HiEiiiiai^.*

HV^S^SgM^i

.iifiouifies

.mWMm JEWITT.

YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

DEPOSITED BY THE

LINONIA AND BROTHERS LIBRARY

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ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. By Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A.
Contents : — Barrows, Stone Arches, Cromlechs — Implements of Flint and Stone
— Celts and other Instruments of Bronze — Roman Roads, Towns, etc. — Tes-
selated Pavements, Temples, Altars — Ancient Pottery— Arms and Armour —
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BY

LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A., etc.

EDITOR OF ' THE RELIQUARY ARCH.EOLOGICAL JOURNAL AND REVIEW,
AUTHOR OF ' GRAVE MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS,'
' THE CERAMIC ART IN GREAT BRITAIN,' 'LIFE OF JOSIAH WEDGWOOD,'
'STATELY HOMES OF ENGLAND,' ETC.

SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED

iUttstratti Irith 'Wiatt Dttitirti »nS '(Etoms ffinsrabing©.

LONDON:
DAVID BOGUE,
3 St. MARTIN'S PLACE, TRAFALGAR SQUARE.

CESiniiutsf) KnibtraitB 59tc»B:
T. AND A. CONSTABLE, PKINTEES TO HER MAJESTY.

^77jL

TO MY DEAR FRIEND
AND
ZEALOUS CO-LABOURER IN THE FIELD OF ARCH/EOLOGY,
THE BARON NICOLAS CASIMIR DE BOGOUSCHEFSKY,
AN ENLIGHTENED ANTIQUARY, A PROFOUND SCHOLAR,
AND A CAREFUL HISTORIAN,
WHOSE RESEARCHES, WHILE DOING MUCH TO POPULARISE THE
STUDY OF ANTIQUITIES IN THE NATION TO WHICH
HE IS AN ORNAMENT,
HAVE TENDED MATERIALLY TO ILLUSTRATE THOSE OF
OUR OWN COUNTRY,
i bebicat* this little gUtork
AS A MARK OF SINCERE AND AFFECTIONATE ATTACHMENT.
LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.
WiNSTER Hall, Derbyshire,
Novevtber 1876.

INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND
EDITION.
In issuing this new Edition of my Half-Hours
among some English Antiquities, I desire, on its very
first page, to record a warm expression of thanks for
the very gratifying way in which my little work was
received on its first appearance, and for the flattering
manner in which, on all sides, that approval was
made known to me.
The present Edition has been carefully revised,
and the many additional engravings I have given to
illustrate its pages will, I hope, still further add to
its usefulness and acceptability.

LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.

WiNSTER Hall, Derbyshire,
September 1879.

INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION.

In preparing this little manual I have endeavoured
so to popularise the subjects treated upon in its
several chapters as to prevent them becoming ' dry '
or wearisome to the reader. While thus endeavour-
ing to make them acceptable to the younger student,
however, my obj"ect has been to impart such a tone
to the ' half-hours ' as will make the volume accept
able to those of more matured study, to whom it
may, I trust, serve as a text-book for occasional
reference. As a study, that of antiquities yields to no other
in fascination, in interest, in importance, and in
value ; and it is impossible to give it too much
encouragement. It has been well remarked, and
may be accepted as a truism, that 'he who would
comprehend the present and divine the future must
take his lessons from the past ;' and therefore it is
well, by every means in one's power, to foster and

INTRODUCTION.

promote and extend that study. The present, indeed,
may be looked upon as a mirror, in which the history
and the events of past times are vividly reflected, and
from which they, with those of our own days, may be
thrown forward into the dim future, so as to shape the
course of ages to come. I trust that these brief sketches
ofa few of the subjects into which the study is divided
may be the means of creating in some minds, and of
assisting to develop and extend in others, a love for
antiquity, and a desire to enter into archeological
researches ; and I shall hope to follow it with other
' half-hours ' devoted to other and equally interesting
branches. I have, by the aid of numberless engrav
ings, sought to convey information in a more tangible
and lasting form than could be done by description
alone. To all who have in this matter aided me in
my endeavours, I beg to express my thanks.

LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.

WiNSTER Hall, Derbyshire,
November 1876.

CONTENTS.
chapter page
I. Among Barrows, . . i
II. Among Stone Circles, Cromlechs, etc., . 16
III. Among Implements of Flint and Stone, . 33
IV. Among Celts and other Early Instruments of
Bronze, . . . . . -5°
V. Among Roman Roads, Towns, and Villas; Tesse-
lated Pavements, Temples, Altars, Sepulchral
Inscriptions, Mining Operations, etc, . 64
VI. Among Ancient Pottery, . . 83
VII. Among Arms and Armour, .... 108
VIII. Among Sepulchral Slabs and Brasses, etc., 120
IX. Among Coins, . . -143
X, Among Church Bells, . . -159
XI. Among Glass, Stained Glass, Encaustic Tiles,
Tapestry, etc., . . . . .185
XII. Among Personal Ornaments, . 209
Index, . • 241

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Jewry Wall, Leicester — Frontispiece.
I. Section of Barrow, Elk Low, Derbyshire, . 4
2. ,, ,, near Newhaven, Derbyshire, . 4
3. ,, ,, Bee Low, Derbyshire, . . 5
4. ,, ,, Broad Down, Devonshire, 6
5. ,, ,, Gib Hill, Derbyshire, . . 6
6. Plan of Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton, 8
7. ,, ,, New Grange, 8
8. ,, ,, Gavr-Innis, . 8
9. , , , , Long Low, Wetton, 9
10. Interment showing Position of Skeleton, Smerril Moor, 10
II. Arbor Low, Derbyshire, . . . 17
12. 'Nine Ladies,' Stanton Moor, Derbyshire, . 17
13. Boscawen-un, Cornwall, .... 17
14. Relative Sizes of Stone Circles, . . 22
15. Plan of Barrow, Morvah Hill, Cornwall, , . 23
16. ,, ,, Broad Down, Devonshire, 24
17. ,, 'Nine Ladies, ' Stanton Moor, Derbyshire, . 26
18. Wall of Circle, ...... 27
19. Stone Circle, Isle of Man, . 28
20. ,, Trewavas Head, Cornwall, . 28
21. ,, St. Just, Cornwall, . . . .28
22. ,, Sancreed, Cornwall, . . 28
23. ,, Mule Hill, Isle of Man, 28
24. ,, Gulval, Cornwall, . . 28
25. ,, Channel Islands, . . 28
26. Wall of Circle, ...... 30

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE
27. Stone Circle, Boscawen- lin, ¦ 3°
28. ,, Aber, . • 3°
29. ,, Penmaenmawr, ¦ ¦ 3'
30. The Lanyon Cromlech, CornwaU, . . 3'
31. Plan of Lanyon Cromlech, 32
32-36. Stone Celts, ... 3^
37, 38. ,, Hammers, Llanmadoc, . . 38
39. ,, ,, Cambridgeshire, . 39
40. ,, ,, Dorsetshire, . . .39
41. ,, ,, Winster, Derbyshire, . 39
42. ,, ,, Danby Moor, Yorkshire, . 39
43-45. ,, Mauls, Royal Irish Academy, . . 39, 40
46. ,, Implement, Mickleover, Derbyshire, . 41
47. ,, ,, (showing raode of use), . 41
48. ,, ,, Mennithorpe, Yorkshire, 42
49, 50. Flint Implements, Danby Moor, Yorkshire, . 43
51-55. ,, Derbyshire, ... 43
56. ,, Green Low, Derbyshire, . 44
57. ,, Danby Moor, Yorkshire, . 44
58, 59. ,, Calais Wold, . . 45
60. ,, Gunthorpe, . 45
6 1. ,, Derbyshire, . 45
62, 63. „ Calais Wold, Yorkshire, . . 45
64-69. ,, from Derbyshire, . . .46
70. Spindle-whorl, Derbyshire, . . . .48
71-74. Bronze Celts, Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, . 51
75-83. Various Forms of Bronze Celts, from the Museum of
the Royal Irish Academy, . . . .54
84-96. Various Bronze Implements, from the Mayer Museum,
Liverpool, ...... 56
97. Socketed Celt, Kirk Ireton, Derbyshire, . . -59
98." , , Broad Down, Devonshire, 59
99. Square Celt, Derbyshire, . . . . 59
100. Gouge-shaped Celt, Derbyshire, . . 59
ICI. Spiked Instrument, Derbyshire, . . . -59
102. Bronze Dagger, Botlisham Fen, Cambridgeshire, 61
103. ,, Sword, Ireland, .... 62
104. ' ,, Spear-head, Hartshay, Derbyshire, . 63

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,

FIG. 105.106. 107. 108.109.
no. III. 112.113-
114. lis-

Bronze Spear-head, Little Chester, Derbyshire, .
Roman Masonry, Colchester,
Tessellated Pavement (Diana and Actceon), Leicester
Roman Altar, Housesteads, on the Roman Wall,
Bath, ....
,, Haddon Hall, Derbyshire,
Deje Matres, Ancaster, Lincolnshire,
Roman Sepulchral Stone, Plumpton,
,, ,, Cirencester,
,, ,, Roman Wail, .
' Fulgur Divom ' Stone, Hunnum,
116. Celtic Pottery, Norwich Museum,
117. ,, ,, Cornwall, .
118. ,, Cinerary Urn, Uttoxeter, ,
119. ,, Drinking Cup, Green Low, Derbyshire,
120-122. Immolation Urns, Yorkshire,
123. ,, Dorsetshire,
124. Celtic Food Vessel, Hitter Hill, Derbyshire,
125. ,, ,, Fimber, Yorkshire, .
126-128. Samian Ware Bowls, ....
129-135. Examples of Samian Ware, etc.. Museum of Prac
tical Geology, ....
136-138. Roman Potters' Marks,
139-153. Roman Pottery, from the Upehurch Marshes, Kent,
154. Roman Potter's Kiln, Castor, Northamptonshire,
155-157. Durobrivian Ware, Museum of Practical Geology,
158-160. ,, Headington, Oxfordshire,
161. ,, A Stag-hunt,
162-166. Roman Pottery, Leicester,
167-177. ,, New Forest, Hampshire,
178-186. Anglo-Saxon Cinerary Urns, Norwich Museum,
187. Pottery, from Illuminated MS., twelfth century,
188-192. Norman Pottery, Derbyshire,
193. Anglo-Saxon Helmet, Benty Grange, Derbyshire,
194 ,, Cross, ,, ,,
195, 196. ,, Buckles, from Kentish Barrows,
197. ,, Interment, Barlaston, Staffordshire,
198, 199. „ Umbones of Shields, b

PAGE 6368 7073 73
73 7576
80 80
8185 8787

91 9192 9495
96,97 9899 9999
100
103 104 106 107
109 no"3114 114

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.
200-211. Anglo-Saxon Spears, Knives, etc., from Kentish
Barrows, ...
212. Anglo-Saxon Sword, ....
213. ,, Umbone of Shield, Tissington, Derbyshire,
214. Sepulchral Slab, Lismore, Ireland,
215, 216. Sepulchral Slabs, Darley Dale, Derbyshire, .
217. ,, Alvaston, Derbyshire,
218. ,, Darley Dale, Derbyshire,
219. ,, Alvaston, Derbyshire,
220. ,, Hartington, Derbyshire,
221, 222. ,, Darley Dale, Derbyshire, .
223. ,, Wentworth, Yorkshire,
224. ,, Rosemarkie,
225-229. Ancient British Coins, Mount Batten, Plymouth,
230, 231. Anglo-Saxon Coins, .
232, 233. Pennies of William I. or II.,
234. Penny of Edward I. ,
235. Angel of Henry vi. ,
236. Shilling of Henry vii. ,
237. Quarter-Noble of Henry iv.,
238. Gold Penny of Henry III.,
239-242. Traders' Tokens,
243. Bells and Musical Instruments, from an Illuminated MS.,
244. Anglo-Saxon Bell,
245, 246. Examples of Bell Lettering, Devonshire,
247. ,, ,, Elton, Derbyshire,
248. ,, ,, Bonsall,
249. BeU Founders' Marks, Baslow, Derbyshire,
250. ,, (John Draper),
251. ,, Derbyshire,
252. ,, Appleby, Derbyshire,
253. ,, Derbyshire (R. Heathcote),
254. ,, (William Foundor),
255. Bell Ornament, Devonshire,
256. ,, Duffield, Derbyshire,
257. „ Morley, „
258. ,, Devonshire,
259. ,, Morley, Derbyshire,

145;

H4. "5
• "S
116123129129
129129129
129-131 131
132146
149 153
153153
153153153157
158 158163163
163
165 165165
165 165
165 166 166
166166i66

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE
260. Bell Ornament, Brassington, Derbyshire, . .166
261. Imperforate Bead, Adderbury, Oxfordshire, . 186
262. Glass Bead, Glutton, Derbyshire, . 187
263. ,, Hoylake, Cheshire, 187
264. Sepulchral Glass Bottle, Bartlow Hills, . . 187
265. Roman Interment, Avisford, Sussex, 187
266. Roman Glass Bowl, Leicester, . . 188
267-279. Examples of Anglo-Saxon Glass Vessels, . 189
280. Anglo-Saxon Ale Glass, from an Illuminated MS., 191
281. Jet Necklace, Middleton, Moor, Derbyshire, . . 210
282. Celtic Interment, ,, ,, . . 211
283. Amber and Glass Necklace, Wyaston, Derbyshire, . 213
284, 285. Ear-rings, Kentish Barrows, .... 215
286. Bone Pins, Darley Dale, Derbyshire, . 218
287. Jet Stud, Rudstone, Yorkshire, . 218
288. ,, Calais Wold, Yorkshire, . . .219
289. Fibula, Bottisham, Cambridgeshire, . 220
290. ,, Scarborough, Yorkshire, . . 220
291. ,, Royal Irish Academy, .... 220
292. „ Little Chester, Derbyshire, . . 220
293. ,, from the Mayer Museum, . 221
294-303. Fibulse from Kentish Barrows, . . . 222
304-305. ,, Winster, Derbyshire, (front and back view, ) . 222
306. ,, from Kentish Barrows, . . . 222
307. ,, Hoylake, Cheshire, . . . 223
308. ,, from the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, . 226
309. ,, found in Westmoreland, . . . 227
310. Armlets, Middleton Dale, Derbyshire, . . . 230
311-313. Torques, ...... 231
314. „ Needwood Forest, Staffordshire, . . 233
315. Comb, ... .... 23s
316, 317. Girdle Ornaments, . . . . .236
318. Tweezers, Leicester, . . . . 237
319. Bucket found in Northamptonshire, . . 239

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

CHAPTER I.
AMONG BARROWS.
The remains of the Ancient British, or Celtic, period
which have come down to us, consist in the main of
barrows, stone circles, pottery, implements of flint
and of stone, weapons and ornaments of gold and
bronze, and various articles in bone and jet, etc. To
each of these classes I purpose devoting a few pages,
• so as to give a general insight into the remains of that
and subsequent periods of our early history. It is not
my province to speak of the diflerent races who have
inhabited our land, nor of their habits or modes of
life, their history or their progress in the arts and in
civilisation, but of those remains only which time has
spared, and which we see around us at the present
hour. First, then, as to the barrows, which, it may
be well to remark, are grave-mounds, or sepulchral
A

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

tumuli, and are known in difi"erent districts as ' bar
rows,' 'lows,' 'tumps,' 'cairns,' 'houes,' etc. They
belong to the three great periods of our history, the
Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon ;
and although each of these bears a very close general
resemblance to the others, there are certain diff'er-
ences in detail that are observable to the practised
eye, and their contents, of course, vary consider
ably. The barrows of the Celtic period, as I have on a
former occasion written,^ vary in their form and size
as much as they do in their modes of construction
and in their contents. Sometimes they are simply
mounds of earth raised over the interment ; some
times heaps of stones piled up over the body, or over
the burnt bones, whether in or out of urns ; and
sometimes, again, a combination of cist and earth
and stone. Generally speaking, the mounds are cir
cular, rising gradually and gently from the level of
the ground towards the centre, but in some instances
the rise is somewhat acute. Occasionally they are
surrounded by a shallow trench, or by other enclosure.
Now and then they are long, and sometimes oval in
form. Where elliptical barrows occur, they are, I
have reason to believe, not matters of original design,
but their peculiarity of form has arisen through addi
tional and, indeed, successive interments ; and I much
doubt the propriety of archaeologists, at the present
day, continuing the very questionable nomenclature
' Grave-Mounds and their Contents.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare and others. In some
cases, however, as in the instances of chambered and
walled tumuli, the origin of the long and elliptical
forms of barrows can be easily understood. ' Long
barrows,' about which much has been written, and
much wild speculation at one time or other indulged
in, may briefly be said to be usually, as their name
implies, considerably longer than they are broad ; are,
oftener than otherwise, placed due east and west ;
and have the eastern end, where usually the primary
interments have taken place, broader, and of greater
elevation than the other. These barrows, as I have
just said, are usually chambered or walled, and the
great majority of the skulls found in them are said to
be dolicho-cephalic ; indeed it is affirmed by those who
have made the matter a subject of special study,^
that the ' long barrows ' belong to the long-headed
(dolicho-cephalic), and the Wound barrows' to 'round-
headed'' (brachy-cephalic) races. To this, however, I
do not give implicit assent. An examination of a
very large number of barrows leads me to the opinion
that the original form of, at all events, nearly all was
circular, and that any deviation from that form or
any diff'erence in section cannot with safety be taken
to indicate any special period or race. Another
appellation occasionally used, that of ' twin barrows,'
is further evidence of this — two interments having
been made within a short distance of each other, and
' My friends the late Dr. Thurnam, Rev. Canon Greenwell, and
others.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

the mounds raised over them running into and be
coming united in one whole. ' It may, however, for
purposes of description, and for this alone, be well to
retain the names, while discarding much of the theory
and of the system which has been attempted to be
established regarding them.'
The form and construction of barrows will be best
understood by reference to the sections. Fig. i. shows
a mound, or cairn, of stones raised over the body,

Fig.

which is simply laid in the usual doubled-up or con
tracted position ; the outer edge of the circle being
formed of rough slabs of stone laid one on another,
with their upper ends sloping inwards. The body
in this instance was simply laid on the natural surface
of the ground.

Fig. -.

The next figure (Fig. 2) shows another barrow of
stone, whose circle is defined by a ring of large

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

stones, raised over two interments (both by increma
tion), one of which is a cinerary urn {a), containing
the burnt remains of the dead, covered with a slab of
stone ; and the other simply the burnt bones and
ashes collected into a heap on the surface of the
ground {b).
The next is a similar arrangement, but in this
instance the urn containing the ashes is, as was
frequently the case, inverted ; the outer circle is, as

Fig. 3.
before, defined by large stones. In all these cases
the cairn, or mound, of loose stones had been formed
over the interment, and then over this had been
spread a thick layer of earth.
It must not be supposed, however, that the cover
ing with earth was in all instances, or even in many,
a part of the original design, for frequently this ac
cumulation of soil is simply the result of decaying
vegetation, and of other natural causes. In some of
the instances I have given there is abundant evidence,
from the remains of fires on the surface, that the earth
was part of the original design. This is clearly evi
dent from the next section (Fig. 4), where a a show
the stones forming the boundary circle ; c, a cinerary

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

urn ; d, a drinking-cup ; b, the cairn of stones ; ^ ^, a
thick covering of burnt earth and charcoal ; and /
the outer or natural coating of earth.

Sometimes very extraordinary examples occur,
showing successive interments at diff'erent periods,
and, not unfrequently, by diff'erent races. In the
Gib Hill barrow (shown in Fig. 5), four mounds of
tempered earth, almost like clay, had been formed
on the natural surface of the ground, and over these.

Fig. 5.
and entirely enclosing them (see the dotted lines in
the section), was raised a huge barrow, having in
its upper portion a stone cist, in appearance like a
diminutive so-called cromlech. Another remarkable
example was examined by Mr. Warne, and is en
graved in his admirable work. This mound was
eighty-two feet in diameter, and fourteen feet in

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

height in the centre. The primary interment, an
urn, was placed in a cist cut in the chalk subsoil,
and over the urn was raised a small cairn of flints.
The cist was then filled in, and raised a little above
the surface with chalk rubble. Over this was a layer
of earth, upon which an interment had taken place,
which in its turn was covered with a thick layer of
chalk rubble, in the centre of which, in a cist, another
interment had again been made. Above this rose
another layer of earth three feet thick, another of
chalk two feet thick, and then a final one of earth
three feet in thickness ; on each of these inter
ments had at different periods been made. Thus
the tumulus, which was formed of alternate layers of
chalk and earth, exhibited no less than six successive
sepulchral deposits. The interments were both by
inhumation and cremation. Other extremely im
portant and remarkable instances of successive inter
ments are also fully described in Canon Greenwell's
British Barrows, which is one of the most valuable
additions yet made to archaeological literature.
Barrows were, it will have been seen, frequently
surrounded by a circle of stones, set upright in the
ground. These circles, in many instances, remain to
the present day in different parts of the kingdom, and
(the barrow itself having disappeared) are commonly
called ' Druidical circles.' The construction of the
stone circles varied considerably. In some instances
the upright stones were placed pretty close together,
in others wide apart ; and in others, again, the spaces

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

between the uprights were filled in with rude loose
rubble-masonry, which thus formed a continuous wall.
Of these I shall speak in another chapter.
Some tumuli contain stone chambers and passages,
formed of massive upright slabs, and covered with

Fig. 6 — Stony Littleton, Somersetshire.

Fig. 7. — New Grange.

immense blocks of stone, and over these passages
and chambers the mound has been raised. Among
the more notable of chambered tumuli in England
may be mentioned those of Stony Littleton, Wieland

Fig. 8.— Gavr-Innis.

Smith's Cave at Ashbury, Minning Low in Derby
shire, the Bride Stones in Staffordshire, and some on

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

the Yorkshire Wolds. Other well-known examples
occur in the Channel Islands, and in Ireland and
Scotland. The plans (Figs. 6 to 8) show the con
struction of some of them.
A remarkable example of two round barrows con
nected together, forming a singular 'long barrow,'
is here shown. It is appropriately known by the
name of 'Long Low,' and consists of two circular
mounds, connected by a bank. The circular mound

Fig. g. — Long Low, near Wetton.
at the north-east end is thirty yards across and seven
feet high in the centre, that at the south-west end not
so large ; the connecting bank at its base is fifteen
yards wide, and, where entire, about six feet in height,
with regular sloping sides where not mutilated. The
barrow runs in a straight line along the highest part
of the land. Its internal construction is singular. By
making holes in various places along the bank, a low
wall, built with large stones, was found in the centre ;
it appeared to be carried the whole length of the
bank. Against this, large flat stones, with their tops
reclining against the wall, are placed. The portions
of this which were laid bare are, with remains of
interments, shown at C, D, E, and F. A large cist, or
chamber, was discovered near the centre of the large
mound at A. It was formed by four immense stones.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

inclosing an area six feet long, five feet wide, and
about four feet deep. In all probability the capstone
had been removed, as none was found. On the cist
being cleared, a regular paved floor of limestone,
entirely covered with a confused mass of human
bones, was discovered.

Fig. io. — Smerril Moor.

On a previous page I have spoken of the ' usual
contracted position' in which the bodies of the
ancient Britons were, when the interment has been
by inhumation, placed in the barrow. This will be

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

best understood by the engraving (Fig. lo), which
shows the skeleton, lying on its left side, with the
knees drawn up and hands in front of face, as com
monly found in the Derbyshire and other barrows.
An elliptical barrow, called Top Low, on being
opened in the centre disclosed fourteen interments,
and probably an equally large number remain in the
undisturbed parts.
The barrows of the Romano-British period some
times, as at Eastlow Hill, contained sepulchral
chambers of large size. These were occasionally
built above the ground, and then covered with the
mound. At other times a simple mound over a
grave, or over a sepulchral urn or other deposit,
was raised. Frequently, however, the Roman placed
his dead, when the burial took place in the open
country, in the barrow of the ancient Briton, and
thus both periods — the primary being the Celtic, and
the secondary the Romano-British — are represented
in the same mound. Not unfrequently the Roman
interment was made in a shallow grave, sometimes
in a cist composed of stones, or tiles, or wood, and
over this the barrow was raised ; this was usually of
compact earth, or of earth and stones.
The barrows of the Anglo-Saxon period were
usually of much less size in diameter, and lower in
altitude, than those of the Celtic period — so low, in
fact, that they frequently rise but slightly above the
surrounding land. In some districts they are found
in extensive groups, often occupying elevated sites ;

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

at other times they are solitary, and commonly the
elevation above the surrounding surface is so slight
as to be scarcely perceptible except to the most
practised eye. Fortunately the mounds and ceme
teries are particularly rich in remains, and thus
enable us to form a clearer idea of the habits and
manners and lives of our Saxon forefathers than we
can of their predecessors. In Kent, Sussex, and the
Isle of Wight, Saxon graves abound on the Downs ;
and in Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire,
Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire,
Suffolk, Norfolk, and Yorkshire, cemeteries of more
or less extent and importance exist, with here and
there a solitary barrow, or a group of barrows. Like
their Roman predecessors, the Anglo-Saxons, to some
extent, took possession of, and buried in, the grave-
mounds of the ancient Britons, and it is not a very
unusual occurrence to find, overlying the primary
deposit, an interment of the Saxon period ; indeed,
in some instances, the primary interment is Celtic,
the secondary Roman, and a later still is Saxon, all
in the same mound.
. Fortunately, an early Anglo-Saxon poem, recount
ing the adventures of the chieftain Beowulf, is pre
served to us, and gives us a valuable and highly
graphic and interesting description of the ceremonies
attendant on his burial ; the lighting of the funeral
pyre, the burning of the body of the hero, the raising
of the mound over his remains, and the articles placed
beside him in his last home. Dying, he

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 13
bseb J)aec je ge-poiihEon
sej-'Cep jnnej- bsebu
m b£el-)-tebe
beoph Jione hein
micelue anb meejine. —
which is translated : —
'he bad that ye should make,
according to the deeds of your friend,
on the place of the funeral pyre,
the lofty barrow
large and famous. '
His request was carried out, the funeral pile raised,
and every preparation befitting his deeds was made.
The pile was ' hung round with helmets,
with boards of war,i
and with bright bymies ^
as he had requested.
Then the heroes, weeping,
laid down in the midst
the famous chieftain,
their dear lord.
Then began on the hill,
the warriors to awake
the mightiest of funeral fires ;
the wood-smoke rose aloft
dark from the fire ;
noisily it went
mingled with weeping. '
The body of the hero having been consumed by
the wood-fire, in the midst of weeping friends, the
1 Shields. ^ Armour.

14 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
people began to raise the barrow over his ashes. This
mound ' was high and broad,
by the sailors over the waves
to be seen afar.
And they built up
during ten days
the beacon of the war-renowned.
They surrounded it with a wall
in the most honourable manner
that wise men
could desire.
They put into the mound
rings and bright gems,
all such ornaments
as before from the hoard
the fierce-minded men
had taken ;
they suffered the earth to hold
the treasure of warriors,
gold on the earth,
where it remains
as useless to men
as it was of old.'
When the burial was simply by inhumation, the
body appears usually to have been placed in a
shallow grave, over which the mound was raised.
The graves were of rectangular form, and of various
depths. Sometimes the body was inclosed in a
wooden chest or coffin before being placed in the
grave ; in either of these cases it was then filled in
— usually with a tempered or ' puddled ' earth, which
formed a close and extremely compact mass — and

ENGLISH A NTIQ U ITIES. 1 5
the mound raised over it. This mound, or hillock,
was called a lilcezv, or a beorh, beorgh, or bearw, from
the first of which the name now commonly used, low,
is derived, and from the latter the equally common
name barrow originates.

1 6 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

CHAPTER IL
stone CIRCLES, CROMLECHS, ETC.
Circles formed of upright or other stones exist
in various parts of the kingdom, and are popularly
known as ' Druidical circles,' ' Druids' circles,' ' Druid
temples,' ' Druid stones,' etc. They vary consider
ably in their size and characteristics, and many
singular beliefs and stories are connected with them
in diff'erent districts. In some places they are looked
upon as the abodes of fairies, who are said there to sit
in solemn conclave, and there, too, to hold their high
festivals. In other places ' Hob Hurst,' or ' Hob i'
th' Hurst,' is firmly believed to haunt, and live in,
these circles (and also in some barrows), and this
belief is so strong in the rustic mind that people
will not, for fear of harm, pass them at certain
hours — ' Hob ' being said to be a spiteful sprite,
who delights in doing mischief alike to man and
to beast.
The bases of grave-mounds were frequently defined
by these circles of stones, and sometimes by a shallow
ditch or fosse, and occasionally by a combination of

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

17

Fig. II. — Arbor Low, Derbyshire.

Fig. 12. — ' Nine Ladies,' Stanton Moor, Derbyshire.

Fig. 13. — Boscawen-fin, CornwaU.

1 8 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
both. To this circumstance the origin of many of
the circles remaining to this day is to be traced, while
there can be but little, if any, doubt that others of far
larger dimensions and of diff'erent construction have
originally also been connected with sepulchral pur
poses and rites. A few words on the plans and
dimensions of some of the larger structures, without
at all entering into the question of their various uses,
will be serviceable for comparison.
Abury, the largest of our English circles, appears
originally to have consisted of a circle of somewhat
irregular form, measuring 1260 feet in diameter in
one direction, and 1170 the other, surrounded by an
agger and ditch ; and the supposed avenues leading
to it extending over a mile in length, and of an
average breadth of forty feet. Within this general
enclosure are two other circles, the one 325, and the
other 270 feet in diameter. Near it is Silbury Hill,
a mound of earth 500 feet in diameter at its base, and
170 feet in height ; and numerous grave-mounds are
spread over the surrounding country.
Stonehenge appears to have been a circle about
300 feet in diameter, surrounded by a fosse, and
having, as supposed, an avenue leading to it. In
this enclosure (of which here and there a stone still
exists) was the famous circle whose remains are
so well known. This is about 106 feet in diameter,
and, besides the inner or horse-shoe arrangement of
stones, consists of a circle of small stones of a kind
not found in the district, surrounded by a later circle

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 19
of much larger stones, with transoms of the kind
known as ' Sarcens,' which occur on Salisbury
Plain. ' It is evident,' says Sir John Lubbock,
'that Stonehenge was at one time a spot of great
sanctity. A glance at the Ordnance map will show
that the tumuli cluster in great numbers round, and
within sight of it ; within a radius of three miles
there are about three hundred burial mounds, while
the rest of the country is comparatively free from
them. If, then, we could determine the date of these
tumuli, we should be justified, I think, in referring
the Great Temple itself to the same period. Now,
of these barrows, Sir Richard Colt Hoare examined
a great number, 1 5 1 of which had not been previously
opened. Of these the great majority contained in
terments by cremation in the manner usual during
the Bronze age. Only two contained any iron
weapons, and these were both secondary interments ;
that is to say, the owners of the iron weapons were
not the original occupiers of the tumuli. Of the
other burial-mounds, no less than thirty-nine con
tained objects of bronze; and one of them, in which
were found a spear-head and pin of bronze, was still
more connected with the temple by the presence of
fragments, not only of Sarcen stones, but also of the
blue stones which form the inner circle at Stone
henge, and which, according to Sir R. C. Hoare, do
not naturally occur in Wiltshire. Stonehenge then
may, I think, be regarded as a monument of the
Bronze age, though apparently it was not all erected

HALF- HOURS AMONG. SOME

at one time, the inner circle of small unwrought blue
stones being probably older than the rest. As regards
Abury, since the stones are all in their natural
condition, while those of Stonehenge are roughly
hewn, it seems reasonable to conclude that Abury
is the older of the two, and belongs either to the
close of the Stone age or to the commencement
of that of Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge
were, I believe, used as temples. Many of the stone
circles have, however, been proved to be burial-
places.' The large circle at Stanton Drew is about 360 feet
in diameter, the average height of the stones being
about twelve feet ; while the average of those at
Stonehenge is about twenty-one feet. 'The stones
are placed at equal distances, and the number of
them had probably some significance. The two
inner circles at Abury, the lesser circle at Stennis,
and one at Stanton Drew, each consisted of twelve ;
the outer circles at Abury, the outer circles and
transoms at Stonehenge, the large circle at Stanton
Drew, and the circle at Arbor Low, each of thirty ;
those of Rollrich and Stennis, each of sixty ; and
the large enclosing circle of Abury of one hundred,
stones. Four circles at Boscawen-un and adjacent
places in Cornwall, have each been formed of nine
teen stones.' A very frequent number of stones for
the lesser circles was nine.
A fair idea of the relative sizes of some of the
best-known circles will be gathered from Fig. 14,

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

where they are shown drawn to scale. They are as
follows : —

A Abury, outer circle, 1260 by 1170 ft.
B  larger inner circle, 325 feet.
C  lesser ditto, 270 feet.
D Stonehenge, outer circle, 300 feet.
E  inner circle, 106 feet.
F Stanton Drew, 360 feet.
G Broggar, 342 feet.
H Long Meg and her Daughters, 330
feet.

I Arbor Low, 150 feet.
J Grey Wands, 150 feet.
K Rollrich, los feet.
L Castle Rigg, 103 feet.
M Eyam Moor, 100 feet.
N Boscawen-iin, 80 feet.
O Penmaenmawr, 81 feet.
P Stanton Moor, 36 feet.

A view of Arbor Low, in Derbyshire, is given in
Fig. II. No sepulchral remains have been discovered
in the circle, but barrows of great extent, which have
yielded important remains on being excavated, are
closely connected with it. It is, however, possible
that interments have existed, and been removed in
past ages. In the centre of the circle, which is about
fifty yards in diameter, are some large masses of
stone, which it is possible may have formed portions
of a 'cromlech,' or sepulchral structure. The circle
is formed of a number of imniense stones, all of
which now remaining lie flat on the surface, not
upright, as in most other instances. There is every
probability that such was their original arrangement.
The circle is surrounded by a rampart and fosse —
the fosse being of considerable width, about eighteen
feet, and the rampart about six or eight yards in
height from its inner base. There are two entrances
to this circle, north and south, each of which is some
considerable width. Close to the southern entrance
is a large sepulchral mound, and about 300 yards

Fig. 14.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

23

away, and connected with the embankment around
the circle by a continuous bank of earth, is another
sepulchral mound, Gib Hill (Fig. 5), which on ex
amination has yielded, Hke the one at the entrance,
many highly interesting features.
Excavations into various grave -mounds have

- ( ". t ¦s . -^ W' ' "O' '\/ /

Fig. 15.
proved, beyond doubt, the fact that in many in
stances, when an interment was made, the site of
the proposed cairn to be raised over the remains
was marked by a circle of stones laid on the surface
of the ground, or inclining inwards, or set upright in
the earth. The loose stones, rubble, earth, etc., were
then piled up within this enclosure, till the whole

24

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

size and altitude of the mound was reached. This
mode of construction is shown in the annexed plan
(Fig. 15), where the circle comprises twenty upright
stones, and marks the outer circumference of the
cairn. Another, at Broad Down, has the circle com
posed of fifteen upright stones several feet apart, to
mark its outer circumference. Within this was a

Fig. 16. — Broad Down.

trench surrounding the barrow, in the centre of
which, on the surface of the ground, was found a
stone cist, composed of a number of stones inclining
inwards, and forming a dome-sliaped structure sup
ported by a circle of larger stones, upon which it
partially rested, and which appeared to be intended
to act as buttresses. Thus in this barrow there was

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 25
an inner circle surrounding the cist, and an outer
circle marking the entire boundary of the burial-
place. The inner circle and the cist are shown in
Fig. 16.
An example of the second mode of construction,
that of encircling stones inclining inwards, is at Elk
Low, shown in section in Fig. i. The barrow had a
depression running around its upper surface, some
thing like an elevated fosse, as will be seen in the
section. The interments were made on the natural
surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a
skeleton on its right side, in a contracted position,
with its head resting on a piece of limestone, which
was placed as a pillow. Other skeletons were also
found, as was likewise an interment of burnt bones,
and some flint and stone instruments. The outer
circle was constructed of very large stones inclining
inwards, and covered with small stones and earth,
thus forming an extremely durable mound.
Either of these examples, if denuded of their
superincumbent mounds, would form striking and
very perfect examples of small so-called ' Druidical
circles.' When the circles have been formed of upright
stones, they have not certainly always been covered
with the mound, but have formed a kind of ring fence
— a sort of sacred enclosure — around the barrow. A
great number of examples of this kind exist in
different districts, and will easily be recognised by
the zealous archaeologist. The circle shown in Fig.

26 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
12 is that of Stanton Moor, and is known by the
name of the ' Nine Ladies.' This circle, of which a
plan is given in Fig. 17, is formed of a circular mound
of earth, on which the upright stones are placed. It
is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It formerly con
sisted of a larger number of stones ; those that are
now remaining being at irregular distances, varying
from eight to nineteen feet from each other. In the

Fig. 17. — * Nine Ladies,' Stanton Moor.
centre are the remains of a rifled sepulchral mound.
Many other similar circles occur in Derbyshire. For
instance, on Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered
tumulus now destroyed, existed two circles, the one
thirty-nine, and the other twenty-two feet in diameter.
On Leam Moor, too, circles surrounding interments
are known to have existed. On Eyam Moor there
are circles of this kind surrounding sepulchral mounds.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 27
One of these is about a hundred feet in diameter,- and
is, like the ' Nine Ladies ' on Stanton Moor, formed
of a circular mound of earth on which the stones
are placed. Only ten of the stones remain in situ.
In the centre a cist was discovered many years
ago. Other circles occur in the same county on
Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East
Moor, on Hathersage Moor, and in many other
localities. On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet
remain, as they do also in Cornwall and in other
counties. To the researches of Mr. Blight I am in
debted for much of the following information regard

ing the Cornish circles. Upright stones were, as in
the case of the ring fences already named, placed at
tolerably regular intervals around the barrow, either
on the natural surface of the ground, or on a circular
embankment thrown up for the purpose. The inter
vening spaces were then, in many instances, filled in
with small stones so as to form a compact kind of
wall, as shown in the above engraving. It will easily
be seen that in course of time the loose-walled parts
would be thrown down and disappear, while the up
rights, being firmly fixed in the ground, would remain.
In some instances, as in the case of the circle enclosing

Fig. 25.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 29
a stone cist covered by a mound at Sancreed (Fig.
22), the upright stones touched each other, and thus
formed a firm enclosure. This circle is about fifteen
feet in diameter. Another variety is a double circle,
or rather two circles, one within the other, and about
two feet apart, surrounding the stone cist (Fig. 21).
The stones in this example nearly touch each other.
A somewhat similar one, but with the circles further
apart from each other, exists in the Isle-of Man (Fig.
19). The mound, in this instance, probably rose from
the inner circle only, and covered the central cist. In
several instances the interment was not in the centre
of the circle, but was made in diff'erent situations
within its area. For instance, in the next example,
from Trewavas Head (Fig. 20), the cist is near to the
circle of stones, as it is also in the famous circle of
Callernish. The next plan (Fig. 23) shows a totally
diff'erent construction. In it the circle is composed
of a number of stone cists, or sepulchral chambers
pretty close together, end to end. This example,
of which a somewhat analogous one exists in the
Channel Islands (Fig. 25), is on Mule Hill, in the Isle
of Man. The next shows the plan (Fig. 24) of a pair
of ' twin barrows,' so called, the circle in the largest
being about thirty-five, and the smallest twenty-four
feet in diameter. In the centre are the remains of a
stone cist, or chamber. Both mounds were cairns of
loose stones. In others, first there is an enclosing
circle of stones, some placed upright, some longi
tudinally (Fig. 26), the intention being simply to

3°

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Fig. 26.

make an encircling fence ; within this the grave
was constructed, then small stones heaped over the
whole, the cairn extend
ing, by about six feet,
outside the built circle.
Some larger circles,
such, for instance, as
the Boscawen-un circle
(Figs. 13 and 27), the
Aber circle (Fig. 28),
I and others, may have
been formed around a
a group, instead of single
interments. In some in
stances a single stone
was placed to mark
the place of interment.
Three such exist in the
barrow at Berriew. A
large circle (Fig. 29) on
Penmaenmawr was
<> composed of several

\

Fig. 27. — Boscawen-un Circle.

if V.
U

N^—*;*' *•«*'

}}

'¦ uprights connected by
smaller masonry. Here

1

J the interments were ap-
^ ** parently made beside
"^^ j^ the pillars. Against the
" ,5. o'' inner side of the tallest
F.G"28°.-Ab"rarcie. piUar A, on the eastern
part, were the remains of a small cistvaen ; while

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

against the pillar B, facing it on the opposite side,
was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is sur
rounded by a ditch, within which, at c, is another
small cairn.

Fig. 29. — Penmaenmawr Circle.

Fig. 30.— Lanyon Cromlech, Cornwall.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

The ' cromlechs,' so called, are, it seems tolerably
certain, stone cists denuded of their outer covering.
Many exist in diff'erent parts of the country. I en
grave one well-known Cornish example, the Lanyon
cromlech (Fig. 30), to show their usual form, and on
the next engraving (Fig. 31), I give a plan of the

Fig. 31. — Plan ofthe Lanyon Cromlech,
same, showing the four uprights, and the large cover
ing or capstone. The large outline is the capstone,
the part marked A being broken off; it measures
about eighteen feet and a half in length, nine feet in
width, and is computed to weigh above fifteen tons.
B is one of the supports which is thrown down.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 33

CHAPTER III.
AMONG implements OF FLINT AND STONE.
Implements of stone may for the most part be
arranged under the general heads of celts, hammers,
and mauls, axes and picks, and grinding and whet
stones ; and these may again be subdivided accord
ing to form and use. Those of flint consist of what
may be called flakes, cores, scrapers, borers or drills,
spear and arrow heads, sling-stones, etc. To an ex
amination of these various forms half an hour may
be very profitably and pleasantly devoted.
Celts are the most common of all the various
implements of stone, and they vary considerably
alike in size, in form, and in material. They are
found occasionally in the grave-mounds of the Britons,
and are also turned up in the course of agricultural
operations. The name of ' celt ' has become so usual as the
designation of these particular varieties of stone
implements, and seems so appropriate, that, despite
some attempts which have been of late made to alter
C

34 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
it, I unhesitatingly retain its use. With regard to
the derivation of the word, many opinions have been
expressed. These have been so ably summed up by
my friend Mr. John Evans, F.S.A., that I give his
own words in preference to any of my own. ' It has
been fancied,' he says, ' by some that the name bore
reference to the Celtic people, by whom the imple
ments were supposed to have been made ; and among
those who have thought fit to adopt the modern
fashion of calling the Celts " Kelts," there have been
not a few who have given the instruments the novel
name of " kelts " also. In the same manner, many
French antiquaries have given the plural form of the
word as Celtce. Notwithstanding this misapprehension,
there can be.no doubt as to the derivation of the
word, it being no other than the English form of the
Latin celtis or celtes, a chisel. This word, however, is
curiously enough an aira% Xeyofjuevov in this sense,
being only found in the Vulgate translation of Job,
though it is repeated in a forged inscription recorded
by Gruter and Aldus. The usual derivation given is
a ccelando, and it is regarded as the equivalent of
ccelum. The first use of the term that I have met
with, as applied to antiquities, is in Beger's Thesaurus
Brandenburgicus, i6g6, where a bronze celt, adapted
for insertion in its haft, is described under the name
of Celtes. It has been suggested that there may
originally have been some connection between the
Latin celtis and the British or Welsh cel/t, a flint ;
but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous re-

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

semblance than of affinity. A Welsh triad says there
are three hard things in the world — maeii cellt (a flint
stone), steel, and a miser's heart.' ^
There are many curious beliefs connected with
celts, one of the most usual being that they are
thunderbolts ; and another that, if placed in a well or
cistern, they have the power of purifying the water,
and of acting as a preventive against disease in man
and beast. Another belief is that if a 'thunder
bolt ' be boiled in water, and the water used for
bathing a rheumatic limb, it will eff'ect a speedy cure.
But this digression need not be further pursued.
The general form of celts is usually that of a more
or less flat blade, approaching an oviform shape, and
not unlike that of a mussel-shell. The sides are more
or less straight, and one end is, as will be understood
from what I have written, broader than the other.
The lower, or broad, or cutting end is slightly convex,
and rubbed down to a sharp cutting edge. As this
cutting edge has become dulled or chipped by use,
it has been again rubbed down and sharpened. Thus
it not unfrequently happens that a celt, when found,
is not more than half or two-thirds of its original
length, and has thus lost its proper proportion.
In length celts vary from about two to sixteen or
eighteen inches, a very usual size being from about
four to six or seven inches.
Some of the more usual forms of these instruments
will be found in Figures 32 to 36, which may be
' Ancient Stone Bnplements, p. 50.

36

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

considered to represent the most typical varieties.
Some examples are simply rudely chipped into form,
and left rough on the sides and edges, but others
are beautifully and carefully rubbed down to a fine,
smooth, and even polished surface.
The manner in which celts were used appears to
have been by fixing into wooden or bone handles ;
but some were undoubtedly used by holding in the
hand only. .A-celt of the form of Fig. 32 was found.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

still attached to its handle of wood, in the Solway
Moss, near Longtown, at a depth of about six feet
below the surface. Another and better example (the
celt being of the same general form) was found in a
small lake in Cumberland, and has been engraved
by Mr. Evans. The end of the handle, of wood, is
curved upwards. Another handled example, found
at Tranmere, is preserved in the Liverpool Museum.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 37
The class of implements usually known by the
name of ' stone hammers ' has been divided by Mr.
Evans into the general classes of perforated axes
(subdivided into double-edged axes, or those with a
cutting or but slightly blunted edge at either end ;
adzes, or implements with the edge at right angles to
the shaft-hole ; axes with the edge at one end only,
the shaft-hole being near the other end, which is
rounded ; and axe-hammers, sharp at one end and
more or less hammer-like at the other, the shaft-hole
being usually near the centre) ; perforated and grooved
hammers ; and hammer stones, or hammers not per
forated for a shaft.
The first of these — the perforated axes — vary much
in form and in size, as will be seen on reference to the
engravings. Like as with the celts, popular behef
has ascribed a supernatural origin to these larger and
more ponderous instruments. In Scotland, according
to Professor Wilson,^ the name by which they were
popularly known till almost the close of last century,
was that of ' purgatory hammers.' Found, as the
stone hammer frequently was, 'within the cist, and
beside the mouldering bones of its old pagan pos
sessor, the simple discoverer could devise no likeher
use for it than that it was laid there for its owner to
bear with him " up the trinal steps," and with it to
thunder at the gates of purgatory till the heavenly
janitor appeared, that he might
With humble heart that he unbar the bolt." '
1 Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 191.

38

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

The forms of the hammers in the first subdivision
(that of examples with a cutting edge at each end)
vary much, some being tolerably flat or level on
their upper and under surfaces ; others hollowed or

Fig. 37.

grooved ; and others turned up in form of an adze.
The engraving. Fig. 37, shows one of these latter as
seen in side view, and Fig. 38 the same looking down

Fig. 38.

upon it so as to show the perforation for the shaft.
The cutting edge, as usual in this class, is in a line
with the shaft.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

39

Fig. 40.

Fig- 42.

40 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Implements of this kind, with the cutting edge at
right angles with the shaft-hole, are of more rare
occurrence in England, but they are nevertheless
occasionally met with.
The typical form in the third subdivision (; .-
heads, namely, a cutting-edge at one end only, . ,
shaft-hole being near the other, or rounder, or butt-
end) will be well understood by the engravings.
Fig. 39, from Cambridgeshire, is of good shape, with
the butt-end well rounded ; the upper and under
sides being flat, and the shaft-hole well defined. Fig.
40, instead of being grooved, as some examples are,
has smooth sides, and a more hammer-like butt-end.
The next engraving (Fig. 41) exhibits an example of
much more slender and taper form ; it does not par
take so much of the battle-axe shape as many of the
others do.
The fourth subdivision, that in which the butt-end
is flat and hammer-like, embraces many
good forms. These will be easily under
stood on reference to the wood-cuts. Some
are flat at both ends, others rounded, and
may therefore be not inappropriately called
]^^^5. mauls. Of these. Figs. 43 to 45 will serve
as examples. Others are circular, triangular, and
cruciform ; but these latter are of very rare occur
rence. Another variety, rounded at both ends, with or
without a cutting edge, and deeply grooved round
the middle, is occasionally found (Fig. 46). These

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

41

are conjectured by Mr. Evans to have been ' used
as sinkers for nets or lines, for which purpose they
are well adapted, the groove being deep enough to
protect small cord around it from wear by friction.' ^

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.
Herein there can be little doubt Mr. Evans is in
error. The form is much the same as that of
' punches ' or ' cutters ' used by blacksmiths even
at the present day, and the groove is admirably
adapted for the twisting round of a ' withy,' or
hazel stick, in the same manner as is yet done;
this I have endeavoured to show on Fig. 47.
By this means an equally, or indeed more, useful
weapon would be formed than if pierced with a
shaft-hole. Stones of the general form of mauls, but not
pierced, are sometimes met with, as are also others
intended for use without shafts. Some of these
1 Ancient Stone Implements, p. 211.

42

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

have indentations or hollows worked in their sides
for firmer holding in the hand, and others have a
shoulder on one, or on each, side, for the same pur
pose. Fig. 48 shows one of this latter variety, and
it is surprising how firm a grip may be gained by,
and how much force can be given to a blow from,
such an instrument, which becomes an eff'ectual and
deadly weapon in the hand. Rough stones, which
have probably been used for triturating purposes —
the grinding of corn, etc. — are occasionally found.
Querns or handmills of late Celtic date are some
times met with both in

/

Scotland and in Ireland,
as are also whetstones
or sharpening stones,
and other objects.
Flint implements are
of extremely varied
form, character, and
use, and are of very
general occurrence
among Celtic remains.
They may for general
purposes be classed
'^'°- 48- as flakes and chips ;
scrapers, knives, etc. ; spear and arrow heads, etc. ;
' thumb flints ;' and other varieties. Of the modes of
forming flint implements adopted by our primitive
forefathers it is unnecessary here to speak ; all that
need be done is to give a few examples of the more

\

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

44

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

usual forms which researches have brought to light,
and to refer the reader, for more
detailed information, to Mr.
Evans's Ancient Stone Imple
ments, where the whole subject
is very ably treated.
Barbed arrow-heads are among
the most beautiful and delicately
shaped of flint instruments. The
examples given in Figs. 49 to 53
show some of the most typical
forms and sizes which are usually
found. The two upper examples
are from Yorkshire ; and the next
three (Figs. 51, 52, and 53), from
Derbyshire, are examples in my
own collection. These are en
graved of their full size.
The whole of these, it will be
seen, are stemmed as well as
barbed — the stem being used for
attachment to the shaft. Another
variety has the two barbs, but no
central stem. Two of these arq
engraved, in the next figures
(Figs. 54 and 55), of their real
size. Others with only a single
barb are not of unfrequent occur
rence in Derbyshire, and, with
y,c. 57. modifications, in Yorkshire and

Fig 56.

Fig. 6i.

Fig. 63.

46

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 47

Other districts. Two of these are .shown in Figs. 64
and 65.
One distinct class of form is that usually known
as ' leaf-shaped,' and this may be taken to be the
prototype of the bronze dagger of a later period. Of
this shape, arrow-heads, javelin-heads, daggers, or
what not are formed. Some of these have, perhaps
erroneously, been classed as ' knives.' The example
Fig. 56 is from Green Low, and is of remarkably
fine form. Fig. 57 is from Danby Moor; Figs. 58
and 59 from Calais Wold ; and Fig. -60 from Gun
thorpe. The two from the Calais Wold barrow,
it will be seen, approach in form to the next or
angular variety, of which examples are given in
Figs. 62 and 63. These are from the same barrow,
and are highly developed in their angles and in
their attenuated points. Another form, of which
Fig. 61 is a typical example, found in Derbyshire,
is of rare occurrence in England. It is deeply
serrated on its edges, and its base is formed for
tying on the shaft with a thong.
Another variety, again, which at first sight appears
more intended for throwing than for any other pur
pose, and which, with their sharp cutting edges, and
the unerring aim of the Briton, must, if such was
their use, have been indeed deadly weapons, is
frequently found ; one is shown in Fig. 67. These
are simply lumps of flint, an inch and a half or
a couple of inches or more in diameter ; flat on
one side and chipped into roundness on the other.

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

These are often called ' thumb flints,' and are, with
good show of reason, called by Mr. Evans by the
general name of ' scrapers.'
Flakes of various sizes and forms constantly occur,
and various uses have been assigned to them with
more or less show of reason. Celts are occasionally,
but very rarely, found formed of flint.
I have alluded to the superstitions formerly preva
lent concerning stone hammers, and it is necessary
to add that flint arrow-heads come in for a fair share
of a like superstitious feeling. They are, or rather
were (for the belief is almost worn out), called ' elf-
shots,' ' elfin-darts,' ' fairy-darts,' ' fairy-bolts,' and
the like. They were supposed to have been used by
the fairies in injuring men and cattle. Wherever
found they were looked upon with reverence, and
even awe ; and were religiously preserved both as
charms against sickness and death, preventives of
the exercising of malignant power by evil spirits,
purifying of water, etc. They were occasionally set
in silver, and in other ways worn as ' charms.' ^
Spindle-whorls of various sizes, forms, and material,
used, as their name implies, in
the processes of spinning with
the distaff and spindle (Fig. 70),
are not unfrequently met with.
They vary in size from one to
^"=- ^°¦ about three inches in diameter,
and those of the Celtic period are usually flat
' Reliquary, vol. vii. p. 207.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 49
circular pieces of stone pierced in the middle, and
with flat or rounded edges. Spindle-whorls of wood
and of bone, of ivory and of lead, etc., have been
found with Roman and Anglo-Saxon remains.
Sling-stones, carved balls with circles and channels
evidently for tying with thongs or ropes, so as to
form a formidable off'ensive weapon, and other stone
articles, are of but rare occurrence. Small cups of
stone or of Kimmeridge shale, and many objects
formed of jet, may occasionally be seen.

D

so HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

CHAPTER IV.
AMONG CELTS AND OTHER EARLY INSTRUMENTS
OF BRONZE.
Celts, daggers, awls, pins, and many other articles
of bronze belonging to a very early period, are of
frequent occurrence. Celts, palstaves, and socketed
celts, however, are not often met with in barrows,
but are more generally ploughed up in the course of
agricultural operations. They vary much in form,
in character, and in size, and are occasionally slightly
ornamented. The most simple, and therefore considered justly
the earliest, form of these implements (shown in
Figs. 71 to 73) is evidently a reproduction in metal
of the common type of stone celts, as will be seen
on reference to Figs. 32 and 36. This form, which
the late Sir William Wilde judiciously denominated
the ' simple flat celt,' is a plain hatchet-shaped flat
piece of metal, the two ends rounding gradually off'
to a sharp edge. The size varies considerably from
about three inches to upwards of twelve. One of the
largest is 12J inches in length and SJ inches broad,

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

51

52 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
and weighs no less than four pounds fourteen ounces.
It is perfectly plain, and is three-eighths of an inch
thick, gradiially attenuated to the ends, which are
sharpened for cutting. Sometimes celts of this form,
as of others, are ornamented with herring-bone or
other lines, and exhibit in many other ways a higher
degree of finish. The first advance on the plain flat
form appears to have been the adoption of flanged
edges. This will be seen in Fig. 74, where the edges
are slightly rounded and flanged. The mode in
which celts of this primitive form were hafted seems
to have been simply the passing of the thin end
transversely through a hole in a stick or piece of
wood, and binding the wood with a thong, to prevent
splitting. It would become the type of our modern
axe — the axe edge in front and the tang behind.
One of these celts, of precisely similar form to
Fig. 73, found in a barrow at Shuttlestone, has been
the means of throwing considerable light on the
mode of interment adopted. The barrow contained
' the skeleton of a man in the prime of life and of
fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant of the
mound, who had been interred whilst enveloped in a
skin of dark red colour, the hairy surface of which
had left many traces both upon the surrounding
earth and upon the verdigris or patina coating of a
bronze axe-shaped celt and dagger, deposited with
the skeleton. On the former weapon there are also
beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, hand-
fuls of which, in a compressed and half-decayed

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 53
state, surrounded the bones from head to foot.
From these leaves being discernible on one side of
the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of
leather alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed
first as a couch for the reception of the corpse, with
its accompaniments, and after these had been depo
sited, were then further added in quantity sufficient
to protect the body from the earth.' ^ With the
skeleton, besides the celt, was a fine bronze dagger,
with two rivets for attachments to the handle, which
had been of horn, the impression of the grain being
distinctly perceptible ; a small jet bead ; and a cir
cular flint. The celt had been, as was evident from
the grain of wood still remaining, driven vertically,
for about two inches of its length, into a wooden
handle. The next general class of celts consists of wedge
like implements more or less axe-shaped, in which
the flange is sometimes made of considerable width,
and in others the entire weapon is made thicker,
with a groove (answering to flanged sides, so far as it
goes) on either side, and a stop-ridge. These are
generally denominated 'palstaves,' from the old
Scandinavian term paalstaf, and it appears a con
venient appellation. The form of the diff'erent
varieties of palstaves will be best understood by the
engravings. Fig. ^^ being one of the slightly, and
Fig. 78 one of the deeply, flanged variety often
termed ' winged celts ;' the latter having, like some
1 Ten Years' Diggings.

54

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

of the other examples in this group, a central stop-
ridge. Some of these deep flanges, or wings, are of
leaf-shape, while others, again, are of lozenge form.

cn^.

In some the edges of the flanges turn inwards, so as
to grasp and hold the handle ; in others a raised
ridge occurs, doubtless for the purpose of holding

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 55
the binding. Sir William Wilde, who paid par
ticular attention to the forms and peculiarities of
these implements, describes the cutting edge as
presenting ' a great diversity ; from a very slightly
curved line to that of the segment of a circle, the
centre of which would be about the junction of the
lower and middle thirds of the length of the instru
ment ' — i.e. a third of the length of the implement
from its cutting edge ; but I have examined several,
and indeed possess some, where the centre of the
segment of the circle would be only a fourth, and in
some instances only a little more than 2i fifth of the
length of the implement, measuring from the cutting
edge. They have been cast with the cutting edge
tolerably sharp, but it is not unusual to find speci
mens which have been rubbed down on stone to
produce a finer edge. It is not uncommon to find
them worn, broken, or notched and hacked on the
edge, as if they had been used for chopping hard
substances, or, in course of warfare or otherwise, been
struck against the edge of others. The mode of
attaching these palstaves to the handle appears to
have been to have split the end of the stick or piece
of wood, and then to have inserted the narrow end in
the cleft, binding it tightly round with a thong. The
central stop-ridge served for the ends of the split
handle to rest or ' stop ' against. In some cases this
stop-ridge is very slight — indeed, so slight as, appa
rently, to have been of but little use ; but in others it
is developed into nearly half the thickness of the

56

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

implement ; while in others, again, it is surface
raised, and forms a semi-socket on each side the cell

This raised stop, or semi-socket, was not unfrequentl
ornamented.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 57

Many palstaves are characterised (as are also
socketed celts) by a loop on the lower side, which
was doubtless intended for securing it to its handle
by a thong. This is well shown in Fig. 89, and was
simply a loop, or eye, through which the fastening
to the curved handle, whatever that fastening —
whether of thong or of metal — may have been, was
passed and repassed. It is placed immediately
beneath the stop, and its orifice is chamfered or
' countersunk ' on either side, so as to prevent, as far
as possible, chafing of the ligature. Now and then,
but very rarely, examples with two loops, one on
either side, have been found.
The next class, the socketed celts, are of very
different form from either of the others, upon which
they are evidently a later improvement, and the
result of a gradual development. I have shown
that the flanges or wings of the palstave became
gradually enlarged, and, being occasionally curved
inwards, formed a socket on either side for the
reception of the cleft ends of the handle. From this
the idea of the formation of a single socket would
be easy and natural to the celt-maker ; and accord
ingly we find the palstave, as it were, cut in two,
the thin end thrown aside, and the cutting end
increased somewhat in thickness at its upper end,
and made hollow for the reception of the end of the
handle or stick, which, instead of being this time
split, was inserted whole. The variety of socketed
celts is not so great as that of palstaves, but never-

58 ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.
theless many distinct forms occur. In all the loop,
or eye, is close up, or near to the hollow end. The
general form will be clearly understood from the
engraving (Figs. 97 and 98). The socket, and fre
quently the outer rim, as well as occasionally the
general exterior form of the upper part, is sometimes
circular, and at others oval, square, or hexagonal,
octagonal, etc. The socket generally runs nearly the
length of the celt to the cutting edge, and usually
the ridges, two, three, four, or more in number,
where the core pieces have joined, are perceptible
along its inside. Among the forms of socketed
celts, one of very rare occurrence in England is
the plain square and almost straight wedge engraved
on Fig. 99, from an example in my own collection.
It is hollow to nearly four-fifths of its length. It
has had a loop on its under side at the head, but
this, along with a piece of the rim, has been broken
off', showing that considerable force must have been
resorted to in using it. Other varieties are straight
on their sides, circular in section in the shaft, and
the cutting edge curved as in the other classes.
Another kind is the gouge (Fig. 100), examples of
which are found in both Ireland and England. In
these the socket runs to more than three-fourths
the length.
Of the uses of all these implements it is un
necessary to say much. On this point antiquaries
have built up theories which, like houses erected on
a quicksand, have all, one after another, sunk and

' 1

('T ->

L ll '

§f> n*"" ^

I' 'J

Fig. 98.

Fig. IOI.

6o HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
¦perished. We are told by one writer that they were
used by besieging armies for displacing the stones
in the walls of fortified cities so as to gain an
entrance ; and that, stuck on the ends of sticks —
gathered fresh from the trees when required — they
were used as wedges and levers, and as crowbars !
But surely common sense ought to show the absur
dity of the idea that a stick of the thickness of the
thumb, cut fresh from a tree, could ever serve the
purpose of a crowbar, or that a celt of a couple of
inches or so in length could ever be of much service
to a soldier in pulling down and making a breach
in the walls of a fortified town. Wilson wisely says,
speaking of the bronze axe, the palstave, and the
socketed celt : ' They all appear to be more or less
applicable to a variety of uses, both as mechanical
tools and warlike weapons ; and any very nice
attempts at discriminating between the various pur
poses for which they were designed are more likely
to engraft on the devices of primitive art a sub
division peculiar to modern civilisation, than to
throw light on the era of their production. The
Indian's tomahawk and knife are equally employed
in war or the chase, in the mechanical labours or
culinary operations of the wigwam ; and at a period
greatly nearer our own time than that of the bronze
axe and celt, the same implement sufficed the
Scottish moss-trooper or the Highland clansman for
table-knife, couteau de chasse, and dagger.' ^
' Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 385.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 6i
Of the mode in which celts were manufactured
we are, happily, not left to conjecture, for many
moulds, principally of stone, in which they were cast
have from time to time been found.
Other implements of bronze consist of a socket,
or rather ferrule, the upper part of which is armed
with a number of deadly spikes (Fig. lOi), usually
in three rows, alternately. This, firmly fixed at the
head of a wooden shaft, would, when wielded by a
powerful arm, be one of the most terrible of weapons.
An example in my own collection has been attached
to the shaft by a rivet, and three of its spikes (of
which there had originally been twelve) have, at the
time when it was in use, been broken off" on one side,
with great force.
Bronze daggers vary in length from two and a
half or three to five and a half or six inches on the
average, the larger ones 'being an inch and a half
to three inches in breadth at their broadest part.

Fig. I02.
where the handle has been attached, from whence
they taper gradually down to the point. They are
sometimes ribbed or fluted. In most instances the
handle has been attached by three rivets ; in some
cases, however, as in Fig. 102, only two have been
used, and occasionally there is evidence of the

62

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

attachment being effected by thong or
other ligature. The handles were of horn
or wood, and were usually semi-lunar where
attached to the blade ; in one instance,
however, the blade has a ' tang,' or ' shank,'
which has fitted into the square-ended
handle, to which it has been fastened by
a single peg. The blades occasionally
present incontestable evidence of long
use, having been worn down by repeated
sharpenings. In the instance of the dag
ger found at Stanshope, which had been
fastened to the handle by a couple of
rivets as well as by ligatures, evidence
existed of its having been enclosed in a
sheath of leather ; and this example also
presented the sornewhat curious feature of
impressions of maggots, which had pro
bably made their way from the decay
ing body into the inside of the sheath,
between it and the blade, and had there
remained, and thus gradually become
marked upon the corrugated surface of
the bronze.
Bronze swords, which have frequently
been ascribed to the Ancient British
period, are now generally admitted to
belong to Roman times, as are also spear
and lance heads, both socketed and other
wise.

Fig 103

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

63

Examples of bronze spear and arrow heads are
shown in the group, Figs. 85, and 94 to 96, and on
Figs. 104 and 105 ; a sword on Fig. 103 : these will
be suflncient to indicate their characteristics.

Fig. 104.

Fig. 105.

64 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

CHAPTER V.
AMONG ROMAN ROADS, TOWNS, AND VILLAS ; TES
SELLATED PAVEMENTS, TEMPLES, ALTARS,
SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS, MINING OPERA
TIONS, ETC.
Traces of Roman roads, and of British roads
adopted by the Romans, remain to the present day
in many parts of the kingdom, and are still in
several instances used as the high-roads on which
we yet travel. The roads were usually made in a
straight line, seldom turning out of the way even
for a high hill, and were sometimes raised consider
ably above the common level of the ground. They
are classed as of five kinds : — -via. m.ilitares, or
military roads ; via vicinales, branch roads ; via
privatce, private roads ; via agrarice, country roads ;
and via devia, by-roads. According to Vitruvius
the forming of a road was conducted as follows : —
First, two parallel furrows were cut so as to mark
out the intended width ; the surface-earth and loose
stones between these were then removed until a solid
foundation was reached, and this being levelled was

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 65
covered with earth and beaten down quite hard ;
this was called the pavimentum. On this was laid
a stratum of small stones, generally squared, over
which was usually poured a quantity of mortar or
concrete ; this was called the statimien. On this a
layer of small broken stones, mixed with lime, in
the proportion of one part of stones to two of lime,
and forming a stony concrete, was laid ; this was
called the rudus, or ruderatio. The next layer
consisted of chalk, lime, and broken tiles, or earth,
mixed together, or of gravel, or sand, and lime,
mixed with clay ; this was called the nucleus. Upon
this was laid the surface layer, the finishing stroke
of the work, which consisted sometimes of a regular
pavement of squared flagstones, and in others of a
firm bed of gravel and lime ; this was termed the
summum dorsum, or summa crusta — the whole struc
ture, thus formed, being called agger. Of course it
must not be understood that all Roman roads were
formed in this manner, but still in most instances
that have been examined there is an approximate
adherence to these general rules. Such roads as
those described were the grand military roads of the
kingdom, along which the lines of the Itineraries
were traced. At the end of each Roman mile (1000
paces, or 161 1 yards, being 149 yards less than our
English mile) of these main roads a milestone {milli-
arium) was placed. These were usually plain
cylinders or short pillars of stone, bearing an inscrip
tion denoting the distance from the next town, and
E

66 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
* the name of the emperor in whose reign they were
erected. These have, unfortunately, in almost every
instance perished, having been destroyed, doubtless,
for the material. One remarkably good example
found on the Foss Way, near Leicester, in 177I) ^"^d
now preserved in the museum of that town, bears the
inscription IMP CAESAR DIV TRAIAN PARTH F DIV
TRAIAN HADRIAN AVG PONT IV COS III A RATIS II.
Another example, also erected under Hadrian, is at
Caton, near Lancaster ; and a third was found a few
years back at Buxton, in Derbyshire.
Remains of Roman bridges still exist, and others
have of late years been removed in the course of
improvements. Three notable examples were old
London Bridge, and the old bridges over the Tyne
and Teign, which had Roman foundations. Dr.
Bruce has engraved an excellent example in his
work on The Roman Wall. This wall — Hadrian's
Wall — extended from Tunnocelum (Bowness) on the
Solway Firth to Segedunum (Wallsend) on the Tyne,
a distance of nearly seventy miles. On it lay twenty-
three towns {Timnocelum, Gabrosentum, Axelodunum,
Congavata, Aballaba, Petriana, Amboglanna, Magna,
JEsica, Vindolana, Borcovicus , Procolitia, Cilumurn,
Hunnum, Vindobala, Condercum, Pons .^lii, Sege
dunum, etc.), and between these were, at regula^ij.
intervals of a Roman mile each, ' mile-castles,' or
fortresses. Of the wall itself (which was a huge
work of masonry varying from eighteen to twenty
feet in height, and from six to ten feet in thickness.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 67
with fosse and vallum on either side), and of these
towers, etc., extensive and wonderful remains exist
at the present day, and have, from the inscribed
stones and other relics they have furnished, proved
a rich storehouse of valuable knowledge. The reader
cannot possibly do better than, for a brief account
of the wall, read Dr. Bruce's Wallet Book, and for a
more detailed and profusely illustrated account refer
to his noble volumes. The Roman Wall, and Lapi-
dariuin Septentrionale.
The wall of Antoninus, or Graham's or Grime's
Dyke, crossed from the Forth to the Clyde on the
line on which previously Agricola had erected a series
of forts. It consisted of a new line of forts connected
together by an immense continuous rampart of earth
and turf, raised by the Proprsetor Lollius Urbicus in
the reign of Antoninus, and named after that emperor.
Inscribed stones have been from time to time found
along its course, expressive of the work done by
diff'erent troops and cohorts of the Roman army.
Thus : — IMP C T AE HADRIANO ANTONINO AVG PIO
p P VEX LEG XX V V F P P iTn CDXI ; which may
be rendered — 'To the Emperor Caesar Titus ^lius
Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, the father of
his country. A vexillation of the Twentieth Legion,
[surnamed] the Valiant and Victorious, executed four
thousand four hundred and eleven paces,' or nearly
four and a half miles.
"» Of the arrangement and economy of Roman towns
and camps it is not necessary to speak. Among the

68

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

principal were London, Wroxeter, Colchester, Rich-
borough, Canterbury, Lincoln, Leicester, Kenchester,
Cirencester, Silchester, etc. The town was usually
in form a parallelogram, like the camp, and was
surrounded by strong and massive walls. Striking
remains of these walls exist at Lincoln (the Newport
Gate), Leicester (the Jewry Wall, a view of which

Fig. io6. — Roman Masonry, Colchester.
forms the frontispiece to this volume), Wroxeter,
Richborough, Lymne, and other places. The town
consisted of public and private buildings of more
or less extent and magnificence, and the general
arrangements seem to have been somewhat analo
gous to those of our own day.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 6g

Remains of Roman villas have been brought to
light in most parts of the country. Some of these
are of remarkable extent, and must, when inhabited,
have been homes of taste and of luxurious elegance.
The largest and finest yet uncovered in England is
at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire. It consists of
two courts, one 150 and the other 90 feet square,
surrounded by a gallery, or cryptoporticus. The
principal apartment is 50 feet square, the floor being
a splendid tessellated pavement, probably .based on
a hypocaust, with a fountain in the centre. Another
of almost similar extent at Bignor has its courts, and
cryptoporticus, and baths on a more magnificent
scale still. I had, many years ago, the good fortune
to discover a Roman villa in Oxfordshire (of which
I gave an account in the Journal of the British
Archaological Association for 1851); it presented
many interesting features.
Tessellated pavements occur in most of the larger
villas and houses, and are of more or less elaborate
character in design and execution. Many of these
have been found in London, Leicester, Cirencester,
Caerleon, Caerwent, Lincoln, Canterbury, Glou
cester, Wroxeter, Kenchester, York, Stonesfield,
Winterton, Littlecote, Bignor, Frampton, Dorchester,
Cotterstock, Aldborough, and many other places.
They bear exquisite geometrical designs, guilloche
and other borders, mythological groups and figures,
fishes and sea monsters, the seasons, chariot races,
hunting scenes, genii and cupids, gladiatorial com-

70 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
bats, etc. etc., and occasionally inscriptions. Fig.
107 gives a careful representation of one of these
pavements ; it is from Leicester, and represents
Diana and Actseon. It will be sufficient to show

Fig. 107.— Tessellated Pavement, Leicester.
the style of workmanship. Hypocausts were formed
of low, thick, hollow pillars composed of tiles or
stones, with openings at the sides to admit the
passage of hot air, or of flues and funnels, formed of

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 71
ridge tiles, for conveying the heated air. Baths were
a very usual accompaniment of the Roman dwelling,
and remains are of frequent occurrence.
The temple, basilica, or court-house, and public
baths, appear in towns to have been usually placed
close together. The temples were dedicated to
various deities — Minerva, Neptune, Serapis, etc. etc.
At Bath the remains of the temple dedicated to
Minerva were sufficiently extensive to enable its
facade to be restored ; and other somewhat exten
sive remains have been discovered at Ribchester,
Keston, Caerleon, and other places. Usually, how
ever, the only records of the existence of such
temples are inscribed stones — as DEO SANCTO SERAPI
TEMPLVM A SOLO FECIT, which occurs at York ;
MATRIBVS OMNIVM GENTIVM TEMPLVM OLIM VETVS-
TATE CONLABSVM, at Castlehead ; TEMPLVM VETVS-
TATE CONLAPSVM RESTITVERVNT, at Chesters ; and
so on. The same remark applies to the basilica and
public baths, regarding which such inscriptions as
BALNEVM CVM BASILICA A SOLO INSTRVXIT, at
Lanchester; BALINEVM Vi IGNIS exvstvm . . .
RESTITVIT CVRANTE VAL . FRONTONE PREF . EQ .
ALAE VETTO[nvm], at Bowes ; and so on, occur.
Roman altars are of very frequent occurrence.
Their general form was an elongated square block of
stone — like a portion of a square pillar — with an
inscription on its front side. The front, as I have
said, contained the inscription, and the back was
usually plain and rough, for attaching to, or placing

72 ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.
against, a wall. On the other sides ornaments of
various kinds were carved in relief. "' These usually
consisted of the instruments of sacrifice — the pra-
fericulum, or pitcher, which contained the wine for
the offering ; the patera, a dish with a handle, used
for throwing a portion of the wine upon the altar ;
the securis, or axe, with which the animal was slain ;
and the culler, or knife, used in cutting it up — with a
figure of the whole or a part of the victim, usually
the head of an ox. Sometimes other figures were
introduced, emblematical of the deity to whom the
altar was dedicated, or relating, perhaps, in some
cases, to the dedicator. The upper part was the
most elaborately ornamented, and in the middle of
the upper surface a basin-shaped cavity was sunk in
the stone, called the/^«^.s- (or hearth), which received
the portion of the victim that was offered up in sacri
fice and burnt in the fire kindled in the focus. The
inscription set forth, first, the deity to whom the
altar was dedicated ; next, the name and condi
tion of the dedicator ; and often concluded with
stating the cause of dedication. This was usually a
vow.* , ;',i'>'f, , ''- xfei^
Fig. 109 represents an altar found at Bath. Fig.
108 is from Housesteads, on the Roman Wall, and
bears an inscription which may be translated — ' To
Jupiter, the greatest and best, and the deities of
Augustus, the First Cohort of Tungrians (a military
one), commanded by Quintus Verius Superstis, Pre
fect [erected this].' The next (Fig. 1 10) was found

^<

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:^^<7^a^

¦V- - • - , tW" •. f

• ,; ^ir

$ias^i«£p

«lp|?i^

3«r-*^b^

"*=' ^^ i*JTeS= fSSf '^*\ rv5 -

74 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
near Bakewell, and is preserved at Haddon Hall. It
bears the inscription — DEO MARTI
BRACIACyEos[it]ivs
caecilianvs praef coh
i aqvitano
V S
which may be translated — ' To the God Mars,
Braciaca, Osittius Csecilianus, Prefect of the First
Cohort of the Aquitani, in performance of a vow;' the
term Braciaca, as applied to Mars, being singular.
One or two other inscriptions, for the purposes of
comparison, may be profitably given. For instance,
at York — I . O . M . DIS DEABVSQVE HOSPITALIBVS
PENATIBVSQ OB CONSERVATAM SALVTEM SVAM
SVORVMQ P AEL MARCIANVS PRAEF COH ARAM SAC
F NC D. ' To Jupiter, best and greatest, and to the
gods and goddesses who preside over the household,
and to the penates, for the preservation of the health
of himself and his family, Publius .^lius Marcianus,
Prefect of a Cohort, dedicated and consecrated this
altar.' From Ribchester — DEO SANCTO APOLLONI
APONO OB SALVTEM DN AL EQ SARM BREMETNN SVB
DIANIO ANTONINO 0 LEG VI V IC DOMV ELIBER. ' To
the holy god Apollo Aponus, for the health of our
lord (the emperor), the wing of Sarmatian horse of
Bremetenracum under Dianius Antoninus, centurion
of the Sixth Legion, called the Conquering, His
native town was Eliber.' From Rochester — DEAE

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

75

MINERVE IVL CARANTVS S c. 'To the goddess
Minerva, Julius Carantus dedicated this ; ' and so on.
Fig. Ill represents one of those interesting groups,
the Dese Matres — or beneficent local presiding
deities, who were supposed to bring good fortune to

Fig. III. — From Ancaster.
those who invoked and honoured them. It was
found in Ancaster Churchyard, and was placed at
one end of a slab of stone, while at the other end, and
immediately facing the group, was a small altar sup
ported on a pillar.
Another class of inscribed stones is that of
sepulchral slabs and sarcophagi. These inscriptions
comprise the dedication D.M. (Diis Manibus) ; the
name and office of the deceased ; the age of deceased,
and, if a soldier, the period and place of service ; and
the name of the person by whom it is erected.

76

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

1

1 N
1 i '

1

1

¦*

.

i

^ ^

)

Fig. 112.— From Old Penrith.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 77
Sometimes they are accompanied by sculptured
figures or ornaments. One of these, from Plumpton
or Old Penrith, preserved at Lowther Castle, is
shown on Fig. 112. On it the deceased child, offive
years old, is dressed in a tunic, and holds in his
left hand a whip, and in his right a kind of toy.
It bears the inscription DIS MANIBVS M COCCEI
NONNI ANNOR V HIC SITVS EST.
An example or two of inscriptions will suffice.
Many of them are remarkable for their pure sihipli-
city, and for the aff'ectionate feeling touchingly
expressed. One, at York, reads thus : —
D.M. SI-MPLICIAE . FLORENTINE
ANIME . INNOCENTlSSIME
QVE . VIXIT . MENSES . DECEM
FELICIVS . SIMPLEX . PATER . FECIT
LEG . VI . V.
' To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Floren-
tina, a most innocent thing, who lived ten months.
Her father of the Sixth Legion, the victorious, made
this.' Another, from Carvoran, in Northumberland,
is thus aff'ectionately worded : —
D . M
AVRE . FAIAE
D . SALONAS
AVR . MARCVS
0 . OBESEQ . CON
IVG . SANCTIS
SIMAE . QVAE . VI
XIT ANNIS XXXIII
SINE VLLA MACVLA
' To the gods of the shades. To Aurelia Faia, a

78 HAf.F-HOURS AMONG SOME
native of Salona, Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out
of affection for his most holy wife, who lived thirty-
three years without any stain.' Another, from
Caerleon, is thus : —
D.M. IVL . IVLIANVS
MIL . LEG . II . AVG . STIP
XVIII . ANNOR . XL
HIC . SITVS . EST
CVRA . AGENTE
AMANDA CONIVGE
' To the gods of the shades. Julius Julianus, a
soldier of the Second Legion, the Augustan, served
eighteen years, aged forty, is laid here by the care
of Amanda his wife.' Another, from Chesters, in
Northumberland, is as follows : —
D . M . s
FABIE HONOR
ATE . FABlVS . HON
ORATIVS . TRIBVN
COH . I . VANGION
ET . AVERELIA . EGLIC
lANE . FECER
VNT . FILIE . D
VLCISSIMME
' Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia
Honorata, Fabius Honoratius, Tribune, of the First
Cohort of Vangiones, and Aurelia Egleciane, made
this to their daughter most sweet.' And one at
Bath is thus : — D . M
AEL . MERCV
RIALI . CORNICVL
VACIA . SOROR
FECIT

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 79
' To the gods of the shades. To yEIius Mercurialis,
a trumpeter, his sister Vacia made this.'
At York, among many others, is the following to a
local magistrate, formerly a citizen of Bourges : —
M VEREC DIOGENES IIIItlVlR COL
EBOR . IBIDEMQ MORT GIVES BITVRIX
CVBVS HAEC SIBI VIVVS FECIT
' Marcus Verecundus Diogenes, sevir, of the colony
of Eburacum, who died there, a citizen of Biturix
Cubus, made these for himself, when alive.'
At Housesteads, an inscription to a young physi
cian is as follows : — D . M ANICIO INGENVO MEDICO
ORDI COH PRIMAE TVNGR VIX AN XXV. ' To the
gods of the shades. To Anicius Ingenuus, physician
in ordinary to the First Cohort of the Tungrians.
He lived twenty-five years.'
At Bulmore, near Caerleon, are two remarkable
inscriptions, the one recording the death of a cen
tenarian, and the other that of his aged widow.
They are as follows : — D M ET
IVL VALENS VET MEMORI^
LEG II AVG VIXIT IVLIAE SECVNDI
ANNIS C IVL NAE MATRI PI
SECVNDINA CONIVNX ISSIMAE VIXIT AN
ET IVL MARTINVS FILIVS. NIS LXXV C IVL
F C MARTINVS FIL
F C
' Julius Valens, a veteran of the Second Legion,
the Augustan, lived a hundred years. Julia Secundina,

So

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

his wife, and Julius Martinus, his son, caused this to
be made.'
' To the gods of the shades and to memory. To

\

RVTVS-SlTAEaVES'CHOVI TRKCVrA-ANM'XLSTlPXXII
HEREDES-EXSTEST-F-CVRWE H S ^ k E

'W~W'

DM-AVRAVRELIA'VIXS-IT ¦ nnosxxxxiwlptvs
a pounarscon ivcicarissine
po5v;t

Fig. 113.

Fig. 114.

Julia Secundina, a most aff'ectionate mother, who
lived seventy-five years. Caius Julius Martinus, her
son, caused this to be made.'

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

At Cirencester is the one here engraved (Fig.
113):— RVFVS . SITA . EQVES . CHO VI
TRACVM . ANN . XL STIP XXII
HEREDES . EXS . TEST . F CVRAVE
H S E
' Rufus Sita, a horseman of the Sixth Cohort of
Thracians, aged forty years. Served twenty-two
years. His heirs, in accordance with his will, have
caused this monument to be erected. He is laid here.'
A remarkable example was in 1878 brought to
light at South Shields, and has been fully described
and engraved in The Reliquary. It bears the figure
of a woman seated in a chair {cathedra) engaged in
some occupation connected with weaving, and on
each side are work-baskets filled with materials.
The inscription is DM . REGINA . LIBERTA . ET .
CONIVGE . BARATES . PALMYRENVS . NATIONE . CAT-
VALLA VNA . AN . XXX ; and below this is the very
remarkable feature of
a line of inscription
in Palmyrene cursive
characters, which
reads, 'Regina, freed -
woman of Bar'ate.
Alas!' At Hunnum, on the
Roman Wall, is a fig. 115.
stone, marking the burial-place of one killed by
lightning. It simply bears the words — FVLGVR
DIVOM (Fig. 115). F

82 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Traces of Roman mining operations are met with
in diff'erent districts ; notably in Derbyshire, Shrop
shire, Gloucestershire, Sussex, Warwickshire, Kent,
etc. Inscribed pigs of lead have not unfrequently
been brought to light.
A round pig of copper, bearing the inscription
SOCIO ROMiE, is preserved at Mostyn, and blocks of
Roman tin have also occasionally been found.
Remains of workshops and traces of trades and
occupations have been met with, but .are not of
common occurrence.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

CHAPTER VI.
AMONG ANCIENT POTTERY.
The pottery of the earliest period of English history
— the Celtic — is of coarse material and rude character,
but some of the forms; although simple, are elegant.
The pottery of this period, for which we are entirely
indebted to the burial mounds, may be divided into
the following classes, viz. — i. Sepulchral or Cinerary
Urns, which have been made for and have contained,
or been inverted over, calcined human bones ; 2.
Drinking Cups, which are supposed to have con
tained some liquid to be placed with the dead
body ; 3. Food Vessels (so called), which are sup
posed to have contained an off'ering of food, and
are more usually found with unburnt bodies than
along with interments by cremation ; 4. Immolation
Urns (erroneously, for want of more knowledge of
their use, named Incense Cups by Sir R. Colt Hoare),
which are very small vessels, found only with burnt
bones (and usually also containing them), placed in
the mouths of, or close by, the large cinerary urns.
I believe them, although many theories as to their

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

use have at one time or other been advanced, to
have been simply small urns intended to receive the
ashes of the infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of
its mother, so as to admit of being placed within the
larger urn containing the ashes of the parent : I have
therefore ventured to name them ' Immolation Urns.'
The pottery exhibits considerable variety, both in
clay, in size, and in ornamentation. Those vessels
presumed to be the oldest are of coarse clay mixed
with small pebbles and sand ; the later ones of a
somewhat less clumsy form, and perhaps a finer
mixture of clays. They are entirely wrought by
hand without the assistance of the wheel, and are
mostly very thick and clumsy. They are very im
perfectly fired, having probably been baked on the
funeral pyre. From this imperfect firing, the vessels
of this period are usually called ' sun-baked ' or
' sun-dried ; ' but this, as I long ago showed, is a
grave error. If they were ' sun-baked ' only, their
burial in the earth — in the tumuli wherein, some
two thousand years ago, they were deposited, and
where they have all that time remained — would soon
soften them, and they would, ages ago, have returned
to their old clayey consistency. As it is, the urns
remain of tljeir original form ; and although, from
imperfect baking, they are sometimes found parti
ally softened, they soon regain their original hard
ness. They bear abundant evidence of the action of
fire, and are, indeed, sometimes sufficiently burned
for the clay to have attained a red colour — a result

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. «<¦
which no ' sun-baking ' could produce. They are
mostly of an earthy brown colour outside, and almost
black in fracture, and many of the cinerary urns bear
internal and unmistakable evidence of having been
filled with the burnt bones and ashes of the deceased,
while those ashes were of a glowing and intense heat ;
they were, most probably, fashioned by the females
of the tribe, on the death of their relative, from the
clay to be found nearest to the spot, and baked on
or by the funeral pyre, and then filled with the burn
ing ashes of the dead.
The ornamentation of ancient British pottery con
sists, in the main, of an almost endless variety of
combinations of straight or curved lines, produced in
various ways and with striking and marked effect.
These lines, forming an almost endless variety of
patterns, more or less elaborate and of diff'erent de
grees of ' finish,' have in some instances been made
by scratching on the soft clay with a small piece of
stick ; others are more clearly and deeply incised,
and bear almost unmistakable evidence of having
been formed by a flake of flint ; others are formed
by pressing into the clay pieces of wood or bone
which have been cut and notched in a variety of
ways ; others again by a series of puncturings,
simply produced by pressing the end or point of a
piece of stick into the clay, so as to form lines or
interlacings of dots, varying of course in form, and
size, and character according to the ' punch ' that
was used ; and others again were formed by simply

86

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

pressing into the clay the finger or thumb nails of
the operator. By far the greater part of the patterns
have, however, been produced by impressing twisted
thongs into the pliant clay, sometimes, indeed most
commonly, in lines, but occasionally after being tied
in knots or twisted into a circle. These 'tools,' if

Fig. II 6.

such simple and primitive appliances ought to be
dignified by such a name, have been most commonly
thongs, i.e. strips of hide, twisted with the fingers
and so pressed into the surface of the vessel ; but in
not a few instances a kind of string, i.e. vegetable
fibres of some kind twisted together, has been used,
and even this has in some cases been elaborated into

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

87

two or more strands twisted together. The lines
and other markings are arranged to form zig-zag
or herring-bone patterns ; reticulated, lozenge, and
square patterns ; encircling, upright, and diagonal
lines and divisions ; and in various other ways.
Curved lines also occur, and in some instances the
cross very distinctly appears as a main feature of
the design. Scolloped and indented (that is a series
of semi-circles or of semi-lozenges) edges are also
now and then to be met with, and give a rich and
marked character to the urns.
The Cinerary or Sepulchral Urns vary very con
siderably in size, in form, in ornamentation, and in
material — the latter, naturally, depending on the

Fig. 117. Fig. 118.
locality where the urns were made ; and, as a general
rule, they diff"er also in the diff'erent tribes. Those
which are supposed to be the most ancient, from the
fact of their frequently containing flint instruments
along with the calcined bones, are of large size,

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

ranging from nine or ten to sixteen or eighteen inches
in height. Those which are considered to belong
to a somewhat later period, when cremation had again
become general, are of a smaller size, and of a some
what finer texture. With them objects of flint are
rarely found, but articles of bronze are occasionally
discovered. Sometimes they are wide at the mouth,
without any overlapping rim ; at others they are
characterised by a deeply overlapping lip or rim ;
others are more of 'flower-pot' form, with encircling
raised bands ; while others, again, are contracted
inwardly at the mouth by curved rims. Some also
have loops at the sides. Some examples are shown
on Figs. Ii6 to Ii8.
The Drinking Cups are usually of tall form, globular
in the lower half, contracted in the middle, and ex
panding at the mouth. In ornamentation they are
more elaborate than the cinerary urns, many of them,
in fact, being covered over their entire surface with
impressed or incised patterns, frequently of con
siderable delicacy in manipulation, and always of a
finer and higher quality than those of the other
descriptions of pottery. In some instances a kind
of incrustation is observable on the inner surface ;
this incrustation being, it is conjectured, produced
by the gradual drying up of the liquid with which,
when placed with the dead body, they had been
filled. An example is given in Fig. 119.
The Food Vessels — small urns, so called because
they were, it is supposed, intended to contain an

ENGirSII AXTIQriTlES.

89

Celtic Pottery. Fig. 123.

90 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
off'ering of food — are of various forms and sizes, and
are, in point of decoration, more or less elaborate.
They are usually small at the bottom, and gradually
swell out until they become, frequently, wider at the
mouth than they are in height. They are formed of
clay of much the same kind as the other vessels,
and are fired to about the same degree of hardness.
Their ornamentation, like the other vessels of the
period, consists of diagonal or herring-bone patterns
produced by twisted thongs or incisions ; and other
impressed ornaments. Their general form will be
seen in Figs. 124 and 125.
The Immolation Urns (as I have ventured to call
them, but which were formerly usually known as
' incense cups') are diminutive vessels, varying very
much in form from the plain ' salt-cellar ' shape to
the more elaborately rimmed vase, and are from an
inch and a half to three inches in height. They are
usually found in the mouths of the larger cinerary
urns, or close by them, and contain in most instances
the calcined bones of children. Their ornamentation
is of the same general character as the other vessels.
Small vessels with handles, which belong to this
general class, are also occasionally found. Examples
are given on Figs. 120 to 123.
ROMAN Pottery, as found in this country, may
be said to consist principally of Samian or red
lustrous ware ; Durobrivian or Castor ware ; the
pottery of the Upehurch Marshes ; and Shropshire,
Yorkshire, and Hampshire wares ; but as potworks

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

91

Figs. 124 and 125.— Celtic Pottery.

92

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Figs. 126 to 128. — Samian Ware.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 93
existed in various localities all over the country,
many other kinds and varieties are known.
The Samian or red lustrous ware does not appear
to have been made in this country, but imitations
of a very inferior character were produced. The
body of the Samian ware is of a fine red colour, but
its surface is of a deeper and richer tone ; much like
the best red sealing-wax. It is extremely hard and
brittle, and is sonorous in sound when struck. The
vessels of this ware consist for the most part of
bowls, cups, and paterae, or dishes, in each of which
divisions are found an almost endless variety of
form, and while some are perfectly plain, others are
more or less covered with ornaments — figures of
men, animals, foliage, borders, etc. — in relief. These
relief ornaments were produced from moulds, and
the names of the makers of the vessels were also
frequently stamped upon them. The most usual
ornamental borders are the egg-and-tongue orna
ment, the tassel-and-festoon border, small patterns
formed of foliage and flowers, and others. Human
figures and animals are of frequent occurrence, and
are often very powerfully moulded. Subjects from
classical mythology are common, and among the
figures of the deities many were copied from well-
known models of art. Combats of pygmies and
cranes are favourite subjects, as in the paintings, etc.,
in Pompeii. Sacrifices and religious ceremonies, and
especially bacchanalian processions, and dances of
bacchantes and satyrs, are not uncommon. Among

94

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

95

other very favourite subjects are hunting scenes,
gladiatorial combats, and the sports of the amphi
theatre. Others represent sacrifices and religious
offerings. Musicians performing on various instru
ments are also common ; and domestic scenes are
depicted in great variety. Many of these are of a
character not to be described, but sufficiently charac
teristic of the degraded state of morality under the
Roman Empire. Of the plainer and commoner
kinds of Samian ware vessels, the cups and bowls,
etc., here engraved will give a tolerably correct idea.
The potter's name was usually placed in a small
rectangular label. The name is most commonly
put in the genitive case, combined with O or OF

(MEHWS)

Fig. 137.

Fig. 136. Fig. 138.
(abbreviations of the v/ord officina), as, for instance,
OF MODESTI, which simply stands for officina
Modesti, i.e. ' from the workshop of Modestus ; ' or
with M for manu, as COBNERTI M, for Cobnerti
manu, 'by' or ' from the hand of Cobnertus.' Some-

96

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

times the name is given in the nominative case, fol
lowed by F or FE, for fecit, as COCVRO F, for
Coeur 0 fecit, ' Cocuro made it.' Doubled or ligulated
letters are frequently introduced into these inscrip
tions. Sometimes we meet with an error in the
spelling of the word ; and in one or two instances
the person who made the stamp inscribed the name
carelessly, so that it read direct on the stamp, and
consequently it is reversed in the impression on the
pottery. The name is not always placed in a square
label, but in a few instances has been found inscribed
round a small circle.
The pottery of the Upehurch Marshes, on the

Figs. 139 to 148.

Medway, in Kent, and commonly known as ' Up-
church ware,' is found among Roman remains in

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

97

most parts of the kingdom ; and a similar ware is
found on Roman sites in France, Germany, and
Flanders. The prevailing colour is a bluish or
greyish black, with a smooth and rather shining
surface, produced by the process of firing in 'smother
kilns ;' but a good deal of the ware is of a dark drab
colour. The forms and sizes of the vessels vary
to a surprising extent, but they are all characterised
by a simple gracefulness and elegance of outline, and
in many instances the patterns with which they are
decorated are of peculiar and effective design. These

Figs. 149 to 153.
decorations consist in the main of circles and semi
circles ; lines vertical or otherwise ; bands ; and an
infinity of raised dots arranged in a variety of ways.
The clay used is fine, and the vessels are light and
thin, and well formed.
The Castor or Durobrivian ware of the potteries
on the Nen, in Northamptonshire and Huntingdon
shire, is of marked character, and has been exten
sively used. In this locality — at Castor and its
neighbourhood — remains of very extensive pot-works,
G

98

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

covering many acres in extent, have been found ; and
several kilns in a more or less perfect state, and con
taining ware in situ, have been uncovered. One of
the kilns is shown in Fig. 154.
The ware of the Durobrivian potteries is superior
both in style of art and in form and material to that
of Upehurch, and has an especial interest over it in
the fact that it bears figures and various ornaments

Fig. 154.
in relief, in the same manner as on the Samian
ware. The ornament, especially the scrolls, etc., is
laid on ' in slip.' The vessel, after having been
thrown on the wheel, was allowed to become some
what firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose
of the lathe. In the indented ware, the indenting
was performed with the vessel in as pliable a state

LJ^ ^:5^^

° CJOCi ,,^ o.i'^cco OCO'^C^QOoc

Figs. 155 to 161.— Castor Ware.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

as it could be taken from the lathe. A thick slip of
the same body was then procured, and the ornamen
tation proceeded. ' The vessels — on which are dis-

FlGS. 162 to 166.
played a variety of hunting subjects, representations
of fishes, scrolls, and human figures — were all glazed
after the figures were laid on ; where, however, the

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

decorations are white, the vessels were glazed before
the ornaments were added. Ornamenting with
figures of animals was effected by means of sharp
and blunt skewer instruments and a slip of suitable
consistency. These instruments seem to have been
of two kinds — one thick enough to carry sufficient
slip for the nose, neck, body, and front thigh ; the
other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner slip, for
the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore ahd hind legs, and
tail. There seems to have been no retouching, after
the slip trailed from the instrument. Field sports
seem to have been favourite subjects with our
Romano-British artists. The representations of deer
and hare hunts are good and spirited ; the courage
and energy of the hounds, and the distress of the
hunted animals, are given with great skill and fidelity,
especially when the simple and off-handed process by
which they must have been executed is taken into
consideration.' Gladiatorial combats and mythological figures and
groups are also frequent subjects for representation
on the Castor vases. Another pleasing variety,
peculiar to Castor ware, has the pattern of scrolls
and flowers in white slip upon a dark bluish-black
ground (Figs. 158 to 160, and 166).
Of Salopian ware two kinds especially are found
in great abundance ; the one white, the other of a
rather light red colour. The white, which is made
of what is commonly called Broseley clay, and is
rather coarse in texture, consists chiefly of some-

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

what handsomely formed jugs or bellarmine-shaped
vessels, of different sizes ; of Mortaria ; and of bowls
of different shapes and sizes, which are often painted
with strips of red and yellow. The other variety,
the red Romano-Salopian ware, is also made from
one of the clays of the Severn Valley, but is of finer
texture, and consists principally of jugs not dissimilar
to those in the white ware, except in a very diff'erent
form of mouth ; and of bowl-shaped colanders.
The pottery of the New Forest, in Hampshire, is
of great variety of form and material. Some of the
vessels are shown in Figs. 167 to 177, and these will^
be sufficient to give an idea of some of the most pre
valent varieties of Romano-British pottery. Other
pot-works have been found at Colchester, Headington
(near Oxford), Winterton, Wilderspool, London,
Ashdon, York, Worcester, Marlborough, and many
other places; but their peculiarities need not be
entered upon here.
Anglo-Saxon Pottery, so far as examples have
come down to us, is almost, if not entirely, confined
to sepulchral urns. We know, from the illuminated
MSS. of the period, to which we are accustomed to
turn for information upon almost any point, that
other vessels (pitchers, dishes, etc.) were made and
used, but those which have come down to us are
almost exclusively sepulchral vessels. Cinerary urns
are, therefore, almost the only known productions of
the Saxon potteries, and these, like those of the
Celtic period, were doubtless, in almost all cases.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

10,^

Figs. 167 to 177. — New Forest Pottery.

104 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
made near the spot where the burial took place, and
were formed of the clays of the neighbourhood. The
shapes of the cinerary urns are somewhat peculiar,
and partake largely of the Frankish form. Unlike
the Celtic urns, they are contracted at the mouth,
and have a kind of neck instead of the overhanging
lip or rim which characterises so much of the sepul
chral pottery of that period. They are formed by

Figs. 178 to 186.
hand, not on the wheel, like so many of the Romano-
British period, and are usually of a dark-coloured
clay, sometimes nearly black, at other times a dark
brown, and occasionally of a slate or greenish tint,
produced by surface colouring. The general form of
these vessels will be understood by reference to the
engravings, Figs. 178 to 186. Most of them are of plain
form, but others have projecting knobs, or bosses,

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 105
formed by pressing out the pliant clay from the inside
with the hand. In others these raised bosses take the
form of ribs gradually swelling out from the bottom, till
at the top they expand into semi-egg-shaped protuber
ances. The ornamentation on the urns usually con
sists of encircling incised lines in bands or otherwise,
and vertical or zigzag lines arranged in a variety of
ways ; and, not unfrequently, the knobs dr protuber
ances of which I have just spoken. Sometimes, also,
they present evident attempts at imitation of the
Roman egg-and-tongue ornament. The marked
feature of the pottery of this period is the frequency
of small punctured or impressed ornaments, which
are introduced along with the lines or bands with
very good eff'ect. These ornaments were evidently
produced by the end of a stick cut and notched
across in different directions so as to form crosses
and other patterns. In some districts- — especially in
the East Angles — they are ornamented with simple
patterns painted upon their surface in white; but
so far as my knowledge goes, no example of this
kind of decoration has been found in the Mercian
cemeteries. The pottery of the NoRMAN period consists prin
cipally of pitchers, dishes, bowls, or basins, and
porringers or pipkins — the bowls or basins and
dishes being used for drinking purposes as well as
for placing cooked meats in ; the pitchers for holding
and carrying ale, mead, water, and other liquors to
the table ; and the porringers both for cooking and

io6

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

eating purposes. The engraving (Fig. 187), from an
illuminated MS. of the twelfth century, shows both
the pitchers and the wine or water vessels, and Figs.
188 to 192 exhibit some excellent examples found
by myself in a Norman pot-work which I exhumed
some years back in Derbyshire.
I purposely abstain from even alluding to the
pottery of a later date than Norman in this chapter.

Fig. 187.

because the subject of English earthenware and
china is of such extent as to demand a separate
series of ' Half-Hours ' for its consideration.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

io8 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

CHAPTER VII.
AMONG ARMS AND ARMOUR.
The arms of our prehistoric forefathers — the
implements of stone and of bronze — have been
spoken of in their respective chapters, and therefore
it would simply be useless repetition to again name
them. The Roman invasion and occupation of our
island, and the long and close connection which
existed between our countrymen and the Romans
consequent upon that occupation, led, naturally, to
the introduction, and ultimately, to some extent, to
the adoption of the armour and warlike appliances of
the Imperial city. Tacitus tells us that after the ad
ministration of Julius Agricola, who was appointed
to the command of Britain, A.D. 78, ' the sons of the
British chieftains began to affect our dress,' and
therefore we may easily and reasonably surmise that
they also — as, indeed, there is abundant reason for
supposing to be the case — copied and wore the same
kinds of defensive covering, and used the same kinds
of weapons. Remains of armour of the Romano-
British period are occasionally met with in England.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

109

The sword, and the dagger, etc., have already been
spoken of ; in addition to these was the shield with,
sometimes, its elegant boss ; and the spear or lance
head. The armour of the Anglo-Saxons, like their arms,
partook of the Frankish character. Remains of this
period are few and far between. Helmets or head

Fig. 193.
coverings, in a fragmentary state, have on some few
occasions been found. The most remarkable was
found at Benty Grange, in Derbyshire, in 1848, along
with many personal ornaments and other objects.
The frame of this helmet (Fig. 193) ' consists of a
series of iron bands, radiating from the crown of the

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

head, and riveted to a circle of the same metal which
encompassed the brow. From the impression on
the metal it is evident that the outside was covered
with plates of horn disposed diagonally so as to pro
duce a herring-bone pattern ; the ends of the plates
were secured beneath with strips of horn correspond
ing with the iron framework, and attached to it by
ornamental rivets of silver at intervals of about an
inch and a half; on the bottom of the front rib,
which projects so as to form a nasal, is
a small silver cross (Fig. 194) slightly
~» ornamented round the edges by a beaded
moulding ; and on the crown of the
helmet is an elliptical bronze plate sup
porting the figure of an animal carved in
iron, with bronze eyes, now much cor
roded, but perfectly distinct as the
representation of a hog.' Many frag
ments, more or less ornamented with silver, which
have been riveted to some part of the helmet, and
some iron buckles were also found, as well as other
objects, including a mass of iron chainwork, consisting
of ' a large number of links of two kinds, attached to
each other by small rings, half an inch in diameter ;
one kind is flat and lozenge-shaped, about an inch
and a half long ; the others are all of one kind, but
of diff'erent lengths, varying from four to ten inches.
They are simply lengths of square rod iron with
perforated ends, through which pass the rings con
necting them with the diamond-shaped links ; they

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

all show the impression of cloth over a considerable
part of the surface, and it is, therefore, no improbable
conjecture that they would originally constitute a
kind of quilted cuirass, by being sewed up within, or
upon, a doublet of strong cloth.' Worsaae, in his
Antiquities of Denmark, says, 'The helmets of the
ancient Scandinavians, which were furnished with
crests, usually in the form of animals, were probably
in most cases only the skins of the heads of animals,
drawn over a framework of wood or leather, as the
coat of mail was usually of strong quilted linen, or
thick woven cloth.' To this the translator adds :
' The animal generally represented was the boar ;
and it is to this custom that reference is made in
Beowulf, where the poet speaks of the boar of gold,
the boar hard as iron.'
Allusions to the custom of wearing the figure of
a boar — not in honour of the animal, but of Freya,
to whom it was sacred — are also to be found in the
Edda and in the Sagas; while Tacitus distinctly
refers to the same usage and its religious intention,
as propitiating the protection of their goddess in
battle. The following extracts from Beowulf will
serve as an illustration, not only of the helmet, but
of the chainwork : —
' eofer-lic scionon They seemed a boar's form
ofer-hleor beran ; to bear over their cheeks ;
ge-hroden golde twisted with gold,
fah and fyr-heard, variegated and hardened in the fire,
ferh-wearde heold. this kept the guard of life : I. 604.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Be-fongen frea-wrasnum,
swa hine fyrn-dagum
worhte wsepna smith,
wundrum teode,
be sette swin licum,
that hine sythan no
brond ne beado-mecas
bitan ne meahton :

I¥X thaem ade wses
eth-ge-syneswat-fah-syrceswyn eal-gylden,
eofer iren heard :

Het tha in-beran
eafor heafod-segn,
heago-stepane helm,
[se] are-byrnan,
guth-sweord geato-lic : '

Surrounded with lordly chains,
even as in days of yore
the weapon smith had wrought it,
had wondrously furnished it,
had set it round with shapes of swine,
that never afterwards
brand or war-knife
might have power to bite it : I. 2901.
At the pile was
easy to be seen
the male shirt covered with gore,
the hog of gold,
the boar hard as iron : I. 2213.
Then commanded he to bring in
the boar, an ornament to the head,
the helmet lofty in war,
the grey mail coat,
the ready battle sword. I. 4298.

It will be noticed in these extracts that ' mail coat,'
or ' mail shirt,' is twice mentioned, as well as the
'helmet lofty in war.' Thus the passages in a re
markable degree illustrate the Benty Grange dis
covery, which embraced a coat of mail along with
the helmet and other objects.
Remains of other helmets, one, for instance, at
Barlaston, and others at Newhaven and Leck-
hampton, have also been discovered. Buckles, such
as probably fastened the belt or girdle to which the
knife or sword was suspended, and others which
have doubtless belonged to sorae portions of the

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

"3

dress are not uncommon. They are of varied form,
some partaking of the character of the fibulae of
the period. The
two engravings.
Figs. 195 and 196,
are from Kentish
graves. The arms of
the Anglo-Saxons
appear to have con
sisted of swords,
spears, knives, dag
gers, shields, etc.
etc. The swords
are straight-
bladed, usually
double-edged,
with hilts of metal or wood ; the scabbards, of wood,
or leather, or bronze, are often elaborately orna
mented at the chape. They are not unfrequently
found in Anglo-Saxon interments, where they usually
lie by the side of the skeleton, as shown in Fig. 197,
which illustration will serve to show the usual position
in which arms are found — the sword, the knife or
dagger, the spears, and the shield.
The knife or dagger (the seax), which like the
sword is of iron, is of varied forms. These, as well
as the most usual shapes of the sword, spear, and
javelin heads, will be best understood on reference to
Figs. 197 to 212. H

Fig. 195.

Fig. 196.

114

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Fig. igS.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

I'S

k

}

Figs. 203 to 211.

ii6

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

The shield (the war board) appears to have been
of wood, and of circular
form, and to have been
sometimes covered with
leather or thin sheets
of bronze ; occasionally,
however, as appears from
Beowulf, they were made
of iron, but no such ex
ample has been found.
Three forms of umbones,
or bosses, are given in
Figs. 198, 199, and 213 ;
the latter of these, from
Tissington, measuring no
less than nine inches in
height.
It will only be necessary briefly to allude to the
enamelled discs, or pendants of bronze, which are
from time to time found with other remains ; these
probably were attached to the helmet. Nothing,
however, is known with certainty as to their use.
Of Norman armour and arms in England, the
Bayeux tapestry affords every detail, and may be
looked upon as a valuable storehouse of information.
The armour worn in England from the Conquest
may, as Boutell well summarises it, ' be divided into
four great groups, each of them associated with its
own historical period : i. Mail armour, the period
of its use ending about A.D. 1 300 ; 2. Mixed mail,

Fig. 213

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 117
or plate armour, from about 1300 to about 1410 ;
3. Plate armour, from about 1410 to about 1600 ;
4. Half armour, the period of the partial use of
armour extending to the commencement of the
eighteenth century.' The arms and armour, in
diff'erent centuries, may be thus summarised from
Mr. Godwin's useful tables : —
Eleventh Century. — Armour : The hauberk, or lorica
(probably the luar byrnie, battle-shirt, or battle-net of
the Anglo-Saxons), of chain mail, formed of flat
rings and mascles, which clothed both body and
limbs, like trousers and jacket combined ; the hau-
bergeon, or smaller hauberk ; the jacque, a leather
tunic with overlapping flaps and close sleeves ; the
helmet, sometimes simply conical, with a nob at the
top and a rim below, and at others with a nasal
guard ; short spurs ; and shoes and hose. Arms :
The sword ; the lance, with gonfanon or pennon
attached ; the pile ; the club or mace ; the bow ; the
morning star, a staff or club to which was attached,
by hanging or otherwise, a spiked ball of iron ; the
oncin, or staff' with iron hook and spike ; and the
shield, which was of a long, flat, kite-shaped form,
and frequently bore the figure of a cross or other
ornament. Twelfth Century. — Armour : The hauberk was com
posed sometimes of rustred armour, in which the
rows of rings or mascles overlapped each other ; or
scale armour, so called from its resemblance to fish
scales ; or trellised armour, formed of interlaced

ii8 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
straps of leather, having diamond-shaped interstices,
in each of which was a steel stud or boss ; or tegu-
lated armour, in which the plates were tile-shaped.
The tunic, or haqueton, worn under the hauberk ;
the chausses, fitting close to the limbs, and worn
over both legs and feet, and sometimes composed of
rings set edgeways ; the plastron de fer, or iron
breastplate, worn under the gambeson or other
armour ; the gambeson, or wambais, a quilted gar
ment, worn either on the chemise de fer or other
armour, or alone ; the helmet (sometimes conical),
cylindrical, with face-guard perforated for eyes, nose,
and mouth, or bowl-shaped, composed of rings set
edgeways, with slits for eyes and mouth, or flat
topped, with crest ; and the long, pointed, turned-up
shoe and leaf-shaped spur. Arms : The sword,
mace, battle-axe, guisarme, glaive, cross-bow (balista
or arbalest), and shield ; the latter being sometimes
bowed, at others with a projecting pike, and at
others triangular.
Thirteenth Century. — Armour : The surcoat, of
various forms ; the hauberk of chain mail, to which
were sometimes added elbow-plates, with continuous
coif and fingerless gloves ; the camail ; the chausson
and chausses of chain mail for the legs, to which were
sometimes added knee-plates ; the sleeved surcoat ;
the ailettes, or wing-pieces, behind the shoulders ;
bezanted armour of roundels of metal riveted on
cloth or leather, and banded mail ; the helmet, of
various forms ; the shield ; and spurs. Arms : The

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 119
falchion, anelace, misericorde, pole-axe, halberd
lance, etc.
Fourteenth Century. — Hauberks of chain mail, with
epaulettes, brassarts, and vambraces to protect the
shoulders and arms, and other pieces to defend the
breast and knees ; the jupon ; the cuirass ; the
tabard ; the hauberk, gorget or camail, corslet,
jacque or jack of defence, mammelons, chausson,
greaves, sollerets, helmets, and bassinets ; gauntlets,
etc. Arms : The lance, sword, maillet or marteau-
de-fer, baston or truncheon, glaive, cross-bow, dagger,
helmet, shield, pavise, etc.
Fifteenth Century. — Plate armour, from its simple to
its most extravagant form. Arms : The sword, two-
handed, with flaming blade, and otherwise ; pointed
staff, demi-glaive, pole-axe, and halberd ; javelin,
besague or martel, battle-axe, helmet, shield, etc.
Sixteenth Century. — Fluted armour ; and
Seventeenth Century. — Mixed, or half armour, the
precursor of the discontinuance of body armour.
Examples of arms and armour of each of these
periods are abundant alike on monumental effigies,
on seals, in illuminated manuscripts and other
pictorial productions, and in public and private
museums.

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

CHAPTER VIII.
AMONG SEPULCHRAL SLABS AND BRASSES, ETC.
Sepulchral slabs, crosses, and brasses are found
in so many old churches and churchyards, and pos
sess so much and such varied interest, that half an
hour — or many half hours — may well be devoted to
them. The earliest known examples (of course
leaving out of the question the Roman inscribed
stones to which I have referred on another page)
are apparently of the seventh, eighth, and ninth
centuries. A number of these were found in 1833,
on the site of the ancient monastery at Hartlepool,
founded in the seventh century by St. Begu, who is
said to have been the daughter of a powerful Irish
prince, Donald III. Having early conceived the
idea of devoting herself to the service of God, she
was recommended by a holy man to make a vow
of celibacy, and on doing so was presented by him
with a wonderful bracelet as a memento. Having
afterwards been sought in marriage by a prince of

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

Norway, whose suit was encouraged by her father,
she fled from home by night, reached the coast,
found a ship on the point of sailing, took a passage,
and was landed on the coast of Cumberland, where
' St. Bees ' still commemorates her name. There
she constructed herself a cell, and led a solitary life,
until such a life was rendered unsafe by the pirates
who infested the coast. She then quitted her cell,
went to St. Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and
placed herself in his hands. This saint gave her
a black habit and veil, and consecrated her first
nun of Northumbria, and obtained for her, from St.
Oswald, a grant of land at Heritesei on which to
found a monastery. This she did, and it became a
large and important establishment. On resigning
this charge in 649, St. Hilda was elected to succeed
her, and remained until her departure for Whitby.
From this time — A.D. 657 — no historical notice of
the Hartlepool (Heritesei) monastery exists. ' Its
situation on the coast exposed it to the fury of the
Danes in the ninth century, and it was never re
stored. All traditional recollection, even of its site,
was lost; until in the month of July 1833, in the
course of some excavations in a field called " Cross
Close," about 135 yards south-east of the ancient
church of St. Hilda, the cemetery which belonged
to it was discovered. Whilst excavating for the
foundations of houses, the workmen found, at the
depth of three and a half feet from the surface, and
resting immediately upon the lime-stone rock, several

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

skeletons, both male and female, apparently of a tall
race, and remarkable for the thickness of the fore
part of their skulls, lying in two rows, in a position
nearly north and south. Their heads were resting
upon small flat stones, as upon pillows ; and over
them were other stones, marked with crosses and
inscriptions in Runes and in Romanesque letters.'
One of these early stones, nearly the whole of which
have a decided Anglo-Hibernian character, has been
of circular form, and bears a cross, which in heraldry
might be described as a cross pom^e, and fragments
of the words REQVIESCAT IN PACE. Another
has an incised cross, and an inscription in Runes ;
the name of a female, HILDITHRYTH, and in the
upper limbs A 12. The next example bears, besides
the cross, the name HILDDIGYTH. Another
bears the cross, the letters A i2, and the name
BERCHTGYD. Others bore EDILVINA ; ORA
PRO VERMVND 7 TORHTSVID ; ORATE
PRO EDILVINI ORATE PRO VERMVND
ET TORHT SVID ; HANEGNEVB ; and other
names. Another slab, with a cross of a more
elegant and flowing design, bears portions of inscrip
tions said to read : TE BREGVSV . . . GVGVID,
and is conjectured to commemorate Breguswid, the
mother of St. Hilda. There is a striking similarity
between these stones and those of a contemporary
early period in Ireland. One of these may be given
for comparison. It is from Lismore, and bears a
cross, and the inscription — BENDACHT FOR

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

"23

ppn^o

ANMAIN COLGEN (a blessing on the soul of
Colgan), being in memory of Colgan, an eminent
ecclesiastic, who died at Lis
more in 850. It is shown in
Fig. 214.
Another good Anglo-Saxon
example is preserved in the
vestry of Wensley Church, in
Yorkshire. It bears a cross
pat6e, with birds and gro
tesque animals on its limbs,
and the name DONFRID in
Saxon characters in relief At
Stow, in Lincolnshire, two of
these very early slabs appear,
but they bear interlaced pat
terns and no cross.
Most of these slabs are of
small dimensions, simply in
tended to commemorate the
deceased, but not to cover
the entire body either when
in or out of a stone coffin. Most of the slabs of a
later date are of larger size, and have been either
intended as lids to stone coffins, or to be laid in the
pavement, or to cover the grave in the churchyard.
Some are flat on their surfaces, and others are
' coped ' or ' ridged.' The ornament is produced
either by incised lines, or by cutting away the
stone itself, so as to leave the pattern in relief In

Fig. 214.

124 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
some instances both styles appear upon the same
slab. The design usually consists of a cross, more
or less ornate, and some symbol of the station or
occupation of the deceased. Occasionally coats of
arms and even lettering occur, but these are ex
ceptions to the general rule. In shape, the earlier
examples usually tapered from the head to the foot,
but a large number are in existence in which the
form is rectangular.
Coped tombs were usually sloped in two angles
only, but occasionally the ends were also sloped, and
the whole sometimes covered with elaborate orna
ment. A good plain example of this kind of cover
ing is found on the historically interesting tomb of
William Rufus, in Winchester Cathedral. In this
instance the coped covering is devoid of ornament.
Usually the ridge of the cope forms the stem of a
cross, the foliated arms and branches of which slope
down its sides. The angles of one discovered at
Bakewell are carved into a cable pattern, and on one
side is a central band of interlaced pattern dividing
it into two panels, each of which is filled in with
grotesque animals. The other side is also divided
into two panels filled in with ' knot ' work. It is of
small size, and has probably, hke that of William
Rufus, been placed upon a coffin of larger dimen
sions. In the same church two other coped lids of
the twelfth century, the one covered with zigzag
ornament, and the other 'roofed' as with tiles, are
preserved. Another of somewhat analogous char-

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 125
acter is preserved in the crypt at Bedale. Others
occur at Dewsbury, York, and other places. One
of remarkably fine character, in the church of St.
Dionys at York, is profusely decorated with gro
tesque animals, foliage, and interlaced work.
One of the finest, and at the same time one of the
most historically interesting, examples is the memo
rial slab to the Princess Gundrada, fifth daughter of
William the Conqueror, and wife of William, first
Earl de Warrenne, at Lewes. This slab, which has
lost its lower extremity, bears an inscription so
arranged as to form a border all round it, and also
to divide the slab into two tablets longitudinally.
Each of these two tablets is filled in with an arcade
of semicircles springing from lions' heads, the
spandrel and each of the arches being filled in with
elegant foliage. Consequent upon the lower end of
the slab being lost, the inscription is imperfect.
What remains, however, is as follows : — stirps .
gundrada DVCV . DEC . EVI . NOBILE . GERMEN .
INTVLIT . ECCLESIIS . ANGLORV . BALSAMA . MORV .
MARTIR . . VIT . MISERIS . FVIT . EX . PIETATE . MARIA .
PARS . OBIIT . MARTHE . SVPEST . PARS . MAGNA . MARIE .
O . PIE . PANCRATI . TESTIS . PIETATIS . ET . EQVI . TE .
FACIT . HEREDE TV . CLEMENS . SVSCIPE . MATRE .
SEXTA . KALENDARV . lUNII . LVX . OBVIA . CARNIS
IFREGIT . ALABASTRV . . . Which may be thus ren
dered : ' Gundrada, the descendant of dukes, the
ornament of her age, a noble branch, brought into
the churches of England the noble balm of her

126 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
virtues. O martyr ... to the poor she was (a
Martha), for her piety a Mary. Her Martha's part
is dead : her Mary's better part survives. O holy
Pancras, witness of her piety and justice, receive
mercifully a mother who makes thee her heir. The
sixth of the kalends of June, a hostile day, shivered
the alabaster of her flesh . . .' Here the epitaph
ends abruptly, but there can be no doubt that, when
perfect, it contained some allusion to the soul as the
precious ointment contained in the alabaster box of
her body, and corresponding with the balsama morum
before introduced. In 1845 the leaden coffins con
taining the actual bones of the Princess Gundrada
and her husband. Earl Warrenne, were found.
The most usual decoration upon sepulchral slabs
is a cross, with or without stem and steps, and of a
more or less elaborate and ornate character. And
often it is accompanied with emblems of the state
and occupation of the deceased.
Occasionally some early examples, instead of
crosses or other emblems, are sculptured in zigzag or
herring-bone pattern ; in scale ornament ; in lozenge
pattern ; in grotesque devices ; in circles ; or in
guilloche or other ornament. Occasionally a cross
occurs at each end of the slab, with a connecting
stem or shaft running between or through them, and
more or less ornamented with circles, flowing lines,
foliage, etc. ; and in not a few instances other crosses
are again incised in the spaces at the sides of the
shaft. In some examples, too, the cross is quite

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 127
distinct from the shaft. The crozier and pastoral
staff", indicating that the person commemorated was
a bishop, abbot, or other prelate, are found either in
connection with the cross, or alone, on sepulchral
slabs. Of these, beautiful examples occur at
Margam, Eccleston (where the crozier is grasped in
a hand, as at Romsey, Dorchester, Flaxley, etc.),
Durham, and other places. The head of the staff"
or crozier is, in some of these instances, elegantly
foliated. The chalice, or chalice and paten, is not of unfre
quent occurrence ; and occasionally the chalice and
book are found together. Sometimes the book is
open, but more usually closed and clasped. These
are, of course, indicative of a priest ; certainly of
some one beneath the dignity of prior, abbot, or
bishop. At Barnard Castle, in addition to an elabo
rate cross, a chalice, and a book, is an outstretched
hand in the conventional form of benediction. The
host, or consecrated wafer (frequently simply an
incised circle, but in other instances ornamented
with a quatrefoil, as at Sproatly), is also found repre
sented on slabs of ecclesiastics. The chalice some
times lies on the stem of the cross, but is usually at
its side.
The sword, supposed to indicate an individual of
knightly rank, or at all events a warrior, is a common
emblem or device. It is usually by the side of the
stem of the cross. Sometimes no other device
appears, but frequently it is found in connection

128 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
with the bow, the axe, or other object, or, more fre
quently still, with armorial bearings. At St. Pierre,
near Chepstow, is a slab with cross and sword, com
memorating Sir Urian de St. Pierre, who died in
1239 — ICI . GIT . LE . CORS . V . DE . SENT . PERE .
PREEZ . PVR . LI . EN . BONE . MANERE . KE . IHV .
PVR . SA . PASIVN . DE . PHECEZ . LI . DONT . PARDVN .
AMEN . PR. Another at St. John's, Chester, besides
the sword and cross, has HIC : lACET : lOHENNES :
LE : SERIAVN. At Ainstaple is the cross and sword,
with helmet and crest, and four shields of arms.
At Greystoke are the arms, three cushions, and the
inscription — . . . lOHES . CODAM . BARO . DE . GRAY-
STOK. At Tynemouth is an inscription alone :
>J« WALTERVS i C . . . At Haltwhistle, on one side
the stem of the cross is the sword and a shield bear
ing a fesse between three garbs, and on the other a
pilgrim's staff and scrip, or pouch, also charged with
a garb. Another, at Heysham, has the sword on one
side the cross, and on the other a harp.
Occasionally animals are placed at the foot of the
cross in place of steps. A good instance of this
occurs at Durham, where what has been described
as a cow, but which I take, more probably, to be the
evangelistic symbol of the bull of St. Luke, forms the
foot of the elaborately foliated cross, on one side of
which is the sword, wrapped round with the knight's
belt, and on the other an object now defaced.
Other evangelistic symbols, as well as the Agnus
Dei, are not uncommon on slabs, either at the base,

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

129

Fig. 219.

Fig. ;

130 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
or enclosed in the head of the cross. Other ex
amples bear the cross and sword, with the addition
of the bugle-horn. One of the best instances of the
introduction of the horn is the slab which tradition
assigns to the ballad-hero Robin Hood, but which,
from its device, is with much probability ascribed to
a member of the family of Bowes. This example
bears an elegantly interlaced foliated cross, at the
base of which is a shield, and a bugle-horn slung so
that the cords cross each other behind the shaft. On
one side the shaft is the sword, and on the other are
two bows, bent, and crossing each other.
At Rhuddlan, the sword is found in conjunction
with a battle-axe ; at Worksop, it is accompanied by
a dagger ; at Newcastle, with the head of a halberd ;
in another with a large knife ; at Cambo, with five
pellets ; and in other instances with shears and other
objects. Occasionally the sword itself forms the
shaft or stem of the cross. At Woodhorn, the cross
is surmounted by a dagger, which, very curiously, is
of exactly the form of the bronze daggers of the
Celtic period found in grave-mounds, thus showing
that this shape obtained in later times : the cross in
this instance is a cross-crosslet.
One of the commonest devices upon early slabs
is the shears. This device has given rise to much
controversy and to considerable difference of opinion ;
some authorities maintaining that it denotes the
deceased to have been a wool-stapler or clothier,
others that he was a merchant of the staple, and

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

131

others that it symbolised a female. It is sometimes
found in connection with a sword, and at others with
a key, or two keys ; but usually alone at the side of
the shaft of the cross (Fig. 224).
At Ayclifife is a double slab. One half has a cross
with a sword on one side the shaft, and on the other

Fig.

Fig. 223.

a pair of pincers and a T-square. The other has
on one side the shaft a pair of shears, and on the
other a key. There are also three crosses patee on
diff'erent parts of the slab. The shears are usually
of the old shape still retained in our ' sheep-shears '

132

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

of the present day, occasionally varied in details ;
but instances occur, as at Bakewell, where the ends
of the blades are broad instead of pointed.
The key has been, like the shears, supposed to be
indicative of a female ; but these
matters require much stronger
proof than has been brought for
ward before they can be received.
The comb is, with better reason,
supposed to indicate a female.
It is of very unusual occurrence
in England, but is frequently
met with in Scotland. At Darley
Dale, on a slab of the twelfth
century (Fig. 222), the comb is
of the usual ' double-tooth ' form
so usual in the early ages, and of
which examples are not unfre-
j c ,f ^j quently found with Anglo-Saxon
\^^ J and other interments. Accom
panying this on the Darley Dale
slab is, besides a small and very
simple cross, a circular object
which is certainly intended either
for a mirror, or for a circular
brooch or fermail ; the probability
being the former, the comb and
mirror being so naturally identified the one with the
other. Pincers, hammers, axes, and other handicraft tools

Fig. 224.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 133
are often seen, and probably denote the trade or
calling of the deceased. Thus at Aycliffe a pair of
pincers occur along with a T-square or hammer. At
Chelmorton is an axe, the head of which lies across
the shaft of the cross.
Besides the T-square, the ordinary carpenter's square,
bevel, and compasses sometimes occur.
A unique example of trade device occurs at St.
Dionys, York, where on one side the shaft of the
cross is a bell, and on the other a cauldron or brazier,
in which bell metal would be melted for casting.
There can be no doubt that this curious slab covered
the remains of one of the old bell-founders of York.
Another unique example bears on either side of the
shaft of the cross a long straight trumpet, and around
the edge the inscription . -t- GODEFREY : LE :
TROVMPOVR : GIST : CI : DEV : DEL : ALME :
EIT : MERCI, thus showing that it commemorates
Godfrey the trumpeter.
Heraldic bearings are not uncommon decorations
on sepulchral slabs, and these are, naturally, of the
highest possible importance in determining to what
family they belong. Sometimes the arms occur in
connection with other emblems, and, as they usually
belong to a later period, are not unfrequently accom
panied by inscriptions. At St. Asaph the sword lies
diagonally at the head of the slab, and upon it is laid
the shield, filling up the entire width. The lower
half of the slab bears representations of a hare chased
by a hound.

134 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Some very good examples occur at Greystoke and
Newton Rigney, in Cumberland ; the latter bearing
on a shield a fesse checquy between six garbs. At
Kirkby Stephen, besides a cross and sword, is a shield
bearing six annulets. At East Shaftoe a slab bears
two crosses ; close to the shaft of one is a pair of
shears, by the other is a sword, across which and the
shaft is placed a shield bearing three crosses moline.
Another variety of sepulchral slabs is that upon
which a part of the effigy of the deceased is sculp
tured. In some examples the head of the cross
forms a quatrefoil, or tablet, in which, usually cut
deep so as to give considerable relief, the head, or
bust and hands, of the figure appear. In others the
panel, or tablet, is distinct from the cross ; in others,
again, the cross is altogether discarded ; and in
another variety an equally deeply cut trefoil, or
second panel, at the base bears the representation
of the feet of the deceased. At Brampton, at the
head of the slab, is a sunk quatrefoil, in which are
the head and hands of the deceased lady, and at the
base an oblong tablet on which her feet are sculp
tured. It bears the inscription : -|- HIC : lACET ;
MATILDA : LE i CAVS ; ORATE i PRO :
ANIMA i EI : PAT I NOST. At Moor Monkton
a somewhat similar quatrefoil bears the head and
hands, and a trefoil the feet, of the deceased person,
but there is no inscription. At Kedleston are two
quatrefoils side by side, the one bearing the head of
a knight of the Curzon family, and the other that of

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 135
his lady. At Gilling the quatrefoiled head of the
cross bears the head and hand of a knight, and its
trefoiled base his feet. On one side the shaft is the
knight's crest ; on the other his sword, shield, and
belt; the shield bearing the arms of Elton. At
Hartington, within a cinquefoil cusp at the top, are
the bust and hands of a lady, and at the bottom, in
an oblong tablet, are her feet.
Sepulchral brasses appear to have come into use
in the thirteenth century, and they continued in use
for full four centuries, and, indeed, partially so until the
present day. The oldest known monumental brass
is said to be that of Simon de Beauchamp, Earl of
Bedford, 1208, mentioned by Leland as in St. Paul's,
Bedford. Several matrices of thirteenth-century
ecclesiastics occur at Wells, but the oldest existing
known brass in England is that of Sir John D'Auber-
noun, at Stoke D'Abernon, circa 1277.
Brass, or latten, was not made in England till the
sixteenth century, but was imported from Cologne,
and hence called ' Cullen ' plate. A Flemish brass
in the Jermyn Street Museum gives the following
analysis : —
Copper, . . . . 64"
Zinc, . . 29 '5
Lead, . • 3'5
Tin, ..... 3'
IOO'
Waller states that the sheets of metal were cast
nearly of the size required, in a mould formed of

136 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
two cakes of loam. The average size of the sheets
is 2 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 8 in. ; the average thickness,
one-eighth of an inch. The metal is often full of
flaws and air bubbles. ' The foreign brasses, and
the Flemish ones in England, consist of a large
quadrangular sheet of metal, composed of several
plates, the part not occupied being filled with elabo
rate tabernacle work, with rich accessories. Fine
examples in England are Adam de Walsokne and
wife, 1349, and Robert Braunche and his two wives,
1634, at Lynn, Norfolk; and Thos. de le Mare,
Abbot, at St. Alban's Abbey, 1 396 (engraved 1 360).
In the English brasses executed by guilds of native
artists, the figure is cut out and the background of
the design is formed by the Purbeck marble slab on
which the brass is laid, the canopy, inscription, and
other parts consisting of separate pieces. In the
early part of the fifteenth century the art reached
its greatest perfection, great numbers being produced
at that time. They were about the most appro
priate, convenient, and lasting kind of memorial as
far as material is concerned that could be adopted.
They took up little room, were very durable, and
suited alike the means of the noble and the squire.
Some displayed great delicacy of execution, and
were heightened by gilding, enamel, and even jewels.
Still does their "witness live in brass," as Shake
speare has it, for in some cases the portraits of the
person commemorated, the patterns of ecclesiastical
vestments, the ornaments of sword belts, and the

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 137
curious costumes of the fair sex, have been handed
down to posterity, faithful copies of those worn by
the deceased. No other source yields such a variety
of costume, nor is there any usage of the Middle
Ages which does not derive from themselves, or their
accessories, at least some indirect illustration. The
destruction of brasses at one time or other has been
immense, and one can scarcely enter an old church
without finding several slabs despoiled of their
brasses ; and though objects of archaeological inter
est are better preserved than formerly, a great
many have disappeared in comparatively recent
times. The loss cannot be estimated at less than
twelve thousand. The Romans punished by death
or maiming any person who defaced the monuments
of the dead (Solon making a special law for this
purpose); and Queen Elizabeth, with commendable
thought, tried to put a stop to the destruction of
tombs and brasses, and issued a proclamation to
that eff'ect in the second year of her reign, each
copy being signed by her own hand. This recites
the injury done by " sundrie people, partly ignorant,
partly malicious, or covetous, by which meanes not
only the Churches remaine at this present day
spoiled, broken and ruinated, to the offence of all
noble and gentle hearts, and the extinguishing of
the honourable and good memory of sundry vertuous
and noble families deceased, but also the true under
standing of divers families in this Realme is thereby
so darkened as the true course of their inheritance

138 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
may be hereafter interrupted." Fuller says {Ch. Hist.
ix. § I, 36), " Her princely care took this desired
eff'ect, that it stopped the main stream of sacrilege
herein, though some by-rivulets thereof ran still in
private churches, in defiance of all orders provided
to the contrary." At the destruction of the mon
asteries the brasses on the tombs were frequently
sold with the church plate, and when churchwardens
were in want of money for " beautifying '' the church,
they did not hesitate to sell the metal from the tombs,
and unblushingly entered the fact in their account-
books. They were frequently laid down to other
persons, or re-engraved on the other side, and hence
called palimpsests. These are of three kinds — first,
those in which the plate is engraved on the reverse
side of the original ; second, in which the original
figure is altered and appropriated to another person
of later date and costume ; third, the original figure
remains unaltered, but a fresh inscription, shield,
etc., are introduced. The latter are very puzzling,
and it is very difiicult to understand them unless
one knows the history of the brass. Weever {Fun.
Mon., 427) tells us of an incumbent of St. Leonard's,
Shoreditch, stripping the gravestones of their brasses :
" The plates with the inscription of such monuments
as were of more antiquitie were all taken away for
covetousnesse of the brasse, by one Dr. Hanmer (as
I have it by relation of the inhabitants), Vicar of
this Church, which he converted into coine, and
presently after (ashamed belike of such a detestable

ENGLISH ANTIQ UITIES. 1 39
act) went over into Ireland, and there ignominiously
ended his dayes." At Yarmouth, in 1551, the Cor
poration ordered the brasses to be cast into weights
and measures for the use of the town.'
About four thousand brasses remain in England.
They represent ecclesiastics of various degrees ;
knights, and other military men ; civilians of dif
ferent classes ; ladies ; and children, and are of
every possible style and variety, and are frequently
rich in armorial decoration, in foliated and other
crosses, and in canopies, diapering, etc. etc.
Paper is made of great length and of considerable
width on purpose for taking rubbings of brasses, but
it is expensive. For ordinary purposes the common
lining paper used by paper-hangers, and sold in rolls
at about a penny a yard, is all that can be needed.
It can be bought at any paper-hanger's shop. Heel-
ball, made in large cakes specially for the purpose
of rubbing, is better than the small cakes to be
bought of any shoemaker. Leather is a good sub
stance for rubbing with, using the black side.
Of altar tombs and other monuments it is not
necessary to speak at length. That of King John
(12 16) is said to be the earliest known example;
and the earliest instance of a monument bearing
a skeleton is stated to be of 1241. Cross-legged
effigies are believed to be Crusaders who had vowed
to accomplish, or had accomplished, a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, and had either died without ful
filling it, or compromised by payment of money, or

140 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
by finding a substitute. ' The fashion declined,' says
Mr. Pigott,^ whom I have quoted, ' soon after the
last Crusade, which took place in 1270. Edmund
Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster and Derby, who died
1295, and Aylmer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke,
who died 1323, and Sir William Fitz-Ralph, are
among the last so represented. Some authorities con
sider it a mere fashion in monumental sculpture which
prevailed during the latter half of the thirteenth
and beginning of the fourteenth centuries, indicating
that the deceased possessed judicial authority. The
" good " Sir James Douglas is commemorated by a
cross-legged effigy in St. Bride's Church, Douglas.
He was father of Sir Archibald, " the Grim," Lord of
Galloway, afterwards third Earl of Douglas. Sir
James lost his life against the infidels in Spain,
bearing the Bruce's heart to the Holy Land, thus
being entitled to the honours of a Crusader. Several
figures on the west front of Wells Cathedral are re
presented in this manner. Flaxman, in his Lectures
on Sculpture, thinks that the general design of this
work was brought to England by some of the
Crusaders. William Longespee, second Earl of
Salisbury of that surname, who is known to have
been a Crusader under Louis IX., and was killed
at Cairo in 1250, and Walter Stewart, Earl of
Menteith, have cross-legged effigies. At Cashel, co.
Tipperary, are four very remarkable cross-legged
effigies, three females and a knight. They were
' Reliquary, vol. ix. p. 193.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 141
found in a crypt under the Franciscan Abbey
Church, founded and created by William Hacket,
in the reign of Henry HI. (Camden's Brit, iii. 523).
The ladies may have taken a vow of pilgrimage
which entitled them to that position. Gough, in his
Sepulchral Monuments, gives an instance of a lady
of the family of Mephan, in the church of Howden,
Yorkshire, in that position ; and Mills, in his History
ofthe Crusades, states that there are others, but gives
no examples. Mr. Du Noyer considers that the
Cashel effigies were the work not of Irish, but of
Anglo-Norman artists, and that they were not exe
cuted in Ireland, but sent from England as they
were required, in order to ornament the tombs of
the English nobility who died at Cashel, or in its
neighbourhood. They have all been cut down either
at the end or sides, because, perhaps, the sculptured
lids had been made too large for the coffins.
'In Danbury Church, Essex, are the effigies, in
wood, of three cross-legged knights, probably of the
family of St. Clere. One knight is in a praying
attitude, his hands being folded together, his sword
sheathed. Another is in the act of drawing his
sword ; and the third is represented as returning his
sword into the scabbard : the lion is also in a posi
tion different from the other two, as he neither looks
directly to nor from the face of the knights, but
straight forward. Examples of cross-legged figures
or brasses are Sir Roger de Trumpington, 1289
(known to have been a Crusader), at Trumpington,

142 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Cambridge; Sir Robt. de Septvans, 1306, Chartham,
Kent ; and a knight of the Ba,con family, circa 1320,
at Gorleston, Suff'olk. A popular error has assigned
cross-legged effigies to Knights Templars. Three of
the six cross-legged effigies in the Temple Church
represent persons who, though buried there, were not
of the order ; and another of them was brought,
in 1682, from Yorkshire, and represents Lord de
Ros, who was not a Templar. In 1846, in the
parish church of Brougham, Westmoreland, a por
tion of the side of the vault next to the south wall
of the chancel fell down, and discovered a cavity in
which lay a skeleton, with its feet to the east, cross-
legged, the left being thrown over the right. Near
the head was found a singular vitrification, shaped
like half an eg^, the colour of the glass being dark
blue, but the outer surface covered with a wavy line
of black and white alternately, resembling enamel.
This has been ascertained to be Phoenician work
manship, and it is conjectured to have been a talis
man brought from the East and buried with the
deceased as his most precious relic. The stone
that lay over the body is an incised slab of freestone.
Its date is of the twelfth century, and family tradi
tion has assigned this tomb to Udardus de Brohan,
who flourished between 11 40 and 1190.'

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 143

CHAPTER IX.
AMONG COINS.
It is a popular error that coins were unknown
in Britain at the time of Caesar's invasion. This
opinion of course takes its origin from the passage
— ' Utttntur aut are aut annulis {taleis) ferreis ad
certum pondus examinatis pro nummis,' which occurs
in the description of Britain given in the Com-
mentaries on the Gallic War. ' Not only, however,
is the passage corrupt,' says Mr. Evans,i the best
authority on the subject, 'but Mr. Hawkins has
shown that in a great number of MSS. the words
" aut nummo aureo " occur after " are; " so that it
would, after all, appear probable that, so far from
Caesar affirming that there were no coins in Britain
at the time of his invasion, he expressly mentions a
British currency of gold coins. The contrary opinion
has, however, been supposed to derive additional
support from two passages in the letters of Cicero,
whose brother accompanied Caesar in his second
' The Coins of the Ancient Britons, 1864.

144 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
expedition against Britain. In writing to Trebatius
he makes use of the expression — " In Britannid nihil
esse audio neque auri neque argenti." And, again, he
writes to Atticus : " Neque auri scrupulum esse ullum
in Hid insuld." But both the letters in which these
passages occur are written in a jocose style, and the
expression must be regarded as hyperbolical and
significant of the disappointment felt at Rome on
account of the small amount of booty resulting
from the British expedition as compared with what
was obtained in Gaul (though Strabo says it was
considerable), rather than as authorising the belief
that not only was there no coinage in Britain at
the time, but that there was a total absence of the
precious metals. So far, indeed, was Cicero himself
from believing this to have been the case, that he
qualifies the remark with an " id si ita est; " and in
his very next letter to Atticus he writes that he
had heard from Caesar of the submission of Britain
— " nulld pradd, imperatd tamen pecunid." And
Cssar himself, referring to the same subject, records
that before leaving Britain — " obsides imperat et
quid in amios singulos vectigalis populo Romano
Britannia penderet, constituit." Dion Cassius calls
this yearly tribute ^opov ir-^acov ; and Eutropius
records that Julius " Britannos stipendiarios fecit!'
Suetonius also distinctly affirms, " pecunias et obsides
imperavit!' '
Taking all circumstances into consideration, and
carefully comparing one with another, Mr. Evans

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

145

comes to the conclusion that we should not greatly
err if we assign to the earliest British coins a date
somewhere between 150 to 200 B.C. These are
extended to a comparatively late period. British
coins were made of gold, silver, and bronze, and have
been found in various localities, sometimes in hoards,
in most parts of the kingdom. It is, however, a
curious fact that in some districts, Derbyshire for
instance, which were not only inhabited by, but were
strongholds of, the ancient Britons, no discoveries of
coins are known. It would appear from this that
some tribes used a currency, while others did not.
The devices are rude adaptations, or rather imita
tions, of those upon Greek, and later, upon Roman
coins ; the principal model being the coinage of
Philippus, which bore on one side the laureated bust
of Apollo, and on the other a charioteer in a biga,
with the name of Philippus beneath. These were
copied more or less closely by the Gauls and

Fig. 225^

Britons, and the gradual decadence of the original
type may easily be traced by comparing a number
of examples. Other devices, more purely British,
were afterwards produced. Many of the eariy coins
are unifaced, i.e. one side is plain, while the other
K

146

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

bears the device. They are usually slightly convex
on one side, and concave on the other, and are, like

their Greek prototypes, thicker in proportion to their
size than are Roman coins. Some are inscribed.

Fig. 228.

Fig. 229.

but others are not. Their general character will be
understood from the engravings (Figs. 225 to 229).
Roman coins, which are ' plentiful as blackberries '
all over the land, were both imported to, and struck
or cast in, this country. The study of the coins
found here is therefore the study of the currency of
the Roman Empire. We have no traces of a Roman
mint in this country until the time of Diocletian and
Maximian, on some of which the letters LON and
ML are supposed to signify Londinium (London)
and Moneta Londinensis (Money of London). The
probability, however, is that coins were fabricated
long before these, and without bearing any indication

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 147
of the place where made. RS and RSR are sup
posed to indicate money struck at Riitupia (Rich
borough), as are also RSA, MRS {moneta Rutupiis
signatd), RSP {Rutupiis signata pecunid) ; C, MC,
SC, MSC, and SPC in the same manner signify
ing Clause7ituni (Bittern), moneta Clausenti, signata
Clausenti, moneta signata Clausenti, and signata
pecunia Clausenti ; M, MS, and yi'i,Y,^Magna (Ken
chester), and so on. Clay or terra-cotta moulds for
casting coins, probably spurious ones, have been dis
covered in Yorkshire and other localities.
From the time when Claudius set his foot on our
island, ' a regular series of imperial coins, commemo
rative of victories in Britain by the emperors or their
military commanders, was issued ; ' those of Clau
dius bearing a triumphal arch with the inscription
DE BRITANN (' over the Britons '), and those of
Hadrian with the inscription ADVENTVS AVG
BRITANNIA ('the advent of the Augustus to
Britain '), as well as those of the same emperor
bearing the figure of Britannia with the word
BRITANNIA, are well known, and those who
desire to prosecute this subject will find much useful
information in Akerman's Coins of the Romans
relating to Britain.
As I have said on another occasion, the Romans
seem to have sown their coins broadcast over the
whole length and breadth of the land ; to have thrown
them about as they would useless chaff'; to have
buried them in urns in every conceivable place ; and

148

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

to have deposited them, either singly or otherwise, in
the barrows of their predecessors. It is unnecessary
to speak, then, of the varieties of coins which are
from time to time turned up by the antiquary in his
researches into the early grave-mounds. They form
but a thousandth part of those which are found away
from interments.
It may, however, be well, as showing the relative
proportions of the coins of diff'erent emperors found
in this country, to give the following analysis, by Mr.
C. Roach Smith, of more than eleven hundred coins
picked up at diff'erent times in one locality — Rich
borough, in Kent : —

Augustus, .

7

Agrippa, .

I

Tiberius, .

2

Antonia, wife

of Drusus

senior.
I
Caligula,
2
Claudius, .
• 15
Nero,
II
Vespasian,
13
Titus,
I
Domitian, .
IO
Nerva,
I
Trajan,
7
Hadrian,
.
5
Sabina,
5
.iElius Cisesar,
I
Antoninus Pius,
5
Faustina the elder,
3
Marcus Aurelius,
4
Faustina the younger,
5
Lucius Verus,
2
Lucilla,
I
Commodus,
2
Severus,
5
Julia Domna,
3
Caracalla, .
3
Julia Msesa,
I
Severus Alexander, .
7
Gordianus Pius, .
6
Philippus, .
4
Valerianus,
3
Valerianus, junior.
I
Gallienus, .
19
Salonina, .
4
Postumus, .
10
Victorinus,
14
Marius,
I
Tetricus, .
13
Claudius Gothicus,
15
Quintilius, .
2
Aurelianus,
4
Tacitus, .
5
ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

149

Florianus, .

I

Constans, .

77

Probus,

7

Constantius II.,

• 42

Carinus,

I

Urbs Roma,

¦ 52

Numerianus,

2

Constantinopolis,

60

Diocletianus,

8

Magnentius,

21

Ma.-vimianus,

. 16

Decentius,

4

Carausius,

¦ 94

Julianus II. ,

7

AUectus, .

45

Helena,

I

Constantius 1., .

4

Jovianus, .

I

Helena,

8

Valentinianus, .

22

Theodora. .

• 13

Valens,

Z9

Galerius Miximianus,

I

Gratianus,

49

Maxentius,

2

Theodosius,

14

Romulus, .

1

Magnus Maximus,

6

Licinius,

12

Victor,

3

Licinius, junior,

I

Eugenius, .

I

Constantine the Great

• 149

Arcadius, .

• 27

Fausta,

2

Honorius, .

8

Crispus,

. 18

Constantine III.,

I

Dalmatius,Constantine II.,

. 98

Total,

• "44

Of these coins fifty-six only were of silver, six
of gold, fifteen of billon,
or base silver, and the
remainder were of brass,
the greater portion
being, naturally, what
are denominated ' third
brass.' The coins of the Saxons consisted of sceattae and
stycae — the former of silver, and the latter of copper.
The sceatta, or penny, is thin and of about the size of
our shilling; and the styca, whose value was the eighth
part of the penny — a half-farthing, in fact — is small

Fig. 230.

Fig. 231.

150 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
and somewhat thick for its size. But little is known,
even yet, respecting the money issued from the
mints of the Heptarchy, except that the coins were
of the same weight as those of later Saxon pennies,
and that they bore the moneyer's name; the addi
tion of the place of mintage being rare, and almost
confined to the ecclesiastical issues of Canterbury.
Beorna, in 749, is said to have been the first East
Anglian monarch who coined sceattae. When the
kingdoms of the Heptarchy were united in one
.sovereignty, the mints were regulated by laws framed
by the Wittenagemote, or Great Council of the
nation ; but it was not until the time of .^thelstan
(924-940) that it was appointed there should be one
kind of money throughout the whole realm, and that
no one should coin but in a town. According to
Stow, '^thelstan made seven coining mints at Canter
bury, four for the king, two for the archbishop, and
one for the abbot ; at Rochester three, two for the
king and one for the bishop. Besides these, in
London eight, in Winchester six, in Lewes two, in
Chichester one, in Hampton two, in Shaftesbury two,
and in every other town one coiner.' The coins
remaining prove this, and show there were very
few considerable towns without a mint ; for besides
those particularly mentioned in .(Ethelstan's law,
there are coins of Derby, Bristol, Evesham, Exeter,
Gloucester, Ipswich, Lincoln, Norwich, Shrewsbury,
Thetford, Wallingford, Worcester, York, and other
places. The probability is that the custom of

ENGLISH ANTIQ UI TIES. 1 5 1
impressing on coins the name of the town of their
mintage began in the early part of the reign of
vEthelstan. One of the largest 'finds' on record is that made
at Cuerdale, where, besides a large number of foreign
pieces, the following were found : — A.D.
2 yEthelred, East Anglia, (?) about 860.
23 yEthelstan, ,, . . . 870 to 890.
I Ciolwulf, Mercia, . . . 874.
857 Alfred, . . 872 to 901.
45 Eadweard, ... . 901 to 925.
I Archbishop Ceolnoth, . 830 to 870.
59 Archbishop Plegmund, . . S91 to 923.
2 Sitric.
1770 St. Eadmund.
Crosses were of frequent occurrence on sceattae,^
and appeared in considerable variety. Two of these
are shown in the engravings (Figs. 230 and 231),
which will also serve to show the general character
of the coins themselves.
Of coins from the Conquest downwards it will only
be needful to give the following list which I have
prepared, and an engraving or two of some of the
kinds. The list gives the various denominations of
coins issued in each reign.
' It may be interesting to note that in the name sceatta, the Saxon
penny, the sc is pronounced soft, like sh, and would therefore be
almost sheatta ox shotta ; hence from this is derived our vulgar word
'shot' for money, i.e. 'pay your shot' (pay your money), and 'not a
shot in his locker ' (not a penny in his chest or cupboard).

152

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

William i.
William ii.
Henry i.
STEP.HEN.Henry ii.
Richard i.
John.

Henry iii.
Edward i.
Edward ii.
Edward hi.
Richard il
Henry iv.
Henry v.
Henry vi.

Edward iv.
Edward v.

Richard hi.

/'Silver. — Pennies only. In this reign are also
I coins of Stephen and his queen, Matilda ; of
Matilda alone ; of Henry, Bishop of Win
chester ; of Robert, Earl of Gloucester ; of
Eustace and of William, sons of Stephen ; and
of Henry Newburgh, Earl of Warwick.

1

Silver. — Pennies only.
Gold. — Penny (to pass for twenty pence, and
I afterwards for twenty-four pence, or two shill-
I ings)-
, Silver. — Penny.
Silver. — Penny, halfpenny, and farthing.
Gold. — Florin, half-florin, quarter florin, noble,
half or maille noble, quarter or ferling noble.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny, and
farthing.
Gold. — Noble, half-noble, and quarter-noble.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny, and
farthing.
Gold. — Noble, half-noble, quarter-noble.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny.
Gold. — Noble, half-noble, quarter-noble, angel,"
angelet or half-angel.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny,
farthing.
Gold. — Rose noble or rial, half-noble or rial,
quarter-noble or rial, angel, angelet or half-
angel.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny,
farthing.
Gold. — Angel and angelet.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny, halfpenny.

\ §i'

232 and 233. Pence of William I. or n. 235 . Angel of Henry VI. 237. Quarter-noble of Heniy TV.
234. Penny of Edward I. 236. Shilling of Henry VII. 238. Gold penny of Henry in.

154

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Henry vii.

Henry viii.

Edward vi.

Mary i.
Philip and
Mary.

Elizabeth.

James i.

Gold. — Rose noble or rial, angel, angelet, sovereign
I or double rial, double sovereign or four rials.
j Silver. — Testoon or shilling, groat, half-groat,
penny, halfpenny, farthing.
/'Gold. — Double sovereign, sovereign, pound sove
reign, half-sovereign, rose noble or rial, George
noble, angel, angelet or half-angel, quarter-
angel, crown, half-crown.
Silver. — Testoon or shilling, groat, half-groat,
penny, halfpenny, farthing.
^Gold. — Six-angel piece, treble sovereign, double
sovereign, sovereign or double rial, pound
sovereign, half-sovereign, angel, angelet, crown
or quarter-sovereign, half-crown.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, testoon or shilling,
sixpence, groat, threepence, half-groat, penny,
^ halfpenny, farthing.
Gold.— Sovereign or double rial, rial, angel,
angelet.
Silver. — Groat, half-groat, penny.
Gold. — Angel, angelet.
Silver. — Shilling, sixpence, groat, half-groat,
penny.
''Gold. — Sovereign or double rial, rial, angel,
angelet or half-angel, quarter-angel, pound
sovereign, half-sovereign, quarter-sovereign or
crown, one-eighth sovereign or half-crown.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
groat or fourpence, threepence, half-groat or two
pence, three-halfpence, penny, three-farthings,
halfpenny, farthing (?).
^Gold. — Pound, sovereign, half-sovereign, crown
or quarter-sovereign, one-eighth sovereign or
half-crown, laurel or unit, double crown or
half-laurel, British crown or quarter-laurel,
half British crown, thistle crown, rose rial or 30s.
piece, spur rial or 15s. piece, angel, angelet.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
half-groat, penny, halfpenny.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

155

Charles i.

Commonwealth.

Protectorate, Oliver
Cromwell.

Charles ii.

James ii.

Gold. — Treble unit or ;if 3 piece; unit, broad, or
20S. piece; double crown, half-broad, or los.
piece ; crown, British crown, or 5s. piece ;
angel, and some siege pieces.
Silver. — Pound or 20s. piece, half-pound or los.
piece, crown or 5s. piece, half-crown, shilling,
sixpence, groat, threepence, half-groat, penny,
halfpenny. Also numerous siege pieces, which may be
briefly enumerated as follows : —
Beeston Castle, 2s., I4d., 13d., Is., nd. ;
Carlisle, 3s., is.; Colchester, is.; Newark
(lozenge-shaped), half-crown, Is., gd., 6d. ;
Pontefract, is. ; Scarborough, crown (5s.), half-
crown, 2s., IS. 6d., is. ; other mintages of the
same value, and of 7d. and 4d. each.
Gold. — Twenty-shilling piece, los. piece, 5s.
piece.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
half-groat, penny, half-penny.
Gold. — Fifty-shilling piece, broad or 20s. piece,
half-broad or los. piece.
'Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, ninepence,
sixpence.
Gold. — Broad or 20s. piece, half-broad or lOs.
piece, quarter-broad or 5s. piece, five-guinea
piece, two-guinea piece, guinea, half-guinea.
Silver. — Half-crown, shilling, sixpence, groat,
threepence, half-groat, penny. Also some siege
pieces.
Copper. — Halfpenny, • farthing.
Tin. — Farthing.
Gold. — Five-guinea piece, two-guinea piece,
guinea, half-guinea.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
groat, half-groat, threepence, penny.
Gun money. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, six
pence.
Tin. — Halfpenny, farthing.

156

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

/-Gold. — Five-guinea, two-guinea, guinea, and half-
j guinea pieces.
J Silver.— Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
I groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.
I Copper. — Halfpenny, farthing.
^Tin. — Halfpenny, farthing.
, Gold. — Five-guinea, two-guinea, guinea, and half
i guinea pieces.
J Silver. — Crown, half crown, shilling, sixpence,
I groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.
^ Copper. — Farthing.
, Gold. — Five-guinea, two-guinea, guinea, half-
I guinea, and quarter-guinea pieces.
/ Silver. — Crown, half crown, shilling, sixpence,
I groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.

William hi.
and Mary ii.
William hi.

Ak.n'e.

George i.

George h.

George iii.

c

Copper. — Halfpenny, farthing.
/ Gold. — Five-guinea, two-guinea, guinea, and half-
1 guinea pieces.
<^ Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
I groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.
^Copper. — Halfpenny, farthing.
Gold.— Guinea, half-guinea, one-third guinea or
7s., quarter-guinea or 5s. 3d. pieces, sovereign,
half-soverei gn.
Silver.— Crown (5s.), half-crown, shilling, six
pence, groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.
/ Dollars and half-dollars were also counter-
struck with a small head of the king and made
current, and bank tokens for various sums were
also issued.
Copper. — Twopence, three-halfpence, penny,
V halfpenny, farthing.
Gold. — Five sovereign, double sovereign, sove-
! reign, half-sovereign.
Silver.— Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence,
groat, threepence, half-groat, penny.
Copper. — Penny, halfpenny, farthing.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

157

¦i; /'G

Gold. — Double sovereign, sovereign, half-sovereign.
Silver. — Crown, half-crown, shilling, sixpence, groat
Willi.vm W.J, or fourpenny piece, threepence, half-groat, three-
halfpence, penny.
Copper. — Penny, halfpenny, farthing.
Gold. — Five sovereign, double sovereign, sovereign,
half-sovereign.
I Silver. — Crown, half-crown, florin or 2s. piece, shil-
ViCTORlA. -I ling, sixpence, groat or fourpence, threepence,
I half-groat, penny.
I Copper. — Penny, halfpenny, farthing, half-farthing.
\ Bronze. — Penny, halfpenny, farthing.
Traders' Tokens were issued in the middle of the
seventeenth century in almost every town and village
in the kingdom, and the same kind of issue obtained

at intervals until the early part of the present cen
tury. Those who wish to study seventeenth century
tokens cannot do better than consult Mr. Boyne's

wmm>i:i

.^^ Fig. 242.
Fig. 241. ^^
excellent volume on the subject. The engravings
(Figs. 239 to 242) will be amply sufficient to show
their general form and character.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 159

CHAPTER X.
among CHURCH BELLS.
A VERY fascinating study, but one that has been
sadly neglected, is that of church bells, and therefore
a short time may well be devoted to learning some
thing of their history, and more of their historical
interest and importance.
They were, it is more than probable, introduced
into this country long before the time of the coming
of Augustine in 596. It is said that, in 550, Odoceus,
Bishop of Llandaff, removed the bells from that
cathedral during a time of excommunication ; and
earlier still they are assumed to have been in use in
Ireland as early as the time of St. Patrick, who died
in A.D. 493. In those days much superstitious feel
ing, as in later ages, hung around the bells, and many
sweetly pretty and very curious legends are known
respecting them. Thus it is said St. Odoceus of
Llandaff, ' being thirsty after undergoing labour, and
more accustomed to drink water than anything else,
came to a fountain in the vale of Llandaff", not far

i6o HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
from the church, that he might drink, where he found
women washing butter, after the manner of the
country, and sending to them his messenger and
disciples, they requested that they would accommo
date them with a vessel that their pastor might
drink therefrom ; who ironically, as mischievous
girls, said, "We have no other cup besides that
which we hold in our hands," namely, the butter ;
and the man of blessed memory taking it, formed
one in the shape of a small bell, and he raised his
hand so that he might drink therefrom, and he drank.
And it remained in that form — that is, a golden one
— so that it appeared to those who beheld it to con
sist altogether of the purest gold ; which, by Divine
power, is from that day reverently preserved in the
church of Llandaff, in memory of the holy man, and
it is said that, by touching it, health is given to the
diseased.' The earliest known form of bells in our own
country, both Anglo-Saxon and Irish, appears to
have been that of an inverted wedge ; not cast, but
made of plates of iron, riveted together, of more or
less quadrangular form. They were not, however,
intended for suspension, but were used as tintin-
nabula, or hand-bells. Examples of these are pre
served in various collections ; their general shape
will be understood from the engraving (Fig. 244),
from one in my own possession. It is ten inches and
a half in height, and is formed of two plates of iron
riveted together and brazed. Many of the Irish

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. i6i
examples are enclosed in rich and costly cases,
elaborately decorated with patterns in relief and in
enamel. The towers of Anglo-Saxon and Norman churches
show that peals of cast bells, some of large size, must
have been in use in those days ; indeed, Ingulphus
says, in speaking of the peal of seven bells at
Crowland Abbey, ' Nee erat tunc tanta consonantia
canipanarum in tola Anglia! The Crowland peal
was destroyed by a fire in 1091 : the names of the
bells were Pega, Bega, Tatwin, Turketyl, Betelin,
Bartholomew, and Guthlac ; and they were succeeded
by two small bells, given to the monks by one
Fergus, a brazier, of Boston. An earlier instance
of direct evidence is afforded by the Anglo-Saxon
MS. of St. ^thelwold's benedictional, by Caedmon.
In this MS. a tower is shown, in which hang four,
evidently cast, bells of 'sugar-loaf form. Other
illuminations also show bells hanging in towers, and
prove that they were in use for actual ringing, not
striking, at an early date. Egbert in 750 commanded
' every priest at the proper hour to sound the bells
of his church, and then go through the sacred offices
of God.' Indeed, it may safely be said that, from
the first establishment of Christianity among us down
to the present time, bells have been a distinguishing
feature of our country, and peal-ringing our national
peculiarity. In the illuminated MSS. of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, bells are represented of much
L

1 62 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
the same general form as those of the present day.
Mediaeval bells were, however, not so 'squat' and
' dumpy ' as, but longer and narrower than, modern
ones. Mr. EUacombe states the oldest known dated
bell in England to be St. Chad's, Claughton, and
to bear the date 1296; but I fear this statement
must be received with great caution. Early dated
bells, i.e. pre-Reformation dated bells, are of very
rare occurrence. Bells were formerly blessed, or
consecrated, in honour of some particular saint —
frequently the patron saint of the church where
intended to be placed — and this is still occasionally
done even now. The inventories of church goods
taken in the reign of Edward vi. afford a vast deal
of interesting information as to the number of bells
then in the different church-towers, as well as of
hand-bells, etc., used for other purposes. Thus, at
Sawley, there were ' iij bells in the steple, j saunte
bell, j hand-bell, j sacringe bell;' at Sandiacre, 'ij
hand-bells,' and ' in the belhowse ij bells, j sauns
bell;' at Breaston, 'ij bells in the steiple, j lytiU
hand-bell, j sakeringe bell ; ' at Bonsall, ' iij small
bells, j sanctus bell, iij bells in Stepul;' at Ash
bourne, ' iij bellez in the steple, j clocke uppon j of
them, j broken bell, j lyttle bell called a sanctus bell,
ij hand-bellez, ij sacrynge bellez hangyng before the
aulter of grene ; ' at Wirksworth, ' iiij bells, j sanctus
bell, ij handebells, and j lytle bell in the quyre '
— cmn multis aliis. The ' sacring bell ' was rung at
the moment of the elevation of the host ; in some

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

163

l64 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
places a peal of small bells, worked by a wheel, was
rung in place of the tinkling of a single 'sacring;'
the ' Sanctus,' or ' Saunce bell,' hung in the small
bell-cote often seen in the apex of the chancel
gable. The decorations upon bells consist of encircling
inscriptions, usually on the haunch ; encircling
borders both on the crown, the haunch, the waist,
the sound-bow or rim, and of more or less elaborate
design ; crosses of every conceivable character ;
figures of saints and angels ; evangelistic and other
symbols ; heraldic bearings ; heads of kings and
queens ; grotesque figures derived from mediaeval
literature ; ornaments of various kinds — roses, fleurs-
de-lis, crowns, quatrefoils, etc. etc. ; and marks and
devices, as well as initials and names, of founders.
These it is unnecessary specially to recount. The
founders' marks, however, are so important that one
or two guiding examples must be engraved.
The variety of lettering used upon bells is some
what remarkable, and many admirable examples,
which might well be taken as copies for many
decorative purposes, are exhibited upon them. On
early bells the inscriptions are frequently wholly in
Lombardic capitals, or in ' text,' i.e, old English, or
in this same text with Lombardic capitals or initial
letters. Often, too, they are in what are generally
called ' Gothic ' capitals, and very commonly in
plain Roman capital letters. Sacred monograms
were introduced in diff'erent kinds of lettering, and

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

165

i66

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Figs. 255 to 260. — Examples of Bell Ornaments.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 167
with extremely good eff'ect, both at the commence
ment and in the course of the inscriptions, and also
separately with the marks and other devices. Fre
quently, too, the sacred monogram of the Blessed
Virgin, the Lombardic XTl, is given, and is usually
crowned. Other letters are also sometimes crowned
in a similar manner.
Inscriptions upon bells maybe divided into several
classes. Some of the earliest are simple dedications
to our Saviour, to the Blessed Virgin, or to some
saint ; or are Leonine or monkish hexameters ; invo
cations and expressions of praise ; rhymes upon the
uses of bells ; expressions of loyalty ; names of
donors, ministers, or churchwardens ; historical re
ferences ; doggerel rhymes on the founding or cost of
the bell ; and many other varieties. Of the first of
these the most usual formulae are: — 'Jesus;' 'Jesus
Nazarenus Rex Judeorum ;' 'Jesus Nazarene Rex
Judaeorum fill Dei Miserere Mei ;' 'Jesus be our
speed ;' 'Fill Dei Miserere Mei ;' ' Est mihi collatum
IHC istud nomen amatum ;' ' Sit nomen IHC bene-
dictum ; ' ' Protege pura via quos convoco Virgo
Maria;' 'Virginis Egregie Vocor Campana Marie;'
'Maria;' 'God help Sancte Maria;' 'Ave Maria;'
'Ave Maria Gracia Plena;' 'Ave Maria Gracia
Plena Dominus Tecum ;' ' Sum Rosa Pulsata Mundi
Maria Vocata ;' ' Stella Maria maris succurre piissima
nobis;' 'Serva Campanam Sancta Maria Sanam ;'
' Sum Virgo Sancta Maria ;' ' Ecce Maria Virgo.'
Besides the archangels Gabriel and Michael, almost

1 68 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
every saint in the Church is honoured upon bells,
most of them with the ' Sancte,' or the usual invoca
tion, ' Ora pro nobis,' at the commencement or end.
Thus : — -|- Sancte Gabrielis.
-I- See Georgi OPN.
-f- Sancte Laurente Orate pro nobis.
-|- Sancta Catarina ora pro nobis.
-\- Sancte Michael.
-f- O Sancte Stephane.
-f- Dulcis Sisto Melis Campana Vocor Gabrielis.
-1- Hie Nova Campana Margareta est Nominata.
-\- Sancta Anna ora pro nobis.
¦\- Sancte Paule ora pro nobis.
•\- Sancte Johannes ora pro nobis.
-\- Sancte Toma O.
-j- Sancte Gregori O N.
4- S. Thomas Treherne.
-|- Sancta Agatha ora pro nobis.
¦\- Sancte Jacobe ora pro nobis.
-f- Sante Dvnstane ora pro nobis, etc.
Words of praise, such as ' Gloria in Excelsis Deo ;'
'AUeluja;' ' SoH Deo Detur Gloria;' 'Laus Deo
Gratia Benefactoribus ; ' ' Laus et Gloria Deo ; '
' Praise God ;' ' Give thanks to God ;' ' O Lord, how
glorious are thy works;' 'All glory be to God on
high ;' 'All glory to God ;' ' Holy, holy, holy. Lord
God of Sabaoth,' are also of frequent occurrence.
Of Leonine or monkish hexameters, which re
search has proved to have been in use as early as
the third century, but which are said to have takep
their name from one Leoninus, a monk of Marseilles,

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 169
who lived about 11 35, the following examples will
be sufficient : —
-f- Sst iitifhi coUatttm ilu; ilittli xiaxnzxi amatam.
-)- Prottst %xx%o via qnos fonboco sancta maria.
-I- ^a« mca btta ifptUi) atnta nodna.
The last is curious as an illustration of the belief
that the ringing of bells would drive away thunder
and lightning, storms and tempests, demons and
unquiet spirits. It may be translated, ' By my lively
voice I drive away the saucy boys.'
+ J^Icbs ois plaaiit «t xa.t tam stp-ua attiit ;
which may be translated, 'All the people rejoice
when they hear my voice,' and is of frequent occur
rence. ^&x nxfliot here nu« cat camyana anb txt,
meaning : — ' A better bell than I
Cannot be found under the sky.'
-I- Jttistcrite sacris wpkat no» iia iahaimi^.
Others are as follows : —
-\- Sum Rosa Pulsata Mundi Katerina Vocata.
-\- Vox Augustini Sonat in Aure Dei.
-j- Per Quos fundator Jacobus precibus tueatur.
-j- lou cum flam crace custos laudo Mariam.
-f- Digna Dei Laude Mater dignissima gaude.
Among loyal inscriptions, and those of Church and
State, the most frequent are : —
' For Church and King we always ring.'
' God bless the Queen and save the Church.'

170 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
' I was made in hope to ring
At the crownacion of our King. '
' God preserve Queen Anne and the Church.'
' God bless Queen Anne.'
'God Save the Queen.'
' God preserve the Church of England. '
' Let us ring for Church and King.'
' God save the Church. '
' God bless the Church. '
' Come let us ring for Church and King. '
' Fear God, honour the King. '
' God preserve our King and Kingdom, and send us Peace. '
' God preserve the Church and King.'
' Ye people all that hear me ring.
Be faithful to your God and King.'
' Prosperity to the Church and Queen. '
' Serve God, honour the King.'
The couplets and other inscriptions as to the
offices and uses of bells to which I have referred
are very numerous and curious, and tell of mourn
ings and rejoicings, sacred ceremonies, and profane
merry-makings. In some instances a single bell
recounts, in epigrammatic style, these various offices ;
in others, a whole peal is used for continuous versifi
cation. One of the longest of these is the following,
at Bakewell : —
1st Bell. ' When I begin Our merry Din,
This Band I lead from Discord Free ;
And for the Fame Of human Name,
May ev'ry Leader copy Me : '

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 171

2d Bell. ' Mankind, like Us, too oft are found
Possess'd of Nought but empty Sound.'
3d Bell. ' When of departed Hours We toll the Knell,
Instruction take & spend the future Well.'
4th Bell. ' When Men in Hymen's Bands unite,
Our Merry Peals produce Delight ;
But when Death goes his dreary Rounds,
We send forth sad and solemn Sounds.'
5th Bell. ' Thro' Grandsires & Tripples with Pleasure men range,
'Till Death calls the Bob & brings on the Last Change.'
6th Bell. ' When Vict'ry crowns the Publi Weal
With Glee We give the merry Peal.'
7th Bell. ' Would Men Lik Us, join & agree
They 'd live in tunefuU Harmony. '
Sth Bell. ' Possess'd of deep, sonorous Tone
This Belfry King sits on his Throne ;
And, when the merry Bells go round.
Adds to & mellows ev'ry Sound ;
So in a just & well pois'd State,
Where all Degrees possess due Weight,
One greater Pow'r, One greater Tone
Is ceded to improve their own.'
And one of the shortest and most epigrammatic is
this, at Darley Dale : —
' Sacra Clango
Gavdia PI.ANGO
Fvnera Plango.'
A few other examples may be useful : —
' By Wolsey's gift I measure time for aU,
To mirth, to grief, to church, I serve to call.'

172 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

' Lord, quench this furious flame ;
Arise, run, help, put out the same.'
' I to the church the living call,
And to the grave do summon all,'
is very commonly found, with slight variations : —
' My roaring sounde doth warning give
That men cannot heare always lyve. '
' I sweetly tolling men do call
To taste on sweets that feed the soul.'
' At proper times my voice I'll raise.
And sound to my subscribers' praise.'
At St. Peter's, Nottingham, are the following five
verses : — ' Our voices shall with joyful sound,
Make hills and valleys echo round.'
' We celebrate th' auspicious mom
On which the Son of God was born.'
' Our voices shall in concert ring
To honour both of God and King. '
' The bride and groom we greet in holy wedlock join'd.
Our sounds are emblems of hearts in love combined. '
' I toll the funeral knell,
I hail the festal day, —
The fleeting hour I tell,
I summon all to pray.'
At Aston Rowant the bells tell their own tale : —
1st, 'I as treble begin;' 2d, 'I as second ring;'
3d, ' I as third will ring ;' 4th, ' I as fourth in my
places;' 5th, 'I as fifth willsound;' 6th, 'Richard
Keene cast me, 1664.'

ENGLISH ANTIQ UITIES. 1 73

' I ring to sermon with a lusty boome.
That all may come, and none may stop at home,'
occurs at Banbury ; and at Frome : —
' When I do call, come serve God all.'
At Coventry is a continuous example on a peal of
ten cast in 1774 : —
1st Bell. ' Though I am but light and small,
I will be heard above you all. '
2d Bell. ' If you have a judicious ear.
You will own my voice both sweet and clear.'
3d Bell. ' Such wondrous power to music given.
It elevates the soul to heaven.'
4th Bell. ' Whilst thus we join in cheerful sound.
May love and loyalty abound.'
Sth Bell. ' To honour both of God and King,
Our voices shall in concert ring. '
6th Bell. ' Music is medicine to the mind.'
7th Bell. ' Ye ringers all that prize
Your health and happiness.
Be sober, merry, wise.
And you'll the same possess.'
Sth Bell. ' Ye people all who hear me ring,
Be faithful to your God and King. '
gth BeU. ' In wedlock's bands all ye who join.
With hands your hearts unite ;
So shall our tuneful tongues combine
To laud the nuptial rite.'
I oth Bell. ' I am and have been called the common bell
To ring, when fier breaks out to tell.'

1/74 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
On another in the same town, dated 1675, is : —
' I ring at six to let men know
When too and from thair worke to goe. '
At Broadchalk the first bell says : —
' I am the first, and though but small,
I will be harde above you all. '
And the second : —
' I in this pleace am second bell,
lie shurly doe my parte as well.'
At Bromham : —
' I sound to bid the sick repent
In hope of life when breath is spent. '
Other, but shorter, examples are as follows : —
' Mentes toUite vos gaudia re dimus.'
' Voco ad Templum et Sepulchram. '
' Sum vitse mortis temporis atque tuba.'
' Laus et Gloria Deo. '
' Gaudeo cum gaudentibus fleo cum flentibus.'
' Mors Vestra Vita.'
' Ego sum vox clarnantis parate.'
' Jubilate Deo vox Harmonia;. '
' Vox Harmoniae et amoris. '
' Laus Domini nostra raobilitate viget.'
' Prosperity to those who love the bells.'
' When you me ring I '11 sweetly sing.'

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. I7S
' To means of grace to life I call ;
The news of death I bring to all. '
A few of a more curious character — some not over
and above reverent — may also be given to amuse my
readers : — ' A wonder great my eye I fix ;
Where was but three you may see six,'
occurs at Shaftesbury, where the former peal of three
bells was augmented to double that number.
' John Eyer gave twenty pound
To meek me a losty sound,'
and ' Thomas Eyer and John Winslade did contrive
To cast from four bells this peal of five,'
occur at Burtley, in Hampshire ; and at Binstead, in
the same county, is — •

and

and

' Doctor Nicholas gave five pound
To help cast this peal tuneable and sound,'
' Samuel Knight made this ring
In Binstead steeple for to ding.'
' Be it known to all that doth me see
That Newcombe of Leicester made mee,'
' Know all men that doth me see
That James Keene made mee,'

occur in Northamptonshire and other districts. And
at Calne —
' Robert Forman collected the moneye for castinge this bell
Of well-disposed people as I doe you tell.'

176 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

' 'Twas gentlemen brought me here,
And pleasant together ich five of us are, '
is at Uploman ; and at Welcombe —
' A Gooding cast us all fower
For this uew-builded tower. '
' Some generous hearts do me here fix.
And now I make a peal of six, '
occurs at Stockland ; and at Stoke Rivers —
' Our sound is good, our shapes is neat.
Its Davis cast us so compleat.'
' I call the quick to church, and dead to grave.'
' In tuneful peals your joys I '11 tell.
Your griefs I '11 publish in a knell. '
' I 'm given here to make a peal,
And sound the praise of Mary Neale, '
is at Alderton ; and at Himbleton —
' John Martin of Worcester he made wee.
Be it known to all that do wee see.'
At St. Benet's, Cambridge, we read —
' John Draper made me in i6l8 as plainly doth appeare;
This bell was broke and cast againe, wich tyme churchwardens were
Edward Dixson for the one whoe stode close to his tacklin.
And he that was his partner then was Alexander Jacklyn. '
At Northfield, the inscriptions on the six bells run
on, one after the other, as follows : —
1st Bell. ' We are now six, tho' once but five,'
2d Bell. ' And against our casting some did strive ; '

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 177
3d Bell. ' But when a day for meeting they did fix,'
4tli Bell. ' They appeared but nine against twenty-six. '
5th Bell. ' Sanjuel Palmer and Thomas Silk, churchwardens, 1730.'
6th Bell. ' Thomas Kettle and William Jarvis did contrive
To make us six that was but five. '
and thus a parish squabble was perpetuated. I will
only add one more doggerel rhyme, and that a
modern one, at Pilton : —
' Recast by Iohn Taylor and Son,
Who the best prize for church-bells won
At the great ex hi bi ti on
In London,
I S 5 AND I.
Founders, Loughborough.'
The following summary of the signa or bourdons
— the ' Great Toms ' and ' Big Bens ' of our
cathedrals and other places — will no doubt be
useful, as giving their weights, dimensions and his
tory. Great Tom of Oxford, the ' Mighty Tom ' of Dean
Aldrich's ' Bonny Christ Church Bells,' is 7 ft. i in.
in diameter at the mouth, and it weighs 7 tons 12
cwt. The original one belonged to Osney Abbey, and
bore the somewhat curious inscription, ' In Thomae
laude resono Bim Bom sine fraude.' The present
bell was cast in 1681, by Christopher Hodson of
London. Great Tom of Lincoln is 6 ft. \o\ in. in diameter
at the mouth, and weighs 5 tons 8 cwt. It was recast
in 1834, and hung in 1835 by Messrs. Mears; its
M

178 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
predecessor, the celebrated ' Tom ' having been cast
from a still older bell, with additional metal, by
Henry Oldfield of Nottingham, and William New
combe of Leicester, in t6iO.
Big ' Peter of York ' measures 8 ft. 4 in. in
diameter at the mouth, 7 ft. 7 in. in height, and
weighs 12 tons 10 cwt. ; it was cast by Messrs. Mears
of London in 1845.
The Great Bell of St. Paul's, London, measures
6 ft. I of in. in diameter at the mouth, and its
weight is 5 tons 4 cwt. It was cast by Richard
Phelps of London in 1716. Except for striking the
hour by the clock, this bell is only used for tolling at
the death and funeral of members of the Royal
Family, the Bishop of the diocese, the Dean of the
Cathedral, and the Lord Mayor of London, should
he die during his year of office.
Great Peter of Exeter is the oldest of the existing
big bells. The present one was cast by Thomas
Purdue in 1676 ; it measures 6 ft. 4 in. in diameter at
the mouth, and weighs 6 tons 5 cwt. Its predecessor
was dated 1484.
The Great Bell at St. Dunstan's, Canterbury,
weighs 3 tons 10 cwt. ; it was cast on the spot, at
Canterbury, by Lester and Pack of London in
1762. The Great Bell at Worcester is 6 ft. 4| in. in
diameter at the mouth ; it was cast by Messrs. J.
Taylor and Co. of Loughborough in 1868.
The Victoria Bell at Leeds, though not a church

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 179
bell, but hung at the new Town Hall, may also be
named. It was cast in 1858 by Messrs. Warner
and Sons of London, and weighs 4 tons i cwt., its
diameter at the mouth being 6 ft. 2 in.
The Great Bell of Glasgow was recast in London
in 1790, its predecessor having been made in 1594.
It bears so excellent a descriptive inscription that I
give it entire : —
' In the year of grace Mccccci.xxxxnii Marcus Knox, a merchant,
zealous for the' interests of the reformed religion, caused me
to be fabricated in Holland for the use of his fellow-citizens
of Glasgow, and placed with solemnity in the tower of the
Cathedral. My function was announced by the impression on
my bosom — Me Audito Venias
DOCTRINAM SaNCTAM UT DISCAS ;
and I was taught to proclaim the hours of unheeded time.
cxcv years have I sounded these awful warnings, when I was
broken by the hands of inconsiderate and unskilful men.
' In the year mdccxc I was cast into the furnace, refounded at
London, and returned to my sacred vocation.
' Reader ! thou also shalt know a Resurrection ;
May it be unto eternal life. '
Big Ben of Westminster is the largest 'big bell'
in this kingdom. It is not a church bell, but hangs
in the great clock-tower of the new Houses of
Parliament. The first ' Big Ben ' (for ever since
1856 there have been two) — the largest bell ever
attempted to be made in England — was cast at the
Norton Foundry, near Stockton-on-Tees, on the
25th of August 1856, by Messrs. J. Warner and

i8o HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Sons of London, and was safely brought and de
livered at its destination at Westminster ; but from
being so much struck for amusement while resting
for some weeks in Palace Yard previously to being
hoisted into the tower, it was cracked, and had to
be broken up and recast. Its weight was i6 tons
II cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lbs., its height 7 ft. io| in., and
its diameter at the mouth 9 ft. 5I in. ; the thickness
of metal at the sound bow was 9I in. ; the four
quarter-bells weighed about 8 tons. In 1857 the
present bell was cast by Mr. George Mears of
London, but of a less size, its weight being only
13 tons 10 cwt. 3 qrs. 15 lbs. Unfortunately, it is
known to be slightly cracked, and this to some
extent interferes with the full tone it ought to give
out. There was formerly a 'Great Tom of West
minster,' which was sold for St. Paul's Cathedral in
1698 ; but as though he determined never to give
out a sound of his voice away from his own place,
as he was being conveyed by Temple Bar — the
boundary of Westminster and London — he rolled off
the carriage and was broken. In 1708 he was recast
by Philip Wightman.
All these ' big bells,' however, pale into shper
insignificance when compared with the ' Great Bell
of Moscow! which, although it has nothing to do
with my subject of English bells, may just be stated
to weigh no less than 192 tons 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 14 lbs.,
and to measure 21 ft. in height exclusive of the
cannons, and 63 ft. in circumference ; and the ' New

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

Bell! of the same city, which measures 21 ft. in
height, and is 18 ft. in diameter.
The Sacring Bell was rung at the elevation of
the host inside the church in England, by the con
stitutions of Cantelupe in 1240, as a warning of
devotion ; it was rung, first, by the serving boy or
parish clerk while the elements were being blessed,
and at its sound the people knelt down whilst the
host was elevated ; the second time was during the
crossing of the chalice with the host.
The Sanctus or Saunce Bell generally, but not
always, hung in a small bell-cote at the apex of the
gable, over the chancel arch outside the church. It
was rung at the singing of the Ter Sanctus in the
iiigh mass, as a warning to those outside — to all
A^hose ears it would reach — that the canon of the
mass was about to commence, in order that the absent
from daily mass, iri house or field, might bend their
knees at the sound ; and it is said that his people
would let their plough rest when George Herbert's
saint's bell rang for prayers, that they might also
offer their devotions to God, and would then return
to the plough. The bell still in some places rung
after matins is a relic of this sanctus bell.
Hand-bells, of which the sacring bell was one,
were used for various offices of the Church besides
in its ceremonies. Among these were visitation of
the sick, for processional purposes, and at funerals.
In the latter case acolytes walked beside the hearse
or body with a bell in each or in one hand, ringing

1 82 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
as they went ; and sometimes, as formerly at Oxford
and other places, a bell was carried and rung before
the corpse on its way to church.
The Passing Bell, even in mediaeval times peculiar
to England, is tolled at the death of any person,
the sex of the deceased being denoted by a certain
number of strokes preceding the regular tolling.
For instance, at Woodborough, three tolls thrice
repeated for a man, and two tolls thrice repeated
for a woman. At Winster, for a man three tolls
are struck on the treble bell, then three on the
second, then three on the third, then three cn the
fourth, and lastly three on the tenor, with a short
pause between each ; then the tolling commences
on the tenor bell. For a woman the same form is
observed, but only two strokes are given on each
bell. In some localities the age of the deceased is
also tolled. The original use of the ' Passing bell,'
or • Soul-bell,' as it is sometimes called, was to keep
away any evil spirits that might be hovering about,
from taking possession of the departed soul, and so
to ' pass ' it upwards, safe from abduction by the
devil and his attendant imps, to the footstool of its
Maker. It also served the purpose of reminding its
hearers that a soul was ' passing ' away, and so called
for their prayers in its behalf
The Funeral Bell is generally rung for an hour
before the appointed time of burial. It is usually
the tenor bell which is tolled ; and in some places,
immediately at the close of the service at the grave.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 183
the treble is rapidly rung until the mourners have
left the churchyard.
The Sermon Bell, or ' priest's bell,' is the treble,
at the end of the peal calling to morning service,
rapidly rung from the moment the clergyman
emerges from the vestry until he is seated in the
reading-desk. The Pudding Bell, as popularly so called, is the
treble rapidly tolled at the close of morning service ;
so called because it is said to be intended to give
notice to the housewives at home that they may put
the dinners on the table by the time the congregation
reach their homes '
The Curfew, which still 'tolls the knell of parting
day' in many of our country villages — long may the
practice be continued ! — is one of the most venerable
of the bell institutions of our country. The Curfew
bell {couvre feu) was introduced, or at all events
enforced, in England by William the Conqueror. It
was introduced at Oxford by Alfred the Great. It
was rung at eight o'clock each night, and at its sound
all lights were expected to be extinguished in every
house ; hence it was called Ignitegium. It was a wise
law at the time ; for when the houses were mostly
built of wood and light materials, it was a safeguard
against conflagrations. The law was abolished by
Henry I. in iioo, but the custom of tolling is con
tinued in many places.
Peal Ringing is peculiar to our own country, and
its use in the Middle Ages earned for our land the

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

name of the ' ringing island.' Change Ringing was
not invented till quite late in the sixteenth or early
in the seventeenth century. The first recorded
society of ringers, the ' Company of the Schollers of
Chepeside,' was enrolled in 1603, and was quickly
followed by others.
Carillons, or chimes, where tunes are, at stated
hours, played on a number of bells, are of old origin,
and have of late years been added to many churches.
The best, whether ancient or modern, arrangers and
makers of carillons are Messrs. Gillet and Bland of
Croydon.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 185

CHAPTER XI.
AMONG GLASS, STAINED GLASS, ENCAUSTIC TILES,
TAPESTRY, ETC.
Stained glass seems to date back in our own
country to about the twelfth century, but that glass
itself was made here some centuries before that time,
there can scarcely be a doubt. It is well known that
glass, both opaque and transparent, coloured and
colourless, was made by the Egyptians between three
and four thousand years ago ; it was known to the
Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Etruscans ; and made,
to a high degree of perfection, by the Romans. In
our own country there is a possibility that the art
was known at a somewhat late period — indeed, after
its subjugation by the armies of Rome — to the Celtic
population, beads of that material being found with
undoubted ancient British remains. These, however,
may, with almost a degree of certainty, be con
sidered of Roman manufacture. Imperforate beads
of this kind, of large size, have been found at
Adderbury and other places. One is shown in

1 86 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Fig. 261. What the use of these large imperforate
beads vvas, if beads they can in consequence be
called, remains a mystery. The one engraved is of
a dark green glass mottled or speckled with white ;
the engraving is its actual size. Roman beads of
glass are not uncommon. Of these I have spoken in
another chapter.
Traces of a Roman glass manufactory have been
found near Brighton, on the coast between Kemp

Fig. 261.

Town and Rottingdean. The discovery was made
in 1848 by Dr. Guest, who found several lumps of
the crude glass of various colours — amethyst, amber,
emerald, green, and deep morone. Some of these
lumps, which had long been found on the spot,
were ' double the size of a man's fist,' and a lapidary
in Brighton had for years been in the habit of
cutting them up and polishing small portions for

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

187

setting in brooches, etc. Evidently these lumps are
part of the massa made in the manner described
by Pliny, and ready to be sent to the different glass-

FlG. 262.

Fig. 263. Fig. 264.
workers in other parts of the kingdom. Glass
vessels ofthe Romano-British period are frequently
met with, but usually, except in the case of the

Fig. 265.

sepulchral vessels, in a fragmentary state. The
glass sepulchral vessels are usually bottle-shaped.

1 88 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
sometimes round, but more commonly square, with
necks, and one or two handles (Fig. 264). They
contained the calcined bones of the dead. Through
these ' bottles ' having been protected when buried,
in the manner represented in Fig. 265, where the whole
interment is shown, they are occasionally found in
a perfect state. Cups or bowls, drinking-glasses,
small bottles for holding unguents or aromatics, and
other vessels in glass of this period, are also found.
Some of the bowls are
decorated with figures
or other ornaments in
relief Window glass
of this period is also
found ; notably are some
examples which I dis-
flG. 2bb. 1 • T)
covered in a Roman
villa excavated by myself in Oxfordshire. Inscrip
tions sometimes occur on these cups, such as BIBE
FELICITER (' Drink with good luck ! '), BIBE UT VIVAS
(' Drink that you may live!'), VIVAS BIBERE ('May
you live to drink!'). Somewhat similar inscriptions
now and then occur on pottery — VIVAS (' Live!'), AVE
('Hail!'), BIBE ('Drink!'), IMPLE ('Fill!'), EX HOC
AMICI BIBANT ('Out of this cup, friends, drink!'), a
charming motto for a ' loving cup,' and so on ; and
the same feeling was carried on in the Anglo-Saxon
W^S H^L ('Be thou in health!'), from which our
wassail is derived. From drinking from ' cups,'
whether of glass, earthenware, or wood, the common

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

igo HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
expression of being ' in his cups,' applied to a tipsy
person, is derived.
Among the Anglo-Saxons the manufacture of
glass was continued ; the glass itself being usually
thinner than that of the preceding period. They
are principally drinking-cups of diff'erent forms, and
decanter-shaped vessels, which are closely analogous
in shape to our common glass toilet water-bottles.
The Anglo-Saxons are supposed by most writers to
have derived their knowledge of the art of glass-
making from their Roman predecessors, but of this
more proof is wanting. So very different in most
of its characteristics is the Saxon glass from the
Roman, that it is difficult to believe that the one is
but an imitation of the other. The forms are in
many instances similar to those found in Frankish
graves, and it is certain that the art was practised
simultaneously in the Saxon period in Germany,
France, and our own country. The drinking-cups
of glass were formed either rounded or pointed at
the bottom, so that they could not stand, and thus,
when filled, the liquor was obliged to be drunk off"
before the cup could be set down inverted on the
table. From this circumstance our modern name
for drinking-glasses — tumblers — takes its origin,
although not now in the original sense ; our present
' tumblers ' being particularly safe and firm when
set on the table, and not necessitating the whole
of the contents being quaffed at once (Figs. 277
to 279).

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

igi

These examples, it will be seen, must have been
held in the open palms of the hand, as is so
frequently represented in illumina
tions, and must have been emptied
of their contents before being re
turned, inverted, to the board ; as
must have been the long ale-glasses
shown in Figs. 270 to 274, the
mode of holding which is also
shown in Fig. 280, from an illu
minated MS. of the time. The
shape of these was probably taken
from the drinking horns then in fig. 280.
use. In Beowulf they are thus spoken of : —

J>egn nytte beheold,
se )>e handa boer
hroden ealo-wa^ge.

' The Thane observed his office,
he that in his hand bare
the twisted ale-cup.'

The manufacture of glass for domestic purposes
seems to have declined during the early mediaeval
period, and even for windows of dwelling-houses,
through its costliness, paper or oiled linen was used.
Still there can be no doubt the manufacture of glass
was never, as has been affirmed, wholly discontinued
in this kingdom. Chaucer speaks of glass being
made : —
' But nathless some saiden that it was
Wonder to maken of feme ashen, glasse.
And yet is glass nought but ashen of feme ;
But for they han yknown it so feme (long ago)
Therefor ceaseth hir jangling and hir wonder.'

192 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
A contract, dated 1439, between the Countess
of Warwick and John Pruddhe of Westminster,
glazier, binds him, in the work he is engaged in, to
' use no glass of England, but glass from beyond
seas.' In 1557 there were glass-works in Sussex, as
we learn from Charnock's Breviary of Philosophy : —
' As for glass-makers, they be scant in this land.
Yet one there is, as I do understand ;
And in Sussex is now his habitation.
At Chiddingford he works ofhis occupation.'
In 1557 window glass was made in Crutched
Friars, London. In 1567 Jean Quarre, or Carre,
of Antwerp, and others brought workmen from
Lorraine, and established themselves in Crutched
Friars, and glass-works were established somewhat
later in Surrey. Stow says : — ' The Friars Hall
[Crutched Friars] was converted into a glass House
for making Drinking vessels, which was destroyed
by fire in 1575.' In 1589 there were fifteen glass
houses in England. In 1635 Sir Robert Maunsell
took out a patent for glass-making.
. About 1650 ' Mr. Ravenscroft first made the flint
glasses;' and about the same time 'the Duke of
Buckingham first encouraged glass plate,' ' since that
(1696) we have mended our window glass, and outdo
all abroad.' In 1696 English window glass is de
clared to be ' the best in the world,' and ' flint mum-
glasses ' to be worthy of improvement. In that year
(1696) there were in England the following glass
houses : —

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

193

An account of all the

The

The

And the sorts

Glass-houses in England

several Counties

No. of

of Glass each House

and Wales.

they are in.

houses.

makes.

( 9

For bottles.

In and about London \

\ ^

Looking-glass plates.

and Southwark, . , f

1 4
Crown glass and plates.
y 9
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Woolwich,
Kent, ....
{I
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Crown glass and plates,
Isle of Wight, . . .
Hampshire,
I
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Topsham, near Exon,
Devonshire, . .
Bottles.
Oddam, near Bath, . )
Chellwood, . . j
Somersetshire, .
{I
Bottles.Bottles and window glass.
( 5
Bottles.
In and ahout Bristol, ,
] ^
Bottles and window glass.
1 3
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Gloucester, . }
Newnham, . . . . )
Gloucestershire,
\i
Bottles.Bottle-houses.
Swansey, in Wales,
Glamorgan,
Bottles.
Oaken-Yate,
Shropshire, . .
Bottles and window |;lass.
Worcester, . .
Worcestershire, .
Flint, green, and ordmary.
Coventry,
Warwickshire, .
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Window glass.
Stowerbridge,
Worcestershire, .
5
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Bottles.
Near Liverpool, . )
Warrington, . . (
Lancashire,
{I
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Window glass.
Nottingham, . . . l
Answorth, . . (
Custom-more, near [
Answorth, . )
(I
Bottles.
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Nottingham,
\\
Bottles.
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Bottles.
Near Silkstone, . )
Yorkshire,
Bottles.Flint, green, and ordinary.
Near Ferrybridge, . )
Bottles, flint, green, and
ordinary.
{ I
Bottles.
King's Lynn, . \
Yarmouth, . . * i
Norfolk,
¦ I
Flint, green, and ordinary.
Bottles.
Window glass.
Newca stle-upon-Tyne,
Northumberland,
4
Bottles.
Flint, green, and ordinary.
90
Stained, or rather painted, glass is either manu
factured what is technically termed 'white' {i.e.
simply colourless, not white at all) or 'coloured.'
The 'white' (falsely so called, because it is colourless),
after being properly prepared in the melting-pot of
N
194 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
the glass-house, is formed into sheets, and after
wards annealed. ' Coloured ' glass is of two kinds ;
it is either ' pot-metal glass,' i.e. coloured in its entire
substance, or ' coated glass,' i.e. one side of the sheet
of the pot-metal glass is covered or coated with
colour. There are three systems of glass-painting.
These are — i. The ' mosaic' method, where the design
is formed of pieces of various coloured glasses, cut to
the required shapes, and joined together by the leads,
so as to form the outline, the features and subordi
nate parts being outlined with brown ; 2. The 'enamel'
method, in which coloured glass is not used at all,
the picture being entirely painted in all its brilliancy
of colour on the ' white ' glass, with enamel colours
and stains; and 3. The 'mosaic enamel' method,
which is a combination of the other two, ' white ' and
' coloured ' glass, as well as every variety of enamel
colour and stain, being employed in it. The styles
of glass-painting have been arranged by Mr. Winston
almost under the same general divisions as those of
architecture, thus : —
The Early English, which extends from the date
ofthe earliest specimens extant to the year 1280.
The Decorated, which prevailed from 1280 to
1380. The Perpendicular, from 1380 to 1530.
The Cinque Cento, from 1500 to 1550; and
The Intermediate, comprehending the period that
has elapsed from the end of the Cinque Cento style
down to the present day.

ENGLISH ANTIQ UITIES. 1 95
At first the design consisted of historical medal
lions arranged with mosaic glass, which embraced
panels with geometrical patterns and borders of
scroll-work and leaves. The folds of the draperies
and details are marked out in bistre colour. The
outhnes of the designs are formed by leading. In
the fourteenth century the pieces of glass are larger,
the slips of lead occur at wider intervals, whilst single
figures, placed under canopies, and not on a mosaic
ground, but a plain field of red or blue, occupy an
entire window. Lights and shadows are introduced
in the draperies, and the flesh tints are no longer
violet, but of a reddish grey. In the fifteenth and
first part of the sixteenth centuries, the decorations
were increased ; hangings are placed behind figures,
borders become rare, and when they occur represent
a scanty leafage. Grisaille, or silver grey, is freely
used. In the second half of this century buildings
and landscapes are introduced.
At Canterbury, on glass of the twelfth century (for
which Gondomar, the Spanish Ambassador, ofi'ered
its weight in gold), the design consists of panels of
scriptural subjects on a ground of ruby or deep blue ;
rich mosaic patterns fill the interspaces, and a broad
bunch of foliage or scroll-work completes the plan.
In the thirteenth century the panels are usually
circular, or quatrefoiled, and the colours used are
ruby, blue, green, palish yellow, and lilac sparingly.
In the Decorated period the interspaces have flowing
foliage, quarries are freely used, and single figures,

196 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
usually canopied, are frequently represented ; green
and lilac are dying out of fashion. In the Perpen
dicular period yellow became more prominent ; the
figures increased to a large size, with elaborate
canopies, and heraldic cognisances and inscriptions,
freely used, mark the style.^ Beautiful examples
of stained glass of every period may be met with
in one or other of our cathedrals, and in most of
our old churches. In modern times stained glass
has again become pretty general, and many of
the windows executed by our own English artists
are of good and efi"ective design and clever execu
tion. The use of ORNAMENTED PAVING TILES in
England probably originated in the middle of the
twelfth century — at all events, no examples which
can be ascribed to an earlier period have as yet been
discovered — and continued until the sixteenth cen
tury, when their beauty became much deteriorated,
and their use gradually decayed. Some of the
earliest known examples are from Castle Acre ;
these appear to be of the latter part of the twelfth,
or of the beginning of the thirteenth century, as is
a pavement in the Chapter House, Westminster, in
which many of the tiles bear figures of king, queen,
priests, and knights, with armorial bearings, and
Early English foliage. To this century also belongs
the pavement at Worcester, which I discovered and
cleared in 1848 ; and to the same period are also to
' Walcott.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 197
be ascribed tiles from Repton, Bakewell, Derby,
Exeter, Malvern, Bredon, Great Bedwyn, Warbling-
ton, St. Cross, Tintern, Wirksworth, Tewkesbury, and
many other places.
In the two following centuries, the decorations
were of a much more varied and elaborate character ;
oak, ivy, vine, and other leaves were beautifully and
closely copied from nature, and skilfully displayed in
their disposition — indeed, the foliage of this period
exhibited generally much natural freedom, and was
elegantly and gracefully thrown, so as to form elabo
rate and striking patterns. Excellent examples of
this period occur at Worcester, Wells, and Winchester
Cathedrals, at Shrewsbury, Evesham, St. Albans, etc.
At Malvern the date 1453 occurs in the series, and
others of the same date are to be seen at Stone and
Malmesbury. In the sixteenth century, the use of encaustic
tiles appears to have been almost superseded by the
introduction of Flanders or GaUy tiles ; these are of
foreign fabrication, and have their patterns depicted
in superficial colours. Some of these occur at Holt.
In Devonshire and other western counties, tiles of
a late period are occasionally met with, whose
devices are raised above the general surface in high
relief Examples may be seen at Tawstock, at
Westleigh, and other places. Of the process ob
served in the manufacture of encaustic tiles, it is
only necessary to remark, that the red clay being
prepared of the proper consistency, and placed in

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

the hollow square mould, a stamp of wood, bearing
the device in relief, was pressed upon its surface,
and the pattern thus became indented into the clay.
A thin layer of white clay was next laid into the
hollow thus formed, and the tile was then baked —
a yellow glaze being spread over the whole surface
and burnt in. That this was the mode of manufac
ture may easily be seen by examining old pave
ments where the glaze has been, by long use, worn
away from the surface, and has left the white
clay in the interstices, not unfrequently in a loose
state. Instances occur of tiles being left simply
impressed with the pattern without filling in, and '
then glazed over. One remarkably elegant example
of this kind I recollect finding at Shrewsbury,
where the vine leaf and grape were exquisitely
indented. Kilns for the manufacture of tiles have
been found at St. Mary Witton, Droitwich ; at
Malvern ; at Great Bedwyn, Wiltshire ; at Repton
and at Dale Abbey, in Derbyshire ; in London, and
in other places.
The devices impressed upon encaustic tiles consist
principally of foliage variously thrown, so as to form
crosses, quatrefoils, scrolls, and other varieties of
ornamentation ; heraldic bearings ; crosses ; sacred
symbols ; figures of mounted knights, and of kings,
queens, and ecclesiastics ; letters and alphabets ;
grotesque figures ; beasts and birds. In many cases
the pattern is complete in itself on the single tile ;
but sets of four, nine, sixteen, and other numbers.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 199
with a continuous pattern extending over their
whole surface, are of not uncommon occurrence.
Armorial bearings, badges, and cognisances are
perhaps amongst the most useful and valuable
species of decoration to the archaeologist which tile
paving presents ; the arms frequently exhibiting the
bearings of the lords of the manor, or of the chase,
as well as those of the monarch, and of founders
and benefactors of the church. They are therefore
peculiarly valuable in the assistance which they
give in tracing the descent of property, and in
determining the sources of church benefaction. At
Haccombe, in Devonshire, besides the royal arms
and other bearings, is the shield of the founder,
Haccombe ; at Neath are the arms of Clare, De
Spencer, De Granavilla, Montacute, Turberville, and
other patrons and benefactors of the abbey ; at Bake-
well are the arms of Foljambe and Breton ; and at
Malvern are the arms of Clare and De Spencer,
Earls of Gloucester ; Newburgh and Beauchamp,
Earls of Warwick (the successive lords of the chase
and manor) ; and the royal arms, the lordship having
reverted to the Crown by marriage. At Worcester
are the royal shield and the arms of the Earl of
Cornwall, and of Beauchamp, Le Boteler, Le Scot,
Digby, Clare, Warren, Carpenter, etc. ; at Wenlock,
Salop, are Mortimer and others ; at Gloucester,
those of Abbot Sebroke ; at Haughmond, Corbett ;
in Christ Church, Oxford, the royal arms, and those
of the see of Exeter ; at Shrewsbury are Hastings,

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Mortimer, Beauchamp, and others ; at Warblington,
Clare and Grey ; at Hereford, Mortimer, Berkeley,
Edward the Confessor, etc. ; and at Bredon, in
Worcestershire, is an extensive series, comprising
upwards of thirty bearings of illustrious families of
the thirteenth century. Amongst them are those
of Edward I., Queen Eleanor (Castile and Leon),
Edward of Carnarvon, France (sem^e-de-lis), Bohun,
Warren, Clare, Cantilupe, Maltravers, Mortimer of
Wigmore, Mortimer of Chirk, Wake, Hastings,
Beauchamp, Berkeley, Grandison, Latimer, De "Vere,
De Geneville, De Spencer, etc. These will be suffi
cient instances to show the nature of armorial tiles,
and their value to the topographer.
In some instances, four or more tiles are employed
for the production of one complete shield, as at
Westminster, Worcester, Gloucester, etc., and in
others the shields are introduced with good eff"ect,
as part of the foliated or geometrical design of the
pavement. At Worcester, the well-known bearings
of Richard, King of the Romans — the lion rampant
within a bordure bezanty, for the Earldom of Corn
wall, and the spread eagle — are each formed of four
tiles, the shields being placed diagonally. These
and several others I had the gratification of dis
covering in 1848. At the same place are the arms
of Beauchamp and Bishop Carpenter, so arranged as
to form, when quadrupled, some most interesting
devices. At Gloucester also are excellent examples
of shields formed of four and more tiles. At Malvern

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

is a remarkable example of impaling, in which the
tiles are so arranged as to present, when placed
together, both the simple family bearing and the
impaled one after marriage. Besides armorial bear
ings, the badges and cognisances of families, as well
as rebuses and personal devices, are frequently found
on tiles. For instance, at Malvern is a winch (or
capstan), a comb, and a mitre and pastoral staff, for
Tydeman de Winchcombe ; while at Tutbury is the
nave of a wheel, which is one of the badges of the
Stafford family.
Sacred symbols are of very frequent occurrence,
and of great variety ; of these the fish, the pehcan,
the cross, the lily, the Agnus Dei, the cross keys,
the various emblems of the Passion, the interlaced
triangles, monograms of I.H.C. and M., are perhaps
the most general. There are also others which bear
inscriptions of a pious character, and others again
bearing a kind of charm. At Malvern is a tile with
the words, ' Mentem . Sanctam . Spontaneum . Hono-
rem . Deo . et . Patrie . Liberacionem', and at the same
place, with the names of the Evangelists, and the date
1456, is the quotation from Job xix. 21, ' Miseremini
mei, m.iseremini mei, saltern vos amici mei, quia manus
Domini tetigit me!
Mounted knights, priests, ladies, grotesque figures,
etc., occur at Romsey, St. Cross, Margam, Tintern,
Shrewsbury, Burton, Kegworth, Thurgarton, Reading,
Oxford, and many other places, and many of them
have been of considerable use, by the examples of

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

costume which they exhibit, in assisting to establish
the date of the foundation of the building. Letters,
too, are not uncommon on this species of fictile
decoration, and they occur sometimes singly, as at
Beaulieu, where nearly the whole alphabet is trace
able on tiles of smaU dimensions, so that they may
be placed together to form inscriptions. In other
instances complete alphabets occur, as at Repton
and other places in Derbyshire. Monuments com
posed entirely of tiles are occasionally met with, but
are of rare occurrence. They are occasionally found,
as at Malvern, for wall decoration.
The usual colours are, of course, red and yellow,
the ground being of the former, and the pattern of
the latter colour. Instances, however, sometimes
occur in which other colours, black and green for
instance, are used. Enamelled tiles are also some
times met with, in which, as in the Mayor's Chapel,
Bristol, and at Frithelstoke, the patterns are depicted
in a variety of colours. The usual size of tiles is four
and a half or five inches square, but they are found of
various dimensions. They are, except in very rare
instances, square.
Tapestry was much in use among the Anglo-
Saxons, who called it wah-hragel or wah-rift, ' wall-
clothing.' These were, undoubtedly, frequently only
plain cloths, not tapestry; but quite as frequently
they were richly ornamented, and worked with
historical subjects. 'So early as the seventh cen
tury,' says Wright, ' Aldhelm speaks of the hangings

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 203
or curtains being dyed with purple and other
colours, and ornamented with images ;' and he adds
that 'if finished of one colour uniform they would
not seem beautiful to the eye.' Among the Saxon
wills printed by Hickes, we find several bequests of
heall wah-riftas, or wall tapestries for the hall ; and
it appears that in some cases tapestries of a richer
and more precious character than those in common
use were preserved to be hung up on extraordinary
festivals. There were hooks or pegs on the wall,
upon which various objects were hung for con
venience. In an anecdote told in the contemporary
hfe of Dunstan, he is made to hang his harp
against the wall of the room. Arms and armour,
more especially, were hung against the wall of
the hall. The author of the Life of Hereward
describes the Saxon insurgents, who had taken
possession of Ely, as suspending their arms in this
manner ; and in one of the riddles in the Exeter
Book, a war-vest is introduced speaking of itself
thus : —
hwilum hongige, ' Something I hang,
hyrstum froetwed, with ornaments adorned,
wlitig on wage, splendid on the wall,
l>sr weras drince'5, where men drink,
freolic fyrd-sceorp a goodly war- vest.'
The most celebrated, if not the most ancient, piece
of needlework tapestry — real tapestry being en
tirely wrought by the needle, as was usual in the
earliest period of its history — which time has spared

204 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
us is the 'Bayeux tapestry,' and called at Bayeux
the 'Toilet of Queen Matilda,' or of 'Due Guil
laume.' It is a representation of the history of the
stirring events in the life of William, Duke of Nor
mandy, from the arrival of Harold's ambassadors to
inform him of his detention by Guy, Count of Pon-
thieu, to the close of the battle of Hastings, where
he earned his title of William the Conqueror. This
tapestry is popularly said to be the work of Matilda,
his queen, and the ladies of her court, and to have
been by her presented, through her brother-in-law,
Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and uterine brother of the
Conqueror, to that cathedral. This popular belief
has been attempted to be demolished, but without
detracting one day from its antiquity. It is un
doubtedly a work of the period whose events it
commemorates. The Bayeux tapestry was removed
from the cathedral in 1803, and is preserved on a
roller in the town library of that place. It is a
continuous piece of needlework, 214 feet in length,
and between nineteen and twenty inches in breadth.
One end — the latter end — is decayed away ; and,
probably, as the design breaks off" abruptly, some
portion has been lost. It is worked in coloured
wools, or worsted.
Tapestry continued (as did needlework embroi
dery) to be worked in England during the Middle
Ages, and was used not only for covering the walls
of rooms, but for hangings in cathedrals, abbeys, and
churches. ' In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,'

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 205
says Mr. Blanche, 'the art progressed rapidly, in
consequence of the increasing demand for a material
which clothed the cold, comfortless stone walls of
the castles and mansions of the nobility, and not
only gave warmth and cheerfulness to the cham
ber, but frequently illustrated the actions of its
owner or his chivalrous ancestors. The tapestries
of Flanders were in great repute as early as the
twelfth century ; but although England was cele
brated long previously for her wonderful needle
work — so much so, indeed, that all peculiarly fine
embroidery obtained the name of " English work "
{opus Anglicum) — it does not appear that any
successful attempts were made to introduce the
weaving of hangings in this country, whilst manu
factories were successively established at Brussels,
Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lisle, Tournay, Bruges, Arras,
Florence, and Venice. Of all these, that of Arras
appears to have shortly become the most famous,
and, indeed, almost substituted its own name for
that of its production. Arras became in England
synonymous with tapestry, and Arrazzi in Italy
signified the most perfect description of this manu
facture.' In the sixteenth century Francis I. established
the manufactory of Fontainebleau, where gold and
silver threads were woven into the work after the
Florentine and "Venetian manner. Henry II., besides
keeping up this manufactory, established another in
the Hdpital de la Trinity ; and Henry IV. estab-

2o6 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
lished another in the H6tel de la Maque, where
gold and silver threads were woven as at Fon
tainebleau. The famous manufactory of the Gobe
lins was established by Louis XIV., who purchased
the premises of some clever dyers of that name
(Gobelin) about 1666; and the productions of the
H6tel Royal des Gobelins are said to have attained
the highest degree of perfection in the time of
Louis's great minister, Colbert, and his successor,
Louvois. ' It was probably the reputation of the
French, Flemish, and Italian tapestries of the six
teenth century, that induced an English gentleman,
named Sheldon, later in the reign of Henry Vlll., to
introduce tapestry weaving on a large scale into
England. The Countess of Wilton, in her Art of
Needlework, states that Sheldon appropriated his
manor-house at Burcheston, in Warwickshire, to
this purpose ; the works being then under the
direction of an artist named Robert Hicks, whom
he mentions in his will, dated 1570, as "the only
author and beginner of tapestry and arras within
this realm." To James I. we are indebted for the
establishment of the better known manufactory at
Mortlake, under the management of Sir Francis
Crane, about 1619. Two thousand pounds were
given by the king towards the foundation of it ;
and an artist named Klein, born at Rostock, in the
Duchy of Mecklenburg, was engaged to supply it
with original designs. Charles I. continued the
royal patronage, allowing Sir Francis Crane two

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 207
thousand pounds per annum for ten years in lieu of
one thousand originally granted, " toward the further
ance, upholding, and maintenance of the work of
tapestries latterlie brought into this our kingdom by
the said Sir Francis Crane, and now by him and his
workmen practised and put in use at Mortlake in our
county of Surrey." Six thousand pounds was also
granted as due to the establishment for three suits
of gold tapestries. The king settled upon Klein an
annuity of one'hundred pounds in addition, which he
enjoyed until the commencement of the civil war.
The premises at Mortlake, having been sold to the
king by Sir Richard Crane, on the death of his
brother Francis, were seized by the Parliamentarians
as royal property; and though, after the Restoration,
Charles II. endeavoured to revive the manufacture,
and employed Verrio to make designs for it, the
attempt was not successful. Foreign tapestry appears
still to have maintained its superiority, or at least its
vogue, as we find an Act of Parliament passed in
1663 to " encourage the tapestry manufactures of
England, and to restrain the great importance of
foreign linen and tapestry."
Tapestry was usuaUy suspended on hooks in the wall.
The hooks for this purpose remain along the nave
walls of Winchester, and examples are preserved at
Beauvais; St. Peter's Mancroft, Norwich, 1573 ; Den
bigh, a dorsal (1530) ; at Chester, of French manufac
ture, till lately used as a dorsal ; at Merton College,
Oxford ; and Westminster, of the time of James II.

2o8 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
Polydore Vergil, in the sixteenth century, gave hang
ings embroidered with his arms for the stalls at Wells.
Those given by Prior Goldstone to Canterbury are
now at Aix. The screen hangings used for shelter
and ornament at Exeter represent the story of the
Duke of Burgundy, and were blazoned with the
arms of the Courtenays. At Peterborough, in the
transept, tapestry with the deliverance of St. Peter
out of prison, of the time of Henry Vlll., is the solitary
relic of sixteen pieces used on festivals, and suspended
till 1643 from the choir triforium. At Manchester,
there is tapestry {c. 1661). From Christmas to
Purification, from Easter Eve to the octave of Trinity
Sunday, from the Assumption to Michaelmas, and
on St. Chad's Day, Lichfield was adorned with silken
hangings and cloths. At York, Archbishop Lamp-
lugh gave tapestries for hanging the reredos. At
Westminster, tapestries were hung round the eastern
most bays at the coronation of Charles I., and re
mained till the last century. Until 1765, the bays
between the pillars were hung with tapestry at Car
lisle. The tapestry hangings remained at Norwich
till 1740. — {Walcott!)
Of domestic tapestry, examples remain in most of
the old mansions of the kingdom.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 209

CHAPTER XII.
AMONG PERSONAL ORNAMENTS.
Adornment for the body, even when dress was
wholly unknown or only partly used, has ever been
a characteristic of the human race. At the present
hour the Andamanese women, though entirely devoid
of clothing, wear a chaplet or string of bones round
the head ; while other jiude races will hang some rude
ornament to the ear or nose, or round the neck, arm,
or leg. As it is with them now, so it was with the
earliest inhabitants of our island, and when dress
became known, rude though it was, ornaments of
one kind or other became more frequent. Necklaces,
pendants, armlets, and one thing or other were worn
by our Celtic foremothers at a very early period, and
to these, and some of the adornments belonging
to a later period, a half-hour may pleasantly be
devoted. Necklaces formed of jet (or eannel coal) and bone,
or jet only, or amber, were worn by the ancient
Britons, and are now and then found in the barrows
of that period. The beads of which they are com-
O

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

posed vary considerably in form and in size. Fig.
281 is a necklace from Middleton Moor; the beads

of which it is com- ^^^^^ posed lay about the
neck of the skele- ^^^^ft ton, and were care
fully collected to- ^^^^ff gether, and strung
in what there can ||| ij be but little doubt
was their original ||| | |i arrangement. The
various pieces of ||| || this elaborate neck
lace amount to no ||| j If less than 420 in
number ; 348 being fflS thin laminae, 54 of
cylindrical form, »Jm and the remaining
1 8 conical studs and «¦ perforated plates,
some of which are Fig. 281. ornamented with
punctures. The cist containing the skeleton of the
female who during life had been adorned with this
elaborately beautiful necklace is shown in Fig. 282.
Another good example consisted of 80 pieces, 72 of
which were long jet beads, two were cylindrical.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

also of jet, and the remaining six were perforated
plates of bone, ornamented with punctures. A neck
lace of diff"erent character, from Fimber,^ consisted
of 171 laminae or small discs of jet, and a triangular
pendant, or centre, of the same material.
The long beads were sometimes cut so as to give
the effect of several small round ones. A necklace

Fig. 282.
of similar character in design as Fig. 281, from
Assynt, is entirely of jet, and has the perforated
plates ornamented with minute spots of gold.
Another of like general design from Pen-y-Bonc
consisted of forty-eight long beads, two cylindrical
ones, and seven perforated plates, all of jet or
eannel coal. Many examples of these interesting
articles are described in Evans's Ancient Stone Imple
ments and in my own Grave-Mounds and their
Contents. On a fine fragment of Roman sculpture
preserved in Lincoln Cathedral, and which ' is, no
doubt, intended for the portrait of a lady who
lived in the ancient Roman town, and is interest
ing as an illustration of the costume of a British
' See the Reliquary, vol. ix. p. 65, for an account of this.

HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME

female of her age,' a necklace of this identical form
is seen worn. Necklaces formed of shells were also
worn. Necklaces were much worn during Romano-
British times, and were formed of beads of glass
more or less ornamented, of clay, of stones, and other
materials. Some examples of these beads are given
in Figs. 262 and 263, as also a string of beads said
to have been found with undoubted Roman remains.
Among the Anglo-Saxons necklaces were abun
dantly worn. The greater part of the beads which
are found are composed of glass, transparent and
opaque ; variegated clays of different colours ; and
of aipber. Less frequently, beads of amethystine
quartz, of crystal, and of other rare natural substances
are found. Sometimes the beads are formed singly,
and at other times they are in couplets or triplets.
Beads of metal^ — gold and silver — and of stones set
in the same precious metals, have also been ex
humed. Sometimes amethysts and other stones,
set in gold and pendent from a gold band, have
been found ; and not unfrequently a cross of filigree
work, a circular bulla, or a Roman or Merovingian
gold coin, was suspended to the necklace. Beads
mounted on rings, or, more properly speaking,
threaded on rings, are of not unfrequent occurrence,
and appear, in many instances, to have been in
tended for the ears. Beads from the Kentish bar
rows are perhaps the most extensive in number,
as well as the most varied in form, material, and

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 213
ornamentation, of any. The next illustration (Fig.
283) shows a series of twenty-five beads, which
formed the necklace of an Anglo-Saxon lady, from
a grave at Wyaston, in Derbyshire. In this barrow,
which was thirty-three feet in diameter and four feet
high in the centre, were discovered the remains of a
human skeleton, consisting merely of the enamel
crowns of the teeth, which, though themselves but

Fig. 283.
scanty mementos of female loveliness, were accom
panied by several articles indicating that the deceased
was not unaccustomed to add the ornaments of dress
to the charms of nature. These comprise this hand
some necklace of twenty-five beads, a silver finger-
ring, silver ear-rings, and a circular brooch or fibula.
Five of the beads are of amber, carefully rounded
into a globular shape, the largest an inch in

214 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
diameter ; the remaining twenty are mostly small,
and made of porcelain or opaque glass, very prettily
variegated with blue, yellow, or red, on a white or
red ground. The remains of the teeth show the
person to have been rather youthful, and afford a
good instance of the extreme decay of the skeleton
usual in Saxon deposits in this part of the country,
whilst those which we have reason to reckon
centuries more ancient are, as a rule, well pre
served. In Norman and mediaeval times, and so down to
our own day, necklaces continued to be worn. One
of the earliest examples on monumental effigies
is a simple double chain of gold (1450). Another
of the same century (1485) is that on the effigy of
Isabella Cheyne ; it is very elaborate, and is formed
of pendent jewels. Lady Say (1473) wears also a
very rich and elaborately jewelled necklace. During
the reigns of Henry VII. and VIIL, it frequently
assumed the form of a jewelled collar with a central
pendant. Anne Boleyn is represented wearing a
simple string of beads, with a large one as a
pendant in the centre ; and Queen Catherine Parr
has similar ones hanging at regular intervals all
round the neck. In the reign of Elizabeth it was
not unusual to wear several necklaces, and to allow
them to hang down to the waist, where they were
looped to the girdle. These were frequently as
extravagant in their richness, profusion, and dis
play, as the rest of the costume of that extraordinary

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

215

period. The great display ceased with the Protector
ate, and since then necklaces, like hoops and ruff's,
have been more modest in their
dimensions. Ear-rings were much worn by the
Anglo-Saxon ladies, and also by
their Roman predecessors, and in
mediaeval times were also worn by
gentlemen. Saxon ear-rings were of
silver and gold, and sometimes set
with pendants of precious stones.
Occasionally, as in Fig. 285, a bead
of glass was threaded on the ring
to serve as a pendant. Sometimes
the ear-ring was simply a piece of
gold or silver wire (usually the
latter) bent into the form of a
plain ring, or twisted in a spiral
form ; sometimes they were formed of thin crescent-
shaped plates of silver, the ends drawn out fine, and
twisted together. The jewellery of the Anglo-Saxons
was of marvellous beauty and delicacy. This art is
thus alluded to in a Saxon poem : —

Fig. 285.

' For one a wondrous skill
in goldsmith's art
is provided :
full oft he decorates
and well adorns
a powerful king's nobles,
and he to him gives broad
land in recompense.'

2i6 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
This did not, however, apply so much to the ear-rings
as to the other jewellery of the period. They con
tinued not very commonly in use till the fifteenth
and si-xteenth centuries, when the fashion had so
increased as to raise the ire of Stubbs and other
writers. He says the women 'are not ashamed to
make holes in their ears, whereat they hang rings,
and other jewels of gold and precious stones.'
Despite the rebukes of writers, this pretty and
elegant fashion has continued to our own day, and
probably will last as long as dress and fashion.
Finger-rings of Roman workmanship are occa
sionally found in this country, as are others of the
Anglo-Saxon period. Of the latter a fine example,
of gold, is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum. It
was not an uncommon thing for the Saxon jeweller
to set Roman intaglios in gold as rings, and a
superstitious value was attached to them as charms
or amulets. In the thirteenth and fourteenth cen
turies rings took various enriched forms, but were
generally broader and thicker in front than else
where. Rings are usually found in the coffins of
mediaeval church dignitaries ; they indicated their
station, and denoted their being wedded to the
Church. Some of these ecclesiastical rings are of
great beauty. During the fifteenth century, rings in
great profusion occur on the fingers of female effigies.
They were frequently engraved with figures of saints,
or with emblems or other devices, and exhibit an
endless variety of form and pattern. ' Posy rings '

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 217
are rings bearing mottoes — a single line or a rhyming
couplet — generally placed outside the ring in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and inside in the
sixteenth and seventeenth. Many of these ' posies '
are charming in their epigrammatic quaintness, in
their good sentiment, and their appropriateness. For
instance : — ' This hath alloy, my love is pure.'
' The diamond is within '
(meaning, of course, that the finger it encircles is
more valuable than the ring itself).
' Constancy and heaven are round.
And in this the emblem 's found.'
' This and the giver
Are thine for ever. '
Gimmal rings were rings matrimonial, and were
made with a double link, having a hand upon each,
so that when brought together it formed a perfect
ring with the hands clasped in each other — ' the two
made one.' Rings were also frequently made in
triplets, and otherwise. Signet rings made for wear
ing on the thumb, and thus called ' thumb rings,'
were formerly common. Falstaff" declares that when
young he could have crept into an alderman's thumb
ring ! Cramp rings and other charm and amulet
rings are also not uncommon.
Fibula, or brooches, are among the most universal
of personal ornaments of both male and female
in prehistoric times, and have so continued without

2l8

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

interruption to our own day. The skin garment
of the ancient Briton, there can be no doubt, was
fastened with a pin or skewer made of bone ; and
the same kind of pin was used for fastening together
the skin, or shroud, in which bodies were some
times interred, or in which the collected burnt
bones were enclosed. Many such pins are found in
barrows and with other Celtic remains. They are
frequently perforated at their articular end, and cut,
or rubbed, obliquely at

the other end to form
a point. Some of these
may have been used as '
lance or arrow heads,
but certainly many of
them were fasteners, for
' fastening the dress, to
which they were secured
by a string (or thong)
passed through the hole,
so as to prevent their
being lost' Bone pins
or skewers, closely re
sembling those from
^"=¦^^7- British barrows, are of
frequent occurrence on the sites of Roman occu
pation. In the name of fibula as applied to
the small bone of the leg, we have an acknow
ledgment of adaptability for making such pins :
in the same way as the name of its concomitant

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 219
tibia, designates the bone best adapted for making
flutes. Sculptured figures of Gauls show a circu
lar fibula, or brooch, for fastening the dress, but
no such object has ever been brought to light in
our country, and therefore it is only reasonable to
conclude that they
were here unknown.
Probably, however,
some of the objects
which are classed ^"^- ^^
under the general heads of ' spindle-whorls ' and
' discs ' and ' studs ' may have been used as dress-
fasteners. The one engraved on the opposite page
(Fig. 287), from Mr. Evans's excellent book, is more
highly ornamented than usual.
The fibulae of Romano-British times are of almost
endless variety in form, in size, and in material ;
they are but, however, very occasionally found with
interments, being mostly turned up in the course of
excavations and agricultural operations.
The commonest form, perhaps, is that which is
usually called harp-shaped, or bowed, and this is of
such extreme variety that scarcely two examples
out of the hundreds that are known are precisely
alike. Some have a crossbar at the top, and are
hence called ' cruciform ; ' and others have coiled
springs of wire at the top, variously fashioned.
Some of these are complicated and ingenious. The
more simple of the twisted springs, a coiled spring
only, formed by the end of the bow being attenuated

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

into the pin, is known as the ' rat-trap spring,'
from its coiled resemblance to the spring used in
those ' vermin killers.' This form of fibula is gene
rally known as the ' dolphin ' shape. Occasionally
examples formed of wire only, twisted in like manner
as recently reproduced for nursery and skeleton
shawl-pins, are found. Sometimes the fibula really
assumed the form of an animal, a bird, or a serpent,
with an inflated body.
The ornamentation of fibulae is as varied as the

Fig. 293.

form. Sometimes they are chased or engraved in
minute patterns of rows of dots, scales, etc. ; at

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 223
others, enamelled or inlaid ; and at others, again,
raised ornaments are riveted upon their surface.
Instances of S-shaped fibuljE also occur, as do many
other grotesque forms. Circular fibulae are occa
sionally met with, and these,
like the bowed forms, vary
very considerably in design.
Sometimes they are flat on
the face, and enamelled or in
laid in diff"erent colours. One
of the most curious, but ele
gant, modifications of the cir
cular form is Fig. 307, where ^'°- 307-
the ends, which are serpents' heads, are turned back
to the sides of the body. Sometimes the fibula
assumes the form of a flat circular plate, enamelled
or otherwise ornamented.
The fibulae of the Anglo-Saxon period possess
considerable interest, not merely from their design
and excellent workmanship, or their forms and
styles of ornamentation, but because by their varie
ties the diff'erent kingdoms of the Saxons to which
they belonged can, in great measure, be determined.
The more elaborate, and at the same time the
richest in eff'ect, are those of circular form, which,
although found in various parts of the kingdom, are
more abundant in the barrows of Kent than else
where. Of these a remarkably fine example was
found in 1771, 'near the neck, or rather more
towards the right shoulder,' of the female skeleton

224 HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME
in a grave on Kingston Down, along with some
small silver fibulae, a golden amulet, some small
hinges, a chain, some bronze vessels, pottery, and a
variety of other articles. This fibula, which is quite
unique, ' stands at the head of a class by no means
extensive, characterised by being formed of separate
plates of metal, enclosed by a band round the edges.
The shell of this extraordinary brooch is entirely of
gold. The upper surface is divided into no less
than seven compartments, subdivided into cells of
various forms. Those of the first and fifth are semi
circles, with a peculiar graduated figure, somewhat
resembling the steps or base of a cross, which also
occurs in all the compartments, and in four circles,
placed cross-wise with triangles. The cells within
this steplike figure and the triangular are filled
with turquoises ; the remaining cells of the various
compartments with garnets, laid upon gold foil,
except the sixth, which forms an umbo, and bosses
in the circle, which are composed apparently of
mother-of-pearl. The second and fourth compart
ments contain vermicular gold chain-work, neatly
milled and attached to the ground of the plate.
The reverse of the fibula is also richly decorated.'
The vertical hinge of the acus is ornamented with
a cross set with stones, and with filigree work
round its base. The clasp which receives the point
of the acus is formed to represent a serpent's head,
the eyes and nostrils of which, and the bending of
the neck, are marked in filigree. This precious

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 225
jewel was secured by a loop which admitted of its
being sewed upon the dress.
Another remarkably fine example, found on the
breast of a female skeleton in Berkshire, is in the
Ashmolean Museum. It measures two inches and
seven-eighths in diameter. The base is formed of a
thin plate of silver, above which, resting apparently
on a bed of paste, is a plate of copper, to which is
affixed a framework of the same metal, giving the
outline of the pattern. The four divisions of the
exterior circle were originally filled with paste, on
which were laid thin laminas of gold, ornamented
with an interlaced pattern in gold wire of two sizes,
delicately milled or notched, resembling ropework.
Of these compartments one is now vacant. This
wire ornament was pressed into the gold plate
beneath, and there are no traces of any other means
than pressure having been used to fix it. The four
smaller circles and that in the centre are orna
mented with bosses of a white substance, either
ivory or bone, but the material is so much decom
posed, it is difficult to say which ; these bosses are
attached to the copper plate beneath by iron pins.
The entire face of the fibula was originally set with
small pieces of garnet-coloured glass laid upon
hatched gold-foil. Another was discovered some
years ago in a barrow on Winster Moor, in Derby
shire. It was formed of gold filigree work, mounted
on a silver plate, and was set with stones or paste
on chequered gold-foil. Along with this fibula were
P

^< "^

226 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
found a cross of pure gold, ornamented, like the
fibula, with filigree work, and having a garnet cut
in facets set in its centre ; a silver armlet ; two
glass vessels ; and a number of beads. Many of
the circular fibula are of a much smaller and less
elaborate character than those engraved. They
appear to have been worn by the Anglo-Saxon
ladies on the breast or, occasionally, shoulder.
They were probably, therefore, used for fastening
the dress on the bosom,
as is so often seen in
illuminated MSS. and
on tombs of a later
period. Another class is what
is usually called, though
not very satisfactorily,
\ \. / cruciform, or cross-
\ N*. y^ shaped. These are more
^v,.^^^,^^^^^^^^ commonly found in the
'^"'•3°^- midland, and south
eastern counties, but are of very rare occurrence
in Kent. They appear, therefore, to have apper
tained mostly to the Angles, who were the inhabi
tants of Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria.
They are sometimes of silver, but usually of bronze,
and are variously ornamented with interlaced work,
heads, and borders of various designs. Their form,
and that of other varieties, will be best understood
from the engravings.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

227

Another totally distinct kind of fibula, or brooch,
which is considered to be peculiarly of Irish type,
but which, neverthe
less, is occasionally
met with in England,
is that of penannular
form,^ the general
type of which will
be understood by the
engraving. In Fig. 309, from
Westmoreland (which
is of silver), the ring
moves freely round the upper hall
of the brooch, the lower or fl it
part of which is divided so as to
allow of the passage of the acus
through it. It is set with flat
bosses, five on either side. Each
of these flat dilated parts of this
curious ornament appears to
proceed from the jaws of a mon
strous head, imperfectly simulat
ing that of a serpent or dragon ;
and between the jaws is intro
duced the intertwined triple, or
triquetra, the same ornament
which is found on the sculptured
' For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular
brooches the reader is referred to the Reliquary, vol. iii.

Fig. 309.

228 HALF- HOURS AMONG SOME
cross at Kirkmichael, Isle of Man, and on some
Saxon coins.
By far the finest English example was found in
1862, near Bonsall, in Derbyshire. It is of bronze,
and measures three inches and seven-eighths in its
greatest diameter, and the acus is six inches and
three-quarters long. It had originally been set with
amber or paste, and richly gilt and enamelled. The
interlaced ornaments are elaborately formed, and
of great variety, and the heads of animals are of
excellent and characteristic form. The head of
the acus, or pin, is beautifully ornamented, and has
been set with studs. One or two examples of
penannular brooches bearing inscriptions in Ogham
characters have been found.
Of the mode of wearing penannular brooches,
the late Mr. Fairholt wrote : ' By the sumptuary
laws of the ancient Irish, the size of these brooches,
or fibulae, was regulated according to the rank of
the wearer. The highest price of a silver bodkin
for a king or an ollamh, according to Valiancy, was
thirty heifers, when made of refined silver ; the
lowest value attached to them being the worth of
three heifers. From this it may be inferred that
the rank of the wearer might always be guessed at
from the fibulae he wore.' The rank of the wearers
of the ' Tara Brooch ' — the most famous of all the
Irish brooches at present known — and of the Derby
shire example, must, judging from their large size
and truly exquisite workmanship, have been high.

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 229
The extreme rarity of brooches of this form in
England leads one, naturally, to the conclusion that
they were not much worn by the inhabitants of this
country, and that, therefore, they can hardly be con
sidered to belong to the nationality, if I may so
speak, of the Anglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, examples
having been here found in close proximity to un
doubted Anglo-Saxon remains, and the style of
ornamentation being strictly in keeping with much
belonging to that period, there can be no doubt that
they must be included amongst our Anglo-Saxon
antiquities. The fibula in Norman times was more like an
ornamented circle of jewels and stones, with a
central piir ; and its name ' brooch ' is derived from
this article, and its resemblance to a spit (French,
broche). Sometimes they were plain, at others more
or less ornamented, and occasionally decorated with
figures in high relief. This continued to be worn to
a comparatively late period ; not unfrequently they
bore inscriptions. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries brooches were commonly worn by all
persons of rank and substance, and were of great
variety and beauty. Their forms will be tolerably
famiUar to everybody from the many representations
which occur on monumental eflSgies. Analogous to
brooches were pilgrims' signs; these were badges
worn to show the performance of a pilgrimage to
some particular shrine, and bearing a figure, emblem,
or other device, and occasionally a word or two.

230

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

Armlets or bracelets are of great antiquity. With
the Greeks they were peculiar to the ladies, but
among the Romans were worn by men, and con
ferred on soldiers for heroic deeds. They were thin
plates of gold or bronze, more or less ornamented,
or else stout wires of the same metals twisted like a
cord — a form alluded to in the Iliad as 'twisted
spirals.' Strutt speaks of ' an arm-bracelet men-

as >fe--S'. .''y-^S^ — '

Fig. 310.
tioned in the testament of a Saxon nobleman,
which weighed 180 mancuses of gold, or about
twenty ounces troy weight ; another, bequeathed
to the queen, thirty mancuses of gold, or about
three ounces and a half; and a neck bracelet (or
torque), forty mancuses of gold, or nearly five
ounces. The bracelets of gold upon the arms of
soldiers belonging to a magnificent galley, which

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

was presented by Earl Godwin to Hardicnut, weighed
eight ounces each.' The pair of armillae (Fig. 308)
are of base silver ; they were discovered at Stony
Middleton, in Derbyshire, where many Roman re
mains have been found.
' Toi-ques. — Wreathed ornaments for the neck
(from torquere, to twist), worn by the Celtic and
barbaric nations of antiquity, and adopted from

Figs. 311 to 313.
them by the aboriginal Britons,' is the not very
lucid description of these curious articles given by
a well-known writer. It is one of the most marked
of personal ornaments, and there can be no doubt
was worn, as there is evidence to prove, both by
the ancient Briton and by his Roman conqueror.
The torque, or torquis, is said, by ancient writers,
to have been first used by the Persians, and by the

232 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
nations of Northern and Western Europe. Virgil
describes it as worn by the Trojans when they came
to colonise Italy : —
' Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona.
Cornea bina ferunt prajfixo hastilia ferro ;
Pars leves humero pharetras ; it pectore summo
Flexilis obtorti per coUum circulus auri.'
It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year
360 B.C., when Manlius, having torn a torque of
gold from the neck of a vanquished Gaul — here
is evidence of its being a decoration worn by a
similar race to our ancient British population before
being spoken of in Roman history — placed it on
his own, and received, from this circumstance, the
name of Torquatus. From this time the practice
was adopted in the wars with the Gauls — the ex
ample set by Torquatus Manlius being frequently
followed by the Roman leaders, and the torque being
adopted as a reward for military merit. ' The
Roman writers speak of them as worn by the
Britons, and the Queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, is
described by Dion Cassius as having a torquis of
gold round her neck. This was the metal of which
they were usually made. They consisted of a long
piece of gold, twisted or spiral, doubled back in
the form of a short hook at each end, and then
turned into the form of a circle.' The torque
was known to, and worn by, the Egyptians, the
Persians, Persepolitans, the Gauls, and the Britons,
as well as, later on, to the Romans, and it was very

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 233

usual, as is evident by the many examples which
have been found, with the Irish Celts. The most
usual forms will be found engraved in the catalogue
of the Royal Irish Academy, the largest known
example measuring five feet seven inches in length.
A remarkably fine example of this type, found
on the borders of Derbyshire and Staffordshire,

Fig. 314.
measures three feet nine and a quarter inches.
Many other varieties are found, sometimes formed
of square bars of gold, twisted spirally, sometimes
of flat bars of the same metal, twisted in a lighter
manner, sometimes, again, of more than one bar
twisted together, and occasionally beaten out into
flat plates of gold in front, attenuated and riveted

234 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
for fastening at the ends. These lunar-shaped
objects, however, are supposed to be the jodhian
morian, or breastplate of judgment, of the chief
priest of the Druids, which was believed to possess
the power of strangling the wearer who gave false
judgment. The ends, too, are of various forms ;
sometimes being simply hooks, and at others swell
ing out into cup-shaped terminations, and at others
partaking of the form of a serpent's head, etc. A
remarkable torque (Fig. 314), now belonging to her
Majesty, was found in 1848 in Needwood Forest.
It is formed of eight cords of gold plaited together,
and weighs i lb. i oz. 7 dwts. 10 grains. It is safer,
perhaps (although, as I have said, there is no doubt
that torques were worn by the Romans), to assign
them to the British period rather than to that of
their conquerors.
Bone and bronze pins, hair-pins often nicely carved
at the head, chatelaines — for the Saxon ladies, as
well as those of succeeding periods, wore these
articles — -and many other objects of household use
and personal adornment remain to be briefly
noticed. Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little
from those of the Romans, or indeed from those of
the present day. They were, both Roman and
Saxon, sometimes toothed on one side and some
times on both sides, and were made alike of wood,
of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Boxwood appears
to have been so much used for the manufacture of

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES.

235

combs as to have occasionally given its own name
to them. Thus Martial says : —
' Quid faciei nullos hie inventura capillos,
Multifido buxus qute tibi dente datur?'
Wooden combs have naturally for the most part
perished, but fragments have occasionally been
found. Combs, both of bronze and iron, of the

Fig. 315.
Roman period, have also been discovered. The
greater part, however, both of that and of the Saxon
period, which have been exhumed, are of bone and
ivory. Chitelaines or girdle-hangers consist of a bunch of
small implements of various kinds — keys, tweezers,
scissors, tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners, etc.,
and ornaments of one kind or other — hung on a
chain or frame, which being attached to the girdle
hung down by the side to the thigh, or, in some
instances, evidently as low as the knee. The
various instruments are of silver, bronze, or iron,
and are generally, the iron especially, corroded into

236

HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME

an almost shapeless mass; the silver and bronze,
being more durable, are better preserved. A
bunch of what is supposed to be three latch-keys
occurs in one example, and in the engraving below
(Fig. 316) are two curious objects, the use of which
has probably been to hang small instruments on,

Figs. 316 and 317.
to attach them to the girdle. For the same use,
probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling
objects which are shown in Fig. 317. They are
found in pairs, attached at the top, and vary much
in the pattern of the lower extremities. Probably
the girdle passed through the upper part, and keys

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 237
and other objects would be hung on the lower ends.
A large variety of girdle ornaments have been found
in different districts.
Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many
other articles, it will not be necessary to speak at
further length than simply to note that they are
sometimes found in Roman and Saxon graves. Bells
— small hand-bells — too, are found in the graves
of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of the
rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of
larger size. Bone counters, or draughtsmen, and dice
of the Saxon period are occasionally met with.
Mirrors of metal are found in Roman graves, and

Fig. 318.
occasionally in those of Saxon times. Shears or
scissors of iron, some of which are of precisely the
same form as our modern sheep-shears, and others of
the shape of scissors of the present day, are of not
unfrequent occurrence. The usual form of tweezers
is shown in Fig. 318. They are of bronze, and are
said to have been used for pulling out superfluous
hairs from the body. They, with the scissors, were
frequently worn attached to the girdle, along with
other instruments.
Buckets, appropriately so called from their close
resemblance in form to our modern buckets, are

238 HALF-HOURS AMONG SOME
small wooden vessels bound round with hoops or
rims of bronze or silver, more or less ornamented,
and have a handle of the same metal arched over
their tops. Of course the staves of ash, of which
they were composed, are nearly decomposed, the

Fig. 319.
hoops, handle, and mountings alone remaining.
They vary much in size ; one from Bourne Park
had the lower hoop twelve inches in diameter, and
the upper one ten inches, and the whole height
appears to have been about a foot ; the handle was

ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. 239
hooked at its ends exactly the same as in our present
buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides ; it had
three looped bronze feet to stand upon. Others only
measure four or five inches in diameter. The example
(Fig. 319), found in Northamptonshire, is composed
of three encircling hoops of bronze, and has its handle
and attachments also of the same metal. One found
at Fairford is three inches in height, and four inches
in diameter. The hoops and mountings are of bronze.
Another, from Brighthampton, had its metal mount
ings of an unusually ornate character. The wood,
too, was in great measure preserved. Of the use of
these utensils nothing certain, of course, is known ;
but it is conjectured they were used for bringing in
mead, ale, or wine, to fill the drinking-cups — the
objection to this as a general rule being their very
small size. ' The Anglo-Saxon translation of the
Book of Judges (vii. 20) rendered hydrias confre-
gissent by " co-bpoecon fa bucar," i.e. " they broke
the buckets." A common name for this vessel, which
was properly called buc, was ascen, signifying literally
a vessel made of ash, the favourite wood of the
Anglo-Saxons.'

INDEX.

-¦^bney Moor, 27.
Abury, 18, 20, 21.
Adderbury, 185,
Aidan, St., r2r.
Ainstaple, 128.
Aldborough, 69.
Alderton, 176.
Ale-glasses, 191.
Altars, Roman, 71.
Altar tombs, 139.
.Amber beads, 209, 213.
Ancaster, 75.
-\ncient British. See Celtic.
Andamanese women, 209.
.Anglo-Saxon arms, 109-116.
 barrows, 11.
 bells, 160, i6r.
 coins, r49-i5i.
 glass, 190, 191.
 personal ornaments, 209-236.
 poem of Beovralf, 12-14, nr,
112, 191.
 ¦ pottery, 102-105.
Antoninus, wall of, 67.
Arbor Low, 17-21.
Armlets, 230.
Armour, 108-119.
Arms and Armour, io8-ri9.
Ashbourne, 162.

Ashbury, 8.
Assynt, 2rr.
Aston Rowant, 172.
Aycliffe, r3r.
Bakewell, 74, 170, 171, 197.
Banbury, 173.
Barlaston, ri2.
Barnard Castle, 127.
Barrows, Anglo-Saxon, 11-15, 108-
116.
 Celtic, i-io, 16-32, 209-211.
 chambered, 8.
 construction of, 4-31.
 Romano-British, 11.
Bath, 71, 72, 78.
Bayeaux tapestry, 204.
Beads, 185, 209, et seq.
Beaulieu, 202.
Bedale, 125.
Bedford, r35.
Bees, St., 121.
Begu, St., 120.
Bell, curfew, 183.
 founders, 133, 159-184.
 funeral, 182.
 legend of the, 159, 160.
 marks, 165, r66.
 passing, 182.

INDEX.

Bell, pudding, 183.
 sacring, 162, 181.
 sanctus, 164, 181.
 sermon, 183.
Bells, 159-184.
 ¦ decorations upon, 164, 166.
•  ¦ hand, i8r.
 in.scription on, \6y-i.jj.
 lettering upon, 164.
 origin of, r59, 160.
Benty Grange, 109, 112.
Beowulf, 12, III, 116, 191.
Berriew, 30.
' Big Bells,' 177-180.
 Ben,' 179, 180.
 Peter,' 178.
Bignor, 69.
Binstead, 175.
Bittern, 147.
Bear, in, 112.
Bone pins, 218, 234.
Bonsall, 162, 228.
Boscawen-to, 17, 20, 21, 30.
Bourges, 79.
Bracelets, 230.
Brampton, 134.
Brasses, how to rub, 139.
 sepulchral, 135-142,
Brassington Moor, 26.
Breaston, 162.
Bredon, 197, 200.
Bridges, 66.
Bristol, 150.
Broadchalk, 174.
Broad Down, 24.
Broggar, 21.
Bromham, 174.
Bronze celts, 50-61.
 implements of, 50-63.
 pins, 234.
Brooches, 217-229.
Brougham, 142.

Buckets, 237, 238.
Buckles, 112, 113.
Bulmore, 79.
Burcheston, 206.
Burtley, 175.

Caerleon, 69, 78, 79.
Caerwent, 69.
Cairns. See Barrows.
Calais Wold, 47.
Callernish, 29.
Calne, 175.
Cambridge, 176.
Canterbury, 68, 69, 150, 178, 195,
208.
Carillons, 184.
Carlisle, 208.
Carvoran, 77.
Castle Rigg, 21.
Castor ware, 97.
Celtic barrows, i-io, 16-32, 210,
211.
 ¦ bronze implements, 50-63.
 coins, 143-145.
 flint instruments, 42-48.
 glass, 185.
 personal ornaments, 209, et seq.
.  pottery, 83, 90.
 stone implements, 33-42.
Celts, bronze, 50-63.
 stone, 33-49.
Chambered tumuli, 8.
Chartham, 142.
ChMelaines, 235.
Chelmorton, 133.
Chepstow, 128.
Chester, 207.
Chesters, 78.
Chichester, 150.
Church bells. See Bell.
Cinerary urns, 83-104.

INDEX.

243

Circles, stone, 16-32.
Cirencester, 68, 69, 81.
Claughton, 162.
Coins, 143-157.
 Anglo-Saxon, 149- 151,
 Celtic, 143-145.
 English, 151-157.
 ¦ Norman, 151, 152.
 Roman, 146-149.
Colchester, 68.
Combs, 132, 235.
Coped tombs, 124.
Copper, pig of, 82.
Cotterstock, 69.
Coventry, 173.
Cramp rings, 217.
Cromlechs, 31, 32.
Cross, no, 124-134, 151, 163-166.
Crowland, 161.
Croydon, 184.
Cuerdale, 151.
Curfew, 183.

Daggers, 61, 62, 113-119.
Dale Abbey, 198.
Danbury, 141.
Danby Moor, 47.
Darley Dale, 132, 171.
Dartmoor, 27.
D'Aubernoun, 135.
Dese Matres, 75.
Denbigh, 207.
Derby, 150.
Devices on slabs, 120-142.
Dewsbury, 125.
Diana and Acteeon, 70.
Dorchester, 69.
Drinking cups, 88-106.
Druidical circles, 16.
Durham, 127, 128.
Durobrivian pottery, 87-101.

Ear-rings, 215.
Eastlow Hill, n.
East Moor, 27.
East Shaftoe, 134.
Eccleston, 127.
Elfin-darts, 48.
Elf-shots, 48.
Elk Low, 25.
Elton, 135.
Encaustic tiles, 196.
English coins, 152-157.
Evesham, 150, 197.
Exeter, 150, 178, 199.
Eyam Moor, 2r, 26.
Fairford, 239.
Fairy bolts, 48.
 darts, 48.
Fibulas, 217-229.
Fimber, 211.
Flaxley, 127.
Flint implements, 33-48.
Food vessels, 88-90.
Frampton, 69.
Froggat Edge, 27.
Frome, 173.
Funeral bell, 182.
Fylfot cross, 163, 165.
Gib HiU, 6, 23.
Gilling, 135.
Gimmal rings, 217.
Glass, 185-196.
 Anglo-Saxon, 189-191.
 Celtic, 185.
 Old English, 192.
 Roman, 186-188.
 sepulchral vessels, 187,
 stained, 193-196.
Gloucester, 69, 150, 200.
Gorleston, 142.

244

INDEX.

Gouge, 58.
Grave-mounds. See Barrows.
 slabs and brasses, 120-142.
 stones, Roman, 75-81.
Great Bedwyn, 197, 198.
 BeU of Glasgow, 179.
¦  Peter of Exeter, 178.
 Tom of Oxford, 177.
 ¦  Lincoln, 177, 178.
 Toms, 177-181,
Green Low, 47.
Greystock, 128, 134.
Grey Wands, 21.
Grime's Dyke, 67.
Gundrada, Princess, 125.
Gunthorpe, 47.
Haccombe, 199.
Haddon HaU, 74,
Haltwhistle, 128.
Hampton, 150.
Hand bells, iSi.
 mills, 42.
Hartington, 135.
Hartlepool, 120.
Hastings, 199.
Hathersage Moor, 27,
Haughmond, 199.
Helmet, 109, no, 116-119.
Hereford, 200.
Heysham, 128.
Himbleton, 176.
Hob Hurst, 16.
Housesteads, 72, 79.
Hunnum, 81.
Hypocausts, 70.
Immolation urns, 87.
Implements of flint, 42-49.
 of stone, 33-42.
Ipswich, 150.

Jet ornaments, 211, 218, 219.
Jewellery, 209-235.
Kedleston, 134.
Kenchester, 68, 69, 147.
Keys, 237.
Kingston Down, 224.
Kirkby Stephen, 134.
Lanyon cromlech, 31, 32.
Lead, pigs of, 82.
Leam Moor, 26.
Leckhampton, 112.
Leeds, 178.
Legend of the Bell, 159, 160.
Leicester, 68-70.
Lewes, 125, 150.
Lichfield, 208.
Lightning, death by, 81.
Lincoln, 68, 69, 150, 211.
 Great Tom of, 177.
Lindisfarne, 121.
Lismore, 122.
Littlecote, 69.
Llandaff, 159.
Locks, 237.
London, 68, 69, 146, 150.
 Great Bell of St. Paul's, 178.
Long Meg, 21.
Low. See Barrow.
Lymne, 68.
Lynn, 136.
Malvern, 198, 199, 201.
Manchester, 208.
Margam, 127.
Middleton Moor, 210.
Milestones, 65, 66.
Minning Low, 8.
Mirrors, 237.
Monumental brasses, 135, 142.
 slabs, 75, 120-134.

INDEX.

245

Moor Monkton, 134.
Mortlake, 207.
Moscow, Great Bell of, 180.
Mostyn, 82.
Mule Hill. 29.
Necklaces, 209-215.
Needlework, 202.
Needwood Forest, 234.
New Forest pottery, 102.
Newhaven, 112.
Newton Rigney, 134.
' Nine Ladies,' 17, 26.
Norman armour, 116.
 arms, no.
 coins, 152, 153.
 pottery, 105-107.
Northfield, 176.
Norwich, 150, 208.
Nottingham, 172.
Oxford, 207.
 Great Tom of, 177.
Palstaves, 53-57.
Passing bell, 182.
Pavements, tessellated, 69.
Paving tiles, 196.
Peal-ringing, 183.
Penannular brooches, 227-229.
Penmaenmawr, 21, 30.
Pen-y-Bonc, 211.
Personal ornaments, 209-237.
Peterborough, 208.
Pilton, 177.
Posy rings, 217.
Potters' names, 95, 96.
Pottery, Anglo-Saxon, 102-105.
 Celtic, 83-90.
 New Forest, 102.
 Norman, 105.
 Roman, 90-102.

Pudding bell, 183.
Purgatory hammers, 37.
Querns, 42.
Repton, 198.
Ribchester, 74.
Richborough, 147, 148.
Rings, cramp, 217.
 ear, 215.
 finger, 216.
 • gimmal, 217.
 posy, 217.
Roads, Roman, 64, 65.
Rochester, 150.
Rollrich, 21.
Roman altars, 71-75.
 bridges, 66.
 buildings, 71.
 coins, 146-149.
 glass, 185-188.
 grave-mounds, 11.
 mile, 65.
 milestones, 65, 66.
 pavements, 69, 70.
 personal ornaments, 212, 237.
 pigs of lead, 82.
 roads, 64, 65.
 sepulchral slabs, 75-77.
 towns, 67, 68.
 villas, 69.
 Wall, 67.
Romsey, 127, 201.
Rosemarkie, 132.
Rubbing brasses, 139.
Sacring bell, 162, 181.
Saint Aidan, 121.
 Alban's, 136, 197.
 Asaph, 133.
 Bees, 121.
 Begu, 120.

246

INDEX.

Saint Benet's, Cambridge, 176.
 Chad's, Lichfield, 162, 208.
 Clere, 141.
 Cross, 201.
 Dionys, York, 133.
 Dunstan's, 178.
 Hilda, 121, 122.
 John's, Chester, 128.
 Leonard's, Shoreditch, 138.
 Luke, 128.
 Odoceus, 159.
 Paul's, Bedford, 135.
 Peter's, Nottingham, 172.
 Pierre, 128.
Salisbury Plain, 18-20.
Salopian ware, 101, 102.
Samian ware, 93-96.
Sancreed, 29.
Sanctus bell, 162, 181.
Sandiacre, 162.
Sawley, 162.
Sceattae, 149, 151.
Scissors, 237.
Seax, 113.
Sepulchral brasses, 135-141.
 crosses, 122-135.
 ¦ slabs, 120-135.
 stones, 75-77.
 urns. See Pottery.
Sermon bell, 183.
Shaftesbury, 150, 175.
Shears, 237.
Shields, 116-119.
Shrewsbury, 150, 198, 199, 201.
Shuttlestone, 52.
Silbury Hill, 18.
Slabs, sepulchral, 120-135.
Sling-stones, 49.
Solway Moss, 36.
Spear-heads, 63, 113-119.
Spindle-whorls, 49.
Stained glass, 193-196.

Stanshope, 62.
Stanton Drew, 20, 21.
 Moor, 17, 27.
Stennis, 20.
Stockland, 176.
Stockton-on-Tees, 179.
Stoke Rivers, 176.
Stonehenge, 18-20.
Stone implements, 33-49.
Stonesfield, 69.
Stony Middleton, 231.
Stow, 123.
Studs, 218, 219.
Swords, 62, 63, 113-119, 128.
Tapestry, 202-208.
' Tara Brooch,' 228.
Tawstock, 197.
Temples, Roman, 71.
Tessellated pavements, 69, 70.
Tewkesbury, 197.
Thetford, 150.
Tiles, paving, 196.
Tintern, 197.
Tissington, 116.
Top Low, II.
Torques, 231.
Traders' tokens, 157.
Tranmere, 36.
Trewavas, 29.
Triturating stones, 42.
Trumpington, 141.
Tumblers, 190.
Tutbury, 201.
Tweezers, 237.
Tynemouth, '128.
Umbones of shields, 114, 116.
Upehurch ware, 96, 97.
Uploman, 176.
Uriconium (Wroxeter), 68, 69.
Urns. See Pottery.

INDEX,

247

Verses on bells, 167-177.
Villas, Roman, 69.
Wallingford, 150.
Wall, Roman, 66, 67.
Warblington, 200.
Ware, Castor, 97-101.
 ¦ Salopian, loi, 102.
 Samian, 90-96.
 Upehurch, 96, 97.
Welcombe, 176.
Wells, 135, 197.
Weniock, 199.
Wensley, 123.

Westleigh, 197,
Westminster, ' Big Ben ' of, 179.
Whitby, 121.
Wieland Smith's Cave, 8.
Winchester, 124, 150, 197.
Winster, 225.
Winterton, 69.
Wirksworth, 162, 197.
Woodchester, 69.
Worcester, 150, 178, 196, 197, 199.
Wroxeter, 68, 69.
York, 'j'j, 79, 125, 133, 150, 2c8.
 ' Big Peter ' of, 178.

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INDEX OF SUBfECTS,

Acrostics. — See Acrostics.
Angling. — See Dick.
Animals. — See Lankester (E.)
Antiquarian.— 5« Jewitt, Wal-
ford. [Taylor.
Aquarium. — See Science Gossip,
Architecture. — See Vincent.
Art. — See Bayliss,Heaphy,ZerfB.
.\stronomy. — .ScsDarby, Popular
Science Review, Proctor.
Athletic Training.— 5c<; E.x-
ercise, Michod.
Bees. — See Hunter, Jardine.
Biography. — Sec Cash, Dra
matic List.
Birds. — See Ornithology.
Botany. — See Braithwaite, Car
rington, Cooke, De Crespigny,
Economic, Edgeworth, Gatty,
Hooker, Lankester (Mrs.), Lon
don, Lowe, Midland Naturalist,
Nave, Notes on Collecting,
Popular Science Review, Rob-
son, Schleiden, Science Gossip,
Smith (J.), Smith (W.), Sower-
by, Spicer, Taylor, Trimen,
Tripp, Wooster.
Chemistry. — See Brande and
Taylor, Popular ScienceReview.
Children. — See Barker.
Conchology. — See Conchology
(Journal of). Notes on Collect
ing, Tate.

Cruikshank. — See Chamisso.
Dogs. —5«« Smith (C. H.)
Dramatic. — See Pascoe.
Education.— 5«« Pascoe.
Electric Lighting.— 5«Shool-
bred.
Ento.mology. — See Duncan,
Midland Naturalist, Morris,
Naturalist's Library, Newman,
Notes on Collecting, Science
Gossip.
Eyk (The).— .S«« Angell, Dud
geon.
Ferns. — See Eaton, Lankester
(Mrs.), Lowe, Smith (J.).
Fish. — See Ichthyology.
FOLK-LOEE. — See Dyer,
Food. — 5«« Johnson, Lankester.
French Language. — See Blin-
court.
Genealogy.— 5f« Walford.
Geology.— 5«« Ansted, Eyton,
Geologist, Kinahan, Midland
Naturalist, Notes on Collecting,
Science Gossip, Symonds,
Taylor.
Heraldry. — See Elvin.
I History. — See Mangnall.
\ Horse and Riding.— ^se How
den, Smith (C. H.), Waite.
Horticulture.— 5«fi Burbidge,
Hibberd, Lowe, Maund,
NewtOD, Pomona,

Index of Subjects.

Hygiene.— 5«e Granville, Health
Primers, Lankester (E.), Lan
kester (Mrs.)
Ichthyology. — See Bushnan,
O^pel, Couch, Hamilton, Jar
dine, Naturalist's Library,
Schomburgk, Science Gossip.
Insects. — See Entomology.
Knots. — See Book of Knots.
Law. — 5eeFoibes, Geach.
Man.— 5e« Sharpe, Smith (CH.)
Medicine, &c. — See Granville,
Fleischmann, Dewar, Schaible.
Microscopy. — See Braithwaite,
Cooke, Davies, Edwards, How
to Choose, Kent, Lankester,
Midland Naturalist, Nave, Phin,
PopularScienceReview, Quekett,
Schmidt, Science Gossip.
Mineralogy. — See Popular
Science Review. [nard.
Natural Science. — See Bar-
Needle-Work.— 5s« Trotter.
Oology. — See Morris, Notes on
Collecting.
Ornithology. — See Bree, Jar
dine, Martin,Morris, Naturalist's
Library, Science Gossip, Selby,
Swainson, Wilson.
Philosophy. — See Butler.
Photography. — See Monk-
hoven, Russell.

Physics. — See Popular Science
Review.
Physiology. — See Lankester.
Poetry. — See Baddeley, Barclay,
Bennoch, Changed Cross,
Crown of Life, Crawley, For-
saylh, Idyls, Sharpe.
Professions — See Pascoe.
Reptiles. — See Cooke.
Science made Easy. — See
Twining.
Shooting. — See How to Use,
Shooting.
Spiritualism.— 5e« Zerffi.
Sporting. — See Mason.
Thames (The).— 5e« Up the
River.
Tobacco. — See Steinmetz.
Travellers (Hints for).— 5£«
Boner, Lord.
Watches and Clocks. — See
Benson.
Wild Flowers. — See Lankester
(Mrs.)
Winds AND Tides. — 5^« Jordan.
Woman. — See Cresswell.
Zoology.— 5c« Hamilton, Jar
dine, Macgillivray, Midland
Naturalist, Mivart, Naturalist's
Library, Popular Science
Review, Science Gossip, Smith
(C), Taylor, Waterhouse.

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