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YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

From the Library of
WILLIAM M.DERBY, Jr., Yale 1885

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
FOR THE TRAVELER BY SEA.

Old Ocean's Ferry.

The Log of the Modern Mariner, the Trans-
Atlantic Traveler, and Quaint Facts
of Neptune's Realm.

A Collation of Odd and Useful Information for Nautical Travel
and Strange Features of the Sea, for Landsman and Mariner.

COMPILED BY
JOHN COLGATE HOYT.

$

NEW YORK:
BONNELL. SILVER & CO.,
24 WEST 22d STREET.

Copyright, 1900,
by
lOHN COLGATE HOYT.
I., tl.e
United States
and
Great Britain.

CONTENTS.

Historical  7
Navigation for Passengers  18
Ship and Steamship Records  26
Tables and Information Useful on Shipboard  27
Ship Facts  Ill
Sea Superstitions  130
r.
Smuggling  134
Commerce and Shipping  141
Cables  149
Ship Canals  l.il
Lighthouses  157
Hydrographical  170
Old Ocean— Oceanology  186
Sea Life  218
Ancient and Modern Navies  230
Nautical Notes  238
Ship Novelties and Inventions  243

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

HISTORICAL.

SHIPS OP THE ANCIENTS.

The first known record of a vessel is one inscribed on
an Egyptian monument, made about 4,000 years ago. A
vessel is represented pulling forty oars, having a double
mast of two spars with sail bent to yard and managed
evidently by sheets and braces.
Large ships were not unknown to the ancients, and some
of the most roomy attained dimensions equal to ships of
modern times. Nevertheless, they were unmanageable
monstrosities, almost at the mercy of wind and wave, and
utterly unfit to cope with the fury of a hurricane. Doubt
less, we are indebted to travelers' tales for the detailed de
scriptions that survive the lapse of ages. Constantius con
veyed from Heliopolis to Rome an obelisk weighing 1,500
tens and, in addition to this long-coveted monolith, the
ship carried about 1,300 tons of pulse, stowed about the
smaller end of the obelisk, in order to bring the ship on
an even keel. In 268 B. C, Archimedes devised a marvel
lous* ship for Hiero, of Syracuse. Her three lofty masts
had been brought from Britain. Luxuriously fitted sleep
ing apartments abounded, and one of her banqueting
halls was paved wi'h agate and costly Sicilian stone.
Other floors were cunningly inlaid with' scenes from the
Iliad. Stables for many horses, ponds stocked with live
fish, gardens watered by artificial rivulets, and hot baths,
were provided for use or amusement. Ptolemy Philop
ater possessed a nuptial yacht, the Thalamegon, 313 feet
long and 45 feet deep. A graceful gallery, supported by
curiously carved columns, ran round the vessel, and within

8 OLD OCEAN'S FBRRY.
were temples of Venus and Bacchus. Her masts were 100
feet high, her sails and cordage of royal purple hue
THE VIKINGS.
Two thousand years ago, the chiefs and great warriors
of the races dwelling on the islands of the Baltic were
known as Vikings. There were five or six kinds of war
ships used by the chiefs. The ships of the Norsemen were
reckoned by the number of benches of oars. The little
Viking ship seen in America in 1893 was of the small
est size. It had fourteen benches of oars, but there was
one with sixty-four benches, which must have been 475
feet loi)^- and carried 1,500 men. The Vikings thought
everything of their ships, and at one time they had about
10,000 ships at sea, with fully 1,000,000 men on board.
These maritime tribes of the Baltic were called Franks by
the Romans. The Vikings overcame the Romans in many
sea fights. There are preserved in Denmark five distinct
descriptions of journeys of the Vikings to America from
Iceland. The accounts are long and tell of many experi
ences. On one trip they sailed so far south that the grass
was green all winter. On another, several barrels of
• grapes were carried home. The names of the men and of
the ships which went upon these voyages are in the records.
It was in 985 that the first journey took place.
One of the most interesting of the nautical exhibits
at the Chicago World's Fair, was a fac-simile of an old
Viking ship which was sent by Norway. In 1879 a Nor
wegian sailor living in Sandef jord, one of the small ports
of Norway, having faith in a tradition of the townsfolk
that a Viking was buried in a mound, called "Kings-
mound," together with all his earthly possessions, began
to dig there for them. His spade struck a solid oak plank,
which, on further investigation, proved to be the side of.
a ship. When the entire mound was cleared away a- Vik
ing ship was revealed in good condition, and in it was
a skeleton of a man incased in armor and surrounded with
oars and other things belonging to the ship, from which
the age of the ship was ascertained to be about 900
years. It was decided that this must have been the kind

HISTORICAL. 9
of craft in which Leif Ericsson made his voyage to the
North American continent nearly 1,000 years ago
(A. D. 985). This Viking ship was reproduced, and the
reproduction equipped as nearly as possible like the origi
nal, manned, and sent to the United States, unaccompanied
by any other vessel. STEAMSHIPS.
The employment of steam as motive power is by no
means a modern idea. The possibilities of steam were
known to the ancients; its applications were described
by Hero, 130 B. C. Roger Bacon, in the fourteenth cen
tury, made some experiments and the following remark
able prophecy: "We will be able to construct machines
which will propel large ships with greater speed than a
whole garrison of rowers and which will only need one pilot
to direct them." Blasco de Garay constructed a rude
steamboat at Barcelona, in 1543. Later, a steamboat was
built by Dennis Papin, in Germany, who navigated it
safely down the Fulda as long ago as 1707. It was of
sufficient importance to arouse the superstitious dread or
conservative opposition of the sailors or bargemen, who
destroyed it ; and even the memory of it was lost for three-
quarters of a century. Many others gave their atten
tion to the subject, but Jonathan Hulls, of Liverpool, ap
pears to have been the first to reduce the marine steam
engine to actual practice. In 1737 he published a pam
phlet describing his stern-wheel boat, accompanying it with
an engraving which is yet in existence, and from which
it would appear that it was capable of towing a large vessel.
In 1775, Perrier, a Frenchman, as was also Papin, built
an experimental steam vessel at Paris. Eight years later,
in 1783, De Jouffroy took up the idea that had been
evolved by Papin and Perrier, aud built a steamer which
did good service for some time on the Saone.
On September 37, 1785, Fitch submitted to the American
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, a drawing and de
scription of a machine for working a boat against a stream
by means of a steam engine, and, on December 3, presented
a copy of the model and drawing to the society. He made

10 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
several experiments with a stem paddle wheel, a screw
propeller, the endless chain, and the side-wheels, and
finally adopted the plan of rowing the boat by oars or
paddles on the sides, to be moved by cranks worked by
machinery, which he tried on a skiff with the steam engine,
and on the 37th of July, 1786, he made a public trial of
it on the Delaware river, which is said to have been the
first boat successfully propelled by steam in America.
Fitch's first boat for carrying passengers was completed
in 1788, and satisfied the most skeptical of the practica
bility of his inventions. This boat was 60 feet long, 8
feet beam, and worked with oars or paddles placed at the
stern and pushed against the water; the engine having
a 13-inch cylinder. In July, 1788, she made a trip from
Philadelphia to Burlington, some 30 miles, the long
est trip ever made by any steamboat up to that time; and
on the 12th of October following, she took 30 passengers
from Philadelphia to Burlington in 3 hours and 10
minutes, which was at the rate of over six miles an hour.
Fitch made still further improvements, and two years
later completed another boat which proved a complete
success. A day was appointed for a public experiment,
which was made over a measured mile. Every precau
tion was taken before witnesses, the experiment declared
to be fairly made, and the boat was found to go at the
rate of eight miles an hour, or one mile in seven and a half
minutes. Lack of means prevented him from prosecut
ing his labors, though he was firmly convinced of the
importance of steam as a motive power in navigation.
Shortly before his death, he wrote : "The time will come
when all our great lakes, rivers and oceans will be navi
gated by vessels propelled by steam; some more powerful
man will get fame and riches from my invention, but
nobody will believe that poor John Fitch can do anything
worthy of attention."
In 1788, Symington's patent engine was fitted to one of
the experimental boats of Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton,
a wealthy gentleman who had experimented in naval
architecture and the propulsion of small vessels by means
of paddle wheels driven by manual labor. A successful
experiment in steam navigation was performed on Dais-

HISTORICAL. 11
winton Loch, fhe little boat attaining a speed of something
like four miles an hour. The experiment was repeated on
a larger scale in 1789 on the Forth and Clyde Canal, the
engine used being Symington's patent, with ratchet wheels
and chains, for converting the reciprocating motion of
the pistons into rotary motion, on the same principle as
adopted in the Dalswinton experiment, but on a larger
scale. Neither of these vessels was of any practical value,
however, beyond having demonstrated to England that a
steam engine could be safely applied to propel a vessel;
and after the 1789 experiment, Mr. Miller unfortunately
abandoned .steam navigation altogether. Symington
found a worthy patron in 1801, in Lord Dundas, of Kerse,
near Grangemouth. Under his patronage he produced
the Charlotte Dundas, designed for towing vessels on the
canal, in order to do away with horses for that purpose;
and this vessel was at work on the Forth and Clyde Canal
from 1801 to 1813. In this vessel Symington abandoned
his old style of engine, and adopted the crank and con
necting rod for producing rotary motion of the paddle
wheel. The Charlotte Dundas was built at Grangemouth,
by Alexander Hart, in 1801. She was 56 feet long, 18
feet beam, and 8 feet depth. She had a paddle wheel at
the stern. The cylinder, which was 23 inches diameter
by 4 feet stroke, lay horizontally on the deck, and the
piston rod was coupled direct, by a connecting rod, to a
crank upon the paddle shaft. This vessel attained a
speed of about 6 or 7 miles an hour upon the canal, and
towed upon one occasion two fully laden sloops — the Active
and Euphemia — each about 70 tons burden, from Wyn-
ford to Port Dundas, a distance of 19.5 miles, in six hours
against a strong headwind. The wash from the paddle
wheel, however, had a tendency to destroy the banks of
the canal, and Symington was interdicted firom iising his
steam vessel on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Previoiis to
this interdict the Duke of Bridgewater, having heard of
the success of Symington's steamer, gave him an order
for eight similar boats for the Bridgewater Canal; but
unfortunately for Symington, on the very day on which
he received the notice of interdict from the manager of
the Forth and Clyde Canal, he also received the intelli-

12 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
gence of the Duke of Bridgewater's death,' and the order
was never executed.
John Cox Stevens, of New Jersey, in 1804, constructed
a boat on the Hudson, driven by a Watt engine, with a
tubular boiler of his own invention. It had a bladed
screw-propeller. In the same year Oliver Evans, of New
port, Del., constructed a locomotive and steamboat
combined, which he called the Eructor Amphibolis. It
consisted of a large flat boat or scow, with a steam engine
of the power of five horses on board to work the machinery.
When the machine was finished he fixed, in a rough and
temporary manner, wheels with wooden axletrees, and thus
propelled it to the Schuylkill river, where it was launched.
A parade wheel was then applied to its stem and it thus
steamed down that river to the Delaware, a distance of
IG miles, leaving all vessels that were under sail far be
hind. Evans, like Fitch, predicted the time when steam
would be a mighty power on waterways and ocean. Other
pioneers in steam navigation were James Rumsey, of Mary
land, William Longstreet, a native of New Jersey, Capt.
Samuel Morey, a native of Connecticut, Elijah Ormsbee,
of Providence, R. 1., Nicholas J. Roosevelt, of New York,
Robert Livingston Stevens, and Chancellor Livingston,
all of whom had been experimenting in steam navigation
many years before Fulton began his experiments in tliis
line. In 1807 Robert Fulton, of New York, went from that
city to Albany in the Clermont, a boat of ICO tons burden,
with side paddle wheels, driven by an engine which he
purchased in Phigland, of Boulton and Watt. She ran
during the remainder of the year as a passenger boat. She
was tho first that ran for practical purposes which proved
of value. The outside bearing of the paddle-wheel shaft
and the guard were invented by Fulton. The boat may
be considered to have been about the sixteenth steam
boat; nevertheless the popular verdict is a just and
righteous one. To Fulton more than to any other man Is
due the credit of the introduction of steam navigation.
His enterprise opened the way, and he was the first to
apportion the strength and sizes of parts to the respective
strains and dutief<. He had previously seen Symington's •

HISTORICAL. 13
boat, and had launched an experimental one, 66 feet long,
on the Seine. The former may have directed his atten
tion to the matter, and the latter was a useful apprentice
ship. Mr. Charles Brown had built for Mr. Fultoui,
between 1806 and 1813, six steamboats of lengths varying
from 78 feet to 175 feet, and in tonnage from 130 to 337,
prior to the practical working of any steamboat in Europe.
OCEAN STEAMSHIPS.
The first ocean steam navigation in the world was by
the steamboat Phoenix, built by Col. John Stevens, and
navigated by Robert L. Stevens from Hoboken, N. J ,
to Philadelphia, in 1808. It was propelled by a screw.
Stevens sought the waters of the Delaware because Fulton
and Livingston had the patent right to steam naviga
tion on the Hudson.
In 1812, Henry Bell of Scotland, built the Comet, of
30 tons, with side paddle wheels, which plied between
Glasgow and Greenock on the Clyde, and the next year
around the coasts of the British Isles.
The Savannah was the first steamer which crossed the
Atlantic. She was built in 1819, at Corlear's Hook, N. Y.,
and was of 380 tons burden. She was originally intended
for a sailing ship of 350 tons but was purchased on the
stocks by Mr. Scarborough, who deserves credit as the
first to send a steamship across the most stormy of seas.
Moses Rogers was engineer, and Capt. Stephen Rogers
was master. The steamer first went from New York to
Savannah and on the 36th of May, 1819, the Savannah
sailed from Savannah on her memorable voyage. She
arrived without mishap at Liverpool in twenty-two days.
From England she went to St. Petersburg, Russia, where
an effort was made to dispose of her to the Tzar. The sale
not being consummated, she returned to New York and
was afterward converted into a sailing vessel.
The Royal William crossed the Atlantic from Quebec, in
1833. She had her hold so filled with fuel that there was
no room for merchandise of any kind. Dr. Lardner and
other scientists therefore thought that, though such a
vessel might be profitably employed in coast trade, its

14 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
voyago across the ocean could not be profitable if dependent
upon traffic alone. It was even claimed by some scien
tists, prior to this, that no steamship could cross the
ocean by means of steam power alone, because they held
that no vessel could carry a sufficient quantity of coal.
In 1838 the Great Westem (1340 tons) and the Sirius
steamed across the Atlantic from England. Two years
afterward the Cunard line was started, and was followed
by the Collins line in 1850. The Great Britain, with four
masts, came to New York in 1846, and excited as much
astonishment as the Great Eastem did fifteen years
later. THE SCREW PROPELLER.
Tho screw propeller was invented by numerous people,
if we are to assume that each person who put forward a
claim or who patented it supposed himself to be an
original inventor. Several notices of the screw propeller
occur, but it came more distinctly into notice when brought
forward by Ericsson in 1836. The supematurally wise old
sea-dogs and landsmen of the British Admiralty sneered
at the innovation, but Capt. Robert F. Stockton and
Francis B. Ogden of New Jersey, appreciated it. The
former introduced it to the United States Navy Depart
ment, and the war steamer Princeton was launched upon
the Delaware. The Robert F. Stockton, an iron vessel
fitted with a screw propeller, was launched upon the
Mersey, in 1838, and crossed to the United States the next
year. Her name was changed to New Jersey, and she was '
the first screw propeller vessel practically used in America,
as Ericsson's Francis B. Ogden was the first in Europe.
Ericsson accomplished for the screw propeller in England
and America what Fulton did for the paddle wheel in
America and Bell in England. The possible value of the
screw propeller first began to be perceived and popular
ized by employing it as an auxiliary to sailing ships. In
1845 it was extended to establish an American line of
auxiliary packet ships, but after the building of the
Massachusetts the project was abandoned. The em
ployment of auxiliary screws in warships in the Crimean

HISTORICAL. 1 5
War indicated the tentative character of all previous
uses of the propeller, while it revealed the possible value
of this means of propulsion and the futility of any half
hearted use of the propeller in any service in which time
is an important factor. The adoption of the compound
marine engine was another point which turned the scale
in favor of the propeller. THE FIRST IRON SHIP.
The first iron ship has more reputed birthplaces than
Homer. Both the Clyde and the Mersey claim pre-emi
nence in this respect. Sir E. J. Robinson of Edinburgh,
designed an iron vessel in 1816, which was not launched
till three years later; and it is said that an iron boat was
worked on the Severn even as far back as 1787. Old
salts were not alone in their belief that wood was meant by
Providence to float, but iron to go to the bottom. A naval
constructor of some repute said: "Don't talk to me of
iron ships; they are contrary to nature."
STEEL SHIPS.
Steel was not used in the construction of merchant
ships' hulls until 1859. As wood in the construction of
ships was gradually replaced by iron, so iron, in its turn,
has practically given way to steel. Its free use was only
tt few years ago made possible — on the score of economy —
by the perfection of the Bessemer process. ' But for the
triumphant success of that cheap method of steel manu
facture, such a thing as a steel hull would have remained
the dream of naval architects. The prime cost of vessels
is increased by the change, but there is a great gain in
durability, which makes the use of steel cheaper than iron
in the long run. The carrying capacity of a»steel vessel
is greater than one composed of iron. The tougher metal
better stands the tremendous wear and tear of quick
voyages. As to comparative safety in collisions with other
vessels or with icebergs, the shock can be sustained with
less damage to steel than to iron. For every exigency
that taxes the strength of a hull, iron is less suitable than
steel.

16 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
CIRCUMNAVIGATORS OF THE GLOBE.
1519. Magalhaens, Portuguese, who named Magellan's Straits.
1567. Mendana, Spaniard, who named Marquesas, or Mendana
Islands.
1577. Sir Francis Drake, the first English circumnavigator.
1586. Cavendish, first voyage.
1605. Quiros, Spaniard.
1615. Le Maire. Dutch.
1642. Tasman, Dutch, who named Tasmania.
1679. Dampier, English.
1708 Cook, English.
1721. Roggeween, Dutch.
1740. Anson, British.
2764. Bryon, English.
1766 Wallis, British.
1766. Bougainville, French.
1760. Carteret, English.
1768. James Cook.
1779. King.
1826-1836. King and Fitzroy, British.
1836-1842. Belcher, British.
1838-1842. Wilkes, American.
1890. May 4, G. F. Train, American, completed a trip around
the world in 67 days, 13 hours, 3 min., 3 sec, stopping
over one day in New York.
AMERICAN NAVAL BATTLES.
1776. Paul Jones in Providence, privateer, took 15 prizes in the
autumn. Manly and others make many prizes on the
N. E. coast.
1778. April, Paul Jones's attack on Whitehaven.
1779. Sept. 23. He captures the British frigate Serapis.
1779. Feb., U. 8. frigate Constellation captured the French frigate
L'Insurgente.
1800. Constellation and La Vengeance combat.
1803. Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tripolitana.
1804. Feb., Philadelphia frigate destroyed by Decatur.
1804. Aug., Tripoli bombarded by Commodore Preble.
1811. May 16, Contest between American frigate President and
British sloop Little Belt.
1812. Aug. 19, U. S. frigate Constitution captures British frigate
Guierriere.
1812. Oct. 8, Capt. Elliott captured Detroit and Caledonia on
Lake Champlain.
1812. Oct. 18, Capt. Jones with sloop Wasp, captured the British
brig Frolic, and both vessels captured by the British 74-
gun ship Poictiers on the afternoon of the same day.
1812. Oct. 25, Commodore Decatur, with frigate United States
captured the British frigate Macedonian. '

HISTORICAL. 17
1812. Dec. 29, Commodore Bainbridge, witli the frigate Constitu
tion, captured the British frigate Java.
1813. Feb. 10, Capt. Lawrence, with the sloop Hornet, captured
the British brig Resolute, and Feb. 24, the brig Pex-
cock.
1813. June 1, Capt. Lawrence, with the frigate Chesapeaka,
surrendered to the British frigate Shannon.
1813. Aug. 14, Capt. Allen, with sloop Argus, surrendered to the
sloop Pelican.
1813. Sept. 4, Lieut. Burrows, with the U. S. brig Enterprise,
captured the British brig Boxer.
1813. Sept. 10, Commodore Perry, with a small fleet, captured
British fleet on Lake Erie.
1813. Oct. 5, Commodore Perry, with the American flotilla, cap
tured the British flotilla on Lake Ontario.
1814. March 28, Capt. Porter, with the U. S. frigate Essex, sur
rendered to the British frigate Phoebe.
1814. April 20, Capt. Bainbridge, vrith U. S. sloop Frolic, sur
rendered to the frigate Orpheus.
1814. April 29, Capt. Warrington, with sloop Peacock, captured
the British brig Epervier.
1814. June 28, U. S. sloop Wasp, Capt. Blakeley, captured British
brig Reindeer.
1814. Aug. 9-12, Commodore Hardy, with a British fleet, at
tacked Stonington.
1814. Sept. 11, Commodore McDonough's fleet on Lake Champlain
captured the British fleet off Plattsburg.
1815. Jan. 15, Commodore Decatur, with frigate President, sur
rendered to the British frigate Endymion.
1815. Feb. 20, Capt. Stewart, with U. S. frigate Constitution,
captured the British ships of war Cyane and Levant.
1815. Feb. 23, Commodore Biddle, with the sloop Hornet, captured
the British brig Penguin.
1847. March, Commodore Connor, with the U. S. fleet bom
barded Vera Cruz, in conjunction with a land foroe
under Gen. Scott.
1862. April 24, Farragut passes the forts below New Orleans,
and destroys the Confederate flotilla, and April 25,
anchors before the city.
1802. March 8, Ships Congress and Cumberland destroyed by
Confederate iron-clad Merrimac in Hampton Roads.
1862. March 9, Fight between Monitor and Merrimac.
1864. June 19, The Kearsage destroys the Alabama."
1898. Battleship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, Feb.
1.5.
1898. May 1, Commodore Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at
Manila. American loss, 6 men, slightly wounded.
1898. June 6, Spanish cruiser Reina Mercedes sunk by American
ships at Santiago.
1898. July 3, Admiral Cervera's fleet, attempting to escape from
Santiago, was destroyed by the American war vessels,

18 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS.

HINTS TO VOYAGERS.
BEroEE sailing, one should have his baggage packed
so as to take to his stateroom only such things as will
be needed on hi? voyage or on his arrival, having it marked
either "wanted" or "not wanted," or by the equivalents
"stateroom" or "for the hold." That in the hold cannot
be reached until landed on the wharf. Fifteen cubic feet
of baggage is allowed. Extra baggage is charged at ths
rate of 25 cents a cubic foot. Only absolutely neces
sary articles and packages should be taken. A steamer
trunk is allowed in the stateroom. It must not be over
twelve inches deep, as during the voyage it is stowed under
a sofa. All baggage should be labeled before being sent
to the steamer. The owner's name and name of the vessel
must be plainly marked. Where there is a party, each
member of it should have a common letter on each piece.
At the port of sailing on the other side letters for the
purpose will be furnished, and on arrival the steward will
mark stateroom baggage in the same way. On arrival at
Quarantine, Custom House officials board the steamer
and distribute a brief statement of the United States
customs regulations. These officials then take their places
at the tables in the saloon, and with the passenger list
of the steamer ask the passengers a series of questions.
A man may answer for his wife and for members of his
family, and usually for women travelling with him. It
it desirable to have him do so as one inspector then passes
all the baggage of the party. The questions usually
asked are:
"How many pieces of baggage have you?" A descrip
tion is then given as to number of trunlcs, valises, packages
etc,

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENOERS. 19
"Haye you any dutiable goods to declare?"
If a gentleman, "Have you any articles of ladies' ap
parel?" If a lady, "Have you any articles of gentlemen's ap
parel?" "Have you any piece goods?"
"Have you any presents for friends?"
"Do you swear to this?"
The passenger is then asked to sign a statement setting
forth the facts elicited in the interview. All is done
hurriedly and takes a minute or two for each passenger.
The oath is not administered. The passenger then re
ceives a card with a number for the inspector. If a
passenger has dutiable goods, he gives a list of them with
their cost, and it is desirable, if possible, to have bills for
those of any value, and to have such goods packed so as
to be of easy access. The duties are paid without any
delay. Seats at table are allotted by the chief steward, or by the
second steward, immediately after the steamer leaves the
pier. Nurses and children are served separately.
Passengers formerly took their own steamer chairs on
a voyage and found considerable trouble and annoyance
in looking after them from the time they were purchased
until they were finally stored at home. All of the prom
inent lines' are now supplied with chairs of the most ap
proved type. The exclusive use of one of these chairs
for the trip may be secured for fifty cents.
Each steamer carries an experienced physician, whose
services are gratuitous so far as steerage passengers are
concerned. Cabin passengers generally expect to pay
him. Medicines are supplied without charge to those
who require them.
A general fee is invariably given at the *close of the
voyage to each steward who has attended to the passenger's
wants, and sometimes special fees during the voyage for
special services on their part.
PERSONAL BAGGAGE REGULATIONS.
The provision of the law placing wearing apparel and
personal effects on the free list is as foUowg;

20 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
"Wearing apparel, articles of personal adornment, toilet
articles and similar personal effects of persons arriving
in the United States; but this exemption shall only in
clude such articles as actually accompany and are in the
use of and as are necessary and appropriate for the wear
and use of such persons for the immediate purpose of
the journey and present comfort and convenience, and shall
not be held to apply to merchandise or articles intended for
other persons, or for sale. Provided, that in case of
residents of the United States returning from abroad,
all wearing apparel and personal effects taken by them
cut of the L^nited States to foreign countries shall be
admitted free of duty, without regard to their value,
rpon their identity being established, under appropriata
rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary
of the Treasury, but no more than $100 in value of articles
purchased abroad by such residents of the United States
shall be admitted free of duty upon their return."
Only such articles of wearing apparel, toilet articles
and personal effects as actually accompany the passenger
are entitled to free entry. As free entry is accorded to
all wearing apparel and personal effects taken abroad by
residents of the United States and brought back by
them, customs officers will require passengers to identify
tbe goods claimed by them to have been taken abroad.
A careful examination of such articles will then be made
tc verify the correctness of the claim.
It will be seen that the law now establishes $100 as
the maximum value of articles purchased abroad which
can be brought in free of duty by passengers who are
residents of the United States. Whenever, therefore,
a resident shall declare articles in excess of $100 in value
which are dutiable under this provision, it shall be
optional with him to specify the articles which are in.
excess; provided, that, if such declaration and specifica
tion is not made by the passenger, duty shall be assessed
upon that class of articles in excess of $100 which is
subject to the highest rate of duty.
A false declaration of the value of articles or mer
chandise other than wearing apparel, articles of personal
adornment;, toilet articles and similar personal effects

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 21
in the baggage of persons arriving in the United States
will subject such articles or merchandise to the additional
duties provided for in Section 7 of the Administrative
act, as amended by Section 33 of the new Tariff act.
TRAVEL ON THE ATLANTIC.
For some years past foreign travel has been very large.
A good authority estimates that fully 100,000 people go
TO Europe annually on an average and spend in the
t.ggregate $100,000,000. Last year, 1899, was, probably,
that of the heaviest travel, the number of travelers greatly
exceeding the above figures. They are estimated to have
spent $150,000,000. It is said that less than a third
f f this sum is spent by foreigners in the United States.
It is expected that transatlantic travel from America this
year will be 50 per cent, greater than last, owing to the
Paris Fair, and that the number of Europeans visiting
America will be much smaller.
The steamers between Europe and North America
carry on an average about 70,000 passengers a month.
A German scientist named Boysen has found that for
3 single year under investigation there was a daily
average of 3,651 sailing vessels at sea, with 44,899 men
in their crews. Every day, 'also, 1,504 steamships, with
crews numbering 53,2133 men and 33,565 passengers, were
fifloat on the Atlantic. This made a daily average for
the year of 5,155 vessels and 130,737 persons spread over
the whole Atlantic surface. The most thickly popu
lated part of the sea, the English Channel, where the
average density of population is 0.07 per square kilo
metre,"' is comparable with the population scattered over
Yakutsk, Siberia. For the entire Atlantic the average
density of population for the year investigated was only
0.003 per square kilometre, which is cotnparable with
the sparsely settled northem half of North America.
OCEAN CARRIAGE.
Within the past fifteen years ocean carriage has been
practically revolutionized in point of cheapness and
speed. Last year, two shipments of lace on the steamers
*A kilometre equals 3,281 feet.

23 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
St. Louis and St. Paul from Southampton were placed
on the shelves of the merchants in New York and Chicago
within 8 and 10| days from the time they left Calais.
A bale of Sea Island cotton is now put down at Liver
pool or Manchester at a little more than the cost of de
livering it at New York. Many facts of this nature in
duce British m.anufacturers to regard the United States
as economically nearer to Great Britain by sea than Glas
gow is to London by rail. It costs the Germans only
$1.67 to move a ton of wheat several hundred mil•^^^
on their river routes ; but thousands of tons of wheat have
been transported from New York to Hamburg for $1.43
a ton. No wonder that German farmers find it almost
impossible to compete with American grain. The enor
mous decrease in ocean freight charges is one of the most
potent causes of agricultural distress in Europe. In
1879 the cost of carrying a ton of wheat from New York
to Havre was $10.81. Ten years later the cost per ton
was $1.94.
The remarkable decrease in freight charges within
twenty years is almost wholly due to inventions and im
provements in machinery. Improvements in steam
engines now enable vessels bound for the Orient to go
from Great Britain and the Continent direct to the Suez
Canal without coaling at any intermediate port. Techni
cal progress now make 3 one pound of coal furnish as
much steam as three pounds twenty years ago. In other
words, the cost of steam power, owing to improvements
in engines, boilers and grates, has been reduced fully
two-thirds. Less time is now required to build freight
steamers than formerly, their carrying capacity is much
greater, they travel faster and the risks of ocean traffic
have been much reduced. PASSPORTS.
Rules governing the granting and issuing of passports
in the United States:
1. By Whom Issued. — No one but the Secretary of
State may grant and issue passports in the United States
— .R. S. Sees. 4075, 4078.
A citizen of the United States desiring to procure a

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 23
passport while he is temporarily abroad should apply to
the diplomatic representative of the United States in the
country where he happens to be; or, in the absence of a
diplomatic representative, to the consul-general of the
United States; or, in the absence of both, to the consul of
the United States. The necessary statement may be made
before the nearest consular officer of the United States.
2. To Citizens Only. — The law forbids the granting
of a passport to any person who is not a citizen of the
United States. — R. S., Sec. 4076. A person who has only
made the declaration of intention to become a citizen of
the United States cannot receive a passport.
3. Applications. — A citizen of the United States in
this country in order to procure a passport must make a
written application, in the form of an affidavit, to the
Secretary of State. The affidavit must be attested by an
officer authorized to administer oaths, and if he has an
official seal it must be affixed. If he has no seal, his
official character must be authenticated by certificate of
the proper legal officer. If the applicant signs by mark,
two attesting witnesses to his signature are required.
The applicant is required to state the date and place of
his birth, his occupation, and the place of his permanent
residence, and to declare that he goes abroad for tem
porary sojourn and intends to return to the United
States with the purpose of residing and performing the
duties of citizenship therein. The applicant must take
the oath of allegiance to the Government of the United
States. The application must be accompanied by a description
of the person applying, and should state the following par
ticulars, viz.: Age,  years; stature,  feet ¦ 
inches (English measure) ; forehead,  ; eyes,  ;
nose,  ; mouth,  ; chin,  ; hair,  ; com
plexion,  ; face,  . The application must be ac
companied by a certificate from at least one credible wit
ness that the applicant is the person he represents him
self to be, and that the facts stated in the affidavit are
true to the best of the witness's knowledge and belief.
4. Native Citizens. — An application containing the in-

24 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
formation indicated by rule three will be sufficient evi
dence in the case of native citizens.
5. A Person Born Abroad Whose Father Was a Native
of the United States. — In addition to the statements
required by rule three, his application must show that his
father was born in the United States, has resided therein,
and was a citizen at the time of the applicant's birth.
The department may require that this affidavit be sup
ported by that of one other citizen acquainted with the
facts. 6. Naturalized Citizens. — In addition to the state
ments required by rule three, a naturalized citizen must
transmit his certificate of naturalization, or a duly cer
tified copy of the court record thereof, with his applica
tion. It will be returned to him after inspection. He
must state in his affidavit when and from what port he
emigrated to this country, what ship he sailed in, where
he has lived since his arrival in the United States, when
and before what court he was naturalized, and that he is
the identical person described in the certificate of natur
alization. The signature to the application should con
form in orthography to the applicant's name as written
in the naturalization paper, which the Department fol
lows. 7. The Wife or Widow of a Naturalized Citizen. —
In addition to the statements required by rule three,
she must transmit for inspection her husband's naturali
zation certificate, must state that she is the wife or widow
of the person described therein, and must set forth the
facts of his emigration, naturalization, and residence, as
required in the rule governing the application of a natur
alized citizen.
8. The Child of a Naturalized Citizen Claiming
Citizenship ^ through the Naturalization of the Father.
— In addition to the statements required by rule three,
the applicant must state that he or she is the son or
daughter, as the case may be, of the person described
in the naturalization certificate, which must be submitted
for inspection, and must set forth the facts of his emi
gration, naturalization, and residence, as required in the
rule governing the application of a naturalized citizen.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 25
9. Expiration of Passport. — A passport expires two
years from the date of issuance. A new one will be
issued upon a new application, and if the applicant be a
naturalized citizen, the old passport will be accepted in
lieu of a naturalization certificate, if the application
upon which it was issued is found to contain sufficient
information as to the emigration, residence, and naturali
zation of the applicant.
10. Wife, Minor Children, and Servants. — When an
applicant is accompanied by his wife, minor children, or
servant, being an American citizen, it will be sufficient to
state the fact, giving the respective ages of the children
and the citizenship of the servant, when one passport
will suffice for all. For any other person in the party
a separate passport will be required. A woman's pass
port may include her minor children and servant under
the above named condition.
11. Professional Titles.- — They will not be inserted
in passports.
12. Fee. — By act of Congress approved March 23,
1888, a fee of one dollar is required to be collected for
every citizen's passport. That amount in currency or
postal money order should accompany each application.
Orders should be payable to the Disbursing Clerk of the
Department of State. Drafts or checks will not be re
ceived. 13. Blank Forms of Application. — They will be fur
nished by the Department to persons who desire to apply
for passports, upon their stating whether they are native
or naturalized citizens or claim through the naturaliza
tion of husband or father. Forms are not fumished, ex
cept as samples, to those who make a business of pro
curing passports.
14. Address. — Communications should ^ be addressed
to the Department of State, Passport Division, and each
communication should give the post office address of the
person to whom the answer is to be directed.
15. Rejection of Application. — The Secretary of State
may refuse to issue a passport to any one who, he has
reason to believe, desires it for an unlawful or improper

26 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,
purpose, or who is unable or unwilling to comply with
the rules.
Section 4075 of the Revised Statutes of the United
States providing that "the Secretary of State may grant
and issue passports, and cause passports to be granted,
issued, and verified in foreign countries by such diplo
matic or consular officers of the United States, and under
such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe
for and on behalf of the United States," the foregoing
rules are hereby prescribed for the granting and issuing
of passports in the United States. The Secretary of
State is authorized to make regulations on the subject
of issuing and granting passports additional to these rules
and not inconsistent with them. William McKinley.
Executive MANSiOiV, Washington, May 31, 1898.
SAFETY OP OCEAN TRAVEL.
In spite of all the perils by which the passage is
menaced the steamers of the transatlantic lines are so
stanchly built and so capably handled that a man is less
likely to meet with accidents on board one of them than
he would be in walking the streets of a crowded city.
The record of 1890 shows that during that year there
was no less exposure than usual to dangers; nearly 3,000
trips were made from New York alone to various Euro
pean ports; about 300,000 cabin passengers were carried
to and fro, in addition to nearly 370,000 immigrants who
were landed at Castle Garden. Not a single accident was
reported. A^'hen the yearly number of transatlantic trips
is taken into consideration with the occasional disasters,
rarely incurring great loss of life, the safety of a passen
ger on a single transatlantic passage is practically assured
and the danger of going to the bottom is, in arithmetical
calculation of chances, infinitesimal.
TRANSATLANTIC RECORDS.
The successive steps in the reduction of the time of

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS, 2?
passage between New York and Queenstown, both East
ward and Westward, follow:

Year.

&

£ .S Vessel. East or West.

Reduction.

O

« g

1819

22

Savannah (fr Savannah to Liv'p'

1)

1838
18
11 15 Sirius (Liverp'l to N. Y.)
3d
12h 43m
10
10 15 Great West'n (Liverp'l to N. Y.
) 8d
Ih
1851
10
G Africa (L. to N. Y.)
4h 15<n
10
2 Asia (L. to N. Y.)
4h
9
19 25 Pacific (L. to N. Y.)
6h 35m
1856
9
13 42 Baltic (L. to N. Y.)
5h 43m
9
1 45 Persia (L. to N. Y.)
llh 57m
1862
8
17 47 Scotia (L. to N. Y.)
7h 58m
1866
8
2 48 Scotia
W
14h 59m
1873
20 9 Baltic
w
6h 39m
18 50 City of Richmond
W
Ih 19m
1875
18 2 City of Berlin
w
48m
15 48 City of Berlin
w
2h 14m
1876
13 11 Britannic
W
2h 37m
1877
11 37 Germanic
w
Ih 33m
1877
10 53 Britannic
w
44m
1879
8 58 Arizona
E
Ih 55m
8 Arizona
E
58m
1880
7 23 Arizona
w
37m
3 30 Arizona
w
3h 53m
1881
6 23 50 Servia
w
3h 40m
1882
6
21 4 City of Rome
w
2h 46m
6
18 37 Alaska
w
2h 27m
1883
6
14 18 America
W
4h 19m
1884
6
11 9 Oregon
w
3h 9m
6
10 America
W
Ih 9m
6
9 51 Oregon
w
9m
6
6 8 Umbria
w
3h 43m
1885
6
5 31 Etruria
w
37m
1887
6
4 42 Umbria
w
49m
1888
6
1 55 Etruria
w
2h 47m
1889
5
23 7 City of New York
w
2h 48m
5
22 50 City of Paris
w
17m
5
21 20 Majestic
w
Ih 30m
5
20 39 City of New York
W
41m
5
19 18 City of Paris
w
Ih 21m
1891
5
19 5 Teutonic
W
13m
5
18 8 Majestic
w
57m
5
16 31 Teutonic
W
Ih 37m
1892
5
15 58 City of Paris
W
33m
5
14 24 City of Paris
w
Ih 34m
1893
5
13 45 Lucania
w
39m
28 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

Yea)-, b S .9 Vessel.

1894

From 1819 to 1851 the steamships enumerated above were side-
wheels; from 1851 to 1889 the record-breakers were single-screws;
from 1889 they have been double or twin-screws. The Lucania at
one time held the records for both the fastest eastward and west
ward passages, when the time in each instance was exactly the
same, viz., 5 days, 18 hours, 38 minutes.
EASTWARD RECORDS, NEW YORK TO QUEENSTOWN.

s

« g

5

13 30 Lucania

5
5

13 23 Campania
12 47 Lucania

5 5
5

12 7 Campania
9 29 Campania
8 38 Lucania

5

8 35 Lucania

5

7 43 Lucania

5

7 23 Lucania

East or West.

Reduction.

E

15m

W

7m

W

36m

W

40m

W

2h 38m

E & W

51m

W

3m

w

52m

w

20m

Year.

Days.

Hours.

Mins.

Vessel.

Reduction.

1873

7

20

9

Britannic

1875

7

15

48

City of Berlin

4h

21m

1876

7

12

48

Britannic

3h

1879

7

8

58

Arizona

3h

50m

7
8
Arizona
58m
1881
7
7
50
Arizona
10m
1882
7
7
41
Servia
9m
7
6
43
Alaska
58m
7
26
Alaska
6h
17m
7
Arizona
26m
6
22
Alaska
2h
6
18
37
Alaska
3h
23m
1885
6
18
30
City of Rome
7m
1886
6
10
10
Oregon
8h
20m
6
10
America
10m
1887
6
7
10
Umbria
2h
50m
6
4
29
Etruria
2h
41m
1889
6
2
22
City of Paris
2h
7m
1891
5
21
3
Teutonic
5h
19m
1892
5
19
57
City of New York
Ih
6m
5
19
18
City of Paris
39m
5
19
5
Teutonic
13m
1893
5
17
27
Campania
Ih
38m
5
14
55
Campania
2h
32m
5
13
30
Lucania
Ih
25m
5
12
7
Campania
Ih
23m
1894
5
10
47
Campania
Ih
20m
5
8
38
Lucania
2h
9m
NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 29
WESTWARD RECORDS, SOUTHAMPTON TO NEW YORK.
Year. Days. Hrs. Mins. Vessel.

1881.

8

Elbe

1883

7

21

Werre

1884

7

18

10

Eider

1885

7

17

Eider
1886
7
10
Aller
1887
7
9
AUer
7
8
Aller
1889
6
21
Lahn
6
18
Augusta Victoria
1890
6
16
23
Columbia
1892
6
14
15
Furst Bismarck
1893
6
11
44
-Fiirst Bismarck
6
9
37
Paris
1894
6
7
14
New York
1896
6
31
St. Paul
1897
5
22
35
Kaiser Wilhelm c
1898
5
20
Kaiser Wilhelm c
EASTWARD RECORDS, NEW YORK TO SOUTHAMPTON.
Year. Days. Hrs. Mins. Vessel.
Elbe
Werra EiderTrave
LahnLahn
Aller LahnColumbia
Columbia
St. Louis
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse
Kaiser Wilh. d. Gr'se (Cherbourg)
Kaiser Wilh. d. Gr'se (Cherbourg) 2h 6m
Approximate Nautical Distances: Sandy Ho(Mc (Lightship),
New York to Queenstown (Roche's Point) 2,776 nautical miies;
to Southampton (The Needles) 3,100; to Havre, 3,170; to Ant
werp, 3,336; to Fastnet, 2,758; to Flushing, 3,055; to Liverpool
3,055; to Lizard, 2,931; to Ostend, 3,264; to Bishop Rock, Scillys,
2,882; to Southampton, 3,098; Lizard to Bishop Rock, 48; Liz
ard to Needles, 146. Needles to Southampton, 21. Havre to
Southampton, 112. The longer distances vary about 75 to 100
miles, according to the time of year,
1881
8
8
20
1882
7
20
15
1884
7
19
1887
7
14
35
1888
7
11
20
7
7
35
1889
7
4
25
7
3
20
6
19
6
17
36
6
13
25
1893
6
10
55
1897
6
10
14
5
17
8
1899
5
18
6
1900
5
16
Reduction.
3h
2h
50m
Ih
10m
7h
Ih
Ih
llh
3h
Ih
37m
2h
8m
2h
31m
2h
7m
2h
23m
6h
43m
Ih
56m
2h
35m
Reduction.
12h
5m
Ih
15m
4h
25m
3h
15m
3h
45m
3h
10m
Ih
5m
8h
20m
Ih
24m
4h
11m
2h
30m
41m
17h
6m
30 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,

THE FASTEST TRIP.
The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse finished, January 10,
1900, a voyage from Sandy Hook to Cherbourg, covering
a course of 3,077 knots at an average hourly speed of
22.63 knots, the fastest ever made by a merchant craft
on a transatlantic trip. Her daily runs were, 500, 537,
523, 534, 523, and 470 knots.
THE FASTEST DAY'S RUN.
The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, May 2 to 3, 1898,
ran 580 knots in 24 hours and 50 minutes, which is an
average of 23.35 knots per hour.
OLD CLIPPER SHIP RECORDS.
In the old days when the clipper ship was considered
a perfect type of ocean travel, twenty days was a quick
passage between New York and Liverpool, and when
the Red Jacket made her famous trip in 13 days, 1 hour
and 35 minutes, the feat created as much excitement as
the breaking of a record by an ocean greyhound does in
these days of marine triumphs. The trip was made in
1854, and was an eastward one, the sailer logging 3,017
miles from Sandy Hook to Liverpool. In the following
year the clipper ship Mary Whitredge ran from Balti
more to Liverpool in 13 days and 7 hours; she traveled
3.400 miles. Another remarkable trip was made by the
Dreadnaught in 1860. She sighted the Irish coast in
9 days and 17 hours after leaving New York; but it
took her three days longer to reach Liverpool. An
instance showing the sailing qualities of the old clipper
ships occurred in 1864. The Adelaide of the Williams &
Guion line, while on her way down New York bay, was
passed by the steamship Sidon of the Cunard line; but
tbe Adelaide arrived in the Mersey before the Sidon,
having made the passage in 12 days and 8 hours.
Before 1850 the sailing ship James Barnes, built by
Donald McKay, ran 420 miles in 24 hours. The ship
Red Jacket, built at Rockland, Me., ran. 2,280 miles in

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS, 31
7 days, or 325 miles per diem for a week, and the Fly
ing Cloud once made 374 knots or 433 statute miles in
34 hours and 25 minutes, equal to 17.17 miles per hour.
In 1867 the Thornton crossed from Sandy Hook to Liver
pool in 13 days, 9 hours. The best record of the Dread-
naught was 367 knots. H.M.S. Newcastle went from New
York to Falmouth in 11 days. The clipper ship Inde
pendence crossed from New York to Liverpool in 13 days,
15 hours.
Best Day's Sailing Run, — The best day's run of a sail
ing ship on record is thnt of 375 knots, made by the
clipper ship Sovereign of the Seas.
VOYAGES AROUND CAPE HORN.
Year. Time of Voyage. Route and Distance.
1851. In 84d. Flying Cloud, New York to San Francisco,
1852. In 75d. Northern Light, San Francisco to Boston,
13,950 miles.
13,610 miles.
1852. In 87d. Swordfish, New York to San Francisco.
1853. In 76d. Comet, San Francisco to New York.
1853. In 92d. Flying Fish, New York to San Francisco.
1853. In 6m. 21d. Flying Dutchman, same route and return,
discharged and loaded, wharf to wharf,
27,222 miles.
1853. In 79d. 12h. Contest, New York to San Francisco.
1853. In 75d. Trade Wind, New York to San Francisco.
1854. In 87d. lOh. Flying Cloud, New York to San Francisco.
1857. In 80d. Flying Dutchman, same route, off Staten
Island.
1869. In 90d. 12h. Andrew Jackson, same route.
1870. In 80d. 20h. Young America, same route, to Sandy Hook
Lightship.
1887. In 95d. 6h. Henry B. Hyde, San Francisco to Liverpool
15,000 miles.
1888. In 87d. Henry B. Hyde, same route to Sandy Hook.
1891. In 109d. Shenandoah, San Francisco to Havre.
1891. In 106d. Swanhilda, San Francisco to Havre.
YACHTING VOYAGES.
The Sappho in 1869, crossed from Sandy Hook to
Queenstown, 3,857 miles in 13 days, 9 hours and 34
minutes. In the same year the Dauntless went frora
Sandy Hook to Queenstown, 3,770 miles in 13 days and

32 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
17 minutes. On December 11, 1866, the schooner yachts
Henrietta. Fleetwing and Vesta sailed from Sandy
Hook for the Needles, Isle of Wight, for a stake of $90;-
000. The Henrietta, owned by James Gordon Bennett,
won in 13 days, 31 hours, 55 minutes, an average of
0| knots for 3^106 miles. On July 4, 1870, the schooner
yachts Dauntless and Cambria started from old Kinsale
Head, Ireland, for Sandy Hook Lightship for a £350 cup.
Cambria won in 23 days, 5 hours, 17 minutes. Daunt
less' time was 23 days, 7 hours. On Slarch 12, 1887,
the schooner yachts Coronet and Dauntless started from
Bay Ridge for Queenstown for stakes of $10,000 a side.
Coronet's time, 14 days, 33 hours, 30 minutes, 46 seconds;
Dauntless' time, 16 days, 1 hour, 43 minutes, 13 seconds.
The Coronet's owner was the late Rufus T. Bush, of
Brooklyn. The Dauntless was sailed by Capt. Samuel
Samuels, of the old clipper ship Dreadnaught, and ovmed
by Caldwell H. Colt, of Hartford.
LONG STEAMING RECORD.
The steamship Doric, 4,675 tons, from the Mersey for
San Francisco via Magellan Straits, accomplished the
passage in 1896 of 13,600 miles in 41 days. Her speed
averaged 14 knots throughout, which on a voyage of such
distance, without a break, is unparalleled in ocean steam
ing. AMERICA'S CUP RACES.
Name and Date. Course. Time.

America, Aug. 22, 1851

From Cowes around Isle of

10 37 00

Aurora

Wight (Aurora second)

Magic, Aug. 8, 1870

N. Y. Y. C. Course (Cam

3 58 21

Cambria

bria tenth)

4 37 38

Columbia, Oct. 16, 1871

N. Y. Y. C. Course

6 19 41

Livonia

6 46 45

Columbia, Oct. 18, 1871

20 miles to windward off

3 07 41

Livonia

S. H'k L'tsh. & return

3 18 15

Livonia, Oct. 19, 1871

N. Y. Y. C. Course (Co

4 02 25

Columbia

lumbia disabled)

4 17 35

Sappho, Oct. 21, 1871

20 miles to windward off

5 39 02

Livonia

S. H'k L'tsh. & return

6 09 23

Sappho, Oct. 23, 1871
Livonia

N. Y. Y. C. Course

4 10 17
5 11 55

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS.

33

Name and Date.

Course.

Time.

Madeleine, Aug. 11, 1876

N. Y. Y. C. Course

5 23 54

Countess of Dufferin

5 34 53

Madeleine, Aug. 12, 1876

20 miles to windward off

7 18 46

Countess of Dufferin

S. H'k L'sth. & return

7 46 00

Mischief, Nov. 9, 1881

N. Y. Y. C. Course

4 17 00

Atalanta

4 45 39

Mischief, Nov. 10, 1881

16 miles to leeward from

4 54 53

Atalanta

Buoy 5 off S. H. & ret'n

5 33 47

Puritan, Sept. 14, 1885

N. Y. Y. C. Course

6 06 05

Genesta

6 22 24

Puritan, Sept. 16, 1885

20 miles to leeward off

5 03 14

Genesta

S. H'k L'tsh. & return

5 04 52

Mayflower, Sept. 9, 1886

N. Y. Y. C. Course

5 26 41

Galatea

5 38 43
Mayflower, Sept. 11, 1886
20 miles to leeward off
6 49 10
Galatea
S. H'k L'tsh. & return
7 18 09
Volunteer, Sept. 27, 1887
N. Y. Y. C. Course
4 53 18
Thistle
5 12 41
Volunteer, Sept. 30, 1887
20 miles to windward and
5 42 56
Thistle
return
5 54 45
Vigilant, Oct. 6, 1893
15 miles to leeward and
4 05 47
Valkyrie II
return
4 11 35
Vigilant, Oct. 9, 1893
Triangular, 10 miles to
3 25 01
Valkyrie II
leg
3 35 36
Vigilant, Oct. 13, 1893
15 miles to windward and
3 24 39
Valkyrie II
return
3 26 52
Defender, Sept. 7, 1895
15 miles to windward and
4 59 54
V^alkyrie III
return
5 08 44
Defender, Sept. 10, 1895
Triangular, 10 miles to leg
3 55 56
Valkyrie III
( Defender won on foul )
3 55 09
Defender, Sept. 12, 1895
15 miles to leeward and
4 43 43
Valkyrie III
return (Valkyrie refused
course)
Columbia, Oct. 16, 1899
15 miles to windward and
4 53 53
Khamrock
return
5 04 01
Columbia, Oct. 17, 1899
Triangular, 10 miles to
3 27
Shamrock
leg (Shamrock disabled)
Columbia, Oct. 20, 1899
15 miles to leeward and
3 38 09
Shamrock
return
3 44 43
THE FASTEST VESSELS.
The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse is the fastest ocean
steamer afloat, her fastest day's run on May 3 to 3, 1898,
being 580 knots, or 23.35 knots per hour.
The fastest short-distance steamer service is that main-
34 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
tained between Kingston and Holyhead by the City of
Dublin Steam Packet Co. There are four vessels, the
Ulster, Munster, Leinster and Connaught, that maintain
an average of 34 knots and have attained over 35 knots
per hour between these ports, the distance being 60 miles.
They are twin-screw steamers of 3,000 tons and 8,000
horse power and make four trips a day.
The fastest torpedo boat in the world is the. Hai Lung,
built by Schichau for the Chinese Government, which
in open sea with fresh wind ran over a course of 19 knots
several times at the rate of 35.2 knots.
The Turbinia, built on the turbine system Of steam
propulsion, made between 34 and 35 knots per hour.
The fastest boat of any kind afloat is the little steam
yacht BUide, which has covered a measured mile in 1
minute and 35 seconds, an equivalent speed if sustained
of 40 miles per hour. She is 80 feet long, 8 feet 4 inches
deep and her mean draught is 3 feet 6 inches.
The American built steamship St. Louis, during 1899,
traveled the greatest distance in a single year, not only
of any vessel ever built, but of any automobile creation
of man ever constructed. She made 17 complete trips,
01 34 voyages across the Atlantic between New York
and Southampton, a distance four and a quarter times
that around the earth. She traveled 106,764 and one-
half miles and carried 16,858 passengers, of wliich 5.981
were first-class, without a single mishap of any nature
to mar her remarkable record. She was out of com
mission only two weeks. No locomotive or vehicle pro
pelled by its own motive power ever reached so great a
mileage in one ye?r. She averaged 292 miles a day for
every day in the year She was in port 133 days and her
average at sea was 460 miles a day.
SMALL BOAT VOYAGES.
The Red, White and Blue, a galvanized iron lifeboat,
length 26 feet, beam 6 feet, depth 3 feet, July 9 to
Aug. 16, 1866, made a transatlantic voyage with Capt.
John M. Hudson and Frank E. Fitch, as crew, being
39 days at sea, and was afterwards exhibited at the
Crystal Palace, London.

NA VIGATION FOR PASSENGERS, 35
In 1876, between June 15 and August 11, Alfred John
son crossed the Atlantic alone in a small boat, sailing from
Gloucester, Mass., running on the average about 70
miles a day and landing at Abercastle, Pembrokeshire,
after being 57 days at sea.
Between May 28 and July 21, 1877, Captain and Mrs.
Crapo (the latter as steerswoman) made a trip across
the Atlantic in a 20 foot boat of one ton burden, named
New BeJford, after the town from which they sailed'.
Duration of voyage was 54 days. The Captain's sleep
averaged four hours a day.
Capt. Wm. A. Andrews, in 1878, crossed the Atlantic
in the Nautilus, 19 feet over all, and 2 feet 3 inches deep,
making the voyage in 45 days. In 1888, Captain Andrew.s
went from Boston to Queenstown in the dory Dark Secret,
15 feet long arid 2 feet deep, taking 63 days in crossing
and encountering several gales. In 1891 he crossed from
Boston to Antwerp in a centreboard boat, the Mermaid,
15 feet long, in 57 days. These trips averaged over
3,000 mile's. In 1892 Captain Andrews crossed the
Atlantic in a 14 foot canvas covered folding boat, land
ing at Palos, in 30 days, which trip was the fastest small
boat record, although 1,000 miles further from land to
land than any previous small craft had made. He beat
the caravels of Columbus by 12 days.
In the year 1886 two Norwegians, Magnus Anderson
C Captain of the Viking ship of American World's Fair
fame) and Christain Christainsen, voyaged from "Nor
way to Newfoundland in the Ocean, 18 feet long.
On January 20, 1888, the American bark Aquidneck
was wrecked off a sandbar near Paraguay, Capt. Joshua
Slocum, wife and son being survivors. From the wreck
he built a boat 35 feet long, 7 and one-half feet wide
and 3 feet deep, named La Libertad (the Li|)erty), sailed
with family in her 7,000 miles and landed safely at Vine
yard Haven, Mass., Aug. 24, 1889. Captain Slocum
afterwards completed a trip of 46,000 miles in a yawl,
named Spray, 40 feet long.
Capt. Adolph Frietsch crossed the Atlantic in the
schooner-rigged skiff Nina, 40 feet long and 8 feet wide.

36 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Captain Webb also crossed in the small deck boat Dark
Secret. EASTWARD AND WESTWARD VOYAGES.
The day's run to the westward in the transatlantic
passage counts many more miles than to the eastward,
the reason of course, being the difference of time between
Queenstown and Sandy Hook. This being nearly four
hours, twenty-three minutes, it follows that in a six days'
passage to the westward there are between noon and noon
not 24 hours, but an average of 24 hours and almost 44
minutes. In fact the longest days, from noon to noon,
in the high latitudes, contain nearly 25 hours. In going
to the eastward this is reversed; the average sea day con
tains only 23 hours, 16 minutes, and the shortest sea day
little more than 23 hours. An hour-and-a-half's steaming
at 30 knots accounts for an average difference of 30
nautical miles between the day's work in opposite direc- •
tions, while in northern latitudes, the difference being two
hours, 500 miles to the westward means the same speed
as 460 miles to the eastward.
OCEAN NO LONGER TRACKLESS.
We speak of the ocean as "trackless." It is so no
longer. If two vessels sail from New York for Calcutta,
they -will, if intelligently navigated, follow so nearly the
same course that their paths, if plotted on a chart, will
hardly diverge by fifty miles at any point. The same
is true of any other route. Let us consider the case of
a vessel bound for New York from Liverpool. Her cap
tain might, if prepared for a constant battle against ad
verse winds and currents and winter gales, select a route
not very different from that followed by ocean steamers
between those ports. Otherwise he would follow the
southern route laid down by the Sailing Directors; and
after beating to the westward a few hundred miles to
make sure of clearing the coast of Spain, would shape
a course to the southward, passing as far west of Madeira
as the westerly winds of these latitudes will permit. Be-

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 37
tween Madeira and the Canaries, but a few hundred miles
to the westward of both, he would fan his way across
the baftling "Calms of Cancer," and pick up the north
east trades. With these astern and freshening every mile,
he would sweep down to the south and west, and when
well over toward the West Indies, haul up to the north
ward toward Bermuda. Here he would have to work
again across the "Calms of Cancer," and then, with the
uncertain but probably westerly winds of our Atlantic
coast, and with the Gulf Stream in his favor, he would
stand on and make his port, having sailed 4,500 miles
between the two countries. This route is laid down on
winds and current almost universally favorable, and with
fine and bracing weather.
In order to insure the greatest possible safety in cross
ing the North Atlantic Ocean between the United States
and Europe, the vessels of the principal steamship com
panies follow a common track in traversing the ocean
between the two countries. This route is laid down on
tho monthly pilot charts issued by the United States
Hydrographic Office on the first day of every month.
Besides the indicated route to be followed by steamers,
the monthly chart — which generally can be had for the
asking — contains information as to the best course to
be steered by sailing vessels; graphically represents the
force and the direction of the winds which may be ex
pected during the month; locates the positions of the
derelicts and the buoys and obstructions to navigation re
ported during the past month; marks the fog belts and
the rainy regions, and gives much other information of
interest to seafaring men and even to landlubbers.
ROUTES FOR OCEAN STEAMERS. k
The leading steamship lines have adopted a system of
two homeward and two outward transatlantic tracks.
The courses are as follows:
"Westbound, from January 15 to August 14 inclusive,
from Fastnet or Bishop Rock on the great circle course
to the crossing of meridian 47° west in latitude 43° north ;
thence by either rhumb line or great circle or even the

38 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
northward great circle, if an easterly current is encoun
tered, to a position southward of the Nantucket light
vessel; thence to the Fire Island light vessel when bound
for New York, or to the Five Fathom Bank south light
vessel when bound for Philadelphia.
"Westward, from August 15 to January 14, from Fast-
net or Bishop Rock on the great circle course, nothing to
the southward, to cross meridian 49° west in latitude
46° ; thence by rhumb line to cross meridian 60° in lati
tude 43° ; thence by rhumb line to a position southward
of the Na:ntucket light vessel; thence to the Fire Island
light vessel when bound for New York, or to the Five
Fathom Bank south light vessel when bound for Phila
delphia. "Eastward, all vessels at all seasons of the year will
steer their course from the Sandy Hook light vessel or
the Five Fathom Bank south light vessel to cross merid
ian 70°, nothing to the northward of latitude 40° 10'.
From this crossing point during the period from January
15 to August 33 inclusive, they will steer by rhumb line
to cross meridian 47° in latitude 41° ; thence nothing
to the northward of the great circle, to Fastnet when
bound for the Irish Channel or to Bishop Rock if bound
for the English Channel.
"During the period from August 24 to January 14
they will steer from the aforesaid crossing point to cross
meridian 60° in latitude 42°; thence by rhumb line to
cross meridian 45° in latitude 46° 30'; thence, nothing
to the northward of the great circle, to Fastnet for the
Irish Channel or to Bishop Rock, always keeping south
of the letter's latitude for the English Channel."
The outward and homeward northern- tracks indicate
the centre of an assumed lane of about sixty miles in
width, within which it is desirable to run so as to pre
vent or lessen the danger of collision. When ice is ap
prehended a more southern track will of course be im
perative. Should ice be seen the course must at once be
altered to the southward, so as to get away from it with
out delay; and on no account must any steamer be taken
into or amongst either field ice, floating ice or bergs.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 39
The region of ice and fog so dreaded by seamen covers
an area of some 260,000 square miles of ocean, which may
be said to lie between the forty-first and forty-seventh
parallels of latitude and the forty-fifth and sixtieth merid
ians of west longitude. The shortest way to Queenstown
is through the heart of this region of ice and fog.
SAILS AND RIGGING.
To the eye of the ordinary "landlubber," the rigging
of a ship is a fearfully and wonderfully tangled mass
of" ropes and lines, but to the sailor whose business it is
to know all about the ropes and things, the maze and the
various parts which compose it are the embodiment of
symmetry and the perfection of order. Sails are nearly
always either triangular or quadrilateral, but not neces
sarily equiangular. To give strength to the outer edge
all around the sail a strong cord or rope is sewn; this
rope has eyes in it, to whicli the various ropes employed
in connection with the sail are fastened. The top of the
sail is its "head"; the bottom its "foot"; and the sides
are "leeches" ; the upper corners are termed "'ear-rings" ;
the lower corner of a square sail, and the after lower corner
of other sails, "clews"; the front lower corner of a fore-
and-aft sail is the "tack." The ropes from the lower
corners, used in tightening the sail against the wind, are
the "sheets."
The sails of a ship are either "square" or "fore-and-
aft." The square sails — beginning from below — are the
"course," the "top-sail," the "top-gallant sail," the
"royal,"" and, though rarely used, the "sky scraper."
Each has the name of the mast on which it is set pre
fixed, as "foretopsail," "main-royal," ete. The square
sails are made fast by their heads to yards, tj^e foot being
di-awn to the extremity of the yard below. Fore-and- aft
sails are the "spanker" or driver, extended by the gaff at
its head, boom at its foot, and mast on its fore leech ; .
the "staysails," which are suspended by rings to the stays,
and the "jibs." In a three-masted vessel the sails of most
importance are the main course, the spanker, the top
sails, the forestaysail and the jibs, which can usually

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 41
be distended to the full without taking wind from each
other. In very light winds, when every breath is of
consequence, the area of the sails is increased by setting
ihe "studding-sails," which are oblong sails set on each
side of the square sails, on short booms run out beyond
the yards of the latter.
PARTS OF A FULL RIGGED SHIP.
1 hull ; 2 bow ; 3 stern ; 4 cutwater ; 5 stem ; 6 entrance ;
7 waist; 8 run; 9 counter; 10 rudder; 11 davits; 12 quarter-
boat; 13 cat-head; 14 anchor; 15 cable; 16 bulwarks; 17
taffrail; 18 channels; 19 chain-plates; 20 cabin-trunk; 21
after deck-house; 22 forward deck-house; 23 bowsprit; 24
jib-boom; 25 flying jib-boom; 26 foremast; 27 mainmast; 28
mizzenmast; 29 foretopmast; 30 maiutopmast ; 31 mizzentop-
mast; 32 foretopgallantmast ; 33 maintopgallantmast; 34 miz-
zentopgallantmast ; 35 f oreroyalmast ; 36 mainroyalmast; 37
mizzenroyalmast ; 38 f oreskysailmast ; 39 mainskysailmast ; 40
mizzensk-ysailmast ; 41 foreskysail-pole ; 42 mainskysail-polg ;
43 mizzenskysail-pole ; 44 fore- truck; 45 main-truck; 46 miz-
zen- truck; 47 foremast-head; 48 mainmast-head; 49 mizzen-
mast-head; 50 foretopmast-head ; 51 maintopmast-head; 52
mizzentopmast-head ; 53 foretop; 54 maintop; 55 mizzentop;
56 dolphin-striker; 57 outriggers; 58 foreyard; 59 mainyard;
60 cross jack-yard; 61 fore lower topsail-yard; 62 main lower
topsail-yard; 63 mizzen lower topsail-yard; 64 fore upper top
sail-yard; 65 main upper topsail-yard; 66 mizzen upper top
sail-yard; 67 foretopgallant-yard; 68 maintopgallant-yard ; 69
mizzentopgallant-yard ; 70 f oreroyal-yard ; 71 mainroyal-yard ;
72 mizzenroyal-yard ; 73 foreskysail-yard ; 74 in-ainskysail-yard ;
75 mizzenskysail-yard ; 76 ,spanker-boom ; 77 spariker-gaft' ; 78
maintrysail-gaff ; 79 monkey-gaff; 80 lower studdingsail-yard ;
81 foretopmast studdingsail-boom ; 82 foretopmast studdingsail-
yard; 83 maintopinast studdingsail-boom; 84 maintopmast stud
dingsail-yard; 85 foretopgallant studdingsail-boom; 86 foretop-
gallant studdingsail-yard; 87 maintopgallant studdingsail-boom;
88 maintopgallant studdingsail-yard; 89 foreroyal studdingsail-
boom; 90 foreroyal studdingsail-yard; 91 mainroyal studding
sail-boom; 92 mainroyal studdingsail-yard; 93"^ bobstays; 94
bowsprit-shrouds; 95 martingale-guys; 96 martingale-stays; 97
fore-chains; 98 main-chains; 99 mizzen-chains ; 100 fore-
shrouds; 101 main-shrouds; 102 mizzen-shrouds ; 103 foretop-
mast-shrouds; 104 maintopmast-shrouds; 105 mizzentopmast-
shrouds; 106 foretopgallant-shrouds: 107 maintopgallant-
shrouds; 108 mizzentopgallant-shrouds; 109 futtock-shrouds ;
110 futtock-shrouds; 111 futtock-shrouds; 112 forestay;
113 mainstay; 114 mizzenstay; 115 f oretopmast-stay ;
116 maintopmast-stay; 117 spring-stay; 118 mizzen-

42 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
topmast-stay; 119 jib-stay; 120 flyingjib stay; 121
f oretopgallant-stay ; 122 maintopgallant-stay; 123 mizzen-
topgallant-stay ; 124 foreroyal-stay; 125 mainroyal-stay; 126
mizzenroyal-stay ; 127 foreskysail-stay ; 128 mainskysail-stay ;
129 mizzenskysail-stay ; 130 f oretopmast-backstays ; 131 main-
topmast-backstays; 132 mizzentopmast-backstays ; 133 foretop-
gallant-baekstays ; 134 maintopgallant-backstays; 135 mizzen-
topgallant-backstays ; 136 foreroyal-backstays ; 137 mainroyal-
backstays; 138 mizzenroyal-backstays ; 139 foreskysail-back-
stays; 140 mainskysail-backstays ; 141 mizzenskysail-back-
stays; 142 foresail or forecourse; 143 mainsail or mainc( irse;
144 crossjack; 145 fore lower topsail; 146 main lower top
sail; 147 mizzen lower topsail; 148 fore upper topsail; 149
main upper topsail; 150 mizzen upper topsail; 151 foretopgal-
lant-sail; 152 maintopgallant-sail ; 153 mizzentopgallant-sail ;
154 foreroyal; 155 mainroyal; 156 mizzenroyal; 157 foresky-
sail; 158 mainskysail; 159 mizzenskysail ; 160 spanker; 161
mizzenstaysail ; 162 foretopmast-staysail ; 163 maintopmast
lower staysail; 164 maintopmast upper staysail; 165 mizzen-
topmast-staysail ; 166 jib; 167 flying-jib; 168 jib-topsail; 169
maintopgallant-staysail ; 170 mizzentopgallant-staysail ; 171
ma^inroyal-staysail ; 172 mizzenroyal-staysail ; 173 lower stud-
dingsail; 174 foretopmast-studdingsail ; 175 maintopmast-stud-
dingsail; 176 f oretopgallant-studdingsail ; 177 maintopgallant-
studdingsail ; 178 foreroyal-studdingsail ; 179 mainroyal-stud-
dingsail; 180 forelift; 181 mainlift; 182 crossjack-lif t ; 183
fore lower topsail-lift; 184 main lower topsail-lift; 185 mizzen
lower topsail-lift; 186 spanker-boom topping-lift; 187 monkey-
gaff lift; 188 lower studdingsail-halyards; 189 lower studding-
sail inner halyards; 190 foretopm'ast studdingsail-halyards; 191
maintopmast studdingsail-halyards; 192 foretopgallant studding
sail-halyards; 193 maintopgallant studdingsail-halyards ; 194
spanker peak-halyards; 195 signal-halyards; 196 weather jib-
sheet; 197 weather flying-jib sheet; 198 weather jib topsail-
sheet; 199 weather fore-sheet; 200 weather main-sheet; 2pl
weather crossjack-sheet; 202 spanker-sheet; 203 mizzentopgal-
lant staysail-sheet; 20-4 mainroyal staysail-sheet; 205 mizzen
royal staysail-sheet; 206 lower studdingsail-sheet; 207
loretopmast studdingsail-sheet; 208 foretopmast studding-
sail-tack; 209 maintopmast studdingsail-sheet; 210 main
topmast studdingsail-tack ; 211 foretopgallant studdingsail-
sheet; 212 foretopgallant studdingsail-tack ; 213 maintopgal
lant studdingsail-sheet; 214 maintopgallant studdingsail-
tack; 215 foreroyal studdingsail-sheet; 216 foreroyal stud-
u^ngsail-tack ; 217 mainroyal studdingsail-sheet; 218 mainroyal
studdingsail-tack; 219 forebrace; 220 mainbrace; 221 crossjack-
brace; 222 fore lower topsail-brace; 223 main lower topsail-
brace; 224 mizzen lower topsail-brace; 225 fore upper topsail-
brace; 226 main upper topsail-brace: 227 mizzen upper top
sail-brace; 228 foretopgallant-braee ; 229 maintopgallant-brace;
230 mizzentopgallant-brace; 231 foreroyal-brace ; 232 main-

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS.

43

royal-brace; 233 mizzenroyal-brace ; 234 foreskysail-brace ;
235 mainskysail-brace; 236 mizzenskysail-brace; 237 up
per maintopsail-do-wnhaul ; 238 upper mizzentopsail-
downhaul ; 239 foretopmast studdingsail-downhaul ; 240
maintopmast studdingsail-downhaul ; 241 foretopgallant stud
dingsail-downhaul ; 242 maintopgallant studdingsail-downhaul ;
243 clew-garnets; 244 clew-lines; 245 spanker-brails: 246
spanker-gaff vangs; 247 monkey-gaff vangs; 248 main bow
line; 249 bowline-bridle; 250 foot-ropes; 251 reef -points.

GROUND PLAN OF A SHIP.
P. prow; L. larboard or port; S. starboard; 1, round-house;
2, tiller; 3, grating; 4, wheel; 5, wheel chains; 6, binnacle; 7,
mizzen-mast, 8, skylight; 9, capstan; 10, main-mast; 11,
pumps; 12, galley, caboose; 13, main hatchway; 14, windlass;
15, foremast; 16, fore-hatchway; 17, bitts; 18, bowsprit; 19,
headrail; 20, boomkins; 21, bows; 22, fore-chains; 23, main-
chains; 24, mizzen-chains.

44

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

/^n

Css-

.'1

\IS

10

SLOOP YACHT SAILING ON PORT TACK.
1, club topsail; 2, club topsail sprit; 3, (upper) topsail club;
4, club topsail guy; 5, (lower) mainsail; 6, jib topsail; 7, jib
(forestaysail and jib in one) ; 8, bowsprit; 9, club topsail tack
line; 10, main sheet; 11, foresail or staysail sheet; 12, jib top
sail sheet; 13, topping lift; 14, gaff topsail clewed down; 15
tack of jib; 16, tack of jib topsail; 17, luff of jib topsail; 18,
head of jib topsail; 19, jib topsail halyards; 20, leach of jib top
sail; 21, main gaff; 22, main boom; 23, main topmast; 24, foot
of jib; 25, (upper) leach of jib; 26, (lower) clew of jib; 27,
reef points ; 28, tack of mainsail ; 29, clew of mainsail ; 30,
peak of mainsail; 31, throat of mainsail; 32, main cross trees;
33, mast head runner and tackle; 34, head of club topsail; 35,
clew of club topsail; 36, tack of club topsail; 37, topmast
shrouds.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS, 46
QUEER RIGS.
One of the most simple of rigs for sailing vessels,
that of the schooner, or "fore and after," is of compara
tively modern date, but the "square rig," or that in which
sails are suspended from yards across the masts, is as
old as the first attempt to propel vessels by wind power.
With increase of knowledge relative to ships has come a
marked increase in size. What was a fair size for a full-
rigged ship a hundred years ago is now hardly up to
the average of coastwise schooners, while some of the
four or five-masted coasters of to-day would have been
considered dangerous to go to sea in years ago, by reason
of their large sail area, and unprofitable on account of
the large cargoes required to fill them.
The full-rigged brig, a vessel with two masts, both
square rigged, was for many years a favorite with the
navigator, but latter-day sailors cannot understand why,
for they were clumsy in appearance and unwieldy to
handle. They were expensive too. One of 200 tons
would require at least six men "before the mast," while
a schooner of the same tonnage will require only three
men, sail closer to the wind, and outfoot the brig whether
sailing "close-hauled" or "running free." The old brig is
not often seen in waters near New York, but its place is
taken by the hermaphrodite brig, a compromise between
the brig and schooner in which the foremast is rigged
square and the mainmast has the fore and aft sail, with
a big gaff-topsail.
A number of years ago an ingenious Boston man in
vented a rig wliich was successfully used for some time.
It was a double gaff-topsail. The mainsail was about
the size of a single-reefed sail, then came the lower gaff-
topsail, and then the upper, hoisted on hoops on the
topmast, and so rigged that when a blow^ came on it
clewed down snug to the mainmast head, while the lower
one could be carried until it would be necessary to take
a reef in a common mainsail.
Many people who know better confound an her
maphrodite brig with a brigantine. The difference is that
a brigantine carries a square sail on her mainmast, while
an hermaphrodite brig has the gaff-topsail.

46 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
In the days of the clipper ship, captains would boast
of the amount of sail they could successfully carry. Foot
by foot they added to the height of their masts, and above
the "royal," which is usually the highest, came the "sky-
sail," "moonsail" and "stargazer," while strange tales
are told of ambitious skippers who piled on above these
"moonmakers," "heaven disturbers" and "God above aUs,"
but there are no records of such ships ever having come
to New York.
The old China "tea clipper," and later the Rio "coffee
carriers" before the days of "tramp tea kettles," were
notorious for the free use of what are called "studding
sails." This sail, which is the bane of the sailor's life,
is said to have been invented by a woman, the wife of
an East India captain. In this rig, booms are passed
out through irons on the end of the main yard, and the
sail is hoisted to the end of the upper topsail yard and
"sheeted home" to the end of the boom, while the tack
hauls straight down on deck.
A rig wliich has caused much argument among sailors
regarding the sails spread is that known as the "jackass
bark." 'Phis peculiar rig includes square sails on the top
masts and all above, while the lower masts are rigged
in fore-and-aft fashion, like a schooner, except that the
sails are not so high. The topsail schooner is another rig
rapidly going out of date, although it is still to be seen
on the Spanish Main and in parts of the Caribbean Sea.
During the days of Blackboard, the pirate, and Morgan,
the buccaneer, the topsail schooner was the pet rig of
the freebooters who cruised among the Bahamas and along
the Florida coast. This craft carried a boom and gaff
foresail, with a square fore-topsail, and sometimes a top
gallant sail and royal, while the main was rigged wholly
fore and aft.
Some of the queerest rigs which come into port, how
ever, are occasioned by storms at sea. It is by no means
an uncommon occurrence for ships to be dismasted far
away from port. Sometimes a skipper will see his
"sticks" break off close to the deck, at other times his
lower masts may be left. One, two or three may go, and
carry all their spars, sails and tackle with them. It ia

NA VIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 47
in times like these that the captain may, with the few
odds and ends of wreckage he can save, and possibly a
spare spar or two, bring his ship and cargo to port.
A fuss was made over the arrival at San Francisco,
some time ago, of a vessel with an entirely new scheme
of handling her topsails. The old plan of furling the
sail by lowering the upper topsail yard, while the leech-
lines, clew-lines and bunt-lines gathered the sail as close
to the yards as possible, is done away with by this new
method. In place of having a "bunt gasket" gathering
as much pf the sail as it could hold at the mast, the re
mainder being strung out on the yard and held in place by
winding gaskets, the new arrangement gathers the whole
sail into a big "bunk gasket" and the yard is left baro,
save for the "outhauls" or the lines left to reset the sail
when it is needed.
The sail on this progressive ship is furled by hauling
to the centre of the yard from each yard-arm, the top
and bottom of the sail traveling together. This is ac
complished by railways on the upper and lower topsail
yards. These consist of T-irons bolted to the yards, are
fitted on the foreside, and serve in the place of jackstays.
On these railways are placed roller hanks, to which the
top and bottom of the sail are secured. The sail is taken
in by lines leading through blocks at the mast, and set
by outhauls running through blocks at the ends of the
yards. Reefs in the sail are taken vertically amidships,
the slack sail being on the forward side, thus preventing
flapping. One advantage of the new rig, it is said, is
that two men can handle the sail, as there is no yard to
hoist and lower, although it would seem that when the ex
pansion and contraction of canvas under climatic influ
ence are considered the raising or lowering of the yard
a few inches would be advisable. t
SAILING CLOSE TO THE WIND.
Among the interesting factors which go to make the
increase of speed in sailing vessels and especially in the
latest yachts is ability to lie close to the wind. A vessel
beating to windward has to cover a great deal of ground

48 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
in her diagonal course. It is obvious that this distance
will be materially increased by inability to lie close to
the wind and maintain her speed, or in nautical parlance,
to "point high." Every one remembers the futile
struggles of the Galatea to "point" as close as the May
flower. When she was made to lie as close as her op
ponent, she ceased to move fast. The same thing, in a
less degree, happened to the Shamrock in her recent races
with the Columbia.
The question is often asked: How far does a vessel
actually travel in beating a given distance to windward?
The answer depends on the angle her course makes with
the wind. Given that angle, the rest is susceptible of
mathematical demonstration. It may interest those
who have a fancy for exact computation to know that the
formula is this: The distance actually sailed equals tho
direct distance between start and outer mark divided
by the cosine of the angle between the vessel's keel and
the direction of the wind.
Now note the interesting revelations of this simple cal
culation. A square-rigged vessel will not lie closer than six
points off the wind. The angle of her course is, there
fore, a large one, namely, 67° 30'. In beating 15 miles
to windward, she must actually sail 39.2 miles. If she
can make eight knots per hour "on the wind," she will
require five hours to cover the 15 miles against the
wind. Years ago a fore-and-aft rigged vessel was not expected
to steer closer than four points from the wind. In beat
ing 15 miles to windward she would have to cover 21.21
miles. In 1885, however, it was found that the Puritan
could point her nose at an angle of three and one-half
points from the wind. Her actual distance in beating
15 miles to windward, was 19.4 miles, a gain of 1.8
miles over earlier models. It is said that the Vigilant
and her companions can sail a three point course, or keep
their keels at an angle of only 33° 45' from the direction
of the wind. They may not actually do this, except,
perhaps in smooth water; but if they do, the actual dis
tance they cover in going to windward is little greater
than a direct course into the wind's eye. In beating up

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 49
15 miles on a three point course, a yacht will sail across
18.06 miles of water. Now compare the windward capa
bility of the Vigilant with that of the Puritan, sailing
three and one-half points off the wind. If the Vigilant
in going to windward covered 18.06 miles of water, the
official time shows that she must have traveled at the
rate of 8.43 knots an hour. The Puritan could hardly
have gone faster, and, lying half a point further from the
wind, she would have had to cover 1.34 miles more water,
and would have been beaten just that distance to the outer
mark. In time the Vigilant would have beaten her about
nine minutes and twenty-eight seconds in the wind
ward work. "NAUTICAL TERMS."
An old "tar" has recently prepared a handbook of
nautical terms for the use of persons who intend to fol
low the sea. In order to correct popular belief, the author
gravely asserts that the berths on board ship do not
necessarily add to the census. The hatchways are not
hen's nests. The way of the ship is not the extent of her
avoirdupois. The boatswain does not pipe all hands with
a meerschaum. The ship does not have a wake over a
dead calm. The swell of a ship's side is not caused by
dropsy, nor is the taper of a bowsprit a tallow candle.
The hold is not the vessel's grip. The trough of the sea
is not dug out of the ship's log. The crest of a wave is
not an indication of its rank. The buoy is not the cap
tain's son. The men are not beat to quarters with a club.
Ships are never boarded at hotels. The bow of a ship
is not evidence of politeness. A sailor's stockings are
never manufactured from a yarn of his own spinning.
The sails of a ship are not made by an auctioneer, nor
are the stays constructed by a dressmaker.
STARBOARD AND LARBOARD.
In Saxon %ord" means shield. In the Viking ships
each warrior hung his shield on the side of the- ship op
posite to him, and above the^aperture for his oar, The

60 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,
Viking held the steer oar,, which was fastened to the
right-hand side of the stem (stem itself is a contraction
of steer oar). The right-hand side of the ship thus be
came the steer side; and as "bord" came to mean the
whole side where the shields, or bords, were hung, the
right side came to be the steer bord (starboard) side, and
the lower or lurking side became larboard.
The old words of command for altering the helm, viz.,
"starboard" or "port," have been given up on board the
ships of some transatlantic lines, and the order "right"
or "left" substituted. As soon as the order "right"
given, the telegraph is moved to the right, the wheel is
revolved to the right, the ship turns to the right, the
rudder indicator points right, the rudder itself moves
right, and- the steering mark on the compass as well;
and so vice versa when the order "left" is given. Noth
ing can be simpler, and no possibility of mistake can
arise. THE COMPASS.
The Chinese claim that the mariner's compass was
constructed by their Emperor, Hoang-ti, 2434 B. C.
The points of the compass may be determined with the
aid of an ordinary watch. It is simply necessary to bring
the watch in such a position that the hour hand is
directed towards the sun. The south then lies midway
between whatever hour it may happen to be and the
numeral XII. on the dial. Suppose, for instance, it is
four o'clock, and that the time piece is held in the posi
tion indicated. The direction of the number II. wifl
then be the exact south. If eight o'clock the numeral
X. will indicate the exact southerly point.
THE LOG.
The log is an instrument for measuring the rate at
which the vessel is going and consists of three parts,
viz., the log-chip, the log-line, and the log-glass. The
principle is simply this: A light substance thrown from
the vessel ceases to partake of the motion of the vessel
g.s soon as it strikes the water and will be left behind on

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 51
the surface after a certain interval. If the distance of
the ship from this stationary object be measured, the ap
proximate rate of sailing will be given. The log-chip is
the fioat, the log-line is the measure for the distance,
and the log-glass defines the interval of time. In the old
days the heaving of the log required skill and watchful
ness, but since the patent logTias come into use, no skill
is required in finding the speed of a vessel. It is regulated
by clockwork, and the number of knots the vessel sails
per hour is recorded on the dial without any hand touch
ing it. THE CHRONOMETER.
The chronometer is a time piece of superior construc
tion. The proposition to determine the longitude at sea
by means of a time piece and observation of the heavenly
bodies was made by Gemma Frisius in 1530. In 1714,
the British Government offered a reward of £20,000 to
the person who should so perfect this method as to deter
mine the longitude within 30 miles. In 1758, John Harri
son received this reward, his chronometer having shown
an error of 18 miles during a five-months' voyage. At the
present day, and under favorable circumstances, longi
tude determined by a chronometer can be relied upon to
within two or three miles. Three chronometers are gen
erally supplied to government vessels, and they are com
pared with each other every day; a sudden change in one
will be shown by the other two.

BELL

TIME.

Time.
A.M.
Time.
A.M.
Time.
P.M.
Time.
P.M
1 Bell
12:30
5 Bells
6:30
1 BeU-
12:30
5 Bells
6:30
2 Bells
1:00
6 Bells
7:00
2 Bells
1:00
6 Bells
7:00
3 Bells
1:30
7 Bells
7:30
3 Bells
1:30
7 Bells
7:30
4 Bells
2:00
8 Bells
8:00
4 Bells
2:00
8 Bells
8:00
5 Bells
2:30
1 Bell
8:30
5 Bells
2:30
1 Bell
8:30
6 Bells
3:00
2 Bells
9:00
6 Bells
3:00
2 Behs
9:00
7 Bells
3:30
3 Bells
9:30
7 Bells
3:30
3 Bells
9:30
8 Bells
4:00
4 Bells
10:00
8 Bells
4:00
4 Bells
10:00
1 Bell
4:30
5 Bells
10:30
1 Bell'
4:30
5 Bells
10:30
2 Itells
5:00
6 Bells
11:00
2 Bells
5:00
6 Bells
11:00
3 Bells
5:30
7 Bells
11:30
3 Bells
5:30
7 Bells
11:30
4 Bells 6:00 8 Bells 12:00 4 Bells 6:00 8 Bells 12:09
52 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
THE WATCHES.
For the purpose of discipline on shipboard and to divide
the watch fairly, the crew is mustered in two divisions:
the Starboard ' (right side, looking toward the head),
and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and
is thus divided: Afternoon Watch, noon to 4 p.m.; First
Dog Watch, 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. ; Second Dog Watch, 6 p.m.
to 8 P.M. ; First Watch, 8 P.M. to midnight ; Middle Watch,
12 A.M. to 4 A.M. ; Morning Watch, 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. ; Fore
noon Watch, 8 A.M. to noon. This makes seven Watches,
which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the
AYatch which comes on duty at noon one day has the
afternoon next day, and the men who have only four hours'
rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the
reason for having Dog Watches, which are made by
dividing the hours between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. into two
AVatches. Time is kept by means of "bells," although
sometimes there is but one bell on the ghip.
THEROMOMETERS.
Comparison between the scales of Fahrenheit, Reaumur
and Centigrade.

Cent.

Fahr.

E'ra'r.

Cent.

Fahr.

E'm'r.

Cent.

Fahr.

R'm'r

50

122

40

17

62.6

13.6

16

3.2

12.8

49

120.2

39.2

16

60.8

12.8

17

1.4

13.6

48

118.4

38.4

15

59

12

18

—

14.4

47

116.6

37.6

14

57.2

11.2

19

2.2

15.2

46

114.8

36.8

13

55.4

10.4

20

4

10

45

113

36

12

53.6

9.6

21

5.8

16.8

44

111.2

35.2

11

51.8

8.8

22

7.6

17.6

43

109.4

34.4

- 10

50

. 8

23

9.4

18.4

42

107.6

33.6

9

48.2

7.2

24

11.2

19.2

41

105.8

32.8

8

46.4

6.4

25

13

20

40

104

32

7

44.6

5.6

26

14.8

20.8

39

102.2

31.2

6

42.8

4.8

27

16.6

21.6

38

100.4

30.4

5

41

4

28

18.4

22.4

37

98.6

29.6

4

39.2

3.2

29

20.2

23.2

36

96.8

28.8

3

37.4

2.4

30

22

24

35

95

28

2

35.6

1.6

31

23.8

24.8

34

93.2

27.2

1

33.8

.8

32

25.6

25.6

33

91.4

26.4

Zero

32

Zero

33

27.4

26.4

32

89.6

25.6

1

30.2

0.8

34

29.2

27.2

31

87.8

24.8

Q

28.4

1.6

35

31

28

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 53

Cent.

Fahr.

R"m'r.

Cent.

Fahr.

R'm'r.

Cent.

Fahr.

E'm'r.

30

80

24

3

26.6

2.4

36

32.8

28.8

29

84.2

23.2

4

24.8

3.2

37

34.6

29.6

28

82.4

22.4

5

23

4

38

36.4

30.4

27

80.6

21.6

6

21.2

4.8

39

38.2

31.2

20

78.8

20.8

7

19.4

5.6

40

40

32

25

77

20

8

17.0

6.4

41

41.8

32.8

24

75

19.2

9

15.8

7.2

42

43.6

33.6

23

73.4

18.4

10

14

8

43

45.4

34.4

22

71.0

17.0

11

12.2

8.8

44

47.2

35.2

21

09.8

16.8

12

10

9.6

45

49

36

20

68

16

13

8.6

10.4

46

50.8

36.8

19

66.2

15.2

14

6.8

11.2

47

52.6

37.6

18

64.4

14.4

15

5

12

48

54.4

38.4

Zero Fahr. corresponds with minus 17.78° Cent, and minus
14.22° Reaumur. The fixed points in Fahrenheit's thermometer
are the congelation of sal-ammoniac, marked 0°, and the heat
of boiling water, marked 212°. The freezing point of water, is
marked 32°. In Reaumur's thermometer 0° is marked at freezing
point of water, and 80°at boiling point. In Celsius's, or Centi
grade, thermometer 0° also marks freezing point of water, but
100° marks the boiling-point. To convert degrees of one scale
to those of another use the following formulse:
Centigrade" X 9 Fahr.° — 32 X 4
 |-32=Fahr. °  =Reaumur ° .
5 9
Reaumur ° X 9 Centigrade ° X4
 |-32=Fahr.°  =Reaumur°.
4 5
Fahr.°-32X5 Reaumur" X 5
 — = Cent. °  :=Centigrade ° .
9 4
OLD WEATHER SIGNS.
Here are some of the sayings in which sailors have
long believed:
Thunder on Sunday is consider,ed by the weather-wise
the sign of the death of a great man; on Monday, the
death of a woman ; on Tuesday, if in early summer, it
foretells an abundance of grain; on Wednesday, warfare
is threatened; on Thursday, an abundance of sheep and
corn the farmer may reckon upon; on Friday, some great
man will be murdered; on Saturday, a general pestilence
and great mortality.
Friday's weather shows what may be expected on tho
following Sunday; that is, if it rains on Friday noon.

54 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
then it will rain on Sunday, but if Friday be clear, then
Sunday will be fine as well.
The tv/elve days immediately following Christmas de
note the weather for the coming twelve months, one day
for a month. The day of the month the first snow storm
appears indicates the number of snow storms the winter
will bring. For example, the first snow storm comes on
November 29 — look out, then, for twenty-nine snow storms.
A gale, moderating at sunset, will increase before mid
night, but if it moderates after midnight the weather will
improve. No weather is ill, if the wind is still.
If the full moon shall rise red, expect wind.
The sharper the blast the sooner it is past.
A light yellow sky at sunset presages wind.
AVhen you see northern lights you may expect cold
weather. Hazy weather is thought to prognosticate frost in
winter, snow in spring, fair weather in summer and rain
in autumn.
Storms that clear in the night will be followed by a
rain storm.
Three foggy mornings will surely be followed by a rain
storm. When the sky is full of stars expect rain.
If a cat washes herself calmly and smoothly the weather
vrill be fair. If she wnshes "against the grain"' take your
mackintosh with you. If she lies with her back to the
fire there will be a squall.
Cats with their tails up and hair apparently electrified
indicate approaching wind.
If pigs are restless there will be windy weather.
Pigs can see the wind.
The direction in which a loon flies in the morning
will be the direction of the wind the next day.
Magpies flying three or four together and uttering
harsh cries predict windy weather.
"MARES' TAILS."
The feathery clouds sometimes called "mares' tails,"

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 53
float far aloft in the heavens. They are, in fact, by far
the loftiest of all clouds, occupying an ethereal region
of extreme cold five or six miles above the earth. It
is believed that they are composed sometimes of needles
of ice; sometimes of globules of iee, and sometimes of
globules of water which is far below the freezing point.
Mares' tails are supposed to be overflow clouds from
cyclonic storms. They flow out from over the top of such
great atmospheric whirls, and thus they are the first evi
dence seen of an approaching cyclonic movement. Along
the Atlantic seaboard of the United States they are the
forerunners of storms coming up the coast. W^hen they are
observed it is time for mariners to look out. The mares'
tails are known technically as "cirrus" clouds. Belief
as to their great height was verified by the balloonist
Glaisher, who, when 37,000 feet above the soil of Eng
land, saw a feathery network far above him.
SCIENTIFIC FORECASTING OF WEATHER.
The first attempt at scientific forecasting of the weather
was the result of a storm, which, during the Crimean
AVar, November 14, 1854, almost destroyed the fieets of
France and England. As a storm had raged several days
earlier in France, Vaillant, the French minister of war,
directed that investigations be made to see if the two
storms were the same, and if the progress of the dis
turbances could have been foretold It was demonstrated
that the two were in reality one storm and that its path
could have been ascertained and the fleet forewarned in
ample time to reach safety.
HOW TIDES PREDICT STORMS. k
Fresh interest has recently been developed in the fact .
that West Indian hurricanes, and other great storms at
sea, frequently produce a remarkable effect upon the
tides along neighboring coasts. When a tempest is
approaching, or passing out on the ocean, the tides are
noticeably higher than usual, as if the water had been
driven in a vast wave before the storm. The infiuence-

66 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
extends to a great distance from the cyclonic storm
centre, so that the possibility exists of foretelling the ap
proach of a dangerous hurricane by means of indications
furnished by tide gauges situated far away from the place
then occupied by the whirling winds. The fact that the
tidal wave outstrips the advancing storm shows how ex
tremely sensitive the surface of the sea is to changes of
pressure brought to bear upon it by the never-resting
atmosphere. WEATHER WISDOM.
Sunset Colors. — A gray, lowering sunset, or one where
the sky is green or yellowish-green, indicates rain. A
red sunrise, with clouds lowering later in the moming,
also indicates rain.
Halo (Sun-Dogs). — By halo is meant the large circles,
or part of circles, about the sun or moon. A halo oc
curring after fine weather indicates a storm.
• Corona. — By corona is meant the small colored circles
frequently seen around the sun or moon. A corona grow
ing smaUer indicates rain; growing larger, fair weather.
Rainbows. — A morning rainbow is regarded as a sign
of rain; an evening rainbow, of fair weather.
Sky Colors. — A deep blue color of the sky, even when
seen through clouds, indicates fair weather; a growing
whiteness an approaching storm.
Fogs. — Fogs indicate settled weather. A moming fog
usually breaks away before noon.
Visibility. — Unusual clearness of the atmosphere, un
usual brightness or twinkling of the stars, indicates
rain. Clouds. — In observing clouds one must distinguish
their textures, motions and outlines. First order. Cirrus, •
frequently called "mares' tails." They appear at a greater
elevation than other forms of clouds, and are marked
by their light texture, fibrous and sundered as in the
mare's tail, or interlacing as in the far spreading white
cloud which produces the halo. Small, regularly formed
groups of these clouds are frequently seen in fair and
settled weather. The Cirri are also the clouds on the

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 57
forepart of the storm. In this case they are usually
more abundant, their outline is very ragged, and they
generally blend into a white, far-reaching cloud-bank.
Second order. Cumulus, well known as "cotton-bales," or
"thunder heads" ; they are of a hemispherical form, with
horizontal base. When they appear during the heat of
the day and pass awa}' in the evening, continued fair
weather may be expected. When they increase with
rapidity, sink into the lower part of the atmosphere, and
remain as the evening approaches, rain is at hand. If
loose patches appear thrown out from their surfaces,
showers may be expected. Third order, Stratus. These
appear as a continuous layer of widely extended sheet
of cloud, at a lower level than the Cumulus, their lower
surface often resting on the earth.
Barometer. — In using the barometer it should be noticed
whether it be greatly above or below the mean height,
and the rapidity of its rise or fall. If it be higher and
steady, continued fair, though not cloudless, weather may
be expected. If it be lower and falling, rain, or at least
damp, cloudy weather is at hand. A rapid rise or fall
(greater than 0.01 inch per hour) indicates continued
unsettled weather and much wind.
Cloud Indications. — Most people know that a fall in
the barometer indicates the approach of a storm, and a
high barometer indicates fair weather ; but more than this
may, according to M. Flammarion, be learned from the
mercury column. When clouds are to be seen moving
in a line, whatever may be the height of the barometer,
it may be taken as certain that a depression or storm
centre exists in a direction which may be readily ascer
tained by facing in the direction in which the clouds are
moving, and extending the left hand. At sea it is often
possible for a captain, after finding in what direction
the most violent part of a storm lies, to steer away from
it, and soQ.n bring his vessel into pleasant weather. As
to the distance and seriousness of the storm, something
may be leamed from the velocity with which the pro
cession of clouds move; a severe and near storm being
always indicated by a swift cloud movement and a high
barometer.

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

RULES FOR FORETELLING WEATHER.
(Adapted for use with Aneroid Barometers.)
A. Rising Barometer.— A. rapid rise indicates unsettled
weather. A gradual rise indicates settled weather.
A rise with dry air and cold increasing in summer in
dicates wind from the northward; and if rain has fallen,
better weather may be expected.
A rise with moist air and a low temperature indicates
wind and rain from the northward.
A rise with southerly winds indicates fine weather.
A Steady Barometer. — With dry air and seasonable
temperature indicates a continuance of very fine
weather. A Falling Barometer. — A rapid fall indicates stormy
weather. A rapid fall with westerly wind indicates stormy
weather from the northward.
A fall with a northerly wind indicates storm, with
rain and hail in summer, and snow in winter.
A fall with increased moisture in the air, and heat
increasing, indicates wind and rain from the south
ward. A fall with dry air and cold increasing in winter in
dicates snow.
A fall after very calm and warm weather indicates
rain with squally weather.
The barometer rises for northerly winds, including
from northwest by north to the eastward for dry, or
less wet weather, for less wind, or for more than one of
these changes, except on a few occasions, when rain, hail,
or snow comes from the northward with strong wind.
The barometer falls for southerly wind, including from
southeast by south to the westward, for wet weather, for
stronger wind or for more than one of these changes,
except on a few occasions, when moderate wind, with rain
or snow, comes from the northward.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 59
STORM SIGNALS OF U. S. WEATHER BUREAU.
Storm Signals. — A red fiag with a black centre in
dicates that a storm of marked violence is expected.
The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the
direction of the wind; red, easterly (from northeast to
south) ; white, westerly (from southwest to north). The
pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is ex
pected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, from
the southerly quadrants.
By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and a
white light above a red light westerly winds.
Information Signul. — Red or white pennant displayed
alone. When displayed at stations on the Atlantic, Pacific,
and Gulf coasts indicates that the local observer has re
ceived information from the Central Office of a storm
covering a limited area, dangerous only for vessels about
to sail to certain points, and serves as a notification to
shipmasters that information will be given them upon
application to the local observer. Only the red pennant
is displayed on the coasts. No night information or
hurricane signals are displayed.
Hurricane Signal. — Two red flags with black centres,
displayed one above the other, indicate the expected ap
proach of tropical hurricanes, and also of those extremely
severe and dangerous storms which occasionally move
across the Lakes and Northern Atlantic coast.
RULES FOR HURRICANES.
The September chart of 1893 of the Hydrographic
Bureau gives the following rules for the benefit of mari
ners, yachtmen and others when overtaken by^ a hurri
cane : *
Rule 1. — If the squalls freshen without any shift of
wind, you are on or near the storm track; heave-to on
the starboard tack and watch for some indications of a
shift, observing the low clouds particularly ; if the barome
ter fall decidedly (say half an inch) without any shift,
and if wind and sea permit, run off with the wind on
the starboard quarter and keep your compass course.

60 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Bule 2. — If the wind shift to the right, you are in the
right of the storm track, in the dangerous semicircle ; put
the ship on the starboard tack and make as much headway
as possible until obliged to lie-to (starboard tack).
Rule 3. — If the wind shift to the left you are to the
left of the storm track, in the navigable semicircle; bring
the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your com
pass course; if obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack.
Always lie-to on the coming-up tack. Use oil to pre
vent heavy seas from breaking on board your vessel.
DISTANCES AT SEA.
The earth being round, its convexity limits the vision
even on a level like the sea. The line of vision on the sea
shore of a man of ordinary height, say six feet, would
be intercepted by the horizon at 3.24 miles. If he were
looking at an object 44 feet in height, say a fiag on a mast
head, the flag would seem to be on the horizon if it were
9.35 miles distant. In this case add the height of tho
object, 44 feet, to the height of the eye from the ground,
6 feet = 50 feet, and find the corresponding distance
in the list below. A carrier pigeon at a mile above the
earth would only command a field of 96 miles in
radius. This table shows the distance from sea-level at which
objects are visible ait different elevations.

Height.

Distance.

Height.

Distance.

Height.

Distance.

Feet

Miles.

Feet.

Miles.

Feet.

MUes.

0.

582

1

15

5.12

80

11.83

1

1.31

16

5.29

90

12.25

2

1.87

17

5.45

100

13.23

3

2.29

18

5.61

150

16.22

4

2.63
19
5.77
200
18.72
5
2.96
20
5.92
300
22.91
6
3.24
25
6.61
400
26.46
7
3.49
30
7.25
500
29.58
8
3.73
35
7.83
1000
33.41
9
3.96
40
8.37
2000
59.20
10
4.18
45
8.87
3000
72.50
11
4.39
50
9.35
4000
83.70
12
4.58
65
10.25
5000
93.50
13
4.77
70
11.07
1 mile
96.10
NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS, 61
LENGTH OF DEGREES OF LONGITUDE.
A degree of longitude at 1° of latitude=60 miles
A degree of longitude at 10° of latitude^59 miles, about
A degree of longitude at 20° of latitude=56% miles, about
A degree of longitude at 30° of latitude=52 miles
A degree of longitude at 40° of latitude=46 miles
A degree of longitude at 50° of latitude=38% miles, about
A degree of longitude at 60° of latitude:=30 miles
A degree of longitude at 70° of latitude=20% miles about
A degree of longitude at 80° of latitude=10% miles, about
A degree of longitude at 90° of latitude=0 miles
A SHIP'S SPEED.
A ship at 1 knot per hour goes about 1.69 feet per second.
A ship at 10 knots per hour goes about 16.89 feet per second.
A ship at 15 knots per hour goes about 25.33 feet per second.
A ship at 16 knots per hour goes about 27.02 feet per second.
A ship at 17 knots per hour goes about 28.71 feet per second.
A ship at 18 knots per hour goes about 30.4 feet per second.
A ship at 19 knots per hour goes about 32.09 feet per second.
A ship at 20 knots per hour goes about 33.78 feet per second.
A ship at 21 knots per hour goes about 35.47 feet per second.

VELOCITIES. Metres per Second.
Wave 30 metres high and 300 metres in breadth 6.81
Ship 9 knots an hour 4 . 63
Ship 17 knots an hour 8.75
Ordinary wind 5 to 6
Carrier pigeon * 18.
Ocean wave during tempest 21 . 85
Tempest 25 to 30
Cannon-ball 632
Electricity in submarine wire 4,000,000
Light 300,400,000
A metre is e(jual to 39,37 English inches,

02 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

VELOCITIES AND EFFECTS OF WIND.
Miles per Hour. Pressure per Sq . Ft. in Lbs. Characteristics.
1 0.005 Hardly perceptible
2 0.020 Just perceptible
5 0.123 Gentle breeze
10 0.492 Brisk wind
20 1.968 Very brisk wind
25 3.075 Very brisk wind
35 6.027 High wind
45 9.963 Very high wind
50 12.300 Storm
60 17.715 Great storm
80 31.490 Hurricane
100 49.200 Great hurricane, carrying
trees before it.
180 Cyclone.
TO REDUCE LONGITUDE INTO TIME.
Rule 1. — Divide the number of degrees, minutes, and
seconds by 15, and the quotient will be the time. If
longitude is west of Greenwich, the result will be the
time at Greenwich when it is noon at the place. Ex
ample: Longitude 74° 48' 15" W. What is the time?
Divided by 15 ^ 4 h., 59 m., 15 s., slower than Green
wich. Rule 2. — To find difference in time between two places
divide the difference in longitude by 15. Example:
Paris, longitude 2° 20' E. ; Philadelphia, longitude 75°
10' W. Difference in longitude 77° 30' divided by 15 =
5 h., 10 m., difference in time.
Rule 3. — To find difference in longitude {e.g., distance
sailed) when difference in time is known, multiply the
difference in time by 15.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE (FROM GREENWICH.)
N. Lat, W. Long.
' " H. M. S.
Annapolis, Md. 38 58 54 5 5 56
Armagh, Ire. 54 21 13 0 26 38
Astoria, Ore. 46 11 19 8 15 19
Baltimore, Md. 39 17 48 5 6 26
Belize, Hond. 17 29 20 5 52 47
Bermuda 32 19 24 4 19 18

NAYIGAIION FOR PASSENGERS, 63

Bordeaux, Fr.
Boston Bridgetown, Bar.
Buenos Ayres
Cape Pr. of W.
Charl't'n, P. E. I.
Cherbourg, Fr.
Dublin, Ire.
Edinburgh Fayal, Azores
Fernandina, Fla.
Funchal, Madei.
Galveston, Tex.
Glasgow, Scot.
GibraltarHalifax, N. S.
Hanover, N. H.
Havana, Cuba
Kingston, Jam.
Lisbon, Portu.
Liverpool
Monrovia, Lib
Nashville,. Tenn.
Nassau, Bah's.
N. Haven, Conn.
New Orleans
New York
Norfolk, Va.
Panama, Colom.
P. au. Prince, Hay.
Philadelphia
Portland, Me.
P't Spain, Trin.
Providence, R. I.
Richmond, Va.
San Diego, Cal.
San Francisco
S. Juan de P. R.
Santiago de C.
Savannah, Ga.
Seattle, Wash.
St. Johns, N. F.
Washington,
Williamstown, Mass.
. Attu Is. Alaska

I

I.Lai

t.

W. Long

«

'

//

H. M

.S

44

50

17

0

2

5

42

21

28

4

44

15

13

5

42

3

58

29

34

36

30

3

53

29

65

33

30

11

11

57

46

13

55

4

12

27

49

38

54

0

6

32

53

23

13

0

25

22

55

57

23

0

12

43

38

32

9

1

54

16

30

40

18

5

25

51

32

38

4

1

7

36

29

18

17

6

19

10

55

52

43

0

17

11

36

6

30

0

21

23

44

39

38

4

14

21

43

42

15

4

49

8

23

9

21

5

29

26

17

57

41

5

7

11

38

42

31

0

36

45

53

24

4

0

12

17

6

19

5

0

43

lb

36

8

58

5

47

8

25

5

37

5

9

28

41

18

36

4

51

42

29

57

46

6

0

14

40

45

23

4

55

53

36

49

33

5

5

U

8

57

6

5

18

9

18

33

54

4

49

28

39

57

7

5

0

38

43

39

28

4

41

1

10

38

39

4

6

3

41

49

26

4

45

37

37

32

16

5

9

44

32

43

6

7

48

39

37

47

55

8

9

38

18

28

56

4

24

30

20

0

16

. 5

3

22

32

4

52

5

24

2i.

47

35

54

8

9

20

47

34

2

3

30

44

38

53

39

5

8

12

42

42

49

4

52

53

52

56

1

11

32

50

64

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

Bombay
CalcuttaCanton, China
Christiania, N.
Colombo, Ceylon
Constantinople
CopenhagenHamburg, Ger.
Hong Kong
MarseillesNice, Prance
North Cape
Saigon, Coch. C.
Shanghai, China,
Singapore, Ind.
Utrecht, Neth.
Yokohama, Jap.

Bahia, Brazil
Para, Brazil
P. Stanley, F. Is.
Rio iie Janeiro
Valparaiso

Adelaide, S. Au.
Antipodes, Is.
Apia, Samoa
Batavia, Java
Hobart, T'n, Tas.
Melbourne, Vic.
Sydney, N. S. W.
Wellington, N. Z.
ZanzibarGreenwich, Eng.

o *"

. Lat

1

;. Long.

'

//

H.M.S

18

53

45

0

51 16

22

33

25

5

53 21

23

6

35

7

33 46

59

54

44

0

42 54

6

55

40

5

19 23

41

0

30

1

56 4

55

41

14

0

50 19

53

33

7

0

39 54

22

18

12

7

36 42

43

18

19

0

21 35

43

43

17

0

29 12

71

11

0

1

42 40

10

46

47

7

6 49

31

14

42

8

5 56

1

17

11

6

55 25

52

5

10

0

20 32

35

26

24

9

18 37

S

.Lat.

w
. Long.
13
0
37
2
34 8
1
26
59
3
14 0
51
41
10
3
51 26
22
54
24
2
52 41
33
1
53
4
46 35
S
. Lat.
E,
.Long.
34
55
34
9
14 20
49
42
0
11
54 52
13
48
56
11
27 U
6
7
40
7
7 14
42
53
25
9
49 20
37
49
53
3
39 54
33
51
41
10
4 49
41
16
57
11
39 5
6
9
43
2
36 45
51 28 38
0 0 0
RULE FOR SIDEREAL TIME.
The number of Sidereal days in a year is necessarily
one in excess of the number of Solar days Sidereal
time at noon on any given date is expressed by the same
proportion of a day that the interval between the date
and the previous vernal equinox bears to a year. This
relation between the fraction of a day and a year is
easily ascertained, as their subdivisions bear a very simple
relation to each other, there being 13 months in a year,
and 24 hours in a day; there are also 60 winute? in W
NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS.

65

hour, and (about) 30 days in a month. Thus Sidereal
time can be ascertained approximately by a short mental
calculation according to the following rule: Subtract 3
months and 22 days from the date (increased by 12
months if needful). Call each month of difference 2
hours, and each day 4 minutes. Example: To find
Sidereal time when it is noon on August 30, August 30
i3 8 months and 30 days, subtracting 3 months 22 days
leaves 5 months 8 days, allow 2 hours for each of the 5
months and 4 minutes for each of the 8 days = 10 hours
32 minutes. To find Sidereal time at noon on February
15 =: 2 months, 15 days, and 12 months = 14 months
15 days — 3 months, 22 days=10 months, 23 days=21
hours 32 minutes Sidereal time.
If greater accuracy be needed, add to or subtract from
the result the number of minutes for the appropriate
year and month given in the following table:

Month.

Leap Year.

January

-|-4y2m

February

J-7 m

March

_l_iy2m

April

-^-3y2m

May

_|-2 m

June

_|_4 m

July

-j-2y2m

August

_l_4y2m

September

4-7 m

October

_|_5 m

November

-l-7y2m

December

_l-4y2m

it Yr. after

2d Yr. after

3d Yr. after

Leap Yr.

Leap Yr.

Leap Yr.

-)-7y2m

4-7 m

-1-6 m

-1-10 m

4-9 m

4-8 m

.+- yam

— yam

— l%m

_|_2y2m

4-iy2m

4-1 m

4-1 m

4-0 m

—1 m

_|_3 m

4-2 m

4-1 m

+ iy2m

4- yam

— y2m

-4-3 %m

_^2y2m

4-1 yam

_|_0 m

4-5 m

--4 m

-1-4 m

4-3 m

__2 m

_|_6%m

4_5y2m

— 4y2m

-1-3 yam

-^2y2m

--lyam

NICKNAMES OF PORTS.
Alexandria, Egypt, Delta City.
Astoria, Oregon, The Venice of America.
Baltimore, Md., Monumental City.
Brooklyn, N. Y., City of Churches.
Boston, Puritan City; Modern Athens;
City of Notions; Athens of America
Cairo, Egypt, City of Victory.
Edinburgh, Maiden Town; " Northern Athens; Modern Athens;
Athens of the North; Auld Reekie.
Havana, Pearl of the Antilles.
London, City of Masts, Modern Babylon.
New Haven, Conn., City of Elms.

Hub of the Universe;
The Hub.

66

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

New Orleans, La., Crescent City.
New York, Gotham; Empire City; Metropolitan City.
Philadelphia, Quaker City; City of Brotherly Love; City of
Homes.
Portland, Me., Forest City.
Quebec, Can., Gibraltar of America.
San Francisco, Cal., Golden City.
Salem, Mass., City of Peace.
Gibraltar, Key of Mediterranean.
Venice, Bride of the Sea.
THE GREATEST PORTS.
The world's six greatest ports are in order as follows:
London, New York, Liverpool, Hamburg, Antwerp,
Marseilles. TIME DIFFERENCE.
(New York and Foreign Cities.)

Later than New York.

Later than New York.

Hrs.

Mins.

Hrs. Mins.

Antwerp
5
13
5
Paris
5 5
2
Berlin
5
49
5
Rio de Janeiro
2 3
2
Bremen
5
31
Rome
5 45
8
Brussels,
5
13
4
St. Petersburg
6 57
1
Buenos Ayres
1
2
4
Valparaiso
9
3
Calcutta
11
49
2
Vienna
6 1
2
Constantinople
6
51
9
Halifax
41
5
Dublin
4
30
5
Earlier than New York.
Edinburgh
4
43
2
Havana
33
5
Geneva
5
20
5
Hong Kong
11 27
4
Hamburg
5
35
8
Melbourne
9 24
2
Liverpool
4
43
6
Mexico, City of
1 40
5
London
4
55
9
Panama
22
2
Madrid
4
41
4
Yokohama
9 45
5
DISTANCES FROM NEW YORK.
Distances by water and Mail Time between New York
and the Points and Ports named below are as follows:
Nautical Miles.
Adelaide
Alexandria, Egypt
Amsterdam, Holl'd
Antwerp, Belgium
Athens, Greece ,
Po tal Route.
12,845 miles, 34 days, via San Francisco
5,095 6,150 miles, 13 days, via London
3,530 3,985 miles, 9 days, via Ijondon
3,457 4,000 miles, 9 days, via London
5,655 miles, 12 days, via London
NA VIGATION FOB PASSENGERS

67

Nautical Miles.
Bahia, Brazil
Bangkok, Siam
Batavia, Java
Berlin, Prussia
Bermudas, W. I. 680
Bombay, India 11,555
Bordeaux, France 3,334
Boston 310
Bremen 3,570
Bristol 3,010
Brussels, Belgium 3,418
Buenos Ayres 7,110
Calcutta, India 12,510
Canton, China 14,105
Cape of Good Hope 6,840
Cape Horn 7,000
Cape Town
Charleston 750
Cherbourg 3,084
Christiania 3,700
Columbia River 15,965
Constantinople 5,154
Copenhagen, Den. 3,650
Dublin, Ireland 3,225
Fastnet 2,790
Fire Island 53
Florence, Italy
Gibraltar, Spain 3,290
Glasgow, Scotland 2,934
Greytown
Halifax, N. S. 563
Bamburg Havana, Cuba
3avre
Hong Kong
Honolulu, S. I.
HullKingston
Larne (Belf.) Scot.
Lima, Peru
Lisbon, Portugal
Liverpool, England
Lizard (The)
London Madras, India
Madrid, Spain
Milford Haven 2,929

Postal Route.
5,870 miles, 21 days.
12,990 miles, 43 days, via San Francisco
12,800 miles, 34 days, via London
4,385 miles, 9 days, via London
9,765 miles, 24 days, via London

4,235 miles, 8 days via London

8,045 miles.
11,120 miles, 26 days, via London

11,245 miles, 27 days, via London

5,800 miles, 11 days, via London

4,800 miles, 10 days, via London
3,375 miles, 10 days, via London
2,810 miles, 7 days, via New Orleans
645 miles, 2 days.

3,544 4,340 miles, 9 days, via London.
1,275 1,413 miles, 3 days
3,193 10,590 miles, 25 days, via San Francisco
15,300 5,645 miles, 13 days, via San Francisco
3,500 1,640
2,880
11,312 3,184 3,080
3,0603,376
11,840

3,540 miles, 8 days
3,740 miles, 8 days
4,925 miles, 9 days, via San Francisco

08

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

Postal Route.
12,265 miles, 32 days, via San Francisco
2,813
4,327 980
2,045 2,355 2,355 miles, 7 days, via '^an Francisco
4,020 miles, 8 days
15,325 4,926 240
2,980 1,400
2,850 3,840 6,204 miles, 23 days,
5,030 miles 9 day s, via London
3,394 3,935 miles, 9 days, via London
18
15,84314,512 9,920 miles, 25 days, via San Francisco
785
4,432 5,370 miles, 19 days, via London
3,1704,075 4,975 miles, 10 days, via lx)ndon
11,570 miles, 31 days, via San Francisco
9,750 5,910 miles, 37 days, via Panama
2,185 4,740 miles, 10 days, via London
400 7,348 miles, 20 days, via San Francisco
SIGNALS AT SEA.
The flags by which ships communicate with each other
are eighteen in number. The flags are known by letters,
but none of these letters are vowels. This makes it im
possible to use the flags to spell words. But the letters
are not used as such, but as signs, characterizing the
different flags by the most familiar method and in an order
well known. The signs are made with combinations in
sets of two, three, and four letters each, of the 18 con
sonants: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, E, S, T,
V and W.
The two-letter sets are combinations of B and the 17
other letters, thus : BC, CB, DB, to WB, BD, etc.
The three-letters sets are successive combinations of
each set of two letters with the 16 other letters, thus:
BCD, CBD, etc.

Nautical Miles.
Melbourne
Moville (Lond'd'y)
Naples, Italy
Newfound'd (B'ks)
New Orleans
Panama Paris
Pekin, China
Pernambuco, Braz.
Philadelphia PlymouthQuebec
Qui ens town
Rio de Janeiro
Rome, Italy
Rotterdam Sandy Hook
San Francisco
Shanghai, China
St. John
St. Petersburg
SouthamptonStockholm, Sweden
Sidney
Valparaiso, Chile
Vera Cruz, Mex.
Vienna, Austria
Washington
Yokohama, Japan

NA VIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 69
The four-letter sets are successive combinations of each
set of three letters with the 15 other letters, thus : BCDP,
CBDF, etc.
In this manner 78,642 combinations can be made, of
which 306 are of the two-letter sets, 4,896 of the three-
letter sets, and 73,440 of the four-letter sets. As it
takes less time to make up the two-letter signals, and as
Ihey are the most simple, they are used for the urgent and
important signals.
The signalling paraphernalia consists of one burgee,
fcur pennants and thirteen square flags. There is in
addition a code pennant, which is also used as an
"answering signal." When used as a code signal it is
hoisted under the ensign, and when used as the answering
pennant it is to be placed "where best seen." The flags,
with their names, are described as follows:
BURGEE.
B. — Eed swallowtail. PENNANTS.
C. — White, with red spots.
D. — Blue, with white spots.
F. — Eed, with white spots.
G. — Yellow-blue, in two vertical stripes.
SQUARE FLAGS.
H. — White-red, in two vertical stripes.
J. — Blue-white, in three horizontal stripes.
K. — Yellow-blue, in two vertical stripes.
L. — Blue and yellow, in four alternate checks.
M. — Blue, with white diagonal cross.
N. — Blue and white in sixteen alternate cheeks.
P. — Blue, with white centre.
Q. — Yellow — quarantine. *
E. — Eed, with yellow right-cross.
S. — White, with blue centre.
T. — Eed-white-blue, in three vertical stripes.
V. — White, with red diagonal cross.
W. — Blue-white-red, in three borders.
Code Pennant. — Eed and white in five vertical stripes.
Ansvjering Pennant. — Same as Code pennant.

yo OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

SETTING THE SIGNALS.

The pennant C is used for "yes," and the pennant D
for "no." Signals are always made by one hoist in one
place, and the nature of the signal is indicated by the
number of fiags hoisted. Two-flag signals, with the
burgee uppermost, are "attention" signals; with the pen
nant uppermost they are "compos" signals, and a square
flag uppermost indicates urgent danger or distress.
Three-flag signals relate to general subjects of inquiry
or comniunication, including longitude, latitude and time
signals. A four-flag signal with burgee uppermost is
"geographical," the pennants C, D, or F on top indicate
spelling and vocabulary signals; G on top means men-
of-war, and a square flag uppermost is for the names of
merchant ships.
The combinations made with the 18 flags fill a large
volume, and the requirements of those who are on ship
board have been so well anticipated that there are few
conditions which cannot be expressed by the code.
Some of the two-flag signals are interesting to nole.
HB means "want immediate assistance," and HF sig
nifies "we are coming to your assistance." HM tells of
a "man overboard," and HD tells those who wait mth
anxiety that "no assistance can be rendered." HV means
"damaged rudder, cannot steer," and HW "engine or
machinery disabled." The signal JN stands for "war
between.  and  ." The skipper indicates the con
tending forces with the fiags, thus : JN, Stars and Stripes
Spanish fiag, would read: "War between United States
and Spain." There is a small list of signals all begin
ning with N, which no seaman eares to hoist or to sec
from a place of safety. Among these are "I have sprung
a leak, leak gaining rapidly;" "I am sinking," "I am on
fire," "Fire gains, take people off;" "I am driving, no
more anchors to let go;" "I am unmanageable," and
when the mariner in distress sees his possible rescuer
sailing away, he hoists NP, which says, "Do not abandon
me." When BCN goes up it says "I will not abandon
you or your vessel in distress."

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 71
DISTANT SIGNALS.
When the colors cannot be distinguished, the flag
signals become useless, and for that reason the "distant
signals" are used frequently. These consist of a ball,
f. flag and a pennant so arranged as to make 18 letters
corresponding to those in the flag signal collection. Iu
case of need the proper symbols may be replaced by hand
kerchiefs for the flags, oars or spars slung horizontally
for the pennants, and pails or buckets for the balls. The
distant signals are made up of two, three or four com
binations of ball, pennant and flag, and when the arrange
ment of the ship will permit they are shown in the follow
ing places: The first letter upon the foremast, the second
letter upon the mainmast, the third letter upon the miz
zen mast, and the fourth letter under the gaff, the signal
being always read from fore to aft.
The letters of the distant signals, with symbols or com
binations read from top to bottom, are as follows:
B. — Ball, pennant, flag. M. — Flag, ball, pennant.
C. — Ball, flag, pennant. N. — Ball, pennant, ball.
D. — Ball, pennant, pennant. V. — Ball, flag, ball.
P.— Ball, flag, fiag. Q.— Pennant, flag, ball.
G. — Ball, ball, pennant. K. — Flag, pennant, ball.
H. — Ball, ball, flag. S. — Pennant, pennant, ball.
J. — Pennant, ball, fiag. T. — Flag, flag, ball.
K.— Flag, ball, pennant. W.-— Flag, ball, ball.
L. — Pennant, ball, pennant. V. — Pennant, ball, ball.
Preparatory and answering signal, ball. Annulling
signal, ball, ball.
FUNNEL MARES, HOUSE FLAGS, NIGHT SIGNALS
OF TRANSATLANTIC LINES.
American. — Funnel — Black, white band, black top.
llag — White, with blue spread eagle in centre.
Night Signals — Blue light forward, red light amid
ships and blue light aft in British waters. "In
American waters two rockets displayed simultane
ously, and red-white-blue stars," v/ith the blue-
red light.

72 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Anchor. — Funnel — Black.
Flag—White, swallowtail flag, with red anchor.
Night Signals— White lantern, then a red.
Bristol. — Funnel — Black, white band in centre, blue star in
centre of white band.
Night Signals — Red-green light.
Cunard. — Funnel — Red, with black rings and black top.
Flag — Red flag, with golden lion in centre.
Night Signals — Blue light and two roman candles,
each throwing out six blue balls.
French. — Funnel — Red, with black top.
Flag — White flag, red ball in corner, with company's
name.
Night Signals. — Blue light forward, white light amid
ships, and red light aft.
Hamburg- Amer. — Funnel— Express service, buff; regular, black.
Flag — White and blue flag, diagonally quar
tered, with a black anchor and yellow shield
in centre, bearing the letters H. A. P. A G.
Night Signals — Two red-white-blue lights, in
quick succession, at stern.
Netherlands-Am. — Funnel — Black, with white band, with green
borders.
Flag — Green, white and green, N. A. S. M. in
black letters in the white.
Night Signals — Green light forward and aft,
white light amidships at same time.
North Ger. Lloyd. — Funnel — Cream.
Flag — Key and. anchor crossed in centre of
a laurel wreath, on a blue and white
field.
Night Signals — Two blue-red lights, one for
ward, one aft.
Red Star. — Funnel — Black, white band, black top.
Flag — White swallowtail flag, with red star.
Night Signals — Three red lights, one forward, one
aft, and one amidships, simultaneously.
Scandinav.-Am. — Funnel — Yellow, with white band and blue star
and black top.
Flag — White, with seven-pointed blue star.
Night Signals — One white-red, followed by one
red-white light.
White Star. — Funnel — Cream, with black top.
Flag — Red swallowtail flag, containing white star.
Night Signals — Two green lights simultaneously.
Wilson. — Funnel — Red, with black top.
Flag — White pennant, with red ball in centre.
Night Signals— Two red lights, about 60 feet apart.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 73
RULES OF ROAD AT SEA.
The main principles are— that it is the duty of
steamers to give way to sailing vessels; that ships sailing
in most favorable circumstances with regard to the wind,
have to give way to others less favored; and that if one
ship is overtaking another, it is the duty of the former
to keep clear of the latter. All vessels in motion have
to carry colored lights — a red one on the port, and a
green one on the starboard side — of such character as to
be visible at a distance of two «iiles on a dark and clear
night. If culpably run down by another ship there is
no chance of obtaining compensation unless it can be
proved that such victim was carrying the proper
lights. A steamer is distinguished from a sailing ship by the
fact of her carrying, in addition to the green and red
side lights, a white light at her mast head, the lantern
being so constructed that the light is not visible from be
hind. Steamers engaged in towing other vessels have to
give notice of the additional complication thus caused by
carrying two white lights at the mast head. The bell
is in every ship the fog signal used when at anchor; it is
supposed to be rung every five minutes. Steamers in
motion in a fog make their presence known by means
of a steam whistle; and sailing ships are, under the same
circumstances, distinguished by the use of a fog horn,
at like intervals. Very often the fog horn is attached
to a pair of bellows.
Besides the minute-gun as a signal of distress at sea.
rockets or shells of any color or description, fired one at
a time at short intervals; and also fiames on the ship
such as would be produced by a burning tar-barrel can
be used. The signals calling for pilots prescribed for
the sake of distinction, in order that they may not be
mistaken for danger signals, are a blue light every fifteen
minutes, and a bright white light flashed at frequent in
tervals for about a minute at a time. If distress signals
are used improperly, the person responsible is liable to
pay compensation for any labor, risk or loss caused to
any one who responds to the supposed call for assist
ance.

•^4

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

FOREIGN TELEGRAPH RATES.
Eates per word from New York. Address and signa
ture charged. Limit of words, 15 letters. Additional
15 letters or fraction counted a word.

Adelaide, S. A., $1.23.
Alexandria, Egypt, 56c.
Algeria, 32e.
Antigua, 86c.
Argentine Republic, $1.00.
Austria, 34c.
Bahia, Brazil, $1.35.
Barbadoes, 96c.
Batavia, Java, $1.47.
Belgium, 25c.
Belize, Hond., 65c.
Bermuda, 42c.
Bolivia, $1.25.
Bombay, $1.23.
Bordeaux, Fr., 25c.
Brazil, $1.35
Bridgetown, Bar., 91c.
Buenos Ayres, $1.00.
Bulgaria, 38c.
Burmah, $1.27
Cairo, Egypt, 61c.
Calcutta, $1.23.
Callao, Peru, $1.25
Canton, China, $1.60.
Cape Colony, $1.23.
Ceylon, $1.25.
Charlottetown, P. E. I., $
for 10 words.
Cherbourg, Fr., 25e.
Chile, $1.25.
China, $1.60.
Christiania, 35c.
Cochin China, $1.35.
Colombo, Ceylon, $1.25.
Colon, 97c.
Constantinople, 37c.
Copenhagen, 35c.
Cyprus, 56c.
Demerara, $1.49.
Denmark, 35c.
Dublin, Ire., 25c.
Ecuador, $1.25.

Jamaica, 48c.
Japan, $1.76.
Java, $1.47.
Kingston, Jam., 48e.
Korea, $1.96.
Lisbon, Portugal, 39c.
Liverpool, 25c.
Malta, 36c.
Marseilles, 25e.
Martinique, $1.00.
Matanzas, 25c.
Melbourne, Vic., $1.43.
Nassau, Bahamas, 35e.
Natal, $1.23.
New South Wales, $1.45.
New Zealand, $1.52.
Nice, Fr., 25c.
Norway, 35c.
Orange Free State, $1.23.
Panama, 97c.
Para, Brazil, $1.35.
Paraguay, $1.00.
Penang, $1.35.
Peru, $1.25.
Porto Rico, 75c.
Portugal, 39c.
[.00 Port au Prince, Hay., $1.05.
Port Spain, Trinidad, 98c.
Queensland, $1.50.
Rio de Janeiro, $1.35.
Roumania, 36c.
Russia, European, 43c.
Russia, West Asian, 50c.
Russia, East Asian, 56c.
Saigon, Cochin China., $1.35.
San Juan de Porto Rico, 75c.
Santiago de Cuba. 40c.
Santo Domingo, $1.32
Scotland, 25e.
Servia, 36c.
Shanghai, China, $1.60.
Siam, $1.19.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS '^5
Edinburgh, 25c. Sicily, 32c.
England, 25c. Singapore, $1.35.
Fayal, Azores, 51c. Spain, 40e.
France, 25c. St. Johns, N. F., $1.25 for 10
Funchal, Madeira, 54c words.
Genoa, 32c. St. Thomas, $1.01
Germany, 25c. Sweden, 39c.
Gibraltar, 43c. Switzerland, 36c.
Glasgow, 25c. Sydney, or S. W., $1.45.
Greece, 38c. Tangier, 45c.
Greenwich, Eng., 25c. Tasmania, $1.58.
Guatemala, 55o. Transvaal, $1.23.
Hamburg, Ger., 25c. Trinidad, $1.03.
Havana, 25e. Turkey, European, 37e.
Hayti, $1.55 Turkey, Asian, 47c.
Hobart Town, Taa., $1.58 Uruguay, $1.00.
Holland, 25c. Utrecht, Neth., 25c.
Hong Kong, $1.60. Valparaiso, $1.25.
Hungary, 34c. Venezuela, $1.60.
India, $1.23. Victoria, Aus., $1.43.
Ireland, 25c. Wellington, N. Z., $1.52.
Italy, 32c. Yokohama, Jap., $1.76.
FOREIGN MAILS— INFORMATION.
Eates of postage to all foreign countries and colonies
(except Canada and Mexico), are: Letters, per 15 grams
(J ounce), 5 cents. Postal cards, each 2 cents. News
papers and other printed matter, per 2 ounces 1 cent.
Eegistration fee on letters or other articles, 8 cents.
Ordinary letters for countries of the" Postal Union
will be forwarded, whether any postage is prepaid on
them or not. All other mailable matter must be pre
paid at least partially.
Parcels Post. — Unsealed packages of mailable mer
chandise may be sent by Parcels Post to Jamaica, Bar
badoes, the Bahamas, British Honduras, ,, Mexico, the
Hawaiian Islands, the Leeward Islands, Columbia, Costa
Eica, Salvador, British Guiana, Danish West Indies, the
Windward Islands, Trinidad, Chile, Newfoundland, Hon
duras and Germany at the following postage rate: For a
parcel not exceeding one pound in weight, 12 cents;
for each additional pound or fraction thereof, 12 cents.
The maximum weight allowed is 11 pounds — the dimen
sions allowed not more than 3 feet 6 inches in length.

76 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
nor more than 6 feet in length and girth combined.
Parcels must be wrapped so as to permit their con
tents to be easily examined by postmasters. Poison
ous, explosive, and inflammable substances are excluded.
Parcels may be registered for 8 cents.
Eates and conditions to countries not in the Uni
versal Postal Union are now the same as to countries
in it.
General Regulations. — Postage can be prepaid upon
articles only by means of the postage stamps of the
country in which the articles are mailed. Unpaid letters
are chargeable with 10 cents per 15 grams (i ounce).
Insufficiently prepaid correspondence of all kinds is
chargeable with double the amount of the deficient post
age. Matter sent at less than letter rates must be so
wrapped that it can be readily examined. Newspapers
and periodicals should be wrapped singly. United States
two-cent postal card should be used, but one-cent postal
card with one-cent postage stamp attached may be used.
Mail matter of all kinds is required to be forwarded (in
Postal Union), at the request of the addressee, from one
post office to another, or to any foreign' country em
braced in Postal Union, without additional charge for
postage. All articles prohibited from domestic mails
are also excluded in foreign. All printed matter, except
newspapers and periodicals, and except printed matter
other than books imported in the mails for personal use,
is subject to the regular duty of 25 p.c. ad val.
Money Orders. — Between United States and: Switzer
land, Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, France, Italy,
Canada and Newfoundland, Jamaica, New South
Wales, Victoria, New Zealand, Queensland, Cape Colony,
Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands, Belgium, Por
tugal, Tasmania, Hawaii, Sweden, Norway, Japan, Den
mark, Netherlands, Dutch East Indies, the Bahamas,
Trinidad and Tobago, British Guiana, Honduras, Austria,
Hungary, Hong Kong, Salvador, Bermuda, Luxembourg,
South Australia, Cuba, Porto Eico, Chile, British Hon
duras, Egypt, Finland, Korea.
Upon receiving an international money order from the
if-suing postmaster the remitter must send it, at his own

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 77
cost to the payee, if the latter resides in Canada, Great
Britain and Ireland, Queensland, Cape Colony, France
and Algeria, New Zealand, New South Wales, Victoria;^
Tasmania, Hawaii, Jamaica, Leeward and Windward
Islands, Constantinople, Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago,
British Guiana, Hong Kong, Bermuda, South Australia,
Cuba, Porto Eico, and British Honduras.
But the order should be retained by the remitter if
the intended beneficiary live in any of the following
n&med countries: Germany, Switzerland, Austria,
Hungary, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, British India, Egypt, Japan, Salvador, Luxem
bourg, Chile, Finland, and Korea, in which case it is of
no value except as evidence of the deposit of the sum
therein mentioned. Another and different form of order
will be forwarded to the . payee by the exchange office
in the country of payment.
The rates for money orders are: Sums not exceeding
$10, 10 cents; over $10 and not exceeding $20, 20 cents;
over $20 and not exceeding $30, 30 cents; over $30 and
not exceeding $40 40 cents; etc., viz., 10 cents for every
$10 or fraction thereof, up to and not exceeding $100.
Domestic rates and regulations apply generally to mail
matter and to money orders for Canada, Mexico, Cuba,
Porto Eico, Philippines.SOME U. S. CUSTOMS DUTIES.
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, AD VALOEEM.
Absinthe, $2.25 per gal.
Accordions, 45 per cent.
Additional duty for undervaluation for each 1 per cent., 1 per
cent.
Alabaster, statuary, if work of professional sculptor, 20 per cent.;
all others, 50 per cent.
Alcohol, $2.25 per gal.
Amethysts, rough, free; cut, 10 per cent.; set as jewelry, 60 per
cent.
Anchors or parts, 1% c. per lb.
Animals for breeding, or as tools of trade, free.
Arms, fire, 25 to 50 per cent.
Art, works of,, by American artists or for exhibition, free.
Ballast of merchantable value, $4 per ton.
Bamboo articles, 35 to 60 per cent.
Barometers, pocket, 45 per cent.

78 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Baskets, 30 to 60 per cent.
Bas-reliefs, by professional sculptor, 20 per cent. ; bronze or metal,
45 per cent.; marble, 50 per cent.
Beads, glass, 35 per cent. ; others, 35 to 60 per cent.
Beer, ale, 20c. per gal.; (and porter) bottled, 40c. per gal.
Beverages, spirituous, $2.25 per gal.; bottled, alcoholic, % pint,
28c. per doz.
Blankets, 22c. per lb., and 30 per cent.; value, 40c. to 50c., 33c.
per lb. and 35 per cent.
Bonnets, silk, 60 per cent.
Bracelets, jewelry, 60 per cent.
Brandy, $2.25 per gal.
Brass, articles of, 45 per cent.
Bronze, manufactured articles of, 20 to 45 per cent.
Brushes, 40 per cent.
Buttons, sleeve and collar, gilt, 50 per cent.; others, 15_ to 50 per
cent.
Cabinets of wood, 35 per cent.
Cameos, as precious stones, unset, 10 per cent.; in frames and as
jewelry, 60 per cent.
Caps, fur or leather, 35 per cent.
Canned goods, 25 to 40 per cent.
Carpets, Wilton, Axminster, velvet, 60c. per sq. yd. and 40 per
cent.; tapestry Brussels. 28c. per sq. yd. and 40 per cent,;
treble ingrain, 22c. per sq. yd. and 40 per cent. ; others, 18c.
per sq. yd. and 40 per cent, to 60c. per sq. yd. and 55 per
cent.
Champagne' ( see Wines ) .
Charms, 35 to 60 per cent.
Cigarettes (including paper), per lb., $4.50 and 25 per cent.; over
3 lb. per 1,000, $3 per $1,000; under 3 lb. per 1,000, $1
per 1,000. Must be 3,000 or more in packs of 10, 20, 50 or
100.
Cigars, $4.50 per lb. and 25 per cent., and $3 per 1,000 Internal
Revenue. Must be in boxes of not over 500 and not less
than 3,000 in single pack, and in boxes of 25, 50, 100, 200,
250 or 500. Fifty cigars or less will not be assessed.
Coats, fur, 35 per cent.; silk, 60 per cent.; wool, 44c. per lb.,
and 60 per cent.
Cloaks, wool or part, 44c. per lb., and 60 per cent.; silk, 60 per
cent.
Clocks, 40 to 60 per cent.
Cloth, cotton, 3c. per sq. yd. and 20 per cent; cotton and silk,
45 per cent.; flax or linen, 35 per cent, to 9c. per sq. yd. and
30 per cent. ; woolen or worsted, 33c. per lb. and 50 per cent.
to 45c. per lb. and 55 per cent. ; others, 45 per cent.
Clothing, ready-made, cotton, 50 per cent.; linen, silk, woolen,
60 per cent.
Copper, manufactures of, 45 per cent.
Coral, manufactures of, 50 per cent.; bead necklaces and jewelry
60 per cent.; beads, unstrung, 35 per cent., strung, 60 per
cent., cut but unset, 50 per cent.
Cordials, $2.25 per gal. (bottles pay as empty).

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 79
Cotton gloves, 50 per cent.
Cotton handkerchiefs, hemmed, 45 per cent.; hemstitched, 65 per
cent.
Cotton, hosiery, 50c. to $2 per doz. pairs, and 15 per cent.
Cotton shirts and drawers, 60c. to $2.25 per doz. pairs, and 15 to
50 per cent.
Curtains, cotton, 50 per cent.; others, 35 to 60 per cent.; lace, 60
per cent.
Cutlery, more than $3 per doz., 20c. per piece, and 40 per cent.;
table knives, 16c. each, and 15 per cent.; table knives over
$4 per doz., 45 per cent.
Diamonds, uncut, free; cut and set, 60 per cent.; cut, unset, 10
per cent.; as jewelry, 60 per cent.
Drugs, crude, free; not crude, %c. per lb., and 10 per cent.
Earthenware, common, 25 per cent.; porcelain, plain, 55 per
cent., decorated, 60 per cent.
Eau de cologne, 60c. per lb., and 45 per cent.
Engravings, 25 per cent.
Etchings, and artists' proofs of, 25 per cent.; for public uses or
by American artist, free.
Extracts, meat, 35c. per lb.
Fans, painted, 50 per cent.; paper, 50 per cent.
Fashion plates, 25 per cent.
Firearms, 25 to 50 per cent.
Flannels, value 40c. to 50c., 33c. per lb. and 35 per cent.; others,
22c. per lb., and 30 per cent.
Flax, manufactures of, 45 per cent.
Flowers, artificial, 50 per cent.
Frames, 35 to 60 per cent.
Fur, manufactures of, 35 per cent.
Furniture, wood, 35 per cent.
Garnets, cut as precious stones, 10 per cent.; uncut, free; manu
factures of, 50 per cent. ; as jewelry, 60 per cent.
Gems, uncut, free; cut, unset, 10 per cent.; set, or as jewelry,
60 per cent.
Glasses, fleld, and frames for, 45 per cent.
Glassware, plain and cut, 60 per cent.
Gloves, women's and children's, about 75c. per doz. pairs, and 40
per cent.; men's, about 40 per cent.
Gold, or part, manufactures of, or articles of, 45 per cent, as
jewelry, 60 per cent.
Hair, manufactures of, 35 per cent. ; human, 35 per cent.
Handkerchiefs, 50 to 60 per cent.
Hemp cordage, 2c. per lb.
Hides, 15 per cent.
Horn, manufactures of, 30 per cent.
India-rubber, manufactures of, 30 per cent.; vulcanized, 35 per
cent.
Instruments, metal, 45 per cent.
Iron, manufactures of, 45 per cent.
Ivory, manufactures of, 35 per cent.
Jewelry, 60 per cent.

80 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,
Knit goods, wool, value not over 30c. per lb, 44c. per lb., and 50
per cant.; woolen apparel, 30c. to 40c. per lb., 44c. [cr lb.
and 50 per cent.; woolen apparel, over 40c. per lb.
and not over 70c. per lb., 44c. per lb. and 50 per cent. ; over
70c. per lb., 44c. per lb. and 55 per cent.; silk, 60 per cent.
Laces, and lace curtains, 60 per cent.
Leather, manufectures of, 35 per cent.
Linen, manufactures of, 45 per cent.
Maps and charts, printed, 25 per cent.
Matting, cocoa and rattan, 6c. per sq. yd.
Meerschaum pipes, 60 per cent.
Mufi's, fur, 35 per cent.
Music, bound as books, 25 per cent.
Music boxes, 45 per cent.
Musical instruments, 45 per cent.
Newspapers, periodicals, free.
Oil, olive, bottled, 50c. per gal. ; unbottled, 40c. per gal.
Opals, uncut, free; cut, 10 per cent.; as jewelry, 60 per cent.
Paintings (frames dutiable), 20 per cent.; as painted china, 60
per cent.; on glass or silk, 20 per cent.
Paints, artists', water color, 30 per cent.
Paper, manufactures, 35 per cent.
Papier machg, manufactures of, 35 per cent.
Parasols, 50 per cent.
Perfumery, alcoholic, 60c. per lb. and 45 per cent.; toilet waters,
60 per lb., and -45 per cent.
Photographs, and slides, 25 per cent.
Photograph albums, 35 per cent.
Pictures, on paper, printed matter, 25 per cent.
Pins, metallic, 35 per cent.; gold, or as jewelry, 60 per cent.
Rugs, Oriental, 10c. per sq. ft. and 40 per cent.; others, 35 per
cent, to 44c. per lb. and 55 per cent.
Sandal wood, articles of, 35 per cent.
Sealskin sacques, 35 per cent.
Shawls, brochg, cashmere, India, camel's hair, embroidered with
silk or cotton, ice wool squares, wool or worsted knit, hair,
44o. per lb. and 60 per cent.; silk, 60 per cent.
Shell, manufactures of, 35 per cent.
Silk, raw, free; manuifactures of, 50 to 60 per cent.
Silk, laces, wearing apparel, 60 per cent.
Silver, manufactures of, 45 per cent. ; as jewelry, 60 per cent.
Skins, uncured, raw, free; tanned and dressed, 20 per cent.
Smokers' articles, 60 per cent.
Soap, toilet, perfumed, 15 per cent.
Spirits, except bay rum, $2.25 per gal.
Straw, manufactures of, 30 per cent.
Traveling rugs, under 40c. per lb., 33c. per lb. and 50 per cent. ;
over 40c. and under 70c. per lb., 44c. per lb. and 50 per cent. ;
over 70c. per lb., 44c. per lb. and 55 per cent.
Umbrellas, silk or alpaca, 50 per cent.
Valenciennes lace, as cotton lace, 60 per cent.
Vasea, bronze or other metal, 45 per cent.; china, porcelain,
parian, bisque, earthenware, 55 per cent.; glass, 60 per cent.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 81
Veiling, 60 per cent.; Shetland veils, 44c. per lb. and 60 per cent.
Velvets, silk, 75 per cent, or more silk, $1.50 per lb. and 15 per
cent.
Watches, and parts of, 40 per cent.
Willow manufactures, 40 per cent.
Wines, champagne, bottled, % pint or less, $2 per doz. ; % pint to 1
pint, $4 per doz. ; 1 pint to 1 quart, $8 per doz. ; wines still
in casks containing over 14 per cent, alcohol, 50c. per gal.
Wool cloaks, dolmans, jackets, and other woolen or worsted cloth
ing, 44c. per lb. and 60 per cent.
FLAGS OF MARITIME NATIONS.
The flags in the following list, unless otherwise stated, are rec
tangular in shape.
American. — Blue and white horizontal stripes, white stars in blue
rectangular field in upper staff corner.
American Jack. — Blue field with white stars.
American Customs. — Red and white perpendicular stripes, Ameri
can eagle surrounded by circle of blue
stars in white rectangular field in upper
staff corner.
British, merchant. — Red, two red cross stripes and two red diag
onal cross stripes in blue rectangular field
in upper staff corner.
British, man-of-war. — White, with two red cross stripet, two red
cross stripes and two red diagonal cross
stripes in blue rectangular field in ujjper
staff corner.
Union Jack. — Blue, two red cross stripes and two red diagonal
cross stripes.
German, merchant. — Three horizontal stripes, top black, middle
white, bottom red.
German, man-of-war. — White, two black cioss stripes with eagle
in center, red and white rectangular
field in upper staff corner with small
black maltese cross in center.
French. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff stripe blue, middle
white, outer red.
Russian, merchant. — Three horizontal stripes, upper white, middle
blue, lower red.
Russian, man-of-war. — White, with two blue cross stripes.
Netherlands . — Three horizontal stripes, upper red, mifidle white,
lower blue.
Belgian. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff stripe black, middle
yellow, outer red.
Austro-Hungarian. — Three horizontal stripes, top red, middle
white, with two red crown-shields, bottom
half red next staff with outer half green.
Italian. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff stripe green, middle
white with red and blue crown-shield, outer red.
Mexican. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff stripe green, middle
white with eagle and snake in center, outer red.

S2 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Spanish, merchant. — Yellow, with two red horizontal stripes.
Spanish, man-ot-war.— Yellow with circle and crown in center,
narrow red horizontal stripe at top and
another at bottom.
Argentine Republic— Three horizontal stripes upper b.ue, middle
white with yellow sun in half next-staff,
lower blue.
Brazilian. — Yellow parallelogram placed diagonally (points to
sides) across green body, with green and blue shield
and green wreath in center.
Chinese. — Blue dragon on yellow peimant with notchi^l edges.
Swedish, merchant. — Blue, with two yellow cross stripes, four
small red and four small blue triangles,
and two cross stripes in rectangular
field in upper staff corner.
Swedish, man-of-war. — The same on a burgee instea 1 of a rec
tangular body.
Japanese. — White, with round red sun in center.
Danish, merchant. — Red, with two white cross stripes.
Danish, man-of-war. — Red burgee with two white cross stripes.
Turkish. — Red, white star and crescent in center.
Chilian. — Two horizontal stripes or halves, lower led, i.pper white
outer part, with white star in blue recta -.../ular field
in upper staff corner.
Norwegian, merchant. — Red, two blue cross stripes within four
white cross stripes, four small red and
four small blue triangles and two cross
stripes in rectangular field in upper
staff corner.
Norwegian, man-of-war. — The same on a burgee instead of a rec
tangular body.
Portuguese. — Blue and white adjacent halves, with red and white
crown-shield in center, part in each half.
Uruguayan. — Nine horizontal alternate blue and white stripes,
with yellow sun in small white field in upper staff
(.'oriier.
Venezuelan. — Three horizontal stripes, upper yellow, middle blue
with five small white stars in circle in center,
lower red.
Guatemalan. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff stripe blue, mid
dle white, red bird in blue shield in center, outer
blue.
Grecian. — Blue, two white ctoss stripes, with small crown in
center.
Peruvian. — Three perpendicular stripes, staff red, middle white,
outer red.
Costa Rican. — Five horizontal stripes, center stripe red and wide,
a narrow white stripe above and another below it,
a narrow blue stripe at top and another at bot
tom.
.Ecuador. — Three horizontal stripes, upper yellow and wide, middle
blup s-nd narrow, lower red and narrow,

TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIPS, SAILING FROM AND FOR NEW YORK.
In the following table, names of steamship lines are in the same column with names of steamers. ' T stands
lor tonna^, under which heading the upper number stands for net tonnage and the lower for gross ton-
Snit; ^i ''^PT^^^™*^ horse-power, the upper number being "indicated" and the lower "registered" horse-
lohZn.J^^T ^^V" »«<=ember, inclusive, are in separate columns ; of the two sets of figures in these
New Yn^k =,nH f^ °PP°^'*^ *^« n^™« of .each steamer, the upper number signifies the date of sailing from
vJwch th^.tP.-.lr hT^" ""'^^^ the sailing ^ New York from the European terminuB of the line to
^h ch it was built ^^'" "^""^ °* ^^'^ '^'^"'^'' ^PP^^'' ^^^ P'^*"^ ^* ''^'''^' ^"'^ *''^ ^^""^ '"^

Steamer and Line.
Allan-State Line — Glasgow L'th. B'th. D'th.
>State of Nebraska 385 43 32
Glasgow, '80

Laurentian Glasgow, '72
Mongolian

400 42

400 45

Sardinian American Line — Southampton
St. Louis 535 63
Philadelphia, '94
St. Paul,
Philadelphia, '94

3534
42
535 63 42

T.
2,5804,000
4,522 4,8^0
4,350

H. P. Captain.
Perry
650 VipondBraes

5,894 20,000 Passow
11,629 5,874 20,000 Jamison
11,629

Dates of Sailings for 1900.
May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

26 10
324 17

30 14 9
28 2
21 16

14 7
21

2, 23 13 4. 25
12 2,23 14

16 6, 27
5, 26 16

18 7

22 12 3,24 14 5,26
11 1,22 13 3,24 15
15 5,26 17 7,28 19
4,25 15 6,27 17 8,29

i
I
to So

00CO

TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHLPS, SAILING
Steamer and Line. L'th. B'th. D'th T. H. P.
560 63 42 6,318 20,000
10,803 2,000

New York

Glasgow, '89
Anchor Line — Glasgow
City of Rome
Barrow, '81
Anchoria Barrow, '81
AstoriaEthiopia Glasgow, '73
Furnessia Barrow, '80

561 53 37
408 40 37
402 42 25
445 45 35

2,604
4,0052,6135,495

617
720
600

Cunard Line — Liverpool

Campania Fairfield, '92
Lucania Fairfield, '92
Etruria Fairfield, '85

620 65 43 5,000 30,000
12,950 26,500
620 65 43 5,000 30,000
12,950 26,500
501 57 38 3,257 14,500
7,718 2,500

FROM AND FOR NEW YORK.— Contlnued.
Dates of Sailings for 1900
Captain. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Roberts 9,30 20 11 8,29 19 10,31 21 12
19 9,30 28 IS 8,29 20 10 1,22

CO

3,453
8,144 1,500
2,713
4,168

Y'oung
Wilson

5
19

Harris
Walker
H. McKay
Ferguson

19 3

12
26

2,30 16

10 21

24
Wads worth 12
31

9
2810

23 7

26

21 5
28 12

19 16 14
5 2, 30 28
5 2, 30 28
19 10 14

23

7
21

25 11
30

25 9

16

11
2525 11

8
27 15

14 IS 22

20
1,29 15

8
22

13

20 4
27 11 6
25

22 20

4 1, 29 27
18 15 13

24

10

o
I
I

Umbria Fairfield, '84
Ivernia
French Line — Havre
La Touraine
St. Nazaire, '90
L'Aquitaine
La Gascogne
Toulon, '86
La Champagne
St. Nazaire, '86
La Bretagne
St. Nazaire. '86
La Lorraine
Ham.-Amer. Line=^Hamburg

501 57 38
600 64 49 13,900

3,245

14,500 Dutton

23

21

18

15

7,718

2,500

0

7

4

1,'29

536 55 38
608 52 38
508 51 38
508 51 38

Deuuschland Stettin, '00
Furst Bismarck
Stettin, '90
Auguste- Victoria.
Stettin, '89

680 67 44
620 58 40
620 56 38

9,778

12,000 Santelli

4,158 9,000 Simon
7,416 3,906 9,000 Pajole
7,1103,889 9,000 Alix
7,010 Poirot

33,000 Albers
16,000 16,400 Barends
10,000 2,800
13,500 Kaempff
10,000 2,500

26

31 19
2412 17 5
10

3
26

2328
16

21 9

5 2,30
21 18 22

28

26 1419 7

14 12
2,30

9
25

16 4
23 11

6
29

27 1513 1
20 8

IS

4
20 11
27

25 1318

26 18 8 4,25 16
16 7,29 25 15 6,27

3, 31 28
17 14

26 12

23 9

20 6

2410

21 7

16 13
2, 30 27

18 4
11
25

17 1

13

S

"5!

TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIPS, SAILING
Steamer and Line.

Columbia Birkenhead, '89
Kaiser Friedrich
Dantzig, '98
Pennsylvania Belfast, '97
Pretoria Hamburg, '97
Graf Waldersee
Hamburg, '97
Patricia Stettin, '96
Palatia Stettin, '94
Phoenicia Hamburg, '94
Belgravla Hamburg, '99
Batwvia Hamburg, 99

L'th. B'th. D'th. T. H. P.
46.1 56 38 13,500
8,000
600 64 44 17,000
12,500
660 62 42 6,000
12,500
560 62 42 6,000
12,500
565 62 42 6,000
13,000
565 62 42 6,000
13,000
460 52 32 5,500
8,000
460 52 32 5,500
8,000
501. 62 35 4,000
10,960
501 62 35 4,000
10.960

FROM a:

ND FOR

NEW

YORK.-

-Continued.

00OS

Captain.
Vogel- gesang

May. 17
3,31

June. 14
28

Dates of Sailings for 1900.
July. Aug. Sept. Oct.
12 9 6 4
26 23 20 18

Nov. 1

Deo.

Bauer

10
24

7
21

5
19

2,30 16

27 13

25 11

Spliedt
13
2
24
14
25 5
16
6
28
17
29 9
Karlowa
20
9
21 1
12
1
23
13
24 4
P
Kopflr
19
3010
22
11
22
2
3
14
15
25
Bauer
12
23 3
15
4
26
15
27 7
18
8
s
Ressing Leit-
27
26
16
28 87
1918
8
3029
20
11
10
1
22
S3
hauser
6
17
29
9
21
2
16
5
27
17
28 8
19
9
31
20
6
26 6
18
7
29
18
3010
21
12
Holland-Amer. Line — Rotterdam

Rotterdam Belfast, '97

485

53

34

5,000
8,302

5,000

Potjer

12

23 7

28 12

16

1
20

6
25

10.
29

Spaarndam Belfast. '81

430

42

31

3,123
4,539

3,500

Stenger

5
31

16

21 5

25 9

29 13

18

3
22

Maasdam Belfast, '72
420
41
29
2,702 3.984
3,500
Bakker
19 3
30 14
19
4
23
8
27
13
17 1
Werkendam Belfast, '81
410
39
29
2,6543,657
2,500
Bruinsma
3
26
14
26 7
18
6
29
18
1
Amsterdam Belfast. '79
411
39
29
2,6813,627
2,500
Rogger- eers
26 10
Statendam Belfast, '98
525
60
42
7,000
10,500
5,500
Van der
Zee
24
9
28
14
18 2
22 6
27 11
15
to i
Potsdam Hamburg, '00
555
12,500
Bon jer
17
2
21
7
26
11
30
15
20 4
24 8
North German
Lloyd-
-Bremen
Kaiser Wilh. d.
Stettin, '97
Gr'se *
649
66
43
13,800
27,000
Engle- hart
8
22
5
19
3
24
7
21
4
18
2,30 16
27 13
P
Kaiserin M. Theresa
Stettin, '98
546
52
37
3,7697,800
17,000
Meier
22 8
19 5
17 3
21 7
18 4
16
2,30
13
Lahn Fairfield, '87
464
49
37
2,879 5,581
8,800
Pohle
15
1,29
1226
10 31
14 28
11 25
9
23
6
00
TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIPS, SAILING FROM AND FOR NEW YORK.— Continued.

23 20
9 6

CO 00

steamer and Line.
Saale Glasgow, '86

L'th. 455

B'th. 48

D'th. 36

T.
2,7795,381

H. P.
7,500

Captain. Mirow

May.1,29 15

Jnne. 12

Dates c
July. 31 17

i£ Sailii
Aug. 28 14

]gS foi
Sept. 25 11

Trave Glasgow, '86

455

48

36

2,7795,831

7,500

Chris- toffers

16

28

18

15
29

Friederich d. Grosse
Stettin, '96

546

60

35

10,500

7,000

Eichel

10

21 2

26 7

30 11

16

Koenigin Luise
Stettin, '96

544

60

35

10,500

7,000

3
26

14
30

19

23 4

Barbarossa Hamburg, '96

546

60

35

10,500

7,000

Richter

19

7
23

12
28

16

20 1

Bremen Dantzig, '90

544

60

35

10,500

8,000

Reim-
kasten

31 12

16

5
21

9
25

13
30

Grosser Kurfurst
Dantzig, '00

581

62

39

12,200

8,000

24 5
28 9
14
2
18
6
22
Rhein Hamburg, '99
520
58
40
10,200
5,000
17
N. Ger. Lloyd — Genoa
Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Stettin, '88
465
52
27
4,7766,990
6,500
Ho^emann
10
2
21
7
Aller Glasgow, '86
4.55
48
30
2,779
5,381
7,500
Nierich
5
24
18
11
o b oi CoI
Ems Glasgow, '84

445

47

35

2,8935,192

7,000

Harras- sowitz

12
31

16 5

21

Werra Glasgow, '82
445
46
36
4,815
6,300
Weyer
19 3
23 7
19
4
Red S. Line — Antwerp
i
Friesland Glasgow, '89
455
51
38
5,023 7,116
800
Nickels
9
26
13
30
18
29 11
15
3
20
7
24
12
29
Westernland Birkenhead, '83
455
47
35
4,320
5,736
700
Mills
23 5
27 9
14
1
25
12
29
17
21 3
£6 8
i
Noordland Birkenhead, '83
419
47
35
4,019 5,212
500
Loese- witz
2
19
6
23
11
22 4
26 8
31 13
17
5
22
iaj
Southwark Dunbarton, '93
494
57
37
5,642
8,607
500
1,237
Bence
16
20 2
25 7
18
5
22
10
27
14
19 1
s1
Kensington Glasgow, '94
494
57
37
5,6458,669
1,237
Albrecht
30 12
16
4
21
8
19 1
24 6
28 10
15
Scandinav.-Am. Line—
Hekla Greenock, '84
333
41
29
3,258
2,150
Thomsen
20 2
27
21
22
15
17
10
12
Island Copenhagen, '82
324
39
29
2,844
2,000
Skjodt
16
9
11
4
29 5
31
24
26
Norge Glasgow, '81
340
41
32
3,359
1,600
Ivnudsen
12
13
7
8
1
27 3
28
22
COCi
TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIPS, SAILING
Steamer and Line.

FROM AND FOR NEW YORK.— Continued.
Dates of Sailings for 1900.

5D O

Thingvalla Copenhagen,

'74

L'th. :
301

B'th. 37

D'th. 21

T.
2,524

H.P.
1,000

Captain. Laub

May. June. 23
30

July. 25

Aug. 1
13

Sept. 19

Oct. 13

Not. 14

Dec. '6

White S. Line-

-Liverpool

Teutonic Belfast, '89
565
57
39
4,2699,984
16,000 1,875
McKins- try
23 9
20 6
18 4
15
1,29
12
26
10
24
7
21
5
19
Majestic Belfast, '89
565
57
39
4,269 9,965
16,000 1,875
E.J. Smith 9
23
6
20
4
18
1,29 15
26 12
24 10
21 7
19 3
1
Germanic Belfast, '74
455
45
34
2,9895,065
4,500 765
Haddock
2,30 16
27 13
2511
22 8
19 5
17
3,31
14
28
12
26
Cymric Belfast, '98
585
64
38
8,123
12,551
6,700 1,197
Lindsay
22 4
26 8
31 13
17
4
21
9
26
13
i
Oceanic Belfast, '99
685
68
44
7,930
17,040
27,000 4,100
Cameron
16
2,30
13
27
11
25
8
22
5
19
3, 3l" 28
17 14
26 12
Wilson Line —
Buffalo Newcastle, 'i
35
385
46
28
2,909 4,431
600
Malet
5
26
16
28 7
18
8
Colorado Hull, '87
370
45
28
2,78? 4,220
600
Whitton
26 5
16
7
28
18
29 8
Prince Line — Genoa
Tartar Prince
Trojan Prince
Spartan Prince
Eed Star Line — Sailings from Philadelphia to Liver*
pool, upper dates from former.
Belgenland Pennland Rhynland
Waesland
Atlantic Transport Line — New York & London
Manitou 10,000
Marquette 10,000
Mesaba - 10^000
Menominee 10,000
Minneapolis 13,500

26

30 16

28

18

29 1

20

3

1
22

19

21

22

24
!^
5
7
8
10
S!
5
99
14
1118
22
1327
1
1
23
27
-1
1
5
10
14
19
12
16
21
25
29
3
8
'<
30
4
8
12
17
21
26
19
23
28
1
6
10
15
§
2
6
11
15
19
24
28
to
26
30
4
8
13
17
22
^3
9
13
18
22
26
31
5
12 16 21 25 29
31
5
9
13
18
22
2
7
11
15
20
24
29
17
21
26
30
4
8
13
5
9
14
18
22
27
1
24
28
2
6
11
15
19
23
28
1
6
10
15
3
7
12
16
20
25
29
26
30
4
8
13
17
22
10 14 19 23 27
Coto
93 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY,
ATLANTIC PASSENGER STEAMSHIP LINES, NEW YORK
AND EUROPEAN PORTS.
Allan-State Line to Glasgow, Pier, foot W. 21st St., Office, 53
Broadway.
American Line to Southampton, Pier 14, North River, Office, 73
Broadway.
Anchor Line to Glasgow, Pier 54, foot W. 24th St., Office, 17
Broadway.
Atlantic Transport Line to London, Pier, W. Houston St., Office,
1 Broadway.
Bristol City Line to Bristol, Eng., Pier, foot W. 29th St., Office,
25 Whitehall St.
Cunard Line to Liverpool via Queenstown, Piers 51, 52, foot Jane
and Gansevoort Sts., Office, 29 Broadway.
Fabre Line to Marseilles, Pier, Warren St., Brooklyn, Office, 47
South St.
French Line to Havre, Pier 42, North River, foot Morton St.,
Office, 32 Broadway.
Hamburg- American Line to Hamburg via Plymouth, Southampton,
Boulogne, Pier, foot 1st St., Hoboken, Office, 37 Broadway.
Holland-American Line to Boulogne, Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
Pier, foot 5th St., Hoboken, Office, 39 Broadway.
North German Lloyd Line to Cherbourg, Southampton, Bremen —
Genoa, Pier, foot 2iid St., Hoboken, Office, 5 Broadway.
Phoenix Line to Antwerp, Pier, Bethune St., Brooklyn.
Scandinavian-American Line to Christiania, Copenhagen, Stettin,
Pier, foot 4th St., Hoboken, Office 28 State St.
White Star Line to Liverpool via Queensto\vii, Pier, foot W. 10th
St., Office, 9 Broadway.
Wilson Line to Hull, Pier, foot Bethune St., North River, Office,
29 Broadway.
Prince Line to St. Michaels { Azores ) , Naples, Leghorn, Genoa,
Pier adjoining Hamilton Ferry, Brooklyn.
THE HIGH SEAS.
The territory of a state includes the mouths of rivers,
br.ys and estuaries furnishing access to the land and the
coast-sea to the distance of a marine league. This is a
regulation dictated by the necessities of self -protection.
I'or the police of commerce the distance is extended to
four leagues, that is, according to the usage prevailing
in Great Britain alid the TJnited States, foreign goods
cannot be transhipped within that distance without the
payment of duties.
Vessels belonging to the citizens of the nation on the
high seas, and public vessels wherever found, have some

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 93
of the attributes of territory. If a ship is confiscated
on account of piracy or of violation of custom-house laws
in a foreign port, or is there attached by the owner's credi
tor and becomes his property, we never thinlc that terri
tory has been taken away. For a crime committed in port
a vessel may be chased into the high seas and there
arrested, without a suspicion that territorial rights have
been violated, while to chase a criminal across the borders
and seize him on foreign soil is a gross offense against
sovereignty. Again, a private vessel when it arrives
in a foreign port, ceases to be regarded as territory, un
less treaty provides otherwise, and then becomes merely
the property of aliens. Private ships have certain
qualities resembling those of territory: First, as against
their crews on the high seas ; for the territorial or munici-
l)al law accompanies them as long as they are beyond the
reach of other law, or until they come within the bounds
of some other jurisdiction. Again, as against foreign
ers, who are excluded on the high seas from any act of
sovereignty over them, just as if they were a part of the
soil of their country. Public vessels stand on a higher
ground: they are not only public property, built or
bought by the government, but they are, as it were,
floating barracks, a part of the public organism, and rep
resent the national dignity, and on these accounts, even
in foreign ports, are exempt from the local jurisdiction.
In both cases, however, it is on account of the crew, rather
than of the ship itself, that they have any territorial
quality. Take the crew away, let the abandoned hulk
he met at sea; it now becomes property, and nothing
more. The high sea is free and open to all nations. The
liberty of the sea and of navigation is now admitted
on all hands. But formerly the ocean, or pdttions of it,
were claimed as monopoly. Thus the Portuguese pro
hibited other nations from sailing in the seas of Guinea
and to the East Indies. "No native-born Portuguese or
alien," says one of the ancient royal ordinances, "shall
traverse the lands or seas of Guinea and the Indies, or any
territory conquered by us, without license, on pain of
death and the loss of all his goods,"

94 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
The Spanish nation fomierly claimed the right of ex
cluding all others from the Pacific. Against such claims,
especially of the Portuguese, Grotius wrote his "Mare
liberum," in 1609, in which he lays down the general
principle of the free right of navigation, and that the
sea cannot be made property, and refutes the claims of
the Portuguese to the discovery of countries which the
ancients have left us an account of, as well as their claims
through the donation of Pope Alexander VI. And yet
the countrymen of Grotius, who had been defenders of
the liberty of the seas, sought to prevent the Spaniards,
going to the Philippines, from taking the route of the
Cape of Good Hope. The English, in the seventeenth
century, claimed property in the seas surrounding Great
Britain, as far as to the coasts of the neighboring coun
tries, and in the eighteenth only softened down the claim
of property into one of sovereignty. Selden, who in
1635, published his "Mare Clausum," while he contends
against the monopolizing pretensions of Spain and Por
tugal, contends zealously on the ground of certain weak
ancient precedents for this claim of his country. "The
shores and ports of the neighboring states," saj^s he, "are
the limits of the British sea-empire, but« ii> the wi4e
ocean to the north and west th3 limits are yet to be con
stituted." Eussia, finally, at a more recent date, based
an exclusive claim to the Pacific, north of the 51st de
grees, upon the ground that this part of the ocean was a
passage to shores lying exclusively within her jurisdic
tion. But this claim was resisted by our government,
and withdrawn in the temporary convention of 1824. A
tieaty of the same empire with Great Britain in 1825
contained similar concessions. The rights of all nations
to the use of the high sea being the same, their right to
fish upon the high seas, or on bt^nks and shoal places in
them are equal. — From Woolsey's "International Law."
SEASICKNESS.
The amount of suffering caused by this disease is be
yond estimate, and is a subject that has been grappled
with for centuries and given up as beyond splutiQn, Tbe

NAVIGATION FOB PASSENGEBS. 95
popular and even professional view has been that sea
sickness was mainly a disease of the stomach, liver and
digestive apparatus; and all the treatment that has been
advised, such as capsicum, calomel and champagne, and
cathartics, and starvation, and feeding acids, and bitters,
and belts around the body — have been prescribed on the
theory that the disorder was of the stomach. This mis
take in reasoning was inevitable; the symtoms of vomit
ing were the most prominent of the malady, though not
always the most annoying, and it was natural for the
non-expert human mind to refer the disease to the
stomach. In sick headaches the same error was made,
and only recently are we beginning to know that the symp
toms of nausea and vomiting, which belong to this disease,
come from the brain, and as a natural and very pleasant
result, have learned how to relieve and break up this
terribly annoying disorder. Seasickness belongs to the
brain and spinal cord more than to the stomach and
digestive apparatus. This is no dream or theory, but
represents extensive experiments and much experience at
sea on long and short voyages, and seasickness is an
evil that can be avoided if treated in harmony with this
philosophy. The number of those who travel for pleasure
and business is enormously great, but it would be far
greater were it not for the horrors of seasickness. The
Atlantic travel would certainly be doubled were it known
that seasickness is, in a majority of cases, entirely un
necessary. REMEDIES FOR SEASICKNESS.
A correspondent of the St. James Gazette says that
the drinking of salt-water is a perfect cure for seasick
ness, though it makes the drinker very mi«erable for a
few minutes after he takes the cure. A 'sailor recom
mended it to the sufferer in question. The assertion of
the sailors is said to be that it never fails.
Prof. Watson Smith announces that in the artificial
alkaloid, antipyrine, discovered in 1883, by Knorr, of
Erlangan, a potent remedy for ¦ seasickness has been
found. The source of this antipyrine is that al?o of the

96 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
aniline colors — viz., aniline — and thus, strange to say,
this medicament is manufactured in the works of a large
German firm producing alkalies, acids, and coal tar
colors. Antipyrine may then be a considered as a coal
tar product. According to the Compt. Rend., 1897, 105,
947, E. Dupuy administered antipyrine during the last
three days before embarking and the first three days of
an ocean voyage, in doses of 3 grammes per day. He
states that none of the persons thus treated suffered from
seasickness during the voyage across the Atlantic ocean —
a sufficiently severe test certainly. Again, another and
independent authority, M. Ossian-Bonnet (Compt. Rend.,
1887, 105, 1,028), states that antipyrine acts excellently
as a remedy against seasickness. In most cases a dose
of 1^ grammes is sufficient, the effect being manifested
in about ten minutes. In other cases the dose must be
repeated. M. Ossian-Bonnet never required to use more
than 3 grammes, in two doses, in order to completely re
move the evil within an hour. In some cases, which
were very rare, when the sick person, in consequence of
continued vomiting, could not take the remedy, a sub
cutaneous injection of one gramme of antipyrine proved
sufficient to remove the seasickness.
TREATMENT OF SEASICKNESS.
Many people have a genuine curiosity to know if they
would be seasick in case they should take an ocean voyage.
An easy way to put the matter to a test is to stand before
the ordinary bureau mirror that turns in its frame, and
let some one move it slowly and slightly at first, and
gradually growing faster, while you look fixedly at your
own reflection. If you feel no effect whatever from it,
the chances are that you can stand an ordinary sea voyage
without any qualm.
Persons intending to cross the ocean should for several
weeks before embarking take daily exercise in the open
air to get the general system in a good condition. To
the same end they should eat a moderate quantity of
plain food, especially avoiding what is heavy, greasy or
constipating. They shotild select a stateroom as near the
middle of the steamer as possible,

 TTTf

NAVIGATION FOB PASSENGEBS. 97
In a paper upon "The Preventive Treatment of Sea
sickness," in 1895, Dr. A. D. Eockwell favored the use
of bromides before and after sailing. He said: "The
bromide of sodium is preferable to the bromide of potas
sium, dince it is better adapted to the stomach. I began
three days before sailing to prepare for a prevention of
an attack of seasickness. I took 100 grains of bromide
of sodium, m divided doses each day for three days be
fore I started, and kept up the treatment four days after
sailing. I was not sick at all in crossing the Atlantic.
I experienced no ill effects whatever from the use of the
¦medicine. It is not so much the bromides that pre
vent seasickness, but it is bromization."
Dr. V. A. Chapman, late surgeon of the Holland-
American line, writing to the Medical Record, says: "If
those about to depart upon a voyage would take eight
hourly doses of one-fourth grain of calomel each on the
day before embarkation, go to bed early that evening and
take two or three doses of one-fiftieth grain of strych
nine nitrate the next forenoon, about one-half the cases
of seajgickness would be obviated."
Some tourists are never seasick so long as they lie
on their backs and keep their eyes closed. The passen
ger who is seasick should remain in his berth until 9
or 10 o'clock in the morning and have the steward bring
him what little food he takes. He should not go to the
table in the cabin until all symptoms of seasickness have
left him, as the very sight and odor of the rich food will
surely make him worse. A dry diet is usually the best
and until the patient feels certain that he is over the
worst of the attack he should rely largely upon sea-
biscuit or water crackers. As he gets better he may take
gruels and broths. The latter should be free from grease.
Raw oysters with lemon juice may be eaten. »
After vomiting the patient should drink a cup of hot
water in which there is a pinch of soda, and it is all
the better if this is ejected, as it clears the stomach of
bile and mucus.
Lime or lemon juice, in water without sugar, should
be taken several times a day, both before sailing and
during the voyage, for its action on the livei; and bowels

98 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
and as an aid to digestion, which has been weakened by
losses of the gastric juice.
When the patient begins to go to the table, he should
avoid pastry, fat meats and all rich food, and after eating
he should lie fiat on his back for half an hour, or until
digestion is well begun, when he may go on deck and
walk or sit in a steamer chair, but he should not lean
over the side or stern of the ship.
DROWNING.
There are three distinct periods of death from submer
sion, ea(!h of different length and each with clearly de
fined symptoms; the first, a period of struggles for
breath ; the second, a period of convulsions ; and the third,
asphyxia, ending in death.
During the first stage the following phenomena are
observed: The person in the water sinks and then rises
to the surface again; there is a violent feeling of shock
with buzzing in the ears and a little stinging of the nose.
Slightly dazed, an unconscious movement of inspiration
is made, and the water coming into contact with the
mucous membranes of the nose and larjmx causes cough
ing. The victim then makes desperate efforts to save
himself and holds his breath, and during this time the
heart's action slackens. Then an intolerable desire for
air comes on, suffocation begins, the lips become blue
and the skin pale. Then the drowning man opens his
mouth and makes an instinctive inspiration, which allows
a large quantity of water to enter, part of which is
swallowed, the remainder entering the larynx and caus
ing coughing.
The second period then begins, characterized by loss
of consciousness, insensibility and convulsive movements.
The heart-beats continue to lessen, the body takes the
position of a curve, with the head back and the limbos
stiffened, with the fingers closed.
This is the opening of the third period. The muscles
relax, the pupils become dilated and vomiting occurs,
breathing stops after a few last struggles and the heart no
longer beats, The time from the moment the victim

NAVIGATION FOB PASSENGEBS. 99
falls into the water until death occurs is rarely more than
four or five minutes, although various incidents may
modify the duration and either lengthen or shorten it.
Thus, on the one hand, the voluntary movements made
by the drowning person struggling as soon as he sinks
may make his inspiration coincide with the moment he
reaches the surface and has his face out of water. On
the other hand, the process of digestion may shorten the
period of resistance during submersion and hasten death.
HELP FOR DROWNING PERSONS.
Help to the drowning should comprise stimulation to
the nervous system to restore sensation and artificial
movements to set the breathing going again. The cir
culation should be quickened, heat and air introduced
into the lungs.
As soon as the victim has been taken from the water
he should be placed on his bac - with his head well down,
all clothing cut away from his neck, his mouth opened
widely and kept so, his throat freed from any liquid it
may contain and the "tongue process" be put into exe
cution as quickly as possible. The tongue should be
seized firmly between the fingers, covered with a piece
of linen to prevent its slipping. It should then be drawn
forward and allowed to go back fifteen times a minute
in regular movements. It is absolutely necessary that
the rescuer should be sure that these tractions affect
the base of the tongue and not the point onlv. At the
beginning of the process, for the first two or three trac
tions, it is useful to run a finger down the throat in the
hope of producing vomiting.
At the same time two other persons should execute
artificial respiration by employing energetic ^d ryhthmi-
cal pressure, one in a concentric direction on both sides
of the chest, the other from below upward on the abdomen.
The former should be made fifteen times a minute and
should be followed each time by sudden and simultaneous
release. Pressure on the abdomen and chest should alter
nate with traction on the tongue.
This should be kept up for at least a quarter of an

100 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
hour, during which period everything possible should be
done to warm the patient.
When this has been methodically done the victim should
be rapidly transported to the nearest shelter, all cloth
ing removed, the body dried and wrapped in flannel and
put to bea with the' head low. If then breathing does
not go on, artificial respiration should be renewed, using
the process of drawing the elbows as far out as possible.
A roll of clothes should be passed under the small of the
back so as to throw the chest forward, the. mouth kept
open and the tongue drawn forward, and the rescuer,
kneeling at the head, should seize the elbows, press them
against the chest, draw them horizontally until they are
at right angles, raise thein vertically by the head, bring
ing them back to the wall of the chest fifteen times a
minute for ten minutes. After this for another quarter
of an hour the tongue process should be again resorted
to, combined as before with the pressure process of arti
ficial respiration, and the two methods should be alter
nated in this way for an hour at least. While this is
being done still other persons can help in restoring cir
culation and heat by the following means: Eubbing
the entire body, the soles of the feet and palms of the
hands with hair gloves, coarse towels,' hot cloths, etc.,
massage .ind kneading of the limbs; beating the surface
of the body; hot water bottles, warmed irons or bricks,
care being taken not to get them too hot.
If any attempt to breathe appears, ammonia or any
object should be held before the nose or mouth. If
symptoms of vomiting, run a finger into the throat.
Nothing should be given to drink until consciousness
has returned, except a few drops of cognac or vinegar
for the purpose of bringing the drowned man back to his
senses. It should never be forgotten that an attempt should
always be raade to help a man who appears to be drowned,
no matter how hopeless the case may seem; and such
efforts should be kept up for a long time. If a person has
been under water for five minutes he can almost always
be rescued and some have bean saved after half an hour's
submersion. Success depends on rapid and intelligent
action in the presence of such an accident.

NAVIGATION FOB PASSENGERS. 101

WHEN SHIPWRECKED.
An element in the situation is the ability or inability
of a shipwrecked person to swim. By lying on the back,
and merely keeping the mouth and nose out of the sec,
one can remain alive for hours, or even days, vrithout a
life belt, provided that there are no waves to overwhelm
him. One who has learned to swim has a degree of con
fidence and fearlessness when immersed on short notice
that no one else can ever experience.
If a person is not a swimmer, but exercises only a
little common sense and coolness, his chances of surviv
ing are excellent. The captain of an Atlantic liner, who
has received three medals for^ life-saving, has said that
as a rule, a person who has donned a life belt and in
trusts himself to the water, stands a better chance of
escape than those who rush to the boats. A boat may
capsize from becoming overloaded or striking the ship's
side before she gets clear, especially if, in the necessi
ties of the situation, it is not fully manned. But when
one has a life belt on he can float, with his head and
shoulders above the sea, for hours, and stands the best
possible chance of being seen and rescued. Probably
there is no one fact better worth remembering, when one
is about to cross the ocean than this: If one knows where
to find his life belt, has learned in advance just how to
put it on in emergency, and then uses it when the peril
of the hour demands, he may entertain little fear as to
the result. He can afford to keep away from the boats
and crowd, and pursue an independent policy.
The chief reason why so many persons lose their lives
in a shipwreck is that they get "rattled." Confusion is
sure to prevail if people do not know what to do. Those
are the ones most likely to suffer. It is the person who
has exercised some forethought, who. does understand how
to proceed, and therefore remains cool, who takes the
wisest means to save himself.
One of the most interesting questions that is suggested
by a disaster is. How lonq- can a person survive who
finds himself overboard, is not a swimmer, but wears a
life-preserver? Well, those who should be experts in

103 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
matters of this kind say that much depends upon the
weather and the vigor and sturdiness of the person. A
delicate woman would not have the endurance of a hard
ened sailor or athlete. The chief evils to be anticipated
are the chill from submersion, cramps of the stomach
and deprivation of food and drink. If the sea does not
beat up into one's face and choke him, he might keep
alive for a day or two.
In heavy weather it is no uncommon thing for a steam
ship's boats to be carried away by a big wave. Hence it
would be folly to cross the ocean without securing the
boats thoroughly against any chance of this kind. The
accusation that the boats are not lifted out of their chocks
for months at a time, or jn other respects are unfit for
service, is almost invariably untrue. The Atlantic liners
all have a thorough inspection of boats, and usually have
ihe boats lowered into the water and rowed about for n
mile or so for practice and test once a month. It is im
possible for a ship to clear at Liverpool for the United
States unless she has taken precautions of this kind.
NAUTICAL VOCABULARY.
Abaft. Toward the stern.
About. To take the opposite tack.
Anchor. The heavy piece of iron which holds the ship at rest.
Alee. On the side away from the wind.
Astern. In the direction of the stern.
Athwart. In a line across the ship.
Beating. Sailing against the wind by tacking.
Bow. The front of a vessel.
Bend. To fasten; as, to bend on a rope.
Berth. A ship's anchorage, or a narrow shelf for sleeping on.
Block. A pulley.
Bolt Rope. The rope surrounding a sail to which it is sewed.
Brace. A rope attached to a boom or yard by which they are
moved.
Boom. The spar at the bottom of a sail by which it is extended.
Bulkhead. A partition in the hull.
Bulwarks. The sides of a vessel surrounding and extendingi
above the deck.
Cable. A strong rope or chain.
Cable's Length. About 200 yards, or 1-lOth of a sea mile.
Caboose. A kitchen on deck.
Camel. An arrangement for assisting a ship over shoals.
Carry Away. To break or lose a rope or spar.
Cat Block. The tackle block for hoisting the anchor.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 103
Cat's Paw. A light puff of wind.
Calk. To make tight the seams of a vessel.
Clew. To bind up.
Clew Lines. Ropes for clewing.
Combings. The raised edges around the hatches.
Cock Pit. A room for wounded men in a war vessel.
Companionway. The cabin stairway.
Compass. An instrument showing the vessel's course.
Coxswain. The steerer of a small boat.
Deadlight. An iron shutter covering a port hole.
Dead Reckoning. The keeping the course of a vessel with the use
of log line and compass.
Deck. Covering or floor to a ship.
Draught. The depth of water required to float a vessel.
Fathom. Six feet.
Fender. A piece of wood or other material to prevent the con
tact of two vessels.
Footrope. A rope extending along and under a yard on which
the seamen stand.
Fore and aft. From bow to stern.
Forecastle. That part forward of the foremast.
Foremast. Mast nearest the bow.
Forge. To move slowly ahead.
Founder. To sink.
Furl. To roll up.
Gaff. The upper spar holding up a fore and aft sail.
Galley. The kitchen.
Gangway. An entrance to a ship.
Grapnel. A small anchor.
Halyards. Ropes for hoisting sails.
Hatch or Hatchway. An opening in the deck.
Heave to. To stop by bringing a ship's bow to the wind.
Hold. The interior of a vessel.
Hull. The body only of a vessel.
Jaw. The mast end of a boom or gaff.
Jib. A triangular sail at the bow.
Jurymast. A temporary mast.
Jibe. To shift a sail from one side to the other.
Keel. The lowest timber in ship.
Knot. A nautical mile, equals 1.151 miles, or 6,082.66 feet.
Larboard. The left hand of a ship looking toward the bow.
Launch. To let a ship slide into the water. •
Lead. A mass of lead used in sounding.
Lee. Away from the wind.
Leeway. The lee motion or space of water.
Locker. A chest or box.
Log or Logline. Rope used for measuring speed of a vessel.
Log or Logbook. The ship's record or diary.
Luff. To bring a ship nearer to the wind.
Maurope. A rope used in going up or down the ship's side.
Mast. An upright piece of timber set in a ship for supporting
sails, rigging, etc.

104 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Masthead. Head or top of a mast.
Mess. A number of men eating together. ,
Midships. The middle, or widest part of a ship.
Nip. A short turn, as in a rope.
Mizzenmast, Mizzensail. The hindmost when there are three.
Moor. To secure a ship in any position.
Nautical Mile. 6,080 feet, or one geographical mile and 800 feet.
Painter. A rope used to secure a boat to anything.
Pay Out. To slacken or give out, as to pay out a rope.
Peak. The upper and outer corner of a boom sail.
Pintle. The bolt on which a rudder is hung.
Port. The same as larboard.
Port or Porthole. An opening in the ship's side to admit light
and air.
Quarter. The stern portion of a ship's side.
Rake. The inclination of a mast.
Reef. A portion of the sail which is clewed up when the wind
is too high to expose the whole.
Reef. To take up such a portion.
Reeve. To pass the end of a rope through a pulley, etc.
Rigging. A term applied generally to a vessel's ropes, etc.
Road. An open space of water where ships may anchor.
Rowlock. Arrangement for giving purchase to oar in rowing.
Rudder. The contrivance which steers a vessel.
Scud. To sail before a heavy wind or gale.
Sail. The sheet of canvas which is exposed to the wind and gives
motion to the vessel.
Seams. Where a ship's planks join.
Sheet. A rope for controlling and moving a sail.
Shore. A prop under a beam..
Skipper. The name given generally to the master of a small
vessel.
Sloop. A vessel with but one mast.
Sound. To ascertain the depth of the water.
Spar. A name applied to a mast, boom, gaff, yard, etc.
Stern. Rear portion of vessel.
Stay. A rope supporting or keeping in place a mast.
Tack. To go against the wind in a zigzag course, and to change
a ship's course bv shifting her rudder and sails.
Taut. Tight.
Thwarts. A boat's seats.
'J'iller. A bar for moving a rudder.
Trick. A sailor's duration of time in steering.
Warp. To move a vessel by a line fastened at the end to an
anchor.
Watch. A portion of the time for duty.
Wake. The track left in the water by a moving vessel.
Weather. Toward the wind.
Weigh Anchor. To raise the anchor.
Waist. That portion ot the deck between the quarter-deck and
forecastle.
Windlass. .4 machine for raising the anchor or cargo.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 105
Windward. The point from whence the wind blows.
Yacht. A sailing vessel used for pleasure.
Yard. A spar supporting and extending a sail.
Yardarm. Either half of a yard.
Y'aw. A movement causing a temporary change of course.
NAUTICAL CONUNDRUMS.
Why is furling a ship's canvas like a mock auction?
Because it is a taking in sale.
What are the most difficult ships to conquer? Hard
ships. With whom do the mermaids flirt? With the swells
of the ocean.
Why is an invalid cured by a sea voyage like a con
fined criminal? Because he is sea-cured.
What proves sailors to be very careless? They are in
a "mess" every day at sea.
When is a steamship not a steamship? When she is
a building. When may a ship at sea be said to be not on water?
When she is on fire.
When is a good steamship like a jack-tar in prison?
When she is a fast sailer.
What colors are the waves and winds? "The waves
rose and the winds blew."
When is a pretty girl like a ship ? When she is attached
to a buoy.
When is a sailor not a sailor? When he is a-board.
Why is a steamer at sea like the letter t? It is in th:'
midst of water.
Why is an iceberg sailing away —
Prom the Arctic regions receding,
Like a man who will borrow what he cannot pay?
You'll find each is a cool proceedings
What ship carries more passengers than any other?
Court-ship. Why is a fast young lady like a steamer? There is
always a swell after her.
If your sister fell overboard, why could not her brother

106 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
rescue her? He couldn't be a brother and as-sist-her
too. AVhen is a steamer like a diamond pin? When it is on
the bosom of a heavy swell.
What fish has its eyes nearest together? The small
est one.
When is a lady passenger like a whale? When she is
pouting. When is a gentleman passenger like a whale? When
he is blowing.
When is a fruit-stalk like a strong swimmer? When
it stems currents.
What is a man like who is in the middle of the Hudson
river and can't swim? Like to be drowned.
What is the difference between a new sponge and a
fashionable man? If you wet one it makes it swell, but
if you wet the other it takes all the swell out of him.
Zephyrs gently blowing is one thing, Zephyrs blowing
confoundedly hard is another; which leads us to ask why,
when you are out in a boat you should never be sur
prised by a sudden squall? Because if you go for a sale,
you may expect to be sold !
Why are convicts like old maids going to be married?
Because they go off in transports.
What two ages often prove illusory? Mir-age and
marriage. When were there only two vowels? In the days of
No-a, before U and I were born.
Where did Noah strike the first nail in the ark? On
the head.
What was the difference between Noah's ark and Joan
of Arc? One was made of wood, the other was Maid bf
Orleans. A man bought two fishes, but on taking them home
found he had three; how was this? He had two — and
one sm_elt.
What would a dolphin in a sentry-box look like? A
fish out of water.
Tell us in what does a water-lily resemble a whale?
Why, have they not both come up to blow?
How did Jonah exhibit his feelings when he was swal-

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS 10?
lowed by the whale? He was down in the mouth, and
went to blubber.
What part of a fish weighs most ? The scales.
Of what religious persuasion — if any — is the sea? A
Quaker; for has it not a broad brim?
What part of a fish is like the end of a book? The
fin-is. What is the difference between an auction and seasick
ness? One is a sale of effects, the other the effects of a
sail. What's the difference between "living in marble halls"
and aboard ship? In the former you have "vassals and
serfs at your side," and in (what the Greeks call thalatta)
the latter you have vessels and surfs at your side.
If all the seas were dried up, what would Neptune
say? I really haven't an ocean (a notion).
Why is a man looking for the philosopher's stone like
Neptune? Because he's a sea-king that which never
was. Why is a steward like a race-horse? Because he runs
for cups, and plates, and steaks (stakes).
Why ought a seasick man to wear a plaid waistcoat ? To
keep a check on his stomach.
Why is a young man about to marry like a person sail
ing for France? Because he's going to Havre (have
her). Why is a ship like a woman? Because she is often
tender to a man-of-war; often running after a smack;
often attached to a great buoy; and frequently making
up to a pier.
Why is a very demure young lady like a steam-packet ?
Because she pays no attention to the swells that follow
her. ^
Why are married men like steamboats? Because they
are subject to get blown up occasionally.
Why do the recriminations of married coupiCs resemble
the sound of waves on the shore? Because they are
murmurs of the tide (tied).
If a man and his wife go to Europe together, what
is the difference in their mode of traveling? He goes
abroad and she goes along.

108 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
What song would a little dog sing who was blown off
a ship at sea .'' "My Bark is on the Sea."
What did the sky-terrier do when he came out of the
ark? He went smelling about for ere-a-rat (Ararat)
that was there to be found.
What's the difference between the fire coming out of
a steamship's chimney and the steam coming out of a
flannel shirt airing? One is the flames from the funnel,
the other the fumes from the flannel.
What wind should a hungry sailor VPish for? One that
blows fowl and chops about.
It is often asked who first introduced salt pork into
the Navy? Noah, when he took Ham into the ark.
Why was Noah obliged to stoop on entering the ark?
Because, although the ark was high, Noah was a hierarch
(higher ark).
In what place did the cock crow so loud that all the
world heard him? In the ark.
What animal took most luggage into the ark, and which
the least? The elephant who had his trunk; while the
fox and the cock had only a brush and a comb between
them. Some one mentioning that "columba" was the Latin
for a "dove," it gave rise to the following: What is the
difference between the Old World and the New? The
former was discovered by Columba, who started from
Noah; the latter by Columbus, who started from
Ge-noa. Why does a salmon die before it lives? Because its
existence is ova (over) before it comes to life.
What does a salmon-breeder do to that fish's ova? He
makes an egg-salmon-nation of them.
What confection did they have in the ark? Preserved
pairs (pears).
How does a pitcher of water differ from a man throw
ing his wife overboard? One is water in the pitcher, the
other is pitch her in the water.
What is that which every one can divide, but no one
can see where it has been divided? Water.
When a boy falls into the water what is the first thing
he does ? He gets wet.

NAVIGATION FOR PASSENGERS. 109
Why is a New York milkman like the fish that swal
lowed Jonah? Because he finds a profit (prophet) in the
water. What prevents a running river running right away?
Why, it's tied up.
Who was Jonah's tutor? The whale that brought him
up. What is the difference between the earth and the sea?
On'e is dirty, the other tidy.
Why is the Isthmus of Suez like the first u in "cucum
ber"? Because it's between two seas.
When was paper money first mentioned in the Bible?
When the dove brought the green back to Noah.
When is a wall like a fish? When it is scaled.
What would be an appropriate exclamation for a man
to make when cold, in a boat, out fishing? When, D. V.,
we get off this "eau," we'll have some "eau-d-v."
How would you increase the speed of a very slow boat?
Make her fast. .
What should put the idea of drowning in your head
if it be freezing when you are on the briny deep? Be
cause you would wish to "scuttle" the ship if the air was
coal'd. AA'^hat sort of an anchor has a toper an anchoring after?
An anker (just ten gallons) of brandy.
Why can a fish never be in the dark? Because of his
paraffins (pair o' fins).
When is an old lady like a trout? When she takes ?
fly that briners her to the bank.
Why is love like a canal boat ? Because it's an internu/
transport. Why is a new-born baby like a storm? Because it
begins ¦with a squall.
What is the most ancient mention made %i a bankin-^
transaction? When Pharoah ffot a check on the Eed Sea
Bank, which was crossed by Moses.
When may the sea be compared to a laundress washin'^
summer trousers at a tub ? When it makes clean breeches
over a vessel.
Why are laundresses good navigators? Because they
are always crossing the line, and going from pole to
pole. ,

no OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
What's the difference between a specimen of plated
goods and Columbus? One is a dishcover, the other is
a dis(h)coverer.What's the difference between Charles Kean and Jonah ?
One was brought up at Eton, the other was eaten and
brought up.
What is the difference between a fisherman and a lazy
schoolboy? One baits his hook, the other hates his
book. What river is that which runs between two seas? The
Thames — ^between Chel-sea and Batter-sea.
When is the Hudson river good for the eyes? When
it's eye (high) water.
which are the lightest men — Scotchmen, Irishmen, or
Englishmen? In Ireland there are men of Cork; in
Scotland men of Ayr; but in England, on the Thames,
they have lighter-men.
What islands would form a cheerful luncheon party?
Iriendly, Society, a Sandwich, and Madeira.
My second contains mv st; and, therefore, it is my
whole? Lighthouse.
Why can you never expect a fisherman to be generous?
Because his business makes him sell-fish.
What sea would a man like to be in on a wet day?
Adriatic (a dry attic).
What fish is most valued by a loving wife? Her-ring.
What Latin verb gives the origin of the term "Jack
tar"? Jactari, to be tossed about.
When does a waterman resemble an Indian? When
he feathers his scull.
Why should there be a marine law against whispering?
Because it is privateering (private hearing), and conse
quently illegal.
What does an iron-clad vessel of war, with four inches
of steel plating and all its guns on board, weigh just
before starting on a cruise? She weighs anchor.
What did the seasick passenger reply to the friend who
asked him, "Well, old boy, what's up this afternoon"?
''All, but the soup."
How may every passenger make himself of use to the
ship carpenter? By merely being a-board.

SHIP FACTS III
Which is the most degraded fish? The sole, because
it is trodden under foot by everybody as a matter of
course. When is a bridle like a ship? When it rides over the
bounding mane.
Why does a sailor like a kiss? Because he enjoys a
smack.

SHIP FACTS

THE LARGEST VESSELS.
The largest vessel in existence is the Oceanic. She is
the longest and the heaviest ever built, though not as
wide as the Great Eastern. She can carry 410 first
cabin, 300 second cabin and 1,000 steerage passengers.
Her bunker capacity is 6,000 tons, which would enable
her to steam around the world at the rate of twelve knots
an hour. Two ordinary trolley cars, side by side, could
pass through her funnels if laid on the ground. Her dis-
pJacement, when loaded and drawing 32J feet, is 28,500
tons. The captain's bridge is 74| feet above the keel,
and more than 50 feet above the water when the ship is
loaded. The dimensions of the Oceanic compared with the
Great Eastern are:

Length, feet over all
Breadth, feet over all
Depth, feet
Draught, feet when light
Draught, feet when loaded
Tonnage, Weight of hull, tons
Displacement, tons
Speed, knots (estimated)

Oceanic.

Gjeat Eastem.

705.5

680

68

83.5

49

58

22

15

32.5

17,040

22,500

12,500

12,000

18,000

11,844

21

11

113 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
The Oceanic compares with other steamships as fol
lows : Length, feet. Beam, feet. Tonnage.

Oceanic

705.5

68

17,040

Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse

649

66

14,000

Campania

625

65

13,000

Lucania

620

64

12,950

Majestic

582

57

9,965

St. Louis

554

63

11,629

To be the Largest Steamships. — Pour big ships are now
being built for the Oriental trade, to run in connection
with the Great Northern railroad. The vessels will
probably be ready for service about July, 1901. Each
ship will be 730 feet long by 74 feet amidships, 50 feet
from water to deck line, and will have a carrying capac
ity of 22,000 tons. The ships will be the largest in the
world, exceeding the Oceanic, and wiU be able to carry
freight at low rates.
The largest cargo carrier is the Cymric. She is 12,-
340 tons gross measurement, and her dimensions are :
Length over all, 585 feet; beam, 64 feet; depth, 38
feet. The Pennsylvania, when in commission, will be the
largest cargo carrier, being rated at 20,000 tons burden.
The largest tank steamer is the St. Helens. She will
carry 2,850,000 gallons of oil in bulk.
The greatest sailing vessel ever built in America is a
six-masted schooner (building in Maine). It is 310
feet long on the keel, 345 feet on top, and will register
about 2,750 tons net, with an estimated coal-carrying
capacity of from 5,000 to 5,500 tons. The next largest
schooners built on the Atlantic coast are the John B.
Prescott and the Nathaniel T. Palmer, five-masters, each
registering about 2,200 tons net and carrying from 4,000
to 4,400 of coal, according to weather, voyage and draught.
Next to them in size is the AVilliam B. Palmer, length,
257 feet; breadth, 42 feet; depth, 20 feet; and tonnage,
1,806. Her lower masts are each 116 feet long. Until
she was built, the Governor Ames was the largest Yankee
schooner. The largest sailing ship afloat is called the Potosi.

SHIP FACTS. 113
She was built at Bremen, is a five-master, 394 feet long,
50 feet broad, with a draught of 25 feet and a carrying
capacity of 6,150 tons.
The second largest ship in the world is the French
five-master France: Length, 316 feet; breadth, 49 feet;
depth, 26 feet. She has a net tonnage of 3,624, a sail
area of 49,000 square feet and has carried a cargo of
5,900 tons. The British ship Liverpool, 3,330 tons, is
333 feet long, 48 feet broad and 28 feet deep. The Pal-
grave is of 3,078 tons. She has taken 20,000 bales of
jute from Calcutta to Dundee in a single voyage.
The biggest of wooden ships is the Eoanoke, built by
Arthur Sewall & Co. Her dimensions are: Length of
keel, 300 feet; length over all, 350 feet; height of fore-
. mast from deck, 180 feet; length of main yard, 95 feet;
main lower topsail yard, 86 feet; main upper topsail
yard, 77 feet; main top-gallant yard, 66 feet; main royal
yard, 55 feet; main sky sail yard, 44 feet; bowsprit, 65
feet; deck to keelson, 22.2 feet; keelson to bottom, 12
feet; height of keelson, 9 feet 8 inches. With all sails
set she spreads 15,000 square yards of canvas. She has
four masts — fore, main, mizzen and jigger. She has
four headsails with an aggregate of 646 square yards
of canvas in them. Her main and mizzen sails contain
2,424 square yards of canvas. In her hull are 24,000
cubic feet of oak, 1,250,000 feet of yellow pine, 225 itons
of iron, 98,000 treenails and 550 hackmatack knees.
The second largest wooden ship is the Shenandoah, of
3,258 tons register, . and next to her in size comes the
Eappahannock, of 3,053 tons register. . Both of these have
for some years carried 5,000 ton cargoes from San Fran
cisco. The latter has taken 125,000 cases of petroleum
at once from Philadelphia to Japan.
The oldest American vessel is the schooner "Polly, built
at Amesbury, Mass., in 1805. She has had an adventurous
career. During the war of 1812 she was a privateer and
captured 11 prizes from the British. She was also cap
tured once herself, but was retaken. She is of 45 tons
register, is engaged in the coasting trade and is said to
be sound and seaworthy.
The first American built tramp steamship is the Wini-

114 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
freda, built at the Bath Iron Works, Me. She is of
2,600 tons gross, 302 feet long, 42 feet beam, 25 feet
deep and can carry 3,800 tons of cargo.
The first American ship, the Eestle^s, was built at
Manhattan Island in 1613 by Adrian Block. In it he
discovered the island called by his name.
THE GREAT EASTERN.
The Great Eastern, for half a century the largest steam
ship in the world, was a few years ago sold at public
auction in London to junk dealers for £26,200, and was
broken up. She was constructed by Scott Eussell, at Mil-
wall, on the Thames, in 1854 to 1858, for the Eastem
Steam Navigation Company. She was designed for an
ocean steam route to the East around the cape of Good
Hope, the directors having concluded that owing to the
cost of maintaining coaling stations on the way such a
route would not pay unless the ship could carry coal
enough for the voyage out and home, besides a large num
ber of passengers and a great cargo. The Great East
ern was built to meet these requirements. Her extreme
length was 680 feet, breadth 83^ feet, height 70 feet,
weight 12,000 tons. It took nearly three months to
launch her when completed (between Nov. 3, 1857, and
Jan. 13, 1858), at a cost of £60,000. Her trial trip was
disastrous, several persons being killed by an explosion.
Several trips were made to New York, the expense, how
ever, always exceeding the profits. In fact the big monster
was a white elephant on the company's hands. Her first
real serviceable mission was in 1861, when, after the Trent
affair war with England seemed imminent, 2,000 British
soldiers came over to Canada on her very comfortably.
The next two or three years were a blank in her history.
Then Cyrus W. Field secured her for a cable-laying vessel,
the passenger accommodations being taken out entirely to
make room for the big coils of cable. In 1867 these ac
commodations were replaced at great expense, and it was
thought to utilize her in conveying Americans to the Paris
Exposition, but this undertaking proved a failure.
Finally her passenger accommodations were again removed,
and the vessel was successfully employed in laying cables

SHIP FACTS. 115
across the Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, in the Eed Sea,
across the Indian ocean, across the Equator from Europe
to Brazil, etc. She served also as a cattle ship between
England and Australia. So great was her capacity that
she could carry 20,000 tons of coal and merchandise, or
5,000 troops, besides her crew of 400. For some time
she lay in the Mersey, an object of expense, until 1884,
when she took up her position as a coal hulk in the harbor
of Gibraltar. In 1886 she was removed to Liverpool.
CARGOES.
Ships' cargoes are as varied as human wants. Every
staple is represented, horses, cattle, furs, lard, pianos,
razors and a myriad of other articles go.
The freighter American holds a record for the largest
cargo, having taken 11,200 tons of cargo from Brooklyn
to South Africa.
The Maroa, a British steamer, has taken 18,348 bales
of cotton from New Orleans to Havre, the largest cotton
cargo ever shipped.
The Shenandoah and Eappahannock, both sailing
vessels, have each taken cargoes of more than 5,000 tons
of grain from San Francisco.
A STEAMSHIP'S CARGO.
The new ocean freighter, Pennsylvania, although
scarcely attaining the external measurements of the cele
brated Great Eastern, will carry far more cargo. The
capacity, indeed, of these new freight ships is a matter
for astonishment to a landsman. The Pennsylvania, for
example, is rated at 20,000 tons burden, and will carry
loads such as may be briefly itemized thus : *
One hundred and sixty thousand bushels of wheat in
bulk, equal to 320 car-loads, or 16 trains of 20 cars each;
1,000 tons of flour, 80 car-loads; 4,000 boxes of bacon,
75 car-loads; 3,000 tierces of lard, 48 car-loads; 1,300
bales of cotton, 40 car-loads; 1,200 head of live cattle,
80 car-loads; 3,600 quarters of dressed beef.
In addition there will probably be 1,000 tong of mis-

116 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
cellaneous merchandise, say 89 car-loads more; in all
not less than 780 car-loads, or 39 long trains of 20 cars
each. Nor is the above the entire load of this modern ark.
The Pennsylvania will have accommodations for from 800
tc 1,000 steerage passengers, as also for a crew of 150 men
and 50 cattlemen, with food and fodder for all. In the
fuel bins, too, there will be carried a burden of 1,300
tons of coal, or more than 100 car-loads.
If we were to say that the entire agricultural product
of sixty New England towns, or twenty Western counties,
could all be stowed away in this mammoth ship, we should
not exceed the facts. RISKY CARGOES.
Merchant vessels which carry certain classes of goods
are more liable to shipwreck than others differently laden.
Marine insurance companies are cautious in the risks
tbey take. There are casualties peculiar to special lines
of merchandise. Vessels laden with oil or cotton run
greater hazards in regard to fire. Aside from its liabil
ity to fire cotton is a good cargo, being light, buoyant,
and not difficult to secure in its place. Oil has the ad
ditional disadvantage of sometimes igniting through
spontaneous combustion. It is commonly carried now in
"tank steamers." When shipped in barrels in old wooden
vessels, if it leaks out from the casks and finds its way
to the hold, it gpaks timbers and loosens bolts by eating
away the rust. The vessel springs apart at the seams
until leaks are beyond pumps' control.
Coal also may take fire spontaneously. In stormy
weather and battened hatches gases are generated below
which may result in combustion. Because of this disad
vantage and as it is a comparatively cheap cargo it is
generally carried by vessels of the inferior class. Grain,
when shipped loose, or "in bulk" as the term goes, is
always in some danger of shifting and capsizing the
vessel. To prevent this, "shifting boards" are arranged
in the hold to keep it in place. These sometimes give way
and the .ship may go on her beam ends from the slide which

snip FACTS 117
follows. Grain may also become damp and swell and
spring the seams, causing numerous leaks.
Light lumber, if in a form which can be made fast,
so as not to shift, is a safe cargo. It sometimes keeps
ships afloat, though yellow pine is more of a dead weight
and less buoyant and has the reverse effect. Phosphate
for fertilizing and asphaltum for paving purposes are
both solid and heavy and take the life out of a ship's
movements, so that she is Unable to rise to the seas in
rough weather and pitches at their mercy.
Cargoes of brick have to be stowed in the most care
ful manner or else the vessels carrying them will founder
in the mildest weather, owing to the strong tendency
of the brick to absorb the water caused by the leakage
which necessarily occurs on all wooden vessels. The
brick will absorb the water as fast as it runs in from an
ordinary leak, and the increased weight of the brick causes
the vessel to settle until she makes the final plunge; and
the crew are frequently at a loss to know the cause. To
new shoals, defective work in the vessel's construction,
and other causes are attributed the disasters.
OFFENSIVE CARGOES.
Sometimes cargoes brought from warm climates give
forth sickening odors and fumes. Sugar sometimes does
this and has at times made every man on board sick.
Especially if it becomes damp the sickening odor may
overcome a man, and the cargo become a danger to the
health of the crew. The aroma of coffee, usually so
pleasant, becomes sickening when endured for weeks by
the crew of a ship laden with it. Pine lumber has even
a worse smell. Petroleum has also an odor which is very
offensive. .
Cargo Notes. — The British ship Grangewood ran out
of coal when 300 miles from Halifax, and in order to reach
port used her cargo of beet sugar for fuel, though worth
$60 a ton. The British ship Foreland during a voyago
from Java to Philadelphia in 1899 also ran out of coal
and used eighty tons of sugar for fuel.
It is no unusual thing for a vessel plying between

118 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Japan and London to carry 1,000,000 fans of all kinds
as a single item of its cargo.
There have been a large number of men smothered in
grain when a ship or steamship was being loaded, or as
stow;aways, through the shifting of the cargo, their bodies
being afterwards found among the grain.
BALLAST.
The question of ballast has always been a serious one
for sea captains making long voyages in sailing vessels.
Water ballast is used on large ocean steamers. Many of
the modern sailing craft have tanks also arranged in their
holds, so they can take on ballast direct from the sea.
But the old-time sailing vessels have to depend upon what
ballast they can pick up before making the homeward
trip. The most popular ballast is stone or rock, and the
relative value of certain grades is known to every ship
master, and he can dispose of such a cargo for more than
the cost of loading and unloading. Sand and common dirt
are also shipped in ballast. There is not much demand
for them in America and such a cargo is very unprofitable,
but it can be used in filling in hollow places and low-lying
land around the harbor. New docks, piers and water
front are often built with it. Salt has been extensively
used by sailing vessels in the past for ballast, coming into
this country as such when the laws admitted it free of
duty. In 1896 over 500,000,000 pounds of salt were im
ported into the TJnited States, most of it coming in as
ballast for ships. Shipmasters are quick, to seize upon
anything for ballast that can in any way be turned to
profitable account when it gets to the TJnited States.
STEAMSHIP FACTS.
In the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse there are besides
the two main triple-expansion engines, thirty-six minor
engines. The coiled condensing pipes alone measure 35
miles. There are 14 boilers, 104 firing holes, coal
bunkers with a capacity of 4,950 tons, and two crank

SHIP FACTS 119
shafts 198 feet long and weighing 166 tons. To run this
ponderous machine 17 engineers, 18 oilers, 90 stokers
and 75 coal passers are required. The total crew numbers
459. The screw of an Atlantic liner costs on the average
about $20,000.
In a Steamship. — There are fully 1,000 tons of piping
of various kinds in the average Atlantic liner. The
furnaces consume no less than 7,500,000 cubic feet of air
an hour. The boiler tubes, if placed in a straight line,
would stretch nearly ten miles, and the condenser tubes
more than twenty-five miles. The total number of separate
pieces of steel in the structure of the ship is not less
than 40,000, and the total number of cubic feet of timber
used in the construction is more than 100,000. The
total number of rivets is not far from 1,250,000.
THE STOKER.
A stoker works four hours at a stretch, and during
that time the temperature of his surroundings varies
from 120 degrees to 160 degrees Fahrenheit. One stoker
usually has four furnaces to attend to, and while feeding
one furnace a man has to be extremely careful or his
arm may be burned by the furnace behind him. As i
rule a man is occupied about three minutes at each furnace,
and directly he has finished he rushes to the air pipe and
waits until his turn comes afrain. The intense heat of
the furnaces has sometimes rendered stokers temporarily
insane, and there are many cases on record where they
have jumped overboard after having made their way to
the deck. HOW LONG IT TAKES TO STOP STEAMERS.
Mr. W. D. Weaver, late Assistant Engineer of the
TJnited States Navy, made the following calculations as
to the length of time and distance traveled by a steam
vessel in bringing it to a stop by reversing the propelling
machinery when it had been going ahead at full speed.

120 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,

Distance Time.

Displacem't. H

P. Speed

Feet Seconds

Etruria (Cun.wJ Line)

9,680

14,321

20.18 2,464 107

Lepanto (Italian Navy)

4,680

15,040

18 2,522 192

Co unibia ( U. S. Cruiser)

7,350

17,991

22.8 2,147 135

Yorktown ( U. S. Gunboat)

1,700

3,205

16.14 989 83.9

Bancroft (U. S. Gunboat)

832

1,170

14.52 965 91

Cushing (Torpedo-boat)

105

1,754

22.48 301 18.4

Wiborg (Russian T. B.)

138

1,303

19.90 373 25.U

FOOD ON STEAMSHIPS.
It is interesting to note the food used on an Atlantic
liner. During one transatlantic trip on an average liner
there were used, fresh beef, 15,000 pounds; fresh mutton,
2,500 pounds ; fowl, 650 head ; game, 350 head ; cabbage,
250 head ; turnips, 160 bunches ; leeks, 60 bunches ; onions,
4,480 pounds; potatoes, 17,920 pounds; parsley, 50
bushels; tomatoes, 200 pounds; rhubarb, 130 bunches;
asparagus, 30 tins; green corn, 80 tins; peas, 140 tins;
tomatoes, 70 tins ; canned meats, 60 tins ; fiour, 30 barrels ;
sugar, 1,600 pounds; coffee, 350 pounds; tea, 136 pounds;
3 6 tons of ice, 5,000 eggs, 2,000 pounds of butter, 400
quarts of ice cream, 20 barrels of oysters in the shell.
700 gallons of milk, 5,000 pounds of fish, a large quantity
of fruit and many other things. Of the wines, liquors,
etc. — champagne, 200 pints; claret, 220 pints; whiskey,
170 bottles; liquors, 14 bottles; beer and porter, 240
dozen bottles; mineral waters, 350 dozen bottles; cigars,
1,100; cigarettes, 160 packages; tobacco, 100 pounds;
water, 140 tons.
In the refrigerating rooms are stored several hundred
tons of ice to keep cool everything that' may be called for,
all stored so that they may be obtained at a moment's
notice, and yet so snugly that there is no space lost.
There is seldom a scarcity of drinking water on board
passenger steamships. There are large tanks of a capac
ity of five or six hundred tons on nearly all the largo
steamships, and all carry a condenser, which makes it
possible to have fresh water directly from the ocean.
Water is stored at the bottom of the ship and pumped
up. Salt water is used only for the baths.
The amount of food that can be cooked in the steerage

SHIP FACTS 121
galley is marvellous. The room is about 15 by 20 feet,
and often three cooks are able to prepare three meals
a day for from 1,200 to 1,500 passengers. There is less
variety of fare than in the cabin, though no two meals
alike are given during the week. The steerage cooking
is all done by steam. Soups, tea, coffee, cereals and
potatoes are prepared in huge caldrons, holding enougli
for three or four hundred people.
COAL CONSUMPTION.
The consumption of coal by steamers has been ma
terially decreased since the introduction of what is known
as the compound engine. Previous to that time a vessel of
the best type of engineering skill — for instance, the Scotia,
of the Cunard line, floated in 1862, having a midship
section of 841 square feet — consumed 160 tons of coal
per day, or 1,600 tons on the passage between New Y'orJc
and Liverpool. The City of Brussels, a screw-steamer
of the Inman line, floated in 1869, and having a midship
section of 909 square feet, consumed 95 tons per day ;
while the Spain, a screw-steamer of the National line,
launched in 1871, with compound machinery, being th.>
longest vessel on the Atlantic, having a length of 425 feet
6 inches on the load-line, beam-mould 43 feet, draught,
loaded, 24 feet 9 inches, made the passage in September
of the above year, consuming only 53 tons per day, or
530 tons on the run. . All these three vessels had the same
average of speed. There are still later instances where
but 40 tons of coal per day were used.
Ocean steamers are large consumers of coal. The
Orient line, with their fleet of ships running from Eng
land to Australia every two weeks may be instanced.
The steamship Austral went from London to Sydney in
35 days, and consumed on the voyage 3,6ll tons of coal ;
her coal bunkers hold 2,750 tons. The steamship Oregon
consumed over 330 tons per day on the passage from
Liverpool to New York; her bunkers held nearly 4,000
tons. The Stirling Castle brought home in one cargo
2,200 tons of tea, and consumed 2,800 tons of coal in
doing so. Immense stocks of coal are kept at various

122 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
coaling stations, St. Vincent, Madeira, Port Said, Singa
pore and others; the reserve at the latter place being
about 20,000 tons. It is remarkable with what rapidity
the steamers are coaled.
The Oceanic consumes from 400 tons to 500 tons of
coal per day, the Majestic and Teutonic about 150 tons
less per day.
An enormous increase in coal consumption is necessary
for a comparatively slight increase in the vessel's speed.
Suppose the propellers of the Fiirst Bismarck were turn
ing 57 times to the minute and it was desired to make
them turn 58. This would make the ship go only about
three ship-lengths farther in a day. It would require
the burning of five additional tons of coal a day. The
coal burned varies as the cube of the speed attained. The
vessel could be driven 12 knots an hour by burning 90
tons of coal a day. By burning twice the coal ( 180 tons)
her speed is advanced to 16 knots, a gain of only one-
third. Increase the coal to 300 tons a day, the rate
of gain is less, the speed being 20 knots. It is estimated
that if the present horse power could be doubled by extra
furnaces and firemen and the burning of sufficient coal,
the result would be to shorten her time across the Atlantic
only by a scant half day. The cost of the gain of an
hour's time to an Atlantic greyhound is enormous.
SHIP'S TREASURE ROOMS.
The safes or treasure rooms of the leading transatlantic
steamers are interesting structures. They are so art
fully concealed and contrived and so strongly built that,
with a single exception, that of a Pacific liner carrying
gold dust on a long voyage, they are not publicly known
to have been robbed. In some vessels these safe vaults
are placed amidships, in some aft, but they are always
at the bottom of the ship, below everything else, and prac
tically right on the keel. The room is generally some
eight or ten feet square and high, and now built of steel
plates strongly riveted together, and is furnished
with such a formidable array of locks, bolts and bars
as to strike dismay to the hearts of even the deftest and

SHIP FACTS 123
most experienced burglars. On some of the more recent
steamships the room is about 16 feet long by 10 feet wide
and 8 feet high. The fioor, the ceiling and the walls
are all of steel plates. There is a heavy door also made
of steel and provided with two English "Chub" locks,
a variety of combination lock that has successfully re
sisted the burglar. The gold and silver carried is usuall.i^
in bars, but occasionally a quantity of coin in bags is
carried. This was the case when the heaviest shipments
of gold were made a few years ago. The Majestic is
credited with carrying the largest quantity, her strong
box having at one time $4,500,000 intrusted to it.

TREASURES THAT HAVE BEEN CARRIED.
Immense fortunes were carried on the ocean in earlier
centuries. In February, 1769, there arrived in Lisbon
a ship-of-war, named the Mother of God, from Eio de
Janeiro, having made the voyage in 120 days. She had
on board 9,000,000 of crusades in diamonds and about
1,000,000 "crown tournois" in piastres, making in all
29,050,000 livres tournois. In 1774 two Spanish ships
from Vera Cruz and Havana arrived in the same port
with 22,000,000 crowns, exclusive of merchandise valued
at 27,000,000. Of the cargo of an English Indiaman
in 1771, one item alone^^a diamond in the rough — was
valued at $500,000. In the reign of James IL, of Eng
land, an expedition was set on foot to seek treasures
buried in South American waters. It succeeded and
brought back to the land of the Briton $1,500,000 that.
had lain buried in the sea 44 years. In 1767 a Dutch
East Indiaman foundered in a storm, burying with her
$2,500,000. A Spanish vessel fell into the hands of the
British when she had on board 694 cases of silver, each
containing $3,000 and a miscellaneous cargo valued
at $4,418,000 more. In these days, however, we never
hear of a single steamer carrying the load of gold, silver,
plate and treasure that was heaped into the hold of the
butter-box ships of the earlier centuries.

124 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

THE SHIP SURGEON.

The duties of a ship surgeon while at sea are a com
bination of those of a doctor and a sanitary inspector
As a health officer he must visit every part of the ship
to see that everything is clean; disinfect, if that is necee-
sary; watch the food that is prepared for the crew, the
steerage and cabin passengers. All the steerage passen
gers pass before the ship surgeon as they go on board.
If there is any just cause why they should not be taken,
they are sent back.
The actual salary paid by the company may be assumed
to be between $40 a month and $40 a week. The law
prohibits a ship surgeon from making out a bill or from
making any specific price for his services. He is sup
posed to be there for the purpose of serving the passengers.
In fact, he must attend the call of everybody on board,
even the meanest. Neglect of the steerage passengers
charged against a surgeon of the ship, if the complaint
were sent in to the company properly, would certainly
be investigated, and if it should be sustained the doctor
would be dismissed. When he has done his full duty in
the steerage, there is no law against his being very kind
and thoughtful and attentive to Mr. and Mrs. Millionaire
in the first cabin; nor is there the slightest objection on
the part of the company if Mr. Millionaire shows his
substantial appreciation of the doctor's skill and gentle
manly conduct. Nor is this substantial recognition by
auy means confined to the first cabin. It is quite uni
versal in the second cabin, with a sporadic case here and
there in the steerage. First and second cabin passengers
prefer to be on a higher plane in this respect than the
average steerage passenger, and usually consider remuner
ation of the ship surgeon according to the value of his
services only his just due. No doctor on land has in a
social point of view, patients who represent so many grades
of society as those who come under the care of the ship
surgeon. INDIVIDUALITY IN VESSELS.
To a sailor, every vessel is an individual. No two
vessels, even of the same class, are alike to him. The man

SHIP FACTS. 125
who keeps a lookout in the Portland observatory can
recognize over 100 different vessels that belong to that
port the minute he sees them twenty miles away through
his telescope. He says that there are no two vessels that
ever were alike in shape or rig. "You see the back of a
friend on the street some distance away, and you know
him by the cut of his jib," he says. This is almost
literally true in the case of vessels. An old sailor sees
the difference without always being able to explain just
wherein it lies. THE LIFE OF A SHIP.
An interesting discussion has been started on the sub
ject of the life of the ships. It appears that this is very
much a question of "where the ship is built." It is
found that vessels constructed in the TJnited- States
last, on an average, 18 years only. This short service
may be because of greater wear and tear owing to the
superior activity of American skippers and crews, and
to their humane care in discarding, before it becomes
too late, the unsafe hulks, as well as to climatic differ
ences possibly as compared with Europe. The French
ships average 20 years ; Dutch, 22 ; German, 25 ; British,
26; Italian, 27; and Norwegian, 30 years. The average
death rate of the world's shipping is about 4 per cent.
and the birth rate 5 per cent.
WHY THEY DOCK NOSE IN.
Some persons have thought it curious that the big
transatlantic liners should always moor to their pier
with bow inshore. To the uninitiated it appears more
natural for them to back into their slips and moor with
their stern inshore^ and, as a matter of fact, nearly all
of the smaller class of steamships do this. But there
are reasons, includincr a certain dock regulation, why
the larger vessels adopt the opposite method of getting
alongside their wharves. One is that their great draught
compels them to regulate the hour of sailing by the tide.
It is generally running a flood tide when they back out

126 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
from their piers. The current sweeps the stern up the
river, so that there is little difficulty experienced in get
ting the ship's head pointed down the bay. Another
reason is that a majority of the big passenger vessels
have a preliminary dock trial of their engines before
they cast off their moorings. To make sure that the
machinery is in perfect order, the trial generally lasts
for three or four hours. If moored with stern inshore,
the backwater from the propellers would be apt to stir
up a quantity of iH-smelling mud, besides doing damage
to the dock itself. The coasting vessels are not so par
ticular, and only turn the propellers over a few times,
before casting off their lines. On account of their slight
draught, they are independent of the tide and can go to
sea whenever they like.
CALKING THE HATCHES.
By calking the hatches is how the cargo is kept dry
on sailing vessels and on steamers. When the loading
of a ship has been completed and the hatches have been
put on, every precaution is taken to make them tight,
so as to keep the cargo dry during the voyage. The
hatches are in sections, which rest on frames laid across
the hatchway. All the seams around the combings of the
hatchway and between the sections of the hatch are calked
and then pitched or painted, and the entire hatch is then
covered with tarpaulins, which are battened down tO'
the sides. The ship may be months at sea. She may
take over her bows solid water that will sweep aft, sub
merging her decks like a river, and she is likely to have
more or less water on deck at any time. But none of it
gets below. The ship's hatches are as impervious to water
as her sides. On steamers when the hatches are put on
they rest upon strips of rubber, and they are secured by
means of set screws, making the hatch tight in sub
stantially the same manner that a fruit jar is sealed.
THE SHIP'S RUDDER.
The ship's rudder has two parts and there is a differ
ence in the strain that comes upon them. The rudder
of a wooden ship is composed of the stalk and the ba(?l?-

SHIP facts: 127
ing, which are so joined together as to form in effect a
single piece. The complete rudder is coppered, to protect
it from worms, and then, besides being practically all in
one piece it has that appearance also.
The stalk is the part to which are attached the pintles,
or pivots, by which the rudder is suspended and held in
place, these going through eyes set in the ship's stern-
post. The stalk runs up through the stern of the ship,
and to its head is bolted a cap to which are attached tho
ropes by means of which the rudder is controlled. The
backing is the blade part of the rudder.
By far the greater strain, comes on the stalk, and the
greatest strain of all comes on the head of the stalk — ¦
ihe rudder head — where it is held. The stalk is made of
the wood most likely to stand the strain, carefully selected,
sound, well-seasoned oak, while the backing is made of
spruce or hard pine. The stalk is of a single, solid,
massive piece, stout as an oak tree, and indeed of the
dimensions of a small oak — something that a man can
pin his faith to, if he can have faith in any wood — ¦
while the backing or blade is, like many modern wooden
masts, built up. It would be difficult, if not impossible,
to find trees that would yield planks big enough for the
purpose in a single piece, and the built-up backing, made
of pieces of selected wood, can easily be made of ample
strength to withstand any strain that will be brought
upon it.
As to the stalk, stout and solid as the oak may be,
the head may be twisted by the force of a tremendous blow
of a wave upon the rudder, or, under the repeated strains
of long use, the head may split, and so make the stalk
useless. Then the rudder is taken out and fitted with
a new stalk. A suitable stick is selected and worked down
to the proper size and form, and very probably the old .
backing is attached to it. The life of* a rudder stalk
would probably be twelve to fourteen years. The backing
might last as long as the ship.
ANCHORS.
The earliest anchors made on the hook principle proba
bly only had one fluke instead of two. There is in the

128 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
British Museum an interesting leaden anchor with two
flukes bearing a Greek inscription. Its date is about
50 B. C, and it was found off the coast of Cyrene. The
invention of the anchor with two flukes is attributed by
Pausanius to Midas, by Pliny to Eupalamas, and by
Strabo to Anacharsis. Diodorus Siculus states that the
first anchors were wooden tubes filled with lead, while
another classical writer says that before the introduction
of metal anchors lumps of stone with a hole through the
middle for the attachment of the cable were used. Some
very primitive kinds of anchors are in use at the present
day in different parts of the world.
Ships' anchors cost from five to seven cents a pound,
so that a 6,000 pound anchor, which would be a very large
one, would cost, even at the lowest price, about $300;
and the big ship that required an anchor of that size would
carry two of them. The two big anchors carried by a
ship of, say, 2,000 tons would weigh from 4,800 to 5,000
pounds each. The anchors of merchant vessels are painted
or tarred. Whenever the vessel is painted the anchors
are painted also to preserve them from rust. But on
yachts and various smaller craft galvanized anchors are
used, which, of course, do not require painting. Gal
vanized iron anchors have been made for torpedo boats
in the navy, but, generally speaking, their use is con
fined to pleasure craft. A galvanized anchor costs nearly
as much again as one not galvanized.
The galvanizing preserves the anchor from rusting and
makes it more sightly in appearance, and prevents it
from dripping rusty water and so staining and marring
decks and other surfaces vrith which it might come in
contact. Anchors weighing 1,400 pounds have been gal
vanized, such anchors being for very large steam yachts.
MYTHS OF ANCIENT MARINERS.
Sailors' yarns have always been celebrated for their
imaginative character. Those of to-day, however, have
no opportunity for favorable comparison with the stories
told by mariners of antiquity. The latter were able to
count upon an inexhaustible public credulity, nothing

SHIP FACTS, 129
which they could possibly invent being too monstrous or un
usual for belief. Their tales presumably did much to aug
ment the fears of the sea which were commonly entertained
in those days, giving birth to many of the myths of the
ocean. They told about the strange land inhabited by
lotos eaters, who fed upon the fruit of forgetfulness and
lost all memory of country and friends. Beyond was
the terrible land of the one-eyed giants, called Cyclops,
they said, while elsewhere were to be found the strange
islands where the enchantresses Circe and Calypso lived.
These islands were in the narrow western Mediterranean,
and beyond was the Cimmerian land, where the people
lived in darkness always, inhabiting gloomy caves.
There were the Sirens also, whose song was death.
They were condemned to die when a man should pass
them without stopping. Ulysses accomplished this by
putting wax in his ears. So they were changed into rocks
of Sorrento, where they still exist, a terror to mariners.
The Sirens typify the surf, whose harmonious murmurs
are often the death music of the sailor. In like manner
the Cyclops represent the Storm Fiend, as their names
show. Brontes is the roll, Steropes the flash, and Argis
the whiteness of lightning. Likewise the snaky Gordons
are thought to be figurative representations of the white
capped and angry waves. Not less to be feared were
the dreadful Symplegades — huge moving rocks which
were fabled to crush ships passing between them. It
has been surmised that the tradition respecting these
rocks was derived from the floating icebergs, which during
the glacial period must have issued from the Black Sea;
but this seems hardly likely.
SEA MYTHOLOGY.
Neptune, called Poseidon by the Greeks, was the
mythological god of the sea; son of Saturn and Cybele;
brother of Jupiter and Pluto; father of Triton, Poly
phemus, Phoreus and Proteus.
Sirens were sea-maidens, who, according to Homer,
dwelt in an island between iEaea and Scylla, near the
southwest coast pf Italy, and sang with such sweetness

130 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
that the mariners who heard them forgot their country
and died in an ecstacy of delight.
Nereides were flfty sea-nymphs, attendant on Neptune.
They were the daughters of Nereus and Doris, and are
usually represented as young and handsome virgins rid
ing on dolphins.
Mermaid was a fabled sea-maiden having the upper
part like that of a woman, and the lower like that of a
fish. SEA SUPERSTITIONS.
The spread of knowledge in modern times has re
moved many of the absurb notions peculiar to seamen;
but, as a class, they may still be considered among the
foremost believers in the supernatural.
During tempests at Malta it is usual to ring all the
bells in the Eoman Catholic churches for an hour, that
the winds may cease and the sea be calmed. This custom
also prevails in Sicily and Sardinia. There is a Cornish
legend that the bells of Bottreaux church were sent by
ship, but when the vessel was in sight of the town the
blasphemy of the captain was punished by the loss of
his ship. The bells are supposed to lie in the bay, and
announce by strange sounds the approach of a storm. A
belief is still widely entertained in the virtues of a child's
caul (a thin skin covering the head of some children when
born), as a preservation against drowning and shipwreck.
An advertisement only recently appeared in the New
York papers addressed to mariners, reading thus: "For
safeguard at sea; a child's caul for sale, price, twenty-
five dollars." Eats leaving a ship are considered in
dications of misfortune. Porpoises when they play about
the ship are supposed to foretell storms. Carrying dead
bodies in ships has always been a sore point with sailors,
and the sight of even an empty coffin works upon their
prejudices. Such, Nelson found, was the case, when one
was sent to him by a brother officer, made of the main
mast of the French ship L'Orient, to remind the illustri
ous hero that amidst all the glory that surrounded him
he was but mortal. Nelson received the present in a

SHIP FACTS 131
pioper spirit, and had the coffin placed in his own cabin in
the Vanguard, but the crew could not bear to have the
obnoxious memorial in sight, and it was accordingly
ordered to be sent below. It is considered "unlucky"
to lose a water bucket or mop at sea. Children on board
are regarded with favor by seamen, as likely to bring
good luck.
There are Polish and Eussian Hebrews who refuse to
travel on a steamship with only one smokestack, and
claim it is not safe. It used to be the belief that sailing
on a Friday was to court certain disaster. Old sailors
will still dwell upon the legend of the ship that was com
menced on a Friday, finished on a Friday, named thi
Friday, commanded by Captain Friday, sailed on a
Friday, and — foundered on the same luckless day with all
hands, as a warning that the day the Saviour was cruci
fied should be henceforth accursed or kept holy, according
to the bent of the considering mind. Among the Spanish,
Italian, Austrian and Greek sailing vessels, Friday is still
held in superstitious awe. On Good Friday a regular
carnival is held on these vessels at which an effigy of
Judas is subjected to every imaginable indignity.
It does not take a long series of misfortunes over
taking a ship to convince her crew that a lineal de
scendant of Jonah and an inheritor of his disagreeable
disqualifications is a passenger. Such a person might
at times be placed in a disagreeable and even dangerous
predicament. A Chinese custom is that of throwing into
the ocean, when friends are about to sail away, thousands
of pieces of paper, each piece bearing on it a written
prayer. Why a sailor hates a cat is not very evident, but nauti
cal tradition is against the little animal and Jack Tar
will have none on board. To carry one is a sure way to
bring disastrous gales. The sailor calls weak tea cat-lap;
a short sleep a cat-nap; a breath of wind a cat's-paw; a
greater amount of breeze a cat's-skin. When he associates
poor puss with unpalatable tea, unsatisfactory sleep and
insufficent wind, it is no wonder he is prejudiced against
her. Sailors formerly had great veneration for odd numbers.

132 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
a belief still traceable in the number of guns fired for
salutes. Sneezing to the left was a serious matter,
though a sneeze to the right was not so bad. Themis
tocles once detained his ships on account of the bad luck
that he feared would follow a sneeze. Shetlanders are
particularly sensitive on this point.
The sailor is convinced that a ship's bell will toll,
however firmly lashed, when the doomed vessel sinks
beneath the wave. The belief in the efficacy of whistling
to raise the wind is widespread, and has been held in
Greenland, India, China, Sweden and Europe generally.
It is said that care must be taken to whistle at the right
moment. If it be done in a calm a pleasant breeze will
come, but if it be done when there is already wind it
will arouse a hurricane. Petrels, or Mother Carey's
chickens, near a ship is taken as a sign of storm. The
horseshoe is still a popular contribution by sailors to the
fetish of good luck. A peculiar superstition is that if
women are taken on board a voyaging ship, some disaster
will follow. Sailors prefer a ship that has a masculine
name, or is called after some man, or is geographical.
Certain names are known in the history of nautical
nomenclature as hoodoos. They have often been painted
over and other names substituted, but bad luck attended
the ship and not even reconstruction saved it. If the
name must be feminine the crew want something they
are familiar with. Hence there were formerly Susan
nahs, Mary Anns and Jemimas among sailing vessels.
Something of the ceremonious character given to
launchings survives to this day. The champagne bottle
at the steamship's launching is a modern necessity. The
prefix "City of" in the nomenclature of vessels is viewed
with dread by seafaring men. Marine insurance under
writers sometimes fight shy of vessels whose names end
in "a." The man at the wheel still cannot steer straight
if there is a cross-eyed passenger on board, and he re
peats this charm of words to annul the evil:

"St. Peter ! St. Peter ! Pray give us a charm,
Against the bad eye that would do us a harm."

SHIP FACTS 133
FLYING DUTCHMAN.
The Flying Dutchman is the name given by sailors to
a phantom ship, supposed to cruise in storms off the Cape
of Good Hope. According to tradition a Dutch captain,
bound home from the Indies, met with long-continued
head winds, and heavy weather off this cape, and re
fused to put back, as he was advised to do, swearing a
very profane oath that he would ,beat around the cape
if he had to beat there till the Day of Judgment. He
was taken at his word, and doomed to beat against winds
all his days. His sails are believed to have become thread
bare, and his ship's sides white with age, and himself
and crew reduced almost to shadpws. He cannot heave
to nor lower a boat, but sometimes hails vessels through
his trumpet, and requests them to take letters home for
him. The superstition has its origin, probably, in the
looming or apparent suspension in air of some ships out
of sight — ^the phenomenon of the mirage, sometimes wit
nessed at sea, and caused by unequal refraction in the
lower strata of the atmosphere.
SAILORS' SHANTIES.
In "Saunterings in Europe" there is a good descrip
tion of sailors' shanties. A dozen or more of brawny
Englishmen seize a rope, plant their feet firmly, lift up
their heads toward the stars, and then begin, not to pull,
oh, no, but to sing. While all stood perfectly motionless,
a boatswain with a fine bass voice sang as a recitative, with
much expression,
"Eanzo was no sailor — Chorus (very hearty) Eanzo
Eanzo. *
He shipped with Captain Tailor, Eanzo, Eanzo,
He could not do his duties, Eanzo, Eanzo.
They took him to the guard-house, Eanzo, Eanzo,
He ate up all the codfish, Eanzo, Eanzo,
They took him to the gangway, Eanzo, Eanzo,
They gave his six and tharty, Eanzo, Eanzo."

134 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
As they rolled out the first Eanzo of the chorus every
muscle was stiffened, and like one man they gave a pull
which made the dirty canvas shake, and at each Eanzo
the sail crawled a little way further up the mast.
These working songs of the sailors are not chosen for
their sense, but their sound. A good voice and a stir
ring chorus are worth an extra hand on board a vessel
where the only way the heavier work can be done is by
each man doing his utmost at the same moment. This
is regulated by these sailors' shanties or sea songs. It
is not recreation; it is an essential part of the work on
shipboard. It is the shanty that mast-heads the topsail-
yards, when making sail ; it starts and weighs the anchor ;
it brings down the majn-tack with a will; in fact it does
all the work where unison and strength are required.
Where a dozen men are pulling on a rope to be effective
the pull must be made unanimously ; this is secured by the
shanty, the pull being made at some particular word in
the chorus. For instance, in the following verse each
repetition of the word "handy" is the signal for a long
pull, a strong pull, and a pull altogether:
'"Oh, shake her up and away we'll go
So handy, my girls, so handy;
Up aloft from down below.
So handy, my girls, so handy."
SMUGGLING.
There are many people in trade who make an effort,
and very often a successful one, to beat the customs.
Dressmakers and diamond dealers are the chief offenders,
and in these cases it is decidedly difficult to convict either.
The detective system has been for years very complete,
and men are located in Europe and constantly upon tho
steamer docks abroad to keep trace of leading dressmakers
and dealers who are known to be in Europe. Men of the
force are notified of the date of their sailing, and either
they or the Surveyor's staff are on the lookout for their
arrival. The modistes, who usually return from abroad
with from five to twenty trunks, are put through a search-

SHIP FACTS 135
ing examination, and then the trouble begins. The
modistes have pursued the custom for many years of de
claring one or two costumes in each trunk and claiming
the remainder to be their own wearing apparel. It is too
difficult to secure evidence to refute these claims and
distinguish between the goods to be worth the time it
takes. Occasionally newcomers in the field of dress
making attempt to conceal the goods, and that is their
undoing. A woman will attempt to come off a steamer
with one valuable costume over the other, or with goods
concealed about her person, and she is generally invited
by the acute inspectress to. visit the searching room. On
one occasion sixty yards of valuable lace was taken, with
which the woman had flounced a woolen petticoat valued
at about two dollars, which she claimed was proper
trimming for it. While attempts at concealment of this
kind indicate a determination to smuggle, the offender
is generally allowed on appeal to the Collector, or Secre
tary of the Treasury, to pay the duty and take the goods.
It is interesting to note how broad an interpretation
of the term "personal effects" people returning from
abroad will sometimes put upon and claim for it. Women
with No. 7 hands have No. 6 and 6^ gloves tuckeii away
in impossible places; lace flounces, parasol covers and
shoulder pieces have been fastened to the inside of old
and worthless garments, and quantities of silk and other
dress goods have been packed under coats and old shoes.
Pieces of china, porcelain, meerschaum and jewelry have
been stowed away in the toes of innocent looking shoes,
and every available corner has been stuffed with "personal
effects," which on close inspection could not pass muster.
Parasols and fur wraps lie side by side, and young girls
to whom the cares of housekeeping are still unknown
bring napkins and tablecloths as personal effects, to
gether with cigarette cases, suspenders and walking
sticks. Bachelors bring baby bonnets in their baggage,
hosiery of which they could never make personal use,
and all sorts of women's finery— all as "personal effects,"
and men have coats lined with fur, so arranged that by
a simple process the fur-lined coat becomes a woman's
fur wrap.

lae OLD OCEAN'S FERR7.
Dealers in jewelry and precious stones are the leading
smugglers among men, although the cigar trade for many
years caused a great deal of trouble. Diamond smug
gling is frequent and is persistently kept up, although
the duty on these gems is but ten per cent, and the profit
saved is not therefore very great. The pursuit of the
diamond smuggler is not very satisfactory, although the
hauls sometimes made are heavy, and were the jewels
always confiscated the profit to the seizing officer would
be considerable. A leading Maiden Lane dealer, who
was smuggling diamonds constantly, for nearly two
years, was followed without making any larger capture
than a package of bort (uncut brown and black stores
used for rock drills and in diamond cutting), which was
of course undutiable. The firm represented by this man
had a branch house in Paris. He often visited that city,
but returned empty-handed. He was found making fre
quent trips to Montreal, and inquiry of the Canadian
customs authorities revealed the fact that large packages
of precious stones were addressed to him at the Montreal
Post Office. Diamonds are admitted to the Dominion
duty free, but must be declared to the customs officials,
as must all imports. It was three months after that it
was learned that the packages had been sent to a mau
at Windsor, opposite Detroit, who carried the diamonds
across the river, and shipped them to the Maiden Lane
house by express, and they entered New York without ex
citing suspicion.
It is the habit of many diamond and jewelry dealers
to transfer their stock to women who travel on the
steamers for the purpose, and they are rarely ever sus
pected or searched. Steerage passengers, whose persons
or baggage are not searchingly scrutinized, are often
hired to bring valuable jewels ashore. The old tricks
of double-bottomed valises, hollow-handled umbrellas,
hollow-heeled shoes, padded vests, thick wigs, and stones
in bottled wines and liquors are rarely resorted to except
by the green smuggler. One man had some very hand
some matched stones enclosed in cakes of toilet soap,
but he was so manifestly anxious that the officers sus
pected him at once, and went so far in examination of

SHIP FACTS. 131"
his baggage as to even cut open the soap he carried, with
excellent results.
Gold watches of value are harder to smuggle, but as
the duty on them and all metal jewelry amounts to forty-
five per cent, ad valorem, the incentive is greater, and
many attempts are made. Cigar smuggling has always
been, like opium smuggling, a profitable but risky busi
ness. It is not done by the dealers themselves, but by
officers and sailors of the West India steamers and by
men along shore who are their confederates. The most
persistent smugglers, that often drive the Surveyor's force
to despair, are pleasure seekers abroad and wealthy women
who are innocence itself in everything else, but can see
no wickedness in violating the customs laws. They will
wear themselves out to conceal articles of little or no
value and many that are duty free, and crow with delight
when they succeed in evading the officer.
The smuggling of tobacco from Cuba into the United
States by way of Louisiana and southern coast cities has
been successfully carried on for very many years past.
Quantities of canned lobsters are exported from New
foundland to England yearly. It was recently discov
ered that some of the cans so labeled contained tobacco
instead, which was brought from the United States. It
is conservatively estimated that goods to the value of
$75,000,000 upon which duty should be paid and is not,
have heretofore entered the United States in one way or
another. This is principally due to the schemes of the
so-called pocket smugglers who try to elude Uncle Sam's
customs. Diamonds have been found by the inspectors in women's
back hair, hat ornaments, hollowed shoe heels, and sewed
up in various articles of wear; in dog collars, in horses'
hoofs, in fruits and vegetables, in trui^s with false
bottoms, in pipes and cigars, in canes, on the necks of
carrier pigeons, and even buried in men's flesh after the
manner of the Kaffir diamond thieves. One man made
three or four trips daily across the Detroit river into
Canada, wearing a conspicuously large ring and by means
of it smuggled diamonds repeatedly. Before each ferry trip
he had his ring reset; on the American side with a large

138 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
paste stone and on the Canadian with a large real diamond.
Another diamond smuggler who long escaped discovery,
although many traps were laid for him, had a confederate
of the same firm in league with him, who had always
engaged the same stateroom for the succeeding voyage.
Having passed the customs officers on the steamship's
arrival, he would go again on board with his companion
when the latter was about to sail, and take with him the
diamonds which had been left in a small hole he had cut
in the flooring beneath the carpet of his stateroom.
A sample of long-distance swindling was recently ex
posed by Canadian merchants. Merchandise had origi
nally been sent from Germany to New York in bond. It
was then shipped across the ocean again to the United
Kingdom, and in coming from there on its last voyage,
it was represented at the Custom House in Toronto to
be of British origin, and entitled to admission at 25 per
cent, below the regular duties. It is presumed that large
sums of money have been made by United States wholesale
houses by these methods.
DETECTION OF SMUGGLING.
The special customs inspector differs from the regular
customs inspector in that he has no regular daily duties,
but is assigned to some special department, and works
only on special cases. To be successful it is very neces
sary that he should have numerous friends among those
who have the opportunity to learn about smuggling.
These include American Consuls in the leading European
cities, clerks in jewelry and dry goods houses, foreign
police, hotel employees, barbers, and officers of transat
lantic steamships. The friendship of these people is
formed on the solid basis of dollars and cents. The in
spector is always on the lookout for such as may give him
valuable information, and is ready at all times to pay
a commission to them. The commission varies with the
importance of the tips and their frequency. It may be
asked how these people get their information. In the
most natural way in the world. In the first place, being
on the lookout for it, they make it a point to secure

SHIP FACTS. 139
the confidence of all strangers whom they suspect of an
intention to visit the United States. The clerks in the
big jewelry houses, the hotel clerks, and the barbers look
innocent enough to the would-be smuggler. He never
suspects them of such a thing as being in league with the
detectives of the United States Government, and he would
be least likely to conjecture that they might cable his
admissions to this country. It is a curious trait of most
human beings that they cannot keep their personal affairs
to themselves. Naturally, smugglers are more inclined
to be secretive than honest folks, but few of them can
always keep mum. When they get chatting with the hotel
clerk and the latter suggests that a friend of his made
a pot of money by smuggling some jewelry into the United
States, the smuggler is more self-contained than the
average if he does not drop a hint of his own intentions.
The hotel clerk is a great adept at worming secrets out of
these people, but the barber is by all odds the most pro
ficient. The barbers at the hotels frequented by Ameri
cans, and also at the hotels at the ports from which the
American steamers sail, are constantly at every stranger
who places himself in their hands.
Half the officers of the ships, as well as the barbers,
are continually on the lookout for smugglers. All the
way from Europe to this country the passengers are
watched. The suspected man cannot get much rest while
in the barber's chair. If the man is really a smuggler
and betrays himself ever so slightly, the barber then lays
himself out to learn his destination. When the boarding
officer of the customs service gets on the ship at Quaran
tine, the facts obtained by the barber and officers are
conveyed to him for transmission to the customs inspec
tors, and when the ship arrives at her pier they are wait
ing to interrogate the smuggler. The change-in-appear-
ance business is worked in the same way. *rhe officers of
the ship notice that a man or woman has giown stout
during the voyage, and they notify the customs officers.
That is, of course, a different thing from a discovery by a
customs officer waiting in a crowd, and if it were not for
the ship's officers the smuggler would probably go through
all right. Sometimes the customs officers get informa-

140 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
tion from persons who do not care for the reward, but
are actuated by jealousy, spite, or business reasons.
Merchants, who find that their competitors are selling
imported goods at unreasonably low prices often furnish
them with valuable information. So do foreign manu
facturers who find that their competitors undersell them
because they evade the duties. Discharged or neglected
employees also help.
Women smugglers are the hardest to catch, because the
way to their confidence is not so easy. Most of them have
more coolness and nerve than the men. They smuggle
laces, bonnets, dresses or dress materials, and jewelry.
Nine times out of ten their detection is due to rivals.
If it were not that the big dressmakers peach on each
other the inspectors would often be fooled. The officials
do not always act immediately upon the arrival of a
smuggler. He or she is kept under surveillance, and is
used to indicate to the officers the confederates whose
existence is suspected. Sometimes they wait for months
before making an arrest or seizure. All the time they keep
a close watch on the person and property of the smuggler-.
Although the rewards allowed them are not nearly so large
or frequent as they used to be, some of them make a very
good thing of it. One inspector who used to be in the
service, made over $100,000 in rewards.
PIRACY.
Piracy has played great part in history on the seas.
The strength and power of piracy in Algiers, was per
haps, as great as piracy ever attained anywhere in the
M'orld. For several centuries the pirates of Algiers ter
rorized the commerce of the world and made all countries
but America pay tribute. As early as 1541 Charles V.
of Germany, sent a fleet of 370 ships and 30,000 men
against them, to no avail. The French besieged Algiers
three times during the seventeenth century. In 1665 the
English, under Admiral Blake, bombarded it, and the
Dutch and English combined in 1669 and 1670. But
still the Algerine pirates flourished on the commerce of
Europe. In 1775 Spain sent 44 ships of war, 340 trans-

COMMEBCE AND SHIPPING, 141
ports and 25,000 soldiers against Algiers, but the ex
pedition was a failure. It was not until 1815 when
the Algerine fleet off Carthagena acknowledged the
superiority of the American flag, that these haughty
corsaii pirates were checked. Soon afterward the Eng
lish laid Algiers in ashes. Finally in 1827 the French
bombarded the city and in 1830 reduced it.
Piracy still exists to-day in certain remote parts of
the seas. The Chinese pirates are the most numerous of
any to-day. Their craft have in quite recent years made
depredations upon many merchant ships, in some cases
the pirates massacring captain, crew and passengers.
Their power and vocation in the Chinese seas have bei.u
broken by the combined efforts of all the powers, repre
sented in the commerce of those waters, toward their ex-
termlnat'ion. There are pirates among the savages of
some of the Paciflc islands. A few cases of piracy are re
ported every now and then from the Mediterranean.
The world's oceans, upon which less than a century ago
no merchant vessel was without constant danger of con
fiscation or destruction, are to-day practically safe from
all highwaymen of the seas.

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING.

EARLY COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES.
Few particulars can be offered of the commerce of the
seventeenth century. We know that in 1647 a trade had
been opened from the northern ports to "Barbadoes and
others of the West Indies ; that a collector of customs was
appointed at Charleston in 1685, and that the hardy
enterprises of the Nantucket whalemen received their
first impulse In 1690. At the opening of the eighteenth
century, the gross value of the exports and imports of

142 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
all the American colonies, in their trade with all the world,
did not exceed £740,000 sterling, or about three and one
half million dollars. A wider field began soon to appear.
In 1731 parliament was petitioned to open the African
trade to the Americans. The Pennsylvanians were al
ready conducting profitable traffic in Surinam, Hispaniola,
the West Indies, Canaries and Newfoundland. "New
England," said a chronicle of the times, "employs six
hundred ships, sloops, etc., about one half of which sail
to England."
When we entered into the family of nations, there
opened the French Eevolution. The United States, pre
serving neutrality, became the common carrier for all
nations, conducted the commerce of their colonies, and
supplied them from her own resources with the results
of her industry. Never, in the history of the world, was
there a more rapid and extraordinary prosperity. Every
other art and .pursuit seemed eager to merge itself into com
merce. Capital poured into the channel. The principles
of trade and all experience were set at defiance. No
adventure could be too rash for success. However, gold
crowned the efforts of the most Ignorant operators. What
wonder that Americans became a nation of merchants,
or that In population the United States rose at once into
a character of the first commercial nation in the world.
FOREIGN TRADE OF UNITED STATES.
The foreign commerce of the United States in 1899
amounted to over $2,000,000,000, and of this enormous
sum more than three-fifths were exports and less than
two-fifths imports. The total exports and imports for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, were $2,137,642,-
591. The exact figures, issued by the Treasury Bureau
of Statistics, for the calendar year ending December 31,
1899, are: Imports, $799,834,620; exports, $1,275,486,-
641 ; total imports and exports, $2,075,321,261 ; excess
of exports over imports, $475,652,021. The excess of
exports is larger than in any preceding year except 1898.
Of the exports, manufactures form a larger proportion
than ever before; while of imports, raw materials foi- the

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 143
use of our manufacturers form a larger proportion than
ever before.
Of the exports, more than 30 per cent, are manufac
tures, against 26 per cent, in the fiscal year 1897, 23 per
cent, in 1895, 20 per cent, in 1885, 16 per cent, in 1879,
and 12 per cent. In 1860. Of the imports, 33 per cent.
are articles in a crude condition which enter into the
various processes of domestic industry, against 26 per
cent, in 1895, 24 per cent, in 1892, 23' per cent, in 1889,
and 20 per cent, in 1885. Products of agriculture form
63 per cent, of the exports, against 70 per cent. In 1898,
72 per cent, in 1894, 74 per cent, in 1884, and 83 per
cent, in 1880, while agricultural products, classified as
"articles of food and live animals," form 29 per cent, oi!
the imports, against 30 per cent, in 1896, 31 per cent, in
1886, and 34 per cent. In 1884.
A study of the imports and exports of 1899, com
pared with those of earlier years, presents some interest
ing facts. From 1869 to 1899 Imports doubled, while
exports quadrupled. The imports In 1869 were $438,-
455,894 and the exports $337,375,988, making an excess
o.f imports over exports amounting to $101,079,906;
while as above Indicated, the excess of exports in 1899
is $475,652,021. Eelatively the proportion of free and
dutiable goods In the list of imports differs very greatly
in the figures of 1899 from those of 1869, only $21,775,-
643 of the total of $438,455,894 imported in 1869 being
admitted free of duty, while in 1899, $351,814,004 of the
total of $799,834,620 Imported came In free of duty.
Exports of foreign merchandise form a smaller per
centage year by year of our total exports, though this is
due to the very rapid Increase in exportation of domestic
merchandise, the value of foreign merchandise exported
in 1899 being about double that of 1869, while the ex
ports of domestic merchandise in 1899, were four times
as much as in 1869.

FOREIGN TRADE OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.
The following table gives the exports and imports of

144

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

the principal countries of the world for the year 1898,
or, where these figures are not obtainable, for 1897, the
latter year being signified by the *. The countries are
in the order of the amounts of their exports.

Countries.
Great Britain
United States
GermanyFrance
Netherlands*Belgium.
RussiaBritish India
Austro-Hungary Italy
Canada
Mexico Spain*Switzerland
Argentine Republic
BrazilCape Colony
New South Wales
ChinaSweden*

DenmarkVictoria
Turkey in Europe
New Zealand
Chile*
Norway* Queensland*
Portugal*UruguayVenezuelaGuatemala
Greece* PeruNatal Costa Rica
Ecuador*
Nicaragua
Paraguay

Exports.
$1,430,814,000 1,231,452,330 952,415,000
901,985,000599,820,000
582,840,000354,992,000
324,822,000 306,497,000
236,074,000164,15-2,000
148,453,000142,290,000139,698,000 133,829,000130,188,000
117,343,000110,216,000
104,125,000 94,600,00088,072,00086,564,000 77,242,000
60,500,000
50,884,00049,860,000
45,323,00044,241,000 41,087,00030,276,00021,510,000 19,775,000
15,575,00012,768,000 10,716,000 5,659,000
4,034,0003,095,0002,207,000

Imports
$2,289,094,000 616,050,654
1,303,680,000
1,077,441,000 682,911,000
632,847,000
281,006,000291,992,000 302,102,000273,438,000140,323,000 50,869,000
122,000,000
205,603,000 107,428,000
105,393,000 80,887,00044,825,000
145,447,000 99,625,000
138,196,000121,940,000 81,605.000
105,908,000 44,825,000 50,437,00071,275,00026,420,000 55,439,000
24,784,000
?13,241,000 3,880,000
22,156,000 8,138,000
25,905,000 4,258,000 6,972,000
2,789,0002,822,000

FOREIGN TRADE OF AMERICAN PORTS.
The following table gives the exports and imports of

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 145
the principal ports of the United States for the year
ending June 30, 1899:

Customs District. Imports. Exports.
New York $465,559,650 $459,444,217
Boston and Charlestown 52,097,960 128,037,149
Baltimore 9,151,155 107,156,240
Philadelphia 41,222,528 60,950,065
-New Orleans 11,917,659 87,993,277
Galveston 2,921,366 78,476,681
San Francisco 35,746,577 30,214,904
Newport News 1,332,426 28,177,817
Savannah 376,154 24,029,572
Puget Sound 7,239,718 15,200,340
Detroit 2,153,229 13,615,977
Pensacola 53,400 14,214,690
Norfolk and Portsmouth 208,005 13,831,233
Brunswick 45,975 10,421,488
Charleston 997,879 8,059,158

STRIDES IN SHIPBUILDING.
In the last sixty years the transatlantic voyage has
been cut down more than half, the size of the ships has
been multiplied by fifteen, and their power and carry
ing capacity by more than fifty. Enormous strides have
been made In shipbuilding and in the increase in the
size of ocean steamships.

Year

Length.

Beam.

Depth.

Ton

Built.

Vessel.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

H P.

nage.

1840

Acadia

228

34.4

22.6

425

1,1.50

1850

Atlantic

276

45

31.7

850

2,800

1855

Persia

300

45

32

¦ 900

8,300

1862

Scotia

379

47.8

30.5

1,000

8,871

1881

City of Rome

560

52

37

17,500

8,144

1885

Umbria

520

57.3

39.4

15,000

8,128

1889

Teutonic

582

57.6

17,000

9,685

1889

City of Paris

527

63.2

38.6

18,000

10,499

1893

Campania

625

65

41

25,000

13,000

1897

Kaiser Wilh. d.

Gr'se 649

66

43

27,000

13,800

1899

Oceanic

705.5

68

49

30,000

17,040

The Great Eastern, built in 1858, 680 feet long by 83
feet broad, carried engines of only 7,650 horse power.

146 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
THE WORLD'S SHIPPING.
The entire fleet of the worid In 1899 was, according
to Lloyds Eegister, 28,180 steamers and sailing vessels,
with a total tonnage of 27,673,528, of which 39 per cent.
are British. There are 3,010 American vessels, with
3,465,387 tonnage; 1,676 German vessels, with 2,453,334
tonnage; 2,528 Norwegian vessels, with 1,694,230 tonnage;
1,408 Swedish vessels, with 605,991 tonnage; 1,218 Eus
sian vessels, with 643,527 tonnage, 1,150 Italian, 1,182
French, 841 Japanese, 796 Danish, 701 Spanish vessels.
One-half of the ship tonnage is British and American.
American registered vessels engaged In foreign com
merce number only 1,331, having a gross tonnage of 848,-
246 and transacting less than 9 per cent, of our ocean
carrying trade, which is worth yearly to the vessels trans
acting it $175,000,000. The American percentage of
shipping profits is the smallest in our history. In 1860
our registered tonnage employed In ocean traffic was
2,546,237, or, three times as large as it is now when our
trade Is three times greater than it was then. Generally
speaking, of the 28,000,000 tons capacity assigned to in
ternational oceanic trade, less than 300,000 tons are of
American registry. Allowing 3,000 tons to the vessel,
there are only about 300 American vessels engaged in
transoceanic carrying.

SHIPBUILDING IN 1899.
According to Lloyds Eegister for July, 1899, there
were 580 vessels of 1,322,068 tons gross under construc
tion in the United Kingdom, 474 of which were for British
owners, 16 for Eussians, 11 for Danes, 10 for Hollanders.
On the Clyde, Glasgow was building 128; Greenock, 69;
Newcastle, 80; and Sunderland, 59.
The number of vessels built and numbered by the
American Bureau of Navigation In 1899 was 954 of 267-
642 gross tons, of which 421 with 160,13'2 gross tons were
steam vessels, and 533 of 107,510 gross tons were sail
ing vessels. Of these 70 vessels of 72,094 gross tons were
constructed on the Great Lakes,

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 14?
THE GREATEST STEAMSHIP LINES.
Line.
Hamburg- American ( German )
Peninsular-Oriental Co. (English)
North German Lloyd (German)
British India Co., of Glasgow
Messageries Maritime ( French )
Italian General Navigation Co.
French Transatlantic
Nippon Yusen (Japanese)
Wilson Line, of Hull (English)
Austrian Lloyd
Spanish Transatlantic Co.
Next in order come the Pacific Co., Bunard and White Star
lines. VESSELS ARRIVING AT NEW YORK, 1899.
The Barge Office authorities compiled the following
table of the arrival of vessels from foreign ports at New
York in 1899:

No. Vessels.

Tons Gross

69

286,945

60

283,140

60

256,613

97

251,429

63

229,837

96

171,041

64

166,701

68

161,698

82

159,793

72

146,560

36

121,161

Nationality.

St'mships. Ships.

Barks.

Brigs.

Schooners.

Total.

American

337

33

55

16

439

880

British

1,712

51

101

35

508

2,407

German

514-

23

17

555

Norwegian Dutch

238115

1
5

21 1

260121
French
95
1
1
97
Danish
66
3
69
Italian
19
2
44
65
BelgianSpanish
PortugueseAustrian
46392120
1
1
46
412120
Cuban
13
13
Hawaiian
2
1
3
Swedish
Russian
I
1
11
The arrivals from domestic ports aggregated 9,468.
IMMIGRATION,
From 1789 to 1820 It is estimated that the total im
migration Into the United States amounted to 250,000.
From 1820 to 1899 inclusive the total was 18,316,538.
Jd. 1§99 there were 311^715 as against 229,299 in 1898,
148 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Immigration was heaviest in 1882, amounting to 788,-
992, while in 1881 it was next heaviest, with 669,431.
Great Britain has furnished the largest proportion of
any country. Between 1881 and 1890 there were 1,466,-
426 from Great Britain, 1,452,952 from Germany, 560,-
483 from Norway and Sweden, 307,095 from Italy, 265,-
064 from Eussia and Poland, 226,020 from Austria, 127,-
678 from Hungary, while lesser numbers came from other
countries except Canada, from which there were 392,802.
There were 4,725,814 from all the countries of Europe.
Immigration during its three largest recent years, 1893,
1892 and 1891, formed respectively 43.79 per cent., 39.24
per cent, and 33.66 per cent, of the annual increase of
population, as against 10.92 per cent. In 1879, and 41.09
per cent, in 1874 and 39.23 per cent. In 1868.
In 1898, the smallest immigration year since 1879,
there were 229,299. Of these 178,748 came through the
customs district of New York, 10,735 through Baltimore,
12,271 through Boston, 8,360 through Philadelphia, 2,274
through San Francisco, and 16,911 through other ports.
Including those of Canada. Their reported occupations
on arrival were as follows •. Laborers, 52,531 ; farmers,
16,243; servants, 23,656; carpenters, 2,904; miners,
1,604; clerks, 2,031; tailors, 3,826; shoemakers, 3,229;
blacksmiths, 1,152; the professions, 1,342; skilled laborers,
33,145; of miscellaneous, 104,238.
The nationality of immigrants for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1899, was principally as follows: Italian, 98,-
730; Irish, 32,345; Polish, 28,466; German, 26,631;
Scandinavian, 23,249; Slovak, 15,838; English, 10,-
712. Mulhall estimates that there were 27,205,000 emigrants
from Europe in the 73 years between 1816 to 1888, of
whom 15,000,000 went to the United States.
In the course of a year the Commissioner of Immigra
tion has many applications from unsuccessful Immigrants
who want to go back to their homes. Of these the
majority are Irish, English and Germans — ^the better class
of foreigners. Of the Italians and Eussians and Polish
Jews there are few who ever desire to return. The homes
they left are probably more wretched than any they are

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 149
likely to find here, and hardships which would discourage
other immigrants are not sufficient to daunt them. The
law governing immigration requires that if, within a year
of his arrival, a foreigner Is unable to maintain himself
here, and is In danger of becoming a public charge, he
shall be deported to the country from which he came.
If the cause of his inability to support himself originated
prior to his departure from home, he Is sent back at the
expense of the steamship company which brought him
over; otherwise the Immigration Fund provides for his
passage. IMMIGRANTS AT NEW YORK.
The average number of deportations since 1893 Is 3,535.
During the year 1899 there were brought to New York
303,762 steerage passengers by the steamships of the six
teen different lines. The ports from which the immi
grants embarked for this country are as follows: Medi
terranean ports, 66,316; Bremen, 53,646; Liverpool, 46,-
061; Hamburg, 41,787; Havre, 22,883; Antwerp, 20,-
126; Eotterdam, 17,219; Southampton, 11,341; Glasgow,
6,759; Copenhagen, 3,465; Oporto, 1,515; Lisbon, 1,369;
Amsterdam, 892 ; miscellaneous, 351.
The majority of the immigrants were Syrians, Greeks,
Italians, Austro-Hungarians, Eussians and Polish Jews.
According to Commissioner of Immigration Fitchie, more
than one-half of these immigrants are undesirable and
will tend to Injure rather than benefit the country which
they have adopted. The Syrians, who are peddlers, seek
such places in this country as offer a field for the sale of
their wares; the Italians remain in the large cities; the
Eussians and Polish Jews go to the sweatshops, while the
Austro-Hungarians seek employment at the iron foun
dries, i
OCEAN CABLES.
The Atlantic telegraph connecting Europe and America
was completed in 1866. The first Atlantic cable was
laid in 1858. All the cables that now cross the Atlantic
were built since 1870. In 1890 there were 120,079 nautical

150 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
miles of cable in the worid, that cost over $200,000,000.
In 1899 the aggregate number of all submarine tele
graphs in the world was 1,500, and their aggregate length
170,000 miles, and their total cost $250,000,000. The
number of messages annually transmitted over them Is
6,000,000. Between all the grand divisions of the earth
are these wires and beneath all oceans except the Pacific.
Projected Pacific cables will soon cover even Its bottom.
About 151,067 miles of the submarine cables belong to 35
companies operating the commercial cables, which num
ber 323. The remainder, 1,142 In number and 19,880
nautical miles in length, are mostly lines controlled by
governments, and connecting forts, batteries, signal
stations, lighthouses, etc. The governments of the world
hold about 80,000 miles of cable in stock for war pur
poses, all ready to be laid when necessity may arise.
Twelve Atlantic cables now in use represent a total
capital of $85,000,000.
The longest ocean cable is that from Brest to Cape
Cod, 3,250 miles.
The quickest cable laying on record was accomplished
in 1893, when the duplicate line of the Central and South
American Company, in length 2,524 miles, was made and
laid in ten months.
The first promoter of the Atlantic telegraph was Cyrus
W. Field.
Of the lines owned by nations, Norway has the great
est number of cables, 325, but their aggregate length is
only 324 miles. France has the largest nautical mileage
of cables, 5,035, the cables numbering 54. Great Britain
and Ireland have 135 cables measuring 1,989 miles, and
British India 111 cables measuring 1,919 nautical miles.
Germany follows with 58 cables and 2,225 mileage.
Spain has 15 cables with 1,744 mileage, Japan 70 cables
with 1,508 mileage, and Italy 39 cables with 1,061 mileage.
No other nation has 1,000 miles of cables.
TELEGRAPHIC CODES.
_ Ever since submarine telegraphy has become an estab
lished means of communication, much ingenuity has been
expended on the compilation of codes, partly for secrecy

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 151
but principally to abbreviate the messages and save
money In rates. To such a fine point has codifying been
brought in this latter direction that the telegraph com
panies are at their wits' end to maintain a proper equilib
rium between the number of messages sent and the
number of words transmitted; in other M'ords, between
the volume of actual business and the amount of revenue.
All large commercial houses now use complicated codes
IrL which a single word of ten letters represents a sentence
of ten, fifteen or twenty words.
SHIP CANALS.
The Suez Canal. — The Isthmus of Suez has been
tiaversed from remote ages by a canal following nearly
the line of the present one; nothing certain, however,
seems to be known as to whom belongs the credit as its
first constructor, but it is generally given to Pharaoh
ISiecho, who reigned about 600 B. C. In course of time
it got silted up with sand, but was cleared out by Trajan
in the second century, A. D., and later In 767 A. D. The
Emperor Napoleon desired to reconstruct the canal, and
had the isthmus surveyed, but nothing was done until
the time of the noted Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps,
who successfully constructed it. It was begun in 1859,
the first vessel passed through Aug. 15, 1865, and it
was opened in 1869. De Lesseps had been persistently
ridiculed by civil engineers everywhere for a score of
years. "The' Big Ditch," as it was called^ Is 92 miles
long and cost $102,750,000. During the first six months
of 1898 there were 1,792 ships of 4,842,078 tons net
passed through the canal, yielding in dues, $8,636,920.
' Of these vessels 1,196 were British, 178 German, 107
French, 99 Dutch, 49 Austrian, 39 Italian, 28 Norwegian,
If. Turkish, 18 Spanish, 27 Eussian, 5 Egyptian, 17
Japanese, 4 American, 1 Chinese, 3 Danish, 3 Portuguese,'
1 Argentine, 2 Greek. Over 90 per cent, of the vessels
pass through at night. There is a rule of the road by
which one or the other of the vessels going or coming
down has to tie while they are actually passing each
other. They are furnished with large electric lights at
the bow by the company for which a charge of about 10

152 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
guineas is made. The average duration of transit through
the canal is about 20 hours.
The Panama Canal Project.— In 1876 French enter
prise formed the "International Society of Interoceanic
Canal." Speculators obtained the necessary concessions,
interested M. de Lesseps in the scheme of the Panama sea-
level canal, and profitably sold out their concessions to his
company. In 1879, backed by the approval of an Inter
oceanic Canal Congress, the project was set on foot and
vTOrk begun in 1881. It was estimated that the canal
would be in operation in 1888. The result of the proj
ect was one of the most colossal of historical fiascos.
The company's liabilities at suspension were $422,000,-
000 with an annual interest and fixed charge of $22,000,-
000. Various estimates place the work accomplished at
from 15 to 32 per cent, of the total work to be done. An
endeavor to retain life In the project has since been made
and is still on foot Involving a change of plans to a canal
with locks. Its projected, length Is 46J miles, from 78
to 160 feet wide at the top and from 29 to 72 feet wide
at the bottom, and the estimated time of transit when
completed, 14 hours. It is said to be practically com
pleted for about 14 miles, from Colon to Bujeo. The
greatest expense of construction will be involved in cut
ting through the Culebra Eidge. About $280,000,000
probably represents the actual amount of money sunk in
M. de Lesseps' ditch, though it is said only some $80,-
000,000 was legitimately expended. In 1893 the French
public prosecutor said that the project If continued would
pay two per cent, on three billion francs ($600,000,000),
only after 1920. It is estimated that its completion would
now take ten years at a cost of $100,000,000.
The Nicaragua Canal. — In a conversation with Ecker-
mann, Goethe said : "I therefore repeat that It is absolutely
indispensable for the United States to effect a passage
from the Mexican Gulf to the Pacific Ocean; and I am
certain that they will do it."
The following, reflecting Nelson's views, is in Southey's
Life of Nelson : "The project was to take Fort San Juan
on the river of that name, which flows from Lake
Nicaragua into the Atlantic. . . . Here it is that

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. ] 53
a canal between the two seas may most easily be formed,
a work more important in its consequences than any
which has ever yet been effected by human power."
The distance by water around Cape Horn from New
York to San Francisco is 15,660 miles; by way of the
Nicaragua Canal 4,907 miles, a difference of 10,753 miles
which would be saved by the canal. From New York
to Manila the distance by the canal would be 11,746
miles. In 1887 a New York company obtained .conces
sions from Nicaragua for an Interoceanic canal. The pro
posed route was 169.8 miles in length, but only 28.9 miles
can really be called a canal. It begins at Greytown,
follows the San Juan river above Ochoa through Lake
Nicaragua, 129 miles, and thence to the harbor of Brito,
the Pacific terminus. The surface of the lake, 110 feet
pbove the sea, is the summit leveL The San Juan was
tc be backed up for 64 miles and kept at the lake level
by a dam. There are 90 miles of lake navigation. There
were to be three locks between the lake and Brito, 17
miles. The canal itself was to be from 80 to 120 feet
wide at the bottom, aijd its estimated cost was $64,000,-
000. It was to be completed in six years. The esti-
m.ated time of transit is 44 hours.
The routes proposed and surveyed have all been prac
tically along the above lines, differing only in minor
details and as regards possibly desirable variants. The
Ludlow Commission estimated the cost of the canal at
$133,472,893, in Its report to the Government. Its suc
cessor, the Walker Commission, submitted a majority
estimate of $118,113,790 and a minority estimate of
$334,818,308. It is estimated that it would take seven
years to complete the canal. The highest estimate of
cost would not be prohibitory from a commercial stand
point, and based on probable receipts from tolls its
financial success would be certain. Str^egic advantages
t(' the United States In its construction would surely
more than offset any possibility of the. investment being
unremunerative, if the project were executed by public
means and under Government control. Indeed, the cost
of its construction and maintenance by the Government
would be an economical measure as a means of national de-

154 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
fense alone; for the naval vessels whose construction It
would obviate, and which must be built and maintained for.
the defense of the Pacific if there were no canal, would
greatly exceed this expense. Both on its engineering arid
its financial sides the Nicaragua Canal project appears
feasible. It is estimated that about 5,000,000 tons of ship
ping are ready to seek annual transit through the canal.
With tolls at the rate of $2.50 per ton this would furnish a
revenue of $12,500,000. It is believed that $1,000,000
a year will cover ordinary operating expenses.
The United States battleship Oregon sailed 20,306 nau
tical miles from New Yorlc to Manila, steaming 92 days
at an average speed of 220.6 knots per day, consuming
5,417 tons of coal which cost $23,954. By way of the
Nicaraguan Canal, were It already built, she would have
had 51.4 steaming days, a coal consumption of 3,021 tons
costing $6,699. There would be a saving In distance of
9,983 nautical miles, a saving In time of 40.6 days, and
a saving in money of $17,225.
The Baltic Ship Canal—The "North Sea," the "Baltic
Ship" and the "Kiel" canal, as variously called, between
the Baltic and the North Sea was completed by the Ger
man Government, April 1, 1896. It is of great strategi
cal as well as commercial advantage to Germany. In its
second year ending March 31, 1898, there were 23,108
vessels, with a net carrying capacity of 2,469,795, regis
tered tons, passed through it, of which 9,396 were
steamers averaging 205.19 tons and 13,712 sailing vessels
averaging 39.52 tons. Of these 20,307 were German,
344 British, 867 Danish, 747 Swedish, 159 Norwegian,
137 Eussian, 486 Dutch. The estimated cost of the canal
was $37,500,000.
Manchester Ship Canal. — This canal was formally
opened 1894. It is about 26 feet deep. 120 feet wide, and
is capable of admitting vessels of 6,000 tons to Jlanchester
docks, over 40 miles from the sea. The canal proper
extends from the Cheshire shore of the Mersey to the
city of Manchester, 35.5 miles. At the bottom It is
nearly twice as wide as the Suez Canal, and 172 feet wide
at water level, and cost about $77,000,000. Duringthefirst
six months of 1898 the sea-going tonnage was 979,992, and

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 155
the barge traffic 193,888 tons. The increase over the
preceding year was 216,670 tons. The gross revenue of
the ship canal proper for the first half of 1899 was £124,-
183, the expenditure £91,359, leaving a net balance of
£32,826. The Baltic and BlacTc Sea Project. — There is a Eus
sian project on foot to connect the Baltic with the Black
Sea by a canal, almost 1,000 miles long, starting at Eiga
and ending at Kherson. It is estimated that It will cost
$140,000,000, and take five years to build. The course
of the rivers Dwina, Beresina, and Dnieper are to be fol
lowed as far as possible.
North Holland Canal. — The North Holland Canal
from Amsterdam to Holder was completed in 1825. It
Is 51 miles long, 125 feet wide at water surface, 31 feet
wide at bottom and 20 feet deep. It cost about $15,-
000,000. Corinth Canal. — The Corinth Canal between the Gulf
of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf shortens by 250 miles
the distance from the Adriatic, from Sicily or from Malta
to Constantinople and the Black Sea, avoiding the passage
around Cape Matapan. It is less than four miles long,
and In some places cut through rocks 250 feet high. Its
bottom width is 72 feet, its depth 27 feet, and it cost
$15,000,000. The Caledonian Canal. — The Caledonian Canal extends
across the north of Scotland In a straight line from north
east to southwest and from the Atlantic to the German
Ocean, a distance of 60.5 miles, of which 37.5 are over a
chain of natural lakes and rivers, the remainder being
artificial. The depth of water is 17 feet, and large and
swift steamers ply regularly from end to end.
Cape Cod Canal Project. — From the time of the Eevolu-
tionary war, and even as far back as the early part of tho
seventeenth century, the project of a ship-canal across
Cape Cod has been- repeatedly brought forward. Work
was not actually commenced until 1886. The canal, when
completed, is to cut through Cape Cod at its narrowest
part, connecting Buzzard's Bay with Barnstable Bay. The
route seems to have been marked out by nature, as two
shallow water-courses made a depression for over seven-

156 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
eights of the way across the peninsula at the narrow part.
The length of the capal will be somewhat less than eight
miles, and it will shorten the distance by water from
Boston to New York over ninety miles, the saving In time
being eight hours, besides the great advantage in escap
ing the dangerous navigation around the cape, which Is
peculiarly baffling and hazardous. The proposed canal
will be 23 feet deep at low water and 200 feet wide, and
the cost Is estimated at from $5,000,000 to $6,000,000.
The estimated tonnage around the cape yearly is 15,000,-
000 tons, which at ten cents a ton would yield a revenue
of $1,500,000.
Tehuantepec Ship-Railway. — By the terms of the
agreement under which Captain Eads obtained his right
of way, charts and subsidy from the Mexican Government,
it was provided that that Government was to control the
railway. The danger urged by the other engineers, that
vessels would be Injured In transportation. Captain Eads
planned to prevent by a mechanical contrivance which
he thus described: "It consists, in brief, of a cradle made
up of a number of separate parts, but all of them con
taining hydraulic jacks, on which the ship Is in fact sup
ported. All the jacks communicate by pipes, so that the
same hydraulic pressure is evenly distributed along the
bottom of the vessel, no matter what may be the vertical
irregularity of the track. Carried on this hydraulic
cradle, the vessel may, in fact, be said to rest on the water,
and there appears to be less Injury than there would be
in towage through a canal." The cost of the railway
over the Tehuantepec route, 112 miles In length, as was
estimated by Captain Eads, would be $75,000,000. A bill
was passed bv the United States Senate, Feb. 17, 1887,
which constituted James B. Eads and some eighty other
persons named as a body politic under the name and
title of the Atlantic and Pacific Ship Eailway Company.
The stock was not to exceed $100,000,000. This bill,
however, did not get through the House of Eepresenta-
tlves, being lost in the rush of legislation before adjourn
ment, and as Captain Eads died on March Sth following,
nothing was accomplished with his scheme.

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 157
LIGHTHOUSES.
Lighthouses have their origin in the mists of antiquity.
As soon as man began to plough the deep with ships,
some means of guiding the mariner into port or of warn
ing him off dangerous reefs had to be devised, and thus
we read in ancient works of the erection of fire towers
at the entrance to ports, to serve the double purpose of
defense against invasion and of friendly guidance to
safety. In the ancient world there were towers at Ostea,
Eavenna, Capteea and Ehodes, the latter of which lives in
history as one of the great wonders. In the island of
Pharos, opposite Alexandria, a lighthouse, said to have
been 500 feet high, was erected, which, after standing
1,600 years, was destroyed by earthquake. Caligula, the
Eoman Emperor, to commemorate his victory over the
Britons, erected a light tower at Boulogne, which was
later repaired by Charlemagne, In 810, was converted
into a fortress by the English In 1540, and stood until
1614. In the present day the majority of lighthouses in the
United States, or practically all, depend upon kerosene
oil as their Illuminant. In old times, the first repre
sentatives of warning lights on shore may be supposed
to have been bonfires, succeeded in their turn by braziers.
It Is believed that the Colossus of Ehodes held In his
upstretched hand a brazier in which a fire was main
tained to guide vessels into the harbor. His modern
successor, the Goddess of Liberty, in the harbor of New
York, carries an electric torch in virtually the same posi
tion that her prototype is supposed to have held his
brazier. Candles also played their part in the illumina
tion of lighthouses, but in modern days everything has
given way to the oil lamp, with very few and isolated ex
ceptions. The early oil lamp was adapted to burn lard
oil, and In order to prevent the oil from chilling, a curved
copper rod extended from a point well above the chimney
down into the oil, and terminated above the chimney
in a small ball. The waste heat of the flame thus main
tained the oil In a heated state. From 8 to 24 of these
lamps were mounted on a single armature. Some of the

158 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
first lamps burned sperm oil. As kerosene improved in
quality the time came, about 1873, when it naturally super
seded the more expensive lard oil. The electric arc lamp,
apparently very powerful, is found to be very unsatis
factory in fogs, owing to its slight penetrative power.
The history of lighthouses in the United States previous
to the Eevolution is involved in obscurity. Before 1789
the expense of keeping up the few then existing was borne
by the individual States in which they were, but after
that year the Federal Government assumed the responsi
bility of erecting and maintaining lighthouses. Previous
to 1852 the lighthouse system was under the control of
the fifth auditor of the Treasury, but subsequently a
Lighthouse Board was organized. The Board was at
tached to the office of the Secretary of the Treasury,
who is president of It.
The lighthouses of our day are as varied in their form
and nature as those of antiquity were simple and uniform.
Difficulties, however, seemed to multiply in proportion
to the increasing number of lights, for it became more
and more troublesome to distinguish one from another;
and yet a slight mistake of this kind might lead, and
often did lead, to total destruction. It was In this em
barrassment that Fresnel came to the rescue, and made
his name famous by the great improvements he Intro
duced. He discovered the lenses now employed in the so-
called dioptric apparatus, and found in an optician of
high merit, who bore the significant name of Soleil (Sun),
an efficient assistant for all practical purposes of his
invention. It is true that a name of great renown, that
of Brewster, Is mentioned in serious competition witli that
of Fresnel, the English claiming both the priority of
invention and the superiority of construction for their
own countryman; but, fortunately, the merits of both
these illustrious men are great enough to be appreciated
by all the world, even Independently of their connection
with lighthouse lenses.
It is the custom of almost all countries possessed of
a navy and a large mercantile fleet to take the light
house keepers from the vast number of disabled seamen.
There are generally three of them in larger lighthouses,

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 159
and as a matter of course never less than two, even In the
smallest. Their duty Is simple but exceedingly rigorous.
It Is said that evil-minded persons on the Bahamas
and elsewhere used systematically to hang out false lights
to lure ships off their course and on to reefs, and that their
rude method for imitating a revolving or flash light was
to tie a lantern to a horse's tail and walk the animal
around In a circle.
Fog-signals, many of which are required at different
points on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, are of several
kinds. Some are steam-whistles, the sound of which is
made deeper or louder by being sent through a trumpet;
but the most effective is probably the Siren. This in
genious machine consists of a long trumpet and a steam
boiler. The sound is produced by the rapid revolution
past each other of two fiat disks pierced with a great
number of small holes; a jet of steam under high pres
sure Is projected against the disks, which revolve past each
other more than 1,000 times a minute; as the rows of
small holes in the two disks come opposite each other,
the steam vehemently rushes through and makes the
singular and piercing noise which a Siren gives out. One
of these machines Is said to cost about $3,500 complete.
Brewster's dioptric light is said to have been con
structed in 1818.
FAMOUS AMERICAN LIGHTHOUSES.
The MInot's Ledge lighthouse, off the town of Cohasset,
is perhaps, the most famous of any on our coast, having
been the scene of a tragedy in April, 1851, when it was
completely overwhelmed by the sea. MInot's rock lies
20 miles southeast of Boston, and for many years before
1847, when the lighthouse was constructed, had been the
terror of mariners. It was erected in thfe face of great
difficulties. The Bartholdl Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor,
presented to the United States by the French people In
1885, is the largest statue ever built. Eight years were
consumed In Its construction. It weighs 440,000 pounds,
of which 146^00 pounds are of copper, the remainder

160 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Iron and steel. The electric light held In the hand of
the giantess Is 305 feet above tide-water. The figure
itself is 152.5 feet high, the pedestal 91 feet, and founda
tion nearly 53 feet. Forty persons can stand in the
head, which is 14.5 feet in diameter. A man six feet
high standing on the lower lip could reach the eyes. The
index finger is 8 feet long and the nose 3.75 feet. The
Colossus of Ehodes was a pigmy compared with this
wonder. The lighthouse at Hell Gate, N. Y., is 250 feet high
and has 9 electric lamps of 6,000 candle power each.
The Georgetown lighthouse, on North Island beach,
S. C, is an historic one, built In 1801 and rebuilt after
the war. The tower is 85 feet high, and its light can be
seen for 15 miles.
Another light famous in history is at Cape Henry, off
the coast of Virginia, at the entrance of Chesapeake Bay,
which is so old that It has often guided the "father of his
country" home from his travels.
The Cape Cod lighthouse, situated on the highlands
of Cape Cod, 200 feet above the sea, can be seen 20 miles
away. A signal display station reads signals from pass
ing ships and within a minute these messages are in
Boston through telegraph connection.
The entrance of IDelaware Bay is guarded by Cape
May lighthouse, 157 feet high, which can be seen 19
miles. One of the highest lighthouses in the United States
is at Block Island, E. I. It is 204 feet high and its fixed
white light can be seen 22 miles.
At Line Eock lighthouse, Newport, E. I., Ida Wilson-
Lewis, the well-known heroine lighthouse keeper, has
rescued eleven persons.
At the lighthouse at Eobbin's Eeef, off Tompklns-
ville. New York Harbor, Mrs. Blake, the keeper, has
rescued five persons.
At the Elk Neck lighthouse in Chesapeake Bay, the
keeper, Jane Malby, rescued six men in her own boat.
From Boston to Galveston there is an almost unbroken
line of floating lighthouses, placed where they can be<;t
warn mariners, These lightships are strongly fastened

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 161
to the ocean's bottom with great anchors and strong
chains, where in heavy weather with their electric lights,
steam whistles and great bells they warn the sailor.
"The Graveyard of the Atlantic," sailors say, lies off
Cape Hatteras, the long, low piece of North Carolina
which extends far out to sea. The ocean's bottom here
Is strewn with wrecks. A powerful light in the light
house, 189 feet high, warns at night; but only recently
has there been constructed upon the dangerous shoals a
"day beacon," built on steel rods and of skeleton struc
ture 40 feet above low tide, and holding a huge cage of
iron which can be seen through glasses 10 miles.
Petit Manan lighthouse, or, "'Tit 'Nan," as it is called,
is also a spiderly looking affair rising among dangerous
shoals off Winter Harbor, Me., where the lighthouse and
keepers' quarters of corrugated iron are placed on stilts
above the waves.
The lighthouse on Destruction Island, 35 miles south
of Cape Flattery, rises abruntly from the ocean. Here
many birds are killed by flying against the thick lenses
(sometimes breaking them), being attracted by the bright
light. It was here that the early Spanish navigator
Quadra met misfortune, and later, in 1787, Captain
Berkley, who gave the island Its name.
FAMOUS FOREIGN LIGHTHOUSES.
The Eddystone lighthouse, 13 miles from Plymouth
Hoe, is situated on the smallest inhabited Island in the
world. At low water it is 30 feet In diameter; at high
water the lighthouse, whose diameter is 28.75 feet, com
pletely covers it. It cost £58,000.
The strangest of lighthouses Is on Arnish Eock, Stow
away Bay, In the Hebrides, Scotland. It is a conical
beacon erected on this rock. The lantern <)n its summit
can be seen far and wide, yet it has no wick, no oil, no
lamp. It has a mirror for a lantern and reflects a stream
of light which is projected upon it from a lighthouse on
the Island of Lewis, 500 feet away. By an arrange
ment of prisms the rays are made to diverge in the neces
sary direction.

163 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
The Cape Spartel lighthouse is the ward of many na
tions. Ten governments support it; It stands on the
extreme northwest corner of Africa, on a nearly perpen
dicular cliff 500 feet above the yVtlantic, about 8 miles
from Tangier, Morocco. Cape Trafalgar, off which Nel
son fought, the great fortress of Tarifa, and Gibraltar
itself aie included in the view obtained from this famous
structure. On an Isolated rock In an estuary of the Geronde, in
France, is a lighthouse without keeper, whose light bums
for two months. The lamp is an automatic feeder and
the fluid used Is a mineral oil.
The most powerful lighthouse in the world is at Pen-
mark Point, in the Department of the Finisterre, France.
The tower Is 207 feet high and can be seen, in the day
time, 30 kilometres in fine weather, and at night its light
may be visible 100 kilometres (63 miles). Its lightning
flashes are sent out over .the ocean every five seconds,
but are of only one-tenth of a second duration. Its cost
is estimated at £24,000.
The lighthouse at Genoa, Italy, Is 218 feet high. This
lighthouse, together with the Statue of Liberty light,
the light at Hell Gate, the light at Cape Hatteras and
the Penmark Point light, ¦ constitute the five highest
lighthouses in the world.
The lighthouse at the Fame Islands Is probably one
of the most famous, made so by the heroism of Grace
Darling, who, Sept. 5, 1838, rescued with her oars and
boat the people on the wrecked steamer Forfarshire.
LIGHTHOUSES IN UNITED STATES.
There are 535 lights on the Atlantic coast, beginning to
count at the northern part of Newfoundland, and con
tinuing to the south shore of Venezuela, Including those
on the Gulf of Mexico and along the coast of the West
Indies. On the Pacific coast there are only 33 lights.
On the maps of the ITydrographlc Office each of these
is designated by a tiny black dot covered but not con
cealed by a small yellow splash. Though all the dots
are the same the lights arc different. There are fixed

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING.

163

ones. Intermittent lights, revolving ones, and red and
white flash-lights, with occasionally a red sector, which
indicates shoal water and danger, warning one well out
side the space covered by the light.
At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899,
there were under the control of the U. S. Lighthouse
Establishment 1,739 lighthouses and lighted beacons;
46 light-vessels in position ; 7 light-vessels for relief ;
78 electric and gas buoys in position; 160 fog-signals
operated by steam or hot air; 217 fog-signals operated
by clock-work; 1,411 post-lights on western rivers; 475
day or unlighted beacons; 7() whistling buoys in position
and 116 beU-buoys in position.
PROMINENT LIGHTHOUSE POSITIONS.
The following are the positions in latitude and longi
tude of some of the most prominent lighthouses in the
world.

Deg.

Min.

Sec.

H.

M.

S.

Aspinwall, S. A.

9

22

9 N.

5

19

39 W.

Ca lao, Chile

12

4

3 S.

5

9

3 W.

Cape Cod, Mass.

42

2

21 N.

4

40

15 W.

Cape Hatteras, N. C.

35

15

14 N.

5

2

5 W.

Cape Henry, Va.

36

55

29 N.

5

4

2 W.

Cape May, N. J.

38

55

56 N.

4

59

51 W.

Cape of Good Hope

34

21

12 S.

1

13

58 E.

Charleston, S. C.

32

41

44 N.

5

19

32 W.

Demerara ( Georgetown )

6

49

20 N.

3

52

46 W.

Esquimau, B. C.

48

25

40 N.

8

13

47 W.

Father Point, Que.

48

31

25 N.

4

33

49 W.

Honolulu (Reef)

¦ 21

17

55 N.

10

31

28 W.

Key West, Fla.

24

32

58 N.

5

27

12 W.

Pensacola, Fla.

30

20

47 N.

5

49

14 W.

Pernambuco, Brazil

8

3

22 S.

2

19

28 W.

Port Said, Egypt

31

15

45 N.

2

9

16 E.

Sandy Hook, N. J.

40

27

40 N.

4

56

1 W.

Suakim, E. Africa

19

7

N.

t 2

29

16 E.

Tunis (Goletta)

36

48

36 N.

41

15 E.

Vera Cruz, Mex.

19

12

29 N.

6

24

32 W.

Victoria, B. C.

48

25

26 N.

8

13

34 W.

WHISTLING BUOYS.

One the most interesting aids to navigation Is the

164 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
whistling buoys. They are clumsy affairs of steel, rang
ing in length from 30 to 35 feet, with an air tank shaped
like a pear, about 10 feet high and 9 feet in diameter,
from which an 18-inch pipe 20 feet long protmdes. This
long pipe which runs down into the water is what fur
nishes the power for the whistle. When the buoy is in
the water the rolling of the waves up through the pipe,
and the pressure on the air in the tank, forces it out
through the whistle, and the dismal sound well known
to mariners is the result. Whistling buoys at different
ports of the United States Atlantic coast are given a
different pitch, in order that the mariner may, on a
thick night, be able to know his locality by the difference
in the sound. It is the duty of certain men to adjust the
pitch of these whistles when they get out of tune, and they
become so expert at it that they can detect and remedy
the slightest variation from the correct pitch. The ad
justment of these whistles must be made while they are
in place and the great necessity of their marking correctly
dangerous rocks sometimes obliges the men on the buoy
boats to make repairs in very rough weather.
THE LIFE SAVING SERVICE.
Extending over and picketing the ocean and lake coasts
of the United States there is a corps of men consisting
of Inspectors, superintendents, station keepers, and crews.
At the end of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, there
were 265 stations, 193 on the Atlantic coast, 56 on the
coasts of the Great Lakes, 15 on the Pacific coast and 1
at the Falls of the Ohio, Ky. The number of disasters
during the year was 428 ; the value of property involved
was $8,104,640 ; the value of property saved was $6,261,-
900; the value of property lost was $1,842,740; the num
ber of persons involved was 3,903 ; the number of persons
lost was 56. Since the introduction of the Life Saving
System in 1871 to June 30, 1899, the number of disasters
was 11,170: the value of property involved was $169,-
438,599 ; the value of property saved was $132 021 447 •
the value of property lost was $37,407,152; the number
of persons involved was 85,891; the number of persons

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 165
lost was 908. Sumner I. Kimball is general superin
tendent at Washington. THE RECORD LIFE SAVER.
Capt. Thomas L. Weiss, of the ship Belgian King,
of the California and Oriental Line, probably holds the
record as the sea captain who has saved the greatest num
ber of lives. The veteran sailor Is said to have saved
the lives of over 1,000 men, women and children during
24 years' career on the North Atlantic. His luck in
finding helpless vessels has won for him the name of the
"towboat captain." He has earned for the crews and
owners of the steamers he has commanded the sum of
$90,250, paid as derelict awards and in other ways. In
March, 1881, Captain Weiss was instrumental In saving
the lives of 850 men and passengers aboard the steam
ship Palmyra. Coming up to the disabled steamship
at a point 550 miles east of St. Johns, Newfoundland,
he sent a line to the ship and towed her into St. Johns.
For this the crew and owners of the Brooklyn City, which
was the captain's steamship, received $15,000. All sorts
of thrilling stories are told of the perils of the crew
of the captain's ship incurred In their efforts to save
other imperiled sailors. Among the vessels towed Into
port by the captain have been the steamship Albano,
bound for Baltimore, and disabled for 12 days, 500 miles
off the English coast, with 30 men on board and rudder
gone; and the steamship Strathleven, with three feet of
water in her hold and forty souls on board. The cap
tain, wife, and twelve men of the German bark Margaretha
Blanca, adrift 350 miles off Halifax, fourteen men of the
Norwegian bark. Corllan, eight men of the Norwegian
bark Emil, twelve men of the French bark Louis, and two
French fishermen, are also among the lives saved by
Captain Weiss and crews.
NEW YORK'S PILOT SERVICE.
The pilot service connected with the port of New York
is an old and memorable one, going back to the fOrma-

166 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
tion of the Federal Govemment. During this time it
has helped, naturally, to make some good history. For
instance, the pilot boats were used as privateers during the
war of 1812 and did most gallant service. On one occa
sion the pilot boat William D. Eomer was sent on secret
service to head a clipper Liverpool packet, and arrived
three days ahead of the packet at Queenstown. The
pilot boat Thomas E. Sklddy was the first vessel to enter
a Japanese port under Commodore Perry. During the
blockade of New York in the war of 1812, a cutter was
employed by the British to Interrupt small vessels. A
pilot boat disguised as a coaster, with a number of armed
men on board, captured the cutter, landed on Sandy Hook
those of the crew who were killed In the encounter, and
towed the captured cutter into port. It was the New
York pilot boat. Flying Fish, which, under Lieutenant
Walker, in 1839, made an Antarctic voyage of dis
covery. THE WORLD'S SHIPWRECKS.
We hear much of the many finely modeled ships that
are built from time to time, but little of the many vessels
that are lost. Take the year 1896 for example. In that
year 68 vessels, the larger proportion ships, sailed from
some port or other, and, according to Lloyd's annual
return, never again were heard of, and these too, were
fairly good-sized craft. England and her colonies con
tributed 28,500 out of the 49,100 tons which thus passed
out of record In that year. The total number of wrecks
for 1896 too seems large — 1,086 vessels of 649,946 tons,—
but, it must be remembered that there are probably always
afloat on the high seas over 20,000,000 tons of shipping,
which fact, although it Increases the surprise that so
many vessels should be lost without any news. Indicates
generally a fairly low ratio of loss — from 3 to 4 per cent.
of tonnage.
Within the last 30 years prior to 1896 there were on
the British coasts 66,377 wrecks, with the loss of 22,313
lives. It is the steam craft that account for the major por-

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 167
tion "of the tonnage lost, while the sailing craft swell the
number of vessels lost. During the third quarter of 1896,
for Instance, July to September Inclusive, those wrecked
were: Steam, 57 vessels of 84,681 tons gross; sailing,
119 vessels of 52,606 tons net. During the same quarter
there was not a single steamer posted as "Burned," "Lost,"
or "Missing," and only two were abandoned at sea. As
against this, there were 11 sailing ships abandoned, 6
burned, 1 lost and 4 missing.
The experience of the Atlantic companies has shown
that a ship can be rendered almost as safe as a house on
shore by a liberal expenditure of money, and by Increas
ing vigilance on the part of the captain and crew. It is
the ship on which undue economy Is exercised that usu
ally falls a prey to bad weather.
WRECKERS.
The wrecking companies have boats stationed at con
venient places; and along the entire line of the coast,
living within sight of each other, numerous agents who
daily patrol the coast on the lookout for wrecks and send
immediate Information to headquarters. After every
gale from the east the boats cruise along the coast In search
of vessels in distress. It is a principle of maritime law
that no claim for salvage can be established unless proof
is adduced of the abandonment of the wreck by its crew,
or that the captain or master in command has asked by
signal or otherwise for assistance. Often when vessels
have been run ashore, or are stranded or sink In shoal
water, a master may decline assistance from the salvors,
or make a special bargain with them to aid in getting
him off. Wreckers take advantage of knowledge of sands
and tides. I
THE LAWS OF SALVAGE.
In the last few years of misadventure at sea there
have been many instances of ships rescuing other ships,
met in imminent danger on the highways of the Atlantic,
and the rescuing ships have in many cases got rich re-

168 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,
wards of salvage. In England and America the am'ount
of salvage rests with the judge of the Admiralty Court,
who determines it after hearing the evidence which shows
the value of the service rendered. The rules which govern
the proceedings of admiralty courts are explicit.
There is no obligation upon the master of any vessel
to heed signals of distress. He may go upon his way
as If no call for aid had been made, and the law cannot
touch him. But there are few Instances of masters having
done this without some excuse. And the unwritten law
which says that a call for help at sea must be obeyed,
is most powerful, being enforced by public opinion.
Every master knows that danger may come to him and
his vessel, and that It would not be well for him If he
had ever disobeyed this unwritten law. The laws of sal
vage are In existence to encourage endeavors to save life
and property at sea. At the same time, the laws have
In mind the danger of exciting the avarice of masters
and owners, and have made strict provision for justice
to both sides. For Instance, under all but the most extraor
dinary circumstances, a master and crew cannot get sal
vage for saving their own vessel. It is fiupposed that
they must do everything in their power to save it and
to keep It from danger under their contract with the
owners, and the law has been careful not to give them
a chance to put the ship In peril, so that they may profit
by its rescue. Any exorbitant bargain made by the master
of a ship with the master of another ship in sore distress
will not hold in court. Nor will an unsuccessful attempt
at salvage form the basis for a claim. The salvage must
be complete, or It is not at all. It must be shown also
that the peril was actual, and that the assistance was given
in good faith.
In England salvage may be claimed for saving vessels
only on the high seas or in tide water. In America
salvage extends to harbors, to the lakes, and to the rivers
upon which Interstate commerce is carried on. In Eng
land claims for salvage are heard by the Admiralty
division of the High Court of Justice. ' In America the
United States District Court sits as an admiralty court.
The common ground upon which claims for salvage may

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 169
be based is the saving of a ship imperilled by the sea,
by fire, by rocks, by crippled machinery or equipment,
by pirates, enemies, or the sickness or death of the crew
or master. The amount Is determined by the danger
incurred, by the peril of the distressed ship, and by the
value of the ship and cargo. While the salvage is usu
ally paid by the underwriters, It Is always to the interest
of masters to refrain from calling for assistance so long
as possible. The salvage is paid to the owners of the
vessel that does the saving. It is as a general thing about
one-third of the value of the vessel and cargo in the
case of a sailing vessel, and between one-third and one-
half in the case of a steam vessel. Of this sum the master
of the salvor gets a considerable share. His proportion
Is usually twice that of the mate, and the mate gets twice
what each seaman gets. Those seamen who risk their
lives in the lifeboats or who are sent aboard to manage
the wrecked or crippled vessel, get twice as much as those
who stay behind In the rescuing ship.
It is a curious fact that the law does not permit any
salvage for saying life. This is because under the in
surance contracts a vessel is not held to have gone out
of her course when she goes out of it to save life, while,
if she goes to save property, her insurance is no longer
In force. Naval and other marine officers of the govern
ment cannot claim salvage when they are within the lines
of their duty. There are especial rules in cases of saving
derelicts; a derelict being regarded as still the propertj
of her owners, although her crew has abandoned her and
no effort Is making to recover her.
Often a ship fortunate enough to save an Imperilled
or helpless vessel will make more than she would on two
or three voyages. If she but renders assistance she gets
far more than the mere payment for her tlmOj^and trouble.
But when one ship hails another for slight assistance
there is usually a bargain made then and there, and this
bargain bars all claims for salvage. When a ship has a
clear right to salvage, the owners or underwriters of the
saved ship do not make any great contest of the claim.
They merely try to bring out the exact extent of the
peril and prevent the assessment of an exorbitant sum.

I'i'O OLD OCEAN'S FERRY,
The admiralty courts always have a number of claims for
salvage under consideration. While some of these claims
amount to only a few hundreds or a few thousands of
dollars, a few result in awards of from $25,000 to $150,-
000. HYDROGRAPHY.
There are about 200 rocks dangerous to navigation
discovered every year. The British Admiralty keeps a
dozen vessels employed In hydrographical surveying in
various parts of the world. Discoveries made by other
vessels are also reported to the British Admiralty. The
Coast-Survey is a most delicate and Important branch
of government service in America, to which the sailor
looks for knowledge of shifting bottoms, dangerous shoals.
Isolated rocks and other perils to navigation. It fur
nishes accurate maps of the whole coast; points out the
positions for lighthouses, beacons and other signals; de
termines the character and cause of currents of the ocean
along our shores; develops the laws of the tides; ascer
tains the prevailing courses of the winds ; notes the changes
which take place near harbor entrances; investigates the
character of the bottom of the sea, and In fact, does any
thing that may contribute to a full and accurate knowledge
of our coast and adjacent waters.
Storm warnings were first Issued In Holland in 1860.
Dally weather charts were first Issued In 1872.
DERELICTS.
For the past several years the Hydrographic Office of
the Navy Department has been of great service to mariners
by collecting Information regarding derelicts, their move
ments, changes In character or position, by the action of
the elements or other causes, and publishing the same on
the first of each month in the form of a pilot chart, which
also contains a large amount of other Information of the
greatest value to the navigator. Subsidiary to the work
of the Hydrographic Office in locating dangerous wrecks
and reporting the movements of derelicts, have been the

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING, \1l
operations of the naval vessels to which has been assigned
the work of blowing up such obstructions to commerce
as may be considered of a specially dangerous character.
Most derelicts are lumber-laden and come from southern
ports of the United States. The Gulf Stream flowing
strongly in a north-northeasterly direction, they are apt
to be carried along with it until they strike the Labrador
current flowing south, and then their course is re
versed. The American schooner W. L. White, abandoned off
Cape Hatteras In the blizzard of March 13, 1888, is a
case In point. She floated north with the Gulf Stream
until she got into the Labrador current off the Grand
Banks In the following May. Here she remained float
ing to and fro in the very track of many ocean steamers
during the entire summer of 1888 and until October
30, when she took an easterly and then northeasterly
course, and finally went ashore on the Hebrides, Jan.
25, 1889. During the cruise of this derelict, covering
ten months and ten days, she must have covered a distance
of more than six thousand miles.
About 70 per cent, of the transocean International
commerce of the globe Is carried on within a belt of water
about 600 miles in width, between Europe and North
America. This great lane of commerce embraces only
about two per cent, of the entire ocean surface of the
world. It is in this comparatively small part of the ocean
that many of the derelicts are reported.
There appears to be an annual total loss of 2,172
vessels and about 12,000 lives In the entire ocean com
merce of the world. The annual value of the ships and
cargoes thus lost is estimated to be about $100,000,000.
The hydographic chart Issued Feb. 20, 1892, for Instance,
shows the places where 956 vessels were wrecked on the
Atlantic coast of North America. It also shows the posi
tions of 332 vessels abandoned on the high seas, of which
139 were so frequently reported that their drift tracks
are marked on the chart. Besides, there were 635 dere
licts reported whose tracks were not ascertained. This
makes a total of 957 during a period of five years, from
1887 to 1891 inclusive, an average of 16 each month.

173 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
During the same period there occurred 38 collisions with
derelicts, or an average of eight every year. The average
time a derelict remains afloat is found to be about 30
days. The American schooner Wyer G. Sargent was dis
masted and abandoned at sea, March 31, 1891, in lati
tude, 34° 42', longitude, 74° 40'. With a cargo of $20,-
000 worth of mahogany below decks she drifted on the
Atlantic for six years, and in the first 21 months traveled
more than 5,000 miles, until Oct. 12, 1892, when she got
into the Sargasso Sea, remaining there until carried out
of its infiuence by unusually fierce easterly gales In the
winter of 1896-1897. She twice crossed the Gulf Stream,
was sighted 27 times, and each time her appearance was
much the same as when her crew left her. Her decks
were awash, her bow well out of water. After battling
with storms for six years, shattered and covered with
barnacles, she drifted ashore on the uninhabited Island
of Conception, one of the most dangerous of the Bahamas.
Hers was the most remarkable career of any derelict ever
known, as she attracted the attention of shipping men
all over the world and her erratic courses about the At
lantic were for months most accurately plotted on the
pilot charts.
In January, 1892, the bark Hutchins Brothers, of Hali
fax, was sighted west of the Bermudas with all sails set
and not a soul aboard.
A large railway transfer barge drifted over 4,000 miles
from a point on the California coast to a coral reef off
the Marshall group.
In 1876, the British ship Ada Iredale, having her cargo
of coal on fire, was abandoned at sea In the South Pacific
1,900 miles east of the Marquesas Islands. She con
tinued to burn and float until she had worked her way
to the vicinity of the Society Islands, 2,423 miles away,
where, on June 9, 1877, she was sighted and towed into
port, where she continued to burn until May of the next
year, nearly two years after she was abandoned. The fire
at last burnt out, she was towed to San Francisco, re
paired, rechristened the Annie Johnson, and placed in
the Pacific China trade, where she Is now engaged.

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 173
About five derelicts are reported daily, about 32 a week,
about 132 a month, and nearly 1,600 a year on the
average. A large number are reported which are un
known. About 90 annually are reported bottom up,
or 30 per cent, of the unidentified derelicts annually
afioat. From 1887 to 1896 the Hydrographic Office re
ceived 1,944 reports of 482 derelicts, which show that the
wrecks were reported on an average of about four times.
The Fannie E. Wolston, abandoned and adrift from
Oct. 15, 1891, for several years, covered over 8,500 miles
in about 900 days, and isndured weather which sent many
sound ships to the bottom.
BOTTLE PAPERS.
One of the most fruitful sources of information to
the Hydrographic Office is the sealed bottle. Every
captain, before starting on a voyage is furnished a number
of bottles, with a printed form for each with directions
In seven languages, in which Is to be entered the time
and place at which the bottle is cast overboard, and, in
case it is recovered, also the time and place of its re
covery, after which it Is transmitted to a convenient
United States consul or to Washington.
The special purpose of the sealed bottle is to give
indication of the strength of the ocean currents. Bottles
have been recovered that have floated over 4,000 miles,
and others that have been in the water over a year. The
vessels of the Navy have been dropping bottles overboard
for some time past. The most remarkable example was
that In which a bottle traveled 6,000 miles in 674 days,
approximately at the rate of 8.9 miles a day. It traveled
from 60° S. lat. and 60° W. long, to Western Australia.
The longest distance made by any bottle covered 6,300
miles, which was made in a little over tliiree years, or
nearly six miles a day.
About the fastest traveler of all these "bottle papers,"
went about 2,400 miles at 26 miles a day on the average.
Another bottle was set afloat from the ship Patriarch,
April 1, 1887, in lat. 1° 7' S., long. 25° 54' W., and was
picked up on Galveston Island, in - the Gulf- of Slexico,

174 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
May 18, 1888, having traveled 5,500 miles in 413 days,
at the rate of 13.5 miles per 24 hours. Taken collectively
the paths followed by these floating bottles give a good
idea of the drift currents of the North Atlantic.
MAIL CARRIED BY CURRENTS.
The island of St. Kilda Is often visited by tourist
steamers In the summer, but its regular mail communica
tion with the mainland, some 150 miles distant, is con
fined to the annual visits of the steamer which brings
the factor and his stores. But if at other times the in
habitants desire to communicate with Great Britain they
employ the following curious device: A man cuts the
rough model of a boat from a billet of wood, hollows It
partly out, places in the hollow a tin or small bottle con
taining a letter, nails on a deck, and when the wind is
blowing toward the mainland launches the tiny craft,
having first connected it with a bladder, which drives
along before the wind and acts as a tug to the little man
boat. But the set of the Gulf Stream frequently drives
this curious craft out of its course, and as often as not
it reaches the Shetland Isles or the coast of Norway,
where, however, the letter is pretty sure to be found and
posted to its destination. OIL IN STORMS AT SEA.
The utility and effect of oil In storms at sea was first
discovered by whaling vessels, in high seas, which were
surrounded by the oil from dead whales. The Hydro-
graphic Office of the Navy Department has been engaged
In collecting data to determine under what circumstances
the use of oil is most efficacious in diminishing the danger
of breaking seas during gales of wind. The following
are among the most striking accounts received:
In November, 1881, the steamship Venice, from
Savannah to Europe with cotton, while running before
a heavy northwest gale was boarded by a tremendous sea.
The captain determined to heave to, and men were sta
tioned to pour oil down the closet chutes forward and

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 175
to throw waste, soaked In oil, to windward. The vessel
came round without shipping any water. As she kept
falling off, it was concluded to put her again before the
sea, which was done without trouble, and it was found that
she kept perfectly dry as long as the oil was used. Again,
in January, 1884, while crossing the Atlantic to New
Y'ork, after running before a northwest gale for some
time, she was laid to without difficulty or danger by using
oil in the manner stated.
Captain Eltchie, of the English steamer Fern Holme,
while on his last voyage from Baltimore to Shields, used
oil bags while running before a west-southwest gale. He
hung one over each side, just forward of the bridge,
and they prevented the ship from taking water on deck.
First Officer W. Maltjen, of the German steamer Colon,
in December, 1884, used oil bags with remarkable effect.
Two bags filled with oil were hung over the bow. The
oil spreading over the surface prevented the waves from
breaking, and the ship rode quite easily during the con
tinuance of the gale.
Captain Jones, of the British steamer Chicago, while
rescuing the crew of the brig Fedore, used oil with best
results. It was blowing a heavy gale, with very high
seas. The Chicago ran to windward of the Fedore, and
during a lull, oil having been poured on the water, the
port lifeboat was successfully launched and started.
A can of oil was taken in the boat, and by using this
the seas were kept- down in the immediate vicinity, though
they broke in masses of foam a short distance away. As
the boat approached the Fedore, the crew of that vessel
poured oil on the water, which so calmed the sea that
the boat got alongside and rescued the shipwrecked crew
without sustaining any injury. About half a gallon of
oil was used by the lifeboat during her trip.
SOAPSUDS.
Experiments have shown that soapsuds will reduce a sea
almost as well as oil. The first trial was made on the
Scandia, in a storm on the Atlantic. A large quantity
of soap and water was discharged over the bow, and its

176 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
effect was nearly instantaneous, the height of the waves
being so diminished that the vessel could be managed
without difficulty. The steamer Senegal, strack by a
squall in the Adriatic, used soap and water with the same
result. Six pounds of soap were dissolved in 70 quarts
of water, and poured on some unravelled ropes, down
which it ran slowly Into the sea over the bow. This
made a quiet space about ten yards wide, preventing
the waves from breaking over the vessel to any great
extent. ICEBERGS.
An Atlantic craft which carries no lights, which makes
no signal, which turns neither to the right nor to the
left for approaching ships, bound out from Polar ports
to sunny seas, is the Iceberg.
Icebergs are a great source of danger to transatlantic
navigation from March to August every year. Some
times, but very seldom, bergs have been fallen in with
much earlier. On New Year's day, 1884, a berg was
passed by the Sully in 45° N. 48° W., and on Jan. 3,
1896, one was reported in almost the same position. The
northern ice barrier is broken up by the increasing power
of the sun's rays as he travels northward along the eclip
tic. Fields of ice, sometimes having an area of 1()0
square miles, are detached, and a free exit afforded for
the imprisoned Icebergs. Icebergs and field ice are borne
to the southward by the cold current that .foUows the
bend of the land from Labrador to Florida. Field ice
Iri formed on the sea surface during the Arctic winter,
but bergs have their origin far inland, and are the growth
of years. Greenland glaciers glide down their gentle
slopes into the sea, and the upward pressure of the water
breaks off their snouts to form the icebergs of the North
Atlantic. Ancient glaciers have written their story on
the mountains of Great Britain, and bergs were formed
a little way off the west coast of Ireland during the glacial
period. There exists a marked difference in form between the
bergs of the two hemispheres. Arctic bergs are of irregu-

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 177
lar shape, with lofty pinnacles, cloud-capped towers, and
glittering domes; whereas the southern bergs are flat-
topped and solid-looking. The former reach the sea by
narrow fiords, but the formation of the latter is more
regular. It is well to give these splendid specimens
of Nature's handiwork a wide berth, for they frequently
turn somersaults, owing to the wasting away of their im
mersed portions. A few years ago immense pieces of ice
fell from a berg on to the deck of a ship that had ap
proached too close to it while in this transitory state,
carrying away her masts and maiming some of the crew.
Again, ships have been sunk by colliding with submerged
portions of bergs, extending from their visible volume
like reefs of rocks from a bold sea coast. Hayes com
pared one that he saw to the Colossus of Ehodes. His
ship could have sailed under the arch of ice formed in the
heart of the berg.
North Atlantic bergs are neither so large nor so numer
ous as those met with in the Southern Ocean, between
the Falkland Islands and the Cape of Good Hope. In
1854-1855 an enormous ice island was drifting in about
32° S., 24° W.,for several months, and was passed by many
ships. It was 300 feet high, 60 miles long, and 40 miles
wide, and was in shape like a horseshoe. Its two sides
inclosed a sheltered bay measuring 40 miles across. A
large emigrant ship, the Guiding Star, sailed into this
icy bay and was lost with all hands. A similar, but
smaller, mass of ice was met with In the North Atlantic
by the Agra. She ran into a bay formed in the centre
of an iceberg, in 42° N. latitude, which was a mile and
a half across, and she experienced great difficulty in
beating out again.
A cubic foot of ice weighs about 930 ounces, but the
same volume of sea water weighs 1,380 ounces. Hence
ice floats on water and about one-ninth only of the volume
of a berg is exposed to view. There are several well
authenticated instances of bergs 1,000 feet high having
been sighted in the Southern Ocean, so that this would
give the total height of them as about 9,000 feet — a fairly
good sized mass of solid water. In May, 1895, the Inch-
green passed close alongside of a berg that Captain Miller

178 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
estimated had an altitude of 700 feet above the sea sur
face, and it was seven miles long. Bergs have often been
seen grounded on the Banks of Newfoundland, where
the depth of sea lead gave a depth of 650 feet. Eoss
saw several stranded in Baffin's Bay, where the depth
was 1,400 feet. Bergs are unusually numerous in some
years, and a connection is said to have been traced between
the frequency of bergs In the North Atlantic and the low
temperature In the British Islands during the summers
of some years. The ship Swanton passed 300 bergs in
1843, in 43° N. lat., 50° W. long. She narrowly escaped
destruction during the night as she passed between two
huge bergs that almost grazed her sides. Captain
Scoresby, while whaling in the northem Icy sea, counted
no less than 500 bergs under way for the open waters of
the Atlantic. In June, 1896, the ship Concordia, passed
78 large bergs In a short space of time, as they lay
aground in the Straits of Belle Isle. In 1896 the Ice
was both late and scarce. In 1883 it was very abundant.
No forecast can be made as to the probability of fre
quency of bergs. A vessel has been so firmly fixed in the
ice in the month of March, in 44° N., 45° W., that her
master was able to take a stroU on the ice. In 1841,
several ships, stopped by Ice in mid-Atlantic, were
afforded the opportunity for their crews to kill seals that
¦were basking upon it. Bergs have been seen in the North
Atlantic laden with lumps of rocks, sand and soil. The
Banks of Newfoundland would appear to have been
formed in this way. Arctic lands suffer denudation by
the inland ice as it creeps along toward the sea, and the
bergs, separated from their parent glaciers, deposit the
fragments at the bottom of the old ocean, there to harden
into rocks and help in moulding the surface of the coast.
Nothing is lost, nothing is new. In August, 1827, a berg
was observed stranded in 85 fathoms, in 46.5° N., 45° W.
Much earth and rock were embedded in its fissured sides.
Polar bears and other Arctic animals were seen on the
bergs of 1883. An abandoned ship was passed high and
dry on a huge ice island In 1794, and a ship with her
crew *was seen similarly situated in 1845 ; but no help
could be afforded.

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 179
On April 31, 1851, the brig Eenovation passed an Im
mense ice island, about 90 miles to the eastward of St.
Johns, Newfoundland. Two dismantled sMps lay snugly
upon it, but there was no sign of life. Captain
Ommanney, E. N., was deputed to investigate this report,
and took great pains to arrive at its truth, as it was
inferred that these ships were the Erebus and Terror,
of Sir John Franklin's ill-fated expedition. Some people
are still of the same way of thinking. The crew of the
German discovery ship, Hansa, were compelled to abandon
their vessel, crushed by ice, and took refuge on an Im
mense floating mass of ice, where they remained for
eight months. Their floating Ice Island was seven miles
in circumference, and drifted south, until the poor fel
lows were able to make their escape. During this time
they had lived in a hut constructed from the coal saved
from their ship. H. M. S. Eesolute was abandoned, em
bedded In the Ice, but was picked up after a long drift
southward. This ice-bearing current tends to make the
American coast very cold. The warmer water of the
Gulf Stream, on the other hand, enables the whalers to
get far to the northward, on that side of the Atlantic,
and makes the mean temperature of Ireland in 52 de
grees N., as high as that of American coast ports In
38 degrees N., 14 degrees nearer to the equator.
Ship-masters should take frequent observations of the
temperature of the sea, although it must not be relied upon
as a specific Indication. Warning may often be obtained
by means of the echo given off from a berg when a steam
whistle is sounded. The Admiralty charts show the
seasonable limits of bergs, and the United States Hydro-
graphic Office issues charts every month giving the exact
position of each berg sighted up to the moment of going
to press.
Strength of Ice. — Ice 1^ Inches thick will support a
man; 4 inches, cavalry; 5 Inches, an 84 pound cannon;
10 inches, a multitude; 18 inches, a railroad train.
MOST NORTHERN POINTS REACHED.
The farthest points of north latitude reached by Arctic
explorers up to the present date are as follows: in 1607,

180 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Hudson, 80° 23'; In 1773, Phlpps (Lord Musgrove), 80°
48'; in 1806, Scoresby, 81° 12' 41"; in 1827, Parry, 83°
60'; in 1874, Meyer (on land), 82°; in 1875, Markham
(Nares expedition), 83° 20' 26"; in 1876, Payer, 83°
07'; in 1884, Lockwood (Greely's party), 83° 24'; in
1895, Nansen, 85° 57' N. latitude and 66° E. longitude,
on October 16. The distance from the farthest point of
polar discovery to the pole Itself Is 4° 3', or, in round
numbers, about 300 miles. But this polar radius, though
only some 300 miles in extent, Is covered by ice gorges
and precipices of incredible difficulty; and frost Is so
severe that no instrument of human invention can measure
its intensity, and it blisters the skin like extreme heat.
The greatest progress that has ever been made across these
wildernesses of storm, of fury, and desolation, was at the
rate of five or six miles in a day, the explorers often
necessarily resting as many days as they had before
traveled miles in a single day, debarred by the obstacles
they encountered. ANTARCTIC RESEARCH.
It Is a fact that we can place little dependence upon
a great deal of the information that appears upon the
South Polar charts. Captain Sharp entered in his log
on Nov. 14, 1681 : "On this day we could perceive land,
from which, at noon, we were due west." His approxi
mate position at that time is known, and the authorities
long ago agreed that what he saw was ice only; and
there is reason to believe that many of his successors,
scanning the horizon through the snow-filled air, or during
the confusion of a gale, have placed land on their charts
where none exists. All or nearly all the inaccuracies
contributed to the charts by occasional visitors to South
Polar waters for nearly three centuries, are perpetuated
on the maps of to-day. Both Eoss and Captain Nares
sailed over parts still marked as land on many charts.
Many people have been surprised by the statement of
Dr. John Murray, that the South Polar continent mav
have an area of 4,000,000 square miles. Though this is
pure conjecture, no geographer will be astonished if it

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. ISi
prove true. The statement is based upon the fact that
the dredging operations of the Challenger in Antarctic
waters gave evidence to proximity to continental rather
than to oceanic lands; and further, the lands discovered
on all sides of the Antarctic circle — Enderby, Kemp,
Wilkes, Victoria, Graham, and Alexander Islands — have
none of them been seen in their entire extent. In each
case the top Is covered by an almost unbroken ice sheet,
extending outward from the coasts into the sea and ter
minating in precipitous cliffs, the Great Ice Barrier of
the South Polar explorers. There are plausible reasons
for believing tliat these lands around the Pole and ex
tending toward it from near the 66th parallel, may be
all parts of the coast of a great continental mass. If
Dr. Murray's conjecture as to the size of this supposed
continent approximates the truth, it Is eight times the
size of Greenland, which Peary has shown to be the largest
island known to us, and a third larger than the United
States, exclusive of Alaska.
The earlier voyages In high southern latitudes were
made In vessels of from fifty to one hundred and fifty
tons, and the ships used by Cook, Eoss, Bellinghausen,
D'Uryille, and Wilkes, though larger, cannot be compared
In size, ^peed, or safety with the modern whaler. Sledge
traveling was almost unknown when Antarctic research
stopped^ Nansen and Peary have shown us how to make
a highway pf the inland ice. Almost every branch of
science wijl profit by the renewal of South Polar research.
Blojogy, geology, meteorology, physics and physical
geography will he chiefly .enriched.
In 1774, Capt. James Cook penetrated southward be
low the 71st parallel on the 107th rneridi^n. In 1831,
Captain Bellinghausen discovered Peter Island and
Alexander Land. In 1833, Captain BIscoe, a British
sealer, thought he discovered Islands, one of which he
named Adelaide Island and a group, BIscoe Islands, and
a country which he called Graham Land. The Belgica,
with De Gerlache and Dr. Cook, sailed over the region
where these islands are charted. In 1898, and did not
encounter them. In 1839, Lieutenant Walker, in the
Flyipg Fish, at the 70th parallel of latitude saw "ap-

183 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
pearance of land," which does not exist, because the
Belgica sailed over the spot and found there a sea 1,000
feet deep. On March 31, 1898, the Belgica reached
latitude 71° 36' 30", having gone as far poleward as
possible, being thwarted by the ice. The Belgica was 13
months locked in Ice, and drifted with it about 2,000
miles, from 5 to 40 miles per day. Its soundings proved
a sea where land is charted, and a submarine bank like
the bank on the Newfoundland coast; also, that the mag
netic pole is about 300 miles east of its present assigned
position. STRANGE STORMS.
A mystery with which every sailor is familiar is the
formation of dust at sea. No matter how carefully the
decks may be washed down in the moming and how little
work may be done during the day, if the decks are swept
at nightfall, a large quantity of dust vrill be collected.
A Sand Storm. — The British steamship Glenshiel re
ported that when half way up the Eed Sea on a certain
voyage, a most terriflc sand storm, which lasted nearly
ten hours, suddenly swept down. It was impossible to
see anything a ship's length away. The wind blew a gale,
and it was dangerous to stay on deck for any length of
time. The sand was hot, and when it came into contact
with the body, would sting like the point of a knife.
Dust and Red Rain Storm. — The British ship Berean
encountered a storm of dust once when about 600 nules
west of the Cape de Verde Islands. Her sails and rigging
were thickly coated with a very fine powdery dust of a
dark yellow or saffron color, scarcely discernible on or
near the deck, but profuse on the highest parts of the
rigging, so that the sails appeared "tanned."
Admiral Smyth many years ago reported, during his
stay in Sicily, on the 14th of March, 1814, a "blood rain,"
which fell "In large, muddy drops, and deposited a very
minute sand of a yellow-red color," quite similar to
that reported by the Berean. He then regarded It as
"sirocco dust," from the African desert, "crowning the
beautiful theory of atmospheric circulation." Both on

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 183
the Atlantic Ocean and in Europe these rains of dust
have almost Invarii.bly fallen between January and April,
a period of the year in which the Sahara is most arid.
Fine dust falling on vessels In the Atlantic near the
Cape de Verde Islands has often been reported, but it
has so often been of a reddish hue that it is known among
sailors as "red fog," and has been generally supposed
to come from South America. The observation on board
the Berean appears to overthrow this conclusion, and
to determine the African origin cf both the Atlantic dust
and the so-called "blood rains" of Southem Europe.
One of the most remarkable of the paradoxical storms
swept down on the German steamer Argentine in the
summer of 1889. It lasted for four days, during which
time the air was so full of dust particles as to make high
noon-day almost as dark as the darkest midnight. When
the "storm" was at Its height the sailors were kept busy
shovelling the dust from the steamer's decks. The ma
chinery was made to work with great difficulty, and at
one time the captain had grave apprehensions that they
would be dashed upon the Cape Verde reefs.
Storm of Ashes. — The steamer St. Paul, from San
Francisco to Alaska, entered Into a dense black cloud at
ten o'clock one moming, from which it did not emerge
until two o'clock In the afternoon. Judged by the speed
of the ship and the velocity of the dust storm, the volcanic
cloud was probably 100 miles long. Showers of fine
volcanic dust fell upon the deck to the depth of several
Inches. At noon It was so dark that lamps had to be
lighted, and the sunshine was as pale as moonlight. The
nearest active volcano was in the Pabloff Mountains, 265
miles away.
Showers of Fish. — Perhaps the strangest of all storms
are those where there have been showers of fish, rats,
toads, lizards, reptiles and the like, which liave been
recorded from time to time, like the shower of fish quite
recently noted in Western Colorado. About 1828, at the
island of Islay, It rained herrings off and on for several
hours. A similar rain of another sort of fish occurred
near Allahabad, India, in 1840; In 1804, a great shower
of frogs fell near Toulouse, France. There is nothino-

1S4 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
miraculous in these occurrences. The wind scoops up
these animate objects, as In its less powerful manifesta
tions It carries aloft leaves and dust and other light sub
stances, and scatters them wheresoever it will. There
Is a case on record in Norway where a colony of rats,
while migrating from the high to the low countries, was
caught up by the wind, borne through the air and de
posited in a neighboring valley.
WATERSPOUTS.
A waterspout is a remarkable meteorological phenome
non, of the nature of a tornado or whirlwind, usually
observed over the sea, but sometimes over the land. Sir
J. F. W. Herschel says: "Tall columns, apparently of
cloud, and reaching from the sea to the clouds, are seen
moving along, often several at once, sometimes straight
and vertical, at others inclined and tortuous, but always
in rapid rotation. At their bases, the sea Is violently
agitated, and heaped up with a leaping or boiling motion,
water, at least In some cases, being actually carried up
in considerable quantity, and scattered round from a
great height, as solid bodies are by tornadoes on land."
There are numerous instances where those on vessels
have sighted waterspouts. Perhaps one of the most re
markable of recent instances was that on the occasion
reported by Captain McKay, of the ship Kelat, from
Chittagong, India, to New York. The Kelat was in latitude
25° north aild longitude 65° west. A fresh breeze was
blowing and the sky was overcast. Suddenly a water
spout made its appearance, whirling along about half a
mile away from the ship and extending from the clouds
to the water. Then another and another waterspout
appeared, until there were twelve of these watery pillars
whirling over the surface of the sea. Most of them were
small and nearly all of them at least half a mile away
from the ship. There were two of the largest nearer the
ship — one on either hand — and their tops spread out
until they formed an arch, through which the Kelat
sf,iled._ Captain McKay did not think at any time that
the ship was in danger from the waterspouts, as they did
not approach near enough to the vessel.

COMMERCE AND SHIPPING. 185
THE TYPHOON.
The worst storms are the typhoons of the Chinese seas.
They cover a large area, are uncertain in their move
ments and follow each other quickly. In the exact
center of a typhoon the sea is calm and the winds are
hushed. Around it on all sides the winds are blowing
In different directions at once, and the moment a ship
passes out of the calm it is impossible to tell from which
quarter the dangerous squall may swoop down and strike
her. The central calm is often 30 square miles In ex
tent. It Is caused by the rotary motion of the winds,
and the sky Is usually clear directly over it. During the
typhoon season the storms follow each other quickly, and
there are often several at once raging in different parts
of the far East. During August and September, In fact,
the season is at its height. MIRAGE.
A mirage is an optical Illusion arising from an unequal
refraction in the lower strata of the atmosphere, and
causing remote objects to be seen double, as if reflected
in a mirror, or to appear as if suspended in the air. It
is frequently seen in deserts, as well as on the sea, pre
senting the appearance of water. The steamer El Norte,
of the Morgan Line, reported a most remarkable mirage
off Hatteras. In a smooth sea, with the sun shinin.q-,
the "counterfeit presentment" of about twenty-eight
schooners was seen, outlined against a bank of fog, lyin_^
to the westward.
A mirage In the Caribbean Sea was the cause of tho
loss of the American barkentlne Steadfast. When the
Steadfast sighted the lofty peaks of St. Croix, the atmos
phere assumed a peculiar light color, and It became im
possible to detect the sky from the island, everything
assuming a similar shade and color, resembling the cir-
rostratus clouds, and hiding the entire lower portion of
the Island, the mountain appearing to be twenty miles
away. The mountain's tops seemed to be Inverted, the
tall cocoanuts appearing to grow from the sky to the
earth. The sugar grinding mills were pouring their

186 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
smoke downward, and the workmen working upside down.
The vessel crashed over the reefs and was soon fast on the
rocky shore, before Nature's deception was discovered.
The finest sea mirage is the Fata Morgana, in the
Straits of Messina, between Calabria and Italy, where the
strata of heated air gives rise to the appearance of objects
at a distance as Inverted, distorted, displaced or multi
plied.

OLD OCEAN.

LAND AND WATER OF THE GLOBE.
It is estimated by Mr. John Murray, a member of the
Challenger expedition, and one of the highest authorities
on oceanography, that the area of the dry land of the
globe Is 55,000,000 square miles, and the area of the
ocean 137,300,000 square miles. He estimates the volume
of the dry land above the level of the sea at 33,450,000
cubic miles, and the volume of the waters of the ocean
at 333,800,000 cubic miles. He fixes the mean height
of the land above the sea at 3,250 feet, and the mean
depth of the whole ocean at 12,480 feet. Of course these
results are only approximate, but they help to render our
Ideas of these matters more definite. He also estimates
that the rivers of the world would carry Into the ocean
every year 2^. cubic miles of sediment. To this must be
added the matter carried to the sea In solution, which
is estimated at 1.183 cubic miles of matter. Together,
then, the amount of matter carried through the land each
year is 3.7 cubic miles. It would thus, according to this
calculation, take 6,340,000 years to transport the whole
of the solid land down to the sea.
The areas of the several oceans are estimated by one
authority, as follows: Pacific, 70,000,000 square miles;
Atlantic, 35,000,000 square miles; Indian, 35,000,000

OLD OCEAN. 187
square miles; Antarctic, 8,500,000 square miles; Arctic,
4,500,000 square miles.
The seas are in length about as follows: Mediterranean,
2,000 miles; Caribbean, 1,800 miles; China, 1,700; Eed,
1,400; Japan, 1,000; Black, 932; Caspian, 640; Baltic,
600; Okhotosk, 600; White, 450; Aral, 250.
The entire coast-line of the globe is about 130,000
miles. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest gulf, 800,000 square
miles. THE AIR OF THE SEA.
The air of the sea taken at a great distance from land,
or even on the shore and in ports when the wind blows
from the open, is In an almost perfect state of purity.
Near continents the land winds drive before them an
atmosphere always impure, but at 100 kilometers (62.-
135 miles) from the coasts this impurity has disappeared.
The sea rapidly purifies the pestilential atmosphere of
continents; hence every expanse of water of a certain
breadth becomes an absolute obstacle to the propagation
of epidemics. Marine atmospheres driven upon land
purify sensibly the air of the regions which they tra
verse; this purification can be recognized as far as
Paris. THE ATLANTIC.
The name Atlantic comes through the Latin from the
adjectival prefix in the Greek name for the Atlantic
Ocean, which means the sea beyond Mt. Atlas. The
Atlantic has an area according to one authority, of 24,-
536,000 square miles. The surface of the Atlantic
would form a circle 6,180 miles In diameter, between one-
sixth and one-seventh of the total area of the earth's
surface. Its average depth Is more than the height of
Mt. Blanc. It has 80,000,000 cubic miles of water, could
be contained in the Pacific bodily nearly three times,
and a sphere would have to be 533.5 miles in diameter
in order to hold it. The number of cubic feet. of water
in it is expressed by 117 followed by 17 ciphers. It

188 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
would take a million clocks 370,000 years to tick off this
number. Its weight Is 325,000 billion tons, and the
number of gallons in It is 73 trillion. The Atlantic is
6.5 feet higher than the Pacific at the Isthmus of Panama.
THE PACIFIC.
The Pacific Ocean has about one-third the area of the
earth's surface. It extends through 135 degrees of lati
tude, three-eights of the world's circumference, a stretch
of 9,000 miles from north to south. From east to west
it varies from an even greater length to less than 50
miles. It has an area, according to one authority, of
7,309,000 square miles. Its surface would form a
circle 9,300 miles in diameter. Its average depth is
about three miles. It is estimated that it contains nearly
230,000,000 cubic miles of water. It would take a per
son an hour to walk around one of these cubes if it werfe
solid, and 10,000 steps in ascending a staircase to Its
top. The number of cubic feet of water in it is said to
be 34 trillions. If a million clocks ticked a million years
they would not tick off the number. At 62 pounds to
the cubic foot of water, the weight of the Pacific is over
2,000 trillion pounds. OCEANOGRAPHY.
Oceanography, or the geography of the sea, has become
a science. Since the cruise of the Challenger It has been
found that there are 43 great deep sea valleys. Lead
lines have penetrated Into them so deep that the sun's
rays are lost miles above their bottom. In these valleys
there are no plants or vegetation of any kind, because such
forms of life need light and at these depths there is
total darkness. But animal life fiourishes, and attains
in some species gigantic proportions. Most of these ani
mals are without eyes. It is estimated that three-fourths
of the deposits covering the bottom of the ocean have at
some time passed through alimentary canals of marine
animals. Sir John Murray estimated the area occupied
by these deep sea valleys at 7,152,000 geographical square
miles, or about seven per cent, of the water surface of
the globe.

OLD OCEAN. 189
DEPTHS OF OCEAN.
"From the top of Chimborazo to the bottom of the
Atlantic, on the deepest part yet reached," says Maury,
"the distance In a vertical line Is nine miles. Could the
waters of the Atlantic be drawn off so as to expose to view
the great sea-gash (the basin of the Atlantic) which
separates continents, and extends from the Arctic t
the Atlantic, It would present a scene the most rugged
grand and Imposing. The very ribs of the solid eartj.
with the foundations of the sea would be brought to light
and we would have presented to us in one view, in the
empty 'cradle of the ocean,' a thousand fearful wrecks,
with that dreadful array of skulls and treasure which lie
scattered at the bottom of the sea."
The average depth of the Pacific Ocean Is 12,780 feet;
of the Atlantic, 12,060 feet; of the Indian, 10,980 feet;
of the Antarctic, 6,000 feet; and of the Arctic, 5,100
feet. The average depth of the Pacific Ocean, between Japan
and California, Is a little over 2,000 fathoms; between
Chile and the Sandwich Islands, 2,500 fathoms; and be
tween Chile and New Zealand, 4,500 fathoms. The
average depth of all the oceans Is from 2,000 to 3,000
fathoms. The British ship Penguin has found a valley of the sea
fioor 28,572 feet deep between New Zealand and the Tong.i
Islands. The crowning peak of the Himalayas Is the
only one that surpasses in altitude this deep of the Pacific.
The American ship Tuscarora sounded 27,930 feet north
east of Japan, in the vast depression known as the Tus
carora Deep. The British ship Challenger found a depth
of 27,448 feet not far from the island of Guam, which has
recently become American territory.
Where the sea is deepest one hundred Trinity Church
steeples one above another would not reach the bottom.
This is nearly six miles deep.
The close approximation between mountains and sea-
valleys In variation respectively above and below the sea
level. Is to be noted as a suggestive fact in natural history,
the surface of the ocean thus indicating the true surface
of the solid globe,

190 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
Some of the greatest known depths of the different
oceans that have been reliably sounded are as follows:
North Atiantic Ocean, 4,561 fathoms, lat. 19° 39' N.,
long. 66° 26' W. ; South Atlantic Ocean, 3,284 fathoms,
lat. 19° 55' S., long. 24° 50' W. ; North Sea (Skegerack),
442 fathoms, lat. 58° 12' N., long. 9° 30' E. ; Baltic Sea,
233 fathoms, lat. 58° 37' N., long. 18° 30' E. ; Mediter
ranean Sea, 2,405 fathoms, lat. 35° 45' N., long. 21° 46'
E.; Black Sea, 1,431 fathoms, lat 42° 55' N., long. 33°
18' E.; Caribbean Sea, 3,427 fathoms, lat. 19° N., long.
81° 10' W.; Indian Ocean, 3,393 fathoms, lat. 11° 23'
S., long. 116° 59' E.; North Pacific Ocean, 4,655 fathoms,
lat. 44° 55' N., long. 152° 26' E.; South Pacific Ocean,
4,428 fathoms, lat. 24° 37' S., long. 175° 8' W. ; Behring
Sea, 2,146 fathoms, lat. 54° 30' N., long. 175° 32' W. ; Sea
of Japan, 1,640 fathoms, lat. 38° 30' N., long. 135° W.;
China Sea, 2,350 fathoms, lat. 17° 15' N., long. 118° 50'
E.; Sulu Sea, 2,549 fathoms, lat. 8° 32' N.. long. 121°
55' E. ; Celebes Sea, 2,794 fathoms, lat. 4° 16' N., long.
124° "2' E.; Banda Sea, 2,799 fathoms, lat. 5° 24' S.,
long. 130° 37' E. ; Flores Sea, 2,799 fathoms, lat. 7° 43'
S., long. 120° 26' E. ; Arctic Ocean, 2,469 fathoms, lat.
78° 5' N., lon.g. 2° 30' W. ; Antarctic Ocean, 1,975
fathoms, lat. 62° 26' S., long. 95° 44' E.
In 1899 Lieut.-Com. H. M. Hodges, In United States
surveying ship Nero, sounded the greatest known depths
in a submarine valley of the Pacific, which was christened
"Nero Deep." The soundings reached 5,160 fathoms (30,-
960 feet,) and 5,269 fathoms (31,614 feet). The tem
peratures were 35.9 at 5,070 fathoms and 36 at 5,101
fathoms. THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA.
Eecent research has brought to light some interesting
facts regarding the bottom of the sea. Scientists tell
us that if the surface of the sea were lowered six thou
sand feet the width of the Atlantic and Pacific opposite
the United States and South America would not be ma
terially lessened, but a continent larsrer than Africa would
appear about the South Pole, while North America would

OLD OCEAN.

191

be connected with the British Isles and Europe through
Greenland and Iceland, and with Asia in the region of
Behring Strait by broad plains inclosing a landlocked
Arctic Ocean about as large as the Mediterranean. Again,
If the sea were lowered twice that depth, or two and a
half miles, the Atlantic would be divided into an east
ern and a western basin by a narrow strip of land extend
ing southward from Iceland to the latitude of Cape of

WHERE THE DEEPEST PLACES ARE IN THE OCEAN.
The round black spot indicates the greatest depth yet found.
It is probably six miles. The light shading designates a depth
of 3,000 fathoms, the heavy shading a depth of 4,000 fathoms; and
the asterisk a depth of 5,000 fathoms.

Good Hope, while the Pacific would be separated into
a larger and a smaller basin by a narrow land connection
between northern Chile and the East Indies. If the sea
were lowered another mile, however, (or 18,000 feet) the
oceans as such would disappear, and be represented by
a great sea in the northern Pacific, a smaller one in the
southern Atlantic, and several small pools between the
Americas and Africa. The sea is comparatively shallow
between Newfoundland and Ireland. Most of the Medi
terranean Is over a mile deep, but if its surface were
lowered only eight hundred feet it would be separated

ASIA

K O'oooi

MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS AT THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN.
The first part of the cut shows the height of the mountains of the Northem Hemisphere, as compared with the ocean depths.
part malses the same comparison between mountains of the Southern Hemisphere and the valleys under the sea.

The last

OLD OCEAN. 193
from the Atlantic at the Strait of Gibraltar, and divided
into two seas by a land connection between Sicily and the
African coast of Tunis.
If the bottom of the Pacific could be laid bare one
would see mountains with truncated tops scattered over
it, having an appearance just the reverse of that presented
by those we see ashore, for they would be perfectly bare
at their bases, while all around their tops they would be
covered with beautiful vegetation of coral polypi. The
bottom of the Pacific between Hawaii and California
is said to be so level that a railroad could be laid for
500 miles without' grading anywhere. The temperature
at the bottom of the ocean Is nearly down to freezing
point, and sometimes actually below It. There is a total
absence of light, so far as sunshine is concerned, and
there is enormous pressure.
INCREASE OF WATERS.
On the other hand, the raising of the sea level to the
extent of 100 fathoms would put a large portion of Europe
under water, as, indeed, has been several times the case
with that continent during the ages. Not only in the
Atlantic, but in the Pacific, on the west coast of North
America, especially, the continental platform rises ab
ruptly from the margins of the real oceanic depressed
areas, and this phenomenon is one of the strongest in
favor of the theory of the permanence of the great ocean
beds. If the existing waters w«re increased only one-fourth
of their present area, they would drown the earth. If
the volume of the oceans were augmented only by one-
eighth, considerable portions of the present continents
would be submerged and the seasons would be changed
all over the globe. Evaporation would be eo extended
that rains would fall continually, destroy the harvests,
fruits and fiowers, and overturn the whole economy of
Nature. There is, perhaps, nothing more beautiful In
the whole system than the process by which the fields are
irrigated from the skies; the rivers are fed from the
mountains, and the ocean restrained within bounds which

194 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
it can never exceed so long as that process continues on
the present scale. The vapor raised from the sea by it
falls upon the earth in water.
DEEP SEA FISH.
The deep sea fish are provided with air-inflated swim
ming bladders. If one of them happens to ascend beyond
a certain level, its bladder becomes distended with the
decreased pressure, and carries it, in spite of all Its
efforts,' still higher In Its course. They are liable to
become victims to the unusual accident of falling upward,
and no doubt meet with a violent death soon after leav
ing their accustomed level, and long before their bodies
reach the surface in a distorted and unnatural state.
Even ground sharks brought up from a depth of no
more than 500 fathoms, expire before they gain the
surface. It is thought possible by several naturalists that cer
tain portions of the sea bottom may be as brilliantly
Illumined by the phosphorescence given out by deep sea
animals as the streets of a European city after sunset.
"We know that at the surface this light is very power
ful, and Sir Wyville Thompson has recorded one occasion
on which the sea at night was "a perfect blaze of phos
phorescence, so strong that lights and shadows were
thrown on the sails, and it was easy to read the smallest
print." Some deep fish have two parallel rows of small
circular phosphorescent organs running along the whole
length of their bodies.
The census of species of marine organisms which
dwell in the shallow waters of the sea amounts now to more
than 100,000 distinct forms.
THE SALT OF THE OCEAN.
In the great chemical changes taking place, in the
earliest periods, among the elements which constitute
the earth's erast, the great volume of water undoubtedly
received a proportion of mineral salts in solution as "a
part of its original composition. Yarious causes, espe
cially the various forms of marine life belonging to the

OLD OCEAN. 195
animal and vegetable kingdoms, operate to diminish the
quantity of salts held in solution; and it is now generally
agreed that the average is maintained through the agency
of the innumerable rivers, streams and springs which
flow into the sea and its arms. These, in their passage
through earthy channels, dissolve small quantities of the
salts which occur as Ingredients of the soil — not enough
to be noticeable In the river water itself, the ocean water
being consequently less saline where a large volume of
river water is discharged into it, but furnishing a con
stant and cumulative supply; for the water Is evaporated
from the surface of the sea, to be taken up Into clouds,
and falls ag-aln on the land, to find Its way to the same
great reservoir, carrying more salts, while the salts are
not evaporated, but all remain In the sea water. The
main ingredient in salt water is chloride of sodium
(common salt), comprising about four-fifths of the whole,
the remainder consisting of small percentages of mag
nesium and calcium compounds, and traces of almost
all the metallic elements. The average quantity In the
open water of the ocean is about 3^ per cent., and It
has heen estimated that the total amount In all the ocean
area Is equal to 4,419,360 cubic miles, or 14| times the
entire mass of the Continent of Europe above high-water
mark, mountains and all. The constant motion and the
circulation of the great ocean currents aid in maintain
ing a tolerably constant proportion throughout the ocean
area; but the polar waters have been found to contain
somewhat less, and the equatorial somewhat more than
the average per cent. It is apt to be large where the
water is deepest, but does not increase with the depth.
It varies in landlocked basins, being less where these
bodies of water are fed with fresh water in excess of their
evaporation. In the Mediterranean, Gulf of Mexico and
Caribbean Sea It is greater. The silver in sea water,
though contained in a very minute proportion, yet, in all,
has been estimated to be equal to 2,000,000 tons; and
in some cases the deposit on old coppered hulls has been
large enough to make its separation profitable.
The sea water has always been a large source of the
common salt of commerce. At one time nearly the wholo

196 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
of the salt used as food and for Industrial purposes was
obtained from sea water, and In many countries where
the climate is dry and warm and there is a convenient
seaboard, large quantities are still obtained. The salt
obtained from this source is called "sea" or "bay" salt.
The works are generally called salt gardens — salina (Span
ish)— salz garten, in Austria. They consist of a series
of large, shallow evaporating reservoirs. The sea water
is admitted, and flows slowly from one to another, all
the while evaporating under the heat of the sun, until
finally the dry salt remains in crystalline crusts on the
salting-tables in the final basins.
The waters of the oceans and seas of the globe hold
not less than 60,000,000,000,000,000 tons of salt In sus
pension. It has been reckoned that if the whole ocean
were dried up, the amount of salt remaining would form
a deposit of salt 450 feet deep over every foot of the
great basin. If spread upon what is now dry land it
would give us a covering nearly 1,500 feet thick. It
would be enough to cover 5,000,000 square miles with
a layer one mile thick. If placed In one Immense cube,
each of its edges would measure more than 200 miles.
LAWS OF THE GULF STREAM.
The conclusions reached by Lieutenant PlUsbury, whose
Investigations Into this wonderful ocean river, which he
calls "the grandest and most mighty of any terrestrial
phenomenon," covering a number of years, are accepted as
'e standard by scientists the world over. The Gulf Stream,
says Lieutenant Plllsbury, receives its water from the
Atlantic, partly by means of a current driven by the force
of the southeast trade winds along the northeast coast of
South America and partly by a current from the north
east trade winds. The water as a current flows only
through the passages between the Windward Islands, and
not through the Anegada, Mona, or Windward Passages.
The current found along the South American coast be
tween Trinidad and Cura(;oa is chiefly produced by the
escape of water thrown there by the waves, no large body
permanently entering the sea through the passage south
of Grenada. The water accumulated in the Western

OLD OCEAN, 197
Caribbean escapes into the Gulf of Mexico, raising its
surface above that of the Atlantic. The passage of water
into the Straits of Florida is sometimes from the Gulf
of Mexico and again from the Yucatan Passage. At the
high declination of the moon it is from the latter, and
at low declination It is from the former. Passing through
the Straits of Florida the axis of the stream off Havana
ii! nearest the southem edge of the current prism, but
after making the bend between Salt Key Bank and Florida
Eeefs the axis is from 4| to 11-J miles outside the 100
fathom curve on the west side. The width of the Gulf
Stream off Cape Hatteras is about the same as where
it leaves the Straits of Florida. It is, however, liable
to more fluctuations In directions, particularly along its
edges; and in Its progress to the eastward, by the time
the Newfoundland Banks are reached, it Is probable that
these fluctuations entirely obliterate the stream as a body
distinguishable from its mate, which has come by the out
side passage from the trade region. Approaching the
shores of Europe, it meets the obstruction of the con
tinent and escapes laterally, one branch to the south
ward toward the Azores, and the other into the Arctic,
where It forces a cold return surface current to escape
along the shores of Greenland and Labrador. When the
flow is in the vicinity of the land, there Is a marked daily
variation in the velocity of the Gulf Stream and its tribu
taries, caused by the elevation or depression due to the at
traction of the moon and sun. There is a retardation
in the effect produced by this tidal influence of about three
hours. In the open sea the daily variation is not
marked. The Gulf Stream flows at the rate of about four miles
per hour.
Masters of vessels have quite recently been much dis
turbed by the eccentric action of the Gulf Stream. It
is commonly represented as a steady and constant stream,
on which navigators can rely with, accuracy. The great
number of reports which have of late years been received
regarding the cessation of the flow of the Gulf Stream,
and in some cases even Its retrograde action, has called
the matter to public attention. Floating wrecks are

198 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
shown to have crossed the stream, and in some cases to
have moved in directly the opposite direction to that in
which the stream would naturally be supposed to drift
them. This Is, of course, possibly due to wind acting on
the surface water, and on the derelicts themselves. The
Coast Survey steamer Blake made a series of observations
in the Gulf Stream, and her commander reported that a
strong wind blowing across the stream did not change the
course of the stream's axis. He says that a strong adverse
wind retards the speed of the current, and a foUowing
wind accelerates it. Old sea captains say, however, that
they have seen the flow of the Gulf Stream turned back,
stopped entirely, or greatly accelerated when neither tho
direction nor force of the wind would account for It.
They say also that sometimes the stream even changes
its position, swinging, as it were, out Into the ocean and
back again. Captain Garvin, of the steamship Orinoco,
who has spent nearly all his life on the waters through which
the Gulf Stream flows, says that the speed and trend of
Its current can never be absolutely relied on. Once he
was carried 56 miles In twelve hours by the stream, in
a section of it where ordinarily there Is not a current of
over 1^ knots an hour. THE TIDES.
The tides are the daily rising and falling of the waters
of the ocean. When the water in this daily oscillation,
has reached its highest point, it is called high water;
at Its lowest point it is called low water. While the
water is rising it is called flood; and while falling, ebb.
A lunar day is the time between two successive culmina
tions of the moon. Its length is about 24 hours, 53
minutes, being nearly an hour longer than a solar day
on account of the rapid eastward motion of the mooii.
The tides make their revolutions within the lunar day.
Twice in a lunation high water is at a maximum, and
twice it is at a minimum; the former are called spring
tides, the latter, neap tides. The spring tides occur near
the time of syzvgies, the neap tides near the the time of
quadratures. There are two tide-waves on opposite sides

OLD OCEAN. 199
of the globe, moving around It from east to west, and
arriving at any place at intervals, whose mean value is
12 hours, 26 minutes, or half a lunar day. Since the
mean diurnal motion of each of the two opposite tides
Is the same as that of the moon, the action of the moon
must be regarded as the principal cause of the tides. The
same kind of an effect is produced by the sun as by the
moon. But the distance of the sun is so great, that though
it attracts the earth more than the moon does, yet the dif
ference of Its attractions on the several parts is less. The
power of the moon to raise a tide is to that of the sun as
about 5 to 2. At the time of conjunction, the moon and
sun attract in the same direction, and therefore the tides
are equal to the sum of the lunar and solar tides. The
same Is true at opposition, because each body produces
two tides at once; and the direct lunar tide coincides
with the opposite solar tide, and vice versa. These are
the spring tides which occur at the syzygies. At quad
ratures, each body raises a tide at the expense of that
raised by the other. The syzygies are at new and full
moon. In the open sea the tide is hardly noticeable, the water
sometimes rising not higher than a foot; but where the
wave breaks on the shore, or is forced up into bays or
narrow channels, it Is very conspicuous. The difference
between ebb and flood neap-tide at New York is over
three feet, and that of spring tide over five feet; while
at Boston it is nearly double this amount. A headland
jutting out Into the ocean will diminish the tide; as,
for Instance, off Cape Florida, where the average height
I'S only one foot and a half. A deep bay opening up into
the land like a funnel, will converge the wave, as at the
Bay of Fundy, where it rolls in, a great roaring wall of
water sixty feet high, frequently overtaking and sweep
ing off men and animals. The tide sets up against the
current of rivers, and often entirely changes their charac
ter; for example, the Avon at Bristol is a mere shallow
ditch, but at flood tide it becomes a deep channel naviga
ble by the largest Indiamen.
The highest tide in the United States is reached at
Eastport, Me., 218 Inches; the lowest, at Galveston, Tex,
13 inches.

aOO OLD OCEAN'S FERR7.
The Mississippi is the only tideless river of the United
States emptying into the ocean or the Gulf of Mexico.
SARGASSO SEA.
Sargasso Sea is the name commonly used to designate
a region of the Atlantic Ocean which Is covered by a
peculiar fioating seaweed, either In tangled masses of con
siderable extent or simply scattered twigs. It was at
one time supposed that this enormous mass of seaweed
grew on the Bahama and Florida shores, and was torn
thence by the powerful current of the Gulf Stream ; but it
seems certain that if such was its original source, the
Gulf weed now lives and propagates while freely floating
on the ocean surface, having adapted Itself by various
modifications to its present mode of existence. A Sargasso
Sea, which bears the same relation to the North Pacific
currents that the one In the Atlantic does to the Gulf
Stream, is found northward of the Sandwich Islands.
Multitudes of small marine animals accompany this fioat
ing seaweed, with fishes ready to prey on them. The
Gulf weed is eaten in China, and in other parts of the
East it is used in salads and as a pickle.
Insignificant as the distribution of Gulf weed In this
region and Its surroundings may appear to the unthink
ing, 'it gives some invaluable hints as to the periodical
changes In direction and intensity of the whole system
of ocean currents. The area of maximum weediness, as
determined by Dr. Krummel, is an ellipse of the ocean
south of 35° north latitude and west of 35° west longi
tude, the major axis lying near the Tropic of Cancer from
the 40th to the 73d meridian, and the minor axis lying
on the 55th meridian. Around this ellipse is an oval ring
six or seven degrees wide. In which the weed is more
thinly distributed; but the northernmost limit of the
Sargasso drift is In latitude 52° north, longitude 45°
west. THE MAELSTROM.
The Maelstrom, which means literally, "grinding
stream," Is situated on the Norwegian coast, southwest

OLD OCEAN. 301
of the Loffoden Isles, and is the most remarkable whirl
pool In the world. It runs between the island of Mos-
kenas and a large solitary rock called the island of Moskoe,
in the middle of the straits. The strong currents rush
ing between the Great West Fjord and the outer ocean
through the channels of these Loffoden Islands produces
a number of whirlpools, of which the Maelstrom is by
far the most dangerous. During severe storms from the
west, for instance, the current runs continually to the
east at the rate of six knots an hour, without changing
its direction for rising or falling tide, and the stream will
boil and eddy in such mighty whirls that the largest
steamer could hardly contend successfully with the waters.
The depth of the whirlpool is only 20 fathoms, but just
outside the straits soundings reach from 100 to 200
fathoms. The great danger to vessels is of course not
of suction into the heart of the whirlpool, as legends have
supposed, but of being dashed to pieces against the
rocks. HEIGHT OP WAVES,
Many different answers have been given to the question,
"How high are the greatest ocean waves?" Monsieur
Dibos, a marine engineer, describes waves encountered In
the North Atlantic which had a height of at least 45
feet. Doctor Schott, a German savant, finds that in the
trade winds the waves average only five or six feet in
height. The ordinary observer would estimate them to
be at least twice as high. The harder the wind blows,
the faster the waves run and the steeper they become ; yet
they are never so steep as they seem to be. In an ordinary
wind the slope of a wave is about 1 foot in 33 ; in a storm
il becomes 1 foot in 17 or 18. In other words the slope
of storm waves is only ten or eleven degrees from the
horizontal. Driven before a heavy wind, waves may ad
vance at the rate of from 35 to 40 miles an hour, and
such undulations of the ocean may travel more than 500
miles from the point where the wind created them, without
being accompanied by any disturbance of the atmosphere.
The highest waves ever met with are said to be those
off the Cape of Good Hope.

202 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY.
Dr. Scoresby, In 1850, measured Atlantic waves under
various conditions, and found the maximum height to be
43 feet from trough (hollow) to crest. He calculated
that waves 30 feet high' measure 600 feet from crest to
crest, and that such waves have a mean velocity of 32
miles an hour. Captain Cialdi states that he measured
storm waves In the Atlantic which ranged from 60 to
108 feet in height; but as he fails to furnish the rule
by which these extraordinary wave altitudes were de
termined, the statement may be considered with a par
donable degree of skepticism. Off Cape Horn waves 40
feet high are to be met with. Thomas Stevenson has
figured out that the height of a wave is in the ratio of
the square root of its distance from the vrindward shore,
and according to the observation of Mr. Douglass In 1853,
it was deduced that when waves have a height of 8 feet
there are thirty-five in one mile and eight per minute;
15 feet, there are five and six in one mile and five per
minute; 20 feet, there are three in one mile and four per
minute. TIDAL AND SEISHOC WAVES.
The moon-raised ocean waves which cause the tidal
flux and reflux not only cross the sea, but flow from ocean
to ocean. Once in every twelve hours the moon raises
a tide billow in the Southern Indian Ocean. When this
billow passes the Cape of Good Hope, at noon, its suc
cessor is already born, and by the time the first billow
has reached the Azores Islands at midnight, the second
is rounding the Cape, and a third has come into existence
in the Southern Ocean. By four o'clock in the moming
following its passage of the Cape, the tidal billow reaches
the English Channel. When these tidal waves have been
swelled to unusual height and fury by the wind, they
have sometimes inundated low-lying coast towns. Such
a wave did great damage on the Florida coast in 1896.
Strictly speaking, every flowing tide is a tidal wave.
It is the seismic or earthquake wave, to which the name
"tidal wave" has sometimes been applied, which is the
most dreadful of all ocean phenomena. Every great

OLD OCEAN. 203
earthquake or submarine eruption causes pulsations which
extend for thousands of miles In all directions on the
globe. Such a wave was that at Lisbon in 1755, which
rolled up the Tagus forty feet high; and that on the
coast of Peru in 1868, which carried the United States
warship Wateree a mile and a half Inland and left her
there, stranded high and dry; and that on the coasts of
Java and Sumatra in 1883, when the Krakatoa eruption
turned day into night and reddened sunsets all over the
world for weeks and months. A little side- wheel steam
boat was borne on the top of this wave through forests
and jungle and was left, as the wave receded, erect as
when she ploughed the channel. It was such a wave that
in 1896 raged so terribly upon the coast of Japan, when
within two minutes a score of ships were stranded inland,
200 miles of coast were ravaged, 200 towns and villages
were wholly swept away, 12,000 buildings destroyed and
20,000 lives lost. POWER OF WAVES.
To appreciate wave force and what may be termed the
throwing power of a wave, let it be understood that In
the winter of 1860, at Bishop's Eock lighthouse, the bell
was torn from Its fastenings, although situated 100 feet
above high water mark. At Unst, in the Shetland Islands,
a door was burst in at a height of 192 feet above the level
of the sea. The most wonderful effects of wave force
recorded were witnessed at Wick Harbor Breakwater, In
the north of Scotland. Blocks weighing from five to ten
tons were built in above the line of high water, first with
hydraulic lime, then with Eoman and last with Portland
cement. This great work was considered by most leamed
engineers in England to be capable of withslpnding the
assaults of the ocean for ages, but In October, 1864, over
300 feet of this giant barrier were swept away. In 1872
a monolithic block, weighing 1,350 tons, was lifted bodily
and carried to leeward of the breakwater, and in 1873
another and heavier concrete mass, weighing 2,600 tons,
which had replaced the former, was swept away intact
and carried to a point equally distant.

204 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
The marine dynamometer for measuring the force of
waves against an obstacle was Invented by Thomas Steven
son, and one of the results obtained was at Skerryvore
lighthouse, in the Atlantic, where a force of 6,083 pounds
per square foot was measured. At Dunbar, a force of
three and one-half tons per square foot was recently
registered. Mr. Lyell has adduced many Instances of
the power of the sea waves to move large masses of
solid rock. In the Shetland Islands this effect has been
quite surprising. In 1818, during a storm, a mass of
granite, nine feet by six, was thrown by the waves up a
declivity to the distance of 150 feet; and. In the winter
of 1802, a mass of rock eight feet by seven, and five feet
thick, was moved to the distance of ninety feet by the
same force. DESTROYING EFFECTS OF THE SEA.
The village of Mathers, on the coast of Scotland, was
destroyed by an Inroad of the sea, in 1795. This town
was guarded by a barrier of limestone rock next the shore,
but during a storm, the waves of the ocean broke through
this barrier, and In one night destroyed and swept away
the whole village. The sea penetrated 150 yards Inland,
where It has maintained its ground ever since. The
eastern coasts of England are constantly suffering from
the inroads of the sea. On the old maps of Yorkshire,
many spots are marked as the sites of towns which are now
sandbanks in the ocean. A greater or less portion of
the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk are every year swallowed
up by the sea. The town of Surringham, on this coast,
exhibits- a melancholy proof of this fact. With respect
to this town, Mr. Lyell states, that at one point there
is a new depth of water of 25 feet (sufficient to float a
frigate), where only 48 years ago there stood a cliff 50
feet high, with houses upon it. Further to the south are
cliffs more than 200 feet high, more or less of which are
every year precipitated into the ocean, in consequence of
being undermined by the -waves. The whole site of the
ancient town of Cromer now forms a part of the bed of
the German Ocean, the inhabitants having gradually

OLD OCEAN. 305
pulled down their houses and removed inland as the sea
encroached upon them ; and, from their present situation,
they are in danger of being dislodged by the same cause.
From this neighborhood. In the year 1822, a mass of earth
and rocks was precipitated into the sea, to the extent
of twelve acres, the cliffs being 250 feet high; and on
the same coast, three ancient villages, several manors,
and large portions of a number of parishes have from the
same cause gradually disappeared and been replaced by
the ocean. Since the time of Edward the Confessor, as
appears by the records, the seacoast town of Dunwick
has lost In succession a monastery at one time ; at anothe r
several churches ; at another 400 houses ; and subsequently
another church, the town hall and jail, together with many
other buildings, all precipitated into the sea.
These are given as specimens of the devastating effects
of the sea and by which it appears that if on the one
hand large tracts of coast are forming and encroaching
upon the ocean in one part of the world, as in the Baltic
and on the coasts of Italy, so on the other hand the sea is
encroaching on the land In other parts, probably to an
equal extent. In many instances inundations from the
sea have been the means not only of effecting great
changes In the surface of the earth in a short period of
time, but also of destroying vast numbers of human beings.
On the coast of Holland these disasters have been pecu
liarly destructive, as well as on the coast opposite.
A considerable peninsula which lay between Cronlngen
and East Friesland, and was thickly inhabited, was
partly overwhelmed in 1277, and a considerable portion
of the land carried away, with many houses and inhabitants.
During the fifteenth century other portions were destroyed
from the same cause, and a part of the town of Forum,
a place of some size, was swept away. In 1507, not only
the remainder of Forum was engulfed, in spite of the
erection of dams, but also several market towns, villages
and monasteries were entirely destroyed, together with
their inhabitants.
Further to the north, anciently lay the district of North
Friesland. This was a peninsula ;' but in 1240, the sea
destroyed the land next the coast, and thus formed an

206 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
island called Northstrand. This island was originally
of some extent, but the sea from time to time swept away
small portions of it, until the inhabitants became so con
centrated that when the island was only four geographi
cal miles In circumference their number was still 9,000.
At last, on the night of the 11th of October, 1634, a fiood
from the sea swept over the whole island and destroyed
at once a great proportion of the inhabitants, all the
houses, churches and cattle, carrying away even the land
that had sustained them. By this dreadful calamity there
were swept away more than 6,000 people.
WONDROUS WAVE ACTION.
The schooner Laura, of Gloucester, Mass., encountered
a gale In February, 1893, twenty miles off Whitehead.
K tremendous sea swept over the vessel, carrying overboard
two of the crew, John Kelly and Colin McKenna. Kelly
was swept back upon the deck by another wave, but
McKenna was never seen again.
The steamer Hurona, Feb. 4, 1892, while in latitude
53° 18' and longitude 30° 15' In the North Atlantic,
encountered a tremendous storm. The seas roUed over the
vessel so that she would not respond to the helm. James
Dakers, one of the officers, was carried off on the crest of
a wave before the eyes of the crew and was tossed about
like a cork. There was no human way of giving him
assistance. Just as he was about to give up the unequal
struggle he was hurled back to the ship, and, drenched
and exhausted, was left upon the deck ten feet astern
of the place where he had been before.
The steamship British Prince, during a voyage a few
years ago, when outside the Straits of Gibraltar, encoun
tered fierce gales. A great wave came over the bows,
carrying away everything before It. The Swedish boat
swain, Charles Lastadius, was on what is called the "fly
bridge," a structure extending out in front of the real
bridge. He grasped a stanchion. Stanchion and man
were swept away like leaves before a hurricane. Thomas
Jones, the second officer, made one of the greatest casts
of the kind ever read of In seafaring tales. He grabbed

OLD OCEAN. 207
a life-buoy which was hanging ready on the bridge, and
threw it out into the waves with such precision that it
settled down over the boatswain's head. The captain
heard a loud cry from him, after he had passed out of
sight In the night, and noting a star In the direction from
which the cry came he steered by that star and soon saw
him again bobbing like a cork on the foaming crests of
the starlit waves. The steamer ran toward the struggling
man and then close to him, until he was just abeam close
aboard. A great wave reared itself with the boatswain
on its crest and dashed him against the vessel's rail. He
grasped it as a drowning man would, and the wave, re
ceding, left him there. SINGING SAND.
The theory concerning singing sand is that the sound
is produced by friction between the angular particles.
Samples of singing sand have been found in twenty-
six places on the American coast. Professor Julian, of
Columbia CoUege, New York, who has given the subject
of this phenomenon much study, says : "The singing sand
may occur In comparatively small patches in the midst
of ordinary sand. It always occurs between the limits
of high and low tide. The same sand does not produce
sound at all seasons, nor does it always give forth like
sounds. When It is wet it will emit sounds. When sam
ples were transported In bags they lost their sounding
power, but retained It when carried In bottles." One of
the most remarkable occurrences of this sand Is that of
the beach at Manchester, Mass., where the sand for about
one-fifth of a mile gives out a distinct sound when It is
walked upon, or even when it is stirred by a rod or cane,
and a stick driven into it violently will elicit a sound that
can be heard 140 feet away, above the roar of the sea.
AMBERGRIS.
Profound mystery formerly surrounded the origin of
ambergris. It is now fully ascertained to be generated
by the large-headed sperm whale, and it is the result of

308 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY,
a diseased state of the animal. The disease is located in
the intestinal canal, and some savants suppose it to be
caused by a biliary Irritation. It is said by modem scien
tists to be akin to the fashionable human peril, appendi
citis. The sharp-pointed curved black horn of the cuttle
fish upon which this huge mammal feeds is considered
the primary cause of irritation. Ambergris is found in
the greatest quantity In torpid, sick or lean whales, in
both dry and liquid form, sometimes in small irregular
lumps from three inches to a foot in diameter, and some
times in a fetid mass, of a rank liquid state, sometimes
of the consistency of soft putty and again a chalk-like
substance. That like putty is usually the most market
able. The only curing process is that of drying. It is
used as an indispensable article with five kinds of per
fumes (the expensive French perfumes especially) to give
permanency and lasting qualities to very fleeting scents,
and is the most costly of the animal perfumes. It
vitalizes and gives great power to other perfumes.
The largest lump ever known weighed 182 pounds,
and was sold by the King of Tahore to the Dutch East
India Company. Some Cape Cod whalers obtained from
a very lean whale a quantity aggregating over 150 pounds,
which they sold for $60,000 or $30 per ounce, which is
about the ordinary price of the best ambergris. A lump
of 130 pounds was found Inside a dead whale whose car
cass was discovered floating near the Windward Islands,
and Isaiah KInghorn, the Nova Scotian fisherman, found
100 pounds. He noticed floating on the water a peculiar
gray substance, well streaked with black and yellow. He
thought it might be made intp soap and gathered the
floating mass into his boat. Palling in his soap experi
ment he threw it all back Into the water except about
six pounds, which he kept on account of the odor that
arose from his lye-pot. When he went to the nearest
village with a sample his ignorance was dispelled. The
little he had unwittingly saved brought him $5,660.
SUBMARINE FORESTS.
Submarine forests occur at several places around the
shores of Great Britain and Ireland. They consist of

OLD OCEAN, 209
beds of impure peat, containing the stools of trees which
occupy the sites on which they grew, but by change of level
the ancient forest surfaces are now covered by the tide,
even at low water. No kind of tree has been found in these
forests which does not exist at the present day In the
country, and the underwood and herbaceous plants, so far
as determined, agree specifically with those found now
in similar localities. Submarine forests Jbelong to the
recent period, and occur above the boulder clay.
SUNKEN CITIES.
Dozens of cities and not a few inconsiderable towns
mentioned by ancient writers have partially or wholly
disappeared beneath the waves Of the restless oceans. One
of these was Bangala, which stood near Chittagong, and
which appears to have given its name to Bengal. Ptolemy
mentions a seaport called Bomaria, which stood in
Comarin, in India. Of this city the sole relic is a rock
in the sea, having in its centre a well of fresh water.
Plassy, the place where Cllne gained his greatest victory,
has been swept to the last vestige by the river Hooghly.
Eavenspur, on the east coast of England, was long since
swept away by the gradual inroads of the channel. Town
Bank, near Cape May, N. J., is so called from a town
which once stood on the coast, but which is now covered
by the waters of the Delaware Bay. Wales also has its
sunken city, which tradition has placed In Lake Llangorse.
The famous city of Is was somewhere along the coast of
Brittany, and various places are now pointed out to the
tourist as its original site. There is said to be a sunken
city in Germany, somewhere In the vicinity of the island
of Eugen. The sinking of Amalfi is celebrated in a poem
by Longfellow, and Savanna-la-Mar went down in a West
Indian earthquake and was immortalized by De Quincey.
The ancient Greeks alleged that the cities of Burs and
Helica were sunk in the sea, where the houses and spires
were plainly visible for years. The waters of the Indian
Ocean now flow and ebb over the' site of old Calicut, the
place from which our "calico" takes its name. According
to De Peyster's "History of Caransius," the town and

210 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
port of ScarphOnt, which stood on the shore of Flanders,
was overwhelmed and swallowed by the sea In the year
1334. On Oct. 28, 1746, the town'of Callao was entirely
destroyed by an earthquake and a tidal wave, and 5,000
persons perished. To-day at low tide the submerged
walls of the old city can be seen through the clear
water. In the beautiful harbor of Kingston, a few fathoms
under the clear blue water, sleeps the sunken city of Port
Eoyal. A red buoy which swings and rocks in the moon
light, marks the spot where the old city's cathedral sank
and where the spire still reaches up nearly to the surface.
This spire Is the most prominent object. In the clear
¦water one can see the fishes, lazily swimming In and out
among the ruined turrets, more suggestive of owls and bats
than of the finny inhahi tants of the sea. Occasionally
glimpses can be had of the ruins of other buildings — ^build
ings which for more than two centuries have kept their
ghastly secrets and will keep them untU the end of time.
Down there in the peaceful depth, lie the bones of 3,000
men, women and children, carried down Into the sea with
their homes on that awful June day In 1692. An earth
quake, suddenly and without warning, smote the profilgate
city of Port Eoyal, which slid Into the sea. The waters
opened and swallowed It up, and there, beneath the silent
waves, was hidden the wickedness and debauchery of a
community described by historians as being almost with
out parallel. After the earthquake the town was rebuilt,
only to be completely destroyed by fire In 1703. On Aug.
22, 1722, It was swept into the sea by a hurricane. It was
once more reconstructed, but again, In 1815, It was reduced
to ashes, and as recently as 1830 it was visited by another
hurricane. Every disaster was attended by great loss of
life. The city of Port Eoyal was originally built upon a nar
row strip of land extending out into the sea, which ac
counts for its strange disappearance at the time of the
earthquake. Like the house of the foolish man of biblical
lore, which was builded upon the sand, it literally slid
into the water when the earthquake shock came. Pre-
yious to -that fateful 7th day of June, 1692, Port -Eoyal

OLD OCEAN. 211
had been known as "the finest town in the West Indies,
and the richest spot in the world."
PRESSURE OF. THE SEA.
The pressure of the sea is reckoned at about one ton
to the square inch In every 1,000 fathoms, which is 160
times greater than the atmosphere we live In. At 2,500
fathoms the pressure is thirty times more powerful than
the steam pressure of a locomotive when drawing a train.
The pressure is said also to be one pound to the square Inch,
for every two feet of the depth. According to this esti
mate an object at the bottom of one of the ocean's "five-
mile holes" would have a pressure about it of 13,200
pounds to the square Inch. Nothing of human manu
facture would resist such a pressure. It is said that tho
pressure on a well-corked glass bottle at the depth of 300
feet is so great that the water will force Its way through
the pores of the glass; and also, that pieces of wood have
been weighted and sunk in the sea to such a depth that
the tissues have become so condensed that the wood has
lost its buoyancy and would never fioat again, nor could
It ever be ihade to burn when dry.
In ordinary diving dress divers seldom work in more
than 100 feet of water, at which depth the pressure is 43.4
pounds per square inch. It is said that a diver attempted
to descend to the wreck of the Elbe, the Atlantic steamer
that lies in the English Channel in 240 feet of water.
He was brought up almost unconscious from 170 feet,
vvhere the pressure was 73.78 pounds per square inch,
a pressure that few can experience and live.
Alexander Lambert and David Tester, in 1886, during
recovery of treasure from the Alfonso XIL, worked at
a depth of 160 feet, the pressure being about 70 pounds
per square inch. The divers Briggs and May worked
under the sea In the steamer Catterthun, wrecked in 1895,
at a depth of 27| fathoms, or 165 feet, and subjected to
a pressure of from 70 to 75 pounds per square inch ; while
another diver named Hooper descended several times,
one dip being of 42 minutes, into the ship Cape Horn,
at a depth of over ?00 feet. An authority states that the

212 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
greatest depth to which a man has been known to descend
does not exceed 220 feet, at which depth there is a pressure
of 88^ pounds per square Inch.
In 1896 a diving-bell, of seemingly invulnerable
strength, was crushed in -200 feet of water in Lake
Michigan. DIVING-BELLS.
The principle of the diving-bell Is extremely simple,
and can be seen by pressing any hollow vessel mouth down
ward Into water. Although some kind of diving-
bell was probably used in the time of Aristotle — for it
is recorded that divers took with them a vessel which
enabled them to remain under water — and In medieval
times, it was not until about 1715 that any practical
method of supplying the bell with air while under water
was discovered. About that year this want was met by
a Dr. Halley. He used two water-tight barrels, each
supplied with a hose, also attached to the diving-bell, and
these attached to heavy weights, were dropped on each
side of the bell, and the diver could, therefore, remain
under water as long as the air supplied by thcf barrels was
fit to breathe. The diver's cap, which was made of metal
and fitted with a tube for conveying air to it from the
bell, so that the wearer could leave the bell and walk
around the bottom of the sea, was soon after devised by
the same inventor. In 1779 the air pump, which forced
down air from above, was applied to divIng-beUs by an
engineer named Smeaton. The most practical bell In use
at present is a sort of submarine boat called the Nautilus,
with double sides, between which water is forced to cause
the boat to descend and air to cause it to rise. A^r
is supplied by means of an air-pump worked above.
RECOVERING OCEAN'S TREASURES.
It is computed that there are more than $4,000,000,000
worth in gold and jewels at the bottom of the sea on the
route between England and India alone. Far more money
has been expended in ejideavors to reach the holdings of

OLD OCEAN. 213
treasure ships at the bottom of the sea than has been re
covered. The mind of man, always fertile in expedients,
has been engaged from very remote times in recovering
spoil from the ocean. The diving-bell was employed In
the recovery of lost treasure the latter part of the seven
teenth century. One curious effort of this kind led to
the founding of a notable family, the representative of
which is the present Marquis of Normandy. William
Phipps, the son of a blacksmith, was born In America in
1650. He took to trading, and made a voyage to the
Bahamas, where he had heard that a Spanish ship had
been wrecked with great treasure on board. He appears
to have been partly successful in recovering some of the
valuables, for he was enabled to make a voyage to England.
He had obtained information that there was, somewhere
in the neighborhood of the Bahamas, another Spanish
wreck wherein was lost a mighty treasure hitherto un
discovered, and having a strong impression on his mind
that he was destined to be the discoverer, he hoped to be
able to persuade some person of wealth in England to
advance the necessary funds, and, although comparatively
unknown, to get himself appointed to conduct the search
under a commission from Government. The plans seemed
so plausible that Charles II. gave him a ship and fur
nished him with everything for the undertaking.
In the Algier Eose, a frigate of 18 guns and 95 men,
he set sail and arrived at New England. He sought for
th sunken treasure In vain, but Phipps was a man of
no ordinary character. No difficulties tumed him from
his pursuit. He returned to England, his men having
mutinied, to obtain another vessel from James II. The
Duke of Albemarle, son of the celebrated General Monk,
advanced a considerable sum to enable him to make the
necessary preparations for a new voyage. On arriving at
the spot, the banks of Bahama, where he felt persuaded the
sunken treasure lay, he employed various instruments he
had invented, among others a boiler tube which was in
fact the diving-bell. A diver first brought up a plant
or seaweed, and reported that he had seen a large number
of great guns. On further diving a large lump of silver,
worth about two or three hundred pounds, was brought

214 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
up. - The treasure thus recovered from the ocean "by
Phipps and his men is stated to have amounted to about
£300,000 ; and provisions failing, they were obliged to
return to England, where the king permitted him to
divide the recovered treasure between himself and men,
and the fortunate adventurer was knighted Duke of Nor
mandy. He returned to America, was appointed Gov
ernor of Massachusetts, and died in London in 1693.
THE GREATEST DIVING FEATS.
The steamer Alfonso XIL, having on board ten boxes
of gold coin, each box worth £10,000, struck on a rock
and sank off Point Grando, Grand Canary, while on a
voyage from Cadiz to Havana In 1886. It was ascer
tained that the specie was at a depth of 26 2-3 fathoms
(160 feet), and grave doubts were entertained of the pos
sibility of any diver being able to withstand the tremendous
pressure Incidental to such a depth — viz., some 67 pounds
to every superficial square inch of his body. Experi
ments at this depth were made off Dartmouth, and two
men, Alexander Lambert and David Tester, were found
equal to the perilous task. Dresses were also at length
made which would remain water-tight at so great a depth.
An expedition was sent out by the Marine Insurance
Company, the divers to receive a reward of five per cent.,
and a bonus of £50 on each box recovered. Lambert got
up seven boxes and Tester two. So terrible was the pres
sure that neither man could stay below for more than
a few minutes. Lambert made 62 dips, being submerged
altogether 903 minutes, his longest Immersion being 26
minutes. Including going down and coming up. Tester
made 46 dips, being submerged during 601 minutes, his
longest Immersion being 29 minutes. Lambert obtained
£4,088 for his work and Tester received £1,376.
Another of the greatest diving feats ever attempted
was that of raising of treasure from the steamer Catter
thun, which was wrecked in August, 1895, near Seal
Eocks, New South Wales, among the cargo being £10,000
in sovereigns. ' Every box was recovered by the Aus
tralian divers, whose names were Briggs and May, and

OLD OCEAN. 215
who worked under the sea at a depth of ^7^ fathoms^
or 165 feet. At times they were subject to a pressure
of 70 to 75 pounds to the square Inch, causing them great
suffering. Another great diving feat was achieved In moving the
cargo of the ship Cape Horn, which was wrecked off the
coast of South America. A diver named Hooper made
seven descents to a depth of over 200 feet, at one dip "
remaining 42 minutes under water.
Three pulls at the life line Is the signal for the diver's
"tender" at the surface of the water to pull him up;
and unless the line Is cut above or the danger is too sudden
to allow time to seize it, this will lead him to safety.
SUNKEN TREASURE SHIPS,
It is said that 100,000 vessels have gone to the bottoiil
of the Atlantic since Columbus started. transatlantic com
munication between Europe and America. The list of
sunken treasure ships is, therefore, large and the rain
bow expeditions to recover submarine treasure are nu
merous. In 1812, the Spanish galleon San Pedro, burned and
sank in Margarita Channel, with Spanish treasure worth
$67,500,000. A Baltimore syndicate sent an expensive
expedition In vain after this treasure, and later Jacob
LorlUard became a rainbow chaser after it at great ex
pense. Although she sank in only ten fathoms the vessel's
location was never found.
In 1798, the British sloop of war De Braak, went tc
Davy Jones's locker off the Delaware Capes, with $1,800,'
000, and an unsuccessful expedition was fitted out ,bj
Dr. Pancoast, of Philadelphia.
In 1780, the British frigate Hussar sank off Port Morris,
with $4,800,000 in gold, to recover which numerous un
successful efforts have been made. As late as December.
1894, an effort was made to recover It, the steam mud
pumper Chester working In the East Eiver for some time
at considerable expense.
One hundred years ago a French warship sank near the
island of Terschelling, In the north of HoUand, with

216 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
gold to the amount of 40,000,000 francs, or $8,000,000
The captain's log mentioned the amount, and as early
as 1800, French sailors succeeded in bringing to the sur
face a box containing 1,500,000. francs' worth of gold
and silver ingots. In 1856 and 1860, a private expedition .
succeeded in raising another 1,250,000 francs' value of
the treasure.
L'Orient, a French line-of-battle ship, blown up
by Nelson at the battle of the Nile, had on board specie
to the amount of $3,000,000, besides other treasure, the
spoil of a raid on a Eoman Catholic church at Valetta,
and an immense quantity of other valuables.
In 1799, the Lutine, laden with an enormous quantity
of treasure, was wrecked in a gale off Holland. Salving
operations during eighteen months resulted in the re
covery of about $400,000. After that, numerous attempts
to recover more met with no success till 1857, when $250,-
000 was brought up.
In 1806, sixty-two chests of dollars, to the value of
$350,000, were fished up by means of a diving-bell from
the Aberganenny, sunk some years previously at Wey
mouth. In 1830, the British frigate Thetis was wrecked off the
coast of Brazil with $800,000 in bullion on board. The
hull went to pieces, leaving the treasure In five or six
fathoms of water, so that it was afterward recovered,
but occasioned much dispute and litigation among the
salvors. Diving operations resulted In the recovery of $400,000
in gold from the wreck of the Eoyal Charter, which took
place close to Moelfra, off the Anglesea coast, but a vast
number of diamonds are still lying about the wreck.
The Spanish galleon Montezuma, with treasure between
$1,000,000 and $2,000,000 in amount, went down a few
miles off Townsend's Inlet, N. J. While a Spanish Gov-
erment ship sent to recover the bullion was trying to locate
the wreck, a gale arose and wrecked the searching ship
upon the shores of Seven Mile Beach.
DIVERS' NOTES.
Divers iu the harbor of Syracuse have discovered a

OLD OCEAN. %11
magnificent marble building, whose highest point is only
three metres under the water. The building contains
great stairways and columned halls. It Is believed that
the edifice was once used as a bath establishment or as a
temple. Divers in the clear waters of the tropical seas find that
fish of different colors when frightened do not all dart in
the same direction, but that each different kind takes
shelter in that portion of the submarine growth nearest
in color to that of the fish.
Photographs have been taken 500 feet under water.
Halley's diving apparatus was invented in 1721.
THE GOLD OF THB SEA.
Dr. Henry Wurtz, formerly chemical examiner of the
United States Patent Office, demonstrated thirty years
ago the existence of gold and silver In sea water, In about
equal quantities. Various estimates have been made of
the total amounts of the precious metals held In solution
in aU the seas of the globe. Each ton of sea water is said
to contain five-sixty-fifths of a grain of gold. As the
ocean occupies two-thirds of the earth's surface, and is
said to average 15,000 feet in depth, there would be 400
million cubic miles of salt water, equal In weight to a
trillion, eight hundred and fifty billion tons. The entire
ocean would therefore contain ten billion, two hundred
and fifty million tons of practicaUy pure gold. Generally
speaking, gold is worth about $500,000 per ton. The gold
of the sea would therefore amount in value to five quad
rillion, four hundred and twenty-five trillion of dollars,
an amount of money beyond all human comprehension.
In comparison, all the money of all the exchequers of all
the nations since the beginning of the world is a mere
bagatelle. In comparison with it, the production of gold
from 1492 until 1898, estimated at fifty-three hundred
tons' and valued at two billion, six hundred and fifty
million dollars, is but as a nickel in the slot is to the
money of the world. According to this estimate there
is enough gold In the sea to pay every one on earth, one
billion three hundred million people, the sum of $416,-
000.

218| OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
The latest experiments bearing on this question are those
of Professor liverridge, of the University of Sydney.
who found that in the waters surrounding Australia the
quantity of gold per ton of sea water varies between
half a grain and one grain.
Owing to the minute quantities in which the precious
metals are held In solution, their recovery as a busi
ness proposition has generally been looked upon as im
practicable. There was a company started In 1899, with
a capitalization of $50,000, for the purpose of extracting
these metals from sea water. It was called "The Elec
trolytic Marine Salts Co., of Boston and North Lubec,
Me." Its plant was at the latter place. Like most
efforts to recover ocean's treasures it proved only another
rainbow chaser, and its wreck has become as historic "as
many at the bottom of the seas.

SEA LIFE.

SEA BIRDS.

. Sea birds are always interesting objects to voyagers.
They follow a vessel sometimes all the way across, ever
restless and untiring. The gulls particularly, vrith their
long, swift wings, realize the highest powers of endurance,
and fly with ease against the severest storms. Some
authorities say that these birds never visit the land except
to deposit their eggs; otherwise they live constantly be
tween the sea and the slcy. In fine weather they fly high
in the air, descending with great rapidity to seize the
fish on the surface of the water. The symmetry and the
strength of the gulls are remarkable, showing how nature'
has adapted them in. every particular for the purpose of
long flight. • -

SEA LITE. 219
THE PETREL.
During a recent trip across the Atlahtlc the passengers
on one steamer had a vivid illustration of the endurance
of the stormy petrel. Shortly after the ship left the
Irish coast two or three of these birds were sighted at
the stern of the ship. One had been caught at some pre
vious time, and its captor had tied a bit of red flannel or
ribbon round its neck and let It go. The bit of red
made the bird very conspicuous, and it could be easily
identified. That bird, with others that could not be so
easily distinguished, followed the ship clear across the
ocean. Earely, during the daytime at least, was it out of
sight, and If for an hour or two It was lost to view while
feeding on the refuse cast overboard, it soon reappeared,
and the last seen of it was within a few miles of Sandy
Hook, when It disappeared, perhaps to follow some out
ward-bound steamer back to Ireland. When the fact
is considered that the ship, day and night, went at an
average speed of nearly twenty miles an hour, the feat
performed by the daring traveler can be better appreciated.
When or how It rested is inexplicable.
The stormy petrel in proportion to Its size, has im
mense wing power, for it is the smallest web-footed bird.
It belongs to every sea, and, though seemingly so frailj
breasts the utmost fury of the gale, skimming with in
credible velocity the trough of the waves and gliding
rapidly over the crests. It does not make a practice
of alighting on the water, and seldom rises higher than
eight or ten feet above the surface. They have , been
known to perch all night on the extrenie end of the flying
jib boom of a vessel, keeping up a constant, low, musical
whistle, - seemingly an accompaniment to the noisy waters
foaming and eddying around the cutwater. Petrels, in
flocks, sleep upon the water at night. Off the Cfepe of
Good Hope, on bright moonlight nights, when the weather
will permit, there can be seen through strong night
glasses, dozens of the sleeping petrels passing ilirectly
under the bows of the ship. They "bob up serenely" astern
in the glittering wake with a plaintive whistle, swim
a few yards, and, with a preliminary flutter of wings

220 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
and feathers, settle down to enjoy again the slumbers that
have so rudely been disturbed.
THE FRIGATE BIRD.
Though the petrel is swift, the frigate bird is far
swifter. Seamen generally believe that the frigate bird
can start at daybreak with the trade winds from the
coast of Africa and roost the same night on the American
shore. Whether this a fact has not yet been conclusively
determined, but it is certain that this bird is the swiftest
of winged creatures, and is able to fly, under favorable
conditions, two hundred miles an hour.
SHIP RATS.
Every ship that comes into port brings Its quota of rats.
When they land they become "wharf rats," "sewer rats,"
and 'Tiouse rats." Fortunately for landsmen, the major
ity of them stick to the ships and remain forever "ship
rats." The average sailor welcomes their appearance on
shipboard, and, as a rule, a sailor would not ship on a vessel
destitute of them, as their presence is a sure indication that
a ship is seaworthy. When rats leave it in a body the
sailors do also. The stories of their abandoning a sink
ing ship are founded upon fact. Mine rats -will in like
manner foretell the caving In of a mine.
Formerly there was only the old black English rat on
the sea's ships. Wherever ships go these black rats,
which are said to have come originally from India, are
found. They have, in three centuries, penetrated to every
mainland and island In every zone. They held full sway
for two centuries on the seas; then came gradually an
alien creature of black or reddish-gray body and white
belly, called the Alexandrian rat, which came from tropi
cal countries. A trifle larger and stronger, It made war
to the death upon the English rodents, so that the two
species could never ship upon the same vessel. More re
cently there has appeared a third race, a brown or Nor
way rat, which Is a native of China and the interior of
Asia. It is a huge, ferocious creature, from eight to nine

SEA LIFE. 221
inches long, and attains even larger proportiwis upon the
ships than in its native land. It destroys all competitors,
the two other rat species being no match for It. To-day
the black rats are not found in numbers on vessels sail
ing from any ports where the brown or Norway rats have
become established. Gradually they are being forced
inland. Eats have sometimes multiplied so rapidly that a vessel
has come Into port from^ a long cruise with a cargo of
lats so large that the seamen were unable to put them
down. Some vessels have been taken possession of by
rats to such an extent that the sailors have been forced
to abandon them at sea. They are so ferocious that they
do not hesitate to attack the sailors when pinched for
food, so that sailors have to exertise precaution to limit
their numbers. WHALES.
The flrst whaling industry was commenced at Nan
tucket in 1672. The risks do not deter bold hunters from
pursuing these valuable mammals into the most remotely
accessible regions of eternal ice. Annually they follow
the whales around the most northern extremity of the
.4merican continent and some vessels have even ventured
^to pass the winter in the Arctic Ocean The value of the
fishery consists not so much in the oil taken as in the
whalebone, which is obtained from the mouth of the
animal. This Is worth from $4.50 to $5.50 a pound. The
product of a fair-sized bowhead whale will bring about
$8,000. A good-sized, full-grown whale weighs 150 tons,
measures from 70 to 80 feet In length, and yields about
2,000 pounds of whalebone. His tongue is 15 feet long,
8 feet thick and gives 12 barrels of oil. His opeip. mouth
is from 15 to 20 feet across. The blubber forms a coat
around him of from 10 to 22 inches thick. It is four feet
from the outsideof his body to his heart, and the latter organ
is 216 cubic feet in size. His brains will fill a barrel.
The gullet of whales is, as a rule, very narrow, and their
food consists of the smallest of the marine molusca, her=
ling being, the largest fish they usually swallow; though

222 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
certain species of sperm whale Qan swallow an object two
feet in diameter. There were at one time about 600
vessels of American register engaged in whaling, but now
only a remnant of that fleet, some 40 vessels, remains.
Whales are not found In the Gulf Stream.
LARGEST WHALING CATCH ON RECORD.
The greatest whaling voyage was made by the little
steamer Mary D. Hume, of 80 tons. She penetrated Into
hitherto unknown whaling grounds in the Arctic Ocean,
took altogether thirty-eight whales, which yielded 104,-
600 pounds of whalebone, valued at $630,000, brought
down the last 40,000 pounds of her batch and 400 white
and blue and gray foxskins, came very nearly making
the Northwest Passage without trying to do It, and let
go blubber enough for 5,000 barrels of oil, for want of
means to try it out. SHIPS AND WHALES.
There are numerous instances where ships . have run
into whales or have been run Into by them. Passengers
aboard Atlantic liners have sometimes witnessed such
collisions. Some of the most recent instances are the
f oUovring :
The Anchor Line steamer Ethiopia, in 1891, on one
of its passages, encountered a large whale about 800 mileg
east of Sandy Hook, which suddenly came to the surface
in the ship's path. The blow was a direct, Incisive one,
and though the shock caused the vessel to tremble from
stem to stern the ship seemed to sail right on through the
whale, which disappeared Immediately, leaving a trail
of crimson as far as the eye could see. It was shortly
afterward sighted astern, floating lifelessly. The steamer
Abana, one Fourth of July, had a like experience about 80
miles southwest of the Georges Shoals, during a voyage from
Dundee to New York. 'The whale, after being struck,
rose again in the -ship's wake, shook its flukes as if suf
fering from the shock, dived again and did not reappear.
The Pacific cpast steamer Sunol^, outward. bQuijd from San

SEA LIFE. 223
Francisco, collided with a whale about four miles north
of Point Bonita, and the collision nearly wrecked her.
.She was obliged to return to port for repairs. The
impresison on board was that the vessel had struck a rock.
The steamship Petersburg, of the Eussian volunteer fleet,
when near MInicoy, in the South Indian Ocean, experi
enced a sharp shock and stopped as though gripped In a
vise. The sea was found to be colored with the lifeblood
of two huge whales, which lay floating In their last agony.
One was cut through by the steamer's sharp stem, and
the other kiUed by repeated blows of the screw pro
peller. The German steamship Waesland, bound from
Antwerp to New York, ran into and killed a sleeping
whale. A smaller steamer, the Kalloe, collided with a
whale near Seaham Harbor, and wounded it badly. In
1889, the James Turpie, a Shields steamship, nearly cut
a whale in two one starlight night. The schooner 0. M.
Marrett was almost wrecked by passing whales in the
North Atlantic. Many of the school struck her repeatedly
with great violence. In 1890, the Ocean Spray, a small
sailing vessel, bound to England from Galveston, struck
a sleeping whale and received considerable damage. In
1891, Her Majesty's ship Immortalite was stopped short,
though going at 12 knots per hour, by cutting deeply into
a whale, and it was necessary to go astern in order to get
rid of the Incumbrance.
The brigantine Handa Islcr, of 260 tons register and
laden with 1,000,000 feet of timber, bound from Mercury
.Bay, New Zealand, for Sydney, was struck amidships by
a whale head-on, and badly damaged, leaking thereafter
at the rate of one foot an hour. She was 220 miles dis
tant from Sydney, and the deck cargo had to be jettisoned
before she reached port. The sealing schooner Mermaid,
from Victoria, B. C., had an unusual experieq^ce off the
coast of Japan, being attacked by a whale which the vessel
had awakened from its sleep. The animal made for the
schooner, which avoided collision by steering to one side.
But the irritated whale then made for her head-on and
landed a heavy blow with its tail against the stem, break
ing it and carrying off the forward rigging. The whale
evidently hurt hipaselfj as he sank ipiijiediately. The

224 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
schooner reached a Japanese port and was repaired. The
steamship Port Adelaide had the peculiar experience of
being raced with by a whale which appeared close along
side one morning and followed the vessel for four days,
never more than seventy yards away, and generally close
astern. It retired from the contest only after traveling
980 statute miles, certainly without resting and apparently
without food.
The most wonderful experience -with whales a ship
probably ever had, was that of the British steamship Dews-
land, in latitude 41° 15', longitude 27° 20', while bound
from Bilbao to Philadelphia, deep laden -with Spanish
Iron ore, a few years ago. A terrific storm, driving be
fore It a huge sea like a tidal wave struck her, and she
became unmanageable in a cross sea. The breakers sub
sided as she approached an object on the water which
proved to be an immense dead whale, covered with count
less birds, and with a stream of sperm oil oozing out
upon the sea in all directions from the fatty derelict.
SEAL FISHERIES.
The Pribyloff Islands, off Alaska, contribute more than
three times as many seals to the industry as any other
sealing locality in the world. The southern seas, how
ever, are also resorts of the seals They are found near
the Lobos Islands, on the eastem coast of South America,
at the South Shetland Islands, the Straits of MageUan,
the Falkland Islands, the Cape of Good Hope and tho
Japanese Islands. Seals belon.g to the mammalian family,
and live much on shore, on sandy beaches, rocks, or Ice
floes, where they breed and bask in the sun. There are
two species of seals known to commerce, — the eared seal,
which furnishes the beautiful fur so much admired by
women, and the earless, or hair seals, whose skin Is valua
ble only as leather, and whose oil is also a useful com
modity. The principal hair-seal fisheries are those of
Newfoundland, Labrador and Nova Zembla. The seals
resort in vast numbers to the ice fields that float past these
shores, for the purpose of bringing forth their young.
The little seals weigh at their birth about five pounds;

SEA LIFE. 225
but they grow rapidly, and when they are three or four
weeks old they are In their best condition for being killed.
The sea-hunters leap from their vessels to the ice, armed
with a pole, tipped with Iron, with which they deal a
fatal blow to the young seal. By means of a scalping
knife the skin, with the fat adhering, three or four inches
thick. Is quickly stripped from the carcass and rolled into
a bundle for the ship. When the ship reaches port the
skins are separated from the fat, salted and sent to Eng
lish tanneries, where they are converted Into leather.
The fur seals which are found about the Pribyloff Islands
have a thick, soft, velvety fur underneath the long loose
exterior hair, and it is this under fur which makes the
elegant garments worn by women. The value of these
skins in the raw state varies from $5 to $25 apiece. Most
of the skins are taken to London and there dressed.
PEARL FISHERIES.
The cause of the pearl is the Introduction of a grain
of sand or other foreign substance into the shell of the
pearl oyster. This causes an irritation of the delicate
tissues of the oyster, which immediately deposits the pearly
matter around It for protection. Advantage of this fact
has been taken to put substances within the shells of
young oysters to Induce the formation of pearls, and the
Chinese by this method force a species of fresh water
mussels to produce the jewel. The most Important pearl
fisheries of the world are those of Ceylon and Coromandel,
in the Indian Sea, whence pearls have been obtained since
the earliest times of history. The divers are natives,
trained to the pursuit, who are accustomed to descend to
the depth of six or eight fathoms some forty times a day,
and remain under water from a minute to a minute and
a half. The fishing season begins in March or April,
and lasts but one month. A single shell may contain from
eight to twenty pearls, varying in size from that of a
small pea to about three times that size. The coasts
of Java, Sumatra, Japan, and also Colombia and other
points on the shores of South America, have yielded large
quantities of pearls ; but they are usually smaller than the
Oriental pearls, and inferior to them in lustre.

226 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
FECUNDITY OF FISH.
Piscatory authorities of the highest standard tell us
that were It not for nature's grand "evening up" provi
sions, the fishes of the seas would multiply so rapidly that
within three short years they would fill the waters to
such an extent that there would be no room for them to
swim. This will hardly be disputed when It is known that
a single female cod will lay 45,000,000 eggs in a single
season. It Is said that other fish, though not equalling
the cod, are also wonderfully productive. A herring, six
or seven ounces In weight, is provided with about 30,000,-
000 eggs. After making all reasonable allowances for the
destruction of eggs and of the young, it has been cal
culated that in three years a single pair of herrings would
produce 154,000,000. Buffon says that If a pair of her
rings were left to breed and multiply undisturbed for
a period of twenty years, they would yield a fish-bulk
equal to the bulk of the globe on which we live.
SHARKS.
A shark's egg is oddly unprovided with shell; but the
contents are protected by a thick leathery covering almost
as elastic as India-rubber. Its average size is 2 by 3f
Inches and Is almost black in color. Sharks are frequently
seen during a transatlantic voyage. The white shark
Is voracious and merciless, but the tiger of the sea, as the
hammerhead is called, is worse than that. He is the
most repulsive looking fish that swims. He will take
UP the trail of a ship like a bloodhound, and his per
sistency is menacing and malignant. A white shark can
be frightened or beaten off even after seizing his prey, but
the hammerhead shuts his jaws like a bulldog and will
be cut to pieces before he will let go. A man In the water
may dodge the rush of a white shark, but the tiger never
misses his mark. He is slower, but surer than the other.
He is about 30 feet long and about the size of a flour
barrel. A white shark may follow a ship for 24 hours,
but not longer, when he will go cruising around after
food. A hammerhead, estimated to be 30 feet long,

SEA LIFE. 227
foUowed the English ship Eed Lion, 2,180 miles on a
voyage to Australia. Food was thrown to him many
times, but he would not touch it.
In October, 1893, the Norwegian bark Saigon, timber-
laden from Quebec to Sunderland, and disabled on her
beam-ends In mid-ocean by a hurricane, was surrounded
by a school of man-eating sharks. The crew clung to the
rigging as the vessel sank lower and lower, until finally
rescued by boats from the British ship Victoria.
Cheated of their prey the sharks leaped high around
the boats, as if they meant to force their way on board.
In 1871, the brig Southern Cross, from Calcutta to Lon
don, was wrecked on Nelson Island, at the northern end
of the Indian Ocean, and three passengers and the crew
of 14 men took to a raft. The wind blew them to sea in
stead of shoreward, and their raft was surrounded by
hammerhead sharks during that moming. By sundown,
when it was sighted by a north bound craft, only one of
the 17 castaways was left. Although the sharks could not
upset the raft, they had leaped upon it and knocked the
men overboard. There are numerous instances where divers
have had to combat sharks below the surface of the
waves. SWORD FISH.
The sword fish is the master of the seas among fish.
In Its encounters with whales the latter are Invariably
killed. They can sometimes do great damage to vessels.
One capsized a large seine-boat, a few years ago, belonging
to the fishing schooner Centennial, of Gloucester, and left
part of its sword protruding through the solid planking
and sheathing six inches above the boat's bottom. The
Norwegian bark Lorenzo had quite recently a sample
of the strength of a sword fish. Through th^ metal
sheathing of her hull, then through six Inches of plank
ing, and penetrating the inner ceiling about three inches,
the fish had driven its sword, resulting In a leak which kept
the crew at the pumps for six hours a day. The "sword"
was about 2^ inches in circumference at the point, and
5 inches at the end where it had broken off, the piece being
about 20 inches long.

228 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
STRANGE FISH- FACTS.
It has been shown that the life of a fish is very great.
Hundred of fish are still alive in the royal aquarium
in St. Petersburg that were placed there more than 150
years ago.
Fish Talk. — Curious sounds are uttered by some of the
denizens of the ocean. That small, highly colored fish
known as the ha-mulon has been known to grunt loudly
when taken from the water. The gizzard shad utters a
note that can be heard some distance. The eel Is said
to make a noise that Is almost musical. The dogfish
utters the loudest sound of any fish. When taken from
the water It sometimes gives a loud croak, and keeps It
up as if in great agony. The sound of the drumfish can
be heard while they are in the water. There is a fish
in China seas which makes a sound by clapping Its teeth
together. The Australian lung-fish utters a singular bark
ing sound at night that can be heard a long distance.
Whales when stranded utter cries. These sounds of fish
are the expression of their emotions, and have some mean
ing, either as a call, one individual to another, or as a
communication of some kind.
The eyes of deep-sea fish are very varied; some have
neither eyes nor sight; others have greatly enlarged eye
balls. Sunlight cannot penetrate to any great depth.
Some fish are phosphorescent and therefore luminous,
some being able to throw out their light at will or ex
tinguish it in time of danger. Fish with large eyes may
have a better chance of finding food, but they cannot
wholly depend upon sight, since some have quite abandoned
all attempts to see.
When a carp breathes, a wonderful mechanism is in
motion. People marvel at the construction of a human
being, with Its 492 bones, 60 arteries, etc.; but a carp
has 432 veins, 99 muscles, and, every time it breathes
It moves no less than 4,386 bones and muscles.
The proclivity of barnacles to adhere to ships' bottoms
is well Imown to the veriest landlubber, but it is not so
well known that these objectionable marine growths will
sustain and have actually sustained human life for quite
a period, as an emergency diet.

SEA LIFE. 239
Sturgeons sometimes attain great size. One captured
In Yerik Bay, on the Don, weighed 72 poods or about
2,600 pounds, English. One this size would give about
10 poods of caviare, having a marketable value of 1,000
rubles. Codfish at certain times of the year, just before migra
tion begins and after it is completed, are said to take sand
into their stomachs for "ballast," which is discharged
after the fish return.
Fish can change their color at will. Many make re
markable changes. The fish that change most are the
bottom feeders. They are able marvellously to adapt
themselves to the color of their surroundings.
Flying fish swim in shoals varying in number from a
dozen to a hundred or more. They often leave the water
at once, darting through the air in the same direction for
200 yards or more, and then descending to the water
quicldy, rising again, and then renewing their flight.
The power of flight Is limited to the time their fins remain
moist. Fish have friendships. Porpoises are sometimes greatly
attached to each other. Pet seals become attached to
their keepers. The mother whale becomes most dangerous
when her calf is killed by the whalers. Goldfish even
can be tamed to manifest friendly intelligence. Sturgeons
have made friendships with men.
Newfoundland's annual catch of codfish soirietimes
reaches one hundred million.
A fish dealer In Bath, Me., on cutting open a yellow
perch found a 20-penny nail.
One curious result of the hurricane that struck the
Southem coast some years ago was the killing of quan
tities of fish. For many days after the storm the coast
around Savannah and throughout the stretch .where Its
force was most vented, was strewn with dead fish of aU
kinds. The normal temperature of the shark is 77° Fahr.,
of the oyster, 82°, of the porpoise, 100°.
FISH PROFITS.
The average value of the product of agricultural lands

230 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
per acre or square mile is often computed, but there are
seldom similar computations relating to the sea. The
North Sea is one of the best of the world's fish fields.
Its area is 225,884 square miles. The average yearly
value of the fish catch is $41,000,000, so that every square
mile averages $18.15.
The American fisheries are represented by an annual
catch of 1,696,000,000 pounds, worth $47,180,000. They
are caught as follows: 616,000,000 pounds from. the "waters
of the New England States ; 596,000,000, Middle Atlantic
States; 59,000,000, South Atiantic States; 84,000,000,
Gulf States; 147,000,000, Pacific States; and 64,000,-
000 from Alaska; in the Great Lakes, 108,000,000, and
interior fisheries, 19,000,000.

NAVIES.

ANCIENT AND MODERN NAVIES.
Feom the construction of the great steam propelled
vessels of to-day It is interesting to cast a glance at the
naval architecture of the past. Of the infancy of the
art of naval architecture we know little. It Is almo.jt
certain, however, that the first vessels In use were not
large, for the largest of the Grecian fleet at the siege of
Troy, 1184 B. C, carried only 120 men. These vessels
were all propelled by oars and had no decks. Such sails
as they had were merely auxiliary to the oars, which were
not discarded until a miich later day. Fighting at sen
had not then come into fashion and it is not until 500
years later that we read of vessels being built with a
view to encountering enemies afioat. By this time the
oars had been Increased in number and arranged in banks,
one above the other. The fighting men were stationed

NAVIES. 231
at the bow and stern, while the oarsmen occupied the
center of the vessel. Later on, a deck was added, thus
making room for a largo number of soldiers aboard and
more thoroughly protecting the oarsmen. The object of
the naval tactics of that day was to run alongside of an
enemy, and disable his vessel by breaking his oars, as
well as to crush his sides if possible. In order to ac
complish this, the prows, or peaks, were constructed of
the strongest and toughest woods and were sometimes shod
with iron, the prow frequently extending below the water
line, thus rendering a blow the more destructive. This
was the Idea of ramming which in modern times has-
been revived. Other means of destruction were then
resorted to as well, such, for Instance, as Grecian fire.
Of the history of ship-building after the fall of Eoman
civilization as little Is definitely known as is of the period
prior to It. The Saxon pirates who ravaged the coasts
of Europe put to sea on their expeditions In large flat-
bottomed boats, the keels of which were of very light tim
ber, the floors and sides being merely of wicker work, and
the whole being covered with strong hides. In time these
were replaced by vessels built of wood and having leather
sails. Gradually the sails were increased until oars went
out of use.
The invention of gunpowder, or rather -its application,
about the beginning of the fifteenth century, and the
consequent introduction of artillery on board of war
vessels, led to further improvements. The galleys were
first adapted to the new order of things by being enlarged
and armed with guns placed in the bows. Later on, the
galleys gave way to the galleons, in which the use of oars
was entirely dispensed with. Port holes were then cut
in the sides of vessels by means of which guns could be
usefully carried on the lower deck. During the fifteenth
century commerce between nations had greatly Increased;
the mariner's compass had come to be generally used;
the astrolabe had been applied to navigation; America
had been discovered; the Cape of Good Hope had been
rounded; the sea route to the Indies had superseded the
land route, and all this necessitated improvements and
changes in ships. These, however, pertained chiefly to

232 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
the fittings. No alterations had taken place in the models.
Nearly all ships at this time carried guns. About the
year 1529 the English ship, the Great Harry, was buUt.
This has been styled the parent of the navies of the world.
Her construction was considered to be a great triumph
in ship-building, and gave a great impetus to naval
architecture. About the year 1660 vessels containing
three tiers of guns were built by the Spaniards, and the
English, stimulated by their example, built the vessel, the
Sovereign of the Seas, the finest specimen of a man-of-
war ever constructed up to that time. From that time
.naval architecture passed through the various phases with
which a perusal of our own history makes us familiar,
until It has developed to-day into the necessity of various
classes of vessels, ranging from the mighty battleship to
the speedy scout and from the quick destroyer to the
dangerous submarine craft.
Active List, United States Navy.— The active list of
the United States Navy comprises 1,340 commissioned and
177 warrant officers. The enlisted force numbers 14,603
men. The United States Marine Corps consists of 201
officers and 6.000 men.
THE GREATEST NAVIES.

Great

Aus.-
Britain. France. Russia.
Italy
. Oerma'y. Hun. Japan.
Battleships 1st CI
. 45
25
22
13
8
6
Battleships 2d CI.
12
6
4
2
5
2
1
Battleships 3d CL
11
2
1
8
1
Coast Defence
13
14
16
9
8
7
S
Armed Cruisers
30
22
12
6
5
2
7
1st CI. Cruisers
21
4
11
8
2d-3d CI. Cruis.
124
42
22
35
18
17
29
Sea Gunboats
99
25
25
24
19
e
19
River Gunboats
7
29
39
10
9
Transports, etc.
44
41
37
14
6
27
8
Repair Ships, etc.
, 125
48
43
60
43
6
4
Training Ships
43
9
9
6
14
Auxiliary Vessels
94
76
42
13
13
Obsolete Vessels
22
94
12
5
T. B. Destroyers
123
25
31
5
12
12
1st CI. T. B.
97
120
89
12
115
30
62
2d-3d CI. T. B.
145
108
98
160
36
40
Officers 3,919
2,015
2.258
840
1.555
659
Seamen 81,803 (
37,200 .
41,853 23,590 2L800
12,900
Heavy Guns ]
1,060
739
658
156
283
209
178
Secondary Guns 9,088
4,249
4,308 2
;,057
1,459
827 1
1,312
NAVIES. 233
THE WORLD'S NEW WARSHIPS.
_ -The figures Included In the following table are very
instructive. They show that, even Including the moni
tors, harbor forts only, the preparations made by the
United States for Increasing Its power at sea must be put
at the foot of what has been undertaken by civilized
nations. Even Italy, the weakest of all, is adding more
to its Navy than we are. It may be set down as morally
certain that in the not far distant future, no country
wUl be more in need of a Navy to keep for Its Industry
and commerce Its rightful place in the world than the
United States. The war vessels now building are com
puted by Engineering in tons :
Battleships. Cruisers. Torpedo Vis. Total.
England 251,700 267,080 12,900 531,680
France 80,281 166,283 8,969 255,533
Germany 99,729 41,851 6,655 148,235
Italy 78,454 38,901 3,185 120.540
Japan 59,700 63,280 7,133 130,113
Russia 115,713 92.697 16,566 222,976
United States 94,715 4,935 10,646
Monitors 12,940 123,236
Of this aggregate the amount begun in 1899 is as fol
lows: Battleships. Cruisers. Torpedo Vis. Total.
England 116,000 127,700 4,200 247,900
France 25,456 113,943 4,800 144,199
Germany 44,324 2,200 4,200 51,324
Italy 32,000 1,800 33,800
Russia 57,426 6,375 1,700 65,501
United States 36,970 4,191
Monitors 12,940 54,101
ENXISTMENT IN THE NAVY.
The term of enlistment In the United States Navy Is
for four years. Applicants must be of robust frame,
intelligent, of perfectly sound and healthy constitution
and free from any of the following physical defects:
Greatly retarded development, feeble constitution. In
herited or acquired ; permanently Impaired general health,
decided cachexia, diathesis or predisposition, weak or dis
ordered intellect, epilepsy or other convulsions -within
five years, impaired -ylsion or chronic disease of the organs
of vision, great dullness of hearing or chronic disease
of the ears, chronic nasal catarrh, o.za3H.a, polypi or .great

334

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

enlargement of the tonsils, marked Impediments of speech,
decided Indications of liability to pulmonary disease,
chronic cardiac affections, large varicose veins of lower
limbs, chronic ulcers, unnatural curvatures of the spine,
permanent disability of either of the extremities, or articu
lations from any cause, defective teeth. Boys between
15 and 17 years of age, may, subject to the foregoing
conditions and with the consent of parents or guardians,
be enlisted as apprentices In the Navy until 21 years of
age. Landsmen enlist between 18 and 25 years of age.
UNITED STATES NAVAL VESSELS.

Name.
Alabama Georgia
Illinois
Indiana Iowa

AEMOHBD BATTLESHIPS.
Tons JS-S .J J a 5 J,B J
Displace- g g jS a ?• ^^ S,
ment. fcdm feJ M O '-' o H
11,565 16 368 72 23.5 40 453
11,565 16 368 72 23.5 40 453
10,810 15.5 348 69 25.1 32 465
11,340 17 300 72 24 36 474

Kearsarge 11,525 16.8 368 72 22.5 40 513
Kentucky 11,525 16 368 72 23.5 40 514

12,300 18 388 72 23.5 40 478
10,810 16.2 348 69 25.1 32 463
12,230 18 388 72 23.5 35 478
12,440 18 388 72 23.5 35 478
11,000 16.8 348 69 25.3 32 462

MaineM'chusetts
Missouri New Jersey
Ohio
Oregon P'sylvania
Texas
Wisconsin
Brooklyn California
NebraskaNew York
W. Virginia KAM.
Katahdin 2,155 17 250 43 15

6.315
11,565 9,215 8,200

18 301 64 22.5 30 413
16 368 72 23.5 35 453
ARMORED CRUISERS.
22 400 64 24 46 471

21 380 64 23.5 40 522
7 90

Amphitrite 3,990
Miantonomoh 3,990
Monadnock 4,005

TURRET MONTTORS.
10.5 2.59 55 14.5 26 156
10.5 2.59 55 14.5 13 136
12 259 55 14.6 26 187

Main Battery.
413-inbl, 14B-inrf
4 13-in bl, 14 6-in rf
4 13-in bl, 4 6-in rf
4 12-in bl, 8 8-in bl,
6 4-in rf.
4 13-in W. 4 8-in bl,
14 5-in rf.
4 13-in bl,4 8-ir W.
14 5-in rf.
4 12-in bl, 16 6-in rf
4 13-in bl, 8 8-in bl,
4 6-in rf.
4 12-in bl, 16 6-in rf
4 12-in bl, 16 6-in rf
4 13-in bl, 8 8-inbl,
4 6-in rf.
2 12-in bl, 6 6-in bl.
4 13-in bl, 14 6-in rf
8 8-in bl, 12 5-in rf.

6 8-in bl, 124-inrf.

4 6 pdr rf.
4 10-in bl, 2 4-in rf.
4 10-in bl.
4 104n bl, 2 4-in rf.

NA VIES.

233

Name. :

Tons SV. .^ , a 1
Displace- go g5 g
ment. Mm fej «

D'pth Offi cers.

i

Main Battery.

Monterey

4,084 13.6 256 59

14.1

19

199

2 12-in bl, 2 10-in b!

Puritan

6,060 12.4 290 60

18

22

208

4 12-in bl, 6 4-in xi

Terror

3,990 10.5 259 55

14.5

26

151

4 10-in bl.

Canonicus

2,100 6

2 15-in sb.
Catskill
1,875 6
2 15-in sb.
Jason
1,875 5 to 6
2 15-in sb.
Lehigh
1,875 5 to 6
2 15-in sb.
Mahopac
2,100 6
2 15-in sb.
Manhattan
2,100 6
2 15-in sb.
Montauk
1,875 5 to 6
2 15-in sb.
Nahant
1,875 5 to 6
2 15-in sb.
Nantucket
1,875 5 to 6
2 15-in sb.
Arkansas
3,235 11.5 252 50
12.5
7
124
2 12-in bl, 4 4-in rf.
Connecticut
3,235 11.5 252 50
12.5
7
124
2 12-in bl, 4 4-in rf.
Florida
3,235 11.5 252 50
12.5
7
124
2 12-in bl, 4 4-in rf.
Wyoming
3,235 11.5 252 50
12.5
7
124
2 12-in bl, 4 4-in rf
UNARM ORED STEEL VESSELS.
PROTECTED CRUISERS.
AlbanyAtlanta Baltimore
Boston ChattanoogaChicago
Cincinnati ClevelandColumbiaDenver
Des Moines
Detroit Galveston
Marblehead MinneapolisMontgomery Newark
New Orleans
OlympiaPhiladelphia Raleigh Reina Mere's
San Fran.
Tacoma
Annapolis Bancroft
3,437 3,000
4,570 3,035 3,200
5,000
3,213
3,200 7,3753,2003,2002,0893,200
2,089 7,3752,089
4,098 3,437
5,870 4,4103,213 3,090
4,098 3,200
20 15.6
20 15.6 16
18
1916
22.8 16161916
18 23 19 19
20
21.7 19.719 17
19.5
16
346 43
271 42
327 48
271 42
292 44
325 48
300 42
292 44
412 58
292 44
292 44
257 37
292 44
257 37
412 58
311 49
311 49
346 43
340 53
327 48
300 42
279 43
316 49
292 44
341 6 6
277 6 6
350 4 8
270 6 6
263 10
20.3 33 426 4 8
319 11
263 10
18 16.9
20 17 15.7
24 19
36 19 30
18
15.7
22.5 15.7
15.7 14.715.7
14.7 20
303434
24
22.5 18.7 18.7
18
21.5 34
19.5 34
18 20
19.1
18.7 33
15.7 30
447 18
263 10
263 10
245 10
263 10
242 10
447 18
359 12
359 12
341 6 6
412 10
358 12
293 10
in rf, 4 4.7-in rf
•in rf, 2 8-in bl
in bl, 6 6-in bl
-in bl, 2 8-in bl
5-in rf.
i-in bl, 14 5-in rf.
5-in rf
5-in rf.
-in bl, 2 6-in bl
5-in rf.
5-in rf.
5-in rf.
5-in rf.
5-in rf.
-in bl, 2 6-in bl
6-in rf.
6-in rf.
-in rf, 4 4.7-in rf
6-in rf, 4 8-in bl
6-in rf.
5-in rf, 1 6-in bl
GUNBOATS.
1,060 13
839 14
350 12 6-in rf.
263 10 5-in rf.
6 4-in rl.
4 4-in rf.
836

OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.

Tons S-%
Name. Displace. 9 5
ment. g S

OS

1

Main Battery.

Bennington

1,710 17

230 36 14

16

181

6 6-in bl.

Castine

1,777 16

204 32 12

11

142

8 4-in rf.

Chesapeake

1,175

6 4-in rf.
Concord
1,710 16
230 36 14
13
181
6 6-in bl
Don Juan de
Austria
1,130 14
210 32 12,
,5
Helena
1,397 15
250 40 9
10
166
8 4-in rf.
Isla de Cuba
1,030 14
192 30 11.
5
6 4.7-in rf.
Isla de Luzon
1,030 14
192 30 11.
5
6 4.7-in rf.
Machias
1,777 15
204 32 12
11
143
8 4-in rf.
Marietta
1,000 13
6 4-in rf.
Nashville
1,371 16
220 38 11
11
167
8 4-in rf.
Newport
1,000 12
6 4-in rf.
No. 16
Petrel
892 11
176 31 11.
7 10
122
4 6-in bl.
Princeton
1,100 12
6 4-in rf.
Topeka
1,814 16
250 35 15.
5 14
153
6 4-in rf.
Vicksburg
1,000 13
6 4-in rf.
Wheeling
1,000 12
6 4-in rf.
Wilmington
1,397 15
250 40 9
10
188
8 4-in rf.
Yorktown
1,710 16
230 36 14
14
181
6 6-in rf.
DYNAMITE GUNBOAT.
Vesuvius 929 21 3 15-in dyn. guns.
bl. means Breech Loading rifle, rf. Rapid Fire guns.
AUXILIARY CRUISERS.
Kame.
Badger Buffalo
Dixie
'Panther Prairie Yankee
Tons
Displace ment.
4,784 16
a^ooo
6,.114
4,260 6,872 6,000
14.5
16
13 14.5 14.5
Horse
P'wer. 3,200 3,600
3,800 3,800 3,800
Cost.
$367,000 575,000
575,000
375,000 575,000 575,000
Main Battery
6 5-in RF.
2 5-in RF. 4 4-in RF
10 6-in RF.
6 5-in RF., 2 4-in RF
10 6-in RF.
10 6-iu RF.
Yosemite 6,179 16 3,800 575,000 10 6-in RF.
DISPATCH BOAT.
Dolphin 1,486 16 3 4-in, RF.
RP. means Rapid Fire Guns.
There are 16 Torpedo Boat Destroyers in the Navy, built or
building, named as follows: Bainbridge, Barry, Chauncey, Dale,
Decatur, Hopkins, Hull, Lawrence, Macdonough, Paul Jones,
Perry, Preble, Stewart, Truxton, Whipple, Worden. Their keels
were laid in 1899. They are each from 400 to 433 tons displace
ment, from 28 to 30 knots speed, of from 7,000 to 8,300 horse
power, cost -from $281,000 to $286,000, and have batteries of 2 14-
NA VIES. iVt
pounder rapid-fire, 5 or fi-pounder rapid-fir's, and 2 1'8-inch White
head torpedo tubes.
There are 38 Torpedo Boats built or building, named as follows:
Bagley, Bailey, Barcelo, Barney, Biddle, Blakely, Cushing, Dahl-
gren, Davis, De Long, Du Pont, Ericsson, Farragut, Foote, Fox,
Goldsborough, Gwin, Mackenzie, Manly, McKee, Morris, Nichol
son, O'Brien, Plunger, Porter, Rodgers, Rowan, Shubrick, Somers,
Stiletto, Stockton, Stringham, T. M. A. Craven, Talbot, Thornton,
Tingen, Wilkes, Winslow. The Plunger is a submarine boat.
They are from 45 to 279 tons displacement, from 17 to 30 knots
speed, of from 850 to 5,600 horse-power, cost from $24,250 to
$236,000, and carry batteries of from 1 1-pounder rapid fire up to
7 6-pounder rapid fire guns, and from 2 to 3 18-inch Whitehead
torpedo tubes.
There are 19 small unarmored gunboats, named: Albany,
Alvarado, Belusan, Calamianes, Callao, El Cano, Gardoqui,
Leyte, Manileno, Mariveles, Mindanao, Mindoro, Pampango,
Panay, Paragua, Samar, Sandoval, Urdaneta, Vasco. They are
of less than 500 tons displacement, and of a speed of from
8 to 19 knots.
The Alert, Monoeacy, Michigan, and Ranger, are old steam
iron vessels; the Adams, Alliance, Enterprise, Essex, Hartford,
Lancaster, Marion and Mohican are old steam wooden vessels ;
the Constellation and Monongahela are old sailing vessels used
for training ships, and the St. Mary's and Saratoga are old
sailing vessels used for schoolships.
There are Naval Tugs, named: Fortune, Iwana, Leyden, Nar-
keeta, Nina, Petrelito, Rapido, Standish, Sureste, Traffic,
Triton, Unadilla, Wahneta, Samoset, Penacook, Pawtucket,
They are from 187 to 450 tons displacement, and of from 8.5 to
13 knots speed.
The Jamestown, Omaha and Iroquois belong to the Marine
Hospital Service. The Fern, Marion, Minnesota, Portsmouth,
Yantic, Dale, New Hampshire and St. Louis are being used by
the naval militia of various States. The old wooden vessels,
Franklin, Pensacola, Richmond, Wabash, Independence, Nipsic
and Constitution are used as receiving ships, and are not fit for
sea service. NAVY YARD AND NAVAL STATIONS.
The United States navy yards are: Brooklyn Navy Yard,
Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Charlestown, Navy Yard,* Boston, Mass. ;
Portsmouth Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va. ; Kittery Navy Yard,
opposite Portsmouth, N. H. ; League Island Navy Yard, a few
miles out of Philadelphia; Mare Island Navy Yard, near San
Francisco, Cal.; Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla.; Wash
ington City Navy Yard, Washington, D. C.
There are naval stations at New London, Conn.; Port Royal,
S. C. ; Bremerton, Wash. ; Key West, Fla. ; San Juan, Porto Rico ;

3g8 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
Havana, Cuba; Honolulu, H. I.; Cavite, P. I. At Newport is also
a torpedo and naval training station. There is also a naval train
ing station at Yerba Buena Island, Cal.
PAY AND WAGES IN THE NAVY.
Admiral gets, both at sea and on shore duty, $13,500; the first
nine Rear-Admirals, at sea and on shore duty, respectively, $7,500
and $6,375; the second nine rear-admirals, $5,500, $4,675; Cap
tains, $3,500, $2,975; Commanders, $3,000, $2,550; Lieut.-Com-
manders, $2,500, $2,125; Lieutenants, $1,800, $1,530; Junior
Lieutenants, $1,500, $1,275; Ensigns, $1,400, $1,190; Chief
Boatswains, Chief Gunners, Chief Carpenters, Chief Sailmakers,
$1,400, $1,400; Naval Cadets, $500, $500; Mates, $900, $700;
Medical Directors, Pay Directors, Inspectors, Chief Engineers
rank the same and receive $4,400 when at sea; Surgeons and
Paymasters receive from $2,800 to $4,200, and Chaplains from
$2,000 to $2,800. The wages of enlisted landsmen in the Navy
are $16 per month; of ordinary seamen, from 18 to 30 years,
$19; of others, from 21 to 35 years, as follows: seamen, $24,
stewards and mess attendants, $16 and up; coal passers, $22;
shipwrights and sailmakers, $25 up; painters and buglers, $30;
musicians, $32; firemen, $30 to $35; yeomen, $30 to $40; cooks,
$40; carpenters mates, $40 to $50; blacksmiths, $50; boiler-
inakers, and chief yeomen, $60; machinists, $40 to $70.
NAUTICAL NOTES.
A power of 250 tons Is necessary to start a vessel weigh
ing 3,000 tons over greased slides on a marine railway;
when in motion, 150 tons only Is required
A modern dredging-machine, 123 feet long, beam, 26
feet, breadth over all, 31 feet, will raise 180 tons of mud
and clay per hour 11 feet from water-line
The easternmost point of the United States is Quoddy
Head, Me. ; the most northern. Point Barrow, Alaska";
the most western, Attu Island, Alaska ; the most southern.
Key West, Fla. When 6 o'clock at Attu Island, It Is
9 : 36 A.M. the next day at Quoddy Head.
The Geneva Award (of $15,500,000) was the sum fixed
by five commissioners of arbitration, meeting at Geneva,
Sv/itzerland, under the Washington Treaty, In 1872, as
that to be paid by England to indemnify the United States
for losses to American commerce inflicted by the Alabama,
and other Confederate privateers built In" English ship
yards, during the Civil War.

NAVIES. ^39
Sandy Hook means "sandy point," the term "hook"'
being derived from the Dutch "haak," point.
Hell Gate Is a corruption of the Dutch Horllgatt, "horl,"
a whirlpool, and "gat," a passage.
Castle Garden, the old immigrant depot of New York,
was originally a small fortified Island (Fort George).
It was converted Into a summer garden, and here a ball
was given to Lafayette in 1824, to Jackson in 1832, and
a reception to Tyler in 1843. Jenny Lind made her first
appearance in America at Castle Garden. In 1855 the
space between the island and Battery was filled in, and
the place devoted to the reception of immigrants. This
has since been closed and part of the structure demolished.
The Aquarium of New York City Is now located on the
site. The United States flag was first saluted by a foreign
power, Feb. 14, 1778, at Quiberon Bay, France — Admiral
La Motte, representing the French Government, firing
the salute. The flag was carried by the Eanger, Capt.
Paul Jones. It was flrst carried around the world in the
Columbia, Capt. Robert Gray, in 1791.
Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, were the three vessels
with which Columbus set out to discover America.
The first protective tariff was enacted in 1816.
Marine insurance existed In the year 533 A. D. ; was in
troduced Into England, in 1598, and Into America, in
1721. America was discovered by Lief Ericson, 1,001; by
Columbus, 1492; North America by John and Sebastian
Cabot, 1497; Florida, by De Soto,' 1541; Hudson River,
by Hendrick Hudson, 1609.
Hell Gate reefs were blown up, 1876.
The "Compact of the Pilgrims," signed on board the
Mayflower in Cape Cod (Provlncetown) harbor before
landing, was the first Instrument of civil government ever
subscribed as the act of the whole peopled There were
41 subscribers, each noting the number of his family.
The total of persons was 101.
The male passengers of the Mayflower who landed at
Plymouth, Mass., Dec. 21, 1620, were: Isaac Allerton,
John Allerton, Wm. Bradford, Wm. Brewster, John Bii-

240' OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
lington, Peter Brown, Richard Britterage, John Carvfir,
Francis Cook, James Chilton, John Crackston, Richard
Clarke, Edward Dotey, Francis Eaton, Thos. English,
Sam'l. Fuller, Edward 'Fuller, Moses Fletcher, John Good
man, Richard Gardiner, John Howland, Stephen Hop-
Icins, Edward Leister, Christopher Martin, Wm. Mullins,
Edward Margeson, Degony Priest, Thos. Rogers, John
Rigdale, Capt. Miles Standish, George Soule, Edward
Tilly, Thos. Tinker, John Turner, Edward Winslow, Wm..
V,''hite, Richard Warren, Thos. Williams, Gilbert Winslow.
Their servants were: Carter, Coper, Ely, Holbeck, Hooke,
Langemore, Latham, Minter, More, Prower, Sampson,
Story, Thompson, Trevore, Wilder.
U. S. Fish Commission was established in 1871.
Salmon-canning was begun on Pacific coast in 1865.
Lumley's rudder was patented in 1862.
Ruthven's propelling patent was In 1830.
Fulton's submarine boat, 1801.
Bernouilll demonstrated principle of screw propeller
in 1752.
Floating docks were Introduced In 1716.
Volturlus's propelling wheels were constructed in
1472. Sea coal prohibited in London as "prejudicial to health,"
1273. Naval Academy of United States, AnnapoUs, Md.,
opened in 1845.
Pacific cable proposed, 1891, and $50,000 appropriated
for survey.
Three ships bearing the earliest Pilgrim Fathers from
England to America sailed from London, Dec. 20, 1606.
These were followed in 1620 by the ilayflower and
Plymouth Rock, and In 1640 by a fleet of four ships under
V/Inthrop. "Boston Tea Party," destroving tea In harbor of Boston,
Dec. 16, 1773.
Spanish Armada of 132 ships, under Medina Sidonia.
scattered by the English fleet, 1588.
Trafalgar, off which, Oct. 21, 1805, the British, under
Nelson, gained a great victory over the combined fleets of
France and Spain.

NA VIES. 241
To convert m.etric weights and measures into those used
in the United States. To convert grammes Into avoirdupois
ounces, multiply by .0352; kilogrammes into avoirdupois
pounds, multiply by 2.2046; litres into gallons, multiply
by .2202; litres Into pints, multiply by 1.762; millimetres
into inches, multiply by 25.4; metres Into yards, multiply
by 70 and divide by 64.
Water Is composed of oxygen, 1 vol., and hydrogen, 2
vols. London can harbor 1,000 ships.
The largest wharf on the Pacific coast Is at Santa
Monica, Los Angeles County, Cal. It sticks out Into the
Pacific Ocean almost a mile, being 4,693 feet long. It is
131 feet wide, and has seven railroad tracks. Eight
ships of a draught of 28 feet (deeper than most of the
freight ships of the world) can discharge cargo into South
ern Pacific Railroad cars at once at this big pier without
crowding. The formation of a new island In the Caspian Sea, near
Baku, Eussia, by upheaval took place a few years ago. Its
surface is reported to be irregular and composed of black
ish gray and yellow hardened mud.
The harbor of New Haven, England, presents an ex
cellent example of the extensive use of plastic, unset con
crete, this material having been almost exclusively used
in the construction of that massive breakwater.
Liverpool Docks. — The docks at Liverpool, England,
extend on the city side of the river Mersey 6^ miles, and
have a water area of 333.5 acres, and a lineal quayage of
22 miles. The great landing stage at Liverpool Is the
finest structure of the kind In the world. Its length is
2,063 feet, and Its breadth is 80 feet. It Is supported on
floating pontoons, which rise and fall with the tide, and Is
connected with the quay by seyeij. bridges, besides a float
ing bridge 550 feet in length for heavy traffic^ The great
system of docks at Liverpool was commenced In 1709.
The amount of capital Invested In these docks Is £10,-
000,000, and the revenue derived from them is over £1,-
000,000 annually. They are constructed as water-tight
inclosures, with flood-gates, which are opened during the
flowing and closed during the ebbing of the tide, so that

242 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
vessels within can be kept afloat and at the same level while
being loaded and unloaded.
Plimsoll's Marie. — Samuel Pllmsoll won his title as the
"sailors friend" by legislation forced in Parliament, the
chief feature of which was the "PlimsoU Mark" bill.
which provides for the marking of all merchant vessels
with the Pllmsoll Mark, so that an overloading will be
immediately perceptible, by causing the mark to sink out
of sight, and making the offense punishable by fines and
loss of charter by the captain offending. The famous
mark is like this: -G-
There is a very large trade done in anchors that have
been lost by ships and afterward dragged for by vessels
which are equipped for the purpose. In rivers and harbors
a great number of valuable ships' anchors are lost In
storms, some which are recovered by the dredgers. As
new ships' anchors cost about six cents a pound, and in
the case of a big vessel an anchor will average 6.000
pounds, and of "tramps" from 1,100 to 3,000 pounds,
and the recovered anchors are sold at about five cents a
pound, there is a substantial profit for the anchor dredg
ers. Cost of America's Discovery. — It has been calculated by
the editor of a Genoese journal that the discovery of
America cost about $7,500. Columbus had an annual
salary of $333. The captains of the Nina and Pinta got
$180 each. The sailors received $2,50 each per month.
The outfit of the expedition amounted to $3,800.
The Oil Spot. — Ten miles south of the Sabine river
and a mile off shore is a natural phenomenon kno^vn to
sailors as the "The Oil Spot." No visible boundary divides
it from the open sea around, but even during a storm, even
though the waters become red and turbid, they here re
main comparatively calm.
Satih in Quicksand. — The Danish bark Lottie, a few
years ago, became lodged in the quicksand of a bar in the
harbor of Altata, and the next day her hull had com
pletely disappeared In the quicksand. Several vessels,
after being driven ashore, have sunk out of sight in the
treacherous quicksands which constitute the Joe Flogger
shpftl In Delaware Bay. The 5.ritish schooner Satellite,

NA VIES. 243
with a cargo of coal from Philadelphia to Halifax a few
years ago, was one of the last of the vessels to suffer thi:.
fate. A few hours after she struck the sand her hold
was full of water and her lee rail submerged. Her crew
abondoned her, but nothing from the vessel could bo
saved. The Obelish Ship. — The famous steamer Denton, once
one of the fastest and finest appointed vessels afloat,
built In 1864 for the Khedive of Egypt, sold in 1879 to W.
H. Vanderbilt to transport the Obelisk from Egypt to New
York (which was accomplished brilliantly In the face of
great obstacles), and recalled the Dessong, is now a com
monplace sea-going coal barge.
The Largest Derrick. — The biggest derrick in the world
is the 125-ton floating derrick Atlas, used In Cramp &
Sons' Shipyard, In Philadelphia. It cost $100,000, and
has the superb record of lifting a 70-ton boiler off the
pier, towing Itself a distance of 150 feet, and lowering the
boiler with delicate adjustment into the armored cruiser
New York in less than 25 minutes.
The death rate of the sailors In the mercantile marine
is 12 per 1,000 — lower than that on land.
The East Indian ship worm will in a few months de
stroy any vessel by eating out the Interior of the beams and
planks. They will be left a mere shell that can be shat
tered with the fist.
Captain Kidd. — Among all the pirates who have figured
in history he is the typical hero of the dreaded black
flag. He was not a typical pirate; he was different from
the ordinary marine freebooter. Other pirates who made
themselves notorious on our coast were known as robbers,
pillagers and destroyers of life and property. We do not
think of him as a pirate who came to carry away ths
property of American citizens. His arrival at points on
our shores was for the purpose of hiding treasures he had
collected elsewhere. SHIP NOVELTIES AND INVENTIONS.
There are annually numerous new ideas in ships and
almost innumerable inventions in regard to ships' parts,
giotJve power and safety. Very few prove a practical

244 OLD OCEAN'S FEBBY.
success. Some of the most interesting and recent ideas
and inventions are noted below. Of those which have
a demonstrated success there are the following:
The whalehack barge, which looks like a huge cigar,
having a nearly flat bottom and practically no deck, the
oval plates curving over the part where the decks are
usually- seen, has proved of great utility as a freighter,
economizing space and being of great carrying capacity.
These vessels are used extensively on the Great Lakes.
Ice-Breaking Ships. — Admiral Makaroff, of the Russian
Navy, was the inventor of an Ice-breaking plough capable
of breaking through ice from 12 to 20 feet thick. The
Sampo has gone through pack Ice which at parts was
20 feet thick, and no severer trial can be set for propelling
machinery. In one case the sheet ice was 6|^ miles broad,
yet the engines drove the ship through it at a mean speed
of 3J miles an hour. The Inventor believes that two such
ships can maintain open winter communication with St.
Petersburg, and that they could even force their way
through the glacial ocean, if the ice thickness was under
12 feet, and reach the long-sought North Pole Itself.
Parson s steam turbine engine has demonstrated Its
.iitlllty In the Turbinia, which made phenomenal speed
recently, making between 34 and 35 knots per hour. The
Turbinia weighed complete 44^ tons, and of this only
3 tons 13 hundredweight was taken up by the main engines.
With a horsepower of 1,500, the weight of engine re
quired to produce a horsepower was only about 5J pounds,
against 25 or 30 pounds In the ordinaiy type of torpedo-
boat engine. The difference in weight can be utilized to
increase boiler power and fuel capacity and thus gain
speed. The steam turbine also produces no vibrations in
engine or vessel. The British torpedo-boat-destroyer
Viper, fitted with turbine engines, made at her triarin
January, 1900, 35.5 knots.
There have been several submarine boats built in dif
ferent countries of late years, but none seem to have
attained such success as the Holland boat, built in America,
which has done everything asked of it, and realized every
plan and purpose of its inventor, being under good con
trol whether on the surface or under water, or In rising

NA VIES 245
or diving, and being capable of propulsion for compara
tively long distances under the surface.
Among the recent novelties in navigation that have
proved failures we have:
The Bazin roller ship which was designed to ride on
great hollow wheels and roll across the Atlantic. About
these wheels Is constructed a platform. A very small
model showed satisfactory results, but when the inventor
was able to command the capital required and a large
one was built, launched and tried, It was found that in
stead of 60 miles an hour as he expected, the vessel could
make only 13. Increased power in the rollers immersed
them beyond their effective working position. Power was
lost, through adherence to the rollers of a large volume
of water, making additional weight. The tests were made
at Rouen.
A similar invention to Bazin's boat was proposed some
years ago by one Trouve, another Frenchman, in which
he suspended a boat between two large side floating pro
pulsion wheels, with another large similar wheel In the
rear. The Gresham boat was also a strange Idea. The ap
pearance of the boat was cigar-shaped, with a flange
running around the boat several times from stem to stern.
The idea was to have the vessel revolve under water
Within this shell was to be the boat Itself, and at each end
a large tube projected above the water.
The Enapp roller boat is a large single roller like a
rolling-pin, with- small platforms at each end and straight
flanges only In the center running horizontal with the
length. The boat built at Toronto Is 110 feet long, 22
feet In diameter, was expected to make 30 miles an hour
and actually made 6 miles an hour. The power was ap
plied by putting the engines on circular tracks inside the
outer shell, and making the weighted Inner cylinder tend
to climb up the side of the outer one, like a squirrel in a
wheel cage.
The Secor boat was expected to revolutionize the motive
power of vessels. Speed was to be obtained through the
impulse of explosions taking place directly against the
water. The great object of the plan was to economize
space.

246 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
There have been several jet-boats invented — ^boats to
be propelled by the expulsion of a jet of water from the
stern. It is a very old idea, and has been often tried and
always with a loss of speed as compared with the ordinary
screw or wheel propeller.
H. F. L. Linden, of Naples, partly solved the problem
of a wave propelled boat, In 1898^— a boat that navigates
against the waves or In any ordinary direction counter to
them, or equally well with them, by no other force than
that derived from the waves themselves. It is only a
small boat, the size of a rowboat. The motive contrivance
consists In a series of powerful resilient floats with free
ends, attached to the boat at bow and stem.
Richard Painton and Henry Busse expect that if a
ship were built after their designs It could cross the
Atlantic in 3 days, developing between 35 and 40 knots
an hour. They propose 18 propellers ranged along its
sides, with electricity as motive power.
Among other recent odd inventions relating to the sea
and ships are the following:
Horizontal paddle wheels adapted to vessels of shallow
draught to be applied to a double-hulled vessel, the wheels
being inside between the hulls, and the vessel eut away
between and underneath.
A high bowed freighter in which the bow Is built high
for protection against the waves, and the vessel is cut
away in its sides immediately aft of the bow.
A flat stern boat, with two propellers under a flat stern,
which, it is claimed, keep the boat from settling by the
stern at high speeds; keeps the propeller submerged at
all times, and leaves the water level. Instead of dragging
a succession of waves after the boat.
Among the ingenious contrivances for aiding biological
study the glass bottom boat of the Paciflc is unique. There
in such an one at Santa Catalina, Cal.
Sir Henry Bessemer, a few years ago. Invented a steam
ship with a saloon suspended amidships, which would re
main level and not roll with the ship, applying hydraulic
power to its movements.
It has been proposed by an inventor to equip an ordi
nary ship with air propellers, these propellers revolving

NA VIES. 247
in the air Instead of in the water, to be similar in shape
to the ordinary water screw, with sails or blades of thin
sheet metal. It was said from experiments that for equal
number of revolutions, equal intensity of thrust, engine
power and speed, the area of the propeller should be about
twelve times that of the water screw.
There was quite recently constructed a small boat built
entirely of aluminum, on the Lake of Zurich, in Switzer
land, having less than half the weight of an ordinary boat
of the same size, and running as fast as such a boat, with
an engine of far less power.
Steam fishing vessels, or "steam trawlers" as they are
called, have of late years been taking the place of the
fishing smack In American waters. Steam pilot vessels
have crowded out the fast sailers of the past.
Bilge keels seem to have come to stay. Most of the
large transatlantic steamships are equipped with them.
The device, which is of much simplicity, is designed to
prevent rolling in heavy seas. Its utility seems demon
strated, but there Is still difference of expert opinion as
to the best site for the keels themselves, and also as to their
width. They are simply strips of iron bolted to the sides
of a vessel and are from f of an Inch to 1 inch in thick
ness, from 12 to 18 inches In width. On large steamers
they are usually about 250 feef long, and fastened only
to the straight side of the vessel, ending where the ship's
lines begin to fall away. They are not a new Idea, having
been tried by the British Admiralty, in 1871, on the sloop
Greyhound, which was tried with the Perseus of the same
dimensions, the latter reaching a maximum roll about
twice as great as that of the former, and its mean for
20 successive rolls being 11 to 6 for the sloop equipped
with the bilge keels.
The vibration of steamers has occasioned great dis
comfort to travelers, and there have b^n many ideas
and inventions directed toward its abatement. The usual
idea is that this vibration is due to the action of the
powerful engines. This is apparently erroneous, for it
is found that the cause consists solely in the unison in the
number of revolutions of the engines and the number of
vibrations of the ship. The smaller the length of the

218 OLD OCEAN'S FERRY.
ship the greater is the number per unit of Its vibrations,
and the longer the steamer the greater is the corresponding
time of Its vibrations. Different parts of the hull of a
vessel show different degrees of vibration in the water;
that Is to say, the shake varies In intensity at dlfferenl:
points in the length of the hull. There are places where
it Is excessive, and places, termed "nodes," where It does
not exist.
The use of shifting weights for the trimming of vessels
is in common use, and has been for many years, though
chiefly on river and Sound steamers. In some cases the
weight is shifted by mechanism, but a more common
method is to make use of boxes containing iron weights,
such as chain cables. The boxes are mounted on wheels,
and when the boat begins to roll, the seamen, on signal
from the pilot, move the weight as required to bring the
boat back to an even keel. Quite a number of patents
have been granted In this country for self-acting ballast-
shifting devices, with pendulums to trim or prevent vessels
from rolling.
The deep-sea thermometer, as Invented abroad and Im
proved by officers of the United States Navy, Is really a
self-registering instrument, so arranged that it Is auto
matically turned upside down when brought up, the effect
being to break the column of mercury, while enough re
mains in the tube's upper end to measure temperature
at moment of inversion.
The aurophone is an invention which has been called
a "steamship's ears." Its object i^ to enable the lookout
to locate and determine the directions from which sounds
come at sea.
The solorometer, an invention by Lieutenant Beehler, of
the United States Navy, is a new method of determining
the position of a ship at sea with accuracy and quickness,
and it practically supersedes the sextant.
The Sextant. — The sextant Is an instrument for measur
ing the angular distance of objects by means of reflec
tion. The principle of its construction depends upon the
theorem that if a ray of light suffer double reflection, the
angle between the original ray and Its direction after the
second reflection is double the angle made by the reflect-

NA VIES. 249'
ing surfaces. It consists of a graduated limb, forming
about the sixth part of a circle, (whence the name sextant) ;
two mirrors to reflect the rays of light coming from the
objects under observation; a telescope, which collects and
transmits to the eye the rays of light; an index and a
vernier, placed at the extremity of an alidade, to read on
the graduated limb the quantity of which the large
mirror has turned. When observing altitudes, the instru
ment Is held perpendicularly to the horizon. In observa
tions in the plane of the line joining the two objects.
In taking noon observations at sea, to determine the lati
tude, the observer takes his place shortly before meridian,
and turning down one or several of the shades, to prevent
his eye being Injured by the glare, directs the telescope
or sight-tube to the sun, moving the index so as to bring
its reflected Image to coincide with the sea horizon; as
the sun rises, he gradually advances the limb, clamping
It and using the regulating screw for this purpose, as
the sun's path becomes more nearly horizontal, and
slightly rocking the Instrument from side to side to in
sure that It is In a vertical plane at the moment when the
sun attains his greatest height. The reading of the limb
at the moment when the sun begins to dip Is noted, and a
very simple calculation, adding his declination derived
from the Nautical Almanac to the true zenith distance
obtained by observation, gives the latitude.
A novel arrangement for signalling at sea during fogs
has been placed In position on Winter Quarter Lightship,
No. 45. Two oil engines supply compressed air to two
upright boilers, which are automatically acted upon by
timeclocks, by which the whistle valves are opened and
closed every 55 seconds. Explosions of oil vapor take the
place of steam and give shrill blasts.
Baron d' Alessandro, a Frenchman, some years ago in
vented an appliance to take the place of oil on the water.
It consisted in covering the surface of the sea with a
specially prepared insubmerglble and Imputrescible thin
netting, which does not rise above the surface or offer
resistance to the wind, and has the effect of a bed of oil
in stilling waves and rendering navigation safer.
There is a tide-indicator on the wharf at Fort Hamil-

2:a OLD OCEAN'S FERRT.
ton, New York Harbor. Inside a small building is a
self-registering gauge. Over it, above the building, a
tidal Indicator is displayed In a semicircle, with eight
figures marked on It from 1 to 6, looking like half the dial
of a clock. A pointer turns about the center of the circle
and Indicates the tide in number of feet by pointing
to these figures.
Admiral Makaroff, of the Russian Navy, advocated
building buffers or false noses for vessels, with a view to
deaden the effect of a shock in case of collision at sea.
The idea Is to allow the bow to be sharp and yet so con
structed that It shall collapse and present a flat surface
when it strikes another vessel.
Among the inventions which had a practical trial during
our war with Spain, was a French device for stopping
shot holes, called the Colome's Stopper. One of these
was employed to close a rent made by a shell In the battle
ship Iowa. The hole was about a foot above the water-
line. As soon as it was inserted, the Inflow ceased. The
stopper consists of a rod having at one end an Iron plate,
pivoted at the centre so that it can be folded backward
along the rod. When used the plate Is placed outward
through the hole and turned, a cellulose cushion Is placed
upon the rod and by aid of a nut forced tightly against
the side of the ship (within) over the hole. They are of
various sizes to suit the size of the hole.
An English mechanical genius devised a method of in
dicating and stopping a leak by the use of compressed air.
The ship Is divided into airtight compartments. Into which
'lead different tubes from the compressors. Should a
vessel "spring a leak," the Indictator will show which
compartment Is affected, so that the compressed air may
be forced in to drive the water out.
One of the most Ingenious and effective devices for life-
saving Is the breeches buoy, for bringing people ashore
from stranded vessels. It is simply a pair of canvas
breeches with a circular life-preserver attached. Into which
the person on shipboard gets. When the tackles are drawn
out by means of ropes from the shore, the breeches buoy
is sent out over the ropes and brought back by the life-
savers.

NA VIES. 251
In 1874, Lieutenant Brunei, of Dieppe, introduced
pocket life-saving lines, weighing complete five ounces,
of which a great many have been used In France. Around
a wooden float 90 feet of stout cord Is wound, which termi
nates In a grapnel.
Among the inventions for life-saving apparatus is the
pneumatic gun for throwing a line to ships in distress.
The air Is admitted from a reservoir to the chamber be
hind the projectile at a pressure of 2,400 pounds to the
square inch. An Improved pneumatic gun was accepted
by the Government for use, in 1899, so light that it can
be adjusted from a lifeboat.
The lower part of a curious device resembles a life-
preserving dress with two legs into which the shipwrecked
person can get, the upper part being a kind of buoy or
floating chamber, provided with a hood. There Is some
chance of freedom of motion of head and arms. In the
upper part can be placed provisions and water enough to
last several weeks.
A Paris scientist has Invented an apparatus by which
with the aid of a magnesium flash-light, arranged to
work under water, he has taken instantaneous pictures
at the depths ordinarily attained by submarine divers.
He has also made photographs at a depth of nearly 20
feet with the aid of sunlight alone, the time of exposure
being extended to 30 or 40 minutes.
Paper bottles are said to be about to supersede glass
bottles on shipboard, as they cannot be broken In rough
Weather and expensive wines and liquors lost. They are
a German invention and are made water-tight In a solu
tion which is the Inventor's secret.
.4n Austrian engineer has made extensive experiments
at Plume, Austria, of his invention by which the steam
ship Clotllte, 2,000 tons, when running 12 ^nots an hour
was brought to a standstill within 30 seconds, and be
fore she had traversed 40 feet, in spite of the engines still
working. This marine brake can be applied to any ship.
J. W. Worcester, of Newark, Invented a fish-tail propel
ler. Instead of revolving as In the ordinary propeller,
the fins, two in number, oscillate In a small radius, and
steer as well as propel the boat.

252 OLD OCE Alps FERRY,
J. Ferguson, of London, has invented a propeller which
can be sheathed or withdrawn within the hull at a mo
ment's notice. When not in use It is invisibly housed In
a tube fixed in the stem post. Extending rods operated
by a lever bring the propeller outside the boat with blades
folded together, and a second lever unfolds the blades and
places them in position.
The induced draught apparatus Invented by a Mr.
Martin, after trials in the gunboat Gossamer, was defi
nitely pronounced a success ; as greater speed was attained
and less horsepower used than when the boilers were
driven by forced draught. The stokeholds were cooler,.
as well, a great consideration in warm climates.
The proposal to sheathe ships with copper coated with
mercury Is attracting attention. The Idea is that such an
arrangement would effectually prevent barnacles from ad
hering to vessels' bottoms.
Up to the present time, electricity has scarcely been
thought suitable as the principal motive power or pro
pelling power for the larger type of vessels. This is
undoubtedly owing to the fact that for a given horse
power a triple or quadruple expansion steam engine would
take up less space, and probably weigh less than an
electrical installation of equal power. Storage batteries
are out of the question for such uses, although persons
not well up In electrical subjects frequently wonder why
our ocean greyhounds are not propelled by some such
method. A vessel requiring an average of iO,000 horse
power to propel it across the Atlantic, and displacing
5,000 tons, would be obliged to carry, were storage bat
teries alone made use of, 324,480,000 pounds of such
batteries, or 162,240 tons, which would be 30 times as
much as the ship weighed for motive power alone.
The United States Government has been for some years
developing electric apparatus for use on shipboard. This
policy serves as a vast experimental school for the train
ing of electrical experts, and affords a stimulus to elec
trical Invention. Uncle Sam's vessels have more elaborate
and effective electrical appliances than those of any other
nation. There are electric lights in place of lamps,
electric motors in place of hoisting, pumping and other

NA VIES. 253
light steam engines, electric turret-revolving gear, signal
lamps, steering apparatus, aud above all, electric am
munition hoists and firing contrivances which have proved
thoroughly successful. But appliances whose efficiency
depends upon light-battery currents have almost all been
found wanting, such as the water alarms and fire alarms,
and bridge telegraph and telephone, and the Indicators
of the speed and the "helm-angle."
In the Japanese battleship Yashima a bold innova
tion made In the adaptation of the balance rudder, by
cutting away the deadwood in the after underbody of the
vessel, which was formerly thought applicable only to
the yacht-racing craft. In the balance rudder the blade
extends forward as well as backward of the. rudder post,
which Is the axis on which the blade turns. A few years
ago a ship showed good turning qualities when she de
scribed an arc of 180 degrees, whose diameter was four
times the ship's length. But the Yashima has turned in
twice her length. Her extreme length under water Is
412 feet. The diameter of the circle in which she can
be turned, with her rudder set at an angle of 35 degrees,
is 750 feet.
Purifying ocean water by use of evaporators on war
and merchant vessels, thus eliminating the salt from the
sea water and making It potable and fit for use in the
boilers, has come into general practice within the last
few years. The outfit consists of an evaporator, a dis
tiller and a filter.
One of Edison's inventions is to utilize wave power
by a machine which forces the waves to compress air,
which is to be stored In great tanks and to be used as may
be needed to run dynamos. A series of air-pumps are
operated by the movement of a floating platform as the
waves pass under it.
The idea of generating power by means»of the tides
is old. In France at Plouenan, and In England at South
end, in 1899, there have been put on foot extensive proj
ects to run dynamos by utilizing the rise and fall of the
shore waters. This is the same idea long employed at
shore places on Long Island Sound and elsewhere, to grind
flour in "tidal mills."

354 OLD OCEAN'S FERBY,
There is a wave-power machine on the Jersey coast,
opposite Galilee life-saving station ,the Invention of H.
E. Eider, on the principle of the monkey on the stick.
At Ocean Grove there Is a plant for this purpose, where
a water-wheel is driven by the wash of the waves, and this
in turn pumps water up.

I NDEX.

Page.

Aid, Drowning Persons ... 99
Ada Iredale, derelict  172
Air of Sea  187
Air-propeller ship  246
Allan State Line  83
Aluminum steamer  247
Ambergris  207
America discovered  239
American Lighthouses,
Famous  159
American Line  83
Naval Battles.. 16
Naval Vessels. . 234
Ports, Foreign
Trade  144
America's Cup Races  32
" Discovery, Cost
of  242
Anchor Line  84
Anchors  127
" Dredging for .... 242
Ancient and Modern Navies 230
Mariners, Myths. of. 128
Ancients, Ships of  7
Antarctic Research  180
Antwerp, To and from .... 89
Approximate Nautical Dis
tances  2a
Archimedes's ship  7
Areas of Oceans  186
Armored Cruisers  234
Arnish Rock Light  161
Around Cape Horn, Voy
ages  31
Arriving at N. Y., '99,
Vessel? ,..,,,,.,  147

Page.
Ashes, Storm of  183
Atlantic, The  187
" Commerce, 70 per
cent  171
Atlantic Lines  83, 92
" Passengers  21
" Population  21
Sailings  83
" Steamships  83
" Transport Line . . 91
Travel on  21
Aurophone  248
B.
Bacon's prophecy, Roger.. 9
Baggage Regulations, Per
sonal  19
Baggage, What to do about 18
Balance rudder  253
Ballast  118
Baltic and Black Sea
Canal  155
Barge, Whaleback  244
Barometer  57, 58
Bartholdi Statue Light. . . . 159
Batteries. Main, Naval
Vessels  234
Battles, American Naval.. 16
Battleships  234
Bazin roller s^ip  245
Bay of Fundy tides  199
Beating to windward  47
Bell Time  51
Bell's "Comet"  13
Bell, Toiling of ship's  132
Bessemer's suspended
galpon , , ,  346

256

INDEX.

Page.
Bilge Keels  247
Birds, Sea, Frigate Bird.. 220
" (Julls  218
Petrel  219
Black Sea Canal, Baltic and 155
Block Island Light  160
ISottle Papers  173
Bottles, Paper  251
Bottom of Ocean — Diagram. 192
" Sea  190
Brake, Ship  251
Breakers of Records  27-29
Breeches Buoy  250
Bremen, To and from .... 87
Brick as Cargo  117
Brigantine, A  45
Brunei's life-lines  251
Buoy life-preserver  251
Buoys, Whistling  163
C.
Cables, Ocean  149
Caledonian Canal  155
Calking the Hatches  126
Canals, Ship  151
Cape Cod Canal  155
Cape Cod Light  160
" Hatteras Light  161
" Henry Light  160
" Horn, Voyages
Around  31
Cape May Light  160
" Spartul Light  162
Captain Kidd  243
Captains of Steamers  83
Cargo, A Steamship's  115
Cargoes  115
" Offensive  117
Risky  116
Carriage, Ocean Freight... 21
Caspian Sea, New Island.. 241
Castle Garden  239
Cats, Why Sailors Hate... 131
Chairs, Steamer  19
Charges, Freight  21
Charlotte Dundas, The. ... 11
Chinese pirates  141
Chronometer  51
Circumnavi.gators of Globe 10
Citiep, , SuflHeij , ,  , , , , . 209

Page.
"Clermont," Fulton's  12
Clippei Ship Records  30
Close to Wind, Sailing  47
Cloud Indications  S7
Clouds  56
Coal as Cargo  116
Coal Consumption  121
Coast Line of Globe  187
Codes, Telegraphic  150
Codfish  229
Collisions with Whales  222
Colome's Stopper  250
"Comet", Bell's  13
Commerce and Shipping. . 141
ot U. S., Early. 141
70 per cent
Atlantic  171
"Compact" of Pilgrims... 239
Compass  50
Composition of sea-water. 195
Compressed-air leak stop
ping  250
Consumption of Coal,
Steamers'  121
Conundrums, Nautical.... 105
Convert Metric Weights
and Measures into U. S. 241
Copper Sheathing  252
Corinth Canal  155
Cost of America's Discovery 242
" of anchors  127, 242
Cotton as Cargo  116
Cruisers, Armored  234
Auxiliary  236
" Protected  235
Cunard Line  84
Cup Races, America's  32
Currents, bottles show... 174
" Gulf Stream  196
Maelstrom  200
'' Mail Carried by. 174
Customs Duties  , . 77
Officers  18, 138
" statement  18
D.
D'Alesandro's wave net. . 249
Day beacon  161
Day's Run, Fastest  30
Death rate, sailors' ,  343

INDEX.

25

T^ , Page.
Deck Plan of Ship  43
Deepest Places — Diagram. 191
Deep Sea Fish  1!)4
" Thermometer.... 248
Degrees, Longitude, Length
of  01
De Jouffroy's steamboat.. 9
Depths of Ocean, Greatest. 189
" photographing ... 251
Derelicts  170
Derrick, Largest  243
Destroyers, Torpedo Boat.. 236
Destroying Effects of Sea. . 204
Destruction Isle Light.... 161
Detection of Smuggling... 138
Diagram — Bottom of Ocean. 192
Deck of Ship . . 43
" Deepest Places. 191
" Full-Rigged
Merchant Ship  40
Diamond smugglers  137
Difference, Time  06
Dimensions, Atlantic Steam
ers  S3
Dimensions, Naval Vessels. 234
Discovery, Cost of Amer
ica's  242
Discovery of America  239
Distances, Approximate
Nautical  29
Distances at Sea  60
Distances Jrom New York. 66
Diving Bells  212
" Feats, Greatest.... 214
.Divers' Notes  216
Dock Nose In, Why  125
Docks, Liverpool  241
Doctor, Ship  124
Draught, Induced  252
Dredging for anchors .... 242
" machine  238
Drowning  98
" Persons, Help for. 99
Dust and Red Rain Storm. 182
Dutchman, The Flying  133
Duties, Customs  77
Dynomometer, marine  204
B.
Early Commerce of U. S. 141

Page.
Earthquake waves  202
East Indian ship worm . . . 243
Eastward and Westward
Records  27-29
Eastward and Westward
Voyages  3G
Eaten by sharks  227
Edison's wave power
machine  253
(iddystone Light  101
Effects Free to $100 Value. 20
" of toea. Destroying. 204
" of Wind, A'elopi-
ties and  62
Eectrieity as motive power. 252
" on shipboard. . . . 252
Elk Neck Light  160
Ellide, the  34
Enlistment in Navy  233
Ericsson's "Francis B. Og
den"  14
Ericsson's Screw Propeller. 14
"Eructor Amphibolis",
Evan's  12
Evaporators  253
Exports and Imports, Am.
Ports  144
Exports and Imports of U.
S  142
Exports and Imports Main
Countries  143
Extreme Points of U. S . . 238
Eyes of Fish  228

Facts, Ship  Ill
" Steamship  118
Strange Fish  228
False declaration, Customs, 20
" noses for collision. . 250
Famous American . Light
houses  .*.  159
Famous Foreign Ijight-
houses  161
Fannie E. Wolston, Derelict. 173
Fame Islands Light  162
Fastest Day's Run  30
" Steamer Service. . .. 33
Trip  30
Vess^'s  33

258

INDEX.

Page.
Fecundity of Fish  226
Fees  19
Finest Mirage  186
First Iron Ship  15
Fish, Deep Sea  194
Fisheries, Pearl  225
Seal  224
Fish, eyes of  228
" Facts, Strange  228
" Fecundity of  226
" friendships  229
Fishing vessels, steam.... 247
Fish, life of  228
" Profits  229
" Showers of  183
"Bword"  227
Tail Propeller  251
" Talk  228
Fitch's steamboats  9
Flags, House, Steamship
Lines'  71
Flags of Maritime Nations. 81
Flag, U. S., saluted  239
Flat stern boat  246
Flying Dutchman, The  133
fish  229
Fog signalling  249
" Signals  73
Food on Steamships  120
Forecasting Weather, Scien
tific  55
Foreign Lighthouses, Fa
mous  161
Foreign Mails — Informa
tion  75
Foreign Telegraph Rates... 74
" Trade, American
Ports  144
Foreign Trade of U. S  142
" " Principal
Countries  143
Forests, Submarine  208
Foretelling Weather, Rules. 58
Francis B. Ogden, the .... 14
Free, $100 value of effects. 20
Freight Carriage, Ocean. . 22
French Line  85
Friendships of fish  229
Frigate Bird  220
Full-Rigged Ship  40
" " brig, A . . 45

Page.
Fulton's steamboat  12
Fundy, Bay of, tides. . . . 199
Funnel Marks, Steamship
Lines,  71
Furnaces (The Stoker).. 119
G.
Geneva Award  238
Genoa Light  162
" Sailings to and from. 88
Georgetown Light  163
(jferonde Light  162
Glasgow, To and from. .83, 84
Glass bottom boat  243
Globe, Land and Water of. 186
" Circumnavigators of. 10
Gold of Sea  217
Grain as cargo  110
Great Eastern, The. ... 112, 114
Greatest Depths of Ocean. 189
Diving Feats  214
" Navies  232
Ports  66
" Steamship Lines. 147
Great Harry, The  232
Western, The  14
Grecian fleets  230
Gresham's boat  245
Ground Plan of Ship .... 43
Gulf Stream, Laws of.... 196
" Weed (Sargasso Sea) 200
Gulls (Sea Birds)  218
Gunboats  236, 237
H.
Hamburg- American Line. . 85
" To and from. ... 85
Harbor of New Haven. . . . 241
Hatches, Calking the  126
Havre, To and from  85
Height of Waves  201
Hell Gate  239
Help for Drowning Persons. 99
Hermaphrodite Brig, A  45
High-Bowed Freighter . , . . 246
Highest Waves  201
High Seas, The  92
Hints to N'oyagers  18
Historical  ". . 7

INDEX.

259

Page.
History of Lighthouses .. . 157
of Ships  7, 230
" of Steamships .... 9
Holland-American Line ... . 87
Holland Canal, North  155
Horizontal paddle-wheels . 246
House Flags, Steamship
Lines'  71
How Long in Stopping
Steamers  119
How Tides Predict Storms. 55
Hundred dollars' value free 20
Hurricanes, Rules for  59
Hurricane Signal  59
Hydrography  170
I.
Icebergs and Ice  176
Ice-Breaking Ships  244
Ice, Strength of  179
If Waters were Increased.. 193
If Waters were Reduced.. 190
Immigration  147
Immigrants at New York. 149
Imports, Am. Ports, Ex
ports and  144
Imports of U. S., Exports
and  142
Imports, Main Countries,
Exports and  143
Increase of Ocean's Waters. 193
Individuality in Vessels . . 124
Induced draught  252
liiventions, Ship Novelties
and  243
Iron Ship, First  15
J.
Jackass bark  46
Jet-boats  246
Jonah, the sailors'  131
K.
Kaiser W. d. Grosse, de
tails  33, 118
Keels, Bilge  247
Kiel Ship Canal  154
Kilometre  21
Kingston (Port Royal)... 210

Page.
Knapp's roller boat  245
Knot, a  103
L.
Land and Water of Globe. 186
Larboard and Starboard. . 49
Largest cargoes  112, 115
Derrick  243
" Sailing Ships.... 112
" Steamships, The. . 112
Vessels, The  Ill
Wharf, Pacific
Coast  241
Largest \A'haling Catch . . . 222
" wooden ships.... 113
Latitude and Longitude ... 62
of
Lights  163
Launching, power in  238
Laws of Gulf Stream.... 196
" of Salvage  167
Leak stopping, compressed-
air   250
Leak Stopping, Colome's
Stopper  250
Lengths of Seas  187
" of Degrees, Long-
titude  61
Length of Naval Vessels.83, 234
" of Steamships  83
Life-lines, Brunei's  251
Life of a ship  125
" of fish  2:i8
" preserver, buoy  251
" Saver, Record  165
" Saving Service  164
" Sea  218
Lighthouse Positions,
Prominent  163
Lighthouses  157
" Famous Amer
ican  159
Lighthouses, Famous For
eign  161
Lighthouses in United
States  162
Lightships  160
Lights, vessels'  71, 73
Linden's wave-propulsion
boat  246

260

INDEX.

Page.
Line Rock Light  160
Lines, Greatest Steamship. 147
" Steamship  83, 92
Liverpool Docks  241
" To and from
84, 90, 91
Log, The  50
London, To and from  91
Longest wharf. Pacific
coast  241
Longitude, Latitude and. . 62
" of Lights, Lati
tude and  163
Longitude, Length of De
grees  61
Longitude to Time, Rules
to Reduce  63
Long Steaming Record .... 32
Loss, annual value  17)
" of lives, annual.... 171
" vessels, annual....... 171
Lumber as cargo  117

M.
Maelstrom, The  200
Mail Carried by Currents. 174
Mails, Foreign-Information. 75
Makaroft's lee-Bre^king
Ship  244
Manchester Ship Canal. ... 154
"Jlares' Tails" ;  54
Marine brake  251
" insurance  239
Mariners, Myths of Ancient 128
Maritime Nations, Flags of. 81
Mark, Plimsoll's  242
Mayflower's Male Pas
sengers  239
Men and Officers, Naval
Ships  234
Merchant Ship — Sail Plan. 40
Mermaid  130
Metre; a  61
Metric Weights and Meas
ures into U. S., Convert. 241
Minot's Ledge Light  159
Mirage  185
Modern Navies, Ancient
" and ¦  230

Page.
Money at ocean's bottom. 212
" Carried by Ships. . 123
LostinVVrecks,.104, 171
" Orders  76
Monitors  234
Most Northern Points
Reached  179
Money spent in Europe. . . 21
Motive power, electricity
as  252
Mythology, Sea  129
Myths of Ancient Marin
ers  128
N.
Nautical Conundrums .... 105
" Distances, Ap
proximate  28
Nautical Notes  238
" Terms (a tar's). 49
" Vocabulary .... 102;
Nations, Flags of Maritime. 8Ji
Naval Battles, American. Va
Stations  237
Tugs  237
" Vessels, American. 234
Navies  25.0
" Greatest  .'. 232
Navigation for Passengers. 18
Na-\x Enlistment in  233
Pay and Wages in.. 238
Yards  5:37
Neptune  ,'/29
Nereides  130
Nero Deep  190
Net for stormy waves . . . 249
New Haven harbor  241
" island, Caspian Sea. 241
" Jersey, the  14
Warships, World's.. 233
New York, Distances from. 66
" " Immigrants at. 149
" Lines from . . 83, 92
" " Queens town
and. Records  27
New York Pilot Service. . 165,
" " Postal Routes
from  66
New York, Sailings from
and to  83
New \ ork, Southampton
and. Records  29

INDEX.

261

Page.
New Y'ork, A'ossels Arriv
ing '99  147
Nicaragua Canal  152
Nicknames of Ports  65
Night Signals, Steamship
Lines,  71
Northern Points Reached,
Most  179
North German Lloyd Line. 87
North Holland Canal  155
Nose In, Why Dock  125
Notes, Divers'  216
Nautical  238
Novelties and Inventions,
Ship  243
Number derelicts, annual. 173
of lives lost. 166, 171
" vessels at ocean's
bottom  215
Number vessels lost, an
nual  164, 166, 171
Number vessels at sea. ... 21
O.
Obelisk Ship, The  243
Odd numbers  131
Ocean, Bottom of  190
" Bottom of. Diagram. 192
Cables  149
" Carriage  21
Deptiis of  189
" Freight Carriage. . 21
Greatest Depths of. 183
Oceanic  Ill
Ocean, Old  186
Oceanography  188
Ocean Not Trackless  36
" Salt of  194
" Steamers, Routes for. 37
Oceans, Areas of  186
Ocean steamships, histor
ical  13
Ocean's Treasures, Recover
ing  212
Ocean Travel, Safety of . . . 26
•Ocean's Waters, Increase of. 193
Oiiensive Cargoes  117
Officers and Men, Naval
Ships  234
Officers of Steamship Lines. 92

Page.
Oil as cargo  110
in Storms at Sea  174
" Spot, The  242
Oldest American ship.... 113
Old Naval vessels  237
" Ocean  180
" Weather Signs  53

Pacific, The  188
Eainton's ship  246
Panama Canal  152
Paper bottles  251
Papin's boat  9
Parcels Post  75
Parson's Steam Turbine. . 244
Parts of full rigged ship . 41
Passengers, Atlantic  21
" Male, of May
flower  239
Passengers, Navigation for. 18
Passenger Steamship
Lines  83, 92
Passengers to Europe.. 21, 26
Passport Regulations  22
Pay and \A'ages in Navy. . 238
Pearl Fisheries  225
Penmark Point Light. . . . 162
Periods of Drowning  98
Perrier's boat  9
Personal Baggage Regula
tions  19
Persons, Help for Down
ing  99
Petit Manan Light  161
Petrel, The  219
Philadelphia, Sailings from. 91
Philopater's Yacht  7
Phipps, Wm. (Duke Nor
mandy)  213
Phoenix, tho,  13
Photographing depths.... 251
Physician, Ship  124
Piers of Steamship Lines. . 92
Pilgrims, "Compact" of... 239
Pilot Service, New York. . 165
Piracy  140
Pirates, Chinese  141
Saxon  231

262

iNDEt.

Page.
Plan of Full Rigged Ship. 40
" of Sea Bottom  192
" Ship, Deck  43
" Sloop Yacht, Sail... 44
Plimsoll's Mark  242
Pi;eumatic gun  251
Polar Research  179, 180
Population of Atlantic". ... 21
Port  50
Port Royal  210
Ports, Foreign Trade,
American  144
Ports, Greatest  66
" Nicknames of  65
Positions, Prominent
Lights  163
Postage, Foreign  75
Fower in launching  238
" of Al aves  203
Pressure of Sea  211
Prince Line  91
Princeton, war steamer... 14
Principal Countries, Trade
of  143
Profits, Fish  229
Prominent Light Positions. 163
Propeller, fish-tail  251
Screw  14, 119
sheathed  252
Property Involved, U. S.
Service  164
Protected Cruisers  235
Purifying ocean water .... 253
Q.
Queer Rigs or Sails  45
Questions, Customs officers' 18
Quicksand, Sank in  242
R.
Races, America's Cup .... 32
Rates, Foreign Telegraph.. 74
Rats, Ship  220
Record Breakers  27, 29
" Life-Saver  165
" Long Steaming... 32
Records, Clipper Ship .... 30
" New York-Queens-
town  27, 28
Records, New York-South
ampton ,  29

Page.
Records, Transatlantic .... 26
Record Whaling Catch  222
Recovering Ocean's Treas- ,
ures  212
Red Rain Storm, Dust and. 182
Red Star Line  89, 91
Reduce Longitude to Time. 62
Reduction of ocean's
waters  190
Reduction time of voy
ages  27-29
Regulations, Passports ... 22
Personal Bag
gage  19
Remedies for Seasickness.. 95
Research, Antarctic  180
Rider's wave power
machine  253
Riddles, Nautical  105
Rigging, Sails and  39
Rigs or Sails, Queer  45
Rig, square  45
flisky Cargoes  116
Road at Sea, Rules of . . . . 73
Robbins' Reef Light  160
"Robert F. Stockton," The. 14
Rotterdam, To and from.. 87
Routes for Ocean Steamers. 37
Royal William, the  13
Rudder, Ship's  126
" the balance  253
Run, Fastest Day's  30
Rules Foretelling Weather. 58
" for Hurricanes  59
" for Sidereal Time . . 64
" of Road at Sea  73
" Reduce 'Longitude to
Time . .'.  62
Rules, Weights and Meas
ures  241

Safety of Ocean Travel .... 26
Sailing Close to Wind . . ". . 47
Sailings from and to New
York, 1900  83
Sailors' death rate  243
" Shanties  133
Sail Plan, Full-Rigged
Ship  40

INDEX.

263

Page.
Sail Plan, Sloop Y'aeht ... 44
Sails and Rigging  39
" Queer Rigs or  45
Salt of Ocean  194
Salvage, Laws of  167
Sand, Singing  207
" Storm  182
Sandy Hook  239
Sank in Quicksand  24g
Sargasso Sea  200
Savannah, The  13
Saving, Life, Service  164
Saxon pirates  231
Scandinavian American
Line  89
Scientific Forecasting
Weather  55
Screw Propeller  14, 119
Sea, Air of  187
Sea Birds— Frigate Bird. 220
Gulls  218
Petrel  219
Sea, Bottom of  190
" Bottom of — Diagram. 192
" Destroying Ett'ects of. 204
" Distances at  60
" Gold of  217
Seal Fisheries  224
Sea Life  218
Mythology  129
" Pressure  211
Seasickness  94
" Remedies for. 95
" Treatment of. 96
Sea, Signals at  68
Seas, Lengths of  187
" The Hign  92
Sea Superstitions . 4  130
" water, composition of 195
Second Aid, Drowning Per
sons  99
Secor boat  245
Seeing at Sea, Distances . . 60
Seismic Waves, Tidal and. 202
Setting signals  70
Sextant, The  248
Shanties, Sailors'  133
Sharks  226
Sheathing, copper  252
Sheathed propeller  252
Shifting weights  248

Page.
Ship, air-propeller  246
brake  251
Shipbuilding in 1899  146
Strides in. . . . 145
Ship Canals  151
Facts  Ill
" First Iron  15
Full Rigged  40
Ground Plan of  43
" Life of a  125
" Novelties and Inven
tions  243
Shipping, Commerce and.. 141
The World's  146
Ship Railway, Tehuantepec 156
" Rats  220
Sail Plan, Full Rigged 40
Ships' Anchors  127
and Whales  222
" Ice-Breaking  244
Individuality in  124
" Largest  Ill
Lives of  125
Lights  71, 73
" of Ancients  7
Rudder  126
Speed  61
" Steeel  15
" Sunken Treasure. . . 215
" Surgeon  124
" Treasure Rooms... 122
Time  51
Ship worm, East India.. 243
Shipwrecked, When  101
Shipwrecks, World's  106
Showers of Fish  183
Sidereal Time, Rule for ... 64
Signalling, fog  249
Signals at Sea  68
Fog  73
" Night, Steamship
Lines'  71
Signals, Weather Bureau
Storm .4  59
Silver in Sea  195
Singing Sand  207
Signs, Old Weather  53
" (Sea Superstitions). 130
Sirens  l^iS
Sloop Yacht — Sail Plan.. 44
Small Boat Voyages  34

264

INDEX.

Page.
Smuggling  134
Detection of  138
Soapsuds  175
Solorometer  248
Some U.S. Customs Duties. 77
Soundings, Deep Sea  189
South Polar Research .... 180
Speed, A Ship's  61
Spent in Europe  21
Square rig  45
Starboard and Larboard.. 49
Statement, Customs  18
Stateroom baggage  18
Stations, Navy Yards and
Naval  237
Steamer, aluminum  247
" chairs  19
Steamer's Coal Consump
tion  121
Steamers, How Long Stop
ping  119
Steamers, Routes for Ocean. 37
" Vibration of . . . 247
Steam fishing vessels  247
Steamship Facts  118
" In a  119
Lines  83, 92
" Lines, Greatest. 147
" historical  9
Records  26
Steamship's Cargo, A.... 115
Steamship's Food on  120
" Largest  112
Lights ....71, 73
" Ocean, histori-
ical  13
Steamships, Sailings  83
" Transatlantic . 83
Steam Turbine, Parson's.. 244
Steel Ships  15
Stevens's steamboat  12
St. Kilda Mail  174
St. Louis  34
Stoker, The  119
Stopper, Colome's  250
Stopping leak, compressed
air  250
Stopping Steamers  119
Storms at Sea, Oil in.... 174
" How Tides Predict. 55

Page.
Storm Signals, Weather
Bureau  59
Storms, Strange  182
Ashes  183
" Dust and Red
Rain  182
Storms, Sand  182
Showers of Fish. . 183
Strange Fish Facts  228
Storms  182
Strength of lee.. 179
Strides in Shipbuilding. .. 145
Sturgeons  229
Submarine boats  244
Forests  208
Suez Canal  151
Sunken Cities  209
" Treasure Ships. 215
Superstitions, Sea  130
Surgeon, Ship's  124
Suspended saloon, Bes
semer's  246
"Sword" Fish  227
Symington's steamboat. . . 10

Table, seats at  19
Talk, Fish  ;  228
Tar's Nautical Terms .... 49
Tehuantepec Ship Railway. 156
Telegraph Codes  150
Telegraph Rates, Foreign. 74
Terms, Nautical Vocabu
lary  102
Terms, Tar's Nautical .... 49
Thermometer  52
deep sea  248
Tidal and Seismic Waves. 202
Tide indicator  249
" mills  253
" power machine  253
" power, utilizing. . . . 253
Tides  198
" Predict Storms,How 55
Time, Bell  51
" Difference  66
Reduce Longitudeto. 62
" Reduction of voy
age  27-29

INDEX,

265

Page.
Time, Rules for Sidereal . . 64
Tobacco smugglers  137
Topsails, new plan han
dling  47
Torpedo Boat Destroyers. 236
Torpedo Boats  237
" Fastest ... 34
Trackless, Ocean not  36
Trade, Am. Ports, Foreign. 144
" Main Countries,
Foreign  143
Trade, U. S., Foreign  142
Transatlantic Lines.... 83, 92
" Records ... 26
" Sailings ... 83
Steamships 83
Travel on Atlantic  21
" Safety of Ocean. . 26
Treasures Carried, hereto
fore  123
Treasures, Recovering
Ocean's  212
Treasure Rooms, Ships' . . . 122
" Ships, Sunken . . 215
Treatment of Seasickness. 96
Trimming of vessels  248
Trip, Fastest  30
Turbine, Parson's Steam. . 244
Turbinia, The  244
Tuscorora Deep  189
Typhoon, The  185
U.
Unarmored Gunboats  237
U. S. Customs Duties  77
" Early Commerce of. 141
" Exports and Imports
of  142
U. S. extreme points of . . 238
" flag, saluted  239
" Foreign Trade of.. . 142
" Lighthouses in  162
" Naval Vessels  234
" Navy, Active List.. 232
Utilizing tide power  253
" wave power  254
V.
Vaults, Ships' (Treasure
Rooms)  122

Page.
Velocities  61
and Eft'ects of
Wind  62
Vessels Arriving N. Y. '99. 147
" at sea, number .... 21
Fastest  33
" Individuality in. . . 124
" Largest  Ill
Lights  71, 73
of Columbus  239
U. S. Naval  234
Vibration of steamers  247
Vikings  8
ship  8
Vocabulary, Nautical  102
Voyages Around Cape
Horn  31
Voyages Eastward and
Westward  36
Voyagers, Hints to  18
Voyages, Sftiall Boat  34
" time reduction
of  27-29
Voyages, Yachting  31
W.
Wages in Navy, Pay and.. 238
Warships, American  234
World's New. . . 233
Washed aboard by waves . . 206
Watches, The  52
Water of Globe, Land and. 186
Waters, Ocean, Increase of. 193
Waterspouts  184
Wave Action, Wondrous . . 206
Waves, Height of  201
" highest  201
Wave net  249
" power machine.... 253
" propelled boat  246
Waves, Power of  203
Spec* of  61, 202
Tidal and Seismic. 202
Weather Bureau Storm
Signals  59
Weather, Rules Foretelling. 58
" Seientiflc Forecast
ing  55
Weather, Signs, Old  53
" Wisdom  56

266

INDEX.

Page.
Weights and Measures,
Convert Metric  241
Westward Voyage, East
ward and  36
W. G. Sargeant, derelict. 172
Whaleback barge  244
Whales  221
and Ships  222
Largest Catch  222
Wharf, largest Paciflc
coast  241
What to Do about Bag
gage  18, 19
What to Do before Sail
ing  96
What to Do for Drowning
Persons  99
What to Do for Seasick
ness  95
What to Do for Ship in
Distress  .?  73
What to Do When Ship
wrecked  101

Page.
AVhen Shipwrecked  101
Whistling Buoys  163
White Star Line  90
Why Dock Nose In  125
Wilson Line  90
Wind, Sailing Close to. . . . 47
Windward, beating to ... . 47
Wind, Velocities and Ef
fects of  62
Wisdom, Weather  56
W. L. White, derelict  171
Wondrous Wave Action . . 206
World's New Warships  233
" Shipping  140
" Shipwrecks  166
Wrecked by a mirage. .... 185
Wreckers  167
Wyer G. Sargent, derelict. 172

Yachting Voyages  31
Yacht, Sail Plan, Sloop ... 44

I LIBRARY