The back is now
covered with sand.
The site of Memphis has been disputed, for Egypt has so many ruins, that the question
might easily arise. It has, however, been decided, by finding the remains of one of the Co
lossi described by Herodotus ; that is, a wrist, which shows that the entire statue must have
been 45 feet high. Dendera, the ancient Tentyra, has some magnificent remains, particularly
the gateway leading to the temple of Isis, and the temple itself. The edifice is nearly entire.
The portico has 24 columns in three rows, each 32 feet high, and more than 22 feet in cir
cumference. The sculptures have much
expression in them, and are executed with
great skill. All travelers unite in extol-
ing this temple. At Thebes, " the hun
dred gated," there is a vast extent of
ruins. Thebes is now to be traced in
four small hamlets, for the inhabitants
have built their villages among the ruins
of temples. These villages are Karnac,
Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Gornou. No
description, or painting, can convey an
idea of the profusion of pillars standing
prostrate, or reclining against each other,
at Karnac. These pillars are covered
with sculptures, not unnatural and gro
tesque, but, though much larger than life,
they are full of beauty and grace. The temple here has no parallel for magnitude and beauty.
The masses are prodigious. There are 12 principal entrances, each of which is composed
of several propyla and colossal gateways, in themselves larger than most other temples. The
sides of some are larger than the bases of the greater number of the pyramids of Middle
Egypt. On each side of many of these are colossal statues of granite, and basalt, from 20 Io
30 feel high. Of the avenues of sphynxes that lead to the temple, across the plain, one ex
tends 2 miles nearly to the temple at Luxor. There are other columns before tbe traveler
reaches the body of the temple, after which are 4 beautiful obelisks, marking the entrance to
the adytum. The sanctuary has 3 apartments of granite. The roof of the central room,
which is 20 feet long, and 16 wide, is composed of 3 blocks of granite, for the arch was
unknown to the Egyptians. The imagination can hardly embrace the magnitude of this tem
ple. Of the hundreds of columns, the smallest is 7J feet in diameter. The field of ruins is a
mile in diameter, and the temple itself, grand as it is, sinks into insignificance, when compared
with the number and size of the surrounding monuments, gateways, subordinate temples, and
rows of sphynxes. In approaching the temples of Luxor from the north, the observer comes
first upon a stately gateway 200 feet long, and 57 feet above the present level of the soil. In
front are two of the most perfect obelisks in the world, each of a single block of red granite,
Ruins of Thebes.
EGYPT.
871
Ruins of Temples at Luxor.
of the edifice. But Luxor and Karnac are but half of ancient Thebes
about 8 feet square at the base, and 80
feet in height. Near the obelisks are two
statues, also of red granite, buried in the
sand to the chest, but measuring 22 feet
from thence to the top of their mitres.
Having passed the gateway, which is it
self a vast monument, adorned with groups
of good sculptures, the traveler enters a
ruined portico of vast dimensions, whence
he is conducted through a double row of
columns 22 feet in circumference, to a
court 160 feet long, and 40 wide, termi
nated at each side by a row of columns.
Beyond this is another portico of 32 col
umns, and then is the adytum, or interior
On the western side
of the river are structures equal in their style of architecture. The Memnonium, or Temple
of Memnon, looks towards the east, and is
fronted by a stupendous propylon, of which
234 feet are still remaining. The statue of
Memnon is overthrown and shattered. It was
26 feet broad between the shoulders, 54 feet
round the chest, and 13 from the shoulder to
the elbow. The statue commonly called that
of Memnon, is one, of two, about 52 feet high.
The stones on which they rest are 30 feet
long, and 18 broad. These statues are muti
lated. One of these, is that which emitted a
sound at the dawn of day. The fact is attested
by many writers who heard it, but the reason it
is hard to explain. The Necropolis or city of
the dead, is connected with the great Egyptian
capital. The mountains were hollowed out for
the tombs of the inhabitants. These excavated
mountains contain halls and rooms innumerable.
The walls are freshly painted, and some of the
sarcophagi were monuments of art. The mum
mies are sought with avidity as an article of
commerce. Some few of them have glass eyes
adapted with great skill. There are other tem
ples no less imposing in structure and sculpture,
than those described at Edfou, and many other
places. None of them can be described, and a sight of thern is more like a wild dream than
reality. The pillars, sides, &c, are generally sculptured with hieroglyphics, those mysteri
ous characters, that have for tens of centuries defied all skill to decipher until recent discov
eries.* Near Medinet el Fayou travelers have thought they had discovered the ruins of the laby
rinth ; this remarkable building is described in terms of admiration by an ancient Greek trav
eler, Herodotus, as the greatest triumph of human industry and art ; it was composed of 12
Ruins of the Temple of Memnon.
* Our limits allow only an extract, revealing part of the
process of deciphering the hieroglyphics. The extract is
from Russell's Egypt, from which some of the above de
tails are drawn.
" When the French were in Egypt they discovered, in
the foundation of a fort, near Rosetta, a block or slab of
basalt, which presented an inscription in three distinct
languages, namely, the sacred letters, the letters of the
country, arid the Greek. On examining, in their relative
situation, the parts corresponding to two passages of the
Greek inscription in which Alexander and Alexandria oc
curred, there were soon recognised two well-marked
groups of characters resembling each other, which were,
therefore, considered as representing these names. A va
riety of similar coincidences were detected, and especially
that between a certain assemblage of figures and the
word Ptolemy, which occurred no fewer than fourteen
times; and hence, as the Greek was known to be a trans
lation of the Egyptian symbols, the task of the decipherer
was limited to a discovery of the alphabetical power of
the several marks, or objects, which denoted that particu
lar name. It was by pursuing this path, that success was
ultimately attained. It was satisfactorily made out, that
hieroglyphics not only expressed ideas, or represented
872
EGYPT.
covered courts, and 3,000 rooms, of which half were under ground. The latter he was not
suffered to enter, as they contained the bodies of the sacred crocodiles, and of the twelve
kings, who had constructed the labyrinth. But the infinite number of winding passages in the
upper part of the building, the rich sculptures, which adorned the marble walls and ceilings,
and the dazzling whiteness of the polished columns, filled him with astonishment.
26. History. Egypt is one of the most renowned countries in the world. The sovereignty
of the country has passed successively through the hands of its native princes, the Greeks,
Romans, Saracens, and Turks. _ It was invaded by the French under Bonaparte in 1798 ; but
in 1801, the country submitted to the British, and at the peace of Amiens, it was restored to
the Ottoman Porte. The present Pacha, Mehemet Ali, has recently declared himself inde
pendent of the Grand Seignior, and Egypt may now be considered a sovereign state.
things, but also, that they were fre
quently used as letters ; and that,
when employed for the last of these
purposes, the names of the several
objects in the language of the coun
try supplied the alphabetical sounds
which composed any particular word.
" The first steps which led to this
important discovery were made by
Dr. Young, who ascertained that
certain figures in the group, corre
sponding to the word Ptolemy, were
used alphabetically and represented
sounds. Hence the distinction of
phonetic hieroglyphics, as opposed
to^those which are understood to
denote objects only. A key was
thereby found for unlocking the
storehouses of Egyptian learning,
which had remained inaccessible to
many generations ; and, whether
the treasure shall prove equal in
value to the expectations which
have been entertained of it, there is
now the greatest probability that the
famed wisdom of one of the most
ancient nations of the world shall
be rendered familiar to the modern
reader. Already, indeed, history
and chronology have received essen
tial aid from the investigations of
recent travelers, guided by the light
which has just been revealed. The
names of some of the most distin
guished Egyptian princes, even of
the Pharaonic dynasties, have been
deciphered from monuments erect
ed during their respective reigns.
The canon of Manetho, which it had
been so common to treat with con
tempt, has been verified in many
points; and in this way the titles
of several monarchs which had been
abandoned as fabulous, including
Misphragmuthosis, Ramesses, and Sesostris, are once more
restored to the page of authentic history, and to their place
in the succession of Egyptian sovereigns.
" Leaving it to the historian of this remarkable discov
ery to detail the incidents which accompanied the inves
tigations of Dr. Young, Silvestre de Sacy, Akerblad, Salt,
and Champollion, we confine ourselves to the statement
of the important fact, that, from a copious induction of
instances, extending in some cases to several hundreds
for a single character, the last of these authors has com
pletely ascertained, that every phonetic hieroglyph is the
image of some physical object, whose name, in the spoken
Egyptian Hieroglyphics.
language of Egypt, begins with the sound or letter which
the sculptured figure was destined to represent Thus
the image of an eagle, which in the Coptic is Ah6m, be
came the sign of the vowel A ; that of a small vase, called
Berbe in Egyptian, stood for the consonant B; that of a
hand, Tot, represented the letter T; that of a hatchet,
Kelebin, was the sign of the consonant K ; that of a lion or
lioness, Ldbo, the sign of the consonant L ; that of a nyc-
ticorax, Mouladj, the sign of M ; that of a flute, Seii-
andjo, the sign of the consonant S ; that of a mouth, R6,
the sign of the consonant R ; and the abridged image of a
garden, Sheni, the sign of the compound articulation Sh.
AFRICAN ISLANDS. 373
CHAPTER CXXXVII. AFRICAN ISLANDS.
1. Of the African islands some lie in the Eastern or Indian Ocean, and some in the West
ern, or Atlantic. We shall begin with those in the Indian Ocean ; the chief of which are,
bocotra, the Comoro islands, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Bourbon.
2. Socotm is situated 30 leagues to the eastward of Cape Guardefui. It is 80 miles long,
and 50 broadband has 2 good harbors. It is very well peopled, and yields most of tbe fruits
and plants, which are usually found within the tropics, with frankincense, gum-tragacanth and
aloes. The inhabitants are of Arabian extraction, and are under the government of a pr'ince
or sheik, who is dependent upon the Imam of Mascat. '
3. The Comoro Isles are five : Joanna, Mayotta, Mohilla, Angazei, and Comoro. The
Grand Comoro is 50 miles long, and 15 broad, and is chiefly composed of mountains, which
unite near the centre, where the summit is about 7,500 feet in height. Joanna, or Hinzuan. is
about 30 miles long, and 15 broad, and affords plenty of provisions and tropical fruit. The
inhabitants are partly of Arabian descent, and partly of African origin, and are, in general, mild
and humane. This group was formerly populous and flourishing, but is now rendered almost
desolate, by the piratical incursions of Madecassee pirates, who have carried off great numbers
of the inhabitants, as slaves. Admiralty Isles, to the northeast, are a group of 11 uninhabited
islets, belonging to the English, which are merely visited for catching turtles. The Seychelles
are a cluster of 30 islets, also belonging to the English.
4. Madagascar is the largest of the African islands, being above 900 miles in length, from
north to south, and generally between 200 and 300 miles broad, with an area of 200,000 square
miles. It is traversed by a lofty chain of mountains, some of the summits of which reach the
height of 11,000 feet. The sea rolls with great rapidity, and is extremely rough, between this
island and the continent, forming a channel or passage, through which European ships, in their
voyage to and from India, frequently sail.
Madagascar is a pleasant and fertile country, abounding in sugar, honey, fruit-trees, valuable
gums, corn, cattle, poultry, precious stones, iron, some silver, copper, and tin. It affords an
agreeable variety of hills, valleys, woods, and plains ; and it is watered by numerous rivers.
The air is generally temperate, and said to be very healthy, though in a hot climate. Among
the inhabitants are white and black tribes, and also people of color. The whites, and those of
a tawny complexion, who inhabit the coasts, are the offspring of the Arabs, as is evident Trom
their language and their religious rites ; but here are no mosques or temples, nor any stated
worship, except that they offer sacrifices of beasts on particular occasions ; as when sick, when
they plant yams or rice, when they hold their assemblies, circumcise their children, declare
war, enter into new-built houses, or bury their dead. Some of their ceremonies and practices
resemble the Jewish, whence it had been conjectured, that they are the posterity of Jews, who
formerly settled here. But the Madecassees, who are of Malay extraction, form the bulk of
the inhabitants. Some of the black tribes have woolly hair, but whether they are the abori
gines, or of African origin, is unknown. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, and
the French took possession of it in 1641 ; but, the people disliking the government, they were
driven out in 1652 ; since which time, the natives have had, with the exception of a few set
tlements of Europeans, the sole possession of the island, under a number of petty princes, who
make war upon each other for slaves and plunder. In 1828, the kingdom of Madagascar was
a powerful state, which had reduced to subjection the greater part of the island ; the prince
was an intelligent man, who sought to civilize his subjects by inviting missionaries into the
kingdom, and sending some young men into European countries to be educated. He had, also,
introduced horses arid firearms into his army, wbich was organized on the European model.
But he was unfortunately poisoned by his queen, and his death was a signal for insurrection
and civil war.
5. Mauritius was so called by the Dutch (who first touched here in 159S), in honor of
prince Maurice, their stadtholder; but it is now generally styled the Isle of France. It is
about 400 miles east of Madagascar. It is of an oval form, about 140 miles in circumference,
with a fine harbor, secure against any wind that blows, and 100 fathoms deep at the entrance.
The climate is healthy and pleasant. The mountains, of which there are many, and some so
high, that their tops are covered with snow, produce excellent ebony, beside various other
kinds of valuable wood, two of which greatly resemble ebony in quality ; one red, the other
110
874
AFRICAN ISLANDS.
yellow. The island is well watered, and though the soil is not the most fruitful, yields plenty
of tobacco, rice, fruit, cotton, indigo, sugar, and cloves, and feeds a great number of cattle,
deer, goats, and sheep. It was formerly subject to the Dutch ; but the French gained pos
session of it in 1715. By the English it was taken in 1810, and is still in their possession.
Population, 100,000, three fourths of whom were slaves, previous to the general emancipation
in the British colonies.
.6. Bourbon is situated about 300 miles east of Madagascar, and is about 90 miles in circuit.
There are many good roads for shipping, round Bourbon, particularly on the north and south
sides ; but hardly a single harbor, where ships can ride secure against those hurricanes, which
blow during the monsoons. Indeed, the coast is so surrounded with blind rocks, sunk a few
feet below the water, that coasting is at all times dangerous. On the southern extremity is a
volcano, which continually throws out flames and smoke, with a hideous roaring noise. The
climate, though extremely hot, is healthy, being refreshed wilh cooling gales, that blow in the
morning and evening, from the sea and land ; sometimes, however, terrible hurricanes shake
the whole island almost to its foundations ; but, generally, without any other bad consequence,
than frightening the inhabitants. The island abounds in springs and brooks, and produces
aloes, white pepper, ebony, palm, and other kinds of wood, and fruit-trees. Many of the
trees yield odoriferous gums and resins, particularly benzoin of an excellent sort, in great plen
ty. The rivers are well stocked with fish, the coast with land and sea tortoises, and every
part of the country with horned cattle, as well as hogs and goats. Ambergris, coral, and the
most beautiful shells, are found upon the shore. The woods are full of turtle-doves, perro-
quets, pigeons, and a great variety of other birds, beautiful to the eye, and pleasant to the pal
ate. The French first settled here in 1672 ; and, though they were dispossessed of the island
by the English, in the last war, they regained it by the treaty of peace. Population, 100,000,
most of whom are slaves.
7. The following islands lie on the western coast. The Guinea Islands. In the Gulf of
Guinea are several islands, the largest of which are St. Thomas, Prince's Island, and Fernando
Po. The first 2 belong to the Portuguese. On Fernando Po, the British have formed a
settlement. 8. St. Helena stands entirely detached from any group, and about 1,200 miles from the
nearest land, on the coast of Southern Africa ; latitude 15° 55' S. ; longitude 5° 49' W. It
is 10J miles long, by 6 J broad, and about 28 miles in circumference. It presents to the sea,
throughout its whole circuit, nothing but an immense wall of perpendicular rock, from 600 to
1,200 feet high, like a castle in the midst of the ocean. There are only 4 openings in the
great wall of rock which surrounds St. Helena, by which it can be approached with any
facility. These are all strongly fortified. The climate is moist, and liable to strong gusts of
wind. The principal plain in the island, called Longwood, has become celebrated by the resi
dence of Napoleon, who died here in 1821. His tomb is in a secluded recess, and is sur
rounded by a fence, inclosing a piece of ground containing- weeping willows. St. Helena was
granted to the English East India Company, by Charles the Second, and still remains in their
possession. It is frequently resorted to as a place of refreshment, by vessels returning from
India. Ascension is a small island, situated to the northwest of St. Helena, in latitude 8° 8' S.,
longitude 14° 28' W. It is entirely barren and destitute of water, but has an excellent har
bor and abounds in fish, sea-fowl, and turtles. It is occupied by the British government as a
military station. The island of St. Matthew lies north of Ascension, in latitude 1° 24' S.
9. The Cape-Verde Islands, further north, are so called from a cape of that name, near the
river Gambia, over against which they lie, at the distance of 300 miles. They were first dis
covered in 1460, by the Portuguese, and are about 20 in number ; but some of them, being
only barren, uninhabited rocks, are unworthy of notice. Sant-Iago, Antonio, and Nicola, are
the most considerable. One is a mere volcano, and is therefore called Fogo. The air is fre
quently very hot, and, in some of these islands, very unwholesome. They are inhabited by
Europeans, or the descendants of Europeans, and negroes.
Sant-Iago is 140 miles in circuit, and is the most fruitful ; yet it is mountainous, and has
much barren land in it. Its produce is sugar, cotton, some wine, Indian corn, cocoa-nuts,
oranges, and other tropical fruits, plenty of roots, and garden vegetables ; but the plant of most
consequence, is the madder, which grows in abundance among the cliffs. Praya is on the east
side of the island, has a goodport, and is seldom without ships, those outward-bound to Guinea,
or to the East Indies,, often touching here for water and refreshments.
AFRICAN ISLANDS.
875
In the island of Mayo, belonging to this group, immense quantities of salt are made by the
heat of the sun, from the sea-water, which, at spring-tides, is received into a sort of pan, form
ed by a sand-bank, that runs along the coast for several miles. Here the English and Ameri
cans carry on a considerable trade, for salt. The salt costs nothing, except for raking it to
gether, wheeling it out of the pond, and carrying it on asses to the boats, which is done* at a
very cheap rate. Asses are also an article of trade at this island, whence they are conveyed
to the West Indies. These islands are subject to great droughts ; during which the thin, dry
soil, yields no harvests, and the inhabitants suffer all the horrors of famine. They belong to
Portugal. 10. The Canaries, anciently called the Fortunate Islands, are situated at the distance of
150 miles southwest of Morocco. Their particular names are, the Grand Canary, Teneriffe,
Palma, Gomera, Hierro or Ferro, Fuerte- Ventura, and Lancerota. These islands enjoy a
pure, temperate air, and abound in the most delicious fruit, especially grapes, from which a
rich species of wine is mdde. The Canaries also produce those beautiful birds, which bear
their name, and are now so common in Europe and America. They belong to Spain.
Teneriffe, the largest island of this group, is about 120 miles in circuit ; a fruitful country,
abounding in corn, wine, and oil, though it is encumbered with mountains. The highest point
is called the Peak, or Pic. The ascent to this elevated spot, is not so very hazardous or dif
ficult as it was long imagined to be. From Oratava a deep ravine commences ; a chestnut
forest then appears, covering the flanks of those mountains, which form a central chain across
tlfe island. A series of verdant hills follow ; after which the track leads across a steep mass
of lava rock, worn into ravines, and exhibiting a thin surface of yellow pumice. At length an
undulated plain spreads itself, like a fan, to a great extent, until it terminates in the second
region of the peak and a range of precipices. A steep mountain of pumice is next ascended,
and varied masses of lava require to be passed, before the summit of this stage of the moun
tain is attained. The foot of the cone is then reached ; and the subsequent ascent is rendered
troublesome and fatiguing by the excessive steepness of the cone. The feet of adventurous
visiters sink into the ashes at every step, and quantities of pumice and lava are rolled down
upon them. Of the highest part, the superficial extent is about an acre and a half; and this
is itself a small crater, in which sulphureous heat is observable. The height of the Pic is cal
culated at 13,000 feet. Santa Cruz is the capital of Teneriffe, and the seat of government
for all the seven islands. Though not large, it is a well-built city, with 8,000 inhabitants.
Laguna exceeds it in magnitude, but has a mean appearance. Out of 150,000 persons, who
form the whole population of ihe Canaries, 60,000 may be assigned to Teneriffe.
Fuerte- Ventura is larger than the Grand Canary ; but it scarcely contains 9,000 inhabitants,
while the latter has about 45,000. One island is remarkable for drought ; the other has,, a
sufficient supply of moisture to produce such fertility, that there are two, and sometimes three,
harvests of wheat and maize in one year ; hence the Great Canary is called the granary of the
insular group. Palmas, the chief town of the latter, has 10,000 inhabitants.
11. Madeira is about 60 miles long and 40 broad, and consists of one continued hill of a
considerable height, extending from
east to west ; the declivity of which,
on the south side, is cultivated,, and
interspersed with vineyards. In the
midst of this slope the merchants have
fixed their country-seats, which form
a very agreeable prospect. The
chief town, named Funchal, stands
on the southern side of the island ; .
toward the sea, it is defended by a
high wall with a battery, and it is the
only place where it is possible for a
boat to land ; and even there the
beach is covered with large stones,
and violent surf continually beats up
on it. Of the bay, op which the
town borders, the extremities are
Fumhal, Madeira. formed by two steep promontories,
876
AFRICAN ISLANDS.
composed of volcanic rocks. It may rather be called an inconvenient road than a good har
bor. Though the city is the seat of the governor, the bishop, and the court of the inquisition,
it is far from being elegant or handsome'. It is irregularly built ; the streets are narrow,
crooked, and ill-paved, and are generally in a very dirty state. The churches and convents
are numerous'; but they are not remarkable for beauty or magnificence, though some, and
more particularly the cathedral, are richly decorated. The population of the town is about
20,000 ; and of the whole island, 98,800. This island is held by the Portuguese, and pro
duces wine and fruit in great abundance. It is less fruitful in corn, from the rocky nature of
the soil. Sugar-canes used to thrive in it ; but they are not at present much cultivated. The
inhabitants make excellent sweetmeats, and have the art of preserving citrons and oranges, and
making marmalade and perfumed pastes, which exceed those of Genoa. The little sugar they
make is very fine, and has a fragrant odor. This, indeed, is said to be the first place in the
west where that manufacture was set on foot ; whence it was carried to Brazil.
The climate of Madeira is very hot for a great part of the year, but is so far from being
insalubrious, that invalids resort to it from other countries ; and, notwithstanding its heat, it is
remarkably free from venomous animals. It has a rainy season, which necessarily varies the
temperature. Some years ago, a waterspout, as it was called, or a surcharged cloud, burst
over the island, and swelled the rivulets to such an excess, that dreadful inundations ensued.
The country, and the environs of the city, were ravaged by the torrents ; houses and farms
were washed away, and many lives were lost.
The natives of Madeira are generally of a middle stature, and have dark or swarthy corj|-
plexions.
ASIA.
877
CHAPTER CXXXVIII. GENERAL VIEW OF ASIA.
1. Boundaries. Asia is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean ; on the E. by Behring's
Strait and the Pacific Ocean ; on the S. by the Chinese Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on
the W. by the Red, Mediterranean, and Black seas, and Europe. It extends from lat. 1° to
78° N. and from long. 26° E. to 170° W., having an area of 16,160,000 square miles, and a
population of about 400 or 500 millions.
2. Mountains. Asia contains the loftiest summits in the world. The Ural Mountains,
between Europe and Asia, and the Ghauts, in Hindostan, run north and south. The Japanese
islands are covered with lofty mountains, containing numerous volcanoes. The numerous
chains of the Taurus traverse the country, between the Persian Gulf and the Black Sea, in
various directions. Between the Black and Caspian seas, are the Caucasian Mountains, the
loftiest chain of which may be considered as the division line of Europe and Asia. The
highest summits have an elevation of 18,000 feet.
Among the numerous groups of mountains, that cover the surface of Central Asia, there are
four great chains or systems, which lie almost in a parallel direction, ranging nearly from west
to east, or from southwest to northeast. These, beginning with the most northern range, are
1st, the Altai ; 2d, the Thian-chan, or Teen-shan ; 3d, the Kuen-lun, or Kwanlun ; and 4th,
the Himalaya mountains. Between the Altai and the Thian-chan, are comprehended the plain
of Zoungaria, and the basin of the river Hi, which falls into lake Balkash ; between the Thian-
878
ASIA.
Map of Asia.
chan and Kuen-lun, are the
countries of Little Bucharia,
or Kashgar, Zerkend, Kho-
tan, the great desert of Gobi,
or Chamo, Tourfan, Kha-
mil, and Tangout ) and,
lastly, between the Kuen-
lun and Himalaya, are East
ern and Western Thibet.
The Altai system, prop
erly so called, occupies a
space hardly extending sev
en degrees in longitude,
though in its usual accepta
tion, the term Altai desig
nates the northern boundary
of a mountainous region,
stretching from the sources
of the Irtyche to the sea of
Okotsk. Its highest point
lies to the northwest of lake
Oubsa ; to the east of this
lake, the chain takes the
name of Tangnou, which it
retains till it reaches lake
Kossogol. From this place,
it is continued, under differ
ent appellations, till it joins
the Iablonnoi-Khrebet, or
" Chain of Apples," which
stretches away to the north
east, or in a direction paral
lel to the sea of Okoisk.
The mean latitude of the
chain is between 50° N. and
51° 30'. Its name, which
in Chinese is said to signify "Mount of Gold," has probably been given to it on account of its great
metallic riches. At present, it produces, annually, 70,000 marks of silver, and 1,900 marks of
gold. Although its summit is said by the Chinese to reach the milky-way, yet no part of the
chain, probably, attains a greater elevation than 1 1 ,500 feet. The second great chain of moun
tains, called in Chinese Thian-chan, and in Turki Tengri-tugh, (both appellations signifying the
Celestial Mountains,) runs from west to east, nearly along the 42d parallel of north latitude.
The culminating point of the chain is probably to be found in the mass of mountains celebrated
under the name of Bokhda-Oola (Holy Mountain).
The third great system of parallel mountains, is the Kuen-lun, which runs nearly along 35°.
A part of this range, under the meridian of 70° east, is called the Thsoung-ling, or Blue
Mountains, and forms the southern extremity of the Beloor, or Belut-tagh, a transverse chain,
which follows the direction of the meridian through nearly ten degrees of latitude. From the
Beloor the chain of the Kuen-lun extends in an easterly direction, towards the sources of the
Hoang-ho, and it penetrates even into the Chen-si, a province of China. That part of Asia,
however, which it traverses, is very little known, and we have as yet no observations, either
of the mean height of the chain, or of its principal summits. Between the Kuen-lun and
Thian-chan, and between the 90th and 100th degree of east longitude, there are two ranges
of mountains running in the same direction, the Nanchnn, or Khilian-chan, a little to the north
of lake Khouk-hounor, and the Tangout, which forms the northern boundary of the desert
of Gobi.
The last and best known of the four great chains, is the Himalaya. The general direction
of this system is from northwest to southeast ; it is consequently inclined at a considerable
ASIA.
879
angle to the Kuen-lun, with which it unites between Kashmir and Fyzabad. Following this
range, to the east we find it forming the northern boundary of Hindostan, and entering China.
To the west of the Beloor, the united chains of the Himalaya and Kuen-lun form the range
of the Hindoo-kho, wliich Humboldt regards as a continuation of the Kuen-lun, though it is
generally considered as a prolongation of the Himalaya. After following the direction of the
parallel through five or six degrees, this range inclines to the northwest, and, passing between
the plateau of Iran, and the Caspian, is at length lost m the province of Adzerbaidjan. If,
therefore, we regard the Hindoo-kho as a continuation of the Himalaya, the last will form a
continuous system, extending from the west of Persia to the eastern sea, or through 73 degrees
of longitude. Some of the summits of this stupendous range are known to have a greater ele
vation than any other points on the surface of the earth. Djavahir, on the western side of the
country of Nepaul, attains the altitude of 25,746 feet; while Dhawalaghiri, on the eastern side
of the same country, rises to the
enormous height of 28,096 feet
above the level of the sea.
Between the first and second
systems, the country is enclosed
on the eastern side by the Khing-
khan-oola, a range which stretch
es between the Altai and the
Thian-chan, in the direction of
north-northeast, beyond the me
ridian of Pekin. On the western
side, towards Tchoui, Sarasou,
and the lower Sihoun, it is entire
ly open. Exactly the reverse of
this is the case with the country
between the Thian-chan and Ku
en-lun, which is open on the east
ern side, but strikingly enclosed
on the west by the transverse chain
of the Bolor. This chain strikes
off from the Kuen-lun at right
angles, and, following the direc
tion of the meridian, pierces
through the Thian-chan to the
northwest of Kashgar, and ex
tends to the Alatau, another chain
running from west to east between
tbe lakes Balkash and Issikoul.
The intermediate space between
the Kuen-lun and the Himalaya,
comprehending Thibet and Kat-
chi, is covered with mountains so
closely grouped together as to
form an almost continuous plateau
or table-land. Its general eleva
tion is great, but, as might be an
ticipated, very unequal. The
mildness of the winters and the
cultivation of the vine in the gar
dens of H'lassa in Eastern Thi
bet, under the parallel of 29°
40', indicates, as Humboldt re
marks, the existence of deep val
leys and circular depressions.
3. Elevated Land. Though
Asia undoubtedly presents a
greater mass of elevated land
Comparative Height of the Mountains of 'Asia.
5,200 feet.
12,000 "
t. Ural, .
2. Altai, .
3. Anti Libanus, in }
which are Mt. Car- > 16,000
mel and Mt. Tabor, J
4. Mt. Lebanon in An- )
ti Libanus Chain, 5
5. Tauro Caucasian,
10.
Mount Ararat,
Elhoorz,
Teenshan,
Kwanlun, Hindoo Koo,
11,000 18,000
11. Chamoulari (Him-
17,280 feet.
12,000 "
20,000 "
16,000 "
20,000 "
[28,000 "
880 ASIA.
than any of the other quarters of the world, Africa not excepted, yet all the facts that bear on
the subject concur in proving, that the notions prevalent respecting its general elevation have
been greatly exaggerated. A large portion of the interior of the continent, however, still re
mains unexplored by European travelers ; and even in regard to those parts where it is easy of
access, there is a great want of good barometrical observations. On the northern side of the Altai
range, and indeed over the whole northern extremity of Europe and Asia, the elevation of the
ground is very inconsiderable. From the plains of Brabant one may pass, from west to east,
to the steppes which border the western declivity of the Altai and Chinese Zoungaria, — from
the Scheldt to the Ienisei, — over 80 degrees of longitude, without meeting with a single ele
vation exceeding 1,200 or 1,300 feet. Of late years a great number of barometrical measure
ments have been made on the frontiers of Chinese Zoungaria, the banks of the upper Irtyche,
and the plains bordering on lake Dzaisang, in countries situated on the southern side of the
Altai range. The mean of these observations gives to this district, and to a great part of the
immense steppe of Kirghiz, an elevation scarcely exceeding 1,300 or 1,600 feet above the
level of the sea, and consequently not greater than that of the lake of Constance or the city
of Munich. Of the countries lying to the south of the Kuen-lun, we have a very imperfect
knowledge ; but the platform of Persia, which extends from Teheran to Shyraz, and from
which the two great chains of the Kuen-lun and Himalaya proceed, is estimated by Fraser to
have a mean elevation of about 3,500 feet. In the immense longitudinal valleys which sepa
rate the principal mountain chains, there are extensive tracts of country which are considerably
depressed below the general level of the plains. It is worthy of remark, that the countries
situated between the Kuen-lun and Thian-chan have a general inclination from west to east, oc
casioned, apparently, by the upraising of the great transverse chain of the Bolor ; while the
valley of Zoungaria, between the Thian-chan and the Altai, is inclined to the west, the trans
verse ridge in this case being situated at the eastern extremity of the valley.
From a comparison of all the observations we possess on the configuration and elevation of
the Asiatic continent, it results, that the central region, between the parallels of 30° and 50°,
and between the meridians of the Beloor and lake Baikal, contains a vast extent of country of
which the elevation probably does not exceed that of the plains of Bavaria, Spain, and the
Mysore. There is every reason to suppose, that plains of the same elevation as those of
Quito and Titicaca occur only, if they occur at all, in the bifurcation formed by the junction
of the Himalaya and Kuen-lun, in the group of mountains surrounding lake Khoukhounor, and
in Gobi to the northwest of the Thian-chan.
4. Depressions below the Surface of the Sea. The most singular feature in the form of
the Asiatic continent, and one of the most remarkable on the surface of our globe, is the
depression of a very considerable portion of the northwest of it below the level of the sea.
Between the Kouma, the Don, the Wolga, the Iak, the Obtchey-syrt, Lake Aksal. and the
Lower Sihoun, and along the Amoo, the whole country, including a space exceeding 375,000
square miles, is depressed below the general level of the surface of the earth, and forms, as it
were, an immense basin, the lowest part of which is occupied by the Caspian Sea and Lake
Aral. The surface of the Caspian is 320 feet below the level of the Black Sea, and that of
Lake Aral 203 feet.
5. Volcanoes. The traces of volcanic action in Central Asia extend over a very large
portion of the interior of the continent, embracing almost the whole of Chinese Tartary,
and, on account of the peculiarities of their position, offer to the geologist a subject of very
interesting speculation. The principal seat of volcanic action in the interior of Asia is in the
second range of mountains, or the Thian-chan, the whole northern declivity of which present's
volcanic phenomena. The most remarkable volcano in this chain is the mountain called in
Turki Echikbach, and in Chinese Pe-chan, or White mountain, an appellation which may he
derived either from the circumstance of its rising to the region of perpetual snow, or because
its surface presents a whitish appearance, from its being covered with muriatic efflorescences.
According to the reports of the Chinese, it vomits forth fire and smoke without intermission.
On account of its central position, and great distance from the sea, this volcano is an object
of peculiar interest to the geologist. It is situated a little to the east of Aksou, the longitude
of which, as determined by the missionaries, is 79° east longitude. Its distance from the Cas
pian sea is about 1,400 English miles. The Caspian Sea appears to be surrounded by a vol
canic territory. On the eastern side hot springs burst forth at Soussac, in the Karatau moun-
ASIA. 881
tains, near the city of Turkestan. On the south and west sides, 2 volcanoes flre still in activi
ty, — Demavend which is visible from Teheran; and Seiban Dagh, which is covered with
vitreous lava. Ihe chain of the Caucasus abounds with trachytes, porphyries, and thermal
springs. Numerous mud volcanoes appear on the isthmus between the Caspian and Black Sea
On the 27th of November, 1827, at the village of Iokmali, in the territory of Bakou, about 3
leagues west from the shores of the Caspian, violent earthquakes and noises were followed by
an eruption of flames and stones. A space extending 1,280 feet in length, and 960 feet in
breadth, burned without interruption during 27 hours, and was raised above the level of the
neighboring country. After the flames were extinguished, columns of water were observed to
gush forth, which continue to flow at the present time.
6. Rivers. Although Asia is the largest division of the globe, the Asiatic streams are inferi
or in size to those of the American continent. The principal rivers descend from the northern,
eastern, and southern declivities of the great central table-lands into the Arctic, Pacific, and
Indian Oceans. The Yenissey is the largest ; the Oby and the Lena are also large rivers. The
Hoang-ho, and the Kiang have an easterly course. The Irawaddy, the Ganges, the Indus,
and the Euphrates flow south. Make Brun gives the following estimate of the proportional
volumes, or, to speak more exactly, of the surface of the running waters of this part of the
world. The total being taken as unity, then
The rivers of Siberia \ J0W!nS J° *e g- «e as 0.31
I flowing to the E. 0.02
" of China and Chinese Tartary . . . . . 0.15
" of all India . . . 0.27
" of Central Asia 0.08
" of Asiatic Turkey 0.10
" of Persia with Armenia ...... 0.06
" of Arabia 0.03
7. Seas. Asia contains several large inland bodies of water, which are improperly called
seas. They are principally salt. The largest of these is the Caspian Sea, which receives
several considerable rivers, but has no outlet ; its bed is indeed several hundred feet lower than
the ocean. It is 650 miles in length by 250 in breadth, and covers an area of about 245,000
square miles. It is in many places too shallow for navigation, although in some parts very
deep. It abounds in sturgeon, beluga, salmon, and other fish, and several species of seal are
taken in its waters. The Sea of Okotsk, the Sea of Japan or Gulf of Corea, the Eastern
Sea, between the Loochoo islands and China, and the Chinese Sea to the south of Formosa,
are large bays on the eastern coast. The Sea of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, the Persian
Gulf and the Red Sea, are the principal arms of the sea on the south. The Red Sea is about
1 ,400 miles in length, but nowhere more than 200 in breadth ; it has few good harbors, and
the navigation is rendered difficult by storms, shoals, and coral reefs.
8. Straits. The Straits of Babelmandel connect the Red Sea with the Arabian Gulf.
The Straits of Ormuz lie between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Ormuz. The Strait of
Malacca, which separates Sumatra from the continent, and the Strait of Sincapore, between
the island of Sincapore and Malacca, are the most frequented of Asia. The Strait of Corea
on the south, and that of Sougar or Sangar on the north, connects the Sea of Japan with the
ocean, and the Strait of Laperouse connects that sea with the Sea of Okotsk. The Channel
of Tartary flows between the continent and the island of Seghalien ; and Bhering's Strait di
vides the eastern and western hemispheres.
9. Peninsulas. Asia Minor, between the Levant and the Black Sea, Arabia, the Deccan,
Malacca, Corea, and Kamtschatka are the most remarkable peninsulas of Asia.
10. Islands. On the eastern coast are the Kurile Islands; Seghalien, belonging partly to
China and partly to Japan ; the Japanese Archipelago ; and Formosa, the Loochoo isles, and
Hainan belonging to China. Near the coast of Malacca are the Junkselon, Nicobar, and
Andaman islands. On the coast of Hindostan are Ceylon, the Laccadives, and Maldives. In
the Mediterranean, Cyprus, and in the Archipelago, Rhodes, Samos, Mitylene, &c, belong to
Asia. 11. Climate. The great elevation of Central Asia, and the direction and elevation of the
mountainous chains, modify the climate of this continent, and give it a peculiar character. In
111
882
ASIA.
respect to climate, Asia may be divided into 5 regions. 1. Central Asia, lying between the
Altaian and Himala mountains, although situated between 28° and 50° N. lat., experiences the
rigors of the most northern regions, and enjoys but a short summer. 2. Southern Asia, com
prising the two Indies, sheltered by a huge mountainous rampart from the icy winds of the
north, has no winter ; the summers are long and warm, and the seasons are distinguished into
the wet and the dry. 3. Northern Asia, embracing all the extensive region north of the Altai, is
exposed to all the rigors of a polar climate. 4. Eastern Asia, exposed at once to the cooling
influences of the interior highlands, and of the Pacific Ocean, is cold and moist. 5. Western
Asia, lying between the Indus and Mediterranean and the Caspian and Red seas, enjoys a
milder climate and a much more serene air.
12. Vegetable Productions. Asia, from its vast extent and unequal surface, comprehends
the vegetable products of all climates, from the creeping lichen, which flourishes on the borders
of perpetual snow, to the splendid varieties of tropical vegetation.
The agricultural staples are in the warmer regions rice, of which
Asia yields 27 varieties, maize, millet, and many varieties of a
coarser grain, called dourra, as well as other species of legumes
unknown in Europe. In the more temperate regions, the-differ-
ent cereal grains are produced, and barley and oats are raised as
far north as 60 degrees, and on the elevated plains of more south
ern regions. Beyond this, and in the higher plains, vegetation
comprises only dwarf trees, berry-bearing shrubs, and lichens.
The tea plant is indigenous to China, and coffee to Arabia. The
sugar-cane is produced in India, and the poppy plant furnishes
great quantities of opium for exportation. The cotton shrub, and
the mulberry tree grow throughout the southern regions, and various
aromatic plants and gum-trees enrich this part of the continent,
yielding mace, cassia, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs,
the fragrant balm of Mecca, frankincense, and myrrh. Asia also
furnishes many medicinal plants and dye-stuffs.
In the south, the forests abound with valuable trees, furnishing
various durable, ornamental, and dye woods. The
teak tree of the Indies surpasses all others in hard
ness and durability. The palms yield a rich and
nutritious juice, and all the common fruit-trees of
Europe, many of which were borrowed from Asia,
are found in different regions. Asia Minor and
the banks of the Euphrates abound in the myrtle,
laurel, mastic, tamarind, cypress, and other trees.
The oriental planes are numerous in Persia, and
the oak and cedar grow to a great size in the Sy
rian mountains. In the colder regions, are the
oak, ash, elm, &c, the dwarf birch, mountain
willow, and the dark, evergreen pines and firs.
Further details will be found under the principal
heads, as Hindostan, China, Siberia, &c.
13. Minerals. Asia yields all the useful and precious metals, but the wealth of the Asiatic
mines has not been fully explored. Hindostan and Asiatic Russia produce diamonds ; gold
and silver are found in China, Japan, the Indies, and Russia ; tin, in China and Further India;
quicksilver in China, Japan, and Ceylon ; and lead, copper, iron, coal, and salt abound.
Tea Plant.
Cedar of Lebanon.
ASIA.
883
1. Pheasant.
2. Elephant.
3. Peacock.
4. Caracal.
5. Tiger.
6. Musk Deer.
7. One-horned Rhinoceros.
8. Chetah.
9. Yak.
10. Horse.
11. Dromedary.
12. Camel.
13. Buffalo.
14. Zebu.
15. Nyl Ghau.
Comparative Size of Animals of Asia.
14. Animals. The Tiger (Felis Tiger) is peculiar to Asia. He is a native of Hindo
stan, Chin India, Sumatra, China, and a few other districts. He is fearless of man, ferocious,
isasg&ssas
Serval.
and blood-thirsty. He will kill and drag off a horse or a buffalo with the greatest ease. They
884
ASIA.
are most common in Malabar, and are the scourge of the country. The usual mode of hunting
them is with elephants.
The Serval of India is found in Hindostan and Thibet. It is about 3 feet in length, and is
of a fox-color, spotted with black. It is fierce and rapacious, leaping from tree to tree in pur
suit of birds, &c.
The Chetah (F. venatica) is a sort of leopard, but smaller than that animal. He is common
in Southern Asia, where he is domesticated and employed in hunting, like a hound. He is
very playful and familiar. In hunting, he approaches the animal secretly, and, when sufficiently
near, he makes 5 or 6 enormous bounds.
The Panther (F. pardus), Leopard (F. leopardus), and Ounce (F.onca), are common.
The Lion of southwestern Asia (Leo Asiaticus) is distinct from the African lion, and still an-
Chetah.
Large-lipped Bear.
other species, with little or no mane, has lately been discovered in Hindostan. Several spe
cies of bear are also peculiar to the mountainous districts of Asia ; one of these ( Ursus Syri-
acus), lately discovered on Mount Lebanon, is frequently alluded to in Scripture ; the Large-
lipped Bear ( Ursus labiatus) is found in Bengal ; the white or polar bear is common to
America, and the brown bear to Europe.
The Bengal Loris or Slow Lemur (Nycticebus Bengalensis) , is so sluggish in its motions
Bengal Loris.
v <3j y^j^ — ^
Civet.
as to have been mistaken for a Sloth ; he is about the size of a cat, and is gentle, familiar, and
fond of being caressed. The Civet (Viverra civetta) is common to Asia and Africa.
The Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Indicus) is, next to the elephant, the most powerful of quadru
peds. He is 12 feet long, and 6 or 7 in height ; his hide is thick enough to turn a bullet. He
ASIA.
is found in the warm countries of Asia, and delights to wallow in the mire
slowly, and is sometimes 4 feet in length.
885
His horn grows
Rhinoceros.
The Elephant (E. Asiaticus) of Asia is larger and stronger than that of Africa. From time
immemorial, the people of India have used elephants in war. They are very numerous in the
warm countries of Asia, and even in a wild state their manners are social and inoffensive. Their
common food is roots, herbs, leaves, young branches, fruit, and corn ; in quest of food, they
often ravage large tracts of territory. They are taken by being decoyed into enclosures, and
are easily domesticated. They carry burdens of 3,000 or 4,000 pounds' weight, and are used
for almost every species of labor requiring great strength. Those of Ceylon exceed all others
in courage and sagacity. The king of Ava had an elephant of a cream color, which was taken
in 1806, and exceeded the age of 25 years, without showing any appearance of age.
Of the ox kind (Bos), no fewer than 4 distinct species have been from time immemorial do
mesticated in different parts of Asia. The Yak, or Grunting Ox (B. Grunnieus), is the
Indian Ox.
886
ASIA.
common cattle of Central Asia ; this animal furnishes the tails of long, silky, white hair, of
which the natives make their military standards, and which are used all over the East, under the
name of chowries, in driving off flies. The Buffalo (B. bubalus) is found both wild and tame
in southeastern Asia ; fights between the buffalo and -tiger were formerly a favorite sport of the
Indian princes ; and this animal is known to defend the herdsmen with great courage from the
attacks of the tigers and leopards. The buffalo is not used for draft or burden, but only for its
milk. The Gayal (B. Gavceus) is common among the Burmese. The Indian Ox (B. In-
dicus) is found in all southern Asia, the East India Islands, and on the eastern coast of Africa.
It is used as a beast of draft and burden. Its flesh is inferior to common beef, but the hump is
fat and delicate. The animal is as large as a common ox, and of a slaty-gray color.
The antelopes of Asia are numerous, and comprise some of the largest and smallest of this
extensive genus. The Nyl Ghau (Anti
lope picta) is one of the largest and most
magnificent of the antelopes known, being
upwards of 4 feet high at the shoulder. It
is a very powerful and resolute animal, and
frequently turns upon its pursuers ; previous
to making its attack, it drops upon the fore
knees, and when within a proper distance,
it darts forward with a fury that no animal
can withstand. Even in confinement it is
found to be vicious, violent, and of a change
able temper. The Gazelle (A. subgattu-
rosa) has been immortalized by the poets
for its beauty and grace. Its eyes are large,
dark, and expressive of softness ; all its
movements are replete with grace and agi
lity. It is rarely more than 2 feet high,
and is less than 3 feet long. The Four-
horned Antelopes, or Chicharas, are pecu
liar to India ; they are delicately shaped,
wild, and agile little creatures, about 20
inches high. The Dorcas Antelope, the
Goral of Nepaul, the Thar of the same
country, and other species, occur. The
Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus) of Thi
bet, yields the valuable drug so called.
There are several species of sheep, among
which Angora Sheep, the Fat-rumped Sheep
of Thibet, and the Broad-tailed Sheep of
Arabia and Syria are the most remarkable.
The hair of the Angora Goat is long and
soft, and much esteemed for fabricating
shawls and other articles ; but the Shawl
Goat of Cashmere furnishes the soft and
beautiful wool, of which the Indians manu
facture those rich and valuable shawls so
highly prized by the ladies in this country
and in Europe.
It is most probable that both the Camel
.. . . . dromcdarius) are of Asiatic origin. The
camel, which is distinguished by two humps on the back, is confined to the wandering Tartar
tribes of central Asia, but the dromedary is scattered over all southwestern Asia and northern
Africa, and is found, as a domestic animal, in Tndia and China. This is the animal mentioned
in the lists of the great herds and flocks of the earliest patriarchs, and is invaluable to the inha
bitants of the countries where it is found. Three species of Horse (Equus) occur in Asia ;
and central Asia is, in all probability, the native home of the horse and the, ass. These animals
are not found in southern Africa, but many of the pastoral tribes of Asia may be said to live on
Musk Deer.
(Camelus Bactrianus) and the Dromedary (C.
ASIA.
887
rMmih'SS. -~ -
m
Wfflfoo,^"
m
Dromedary.
Arabian Horse.
horseback an important
and the
article
noblest breeds of horses are still to be met with in Arabia. Horse-flesh is
of food with some nations, and mare's milk supplies the place of that of the
kine among some of the tribes. The Ass (E.
Asinus) of Asia, is also of larger proportions
and more generous spirit than those which have
been transported to other countries. Instead of
the dejected air, pinched dimensions, and half-
starved appearance of the degenerate ass of Eu
rope, the ass of Persia and Syria approaches
nearer to the size of a horse, and partakes much
of his beauty of form, noble carriage, and great
speed. The Dziggetai (E. hemionus) is inter
mediate between the two former species, and
has remained in a wild state ; it inhabits in large
troops the great central deserts of Asia, and is
probably the animal mentioned by ancient writers
as the wild mule. It runs almost with the
rapidity of lightning, carrying its head
erect, and snuffing up the wind ; its air
is wild and fiery, and the fleetest courser
that ever scoured the desert would in vain
attempt to overtake it.
The Peacock (Pavo cristatus) is the
most magnificent of the whole feathered
creation. It was introduced into Europe
from the south of Asia more than 2,000
years ago. It lives about 20 years, and
does not acquire its beautiful plumage till
3 years of age.
The Golden Pheasant (Phasianus pic-
tus) is a very beautiful bird, about 3 feet
in length ; its plumage is variegated with
tints of gold, orange, green, yellow, black,
white, and crimson. It is a native of
China. The Common Pheasant of Eu
rope is a native of Persia, and is still
found there in a wild state. The Silver
Pheasant (P. nycthemerus) and Collared
or Ring-necked Pheasant (P. torquatus)
are also indigenous in China. The most
valuable of our. domestic fowls, the com-
Peacock. mon cock and hen (Gallus domesticus)
888
ASIA.
Golden Pheasant.
Ring-necked Pheasant.
came from Asia, and the race is found wild in the woods of India. The Jungle Cock (G.
Sonneratii), a very beautiful species of this genus, is extensively spread through India, inhabit
ing the thick jungles, where its shrill voice may be continually heard resounding through the
brakes and thickets.
There are a multitude of other birds in Asia, many of which are remarkable for their rich
plumage or their pleasing songs. Some of the spicy groves are the haunts of large flocks of
parrots, cockatoos, and other gay birds, which impart peculiar splendor to these regions of
perpetual summer.
The Anaconda is most common in Ceylon, and is one of the most terrible of all reptiles. It
Anaconda,
Pearl Oyster.
is of sufficient size and strength to destroy an ox or a tiger. The Great Boa is sometimes 30
feet in length.
The Pearl Oyster is found in great abundance on the west coast of Ceylon, where a valuable
pearl-fishery is carried on. The divers descend to the bottom by the weight of heavy stones,
and bring up the oysters in baskets. The fisheries are rented yearly. They employ above
6,000 men, and have sometimes yielded 850,000 dollars in a single year.
Where the bed is rich, a diver often puts upwards of 150 oysters into his basket at one dip ;
when they are thinly scattered, sometimes no more than 5. After diving, a small quantity of
blood usually issues from the nose and ears, which is considered as a favorable .symptom, and
they perform the operation with greater comfort after the bleeding has commenced. They
seem to enjoy the labor as a pleasant pastime, and never complain of fatigue, unless the banks
ASIA.
889
are poor in oysters. Two divers are attached to each stone, and go down alternately. The
period allotted lor this operation continues from 5 to 6 hours.
15. Tribes of Asia. Were we to arrange the population of Asia into classes distinguished
by color, we should say that 3 races of
mankind inhabited this continent ; the
White, the Yellow, and the Black. The
latter are few in number ; and we may
therefore consider the 2 other as dividing
this part of the world between them.
The white race occupy nearly the whole
of Western Asia ; the yellow race in
habit the rest. In some instances the 2
races have become blended together, and
it would be difficult to say to which race
their descendants belong. In the white
race we would class all the Caucasian tribes, the population of Asiatic Turkey, of Arabia, of
Curdistan, of Persia, of Afghanistan, the Bucharians, Armenians, Georgians, Turcomans,
Uzbeks, Kirghis, the Hindoos, the inhabitants of Nepaul, of Ceylon, and the Maldives, and
several tribes of Asiatic Russia, such as the Yakutes, the Voguls, the Permians, the Syrians,
the Tchouvaches, the Morduins, and the Ostiaks of the Obi. The yellow race would com
prehend the Calmucks, the Khalkhas of Central Asia, the Samoiedes, the Lamutes, the You-
kaghirs, the Tchuktchis, and the Koriaks, all of Asiatic Russia ; the Mongols and Tongou-
ses, who live as nomades, in Asiatic Russia and China ; the Mandshous, the Coreans, the Jap
anese, the Chinese, the Annamites, the Siamese, the Birmans, and the Tibetans. The Malays
seem to be a mixed race of Whites and Yellows. The Negroes belong to Malacca, Ceylon,
Andoman, and Nicobar, and are of the Papuan race.
Hassel estimates the 4 great races of Asia as follows ; it must be understood, however, that
this- embraces the Asiatic Islands, which we include in Oceanica.
Inhabitants of Asia.
Caucasian Race
Mongolian Race
164,000,000
291,000,000
Malay Race
Ethiopian Race
24,000,000 1,000,000
Attempts have also been made to classify the Asiatic nations according to their languages,
and the following principal groups have been marked out from this point of view. 1. The
Semitic family of nations embraces the ancient Chaldeans, Aramaeans, and Phenicians, the
Jews, Arabs, and Armenians. 2. The Turkish group comprises the Ottomans or Osmaolis,
the Turcomans or Truchmenes, the Uzbeks, Kirghises, the Nogais, the Yakutes, Karakal-
paks, and several other tribes, improperly called Tartars. 3. The Mongol stock consists of 3
great branches, the Mongols proper, the Buriates, and the GSloths, comprising several nations ;
the Calmucks belong to the last named. 4. The Tungouses consist of numerous branches in
eastern Asia, the most conspicuous of which are the Manlchoos or Mandshous, who are now
the ruling race in China. 5. The Persian family comprises the Persians proper or Tadshiks,
the Afghans, Kurds, Beluches, the Ossetes, Bucharians, &c. The ancient Zend was proba
bly the mother of all the Persian languages. 6. The Hindoo stock comprises most of the in
habitants of Hindostan, which has, however, been repeatedly overrun by northern tribes, Per
sians, Turks, &c. 7. The Chinese are the bulk of the population of China, but it is not sat
isfactorily ascertained, whether this race has any affinity with the Japanese and Coreans, in the
east, and the Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese, &c, on the west. 8. The Caucasian group in
cludes the Georgians, Suanians, Mingrelians, &c, but the Lesghians, Circassians, Abassians,
and Mitsjekhians, of the same region, seem to be of different origin. 9. The Samoiedes.
10. the Jenisseans. 11. The Fennic tribes, including the Voguls and Ostiaks. 12. The
Youkaghirs. 13. The Koriaks. 14. The Tchuktchis. 15. The Kamschadales, inhabit
ing Siberia, are, perhaps, of distinct stock.
16. Population. The population of Asia has already been stated to amount to 400 or 500
millions ; but different estimates carry it still higher and lower than those numbers, some' mak
ing it about 380, and others 600, millions. So of the different countries, the population of
China is by some accurate writers reduced to 170,000,000, by others raised to 380,000,000.
The following statements must, therefore, be looked upon as very uncertain
112
890 ASIA.
British Possessions 124,000,000
Afghanistan ..... 8,000,006
Beluchistan - - - 2,000,000
Turkistan 5,000,000
Persia ..... - 10,000,000
Ottoman Asia - - ... 10,000,000
Arabia - 12,000,000
Russian Asia . - - - 5,000,000
Chinese Empire 350,000,000
Japanese Empire 30,000,000
Annam - 12,000,000
Siam ¦ - 3,500,000
Birman Empire - - - C,000,000
Nepaul - .... 2,500,000
Sinde 1,000,000
Sindia 4,000,000
Seikhs or Lahore 8,000,000
17. Religion. Asia is the land of fable and mystery, and exhibits a deplorable example of
the errors into which unassisted reason leads the religious feelings. The Mosaic and Chris
tian religions, the most important truths, have, however, been revealed on its soil ; while there
are few extravagances and absurdities that have not sprung up and flourished in the same
region, as if to contrast in a more striking manner, human folly with divine wisdom. The ab
surdities of the Sabeans, the worship of fire and other elements, Mahometanism, which has
mixed some great truths with its errors, the polytheism of the Buddhists, the Bramins, the Lama-
ists, the worship of heaven and of the dead, of spirits and demons, and cruel, degrading, and
loathsome rites, and doctrines of the most absurd nature, have found followers and respect in
this land of superstition. Buddhism is the religion of the greatest number of inhabitants, pre
vailing over all of Asia beyond the Ganges, and over a great part of Central Asia. Mahome
tanism is the most widely diffused, but its followers are not so numerous ; it is professed by the
great body of the people of Western Asia ; Bramanism is predominant in India. Buddhism
numbers about 170,000,000 followers ; Bramanism 60,000,000, and Mahometanism about the
same number. Any statements as to the numbers of the different religions must partake of the
uncertainty of the estimated population. If the larger estimates are assumed for the popula
tion, then we should perhaps state the Buddhists at about 3,000,000, and the followers of Bra
manism at nearly 1,000,000, the Mahometans at 70 or 80, and the Christians at 15.
18. Government. Civilization. Social State. We must not attribute to the climate alone
the immutability of national character and institutions, which we observe among the Asiatics,
whether wandering nomades or the docile subjects of great empires. Despotism, both in the
patriarchal and the monarchical form, has long been the reigning species of government through
out Asia, and has exercised its full influence in taming the spirit and cramping the energies of
her children. Superstition has also long reigned with unmitigated sway over the Eastern and
Southern parts of Asia ; and polygamy deprived society of some of its most endearing ties
and humanizing influence. Make Brun, in endeavoring to explain why great empires are more
common in Asia than in Europe, remarks : "It is not enough to say, that the great plains with
which Asia abounds give the conquerors an easier access. This only holds good in the cen
tral parts ; but how many inaccessible mountains, how many large rivers, and immense deserts,
form the natural bulwarks and eternal barriers of other Asiatic nations ! When once an Asiat
ic nation profits by its local circumstances, it is as difficult to be conquered as any European
people. The Druses, the Koords, and the Mahrattas, are not the only examples ; we can
quote one still more illustrious. The chain of Mountains of Assyria to the northeast of Bab
ylon, which Alexander had no difficulty in passing, became a bulwark for the empire of the
Parthians, before which the legions of Trajan himself were routed."
The great conquests in Asia have arisen from another cause, and that is, the great extension
of the same nations. The capitals of Hindostan, of China, or of Persia,^ being given up to
one conqueror, the immense multitude of tribes, connected by speaking the same tongue, me
chanically submit to the same yoke. These great empires having been once established, the
succession of one to another becomes almost perpetual, from reasons purely moral aud religious.
The nations of Asia, too numerous and too disseminated, do not feel the ardor and energy of
true patriotism ; they furnish their chiefs with troopsf }|ut without zeal or energy, and they
change their masters without regret, or without much struggle. The Asiatic sovereigns, shut
up in their seraglios, oppose only a vain show of resistance to the audacity of the conquerors,
while the latter are scarcely seated on the throne, before they give way to the same effeminacy,
which procured the downfall of their predecessors.
The organization of the armies, which are composed chiefly of cavalry, and the want of
strong places, open the road to sudden and rapid invasions. Everything combines to facilitate
the total and frequent subjugation of those vast empires of the East. But this state of things
is so little founded Upon the physical geograr Asia, that we now see India divided into
more than 100 sovereignties^glJltfsia in par. ibered, — and Turkey in Asia ready to
ASIATIC RUSSIA. 891
fall in pieces. Ancient history informs us, that all the regions of Asia were originally divided
into numerous small kingdoms, in which the will of the monarch found limits in the rights of the
nation. Asia has seen several republics. The resistance which Tyre and Jerusalem opposed
to the conquerors of the world, was not owing, as Montesquieu says, " to the heroism of ser
vitude." The Persians of Cyrus were not slaves. The Scythians spoke the language of in
dependent men to the conqueror of Darius.
The astonishing rapidity of political revolutions in Asia, arises, however, out of one fact
which is really dependent on its physical geography. " In that part of the world," says Mon
tesquieu, " weak nations are opposed to strong ; people warlike, brave, and active, border
upon those who are effeminate, idle, and timid ;_the one must necessarily be conquerors, and
the others conquered. Here we have the principal reason of the liberty of Europe, and the
slavery of Asia." It is necessary to combine this just remark with another truth, proved by
physical geography, namely, that Asia has no temperate zone, no intermediate region between
very cold and very hot climates. The slaves inhabit the hot, and the conquerors the elevated
and cold regions. The latter are the Tartars, the Afghans, the Mongols, the Mantchous, and
others, comprised under the name of Tartars by the moderns, and Scythians of Asia by the
ancients. Here we find a totally different physical and moral nature ; courage animates their
strong and powerful bodies ; they have no sciences, no fine arts, no luxury ; their savage vir
tues are unpolished, morality is written upon their hearts ; hospitality to strangers, honor to an
enemy, and a fidelity wholly inviolable to their own nation and friends. To counterbalance
these good qualities, they are addicted to war, or rather pillage and a wandering life, and live
almost in a state of anarchy.
Such were the Scythians ; such are the Tartars. They defied the power of Darius ; they
gave a great and sublime lesson to Alexander the Great ; they heard from a distance the victo
rious arms of Rome, but they did not feel their pressure. More than 20 times they conquered
Asia and Eastern Europe ; they founded States in Persia, in India, in China, and in Russia.
The empires of Tamerlane, and of Ghengis-khan, embraced the half of the ancient continent.
That vast nursery of nations appears to be now exhausted ; few of the Tartars remain nomin
ally independent ; but they are still the masters of China, and rather -the allies and vassals, than
the subjects of Russia. For the present state, political institutions, and history of the differ
ent Asiatic nations, we must refer our readers to the respective accounts of the different coun
tries.
CHAPTER CXXXIX. ASIATIC RUSSIA.
1. Boundaries and Extent. The Asiatic dominions of Russia are bounded on the north
by the Arctic Ocean ; east by Behring's Strait, the sea of Okotsk, and the Pacific Ocean ;
south by the Chinese empire, Turkistan, Persia, the Caspian Sea, and Ottoman Asia ; and
west by the Black Sea, and the Ural River and Mountains, which separate it from European
Russia. They extend from lat. 38° to 78° N., and from long. 36° E. to 171° W., having an
area of 5,350,000 square miles, with a population of about 4,000,000 inhabitants.
2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains, on the western frontier, stretch from north to south
for a great distance, but nowhere attain a very great elevation, the highest summits not exceed
ing 5,200 feet, in height. The Altai Mountains stretch from east to west along the southern
frontier, farming in part the boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires. This chain
surrounds -the sources of the Irtish and the Yenissey, under the name of the Sayanian Moun
tains ; further east it extends in a northeasterly direction along the western coast of the sea of
Okotsk, under the name of the Stanovoy Mountains, and traverses the peninsula of Kamschat
ka, where it presents a series of active volcanoes. The highest summits of this great mass of
mountains are from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, except some of the summits of Kamschatka, which
have been lately ascertained to exceed 20,000 feet in height. Between the Caspian and Black
seas are the Caucasian Mountains, rising to an elevation of from 15,000 to 18,000
feet. 3. Rivers and Lakes. The Ob or Oby rises in the Altai Mountains, becomes navigable in
the government of Tomsk, receives the Irtish, a large, navigable river, 1,600 miles in length,
and enters the Arctic Ocean after a course of 2,400 miles. The Yenissey, the largest river of
892 ASIATIC RUSSIA.
the eastern hemisphere, also rises in the Altaian chain, in the Chinese empire, passes through Lake
Baikal, and, taking a northerly direction, flows into the Arctic Ocean ; it is about 2,700 miles
in length. The Lena also rises in the same mountains, and empties itself into the same sea,
after receiving numerous large tributaries, during a course of upwards of 2,000 miles. The
Kolyma, the Anadyr, and the Kamschatka are also large rivers. The Kur, which receives
the Araxes, flows into the Caspian Sea. The Ural, which also flows into the Caspian Sea, rises
on the eastern declivity of the mountains of the same name, and has a course of about 1,500
miles. Of the lakes the principal is Lake Baikal, which is the largest in Asia, being upwards
of 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 broad; it is of great depth, but contains numerous shoals.
4. Steppes. The whole of the northern part of the country, from the Ural to the ocean is
a vast steppe, or level desert, interspersed with extensive marshy tracts, and some productive
districts. Similar levels are found in the southwestern part, but of inferior extent.
5. Minerals. Gold, silver, platina, diamonds, and other precious stones, with iron, lead,
and copper are found in the Ural and Altai Mountains. Salt is found in abundance in the
steppes. 6. Climate and Vegetation. The northern portion of Siberia experiences extremely rigor
ous winters and short summers, and the earth is perpetually frozen below the vegetable mould
that overlies the surface. The cold is here so intense, that 72-1 below zero of Fahrenheit is not
very unusual, and it has been known as low as 120° ; birds and animals, as well as man, perish
beneath this dreadful temperature, their very blood being frozen in their veins. The great
rivers of these dreary plains are not, like the streams of happier regions, destined to fertilize
the fields through which they flow, and convey their rich produce to bordering kingdoms. But
these " solid floods " roll their sluggish mass through frozen tracts and end in a sea bound in
chains of perpetual ice.
In a country like this the vegetable species are few, and their forms are of the most stunted
description ; whole districts are covered with coarse rushes, dwarf birches (Betula nana) and
willows, and arctic brambles. But as we proceed south to somewhat milder regions, the coun
try is clothed with forests of birches (Betula alba), larches, and pines, among which are the
Cembra pine (P. Cembra), reaching the height of 120 feet ; the Siberian fir (P Sibirica),
and the spruce (P. abies). To these succeed maples, balsams, aspens, and poplars, but beech
es, oaks, limes, ash, and other hardwood trees, are wanting. Great numbers of gentians, es
pecially Gentiana algida, with its blue and white blossoms, large patches of the yellow Rhodo
dendron chrysanthemum and the purple R. dauricum, with quantities of other pretty flowers,
fill the meadows and open country. Lilies are abundant, and in Kamschatka their bulbs are
used for food ; rhubarbs are also found. The cereal grains are cultivated only in the southern
parts of Siberia ; wheat is raised with difficulty in any portion, but oats, rye, barley, and
buckwheat, supply its place.
The government of Caucasia, and in general the southwestern parts of this extensive region,
are exceedingly fertile, more from nature than industry. The parts that are cultivated produce
excellent fruit of almost all the kinds known in Europe, especially grapes, which are reckoned
the largest and finest in the world. The summers are very dry, and, from the end of July to
the beginning of October, the air is corrupted, and the soil sometimes ruined, by immense
quantities of locusts.
7. Animals. The animal kingdom is distinguished by the same paucity of species as the
vegetable world. Yet, even in the bleak regions of the polar shores, that beneficent Providence
which presides over nature, has furnished means of support and protection against the climate
to various animals. That severity of cold, which would otherwise be fatal to animal life, is
guarded against in some measure by a thick coat of fat and unctuous substances ; in others by
skins and furs, much richer, softer, and more beautiful than those which clothe the tenants of
milder regions. The substances, which communicate to these classes of animals the power of
resisting the fiercest colds of the north, become, with a little preparation, eminently useful and
ornamental to man ; the midnight gloom is enlivened, and the pomp of kings derives one of its
most splendid decorations from commodities furnished by the shivering hunter of the polar de
sert. The reindeer, elk, polar bear, wolf, fox, marmot, the martin, ermine, and other ani
mals common to Europe or North America, have already been mentioned under those heads.
Various species of leming, mice, and hamsters, are more confined to Siberia. The economic
mouse (Arvicola ceconomis) deserves a particular notice. This little creature forms burrows
ASIATIC RUSSIA. 893
with great skill, the principal chamber sometimes having above 20 different entrances ; adjoin
ing this are several other rooms, in which it deposits its winter stores, as in granaries ; these
stores it will not touch until compelled by the approach of the cold season, when, with its mate,
it retires to its well-stored dwellings, and enjoys the fruits of its industry. Numerous species of
seal, as the Greenland seal (Phoca Groznlandica), the sea-bear (Otaria ursina) , and sea-lion
(0. jubata), throng the Arctic Sea ; the Baikal seal (P. Bothionica) is found in the lake of
that name. An immense species of elephant, now extinct, formerly belonged to Siberia, and
enormous tusks are found, sometimes weighing 600 pounds. The remains of these huge crea-'
tures are so abundant, that ivory forms an important article of export.
The animals of the Caucasian regions are, the caracal lynx, chamois and ibex goats, bears,
antelopes, a tiger of an unknown species, the bison, long extinct in Europe, the wild sheep
(Oris Amnion), &c.
8. Divisions. The country between the Caspian and Black seas, called by geographers
the Caucasian region, is politically divided into 12 provinces, and several districts which are
only nominally dependent upon the Russian government. The vast region to the east of the
Ural Mountains is known geographically under the name of Siberia, but is politically divided
into the four governments of Tobolsk, Yenisseisk, Tomsk, and Irkoutsk, the two provinces of
Omsk and Yakoutsk, the two districts of Okotsk, and Kamschatka, the land of the Kirghises,
and the land of the Tchuktchi.
9. Towns. Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, is a handsome town with spacious streets and
squares, large barracks and caravanseries, and some elegant public buildings. It has 20,000
inhabitants. Erivan is the capital of Armenia, a Persian province lately conquered by Russia.
It suffered much during the war, but has 12,000 inhabitants, and is the residence of the Arme
nian patriarch. Chamaki, the capital of Shirvan, and formerly a great commercial empo
rium of this part of Asia, has about 15,000 inhabitants.
Tobolsk, on the Irtish, is, like the other towns of Siberia, built chiefly of wood, and is lia
ble to be inundated by the river. The streets are covered with thick planks. The population
is about 25,000, engaged in carrying on an extensive trade, and manufactures of leather, soap,
and surgical instruments. In the spring the Russian traders arrive here on their way to the
remote regions of. Siberia, and in the autumn return hither to wait till the weather enables them
to transport their goods on sledges into Europe. Caravans of Calmucks and Bucharians also
spend the winter here. Irkoutsk is the chief place of Eastern Siberia, and is a large town
with 25,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures, its learned institutions, and its active commerce
give it a European appearance. ¦-
Kiakta, upon the Russian frontier, is a place of much trade and great wealth. Yakoutsk, with
3,000 inhabitants, carries on the fur trade to a great extent, and has several important fairs. Tomsk,
capital of the government of the same name, is situated upon the great route to China, and
has an active trade, with some manufactures. Population, 10,000. Kolyvan, a small town
in the same government, is the centre of a rich silver mine district. Okotsk, capital of the
district of the same name, and Petropvlosk, capital of Kamschatka, are small towns with about
1 ,000 inhabitants.
10. Industry. The whole country is thinly peopled, and in many parts inhabited only by
rude tribes of hunters or fishermen, or occupied by wandering shepherds. The manufac
tures are few and inconsiderable, and agriculture is little attended to, but the trade with China,
Turkistan, Persia, Turkey, and European Russia, is active and important.
11. Islands. The sea which separates the southern point of the peninsula of Kamschatka
from Japan, contains a number of islands, in a position from northeast to southwest, which are
called the Kurile Islands. They are upwards of 20 in number, are all mountainous, and in
several of them are volcanoes and hot springs. The principal of these islands are inhabited ;
but the small ones are unpeopled. They differ much from each other, in respect both to their
situation and natural constitution. The forests in the northern isles are almost entirely com
posed of pines ; those in the southern, produce canes, bamboos, vines, &c. In some of them
are bears and foxes. Sea-otters appear on the coasts of all these islands, as well as whales,
sea-horses, seals, and other amphibious animals. Some of the inhabitants of these islands have
a great likeness to the Japanese, in their manners, language, and personal appearance ; others
very much resemble the Kamschadales. The northern islands acknowledge the sovereignty of
the emperor of Russia ; but those of the south pay homage to Japan. The Kurilians display
894
ASIATIC RUSSIA.
much humanity and probity in their conduct, and are courteous and hospitable. They are
chiefly employed in hunting, taking sea-animals and whales, and catching fowl.
Between the eastern coast of Kamschatka and the western coast of America, are various
groups of islands, divided into four principal groups, the first two of which are called the Aleu
tian Islands. The first group, which is called by some of the islanders Sasignam, comprehends,
1. Behring's Islands, which is 90 miles in length, and 25 in breadth; 2. Copper Island;
3. Otma ; 4. Samyra, or Shemyia ; 5. Anakta. The second group is called Khao, and
comprises Immak and 7 other islands. The third general name is Negho, and comprehends
the islands known to the Russians under the name of Andreanoffski Ostrova, 16 of which are
mentioned by geographers. The fourth group is called Kavalang, and also includes 16 islands,
which are denominated Lyssic Ostrova, or the Fox Islands.
Some of these islands are only inhabited occasionally, and for several months in the year, and
others are very thinly peopled ; but some have a great number of inhabitants, who constantly
reside in them. Copper Island received its name from the copper which the sea throws upon
its coasts. The inhabitants of these islands are in general of a short stature, with stout, robust
limbs, but free and supple. They have lank, black hair, and little beard, flattish faces, and fair
skins. They are for the most part well-made, and of strong constitutions, suited to the boister
ous climate of their isles. The Fox Islands are so called from the great number of black, gray,
and red foxes with which they abound. The dress of a native consists of a cap, and a fur coat
which reaches down to the knees. Some of them wear common caps of a parti-colored bird-
skin, upon which they leave part of the wings and tail. On the fore part of their hunting and
fishing caps, they place a small board like a screen, adorned with the jaw-bones of sea-bears,
and ornamented with glass beads, which they receive in barter from the Russians.
12. Inhabitants. This vast country contains more than 100 tribes, differing in manners,
language, and religion. The Russians, Cossacks, and other settlers from Europe are chiefly
in the towns and military stations. There are many Tartars, and colonies of them north of the
Caspian and the Caucasus. The Calmucks are perhaps the most peculiar race in the empire.
They are of a dark color and athletic form. They have high cheek bones, small eyes, distant
from each other, and enormous ears. There are some tribes of Monguls and Manshurs, or
Mantchoos. The latter are a branch of the Tungooses, occupying the central parts of Siberia,
about a third of the whole. In the northern regions, there are Finns and Samoieds ; the latter
are short in stature, seldom exceeding 5 feet, and often but 4. They have short legs, large,
flat heads, wide mouths, large ears, small, angularly-placed eyes, and black and bristly hair.
Their complexion is an olive. The Yakouts are a large tribe on the river Lena. The Geor
gians and Circassians are a well-formed race of men, and the females are renowned for beauty.
They have fair complexions, regular features, and commanding
forms. The Circassians have slender waists, and these in the
men are rendered more so by a light sword-belt, which they con
stantly wear. Besides these tribes or people, which are a small
part of the whole, there are many foreigners, as Germans, Poles,
Swedes, Armenians, together with a few Hindoos, Gypsies, and
Jews. The form of dress is nearly as various as the people. In die
northern countries, it consists for a great part of the year in furs ;
while the Calmucks have scarcely any clothing but a strip of cloth
about the waist. The dress of the Tartars is chiefly a striped
silk and cotton shirt, a short tunic, and over this a caftan or east
ern robe, girded with a sash. Short boots and loose drawers are
worn. In summer, the head is covered with a turban ; in winter,
with a helmet of wood. All Tartars shave their beards. The
languages are various, and that of Georgia is radically different from all others. The dwellings
are of almost every form, though there is little good architecture. In Siberian towns, the Rus
sian mode of building is somewhat followed. The Tartars have neat cottages, whitewashed,
and with gardens attached. The Tungooses dwell in tents. The Kamschadales live in vil
lages, built like those of Russia. Many Georgians dwell in huts half sunk in the earth, and the
Circassians in cottages of wood and plaited osiers. The food is different in various parts. In
Siberia, fish forms a great article of food. The Tartars eat the flesh of horses, or whatever
Circassians.
ASIATIC RUSSIA.
895
All of the Tartar race make use of Koumiss, the spirit
they can the most easily obtain.*
drawn from mare's milk.
The courtship of the Calmucks is a horse race. The lady whose good will is solicited, is
mounted on horseback, and the wooer follows. If he is favored, he is permitted to overtake ;
if not, whip and spur are
vain, for the lady is too
good an equestrian, and
has too much at stake, to
be overtaken. Among
the Crim Tartars, court
ship and marriage are
cumbered with ceremo
nies. The parties seldom
see each other till the
ceremony, and the con
tract is made with the
heads of the tribe. At
the period of the wed
ding, the villages near are
feasted for several days.
Much ceremony is used
in preparing the bride,
who is bound to show
every symptom of reluc
tance. There is a con
test between the matrons
and girls for her posses
sion. The priest asks the
bride if she consents, and
on the aflirmative, blesses the couple in the name of the prophet, and retires. There is a
great ceremony and cavalcade, when the bride is carried to her future home. She is carried
in a close carriage, under the care of her brothers, while the bridegroom takes a humble sta
tion in the procession, dressed in his worst apparel, and badly mounted. A fine horse, how
ever, is led for him by a friend, who receives from the mother of the bride a present of value,
as a shawl. There are not many facilities for traveling in any part of Asia. In the Russian
possessions, however, posts are generally established ; and in Kamschatka, they are supplied,
instead of horses, with dogs. In Siberia, there are few inns, and the traveler finds money to
be an incumbrance. The generous hospitality of the people not only supplies his wants in
food and clothing,, but he is feasted as though he were a long absent relation. The diseases
most general or fatal are scurvy, smallpox, fevers, and the most of the common maladies of
other countries.
Tartar Wedding.
* Cochrane relates the following instances of what he
represents as a general voraciousness :
" At Tabalak, I had a pretty good specimen of the ap
petite of a child, whose age (as I understood from the
steersman, who spoke some English and less French) did
not exceed five years. I had observed the child crawling
on the floor, and scraping up with its thumb the tallow-
grease Which fell from a lighted candle, and I inquired, ii>
surprise, whether it proceeded from hunger or liking of
the fat. I was told from neither, but simply from the ha
bit, in both Yakuti and Tongousi, of eating whenever there
is food, and never permitting anything that can be eaten
io be lost. I gave the child a candle made of the most
impure tallow, — asecond, — and third; and all were de
voured with avidity. The steersman then gave him seve
ral pounds of sour, frozen butter ; this, also, he immedi
ately consumed ; -lastly, a large piece of yellow soap ; all
went the same road ; but as 1 was now convinced, that the
child would continue to gorge as long as it could receive
anything, I begged my companion to desist.
" As to the statement of what a man can or will eat,
either as to quality or quantity, I am afraid it would be
quite incredible ; in fact, there is nothing in the way of
fish or meat, from whatever animal, however putrid or un
wholesome, but they will devour with impunity ; and the
quantity only varies from what they have, to what they
can get. 1 have repeatedly seen a Yakut or a Tongouse
devour forty pounds of meat in a day. The effect is very
observable upon them, for from thin and meagre-looking
men, they will become perfectly pot-bellied. Their sto
machs must be differently formed from ours, or it would
be impossible for them to drink off at a draught, as they
really do, their tea and soup scalding hot (so not, at least,
that a European would have difficulty in even sipping at
it), without the least inconvenience. I have seen three
of these gluttons consume a reindeer at one meal ; nor are
they nice as to the choice of parts ; nothing being lost,
not even the contents of the bowels, which, with the aid
of fat and blood, are converted into black puddings."
896 TURKISTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY.
13. Character, Manners, &c. Among a people so various as the inhabitants of Asiatic
Russia, there must be great diversity, and opposition of manners and customs. In some of
the towns of Siberia there is considerable intelligence. There is in all great hospitality and
much social intercourse, and the provinces are better residences than Central Russia. It is
remarked, that no government banishes fools ; and it may be added, that many of the exiles
in Siberia, are banished only for their virtues. The effect of these is seen in the state of so
ciety. The gayety of the Siberians is somewhat rude ; but their hospitality is deserving all
commendation. The Tungooses occupy nearly a third of Siberia. They are hospitable, im
provident, fionest, and faithful to their word. They bear privation with wonderful endurance,
and when they are forced to kill a reindeer for want of food, they refrain till they have fasted
a week or more. They are filthy in the extreme. They smoke and drink spirits whenever
they can obtain them. The Yakouts are quick and observing. Many of the Tartars and Cal;
mucks are nomades. The appearance of the latter is athletic but revolting. They are cheer
ful and much given to equestrian exercises, and the women ride better than the men. The
Samoieds live without rulers, and have no words to express virtue or vice. It is not probable,
however, that they are without either quality. The Kamschadales are in a great degree inde
pendent, honest, and veracious. The Georgians and Circassians are a rude people, addicted
to violence. The latter live in a feudal state, in which the princes are paramount, the nobles
next in authority, and the main body of the people serfs. The princes give their children to
the nobles to be educated, and seldom see them till they are of age. The Circassians carry
the principle of revenge to an unlimited extent. Blood for blood is so far the practice, that the
innocent are involved with the guilty, and the. duty of redressing an injury is hereditary. The
amusements of all these different nations are various. Almost all of them, however, have the
game of chess, and all practise dancing. Of the religions, perhaps Mohammedan is the most
• general, and after that Christianity, Lamaism, and Buddhism. Paganism is, however, as ex
tensive as any of these. The Yakouts have a corrupted Shamanism ; and they worship prin
cipally the sun and fire. The form of Christianity is that of the Greek, or of the Armenian
church. 14. History. Siberia can hardly be said to have a history of its own, but the few notices
which relate to it, record the conquests or discoveries of its foreign masters. Toward the
close of the 16th century, a band of Cossacks fled into these then unknown regions from the
arms of Russia, and reduced some of the native people, but, being obliged to submit to the su
premacy of Russia, his conquests only served to enlarge the domains of that power. In about
, 50 years the Russians pushed across the continent to the Pacific Ocean, which they reached in
1639, and having afterwafd explored those seas, sailed up between Asia and America into the
Arctic Ocean. Their conquests on the Caucasus are of later date. Georgia, formerly a pow
erful kingdom, had been reduced by Persia to a state of dependence, but, having revolted and
sought the protection of Russia, the latter took advantage of this circumstance to remove the
hereditary princes from the throne, and to reduce the country to a Russian province. In 1828,
Persia was obliged to cede Erivan and Nakshivan to Russia, which has also recendy wrested
several districts from the Ottomans.
CHAPTER CXL. TURKISTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY.
1. Boundaries. This extensive region, which is about 900 miles from north to south, and
700 from east to west, is bounded north by the Russian empire ; east by the Chinese empire ;
south by Cabul and Persia, and west by the Caspian Sea. It lies between latitude 36° and
51° N., and between longitude 50° and 72° E.
2. Deserts. The northern part of the country is an immense desert extending into Russia ;
the western part, lying between the Oxus and the Caspian, is also a desert called the desert of
Karasm. The district in the southeast, extending from the Belur Tag Mountains to the sea of
Aral, and watered by the Oxus, the Sihon, and their numerous tributaries, was well known to
the ancients for its delightful climate, its fertile soil, and dense population. The Arabian geog
raphers describe it as the paradise of Asia, and are never weary of expatiating in its praise. It
is represented as filled with- splendid cities, and the populousness is said to be such, that an
army of 300,000 horse and the same number of foot could be drawn from it without the coun
try suffering by their absence. This tract is now called Great Bukharia.
TURKISTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 897
3. Rivers and Lakes. The rivers of this region all find their way into inland lakes or seas.
The Oxus, Gihon, or Amou, the largest river of the country, rises in the Beloor Mountains,
and flows through a fertile tract into the Aral Sea. The Jaxartes, Sir, or Sihon, rises in the
mountains of the Chinese empire, and empties itself into the same sea. The Kuwan, which
traverses Bucharia, and the Sarasu, which runs through the land of the Kirghises, also empty
their waters into lakes. There is a great number of lakes, among which the Aral, usually
termed a sea, is the principal. It is, after the Caspian Sea, the largest inland body of water
in Asia, being about 250 miles in length, and covering an area of about 10,000 square miles.
Its waters are salt, and its shores low and sandy or marshy. It is inhabited by numerous fish
and seals.
4. Divisions. This region is occupied by a great number of Turkish tribes, forming many
independent States ; its great geographical divisions are the land of the Kirghises in the north ;
Turcomania or the country of Turkmans, in the southwest ; Turkistan Proper, or the land of
the Turcomans in the east, and Usbekistan or the land of the Usbeks, in the south ; but these
and other tribes are scattered about in various parts of trie country. The chief States are the
knanats of Bucharia, Khiva, and Khokand, after which rank those of Hissar, Balk, &c.
5. Bucharia. This country comprises the richest and most populous region of Turkistan,
arid has an area of 80,000 square miles, with 2,500,000 inhabitants. The ruling people are
the Usbeks, a Turkish tribe, but the natives or Bucharians, are of Persian origin, and are
found all over Asia, from Russia and Turkey to China, in the capacity of traders.
Buchara, the capital, stands in a pleasant plain, but it is meanly built, with crooked, narrow,
and dirty streets, upon which the houses present only a blind wall, their windows being upon
interior courts. The population is about SO, 000, of which three quarters are Persians, and
the remainder Usbeks, Afghans, Jews, Arabs, &c. The ark or palace of the khan, the
360 mosques, and 60 madrasses or colleges, the vast caravansery, &c, are the principal pub
lic edifices ; its manufactures and commerce attract merchants from all parts of Asia, and its
seminaries, which render it one of the chief seats of Mahometan learning, are estimated to be
attended by 10,000 scholars. Samarcand, once the capital of the great empire of Tamerlane,
although declined from its ancient splendor, still contains 50,000 inhabitants, numerous manu
factories of silk, cotton, silk paper, and many learned institutions or madrasses. Here is also
the tomb of Tamerlane, built of jasper. Naksheb is a large town with 40,000 inhabitants.
The Bucharians are distinguished for their industry, commercial enterprise, and frugality.
They traverse all parts of the continent in their trading expeditions, and have even formed nu
merous colonies in China, Russia, and other parts of Turkistan. Their trade with Russia by
Orenburg, with China by Cashgar, Cabul, and Balkh, and with India by Cashmere, constitutes
the most important part of their commercial operations. They also excel in the manufacture
of cotton, silk, caps, paper, &c. The Usbeks, who have conquered this and the neighbor
ing regions, are a rude and warlike people, who consider war and robbery as the only honora
ble occupations. They hold the public offices, are the soldiers, &c, and often invade the'
Persian and Russian territories, carrying off slaves and plunder.
6. Khiva. The khanat of Khiva is the most extensive State of Turkistan, but much of its
territory consists of deserts. It has an area of 150,000 square miles, with only 800,000 in
habitants. The dominant people are the Usbeks, who have extended their conquests over the
Karakalpaks on the Sir, the Aralians on the Amou, and a part of Turcomania. Khiva, the
capital, in a fertile territory near the Amou, has about 15,000 inhabitants ; it is the greatest
slave market in Turkistan. This country was early converted to Mahometanism, and in the
8th century formed the kingdom of Kharism, the dominion of which was widely extended over
Central Asia, until it was subverted by Zingis Khan. Urgunge, the ancient capital, is now
mostly in ruins.
7. Khokand. The khanat of Khokand is inferior to that of Khiva in extent of territory,
but is more densely peopled ; its area amounts to 75,000 square miles, with a population of
1,000,000 souls. It comprises the country lying upon the upper part of the Sir. Its capital,
Khokan, upon a tributary of the Sir, is a place of much trade, and contains 3 stone bazars,
several mosques, the castle of the Khan, &c, with 60,000 inhabitants.
8. Kingdom of Balkh. Balkh, the capital of an independent khanat, is an old city, formerly one
of the most wealthy and populous of Asia, but now much reduced, having but 10,000 inhabit
ants. As the residence of the kings of Bactria, it was the rival of Nineveh and Babylon, the
centre of the commerce between the east and the west, and one of the chief seats of eastern
113
898 TURKISTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY.
learning. Under the name of Bactria, this country has, from remote antiquity, been celebrated
in the annals of the east. Under the auspices of Alexander, a Greek kingdom of Bactria was
formed, which continued for several centuries, and even after its fall retained marked. traces of
civilization. Under the Roman empire, when a commercial route had been opened across
Asia as far as China, Bactria was the great rendezvous of the caravans, before entering the
bleak regions of Tartary. When Asia yielded to the dreadful sway of the Mongol warriors,
Bactria lay in their route across the continent, and suffered accumulated disasters. The city
of Balkh is commonly called in the east, the mother of cities.
There are several other khanats of considerable extent ; the land of the Kirghises, compris
ing the central and northern parts of Tartary, is inhabited by numerous small tribes of that peo
ple under distinct and independent chiefs ; and Turcomania, between the Caspian and Aral
seas, and the khanat of Khiva, is occupied by similar tribes of Turkmans.
The Kirghises, retiring before the Russians, moved their flocks and tents from the pastoral
regions of Siberia to the steppes and wilds north of the Jaxartes and Aral, and east of the
Caspian. They are divided into 3 branches of hordes, called the Great, Middle, and Little
Horde. The Great Horde ranges to the south and east, and many of its tribes have adopted
the habits of those more improved districts, and acquired a fixed and peaceable character. The
Middle and Lesser Hordes occupy the shores of the Aral, and the tract extending from the
Aral to the Caspian, and in these the original nomadic character is preserved almost entire ;
they own in some degree the supremacy of Russia, which, however, has to resort to means of
conciliation and defence to keep them quiet, making annual gifts to the chiefs, and maintaining
a line of strong posts from the Ural to the Irtish. Still these wild tribes make occasional forays
into the more settled districts, and plunder or exact a ransom from the great caravans, which
cross their territory. The wealth of the Kirghises consists in horses, goats, the large-tailed
sheep, and a few camels. Their tents of felt are larger and neater than those of the Calmucks.
9. Koondooz. Between Cabul and Bucharia, to the south of the Oxus, is the little State
of Koondooz, ruled by a Meer or Usbek chief, who has established his power over all the
neighboring districts, and is master of all the upper Oxus and its tributaries. He has reduced
Badakshan, and has even sacked the city of Balkh. The town of Koondooz stands in a marshy
and unhealthy valley, and is only visited by the Meer in winter ; it was once a large town, but
is now almost deserted. The long valley of Badakshan, through which the Oxus flows, is
celebrated all over the east for its mineral wealth, including iron, salt, sulphur, lapis lazuli, and
rubies. Fyzabad is the capital of Badakshan. The mountainous tract of Shoghnan, to the
west, once gave the name of Sogdiana to all this region.
1 0. Inhabitants. The name of Tartar has been incorrectly applied to many of the nomade
tribes of northern and middle Asia. Turks is the name by which they prefer to be called,
and many of the tribes are not Tartars. The most common dress among the Turkish Tartars
is a calico robe and drawers. Red is the favorite color. Some of the dresses are trimmed
with wool. Garments of skins also are sometimes worn.* In a country inhabited by wan
dering tribes, there are few cities, and costly habitations. Many of the tribes dwell in tents,
and the richer individuals in wooden houses so small, that they may be removed in wagons.
The Turcomans sometimes have only the shelter of caves. The food is principally drawn
from the herds, and from hunting. A little millet is sparingly used. Horse flesh and mutton
are preferred to beef and veal. There is much milk, butter, cheese, and koumiss. The man
ners and customs are those of a people warlike and fierce. The Tartars have neither regular
employment, nor settled habitations. They remove with their flocks and herds from place to
place. When a Tartar would curse with emphasis, he imprecates upon his enemy a settled
abode, and a life of labor, like a Russian. The predatory habits of many of the tribes of this
region render traveling very hazardous among them. Caravans are often attacked and plun
dered on their route by the Turco-Tartar hordes, and the only security in passing through this
country is to travel in large numbers and well armed. The Turco-Tartars are distinguished
* A late traveler gives the following account. the semicircle wliich formed the sleeve, and the side of
" I approached (says he) a group of Tartars assembled the habit, which was intended to reach below the knee.
round a dead horse, which they had just skinned. A She proceeded in the same manner with the other parts,
young man about 18, who was naked, had the hide of the till the cutting out was finished; the man then, who had
animal thrown over his shoulder. A woman, who per- served as a mould, crouched on his hams, while the seve-
formed the office of tailor with great dexterity, began by ral pieces were stitched together, so that in less than 2
cutting the back of this new dress, following with her hours he had a good brown-bay coat, which only wanted
flcissors the round of the neck, the fall of the shoulders, to be tanned by continual wearing."
TURKEY IN ASIA.
899
for their performance of filial duties and reverence for the memory of their fathers. They are
brave, rude, and hospita
ble. Their chief amuse
ment is in the chase,
which inures them to dan
ger and fatigue. The
prevailing religion is the
Mohammedan, but tliere
are many Pagans. Po
lygamy is general. Some
tribes burn the dead, and
cover the ashes in mounds.
Others expose the body
to be devoured by dogs,
from some superstitious
belief. The government
is that of khans elected
over the smaller tribes,
and appointed on a few
large ones, by the great
khan, who styles himself
king of kings. The sys
tem of laws is principally
Caravan attacked by the Tartars. that of the Koran
11. History. The Scythians of the ancient world, and the Tartars of modern times, have
maintained in all ages an unchanged character. In war, they have always been formidable ;
their furious inroads, their rapid flight, and their terrible ravages, have always made them an
object of terror or anxiety to the bordering countries. The Saracens reduced some of the
countries on the Oxus to their sway, in the 8th century, but the Turkish tribes soon after ex
pelled the invaders, overrun Persia, and conquered Asia Minor, where the Seljukian Turks
continued to rule for several centuries. In the 13th century, Turkistan was included in the
vast empire founded by the great Mongol conqueror Zingis-or Genghis Kahn ; but in the next
century, Timur, or Tamerlane, not only threw off the Mongol yoke, but carried the arms of
the Turco-Tartars over Persia, established a dynasty, commonly but erroneously called the
Mogul, which ruled over India, and crushed for a time the rising power of the Seljukian Turks
in the west. The ruling race of Persia is of Turkish origin. In more modern times, the
proper country of the Turks has been partly reduced to a nominal dependence on Russia, is
partly included within the Chinese empire, and is partly independent ; but, as above described,
split up into numerous petty States.
CHAPTER CXLI. OTTOMAN ASIA, OR TURKEY IN ASIA.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Asiatic Turkey is bounded N. by the Black Sea and Russia ;
E. by Russia and Persia ; S. by Arabia^ Egyptian Asia, and the Mediterranean ; and W. by
the Archipelago. It extends from 30° to 42° N. lat., and from 26° to 49° E, long., com
prising about 400,000 square miles, with 8,000,000 inhabitants.
2. Mountains. Asia Minor and Armenia are mountainous countries. In Armenia is Mount
Ararat, 17,300 feet above the sea, and believed by the inhabitants to be the eminence
on which Noah's Ark rested. The chain of Mount Taurus extends westerly from Arme
nia, and intersects by numerous branches the greatest part of Asia Minor. Its highest
summits have an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet.
3. Rivers and Lakes. The largest river of this country is the Euphrates. It rises in
two broad streams in the mountains of Armenia, and breaking through the chain of
Mount Taurus, flows southeasterly into the Persian Gulf, after a course of 1,300 miles.
The Tigris is a branch _ of the Euphrates, rising in the same quarter, and flowing mostly
in a parallel direction, till it joins the Euphrates, after a course of 800 miles. The Kizil Irmak,
900
TURKEY IN ASIA.
or ancient Halys, flows
through the central part of
Asia Minor northerly into the
Black Sea. The Sakaria or
Sangarias, the M^ndres or
Meander, and the Sarabat
are the other most remark
able rivers of Asia Minor.
Lake Van, in Armenia, is
about 200 miles in circuit.
4. Islands. On the coast
of Asia Minor are many
islands celebrated in ancient
history. In the north are
Tenedos, famous in the war
of Troy, Lemnos, and Sa-
mothrace. Lesbos or Mete-
lino is a beautiful island, with
mountains covered with vines
and olives, exhibiting a per
petual verdure. It has a population of 30,000. Scio, the ancient Chios, formerly renowned for
its beauty and fertility, has obtained a mournful celebrity in our own days. The island was devas
tated by the Turks, and its inhabitants butchered, in 1822. Samos is productive in grain and
fruit. Patmos and Rhodes are famous in sacred and profane history. In the former, St. John
Mount Ararat.
Palmos.
wrote the Apocalypse or Book of Revelations, and the Greek monks still pretend to point out
the spot where those sublime visions were exhibited to the prophetic soul of the apostle.
Rhodes was famous in antiquity as a commercial and naval power, and as the seat of an opulent
and refined community. At a later period, the Knights of St. John, when expelled from the
TURKEY IN ASIA.
901
Holy Land by the Turks, took shelter in Rhodes, and long baffled the arms of Mahomet and
Solyman by their brilliant courage. But the Turkish sway has long since obliterated all these
glories, and Rhodes is now poor and thinly peopled.
Cyprus, the largest of the islands, lies the furthest south ; it is 140 miles long, and 60 in
breadth. It is traversed by two lofty mountainous ridges ; and the whole face of the island is so
verdant as to resemble an immense flower-garden. It produces vines, olives, lemons, oranges,
apricots, and numerous other fruits. Corn and silk are raised, and carpets manufactured. The
population is about 80,000.
5. Climate. In the mountainous parts, especially in Armenia, the climate is temperate and
healthy. In Mesopotamia, it is hot and unhealthy. The Simoom, a poisonous wind of the de
sert, is common here. This country contains the most fertile provinces of Asia, and produces all
the luxuries of life in abundance. Raw silk, corn, wine, oil, honey, fruit of every species, coffee,
myrrh, frankincense, and odoriferous plants and drugs, flourish here, almost without culture, which
is practised chiefly by the Greeks and Armenians. The olives, citrons, lemons, oranges, figs, and
dates produced in these provinces, are highly delicious, and in great plenty. As it was hence, that
arts and civilization were carried to other regions, so are we indebted to this and the neighboring
countries for some of our most valuable fruits. The walnut and peach are from the tracts bordering
on Persia ; the vine and apricot, from Armenia ; the cherry and sweet chestnut, with the fig, the
olive, and mulberry, from Lesser Asia ; the melon and cucumber are also indigenous to this soil ;
and several of our most ornamental trees and garden plants, the horse-chestnut, lilac, sweet jasmine,
damask rose, hyacinth, tulip, several kinds of iris, ranunculus have been borrowed from these
favored regions. In the south, there are extensive deserts, where no tree casts a welcome
shade ; but the hills and valleys of Asia Minor, are crowned with forests of pine, fir, larch,
cedar, beech, various species of oaks, the almond, lentisks, pistachio trees, terebinth, &c.
Melon.
Persian Iris.
Gall Nuts.
Gall-nuts are the result of a morbid action excited in the leaf-buds of several species of oak,
occasioned by an insect depositing its eggs in the bud. The galls of commerce occur chiefly
on the Quercus .infectoria, and vary in size from that of a pea to that of a nutmeg ;
come from Aleppo and Smyrna.
the best
902
TURKEY IN ASIA.
6. Minerals. Silver, copper, and lead are found in Asia Minor and Armenia, iron in Me
sopotamia, and salt in various places.
7. Animals. The Caucasian goat, which is larger than the common goat, inhabits the Cau
casian Mountains and the Taurus. The Angora goat is remarkable for its hair, which curls in
long ringlets of 8 or 9 inches in length, and is of a silky texture, and glossy silvery whiteness.
Much yarn, spun from it, is exported. The camel is much used here as a beast of burden, and
its hair is valuable.
8. Divisions. Asiatic Turkey is politically divided into 16 eyalets or pachalics, which are
subdivided into sangiacats. But many of the mountaineers and nomadic tribes, are only tribu
taries ; others are merely vassals, that is, they recognise the superiority of the Porte ; and some
are entirely independent. It is not rare for the pachas also to refuse obedience to the orders
of the sultan, and to resist his forces. The common geographical divisions, generally used by
writers, are Asia Minor or Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, Curdistan, and Mesopotamia or Alje-
sira, with Irak-Arabi. Only a part of Georgia, Armenia, and Curdistan, belong to the Otto
man empire.
9. Towns. Bagdad, built upon both banks of the river Tigris, was for some centuries the
brilliant metropolis of the caliphate under the Saracens. This city retains few marks t>{ its an
cient grandeur. It is in the form of an irregular square, ill-built, and rudely fortified ; but the
convenience of its situation renders it one of the seats of the Turkish government, and it has still
a considerable trade, being annually visited by the caravans from Smyrna and Aleppo, and sxrp-
Bridge of Boats across the Tigris, at Bagdad.
plied also with the produce of Persia and India. Most of the houses have a court-yard, in the
middle of which is a plantation of orange trees. The bazars are handsome and spacious, and
filled with shops for all kinds of merchandise. These were erected by the Persians, when
they were in possession of the place, as were also the bagnios. The castle, which is of stone,
commands the river. Below the castle, by the water side, is the palace of the Turkish govern
or ; and there are many summer-houses on the river, which make a fine appearance. Popu
lation, 100,000. ff r
Bassora or Basra, which is situated below the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, is
considered as the second city of the pachalic of Bagdad ; but it has greatly declined from its
former wealth and importance, though it still has a population of 60,000, who carry on an ex
tensive trade. The houses are meanly built ; the bazars are miserable structures ;. and of 40
mosques only 1 is worthy of the name. The Arabs form the most numerous class of the in
habitants ; but the Armenians are the chief managers of the foreign trade. For the merchan
dise of British India, they chiefly exchange bullion, pearls, copper, silk, dates, and gall-nuts ;
TURKEY IN ASIA.
903
Mosque of Abraham.
and their horses, which are strong and beautiful, are also articles of exportation. Mosul, which
is situated on a plain near the Tigris, was once a flourishing town ; but it is now declining,
though it still has about 60,000 inhabitants ; among whom, besides Turks, are many Curds,
Arabs, Jews, and Armenians.
Diarbekir, the ancient Amida, formerly the capital of an independent State, is now the seat
of a powerful pacha. It is surrounded by a wall, supposed to be a Roman work, famous for
its height and solidity.
Many of the houses are
handsome, one mosque is
magnificent, and the cas
tle is an ornament to the
town. Manufactures and
commerce are prosecuted
with some degree of spir
it ; and the inhabitants
amount to 60,000.
Orfa, in Mesopotamia,
is one of the finest cities
in this country. It is the
ancient Edessa, and is
supposed to be the Ur of
the Chaldees, where Abra
ham dwelt before he came
to Haran. The city stands
on the slope of a hill, and
is 3 or 4 miles in com
pass. The streets are
narrow, but well paved,
and tolerably clean. The
houses are all of stone
and well built, and the
city has numerous excel
lent bazars or markets.
A small lake at one ex
tremity of the city sup
plies it with excellent wa
ter. On the bank of this
lake stands the Mosque
of Abraham, the most
splendid and regular edi
fice of its kind in Asiatic
Turkey. It is a square
building, surmounted by
3 domes, and a lofty min
aret rising from amidst a
grove of tall cypresses.
Every place of conse
quence in the city bears
Approach to Mardm. 1 , . .,¦'
re some relation to the name
of Abraham. The inhabitants are well-bred, polite, and tolerant, and the place is said to be
the most agreeable residence in all the Turkish dominions. Population, 50,000.
Mardin, in Mesopotamia, is remarkable for its situation. It stands on the summit of a lofty
mountain, composed of white limestone. It is approached by a stairway cut in the rock, more
than 2 miles in extent. It is a saying of the Turks, that the inhabitants never see a bird flying
over their town. It has manufactures of silk and cotton. Population, 20,000.
Beer, in Mesopotamia, stands on the Euphrates, and has a castle commanding the passage
of the river. It stands on a mountain full of immense excavations, many of which are fitted up
904
TURKEY IN ASIA.
Approach to the town of Beer, situated on the Banks of the Euphrates.
Babylon.
as khans, or places of abode for
travelers. An Armenian church
occupies one of these excava
tions. Population, 15,000.
The country upon the banks
of the Euphrates and Tigris, was
for centuries the seat of power
ful empires, and the centre of
the commercial transactions be
tween China, India, Persia,
Egypt, and Eastern Europe.
Here are still seen the ruins, or
rather vestiges of the ruins, of the
ancient Nineveh, once the larg
est city of Asia, and the capital
of the Assyrian empire ;'of the
magnificent and luxurious Baby
lon, the capital of the Babylo
nian monarchy and the wonder
of the world ; of the splendid
and sumptuous capitals of the
once powerful Syrian, and Par
thian empires, Seleucia, and
Ctesiphon. As the soil furnish
ed clay, those cities were built
of bricks baked in the sun, and
of a perishable nature.
Erzerum, in Turkish Arme
nia, is situated at the foot of a
high mountain, in a large plain
near the Euphrates. It has a
flourishing commerce and exten
sive manufactures, with about
100,000 inhabitants. The side-
arms made here are in high re
pute in the east ; its vast mosque,
capable of containing 8,000' per
sons, its bazars, and caravanseries are the most remarkable edifices.
Van, upon the lake of the same name, a strongly fortified and industrious city, is the next
most important place in Armenia. It is of great antiquity, and in a neighboring hill are shown
vast subterranean apartments, attributed by the Armenians to Semiramis.
Kutaieh, the residence of the beglerbeg or governor-general of Anatolia, is a large city with
50,000 inhabitants. Karahissar, in the neighborhood, noted for its opium and its woolen man
ufactures, has a population of 60,000 souls. Broussa or Bursa is one of the most flourishing
cities of the empire ; it contains an ancient castle, a number of magnificent mosques, handsome
caravanseries of stone, and fine fountains, and has 100,000 inhabitants, actively employed in
manufactures and commerce. It was once the capital of the empire, and at an earlier period
was the residence of the Bithynian kings. In its vicinity is Isnik or Nice, now a miserable
village, once a splendid city, and famous for having been the seat of the first general council
of all Christendom, in 325. To the northwest, on the Bosphorus, opposite Constantinople,
stands Scutari, with 35,000 inhabitants. It is the rendezvous of the caravans trading between
Constantinople and the east, and contains many handsome buildings ; its cemeteries are re
markable for their extent and elegance, the rich Turks of the European shore still preferring to
be buried in Asia, out of love to the ancient land of their fathers.
Smyrna, pleasantly situated upon a gulf of the Archipelago, but with narrow and 'dirty
streets, is the principal commercial place of Western Asia. It is about four miles in circumfe
rence, and makes a very handsome appearance when approached by sea. Its domes and minarets,
TURKEY IN ASIA.
Smyrna,
905
interspersed with cypresses, rise
finely above the tiers of houses,
and the summit of the hill varies
the view by the display of a spa
cious fortress. The town is not
so ill built as many other Turkish
towns are ; and the abundance of
all the necessaries of life, and the
general civility even of the Mos
lem inhabitants, contribute to
render this a desirable abode, ex
cept for 3 months, when the heat,
though tempered by a westerly
wind in the day, and" by a land
breeze in the night, is scarcely
endurable, and is attended with
very unpleasant attacks from sting
ing flies and still more troublesome
mosquitoes. Its spacious and
safe harbor, its central position,
and its facilities of communica
tion with the most remote pro
vinces of the interior, render it
the great mart of trade in this
quarter of the world. The quar
ter inhabited by Franks or Eu
ropeans, enjoys the privilege of
exemption from Turkish jurisdic-
114
Pergamos.
906
TURKEY IN ASIA.
tion, the consuls of the respective nations exercising the necessary civil and judicial authority.
Population, 130,000. Pergamos, not lar from
Akhissar, on the Caicus, is
still a flourishing city with
about 15,000 inhabitants;
but it is only the shadow of
what it was, when it was the
residence of a powerful line
of kings ; it was once fa
mous for its fine library, se
cond only to that of Alex
andria. Here parchment first
came into use as a material
for writing, the princes of
Pergamos not being able to
obtain the necessary supply
of papyrus. There are ma
ny interesting ruins here,
and the monks pretend to
show the tomb of St. John.
(See cut on page 729.)
Manissa, a flourishing
commercial town, noted for
its extensive plantations of
saffron, with 40,000 inhabi
tants ; Akhissar, a large
but poor town, on the site
of the ancient Thyatira ;
Scalanova, 20,000, and
Guzel Hissa, 30,000, are
other considerable places in
this part of the empire.
Konieh, in a rich and well-
watered plain, is now much
declined from its former im
portance, but it has still a
population of 30,000 souls,
and contains numerous madrasses or colleges and manufactories. Tocat, upon the Kizil.Irmak,
is a large commercial city with 100,000 inhabitants. Kaisarieh, to the southwest, has 25,000
inhabitants. Trebisond, situated upon the Black Sea, with a fine harbor, and surrounded by
a rich territory, remarkable for its delicious climate, was once the capital of an independent
Grecian State, and is still important for its commerce, its manufactures, and its population,
amounting to 50,000. Copper and slaves are its principal exports. Boli, upon the great cara
van route to Constantinople, with 50,000 inhabitants ; Angora, 40,000, noted for its camels ;
and Tarsus, the birth-place of St. Paul, once a rich, populous, and learned city, and still an
active commercial town with 30,000 inhabitants, are also important towns.
10. Industry. Agriculture is in general in a most miserable condition, and, with few ex
ceptions, manufacturing industry is not in a much better state. In the dyeing of silk,
cotton, woolen, and leather fabrics, however, the inhabitants are no way inferior in skill to the
Europeans. The manufactures of Asiatic Turkey, though there are some of a finer quality,
are chiefly of an ordinary kind, coarse, and for internal consumption only. Yet silk, cotton,
leather, and soap are staples of the Levant ; and the two latter find a place in the markets
of Europe. The manufacture of Damascus blades, so famed in the middle ages, ceased from
the period when Timour carried to Tartary the artisans employed on them. At Tocat there is
a great fabric of copper vessels. The women among the wandering tribes in the upper dis
tricts weave the admired Turkey carpets ; but the finest are made in the mountain' districts
of Persia Western Asia has for centuries been the theatre of vast commercial operations,
Akhissar.
TURKEY IN ASIA.
907
Tartar.
Tartar Women.
and although, owing to the dangers of the roads, and the want of facilities of intercommunica
tion, the commerce of this fine country is only a shadow of what it has been, still its central
position between Europe, Asia, and Africa, the rich productions of its soil, and the manu
factures of the great cities, sustain an active and profitable trade.
11. Inhabitants, Manners, &c. The inhabitants are various, and many of them maybe
ranked as nations. They are Turks,
Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Arabs,
Turcomans, Koords or Curds, and
others. The dress of the Turks is
principally the same as in European
Turkey, and that of the other nations
composing the Asiatic dominions, has
a general resemblance to it. The
languages are Turkish, Arabic, Chal-
dee, Koordish, Lingua Franca, and
a motley mixture of all these.
The character of the population is
various and discordant. The Turk
is everywhere the same haughty, in
dolent being. The Armenian is timid,
obsequious, frugal, industrious, and
avaricious. .He traverses all coun
tries for gain, and generally the fac
tors of the Turks, the merchants, and
mechanics, are Armenians. They
are a very ancient people ; pliant to circumstances, bending to authority, and living by peaceful
pursuits ; they have an animated physiognomy and good features ; they five in large families,
closely united. The Jews do not essentially differ from them. The Greek is, as elsewhere,
subtile, cheerful, and adroit. The
Turcomans are boisterous, igno
rant, brave, and hospitable ; they
will shed their blood -in defence of
those with whom they have eaten.
The Koords are robbers and
thieves, and one tribe is often at
war with another. The amuse
ments of the various people, that
inhabit Asiatic Turkey, are not
of an intellectual or refined char
acter. Tricks of jugglers, exhi
bitions of dancing females, feats
of horsemanship, "and recitals of
stories, are common. The an
nexed cut represents an oriental
conversazione. The arts are in a
very low state, and the chief end
of education seems to be to read
the Koran. The prevailing reli
gion is the Mahometan. There
are a great many Christians, chiefly
of the Armenian or of the Greek
church ; the Chaldean Christians have been able to maintain a political ascendency, and Ma
hometanism is barely tolerated among them ; they do not permit the muezzin to make his call
for prayers. Polygamy is not uncommon among the Mahometans, though it is chiefly con
fined to the rich. The government is that of the Pachas, appointed by the Porte, and the laws
are the same as in European Turkey, principally the precepts of the Koran. Justice, how
ever, is seldom obtained by an appeal to them, and there is little security for property or life.
An Oriental Conversazione.
908
TURKEY IN ASIA.
The manner of building resembles that of European Turkey. The houses are square, with
courts, and flat roofs, which are often occupied for the sake of fresh air, and the cities have
Top of an Eastern House.
many domes and minarets. Fountains are found in the cities, generally. Many of the wan
dering pastoral tribes live in tents. The food is generally plain and simple, and the general
population temperate and abstemious. Coffee is almost a necessary of life, and many tribes
live almost entirely from the produce of flocks and herds. The Koords eat a bread made of
acorns. The most common spirituous liquor is arrack, and it is often drunk to intoxication. Few
people are addicted to opium. The diseases are of almost every kind that are common in
Europe. In sandy districts, ophthalmia is common, and the plague commits ravages in cities.
The science of medicine is in a low state, and any person who assumes the character of a
Frank physician, may find much employment. The traveling is generally on horseback, for
there are few vehicles or regular roads. There are a few miserable post-horses furnished by
contract, or rather by tribute, on the routes of the chief cities, even as far as from Constantino
ple to Bagdad, but these are not to be had by travelers, unless they put themselves under the
care of a Tartar courier, who goes with despatches. For a certain sum, the courier takes
them, and furnishes horses and provisions, while the travelers find only their own saddles, bri
dles, portmanteaus, whips, and leathern bottles for water. This is the most expeditious mode
of traveling ; the caravans are safer, but when in motion, they go but three miles an hour, and
they are subject to many delays.
12. Antiquities. The site of ancient Troy is the foundation of many a learned controversy.
One of the chief attractions of the Troad is the "sepulchre of Ajax," a tumulus, surmounted
by a shrine. The ruins of several temples cover a considerable space with fragments of granite
and marble. The tomb of Uus is a high, conical tumulus, of a remarkable size. Other im
mense tumuli bear, somewhat doubtfully, the names of Hector, Priam, and Paris. Near Alex
andria Troas, which is full of antiquities, is a granite column, nearly 38 feet long, and 5 feet 3
inches in diameter. The enormous masses of the aqueduct of Herodes Atticus, the walls
of the city, and the fragments of many buildings, remain. Asia Minor has numberless ruins of
architectural magnificence ; they consist in temples, theatres, arches, walls, tombs, and cities ;
but our limits will not permit us to describe them.
The remains of the ancient cities of Babylon and Nineveh are extensive, but indistinct ;
those of the latter are on the Tigris, opposite Mosul, and those of the former, on the Euphra
tes, near Bagdad. About 12 miles from Bagdad, is a heap of brickwork, 126 feet high, and
of the diameter of 100 feet. It is called Nimrod's Palace. This tower rises on a wide heap
of rubbish. The principal ruins of Babylon are immense mounds of brick, which seem undi-
TURKEY IN ASIA.
909
minished, though they have served for centuries as quarries of a neighboring city of 12,000
people. One of the first mounds approached, was formerly supposed to be the temple of Be-
Ruins of Babylon.
lus. It is 2,200 feet in circumference, and 141 in height.
Tower of Babel.
Another mound is held to be the.
remains of one of the palaces, with
the ruins of hanging gardens, which
were 80 feet high, and contained
3 acres and a half ; they were sup
ported by masonry. Among all
the ruins are found fragments of
pottery, alabaster, &c. What is
called the tower of Babel, and
temple of Belus, or Birs Nimrood,
is near the Euphrates. Its ap
pearance is that of a fallen and de
cayed pyramid, with the remains
of a tower on the top. The tower
is 60 feet in height, and the rub
bish whereon it stands 200. This
is the most conspicuous of all the
mounds of Babylon. It seems to
have risen in distinct stages or plat
forms, of which the remains are
visible ; and the apparent tower
It formed the fourth
' ' the glory of king-
power : " The wild
which now surmounts it, is but a remaining part of one of these platforms.
stage, and there were doubtless several other stages above it.
How truly are fulfilled the prophetic words of holy writ, uttered when
doms, the beauty of the Chaldee's excellency," was yet in the pride of
beasts of the forests shall lie there, the dragons shall howl in her pleasant palaces
13. History. From the earliest dawn of history to the present moment, these countries
have been the scene of the most interesting events, and the empire of the world has been re
peatedly contested on the Mesopotamian plains. In the obscurity of early history, the great
empires of Assyriaand Babylon are daily seen, overshadowing the known world, and finally
both yield to the Persian arms, which swept all before them to the shores of the Mediterranean.
This in turn falls before the Macedonian phalanx, and the genius of Alexander, and, on his
910
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
death, the powerful kingdom of the Seleucidse embraced most of the Ottoman provinces of
Asia. Antiochus, in turn, yielded to the star of Rome, and the empire of that warlike repub
lic was extended to the Euphrates. In the 7th century the Arab tribe of Saracens burst
forth from their deserts, and proclaimed a new religion, and the empire of the caliphs once
more restored the seat of dominion to Mesopotamia. This in turn crumbled and fell to pieces,
and, in the 15th century, all this part of Asia was subjected to the degrading yoke of the Otto
mans.*
CHAPTER CXLII. SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
1 . Boundaries and Extent. This region, which has recently been ceded by the Porte to
Egypt, is bounded on the north and east by the Ottoman dominions ; on the south by Arabia,
and on the west by that part of the Mediterranean often called the Levant. It extends from
latitude 31° to 37° N., and from longitude 35° to 41° E., having an area of about 50,000
square miles, with 1,500,000 inhabitants.
2. Mountains. The Libanus traverses the country from north to south in 2 distinct chains ;
the principal chain near the coast
forms the Lebanon Mountains ;
the highest summit, near Balbec,
has an elevation of upwards of
1 1 ,000 feet. The Anti-Libanus
or interior chain rises to a greater
height, some of its summits being
upwards of 16,000 feet high.
Mount Carmel and Mount Tabor
are of historical celebrity. The
latter is generally supposed to have
been the scene of the transfigura
tion, but if it was not it derives in
terest from the striking features of
the prospect afforded from its top ;
the hills and the Sea of Galilee,
Mount Tabor.
* " In history, the interesting transactions connected
with Asia Minor have been so numerous and varied, that
we can attempt only a very rapid enumeration. The first
picture is that of its nations when arrayed against Greece
in the Trojan war. Troy, in that great contest, drew aux
iliaries from Caria, Lycia, Assyria, Phrygia, and Msconia,
so that it became almost a contest of Greece against Asia.
Even the Greek pencil of Homer seems to delineate on
the Asiatic side a people more polished and humane,
though less efiergetic and warlike, than their invaders.
Afterwards in the republics of the refined and effeminate
Ionia, we find an early perfection of the sciences, poetry,
music, and sculpture then unknown to Greece, though
that country, in arts as well as in arms, soon eclipsed the
glory of its masters. Here, too, the kingdom of Lydia
was early famous, first for power, but much more after
wards for wealth and luxurious effeminacy. These un-
warlike states soon yielded to the arms of Persia, were in
cluded within its empire, and their arts and resources serv
ed only to swell the pomp of its satraps. Tn this humili
ating condition, they lost all their former high attainments ;
and it became of little importance, that they passed some
times under the sway of Athens, and were ruled by Greeks
instead of barbarians. After the conquest of, Alexander,
however, and when his rapidly formed empire fell as sud
denly to pieces, some of the most conspicuous among the
fragments were kingdoms established by his successors in
Asia Minor. It was there that Antigonus and Demetrius
collected a great portion of the resources, with which they
made such a mighty struggle for supremacy among the Ma
cedonian chiefs. After their fall, the kingdom of Pergamus
was founded, whose princes, by their own ability, and the
alliance of the Romans, became for some time the most
powerful in Asia. Their glory, however, was surpassed
by that of a kingdom formed in the opposite quarter of the
peninsula, that of Pontus, by the powerful character and
high exploits of Mithridales, under whom the, last great
stand was made for the independence of the world. Asia
Minor was next reduced completely into a Roman Pro
vince, and made few and feeble attempts to shake off the
yoke. " It was chiefly distinguished in ecclesiastical history
by the formation of apostolic churches and the assemblage
of general councils ; of which those of Nice and Chalce-
don, in particular, had an important influence on the belief
and worship of the Christian world. Protected by its dis
tance from Arabia, and by the mountain chains of Taurus,
this peninsula escaped in a great measure the tide of Sara
cen invasion. That great succession of hordes, however,
who, under the name of Turks, poured down from the
northeast of Asia, after conquering Persia, crossed the Eu
phrates and established a powerful kingdom in Caramania.
Being divided, and crushed under the first successes of the
crusaders, the Turkish (Seljukian) power sank into a lan
guishing stale. Suddenly, however, from its ashes, rose
the family of Othman, who, collecting the Turkish rem
nant, and combining it with the neighboring warlike tribes,
formed the whole into a vast military mass, which there
was no longer anything adequate to oppose. This power
continued to have its principal seat in Asia Minor, until
Mahomet the Second transferred to the Ottoman Porte the
dominion of the Cesars, and made Constantinople the ca
pital of his empire. Asia Minor has always continued
more entirely Turkish than any other part of the empire ;
and it is thence, chiefly, that the Porte draws those vast
bodies of irregular cavalry, which form the chief mass of
its armies." Encyclopaedia of Geography.
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
911
or Lake of Tiberias ; Nazareth, the early residence of the Savior ; the plain of Esdraelon, the
theatre of many actions in Jewish history, as well as in the times of the crusades ; the moun
tains of Gilboa, where the Philistines gained a signal triumph over the chosen people ; the
village of Cana, the scene of the first miracle of Jesus, are all within the sphere of vision.
3. Rivers and Lakes. The Orontes is the principal river of this region ; it rises in the
Anti-Libanus, and reaches the sea after a course of 250 miles. The other rivers are small. The
Jordan, or Arden, rises in Mount Hermon in the chain of the Anti-Libanus, and flows through
the small Lake of Genesareth, or Tiberias, into the lake called by writers the Dead Sea. The
Sea of Tiberias.
latter is a small body of water, about 60 miles long, and from 10 to 15 wide ; its waters are
salt and bitterish, and remarkable for their great weight ; they abound in asphaltum, a sort of
bituminous substance, whence the lake is also called Lake Asphaltites. It is supposed to oc
cupy the site of the ancient cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, whose guilty inhabitants were
engulfed in its gloomy waves.
4. Climate and Vegetation. The climate of Syria is for the most part like that of North
ern Africa, but there are districts in the north where the cold is
too great for the free growth of the date, orange, and lemon. " It
has been remarked," says Malte Brun, " that if the advantages
of nature were duly seconded by the efforts of human skill, we
might, in the space of 20 leagues, bring together in Syria all the
vegetable riches of the most distant countries. Besides wheat,
rye, barley, beans, and the cotton-plant, which are cultivated eve
rywhere, there are several objects of utility or pleasure, peculiar
to different localities. Palestine, for instance, abounds in sesa-
mum, which affords oil, and dhoura, similar to that of Egypt.
Maize thrives in the light soil of Balbec, and rice is cultivated
with success along the marsh of Haoule. Within these 25 years
Barley. tne sugar-canes introduced into the gardens of Saide and Bei-
rout ; indigo grows without culture on ths banks of the Jordan, and tobacco is cultivated in all
the mountains. The white mulberry forms the riches of the Druses, and the vines furnish
red and white wines equal to those of Bordeaux. Jaffa boasts of its lemons and watermelons ;
Gaza possesses the dates of Mecca, and the pomegranate of Algiers. Tripoli has oranges
which vie with those of Malta ; Beirout has figs like Marseilles, and bananas like St. Do
mingo ; Aleppo is unequaled for pistachio-nuts, and Damascus possesses all the fruits of Eu
rope, apples, plums, and peaches growing with equal facility on her rocky soil." A peculiar
912
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
interest is attached to several shrubs of this region, from their
being mentioned in the scriptures, and some of these will now
be more particularly noticed. The fig-tree (Ficus carica)
abounds in Palestine, and the men, who were sent by Moses to
spy out the land of Canaan, brought with them figs and pome
granates. What we commonly esteem the fruit of the fig is not,
however, the fruit, but a receptacle containing numerous florets ;
in order to ripen this more surely the process of caprification is
performed, that is, the receptacle is punctured in order to give
the male dust a more ready access to the female flowers. In
the East this is effected by collecting a little insect from the wild
fig, and bringing them to the cultivated tree, where they pierce
the fruits in order to deposit their eggs. The sycamore tree of Scripture (F. sycamorus) is a
sort of wild fig, the fruit of which, although quite bitter, was eaten by the Jews. The pome
granate (Punica granatum) is common in Syria and Aleppo,
and is often mentioned in the scriptures. There are several
sorts, one being sour, and the others, which are eaten at table,
sweet. The husks, " which the swine did eat," and with which
the prodigal was fain to fill himself, are supposed to be those of
the fruit of the carob or locust-tree (Ceratonia siliqua), a mid
dle-sized tree with the seeds contained in large pods ; these
husks are still employed in Palestine for feeding cattle. The
locust tree is also called St. John's bread, from an idea that its
fruit was the locust spoken of as the food of John the Baptist ;
but others think, that the word in that passage means the insect,
Sycamore. which is still eaten in the East. The palm-tree of the Bible is
the date palm (Phcenix dactylifera), the fruit of which is eaten fresh or dried. Jericho was
called the city of palms from the abundance of these trees in, its vicinity, and on the Roman
coins they were emblematic of Judea. At the feast of the ta
bernacles, " goodly palm branches" were used in the erection
of the tents, and when our Savior entered Jerusalem, "the
people took branches of the palm-tree, and went out to meet
him." The Jews in the northern countries still procure them
for the Passover, at great expense. The olive (olea) attains to
a great size in Palestine, which has always been famed for the
excellence and abundance of its oil, and is described in Scrip
ture as " A land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig-trees
and pomegranates, a land of oil and honey." The cedar of
Lebanon (Pinus cedrus) is remarkable for its stately size, and
wide -spreading branches, and the timber was highly esteemed by
the Jews (see cut on the opposite page) . The temple and the
royal palace were built of wood, and it was used by the Tyrians
for masts. The Psalmist calls these trees " the cedars of God."
They are now rare in Palestine. The terebinth tree (Pistachia
terebinthus) is often mentioned in' Scripture, and is called oak, in our translation. Isaiah threat
ens the idolaters, that they shall be as a terebinth-tree, whose
leaves fall off ; that is, being an evergreen, when the tree dies.
It lives to a great age. The plane-tree (Platanus orientalis) is
abundant in Palestine ; the thorns, with which our Lord was
crowned, were the spiny branches of the Spina Christi ; the
balm of Gilead was the produce of the Amyris Gileadensis, and
the A. Opobalsamum, gum ladanum is yielded by the beautiful Cis-
tus ladaniferous, and galbanum, an ingredient of the incense of
the sanctuary, was procured from the Bubon galbanum. What
particular plant is the rose of Sharon or the rose of Jericho, is not
decided, but what is commonly called the Jericho rose is the
Anastatica hierocpuntica, and no rose at all. The grapes of
Bay-tree Palestine are not less remarkable for their dimensions, than for the
Palm-tree.
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
913
great size of the clusters. The bay-tree of Scripture is the sweet bay (Lauras nobilis), a
small evergreen. The almond-tree, on account of its white blossoms, is used to typify old age.
---- ¦:" r -. y. :
Cedars of Lebanon.
5. Divisions. Syria, or Sham, comprising Palestine' in the southwest, was divided, while
it formed a part of the Ottoman empire, into 4 pachalics or eyalets ; Aleppo, Damascus, Acre,
and Tripoli, bearing the names of their respective capitals.
6. Towns. Aleppo, the capital of Syria, and its suburbs, are 7 miles in compass, standing
on 8 small hills, on the highest of which the citadel is erected, but of no great strength. An old
wall, and a broad ditch, now in many places turned into gardens, surround the city, which was
estimated by the late Dr. Russell to contain 230,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Chris-
dans and 5,000 Jews ; but, at present, it does not contain more than 150,000. Whole streets
are uninhabited, and bazars abandoned. It is furnished with most of the conveniences of life
except good water, within the walls, and even that is supplied by an aqueduct, distant about
4 miles, said to have been erected by the empress Helena. The streets are narrow, but well
paved with large, square stones, and are kept very clean. The gardens are pleasant, being laid
115
914
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
out in vineyards, olive, fig, and pistachio trees ; but the country round is rough and barren.
Foreign merchants are numerous here, and transact their business in caravanserais, or large
square buildings, containing their warehouses, lodging-rooms, and counting-houses. This city
abounds in near mosques, some of which are even magnificent ; in public bagnios, which are
very refreshing ; and bazars, which are formed into long, narrow, arched, or covered streets,
with little shops, as in other parts of the East. In 1822, the city, as well as almost every other
town or pachalic, was nearly shaken to pieces by an earthquake ; it was estimated, that 20,000
persons were killed, and as many wounded in the city on that terrible night, and many others
afterward fell victims to disease from exposure or from hunger. Yet such are the advantages
of its site, that Aleppo must continue to be a large city. In the vicinity are Hamah, on the
Orontes, situated in a fertile district, esteemed the granary of Syria, with extensive manufac
tures and a thriving commerce, giving employment to 60,000 inhabitants ; Antakieh, on the
Modern Antioch.
site of the ancient Antioch, with about 12,000 inhabitants ; and Scanderoon, or Alexandretta,
a small town in an unhealthy situation, but the centre of an active trade.
Tripoli, a well-built city in a delightful district, carries on a considerable commerce. It has
16,000 inhabitants. Acre or Ptolemais is one of the principal commercial towns of Syria;
population, 20,000. In its vicinity are Mount Carmel, celebrated in sacred history ; Tyre
and Sidon, once queens of the sea ; and Jaffa or Joppa, the nearest port to Jerusalem. To
the north of Sidon is Beirout, the ancient Berytus, in the land of the Druses, a small town
with about 5,000 inhabitants, and, further north, is Gibel, the Byblos of the Greeks, and the
Gebal of the Old Testament, whose inhabitants were the calkers of Tyre. In the interior is
the village of Balbec or Baalbec, noted for its fine ruins.
Damascus, one of the most ancient cities in the world, since it is mentioned in the history
of Abraham, is one of the handsomest and most flourishing cities of Asia. It stands in a val
ley celebrated for its beauty and fertility, and ranked by the- Arabians as one of their four ter
restrial paradises. The houses, though simple externally, are internally finished in a style of
great splendor, and most of them are furnished with fountains. The coffee-houses, many of
which are built upon piles in the river, where an artificial cascade has been made, are distin
guished for their luxury and magnificence. From 30,000 to 50,000 pilgrims on their way from
all parts of the Ottoman empire, and from Persia and Turkistan, annually assemble at Damas-
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
915
cus, to join the caravan for Mecca ; 3 other caravans leave each thrice a year for Bagdad, and
one for Aleppo two or three times a month. Population, 140,000.
Jerusalem, the most celebrated city of- the world, the cradle of Judaism and Christianity,
and the second sanctuary of Ma
hometanism, is built at the foot of
Mount Sion, upon Mounts Acra,
Moriah, and Calvary. It is sur
rounded with high walls of hewn
stone, flanked with towers, and the
brook Kedron runs near it. Sev
eral of the mosques are magnificent
edifices of great size, and adorned
with numerous columns and domes.
The mosque of Omar, the most
splendid edifice in Jerusalem, con
sists of a collection of mosques and
chapels, surrounded by a vast en
closure. One of these chapels,
called the Bock, is an octagon of
160 feet in diameter, rising from a
platform, 460 feet long by 339
broad, paved with marble, and raised
16 feet; its interior is adorned with great splendor, and is always illuminated by thousands of
lamps ; it contains a stone, said to be that upon which Jacob p. lowed his head, and which ac-
coXg to the popular tradition, bears the imprint of the foot of Mahomet, who ascended from
Jerusalem.
til
Hills and Walls around Jerusalem.
tt/eiS rSo,irconv«eo?'st, Ko„, i»V ch„,ch ol which „ ,„-
916
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
ver and gold vessels and ornaments, valued
at nearly 2,000,000 dollars ; and the Ar
menian convent, with upwards of 800 cells
for the accommodation of pilgrims, many
thousands of whom annually visit this sa
cred spot. Population, 30,000.
In the vicinity is the Mount of Olives,
so called from the grove of olive trees
which still in part cover it, from which
Christ ascended to heaven ; at its foot, was
the village of Gethsemane, containing a
garden to which the Saviour often retired to
pray, and where he was betrayed by Judas
to his murderers ; a little to the east is Beth
any, where the house and tomb of Lazarus,
and the houses of Mary Magdalen and Martha are pointed out ; and between the mount of Olives
and Jerusalem, is the valley of Jehoshaphat, still, as in ancient times, a Jewish cemetery. At a
greater distance from the city Jies .Bethlehem, a little village where Christ was born, and con-
Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Garden of Gethsemane, as it now appears.
taining a vast grotto hewn out of a rock, called the chapel of the Nativity, supposed to be
upon the spot of his birth ; near Bethlehem are 3 reservoirs of great size and solidity, called
the pools of Solomon.
To the north of Jerusalem near Acre, are Nazareth, where, in the splendid church of the
Annunciation, is shown the supposed residence of the Virgin Mary ; Ca«a, celebrated as the
scene of one of Christ's miracles ; and Mount Tabor, upon which his transfiguration is said to
have taken place ; the field of corn, the mount upon which was delivered the sermon of the
blessings, and the scene of the miracle of the loaves and fishes, are also in this neighborhood.
Capernaum, -where Christ performed many miracles, and spent much of die last years of his
life, is likewise in this direction.
Between Jerusalem and the Jordan is the wide, flat plain of Jericho, 20 miles in length and
10 in breadth, walled m on all sides by the high mountains of Judea and Arabia. In this plain
the sight of the city of Jericho is still recognised, but scarcely any vestiges of its ruins remain.
*rom Jerusalem, northwards, the road runs through a hilly and rugged country, which, how
ever, by the industry of tbe inhabitants, has boon made a garden. Here, after passing Bethel,
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
917
Jericho.
918
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
the scene of Jacob's dream, the traveler comes to Naplous or Napolose near the site of the
Incient la.rn.ria, one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities of the Holy Land. It stands
Tn a fertile valley, surrounded by hills, and embosomed in stately groves and nch gardens.
Population about 10,000. A small remnant of the Samaritans still worship on Mount Gen-
P°P SI or Tiberias stands on the lake of that name, which was formerly bordered W1 h
zim.
werias stanus un mc ian.c ^ i-— , •¦-- - ,
several laree cities. The city was built by Herod the tetrarch, and became the seat of a cele-
KS finical university £ this ^^w-J £.' *§& "enT n
Sit X * ° theT Tcitt di nTfiel witn ff^tiS^Th. countr? beyond Jordan, or
Hau an partakes of the character of the Arabian desert ; but in the neighborhood of Moun
Gilead there are well-watered and fertile tracts ; under the Roman sway it contained several
Sp^^iu^,^lS«h was Philadelphia, now Amman, mentioned in the history
of the apostles.
Ancient Philadelphia, now Amman.
6. Industry. The eastern part of the country extending to the Euphrates is a vast desert,
interspersed with some oases, or fertile and well-watered spots. But although the rest of the
country abounds in fertile valleys, and enjoys a mild and delightful climate, the tyranny and
lawless violence of man have blasted it, and ignorance, superstition, and barbarism now cover
the land long the abode of industry, arts, wealth, learning, and refinement. Agriculture, manufac
tures, and commerce, discouraged by difficulties of communication, and insecurity of property,
are in a languishing condition. The natural advantages of this fine country have already been
described ; in contrast with these listen to the. description of its actual condition by an eye
witness. " Everywhere," says Volney, " I saw only tyranny and misery, robbery and devas
tation ; I found daily on my route abandoned fields, deserted villages, cities in ruins. Frequent
ly I discovered antique monuments, remains of temples, of palaces, and of fortresses ; pillars,
aqueducts, and tombs ; this spectacle led my mind to meditate on past times, and excited in
my heart profound and serious thoughts. I recalled those ancient ages, when 20 famous nations
existed in these countries ; I painted to myself the Assyrian on the banks of the Tigris, the
Chaldean on the Euphrates, and the Persian reigning from the Indus to the Mediterranean. I
919
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
numbered the kingdoms of Damascus and Idumea, of Jerusalem, and Samaria, the warlike
states of the Philistines, and the commercial republics of Phoenicia. This Syria, said I, now
almost unpeopled, could then count a hundred powerful cities,, its fields were covered with
towns, villages, and hamlets. Everywhere appeared cultivated fields, thronged roads; crowded
habitations. What, alas ! is become of these days of abundance and of life ? What of so
many brilliant creations of the hand of man ? Where are the ramparts of Nineveh, the walls
of Babylon, the palaces of Persepolis, the temples of Baalbec and Jerusalem ? Where are
the fleets of Tyre, the docks of Arad, the looms of Sidon, and the multitude of sailors, pilots
merchants, and soldiers ? Where are those laborers, those harvests, those flocks, and that crowd
of living beings which then covered the face of the earth ? Alas ! I have surveyed this ravaged
land, I have visited the places which were the theatre of so much splendor, and have seen only
solitude and desertion. I have sought the ancient nations and their works, but I have seen only a
trace, like that which the foot of the passenger leaves on the dust. The temples are crumbled
down, the palaces are overthrown ; the ports are filled up ; the cities are destroyed, and the
earth, stripped of its inhabitants, is only a desolate place of tombs."
7. Inhabitants. The population is composed of as various elements as that of Asiatic Tur
key. Ottoman Turks and Greeks
are the principal inhabitants of the
cities ; Arabs and Turcomans are
numerous ; in the mountainous re
gions there are several peculiar
tribes, the Druses, the lsmaeli-
ans, and the Nosairians, of rude
manners, and warlike and predato
ry habits. The Ismaelians have
become celebrated under the name
of Assassins, and their prince was
known in the Middle Ages under
the name of the Old Man of the
Mountains ; from his mountain
fastness he sent his fierce hashis-
him or warriors forth upon expe
ditions of robbery and murder,
whence the origin of the word as
sassin. The Druses occupy the
,, , , ,. „ more northern heights of Lebanon;
Woman of Aleppo. Turk. Arabian Woman. _, - ° , , '
J rr they are a fierce race, and they
show the same boundless hospitality and the same deadly feuds as the Arabs. They have
maintained their independence, and with it a spirit of energy and a vigor of character rarely
found among the Syrian tribes. The affairs of the nation are settled in an assembly of the
sheiks or hereditary chiefs, but the body of the people also take part in these meetings.
Their religious creed is a sort of Mahometanism, and owes its origin to Hakim, one of the
Fatinute caliphs, who preached a reform in the 10th century, and laid aside many of the pe
culiarities of that faith. They pray indiscriminately in a mosque or a church, and seem to re
gard Christianity with less aversion than Mahometanism.
8. Religion. The tribes last mentioned have adopted peculiar forms of Mahometanism,
and in some instances, mixed it with other rites, and are looked upon as heretics by their
brethren. The Motoualis are another heretical sect of Mahometans. The Maronites, a peo
ple of mountaineers near Tripoli, are Roman Catholic Christians. The other inhabitants are
of the same religious sects as those of Asiatic Turkey. Roman and Greek Catholic, Coptic,
Armenian, and other monks are found in Jerusalem, each occupying a chapel in the spots most
remarkable for their sanctity.
9. Antiquities. Some of the remains of past ages have been already alluded to, but they
are too numerous to be enumerated here. Among the most remarkable spots, Palmyra, or
Tadmor in the desert, presents an imposing spectacle in rising from the sands of the desert.
It looks like a forest of columns. The great avenue of pillars leading to the temple of the
sun, and terminated by a grand arch, is 1,200 yards in length. The temple itself is a
magnificent object. The city is a vast collection of ruins, all of white marble, and it is hard to
920
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
, , :,. . ..
Ruins of Palmyra, or Tadmor in the Desert.
imagine anything more strik
ing than the general view.
When examined in detail,
the ruins lose much of their
interest. None of the col
umns exceed 40 feet in
height, or 4 in diameter,
and they are composed of 7
or 8 pieces of stone ; while at
Baalbec, the columns are of
3 pieces only, about 60 feet
high, and support a beautiful
epistylum of 20 feet more.
There is at Palmyra great
sameness in the architecture,
and the sculptures and orna
ments are coarse and insigni-
_ ficant. The ruins are nearly
a mile and a half in length.
At Baalbec, on the site of the ancient
Heliopolis, "the grand ruin," to which
the place owes its celebrity, is near the
foot of the Anti-Libanus. The portico
has marble pillars, of the Corinthian or
der, more than 6 feet in diameter, and 45
feet in height, composed of 3 stones each.
They are 9 feet apart, and the same from
the walls of the temple ; there are 14 of
these pillars on each side of the temple,
and 8 at the end. A stately architrave,
richly carved, runs all round the capitals.
There are many exquisitely sculptured
figures ; all the ornaments are in the best
taste. There are other temples and frag
ments of the walls which inclose them.
The stones are of almost incredible size.
Three of the larger ones exceed 67 feet
in height. They are 9 feet deep, and 14
in breadth. The mass of stones in the
walls are enormous, and some 60 feet
long, and 12 broad and deep, are raised
in the wall 20 feet from the ground. A
whole wall, 400 feet on a side, was con
structed of these blocks, from 30 to 60
feet long. In the pyramids of Egypt,
there are one or two stones 18 feet long.
There are other temples and various ruins
at Baalbec.
At Nazareth, is a church wrought out of
Baalbec. a cave, in the form of a cross, and shown
to travelers as the spot where the Blessed
Virgin received the message of the angel, as related in the first chapter of St. Luke. The
original church was built by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine. Some of the re
mains of this edifice may be observed in the forms of subverted columns, which, with the frag
ments of their capitals and bases, lie near the modern building ; the present church and con
vent are of recent structure. In the same town, is shown the synagogue in which our Savior
read the Scriptures to the Jews. Two miles from Nazareth, is the Mount of Precipitation,
down which the Nazarenes attempted to cast him headlong.
SYRIA, OR EGYPTIAN ASIA.
921
In Palestine, which, from its having been the place of so many wonderful and sacred events,
we call the Holy Land, few vestiges remain of the ancient edifices. A barbarous and bigoted
people have destroyed them. There is even much doubt as to many of the places described
in the Scriptures at Jerusalem. On this subject, however, it is so pleasing to be deceived, that
credulity rises somewhat higher than probability, and the pilgrim feels a willingness to believe
the descriptions given him by ihe resident Christians. Many spots, however, may be indicated
with sufficient certainty. In the 4th century, when they were known by tradition, the Em
press Helena erected, over numbers of their temples, altars and oratories. The mosque of
Omar occupies the place of Solomon's temple. A church is built near the place of the Holy
Sepulchre, for the possession of which, Europe was arrayed in arms for 300 years. The pil
grims approach the consecrated spot upon their knees. On Calvary, a piety of more zeal than
knowledge, pretends to show the hole made in the ground for the cross. It is covered with
marble, but perforated, so that the spot may be touched. The memorable cleft in the rock,
made at the crucifixion, is still shown ; this also is covered with marble. Maundrel describes
the cleft as a span wide at the surface, and two spans deep ; after which, it closes, but opens
below, and runs down to an unknown depth. Here are also the tombs of the Latin kings of
Sepulchre of the Kings.
Jerusalem. On the east of Mount Zion, is the pool of Siloam. It is under an arched vault
of masonry. In the valley of Jehoshaphat are edifices called the tombs of Zachariah, of Abra
ham, and of Jehoshaphat. The pool of Bethesda remains with its original facing of large stones.
At Bethlehem, a convent built by Helena marks the spot of the Redeemer's birth. The edi
fice has been so often repaired, that it contains probably few of the original materials. None of
the consecrated places are pointed out with so much certainty as the spot of the Nativity ; and
of this spot, which is worn by the feet of pilgrims, there is no ground for skepticism.
10. History. The name of Palestine seems to be derived from the ancient Philistines, but
the country is more commonly known in Scripture first as the Promised Land and the Land
of Canaan, and afterwards, when occupied by the 12 tribes of Israel, as Judea. The people
of the Phcenician States, on the northeast, were early wealthy and commercial, and were
generally on friendly terms with the Israelites, while the people of Syria were generally hos
tile. At a later period, all these regions were conquered by the Babylonians, the Persians,
the Macedonians, the Romans, Saracens, and Turks, and have followed the fortunes of the
great empires that swallowed them up. It was about 16 centuries before Christ, that Moses
conducted the oppressed Hebrews from the plains of Egypt, through the wastes of Arabia to
the borders of Canaan, where he died, after having given them the laws dictated by God f '
116
The
922
ARABIA.
12 tribes occupied the country as delineated on the accompanying map, and for some time
formed a republic, until (nearly 1,200 years before Christ) they demanded a king, and Saul
received the royal power. David and Solomon succeeded, and raised the kingdom to its high
est pilch of glory ; but it was soon after divided into two States, the kingdom of Israel and the
XI. Manasseh (beyond
Jordan) .
XII. Gad.
XIII. Reuben.
Map of Ancient Palestine.
kingdom of Judah. In 721, the 10 tribes of Israel were carried into captivity by the Assyri
ans ; and not long after, the 2 tribes of Judah were carried to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.
Jerusalem was totally destroyed and the Jews finally dispersed by Titus, A. D. 72, and that
singular people has ever since been scattered all over the world, yet preserving its national
character and institutions.
CHAPTER CXLIII. ARABIA.
1 . Boundaries andi Extent. Arabia is bounded N. by the pachalics of Bagdad and Damas
cus, in Asiatic Turkey ; E. by the Persian Gulf; S. by the Indian Ocean ; and W. by the
Red Sea. It extends from 12° to 34° N. latitude, and from 33° to 59° E. longitude. The
area is about 1,000,000 square miles.
2. Divisions. Arabia was divided by the ancients into three parts ; Arabia Felix, or Happy
Arabia, comprising the southwestern part of the country, bordering on the Indian Ocean, and
on the southern part of the Red Sea ; Arabia Petrcea, lying on the Red Sea,-north of Arabia
Felix ; and Arabia Deserta, much the largest division, embracing all the eastern and northern
ARABIA. 923
part of the country. These names are still in common use among Europeans; the natives,
however, divide the country into 5 parts, as follows ; 1 . Yemen, 2. Hedsjas, 3. Oman,
4. Lachsa, 5. Nedsjed. The first of these seems to correspond with Arabia Felix, the second
with Arabia PetrEea, and the three last with Arabia Deserta.
3. Mountains, Deserts, &c. Arabia is an arid desert, interspersed with a few fertile spots,
which appear like islands in a desolate ocean. Stony mountains and sandy plains form the pro
minent features in the surface of this vast peninsula. To the north, it shoots out into a very
extensive desert, lying between Syria and the countries on the Euphrates. The whole coast
of Arabia,- from Suez to the head of the Persian Gulf, is formed of a plain called the Tehama,
which presents a picture of the most complete desolation. The interior is diversified by exten
sive ranges of mountains, but there is no river of any consequence in all Arabia ; almost every
stream either losing itself in the sandy plains, or expanding into moors and fens.
4. Climate. In the mountainous parts, the climate is temperate ; but in the plains, intoler
able heat prevails. A hot and pestiferous wind, called the simoom, frequently blows over the
desert, and instantly suffocates the unwary traveler ; and whole caravans are sometimes buried
by moving clouds of sand raised by the wind. In almost every part of the country, they suffer
for want of water.
5. Soil and Productions. The soil, wherever it is well watered, exhibits an uncommon .
fertility ; but where this is not the case, it degenerates into a waste, affording barely a scanty
support to a few wild animals and the camels of the wandering Arabs. The most fertile district
is Yemen, or Arabia Felix, which in many parts is cultivated like a garden. Although so large
a part of the country is a mere desert, yet Arabia yields several of the most precious produc
tions of the vegetable kingdom. The forests are mostly confined to the mountains and adjacent
valleys. In all Tehama, there is scarce a tree to be seen beside the palm. The coffee plant
is generally supposed to be a native of Arabia Felix, where it arrives at the greatest perfec
tion, and whence Europe first derived its knowledge of the berry and its use. The plant grows
to the height of 40 or 50 feet, with a stem 4 or 5 inches in diameter, and its copious evergreen
foliage, white flowers, and red berries make a pleasing show. The Mocha coffee (Coffea Ara-
bica), the species or variety cultivated in Arabia, is distinguished by the roundness and small-
ness of the grain. Balsam, frankincense, and myrrh, gum, aloes, senna, and tamarinds are also
staple commodities of Arabia. The balsam or balm of Gilead is the produce of two species
of Amyris (A. Gileadensis and A. Opobalsamum) , and myrrh is a gum resin which exudes
from a third species (A. Kataf). Frankincense is the produce of the oliban (Juniperus Lycia),
and the ancient Hebrews, as well as the modern Catholics, derived their incense from Arabia.
Gum arabic is yielded by the acacia (A. Arabica), and the Soccotrine aloes is afforded by the
Aloe officinalis. The Arabian senna is the foliage of a species
of cassia (C. Lanceolata), and the knowledge of its valuable
properties was derived from the Arabian physicians. Tamarinds
are the fruit of the beautiful Tamarindus officina, which is now
cultivated in all the warm regions of the globe. Arabia was
formerly thought by Europeans to yield the spikenard, cinna
mon, cassia, cordamons, pepper, &c, which are now known
to have been imported hither from the Indies, and thence sent
to Europe. Cocoa nuts, pomegranates, dates, almonds, figs,
oranges, lemons, peaches, and mangosteen, are also among the
fruits of Arabia, and in some parts wheat is raised, but the
dhoura (Holcus sorghum), a coarse kind of millet, is the most
common bread-corn.
6. Towns. The western part of Arabia, forming the Sherifat
„ of Mecca, belongs to Egypt; the chief town is Mecca, cele
brated as the birthplace of Mahomet, situated in a dry, barren,
and rocky country, 40 miles from the Red Sea. It is supported by the concourse of pilgrims
from every part of the Mahometan world. The chief ornament of Mecca is the famous
mosque, in the interior of which is the Kaaba, an ancient temple said to have been built by
Abraham ; it is a plain, square building of stone. The most sacred relic in the Kaaba is the
black stone, said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel. The grand ceremony through
which pilgrims pass is that of going 7 times round the Kaaba, reciting verses and psalms in
honor of God and the prophet, and kissing each time the sacred stone. They are then conducted
924
ARABIA.
to the well of Zemzem, situated in the same temple, where they take large draughts, and un
dergo a thorough ablution in its holy waters. Another ceremony, considered as of equal vir
tue, is the pilgrimage to Mount Arafat, situated about 30 miles to the south of the city. The
population of Mecca, formerly estimated at 100,000, is now reduced to 60,000, the resort of
pilgrims within a few years having, been greatly interrupted. Jidda, on the Red Sea, serves as
the port of Mecca. It is the principal place on that sea, and is strongly fortified and occupied
by an Egyptian garrison. Population, 40,000. Medina is also a sacred city of the Mahome
tans. One of the mosques contains the
tomb of the prophet, and another is vene
rated as having been erected by him. The
inhabitants live by the gifts sent from pious
Mussulmans in all quarters, to obtain their
prayers, and by the concourse of pilgrims.
Population, 8,000. The ancient Edom,
or Idumaea, contains some well-watered
valleys, and presents monuments of the
power and commerce for which it was an
ciently celebrated. The ruins of its cap
ital, Petra, have lately been discovered,
which display great magnificence ; maoy
of the edifices were cut out of the solid
rock. On the northern part of the Red Sea,
stands Akaba, a little village, near the site
of which is the port of Esiongeber, from
Pilgrims on their way to the Tomb of Mahomet.
which the ships of Solomon sailed to Ophir, and by which the Phoenicians carried on their
commerce with India. To the west are Mount Horeb, upon which God appeared to Moses,
and commanded him to deliver his
countrymen ; and Mount Sinai,
upon which he gave the law. Here
is a monastery, armed with cannon,
and accessible only by means of a
rope. The Imamat of Yemen is a
powerful State in the southwest.
The capital and residence of the
Imam is Sana, built in the midst
of a fertile plain, and surrounded
with high brick walls and towers.
Population, about 30,000. Mocha,
situated near the southern extremi
ty of Arabia, is the principal port
on the Red Sea, and the channel
Mount Sinai. through which almost all the inter
course of Europe with this part of
the world is carried on. The great article of export is coffee, which is celebrated as the finest
in the world ; the population is estimated at 5,000.
The Imamat of Mascat on the eastern coast, is likewise an important State. The Imam re
sides at Mascat or Muscat, a large city, surrounded with gardens and groves of date trees. It
is the centre of an active commerce with India, and a great market for pearls. The govern
ment of the Imam is the most tranquil and beneficent of any in the maritime parts of Persia or
Arabia. All the ports upon this coast are tributary to him, and he has subjected Socotra,
Brava, Zeu, Zibar, and other :-
islands of Kishma and Ormu
important points on the African coast. He "also holds the
mz, in the Persian Gulf, and a considerable extent of the Persian
coast around Gombroon. This capital has a spacious and secure harbor, though difficult of
access, and is become a general depot for the merchandise of Persia, India, and Arabia.
The kingdom of the Wahabites, who a few years since had reduced a great part of the pe
ninsula, but were overthrown by the arms of the Egyptians, is in the region of Nedshed. The
capital, Derriah, was destroyed in 1818.
ARABIA.
925
There are
Bedouin Arabs.
many other petty States in Arabia, and a great number of the inhabitants, livine
m rlltaJ:/ "Tl^t5 5C 5 ^^Png no&superiors, but their own chiefs ' §
7. Inhabitants, &c. The Arabs are pastoral, as Bedouins, or they live in towns. They have
dark hair and black eyes, and they are well
formed and active, though lean. They per
mit their beards to grow to their full length.
The Arabs are spread over Syria, Palestine,
Mesopotamia, and Africa. The dress of the
rich resembles somewhat that of Turks ; be
ing loose and flowing. The chief peculiarity
is the number of caps, which sometimes
amounts to 15. The poor, however, wear
but 2, and their chief clothing is a linen cloth
round the middle, and a woolen one over the
shoulders. This also serves them for the
covering at night ; though sometimes they
sleep in bags, for protection from insects.
The poor wear sandals ; the rich, slippers.
The Bedouins wear no caps, but only a hood
in their cloak. The Arabian females stain their eyelids with a dark substance, and their cheeks
and hands, with a yellow color. The language is the Arabic, but it is not spoken in its ancient
purity. The Arabic of the Koran is, at Mecca, a dead language. The buildings in the cities
have terraced roofs, but they have no beauty. The dwellings of the poor are but huts, with
mats covering the floors. The Bedouins dwell in tents. In food the Arabs are temperate in
the extreme. The poor satisfy themselves with dates, &c, or a daily meal of hard bread, with
milk, butter, or oil. Little animal food is eaten, and the use of wine or spirits is not common ;
lizards and locusts are sometimes eaten. Coffee is generally used, and tobacco also in smok
ing. A species of hemp is also smoked, for its intoxicating qualities. A diet so simple can
create few diseases, and the Arabs generally enjoy perfect health. The character of the
Arabs is founded upon that of Ishmael. In the desert they are robbers, and in cities cheating
is a substitute for robbery. They are, however, very courteous and polite, and hospitable to
a proverb. They will set their last loaf before a stranger. Il is a bitter sarcasm for one tribe
to use against another, " that the men know not how to give, or the women to deny." It is,
however, seldom founded in truth. All go armed, and they are probably but little changed
since the time of Mahomet, or an earlier period. They are revengeful, and visit offences
with full retaliation ; often upon the innocent, if of the same family or tribe with the offender.
The only safe way of traveling in Arabia, as in other countries of Asia and Africa, is in
caravans. A caravan is a large association of merchants or pilgrims, who unite for mutual aid
and protection to themselves and their camels and goods. The transportation of goods in
these countries, though slow, is cheap, compared with European prices. The average weight
which camels are made to carry is 600 pounds. The Egyptian caravans travel with a wide
front, many others travel in a line. The halt of the pilgrim caravans to Mecca, is by day, and
they travel only by night. There are many of these even from Persia and Morocco. The
dangers of the desert are such, that in many places the route is indicated by the bones of dead
camels. The caravans are under the directions of a chief, though from their discordant mate
rials they are, when attacked, in a state of confusion, each individual acting for himself, and
protecting his own property. The predatory tribes on the route sometimes plunder the whole
caravan, and at others cut off parts of it. At the halts there is much social intercourse and
amusement, the merchants or others visiting and entertaining each other. Caravans, however,
since the extension of navigation, and the decline of the Mahometan spirit, have been much
curtailed both in magnitude and show. The pace of the camel when traveling is 3 miles an
hour ; this is so exact that distances are computed by time ; a march of 6 hours being equiva
lent to 18 miles.
The education of few exceeds the reading of the Koran ; and the religion of all is bounded
by its doctrines. They are intolerant Mahometans, but chiefly of the reformed sect of
Wehabees. This seems to be nearly a pure theism ; the founder inculcated great simplicity
of life, and subverted the reverence for prophets and saints. The sect are so strict in their
simplicity of life, that they will not drink even coffee. The government is what it has been
926
PERSIA, OR IRAN.
from remote ages, patriarchal. The sheiks are the chiefs of tribes, but their authority is limit
ed, for the Arabs have a high spirit of freedom. In the cities a stronger government obtains,
and the Sheriffe of Mecca, or Imam of Mascat, are more despotic.
8. History. Arabia is famous in history for giving birth to the Mahometan religion. Ma
homet, its founder, was born at Mecca,
in 569. From the leader of a sect he be
came a powerful military chieftain, and was
proclaimed king -at Medina, in 627. He
conquered a great part of Arabia and Syria ;
and the Khalifs, his successors, establish
ed their religion and dominion in many coun
tries of Asia, Africa, and Europe. The
Turks afterwards became masters of a part
of Arabia, but the chiefs who now rule the
different provinces of the country are only
nominally under the authority of the Porte,
The Flight of Mahomet. or the Viceroy of Egypt.
CHAPTER CXLIV- PERSIA OR IRAN.
1 . Boundaries. The present kingdom of Persia, which includes but a part of the exten
sive country of the Persians, is bounded north by Turkistan, the Caspian Sea and the Russian
empire ; east by the kingdoms of Herat and Cabul, and by Beloochistan : south by the Gulf
of Ormuz and the Persian Gulf, and west by the Ottoman territories. It extends from lat. 26°
to 39° N., and from long. 44° to 61° E., having an area of 450,000 square miles, and a pop
ulation of 9,000,000 inhabitants.
2. Mountains and Rivers. Two mountainous chains, belonging to the great Tauro-Cauca-
sian system, traverse the country in different directions ; the one stretching east and west to
the south of Mazanderan, under the name of the Elburz mountains, has an elevation of above
12,000 feet ; the volcanic peak of Demavend in this chain, is nearly 13,000 feet high; the
other chain stretches from northwest to southeast, under the name of the mountains of Curdis
tan and Luristan. A great part of the country to the south and east of these chains is com
posed of immense deserts and salt plains. The northwestern part forms a portion of the great
table-land, upon which are situated all Armenia, Ajerbijan, Curdistan, &c. ; this plateau is
from 4,000 to 8,000 feet high. The principal lakes are Ourmiah in Ajerbijan, and Bakhtegan
in Farsistan, both salt. Some rivulets, falling from the mountains, water the country, but their
streams are so inconsiderable, that few of them can be navigated even by boats. In conse
quence of this deficiency, water is scarce ; but the defect, where it prevails, is admirably sup
plied by means of 'reservoirs, aqueducts, and canals.
3. Climate. Those parts of Persia which border upon the mountains near the Caspian Sea,
are in general cold, as those heights are commonly covered with snow. In the midland prov
inces of Persia, the air is serene, pure, and exhilarating ; but, in the southern provinces, it is
hot, and communicates noxious blasts, which are sometimes mortal.
4. Soil and Productions. The soil is far from being luxuriant toward Tartary and the Cas
pian Sea ; but with cultivation it might produce abundance of corn and fruit. To the south of
mount Taurus, the country abounds in corn, fruit, wine, and the other necessaries and luxuries
of life. It affords oil in plenty, senna, rhubarb, and the finest drugs. Great quantities of ex
cellent silk are likewise produced in this country ; and the Gulf of Bassora formerly furnished
great part of Europe and Asia with very fine pearls. Some parts, near Ispahan especially,
produce almost all the flowers that are valued in Europe ; and from some of them, particularly
roses, they extract waters of a salubrious and odorific kind, which form a gainful commodity in
trade. Few places produce the necessaries of life in greater abundance and perfection than
Shiraz ; and a more delightful spot in nature can scarcely be conceived, than the vale in which
it is situated, either for the salubrity of the air, or for the profusion of everything necessary to
render life comfortable and agreeable. The fields yield plenty of rice, wheat, and barley,
which they generally begin to reap in May, and by the middle of July the harvest is complet
ed. Most of the European fruits are produced here, and many of them are superior in size
PERSIA, OR IRAN. 927
and flavor to what can be raised in Europe, particularly the apricot, grape, and pomegranate.
Ihe last is good to a proverb ; the Persians, in their pompous style, call it the fruit of Paradise.
5. Minerals. Persia contains mines of iron, copper, lead, and, above all, turkois-stones,
which are found in Khorasan. Sulphur, salt-petre, and antimony, are found in the mountains.
Quarries ot red, white, and black marble have also been discovered near Taurus. Salt is abun
dant, and, m many places, the surface is covered with a saline crust when left to itself. Bitu
men and naptha are found in all the countries bordering on the Tigris and Lower Euphrates ;
they serve as cement, as pitch for lining the bottoms of vessels, and as a substitute for oil. Pe-
trolium occurs in Kerman.
6. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into 1 1 provinces, at the head of each of which is a
beglerbeg, or governor-in-chief, and subdivided into districts, administered by hakims, or gov
ernors. It must be observed, that many of the tribes of Curds and Luris, and several Turko
man tribes in Khorasan are entirely independent. Provinces : Irak-Ajemi, Thabaristan, Ma-
zanderan, including Astrabad, Ghilan, Ajerbijan, Curdistan, Khusistan, Farsistan, including
Laristen, Kerman, Khuhistan, and Khorasan.
7. Cities. Teheran, in the northwestern part of the province of Irak, is now considered as
the capital of Persia. It is about 4 miles in circumference, situated in a dreary plain, which
is only partially cultivated. It is furnished with a citadel, and surrounded by a strong wall ;
but it is not a handsome or well-built town. Within the fortress is the palace, which dispjays
no external magnificence. So excessive is the heat of the summer in this neighborhood, that
the king, and the greater part; of the inhabitants, annually leave it for 2 or 3 months. The
population is then under 15,000 ; but, during the rest of the year, it amounts to 50,000.
Ispahan, formerly the Persian capital, with a population of 700,000 souls, is seated on a fine
plain, within a mile of the river Zenderood. It contains some few squares and noble houses ;
but the streets are neither wide nor regular, and the town in general is wretchedly built. It
bears evident marks of neglect ; yet it is not so deserted, as to have only a small population ;
for it is still occupied by about 100,000 persons. The bazars are so extensive, that you may
walk for 2 or 3 miles under the sheher which they afford. The best manufactures of the place
are those of silk and cotton ; the latter stuff resembles nankin, and is worn by all ranks, from
the king to the peasant. The chief ornament of the town is the Palace of Forty Pillars,
called also the Persian Versailles. The exhaustless profusion of its splendid materials, may be
said to reflect, not merely their own golden or crystal lights on each other, but all the variegat
ed colors of the garden ; so that the whole surface seems formed of polished silver and mother-
of-pearl, set with precious stones. In short, the scene seems almost to realize an eastern poet's
dream, or some magic vision. The roof is sustained by a double range of columns, each being
40 feet high, and shooting up from the united backs of 4 lions of white marble, while their
shafts are covered with arabesque patterns and foliage. The ceiling is adorned with the repre
sentations of flowers and animals, in gold, silver, and painting, amidst hundreds of intermingling
compartments of glittering mirrors. The New Palace is also a fine edifice. One of the ba
zars presents a long, covered walk of 2 miles in length, lighted by domes, and lined with shops,
but no longer exhibits the bustle and life of former days. Some of the mosques, and the
bridges over the Zenderood are also remarkable structures, and there are several colleges or
madrasses here. The Jews and Armenians are numerous in Ispahan.
The other principal towns of this province are, Cashan, noted for its manufactures of cotton,
silk, and copper ware, with 30,000 inhabitants ; Koom, celebrated^as the burial-place of several
Mahometan saints, whose tombs, remarkable for the splendor and richness^of their decora
tions, are visited by thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the kingdom ; Hamadan, a flourish
ing and industrious town, with 30,000 inhabitants, and Casween, a large town, with extensive
manufactures and a thriving trade, and containing 60,000 inhabitants. Near Hamadan are the
ruins of Ecbatana, once the magnificent capital of the Medes ; the remains of the palace,
which was nearly a mile in circuit, and of which the woodwork was of cedar and cypress, over
laid with silver and gold, and the tiles of silver, are still visible. Balfrouch, in Mazanderan,
is a large town with 100,000 inhabitants, mostly engaged in trade and manufactures ; its bazars
are of vast extent. Asterabad, on the Caspian Sea, with 40,000 inhabitants ; Sari, 30,000 ;
and Recht, 60,000, with extensive silk manufactures, are the ofher principal places in this
quarter. Tauris or Tabriz stands on a plain bounded by mountains, which, though barren, recede into
a well-cultivated vale. In the 17th century it was considered as the second city, in Persia ; but,
928 PERSIA, OR IRAN.
if it had not become the principal residence of the* late heir apparent of the Persian crown, it
would by this time have declined into insignificance. He improved the fortifications, formed a
great arsenal, and built a palace for himself, encouraged the industry of the inhabitants, and pro
moted European arts and inventions. The population of the town is about 45,000. Ardebil
was formerly a large and flourishing town ; but it has now only 4,000 inhabitants, though it pos
sesses a great object of Moslem veneration, namely, the magnificent mausoleum of that sanc
tified sheik who was the founder of the Sefi family.
Kermanshaw, in Curdistan, stands in the midst of a delightful district, and is surrounded by
walls. Its prosperity is due to its commerce and manufactures. Population, 40,000. Shuster,
the capital of Khusistan, has 20,000 inhabitants. In its neighborhood, are the ruins which
mark the site of the ancient Susa. It was the winter residence of the ancient Persian kings,
and was 15 miles in circuit ; here is shown the tomb of the prophet Daniel, to which the Jews
make pilgrimages.
Shiraz, in a delightful valley of Farsistan, is meanly built, but contained some magnificent
edifices previously to 1824, when most of its principal buildings were destroyed by an earth
quake. The environs of Shiraz have been celebrated by the Persian poets for their fine wines
and beautiful scenery, and the city is styled by the Persians, the seat of science, on account of
the literary taste of its inhabitants. Population, 30,000. Yezd, in the interior, on the great
caravan routes, the centre of a great inland trade, and the seat of extensive manufactures, with
60,000 inhabitants ; and Busheer, the principal port on the Persian Gulf, with 15,000 inhabi
tants, are the other principal places of this province. To the northeast of Shiraz are the cele
brated ruins of Persepolis, covering a great extent of country-; those called by the Persians
Chilminar (that is, the Forty Columns), are thought to be the remnants of the ancient palace
of the Persian kings ; they consist of columns, and walls constructed of vast blocks of marble,
and covered with reliefs and inscriptions ; tombs cut in the rock, and covered with inscriptions
and sculptures, are also found in different directions.
Meshed, though the capital of Khorasan, is not so populous or flourishing as Herat, hav
ing only about 40,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures, it is said, are not extensive ; but it
still retains its former celebrity for some articles. Its velvets are considered as the best in
Persia ; but its silks and cottons are less famous. Sword-blades of good temper are here
fabricated, their excellence being derived, it is said, from the skill of many descendants of a col
ony of artisans, transplanted from Damascus to this province by Timour- The city is built of
sun-dried bricks ; the houses in general make a wretched appearance, and the apartments are
meanly furnished ; and a great part of the city is in ruins. Yet some of the public buildings have
an air of magnificence. The tomb of Ali, the patron saint of Persia, in the construction of
which the genius of the Persian artists and the superstition of the devotees have lavished every
thing that talents and wealth could contribute to render it magnificent, is much visited by pil
grims. 8. Revenues. The king claims one third of the cattle, corn, and fruit, of his subjects, and
likewise a third of silk and cotton. No persons, of whatever rank, are exempted from severe
taxations and services. The governors of provinces have particular lands assigned to them for
maintaining their retinues and troops ; and the crown lands defray the expenses of the court, the
king's household, and great officers of state. The water that is let into fields and gardens, is
subject to a tax ; and foreigners, who are not of the established religion, pay a ducat a head.
Yet, according to Mr. Kinneir, the revenue does not far exceed 3,000,000 sterling.
9. Army. The Persian army is an untrained rabble, who more commonly plunder their own
countrymen than their enemies. In the late war with Russia, the troops in the field, both reg
ular and irregular, amounted to less than 45,000 men.
10. Commerce and Manufactures. Some trade is carried on with India through the port of
Bushire, on the Persian Gulf ; and there are about a dozen vessels on the Caspian engaged in_
commerce^ with the Russians. Raw and manufactured silk and cotton goods, carpets, and
shawls, are exported. Some cutlery and coarse glass are also manufactured. The trade with
Turkey and Tartary is carried on by caravans.
11. Population. There are no data from which to estimate the population, except the loose
conjectures of travelers. The country is thinly inhabited. The stationary population may be
about 10,000,000.
12. Inhabitants. There are many separate tribes of people composing the population of
Persia. Beside" the Tadshiks or Persians proper, tliere are many Parsees, Curds, and Luris,
PERSIA, OR IRAN.
929
who also belong to the same family. Turkomans, in the northeast, Arabs, in the southwest,
Armenians, Jews, &c, are also numerous, and the Turkomans are now the dominant nation,
although the mass of the population is Persian. The Turkish is the common language of
the country, the Parsees only speaking the Persian, which is, however, the language of the lite
rature of an earlier period. Generally speaking, the Persians are a handsome race, even
when unmixed ; but the Georgian, Circassian, and Mingrelian
slaves are so common/ that there are few of the higher classes,
which are not descended from them. The Persian dress has
been considered effeminate. The men wear a long robe, reach
ing nearly to the feet, and under this a vest tight to the hips, and
then flowing like a petticoat. They wear wide trowsers and silk
or calico shirts. Robes of various kinds are common, and along
muslin sash is worn over the whole dress. In this is stuck a dag
ger, and no Persian considers himself fully dressed without a
sword. All classes wear a black lambskin cap, about a foot in
height. The head is shaved except a tuft on the head, and be
hind the ears. The beard is dyed black. The dress of the fe
males is simple. In winter a close-bodied robe, reaching to the
knees, and buttoned in front, is worn over the vest. In summer
a silk or muslin shift is worn, loose velvet trowsers, and a vest.
The head is covered with a black turban, over which a cashmerian shawl is thrown as a veil.
The Persian language is well fitted for poetry. It has an affinity with the German and Goth
ic languages. The general food 'of the Persians is simple. Coffee is general, and tobacco
is smoked by all classes. The delicious wines of Persia are much used, in spite of the pro
hibition of the Koran. The Persians have been called, probably by a Frenchman, the Pa
risians of the East, but they have more resemblance to the Greeks. They are volatile, cheer
ful, versatile, cunning, lying, and dishonest, but eminently social. They show great respect for
age. They abound in complimentary phrases, and their politeness, like that of the other Asiat
ics, is formal, though less grave than that of the Turks. They are affable, and fond of conver
sation ; in which fables and apologues abound.* Their manner of salutation is to touch the
&z.
M
S£t
1 1
/&gp
f /
[¦Ng
ffil
f\
IB
y§P|i|f
1
1I
II
1111
Hit
1
1
H
Ifjp3gf5
SBE?*
*^s*&z£&
ss
'hsm
Persians.
* The following fable is a fair specimen of the Persian
figurative mode of speech.
" In former days there was an old woman, who lived in
a hut more confined than the minds of the ignorant, and
more dark than the tombs of misers. Her companion was
a cat, from the mirror of whose imagination the appear
ance of bread had never been reflected, nor had she from
friends or strangers ever heard its name. It was enough
that she now and then scented a mouse, or observed the
print of its feet on the floor ; when, blessed by favoring
stars, or benignant fortune, one fell into her claws,
She became like a beggar who discovers a treasure of
gold;
Her cheeks glowed with rapture, and past grief was con
sumed by present joy.
" This feast would last for a week or more ; and while
enjoying it she was wont to exclaim, —
'Am I, O God ! when I contemplate this, in a dream or
awake ?
Am I to experience such prosperity after such adversity ? '
" But as the dwelling of the old woman was in general
the mansion of famine to this cat, she was always com
plaining, and forming extravagant and fanciful schemes.
One day, when reduced to extreme weakness, she, with
much exertion, reached the top of the hut ; when there,
she observed a cat stalking on the wall of a neighbor's
house, which like a fierce tiger advanced with measured
steps, and was so loaded with flesh, that she could hardly
raise her feet. The old woman's friend was amazed to see
one of her own species so fat and sleek, and broke out
in the following exclamation :
' Tour stately strides have brought you here at last; pray,
tell me from whence you come ?
From whence have you arrived with so lovely an appear
ance ? 117
You look as if from the banquent of the Khan of Chatai.
Where have you acquired such a comeliness ? and how
came you by that glorious strength ? '
The other answered, ' I am the Sultan's crum-eater.
Each morning, when they spread the convivial table, I at
tend at the palace, and there exhibit my address and cour
age. From among the rich meats and wheat-cakes I cull
a few choice morsels ; 1 then retire and pass my time till
next day in delightful indolence.'
" The old dame's cat requested to know what rich meat
was, and what taste wheat-cakes had ? ' As for me,' she
added, in a melancholy tone, ' during my life, I have
neither eat nor seen anything but the old woman's gruel
and the flesh of mice.' The other smiling, said, ' This ac
counts for the difficulty I find in distinguishing you from
a spider. Your shape and stature is such as must make
the whole generation of the cats blush ; and we must ever
feel ashamed, while you carry so miserable an appearance
abroad. You certainly have the ears and tail of a cat,
But in other respects you are a complete spider.
Were you to see the Sultan's palace, and to smell his de
licious viands, most undoubtedly those withered bones
would be restored ; you would receive new life ; you
would come from behind the curtain of invisibility into
the plain of observation :
When the perfume of his beloved passes over the tomb
of a lover,
Is it wonderful that his putrid bones should be re-ani
mated ? '
" The old woman's cat addressed the other in the most
supplicating manner : ' Oh, my sister ! ' she exclaimed,
' have I not the sacred claims of a neighbor upon you ? are
we not linked in the ties of kindred ? what prevents your
giving a proof of friendship, by taking me with you when
930 PERSIA, OR IRAN.
hands, and then raise them to the forehead. The king, however, and great officers, are saluted
by thrice bowing to the ground. There is much difference between the manner of life and
character of the inhabitants of the towns and the country. The latter are brave and hardy,
while the former are timid and effeminate. The females are generally instructed in reading,
embroidery, and household affairs, of which they have the sole management.
The Persian amusements are hunting, which they follow with great zeal, and various exhibi
tions of dancing, juggling, story-telling, &c. Antelopes are hunted with hawks and grey
hounds. The hawk alights upon the head, disordering the motions of the antelope, which the
hound is therefore able to overtake. Education is generally diffused in Persia. Children,
generally, can read and write ; but there is little instruction in the higher branches. The arts
and sciences have hardly an existence. The most general and popular literature is comprised
in poems and romantic tales. Ferdoosee, Hafiz, and Saadi are poets, admired in European
translations, and the two former are as well known to the common people as Burns to the same
class in Scotland. The religion is the Mahometan, but the Persians are of the sects of Ali, or
Sheeahs. They believe that Ali, and not Omar, was the rightful successor of Mahomet.
There is also some slight difference, in form, as in the manner of prostration, &c, which engen
der much hatred between the Persians and Turks. Soofeeism, a sort of mystical creed, that
accommodates itself to all forms of religion, is gradually undermining Mahometanism in Per
sia, while it leaves nothing definable in its place. There are few Armenian, Nestorian, Ja
cobite, and Catholic Christians. There is a Catholic Mission, but few converts are made.
The Persians, however, seem more easy to be led to a better creed than the other Asiatics.
They willingly discuss the merits of different religions, and are thus open to conviction, and
may be enabled to choose the best. The Parsees or Guebres are called Fire Worshippers,
because they venerate fire as the emblem of the Supreme Being ; their sacred book is called
the Zendevesta ; it teaches, that from the Supreme Being or the Eternal One, have emanated
Ariman, the genius of evil, and Oromaz the genius of good.
Polygamy, as in other Mahometan countries, is general with the wealthy ; for the poor can
generally support but one wife. Marriages are generally contracted by the parents, while the
parties are young. After funerals, the friends of the deceased mourn 40 days, during which they
leave viands on the grave for the angels, who are supposed to watch it. They also expostulate
with the dead for having died. The government of Persia is an absolute, oriental despotism,
with the absurd and peculiar feature, that the edicts of the monarch are unchangeable. He can
not alter them himself, so that he is bound by nothing but his own edicts.* The laws are
founded on the precepts of the Koran. Sanguinary and barbarous punishments are common.
The higher classes of people are punished frequently by mutilation or loss of eyes, and the slight
next you visit the palace ? Perhaps from your favor plen- panion, the half-starved cat hobbled to the Sultan's palace.
ty may flow to me, and from your patronage I may attain Before this unfortunate wretch came, as it is decreed, that
dignity and honor. tbe covetous shall be disappointed, an extraordinary event
Withdraw not from the friendship of the honorable ; had occurred, and, owing to her evil destiny the water of
Abandon not the support of the elect.' disappointment was poured on the flame of her immature
ambition. The case was this ; a whole legion of cats had,
" The heart of the Sultan's crum-eater was melted by the day before, surrounded the feast, and made so much
this pathetic address ; she promised her new friend should noise, that they disturbed the guests, and in consequence
accompany her on the next visit to the palace. The latter, the Sultan had ordered, that some archers, armed with
overjoyed, went down immediately from the terrace, and bows, from Tartary, should, on this day, be concealed, and
communicated every particular to the old woman, who ad- that whatever cat advanced into the field of valor, covered
dressed her with the following counsel : with the shield of audacitv, should, on eating the first
" ' Be not deceived, my dearest friend, with the worldly morsel, be overtaken with their arrows. The old dame's
language you have listened to ; abandon not your corner puss was not aware of this order. The moment the flavor
of content, for the cup of the covetous is only to be filled of the viands reached her, she.flew, like an eagle to the
by the dust of the grave ; and the eye of cupidity and hope place of her prev.
can only be closed by the needle of mortality and the " Scarcely had the weight of a mouthful been placed in
thread Of fate. the scale to balance her hunger, when a heart-dividing ar-
It is content that makes men rich : row pierced her breast.
Mark this, ye avaricious, who traverse the world ; A stream of blood rushed from the wound.
He neither knows nor pays adoration to his God, She fled, in dread of death, after having exclaimed,
Who is dissatisfied with his condiUon and fortune.' ' Should I escape from this terrific archer,
But the expected feast had taken such possession of poor l wil1 be satisned with my mouse and the miserable hut
puss's imagination, that the medicinal counsel of the old °^ mv old lnistress-
woman was thrown away. MV soul rejects the honey if accompanied by the sting.
„ ... „ „ . , , . , Content, with the most frugal fare, is preferable.' "
'The good advice of all the world is like wind in a canrp, . , . .
Or water in a sieve, when bestowed on the headstrong".' * Jhe. P^mMe of a treaty with Great Britain styles
" the Persian monarch the " High King, whose court is line
MTo conclude, next day, accompanied by her com- that of Solomon ; the asylum of the world ; the sign of the
PERSIA, OR IRAN.
931
Ruins of Persepolis.
offences of the lower class are visited with the bastinado. Theft, however, is severely punished.
Kinneir saw several thieves built into a wall, and left there to perish.
The antiquities of Persia are the remains of a race more energetic than the present inhabi
tants. 1 here are few architectural monuments of modern date, and the manner of building is
not distinguished for convenience or elegance. But the ruins of the ancient cities are imposing
and grand, especially those of Per
sepolis. Next to the pyramids of
Egypt and the colossal ruins of
Thebes, they have arrested the
greatest attention, and like them
they still remain an enigma, their
history, dates, and object being in
volved in the gloom of antiquity.
The royal palace, or the Takh-ee-
Jumsheed, consists of a number
of superb buildings, forming both
a palace of ample 'magnitude, and
a citadel or bulwark for the capi
tal, on a situation of the most com
manding aspect. It consists of an
artificial platform, 1,426 feet long
by 802 broad, on the south, and
926 feet on the north side, chis
eled out of a mountain, and having a higher part of the same mountain connected with its east
ern side, the other three sides presenting perpendicular precipices from the subjacent plain. On
the mountains to the east, called by Diodorus the royal mount, and which still preserves the
name Shah-koh, or royal mount, are the tombs of the kings, excavated in the rock. The only
way to the summit is by an ascent of steps on the western face, forming a double flight. The
steps are broad and shallow, 10, and sometimes 14, being cut out of one block of marble. So
easy is the ascent, that 6 horsemen may ride abreast to the top of the platform. Niebuhr de
clares this staircase to be the most splendid, sublime, and durable ever reared by human hands,
many of the stones being 27 feet long, and many on the wall 55 feet long by from 4 to 6 feet
high. On reaching the platform, the first objects that meet the eye are 2 colossal bulls, of a
noble form and attitude, sculptured on the lofty sides of an enormous portal. Other symbolical
representations in granite, in basso-relievo, are found in different places. On a near approach
to the hall of columns, the eye is riveted by the grandeur and beautiful decorations of the double
staircase, which leads up to them. Beyond this, and rising from the landing-place, is another
double staircase, but smaller ; the windings of these staircases are covered with sculptures of
human figures, and a duplicate representation of a combat between a bull and a lion. What
artist sculptured the wonderful procession on the winding walls of the staircase is unknown, but
it seems to be of Ionian workmanship. At any rate, the finishing of the parts, and the grace
and truth of the bass-reliefs, proclaim a refinement worthy of the master chisels of Greece. As
for the platform itself, nothing can be more striking than the view of its ruins ; so vast, so mag
nificent, so fallen, so mutilated, and silent. But every object is as desolate as it is beautiful ;
awakening the most poignant feelings, that a pile of such indefatigable labor, such complicated
ingenuity, should be left untenanted and unnoticed in the desert, or if noticed, be doomed to
the predatory mallet of some ruthless bigot or ignorant barbarian. This immense pile is 380
feet long from east to west, and 350 from north to south ; the greater part of which space is
covered with broken capitals, shafts of pillars, and countless fragments of buildings, some of
which are ornamented with the most exquisite sculptures.
13. History. Persia, or Iran, long played a prominent part in the early history of the world.
The ancient empire of Cyrus was overthrown by the Macedonians ; and that of the Parthians, which
succeeded the Macedonian empire, was conquered by the Saracens and Turks, in the 7th cen-
powerofGod; the jewel in the ring of kings; the orna- equal among the princes, exalted to majesty by the hea-
ment in the cheek of eternal empire ; the grace of the vens on this globe ; a shade from the shade of the Most
beauty of sovereignty and royalty; the king of the uni- High; a Khoosroo, whose saddle is the moon, and whose
verse, like Caherman ; the mansion of mercy and justice ; stirrup is the new moon ; a prince , of great rank, before
the phcenix of good fortune; the eminence of never-fading whom the sun is concealed."
prosperity ; the king powerful as Alexander, who has no
932 CABULISTAN, OR AFGHANISTAN.
tury. Six centuries later, Persia was overrun by the Mongols, who retained possession of the
country for 200 years, when it fell into the hands of the Turcomans. The empire has, during
the last century, suffered much from foreign and civil wars.
CHAPTER CXLV. CABULISTAN, OR AFGHANISTAN.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Afghanistan, or the kingdom of Cabul, is bounded on the N.
by Herat and Turkistan ; on the E. by the land of the Seiks, in Hindostan ; on the S. by
Beloochistan ; and on the W. by Persia. It extends from lat. 28° to 36° N., and from long.
59° to 72° E., having an area of 146,000 square miles, and a population of 4,200,000 souls.
2. Mountains. Rivers. The country is an elevated table-land, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet
high ; above this rise the summits of the Hindoo-Koo Mountains, which traverse the kingdom
from east to west, reaching an elevation of above 20,000 feet ; a chain branches off to the south,
near Cabul, and is known under the name of the Soliman Mountains, extending in two parallel
ranges into Beloochistan. The principal river is the Helmend, which runs into Lake Zerrah.
3. Productions. Although much of the country consists of high, bleak hills, unfitted for
tillage, and the southwestern part is a vast desert, there are many fertile valleys and warm
plains, which are populous, productive, and well cultivated. The inhabitants are chiefly wan
dering shepherds. Few Indian plants inhabit Cabulistan, but those of Europe are in great
abundance there. The vine, the peach, and apricot grow wild, and seem to be indigenous.
The prevailing trees on the mountains are various species of pine, one of which bears cones
as large as artichokes, and seeds as big as pistachio nuts. There are likewise cedars, a gigan
tic cypress, and several kinds of oak, with the walnut, pistachio, and terebinth. On the un
cultivated plains, the most common trees are the mulberry, the tamarind, the plane, the poplar,
and several sorts of willow. Fruits and corn are produced in the eastern part, and in the low,
hot districts of the East, sugar, ginger, cotton, dates, millet, &c, are raised. Among the
most valuable and remarkable productions of the eastern parts of the country is the assafcetida
plant ; its stem is from one to two and a half feet high, and when ripe it produces a cauliflower
like head. The milky juice extracted near the root yields the well-known gum. The natives
stew or roast the stem, and boil or fry the head and leaves with ghee, or clarified butter,
and in this way the smell is even stronger than that of the drug, and no one but those accustomed
to it can bear its offensive effluvia. Lead, iron, and salt are abundant.
At Cabul, where the summers are not so hot, and the winters, without being severe, are
colder, and accompanied with frequent falls of snow, the fruit-trees of Hindostan are not seen,
while those of Europe abound. The Emperor Baber caused the sugar-cane to be planted, but
it is not probable that it will succeed.
4. Divisions. The kingdom is composed of two great regions, — Afghanistan, which is di
vided into 7 provinces, and Sistan, or Segistan.
5. Towns. Cabul, the capital, is situated in a fertile and well-watered plain, celebrated for
its fine climate. The town is well built, but the houses are mostly of wood. Here is a citadel
built upon a low hill, and containing a magnificent royal palace ; the bazars are also vast build
ings, and the commerce, till the recent civil wars, was extensive. The population, which was
80,000, is probably likewise diminished by the troubles which have distracted the country.
Ghizneh, or Gazna, once the capital of an empire reaching from the Tigris to the Ganges,
is now fallen into decline, and its magnificent baths, rich palaces, superb mosques, and numerous
bazars, have disappeared. It now contains about 8,000 inhabitants.
Candahar, a fortified place in a fertile and highly cultivated plain, is a large and populous
city, with about 100,000 inhabitants. It is regularly laid out and well built, and is the centre
of an active trade. It contains a royal palace, and in the centre of the city is the sharshee, a
vast rotunda, surrounded with shops, to which all the principal streets converge. Candahar has
lately been occupied by the English. Peshawer, the capital of the kingdom of Cabul previous
to its late dismemberment, stands in a fertile plain, bounded by the loftiest ranges of the Hindoo-
Koo and Soliman mountains. The city is rudely built, and the few good edifices are much
decayed ; the number of its population is also much reduced, in consequence of the late revo
lutions in the country ; but it presents a picturesque aspect, and a motley population of Indians,
Persians, Tartars, &c.
Segistan contains only small towns, and consists principally of a great desert.
6. Inhabitants. The population consists chiefly of Afghans, a race nearly allied to the Per-
CABULISTAN, OR AFGHANISTAN. 933
sians. In the towns are many Persians and Indians, the Afghans never exercising a trade.
The latter occupy themselves with war, robbery, hunting, and raising herds. They are rude,
vindictive, and rapacious, but faithful, hospitable, laborious, open, and brave. Their religion is
Mahometanism, but they are not bigoted. The language nearly resembles the Persian, and
the educated Afghans are familiar with Persian literature. Education is carefully provided for
among them, every village having its school, which is attended by almost every boy.
The usual dress is a sort of frock, reaching below the knee, and loose, dark cotton trowsers ;
the head is covered with a low, flat cap of black silk, and the feet with half-boots, laced in front.'
The houses of the rich are surrounded by high walls, inclosing courts and gardens, and they are
provided with carpets, some glass windows, &c. Those of the lower class, consist of a single
room, without chairs or tables, their place being supplied by carpets and felt cushions. The
pastoral tribes live in coarse, woolen tents.
The Afghans are fond of all sorts of boisterous amusements, particularly those which involve-
great display of bodily activity. Hunting is, as it were, the rage over all Afghanistan, and the
people pursue it not only in all the known and usual modes, but in others peculiar to the country
itself. Sometimes a whole neighborhood assembled forms a circle, and sweeps together with
in it all the game belonging to a certain district. In the villages much delight is taken in the
attum, a hearty and noisy dance, consisting in violent movements, in which both sexes join.
They delight in the fighting of quails, cocks, and other animals ; and they amuse themselves at
marbles, hopping on one foot, and other games considered with us as suited only to children.
Although the Afghans are a sober and temperate people, they are enabled to live well, by
the extreme cheapness of all provisions, particularly fruit and vegetables- They are also social
and hospitable ; and even the poorer classes, when they can afford to kill a sheep, invite their
neighbors to partake. The dishes are merely the mutton with the broth in which it has been
boiled ; the drink is buttermilk or sherbet ; and conviviality is chiefly promoted by the use of
tobacco. At the tables of the great, rich pilaus and dishes variously dressed, are presented on
trays, after the Persian manner, and ornamented with gold and silver leaf. The Afghans talk a
good deal at table, usually in a somewhat grave style, though not without occasional sallies of
mirth. One of their favorite amusements consists in walks and collations in the numerous
gardens that surround their cities, particularly Cabal, the views from which are particularly beau
tiful. \
The whole nation of Afghans, like the ancient kingdom of Israel, is divided into tribes,
which continue much unmixed, each under its own peculiar government, with little interference
from the royal. government. The king is, in fact, merely the khan of the Dooraunees, the
ruling tribe, as being that of Ahmed Shah, the founder of the empire, and his powers over the
other tribes, are confined to nominating their khans, levying troops, and collecting the revenue.
The Ghiljies, a proud, fierce, and warlike tribe, are the rivals of the Dooraunies, and submit
with impatience to their supremacy. The Berdooraunies, Eusofzies, Sheraunees, Vizerees,
are among the principal tribes. The internal government of the tribes is republican ; they are
divided into separate clans, and each clan has its chief or khan, chosen from the oldest family.
The khans generally act in council with the heads of families. The people are much attach
ed to their respective tribes, though but little to tbe khans, and their republican spirit has pre
served them from the general debasement in the East, caused by the oriental despotisms. When
an English traveler had expatiated on the advantages of a firm and steady government, in the
security it gives from alarm, discords, and bloodshed, the Afghans replied, " We are content
with discord, "we are content with alarms, we are content with blood, but we shall never be
content with a master."
7. History. This region, under the names of Arachosia, Paropamisus, and Drangiana,
was looked upon by the ancients as a rude and barbarous tract, but in modern times it has re
peatedly played an important part in history. In the 11th century Mahmoud, of Ghizni, made
that city the capital of an empire, which extended from the Indus to the Euphrates ; but his
dynasty was crushed by the conquests of Timur, and Cabal became the capital of the great
Mogul empire, under some of his successors. In the close of the 17th century the Afghans
conquered Persia ; Nadir Skah, however, not only drove them out of that country, but sub
dued them in turn. On his death, Ahmed Shah in the middle of the last century, delivered his
country from the Persian yoke, and conquered some of the finest provinces of Western India,
including Lahore, Moultan, and Cashmere, to which was also added Balkh. Since his death
internal dissensions have broken the power of this great empire ; the warlike and able Runjeet
934 KINGDOM OF HERAT. — BELOOCHISTAN.
Singh, chief of Lahore, who died 1839, seized Cashmere, Moultan, and other districts, the
khans of Balkh and Beloochistan, and the princes of Sindh have taken this opportunity to se
cure their independence ; and one branch of the royal family has erected an independent throne
at Herat. An English Indian army has lately entered Candahar and Cabul, and the company
seem determined to add these regions to their, overgrown empire.
CHAPTER CXLVI. KINGDOM OF HERAT.
1 . Boundaries. The kingdom of Herat is bounded north by Turkistan ; south and east by
Cabul, and west by Persia. It lies between 33° and 36° N. lat. and 60° and 67° E. long.,
having an area of 66,000 square miles, and a population of 1,500,000. It is an elevated ta
ble-land, intersected by lofty mountains, and inhabited by Afghans, and some tribes of Tur
comans. 2, Towns. Herat, the capital, is a large and strongly fortified town, situated in a populous
and highly cultivated valley. It is the centre of a great commerce, and its manufactures are
numerous and flourishing ; the celebrated Khorasan sabres are made here. Population,
100,000. Bamiam, a small city, is chiefly remarkable for the immense number of excava
tions in the rocks in its vicinity ; they are said to amount to 12,000 ; here are also 2 colossal
statues, 50 cubits high. The people, and their manners, customs, and condition, do not differ
from those of Afghanistan, from which Herat is only recently and politically detached.
CHAPTER CXLVII. BELOOCHISTAN.
1. Boundaries, &c. This country, which is occupied by confederated tribes of Beloochis,
is bounded north by Cabul and Persia ; east by the country of the Seiks and Sindh ; south by
the Arabian Sea, and" west by Persia. It lies between lat. 25° and 30° N., and between long.
58° and 69° E., having an area of 140,000 square miles, and 2,000,000 inhabitants. It is
traversed by the Soliman Mountains, and a considerable part of the country is a vast desert.
The rivers are small, and mostly dry up in the hot seasons.
2. Divisions and Towns. The Beloochis resemble the Afghans in their mode of life, and
there are few considerable towns. The several tribes of the confederacy are governed by their
own chiefs or serdars, but they recognise the supremacy of the serdar of Kelat. Kelat, a
town of about 20,000 inhabitants, is situated upon a high table-land, in a well cultivated dis
trict ; the climate, owing to the elevation, is cold. It has some commerce, and its bazars are
large. Gundava is the residence of the serdar in winter ; it has about 16,000 inhabitants, and
is well built.
This country, the Gedrosia of the ancients, is often described under the name of Mekran,
as a province of- Persia ; but it has no connexion with that State, and besides Mekran, it in
cludes Cutch, Gundava, Lus, Sarwan, Jhalawan, and other districts.
3. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of these provinces are, with few exceptions, wandering in
their habits of life, there being few towns or even considerable villages. The Beloochis and
the Brahooes, as far as is known, constitute the bulk of the population. The Beloochis are
brave, hospitable, honorable robbers, esteeming theft disgraceful, but making chepaos or preda
tory excursions to a great distance to burn villages, carry off slaves, and plunder. Their man
ners are pastoral ; they live in ghedans or tents, made of black felt or coarse blankets, stretch
ed over a frame of wicker-work. Like other pastoral nations, they are indolent and fond of
hunting ; unless occupied by some favorite amusement, they will spend whole days in lounging
from one ghedan to another, smoking and gambling. They have commonly two wives, and
sometimes more. They treat their women with attention and respect, and are not so scrupu
lous about their being seen as most Mahometans. Their language nearly resembles the modern
Persian, and is of kindred origin. The Beloochis are Sunnites.
Living with them, but quite distinct from them in most points, are the Brahooes, who are
mild, inoffensive, quiet, and industrious ; not less hospitable, nor less faithful in adhering to
their promises, but less addicted to revenge, cruelty, and avarice. They are, perhaps, the abo
rigines ; they lead a pastoral life, roaming from one part of the country to another, according
to the season, and also changing their places of abode in quest of pasturage. Some of them
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
935
aSSJE^s Sr rir S isrvti^ ts^ r ets' *?¦
members, much in the European manner. The men tend th A divided among the
the women milk the herds, maL butter, che J.^d^^e J £* ^n^gf ofte
Brahooes is different from that of the Beloochis, and seems to resemble some of Slfflan dia
lects. The western part of Mekran is infested by banditti, called Loories, of a much ba ser
character than the usual predatory hordes of Asia. They have renounced eVeyrXtus be
lief, and, maintaining that men are born to eat, and sleep, and die, and be forgotten, they aban
don themselves without scruple to every species of profligacy and depravity
The government of Kelat is despotic, but limited by a feudal system. The serdars, or
chiefs of the tribes are bound to furnish their quota of troops, and to attend the court They
are partly hereditary and partly chosen by the tribes themselves, and their authority is limited
CHAPTER CXLVIII. INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
View near Delhi.
1. Boundaries. This great region is bounded on the N. by the Chinese empire ; on the E.
by the Birman empire and the Bay of Bengal ; S. by the Indian Ocean ; and W. by the Ara
bian Sea, Cabul, and Beloochistan. It extends from 8° to 34° N. lat., and from 67° to 92°
E. long., being 1,500 miles in its greatest breadth, and 1,800 miles in length from north to
south. Its area, which exceeds 1,400,000 square miles, is more than one third that of all Eu
rope, and it contains 140,000,000 inhabitants. ,
2. Mountains. The Himala Mountains, which extend along its whole northern boundary,
contain the loftiest summits in the world. They rise in successive stages from the champaign
country, forming several parallel ridges, until the principal and loftiest range shoots its co
lossal summits up into regions of perpetual snow. This principal chain separates the val
leys of Serinagore, Nepaul, and Bootan, from Tibet, and attains an elevation of 26,000
and 28,000 feet. The Chamoulari, on the frontiers ' of Bootan, is the highest known
mountain in the world, being 28,200 feet in height ; the Dhawalagiri, on the frontiers of Ne
paul is but little inferior in elevation. A lower and parallel chain runs along the southern mar-
936 INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
gin of the valleys above mentioned, separating them from the great plain of the Ganges. The
Deccan or Peninsula which lies to the south of that plain, is traversed by several chains of in
ferior elevation. The Western Ghauts extend for several hundred miles along the western
shore, and in some places are supposed to reach the height of 10,000 feet. The Eastern
Ghauts, rising behind the eastern coast, are of a less lofty and rugged description than the pre
ceding. Along the northern border of the Deccan, stretches -a chain called the Berar Moun
tains ; and in the south, the NUgherry Mountains connect the Eastern and Western Ghauts.
3. Rivers. The Ganges, the principal river of India, rises on the southern declivity of the
northern or principal chain of the Himala Mountains, and after a course of 800 miles, issues
from the lower range of mountains into the open country. Hence this great river, which the
Hindoos hold in religious veneration, believing that its Waters have a virtue which will purify them
from every transgression, flows through delightful plains, with a smooth, navigable stream from 1
to 3 miles wide, toward the Bay of Bengal, into which it runs by 2 large, and a multitude of smaller
channels, that form and intersect a large, triangular island, the base of which, at the sea, is near
200 miles in extent. The whole navigable course of this river, from its entrance into the plain to
the sea, extending with its windings above 1,300 miles, is now possessed by the British, their
allies, and tributaries. The western branch, called the Little Ganges, or river of Hoogly, is
navigable for large ships. The Ganges receives 1 1 rivers, some of which are equal to the
Rhine, and none inferior to the Thames ; the principal tributary is the Jumna, which has a
course of 800 miles. The inundations of the Ganges are watched with great interest by the na
tives ; they take place in July and August, and are caused in part by the rains and melting of snows
in the upper part of its course, and in part by the rain which falls in the plain. By the end of
July, all the lower parts of Bengal contiguous to the Ganges are overflowed, and form a lake
of more than 100 miles in breadth. The Brahmapootra or Burrampootra is supposed to rise
in the mountains to the east of Assam, and it joins the eastern branch of the Ganges ; the sources
are as yet qnexplored.
The Indus or Sind rises on the northern declivity of the Himala Mountains, in Little Tibet,
and after taking a northerly direction for a considerable distance, it breaks through the moun
tains, and flows south into the Arabian Sea. Its length is 1,700 miles, and it discharges its
waters by a single mouth, bulr sends off a large branch to the Gulf of Cutch. Its principal tri
butary is the Punjab, formed by the confluence of 5 rivers, of which the Sutlege, with a course
of 900 miles, and Jylum, 750 miles in length, are the chief. In Southern Hindostan, the
principal rivers are the Nerbudda, which forms the northern boundary of the Deccan, and flows
into the Gulf of Cambay, after a course of 750 miles ; the Godaveri, which rises in the West
ern Ghauts, and runs into the Bay of Bengal, through a distance of 850 miles ; and the Krish
na, 700 miles in length, and Cavery, 400, running into the same bay.
4. Surface. The northern part is mountainous and rugged ; but between the parallel ridges
of the Himala Mountains extends the beautiful girdle of Bootan, Nepaul, Serinagore, and Cash
mere, comprising^ a series of charming valleys and plains, at the height of from 4,000 to 7,000
feet. The valley of the Ganges, comprising the main body of India, is composed of a great
plain of matchless fertility, extending from the Brahmapootra to the great desert, which divides
the sources of the Jumna from the tributaries of the Indus, and from the mountains of the north
to the high lands of central India ; it is 1,200 miles long, and from 300 to 400 broad, and forms
a continuous level of exbaustless richness, over which majestic rivers diffuse themselves with a
slow and almost insensible course. Westward of this plain, stretches the elevated desert of
Ajmere, of moving sand, extending 600 miles from north to south, and 300 from east to west,
and bearing in some parts coarse grass or prickly shrubs, and interspersed with some productive
tracts. West of this, is the rich plain of the Punjab, in which the 5 tributaries of the Indus re
produce the luxuriant fertility of the Gangetic plain. Around the Nerbudda is the table-land
of Central India, comprising Malwa, Candeish, and Gundwana, having an elevation of from
1,200 to 2,000 feet. Further south, lies the table-land of the Deccan, which is from 1,500 to
3,000 feet high. Below this, on the east and west, the coast sinks down to a flat, low
country. 5. Climate. The varying degrees of elevation produce here the same changes in regard to
temperature, that arise in some regions from great differences of position upon the earth's sur
face. The littoral plains and the high table-lands of the Deccan, the flat lands of the Ganges,
and the mountainous regions of the north, present striking contrasts. The vast plains exhibit
the double harvests, the luxuriant foliage, and even the burning deserts of the torrid zone ; the
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
937
lowei heights are covered with the fruits and grains of temperate climates ; the higher elevations
are clothed with the fine forests of northern regions ; whifo the loftiest pinnacles le buried be
neath the perpetual snows of the Arctic zone. The low, hot countries are commonly unhealthy
for Europeans, and sanitary stations have been established in the hill provinces, to which those
who are suffering from fever, dysentery, or liver complaint, the diseases engendered in the for
mer, remove for the restoration of their health. In the dry, sandy plains of some parts of the
country coupde soleil, or stroke of the sun, not unfrequently occurs by exposure to the intense
heat of the solar rays. In general, the year is divided into three seasons, the rainy, cold, and
hot ; the rainy extends from June to October ; the cold, from November to February • and the
hot, from March to May. The healthy season may be said to be from November to the setting
in of the rains ; and the unhealthy season, during the period of the rains, and a short time after their
termination. The northeast monsoon prevails during one half of the year, and the southwest dur
ing the other half. The monsoons are
generally ushered in by furious storms,
which deluge the country with rains,
blow down the trees, and destroy the
crops and houses of the inhabitants.
In the southern part of Hindostan, the
mountains running from north to south,
render it winter on one side, while it is
summer on the other. About the end
of June, a southwest wind begins to
blow from the sea, on the coast of Ma
labar, which, with continual rain, lasts
4 months, during which time all is se
rene upon the coast of Coromandel.
Near the end of October, the rainy sea
son and the change of the monsoons be
gin on the latter coast ; and, as it is de
stitute of secure harbors, ships are then
obliged to leave it. The air is naturally
hot in this division of India ; but it is
refreshed by breezes, the wind altering every 12 hours ; that is, from midnight to noon it blows
off the land, when it is intolerably hot ; and during the other 12 hours, from the sea, which
proves a great refreshment to the inhabitants of the coast.
6. Soil. The soil of this country is in many parts so excellent as to consist of black, vege
table mould to the depth of 6 feet. In Bengal, the Ganges annually overflows the country to
the extent of more than 100 miles in width, which inundation greatly fertilizes the land, and the
periodical rains and intense heat produce an extraordinary luxuriance of vegetation.
7. Natural Productions. Large
iswr^sss^s ------ fmjg^gg forests are found in various parts of
this extensive country, and on the
coast of Malabar, they consist of trees
of a prodigious size. The teak tree
( Tectoria grandis) affords a strong
and durable timber, which is well cal
culated for ship-building, as teak-ships
that have been in service for 30 years
are not uncommon in the Indian seas,
while a European built ship is ruined
there in 5 years. The cocoa tree
( Cocos nucifera) is remarkable for its
extensive utility ; of the body or trunk,
the natives make boats, and frames
and rafters for their houses ; they
thatch their houses with the leayes,
and, by slitting them lengthwise, make
and a valuable oil. From the branches,
Setting in of Monsoons.
mats and baskets.
Banyan Trees.
The nut
affords 118
food, drink,
938
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
when cut, exudes a liquor called toddy, from which, when fermented, is distilled an excellent ar
rack. In fact, the Hindoos celebrate its 365 uses. Superior to this in the magnitude of its leaves,
one of which will sometimes shade 12 men, is the Palmyra palm (Borassirs flabelliformis) , which
sometimes reaches the height of 100 feet. Another species of palm (Sagus farinifera), yields
the Sago, much used for puddings. The betel (Arecha catechu) is cultivated all over India
for its fruit, the well known betel-nut. The Indian fig (Ficus religiosa), likewise called the
banyan and the wonder-tree, is sometimes of an amazing size, as it is continually increasing ;
every branch proceeding from the trunk throws out long fibres, which take root in the earth,
and shoot out new branches ; these again throw out fibres that take root, and continue to in
crease as long as they find soil to nourish them. Of fruit-bearing trees the number is very great,
and the fruit delicious, especially pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, dates, almonds, man
goes, pines, melons ; and, in the northern parts, pears and apples. In some parts, large tracts
are covered with a dense mass of foliage and vegetation, crowded and twined together in such
a manner as to be almost impenetrable. This forms what is called a jungle, composed of huge
trees, prickly shrubs, and canes or bamboos, which in a few months run up to the height of 100
feet. Not less gigantic as'a grass, than the banyan as a tree, is the bamboo (Arundo bambos),
whose light and jointed stems often exceed 100 feet in height. The wood is extremely dura
ble, and is used for various purposes. The cotton-tree ( Gossypium herbaceum) , sugar-cane
(Saccharinum ojficinarum) , and indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria), are natives of India, and
are extensively cultivated. Cajeput oil is the produce of an East India shrub (Melaleuca
leucadendron) , and caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, is the inspissated juice, not only of several
species of fig, but also of the gum elastic vine (Urceola elastica). Ginseng (Panax gin
seng), which is highly prized in China, belongs to the same genus with the wild ginseng of this
country, which is also exported to China. Sandal wood (Santalum album), is a well known
fragrant wood, much used for ornamental and religious purposes by the Hindoos. The true
spikenard, or Indian nard (Valeriana jatamausi), has been employed as a perfume from the
remotest antiquity.
7. Animals. Of the wild animals of Hindostan, the tiger, for his size and strength, may
claim the first place ; the royal tiger (as he is called) of Bengal grows, it is said, to the height
of 4 or 5 feet, with a proportional length, and has such strength, that he can carry off a bul
lock or a buffalo with ease. Elephants are here very numerous and large. Here are also rhino-
Tiger attacking an Elephant.
Antelope and Leopard.
ceroses, wild-boars, lions, bears, leopards, panthers, lyxes, hyamas, wolves, jackals, and foxes,
with various species of apes and monkeys, and many beautiful antelopes, particularly that large
kind called the nyl-ghau. Wild buffaloes, which are very fierce, and have horns of extraordi
nary length, and the yak or grunting ox, are also numerous.
8. Minerals. Iron, copper, and lead are abundant in various regions, but the mines are lit
tle wrought. The soil in many places is impregnated with saltpetre and soda, which is deposit
ed upon the surface in moist weather in great quantities. Borax or tincal is obtained by evapo
ration from many saline lakes. Diamonds are obtained by washings in several localities upon the
Krishna, and the Godavery and in Bundelcund ; there are no mines in Golconda, but the dia
monds are cut in the city of that name, which is a great mart for this gem, and this has led to
the mistaken notion, that the diamond districts were in its vicinity. Raolconda, in Visiapour,
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
939
and Gandicotta, are famed for their mines, as is Color, in Hydrabad. The diamond is eenera.lv
fissures and wash th™ 77 ' ^ ^ h°°kS f the 6nds' Pick out the content« °f *«
fissures, and wash them in tubs in order to discover the diamonds. In Color they die in a laree
plain to the depth of 10 or 14 feet ; 40,000 persons are employed, the mer i to dig and he
women and children to carry the earth to the places in which it is to be deposited before the
search is made. Diamonds are also found in the gravel or sand of rivers, washed out of their
beds, and carried down with the stream. The river Gonel, near Sumbulpour, is the most
noted for them.
9. Islands. Ceylon lies near the southern extremity of Hindostan. It is 300 miles in
length, and from 50 to 100 in breadth. The coast is low and flat, and encircled with a wide
border of cocoa trees, surrounded by rocks and shoals. The interior is filled with mountains,
which rise in successive ranges from the coast ; many of them are verdant and beautiful ; others!
peaked and rocky ; the highest is called Adam's Peak. A chain of shoals and rocks, called
Adam's bridge, connects the island with the con
tinent, so that the channel between them is impas
sable for ships. Ceylon produces a great variety
of fruits, and the finest cinnamon in the world.
The minerals are tin, lead, iron, and quicksilver.
Precious stones are abundant, including the ruby,
topaz, amethyst, and diamond, though the last are
not of fine quality. An extensive pearl-fishery is
carried on in the Straits of Manaar, chiefly by
boats from the mainland of India. Columbo is the
chief town, and has considerable commerce, with
a population of 50,000. Trincomalee derives im
portance from the excellence of its harbor, in
The natives are divided into the Cingalese, who inhabit
The island belongs to the Eng-
Pearl Divers of Ceylon.
which the English have a dock-yard
the maritime region, and the Candians, who live in the interior
lish crown.
The Laccadives are a group of shoals and islets to the west of the Deccan ; they are gov
erned by a prince, dependent upon the English. The Maldives also consist of a great number
of banks or holms, among which there are 40 or 50 inhabited islets. The sovereign, who bears
the title of sultan, resides in the largest, which is about 3 miles in circumference.
10. Divisions. This country is politically divided into the Seik confederation ; the king
dom of Sindia ; the principality of Sinde ; the kingdom of Nepaul ; British India ; French
India ; Portuguese India ; Danish India ; and the kingdom of the Maldives. The following
table gives a general view of these divisions.
Independent Stales.
Sindia
Lahore or Seiks kingdom
NepaulSinde
British Presidencies
British Vassal Stales
Ceylon (to British crown)
Square Miles
40,000 00,000
53,00024,000
515,000
• 525,000 25,000
Population. 4,000,000 4,000,0002,000,000 1,000,000
90,000,00040,000,000 1 ,000,000
11,000,000
131,000,000.
11. British India. The English East India company are masters of nearly all India, which
they have conquered from the native princes. Their territories cover an area of 1,130,000
square miles, and contain a population of 130,000,000 souls. They are composed of two dis
tinct parts ; the country immediately and entirely governed by the company's servants, divided
into the three presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, having an area of 515,000 square
miles, and 90,000,000 inhabitants ; and the territory of the allied States, which are garrisoned
by British troops and are really mere vassals of the company, though nominally governed by
their own princes ; the vassal or allied States are, Hyderabad, Nagpore, Oude, Satarah,
Mysore, Guzerat, Rajpootana, Travancore, Cochin, and numerous other petty States.
940
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
Territories and Population of the British East India Company.
305,400
70,000,000
142,000
13,500,000
68,000
6,500,000
96,000
lt),00(T,000
20,000
3,000,000
70,000 -
3,000,000
27,000
3,000,000
14,000
1 ,500,000
18,000
2,000,000
8,000
1,000,000
283,000
16,500,000
Independent States. Square Miles. Population.
Presidency of Bengal ......
" Madras -
" Bombay - - ...
Vassal State of the Nizam (Hyderabad) ...
" King of Oude
" Rajah of Nagpore ...
" Mysore - - - - -
" Satarah . . . . -
" Gwickwar (Guzerat) ....
" Travancore and Cochin -
Rajpootana and smaller States -
Calcutta, the capital of Bengal, stands upon the Hoogly, in a marshy and unhealthy spot.
It consists of two parts ; the one inhabited by the natives, dirty and meanly built, called the
Black Town, is a mere assemblage of thatched mud huts ; the other, occupied by the Euro
peans, called the Chouringee, is described as resembling a village of palaces. Calcutta is the
residence of the governor-general of India, and is one of the most wealthy, populous, and
commercial cities of Asia, having about 600,000 inhabitants. Fort William, at Calcutta, is
remarkable for the vast extent and great strength of its works. Serampore, in the vicinity, be
longs to Denmark ; it is a small town with 13,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly remarkable, as
being the principal station of the Baptist missionaries in India ; they have here a college for
the instruction of native youth, and a celebrated printing establishment, from which have issued
translations of the Bible into eight Indian languages, and of the New Testament into 24 In
dian dialects. Dacca, upon the branch of the Ganges called the Old Ganges, was once the
capital of Bengal, and is famous for the beautiful products of its looms, particularly its fine
muslins. It has 200,000 inhabitants. Mooshedabad, upon the Ganges, with 130,000 inhabi
tants, and Patna, upon the same river, with 300,000, are, like most of the Asiatic cities,
meanly built, but their manufactures are important.
Benares, higher up the Ganges, is the largest city of India, and has long been celebrated
as the chief seat of Braminical lea'rning ; it is also venerated by the Hindoos as a holy place,
and crowds of pilgrims annually visit it from all parts of the country. The houses are high,
and are ornamented with verandahs and galleries, and covered with painted tiles of brilliant
colors. The temples are generally small, but they are numerous, and covered with sculptures
of high finish. Sacred bulls, consecrated to Siva, the Destroyer, the third member of the
Hindoo trinity, are seen strolling about the streets, and groups of monkeys, sacred to Ha-
numan, or the Man Monkey, are climbing over the temples, or pillaging the shops, with
out check, of fruits and sweetmeats. Benares is also a great manufacturing city, and the
great mart for the shawls of the north, the diamonds of the south, the muslins of Dacca,
and the English manufactures, brought from Calcutta. Allahabad, at the confluence of the
Jumna with the Ganges, is regarded by the Hindoos as the queen of holy cities, and is an
nually visited by thousands of pilgrims ; the prayagas, or points where the tributaries of the
Ganges join the main stream, being regarded as places of peculiar sanctity, ablution in which
atones even for deadly sins. It is now much reduced, having but 20,000 inhabitants, but its
citadel, which has been rendered impregnable by the English, renders it the principal strong
hold of British India.
Agra, on the Jumna, once the splendid residence of the Great Mogul Akbar, is now princi
pally in ruins. It still contains 60,000 inhabitants, and has of late begun to recover its com
merce. The most remarkable building is the mausoleum of Tajmahal, erected by her husband ;
it is built of marble, and forms a square of 570 feet, surmounted by a marble dome 70 feet
high, and 4 minarets of great elegance ; the walls are adorned with exquisite mosaics, made of
precious stones, and a beautiful and spacious garden surrounds the building. The mausoleum
of Akbar, at Sicandara, 6 miles distant, is little inferior to this.
Delhi, also upon the Jumna, and at one time the residence of the brilliant court of the Grand
Mogul, is now much reduced, but still contains 300,000 inhabitants. The imperial palace is
one of the most magnificent residences in the world ; it is surrounded by a high and strong wall
of about a mile in circuit. The principal mosque, considered the most splendid Mahometan
temple in India, rises upon a vast platform surrounded with a beautiful colonnade, and is 260
feet long ; its rich decorations, its domes, and lofty minarets, 130 feet in height, are much ad-
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
941
mired. There is here a canal 120 miles in length, which serves to bring water from the moun
tains to Delhi, for purposes of irrigation. Hurdwar is famous for its situation at the confluence
of the two head branches of the Ganges, which attracts an immense number of pilgrims, esti
mated at some seasons to exceed 1,000,000.
Juggernaut, in Orissa, is renowned throughout all India for its temple, esteemed by the na
tives the most sacred place of pilgrimage. It consists of a number of buildings, surrounded
by a high wall, within which is a second enclosure, containing the sanctuary of Juggernaut,
the lord of the universe, a pyramidal building 200 feet high. At great festivals, the Juggernaut
is placed in an enormous car, and dragged to his country residence, whence, after spending 8
days, he is conducted back to the temple. It is at this time, that the wretched devotees throw
themselves under the wheels of the car, esteeming it a passport to happiness in the next world
to be crushed under its weight.
Madras, the capital of the presidency of the same name, is a large, populous, and well-built
city, with 462,000 inhabitants. It presents a singular mixture of pagodas, minarets, mosques,
and gardens, and consists of 2 distinct quarters, the Black and the White Town. Its cotton
manufactures are extensive, and its commerce considerable. In the .vicinity are the celebrated
ruins of Mahabalipuram, consisting of immense excavations, groups of innumerable figures of
men and animals ; and beneath the waters of the sea, which has swallowed up a part of its site,
some buildings are still visible.
Trichinopoly, one of the chief military stations of the British, contains 80,000 inhabitants,
and Tanjore, in the neighborhood, once the capital of a kingdom, has about 30,000 inhabitants.
On the island of Seringham, in the Cavery opposite Trichinopoly, is an immense pagoda,
composed of 7 enclosures, the walls of which are 25 feet high, each containing 4 large gates,
surmounted by towers ; the exterior wall is 4 miles in circuit ; the towers, gates, and interior
of the buildings are covered with sculpture, and the canopy of the interior temple is of massive
gold, set with precious stones. Masulipatam, on the Krishna, with 75,000 inhabitants, has
the hest harbor on the Coromandel coast, and its manufactures and commerce are extensive.
Seringapatam, on the Cavery, in the kingdom of Mysore, belongs to the English ; it was once
the residence of the celebrated Tippoo
Saib, and the capital of a powerful king
dom, but it is now much reduced, and its
150,000 inhabitants have dwindled down
to 10,000.
Bombay, the capital of a presidency,
is built upon a small island, defended by
a vast citadel, and is the chief naval sta
tion of the English in India. Its harbor
is the best on the western coast, and Bom
bay is the great mart of the Indian trade
with Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, and the
Indian Archipelago. The Parsees or
Guebres, and the Armenians are the prin
cipal merchants. Population, 200,000.
At Elphanta in the neighborhood, is a temple of great size, hewn in the solid rock ; it has 3
entrances between 4 rows of massive columns, and contains a c'olossal statue of Siva. At
Kenneri, on another island, is a cave-temple still more lofty, and a whole hill is there cut out
into tanks, stairs, &c. Poonah is a large and handsome town, with spacious streets ; popula
tion, 115,000. Surat, on the Tapty, is one of the chief commercial towns of India. It has
a good harbor, but the streets are narrow and crooked, and the houses very high, with the upper
stories projecting. The Guebres are numerous and wealthy ; Indian charity has here erected
a vast hospital for animals, comprising monkeys, tortoises, fleas, and other vermin. Population,
160,000. Ahmedabad, formerly one of the largest, richest, and most splendid cities of Asia, still con
tains a population of 100,000 souls, and several remarkable edifices, which attest its ancient
magnificence. The ruins of Bisnagar, in the province of Bejapor, exceed in extent and gigantic propor
tions anything of the sort in India. Its enormous walls are constructed of colossal blocks of
stone, and its deserted streets, one of which, exceeding a mile in length, and 100 feet in breadth,
Seringapatam.
942
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
Bisnagar.
is lined through its whole length by colon
nades, are paved with huge masses of gran
ite. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Bis
nagar was the capital of a powerful empire.
The city appears to have been built entirely
of granite, and some of the stones are 50
feet in length. One of its public thorough
fares passes under a natural arch or gateway
of rock.
In the kingdom of Oude is Lucknow, the
capital, and the residence of the most bril
liant native court in India. It contains many
magnificent buildings, and 300,000 inhabit
ants. • Hyderabad is the residence of the Nizam,
or sovereign prince of the State, called the
kingdom of the Deccan. It has a population of 200,000 souls. Golconda, in its neighbor
hood, is a celebrated mart for diamonds. Aurungabad, in the same State, has 60,000 inhab
itants. Ellora, in its vicinity, is famous for its magnificent cave-temples of enormous size and
exquisite finish.
Bejapoor, or Viziapoor, in the south, was once a very populous city, and capital of the
kingdom of the Deccan, and still
exhibits some of the noblest
remains of Mahometan art in
the country ; it has been called
the " Palmyra of the Deccan."
The mausoleum of the Sultan
Mahmoud, and the Joomah
Musjeed, or Friday Mosque,
are most splendid buildings.
Upon a bastion near one of the
gates of the city, is a great gun,
supposed to be partly of gold ;
it is 15 feet long, and 5 feet in
diameter. It was fired once during the siege of the city, and the natives imagine the ball to be
flying yet.
Nagpore is the capital of the Mahratta kingdom of the same name ; population, 125,000.
Baroda, the capital of the States of Guickwar, another Mahratta prince, has 100,000 in
habitants. In the province of Ajmere, called also Rajpootana, on account of its containing several Raj
poot principalities, the most important town is Jyepore, one of the best built cities in India, with
.60,000 inhabitants. The royal palace is built to represent a peacock's tail, the colored glass
of the windows representing the rich spots of the plumes. Oodipoor or Odeypoor has a splen
did palace on the border of a beautiful lake, and is increasing in population and importance. It
is a place of great natural strength, being enclosed within an amphitheatre of hills, which can be
entered only by one deep and dangerous defile.
12. Kingdom of Sindia. This kingdom, which is entirely surrounded by the British terri
tories, comprises parts of the old provinces of Agra, Candeish, and Malwah, and has an area of
40,000 square miles, with 4,000,000 inhabitants. Gwalior, the capital, is a flourishing and
populous city, built in a vast plain, out of which suddenly rises a hill 340 feet high, containing
the citadel. Population, 80,000.- Oogein is a town with 100,000 inhabitants, celebrated
among the Hindoos for its schools and its observatory.
13. Confederation of the Seiks, or kingdom of Lahore, comprising Lahore, Cashmere, Mul-
tan, and part of the kingdom of Cabul, has an area of 175,000 square miles, and 8,000,000 in
habitants. Cashmere, however, has lately been detached from it, and probably now forms an
independent State. Lahore, the capital, is a commercial and manufacturing town, standing in
the midst of a fertile and well cultivated country, with 100,000 inhabitants. Amretsir, an
important commercial mart, with about 50,000 inhabitants, contains the celebrated well of im-
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN. 943
Tar tSleterved LH500°OS' T^r 1 ^ P°Wer ? Wash ""* a11 sin' In the «c«d basin
s a temple served by 500 priests. CwAmere, capital of the province of the same name is a
large manufacturing city, but badly built, and much reduced from its former spTendor 'it is
celebrated for the beauty of its situation and its delightful climate, and it waT he summer res
tion'lSo^O " S°Verei§nS °f Indk- ItS ShaWl3 Me kn°Wn a11 over the wori7 Popda-
14. Kingdom of Nepaul. This State, which lies between British India and the Chinese
empire, has an area of 53 000 square miles, and 2,500,000 inhabitants. Catmandoo, the cap"!
tal, has a population of about 20,000. ' v
15. Bootan Bootan, or the country of the Debraja, is a lofty valley, lying between the lofti
est steeps of the Himala on the north, and a lower, but still elevated mountain range on the south
and extending from Nepaul on the west, to Assam on the east. Although it properly belongs'
therefore, to Hindostan, in a physical point of view, yet it is politically connected with China'
being one of the vassal or protected States of that vast empire. Even the deepest valleys are
here from 3,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea, and the climate partakes of both extremes of heat
and cold. The inhabitants are called Booteas, and are either a distinct race, or related to the
Mongols. They are Buddhists, and they consider their spiritual head, or Dherma Raja, as the
incarnation of the Deity. The number of gylongs or priests is great. The temporal sovereign
is called Debraja ; there are no towns here, but the summer residence of the prince is Tassi-
sudon, and his winter residence, Panuka. Both polygamy and polyandry are said to be com
mon in Bootan.
16. The Principality of Sinde, lying upon both sides of the Indus, has 1,000,000 inhabi
tants upon a surface of 52,000 square miles. The capital, Hyderabad, is noted for its manu
facture of arms, and has a population of 15,000.
17. Portuguese India. The Portuguese possess only a small territory around Goa, Daman,
and Diu, on the eastern coast. The town of Goa, on a small island, has a good harbor, and
carries on an active trade ; its population is about 15,000.
18. French India. France possesses several detached fragments of territory round Pondi-
cherry, Carical, Yanaon, Chandernagor, and Mahe. Pondicherry, the residence of the governor
of the French possessions in India, has 40,000 inhabitants.
19. Danish India consists merely of Serampore, in Bengal, and Tranquebar, on the Ca
very, in Tanjore, with 12,000 inhabitants.
20. Agriculture. The implements of husbandry are exceedingly imperfect, and the agricul
tural part of the population are extremely poor. The only artificial means of fertility employed
to much extent is irrigation. Rice, which in Hindostan is the staff of life ; cotton of an inferior
quality, the material of clothing ; opium, which is extensively used, particularly in the East, as
a luxury ; silk, though inferior in staple to the European ; sugar, but of a sort inferior to that
of the West Indies ; indigo, now the most important commercial product of India, and pepper,
are the principal articles of agricultural industry.*
21. Manufactures. India long supplied the West with manufactured goods ; but, in most
articles, European skill and machinery have in recent times supplanted the productions of India ;
yet the muslins of Dacca, in fineness, and the calicoes and other piece-goods of Coromandel,
in brilliancy and durableness of color, have never been surpassed. The Indian manufactures are
produced by solitary individuals, working entirely by hand, with a loom of the rudest construc
tion. The silk manufacture has been carried on from remote antiquity ; cotton goods have
long been made in great quantities, but at present British and even American cottons are import-
* The following statements are from an English pam- is here scarcely known. They have hitherto awakened,
phlet, published in 1839 : in this country, no effort, no sympathy ; led to no relief.
"The fact of frequent and inconceivably dreadful fa- How far they are avoidable, how far they can be averted,
mines throughout the British territories of India, is one or their consequences mitigated, when they arrive, are
that has been little known, and still less inquired into, by questions yet to be asked. And shall not these questions
the people of this country. Few, comparatively (for ex- be asked, and a true and explicit answer be demanded ?
ample), are aware of the extent of the mortality amongst Since 1770 (when a famine in Bengal swept off, it has
our Indian fellow-subjects in the upper provinces of Ben- been computed, three millions), there has been a succes-
gal, during the past year. In a few short months, more sion of famines, which have destroyed the lives of lm-
than half a million perished by famine, and the diseases mense multitudes of human beings; these human beings
produced by that calamity. At this moment, other parts have died in a country once deemed the wealthiest in the
of India are subjected to a similar visitation. Yet, down world, and upon one of the richest and most productive
to the present time, there has been no public investigation soils upon the face of the globe."
into the causes of these frightful events. Their occurrence
944 INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
ed into Hindostan. The Hindoos excel in working in gold and silver, and in cutting, polish
ing, and setting precious stones.
22. Commerce. The Banians or Hindoo merchants, Armenians, and Parsees carry on the
principal part of the internal trade ; the maritime commerce is principally carried on by the
English, Americans, &c. The English East India Company prosecutes an extensive com
merce between India and China, and the Indian Islands ; tea is imported from China, to which
opium is sent ; spices from the Moluccas; coffee from Arabia, &c. Until 1813, the East
India Company had the monopoly of the British trade with India ; but the intercourse between
Great Britain and Hindostan was then made free to all British subjects, and in 1833, the other
commercial privileges of the Company were abolished, and the functions of the Company have
become merely administrative. The commerce of India has always possessed an illusive splen
dor in the eyes of Europeans, derivfed from the brilliant character of some of its articles. But
it by no means ever possessed the magnitude or importance attached to it by some, and its
value has somewhat declined in modern times. The annual value of the exports of British In
dia is about 55,000,000 dollars ; of imports, 40,000,000.
23. Religion. The Hindoos are chiefly professors of Bramanism, but Buddhism is the re
ligion of the Cingalese, the Nepaulese, and some others. The Jains are a Buddhist sect, who
have incorporated some notions derived from Bramanism with their faith. The Seiks profess
the religion of Nanek, a mixture of Mahometanism with Bramanism. The Mahometan religion
is professed by that race of conquerors who established the empire of the great Mogul, and who"
were, in fact, a mixture of Persian and Turkish tribes, and by some Hindoo converts. The
Parsees or Guebres are numerous in Guzerat, and there are some Jews and Christians.
24. Government. The native princes, who reign over a considerable part of the country,
possess in general absolute power. The East India Company of merchants rules over the im
mense territorial possessions belonging to it, without any other control than the responsibility
of its agents to the government of Great Britain. The government of the Company is vested
in a Court of Directors, under the supervision of the Board of Control, which consists of some
of the chief ministers of the crown. The president of Bengal is styled Governor-general of
India, and, with the other presidents, is appointed by the Directors. The laws and usages of
the Hindoos are generally respected within its possessions. The vassal princes or allies have
little more than the pomp of power, the real authority being, for the most part, in the hands of the
Company's residents or agents, stationed at the allied courts. The Company maintains a large
standing force of 256,000 men, consisting chiefly of native soldiers, called sepoys, but officered
by Europeans ; only the inferior ranks being accessible to the natives. Garrisons are stationed
in the allied territories, the troops composing which are paid by the respective princes. Thus is
unhappy India enslaved by her own children, who are paid by her own money. The revenues
of this great mercantile tyrant are derived chiefly from the territorial taxes, the trade having
never proved a great source of revenue
25. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of India are Hindoos, who compose the mass of the popu
lation ; descendants of Turkish and Persian tribes, who at different periods conquered the coun
try ; Europeans, of whom the number is few, not probably amounting to 100,000, including
the civil and military servants of the Company, and the king's troops stationed in the country ;
the Anglo-Indians, or East Indians, or descendants of English by Hindoo women, of whom
the number does not exceed 50,000 ; and a number of nations, such as the Garrows, Gonds,
Bheels, Jits, &c, who do not appear to belong to either of these races. The Hindoos are
dark, well-made, slender, and graceful, and their expression is soft and retiring ; less impas
sioned than that of the Persians or Arabs. The forehead is small, the face oval, and the mouth
and nose rather of the European cast. The ears are larger and more prominent than in Euro
peans ; the females of the higher castes, who do not labor, are exceedingly delicate, graceful,
and sylph-like. Their eyes are dark and languishing, and their skins polished and soft. The
men have two fashions of dress, one very ancient, the other partly adopted from (he Mahome
tans. The ancient dress is in three pieces of cotton cloth, one bound round the waist and
falling to the knees, another wrapped round the body, and the third around the head. This
may be very gracefully disposed. The other dress is cotton drawers, a long robe tied with a
scarf, and a turban. This is the regular dress of the Hindoos ; but the poorer class have often
but a piece of cloth wrapped around the loins. The head is usually shaved, except a lock be
hind. A small pair of mustachios are worn. The dress of females is very elegant. The
close part is a jacket with half sleeves, wliich shows the shape. The remainder of the dress is
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
945
Mausoleum of Hyder Ali
te Sof^^S,^^-- ZFltoS d «' ^ graC6Wel0W
and is thrown forward again, over the head, or shoulder Tb dT **? T^5 the ^e&St'
by lines of , black drawn^om the corners of tie eye The handt andT et ' t* T F° ^l
with rings and jewels. • J-ne nanas and feet are always adorned
The manner of building is simple, and many dwellings are of frame work of split bamboo
covered with mats. Some houses have
walls of mud, hardened to the consistency
of bricks. The habitations of the opulent
have two stories. In towns the architec
ture has little resemblance to the Moorish.
The Gomeze or Mausoleum of Sultan
Mahmoud, at Bejapoor, is a gorgeous spe
cimen of oriental architecture, built of
brick and chunam. It is a quadrangle of
150 feet square, with a dome 150 feet in
height. Its style is that of grandeur and
simplicity. The Mausoleum of Hyder Ali,
at Seringapatam, incloses the remains of
Hyder, his queen, and his son Tippoo Saib.
The temples and mosqes are of no very
elegant order, but heavy and imposing.
The English residents often adopt a mixed
style of building, combining European con
venience with adaptation to an Eastern
climate. The manner of .living is as simple as
that of building. Only the impure castes
eat animal food. The only substitute is
fish, and some clarified butter. In the
south the low castes eat fowls, and the out-
castes, anything. Rice and vetches, are
general articles of food. Only the lowest
castes take intoxicating liquors or drugs.
Bang, made from hemp, and toddy, of the
palm, are the chief intoxicating substan
ces. Tobacco and betel are generally
used.
The diseases most fatal to Europeans are fevers, and few such retain for years a good con
stitution in India. Many of the diseases of Europe are common, and in the cholera Europe
has received the destroyer from Asia. The first outbreak of this frightful disease was in India,
and its ravages were rendered more appalling by the mystery of its origin and the superstition
of the natives. A spasmodic cholera has always existed in India, but it was not until 1817,
that it assumed the epidemic character. In the beginning of August it broke out with unpre
cedented malignity at Jessore, 100 miles from Calcutta. From that time to the present it has
gradually spread over the most populous parts of Asia, and a considerable portion of Europe.
It is computed, that it has destroyed not less than 50,000,000 of people. It prevails over
every variety of climate, every natural barrier, or artificial defence. Its origin, nature, and
cure are unknown. It proceeds capriciously though generally on the great roads or routes of
communication, raging mostly where there are large bodies of people. In the spasms the pain
is terrific. The striking characteristics are great debility, extinction of the circulation, and
sudden cooling of the body. Having proceeded from India to the countries of southern
Asia, it entered Europe by the way of Astracan, and followed the course of the Volga.
It attacked the cities in Russia, Austria, Prussia, &c, and was next communicated to
England, where its ravages were slight, while at Paris and its vicinity, they were beyond all
parallel. In France it attacked all classes; in other countries the victims have been chiefly the
destitute, which are principally of the lower classes. The manner in which the disease is
119
An Englishman's House in India.
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
Elephant-traveling in India.
Elephant-traveling,
communicated is not yet satisfactorily
known. It has hitherto defied medicine
and science.
A common mode of traveling, is in
palanquins, a sort of litter, carried by
means of poles on the shoulders of men.
These vehicles are covered, and have
curtains and cushions. The bearers are
changed at convenient distances, on long
journeys. They go from three to four
miles an hour. The rich sometimes travel
on elephants, with costly trappings.
The Hindoos are gentle, polished, and
courteous in their manners ; tempeiate,
simple, frugal, industrious, lively, and in
telligent. Yet the long oppression of for
eign races, and the servile subordination
of inferiors to their superiors often render
them treacherous, selfish, and cruel. Wo
men hold a very degraded station among
them, not being allowed to open a book,
or to enter a temple ; they live generally
a retired life in the interior of the houses.
One of the most striking features of the
Hindoo social system is the division into
castes or hereditary classes, of which
there are four principal ones ; the Bra-
mins or priests ; the Shatryas or warriors ;
the Vaisyas or husbandmen, merchants
(banians), and artisans ; and the Sudras
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
947
or menials. But the number of mixed castes is very ereat and it ;e i,
generally asserted, that the individuals of each cast ZS. ? !i r j by "° means true> as is
tion. Almost every occupation is indeed reLla.lv tb' T^- *"*¥* t0 a Particular 0CCUP*-
some exceptions /is also' open to ^'I&^^Z™? * ^f" fss' but »>*
ileges exclusively Braminical ; teaching the vedas orlacrerl^ L- * ?™ thre<3 d"tles °r Priv"
^^^^ exercise all sorts of handicraft, S, "nd agricukure "" ™ burren"Sunker are Pennitted to
tr,»Be,ndrV-? ^ thfe0MjCas'es' or unhaPP7 individuals who have, by misconduct or even bv
the most nvial act of inadvertence, lost caste ; to swallow a morsel of beef, though TnvXnta
nly, to hold communication with persons of an inferior caste, &c. , converts the'mo" revered^ t
mm at once into a despised outcaste, who forfeits his patrimony/is excluded from the society of
his family and from all the courtesies and charities of life. There is a class of hereditay^out-
cas tes in India called pariahs whose origin is unknown ; even their approach is considered
pollution, and they are required to g.ve notice of their presence by uttering certain cries, wh ch
may warn the pure of the danger. ' W1J1CU
The sacred books of the Hindoos, called the Vedas, constitute the holy word or Shastra,
which was derived from Vishnu ; they are written in the Sanscrit or Holy language, long since
a dead language, but probably spoken at a remote period, and are in the devanagari or sacred
alphabet. According to the Braminical doctrines, the supreme mind or Brahm, acts in the
three great operations of creating by Brama, of preserving by Vishnu, and of destroying by
biva ; these three powers or energies constitute the Braminical trinity or trimourti, and have
interposed in various characters and under various names in the affairs of men. By the com
mon people all these manifestations of the supreme mind are considered as so many divine be
ings or gods, but the philosophers consider them only as attributes or metamorphoses of Brahm.
The ten avatars or descendants of Vishnu, upon earth, constitute one of the most fertile themes
of Hindoo mythology ; under various forms, human, monstrous, or brutal, he has repeatedly ap
peared on earth, destroying giants, monsters, &c. The 10th avatar, when he will come to root
out evil from the earth, is yet expected. The veneration of brute animals, particularly the
cow, monkeys, &c, is derived from this doctrine of the divine incarnation in different forms.
Metempsychosis or the transmigration of souls is also a leading feature of the Braminical re
ligion ; according to this belief, the soul of man after death passes into other bodies, human or
brute ; and the nature of the change depends upon the moral character of the individual. The
good rise into higher states of existence, while
the souls of the wicked animate the most vile
and degraded animals. The rites of Bramin-
ism are chiefly of an irrational or of a revolting
nature ; pilgrimages, penances, ablutions, hon
ors paid to images or sacred animals, and cere
monies of the most indecent or cruel nature,
make up its ritual. Pagodas are numerous.
There are many wandering fakeers. and
many devotees live in solitude, who consider it
meritorious to torture themselves. Some hold
their hands in a perpendicular posture till they
are withered, and others clench their hands to
gether, till their nails grow into the flesh.
Others are swung round with a hook passed
under the muscles of the back, attached to a
line which is made fast to a pivot on a post.
The most grotesque as.well as repulsive means
of self-torturing are followed. The great rivers
are favorite objects of Hindoo veneration, and
the waters of the Ganges are used in the courts
to swear the witnesses upon ; many seek a vol
untary death in its sacred bosom, and the pa-
rent often devotes his child to an early doom in
HHnnfii
mmsmmr/Jvii**" .=HJ1IP
948
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
its waters. The Suttee, or burning of widows upon the funeral pile of their husbands,* and
infanticide in various forms, have long been practised, but the authority of the British gov
ernment has lately been employed in abolishing these hateful rites, as well as those celebrated
in honor of Juggernaut.!
The ceremonies are so many, that the people have little time for amusements. None dance
but the professional dancing girls, who are of a religious order. They are generally handsome,
and dressed with elegance. The wrestlers are very adroit, and the jugglers are unequalled.
The people have an adventurous mode of swinging. They are lashed at the end of a long
horizontal bamboo, which revolves upon a perpendicular post, which is carried swiftly round by
* " After waiting a considerable time," says Hodges,
" the wife appeared, attended by the Brahmins, and music,
with some »few relations. The procession was slow and
solemn ; the victim moved with a steady and firm step ; and
apparently with a perfect composure of countenance, ap
proached close to the body of her husband, where for some
time they halted. She then addressed those who were near
her, with composure, and without the least trepidation of
voice or change of countenance. She held in her left
hand a cocoa-nut, in which was a red color mixed up, and
dipping in it the fore-finger of her right hand, she marked
those near her, to whom she wished to show the last act
of attention. At this time I stood close to her; she ob
served me attentively, and with the color marked me on
the forehead. She might be about 24 or 25 years of age,
a time of life when the bloom of beauty has generally fled
the cheek in India, but still she preserved a sufficient
share to prove that she must have been handsome; her
figure was small, but elegantly turned ; and the form of
her hands and arms was particularly beautiful. Her dress
was a loose robe of white flowing drapery, that extended
from her head to the feet. The place of sacrifice was
higher up on the bank of the river, a hundred yards or
more from the spot where we now stood. The pile was
composed of dried branches, leaves, and rushes, with a
door on one side, and. arched and covered on the top ; by
the side of the door stood a man with a lighted brand.
From the time the woman appeared, to the taking up of
the body to convey it into the pile, might occupy a space
of half an hour, which was employed in prayer with the
Brahmins, in attention to those who stood near her, and
conversation with her relations. "When the body was ta
ken up, she followed close to it, attended by the chief
Brahmin, and when it was deposited on the pile, she
bowed to all around her, and entered without speaking.
The moment she entered, the door was closed ; the fire
was put to the combustibles, which instantly flamed, and
immense quantities of dried wood and other matters were
thrown upon it. This last part of the ceremony was ac
companied with the shouts of the multitude, who now be
came numerous, and the whole seemed a mass of confused
rejoicing." t From a town called Buddruck, in the province of
Orissa, Dr. Buchanan writes, under date of 30th May,
1806 : " We know that we are approaching Juggernaut
(and yet we are more than 50 miles from it) by the human
bones which we have seen for some days strewed by the
way. At 9 o'clock this morning, the temple of Jugger
naut appeared in view, at a great distance. When the
multitude first saw it, they gave a shout, and fell to the
ground and worshipped. I have heard nothing to-day but
shouts and acclamations, by the successive bodies of pil
grims. From the place where I now stand, I have a view
of a host of people, like an army, encamped at the outer
fate of the town of Juggernaut ; where a guard of sol-
iers is posted, to prevent their entering the town, until
they have paid the pilgrim's tnx." This tax is a source
of revenue to the East India Company, who probably
make about £1,000 a year by it. It was originally im
posed by the Mahrattas and Mahometans. On the 14th
of June, Dr. Buchanan writes: " I have seen Juggernaut.
The scene at Buddruck is but the vestibule to Juggernaut.
No record of ancient or modern history can give, I think,
an adequate idea of this valley of death ; it may be truly
compared with the Valley of Hinnom. The idol, called
Juggernaut, has been considered as the Moloch of the
present age; and he is justly so named, for the sacrifices
offeied up to him, by self-devotement, are not less crimi
nal, perhaps not less numerous, than those recorded of the
Moloch of Canaan. This morning I viewed the temple;
a stupendous fabric, and truly commensurate with the ex
tensive sway of the ' horrid king.' As other temples are
usually adorned with figures emblematical of their reli
gion, so Juggernaut has representations, numerous and
various, of that vice which constitutes the essence of his
worship. The walls and gates are covered with indecent
emblems, in massive and durable sculpture. I have also
visited the sand-plains by the sea, in some places whitened
with the bones of the pilgrims ; ?nd another place a little
way out of the town, called by the English, the Golgotha,
where the dead bodies are usually cast forth, and where
dogs and vultures are ever seen. The vultures generally
find out the prey first, and begin with the intestines; for
the flesh of the body is too firm for their beaks, immedi
ately after death. But the dogs soon receive notice of the
circumstance, generally from seeing the hurries, or corpse-
carriers, returning from the place. On the approach of
the dogs, the vultures retire a few yards, and wait till the
body be sufficiently torn for easy deglutition. The vul
tures and dogs often feed together ; and sometimes begin
their attack before the pilgrim be quite dead. There are
4 animals which are sometimes seen about a carcass; the
dog, the jackal, the vulture, and the hurgeela or adjutant,
called by Penant the gigantic crane." On the l&th of the
same month, Dr. Buchanan writes : " I have returned
home from witnessing a scene which I shall never forget
At 12 o'clock of this day, being the great day of the feast,
the Moloch of Hindostan was brought out of his temple,
amidst the acclamations of hundreds of thousands of his
worshippers. The throne of the idol was placed on a stu
pendous car or tower about 60 feet in height, resting on
wheels which indented the ground deeply, as they turned
slowly under the ponderous machine. Attached to it
were 6 cables, of the size and length of a ship's cable, by
which the people drew it along. Upon the tower were the
priests and satellites of the idol, surrounding his throne.
The idol is a block of wood, having a frightful visage
painted black, with a distended mouth of a oloody color.
His arms are of gold, and he is dressed in gorgeous appa
rel. After a few minutes, il stopped ; and now the wor
ship of the god began. A high priest mounted the car in
front of the idol, and pronounced his obscene stanzas in
the ears of the people, who responded at intervals in the
same strain. ' These songs,' said he, ' are the delight of
the god. His car can only move when he is pleased with
the song.' The car moved on a little way, and then
stopped. The characteristics of Moloch's worship are ob
scenity and blood. After the tower had proceeded some
way, a pilgrim announced that he was ready to offer him
self a sacrifice to the idol. He laid himself down in the
road, before the tower as it was moving along, lying on
his face, with his arms stretched forwards. The multitude
passed round him, leaving the space clear, and he was
crushed to death by the wheels of the tower. A shout of
joy was raised to the god. He is said to smile when the
libation of blood is made. The people threw cowries, or
small money, on the body of the victim, in approbation
of the deed. He was left to view a considerable time;
and was then carried by the hurries to the Golgotha."
INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN.
949
means of a rope below. The game of chess is common, as in other parls of Asia. The
English often engage in the chase of the ferocious, as well as of the timid animals.
Rice is the principal article of food, but nothing can be more mistaken than the supposed
prohibition of animal food. Fish is considered one of the purest and most lawful kinds of
food, and many Bramins eat both fish and kid ; the Rajpoots beside these, eat mutton,
venison, or goat's flesh ; some castes may eat anything but fowls, beef, or pork, while pork is
a favorite diet with others, and beef only is prohibited. Intoxicating liquors are forbidden by
their religion ; but this is disregarded by many both of high and low caste, and intoxication is
not rare even among the Bramins.
In consequence of a belief in transmigrations, the Hindoos are scrupulous about taking the
life of many animals. Some are so careful in this point, that they brush the ground lest they
tread upon an insect. At Surat there is a Banian hospital, where wounded or helpless animals
are received, and treated with care. The wards are filled with camels, goats, horses, birds,
and even rats, mice, &c. Beggars are sometimes hired to expose their flesh to the bites of
insects, from a desire to serve even these. Dying people are removed, when possible, to the
Ganges, and the funeral obsequies are performed 96 times in the year. The Hindoos made
early, considerable progress in astronomy, &c, and they have much literature, chiefly epic, or
dramatic poetry. At Calcutta, the government maintains a Sanscrit college, in which there
are funds for the support of 1 00 indigent students. There is also a Mahometan college for in
struction in the Persian and Arabic languages, and in the Mahometan law. There are also im
portant colleges for Hindoo literature at Benares, and Agra, and the Bramins have several
ancient seminaries.
The Europeans in India frequently pass a dissipated life ; and adopt readily the oriental
habit of profusion and show. One of these, even in a common situation, has many domestics:
not one of which will perform any service out of his own grade, or division of service. The
servants of a household are therefore very numerous, and the followers of a camp are treble in
number to the soldiers.
17. History. The ancient history of this country reaches to a very remote antiquity. Se-
sostris, Darius, Alexander, and others, invaded the country at different periods anterior to the
Christian era. Mahomet of Ghizni established here the Mahometan power in the 11th centu
ry. The Venetians wore the first Europeans who traveled to India, and the Portuguese, who
discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, were the first that established them
selves in the country. The Dutch, English, and French followed. Since the middle of the
last century the dominion of the English has, by a system of usurpation, intrigue, and blood
shed, been extended over the greater part of the country.*
CHAPTER CXLIX. THIBET.
1. Boundaries and Extent. Thibet is bounded north by Tartary, east by China, south' by
the Birman Empire and Hindostan, and southwest by Hindostan. It is in fact on y a long,
high valley between the lofty walls of the Kwenlun and the Himala mountains. It contains
about 400,000 square miles. „ , - . . ,
2 Rivers &c Thibet, at first view, appears to be one of the least favored countries under
heaven and in a great measure incapable of culture. It exhibits only low hills with scarce any
visible veeetationf or extensive arid plains, both of the most stern and stubborn aspect, promis
ing littie as they produce. The principal river of Thibet is the Sanpoo «taj
easterly course, and was long thought to be the head of Burrampooter ; but it is now believed
that that river rises on the south side of the mountains, and the «™^*J%J^^
firs. %. Se^rs^f ^»» p£HHi^
East i*}==: :& ks-ss ESg:
read the following cool declaration of the Duke of •*?" -^. ™^" J ,£y do not think the amusement
Wellington, then Colonel Wellesley commanding th au ™g*g;g>»> '
British forces against the Mahrattas in 1B00. i nave very g j s
950 THIBET.
reaches its sacred banks. The heads of the great Chinese rivers, Hoangho and Kiang, are in
eastern Thibet, and those of the Mecan are thought to be in the same region.
3. Minerals. Gold is found in great quantities, and very pure ; sometimes in the form of
gold dust in the beds of rivers, and sometimes in large masses and irregular veins. There is a
lead mine about two days' journey from Teeshoo Loomboo, which probably contains silver.
Cinnabar, abounding in quicksilver, rock-salt, and tincal, or crude borax, are likewise among
the mineral productions of this country ; the last is found in inexhaustible quantities. It is ob
tained in a lake north of Teeshoo Loomboo, where it is found crystalized, and taken up in
large masses, that are broken up for convenience of transportation, and exposed to dry. Al
though the mineral has been long collected here, there are no signs of a diminution of the
quantity ; it is probably constantly forming by fresh deposits from the water. In Thibet, as
in the west, borax is used for soldering, and as a flux in the fusion of gold and silver.
4. Climate. The climate of Thibet is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the severe ef
fects of which the inhabitants are obliged to seek refuge in the sheltered valleys and hollows,
or amidst the warmest aspects of the rocks. In the temperature of the seasons, however, a
remarkable uniformity prevails, as well as in their periodical duration and return.
5. Towns. Lassa or Hlassa, the spiritual and temporal capital of Thibet, the Rome of
Central Asia, is the residence of the Dalia-lama, and of the Chinese viceroy, and it contains
a vast and magnificent temple or palace, surrounded by an immense bazar. Lassa is the seat
of a great transit trade, and it contains a fixed population of about 100,000, besides a large
floating population of traders and pilgrims. The summer residence of the Lama, on the height
of Pootala, several miles from the city, is 350 feet high, and contains 10,000 rooms, the state
apartments being at the top of the building, which is 7 stories in height. The towers and
spires are covered with gold or silver, and there are innumerable images of Baddha of gold,
silver, and bronze. In the surrounding plain there are 22 other temples, all richly adorned,
and some of them almost rivaling that of Pootala. The whole number of priests here main
tained at the public charge, is stated to exceed 90,000.
Teeshoo Loomboo or Lubrong, the seat of the Teeshoo Lama, and the capital of that part .
of Thibet which is immediately subject to his authority, is, in fact, a large monastery, consist
ing of three or four hundred houses, inhabited by 4,000 gylongs (a kind of monks or priests),
beside temples, mausoleums, and the palace of the pontiff, with the residences of the various
subordinate officers, both ecclesiastical and civil, belonging to the court. It is included within
the hollow face of a high rock, and its buildings are all of stone, none less than two stories high,
flat-roofed, and crowned with a parapet.
6. Manufactures. Commerce. The manufactures of Thibet are rude, consisting principally
of shawls and woolen cloth. The exports, which go chiefly to China and Bengal, consist of
gold-dust, musk, rock-salt, wool, and lamb-skins ; in return for which, silk, satin, gold and sil
ver brocade, tea, tobacco, and furs of various kinds, are received from China ; and from Ben
gal, the productions of that country, and a variety of English commodities and manufactures.
The people are rather stout and hardy, and of a ruddy complexion, for the mountain breezes
bestow health and vigor. They are of various distinct tribes, little known. The language is
of the Sanscrit stock, and is considered by the Chinese much superior to their own in sound.
They have a great number of sacred books in their monasteries, but little is known of their
contents. The Thibetans were found to be acquainted with Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's
ring, and must, therefore, have made some progress in astronomical science.
The people of Thibet have made considerable progress in civilization, but the sciences are
neglected. The literature is chiefly connected with the religion, and, together with the lan
guage, is of Hindoo origin. The houses are meanly constructed, and built of rough stones,
with a few apertures to admit light. The people may in general be described as mild and gen
tle, and, though sunk in superstitions, free from many of the sanguinary customs of the Hindoos.
The religion is that of Boodha, which has, however, undergone some changes. The Grand
Lama, or supreme pontiff, it is supposed, is an incarnation of the Deity under different human
forms. This creed includes a belief in the transmigration of souls, a future state, purgatory, in
vocation of saints, image worship, confession, absolution, pardon, celibacy, holy water, and
various observances of the Romish church.
There are a great many recluses and temples. There are also a great many subordinate
lamas or priests, who assume the whole business of prayer. They sell a certain number of
prayers, which are written out and attached to the cylinder of a mill, and every turn is supposed
FARTHER INDIA. g51
to constitute a Valid prayer. Some are moved by water. The Thibetans are said to reverse
the general practice of the East, ,n polygamy ; it is related, that wives are permitted to have
several husbands, all the brothers of a family having one wife among them, who is chosen by
^h Jvml 7°men ^f *?1 and1laborJ10l'S' and enjoy.a higher consideration than in
other oriental countries. The dead are buried, burned, thrown into a stream, or exposed in
thferr?P?" air t0, ^ devoured by beasts. The Emperor of China has taken military possession
of Thibet, under the pretence of protecting the Grand Lama, in whose name he acts
The national dress of Thibet is composed of thick woolen cloth, and dressed sheepskins with
the fleece turned inwards, forming a comfortable protection from the severity of the cold The
religious orders wear a vest of woolen cloth with red sleeves, a large mantle resembling a plaid
with a kilt, and a pair of huge boots. Silks from China, and furs from Tartary are employed
by the higher classes. A fine white silk scarf is an invariable present on occasions of ceremo
ny, and is inclosed in complimentary letters. The religion of Thibet does not impose an au
stere abstinence in respect to food, but the heads of the church seem to value themselves on
great simplicity of diet, and abstinence from strong liquors. Tea is the universal drink ; not
taken as with us, in a liquid form, but thickened with flour, salt, and butter, the leaves being
retained, so as to form a mess by no means agreeable to a European palate. The exclusively
religious character of the people of Thibet, is scarcely compatible with any very varied amuse
ments ; though their religious exercises, from their splendor and their imposing effect, may be
almost looked upon as such. The game of chess is much played.
CHAPTER CL. FARTHER INDIA, OR INDIA BEYOND THE
GANGES.
1. Boundaries. Farther India, sometimes called Chin-India, comprises an extensive region
lying to the east of Hindostan, and to the south of the Chinese empire. It has the Chinese
Sea on the east and south, the Strait of Sincapore on the south, and the Strait of Malacca and
the Sea of Bengal on the west. It extends from lat. 2° to 29° north, and from long. 90° to
109° east.
2. Natural Features. The interior of this country is little known. It appears to be tra
versed by some chains of the Himala Mountains, and it contains a number of large rivers, the
sources and upper course of which have never been explored. The Irawaddy, one of the
largest rivers in Asia, is supposed to rise in the Chinese empire ; after traversing the Birman
empire from north to south, it reaches the sea by 14 mouths, forming a delta 150 miles in
width. The Saluen, which also traverses the Birman empire, empties itself into the Gulf of
Martaban. These rivers overflow extensive tracts of level country in the lower part of their
course. The Menam is a large river, supposed to rise in the Chinese province of Yunnan, and
which, passing through Siam, intersects and fertilizes that country by numerous branches, and
enters the Gulf of Siam. The Mecon rises in Thibet, and after traversing the Chinese pro
vince of Yunnan, and the kingdom of Cambodia, it flows into the sea under the name of the
river of Cambodia. The climate and productions do not differ materially from those of Hin
dostan. . ,
3. Divisions. Farther India comprises, beside several barbarous peoples, who are inde
pendent, the empire of Annam, including Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Cambodia; the king
dom of Siam, including Siam and Southern Laos ; the Birman empire, including Birmah proper,
or Ava, Pegu, and Northern Laos, or Shans ; the States of Malacca, the Andaman and N.co-
bar islands, and the English possessions. .
4. Birman Empire. This State is bounded on the north by the English province of Assam,
and the Chinese province of Yunnan ; east by Yunnan and Annan,-, south by the Sea of Ben
gal, and west by that sea and the English province of Arracan. It has an area of about 225,000
square miles, and is estimated to contain about 6,000,000 inhabitants.
Ava, the capital, is a large but not very populous city upon the Irawaddy it * meany
built, consisting mainly of thatched cabins, with a few brick houses. Ava, l.k all the Birmese
totvn's, contains8 numerous temples, with tall, gilded spires which make , j show d. an ce
but they are built of wood, as are also the monasteries and the palace. The P°Pu]^°n ^
mated to amount to 100,000. Umerapoora, which was once the capita I, » alsob. U chiefly
of wood ; here is a temple, which contains a colossal image of Godama, or Buddha, and a gal
952
FARTHER INDIA.
Temple at Rangoon.
lery with numerous ancient inscriptions on stone, collected from different parts of the empire.
Population, 80,000. Saigaing, opposite to Ava, is also a large town, filled with an astonish
ing; number of temples. Pegu, upon the river of the same name, in the kingdom of Pegu, was
destroved by the Birmese, in 1757, and has but few inhabitants. It is chiefly remarkable for
the temple of Shumadu, a large brick pyramid, 330 feet high, and 1 ,296 feet in circuit at the base,
without any aperture. The whole is crowned by a tee, or gilt iron summit, upon which is a
gilt umbrella, 56 feet in circumference ; to the tee are suspended numerous bells.
Rangoon, upon one of the branches of the Irawaddy, although a meanly built city, is the
principal commercial place in the
empire, and is the great mart for
teak-wood, which is exported to
Hindostan. Here is a temple si
milar to that at Pegu. " Two
miles from Rangoon," says Mal-
com, " is the celebrated pagoda
called Shoodagon. It stands on a
small hill, surrounded by many
smaller pagodas, some fine zayats
[caravanserais] and kyoungs [mo
nasteries] , and many noble trees.
The two principal approaches from
the city, are lined on each side,
for a mile, with fine pagodas, some
vieing for size with Shoodagon it
self. Passing these on your way
from the city, you come to a flight
of time-worn steps, covered hy a
curious arcade of little houses of
various forms and sizes, one above
another. After crossing some ter
races, covered in the same manner,
you reach the top, and, passing a
great gate, enter at once this sad
but imposing theatre of Gaudama's
glory. Before you stands the huge
Shoodagon, its top among the
clouds, and its golden sides blaz
ing in the glories of an eastern sun.
Around are pompous zayats, noble
pavements, Gothic mausoleums,
uncouth colossal lions, curious
stone umbrellas, gracefully cylin
drical banners of gold-embroidered
muslin, hanging from lofty pillars,
enormous stone jars in rows to re
ceive offerings, tapers burning before the images, exquisite flowers displayed on every side,
and a multitude of carved figures of idols, griffins, guardians, &c." Population, 20,000.
The inhabitants are the Avans, or proper Birmans, and Peguans, or Talings, who are evi
dently only branches of one nation, and who form above one half of the population ; the Karens,
in the south ; the Shans, or Laos, in the west ; the Singphoos and Bengs, in the north, and
several other tribes or nations, of whom little is known. The Birmans are short, robust, and
active ; the face is flat, with high cheek-bones, the complexion dark, but much lighter than that
of the Hindoos, the hair black, lank, and coarse, the beard scanty.
The Birmans are inferior to the Hindoos and Chinese in arts, manufactures, and industry, and
in all the institutions of civil life. They are ignorant of literature and science, and unskilled in
navigation. The government is a pure despotism, the king dispensing torture, imprisonment,
and death, according to his sovereign pleasure. The criminal code is barbarous and severe, and
the punishments inflicted are shocking to humanity ; the ordeal and other superstitious modes
§|B§gS|
FARTHER INDIA.
953
of proceeding are resorted to, but the administration of justice is so inefficient, that the country
is overrun with robbers and criminals.
The Birmese are distinguished into 7 classes, which have each peculiar privileges ; these are
the royal family, the public officers, the priests, the rich men, the laborers, the slaves, and out
casts. None of the classes constitutes an hereditary caste, except the slaves of pagodas and
outcasts, and all except these may aspire to the highest honors, which are often bestowed on
persons of low origin. The laborers are considered as slaves of the king, who may at all times
command their services. Women are not shut up, as in many eastern countries, but in many
respects they are exposed to the most degrading treatment, and may even be sold for a time to
strangers. A Birman cannot leave the country without the permission of the king, which is
only granted for a limited time, and women are never allowed to quit it at all.
The houses are of slight materials, but they are sufficiently commodious and comfortable.
Bamboos fixed in the ground, and tied horizontally with strips of rattan, compose the frame
work, which is then covered with mats and thatched with grass. A spacious mansion may be
built in one or two days, and a tolerable house in a few hours. The frequent devastations oc
casioned by fire are, therefore, easily and speedily repaired. The houses of the most wealthy,
in the large towns, are, however, often built of wood, with planked floors, and panneled doors
and window-shutters, but without laths, plaster, or glass. But the architectural taste and skill
of the Birmese is more favorably displayed in the zayats, pagodas, and temples, some of which
are truly magnificent and noble. The description already given of the Shoodagon, is a sufficient
illustration of this remark.
The dress exhibits the same contrast as in other semi-civilized countries ; that of the poor,
slight and scanty ; that of the rich, splendid. The attire of the
ordinary Birman females, is merely a loose robe or sheerf tucked
under the arm, which scarcely serves the purposes of decency ;
the higher classes, and even some of the lower, add an ingle or
jacket, open in front, and generally of muslin or lace. Nothing is
worn on the head, but a cigar is very commonly seen in the
mouth or hand. The men of the working classes are nearly na
ked, the dress consisting merely of a narrow strip of cotton wound
round the middle, or, when not at work, thrown over the shoul
der. The nobles wear a similar wrapper of silk or velvet, with a
jacket, and all classes invariably wear the turban. The particular
dress, and the ornaments indicate the rank of the wearer, and
must on no account be assumed by an inferior class ; the same
remark is true of the architecture and ornaments of houses. The
use of gold in ear-rings, large quills, and masses, and as the ma
terial of the betel box, spittoon, and drinking cup, designates a nobleman of the first rank.
The principal article of food is rice, generally cooked with chillie or capsicum, but various
other vegetables are much used ; roots, fruits, seeds, leaves, and blossoms, with insects, rep
tiles, fish, &c. It is not lawful to take the life of tame animals, but even this rule is often
evaded, and the flesh of any that have died by accident or disease is gladly devoured The
rice is eaten with the fingers. Smoking tobacco is almost universal with both sexes , the pipe
Birmese.
is rarely used, but the cheroot is as rarely wanting. Chewing the mixture called co»i»cojj
mon here, as in some of the neighboring countries. This preparation consists^ of a_sl.ce_ of Ae
areca nut, a small piece of cutch or gun
which is smeared with chunam or lime.
inun nere, as in some ui uic uci&i.uui...b ~«- -~- - i . . , ,„r „r i,.,ni nor,nor
areca nut a small piece of cutch or gum, and some tobacco rolled up in a leaf of betel pepper,
which is smeared with chunam or lime. It turns the teeth black, colors the mouth a deep red,
and excites profuse saliva. The custom of blacking the teeth is here ""^rsal.
The foreign commerce of Birmah is considerable, but it is carried on by foreign vessels
the inland tS whh China is more important, and is earned on by means of -avans con- -
ing of from 50 to 200 men, each having from 10 to 20 mules or horses carrying , pann er^
Tnese animals are guided by feW^-rfff"i?i'it^
to bring up the stragglers. Jttaw couon, w«x, ^^., *¦.-- «-», ---r- _-o -_ Chi_
fins, &c , are sent to China, and teak-wood in large quantities to the British temtones.
nese and British manufactured articles are imported. h B iti h
The military force consists entirely of a feudal m.l.t.a, whic , in ' ^^ Hoorl armed:
proved itself brave and enterprising, but badly discipbned and ™^™^™J frJm 50 t0
The king has about 500 war boats, which are from 80 to 100 feet long, an y
6 120
954
FARTHER INDIA.
White Elephant.
60 armed rowers, with about 25 or 30 soldiers, and a small piece of cannon. The revenue of
the sovereign consists of a land tax, or
rather rent, for the whole country is es
teemed the property of the ruler. The
tax is a tenth of the produce, and is paid in
kind, so that its amount is not easily ascer
tained. " Among the possessions of the
king, we must not omit to notice his ele
phants. He is regarded as owning all in
the kingdom, and has generally from one to
two thousand, which have been caught and
tamed. The white elephant, of which there
is now but one, is estimated above all price.
He is treated like a prince of the blood,
and has a suite composed of some of the
most prominent officers of the court. In
deed, the vulgar actually pay him divine
honors, though this is ridiculed by the in
telligent. ' ' — - Malcom.
This part of the country has been sub
ject to several remarkable revolutions since
it became known to Europeans. In the
15th century, Pegu was the ruling State ; but in the middle of the next century, the Avans not
only threw off the yoke, but they subdued their former masters. In the 18th century, this
state of things was again reversed ; but Alompra, not long after, again restored the supremacy
of Ava, and both he and his successors added numerous provinces by conquest ; Cachar, Cas-
say, Arracan, parts of Siam and Malacca, were reduced under the Birmese sway. In 1826,
a war with the British East India Company broke out, in which the Birmese weTe worsted, and
they were obliged to pay the expenses of the war, beside ceding the western and Malacca de
pendencies above mentioned, to the company.
5. Kingdom of Siam. This kingdom, comprising Siam Proper and part of Laos, Cambo
dia, and Malacca, is bounded N. by China ; E. by the empire of Annam ; S. by the Chinese
sea and the Gulf of Siam ; and W. by the Strait of Malacca and the Birman empire. " It has
an area of 200,000 square miles, and 3,600,000 inhabitants.
Bankok, on the Menam, near its mouth, is a large city, with an active commerce. It is
entirely built of wood, with the exception of the palace and the temples, and has about 90,000
inhabitants, nearly three quarters of whom are Chinese, who carry on all the foreign commerce
of Siam. A great number of houses are built upon rafts moored in the river, and forming a
floating city by itself.
Siam, or Yuthia, formerly the capital, and once a large and populous city, is now in ruins.
In regard to food, dress, buildings, religion, government, &c, the Siamese in general resemble
the Birmese, but with many minor points of difference. In approaching their superiors, they
submit to the most servile and humiliating ceremonies, crawling on their hands and knees, or
throwing themselves prostrate on the ground, as it is a fixed rule, that the head of the inferior
must never be raised higher than that of his superior. The Siamese call Gaudama Somonaco-
dom, and Boodha, Pra Poota Chow, or the Lord God Boodha, and the rites are nearly the
same as in Birmah. Mr. Malcom remarks, that the Birmans make stupendous pagodas and
monasteries, while the temples and zayats are comparatively small ; but the Siamese construct
small pagodas and priests' houses, and bestow their wealth and labor on the temples ; between
these and the dwelling-houses, there is the same contrast as in Birmah. Both in regard to per
sonal appearance and in the arts, they are much behind the Birmese. The dress is but an im
perfect covering, and for both sexes alike, consisting merely of a strip of cloth wrapped round
the legs, passed between the thighs, and tucked in at the small of the back. The moral char
acter of the Siamese, as drawn by travelers, is by no means flattering ; they are said to be slug
gish, indolent, and cowardly, but boastful, arrogant, and false ; and they have been pronounced a
nation of liars. So arrogant and full of national pride are they, that they esteem the meanest
Siamese superior to the greatest subject of any other nation ; they are, however, peaceful,
temperate, and orderly. The commerce is considerable, but is chiefly carried on by Chinese
FARTHER INDIA.
955
junks, and European and American ships. Sugar, pepper, gums, and rice, are the principal
articles of export ; European and Chinese manufactures are imported. According to Mr
Malcom, the commerce of Bankok is greater than that of any other city not inhabited by
whites, with the exception of Canton. The Malay States are in part tributary to Siam, in part
only nominally subject, and in part, both in fact and name, entirely independent. Keda, Li-
gore, Patam, balengore, Pahang, &c. are among these States. The inhabitants are Malays,
who are nowhere else found on the continent, but are very widely diffused over the great
islands, and will be elsewhere described.
6. Empire of Annam. Annam is bounded north by China ; south and east by the Chinese
Sea, and west by the Siamese State. It comprises the kingdoms of Cochin China, Tonquin,
Tsiampa, Cambodia, part of Laos, &c. Area, 280,000 square miles ; population, 12,000,OOo!
Hue is rernarkable for its vast military works, its granaries, barracks, magazines, and arsenals ;
the ditch which surrounds the place is eight miles in circuit, and 100 feet broad, and the walls
are 60 feet high. The palace of the emperor is also an edifice of great size and strength, and
there are here a large cannon foundery and a dock-yard. Population, 100,000. Kesho, for
merly capital of the kingdom of Tonquin, is now much reduced in importance. Population,
40,000. Saigon, capital of Cambodia, upon the Donnai, has 100,000 inhabitants. Its cita
del is hardly inferior in strength and extent of its works to that of Hue, and there is here a
dock-yard, on an extensive scale, at which an American navigator a few years since saw 190
"galleys, and two frigates built on the European model. The houses are mostly of wood,
thatched with rice straw or palm leaves, and without glass.
The government of Annam, as well as that of Siam, is of the most despotic character, and
in both these States, as in the Birman empire, every male subject above 20 years of age, ex
cepting the priests and public officers, is obliged to give every third year to the service of gov
ernment, either as a soldier or a laborer. The inhabitants are short and squat, and have an ex
pression of sprightliness, intelligence, and good humor. Morals are in a low state ; the women
are little better than mere slaves, being obliged to perform all the labor. Arts, manufactures,
and agriculture are in a backward condition and make no progress. The people are generally
poor, and live in miserable huts, with little furniture.
7. English Territories. The possessions of the East India Company in Farther India con
sist of several detached territories ; the countries between Bengal and the Birman empire com
prise Assam, Cashan, the country of the Garrows, Arracan, &c. ; on the east of the Saluen are
several provinces between the Birman empire, Siam, and the Sea of Bengal, including Tavoy,
Yeh, Martaban, and Tenasserine ; the isle of Pulo Penang, or Prince of Wales' Island, and
that of Sincapore, with a part of Malacca, also belong to the Company. Arracan is a large
town, built upon a spot overflowed by the river of the same name, and consisting chiefly of
bamboo huts. Its population is about 30,000. Amherst Town, founded in 1826, stands at the
mouth of the Saluen, and has about 10,000 inhabitants. Maulmain, which was founded still
later, is the metropolis of British Birmah, the residence of the governor. The situation is
healthy, the commerce flourishing, and the population already numbers about 18,000 souls.
The Baptists have a missionary station and a press here. Georgetown, on the Prince of Wales'
Island, is also a flourishing town, with an increasing; commerce. Population, 15,000. Malacca
was ceded to England by the Dutch, in 1825, but the rise of Sincapore and Georgetown has
drawn away much of its trade. Here is an Anglo-Chinese college. Sincapore, founded by
the British in 1819, is already become a place of great commercial importance, and the great
mart of this part of the world. It has 30,000 inhabitants, of whom 10,000 are Malays, and
12,000 Chinese. , . . , , . , t . ,,
8. Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar islands form a long chain of rocks and islets in the
Sea of Bengal, occupied by independent native tribes. The Andaman group consists of three
principal islands, and a great number ot smaller ones, inhabited by a fierce and savage race of
blacks. The Nicobar group is composed of ten principal and numerous smaller isles, inhabited
by a gentle and peaceable people resembling the Malays. o;QtTieoo
9 Religion. Buddhism is professed by the Birmans, the Arracanians, Peguans .Siamese
Laosians, Cambodians, and by the lower classes in Cochin China and Tonquin. I Some of the
educated'classes in the latter countries adhere to the doctrines of Confucius B™sm has
some followers in Assam, Cashar, &c, and the Malays, who have settled on the c "tea re
Mahometans. Many barbarous tribes in the interior have no religious rites, or; are attached to
the most absurd superstitions. Christianity has made some converts in the Birman empire and
in Annam.
956
CHINESE TARTARY.
CHAPTER CLI. CHINESE TARTARY.
1 . Boundaries. This country is bounded north by Russia, east by the Sea of Corea and
the Channel of Tartary, south by China, and west by Independent Tartary. It is inhabited
by wandering tribes, but only the western part is occupied by the Turco-Tartars, the rest being
in the possession of the Monguls and the Mantchoos, who are entirely distinct from them.
This country is commonly divided into three parts. 1. Little Bucharia, in the west ; 2. Mon
golia, in the middle ; and 3. the land of the Mantchoos, in the east.
2. Surface. Most of the country between the Himala and Altaian Mountains lies at a great
elevation above the sea, and is composed of several table-lands, intersected by the mountain
chains already described under the head of Asia. Between the Altaian and Teenshan moun
tains is the table-land of Zoongaria, from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the level of the sea, con
taining Lake Palcati. Between Teenshan and Kwanlun is the plateau of Little Bucharia from
6,000 to 9,000 feet high, in which lies Lake Lop. Between Kwanlun and the Himala are the
two table-lands of Eastern Thibet and Western Thibet, elevated from 9,000 to 14,000 feet above
the sea. The Mongolian table-land is from 8,000 to 12,000 feet high, and stretches along
the northwestern borders of China Proper. Two great deserts occupy a considerable part of
this cold and dreary region ; the desert of Cobi or Shamo, extending through Mongolia,
and the Central Desert occupying a part of Little Bucharia. On these plateaux and deserts
are scattered volcanic peaks and salt lakes. The desert of Cobi, is about 2,000 miles in length,
from northeast to southwest, and from 400 to 600 in breadth, and is crossed like the great Af
rican desert by caravans with camels. The ground is covered in many places with thin and
short grass, but the water is generally so brackish as to be scarcely drinkable.
3. Rivers. Several large rivers traverse this great region. Of these the Amour or Sagha-
lien, which, after a long, winding course of 1,800 miles, through Eastern Tartary, falls into the
Sea of Okotsk, is the principal, and vies with the largest Asiatic streams ; but, from its unfa
vorable position, it contributes little to communication. The Yarkand or Tarim flows east-
wardly through little Bucharia into the great lake of Lop. North of the Teenshan, is the Hi,
a considerable stream, also running east into lake Palcati or Balkash.
4. Little Bucharia. This country appears to be bounded north and east by Mongolia ; south
by Thibet, and west by Independent Tartary. It is almost en
tirely unknown to Europeans, and all the materials on which its
description is founded are imperfect and obscure. The inhabi
tants are Turks and Mahometans, and since 1759 have been trib
utary to the Chinese. The principal towns are, Yarkand, Cash-
gar, and Aksou. This country is called by the Chinese Teen-
shan-nauloo, or the province south of the Teenshan. The former
kingdom of Cashgar, which is now incorporated with it, forms a
wide, fertile, and beautiful plain east of the Beloor Mountains ;
this fine region, rising like an oasis in a vast desert, is well-water
ed, and carefully cultivated. Cashgar is an old and handsomely
built city, and the seat of considerable trade. It has about
40,000 inhabitants, and is occupied by a Chinese garrison.
Yarkand is a still larger and more busy city, being the great
centre of the inland trade of Asia, and the depot of the traffic
between the north and the south, the east and the west. It contains a great number of shops
and warehouses kept by Chinese, numerous caravanseries for the reception of strangers, and its
bazar is remarkable for its great extent. There are also many madresses or colleges here, and
the population is estimated at 70,000. Aksou is also a great mart and resort for the caravans,
and has about the same number of inhabitants. Khoten, Turfan, Hissar, and Hami, appear
to be important towns, of which we know nothing but their names and their celebrity in the
East. 5. Mongolia. Mongolia is an extensive country bounded north by Asiatic Russia, east by
the land of the Mantchoos, south by China and Thibet, and west by Little Bucharia and Inde
pendent Tartary. It includes a great part of the desert of Shamo or Cobi, and is traversed
by the wandering hordes of that nomadic race, which, under the name of Monguls or Moguls,
have been so celebrated in the annals of Asia. Under Genghis Khan they extended their do-
Turco- Tartars.
CHINESE TARTARY. g57
minion not only over the finest regions of this continent, but over a great part of northern Eu-
rlL ^r^f I arLSpllt,mt1? & numT^l;,of Pe"y States, dependent on the emperor of
China. The Calmucks Mongols Proper, Kalkas, the Eluths, on the Lake of Kokonor, and
the Sifans, seem to be the principal tribes. The Mongol tribes are diminutive in person, but
muscular and active ; the countenance is broad, square, and flat, with high cheek-bones n
nose
depressed, eyes small and black and bending obliquely towards the nose, thick lips, and thin,
black hair. 1 he Kalkas or Black Mongols have been described by a traveler as the dirtiest
and ugliest race he ever saw, except the Hottentots. The Mongols lead a roaming, pastoral
hfe, with numerous herds and flocks. They are Boodhists, and have numerous lamas and
gheims or monks, but these have not the same influence with their brethren in Thibet. In the
eastern part of this region was the celebrated Karakorum, the capital of the largest empire that
ever existed, and the residence of the famous Kublai Khan, but its precise situation is un
known. The province of Teenshan-peloo, comprising Zoongaria, the country of the Torgots,
and that of the Kirghises, may be considered an appendage of Western Mongolia.
6. Country of the Mantchoos or Manchoos. This country is bounded north by Siberia,
from which it is separated by the Altaian Mountains, east by the Sea of Japan, south by Corea
and China Proper, and west by a chain of mountains which separates it from Mongolia. It is
watered by the great river Amour, and is almost as extensive as China Proper, but is' less known
to Europeans than Central Asia. The inhabitants were originally nomades, but since they con
quered China, in 1 644, their union with a civilized people has occasioned the introduction of ag
riculture and the arts, and a part of the nation now inhabit towns and villages. The race who
at present occupy the throne in China originated in this country.
Our knowledge of this country comes chiefly from Chinese descriptions, which are in gene
ral meagre and pompous. It presents generally a different aspect from those immense and na
ked plains which characterize the centre of Asia. It appears to be diversified by rugged and
broken mountain ranges, covered with thick forests, and separated by valleys, many of which,
notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, possess considerable fertility. Their recesses are
filled with wild beasts of a formidable character, and in such crowds as to render traveling danger
ous. Wheat is raised only in the most favored spots ; the prevalent culture is that of oats, else
where scarcely an Asiatic grain. The product most valued abroad is the ginseng, the universal
medicine in the eye of the Chinese, who boast, that it would render man immortal were it pos
sible for him to become so. It grows upon the sides of the mountains. The shores of the
Eastern Ocean appeared to La Perouse covered with magnificent forests, but abandoned to
nature ; a singular circumstance in a region so closely bordering on the over-cultivated and
crowded empire of China.
The Mantchoos are by no means destitute of civilization. They possess even a language
and writing, essentially different from that of the Chinese, or of any other nation of Central Asia.
The language is distinguished by an excess of smoothness, which forbids two consonants ever
to come in contact with each other.
The Mantchoos are tall and robust, and the eyes larger, and the face less flat than is the case
with the Mongols. They are Boodhists in religion. A part of Mantchoona has been incorpo
rated with the Chinese province of Tchele, and contains Gehol, the summer residence and
hunting-seat of the emperors. The gardens are very superb and extensive. Bordering on
Corea, is the province of Shin Yang or Leaotong, very populous and fertile, and containing
cities bearing those names. The northern region on the Amour is called Zitzikar, and is the
original seat of the conquering race. Further east and north is Daouna, inhabited by a mixed
race of Mongols and Mantchoos. , ,
The large island of Saghalien or Tarrakai is partly occupied by the Mantchoos, but th ^na
tives are of a wholly distinct race, called Ainos. They are said by travelers tc > d ffe f rom
the inhabitants of the continent in their physical characteristics, but we have no accurate detads
about them. They derive their subsistence from the chace and fishing, and seem to have no
knowledge^ agri/ulture, and to be destitute of flocks and herds ; yet they are |descnbed«
mild, peaceable; generous, and affectionate in their dispositions Saghalien is about 15 mde
in length by 80 in breadth, and is separated from the mainland by the Channel of Tartary but
is thought to be connected with the continent by a low,, narrow, sandy neck. The island has
the appearance of fertility, and the seas around abound with whales and fish.
958
CHINA.
CHAPTER CLII. CHINA.
Chinese Ladies.
1 . -Boundaries and Extent. China is bounded by Chinese Tartary. on the north ; by the
Pacific Ocean on the east ; by the Chinese Sea on the south ; and by Tartary, Thibet, Bir-.
mah, and Annam, on the west. It extends from 20° to 41° N. lat., and from 100° to 121°
E. long., and contains 1,300,000 square miles.
The Chinese empire stretches from 18° to 56° N. lat., and from 70° to 140° E. long., cov
ering an area of above 5,300,000 square miles, or one tenth of the whole land surface of the
'earth. The population of this vast region is very differently stated, according to the opinion
adopted in relation to China Proper, the estimates of which vary from 150 to 360 millions ; if
the former sum is adopted, the population of the whole empire may be conjectured to be about
185 millions, if the latter, 395 millions. The regions included under the Chinese rule, are
China Proper, Corea, Thibet, Bootan, Manchooria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkistan or Litde
Bucharia, the Loo Choo islands, &c.
2. Mountains. The provinces of Yunan, Koeicheou, Sechueen, and Fochen, are so
mountainous as greatly to obstruct cultivation ; and that of Chekiang has lofty and precipitous
mountains on the west. In the province of Kiangnan there is a district full of high mountains,
which are also numerous in the provinces of Shensee and Shansee. The greater part of the
country, however, is level, and most assiduously cultivated.
3. Rivers. The two principal rivers of China, are the Hoangho and the Kiangku ; the for
mer, called the Yellow River, from its discolorment by the mud, which its waters bring down,
has its source among the mountains of Thibet, and falls into the Yellow Sea, after a course
of 1,850 miles. The Kiangku rises near the source of the Hoangho, and after passing the city
of Nankin, falls into the sea about 100 miles to the south of the mouth of the Hoangho, having
traversed a course of 2,000 miles. There are many rivers of inferior note in China ; but the
water of this country is in general very, indifferent, and, in some places, must be boiled to make
it fit for use.
CHINA. 959
r ^ 'r^'r J^^™*- °f ^"nan! lies uPon ^ southern coast, and forms the eastern'
limit of the Gulf of Tonquin. It contains 14,000 square miles and is partly mountainous. It
produces sugar, indigo, cotton, and rice. Further north is Formosa, a very beautiful island ; it
is rich and populous, but subject to earthquakes. Further to the east are the Loo Choo Isl
ands, which are well inhabited and productive. The Ladrone Islands, to the south of the bay
of Canton, are peopled by a race of pirates.
5. Climate and Soil. The climate of China varies according to the situation of the places.
loward the north it is cold, in the middle mild, and in the south hot. It is subject in general
to great extremes, and resembles rather the climate of the United States, than that of Europe
and Africa in corresponding latitudes. The soil is, either by nature or art, fruitful of every
thing that can minister to the necessities, conveniences, or luxuries of life ; and agriculture is
carried to a high degree of excellence.
6. Minerals. Gold is obtained from the sands of rivers in Sechuen and Yunan, but no
mines are worked. Silver occurs in considerable abundance, and silver mines are worked in
Yunan. Tutenague or zinc, of which the Chinese make vessels and utensils, occurs in Hoopee.
Yellow copper comes from Yunan and other provinces, and is employed for making small coin,
which is current throughout the empire ; no gold or silver is coined. The famous petung or
white copper, which takes a polish like silver, also comes from Yunan, and quicksilver is ob
tained in Kweichoo; Lead and tin occur, and realgar, or native sulphuret of arsenic, is used
in blocks for making pagodas and vases. Earthy felspar or kaolin, also called porcelain earth,
an important material in the manufacture of the beautiful China ware, abounds in some provinces,
but the Chinese reckon yu or jade as the first of mineral substances, and it is much used for
ornamental purposes. Coal extends through considerable tracts, and good marble and granite
are found.
7. Vegetable Productions. China produces all the fruits common to the tropical and tem
perate countries. The camphor (Laurus camphora) , tallow (Croton sebiferun), and cinnamon
trees are common in the fields and gardens. The most celebrated production is the tea plant,
which grows wild here, but is much improved by careful culture. It is a shrub 5 or 6 feet in
height, producing leaves of different flavor according to the soil, and care with which it is cul
tivated. It is generally grown in gardens or plantations of no great extent. The leaves are
gathered by the cultivator's family, and carried to market, where they are bought by persons,.
whose trade it is to dry them ; the black teas are dried by exposure to tbe air, the green in iron
vessels over a fire. Some of the leaf buds of the finest black tea plants are picked early
before they expand ; these constitute pekoe or the best black tea ; the second, third, and
fourth crops afford the inferior qualities. In the same manner the first crop of the green tea
plant is gunpowder ; the second, third, and fourth, imperial hyson, and young hyson ; hyson
skin consists of the light leaves obtained from the hyson by winnowing. The quantity annually
exported to Europe and America is about 60 million pounds, besides which it is largely sent to
other countries of Asia, and consumed in vast quantities at home. Japan and China are the
only countries which produce it. Rice ( Oryza sativa), is, perhaps, more generally grown and
consumed in China than in any other country ; the delicate substance called rice-paper is not
made from this plant, but is prepared from the pith of some unknown species. The sugar-cane
is a native of China, and there are several species of orange. The banana, cocoa, pomegran
ate, guava, lichi, lemon, fig, and other fruits abound. The pride of India (Melia Azedarach),
the camelias, the nelumbo or sacred bean of India, the olive (Olea fragrans), the tree-peony
&c-, are admired for the beauty or fragrance of their flowers.
8. Canals. The Imperial Canal is the greatest work of the kind in the world, being 700
miles in length, and, with the aid of several navigable rivers, affording a line of inland navigation
from Pekin to Canton, interrupted only by a single portage. There are many other canals ;
the Chinese are unacquainted with the construction of locks, and the boats pass from one level
to another on inclined planes, over which they are drawn upon rollers by men.
9. Towns. Pekin, the capital of the whole empire of China, and the ordinary residence of
the emperor, is situated in a very fertile plain, 20 leagues distant from the great wall It is of
an oblong form, and is divided into two towns ; that which contains the emp »°" Pa acV*
called the Tartar city. The walls and gates are of the height of 50 feet so 'that Aeyhrie the
whole city, and are so broad, that sentinels are placed upon them on . horse bac ^>there a e
slopes wid in the city of considerable length, by which horsemen may ascend the walks, and n
several places there are houses built for the guards. The gates, which are 9 in number, are
960 CHINA.
not embellished with statutes or other carving, all their beauty consisting in their prodigious
height, which at a distance gives them a noble appearance. The arches of the gates are built
of marble ; and the rest of large bricks, cemented with excellent mortar. Most of the streets
are built in a direct line ; the largest are about 120 feet broad, and above 2 miles in length ;
but the houses are poorly built in front, and 'very low ; most of them having only a ground
floor ; and few exceeding one story above it. They are often showily ornamented with gilded
sculptures. Among the rich the doors are often of aromatic wood, richly carved ; glass is not
used in the windows, and its place is supplied by paper. Of all the buildings in this great city,
the most remarkable is the imperial palace ; the grandeur of which does not consist so much in
the nobleness and elegance of the architecture, as in the multitude of its buildings, courts, and
gardens, all regularly disposed. The population of Pekin is supposed,to be about 1,500,000.
Nanking was the royal residence till the 15th century, but it is now a declining city, and a
large space within its circuit is uninhabited. It is regularly built, and is a neat if not handsome
town. Near the entrance are two temples, one of which is rendered interesting by the skilful
execution of the figures of about 20 Chinese philosophers and saints, surrounding a great hall.
The city has obtained celebrity by the porcelain tower, and by the manufacture of nankeen.
Population, 500,000.
Canton is the largest port in China, and the only port that has been much frequented by
Europeans. The city wall is above 5 miles in circumference, with very pleasant walks around
it. From the tops of some adjacent hills, on which forts are built, you have a fine prospect
of the country. It is beautifully interspersed with mountains, little hills, and valleys, all green ;
and these are pleasantly diversified with small towns, villages, high towers, temples, the seats
of mandarins and other great men, which are watered by delightful lakes, canals, and small
branches from the river, on which are numberless boats and junks, sailing different ways through
the most fertile parts of the country. The streets of Canton are very straight, though general
ly narrow, and are paved with flag-stones. There are many pretty buildings in this city, great
¦ numbers of triumphal arches, and temples well stocked with images. There are many private
walks about the skirts of the town, where those of the better sort have their houses, but which
are very little frequented by Europeans, whose business lies chiefly in the trading part of the
city, where there are only shops and warehouses. It is computed that there are in this city
and its suburbs, nearly 1,000,000 persons, and there are often 5,000 trading vessels lying
before the city. What is called the boat-town is composed of thousands of boats occupied
by individuals, some of whom are not even allowed to enter the city.
Singan, upon a branch of the Hoangho in the western part of China, is one of the largest
towns, and strongest fortresses, in the country. It is said to have a population of 3,000,000
souls. Hangchou, near the coast to the southeast of Nanking, is a large town with extensive
manufactures and commerce, and a good harbor ; its population is estimated at 600,000.
Souchou, upon the imperial canal, is a flourishing place, and is said to contain 700,000 inhab
itants. There are many other large towns in' China, the seats of manufacturing and commercial
industry, but little remarkable except for their size and population. The Chinese towns have
no proper name ; but are merely designated from the district of which they are the capital, as
the city of Canton, that is, of the province of the name ; or from some other circumstance ; as
Peking, the northern court, that is, the northern residence of the Chinese court, &c.
Macao, upon a peninsula on the southern coast of China, belongs to the Portuguese ; it is
fortified and has considerable commerce, but is much sunk in importance. Its population is
about 30,000. The English have also a factory here, but the police of the place is under the
superintendence of a Chinese mandarin.
10. Agriculture. The soil in China is considered to be the property of the emperor, every
tenant paying one tenth of the produce of the land as a rent. Such tenants often underlet por
tions of their estate upon half profits. The processes of agriculture are very imperfect, and the
artificial methods of cultivation practised in Europe are unknown. In the vicinities of the great
cities, every inch of ground is carefully cultivated, and the hills are diligently formed into ter
races ; but a great part of the land, even in China Proper, is quite waste, and in the other parts
of the empire husbandry is still less attended to.
11. Manufactures. China is so happily situated, and produces such a variety of materials
for manufactures, that it may be said to be the native land of industry ; but it is an industry
without taste or elegance, though carried on with great art and neatness. The Chinese make
paper of the bark of bamboo and other trees, as well as of cotton, but not comparable, for
CHINA.
961
records or printing, to the European. Their ink f™ tha r j •
said to be made of glue and lampblack Top Z f US6 of fdrawinS> ca»ed Indian ink, is
known by the name of China, 3ot a'se Jet in F,T ^t °f that ea»he«^are, generally
exceed the Chinese in n^^M^^^^r^r^™^™
or flowered gauze ; and they are said'to have been oSginalTylbr catod f ^7^ t™
the art of rearing the silk-worm was first discovered ThTrWn r co™try> where
of a more durable kind ; and their cotton and olher cloths a r LT" * °T -S"ewise
warm wear. Their furniture, vessels, utensils, Td instrumen s oflTv 7 ^f*? " ¥<'
En^vin/onwood^stereotrA They excel in embroidery, in varnishing, dyeing, carving in ivory, filagree-work and E
every art, that requires minute attention, patience, and manual dex tor ty The Coreans riva
the Chinese in industry particularly in the fabrication of nankeen and writing paper
eign if rcTrS on £ meTnTof ^ °f the Chi"ese /'^ is more imporLTtiian the for-
!vlonllf T ? , y T ¦ °f numerous nvers and canals, and consists principally in the
exchange of the natural productions or manufactures of the different provinces. The vast ex-
tent of the country, and the great diversity of its
products have caused the Chinese to neglect for
eign commerce ; still, however, their junks are to
be found in all parts of the Indian seas. The
commerce with Europe and America is limited
to the single port of Canton, and is carried on
chiefly by the English and Americans. In each
port there is a certain number of merchants called
the hong merchants, and every foreign ship must
get one of these merchants to become security for
the duties payable on the cargo and for the con
duct of the crew. But the master or owner of
the ship, may deal with any of the hong mer
chants, or with the outside merchants, that is, na
tives not belonging to the hong, indiscriminately.
Beside the maritime foreign commerce, there is
an extensive inland foreign trade carried on with
Siberia, through Maimatchin, opposite to Kiach-
ta ; with Turkistan, through Yarkand ; with Hin
dostan, through Lassa ; and with the Birman em
pire and Annam. Tea, nankeen, rhubarb, ginger, porcelain, &c, are the chief articles of
export. Opium from India,* furs from North America and Siberia, sandal-wood, edible bird's
nests, biche de mer or tripang, ivory, ginseng, and tobacco are among the principal imports.
Chinese Junk and Barge.
The opium trade has been a great curse to China, and has
been carried on for many years by the English and Amer
ican traders, in spite of the most rigorous precautions and
prohibitions of the Chinese government. " We have lit
tle reason to wonder," says Mr. Malcom, " at the reluc
tance of China to extend her intercourse with foreigners.
Nearly the whole of such intercourse brings upon her pes
tilence, poverty, crime, and disturbance. No person can
describe the horrors of the opium trade. The drug is pro
duced by compulsion, accompanied with miseries to the
cultivators, as great as slaves endure in any part of the
world. The prices paid to the producer scarcely sustain
life and are much less than the article produces in China.
The influence of the drug on China is more awful and
extensive than that of rum in any country, and worse to
its victims than any outward slavery." To such a pitch
was the traffic carried, that in 1839 the Chinese took more
energetic, and, it is to be hoped, effectual measures to
slop it, and threatened a total interruption of the trade
with foreigners, if these steps were not successful. The
following curious extracts are from the proclamation of
the Chinese commissioner, who was sent to Canton to
enforce the new decrees. 121
" Lin, a high officer of the Chinese empire, now special
ly appointed an imperial envoy, a president of the board
of war, and viceroy of Hoo Kwang, hereby proclaims to
the foreigners of every nation, that they may thoroughly
know and understand.
" Whereas ye, the said foreigners, coming to Canton to
trade, have usually reaped immense profits ; therefore it is
that your ships, which in former years amounted annually
to no more than several tens, now exceed a hundred
and several tens, which arrive here every year. Your im
port goods, no matter what they be, with us find a con
sumption ; and respecting the cargo which you may wish
to purchase in return, there is nothing in which you may
not adventure. I would like to ask you, if, in the wide
earth, under heaven, you can find such another profit-yield
ing market as this is ? Our great Chinese emperor views
all mankind with equal benevolence, and therefore it is,
that he has thus graciously permitted .you to trade, and to
become, as it were, steeped to the lips in gain. If this
port of Canton, however, were to be shut against you,
how could you scheme to reap profit more. Moreover, our
tea and rhubarb are articles which ye foreigners from afar
cannot preserve your lives without ; yet year by year we
962
CHINA.
13. Religion.
Buddhism, or the religion of Fo, is professed by the greater part of the in
habitants. The religion of Confucius, or the doctrine of
the learned, is the religion of the best educated part of the
Chinese and Coreans ; the emperor is himself the patri
arch, and each magistrate solemnizes its rites within the
limits of his jurisdiction. The learned are in general pro
fessors of this creed, without, however, entirely renounc
ing the forms and usages, belonging to the other modes of
worship. There is a colony of Jews in China, and there
are some Roman Catholics, the converts of the missiona
ries, formerly tolerated here. The temples of Buddha,
who is called Fo in China, are filled with all manner of
images, and many of the rites and ceremonies struck the
Roman Catholic missionaries, from their remarkable re
semblance to those of their own church. Pontiff's, pa
triarchs, whose spiritual jurisdiction extends over a certain
province, a council of superior priests, by whom the pon
tiff is elected, and whose badges of dignity resemble those
of the cardinals, convents, male and female, prayers for
the dead, auricular confession, the intercession of saints,
fasting, kissing of feet, litanies, processions, bells, and
beads, and holy water, burning of incense and tapers, con
stitute some of the features of Buddhism in China. The
temples in China are low buildings, usually containing numerous images, and inhabited by priests
and beggars ; the pagodas are lofty edifices containing no images, nor tenants.
14. Government. The supreme authority is vested in the emperor, who is styled the son
of heaven ; the crown is hereditary in the male line. His power is limited by the rights of
certain magistrates, and all officers must be appointed, according to established rules, from the
learned. These form three ranks, which depend solely upon the capacity of the candidate to
undergo certain examinations. There are no hereditary dignities, except that of princes of the
blood, descendants of Confucius, and one or two others, but the ancestors of a person of dis
tinguished merit are often rewarded by titles of honor for the services of their descendant.
The laws are couched in the simplest language, and promulgated with the utmost possible
publicity, that none may be ignorant of them. The punishments are the bastinado, the pillory,
banishment, hard labor, and death. The common punishment is the bastinado, which is in
flicted by a lath of bamboo, and sometimes so severely that it occasions death. It is in con
stant activity and is inflicted for the smallest offence, when it is considered a paternal correction,
and the culprit thanks the judge for the care thus bestowed upon his morals. The kangue
is a movable pillory or frame, weighing from 60 to 200 pounds, and fastened about the neck, so
Chinese Pagoda.
allow you to export both beyond seas, without the slightest
feeling of grudge on our part. Never was imperial good
ness greater than this !
" Now, if ye foreigners had a proper sense of gratitude
for such extraordinary goodness, ye would hold the laws
in dread ; and while ye sought to profit yourselves, ye
would abstain from injuring other men. But how happens
it, on the contrary, that ye take your uneatable opium and
bring it to our central land, chousing people out of their
substance, and involving their very lives in destruction ?
I find, that by means of this noxious article, you have been
fraudulently imposing upon the Chinese people now up
wards of several tens of years, during which time the un
just wealth ye have reaped exceeds all calculation ; this
is a circumstance sufficient to rouse the general indigna
tion of mankind, and which the laws of heaven can with
difficulty scarce pardon.
" Formerly the prohibitions of our empire might still be
considered indulgent, and therefore it was, that from all
our ports the sycee leaked out as the opium rushed in ;
now, however, the great emperor, on hearing of it, actu
ally quivers with indignation, and before he will stay his
hand the evil must be completely and entirely done away
with. " Respecting our own subjects, he who opens an opium-
shop, or who sells opium, is immediately put to death ;
and it is also in agitation whether or not to the mere smok
er may not be accorded the extreme penalty of the law ;
and ye foreigners, who come to our central land to reside,
ought in reason to submit to our statute, as do the natives
of China themselves.
" Our Chinese empire covers many tens of thousands
of miles in extent, every sort of produce is there heaped
up and running over, we have no occasion to borrow any
thing from you foreigners ; but I fear, that were we to
stop the intercourse, the plans for doing business (and ob
taining profit) of every one of your countries would at
that moment come to an end ! Ye foreign traders, who
come from distant countries, how is it, that you have not
yet found out the difference between the pains of toil and
the sweets of ease ? The great difference betwixt the
power of the few and the power of the many ?
"Do not indulge in idle delay and expectation, which
will only lead to a vain repentance. A special edict.
Taukwang, 19th year. 2d moon, 4th day. 18th March,
1839." * ' *
" Simultaneously with the above a proclamation to the
hong merchants was issued, recapitulating the frauds and
evils of the opium trade, severely rebuking them for con
niving at it, and for their defence of foreigners, and threat
ening them with death to some of their number, if they
should fail in prompt and implicit obedience."
CHINA.
963
that the culprit cannot feed himself. Death is inflicted by strangulation, or beheading, and
criminals are generally reserved for execution on a particular day in autumn. Torture is some
times used to extort confession in charges of great crimes. A debtor's goods are sold to
liquidate his debts, and if he has no goods he receives 30 blows for every month in which pay
ment is delayed, so that he is often forced to sell himself as a slave to satisfy his creditor.
The subjects are divided into seven classes ; the great officers of state, called by Europeans
mandarins, the military, the learned, priests, husbandmen, artisans, and merchants, several of
which are subdivided into two or more ranks.
15. Inhabitants. The great mass of the people in China consists of the Chinese, but the
ruling race, to which belongs the emperor, is the Manchoos. The Coreans, and many inde
pendent people of the interior, belong to distinct races. The complexion of the Chinese is
an olive or dark brown. The hair is black ; the eyes are small and black, with the point next
the nose inclining a little downwards. The forehead is wide, the cheek bones high, and the
chin pointed. The dress is long and loose. The chief garment is a robe reaching almost to
the ground. Over the robe is worn a girdle of silk, from which is suspended a knife in a
sheath, and the two sticks which are used instead of forks. The shirts are short and wide.
The trowsers are wide, and in winter they are lined with fur. In warm seasons the neck is
bare. The Chinese are by no means a cleanly people, either in person or dress. They sel
dom wash their garments, and they carry no pocket-handkerchiefs. The hair is shaven, except
a long tuft on the crown, which is plaited somewhat like a whip, and often extends below the
knees. The covering for the head is generally a cap of woven cane, shaped like an inverted
Group of Chinese.
cone. No person is fully dressed without a fan. The dress of females of the common ranks
differs little from that described. Their robes are long and closed at the top. An outw d
jacket is worn over them. Paints are universally used though with little taste. The toe are
colored yellow or green. The nails of the higher classes are permuted to .grow U, several
it is witrAhe utmost difficulty a female thus mutilated can walL Ih M d oo lad ^
women of the lower classes do not compress the feet. Children ' are n°' per d f men.
or furs, or to have the head covered, till a certain age, when they assume the
964
CHINA.
The principal article of food is rice, which is eaten with almost every sort of victuals, but
in the north corn is more used. The Manchoos eat horse-flesh, and the lower classes, who
Infantry Soldier.
Chinese Children.
are miserably poor, and often suffer from famine, do not refuse the most loathsome vermin.
Tea is the usual drink, which has now become almost as common in Great Britain and the
United States, as in its native country. Edible bird's nests, which consist of some sort of
gelatinous matter, tripang or sea slug, shark fins,
and fish maws are among the luxuries of the
Chinese table ; opium, though forbidden by law,
is much used. Dogs, cats, and rats are eagerly
sought after by the poorer classes, and puppies
are constantly hawked about the streets, to be
eaten. When China was first explored by European
travelers, it was believed to be a nation that had
alone found out the true secret of government ;
where the virtues were developed by the opera
tion of the laws. A greater familiarity with the
Chinese has destroyed the delusion, and their
vi'rtues are the last subject for which they can
claim any praise. Few nations, it is now agreed,
have so little honor or feeling, or so much dupli
city and mendacity. Their affected gravity is as
far from wisdom, as their ceremonies are from
politeness. The females, as in all unenlightened
countries, have to suffer for the state of society ;
they pass a life of labor or of seclusion, the
slaves rather than the companions of man.
China is known to us principally from the missionaries and the embassies. Wherever the
European passes, by land or water, for the rivers have their thousands, he sees masses of peo
ple ; but only of one sex, with good humor pervading the whole. He sees soldiers with paper
Dog Seller.
CHINA.
965
helmets, quilted petticoats, and fans ; he sees punishments inflicted in the streets, all the opera
tions of trade carried on there, and signs over the shops affirming, that they do not cheat here, to
do away the more probable supposition that they do. The government of China is one of fear,
and it has produced the usual effects, duplicity and meanness. Prostration to authority is no
where more humble than in China. Ceremony directs the life of the Chinese, and their most
indifferent actions are moulded on it. Their very filial duty, which is prescribed to such an
extent, as to destroy the principle, is rather a political institution than a sentiment. It gives
to the parents too much authority to leave space for affection. The parents have the right to
destroy or mutilate their infant children, and thousands are exposed yearly to perish in the
rivers. A son is a minor during the life of his father, and liable for all the parental debts but
those contracted by gaming. The government sustains in the greatest rigor all this parental
authority ; as the emperor assumes, that he is the
general father, that he may exact from all, more
than the obedience that is paid to a father by a
son. The lash of the mandarin's whip or the bam
boo is often applied in the most summary man
ner. Marriage in China is hardly an affair of the
affections. The husband does not see his future
wife till she is brought to his house, and then the
Chinese laws of gallantry allow him to send her
back, if, on opening the palanquin, he discovers
her to be unattractive. Divorces may be had on
grounds as slight as those of this rejection ; and
even excessive loquacity in the females is a legal
cause . The funerals are conducted with pomp , and
a ceremony truly Chinese. The coffins of the
rich are costly and they are often provided for years
before the decease, and a poor man has been
known to sell himself to slavery, that he might
give his father a splendid burial. The festival
in commemoration of the dead is held by mem
bers of the same family, the rich and the poor,
at the expense of the former. There are many
festivals, but games of chance are the com
mon amusements. Cards and dice are always
carried about. Quail fighting and locust fighting
are common, and the Chinese are immoderately
fond of them. The fireworks excel those of
Europe. The chief festival is the feast of lan
terns, when gorgeous lanterns are everywhere displayed. ^nnnsvllables and these
16 Language, Literature, Arts, &c. The language is a string of monosy tables, and toese
are not numerous,' but their meaning is varied ^ZZZT^Zh Sgmfi Si an'd
spoken by lengthening the u, means master, when pronounce VEifie lillar The language
when spoken with a loud voice, and depressed toward thfe ^ ' me ^rovL^es siVnt are us^d ?o
of the provinces varies ^^ ^Te^loTZTe ^IZllTtZ^U.e, that can
relieve the ambiguity of words. mere are noi muic characters, rep-
be distinguished by "he English alphabet and the written language ha ^°^°tc™^ J,
resenting'objects or ideas. The voca language belng/°.dne^Xe character that one means to
prevent mis ikes »^^^^^£^S^o^'^^^ be *F~
IfTaS^^^^^r "^ mnic0aSebetwe0en Efwho are de-
The Chinese characters seem devised as a «™fX^
prived of speech; the sign is somean.es . srb. ^'^tbc^Tand the ^tion of
scribed. Thus a prison is represented by ^^avaTev that represents a tree, used twice,
a dot within it, represents a prisoner. Ihe character tnai p meang eternlt
denotes a thicket, and thrice, a forest. The character ^ tune rep ^
Some of the combinations of the characters to express otiier id as K w and
the characters combined, of good and word, ^\^Unith?door and ear. *The com-
a nail; comfort is expressed by rice and mouth, and listening oy
Mandarin's Officer.
966
CHINA.
pounds are various, and very many of them show the low estimation in which females are held
in China. The character for vicious is composed of the sign for icoman and fugitive. Sub
jection is denoted by the sign of a woman and a claw. To scold is expressed by the sign for
two women. Levity is denoted by the character for a man placed between two women. Anger
is expressed by the characters for woman and sour wine. Some combinations, however, are
expressed in a more gallant spirit. A young unmarried damsel is expressed by the characters
which denote woman and bending down, like an ear of corn. Handsome is denoted by the
characters for a woman and sigh.
The literature of the Chinese is the richest and most important of Asia. The classical
works called King are of great antiquity, and the disciples of Confucius have made them the
basis of their labors in morality and politics. History has always received the attention of the
Chinese, and their annals form the most complete series extant in any language. Poetry, the
drama, and romantic prose fictions are among the productions of the Chinese literati, and their
dictionaries, encyclopaedias, commentaries, &c, are numerous ; they use silk paper, printing
only one side. Geography has been cultivated among them from a remote period ; the impe
rial geography forms 260 volumes, with maps. Astronomy and mathematics have not made
much progress, and medicine is practised with a variety of superstitious ceremonies Drawing
and painting are executed with mechanical skill, but without a knowledge of scientific princi
ples. It is remarkable, that the Chinese were in possession of three of the most important in
ventions or discoveries of modern times, long before they were known to the nations of Europe,
beside which they were the inventors of two remarkable manufactures, silk and porcelain. The
art of printing was practised at least as early as the 10th century, but the use of movable types
instead of blocks seems never to have occurred to this ingenious people. The knowledge of
gunpowder among them dates at a very remote period, but here again they stopped short in the
application of it to use, not having applied it to firearms until they learned so to do from
Europeans. Finally, the peculiar directive properties of the loadstone were applied to purpo
ses of navigation by the Chinese several centuries before they were employed in Europe.
The architecture resembles that of no other
nation. The houses appear fantastic, if com
pared with the orders that are established as
standards in Europe. They are generally of
wood, and mostly of but one story. They
are small, and the partitions are slight, fre
quently only mats. The whole building is
surrounded by a wall six or seven feet high.
Each house contains a family of several gene-
rations% The most solid material is half-burnt
brick, and the mansions of the highest as well
as the lowest are formed on the model of the
primitive Manchoo tents ; even in the great
cities, a traveler might fancy himself, from the
low houses, with carved overhanging roofs, un
interrupted by a single chimney, and from the
pillars, poles, flags, and streamers, to be in the midst of a large encampment. The fronts of
the shops are covered with varnish and gilding, and painted in brilliant colors. The external
splendor of the palaces and pagodas consist merely in colored varnish and gilding.
The great wall is one of the most remarkable monuments of Chinese industry, and is one of
the greatest works ever executed by man. It extends along the northern frontier for the dis
tance of 1,500 miles, over valleys, rivers, and mountains, and has stood for 2,000 years. It
consists of two brick walls at a little distance from each other, forming a sort of shell, which is
filled up with earth, thus composing a solid rampart, about 15 feet thick, and varying in differ
ent places from 30 to a few feet in height. It was constructed as a defence against the noma
dic warriors of central Asia. The great garden near Peking, attached to a royal summer resi
dence, covers 60,000 acres, and is filled with artificial hills, rivers, lakes, &c, and adorned
with palaces, pavilions, and every sort of decoration, that human ingenuity can devise.
The facilities for traveling are chiefly confined to the rivers and canals, and these are filled
with every variety of craft. The inns are mean, and afford little but shelter. The sedan or
palanquin is the common vehicle of China. Besides the dramatic exhibitions, which are some-
Chinese City.
CHINA.
967
times got up with great splendor, tumbling, wire-dancing, posture-making, feats of jugglery,
ex-
Sedan Bearer.
Juggler.
hibitions of fire-works, which are much admired for their neatness, ingenuity, &c. are some of
the amusements of the Chinese. Among their singular customs, may be mentioned the practice
Cormorant Fishing.
Barber.
of cormorant fishing. The birds, trained for the purpose, are sent out into the water and faith
fully bring home their prey to their master. The great density of the population drives many of
968
CHINA.
the inhabitants to strange shifts for a support ; all sorts of trades may be seen carried on in the
streets or the open air, where are seen the smiths, tinkers, and coblers, with their little portable
shops ; the noisy mirth of the mountebanks, conjurers, and jugglers ; the twanging noise of the
Pedler.
Itinerant Fruit-seller.
barber's tweezers, like the jarring sound of a cracked Jew's harp ; the ingenious contrivances
of the pedlers, and fruit, flower, pigeon, and dog merchants to attract notice and dispose of
their wares, fill the eyes and ears of a stranger with novel sights and sounds.
Fruit-seller.
Pigeon Merchant.
17. History. China has at different epochs formed a great number of independent States,
and has been repeatedly subjected by foreign conquerors. The last event of this character was
the conquest of the country by the Manchoos, in 1644 ; but the conquerors have assumed the
EMPIRE OF JAPAN.
969
laws and manners of the Chinese. The name China is unknown to the natives, who call them
selves Men of the Central Empire, or Men of the Central Flower.
Flower- seller.
Chinese Woman,
CHAPTER CLIII. EMPIRE OF JAPAN.
1. Extent. This empire consists of several islands in the Pacific Ocesn, lying between lat.
29° and 47° N., and long. 1283 and J 50° E., and separated from the continent by the Sea of
Japan and the channel of Tartary. It has an area of 240,000 square miles, and a population
of 26,000,000 souls. The principal islands of the group are Niphon, Sikoko, Kiusiu, and
Yesso or Matsmai ; the southern part of Seghalien belongs to Japan, and the northern to Chi
na ; some of the Kurile islands also belong to the former. The lofty mountains which inter
sect the principal islands, and the exposure to the sea-breezes render the climate cool. Earth
quakes are common.
2. Productions. Rice, hemp, and silk, and the various tropical fruits are produced in abun
dance in the southern parts. The milky juice of the varnish trees supplies the beautiful lacker
or japan ; the tea-tree and bamboo are indigenous. Agriculture is carried to great perfection,
and as there are few cattle or sheep, there are no meadows, and fences are not necessary. The
corn fields, cotton plantations, rice grounds, and mulberry orchards are often very extensive.
3. Towns. Yedo, the capital, upon the Island of Niphon, is one of the largest and most
populous cities in the world, having a circuit of 53 miles, and a population of 1,300,000 souls.
The port is shallow, and accessible only to small vessels. The houses are constructed of bam
boo, covered with mortar, and are but two stories high. Paper supplies the place of glass,
and the floors are covered with matting. The palace of the emperor is nearly 15 miles in cir
cumference and is strongly fortified ; the citadel or inner fort is inhabited by the imperial family,
and the outer fortress by the nobility. The hall of a hundred mats is 600 feet long and 300
wide,, with the doors and cornices finely lackered, and the locks and hinges richly gilt.
- Kio or Meaco was for a long time the capital, and contains the most remarkable edifices, it
is also the residence of the dairi or descendant of the ancient emperors, who is the spiritual
head of the empire. The dairi's palace is, in itself, a town surrounded with walls and ditcfces ,
the imperial palace is also a large building. The temple of Fokosi paved with squares of
white marble, and adorned with 96 columns of cedar, is about 1,000 feet in lengh, and con
tains a colossal statue of Buddha, 83 feet in height. The temple of Kwanwon is little inferior
to the preceding ; in the midst sits the goddess, with 33 hands, surrounded by crowds o sub
ordinate deities; and innumerable statues of all sizes, and richly gilt, are placed around on
122
970
EMPIRE OF JAPAN.
shelves ; the Japanese say there are 33,333. The population is stated to amount to 500,000.
Meaco is the centre of Japanese commerce and manufactures ; silks, tissue, soy, and lackered
wares are purchased here in their greatest perfection ; and all the money of the empire is coined,
and most of the books are printed here.
Nangasaki, on the island of Kiusiu, is the only port in which foreign vessels are suffered to
come to anchor.
4. Government. The Kubo or Jogun, (commander-in-chief,) is the real sovereign, and his
power is absolute. The government is a hereditary monarchy, sustained by a great number of
damios (hereditary princes), who are themselves kept in subjection by their mutual jealousies,
and by being obliged to give hostages. Many of them are even required to leave their families
in the capital, and to reside there themselves half the year. The dairi retains the title of em
peror and the appearances of authority, but he is confined in the palace at Meaco, which he
never quits except on a visit to some of the principal temples.
5. Manufactures and Commerce. The Japanese excel in working in copper, iron, and
steel ; their silk and cotton goods, porcelain, paper of the bark of the mulberry, lackered ware
(thence called japanned), and glass are also made in great perfection. Their foreign commerce
is inconsiderable ; the Japanese are forbidden to go out of the country, and the port of Nan
gasaki is open only to the Chinese, Coreans, and Dutch, and even to them under great restric
tions. The inland and coasting trade is, however, extensive; the ports are crowded with
vessels, and the fairs thronged with merchants.
6. Religion. There are 3 forms of religion prevalent in Japan. The religion of Sinto is
founded upon the worship of genii, or subordinate gods, from whom the dairi is supposed to be
descended. The genii or kami are the souls of the virtuous, who have ascended to heaven ;,
in their honor are erected temples, in which are placed the symbols of the deity, consisting of
strips of paper, attached to a piece of wood ; these symbols are also kept in the houses, and
before these are offered the daily prayers to the kamis. The domestic chapels are also adorned
with flowers and green branches ; and 2 lamps, a cup of tea, and another of wine are placed
before them. Some animals are also venerated, as sacred to the kamis. The sacrifices,
offered at certain seasons, consist of rice, cakes, eggs, &c. Buddhism was introduced into Japan
from Corea, and in many cases is so far mingled with the religion of Sinto, that the same tem
ples serve for both, and accommodate the images of the kamis, together with those of the .
Buddhist gods. The priests of Budda, in Japan, are called Bonzes, and they are numerous,
comprising both males and females. They are under a
vow of celibacy, and there are here, as in other Buddhist
countries, large convents for both sexes. The doctrine
of Confucius has also been brought into the country, and
has many followers.
7. Inhabitants. The Japanese have a brown complex
ion, black hair, and the oblique eye, which characterizes
the Chinese. They are middle sized, well formed, and
active, and in character intelligent, courteous, industrious,
and honest, but suspicious and vindictive. They are more
cleanly than the Chinese, and more ready to adopt the im
provements of other nations. Women hold a higher rank
than in China ; they are educated with the same care as
the men, and enjoy the same degree of liberty as in Euro
pean countries. Most of the arts and sciences have been
borrowed from the Chinese, and in many respects the
Japanese are still much behind that industrious people.
The Japanese are a religious people, and their religion
deals much in festivals, of which they have 5 great annual
ones, besides 3 smaller monthly ones, celebrated rather
with noisy mirth and revels, than with religious observan
ces. Pilgrimage is the custom to which they are most
strongly addicted, and which they practise with the great
est zeal. The roads in summer are thronged with crowds
of devotees on their way to some sacred spot. Isje, the
grand temple of the chief of the celestial spirits, is the most holy of those venerated shrines.
Female Bonze.
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
971
Christianity was introduced in 1549, and extir
pated in 1638. No form of Christianity is now
tolerated. Marriage is performed in the tem
ples. The bride lights a torch at the altar, and
the bridegroom another at hers, which consti
tutes the ceremony. The funeral observances
are similar to the Chinese.
The buildings in Japan are of excessively
slight materials, and the walls are of clay ; the
interior is divided into partitions with pasteboard,
and the walls are covered with paper, which
with the rich is elegantly painted and varnish
ed. As the natives sit on the floor, there is no
occasion for the furniture which decorates our
apartments. Pomp is chiefly displayed in the
number and beauty of the mats with which the floor is spread, and the imperial hall is called
the hall of the thousand mats. Fires are frequent, and of course very destructive in the cities.
The food of the Japanese is simple, and not only animal food, but even milk and anything
made of it, is avoided. Rice is the great article of food, and tea and sacki or rice beer, are
universally consumed. The dress is plain. It consists merely of a large loose robe, resem
bling a bed-gown, made of silk or cotton, and varying with the different ranks only in fineness.
Straw shoes, which are put off at the door, are worn ; the head, which is shaved, is generally
left uncovered, except on journeys, when it is covered with a huge cap of straw or oiled paper.
The Japanese are great travelers, and this partly owing to their frequent pilgrimages, and part
ly to their great inland trade. The princes also make their annual tours with large retinues.
Japanese Lady.
CHAPTER CLIV. OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
mm iHH™
Branch of the Bread- Fruit Tree.
1. Extent. Boundaries. This vast island-world extends from 95= >E to ^° ^°fte
*nA f,„m ico N tn ^6° S latitude. It is bounded on the north by tbe Indian ucean, ine
slh7Malac?a, the 'chinese Sea, and the parallel of 35° N. ; on the east by the Pacific,
972
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
separating it from America ; on the south by the Pacific, and on the west by the Indian Ocean.
It forms the fifth great division of the globe ; the land area amounts to about 4,600,000 square
miles, and its population is variously estimated on very insufficient data, at from 15,000,000 to
20,000,000 souls. Oceania may be divided into 3 great divisions ; Malaysia, or the East In
dian Archipelago, comprising the northwestern islands, from New Guinea to the Straits of Ma
lacca ; Australia, comprising New Holland and the adjacent islands, and Polynesia, including
all those numberless groups of small islands, that are scattered over the- Pacific Ocean. Some
geographers consider Malaysia as a part of the Asiatic continent, and extend the name of
Australia to the rest of Oceania.
2. Mountains. Many of the islands contain lofty mountain chains, but the interior of most
of the larger islands is wholly un
known to us. The highest known
summits are those of Hawai, in the
Sandwich Islands, where Mouna
Roa reaches the height of nearly
16,000 feet. Several mountains in
Sumatra, Java, the Philippines, and
New Guinea, are little inferior, but
the great islands of New Holland
and Borneo contain no known eleva
tions approaching to these.
3. Volcanoes. No part of the
world presents so great a number of
volcanoes ; Java contains 15, Su
matra 5, Luconia 4, Mindanao,
Mindoro, Sumbava, and Timor,
each several. New Zealand, the
Sandwich Islands, the Friendly
Islands, &c, have one or more.
Some islands are nothing but vol
canic craters, vomiting -forth fire
from the midst of the waters. The
eruptions of some of these, even in
our own times, have altered the very
face of the land in which they ex
ist, and have been accompanied by
a vast destruction of life and prop
erty. Some islands contain only
extinct volcanoes, and the peculiar
formation of the coral islands, de
scribed below, show the operation
of volcanic action upon them. In
Shouten's islands, near New Guinea,
the flames and smoke rise calmly
over a fruitful and smiling country ;
in other islands, dreadful torrents of
black lava darken the shores. The
volcano of Gilolo broke out in 1673
with a violence which made the
whole of the Moluccas shake. The
ashes were carried as far as Magin-
danao, and the scoria and the pum
ice stones, floating on the sea, seem
ed to retard the progress of the
vessels.
4. Coral Islands. These seas are covered in different directions with small, low islands
and reefs, which are entirely of coral formation. Many of them are inhabited and covered
with groves of cocoa nut and other trees, while others are quite destitute of trees, and without
Comparative Height of the Mountains of Oceania.
Australian.
1. Celebes,
2. Bornean,
3. Moluccas
4. Philippine,
5. Java,
7,680 feet.
8,000 "
3,664 "
10,540 "
12,800 "
Malaysian.
6. Sumatra, . 15,125 "
7. Blue Mountain, 6,500 feet.
8. Swan ltiver, " 10,000 "
Pohmcsian.
9. Orcena, (Tahiti.) 10,910 "
10. Mouna Koa Hawai, in.!!50 "
H. Mouna Roa, " 15,990 "
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA. 973
lagoon, in some cases entirefy, in o" hers, 3 SS„ STcoSnfa Th *"' ," ^
reefs, some of which extend for hundreds of miles arTthl ¦ a e v ,These ls,ands and
they are formed, as the shell of m£jX ^ si t 2"^ ' Wtoe" IS? ' ^ ^
calcareous matter from the body of the creature A 1 ' k 1 Y r , secretion of a
enough to lay hold of floating seiwlctlidTbirdst pTh ^ ^th ^VmaJ b a^t
commence, beeds are deposited by land birds or by currents^egeat or springs up Id a
of tne coTal ts^fthtil.dmanSfieS,rf bil'dS 7* °[ ^'^ ^"e' m.L, and Ty'ZZZ n
. ot toe coral itselt, till man find y comes to take possession of the new creation; These coral
banks and islands are seen in all stages of their formation ; some in deep water, others fust an
pearing ,n some points above the surface ; some already elevated abofe the sea but fit!
of vegetation; others with a few weeds on their higher pans, and others again 'covered wh
arse timber. In some islands the coral rocks rise to a great height above the water, showing
tt 1 eve! n7J , b6en ^ed T ^ ™ hy V°lcanic f°rCes' since they were fo™^ bene th
the level of the waters. The walls of the interior lagoon also appear to be the lip of a former
crater, upon which, as it approached the surface, the little insects began to build ; for these
creatures are observed not to inhabit very deep waters. The entrance to the lagoon, then, in
dicates the channel by which the lava formerly flowed out of the crater.
5. Climate. With the exception of New Zealand and the larger part of New Holland
Oceania lies within the torrid zone ; but it enjoys the advantages of a vertical sun, without be
ing, except in a few cases, subject to the excessive heats of tropical regions. The insular
character of the whole region tempers and softens the climate, and mild and balmy breezes
almost everywhere fan the land with refreshing airs from the sea. The monsoons prevail in
Malaysia, on the north of the equator, blowing from the southwest half the year, and from the
northeast the other half, and on the south of the line, half of the year from the southeast, and the
remainder from the northwest. Throughout Polynesia the trade-winds prevail, blowing, on
the north of the equator from the northeast, and on the south from the southeast. In the
southern part of New Holland the variable winds prevail. Most of the islands are like a ter
restrial paradise. Perpetual spring, combined with perpetual summer, displays the opening
blossom, mingled with the ripened fruits. A perfume of exquisite sweetness embalms the at
mosphere, which is continually refreshed by the wholesome breezes from the sea. Here might
mankind, if they could throw off their vices, lead lives, exempt from trouble and from want.
Their bread grows on the trees which shade their lawns, and the light barks glide on the tran
quil seas, protected from the swelling surge, by the coral reefs which enclose them.
6. Geology. Minerals. Over so wide a tract, the geological formation is of course very
various ; but the primitive, and the volcanic or trap formations prevail. To the former belong
Borneo and Celebes, and in those where granite is the principal rock, gold abounds, while some
of them also contain the richest tin deposites in the world. The basaltic or volcanic formation
embraces the whole chain of islands from Java to Sumbava inclusive, and comprehends most
of the islands lying between Celebes and Papua, famous for the production of the clove and
nutmeg. The basaltic islands are deficient in metals, but are more than compensated for it, in
most cases, by the superior fertility of the soil. Of the mixed primitive and volcanic formations
are composed the island of Sumatra, and the principal islands of the Philippines. In these gold
is found, but less abundantly than in the primitive districts ; they are, however, more fertile
than the latter. New Holland comprises almost every variety of geological formation. It
abounds in coal, which is also found in Sumatra, Java, and some of the smaller islands. The
diamond is found only in Borneo. Copper occurs in Sumatra, Luconia, and Timor. Lead
is found in Luconia ; and perhaps the most abundant ore of antimony in the world, and which
now supplies the European market, is found in Borneo. Iron is not abundant.
7. Vegetation. Oceanica yields a rich and varied vegetation, comprising some of the most
durable wood, the most precious spices, and some of the most nourishing and exquisite of
fruits. The vegetation of the small islands, however, is often extremely meagre, and that of
the largest, New Holland, although for the most part new and strange, comprises very few use
ful plants. The greater portion of the land still remains in a state of nature, undisturbed by
human industry. The clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus), one of the most valuable commodities
of commerce, is a native of' Moluccas, but its cultivation has been extended to various parts
of the East and West Indies. The spice in common use is the unexpanded flower, the corolla
974 OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
forming a ball on the top, between the teeth of the calyx. Its use in giving flavor to dishes
and wines, and as stimulant, tonic, and exhilarating in medicine, are well known. When gath
ered, they are dried by the fire or in the sun. The berry is preserved in sugar and eaten after
dinner to promote digestion. The nutmeg tree (Myristica officinalis) is also a native of the
Moluccas, and chiefly of the Banda Islands, where it bears both blossom and fruit at all sea
sons- of the year. Mace is an inner coating covering the seed or nutmeg, which, when dried, is
soaked in sea-water and impregnated with lime, to preserve it from worms ; the mace is also
dried and sprinkled with salt-water. The pepper vine (Piper nigrum) is cultivated in Penang,
Sumatra, &c, and its seed is highly prized as an excellent tonic, calculated to create appe
tite and promote digestion, for which it is especially valuable to those whose diet is almost
wholly vegetable, like the Asiatics. Black pepper is the pepper-corn covered with its natural
husk ; when this is removed by soaking it in water and drying it, the grain forms white pepper,
which is less pungent than the black. Among the fruits of these islands, are the guava (Psi-
dium pyriferum), the mango (Mangifera Indicas), the delicate mangosteen (Garcinia man-
gostana), perhaps the most exquisite of known fruits, the durion (Durio zibethinus), certainly
the most rich and luscious, and the Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis) , which is highly prized
by the natives. The true ginger (Zinziber officinale) is indigenous, but is now extensively
cultivated in other countries. The teak is also a product of Malaysia. The Raffesia Ar-
noldii, a plant without a stem, without leaves, with roots of the slenderest texture, growing
parasitically upon the stem of a vine, yet produces the largest known flower ; its diameter
being not less than 3| feet, and its weight 15 pounds. This superb flower, however, which
is a native of Sumatra, has a disagreeable odor and soon decays. The pitcher-plant (Nepen
thes distillatoria) takes its name from its pitcher-shaped leaf, which contains a quantity of lim
pid fluid. The Australian islands, on the other hand, although they produce a great number
of singular vegetable forms, interesting to the botanical student, are remarkable for the almost
total absence of any that are of economical value. The palms are few ; there are several cone-
bearing trees of a large size, such as the celery-topped pine (Podocarpus asplenifolia) , several
species of callitris and the Araucaria excelsa ; the singular grass-tree (Kingia Australis), the
pandanus, and numerous species of swamp oak (Casuarina), remarkable for their long, weep
ing, thread-like branches, are also common ; but the gigantic gum-trees (Eucalyptus), and the
wattle-trees (Acacius), are, perhaps, as numerous as all the other vegetable species taken to
gether. The numerous small islands, which are scattered alone or in groups all over the ocean,
contain many highly valuable plants. The bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa) is the principal
article of diet among these islanders, and the tree, besides producing three or four crops annu
ally, also furnishes resin, cloth from its bark, and a valuable timber from its trunk. The fruit
is eaten raw, or cooked by baking it in pits, over which hot stones are placed. It is some
times allowed to undergo fermentation when it is called main. The cocoa-nut tree is abundant
in the tropical islands, and is the next valuable tree to the bread-fruit. It grows also in the
most barren, rocky, and sandy spots. The bark, the wood, the leaves, the fibres, that cover the
base of the leaves, and the fruit, are all serviceable. The maia, or plantain (Musa sapientum),
and banana (M. paradisiaca) , for the natives apply the same name to both, is at once sweet and
nutritive, and when the bread-fruit is not in season, the mape or native chestnut (Inocarpus
edulis) furnishes a good substitute. For clothing the natives chiefly make use of the bark of
the paper mulberry (Morus papyrifera) , which is beaten out with mallets, and tastefully dyed,
but is not durable. The leaves of the hala (Pandanus odoratissimus) afford a large and
fine mat. The sandal wood (Santalum Freycinetianum) is exported in large quantities to
China, where it is used for preparing incense for the temples. The tutui-tree (Aleurites trilo
ba) affords a nut which, before the introduction of oil by the whites, was used for candles by
the islanders ; 30 or 40 nuts are strung on a rush, and being full of oil, they make a good light.
The to or sugar-cane is indigenous in the Sandwich islands, and was eaten raw by the natives,
until they were taught by the whites to make sugar from it. The ti (Dracaena terminalis),
whose root is sweet and palatable, and yields by fermentation a wholesome beer, has been
made to produce by distillation a spirituous liquor, called kava, which has spread ruin and de
bauchery over some of these Edens of the sea. " The roots of the yam (Dioscorea alata), and
the taro (Arum esculentum), are also much used for food ; the latter is made into a sort of
bread called poe.
The New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) is superior to anything that is produced in any
other country for the purposes to which it is applied. Of the leaves, the natives make cloth
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
975
and cordage remarkable for strength, with very little preparation ; and by another process, long
slender fibres, white, and of a silky lustre, are obtained from the leaf of the same plant, and
used for fine cloths. The fibre is separated by the native women with a shell, and no hackling
or cleaning is required to fit it for use.
8. Animals. The quadrumanous families are very numerous, and very widely diffused in
Oceanica, and most of the species are peculiar to this division of the world. The most
Comparative Size of Animals of Oceanica.
1. Orang Outang.
2. Bird of Paradise.
3 Kangaroo.
4. Duck Billed Platypus.
5. Black Swan. 6. Paroquet.
7. Parrot.
8. Anaconda.
9. Boa Constrictor.
10. New Holland Cereopsis.
11. " " Emeu.
remarkable among them is the Orang Outang (Pithecus satyrus), or man °f the forest as the
obtained have not exceeded 4 feet in height, but these were not adults, and, according
976
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
some naturalists, the pongo, which is said to be much larger, is only the adult orang outang.
Several of these animds have been kept in captivity, and have been found to be gentle,
timid, and playful, but
showing none of the gri
maces and antics of the
other apes. These crea
tures carry their young in
their arms. The Gibbon
or long-armed ape ( P.
lar) is equally tractable
and gentle, and, from the
great length of its arms,
appears to be standing in
an erect posture, even
when going on all fours.
It is found in the Moluc
cas. The siamang gib
bon (P- syndactylus) is
found in Sumatra, where
they fill the woods at
sunset and sunrise with
loud and frightful yellings.
They go in large troops,
which are said to be head
ed by a chief, considered
by the Malays as invul-
Pongo, or Adult Orang Outang.
nerable. Numerous species of monkey (Semnopithecus) also abound in this great archipelago
Young Orang Outang.
Siamang.
The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larratus) is distinguished by its long and projecting nose,
which gives its head the appearance of a comic mask.
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
977
Some of the bats exhibit a strange appearance, and are remarkable for their size ; the Tippet
Bat (Cheiromeles torquatus), and the Lorts-
snouted Bat (Pteropus rostratus) of Javt,
and the Vampire or Roussette of Tinur (P
gnseus) are the principal.
_ One species of bear (Ursus Malaianus)
is known to inhabit Borneo, and it is not
improbable, that others may be found in
some of the large islands.
It is singular, that the great continent of
New Holland contains but one animal of
the carnivorous order, which is the Dingo,
or New Holland dog (Canis Australasia:),
which is of medium size, and although
found in a semi-domesticated state, is fierce
and voracious ; it is said not to bark. The
dog of Sumatra (C. Sumatrensis) is wild
and untameable ; it hunts in large packs, in
Bornean Bear.
,, e t c , . . rr,, duu umameaDie ; it nunts in large packs, in
the forests of die interior. There appear to be several species of tiger, and perhaL a lion in
the great islands of Malaysia, but nothing is known of them except from the imperfect accounts
ot the natives. Ihe Javanese Civet (Vivcrra rasse) is distinguished for its slender form, and
it yields a perfume of which the natives are fond.
Javanese Civet.
Kangaroos.
Austrdia or Melanesia is characterized by the great number of its marsupial animals, there
being no less than 43 species of the order, which is rare in other parts -of the world. The
most remarkable are the Kangaroos (Macropus), of which there are several species ; the largest
are about the size of a sheep, and are the largest land animal of New Holland. Theyare fur
nished with a pouch, like the opossums, into which the young retire, and move by enormous
leaps, which they are enabled to do by the great length of their hind legs. They are timid and
gentle, and feed in large herds on the open downs, living wholly upon vegetables. Their flesh is
esteemed a great delicacy. Nearly allied to these are the Pottoros, or Kangaroo-rats (Hypsi-
prijmnus) , which are about the size of a rabbit ; the Ring-tailed Opossums, or Phalangers
(Phalangista), which have prehensile tails ; the Flying Opossums (Petaurus), sometimes called
by the inhabitants flying squirrels ; the Wombat (Phascolomys) , which burrows in the ground ;
the Dasgures (Dasgurus), and the Dog-faced Opossum (Thylacynus) of Van Diemen's
Land. The Babyroussa Hog (Sus babyrusa) is found in several of the Malaysian islands, and is
remarkable for its enormous and singularly- curled tusks ; it seems to be intermediate between
a hog and a deer, and its Malay name, babyroussa, signifies hog-deer. There are 2 species
of Rhinoceros known to inhabit Sumatra, in which there are also found a peculiar species
of Tapir (Tapirus Malayanus), and great numbers of elephants. The Rusa Deer (Cervus
123
978
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
equinus) is common to the Malaysian archipelago and the continent of Asia, and there are
several other deer peculiar to the
islands. The Duck-billed Platypus (Pla
typus anatinus) is one of those ano
malous productions for which New
Holland is so remarkable. With the
bill and webbed feet of the duck, it
combines the usual characteristics of
a quadruped, and thus forms the con
necting link between the two great
classes of birds and quadrupeds. It
is covered with fur, and is about J 6
or 18 inches long, inhabiting wet,
muddy spots.
The birds of Mdaysia exhibit
some of the most superb specimens
of this beautiful class ; while New
Holland here, as in other depart
ments, furnishes several novel forms.
The Wedge-tailed Eagle (Falco fus-
cosus) is peculiar to New Holland,
and preys on emeus, kangaroos, and
other large animals. The Lyre Bird
(Menura superba) is also found in
New Holland, and is not more dis
tinguished for its fine voice, than for
its graceful plumage. The manners of
k occasionally perches on trees, but is for the most
Rusa Deer.
Duck-billed Platypus.
this rare and beautiful bird are little known
-part found on the ground ; it begins to sing early in the morning, elevating its tail, scratching up
Wedge-tailed Eagle.
Lyre Bird.
the ground, like some of the pheasants, and occasionally imitating other birds, although it has a fine
natural note of its own. The birds of paradise, "birds of gold and every colored gem," are
natives of New Guinea and the adjacent islands, where several species of exquisite beauty are
found. Among them is the Greater Bird of Paradise (Paradisea major) , which is about the
OCEANICA, OR OCEANIA.
979
size of a thrush, and is distinguished by its long, flowing plumes, composed of fine, delicate
webs, floating from each side of the chest, and by two slender, naked shafts of great length,
^m
MHimf
I
MsBmw
W.'*srob*TO™*«!ii :fl* "Of' 'TlwEv *
"¦MSte.
Greater Bird of Paradise. Cassowary.
which spring from the tail coverts. The Cassowary (Casuarius) is found in Java, Sumatra,
and the Moluccas, and is nearly allied to the ostrich, the emeu, and the rhea. It is very fleet,
and will defend itself by striking with its feet and wings, but is often kept tame in the islands ;
its food is chiefly fruit and eggs.
The Emeu (Dromaius) is a native of New Holland, and is somewhat like the Cassowary.
It is of the same general character as the
ostrich, and is next to it in size ; it runs
with great swiftness, by the aid of its wings.
The emeu is sometimes hunted for its flesh,
which has the flavor of beef. This bird
has been transported to Europe, and is now
bred -in the king's park at Windsor.
The Black Sioan (Cygnus atratus) is
found in New Holland and Van Diemen's
Land. In form and habits it is similar to
the white swan, but somewhat smaller.
Most of the aquatic birds are common to
other parts of the world, but the Cereopsis
is peculiar to New Holland., It is about
the size of a goose, and the only example
of this form.
9. Inhabitants. There are at least two,
and probably several more, distinct races
Cereopsis. 0f men jn tnese islands ; one of these is
black ; but, although negroes, they are entirely different from the negroes of Africa, and have
980 MALAYSIA.
been called by different writers Negritos, or little negroes, Australian negroes, Papuas, and
Melanesians, or Black Islanders. They are found, in the interior of some of the Malaysian
islands, but they form almost the whole population of Melanesia. They have thick lips, flat
noses, a sooty-brown or dingy-black Complexion, and woolly hair ; in their persons they are
small and slender, and present some of the most diminutive and wretched specimens of humani
ty. They differ from the African negroes in some peculiarities of formation, such as a higher
forehead, a projecting occiput, and prominent lower lips, and their frame has nothing of that
muscular strength, that characterizes the African. They go naked, have no regular habitations,
or organized government, and practise cannibalism ; even their arms are of the simplest and
rudest construction. Some writers consider the inhabitants of New Caledonia, the Feejee
Islands, &c., as a distinct race, which has a dark, but not black complexion ; crisp, but not
woolly hair ; and of a larger size than the Negritos.
The second great race of Oceanica, and which' comprises by far the greatest number of indi
viduals, is a yellow or brown complexioned race, with long, lank hair, thin beard, high cheek
bones, large mouths, and short noses with wide nostrils. In person they are squat, but robust,
their stature being much less than that of Europeans, and even below that of the Hindoos, Chi
nese, or Birmese. This race has been called the Malay race, and constitutes almost the whole
population of the great islands of Malaysia, and the thousand groups of Polynesia. Several
nations of this stock have reached as high a degree of civilization as some of the Asiatic nations
of secondary rank, such as the Siamese ; but others, especially in the small islands, are little
superior in their social and civil condition to the Negritos, leading a wandering life, and subsist
ing on the spontaneous products of the forest, rivers, or seacoast. Among the former, or more
civilized nations, the Javanese, the Malays of Sumatra, the Bugis of Celebes, and the Luco-
nians in the Philippines, are particularly distinguished, but many other tribes of this region are
little inferior to them. Further details as to the manners, government, religion, &c, of these
nations, will occur more appropriately under the separate heads according to which they are
noticed.
CHAPTER CLV. MALAYSIA, OR EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO.
1. Extent. Malaysia, or the Country of the Malays, more commonly called the East Indian
Archipelago, and by many geographers reckoned a part of Asia, comprises a great number of
islands, separated from Asia by the Straits of Malacca and the Chinese Sea, and extending
from 12° south, to 21° north latitude, and from 95° to 134° east longitude. The principal
islands and groups included within these limits are the Sunda Islands, comprising Sumatra,
Java, Banca, Bali, Sumbava, Timor, and other neighboring isles ; Borneo, Celebes, and the
Sooloo Islands ; the Moluccas, and the Philippines.
2. Climate, Productions, &c. Situated in the middle of the torrid zone, Malaysia enjoys
the advantages of a tropical climate, the intense heats of which are tempered by the vicinity of
the sea. In those islands which .lie north of the equator, the monsoons blow southwest and
northeast ; in those to the south, southeast and northwest ; the easterly winds bring the dry
season, which in northern latitudes is from October to May, and in southern, from May to Oc
tober ; the westerly monsoons prevail during the wet season. Some parts of the Malaysia are
subject to violent hurricanes, and earthquakes are frequent and destructive in many of the islands.
The rich soil, watered by copious showers and warmed by a vertical sun, yields in profusion
the most precious spices, useful nutritious plants, and valuable woods. Sandal wood, ebony,
teak, numerous species of palms, furnishing dates, cocoas, and sago, various dye-woods, pep
per, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, camphor, gum benzoin, and many excellent fruits, are among
the vegetable productions. Some gold and silver, and tin, iron, copper, and lead, are found.
Borneo is the only region beside India, Brazil, and Russia, which affords diamonds. The air,
the earth, and the waters swarm with animals ; the tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir inhabit
the same marshes and forests, as the orang outangs and the huge python. The babyroussa, kan
garoo, &c, and among the birds, the cassowary, and the brilliant birds of paradise, are charac
teristic of this region.
3. Rivers. Seas. Straits. The insular character of this region precludes the existence of
large rivers, but considerable streams abound in the larger islands, which, as well as the rivulets
of the smaller, are perennial, being fed by rains, that fall throughout the year. The Straits of
MALAYSIA.
981
Malacca and the Straits of Sunda separate Sumatra from Asia and Java ; the latter is the
common route for ships from the Indian Ocean into the Sea of Java, which lies between Java
and Borneo, and from which the Banca Stmits, between Banca and Billiton, and Billiton
Straits, or Carimata Passage, between Billiton and Borneo, lead into the Chinese Sea. Bali
Straits, east of Java, and Lombock Straits, between Bali and Lombock islands, form passages
into the broad channel between Borneo and Celebes, called the Straits of Macassar ; north
of the latter island is the Sooloo Sea, and between the Sooloo Island and Palawan is the Min-
doro Sea. The Molucca Passage, between Celebes and Gilolo, and Gilolo Pass, between
Gilolo and Wageoo, are channels leading from the Pacific into a spacious sea, extending from
Timorlant to Celebes, called the Sea of Banda, or the Moluccas Sea.
4. Sumatra. Sumatra, separated from Java by the Straits of Sunda, is a large island, 800
miles in length by 170 in breadth, with an area of 136,000 square miles. It is traversed
through its whole length by a lofty range of mountains, reaching to an elevation of 15,000 feet ;
Mount Ophir, directly under the equator, is 13,800 feet high. This chain contains 5 volca
noes in constant activity. Sumatra is in part occupied by independent native powers, and in
part by the Dutch.
The kingdom of Acheen is in the northern part of the island ; it is now much reduced, but
in the 16th and 17th centuries it included a great part of the island, and of the peninsula of
Malacca. At that time, the commercial relations of the Acheenese extended from Japan to
Arabia, and their marine consisted of 500 vessels ; they are still among the best navigators and
most commercial people of this quarter of the globe. Acheen, the capital, is a large town, in a
fertile and well-cultivated district ; the town itself stands in the midst of a thick forest of cocoa
trees, bamboos, and bananas, upon low ground, which is liable to be inundated, and most of the
houses are constructed of bamboo, and raised upon piles several feet from the ground. Popu
lation, about 30,000.
The kingdom of Siak, inhabited by piratical Malays, and the country of the Battas, occu
pied by a confederation of independent Batta chiefs, lie to the south of Acheen. The rest of
the island belongs to the Dutch. Padang, an important commercial town, with 10,000 in
habitants, Bencoolen, 10,000, and Palembang, on the eastern coast, with 25,000 inhabitants,
are the chief places within their jurisdiction. Opposite to Palembang is the island of Banca,
noted for its tin mines, and with Billiton, forming a distinct province. On the southwestern
side are Engano, the Poggy isles, Nyas, Bali, &c.
5. Java. Java, one of the most populous and flourishing countries in this region, belongs
entirely to the Dutch. It is 640 miles long,
by 60 wide, having an area of 50,000 square
miles, and containing 4,000,000 inhabitants. A
high chain of mountains, containing 38 active
volcanoes, traverses the island. The western
part of the island is generally level, and capa
ble of general cultivation. Here the English,
when they possessed the island, placed the cen
tre of their commerce and dominion, and here
is still the chief seat of the Dutch power.
The eastern part is mountainous and wooded,
and contains many beautiful and fertile valleys,
cultivated on the native system, this section
having always been occupied by powerful native
princes. Batavia, the capital of the Dutch possessions
the East, and the emporium of Dutch
- - - the
Javanese. in the li>ast, ana uie euijjunu... ^ , r
with China, Japan, India, and Malaysia, has a spacious and safe harbor, but the
remelv unhealthy. It contains a number of public buildings in the European .style
commercetown is extremely unhealthy
and has a population of 60 000, more than one half of which ^^^^l^
about one quarter are slaves. Bantam, also in the western part of the is and, was he capnal
' the English settlements in the Indian Archipelago, until Java was transferred to
of all
Dutch.
Samarang, also built in the European style, is a place of some commerce,
about 40,000 inhabitants.
and contains
982
MALAYSIA.
Suracarta, a large Javanese town, composed of a cluster of small villages, with 100,000
inhabitants, and Jocjocarta, of about the same size, are capitals of powerful native States in the
eastern part of the island. The Dutch maintain powerful garrisons in this quarter. Sourabaya,
in this section, is a flourishing seaport, with a safe and spacious road, and a fine naval arsenal.
Its position makes it the chief mart for the products of the surrounding country, and a conven
ient place of refreshment for ships bound to China or the Philippines. Population, 50,000.
The Dutch early formed settlements in Java, but during the wars of the French revolution
these fell into the hands of the English, who, however, restored them to their former masters
at the peace of 1815.
Timor is the largest of the chain of small islands lying east of Java ; it belongs chiefly to
the Portuguese and Dutch.
6. Borneo. This island, the largest in the world after New Holland, is but imperfectly
known to us. It is 800 miles in length by 700 in breadth, with an area of 300,000 square
miles, and is supposed to contain about 4,000,000 inhabitants. It is separated from Celebes
by the Strait of Macassar, and from Java by the Java Sea. The Dutch have settlements, or
ports upon the western, southern, and eastern coasts, but the greater part is in the possession
of independent native powers. Borneo is a town of some commerce, and is built chiefly upon
piles in the midst of canals. It is the capital of the kingdom of Borneo, in the northwestern
part of the island, and appears to contain about 10,000 inhabitants, many of whom live in boats.
Banjermassin is the capital of a native kingdom, on the southern coast, under the control of
the Dutch.
Off the eastern coast of Borneo is the Sooloo or Suluk Archipelago, consisting of about 30
small islands ; the inhabitants are almost entirely devoted to piracy, for which their situation on
one of the most frequented routes of these seas, gives them great facilities, and in which from
300 to 400 vessels are constantly engaged, with the sanction and indeed the participation of
their prince. Yet the people of this Eastern Algiers are very much given to commerce.
7. Celebes. Celebes or Macassar, is a large island of extremely irregular shape, being
composed of 4 great peninsulas. It has an area of about 55,000 square miles, and its popula
tion is estimated at 3,000,000. Most of the island is occupied by native States, which are
tributaries to the Dutch ; the latter have some ports, but no considerable town on tbe island.
The site of the once populous town of Macassar is now occupied by the petty village of Vla-
ardingen. The Macassars and the Bugis are the leading tribes of the island : but the former
have fallen from their ancient supremacy. The latter are divided into several powerful States,
and are the most civilized and improved, as well as the most commercial people of the Archi
pelago. 8. Moluccas or Spice Islands, This group comprises a great number of islands, belongirg
to the Dutch, or at least subject to them. The principal are Gilolo, Ceram, Banda, Amboy-
na, Ternate, and Tidore. Banda. and the small islands around it, are exclusively devoted to
the culture of the nutmeg-tree, of which mace and nutmeg are the products. In order to se
cure the monopoly of these valuable articles, which are produced nowhere else in perfection,
the Dutch bribed the chiefs of the other islands to root out all the trees in their dominions, and,
having exterminated or expelled the natives
of Banda, parcelled out the land to a few
Europeans called park-keepers, who cultiva
ted the plantations by slaves or convicts.
Amboyna and the neighboring islands are de
voted to the cultivation of the clove-tree, in
regard to which the same policy has been
pursued ; but this odious system appears now
to be abandoned. The seas around these
islands abound in whales.
9. Philippines. This archipelago com
prises about l.,000 islands, many of which are
large and populous, and contains above
3,000,000 inhabitants. The Spaniards claim
these islands, but there are several powerful
States, and numerous small tribes, which
Inhabitants of Luzon. are entirely independent. The two largest
MALAYSIA. 983
islands are Luzon and Mindanao ; the former has an area of 53,000 square miles ; the latter
of about 30,000. There are numerous volcanoes in these and the other islands.
Manilla, the capital of all the Spanish colonies in the east, is a large, populous, and flourish
ing city on Luzon, situated at the head of a fine bay, upon a noble river, which divides it into 2
parts. It is handsomely built, and contains the residence of the governor-general, a cathe
dral, several convents, and numerous churches, some of which are richly decorated. Manilla
is the centre of an active commerce, and its harbor is thronged with European, American,
and Chinese vessels. Population, 150,000. The kingdom of Mindanao, with an area of
16,000 square miles, and 36,000 inhabitants, is entirely independent ; the sultan of Sooloo
holds the large island of Palawan, which is but imperfectly known.
10. Inhabitants. Two distinct races are found in these islands ; one of these is black, and
is found in the interior of Borneo and the Philippine Isles, but .comprises a small part of the
population. The great mass of the inhabitants are tribes or nations of Malay origin. They
are in general of a dark yellow complexion, but with a great variety of shades, with black or
dark hair, and well formed. In their social condition they present great diversities, but have
mostly made more or less progress in the arts and in civilization, having regularly organized
governments, and written characters. They exhibit a singular combination cf vigor and impet
uosity in action, with mildness and apathy when urged by no powerful motive. As enemies
they are bold, remorseless, and vindictive ; as friends too often capricious and treacherous.
With these dispositions they are naturally inclined to predatory warfare, and piracy has ever
been a favorite pursuit. In their usages we often find a similar mixture of mildness and feroci
ty, gentle manners, covering the horrible practices of cannibalism, infanticide, and human sacri
fices. The principal nations of Malaysia are the Javanese and Sundays of Java ; the Malays
Proper, who inhabit the coast of Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluccas, Timor, &c. ; the Achee-
nese, Rejangs, Lampongs, and Battas of Sumatra ; the Macassars and Bugis of Celebes ; the
Tagals, Bissayos, and Sooloos of the Philippines, and some others. Most of these nations
are Mahometans ; but the Battas, the Haraforas of the interior of Borneo, and many others,
are heathens.
The Malays Proper and the Javanese are the most numerous and the most civilized ; they
have at different times founded extensive empires, and have valuable literature. These, with
many of the other nations, have, from time immemorial, practised agriculture ; worked mines,
and possessed the art of weaving ; domesticated the buffalo, the ox, the hog, and other ani
mals ; formed calendars, and had systems of arithmetic. They have practised navigation with
great skill and boldness, and carried on a distant commerce from a remote period. The
Battas, however, who possess these arts of civilization, have established a sort of legal, or ju
dicial cannibalism ; the punishment of several crimes by their laws, is, to be eaten alive. On
the day fixed for the execution of the sentence, the person injured has the privilege of cutting
off the first morsel, and he is followed in succession by the rest of the district. Besides this,
it is usual for the Battas and some other nations to eat their prisoners of war.
984
AUSTRALIA, OR AUSTRALASIA.
CHAPTER CLVI. AUSTRALIA, OR AUSTRALASIA
New Holland.
1. Extent. Australia comprises the islands lying round New Holland, and situated between
1° N. and 45° S. lat., and between 110° and 180° E. long., with the exception of those al
ready described as belonging to Malaysia on the northwest, and the group of New Zealand on
the southwest. These limits include New Holland with Van Diemen's Land ; Papua or New
Guinea with the Louisiade ; New Britain, Neio Ireland, and the neighboring islands ; Solo
mon's Islands ; New Hebrides ; New Caledonia ; and the Feejee Islands.
2. Straits and Seas. Torres's Straits on the north, and Bass's Straits on the south, sepa
rate New Holland from New Guinea and Van Diemen's Land. Dampier's Straits are be
tween New Guinea and New Britain, and St. George's Channel between the latter and New
Ireland. 3. Animals. Except dogs, rats, and on some of the islands hogs, nearly all the quadrupeds
of this part of the world are of the marsupial or opossum tribe, having the hinder legs very
long, and a sack or pouch under the belly, in which the young take refuge. The platypus or
ornithorhynchus presents the singular spectacle of a quadruped, covered with fur, laying eggs,
and having the bill of a duck, and spurs armed with a poisonous fluid ; it is a little animal
about a foot long. The echidna or spinous ant-eater is another singular creature nearly allied
to the former. The birds are no less singular than the beasts, there being black swans, and
white eagles ; the beautiful little birds of par
adise, and the tall emeu, also inhabit these
regions. 4. New Holland. This large island, or
more properly continent, is but imperfectly
known. It extends from 11° to 39° S.lat.,
and from 113° to 153° E. long., being about
1,500 miles in breadth from north to south,
and 2,600 in length from east to west, and
having an area of about 3,000,000 square
miles. Of this vast extent we are acquaint
ed only with the coasts, excepting that some
exploring parties have penetrated several
hundred miles inland from the eastern shore,
and to a still less distance on the western. A
range of high mountains extends parallel Io
the eastern coast about 50 or 60 miles from
Black Swan.
the sea. From their western declivities several large rivers descend, but they appear to be
mostly branches of one great stream, which enters the sea on the southern coast under the
name of the river Murray. The English -claim the whole continent, and have formed 3 colo
nies, New South Wales on the east, Sioan River or Western Australia on the west, and South
em Australia on the south coast.
AUSTRALIA, OR AUSTRALASIA.
985
New Holland presents a series of striking contrasts to those parts of the world with which we
are most laminar, and which have been thus summed up by a resident. " It is New Holland,
wnere it is summer when it is winter in Europe, and vice versa ; where the barometer rises be
fore bad weather and falls before good ; where the north is the hot wind, and the south the
cold ; where the humblest house is fitted up with cedar (Cedrela toona) ; where the fields are
fenced with mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta) ; and myrtle trees (Myrtacem) are burned for fuel ;
where the swans are black, and the eagles are white ; where the mole (Anatinus platypus) lays
eggs, and has a duck's bill ; where there is a bird (Melliphaga) with a broom in its mouth in
stead of a tongue ; where there is a fish, one half belonging to the genius Raia, and the other
to that of the Squalus ; where the pears are made of wood (Xylomelum pyriforme), with the
stalk at the broader end ; and where the cherry (Exocarpus cupressiformis) grows with the
stone on the outside."
New South Wales comprises an indefinite extent of country, the actual settlements stretch
ing about 200 miles inland, and about 600 miles along the coast from Moreton Bay in 27° to
36° south latitude. The colony is divided into 17 counties, which are subdivided into parishes
and townships. The principal product is wool ; the colonists are also actively engaged in the
whale and seal fisheries. The population amounts to about 60,000, of which about 25,000
are convicts. The latter class are persons, who, being convicted of certain crimes in England,
are sentenced to transportation. On their arrival, part are retained in the service of govern
ment, and the remainder are distributed among the free colonists as laborers and servants.
Those in the service of government are divided into gangs, under the management of over
seers. They are clothed, fed, and lodged, at the expense of government, and are permitted
to spend the latter part of the day in amusement or in labor on their own account. Those dis
tributed among the colonists are supported by their masters, and either work by task, or for
the same number of hours as those in the service of government. At the expiration of the
term for which they were sentenced, they may return to England, or remain in the colony, re
ceiving a grant of 40 acres of land, stock, and provisions.
Sydney, the capital, stands on Port Jackson, one of the most spacious and safe har
bors in the world. It is irregularly
built, and contains several churches
and meeting-houses, public schools,
banks, &c, with about 18,000 in
habitants. It carries on an active
commerce not only with the Cape
Colony and England, but with New
Zealand, China, and India. Para
matta, also upon Port Jackson, in a
pleasant situation, is the usual resi
dence of the governor ; it is a flour
ishing town with 3,000 inhabitants,
and contains an observatory. Swan
River Colony on the western coast
was founded in 1829, and is in a
flourishing state. Perth is the cap-
, ... , ital. The population here consists
Sydney, New South Wales. r i * • j i.
a "' of voluntary emigrants, and numbers
about 5,000 souls. The soil is represented to be good in this vicinity, but the heat is intense,
and the droughts are discouraging to the husbandman. The little colony of Southern Austra
lia, situated between 132° and 141° east longitude, lies around Spencer's Gulf on the southern
coast. The companv has received from the crown a grant of 400,000 square miles, the pro
ceeds of the sales of" which are to be applied to the conveying of laborers to the colony. The
interior of this tract has not been explored. The climate of New Holland is temperate and
agreeable, the soil, as far as is known, not remarkable for fertility, and the country is liable to
long droughts, which do much injury. The natives are blacks, and not numerous.
New Holland was discovered by the Dutch in 1606, but it was not till about 12 years later
that they began to be aware of the extent of the newfound land, and to make systematic explo
rations of the coast. Between 1618 and 1628, they had visited points of the whole northern,
western, and southern coast, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the vicinity of Spencer s Gulf,
124
986
AUSTRALIA, OR AUSTRALASIA.
and the names of Arnheim's and De Witt's Land on the north, of Enracht's, Edel's, and
Leeuwen's Land on the west, and Nuyt's Land, still attest their early discoveries. The En
glish visited these shores and made some discoveries toward the close of the 17th century, but
it was nearly 100 years later, that Cook discovered the whole eastern coast from Cape Howe
to Cape York, and called it New South Wales. Grant's Land, Bass's Land, and Flinder's
Land on the southern coast, are also English discoveries. In 1788, the English government
determined to establish a convict colony on Botany Bay, but a more favorable site was after
ward selected on Port Jackson in the neighborhood, to which the colony was transferred ; yet
the former name is still applied to the colony in common language. The government of the
colony is vested in a governor and executive and legislative councils, all of whom are appointed
by the crown.
The convict population forms the most prominent branch of society ; on their arrival they
are called canaries, in reference to their parti-colored dress, but after due probation they take
the name of government men, which they continue to bear, the term convict being banished
from the colonial vocabulary. They are at first employed on the government works, but in
case of good conduct, are distributed among the voluntary emigrants as farm servants. If they
continue to maintain a good character, they are after a while set free, when they are known as
emancipists, with whom the voluntary emigrants, however, rarely consent to associate, even
when they have obtained a respectable standing, by industry and good behaviour. Those who
have committed any offence, which has subjected them to punishment after their arrival, are
distinguished from those who have maintained an irreproachable character, by tbe epithet of
impure emancipists. The children of the convicts are generally observed to be remarkable for
good conduct, as if shocked by the vices and warned by the fate, of their parents. Those
born in the colony are called currency, in distinction from the emigrants from the mother coun
try who are called sterling. These Anglo- Australians are generally tall, thin, and pale, but
active and industrious, and are said to entertain a great dislike and contempt for the old country.
Women are scarce, and the female convicts are generally of a much more abandoned character
than the male, and several cargoes of virtuous young women, under the age of 30 years, have
lately been shipped from England to this market, as wives for the colonists ; such an arrange
ment, it is well known, was also necessary in some of our own sister colonies. The system
of penal or convict colonies is an expensive one, but seems adapted to a country with an over
grown population like England, and, perhaps, holds out better hopes of the reform and restora
tion to society of the convicts than the crowded and ill-conducted prisons of that country.
3. Van Diemen's Land. Van Diemen's Land or Tasmania, as it is sometimes called, is
separated from New Holland by Bass's Strait, and is a fertile island about 200 miles in length
from north to south, and 170 in breadth. It presents an agreeable variety of surface, is well
watered by several fine rivers, and
contains many safe and commodious
harbors. It belongs to the English,
and, like New South Wales, is a pe
nal colony. The population is about
35,000, of which nearly one third
are convicts. Hobartstown, the cap
ital, is pleasantly situated at the
mouth of the Derwent, with an ex
cellent harbor. It is a thriving town,
with a flourishing commerce and
15,000 inhabitants. Launcestown,
on the northern part of the island,
has about 3,000 inhabitants. The
government and state of society are
similar to those of New South
Wales. The island was discovered
by Tasman, a Dutch navigator, in
1642, and by him named in honor of the governor-general of Batavia. It was first ascer
tained to be a separate island by Bass, in 1798, and in 1803, the first convict colony was
landed here.
4, Papua, New Britain, &c. Of the other islands of Austrdia, our knowledge is confined
Hobartstown, Van Diemen's Land.
AUSTRALIA, OR AUSTRALASIA.
987
Massacre Islander.
to the coasts, and even this is very slight. It ap
pears to be still doubtful whether what is called by
some Louisiade is not a part of Papua ; the latter,
called also New Guinea, is separated from New
Holland by Torres's Strait, and from New Britain
by Dampier's Strait. The extent of New Britain
and New Ireland is not known, nor has the group
of which they form a part ever been examined with
accuracy enough to determine of what number
of islands it consists. Solomon's Islands have
been rarely visited. New Hebrides consists of a
cluster of islands, some of which are of consid
erable magnitude ; Espiritu Santo and Mallicolo
are the principal. The group of the Fejee
Islands is much resorted to by American ships
for beche de mar and tortoise shell.
Captain Morrill, who recently discovered the
Massacre Islands, in about 5° south, and 156°
east, describes the natives as being nearly as
dark-skinned as Africans. The annexed sketch
was drawn from one of the men that he brought
with him to New York in 1832. He was well
formed, with curly hair. His head had the
shape of the Ethiopian race, but he seemed
better made, and possessed a more intelligent
countenance, than most negroes.
5. Inhabitants. Australia, with the exception of a few Malays upon the northwestern coast,
and some Polynesians in the northeast, is inhabited by a black race, who have been called
Melanesians,* to distinguish them from the negroes of Africa. The Melanesians are in gene
ral the most barbarous, degraded, brutal, and hideously ugly of the human race. Those of
New Holland and Australia are the lowest in the scale. They are thin and ill made, with flat
noses, wide nostrils, sunken eyes, thick lips, and black and clotted, but not woolly hair ; in
complexion they vary from bronze to jet black. They are often without clothing, without
dwellings, living in the open air, and sleeping in the crevices of rocks, or under the bushes.
They are ignorant of the use of the bow, but are armed with spears or clubs ; those on the
coasts live upon fish, and those of the interior
chiefly upon insects, roots, eggs, berries, and
kangaroos. They have no regular government,
laws, or religion, living in little tribes, or ra
ther in families ; and their courtship consists
in knocking down the intended bride, and
dragging her away bleeding to the woods.
The inhabitants of Papua and the other
northern islands are superior in appearance and
habits ; they are better formed, though extreme
ly ugly ; most of them wear some sort of cloth
ing, and some of them have permanent habi
tations. Those to the east are still more ad
vanced, many of them have bows and arrows,
cook their food, make nets and sails of the fi
bres of the plantain ; and display much skill and
New Hollanders. ingenuity in the construction of their canoes.
From two Greek words signifying Black Islanders.
988
POLYNESIA.
CHAPTER CLVII. POLYNESIA.
1 . Extent. This division, as the name indicates,* consists of a vast number of islands, scat
tered in groups over a great extent of sea. They are all much smaller than those already de
scribed. Polynesia, comprises all the islands of the Pacific lying between 30° N., and 55°
S. lat., and between Australia, Malaysia, and Japan, on the west, and America on the east. '
2. Marianne or Ladrone Islands. This group, of which five are. inhabited, belongs to
Spain. Some of the islands are fertile and well wooded, and they have some good harbors.
3. Carolines. The Carolines form an extensive archipelago, stretching over a great dis
tance from east to west, and consisting chiefly of those low coraline formations, so common in
the Pacific Ocean.
The Pelew, Magellan, Anson, Marshall, Mulgrave, and Gilbert Islands, are small groups,
scattered round in different directions, and for the most part low coraline formations.
4. Sandwich Islands. The Sandwich Islands comprise eight inhabited islands lying be
tween Mexico and China ; the principal are
Hawaii (Owhyhee),of 4,600 square miles;
Maui ; Oahu (Woahoo) ; Tauai (Atooi) ;
and Niahu. The whole group has an area
of 6,000 square miles, with 185,000 inhab
itants. Some of the islands contain lofty
peaks, many of which are active volcanoes ;
Mouna Roa and Mouna Kea, in Hawaii,
exceed 15,000 feet in height.
Blessed with a mild and healthfd climate
and a fertile soil, provided with good har
bors, and situated upon the great maritime
highway, which unites the 3 principal divis
ions of the globe, these islands are inhabit
ed by an intelligent and enterprising race,
who have dready received the gift of civili-
Crater of Volcano in Hawaii. zat;on gnd Chl.jstjanity from our own coun.
try. The American missionaries have established upwards of 400 schools, with 50,000
scholars, set up printing presses, translated parts of the Scriptures and other books into the
native language, and introduced the decencies and comforts of civilized life among this interest
ing people. Many of them have neat houses, comfortably furnished, and are well clothed ;
the government has a fleet of small vessels, employed in trading, and a treaty has been conclud
ed by the king of the Sandwich islands with the United States.
Idols of the Sandwich Islands. Deatn 0f Captain Cook.
The most important production of the islands in a commercial respect has been sandal wood,
* From two Greek words signifying many islands.
POLYNESIA.
989
I nTad ande(.vnqU?Te9phaiT ^ ^ t0uChina '' but this is now becomin§ scarc*- Sugar
arewersoclKhh^t,? 7^ T^n-gJ^-fruit, and cocoa-nuu abound, and the islands
Tuchtretr titles "^ SWme- Whale-Sh'l- nshing in the northern seas commonly
theHk^ianl\7oZe t^l^Tu ^ ^bor' a"d is sItuated in a beautiful PIai"> 5"
toe lei tile island of Odi , It is defended by two forts armed with cannon ; the king's palace
on"'? OOO Th 1,Chly {UThGd "^ Eur°pean St>'le ; theie is als° a chirch here§ Popula-
»nd th»'t T't! , hgTUP ^ d'f °Vel'ed hY- ,C?ptai" C°°k b the latter Part of t^e last cenlury,
and that distinguished navigator here met with his death from the hands of the natives, who were
roused to fury by some supposed insult to their chiefs. The idolatrous worship of the island
ers was abolished by the king Riho Riho, in 1819, and his predecessor, Tamahama, had made
great efforts to introduce European civilization among his subjects. These favorable events have
opened a wide field to^missionary enterprise, and the harvest now promises to reward the toils
and sacrifices of our countrymen, who have devoted themselves to this work.
5. Georgian Isles. King George's Archipelago consists of a long series of low coral forma
tions, composed of numerous groups, many of which are inhabited, but others are without
inhabitants. 6. Nukahiva. To the north of the preceding lie the Nukahiva Islands, comprising the two
groups of the Washington and Marquesas
Isles, which consist of a number of small
islands. 7. Society Islands. This cluster of isl
ands is composed of two groups, the one com
prising Tahiti and Eimo, and the other Raia-
tea, Huahina, Tubai, and some others. Like
the Sandwich islanders the inhabitants have
adopted the Christian religion, and with it the
arts of civilization. The English missionaries
have established schools and printing presses,
taught the natives to read and write, and
translated the Bible and other books into
their language Tahiti (Otaheite) is the larg-
Boats of the Society Islands. est of thege is]ands and contains several good
harbors. It is about 100 miles in circuit, and has about 10,000 inhabitants. Two high peaks
in Tahiti have an elevation of about 10,000 feet. Eimeo is remarkable for its fertility, beauty
Otaheite.
Otaheitans.
of scenery, excellent harbors, and industry of its inhabitants The Society Is hn«fa««^ dis
covered by the Spanish navigator, Quiros, at an early period, but they we. e fi J^gM*
Cook in the last century. The English missionaries landed here in 1/ 97 but although kindly
treated, they could not boast of a single convert during ten years of exertion , they were
990
POLYNESIA.
ready on the point of quitting the field, when Pomarre, one of the principal chiefs, made a
profession of Christianity, and the temples and altars of the pagan idols were everywhere thrown
down. 8. Low Islands, or Paumatu Archipelago. This name has been given to an almost num
berless range of groups of small rocky inlets, lying southeast of the Society's Islands, and in
cluding the Chain Islands, Gambier Islands, Bow Islands, Lagoon Islands, &c. They are
all of the coral formation, and in most instances hardly rise above the level of the waves. The
natives are rude and savage in their manners and habits, and many of them are cannibals. The
pendarius and the cocoa-nut tree are their most valuable productions ; the rat is the largest
native quadruped, but dogs and hogs have been introduced into some of the islands.
9. Pitcairn's Island. This little island lies to the east of the last described islands, and de
rives interest from the singular history of the little colony that now occupies it. In 1789,
Captain Bligh, an English navigator, was set adrift in a small boat by his mutinous crew, soon
after leaving Otaheite. Christian, the ringleader of the mutineers, having kidnapped a number
of the Tahitans, settled himself with his followers, in this retired spot. Disputes soon broke
out among them, and after 13 years, only one of the founders of the colony, one Smith, who
had taken the name of John Adams, survived; 6 women and 19 children, the wives and off
spring of the mutineers, then formed the whole of the little community. These Adams con
vinced of the terrible consequences of a vicious life, now trained in the principles of the
Christian religion, and some years afterward, when the island was revisited for the first time
after a long interval, they were found to be a well-instructed, orderly, pious, and happy society,
consisting of about 60 persons.
10. Navigator's Islands. This archipelago is a cluster of 7 principal and some smaller
islands, which are subject to different chiefs, and are thickly peopled. The largest of the
group is Pola.
11. Friendly Islands. This group comprises 3 principal islands, Tonga, Vavaoo, and
Eaooa, and a great number of small isles ; there is an English missionary station on Tonga ;
Vavaoo contains several good harbors. These islands are governed by severd independent
chiefs. 12. Neio Zealand. New Zealand, or Tasmania, consists of 2 large islands, separated by
Cook's Strait, and having an area of about
95,000 square miles. The inhabitants are
active and intelligent, but ferocious and war
like, and although they have built vessels,
entered into a trade with Sydney, and engaged
in the whale fishery, they are yet ferocious
savages and cannibds. There are missionary
stations upon the northern island, but their in
fluence is inconsiderable. English and Amer-
ItDflffar'i ' - ''&&F~~^//¥lfflHISk -' v ' '-\v 68 'can vesse's prosecute the seal and whale fishe-
U m§ffli9flSKyKr/ fc/~~]Fy W\ \ H1'\ vTO8S * "v r'es uPon l^e coast> and employ some of the
'*' i i, . ^ » &, . '¦'-""'' l '' - ^ VA-' - natives as seamen, and English vessels from
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,
visit the country to procure the celebrated New
Zealand flax, which is peculiar to these islands,
and is remarkable for its silky lustre. The
only art of civilization for which the natives
have acquired a taste is that of destruction, and they will submit to the greatest sacrifices to
procure firearms, which enable them to kill and eat their enemies. The climate of these
islands is temperate, and the soil fertile and covered with a vigorous vegetation.
13. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Polynesia, with the exception of those in the north
western groups, so strikingly resemble each other in appearance, language, institutions, and
manners, that there can be no doubt of their belonging to the same stock, which is generally
thought to be closely allied to the great Malay family.
The northwestern islanders, inhabiting the Pelew, Mariannes, Carolines, &c, differ from the
other Polynesians in many respects. They have some arts which are unknown to the latter ;
they are remarkable for their skill in constructing boats, and in navigating them, being exact ob
servers of the stars, and possessing a rude sort of compass. The rapidity with which they
New Zealander.
POLYNESIA.
991
impel these proas, which are painted red, and rubbed with some substance that gives them the
appearance of being varnished, and the dexterity with which they change their course and
manage their simple sails, are quite surprising. Although addicted to war, they have not
spears nor bows and arrows, their only arms being stones, clubs pointed with bones, and hatch
ets of shells. They appear to have no religious ceremonies, idols, or temples. They alone
of the Polynesians have the art of weaving stuffs from the silken threads of the banana tree, by
a kind of rude loom, and dyeing them with great beauty and taste. They are of a darker com
plexion, lighter form, and smaller features, than most of the other Polynesians, and the ava and
taboo seem to be unknown or not general among them.
The Polynesians in general are of a tawny complexion, but of various shades, with black
hair, generdly well made, vigorous, and active ; intelligent, but often indolent when not stimu
lated by some particular object ; ferocious and warlike, yet mild and gentle in their manners,
and tender in their attachments ; many of them had already attained a certain degree of civili
zation when first visited by Europeans, being organized into regular societies, having a religion
with its rites, priests, and sacrifices, laws and usages scrupulously followed, and castes with
distinct privileges. Others, however, particularly those upon the low coral formations, are gen
erally inferior to the inhabitants of the larger islands, and the savage practices of cannibalism
and human sacrifices were common to most if not all of these interesting islands.
When first discovered many of the islanders had no clothing but the maro, a narrow strip of
cloth about a foot in width, and many were and still are quite destitute of covering. Their
cloth is not made by weaving flexible fibres, but by beating out the bark of certain trees with a
mallet. Their mode of cooking is baking in subterranean ovens, or pits lined with heated
stones. They prepare an intoxicating drink from the root of the kava or ava, a species of
pepper ; they have morais or temples in which human sacrifices are offered to their idols, and
they appear to be dl addicted to cannibalism. The idols and cannibalism have of course dis
appeared from those islands, which have been converted to Christianity.
The arms of the Polynesians are in general the same ; bows and arrows are unknown among
them, but spears, battle-axes, and war-clubs are their usual weapons. The practice of tatooing
is also general ; this consists in drawing lines by incision in the skin, and staining them with
coloring matter. The figures drawn and the parts tatooed are by no means entirely arbitrary,
but are indicative of the tribe, rank, or sex of the individual.
The taboo is another singular usage, which appears to be peculiar to these islanders. The
chiefs and arikis or priests, have the power of declaring a place or object taboo to some par
ticular person or to all ; it is then unlawful for the persons thus tabooed to touch the prohibited
object, and instant death is the penalty of a violation of the taboo ; in this way the chiefs and
priests, who are often the same, can deprive any person of his property, and even interdict him
from food, by declaring such articles taboo. Women are considered by the Polynesians as
impure, and are not allowed to eat in the presence of the men, or to enter the morais, or tem
ples. These barbarous notions and usages have been for some time abolished m the Sandwich,
Society, and Friendly Islands, but they still prevail in most of the others.
14. Climate, Productions, &c. Most of these islands lie within the tropics, but as the heat
is moderated by the vicinity to the sea, the climate is mild, and a perpetual spring seems to
reign by the side of a perpetual autumn. The inhabitants require little clothing or shelter, and
the air is pure and hedthful. The productions of the soil, which is generally highly fertile, are
sandal-wood, pandanus, the banana tree, the cocoa-nut tree, bread-fruit tree, plantains, yams,
batatas or sweet potatoes, and the taro-root. . ,, ,
The bread-fruit affords a nutritive food, either for immediate use, or made into a paste cal ed
mahie, to keep ; the trunk supplies timber for budding canoes and houses the gum, which
exude from it, answers the purpose of pitch, and cloth is made from the inner ba k. The
cocoa also furnishes food, a refreshing drink and a material for making cloth. Taro-root is
much cultivated, and is an important article oMood. bullocks
EW <b3£? X^ u"Pon othe^-ere ,.,, l£ s»g.,ca„e. rice. p,ne-aPP,e,
grape, and potato ha.e also been introduced by Europeans.
992
POLYNESIA.
15. History. The discovery of the Polynesian Islands has been one of the leading achieve
ments of modern maritime enterprise. They were entirely unknown till a period subsequent
to the discovery of America, and of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. In 1513,
however, Magellan passed through the Straits which bear his name, and measured the entire
breadth of the Pacific. He sailed southward of most of these islands, touching only at the
Ladrones, whence he proceeded to the Philippines. Drake and Cavendish, whose circum
navigation was connected with their attacks upon the Spanish possessions in Peru and Mexico,
crossed the ocean too far north to come in contact with the principal groups.
The Spaniards, about the end of the century, made considerable efforts to explore the South
Sea from Peru. Mendana, in 1575, discovered in its eastern quarter the Solomon Isles ; and,
twenty years after, in proceeding to found a colony there, he lighted upon a group called from
him the Mendana, or, from his employer, the Marquesas Islands. Quiros, in the voyage dis
tinguished by the discovery of New Holland, passed a considerable and fine island, which he
named Sagittaria, and which there is great reason to suppose was Otaheite.
The Dutch succeeded in the career of austral discovery. In 1615-16, Schouten and Le
Maire doubled Cape Horn, discovering Staaten Land, and the Straits bearing the name of the
latter navigator. About the same time Tasman, from Java, performed the important voyage in
which, after discovering Van Dieman's Land and New Zealand, he arrived at the interesting
group of the Friendly Islands. Roggewein, also, towards the end of the century, in crossing
the Pacific, made several discoveries, and, in particular, that of Easter Island.
It was England, however, which, under the reign and auspices'of George III., mainly achiev
ed the exploration of this remote and interesting portion of the globe. The series of voyages
fitted out by government began with those of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret. Wallis was the
first who certainly touched on the beautiful shores of Otaheite ; and a number of detached
islands were brought to light by these navigators. But the three voyages of Cook, between
1767 and 1779, formed the grandest era of Oceanic discovery. If the Society and Friendly
Islands had been already known, he was the first who made careful observations on the charac
ter and social state of the remarkable tribes by whom they are inhabited. The important group
of the Sandwich islands was entirely discovered by him, though, from an unhappy misunder
standing, they proved the fatal scene of his untimely death. The operations of the same illus
trious navigator in the Australasian islands, on the shores of America, and in the arctic seas
north and south of these latitudes, do not belong to the present subject. At the close of the
career of Cook, all the leading outlines of the Polynesian region had been explored ; and the
efforts of Vancouver, his successor, were chiefly employed in completing the survey of the
northwest coast of America. Yet ample and curious gleanings were still left for Bougainville,
the contemporary of Cook ; for Perouse, Labillardiere, and D'Entrecasteaux, afterwards sent
out by the French government, who still more recently employed Freycinet, Duperrey, D'Ur-
ville, and Laplace. American navigators have made some important discoveries and some
interesting observations. Something still remained for the Russian navigators Krusenstern and
Kotzebue, and for Captain Beechey, not to mention other names of secondary importance.
There probably remain still detached islands, and even small groups, in this great expanse of
ocean, to reward the search of future navigators.
INDEX.
Abbreviations : — b. bay, — c. cape, — f. falls, — g. gulf, — i. island, — ids. islands, — 1. lake,
m. mountain, — mts. mountains, — o. ocean, — s. sea, — r. river, — str. strait, — sd. sound.
Aar r.
719
Aksou
956
Aberdeen 572
573
Alabama
315
Abo
794
Alabama r.
315
A bom a
443
Aland i.
785
Abydos
706
Alatamaha r.
309
Abyssinia
853
Alaunian m.
799
Abyssinian m.
812
Alauta r.
731
Acapulco
412
Alb m.
755
Acheen
981
Albanian Drino r.
704
Achelous r. 688
,704
Albano 1.
676
Acheron r.
684
Albany
243
Acre
914
Albatros
477
Adayes
324
Albemarle sd.
302
Adda r.
669
Alcobaca
644
Adel
857
Alderney i.
524
Adelsberg
737
Aleppo
913
Adige r. 669
,737
Alessandria
668
Adirondac m.
223
Aleutian i.
894
Admiralty ids.
873
Alexander land
477
Adou
847
Alexandretta
914
Adour r.
595
Alexandria 290,
324,
Adowa
859
864
Adrian
364
Algiers 606
,827
Adrianople
706
Algonquins
112
Adriatic s. 495,
647,
Alicant
627
704
Allagash r.
157
.(Egean s.
704
Allahabad
940
Afghanistan
932
Alleghany mts.
114,
Africa 811,845,
851,
257, 291
857
Alleghany r.
258
African ids.
873
Alligator 109
,443
Agave
72
Alpheus r.
688
Agfiano 1.
683
Alps m. 496, 594,
647,
Agouti
442
718, 747
Agra
940
Altai m. 877
,891
Agram
730
Alten r.
790
Agua m.
422
Altenburg
761
Aguadilla
429
Alton
362
Aguas Calientes
412
Alton a
779
Agulhas c.
812
Amalfi
684
Ahmedabad
941
Amaxiki
685
Aix
603
Amazon r. 436,
450,
Aix-la-Chapelle
745
454, 481
982
Ajaccio
595
Amboyna i.
AjanAkaba
857
Ameland i.
765
924
Amelia i.
312
Akerman
803
America, N.
58
Akhissar
906
America, S.
125
435
American Race 47
Amhara 858, 859
Amherst 174
Amherstburg 387
Amherst Town 955
Amida 903
Amiens 604
Amman 918
Amoskeag f. 173
Amou r. 897
Amour r. 956, 957
Amretsir 942
Amsterdam 767
Anaconda 888
Anadyr r. 892
Anakta i. 894
Anastatia i. 312
Anatolico 692
Ancona 679
Andaman i. 881, 955
Andes mts. 435, 450,
454, 455, 460, 464,
468, 472
Andorra 623
Andros i. 689
Androscoggin r. 156
Angermanna r. 785
Angiers 603
Anglesey i. 524
Anglo-Norman i. 518,
524
Angola 646, 846, 848
Angora 906
Angornou 838
Angostura 453
Angra 496
Anguilla i. 433
Anhalt-Bernburg 763
Anhalt-Cothen 763
Anhalt-Dessau 762
Animals 43, 46
A nkober 859
Ann c. 185
Annam 955
Ann Arbor 364
Annapolis 274, 390
Annapolis r. 389
Anspach 757
Anta
439
Antakieh
914
Antarctic o.
23
Antarctic pole
21
Ant-eater
442
Antelope 80, 820
,886
Anthracite
259
Anticosti
391
Antigua
433
Anti-Libanus m.
910
Antilles i.
424
Antipatros i.
689
Antisana m.
454
Antwerp
775
Anziko
846
Ape
976
Apennines m. 496,
647,
680
Appalachee b.
313
Appalachian mts.
58,
257
Appalachicola
314
Appalachicola b.
313
Appalachicola r.
312
Appomattox r.
292
Apurimac r.
461
Aquileia
737
Arabia 881
, 922
Arabian s.
881
Aracari
447
Aral r.
897
Aransaso b.
407
Ararat m. 302
,899
Arasoiaba m.
480
Araxes r.
892
Arbor VitiE
64
Arcadia
693
Archangel
803
Archipelago 22,
495,
980
Arctic Pole
21
Arctic s.
60
Arctic o
24
Ardebil
928
Arden r.
911
Arequipa
458
Argos
693
Argostoli
685
994
INDEX.
Arichat .390
Arkansas 369
Arkansas r. 369, 373
Arkansas Post 371
Aries 603
Armadillo 442
Armagh 587
Arno r. 674
Arolsen 762
Aroostook r. 157
Arracan 955
Arran i. 568
Arras 604
Arre 1. 778
Arsinoe 864
Arta 706
Arta g. 689
Artibonite r. 429
A roe. f. 667
Ascension i. 874
Ascutney m. 177
Ash 66
Ashantee 846, 847
Ashton 536
Asia 877
" Ottoman 899
" Minor 881
Asoph s. 495
Asphaltites I. 911
Aspropotamos r. 688,
704
Ass 887
Assam 955
Assiniboins 385
Assouan 864
Assumpcion 472
Asterabad 927
Asti 668
Astoria 381
Astrachan 804
Astronomy 17
Atacama Desert 437
Atchafalaya b. 322
Atchafalaya r. 321
Athapescow 1. 61
Athens 354, 690
Athos m. 703, 706
Atlantic o. 24, 492
Atlas m. 826
Augelah 826
Augusta 160,310,349
Augsburg 756
Auk 509
Aurora i. 476
Aurora Borealis 36
Aurungabad 942
Austerlitz 739
Austin 407
Austintown 432
Australasia 984
Austria 726, 735
Austrian Italy 669
Aux Cayes 430
Ava
951
Bardstown
Avernus 1.
684
Bari
Avignon
603
Barletta
Avoset
509
Barmen
Axius r.
704
Barnstable
Axum
859
Baroda
Azalia
64
Barragaus
Azof s.
495
800
Barrow i.
Azores i.
496
646
Barrow r.
Basle
Babelmandel
str.
881
Bass's str.
Baboon
815
Bassa Cove
Babylon 904
Badajos 628
Baden 754
Badger 77, 501
Baffin's b. 59
Bagdad 902
Bahama i. 433
Bahia 407, 484
Bahr el Abiad r. 841,
860, 863
Bahr el Azrek r. 858,
860, 863
Baiae 684
Baikal 1. 892
Baireuth 757
Bakhtegan I. 926
Balaton r. 729
Balbec 914
Bald m. 156, 204
Bale 721
Balearic i. 624
Balf'rouch 927
Bali 981
Bali i. 980
Balkan m. 496, 703
Balkh 897
Ballinasloe 588
Ballston 244
Ballston Springs 231
Baltic s. 495, 785
Baltimore 274
Bambarra 841, 846
Bambouk 846
Bamiam 934
Banca i. 980, 981
Banca str. 981
Banda i. 982
Banda s. 981
Bangor 160
Banjermassin 982
Bank, Great 391
Bankok 954
Bannockburn 572
Bantam 981
Bar 31
Barataria i. 321
Barbacue 2S7
Barbadoes 432
Barbary States 826
Barbuda i. 433
Barcelona 453, 627
349684684 745 196
942470477
584 721
984847
Basse Terre 433, 434
Bassora 902
Basswood 64
Bastia 595
Batavia 981
Batesville 371
Bath 159, 539
Bathurst 846
Baton Rouge 324
Bats 443
Battas 981
Bautzen 758
Bavaria 756
Bayamo 429
Bayonne 603
Bayou r. 321
Beagle
Bear 76, 77, 501, 502,
884, 977
Bear-hunt 212
Beaver 84, 504
Beaver City 267
Beaufort ' 308
Bedford Springs 260
Beeches 66
Beer 903
Begharmi 839
Behring's i. 894
Beierland i. 765
Beirout 914
Bejapoor 942
Belem 485
Belfast 161,587
Belgium 773
Belgrade 706
Bellamy Bank r. 170
Belleisle i. 596
Bellows f. 173
Beloochistan 934
Belur Tag m. 896
Benares 940
Bencoolen 981
Bender 803
Benevento 679
Bengal s. 881
Benguela 846, 849
Beni r. 461, 469
Benin 846, 847
Benin r. 846
Ben Lomond m. 568
Ben Nevis m. 567
Bennington
181
Berar m.
936
Berbera
858
Berbice
479
Berbice r.
478
Berg r.
852
Bergamo
670
Bergen
743, 783
Berkeley Sound 476
Berlin 744
Bermudas 434
Berne 721, 723
Bernburg 763
Berwick 541
Berytus 914
Besancon 604
Bethany 916
Bethel 916
Bethlehem 266, 91G
Beveland i. 765
Beverly 193
Bexar 407
Bhering's str. 881
Biafra 846
Biel 1. 719
Big Black r. 318
Big Bone Cave 343
Big Bone Lick 346
Bilboa 628
Biledulgerid 828
Billiton 981
Billiton str. 981
Biloxi b. 319
Biobio r. 465
Birch 65
Bird i. 434
Bird of Paradise 979
Birkenfield 760
Birman Empire 951
Birmingham 536
Birnie 838
Biscay b. 495, 596
Biscay m. 624
Bisnagar 941
Bison 72
Bistineau 1. 321
Black Drino r. 704
Black Forest m. 754,
755
Black Hills 377
Black m. 302, 851
Black r. 225, 367
Black s. 495, 704
Black Warrior r. 316
Blackfoot Indians 130
Blakely 317
Blanc c. 812
Blenheim 757
Blida 827
Block i. 200
Bloodhound 818
Bloomington 372
Blue Laws 153
INDEX.
Blue Ridge
291
Breslau
744
Blue r.
858
Brest
604
Boa
443, 888
Bridgeport
208
Boar, Wild
500
Bridgetown
432
Boatbill
448
Breede r.
852
Boblink
93
Brientz 1.
719
Bobzano
738
Brighton
192, 538
Bochnia
740
Bristol 202,
208. 537
Bogota
451
Bristol Channel ' 524
Bohemia
738
British Ids.
430
Boiador c.
812
British America 382
Bois-le-Duc
768
British India
939
Boli
906
Broad r.
852
Bolivar
407
Brockville
386
Bolivia
460
Brody
740
Bologna
679
Brocken m.
759
Bolton
536
Brooklyn
243
Bombay
941
Broussa
904
Bona
827
Brown m.
624
Bondoo
816
Brownsville
267
Bonn
745
Bruges
775
Bonneville I.
379
Brunn
739
Bonny
847
Brunswick
159,311,
Bootan
943
761
Booteas
943
Brunswick, Duchy
Boothia
391
of,
761
"Bordentown
254
Brussels
774
Bore
31
Buchara
897
Borgne 1.
321
Bucharia
897, 956
Borgoo
840
Bucharest
706
Borneo
982
Buckeburg
763
Borneo L.
980, 982
Buda
730
Bornholm i.
778
Buddhism
52
Bornou
838
Budweis
738
Bosna Serai
706
Bueno r.
465
Bosphorus
704
Buenos Ayres
468, 470
Boston
188
Buffalo 246
821, 886
Boston b.
185
Buffalo
72
Bothnia g.
495
Bug r.
739
Botzen
738
Bugeiah
827
Boulogne
602, 604
Bulgaria
706
Bourbon i.
606, 874
Bull, Wild
499
Bourdeaux
603
Buntakoo
846
Bourget
667
Bunting
93, 508
Bourlos 1.
863
Burgos
628
Boussa
841
Burlington
180, 254,
Bow ids.
990
372
Boyne r.
584
Burrampooter
r. 936
Bradford
537
Bursa
904
Braga
643
Busheer
928
Brahmanism
52
Bustard
507, 823
Brahmapootra
r. 936
Button wood
65
Brailow
706
Buyukdere
706
Brandywine r.
270
Buzzard
90, 505
Brattleboro'
181
Buzzard's b.
185
Brazil
480
By town
386
Brazoria
407
Brazos r.
407
Cabes
827
Brazza
732
Cabiai
440
Breda
768
Cabul
932
Bremen
764
Cacheu
846
Brenner m.
737
Cacongo
846
Brescia
670
Caddo 1.
321
CadizCaen CaernarvonCaffrariaCagliariCahawbaCahawba r.
Cahokia
CaiorCairoCairwan Caithness m.
Calabar
Calabar r.
627604541854 668
317315 361846 864827 567 846 846
Calais 161, 604
Calamata 693
Calavrita 694
Calbangos 846
Calcutta 940
Caldwell 847
Caledonia c. 570
Callao 458
California 413
California g. 409
Californian m. 379
Calmar 787
Caltagirone 684
Cambray 604
Cambodia r. 951
Camden 308
Cambridge 192, 539
Camel 886
Camelopard 821
Camel's Rump m. 177
Camerones r. 473
Campeachy b. 409
Camtoos r. 853
Cana 916
Canada, Lower 387
Canada, Upper 386
Canadian r. 373
Canadians 384, 388
Canals 122, 527, 570,
586, 598, 626, 648,
670, 721, 730, 744,
769, 774, 779, 786,
804, 864, 959
Canandaigua 246
Ganandaigua 1. 227
Canary Ids. 641, 875
Candahar 932
Candia 496
Canea 496
Cane Brake 278
Cantabrian m. 624
Cantal m. 594
Canterbury 539
Canton 960
Canvas-back Duck 108
Capes 23
Cape Breton i. 390
" Charles 292
" Coast Castle 847
995
Cape Cod 185
" Cod b. 185
" Colony 851
" Farewell 397
" Fear 302
" Fear r. 302
" Francois 430
" of Good Hope 812
" Girardeau 369
" Hatteras 302
" Haytien 430
" Henry 292
" Lookout 302
" Town 854
" Verde Ids. 646,
846,. 874
Capernaum 916
Capesterre 434
Capibara 440
Capri i. 682
Caqueta r. 450, 481
Caraccas 453
Caraccas m. 452
Carbondale 267
Cardigan 541
Carglaise Mine 525
Caribbean Sea 24
Caribbee ids. 424
Caribou 79
Carlisle 267, 541
Carlsbad 739
Carlscrona 787
Carlsruhe 754
Carmel m. 910, 914
Carnic Alps 726
Carolina, N. 302
Carolina, S. 306
Caroline ids. 988
Caroni r. 452
Carpathian mts. 496,
703, 726, 729,
739, 747
Carrara 674
Carron 572, 573
Cartago 423
Carthage 827
Carthagena 451, 627
Casco Bay 157
Cashan " 927, 955
Cashel 587
Cashgar 956
Cashmere 943
Cashna 839
Caspian s. 881
Cassel 762
Cassiquiare r. 481
Cassiterides i. 524
Casso 846
Cassowary 979
Castalia 692
Castine 160
Castri 692
Casween 927
3"3-3-3"3'3r3"3"3*3"3"3-3*3*3"3"3"3"3"3-3"3"Cr3"3-fD CD CD CD CD 0) CD CD <T> CD CD CD CD P P p P P P P P P P P P P P P "P P£i£i£iE.£L£iS- 5£
D3DS2JQ3Q;QlQ3eaOSQJQ3DSQ3Cuppppppppppp*-<J<CJtC2.^Fa^33Sr'^r Cli*^ ,<!l<t<<<<CCCC2:SffiS?fflfi)BB)B Ol
E 3 ^ a i-r-«^- r 5' ¦* " __. rH *-» b = o "<
- p
p
p
£0
P
P
S3 P
".
is a
o-.
CD
3 r-CD
^1
§ <•
3" _.
re •
CO
o
o
C
O
cd
o Sa
re
Cfl CD~
CD CT
CD
sr.
ston
stown
a
p IS
_ a
. p
<w o CD
."¦¦
to to
>_ to
rt>
CD CD
CD
p
p
p p
-O *13
lane
lebe
ntra
Q,<-3 >-«; v< "-3 <
3
3" B"
K'P.
P
Jq
3
CDa3
CD
p CD
30
g 5.
1 — ' oa
in
a
cr
¦
>-..-
t-
CD p
-, ""
3
o_
Cl
CD8 toCJD©
Oc 3
a cr*-. • H pi a ¦ a. ej ,_," ior"
3R*» S ® a "'ao.fa.-J
ODo oa a ^ eu
05 t-*tO _* © J© t/i J-J ^'-"—
S§b305b3»05*.05H-C005Cn*>.©05h-tOtFlCDiO©OD05ht».tOtOOi©<I<!©tO©©*>.tO© 10 ife» *»-^ tO OS _*¦ QD*>.<l<lt3t3tOC0,_©O5Oj05
St3_tD—i©05©_©©_>©©t_><!C-©b3©©tO_©005_)>^OS©_aD„<X.iOO_tOW^-J
>>aO©CB05*-OJGO*^ib.^SntO©i— ^!0l©tS<(C005tOtp©tOl^.l— *-©©-3_W_>.0»-'_^-J_tO_^©tDi^O.-..-©0._0_>#'.05i_. — >»»• 00 »* *~ tO -t
oooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooopooooooo
^^^^^S"5r5'S'a.-a,-3-_3-3-a-3-3-3-3-B-a-3-a-3-B-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-cr,=r3-3-3-3-3-3-3-tr3-a- B-B-a-B-a-tr^s-tra-B-a-B-Br
225 = i£ErJ£2. 53a-oc-,^^_i^oooc,000_. _.._._.-. -. _. ... «-. _. _. _. *~ ^ _. _; _. _. _.. a a a cdcdcdcdcdcdcdcocdcdcdcopp
i;i|S-ll»a|i-i*s.i:i:i:i:i:si,&|&&§l-l.:i-:§:Slilsgi-sr8a|=-|g.|g-i| j§°§iif §r§:fo.|l
IF St* s g" ej 3 - i^ ?¦ r
CD
05 «-8 <t
^ _ © -*
*0 P^ © *0 to-
tD >.t
©*».lOO50S>£.<J©GD0Se0>fc>.*- *-<» -JfcSOSCOWJ^OSOSi— _-.^C0.-0S0StOi^_>0Si^OS_^tOW_i.|t».0S0S0".»- ?lS^0DO5©O5^«ti-;ODO5O5O5JUO5 g
©_>05_-.00<(05-.CeO.O.©© O500O-l0D-J©0D^JKJ^Jl-'©©b3a)t3CCCDOl^.OlCOOlCO©t30-l© — <I © _> Ol *»¦ ^©<!0©WW_>0;tOtg©©Ge "Z,
*-©^I*».©Cn~ltO>t».>f>.05tS© CNGSi— 05©t3*-t3Ol^05©00t3«l^I©©©bS 00. ¦— *»¦ © 01 CD £*ifr.05lfr.K)05~i»- ^05iP>-i^.0D0DtC»— tQOO05Ql<l (-)
ooooooooooooooooooooo ooooo ooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooo g
coooooooooooooooooooo_,ooooo ooooooooo OOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOO^X-^:""^ >>s
¦a-T3-OOOa33DOa3a33333aaaa3333g — _______ - _ . . .. ____
•U"a CD "3*0 ^-co co co coco 3 3 3 ^'CTQCTCiaQ ^ CbOjLo
s 3 g-S *g _:§ » | g" s g5? °° Si g s | ¦
o. 2 -S'gggcca 1 ?
S §5 5. „_.
E. ffl ° p • _ cr ©-<*--',_ p .-
05_<!0S*». Vl^JODMl-¦^^^^©O0_O5O5l|i.l-l|ti. _^t30D©^l°o i^O5tOO5t3W_^„fe_^^©l*».05©_l<f(-;--H-*-<l<!i|i.O0J_0DCri 05 cnos
CO_><('-05^^l-'©©^^"-050©©l-'_i¦© — rf».~J^J ^J©^.© c_.N-i00.05^ICCtO© S^'^-0D©t3l*i-O5©0D©<l©©_-.©*>._i.*»©O5>S-O5O5O-
^._.to^__.wao>*_oi^oto>t-._-.aoiaaD©©__._-._> ta©osto - aoos^totooDto^. c"ioo.tocB— '0-©oso.os©o;H-oiif>-*-**©aoi_r,*3»*~.*-
P-o
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOpO
r-<~^-.-.-.'-t'^-!'^'.-<----fc-'-"->l'-tooOOOOOOO© OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000
rT-CDcOOOOOOOCDCDCDCDCDPP,pp^<<3<cc.ccaC f.e?f*rtoim^^^^.^^^^1^^..H.,.^. •-(-t*.".fcQlT3
-_. N#S_;030P33imcDCD'oa'n-oS<3-cD^^3trapp ff- C". O » » JS^ c 2.3.O O O s B a ^a'S'?"1 » « O.B. O-CTPPc't.
5 * < 2._"» o -3 » »'. «*i« It 9 o J £L a B„oau2Ba S »^m. p..°'B . »bb H_o 32cpppoo & cd 3 — -¦ cd
CD ^^ S ^— P i-
.Cnci3_ ..__.. ._ ._ ©
QO^i©~ira^'e*^i!,e~'!^ene«e«en<i__.Qo_^i^oo©S©hUci__^gpcio©©os©Swy^cx©^w_i©_o_a>>*_.*_~i,(_.__.c£._*.>-- ^oieri*3^to©-«w^>-ODtoo<t3©--'Ootp^c_occBaD-_i«>. jg~.<i^j©tO'
»©o_i_i-3ip>.toik©ei.QD©to©_i^.'~i«ew»o »©>t»._Oh-05Cn<io5-.___0505i-'Cc — <i*>.©eni— — >— ^ih- ^tsoots©^-
© •_ _. 05 i' Vi 1 0 TO
ib. o — . "*. © © fc-> © . _
»- *- M (X Oi J; -MS ii o O .i ii -I *- -i *- c. 4i
INDEX.
997
Cuckoo Cucumber Tree
506 68
Cuenca
455
Cumana
453
Cumberland
275
Cumberland Hills
523
Cumberland mts.
342
Cumberland r.
342
Cumbre Mulahacer
m.
624
Cuneo
668
Curacoa i.
434
Curassows
447
Cuxhaven
764
Cuyahoga r.
Cuzco
351
458
Cypress Cyprus i. 881
64
,901
Dacca
940
Dacotahs
127
DagombaDahl r.
846 785
Dahlonega
311
Dahomey 846, 848
Dalmatia . 731
Damascus 914
Damietta 864
Damietta r. 863
Dampier's str. 984
Dan r. 292
Danbury 208
Dantzic 745
Dantzic g. 743
Danube r. 497, 703,
727, 729, 747, 756
Danvers 193
Danville 298, 349
Dardanelles str. 704
Darfoor 841
Darien 311
Darmstadt 762
Darter 109
Dartmouth 390
Davenport 372
Dayton 354
Dead s. 911
Debretzin 730
Deccan 881
Deegoa 839
Dee r. 524
Deer 79, 80, 500, 978
Deer i. 157
Degree 21
Delaware 269
Delaware b. 211,252, 270
Delaware r. 211
Delaware City 271
Delft 763
Delgado c. 812
Delhi 9f
Delphi 693
Delta 31
Demavend m. 926
Dembea 1. 858
Demerara 479
Demerara r 478
Denmark 778
Deptford 535
Derby 539
Derne 826
Derr 860
Derriah 924
Derwentwater 1. 524
Desaguadera r. 461
Deseada i. 434
Deserts 437
Desmoines r. 372
Desolation Land 475
Dessau 763
Detmold 763
Detroit 364
Detroit r. 364
Dhawalagiri m. 935
Diarbekir 903
Diego Ramirez 475
Digby 390
Dighton Rock 198
Dijon 604
Dipsas 444
Disko i. 398
Disko b. 398
Dismal Swamp 303
Dnieper r. 800
Dniester r. 497, 727,
739, 800
Dodo 824
Dog 82, 503
Dogwood 66, 278
Dominica 433
Don r. 497, 800
Donaldsonville 324
Donegal b. 585
Dongola 860
Dora r. 667
Dordrecht 768
Doria r. 669
Dormouse 503
Dorpat 803
Dort 768
Dover 271, 537
Dovrefield m. 782
Downs 538
Drammen 783
Drave r. 727, 729, 737
Dresden 758
Drogheda 588
Dromedary 886
Drontheim 783
Dublin 586
Dubuque **'¦*
Duchy of Bruns
wick 761
Ducks 108, 473
Duero r. 624, 642
Dulce 1.
422
Elm
63,67
Dumbarton
572
El Mina
847
Dumfries
572
Elmira
245
Duna r.
800
Elphanta
941
Dundalk
588
Elsinore
779
Dundas
386
Elster r.
743
Dundee
572
Elvas
643
Dun Diver
511
Emden
760
Dunfermline
572
Emeu
979
Dunkirk
604
Emineh Dag m.
703
Durance r.
595
Ems r.
759
Durham
541
Enara I.
790
Dusseldorf
745
Enchanted m.
343
Dwina r.
800
Eneshurs
381
Engallo
820
Eagle 88,89,445,446, 504, 978
Earth 21
Earthquakes 27
East r. 229
East Branch 257
East Indian Archi
pelago 980
East Rock 204
Eastern Ghauts m. 936
Eastern s. 881
Eastport 161
Ebeeme m. 156
Ebro r. 624
Ebsamboul 860
Ecbatana 927
Ecija 627
Ecliptic 19
Economy 267
Ecore Fabre 371
Edessa 903
Edina 847
Edinburgh 570
Edisto r. 306
Eel, Electrical 444
Eel r. 356
Efat 858
Egina g. 689
Egina i. 689
Eoripo 688
Egypt 862
Eider Duck 108
Eisenach 761
Ekaterinburg 804
Elba i. 674
Elbe r. 497, 727, 738,
743, 747, 757, 759
Elberfeld 745
Elbing 745
Elburz m. 926
Elephant 819, 885, 938
Elephantine 865
Elephant's r. 852
Elizabethtown 255
Elizabeth i. 185
Elk 78, 500
Ellora 942
Ellsworth 162
Engano i. 981
England 523
Epsom Salts Cave 356
Equator 20, 21
Equator, Republic 454
Equinox 20
Ergoyo 846
Erie 1. 61
Erie 267
Erivan 893
Erfurt 745
Ermine 501
Erzerum 904
Erzebirge m. 738, 747
757
Escambia r. 312
Escaut r. 595
Esheloots 381
Esiongeber 924
Esne 864, 865
Espiritu Santo 407, 987
Esquimaux 392
Esquimaux Dog 394
Esrom 1. 778
Essequibo r. 478
Etna m. 681
Eton 535
Eubcea i. 688
Euphrates r. 881, 899
Europe 494
European Turkey 703
Eurotas r. 688
Eutin 760
Euxine s. 704
Evansville 358
Evora 644
Exeter 174, 538
Eyder r. 778
Eyeo 841
Eyeos 846
FahlunFairfieldFalashas
Falcon
Falkirk
Falkland i.
Falls
787
208
859
90, 505572
476 31
?-qirqo o
rrj>r]
O O
p 9 o
g en P
CD
fffiP CD o --
p 5 p
< ^ _-.
CD P o
o
OWp ,
*1 *^ <-l .
5 S.S-
_•"*«
__ ex
-. 5"
>-q t_j >-q .i] *q i-q
O O o o o —
- - 3 aq
St "5
3 3
o o
p _.
a a
C_Oq
05 05 i^.
Cn o 05
X — --
OS 05 05
-J © ©
On © ib-
ii ii ii
© © -I
_. — _
On 05
© —
00 i—
p _
— 2_
¦ S" _
00 00
CD tO © © <f <!
*»• en © oo oo ©
© _¦ ii — ii X
33
o o
"I T
3_g" a CD
^ ^ *TJ he]
— ¦ CD P PJ
-S"_B
' 5 _.<"
aq » o
CD ~ -
a. cd ~
p
2 o
h^ ^^ ^13 ^^ ^5 ^^ ^d
5' 5' 5' 3' 3' 5'aq'
¦ ,-jq o c
-~ CO
ix] 1^ rq ire] hq itq
— CD CD CD
p
05—
05 ©
— -*1
10 en
CQgtT1
£ P B»
*_C.SO O !
S- a !
^o 1
pa -
_. a. 3
5 aq
uT u .
O p
03
¦r- CD'
bT N
2-S
aq s
CDer-1'
aq
2. p
s;- p
3 0
p a
a a
a. P
o _
?. •
o
00 lb.©
hq hq it] i^q -jq *sj -q hq irq
CDCDCDCDCDPPPP2 B SB'S' ->'<*<-'*
a b p £ "¦ 3 "
P CD
a •
__,o
2o
P _.. o
B-D--
P. P
oq pap
OS ^1 OS —
© 00 OO ©
to © — en
to en
*- tO ©
00 ao to
en en <|
© © <!
to to 00
Cn en
© ©
to to
<i <i 00 <i ib- en a © S 00 op © oo *>•
— to © to to os © 10 B to 10 en <t -j oo
<_¦ .._. _ — »- — 4 « _ ' _ . _ ¦_ i ~ - - ¦
to to © 05 © to 00 ~. .T* © 00 © to lb. —
00 00 tO OS 05 _ lb.
— 0500©©tOtO0S
©_>^ltOib.©tO©
hrj iTj l_q i-j
p p P p
". -t i-e -f
sf° §¦§•
...sa
_¦ MM
B O O
O- SB
tO -J tO OS
Ol 00 © -!
— © ib- to
i_3 hq hq
_._._. .f 3" ~~
S ° W,
... & 5'
r" cr cd
ib
CvN>
O *- —
<1 05 tO
OO 05 01
COcoco
PPPPPOPOPPOPPPPPPPOPOPPPPO
P P P P P
w "* "» "« -__?
O o 3 4§ P
3 ? 3^ 3
p CO CD -f 3
D_ • CD
P P .
"* ¦"* "^ 3 3 3
D- Q_ O-rjQ «3 3
ppppuppp
_ . p p
_ 'JO pj CD "-5 "-<
<<---"
.-'•«.
0000
O5toencoentoi-i©totoooenen©entoeni— ts©©o5tOh*>.aoGp
-1 ei t. co w 00 m to©o©eno5
PO
o o
o o
*! 5
CD CD "3
% il o
00^
B 3
lb. 4^ ^!
© © ©
-I -3 ©
3- p p P
B ~ aq o
p p p p
' Bjaq o-
if!ss a
5° o-" p
^Cj TJ ^j Tj ^Cj
c3. a
a a
CD _. I
a *-. :
irq itJ irq hq hq hq ^J hq irq irj hq irj Tq i^q Tj i_j irj irq irj i_j
a c a a 2
a- -. oq
P CD O
<3
CD ¦
3
9 5'
_ 3 c o-
^CD^ «W
P3_
CD CD
2 CD
S.o
^1
CD CD CD CD P
aa_ _m
CD CD CD CD CD
— *. ..
•-( -t -1
rq >tj nj >rj irq hq it)
q p p p o o ^
£•2 0 3.3.3.3
OS OS
^1 *>
^J 05 __.
o: © en
to to en
<f ©
»- ao
GO —
ao 00
to —
^j ©
<i 01
Ox GO
^1 to
<! 05
-J 00
00 to
ao os
en 1-1
<i 00 *-
© ^j to
to en to
Cn
en
_5. © tO <! VI
^} to to to en
os *>. © to oo
_». 00
— rf^
to ©
a o o co
¦ g- .r fr ?r _
2 cn c« r*
B Br cr o
p c B. ' ,
o-aq _-¦
_* ©
! OS 05 10 10 05 ifc-
1 00 _> tO ~1 GO
• to -j ao *». ©
3 3
ST a
"• 2
tD _
00 ©
_• 05
en oo
^I 05
1- c 0
p p B
0 o
l_rjTjo o
B C
XJo2 o
S' ib. 01 en os 00 en CB 00 Vi 00
£ © tO GD © tO ©*>.*- — iF-
to lb. ib- © *>. to © © to ©
to
2aw
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPOOPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPOC5C-PPPPO O O O O O O O O O O f- "---^ -t-1-- -r* -r*-- ^^•ta.-r". •"-. *r_:__:r*!— ¦'r'"— •— .-"^•-r.|-r.|-i-rr,m eft tn m m _i m
c p p Br* h-. o
2. _ o
"¦ 7" sr
- _ _ ¦
B rj O I
3 CO 1
w r. 1
p, .
;2P' o 3
3
CDa
CD p
¦ 3 CO
-oq
m o
^^SBCO
o aq
¦ 3 CD
a. b
cd c-
p o»_
O P
3* CD
O w
B CD
- B
9.9.
cr o-
^ CD
_. ""
P
cr p
cr 3
o <¦>¦
°3
IT
rr
3" ET CD
CD CD
CD
CD
CD
-1
-t
-i
?
CD ET
CDBT
BBS 3
Ui 3
CD P
3^
3
pB
3pB
N3
OOPCD CD CD
-« -1 o o
p p -I «l
pp
CD CD
2 B
aq 2
CD
os o n?
— s
® 3
PPOPPPPPOPPP CDcDCDCDCDCDcDCDCDCDP3 ------ _
o
P P ri
CO
a
CD CD CD CD CD CD
,<-___
p p CD CD p
1 E_ CT N C
CD P B "
~ P -?"N
to05
iito
ii ii — Tj — X X ¦_ i' ii •_
to 00 en -J 01 -J" JO On On©
ii ii _ i 1 _ 1 i — — — X ii X *- 1 i 3 - 1 ii X ii ii - 1 i i •_ X
viao^-to^j^jvitoto©©'-
os*_»- totO-Oos^. — toen*_
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
-l-l^^-1-.-l-i-l-I^H
_._,_._._.= S2.3 " B 3 B. '
PPPPP5S STB'E! O P N
CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDcrP 333333B330CD'*
CB^SIPP '"O^^STP
"_iT3EX< ?^_OCD,*'
0 2.B 'i Q.Q. —
t B,- P ^ © fo CD
"' »
-l 05 .-j B
S ^ 3
V\ v, w
n- CO cr, P
© © to
© 00 ©
_> ' *¦
>_ib.©__©en_<ien©*_<litOi_ntoenostoosi-' ©Cn©
© — to — _o©to©<i©i-ga
^1 - (_ ii *. -) il rx, ii u ii il
ioeoo-i_o*>^ic.a.gc_ , *- ii *- Oi -1 X ii © 1 1 to ©
OD tO
OS GO
<l —
to —
OD ©
to tO
GD <!
tO ©
~. to
© to
to —
00 lb-
tO <!
© 53
to oo <!
OS © -I
to en en
GO a
-J CD
•^( co
to ,_ to ~1 ^J ,
05 © — lb. 10 1
tO 05 © © ^1 1
to-°en M
1 ^J to OS en s ©
1 © 00 © S ib
© to
© _.
I 05 tO tO
GO!
©<f^JOltOtOtOtO<!_)tO0D© — tootoos — enoo — osen
ODtO — — 01©l— <l<lib.t005
p p
PP P P p p p p p P P O P p P P p p O O
-15IN^..."l^1^ii pplpppppppppp
3 3 B B 3 3 3 3 B- B- I— '
C_ (__,_. CL p -X B P ,
— , -. <d crM D-H^.ft= |
P Eg1? . _ ^ " S ?>m
_] » PI E ' u ^ p _— ^
CD CD O" CD
P p O P
r* cd *-• * cm
tacaB. p
E-." B .—
CD p p
PBS ^ a. 1
_. 0_ .
N
ppoppppppppppppppOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
_, CD _. !f 3" 3" 3* S-XJ B* BTOq CD CD 3- S cn
SB/BUPOBPOOltJUB— B? (" ^SBB ^- B
aq
m *b p
" » Ba.
3 D
5 aq
•B g
CD =
B
aq
00 ,
OSGOto en^j©tOO5O5>b.ib.O5©^ienQ0©ib.<|25S O <l M CO -} ^1 ts Ot 1-1 a ffi re — cn
9S»i ^2S^^9?K^^ffiW^®^m^e»c_Si^enSoDSrx©_©enSo_SGo
©coio ^1 — ©-a_i&.totoib.-4-j_i^!©©<i0j i"ooi»^enGoe). — ^entoS©©-§35
INDEX.
Guadarrama m. 624
Guadeloupe i. 434, 606
Guadiana r. 624
Guanahani i. 434
Guanaxuato 412
Guans 447
Guapore r. 461
Guardafui c. 812
Guatemala 422
Guaviare r. 450
Guayama 429
Guayaquil 455
Guayaquil r. 454
Gudensal r. 778
Guernsey ids. 518, 524
Guiana 478, 606
Dutch 479
English 479
" French 479
Guilford 207
Guinea 846
" Hens 823
" ids. 874
" Pig 443
Gulfs 24
Gull 510
Gumalies 458
Gundava 934
Gurck r. 737
Gurran Tual m. 584
Gustavia 435
Guyandotte r. 292
Guzel Hissa 906
Gwalior 942
Gymnotifs 444
Gypsies 542
Haarlem s. 766
Hackinsack r. 252
Hagerstown 274
Hague 767
Hainan i. 881, 959
Halberstadt 745
Halifax 390, 537
Hall 756
Halle 745
Hallo well 160
Hamadan 927
Hamah 914
Hamburg 764
Hami 956
Hamilton 354, 386
Hammerfest 783
Hampton 535
Hampton Roads 292
Hamster 503
Hanau 762
Hangchou 960
Hanover 174, 759
Hanover i. 473
Harbor Grace 391
Hare 87, 503
Harlem 768
999
Harmony 357
Harper 847
Harper's Ferry 291,298
Harrisburg 266
Harrodsburg 349
Harrow 535
Hartford 206
Hartz m. 743, 759
Hassencleaver mts. 223
Hatchy, Big 342
Hatim Potosci m. 461
Havana 428
Havel r. 743, 747
Haverhill 174, 194
Havre 604
Hawaii m. 972
Hawk, Sparrow 89,505
Hawk, Swallow-
tailed 90
Hayti 429
Heath Hen 103
Hebrides 568
Hebrus r. 703
Heckingen 764
Hecla m. 402
Heidelberg 755
Helderberg mts. 222
Helena 371
Helicon m. 688
Hell Gate 204
Hellenic m. 703
Hellespont 704
Hellmorass Marsh 731
Helmend r. 932
Helsingfors 794
Hemispheres 56
Henharrier 505
Herat 934
Herculaneum 369
Hero i., North 178
South 178
Heron 104, 509
Hermannstadt 731
Hertogenbosch 768
Hesse Cassel 761
Hesse Darmstadt 761,
762
Hesse Homberg 761,
762
Hickories 65
Hielmar 1. 785
Highlands 222
Hildesheim 759
Hildburghausen 761
Himalaya mts. 877, 935
Hindooen i. 782
Hindoo-Koo m. 932
Hindostan 935
Hinlopen 768
Hippopotamus 819, 837
Hispaniola 429
Hissar 956
Hlassa 950
Hoang Ho r. 881, 950
958
Hobartstown 986
Hocheim 762
Hofwyl 721
Hohenzollern 763
Hohenzollern He
chingen 764
Hohenzollern Sig
maringen 764
Holland 765
Holly 66
Holm 403
Holsteinburg 398
Holston r. 292
Homburg 762
Homochitto r. 318
Honduras b. 422
Honesdale 267
Honolulu 989
Hoogly r. 936
Hoopoe 506
Hoosac m. 183
Hoosac r. 184
Horeb m. 924
Horn c. 475
Horn i. 319
Hoste i. 475
Hottentot Hollands
Kloof 851
Housatonic r. 184, 204
Housatonic m. 204
Houston 407
Huahina i. 989
Huallaga r. 454
Huamanga 458
Huanca Velica 458
Huddersfield 537
Hudson 244
Hudson r. 224
Hudson's b. 59
Hudson's Bay Co. 391
Hue 955
Huehuetoca 411
Hull 388, 537
H umber r. 524
Humming Bird 99, 448
Hungarian Prov. 727
Hungary 729
Huntsville 317
Huron 1. 61
Huron 354
Hurons 385
Hurricane 35
Husarik 403
Hyaena Dog 817
Hyderabad 942, 943
Hydra 688
Hyena 818
IbarraIberi 1.
Iberian m.
455
469 624
Ibex
500
Ibis
106,825
lea r.
458
lease
481
Iceburgs
60
Iceland
402
Idria
737
lguazu r.
468
Hi r.
956
Ilimani m.
460
Iller r.
737
Illinois
359
Illinois r.
359
Illyria
737
Imbros i.
704
Immak i.
894
India
935
" British
939
" Danish
943
" Farther 951
" French 943
" Portuguese 943
Indian o. 23
Indiana 356
Indianapolis 357
Indians, American 111,
126
Indian Territory 373
Indus r. 881, 936, 949
Inn r. 719, 727, 737
Innspruck 738
Inverness 572
Inverness m. 567
Ionian ids. 685
Ionian s. 647, 704
Iowa 371
Iowa r. 372
Iowa City 372
Ipswich 1 93
Iran 926
Irapuato 412
Irawaddy r. 881, 951
Ireland 517, 584
Ireland i. 434
Irkoutsk 893
Iron m. 367
Irtish r. 891
Ischia i. 682
Iser r. 737
Isere r. 595, 667
Islands 22
Islay i. 568
Ismail 803
Isnik 904
Isonzo r. 737
Ispahan 927
Istaccihuatl 408
Itacolumi m. 480
Italian Provinces 727
Itapua 472
Ithaca 245, 686
Ivica i. 624
Ivory Coast 846, 847
1000
INDEX.
Izaval 1.
422
Jackal 502, 816
Jackson 319
Jackson 1. 312
Jacksonville 362
Jacmel 430
Jacques r. 372
Jaffa 914
Jaguar 438, 483
Jalof Proper 846
Jamaica 431
James r. 292
Jamestown 298, 432
Japan 969
Japan s. 881
Japanese Archi
pelago 881
Jaroslav 740, 803
Jassy 706
Java 980, 981
Java s. 931
Javari r. 454, 481
Jaxartes r. 897
Jay 94, 506
Jefferson Barracks 369
Jefferson City 369
Jefferson's r. 377
Jeffersonville 357
Jehoshaphat 916
Jena 761
Jenne 841
Jersey i. 518, 524
Jerusalem 915
Jessup's f. 237
Jidda 924
Joachimsthal 738
Joannes i. 481
Jocjocarta 982
Johannisberg 762
Joppa 914
Jordan r. 911
Jorullo m. 408
Juan Fernandez i. 465
Judaism 50
Juggernaut 941
Julian Alps 726
Julianshaab 397
Jumna r. 936
Juniata r. 257
Junkselon i. 881
Jura i. 568
Jura m. 496, 594, 718
Jurua r. 481
Jutay r. 481
Jyepore 942
Jylum r. 936
Kaarta
846
Kaboo
846
Kahira
864
Kaisarieh
906
Kalamazoo r.
363
Kalisch
796
King George i
477
Lamer
464
Kalix r.
785
King's m.
302
Lammergeyer 505,
823
Kaluga
803
Kingston 386,
431,433
Lamoile r.
177
Kama r.
799
Kio
969
Lamprey r.
170
Kamouraska
388
Kioelen m.
782
Lanerk
572
Kamschatka
881
Kirkwall
572
Lancaster 266,
541
Kamschatka r.
892
Kissimmee 1.
312
Land
22
Kanawha r.
292
Kitatinny m.
257
Land's End 496,
524
Kangaroos
977
Kite
505
Lange Kloof m.
851
Kankakee r.
356
Kizil Irmak r
899
Langeland i.
778
Kano
839
Klausenburg
731
Langenschwalbach
762
Kansas r.
373
Kniphausen
764
Languages 48
544
Kansas Indians 129,375
Knisteneaux
385
Lansingburg
244
Karahissar
904
Knoxville
344
La Paz
463
Karakorum
957
Knysna r.
853
Laperouse str.
881
Karikal
606
Kcenigsberg
744
La Plata
462
K ask ask i a
361
Kcenigstein
758
La Plata Provinces
468
Kaskaskia r.
360
Kolosvar
731
La Plata r.
468
Katahdin m.
156
Kolyma r.
892
Lapland
790
Kauterskill f.
223
Kolyvan
893
Larch
67
Kavalang ids.
894
Kong
846
Lark 92
,508
Kazan
804
Kong m.
811
Larissa
706
Kearsarge m.
165
Kongsberg
783
Lassa
950
Keene
174
Konieh
906
Latacunga
455
Kelat
934
Koom
927
Latitude
21
Kenilworth
540
Koondooz
89S
Launcestown
986
Kenne
865
Koorauko
846
Laurel m.
257
Kennebec r.
156
Kooskooskee
r. 3S0
Lausanne
722
Kennebunk
161
Kouka
838
Lawrenceburg
358
Kennebunkport
161
Kowie r.
853
Laybach
737
Kenneri
941
Kremnitz
730
Laybach r.
737
Kent i.
272
Kressovice
795
Leamington
540
Kentucky
345
Krishna r.
936
Lebanon m.
910
Kentucky r.
345
Kronstadt
731
Lecce
684
Kerka r.
731
Krzano
795
Lech r.
737
Kermanshaw
928
Kuen-lun m.
877
Leek r.
766
Kesho
955
Kuma r.
799
Leeds
536
Kestrel
505
Kur r.
892
Leghorn
676
Keswick I.
524
Kurile i.
881,893
Lehigh r.
257
Ketskemet
730
Kurreechane
855
Leicester
539
Keurboom r.
853
Kursk
804
Leige
775
Kew
535
Kutaieh
904
Leipsic
758
Key West 312
,314
Kuwan r.
897
Leiria
644
Khao i.
894
Kwanlun m.
877
Leith
571
Khiva
897
Leitha r.
729
Khokand
897
Laaland i.
778
Leman 1.
719
Khoten
956
Labrador
391
Lemberg
740
Kiakta
893
Laccadives i.
881, 939
Lemgow
763
Kiama
841
Lachine
388
Lemnos i.
900
Kiang 881
, 950
Ladoga 1.
800
Lemurs
815
Kiangku r.
958
Ladrone i.
641, 959,
Lena r. 881
,892
Kidderminster
540
988
Lenox
194
Kiel
779
Lafayette
358
Leogane
430
Kiev
803
Lafourche r.
321
Leon 1.
422
Kilkenny
58S
Lagoon ids.
990
Leopard
817
Killarney 1.
584
Lagrange
371
Lepanto
692
Killinga
846
Laguayra
453
Lepanto g.
689
Killington Peak
177
Laguna
875
Lepontine Alps 718,719
Kills
229
La Hogue c.
496, 596
Lepsina
692
Kilmarnock
572
Lahore
942
Lerwick
572
Kinekulle m.
785
Lakes
28
Lesbos i.
900
King Bird
95
Lamalmon in.
858
Lesia r.
669
Kingfisher 100
,509
Lamego
643
Lesser Fish r.
853
INDEX.
Leuwarden Lewis i.
Lewis r.
Lexington Leyden L'Hermite i.
Liakoura m.
Libanus m.
Liberia LichtensteinLicking r.
Licks Lille LimaLime LimerickLimogesLincolnLindesnsss c
LintxLion Lions g.
Lipari i.
768 | Longitude
568 Long Pass m.
3S0
134, 349 76S 475688910847 763346 345 604457 64
587 604540 496736
815, 836596
647, 682
21
851
Loo Choo i. 881,959
Lorca 627
Loretto 679
Loris 884
Lough Corrib 584
" Earn 584
" Neagh 584
Louisburg 390
Louisiade 987
Louisiana 320
Louisville 348
Louvain 775
Low i. 990
Lowell 194
Lubec 161
Lubec, Principality 760
Lippe Principalities 763
Detmold 763
Schauenburg 763
Liquidambar Lisbon Lisle LitchfieldLittle Falls
Little Rock
Livadia Lively LiverpoolLivingston i.
Llama
Loir. Loango Lobenstein Loblolly b.
Loch Doon
" Leven
" Katrine
" Lomond
Lockport Locust Tree
LodiLoffoden i.
LogansportLoggunLoire r.
Lolland i.
Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom 669
Lombock str. 981
Lomnitz m. 729
London 386, 529
Londonderry 588
Long i. 228, 434
Long Island sd. 204,
5 229
Long 1. 178, 778
63
643604
208, 540237 371 692398
390, 535 477 440
461
846, 848 763 63
568568568 568
246 64
670782
358 839
497, 595 778
Lubeck LublinLubrong Lucayos ids.
Lucca Lucerne Lucerne 1.
Lucknow
Ludwigslust Lugano 1.
Lula r.
Lulea 1.
LumberingLund Luneburg LunenburgLuxemburg Luxor
Lyc<emus m.
Lyme Range
Lynchburg Lynn LynxLyons Lyons g.
Lyre Bird
764796 950 433
673, 674 722 719
942 760719 785790 163
787759390 768 8656S8
204
298 193
83, 383, 501 602596 978
Madre de Dios i.
Madrid
Maelstrom Maese r.
Maestricht
MafraMagadoxo Magdeburg
Magdelena r.
Magellan str.
Maggiore 1.
MaghrebMagianism Magnolia
Magpie Mahabalipuram
Mahe MahometanismMaine
Maintz Majorca i.
Malacca
Malacca str.
MalagaMalar 1.
Malay Race
MalaysiaMaiden Maldives i.
Maldonado Malines
Mallicolo i.
Malmoe
472 626 782773 775643857 745
450 473
667, 669826 52
64, 68, 278 93
941 606 51
155
762624955
881,981 627 785 47
980 387
881, 939 472 775987 787
1001 193762
903 668 863439
641, 988 377 434 354 703
Marmora s. 495, 704
Marmot 83, 503
Maros Vasarhely 731 731 363582 684 727603
955
85, 501
Marblehead Marburg MardinMarengoMareotis 1.
Margay Marianne i
Maria's r.
Marie Galante i.
MariettaMaritza r.
MaroschMarquette r.
Marriages MarsalaMarsch r.
Marseilles MartabanMartenMartha's Vineyard 185
Martinique i. 434, 606
960982 981 448 162
391 364364311873
646, 875
461,469, 481
Madison 357,366,372
MacaoMacassar Macassar str.
Macaw Machias Mackenzie r
Mackinaw
Mackinaw i.
Macon Madagascar Madeira i.
Madeira r.
Madison r.
Madison's Cave
Madisonville Madras
377293 324
941
Malta i. 647,685,686
Mammoth Cave 346
Mamore r. 461
Man 47
Man i. 524
Manasarowara 1. 949
Man ate as 448
Mandans 378
Mandara 839
Manchester 536
Manchoos, Country
of
Manhattan i.
Manheim Manilla
Manissa Mansfield m.
Mantchoos
Mantinea Mantua Maples
Maple Sugar
Maps
Maracaybo Maracaybo 1.
Marajo i.
Maranham Maranon r.
Marathon
Maritime Alps m
126
957228 755983 906 177
957 693 670
64,65 217 22
453 452481 484
454, 481 692666
Marony r.
Maryland
Mas a Fuero
Mas a Tierra
MascatMassa MassachusettsMassachusetts b.
Massacre ids.
Masserne m.
Masulipatam MatagordaMatagorda b.
Matapan c.
Mattapony r.
Maulmain Maule r.
Maumee b.
Maumee r.
Maurepas 1.
Mauritius Mayemba
MayenceMayne r.
Mayo i.
MaysvilleMeacoMeander r.
Mee an r.
Mecca
Mecklenburg
478271 465465924 674 183
185
987
326, 366 941 407 407
496, 689292
955 465 351351 321873 846 762
747, 756875 349969 900950 923 760
Schwerin 760
Strelitz 760775951 827924
Medinet el Fayoum 864
Mediterranean s. 495
MechlinMecon r.
Medea Medina
ggggggggg
BBS
3 B B -3 3 B
£. O 3
P7- ET CD CD CD ft
f? 2 CD
o 3 _! "• o
5 » » .
p, p.
.-* „ sr — o
_. CD
t__ca
• CD
¦_ •
^
3
oq
CO
OS
©
00 © 05
© ©" to
©tO<!0D4^©OSJOGD
,b.ib.<!OltOtOtOtO-
gggggggggggggggg
CD CD CD CD
5" Erroq oq
2. B P P
-- ™ "3 o
CD CD CD CD CD ._
' .._ B B B 3
~ Ka p, .+¦ ..
i-rN §
p CO CD
CD CD CD CD CD CD
B B B 3 3 3
O D- O. P _B _g
3 a ° a - - ¦
? ID N -
to os © oo os en © to to — <! to © os os os os ib- <t © <i to ib od © to en en os oo en jo
0D©00ib. — ib.^.O©00© — O0©en©©cnen — <fOOOib.cn — O0tOib.tO©©©tO©
05©tO<(l-il-'©lb.<! — OOOtO^-QOl—OS— — — 0Sib©O — OtOlb.GDH-ib.<l©Cn — <!
gggggg
o o o o_ o o_
5 3 bTe'e'™
S, cr cd -
_Tp "
-3
ib-JX 00 © <! ©
Cn 10 © 00 © V!
05 GD OS 00 tO lb-
2? N
g m P
3" ET
CD »'
CD
gg
CD
CD
COr_
B
CD
n
B oq
CD
3
uw 05
— __.
' jb
OS tO ib. tO — GO
© © <i en <i ©
05 © © — GD ib.
OS 00 © ©
to en to to
tO <1 tO 05
01 ©
00 —
oo __>
ggggggg
O O O o O r> o
3333333
*2 3 o'<& 2 « _2
- i-g e 3°%
o I 3^ _
-¦ °
2 CD
^ 3o
ggggggg
- -0000000"3333B33 tD P O OO
<_ipSa-§ g-»
B- E P S P CO *"
_ t! . CJ -
CD g p 0 =
°S3
gggggggggggOOOOOoOOOOO33333333333
- o praq aq co ft ft. a, o
g -is
CD "O
£.£.3P>' 5'
3Pipo
O O CD .
_ 3 3 aq aq
cr _ o o
P D_
S.O ,13
ggggggggggggggggggggggggggggg
o CD o
p p p
ca co
ft s
2 eTaqoq
c < p P
SB
BID _ « P 3 (I p||T
3 3/ p
S ft
O £; — B_ ST a O
P cTCD CD g » B
«-;«05OSi^ib.ib.*-©en©© <! GD OS tO J* GD lb. tO ©©»©©©
GOOD — — © — 05 -^ 00 to © © 05 <I __¦ © W Cn ib. ib. en to to tO ib. to ^J
© <! tO ~l <J 05 tO 10 lb. ib. © ib. ib- On ^J lb _" ^} 05 ~J © 05 lb. 05 tO lb. ib.
00
en
00 a os
© ©
— oo to to to en
© en 00 oo 00 ©
en <i h- to 1— ib.
W
a cr:
coB
„ CO co </J co -< -1 .n
Co cn CO CO Co CO is." c_ — • p ^
2 £. S'5" ffi"5"- — = "" -
E Q CO QD CO ^Q
"•,£ "3 '"3 -,3' £
Oq T3 it3 ?« CD
b- a. a. a.
. • 3«q
sir cd
o —
ft. p_
<ir« p
o oN
cTBa _
©05
05to
<! 00 tO
to © to
M lb 05
10 tO GD
©to- to 01
© to to
<? © tO — OSO5OSO0.©OSOS© — — 05 — ©^lib. ©<J
~.^JtOtO — — — i-iaDtO<!©tO — — — <!tOOSQ00S©C_Q
O0lb.Ollb.- ©0l<!- 05-J©tO©©0D<!05© — ©©tO
gggggggggggggggg
E E E E E " -
2 3 3
E C E
co co 01 _.
a'"
aq E 3
». CD
3 3
CD &
cr
0
E E O O O
BE — - N E E
cr p —
CD
-33B — ..
». cr B
™ CD
° ^2 2. g 0 • g £._ »_ S
© ib©
3o
3
3 =
' v; H P
EP ft
O
: =i g
B g.
^_!ati3opww>.|'
VT /^ *K _-h ^ I ^^ pj ^ ^
gj § -§ 2. as
o ST
gggggggggggggggggggggggggg
O o O O O o O O - - - - - - - - -
{?.S-rJ-COCOtO-i-l Br p p
CD g-oq
i-i P ,e
O -. <"
E JL 6
00000
1-1 p. i-i -1
P P p P
OOOOg 9 9_ o
_'•» -
to ©
01toCn
B H
<Ito<!
_• CD I
CD CD ET
S" O. CD
°g-_.
o o
O O
3 a
§3
o o
a a
o o
3 B
r .
ft o
000B 3 3
•2 -i ^ ?£?
n CD CD (5
P P »
P
"- -1 O cd — — f
3.-3
on — GD
05 —
GDtOCO0S©^1<!05
<(QDtOOO1b.iO1b.enGD
©©lb.i^ib.^.Oi©©
00 GO i-1 tO © — — 03 © 05 © GO tO 05 05 tO
ient0Cn©tOibGDO0^J©<l©- 10<(<!©
On
© © _
GD©^IOltO©GO<I05lb.tO©_©t005tOtOtO
— — 0.<J05 — OSib^. ibtO<!GD00<!<!<(~J<!GD — tO— G000©ibOienO5O5©
OOCnOO — ^)tOOOODtO©ib.ot0050505h-tOOS©ib.Ol<!K3 — tOOSt©^»©00©
ib. ^1 ©tOtOtOQDt0OltOO5~ltO00GDtOtOtOH-t_Cn© M00©tOib.O5ib.tO 05 00 05
gg
*< E
C. CO
g 3
a O
CO 3
2a
__!_?:_!_! 2 2 2 _!_!_! ^
CD CD - • ' .. _ . .
S E
CO CO
-" CD
CDft <
co" '
CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDC C E E 3 g, -J."0 O
Effi. » « c B _¦
2L p p H p ft cd
CD oj 1 .
2_2__!_;S!_;25!2222_225!
(t_(tft(D(tl(C(DPPPPppp! 3 —Oq CfqcrqCfqOQ-NN«<< - -
-•g-gSsoS-i*-9^ p
_222!2_i25!5!_;__; _; _j _: _j __; __; __; _j ^222_:_;5i222si2
o b
. B p
CD
< E
P "U
p p p p p
aq
S „.§¦ 5 3 P
3" • goo
.© lb. _
<» OS
to O
to to
<»©<»<» --J tO — 05
05O — tO©©_00<(
— K)tOO5©Ol©ib0S
<! IO
Cn ©
*- <!
©05©_-.0500^IO5-ttOc <ttooooo^.toen-!Crj- <
© — 00 — osib-enosts©'
e.3
HPW-
C B 2.
B 2. ft
3 O TO
CD E£ CD
0
O
10
w
ET
rr
P
p
O
CD
JBi
p
C. cr
<D
OE
p p .
Co co cn
" ET =r
_. B
s ET
P (B
PPPPPPPP < 3 __v O (D f.
< S- »-* _. c CO an
p S p D) U P
B 3 3 3 B ~
o S b-p1-*
oq
' CD C
o "> B to
5*1 w§.
p p
p p
p
CO B
Eraq
CD
P "T3
0
ET
B O
ft
CD
-. -t
0
cr
CD
0 ETCD
tr
CD
,6
B "
ft cr
© — j*
>tOib.©©t0ib.»0_I to ~J tOtptOCntO-
> o en os to ib 0 os
£3 52
OS 05 <!
-" — ©
to to
<! OS —
© lb. 00
tO lb. lb
to to
1 © o
1 OS o
to „
<!~-1©ib.tOO-©05?7-O©_tO©<!0DO5l— 'tBii-
to os oo en — go 00 S^'©©^J©-3totoooS©
© — to ib GO tO tO .**-005©©ib.OlClS.Ollo"
© lb.
to to
05 to
£._._._?_.£ 2*.Z.**%%**Z2*%%%%%*%%**^ 2 _! 2. 2 „I 2 _, 2
< 1 s &r« a JT-. ggS-.^ g," ^g-g.=-^i»^ e.S-||3l3=.Ef.§g-Sg 2.5.511.38^8.1 3=-2.s£ ^ ft
T«S ? - 9' r 'I * «l Wrgf^l&MlP Mil*
I 8 "g 88 I I '•"''"I lg r" * "¦ s" *** §
8888888 llgllllllllllllil^l^
22999999 a 99999999? ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^zzzz^^z.^z.^^^
rtol 2>?E is B ^g ^ _Sg. Lb ¦! ."sss^i j'-f g>f.s s^a0" s^
st" 323 g o!.«S.*3. °"" ¦ .-s • g|- 3
^ ',5 *» 5 e. = =
" ITS
<!
et 0 •" JT* ? . r.~- 0 ... oq a,
O S, r». - 3.P5 . „ P
_.. ^ m!5_S_! to©© -.. to to 9
r<" .05 cp — GD © J-l 00 r © © a-
lb
~I
^iisi§!l llllsl^l _8SS§2.?s,8„gssss___^5fefe5_ae,feS2_»ifegibss«_jRssas
5E59_>!aD00tgib.GDGDCC05©enOl<!<IO5 — lb-ib — 05^! ib.<{<!tOOSib.Cn_-.©._rYl_>_>_!.T._iir.
GC 00 © Cn ib — 000©0©iX©OSOSODGDenOtOtO^_GOOlOOO*itO»osS — §*-_8rE__o_ t_
©^^©©tQi_MOMOtO00tO^t0-_ibi^©0DO^00G0^^^O_:rot0__en°^©g§G. ^
^ __ ,_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ — : — : O
o 000 0000000000000000000000000000
5-3;^ffl jh ^.w %^ a2.3_S-i.-'''''ss„pi!_aiB-3'c3
" pi ¦< 2 ^ aa B"S O n p . ;-S t. _ a p p Oq aq aq " BJ cd
3 „ -. o r 8- £° 8 *• p g- 3 P ? ^ _? S* r"OOP.3-ftcD
CO T* 3 CD i— _. P CD • 3"
* " ' ST*" CD'
f ¦ O -,
SS "" ' ib.
00 lb
© — 05 jb.
054s.— ib-GDCnooen to© <i cn cn to cn _. to — cnososo5_>toto_ir_..o- P
©too„^toencnto^ootoen©ib©© — © — <iib.en<(enib.enencnosen— 03
1004
INDEX.
Paradise, Bird of 979
Paraguay 471
Paraguay r. 461, 468,
471
Paramaribo 479
Paramatta 912,985
Parana r. 430, 468,
471
Parima m. 436
Paris 349, 598
Parma 673
Pamahiba r. 481
Parnassus m. 688
Paro r. 455
Paros i. 689
Parrot 98, 446
Partridge 102, 103
Pascagoula b. 319
Pascagouia r. 319
Passaic f. 253
Passaic r. 252
Passamaquoddy b. 157
" Indians 164
Passau 757
Pasto 451
Pasumsic r. 177
Patagonia 472
Patapsco r. 272
Paterson 254
Patmos i. 900
Patos 1. 481
Patras 694
Patuxent r. 272
Paumatu Archipe
lago 990
Pausilippo m. 683
Pavia 670
Pawcatuck r. 200
Pawnees 129, 375
Pawtucket 202
Pawtucket r. 184, 200
Pawtuxet 202
Pawtuxet r. 200
Paxo i. 685
Payana. I. 794
Peaceable 1. 794
Peacock 887
Pearl Oyster 888
Pearl r. 319
Peccary 439
Pedee r. 302, 306
Pegu 952
Pekan 85
Pekin 959
Pelica r. 796
Pelican 108
Penaca r. 372
Peneus r. 704
Penguin 477
Pennine Alps 666,718
Pennsylvania 256
Penobscot b. 157
Penobscot Indians 163
Penobscot r. 157
Pensacola 314
Pensacola b. 313
Pentland Frith 569
Pentland Hills 567
Peoria 362
Peoria I. 359
Peorias 375
Pepper Coast 846
Pequods 209
Pergamos 906
Perm 804
Pernambuco 484
Pernambuco Desert 437
Perote 412
Persepolis 928
Persia 926
Persian g. 881
Perth 572, 985
Perth Amboy 255
Peru 362, 455
Perugia 679
Perugia 1. 676
Peruvian mts. 223
Peshawer 932
Pesth 730
Petchora r. 800
Peterhead 572
Petersburg 297
Petra 924
Petropvlosk 893
Peterland 477
Pheasant 887
Philadelphia 263, 918
Phil a. 865
Philippine ids. 641, 9S0
982
Philippopoli 706
Piankeshaws 375
Piave r. 669
Pichincha m. 454
Pico i. 496
Pictou 390
Pictured Rocks 363
Pigeon 101
Pilcomayo r. 461, 468
Pillau ' 745
Pilnitz 758
Pilsen 739
Pindus m. 496
Pine Orchard 224
Pines 67
Pino 412
Pisa 675
Piscataqua r. 170
Pistoia 676
Pitcairn's i. 990
Pitea r. 785
Pittsburg 265
Pittsfield 194
Piura 458
Plains 28, 468, 481
Planets 18
Plata, La r.
436
Pregle r.
743
Platea
692
Presburg
730
Platte r.
373
Prescot
386
Platten r.
729
Preston
541
Plattsburg
244
Preto
485
Ploen 1.
778
Prevesa
706
Plover
508, 509
Prickly Pear
63
Plum i.
185
Prince Edward i.
390
Plymouth
193, 538
Prince's i. 646
874
Po r. 647, 667, 669
Pcestum 684
Poggy ids. 981
Point a Petre 434
Pointe Coupee 324
Poland 796
Polar Circle 21
Polar Regions 397
Pole-cat 501
Polish Provinces 727
Polynesia 988
Ponce 429
Pondicherry 606, 943
Pongo 976
Ponta Delgada 496
Pontchartrain 1. 321
Poonah 941
Popayan 451
Poplar 66
Popocatepetl 408
Poprad r. 729
Porcupine 87, 504
Porcupine mts. 363
Poros i. 689
Port au Prince 430
" Desire 473
" Genesee 225
" Gibson 319
" Glasgow 572
" Hudson 324
" Mahon 628
" Royal 432
" Spain 432
" St. Mary 627
Portland 159
Porto Bello 451
" Ferrajo 674
" Rico 429,641
Portsmouth 173, 297,
354, 538
Portugal 442
Portuguese India 943
Posen 744
Potomac r. 272
Potosi 369, 462
Potosi Mines 461
Potsdam 744
Pottawattamies 375
Pottsville 267
Poughkeepsie 244
Pozzuoli 684
Prague 738
Prairie du Chien 366
Praya 874
Princeton 254, 349
Procida i. 682
Providence 201
Provincetown 193
Prudence i. 200
Prussia 743
Pruth r. 703, 739
Ptolemais 914
Puebla 412
Puerto Cabello 453
Puerto Principe 428
Puffin 510
Pulo i. 955
Pultava 804
Puncas 376
Punjab r. 936
Puno 458
Putumayo r. 454, 481
Pyrenees mts. 495, 594,
624
Pyrgos 693
Pyrmont 762
Qua Bird 105
Quail 102,410
Quakers 215
Quapaws 374
Quebec 388
Queen Adelaide i. 473
Queenstown 386
Queretaro 412
Quiloa 857
Quincy 314, 362
Quinta de legrimas 643
Quito . 455
Quorra r. 812, 846
Raab r.
729
Rabatto
687
Rabbit
503
Raccoon
84
Raetrik m.
785
Ragged m.
257
Ragusa
732
Raiatea i.
989
Rail
106
Railroads 123, 146,
528, 670
Raleigh 304
Rambouillet 602
Rangoon 952
Rappahannock r. 292
Raritan b. 252
Raritan r. 252
INDEX.
1005
Rastadt Rat Ratel Ratisbon Rattlesnake Ratzeburg 1.
RavenRavenna
755504 822 757
111,444 778505 679
Rawan Hrad 1. 949
Raz c. 596
Re i. 596
Reading 266
Realejo 423
Recife 484
Recht 927
Red r. 320, 371
Red s. 881
Reed Bird 213
Regensburg 757
Reggio 674, 684
Reichenberg 738
Reindeer 500
Religions 50
Rennes 604
Reus 627
Reuss 763
Reutlingen 755
Revolution, Amer
ican 135
Reykiavik 403
Rhea 444
Rheims 604
Rhine r. 497, 719, 743,
747, 754, 765
Rhinoceros 819, 884
Rhcetian Alps 718, 719,
726, 737, 747
Rhode Island 200
Rhodes i. 881, 900
Rhone r. 497, 595,
667, 719
Riazan 804
Richelieu r. 387
Richmond 297, 535
Riesengebirge m. 747
Riga 803
Rimini 679
Riobamba 455
Rio d'Infante r. 853
Rio Hacha 451
Rio Janeiro 484
Rio del Norte r. 408
Rio Grande 846
Riva 738
Rivanna r. 292
Rivers 36
Roan m. 302
Roanoke r. 292, 302
Robin 96
Robin's i. 228
Roca c. 496, 642
Rochdale 536
Rochelle 603
Rochester 246
Rock r. 360
Rocks, age of 38
Rock Bridge 293
Rockaway Beach 243
Rocky mts. 115,378
Rocky mts., Gates
of 377
Rodope m. 703
Roenne 778
Roeskilde 780
Rome 245, 677
Roseau 433
Rosetta 864
Rosetta r. 863
Rostock 760
Rotterdam 768
Rouen 603
Round Top 223
Roveredo 738
Rovigno 737
Roxbury 192
Rudesheim 762
Rudolstadt 763
Rugen g. 743
Rugen i. 743
Rundsion 1. 782
Russia, Asiatic 891
Russia in Europe 799
Russian America 392
Rustshuk 706
I Salish Indians
Sallee Salmon Falls r
Salon a
SalonicaSalonica g.
Saloom Salta Salt r.
SaltzburgSaluen r.
Samarang SamarcandSamenSamos i
381828 170
692 706704 846470 367 736 951981 897858
881, 900
Saale r. 743, 747
Saardem 768
Saarlouis 745
Sabeism 50
Sabine r. 321,407
Sable 501
Sable i. 390
Sackett's Harbor 229,
245
Saco 161
Saco r. 156
Saddle m. 183
Saghalien i. 957
Saghalien r. 956
Saginaw r. 363
Saguenay r. 387
Sagrab 730
Sahara 832
Saigaing 952
Saigon 955
Saimer 1. 794
Saint Cloud 602
Sakaria r. 900
Salado r. 468
Salamanca 412, 628
Salamis i. 689
Salem *92
Salerno 684
Salerno b. 682
Salina 245
Salisbury 208,304,538
Samothrace i. 704, 900
Samson's Ribs 571
Samyra i. 894
Sana 924
San Antonio r. 407
" Augustine 407
" Bias 412
" Fernando 627
" Francisco 413
" Francisco r. 481
" Jose 423
" Juan 470
" Luis Potosi 413
" Marino 680
" Salvador 423, 434,
484
Sandpiper 509
Sandusky 354
Sandusky b. 351 1
Sandusky r. 351
Sandwich ids. 988
Sandwich Land 477
Sangar str. 881
Sangarius r. 900
Sanpoo r. 949
Santa Cruz 434, 875
« Fe 413, 470
" Martha 451
" Maura 685
Santander 628
Santarem 643
Santee r. 306
Santiago 429,466,628, 874
Santillana m.
Santorini i.
Saone r.
Saptin r.
Sarabat r.
SaragossaSaranac r.
Sarasu r.
SaratogaSaratoga Springs
SaratovSardinia Sardinia i.
Sarem
624689 595 380
900 628 225 897244 231804 666
647, 667
846
Sari 927
Sark i. 518, 524
Sarmicato m. 474
Saskachawan r. 391
Sassafras 65
Sassari 668
Satellites . 18
Savanna 479
Savanna La Mar 432
Savannah 310
Savannah r. 306, 309
Save r. 727, 729, 737
Savona 66S
Saxe Altenburg 761
Coburg 761
Meiningen 761
Weimar 760
Saxifrage 62
Saxon Duchies 760
Saxony 757
Sayaiiian m. 891
Saybrook 207
Scagerac 494
Scagstlostind m. 782
Scalanova 906
Scanderoon 914
Scandinavian m. 496
Scarborough 432
Scheldt r. 595,766,773
Schelling i. 765
Schemnitz 730
Schenectady 244
Schiedam 768
Schleitz 763
Schleisheim 756
Schneeberg m. 756
Schokland i. 765
Schoodic 1. 157
Schoodic r. 157
Schooley's m. 252
Schowen i. 765
Schuylkill r. 257
Schwartzburg 763
Schwartzwald m. 755
Schwerin 760
Scilly ids. 524
Scio i. 900
Scioto r. 351
Sclavonia 730
Scopelos i. 689
Scotland 567
Scutari 706, 904
Sea 24
Sea Cows 448
Seal 88
Seasons 34
Sebago 1. I57
Sechura Desert 437
Seghalien i. 881
Segistan 932
Seg° ¦ lil
Segovia °'ia
Segovia r. 422
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
p3
_.
p
BT
3-_-_-3-3-BrB-_B"a,3'3-
CCO r—
CD
E3_
CD
-1
(0CO
CD5=
oBcr
oCO3"
O
O.-,CDCO
O O
P. &
CO
-1p
-• CD
_.<w
crc
g
p
B
— ,
CO
pCO
mmmET 3" cr
CD CD CD
ai 3
P B" ft
_. 3,<
ft O
— **
¦ CD
mmmmmmmmmm
_ B ET b- B" B" ET S" B _
CD CD CD CD P
f 5=33-3 g"3
2 5! ¦_, CD CD
¦¦ EB i*31' 2.
a g 2 o
CD
CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD
3 P
(D 3 .
CD Cjq •
co c 3PT
. CD
. CD
i-t i-f i-i >-t
1 -I -* .
mm mmmmmmmmmmmmmmm mm mmmmmmmmmmm
3 8
3 3,
o ™
° c?
CD CD CD
3- CD CD b. s. _
CD 3 q' p
"t Oq
Oppppi_33r-iM ft, ft O- ft g^* ^
o o o o g 3/.P. ^
3 5. '
Lg^W.
5< p _.._ '
_ CD
3 3 3 B B
B CD CD CD CD
p Oq Oq Oq o
ps p p p p
" § — — co
cr r<
CD CD
3 3
¦ CD
CD
E< O
P
"3
_><l to to ve
in <l ao to o
ib ,00 — GD ffl
toOlCn en
O ib
en ©
to
3
CD S
to
lb. ©
a a 3 ^ y. p
p p o.g. p
n . cn KJ
mmmm
CD CD CD CD
g"- 5' PT 5-
3 CD oo cr.
3 «"*•
3. 1 N
P •
GD
OSlb.
00 05
00 © 00
en ib. —
_. — GD tO 05 00
<( <J Ol to — ©
GO — 00 GD tO ©
Ol 05 GO
© 00 ©
to ^J ©
mmm
o o o
B-aq a
- e.2
Kg 3
to to 05 en 05 05 os to GO en 00
tO»OibOSQ0©©V{tOO5OD^(tOODtO^J — © tO lb 10 © lb OS
mmm
O O 3
. o o
g cd'5
_*<
° S'3ft .»
CO CO
_C_0QCeCOCeCeMMC0CGCeCOGQCOC_!COCeaiCOCOCG
5 3 3 3 3 o o,s-« p ST p"_T _T 2T _f ST" _! a' 5' ¦*'
ft 3
O P
_ _ O O ,{z- c.
O CD p E =."3 2
STft_:tn. a-o 3
^ 3'><! pr
3 CD
CB CD
^ E CD p p p7- ,
CD 3
•- ? O ¦'
ftg
3 "O Oq
CD £ CD
_ .»
_.l-iO
CD- O •
co pr
— £-
to GO
GO © _.
en — ©
05en
>_ o
B" B
3 X
O ca
2°5K^9?^^fe!^!_!feS?0i:oi'<'O0DG000©05t0_005<ft005<!en_><J©W)OGDi^£©9ooDgogoGD*_ib©©i(_©*-ib©<!>btOk-©o — © to j_.os
to©ibioo5©©©©©oto — — os©o5oenen©ib.en^ib.©ib.'^t©enioco
SSb.S_2!2!S_Sb.2!b.„_ £_ 5° coa2a!C»_-cyiCM_j
?D CD CD ^t- CD CD m CD CD C_ ft) C- CD* o' C_r
O CD B: B- P O
3 B."-d — • CO -I
mmm mmmmmmmmmm 3
B B
aq
W
3
a3 Oq
P EB
3. p
[I
o CDc_
3 3 B 3
ft ft o o
CD P P
>. 13 -O
• O O
-t *1
CD CD
¥mm
p ?. £
E. O O
o o
33"
=. sr craq
_!. p 3 p
P -t 2
• 3
aq
p p p ;
2gf
CD o JD
" * 2
p CD 3
ft 3 CD
P P
3 3
ft ft
CD CD
OO
b 3'
ft ^
i p p
CD CD
3 3
o »"
B
aq
_.S "'
qc oo oo to go en to oo »i »i en ib- en <i *>. os os go en to >b. ib os <i © oo © i-- oo *>. © to __ en to to to oo to to cs <i <i oo <i © © oo ©
— «^03GCOllOOOO©05ib.GO<l_0_GO_^©OoSoSffl©^0_tO©^^©ffitO^KoS
_ccMtoto-ib.ib.05©tocn-_totPiben-vtGoenMto ©,to S^^gSig . SSSosSffiS e>_^en©©o-SSiblb.©to
© ©
ib. tO
tO lb.
© lb.
© to tO © ffl ib. <l
<! — Ol GD ib. © tO
a *. »j h »j *. ib
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmm m
>>>
3 3 3
5-B ft
O « <d
•3 *
p p p i
ST B? croCDpr
,j2kQT3"_T3-OT3"C3T3-n -_--_- - O O 5
^3 <»
s; » S B 3 3
5 3 S og aq aq
2 2 srsr
3 S. P
cr o 3
— » "< ¦ s
mmmmmmmmmmm
m
¦a
'B'ci'a'.TBTS'O'O'a-o-o
pB."
3.'
ET
ET ='
OCDft
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD
p
n cr
cr cd
CD P
,5 ft-
e
akia
akiot
N
p'
COP-i
3p
CD
3OCD
aq BT
r—in
CD <
CD
aq CDB
CO
CO
3
CD
3
O 3
BO
<-
lb OS lb
^J 00 -.1
05 GO 10
OS00
P Ox N-
^J CO
to —
ib- en ib.
~i © ~.
© oo to
lb Ol '
~l o
05 05
ib. -1 © to © to
to — to to to o
OS
to
oo-
O5O0-. h-©OS©-SOliblb.<JtO©
to —
ib. o ^i oo gc w to to en oo ao
05©tO— _-"00©©<!tOtD
en GO
©•GO
cq^q mmm mm
13 T5 "_ T3 13
p p p p p
a s ». p b'
jd p o. c
ST o
a
i-iib.ib.GD©ib.<!©enosto — toososto
©tOffliOOS- toos
mmm
o o o
BEE
GO CO
O O
E E
m co
o o
E E
ET Br ET ET ET
3-
tfi'
03 CD
s s
CDo
>3CD
!—¦
c
uq
(D
r_o<-*
p
OP
mmmmmmmmmmmmmm
ooooooooooooooEEBE-;-<>_oo3BBaB
3 B_aq o 2-S.B-srBrc_,3 5 5 S
a« h b- » K'o 8 s S » » »
co
CD
co ca CD
* 2. —
Sft
cocoo O
3 o
CD O
2 co-
CD
COCQ 2 2-
3/ p1
3 S
p o
3
en ib to
© <i ^i
oo en —
p to
B" GO
f» ©
so ib. i*- co ennotoosibvctotoMen — *_*.ib.to_
Gp-^05GDtO©00©00©OOOOD©tO^}OS05— O0O5O5
ib©oitOib05H-o^o©^too5 0iibib.ib to -3 to en
.„-»- ...co
s
ET BT CD ft
O OH) .
3 3 a- p
. . 55-
co co B_ o
^. ca
ib.05
GD.*^
ib- © lb 2 *> *9 ^
OS ib. S 05 — tO
¦ CD CD
gg1 =
ET -t
cr i
E '
gggggpj pj p3 pj pj
&¦**«. ^ *"* ^
* ^ r •
gg
ggt-'f
P » g o
M B- O. B#
?r Bj' co*
coaq _
OS CO
©
lb. _.
to tO OS
©
if* M to
8"! © Mib-
05 GO
~l ©
to —
J- OS
CO C/j
© <l
^1 © © © ©
lb. tO — © lb
lb (
05 ©
IO O
ib ©
ib- On tb OS
OS tO 05 ©
O © OS ©
OOP E.E. *CD
05 ^
©
05 00 OS
— ib 00
to © ^1
r- IT" d e O O
p— ^— »— - n, CO CO
.-. n . — ¦ _ rt. /n
ib Ol ib
OS © O
05 GO 05
oHoHoH^=!WBjioopooojiMt.HDeciooooai.
3-3-3-aqaq£--B._ i 5 S _ iS 2 E.2 _ ?•"? g s 5 s-b-b-p _
• co' ft X
O O O O 3
3 r_ aq nto c_ <?
Oq oq aq aq
C. CD CD CD CD .*
_ " •- »¦ 2
S o ¦
CD
05
_. 3
a
Soq• o
• E 2. P 3oq
B.2 IBS
og_.ES-
"p- § a'
3 CD
CD
P
OS©
^1
lbto
to
CD
^WWtO«ibbib©©Cn00©_iibibibOS<!O5>b©OSibto©© Seow©gw — ^lO&p03^05©lO„05©_OS
to OS— J"O5lba000©MlblOiblbO5tO00tOtOlbtoS©
©ib^^ffiibOSibOS
. JO ©to"S_OOSG?_n_-!
o
o 01
INDEX.
Stanovoy m. 891 j
Staten i. 228
States of the Church 676
Staunton 298
Staunton r. 292
Stavanger 783
Steppes 28
Stettin 744
Stettin Haff 743
Steubenville 354
Steyer 736
Stiria 736
Stirling 572
Stoat 501
Stockholm 787
Stockport 536
Stoke upon Trent 540
Stonington 208
Stork 509
Straits 24
Stralsund 744
Strasbourg 604
Strata 36
Stratford 208
Stromboli i. 682
Stroud 539
Stuttgard 755
Suakim 860
Sudan 834
Sudetic m. 726,738,743
Syra i.
Syracuse SyriaSzegedin
689
245, 684910 730
SuezSuli
864706
Sulisk Archipelago 982
Sulitelma m.
Sumatra i.
Sumbava i.
Sunapee 1.
Sunapee m.
Sunda i.
Sunda str.
SunderlandSuperior 1.
SuperstitionsSuracartaSurat SurinamSurinam r.
Susquehanna r.
Sutlege r.
Suwanee r.
Swabian Alps
SwallowSwampscut r
Swan Swan r.
SwanseaSwedenSwitzerland Swinemunde
Swuckii m.
SydneySyeneSyra
785
980, 981
980
171165
980981537 61
582
982941479478257
936, 949312 755
509 170
108, 979, 984984 541785
718 744785
390, 985
864, 865 694
Tabaria 918
Table m. 852
Tabor m. 910, 916
Tabriz 927
Tacazze r. 858
Tacoutche Tesse r. 380
Tagatagua 1. 465
Tagus r. 624, 642
Tahiti i. 989
Tajo r. 624
Talapoosa r. 315
Talcahuana 466
Tallahassee 314
Tampa b. 313
Tampico 413
Tampico r. 409
Tana r. 790
Tanaro r. 667, 669
Tangier 828
Tangier i. 272
Tanguragua r. 455
Tapir 439
Taragona 627
Taranto g. 682
Taren 1. 465
Tarentum 684
Tarim r. 956
Tarma 458
Tarsus 906
Tartary, Channel of 881
" Chinese 956
" Independent 896
Tasmania 986, 990
Tassisudon 943
Taugkannuc mts. 183
Taunton 195
Taunton r. 184
Taurida m. 799
Tauris 927
Taurus m. 877, 899
Tavoy 955
Tay r. 568
Taygetus m. 688
Tchad 1. 835
Tecum seh 364
Teemboo 846
Teen-shan ra. 877
Teeshoo Loomboo 950
Tegaea 693
Teheran 927
Tehuantepec b. 409
Tejuco 485
Temeswar 730
Tempe 704
Tenasserine 955
Tenedos i. 900
Teneriffe i. 875
Tennessee 342
Tennessee r.
Tensaw r.
TeocallisTerceira i.
Terek r.
Tergovist Ternate i.
Terra del Fuego
Terre Haute
Tessino r.
TewksburyTexasTexelTexel i.
Tezcuco 1.
342
316420 496 799
706
982
472,
475 35S 719 539406768765409
Thames r. 204,386,524
Thasos i. 704
Theaki 686
Thebes 692
Theiss r. 727, 729
Theriesienstadt 730
Thian-Chan m. 877
Thibet 949
Thleweechoo r. 391
Thomaston 160
Thompson's i. 312
Thorn 745
Three Rivers 388
Thrush 96, 506
Thun 1. 719
Thuringerwald m. 747
Tiber r. 674, 676
Tiberias 918
Tiberias 1. 911
Tibiquari r. 471
Ticino r. 669
Ticonderoga 244
Tides 24
Tidore i. 982
Tiflis 893
Tiger 883, 938
Tiger Cat 817
Tigre 858
Tigre r. 454
Tigris r. 899
Tilsit 745
Timbuctoo 840
Timor i. 980, 982
Timpanogos 1. 379
Tingua m. 480
Tino i. 689
Tioga r. 258
Tippecanoe r. 356
Tisza r. 729
Titicaca 1. 456, 461
Tlascala 412
Tobacco 300
Tobago 432
Tobolsk 893
Tocat 906
Toeplitz 739
Toledo 354
1007
Toledo m. 624
Tolopchopko r. 312
Token r. 465
Toluca m. 408
Tombeckbee r. 315
Tomsk 893
Topayos r. 481
Tornea 1. 790
Tornea r. 785, 790
Toronto 386
Torre del Greco 684
Tortola 433
Tortosa 627
Tortugas 313
Tosta r. 422
Toucan 447
Toulon 603
Toulouse 604
Tournay - 775
Tours 603
Trade Winds 34
Trsezene 693
Tranguebai 943
Trani 684
Transylvania 730
Trapani 684
Trebbia r. 669
Trebisond 906
Tremecen 827
Trent 738
Trent r. 524
Trenton 254
Trenton f. 236
Tres Montes 472
Treves 745
Trichinopoly 941
Trieste 737
Trikali m. 688
Trincomalee 939
Trinidad 429, 432
Trinidad r. 407
Trinity Land 477
Tripoli 826, 914
Tripolitza 693
Trochtelfingen 764
Tronyem 783
Tropics 21
Troppau 739
Troy 244
Troyes 604
Truxillo 423, 458
Tuam, 588
Tubal 989
Tubingen 755
Tucuman 470
Tucuman r. 468
Tula 803
Tulip Tree 63
Tunguraguay r. 481
Tunis 827
Tupisa 464
Turcomania 898
Turfan 956
1008
INDEX.
Turin
- Turkey Turkey Buzzard
Turkey, Wild
TurkistanTurtlesTuscaloosaTuscaloosa r.
Tuscan s.
Tuscany Tustla m.
TverTweed r.
TwickenhamTwo Sicilies
TynemouthTyreTyrinthusTyrol
667
703, 899 90
101
896279317315 647674
408803568535680537914693737
Ucayali r.
Ulm
U Iswater 1.
Ulua Umbagog 1.
Umea r.
U merapoora
UmpquasUnion c.
United States
Upsala Upsallata
Ural mts.
Ural r.
Uralsk Urbino
Urbia m.
UruguayUruguay r.
Ushant i.
UticaUtrechtUttawa r.
Vaage Vag r.
Valdivia Valdivia r.
Valencia
Valencia 1.
Valentia ValettaValladolidValleysValparaisoValverde
VanVan 1.
Van Diemen's
Var r.
Vardar r.
Varinas Varna
Vassalborough VaucluseVecht r.
Vegetation
VelascoVenadosVenezuela Venice
Venice g.
Ventuan r.
Vera Cruz
Vercelli Verd c.
28,
454, 455755524422 157
785951 380
570 114
787470
799, 877, 891892 804
679 624
472468
596
245768387
784729466 465
453, 627452588686
412, 628
524, 595, 624466458904900 986
667
704453 706161
603 766 42
407
410452670
495, 647452412668812
Land
Vergennes
181
Weathersfieltf
207
Wolverhampton
536
Vermeio r.
468
Weaver Bird
825
Woodpecker
98, 506
Vermillion b.
322
Weehawken
252
Woodstock
181
Vermont
176
Weimar
760
Woodville
319
Verona
672
Wellington i.
472
Woody m.
738
Versailles
602
Wellsburg
299
Woolwich
535
Vesuvius m.
680
Welsh m.
523
Worcester
194, 540
Vevay
357
Wener 1.
785
Worms
762
Vicenza
672
Wesel
745
Woxa c.
794
Vicksburg
320
Weser r.
747, 759
Wrath c.
496
Victoria
407
West Indies
423
Wurtzburg
757
Vicuna
441
West Point
243
Wyborg 1.
778
Vienna
735
West r.
177
Wyoming Valley
267
Villa do Principe
485
West Rock
204
Villa Rica
472, 485
Western Australia
984
Xalapa
412
VincenneB
357, 602
" District
376
Xalisco
412
Vindho m.
624
" Ghauts m
936
Xarages 1.
469
Virgin i.
433
" Islands
568
Xauten
745
Virgin m.
719
" Reserve
354
Xingu r.
Xocnicalco
481
Virginia
291
" States and Ter-
421
Virginia Springs
296
. ritories
326
Xochimilco 1.
409
Vistula r. 497,
727, 739,
" Territory
373
Xucar r.
624
743,796,80'!
Wetter 1.
785
Viziapor
942
Wetumpka
317
Yadkin
302
Vlaardingen
982
Wexford
588
Yak
885
Vlieland i.
765
Weyer's Cave
293
Yakoutsk
893
Volcano
26
Whale
88
Yanaon
606
Volga r.
497, 799
Wheeling
298
Yanina
706
Volo g.
689
Whidah
846
Yankees
143, 215
Vologda
804
Whidah Bird
825
Yapura r.
481
Volturno r.
681
Whimbrel
510
Yarkand
956
Voronege
804
Whippoorwill
100
Yarkand r.
956
Vosges m.
496, 594
Whirlpool
25
Yarmouth
537
Vrachori
692
Whirlwind
35,475
Yazoo r.
318
Vultures 90, 445
, 823, 824
White Earth r.
377
Yedo
969
White Face m.
223
Yeh
955
Waag r.
729
White mts.
165
Yellow Springs
352
Waal r.
766
White r. 179,
356, 370,
Yellowstone r.
117, 377
Waarhuus
783
377,860
Yenissey r.
881,891
Wabash r.
356
White s.
494, 800
Yeou r.
836
Wabash, Little, __
356
White Water r.
356, 367
Yezd
928
Wabesipemecon r.
372
Whitehaven
546
York 161, 267
298,540
Wachusett m.
183
Widgeon
511
Yorktown
298
Wagel
510
Widfn
706
Youghiogeny r.
258
Wakefield
537
Wight i.
524
Youriba
841
Wakulla Fountain
313
Wild Boar
820
Ypres
775
Walcheren i.
765
Wilkesbarre
267
Ysa r.
454
Waldeck
762
Williamsburg
243, 298
Yssel r.
766
Walden's Ridge
342
Williamsport
275
Yuthia
954
Waldoborough
160
Willow
62,67
Yverdun
722
Wales
554
Wilmington
271, 304
Wallawallahs
381
Wilna
804
Zacatecas
412
Walleway r.
380
Winandermere I.
524
Zaire r.
812
Wallo
846
Winchester
298, 538
Zambeze r.
812
Walloostook r.
157
Wind
34
Zanesville
354
Walpole
174
Wind mts.
377
Zanguebar
857
Walrus
504
Windsor 180,207,
390, 535
Zante i.
686
Waltham
192
Winnipeg 1.
61
Zara
732
Wapticaooos r.
380
Winnipiseogee 4.
170
Zea i.
689
Warren
161
Winooski r.
177
Zealand i.
778
Warrenton
320
Wirtemberg
755
Zebra
818
Warsaw
796
Wisbaden
762
Zeila
858
Wartburg
761
Wisby
787
Zeria m.
688
Wartha r.
747
Wiscasset
160
Zermagnia r.
731
Warwick
202, 540
Wisconsin
365
Zirknitz 1.
737
Wash b.
524
Wisconsin mts.
363,365
Zodiac
19
Washington
288
Wisconsin r.
366
Zones
22
Washita r. 321
370, 373
Wismar
760
Zorrino
469
Wateree r.
306
WitepskWithlacoochee r.
804
Zumpango 1.
409
Waterford
587
312
Zurich
722
Waterloo
775
Wolf 81
, 82, 502
Zurich 1.
719
Waterspout
35
Wolf Hunt
212
Zuyder Zee b.
766
Watertown
192
Wolf r.
342
Zwarte Berg m.
Zwart-kops r.
851
Waterville
161
Wolfenbuttel
761
853
Wawa
841
Wolverene
78, 501
Zwei-Brucken
757
Weasel
85,501
THE
END.
/