YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

FROM THE ESTATE OF
MISS MARY B. BRISTOL
1936

A

CHURCH DICTIONARY:
A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF REFERENCE FOR
CLERGYMEN AND STUDENTS.

By WALTER FARQUHAR HOOK. D.D.,
LATE DEAN OF CHICIIESTER.

FOURTEENTH EDITION, ADAPTED TO THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE PRESENT DA Y.

EDITED
By WALTER HOOK, M.A., Rector of Porlock,
ASD
W. R, W. STEPHENS, M.A., Prebendary of Chichester.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1887.

LONDON ;
ritlNTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED.
STAMFORD STEEET AKD CHARINQ CR03S.

Mhf

4
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PREFACE TO THE FOURTEENTH EDITION,

Dk. Hook's " Church Dictionary " is so well and widely known, that
it is scarcely necessary now to give a further description of its origin
and aim than by mentioning that it arose from the great want felt by
its author, in the management of his parish, of some book of reference
for the laity as well as for the clergy upon the leading facts of the
history, the economy and constitution of the Church. That Dean
Hook was exceptionally fitted for the task, by his wide experience and
success as a parish priest, by his learning, and by his literary skill, has
been freely admitted on all hands.
Since the first issue of the " Church Dictionary," in the year 1842,
it has passed through no less than thirteen editions, each of which
underwent more or less of improvement and addition. But of late
years there has been such a great increase of activity in the Church,
and such a vast extension of her energies in every direction ; such
advances also have been made in Biblical and Liturgical criticism, as
well as in the knowledge of ecclesiastical history, antiquities, and
art, that it seemed desirable to submit the whole Dictionary to a
thorough revision. This indeed was the view taken by the late Dean,
who expressed to his son an opinion that nearly the whole of it ought
to be rewritten if it was to be brought up to the level of modern
requirements. The truth of this has been felt by the present editors
during the progress of their work. It has been found necessary, or
desirable, to rewrite or completely recast many of the old articles, and
to add many new ones.
In the first place, on subjects of pre-eminent interest and importance,
such as the history of the Bible, the Creeds, the Liturgy and the
Church in its various branches, original articles have been supplied,
because the old ones consisted largely of extracts from the writings of
the older Divines, which in some instances were rather antiquated, and
might more properly be called homiletic lectures or essays than critical
commentaries or historical explanations. Again, the revival of Convo
cation since the Dictionary first appeared, the institution of Church

iv PEBFACE,
Congresses and Diocesan Conferences, and the wonderful development
of the Colonial Church, and of Missionary enterprise during the past
thirty years, rendered it necessary to prepare new articles upon all
these subjects.
The same may be said of many questions which, from various
causes, have acquired peculiar prominence in the present day ; such as
Affinity, Endowments, Establishment, Vestments, Lights upon the
Altar, the Eastward position, the Advertisements of Queen Elizabeth,
important legal reforms, and judgments given with regard to Ritual,
Discipline, and many more. In dealing with some matters of this
kind, which have been subjects of much controversy or litigation, the
arguments on opposite sides have been stated by different writers
in separate articles. This plan seemed the most convenient way
of securing that impartial .attitude which best becomes a work of
this description.
But while many new articles have been inserted, some articles
which had a place in former editions have been omitted or very much
abbreviated, because the subjects of which they treat belong more
properly to the Dictionaries of the Bible, of Christian Antiquities or
of Christian Biography, and have been thoroughly dealt with in those
well-known works, published under the Editorship of Dr. Wm. Smith.
Although, in consequence of all these changes, the present edition
of the Dictionary is in many respects a new work, it has nevertheless
been the desire and endeavour of the Editors to abstain from making
needless alterations, to preserve articles intact which bore any ¦
special impress of the original Editor's mind, and above all, to
adhere throughout to those principles which he consistently held
and advocated.
The Editors have endeavoured, in accordance with the original
design of the work, to render this edition as far as possible a practical
manual for the English Churchman, clerical or lay, furnishing him
with the real facts and arguments upon which the Church bases and
maintains its position. They have for the most part referred the
reader, at the end of each article, to easily accessible works by trust-
worthy writers, in which, if he wishes to pursue the investigation of
any subject further, he will find it more exhaustively treated, and
references given to original authorities.
Our best thanks are due to Lord Grimthorpe (formerly Sir Edmund
Beckett), Chancellor and Vicar-General of York, and an old friend
of Dr. Hook when Vicar of Leeds, who has revised or written the
legal and architectural articles, and several others, and has also given
much valuable assistance and advice. The legal articles do not
profess to be a complete summary of ecclesiastical law, which would
require much more space than it would be proper to occupy with
one subject in this book.

PREFACE.
The following is a list of other writers to whom the Editors are
much indebted for contributions and whose initials will be found at
the end of their articles.
The Very Eev. E. Bigkersteth, D.D., Dean of Lichfield.
Eev. W. Bright, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, Professor of Eccle
siastical History, Oxford.
Rev. Berdmore Compton, M.A.
Eev. Evan Daniel, M.A., Principal of Battersea Training College
and Hon. Canon of Eochester.
Eev. W. H. David, M.A.
Lewis T. Dibdin, Esq., M.A., Chancellor of Eochester.
Rev. H. G. Dickson, M.A., Church Defence Institution.
Eev. T. E. Espin., D.D., Chancellor and Canon of Chester.
Lord Grimthorpe.
Eev. F. Hancock, M.A., Eector of Sel worthy, Taunton.
Eev. J. G. Howes, M.A., Eector of Exford and Prebendary of Wells.
Eev. J. W. Joyce, M.A., Eector of Burford and Prebendary of
Hereford. Eev. G. F. Maclear, D.D., Warden of St. Augustine's, Canter
bury. Eev. B. V. Mills, M.A.
Eev. G. D. W. Ommanney, M.A., Vicar of Draycot and Prebendary
of Wells. Eev. Sir F. A. G. Ouseley, Mus. Doc, LL.D., M.A., Professor of
Music, Oxford.
Miss Lucy Phillimore.
Eev. H. W. Tucker, M.A., Sec. of S.P.G.
All other articles have been revised or rewritten by the Editors,
and some new ones added, to Avhich the initials H. and W. E. W. S.
are respectively annexed.
In conclusion, we pray that the blessing of God may rest
upon our undertaking, and that the Dictionary in its present form
may serve yet more effectually than before to the edification of the
Church of England, for which the first compiler of the work, as a
parish priest, a preacher and a writer, so long and so earnestly
laboured.
W. HOOK.
W. E. W. STEPHENS.

CHUECH DICTIONARY.

ABACUS
ABACUS. The upper member of a
capital. (See Capital.')
In Norman architecture the abacus of
engaged shafts is frequently returned along
the walls in a continued horizontal string :
perhaps the last lingering recognition of the
effect of the capital in representing that
horizontal line which was decided in the
classic architrave, and to which the spirit
of Gothic architecture is in the main op
posed. ABBA. An Aramaean word, signifying
Father, and derived from the Hebrew " Ab."
Instead of the definite article which the
Hebrew uses before the word, the Chaldee,
or Aramaic, adds a syllable to the end,
giving thus an emphatic form. The word
" Abba " is expressive of attachment and
confidence, and was used by St. Mark, in
describing the agony of our blessed Lord, to
gether with the Greek equivalent, " 'A^S
o tvo.ttip'" — rendered by Luther "lieber
Vater." (St. Mark xiv. 36.) St. Paul
combines the words in the same way, " ye
have received the Spirit of adoption, whereby
we cry, 'Abba, Father.'" (Eom. viii. 15;
comp. Gal. iv. 6.)
ABB_ The designation assumed in
France, before the Eevolution, by certain
persons, who, whether in the higher orders
of the ministry or not, ostensibly devoted
themselves to theological studies, in the
hope that the king would confer upon them
a real abbey, i.e. a certam portion of the
revenues of a real abbey. Hence it became
the common title of unemployed secular
priests. In Italy the word Abate was
similarly used, to designate one who merely
adopted the clerical habit. — Vocabolario della
Crusca. ABBESS. The Mother or Superior of a
female religious community. The abbess
possessed, and in the Eoman Church still
possesses, the dignity and authority of an

ABBOT
abbot, with the exception that she cannot
exercise the spiritual functions of the priest
hood. By a decree of the Council of Trent
it is recommended that an abbess should
be at least 40 years of age, and have made
profession for eight years.
ABBEY. The habitation of a society
devoted to religion. It signifies a monas
tery, of which the head was an abbot or
abbess. (See Abbot.) Of monastic cathe
drals the bishop was considered to be virtu
ally the abbot : and therefore the presbyteral
superior of these establishments was styled
Prior. The abbey of Ely was constituted
a cathedral in 1109 : when Herve, Bishop
of Bangor, was translated to this see. The
abbacy was henceforward united to the
bishopric : and therefore it is that the
bishops of Ely still occupy the first stall on
the right side of the choir, usually assigned
to the dean : the dean's stall being the first
on the left side, formerly occupied by the
prior. (See Monasteries,- and Walcott's
Church and Conventual Arrangements.)
Cranmer begged earnestly of Henry VIII.
that he would save some of the abbeys, to
be reformed and applied to holy and religious
uses, but his petition, and the exertions of
Latimer for the same purpose, were in vain.
Even Wolsey's foundation of Christ Church,
Oxford, out of some of the confiscated abbeys,
escaped with difficulty. (See Brewer's
Eenry VIII.) For the arrangement of the
several buildings of an abbey, see Cathedral
and Monastery.
ABBOT. The Father or Superior of an
abbey of monks, or male persons, living
under peculiar religious vows. The word
abbot comes, through the late Latin abbas,
from the Aramsean abba — father. (See
Abba.) The word Father, in its various
forms of Papa, Abbas, Padre, Pere, &c, has
in all countries and all ages of Christianity
been applied as a title of respect to the
B

2 ABBOT
superior clergy and priesthood. In some
parts of the East and in Ireland, this term,
abbas or abbat, was frequently confounded
with that of bishop, from the fact of the
abbots being in the early times bishops also.
Before the Norman Conquest a few abbots
sat in the Witanagemote (e.g. 5 in a.d. 931,
and 4 in a.d. 934), and after the Conquest
many were summoned to the Great Council
and ranked next to the Lords Spiritual.
Many of these were called " Mitred " Abbots
because the right of wearing the mitre and
other vestments proper to the Episcopal
office had been conferred on them by the
Pope; but the mitred and parliamentary
abbots were not identical. The abbot of
Tavistock, e.g., although mitred in the
reign of Henry VI., was not created a
spiritual lord of parliament till the reign of
Henry VIII. All mitred abbots were of
the Benedictine order, except' those of
Waltham and Cirencester, who were Au-
gustinians. (See Dugdale's Monasticon.)
There were some lords of parliament,
heads of religious houses, who were not
abbots : (1.) The prior of St. John's of
Jerusalem, of the Knights' Hospitallers in
England. He ranked before the mitred
abbots, and was considered the first baron
in England. (2.) Some monastic .priors,
including the prior of Coventry, a solitary
instance in England of the presbyteral head
of a cathedral being a spiritual peer. Of
the abbots, the abbot of Glastonbury had
the precedence till a.d. 1154, when Pope
Adrian IV., an Englishman, from the af
fection he entertained for the place of his
education, assigned this precedence to the
abbot of St. Alban's. In consequence,
Glastonbury ranked next after him, and
Eeading had the third place. Abbots and
priors were not ambitious of sitting in
Parliament, finding attendance to be a
burden on their resources, and in many
cases they obtained exemption by proving
that they were not tenants in barony under
the Crown. After the fourteenth century the
number attending Parliament steadily di
minished from 80, which was the maximum
jn 1301, down to 27, which remained the
normal number until the Dissolution. The
list summoned in 1483 may be quoted as
a' good average specimen. Peterborough,
Colchester, St. Edmund's, Abingdon, Wal
tham, Shrewsbury, Cirencester, Gloucester,
Westminster, St. Alban's, Bardney, Selby,
St. Benedict of Hulme, Thorney, Evesham,
Eamsey, Hyde, Glastonbury, Malmesbury,
Crowland, Battle, Winchcombe, Eeading,
St. Augustine's, St. Mary's York, prior of
Coventry, prior of St. John of Jerusalem.
As the ordinary number of lay lords in
Parliament was about 40, the proportion of
87 abbots was large, and with the bishops,

ABBREVIATION
gave the ecclesiastical element a consider
able preponderance in the House until the
balance was redressed by the suppression
of the monasteries. Neither the Pope nor
the King interfered much as a rule with the
election of abbots, and during the latter
part of the middle ages abbots rarely took a
conspicuous part in English politics. (See
Bishop Stubbs' Constit. Hist. i. 125, 569;
iii. 403,'443-_5.)
According to the ancient laws of Chris
tendom, confirmed by general councils, all
heads of monasteries, whether abbots or
priors, owed canonical obedience to their
diocesan. And the same law subsisted till
the Eeformation, wherever special exemp
tions had not been granted, which, however,
were numerous. Cowell, as quoted by
Johnson in his ¦ Dictionary (tit. Abbot),
erroneously says that the mitred abbots
were exempted from episcopal jurisdiction,
but that the other sorts (i.e. the non-
mitred) were subject to their diocesans.
The truth is, that the former endeavoured
after their own aggrandizement in every
possible way, but had no inherent right of
exemption from the fact of their being
lords of parliament, or being invested with
the mitre. Thus it appears from Dugd.
Monast. that Gloucester, Winchcomb, and
Tewkesbury were subject to the visitation
and jurisdiction of the bishop of Worcester,
till the Eeformation; Croyland, Peter
borough, Bardney, and Eamsey to the
bishop of Lincoln ; St. Mary in York, and
Selby, to the archbishop of York ; and Co
ventry to the bishop of Lichfield. The
abbots, unless specially exempted, took the
oath of canonical obedience to their diocesan,
and after election, were confirmed by him,
and received his benediction. (Fuller;
Collier ; Willii's Mitred Abbeys.) In Ireland
the abbots who were lords of parliament,
were those of St. Mary, Dublin ; St. Thomas,
Dublin; Monastereven, Baltinglass, Dun-
brody, Duisk, Jerpoint, Bective, Mellifont,
Tracton, Monasternenagh, Owney, and
Holycross. All these were of the Cistercian
order, except the abbot of St. Thomas, who
was of St. Victor. The other parliamentary
lords, heads of religious houses, were the
cathedral priors of Christ Church, Dublin,
and of Downpatrick; the priors of All-
hallows, Dublin; Conall, Kells, (in Kil
kenny,) Louth, Athassel, Killagh, Newton,
and Eathboy. All these were of the Augus
tinian order, except the prior of Down, wno
was a Benedictine, the preceptor of the
Knights Hospitallers at Wexford, and the
prior of the Knights Hospitallers at Kil,
mainham. (See Monks.)
ABBREVIATION. The expression of
a word or words in short. The most com
mon ecclesiastical abbreviations are I. H. S.

ABDICATION
for Jesus Hominum Salvator; St. or S.
for Saint; D. G. for Dei Gratia; A. C. for
Ante Christum; A. D. for Anno Domini;
A. M. for Anno Mundi ; O. S. for Old Style,
that is, the reckoning of the beginning of
the year as it was before Sept. 2, 1752, and
N. S. for new. (See Old Style.) Also with
regard to academical degrees : D. D. for
Divinitatis Doctor ; B. D. for Baccalaureus
Divinitatis. S. T. P. Sancte Theologian
Professor, which = D. D. &c.
ABDICATION OF OEDEES. Although
Canon 76 says that " no man ordained
deacon or priest shall voluntarily relinquish
the same nor use himself in the course of
his life as a layman upon pain of excom
munication," the Clerical Disabilities Act,
1870, allows one to do so by executing
what is called a Deed of Eelinquishment,
after resigning any preferment he may have,
in the form given by the Act. He may
then enrol it in Chancery, and may deliver
a copy of the enrolment to the bishop in
whose diocese he last held any preferment ;
or if none, where he lives : and may give
notice to the archbishop. Six months after
he has so delivered a copy of the enrolment
to the bishop, the bishop shall, on his ap
plication, have it registered ; and thereupon
(but not before) he becomes for all practical
purposes a layman. And as no man can be
¦re-ovdained the step is irrevocable. But if
any proceedings against him as a clergy
man were pending, the registration is to be
suspended till they are terminated; and
abdication does not relieve him from any
claim for dilapidations or any other debt.
It has been decided that a clergyman may
stop and change his mind at any of the
stages prescribed by the Act, which indeed
was quite clear, as they are all permissive ;
and the notice to the archbishop seems
purely optional, and has no consequences,
and may be put in the fire forthwith. [G.]
ABECED ASIAN HYMNS. Hymns
composed in imitation of the acrostic poetry
of the Hebrews, in which each verse, or
each part, commenced with the first and
succeeding letters of the alphabet, in their
order. This arrangement was intended as
a help to the memory. St. Augustine
composed a hymn in this manner, for the
common people to learn, against the error
of the Donatists. (See Acrostic ; Alphabet
ABELIANS, Abelins, Abelites, or Abel-
pnites. A sect of heretics mentioned by
St. Augustine as existing in the diocese of
Hippo. Founding their opinions on the
idea that Abel always continued in a state
of celibacy, they condemned the uses of
marriage. If married themselves they had
no intercourse with their wives ; but to keep
up their numbers they adopted the children

ABJUEATION 3
of others, on condition , that they should
live according to their rules. The sect died
out in the reign of Theodosius the Younger.
— Soames' Mosheim, vol. i. 150 (Stubbs'
edition). ABEYANCE. Coke explains the term
thus : " En abeiance, that is, in expectation,
from the French bayer, to expect. For
when a parson dieth, we say that the free
hold is in abeyance, because a successor is
in expectation to take it ; and here note the
necessity of the true interpretation of the
words. If tenant pur terme d'autre vis
dieth the freehold is said to be in abeyance
until the occupant entereth. If a man.
makes a lease for life, the remainder to the
right heirs of I. S., the fee simple is in
abeyance, that is, in expectation, in remem
brance, entendment, or consideration of law,
in consideration sive intelligentia legis;
because it is not in any man living." (Co.
Litt. 342, b.) And if a man be patron of a
church, and presenteth a clerk to the same ;
the fee of the lands and tenements pertaining
to the rectory is in the parson ; but if the
parson die, and the church becometh void,
then is the fee in abeyance, until there be
a new parson presented, admitted, and
inducted. ABJUEATION, A solemn renuncia
tion in public, or before a proper officer,
of some doctrinal error. A formal abjura
tion was often considered necessary by the
Church, when any person sought to be re
ceived into her communion from heresy or
schism. Many forms of abjuration exacted
from persons convicted of being Lollards or
disciples of John Wiclif, may be found
in the Eegisters of English Bishops during
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; also
in the Fasciculi Zizaniorum. The culprit was
generally compelled to make his abjuration
in his parish church, in the presence of
the bishop ; sometimes in several parish
churches in the diocese. A fonn for ad
mitting Eomish recusants into the Church
of England was drawn up by one of the
Houses of Convocation of 1714, but did
not receive the royal sanction. This may
be found in Card well's Synodalia, vol. ii.
c. 40.
ABJUEATION OATH, THE. A fonn
for renouncing the Stuart dynasty, to be
sworn by every person who took office, civil,
military, or spiritual. It was first proposed
in 1690, but was not made compulsory
before the last year of the reign of William
III. It was reenforced on the accession of
George I., and on the death of the Old
Pretender (1765), and was not finally
abolished until 1858. (See Supremacy.)
ABJUEATION OATH for Scotland,
1662. Imposed on all persons holding
public office, included a declaration that-
b 2

4 ABJUEATION
"the Covenant and League are of them
selves unlawful oaths, and were taken and
imposed upon the subjects of this kingdom
against the fundamental laws and liberties
of the same."
ABJUEATION OF THE EEALM.
An oath which might be enforced on any
one guilty of felony who had availed him
self of the privilege of sanctuary. It bound
the offender to quit the kingdom within
thirty days, and rendered him liable to
the penalty of death if he returned. The
oath was abolished together with the
privilege of sanctuary in the time of
James I. In the thirty-fifth year of Eliza
beth a statute was passed by which Pro
testant Dissenters who refused to attend
divine service according to the Anglican
form, and Eoman Catholics, might be forced
to abjure the realm, and if they refused or
returned without licence, might be hanged
as felons. The Act of Toleration relieved
Protestant Dissenters from the obligation
to take this oath, but Eomanists were
legally subject to it until 1791, when it
was removed from the Statute Book '
ABLUTION. Washing, or purification,
either of the person or the sacred vessels.
The word is generally used to signify the
rinsing of the chalice, after the Holy Com
munion, with wine and water, which are
reverently drunk by the priest. (Of. 6th
rubric after communion office.) [H.]
ABSOLUTION. The pardon of God for
sins, pronounced by the priest to the peni
tent, in the name of God. "If our con
fession be serious and hearty,this absolution
is as effectual as if God did pronounce it
from heaven. So says the Confession of
Saxony and Bohemia, and so says the
Augsburg Confession; and, which is more,
so says St. Chrysostom in his fifth homily
upon Isaiah, "Heaven waits and expects
the priest's sentence here on earth ; tho
Lord follows the servant, and what the
servant rightly binds or looses here on
earth, that the Lord confirms in heaven."
The same says St. Gregory (Horn, xxvi.) upon
the Gospels : " The apostles (and in them
ail priests) were made God's vicegerents
here on earth, in his name and stead to
retain or remit ¦ sins." St. Augustine and
Cyprian, and generally all antiquity, say the
same ; so does our Church in many places,
particularly in the form of absolution for
the sick ; but, above all, holy Scripture is
clear (St. John xx. 23), " Whose soever
sins ye remit, they are remitted unto
them." Which power of remitting sins
was not to end with the apostles, but is a
part ot the ministry of reconciliation, as
necessary now as it was then, and there
fore to continue as long as the ministry of
reconciliation ; that is, to the end of the

ABSOLUTION
world. (Eph. iv. 12, 13.) When, there
fore, the priest absolves, God absolves, if
we be truly penitent. Now, this remis
sion of sins granted here to the priest, to
which God hath promised a confirmation
in heaven, is not the act of preaching, or .;
baptizing, or admitting men to the holy;,
communion. But this power of remitting
sins, mentioned John xx., was not granted
(though promised, Matt. xvi. 19) till now,
that is, after the resurrection, as appears
by the ceremony of breathing, signifying
that then it was given : and secondly, by
the word receive, used in that place (ver.
22), which he could not properly have
used, if they had been endued with this
power before. Therefore the power of
remitting, which here God authorizes, and
promises certain assistance to, is neither
preaching nor baptizing, but some other way
of remitting, viz. that which the Church
calls absolution. And if it be so, then, to
doubt of the effect of it (supposing we be
truly penitent, and such as God will
pardon) is to question the truth of God:
and he that, under pretence of reverence to
God, denies or despises this power, does
injury to God, slighting his commission, and
is no better than a Novatian, says St.
Ambrose. — Sparrow.
" Sacerdotal absolution does not neces
sarily require any particular or auricular
confession of private sins; forasmuch as
that the grand absolution of baptism was
commonly given without any particular
confession. And therefore the Eomanists
vainly found the necessity of auricular con
fession upon those words of our Saviour,
Whose soever sins ye remit, they are re
mitted unto them : as if there could be no
absolution without particular confession;
when it is so plain, that the great absolution
of baptism (the power of which is founded
by the ancients upon this very place) re
quired no such particular confession. We
may hence infer, that the power of any-
sacerdotal absolution is only ministerial;:.
because the administration of baptism.
(which is the most universal absolution),.
so far as man is concerned in it, is no
more than ministerial. All the office and
power of man in it is only to minister the
external form, but the internal power and
grace of remission of sins is properly God's ;
and so it is in all other sorts of absolution."
— Bingham, Ant. bk. xix. c. 1, 2.
_ Calvin's liturgy has no form of absolution
in it: but he himself says that it was an
omission m him at first, and a defect in his
liturgy; which he afterwards would have
rectified and amended, but could not He
makes tills ingenuous confession in one of
his epistles: "There is none of us" savs
he, " but must acknowledge it to be very

ABS0LUT1UJN
useful, that, after the general confession,
some remarkable promise of Scripture
should follow, whereby sinners might be
raised to the hopes of pardon and recon
ciliation. And I would have introduced
this custom from the beginning, but some
fearing that the novelty of it would give
offence, I was over-easy in yielding to
them ; so the thing was omitted." I must
do that justice to Calvin here, by the way,
to say, that he was no enemy to private
absolution neither, as used in the Church
of England. For in one of his answers to
Westphalus he thus expresses his mind
about it : "I have no intent to deny the
usefulness of private absolution : but as I
commended it in several places of my
writings, provided the use be left to men's
liberty, and free from superstition, so to
bind men's consciences by a law to it, is
neither lawful nor expedient." Here we
have Calvin's judgment, fully and entirely,
for the usefulness both of public and private
absolution. He owns it to be a defect in
his liturgy, that it wants a public absolution.
¦^-Bingham, Tracts, vol. viii. [1840]. [H.]
ABSOLUTION, FOEMS OF. I. Tbe old
form of absolution at Prime and Compline
was, " The Almighty and merciful Lord grant
you absolution and remission of all your
sins, and space for true repentance, amend
ment of life, and the grace, and consolation
of the Holy Spirit." This was preceded
by a form of confession used first by the
priest and afterwards by the choir. The
' present form was composed in 1552. The
rubric originally ran, " The absolution to be
pronounced by the minister alone." The
words "or remission of sins" were added
after the Hampton Court Conference (1604).
This is said to have been a concession to the
Puritans ; but the word Absolution was not
superseded, and the addition would seem to
show that the divines there assembled held
that this was not merely a declaration of
God's mercy, but an absolution of penitent
sinners. The word " minister " in the service
was changed to priest in 166.1 ; and the
word " standing " was also introduced at the
last revision, at the instance of Bishop Cosin,
for though it had hitherto been the custom,
yet carelessness was creeping on in this
respect ; and as Bishop Andrewes had
written, " as he speaks it authoritative, in
the name of Christ and His Church, the
minister must not kneel but stand up."
II. In the order for Holy Communion,
the latter part of the absolution is almost
an exact rendering of the form in the Sarum
Use, the first part resembles that in Her
mann's Consultation. It was placed in its
present position in 1552.
III. The absolution in the Visitation of
the Sick differs from the other two in being

ABSTINENCE 5
more authoritative in its language. The
formula has come down unaltered from
1549, and seems to have been based oh that
in the Sarum office. The rubric of 1549
concluded with the direction, "and the
same form of absolution shall be used in all
private confessions." But this was omitted
in 1552. The ministerial absolution of
persons unquiet in conscience, before re
ceiving the holy communion, is mentioned
in the first exhortation on giving notice of
the communion; and the absolution of ex
communicated persons in the 65th Canon.
Bingham (Lib. xix. c. ii.) says with
regard to the indicative form (I absolve
thee) that " Morinas proves that it did not
take the place of the deprecatory form (Christ
absolve thee) till the twelfth or thirteenth
centuries, not long before the time of
Thomas Aquinas, who was one of the first
that wrote in defence of it, and Bishop
Usher (Ans. to Jesuit's Challenge,' p. 89) has
proved the novelty of it from Aquinas
himself." (Ant. xix., ii. 5.) Palmer re
marks, " An absolution followed the confes
sion formerly in the offices of the English
Churches, for prime, or the first hour of the
day. We may perhaps assign to the absolu
tion thus placed an antiquity equal to that
of the confession, though Gemma Animas
and Durandus do not appear expressly to
mention it. The sacerdotal benediction of
penitents was in the earliest times conveyed
in the form of a prayer to God for their
absolution ; but, in after ages, different
forms of benediction were used, both in the
East and West. With regard to these
varieties of form, it does not appear that
they were formerly considered of any impor
tance. A benediction seems to have been
regarded as equally valid, whether it was
conveyed in the form of a petition or a
declaration, whether in the optative or the
indicative mood, whether in the active or
the passive voice, whether in the first,
second, or third person. It is true that a
direct prayer to God is a most ancient form
of blessing ; but the use of a precatory, or
an optative form, by no means warrants the
inference, that the person who uses it is
devoid of any divinely instituted authority
to bless and absolve in the congregation of
God. Neither does the use of a direct
indicative form of blessing or absolution
imply anything but the exercise of an
authority which God has given, tosuch an
extent, and under such limitations, as
Divine revelation has declared."— Palmer's
Orig. Liturg. vol. i. p. 242.
ABSTINENCE. The refraining from
indulgence especially in the use of food. In
the Eoman Church, fasting and abstinance'
admit of a distinction, and different days
are appointed for each of them. On their

6 • ABSTINENCE
days of fasting, they are allowed but one
meal in four and twenty hours; but, on
days of abstinence, provided they abstain
from flesh, and make but a moderate meal,
they are indulged in a collation at night.
The times by them set apart for the first
are, all Lent, except Sundays, the Ember
days, the vigils of the more solemn feasts,
and all Fridays except those that fall within
the twelve days of Christmas, and between
Easter and the Ascension. Their days of
abstinence are all the Sundays in Lent, St.
Mark's' day, if it does not' fall in Easter
•week, the three Eogation days, all Satur
days throughout the year, with the^ Fridays
before excepted, unless either happen to be
Christmas day. The reason why they
observe St. Mark's as a day of abstinence is,
as we learn from their own books, in imita
tion of St. Mark's disciples, the first Chris
tians of Alexandria, who, under this saint's
conduct, were eminent for their great prayer,
abstinence, and sobriety. They further tell
us, that St. Gregory the Great, the apostle
of England, first set apart this day for
abstinence and public prayer, as an acknow
ledgment of the Divine mercy, in putting a
stop to a mortality in his time at Eome.
We do not find that the Church of England
makes any difference between days of fasting
and days of abstinence. _ It is true, in the
title of the table of Vigils", &c, she mentions
fasts and days of abstinence separately ; but
when she comes to enumerate the par
ticulars, she calls them all days of fasting
or abstinence, without distinguishing be
tween the one and the other. Nor does she
anywhere point out to us what food is
proper for such times or seasons, or seem to
place any part of religion in abstaining from
any particular kinds of meat. It is true, by
a statute (5 Eliz. 5) none were allowed to
eat flesh on fish-days (which are there
declared to be all Wednesdays, Fridays, and
Saturdays in the year,) without a licence
first obtained, for which they are to pay a
yearly fine (except such as are sick, who
may be licensed either by the bishop or
minister,) under penalty of three pounds'
forfeiture, or three months' imprisonment
without bail, and of forty shillings forfeiture
for any master of a family that suffers or
conceals it. But then thisis declared to be
a mere political law, for the increase of
fishermen and mariners, and repairing of
port towns and navigation, and not for any
superstition to be maintained in the choice
of meats. For, by the same Act, whosoever,
by preaching, teaching, writing, &c, affirms
it to be necessary to abstain from flesh for
the saving of the soul of man, or for the
service of God, otherwise than other politic
laws are or be, is to be punished as a spreader
of false news. That is, he must suffer im-

ACCESSION
prisonment till he produce the author; and/
if he cannot produce him, must be punished
at the discretion of the king's council. The
sections of this Act which relate to eating
fish on Wednesdays, were repealed by 27
Eliz. c. 11. „ ,
With- us, therefore, neither Church nor"
State makes any difference in the kinds of
meat ; but as far as the former determines
in the matter, she seems to recommend an
entire abstinence from all manner of food
till the time of fasting be over ; declaring
in her homilies, that fasting (by the decree
of the six hundred and thirty fathers, as
sembled at the Council of Chalcedon, which
was one of the four first general councils,
who grounded their determination upon the
sacred Scriptures, and long-continued usage
or practice both of the prophets and other
godly persons, before the coming of Christ,
and also of the apostles and other devout
men in the New Testament) is a withholding
of meat, drink, and all natural food from
the body, for the determined time of fasting.,
— Wheatly. (See Fasting.)
ABYSSINIA. The Abyssinian Church
was founded early in the fourth century.
Its first bishop, Frumentius, received conse
cration from St. Athanasius, bishop of
Alexandria, and to this day the Abund of
Abyssinia is always an Egyptian monk,
chosen and consecrated by the Coptic patri
arch. In the sixth century the Christians
of Abyssinia fell into the heresy of the
Monophysites, in which they still remain;
and they also agree with the Greek Church
in denying the procession of the Holy
Ghost from the Son. In the fifth, and
again in the seventeenth century, attempts
were made to reduce the Abyssinian Chris
tians to obedience to the Eoman see, but the
attempt in both instances utterly failed.
The number of Christians in Abyssinia is
said to amount to three millions.
ACCESS, Prayer of Humble. The
prayer offered immediately before the Prayer
of Consecration in the Office of Holy Com
munion. In the Liturgies of 1548 and 1549
the Invitation (" Ye that do truly," &c),
the Confession, the Absolution, the " Com
fortable Words," and this prayer, were placed
between the Consecration and the actual
Communion. This order is observed in the
Scottish Office. The alteration in .the
English Office was made in 1552, so that
the consecration of the Elements, and the
reception of the faithful, should come as
near as possible together. In the Eastern
Liturgies the prayer which corresponds to
this is called the " Prayer of Inclination,"
and is used immediately before the com
munion of the people. [H 1
ACCESSION SERVICE. The first form
of prayer, with Thanksgiving to be used on

ACCESSOEIES
the anniversary of the Sovereign's accession
to the Throne, was set forth " by authority "
in 1578, and was to be used on Nov. 17, the
day of Queen Elizabeth's accession. In
1626 a new form was published by the
king's authority, and sanctioned by Con
vocation in 1640. This was superceded in
1661 by the Service of Thanksgiving for
the Eestoration to be held on May 29. In
James II.'s reign the Accession service
was revived, and, with the exception of the
prayer, an entirely new form was prepared.
This was again revived in Queen Anne's
reign (1703-4), and as so revived (with the
exception of the alteration of the first lesson
from Prov. viii. 13 to Josh. i. 1-9, the latter
being the lesson in King James' form) is
the form now enjoined for use on June 20,
the anniversary of Her Majesty's accession.
(See State Prayers.)
ACCESSOEIES OF DIVINE SEE VICE.
The rule with regard to these is briefly
comprehended in the Eubric, " And here it
is to be noted, that such ornaments of the
Church, and of the ministers thereof, at all
times of their ministration, shall be retained,
and be in use as were in this Church of
England, by the Authority of Parliament,
in the 2nd year of the reign of King Edward
the sixth." This is substantially the same
as the rubric in the Prayer Book of 1559,
which was incorporated with the Elizabethan
Act of Uniformity (1 Eliz. c. 2, § 25), was
retained in the Prayer Book of James I., and
was re-enacted at the last revision in 1661.
— Perry in Blunt's Annotated Prayer Book.
ACCUSTOMED DUTY to the Priest
and Clerk. That which is ordered by the
rubric in the Marriage Service to be " laid
on the book together with the ring, imme
diately before the solemn placing of the
ring upon the finger of the bride. In olden
times gold, silver, and a ring were given at
this part of the service, but the gold and
silver was not intended as a fee, but as a
symbol of dowry. The old form in the
Prayer Book of 1549 was " With this ring I
thee wed, this gold and silver I thee give."
In the York Use the form was " With this
ringe I wedde the, and with this gold and
silver I honoure the, and with this gift I
honoure the. In nomine," &c. An old
Manual in the British Museum explains the
object of the gold and silver " in signifyinge
that the woman schal haue pure dower, thi
goods if heo abide aftur thy disces " (Blunt).
Hooker (Ecc. Pol. v. lxxiii. 6) thinks that
the custom may be traced to the old Saxon
practice of buying wives. The rubric was
changed to its present form in 1552 ; but as
a rule the fees are not laid upon the book
during the service.
ACEPHALI. (d and Kecj>a\ri, literally,
without a head.) The name given to those

ACROSTIC 7
of the Egyptian Eutychians, who, after
Peter Mongus, bishop of Alexandria, had
signed the Henoticon of Zeno, a.d. 482,
formed a separate sect. (See Henoticon.)
The Egyptians had since the Council of
Chalcedon renounced Eutyches as their
leader and assumed the more appropriate;
name of " Monophysites." When Some of
them also renounced Peter Mongus, they
were indeed " without a head." Yet all the
branches of this sect continued to bear the
name of Monophysites till late in the sixth
century, when they assumed the name of
Jacobites (from Jacobus Baradeus), which
they still bear. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim,
i. 377, and 408, note ; Suicer v. aKi^uKoi.
(See Monophysite.)
AC_ME_E. ('AKoi/x»)Tai, Watchers.)
An order of monks instituted at the begin
ning of the fifth century at Constantinople.
They were divided into three classes, who
performed the Divine service by rotation,
and so continued night and day without
intermission. ACOLYTH, or ACOLYTE, (iKoXovBhs,)
in our old English called " Collet," was an
inferior church servant, who, next under
the subdeacon, waited on the priests and
deacons, and .performed the meaner offices
of lighting the tapers, carrying the candle
sticks and pot of incense, and preparing the
wine and water; Acolytes were admitted
at the age of 14. (See Age.) The order
seems not to have existed in the Eastern
Church for more than 400 years, being
mentioned for the first time in the age of
Justinian. ACROSTIC. A form of poetical com
position among the Hebrews, composed of
twenty-two lines, or stanzas, according to
the number of letters in the Hebrew alpha
bet, each line or stanza beginning with
each letter in its order. Of the several
poems of this character, there are twelve
in all, in the Old Testament, viz. Psalms
xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cxii., cxix., cxlv.,
Part of Proverbs xxxi., Lament. L, ii.,
iii., iv. Psalm cxix. is the most remark
able specimen. It still retains in the Bible
translation the name of the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet, to mark its several
divisions. This Psalm consists of twenty-
two stanzas, (the number of the letters'
of the Hebrew alphabet,) each division
consisting of eight couplets ; the first line
of each couplet beginning with that letter
of the alphabet which marks the division.
Psalm xxxvii. consists of twenty-two qua
trains ; the first line only of each quatrain
being acrostical : Lam. i. and ii., of twenty-
two triplets, the first line of each only be
ing acrostical : Lam. iii., of twenty-two
triplets also, but with every line acrostical :
, Lam. iv. and Psalms xxv., xxxiv., and

s

ACTS

cxv., and part of Prov. xxxi., of twenty-
two couplets, the first line only of each
being acrostical : Psalms cxi. and. cxii., of
twenty-two lines each, in alphabetical or
der. The divisions of the Hebrew poetry
into lines, not metrical, but rhythmical and
parallel- in sentiment, is very much eluci
dated by the alphabetical o. acrostical
poems. . ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. A second
treatise by the author of the third gospel —
St. Luke. The similarity of style and
idiom, and the usage of particular words
and compound forms strongly show the
identity of the writer of both books. It is
probable that the place of writing was
Eome, and ¦ the time about two years from
the date of St. Paul's arrival there as related
in Acts xxviii. The genuineness of the
Acts has ever been recognised, in the
Church. (See Salmon's Introduction to N. T.)
ADAMITES. A sect that arose in -the
second century, followers of Prodicus, a
disciple of Carpocrates. Wishing to imitate
the state of innocence before the fall, they
met together for worship in a naked state.
In the fifteenth century a similar sect arose
called " Beghards " ; or, as the Bohemians
pronounced it, " Picards." (See Picards.)
— Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, vol. i. 150 ; vol.
ii. 363.
ADMINISTEATOE. An ancient of
ficer of the Church, whose duty was to de
fend the cause of the widows, orphans,
and all others who might be destitute of
help. ADMINISTRATION, in an ecclesiasti
cal sense, is used to express the giving or
dispensing the sacraments of our Lord.
ADMONITION, or MONITION. I. A
part of discipline used in the ancient Church.
It was the first act against an offender, and
was solemnly repeated once or twice before
proceeding to greater severities. According
to the Apostle's advice, " A man that is an
heretic after the first and second admonition
reject." (Tit. iii. 10.) This part of episco
pal discipline precedes excommunication. —
Ambrose, de Ojfic. ii. 27 ; Bingham, xvi. 2.
' In England the Act 53 George III. c. 127,
" for the better regulation of Ecclesiastical
Courts in England," directed the disuse of
excommunication, and consequently of " ad
monition" in this sense, and substituted a
writ " de contumace capiendo " for the old
writ " de excommunicato capiendo."
II. The term admonition in the " Ordinal "
is used in a different sense, and implies subor
dination to the ordinary, and superior priest.
— Bishop Barry's P. B.
ADMONIT10NISTS. Certain Puritans
jn the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who were
so called from being the authors of the
" Admonition to the Parliament," 1571, in

ADVENT
which everything in the Church of Eng
land was condemned, which was not after
the fashion of Geneva. They required i
every ceremony to be " commanded in the
Word," and set at nought all general rules
and canons of the Church.
ADOPTIONISTS. Heretics in several
parts of Spain, who held that our Saviour
was God only by adoption. Their notions
were condemned at Frankfort in the year
794. ADOPTION. To adopt is to make him a
son who was not so by birth. The Catechism
teaches us that it is in holy baptism that
" we are made members of Christ, children
of God, and inheritors of the kingdom of
heaven." God sent forth his Son to redeem
them that were under the law, that we might
receive the adoption of sons. (Gal. iv. 4, 5.)
ADORATION. This word signifies a
particular sort of .worship, which the Pagans
gave to their deities : but, amongst Chris
tians, it is used for the general reverence and
worship paid to God. The heathens paid
their regard to their gods by putting their
hands to their mouths and kissing them.
This was done in some places standing, and
sometimes kneeling ; their faces were usually
covered in their worship, and sometimes
they threw themselves prostrate on the
ground. The first Christians in their public
prayers were wont to stand ; and this they
did always on Sundays, and on the fifty
days between Easter and Pentecost in
memory of our Lord's resurrection, as is
still common in the Eastern Churches. They
were wont to turn their faces towards the
east, perhaps because the " Day-Spring " is
a title given to Christ in the Old Testa
ment (as by Zechariah vi. 12, according to
the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate,) and
by this act they testified their belief in Him
as the Sun of righteousness.
ADULT BAPTISM. (See Baptism.)
ADVENT. " For the greater solemnity of
the three principal holidays, Christmas day,
Easter day, and Whit-Sunday, the Church
hath appointed certain days to attend them:
some to go before, and others to come after .
them. Before Christmas are appointed four
'Advent Sundays,' so called because the
design of them is to prepare us for a religious
commemoration of the advent or coming of
Christ in the flesh. The Eoman ritualists
would have the celebration of this holy
season to be apostolical, and that it was
instituted by St. Peter. But the precise
time of its institution is not so easily to be
determined, though it certainly had its
beginning before the year 450, because
Maximus Taurinensis, who lived about that
time, writ a homily upon it. And it is- to
he observed, that, for the more strict and
religious observation' of this season, courses

ADVERTISEMENTS
of sermons were formerly preached in several
cathedrals on Wednesdays and Fridays, as is
now the usual practice in Lent. And we
find by the Salisbury Missal, that, before the
Reformation, there was a special Epistle
and Gospel relating to Christ's advent,
appointed for those days during all that
time." — Wheatly.
In the Gallican Church in the sixth cen
tury the season of Advent was reckoned
from St. Martin's Day (November 11), and
included six Sundays and a forty days' fast
called the Quadragesima S. Martini. This
practice has been maintained in the Orthodox
Greek Church to the present day. The
present rule in the Western Church is that
the first Sunday in Advent is the nearest
Sunday, whether before or after, to St.
Andrew's Day (November 30).
It should be observed here, that it is the
peculiar computation of the Church to begin
her year, and to renew the annual course of
her service, at this time of Advent, therein
differing from all other accounts of time
whatsoever. The reason of which is, because
she does not number her days, or measure
her seasons, so much by the motion of the
sun, as by the course of our Saviour ; be
ginning and counting on her year with him,
who, being the true " Sun of righteousness,"
began now to rise upon the world, and, as
" the Day-star on high," to enlighten them
that sat in spiritual darkness. — Bp. Cosin,
Wheatly. The lessons and services, therefore, for the
first four Sundays in her liturgical year,
propose to our meditations the twofold ad
vent of our Lord Jesus Christ; teaching
us that it is he who was to come, and did
come, to redeem the world ; and that it is he
also who shall come again, to be our judge.
The end proposed by the Church in setting
these two appearances of Christ together
before us, at this time, is to beget in our
minds proper dispositions to celebrate the
one and expect the other ; that so with joy
and thankfulness we may now " go to Beth
lehem, and see this great thing which is
come to pass, which the Lord hath made
known to us," even the Son of God come to
visit us in great humility ; and thence, with
faith unfeigned and hope immovable, ascend
in heart and mind to meet the same Son of
God in the air, coming in glorious majesty
to judge the quick and dead. — Bp. Home.
Advent Sunday is one of the four whose
lessons are given precedence over those of
any conflicting feast by the new lectionary
rubric of 1870. [H.]
ADVEETISEMENTS OF QUEEN
ELIZABETH. I. These are the orders re
ferred to in the 24th Canon as the Advertise
ments published in the 7th year of Eliza
beth, and they have lately regained so much

ADVEETISEMENTS

9

importance from the lawsuits about the
" ornaments of the clergy " under the rubric
at the beginning of the present Prayer Book,
that it is necessary to explain their legal
position : which, it is also necessary to in
form non-legal readers, has not to be deter
mined by abstract historical speculations, as
if they were an isolated event with no abiding
consequences, but in accordance with settled
legal principles. One is that in the absence
of decisive proof to the contrary omnia
prcesumuntur rite acta as to the acts re
quired for a legal origin of any long-
established usage. Judges have said they
would presume a legal conveyance of an
estate, a royal dispensation from college
statutes, and even a private Act of Parlia
ment, if necessary. In this case, if there
were no contemporaneous evidence at all, the
requisite royal order would be presumed,
seeing that all the subsequent usage assumed
it. Another maxim, or perhaps the same in
other words, is that long usage proves its
own legal origin, if such an origin was
possible under the law of England ; which it
certainly was in this case, because it was
expressly provided for by Act of Parliament.
If it were not so, the consequence would be
that the longer any usage or interpretation
of a document or law has lasted, the more
likely it would be to be upset as soon as it
came into Court, because the more probably
would all the original evidence have perished.
Moreover, long public usage shows that it
would probably have been enacted if it had
not been already understood to be law : and
it would be absurd if that general under
standing were now to be made a cause for
holding it to be unlawful. Amateur lawyers
often have to learn that the plain meaning
and positive assertions of old documents are
not allowed to be set aside by ingenious
conjectures that they may have meant, or
ought to have meant, and said, something
else. The legal history of " the Advertise
ments of 7 Eliz.," then, is this : —
The first Prayer Book, of 2 Ed. VI., 1549,
retained the old Popish vestments, by some
rubrics quite at the end of it, which may
therefore easily be overlooked. His second
Prayer Book, of 1552, was much more Protes
tant ; abolished the mass, materially altered
the prayer of consecration at the communion,
and substituted the surplice for the other
vestments in all ministrations of the clergy.
That was all repealed under Mary ; so that
when Elizabeth's reign began, on November
17, 1559, the old vestments were again in
use. Her Act of Uniformity, 1 Eliz. c. 2,
brought back Edward's second Prayer Book,
with a few small alterations, but with this
also, that section 13 of the Act " provided
that such ornaments of the Church, and of
the ministers thereof, shall be retained and

10

ADVEETISEMENTS

be in use as was in this Church of England
by the authority of Parliament in the 2nd
year (i.e. first Prayer Book) of Ed. VI, until
other order shall be taken by the authority
of the Queen with the advice of her Com
missioners appointed under the Great Seal
for matters ecclesiastical, or of the Metro
politan of this realm," which plainly, though
inaccurately, meant the Primate of all
England (Parker), and was so taken by
everybody. The vestments, being then in
full use, were literally retainable until such
other order should abolish them ; and then
the Crown could restore them no more with
out another Act.
Elizabeth issued some Injunctions in 1559,
which have been held not to relate to vest
ments in church, and did not profess to be
the " taking of other order " under that Act.
Nor did a letter of hers under the Great Seal
on January 7, 1561, N.S.,to the Archbishop
and other commissioners say anything about
vestments, but it did profess to be taking
order under the Act ; or rather, giving them
the authority to do so as the Act provided.
For the order was only to be taken by the
Queen's authority, not by the Queen herself.
In January 1565, N.S., she wrote another
letter to the Metropolitan, which is recited
in the Preface to the Advertisements as the
authority for making them, and is given in
full in a pamphlet on this subject by a
modern namesake of Archbishop Parker, who
maintains that the commissioners were
exceeding their authority in meddling with
the vestments at all under that letter which
they cite for it. The Privy Council has
twice decided otherwise, and Lord Selborne
wrote a pamphlet also on the same side,
which Mr. Parker professes to refute. The
title-page, as quoted by him from one of the
¦early copies (which varied a little), was —
"Advertisements, partly for due order in
the public administration of common prayers
and using the holy sacraments, and partly
for the apparel of all persons ecclesiastical
by virtue of the Queen's Letters command
ing the same, Jan. 25 : " other copies add,
"1564(-5,N.S.),anno 7 Eliz. R." But they
were not issued or enforced till May 1566,
though they had been evidently discussed with
the Queen between those times, and there is
no doubt that Parker wanted to get her
ex post facto sanction to them besides
her previous authority; and there is no
surviving evidence that he did get it, for she
always liked to reserve an excuse for repudi
ation in case things turned out ill. It is
doubly immaterial now whether he did get
either a verbal or a written order to issue
them. For in the very letter of March 28,
1565, which the objectors rely on, he said to
Cecil, "The Queen will needs have me assay
with mine own authority what I can do for.

ADVERTISEMENTS
order • " which proves that he had some kind
of instruction from her to proceed, though
she would not write anything more, so far as
is known ; nor did the Act require any more,
Doubtless she could have stopped the issue
of the orders even then, and Parker would
never have dared to issue them against her
will : but she plainly did the contrary some-
how. And so they were issued, after being
" agreed upon and subscribed by M. Cantuar,
E. London," and others, " Commissioners in
causes ecclesiastical."
It is curious that the Advertisements,
besides the subscriptions to be made hy
persons admitted to any office, are 39, like
the Articles. Those about vestments pre
scribe a comely surplice with sleeves in all
ministrations, except that the ministrants at
the communion in cathedrals are also to
wear copes. They immediately began to
be enforced by the bishops, according to
abundant evidence of many bishops and
archdeacons and writers during the remainder
of Elizabeth's reign and afterwards ; and it
is not denied that the other vestments
speedily disappeared all over the kingdom,
and never reappeared until a few years ago.
And what is still more remarkable as proving
why they disappeared, the Book of Advertise-1
ments, or Admonitiones, as the Latin canons
call them, was recognised within 5 years hy
a Convocation in some (abortive) canons of
1571, and by the duly confirmed canon of
1603-4, and by some more of 1640, which
were confirmed by the king, but set aside by
the Parliament, and undoubtedly were ultra
vires and illegal; but still they were the
solemn utterances of the Convocations of
both provinces, and therefore good evidence
of the universal recognition of the Advertise
ments. Nor is there any evidence that they
were disputed by any one worth naming
during the whole reign of Elizabeth, whether
puritanically or papistically inclined. The
first person of note who did so afterwards
was Bishop Cosin, who after that confessed
that he had forgotten the terms of the Act
of Uniformity ; and his was only a second
hand opinion, for he was not born till nearly
30 years after the Advertisements. It is
odd that an older Cosin, who was Dean of
Arches in Elizabeth's reign, wrote in support
of them, in answer to an anonymous and
what he called a factious libel, in 1584. His
answer was anonymous too, but is well
known to be his.
It will be better to finish the subject of
the vestments here than to postpone the rest
of it till the ornaments rubric of 1662, which
is substantially in the same words as one
which was printed in the Elizabethan
Prayer Books without any real authority,
being a copy of the first part only of that
clause of the Act already quoted above— i e.

ADVEETISEMENTS
it omitted the words " until other order," &c.
It is impossible to ascertain now how it came
to be so printed and to be kept there
illegally and absurdly long after every vest
ment in the kingdom had disappeared. An
equally illegal thing was done early in the
next reign in the issuing of the Jacobean
Prayer Book in 1604 by royal authority,
professedly under the powers of the Eliza
bethan Act of Uniformity, which authorised
nothing of the kind. And it contained a
still more illegal rubric, omitting the im
portant word " retained" before " be in use,"
and so did undoubtedly profess to restore the
old vestments. But they nevertheless were
not restored, even in the royal chapels, for
by that time the real dispute was not between
surplices and other vestments, but between
surplices and none.
Then came, in 1661-2, the first lawful new
Prayer Book after Elizabeth's. There are
the usual historical doubts now about the
exact stages of the various alterations ; of
which it is enough to say that the more
Protestant majority of the bishops to whom
it was referred after the Savoy Conference,
would not let Cosin and Sancroft, who were
of the High Church party, have their way
in many things ; and in particular, the
Puritans at the Conference having objected
that the Jacobean rubric " seemed to bring
back the vestments," as it certainly did, the
old word "retained" was afterwards rein
stated by the bishops, so as to bring back
nothing that had then vanished for a century,
both actually and legally. Although Cosin,
at different periods of his life, thus wrote
different opinions about the Advertisements
which were made before he was born, he
never attempted, either before or after 1662,
to revive the vestments in his own cathedral ;
nor did Sancroft, or anybody else. And
Bishop Sparrow, one of the revisers of 1661,
is said to have written in his own Prayer
Book that priests were to wear a surplice in
ordinary ministrations, and a cope at com
munion in cathedral and collegiate churches.
He also edited a book containing the Ad
vertisements, Injunctions, Articles, and
Canons of 1603.
Another legal principle involves the same
conclusion. Nothing but a distinct repeal
of an existing law does repeal it, if the old
and new can be reconciled. So far from the
rubric of 1662 being a clear repeal of the
Advertisements and Canons about surplices
and vestments, it is rather the contrary, by
reason of the word " retained," which in
volves the inquiry of what was then in
existence legally and actually. This is the
substance of the Purchas and Eidsdale judg
ments on this point in the Privy Council
(L. E. 3 P. C. 634, and 2 Prob. 300). (See
Ornaments). _Gc._

ADVEETISEMENTS

11

II. It seems desirable here briefly to state
the reasons why a large number of persons
are unable to concur in the legal decisions re
ferred to in the foregoing account, and are
of opinion that the Advertisements in no
wise cancel or override the direction of the
" Ornaments Rubric." The 25th and 26th
clauses of the Act of Uniformity passed in
the 1st year of the reign of Elizabeth are as
follows :
" [S. xiii.] Provided always and be it en
acted that such ornaments of the Church
and of the ministers thereof shall be re
tained and be used, as was in this Church
of England by authority of Parliament in
the 2nd year of the reign of King Edward
VI., until other order shall be therein taken
by the authority of the Queen's Majesty,
with the advice of her Commissioners ap
pointed and authorised under the great seal
of England for causes ecclesiastical, or of the
Metropolitan of this realm ; [xxvi] and also
if there shall happen any contempt or ir
reverence to be used in the Ceremonies or
Rites of the Church by the misusing of the
orders appointed in this book, the Queen's
Majesty may, by the like advice of the said
Commissioners or Metropolitan ordain and
publish such further Ceremonies or Rites as
may be most for the advancement of God's
glory, the edifying of this Church, and the
due Reverence of its Holy Mysteries and
Sacraments." The Ornaments Rubric in Elizabeth's
Prayer Book, 1559, and subsequent books
till 1661, ran thus: "And here is to be
noted that the Minister at the time of the
Communion and at all other times in his
ministration shall use such ornaments in
the Church as were in use by authority of
Parliament in the 2nd year of the reign of
King Edward the VI. according to the Act
of Parliament."
Thus the rubric was based upon the
Act, and was clearly to remain valid
until the Act itself should be repealed by
" other order " being taken. The question
is, was such " other order " taken in the
Advertisements by authority of the Queen's
Majesty? In 1561 the Queen certainly did take
"other order" or "further order" within
the meaning of the Act, for she issued a
letter to her commissioners, the Archbishop
of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, and.
others, directing them to revise the Lection-
ary, to reform the disorders of chancels,
and to add to the adornment of them hy
causing the tables of commandments to be
set up at the east end. It is to be ob
served that in the preamble of this letter a
direct reference is made to the clauses in
the Act of Uniformity cited above, in the
following terms : " letting you to understand

12

ADVEETISEMENTS

that where it is provided by Act of Parlia
ment holden in the 1st year of our reign
that whensoever we shall see cause to take
further order in any rite or ceremony," &c,
" we therefore .... have thought good to
require you our said Commissioners," &c.
The letter is formally signed and dated
(January 22, 1561) ; it is preserved amongst
the State papers of Elizabeth's reign; one
copy of it exists in Archbishop Parker's
Register at Lambeth (fol. 215) ; another
amongst his papers at Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge. Lastly, the Kalendars
of lessons were altered in all the Books of
Common Prayer as the result of the revision
made by the Commissioners.
If we turn to the letter of the Queen
addressed to the archbishop in January,
1564 (=1565 N.S.), which ultimately led to
the issue of the Advertisements, we find that
it is devoid of all those characteristics which
marked the former letter as a " taking of
other order " under the Act, (i.) it contains
no reference whatever to that Act ; it com
plains of the varieties and novelties both in
opinion, and in rites and ceremonies which
disturbed the peace of the Church ; and it
enjoins the archbishop to confer with his
suffragans on the subject, to enquire what
the varieties are, to deal with each case as
it arises "according to the order and ap
pointment of such laws and ordinances as
are provided by Act of Parliament," and
not to admit any to the cure of souls but
those who will promise to " observe, keep
and maintain such order and uniformity in
all the external rites and ceremonies both
for the Church and for their own persons as
by laws, good usages, and orders are already
allowed provided and established."
In short the letter requires the Metro
politan and his suffragans not to make any
new law or order, but to take care that all
existing laws and orders should be in future
obeyed. In accordance with these instruc
tions, the bishops met and enquired into the
" novelties " complained of, which, judging
from a document containing the substance
of the returns obtained, were certainly not
excesses in ritual, but defects ; e.g. some
celebrated Holy Communion with " surpless
and copes, some with surpless alone, others
with none." Some baptised in a fount,
others in a bason, some in a surpless, others
without." On March 3, 1565, the arch
bishop sends to Secretary Cecil a rough
copy of some articles (which were in a
great measure repetitions of some orders and
injunctions which had been agreed upon
amongst the bishops in 1561), and on
March 8 a fair copy of the same; with a
request that he would present them to the
Queen and get her to authorise them.
After two more letters (March 24, and

ADVEETISEMENTS
April 7) urging the same request, but
without success, the subject was dropped for
a whole year. It was then revived March
12, 1566, by a letter from Parker to Cecil
lamenting his want of success in enforcing
discipline, and expressing his great regret
that the Queen will not give the weight of
her authority to the rules or Advertisements
drawn up a year ago. On March 28 he
writes to say that he has just printed the
Advertisements, that he has weeded out of
the book everything which he thinks may
have " stayed it from the Queen's approba
tion," that he believes there is nothing in it
against any law of the realm, and that as
he must now "assaye" with his "own
authority " what he can " do for order," he
trusts he shall not now be hindered in his
efforts. Accordingly the Advertisements
were issued. As Parker could not obtain
the formal authorization of the Queen, he
made as much as he could of the Queen's
letter as the originating cause of the Adver-
tisments — both in the title and the preface.
In the title they are designated " Advertise
ments partly for due order in the -public ad
ministration of common prayer aod using the
Holy Sacraments, and partly for the apparel
of all persons ecclesiastical, by virtue of the
Queen's Majesties letters commanding the
same " (i.e. "the same " due order in adminis
tration, &c.,_not the same Advertisements,
for the letter commands no Advertisements,
but does require the enforcement of due
order, — in the preface reference is made to
the Queen's letter desiring that some orders
might be taken to reform and repress such
varieties as were contrary to existing laws,
usages and ordinances." Thus neither in
the letter nor in the Advertisements is there
any reference to " taking other order " under
the Act of Uniformity.
(ii.) The Advertisements are not given
under the royal signet, but are merely
signed by the archbishop and five other
bishops. (iii.) In the copies sent by
Parker to the Dean of Booking and other
commissaries of his "peculiars" they are
merely termed " orders agreed upon by me
and other of my brethren of my province
of Canterbury." (iv.) No copy of the Ad
vertisements exists amongst the State
Papers, or in Parker's Register, (v.) In
the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Parker,
and other bishops of his province, they are
referred to, if at all, as the Advertisements
set forth by public authority," or simply
" the book called the Advertisements," and
are thus carefully distinguished from the
Queens Majesty's Injunctions of 1559,"
which are also referred to. (vi.) ia the
Visitation Artie es of the Archbishop of
York in 15(1 they are not referred to at
all, as they would surely have been had they

ADVEETISEMENTS
been understood to be issued by royal au
thority. It seems to many impossible in the face
of this evidence to conclude that the Queen
took " other order " or " further order " in the
Advertisements within the meaning of the
Act of Uniformity (clauses xxv. and xxvi.)
It only remains to be observed that when
she did take "other order" in 1561, and
directed a new Lectioriary to be prepared,
every Prayer Book was altered accordingly,
whereas after the issue of the Advertise
ments no change was made whatever, not
even in the Ornaments Rubric which is
supposed to be affected by them. The
simple explanation of this appears to be
that it was not necessary to alter or revise
the rubric because the Advertisements
in nowise clashed with it. Looking at
the contents of the Advertisements we find
that they are mainly a repetition of the
Queen's injunctions issued in 1559, and
their aim is to enforce those which had
been most grossly neglected, allowing a
modified observance of others to which
exact obedience could not be enforced. E.g.
the injunctions had directed that rectors
should preach in their churches "one
sermon every month at the least," and
subsequently " once in every quarter at the
least ; " the A dvertisements order that " if he
be able he shall preach in his own person
every three months or else shall preach by
another." The rubric of 1552 required that
in cathedral and collegiate churches the
clergy should communicate "every Sunday
at the least," the Advertisements require
the Holy Communion to be ministered
in such churches "on the 1st or 2nd
Sunday of every month at the least," so
that the dean and other clergy should all
receive four times in the year at least."
In respect of the vesture of the clergy
the Advertisements direct that in cathedral
and collegiate churches in the ministration
of Holy Communion the celebrant and
assistant clergy should wear copes, that is to
say, the rubric of Edward VI.'s first Prayer
Book is left. substantially unchanged which
prescribed a white alb plain with a
vestment or cope, the surplice being very
similar to the alb and the cope to the
vestment. For all other clergy at all
times of ministration in the church the
Advertisements directed the use of the
surplice. On the analogy of the other
directions, about the times of preaching, &c,
cited above, it seems only reasonable to
interpret this to mean that the surplice
should suffice, and to believe that here as
elsewhere the Advertisements state the
minimum which would be tolerated, not
the maximum which was not to be ex
ceeded.

ADVOCATES

13

Such a spirit of negligence and slovenli
ness prevailed that the bishops could barely
get the minimum of ritual observed, and
it is no wonder therefore that all vest
ments except the surplice disappeared.
But it is obvious that there was no need
to alter or remove the Ornaments Rubric.
The Advertisements did not abrogate it, and
therefore it remained unaltered in all ex
isting and subsequent editions of the Prayer
Book until the Revision of 1661, when the
words "such ornaments, &c, shall be re
tained and be in use" were substituted
" for the minister shall use such orna
ments ; " the object of this change being, as
appears from a note in the margin of San-
croft's fair copy, to bring the Eubric into
exact conformity with the language of the
clause xxv. in the Act of Uniformity of
1559. (Cardwell's Documentary Annals ;
Archbishop Parker's Megister, Lambeth ;
Stephens' Notes on Book of Common
Prayer ; Introduction to Revision of Book
of Common Prayer, by James Parker, Hon.
M.A. Oxon. ; Did Queen Elizabeth take
other order in the Advertisements of 1566 ?
the same ; Life of Archbishop Parker, by
W. F. Hook, D.D.) [W. R. W. S.]
ADVOCATE, (1) the word used in one
passage in our Bibles, 1 John ii. 1, as a
translation of the Greek irapaKkioTos, which
signifies literally " one called to the side of
another," and so secondarily " one who aids
another," by exhorting, or comforting him.
In St. John xiv. 16, and xv. 26, the word
is rendered " Comforter." (See Paraclete.)
(2) The word advocate thus came to imply
one who prays or intercedes for another.
Christ is called our advocate, 1 John ii. 1 ;
and in the Prayer Book very frequently the
term is applied to our Lord ; as in the prayer
for the Clergy, Church Militant, &c. &c.
ADVOCATES are mentioned in the 96th,
131st, and 133rd Canons, as regular members
of the Ecclesiastical Courts. The pleaders,
or superior practitioners, in all the English
and Irish Church Courts were so called. In
London, a.d. 1567, they formed a corporation,
or college, called Doctors' Commons ; because
they must be Doctors of Law, and they for
merly lived together in a collegiate manner,
with a common table, &c. The candidate
Advocates obtained a fiat from the archbishop
of Canterbury, and were admitted by the-
judge to practise. But there are no longer
special Advocates in those courts, since the
Acts establishing the Probate and Divorce
Court in 1857. The pleaders in the supreme
courts in Scotland, and generally throughout
Europe, are called Advocates. The insti
tution of the order is very ancient. About
the time of the emperor Alexander Severus
(see Butler's Life of L'Hopital) three ranks
of legal practitioners were established ; the

14

ADVOWSON

orators, who were the pleaders ; the advo
cates, who instructed the orators in points of
law ; and the cognitores, or procuratores,
who discharged much the same office as
proctors or attorneys now. The first order
gradually merged into the second.
ADVOWSON (Advocatio) is the right of
patronage to a church, or an ecclesiastical
benefice, and he who has the right of advow
son is called the patron of the church. For
when lords of manors first built churches
upon their own demesnes, and appointed the
tithes of those manors to be paid to the offici
ating ministers, which before were given to the
clergy in common, the lord, who thus built
a church and endowed it with glebe or land,
had of common right a power annexed of
nominating such minister as he pleased
(provided he were canonically qualified) to
officiate in that church, of which he was the
founder, endower, maintainer, or, in one
word, the patron (patronus, and sometimes
advocatus). . Advowsons are of two sorts, advowsons
appendant, and advowsons in gross. When
annexed to a manor or land, so as to pass
with them, they are appendant ; for so long
as the church continues annexed to the
possession of the manor, as some have done
from the foundation of the church to this
day, the patronage or presentation belongs
to the person in possession of the manor or
land. But when the property of the ad
vowson has been once separated from that
of the manor by legal conveyance, it is called
an advowson in gross, or at large, and exists
as a personal right in the person of its owner,
independent of his manor or land. Advow
sons are also either presentative, collative,
donative, or elective. An advowson presen
tative is where the patron has a right to
present the parson to the bishop or ordinary to
be instituted and inducted, if he finds him
canonically qualified. An advowson collative
is where the bishop is both patron and
ordinary. An advowson donative is where
the king, or any subject by his licence,
founds a church or chapel, and ordains that
it shall be merely in the gift or disposal of
the patron; subject to his visitation only,
and not to that of the ordinary ; and vested
absolutely in the clerk by the patron's deed
of donation, without presentation, institution,
or induction.
As to presentations to advowsons : where
there are divers patrons, joint-tenants, or
tenants in common, and they vary in their
presentment, the ordinary is not bound to
admit any of their clerks; and if the six
months elapse within which time they are
to present, he may present by the lapse ;
but he may not present within the six
months ; for if he do, they may agree and
bring a quare impedit against him, and

ADVOWSON
remove his clerk. .Where the patrons are
co-parceners, the eldest sister, or her as
signee, is entitled to present : and then at
the next avoidance, the next sister shall
present, and so by turns one sister after
another, till all the sisters, or their heirs,
have presented, and then the eldest sister ,..'
shall begin again, except they agree to
present together, or by composition to
present in some other manner. But if the
eldest presents together with another of her
sisters, and the other sisters every one of
them in their own name, or together, the
ordinary is not bound to receive any of their
clerks, but may suffer the church to lapse.
But in this case, before the bishop can take
advantage of the lapse, he must direct a writ
to inquire the right of patronage. Where an
advowson is mortgaged, the mortgagor alone
shall present, when the church becomes
vacant, and the mortgagee can derive no
advantage from the presentation in reduction
of his debt. If a woman has an advowson,
or part of an advowson, to her and her heirs,
and marries, the husband may not only
present jointly with his wife, during the
coverture, but also after her death the right '
of presenting during his life is lodged in him,
as tenant by courtesy, if he has children
by her. And even though the wife dies
without having had issue by her husband, so
that he is not tenant by courtesy, and the
church remains vacant at her death, yet the
husband shall present to the void turn ; and
if in such case he does not present, his
executor may. If a man, seized of an
advowson, takes a wife, and dies, the heir
shall have two presentations, and the wife
the third, even though her husband may
have granted away the third turn. Or, if a
manor, to which an advowson is appendant, j
descends to the heir, and he assigns dower to
his mother of the third part of the manor,
with the appurtenances, she is entitled to
the presentation of the third part of the
advowson ; the right of presentation being
a chose in action which is not assignable.
If an advowson is sold when the church is
vacant, it is decided that the grantee is
not entitled to the next presentation. If,
during the vacancy of a church, the patron
die, his executor, or personal representa
tive, is entitled to that presentation, unless
it be a donative benefice, in which case
the right of donation descends to the
heir. But if the incumbent of a church
be also seized in fee of the advowson and die,
his heir, and not his executors, shall present,
because it did not fall vacant in his life
As to the manner in which advowsons
descend, it has been determined, that
advowsons in gross cannot descend from the
brother to the sister of the entire blood, but
they shall descend to the brother of the half

_DPHEAH
blood, unless the first had presented to it in
his lifetime, and then it shall descend to the
sister, she being the next heir of the entire
blood. (See Lapse, and Phillimore's Ecc.
Law, "Advowson.")
_1LPHEAH. (See Alphege.)
. iEONS. (Alaves, ages.) The name
given by some of the Gnostic heretics to the
spiritual beings, whom they supposed to
have emanated from the Supreme Deity, and
to be like Him eternal — whence the name.
(See Valentinians.)
AERIANS. A small sect founded by
Aerius, a presbyter of Sebaste, in the lesser
Armenia, about a.d. 355. St. Augustine
(Hser. liii.) tells us that Aerius, the author of
this heresy, was mortified at not attaining the
episcopate ; and having fallen into the heresy
of Arius, and having been led into many
Strange notions by impatience of the control
of the Church, he taught among other things,
that no difference ought to be recognised
between a bishop and a presbyter ; where
as, until then, even all sectaries had acknow
ledged the episcopate as a superior order, and
had been careful at their outset to obtain
episcopal ordination for their ministers. (Dr.
Newman's Fleury, bk. xix. 36.) ^Thus
Aerius revenged himself upon the dignity to
which he had unsuccessfully aspired ; and he
has left his history and his character to
future ages, as an argument almost as forcible
as direct reasoning and evidence, of the apo
stolical ordinance of the episcopate,
AETIANS. A sect of heretics in the
fourth century. They had this name from
their chief person Aetius of Antioch. This
man applied himself to the sciences at
Antioch, Tarsus, and for a short time at
Alexandria, and acquainted himself with the
medical art, as well as with theology. As
all his instructors were of Arian sentiment,
he also applied his talents and his dexterity
in debate to the vindication of the Arian
doctrine, which he carried to the extreme
conclusion that the Second and Third Persons
in the Holy Trinity were utterly unlike the
First Person. He was made a deacon at An
tioch in 350 : but deposed and banished in
the reign of Constantine. Julian recalled
him and gave him a bishopric (Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 306-307). Besides
the Arian I doctrines, the Aetians main
tained that faith without works was suffi
cient to salvation, and that no sin would be
imputed to the faithful. Aetius asserted
that God had revealed to him, what He had
concealed from the Apostles. His followers
were commonly called Eunomians, from his
pupil Eunomius, or Anomceans, from their
doctrine that the Second and Third Persons in
the Trinity were unlike (avofioioi.) the first.
— Epiph. Hxres. Ixxvi. c. 11 ; Socrat. H. E.
ii, 35 1 Sozomen, H, E, iii. 15, iv. 12.

AFFINITY

15

AFFINITY. Relationship arising from
marriage. The wife's blood relatives are
related by affinity to the husband, and his
blood relatives are so to her. Affinity no
less than consanguinity (see Consanguinity)
has been deemed in Christian countries a
bar to marriage between relatives. The
prohibitions, which place both sexes on one
and the same footing, forbidding marriage on
either side to those related by consanguinity
or affinity within the first or second degree,
are fully and clearly exhibited in the Table
annexed to the Book of Common Prayer.
It is described as " A Table of Kindred and
Affinity wherein whosoever are related are
forbidden in Scripture and our Laws to marry
together." It is these prohibitions which
are referred to in the solemn charge addressed
by the priest to the parties in the Office for the
Solemnization of Matrimony : " Be ye well
assured that so many as are coupled together
otherwise than God's Word doth allow, are
not joined together by God, neither is their
matrimony lawful."
I. "God's Word "is chiefly to be found
in Leviticus xviii. 6-18, and xx. 11-21. It
is plain that the restrictions laid down in
those chapters are not intended to bind the
Jews only. The Canaanites are condemned
in severe terms (xviii. 24-30 ; xx. 22, 23),
and doomed to extermination for breach of
these laws ; and the Canaanites were never
under the Levitical law, which was not even
given when the Canaanities were here
reckoned thus guilt}r. The laws laid down
belong evidently to the common moral law
binding on all mankind.
The ground on which these marriages are
forbidden is declared in verse 6, "None of
you shall approach to any that is near of kin
to him " : literally " flesh of his flesh," or as
margin, *' remainder of flesh," (sheer of his
basar). The following verses down to verse
18 contain instances in illustration of this
principle. The list is not exhaustive ; it is
intended only to give examples sufficient in
number and nature to make the legislator's
meaning clear. Various examples are set
down, all the relations specified being
regarded as " near of kin." It cannot be
maintained that only those marriages are
intended to be interdicted which are so in
actual words ; for marriage with a daughter
or sister or niece by blood is not named. Nor
can it be asserted that consanguinity only is
recognized as a bar, for of the thirteen persons
instanced as " near of kin," no less than seven
are made relations only through marriage.
To take one instance only : in Ley. xviii.
14, the uncle's wife is forbidden because
" she is thine aunt " ; where it is plain that
affinity is counted a bar just as if it were
consanguinity. In truth the prohibitions
are unintelligible unless we regard them, ia

16

AFFINITY

the way the Church has always done, as
samples and illustrations of a principle.
The Table of Prohibited Degrees simply
exhibits in all its details the principles laid
down in general terms by Leviticus, and
there exemplified in some details only ; and
assumes that what is forbidden to the man
is by implication forbidden to the woman
also. But it is urged that in verse 18 we read,
"Neither shalt thou take a wife to her
sister to yex her, beside the other in her
lifetime " ; and that the legislator by pro
hibiting marriage with the wife's sister in
her lifetime tacitly allows it after the wife's
death. This is, however, a very obscure
verse on any interpretation. Even if we
admit that " sister " in it means sister by
blood, and that Moses merely meant to
interdict the polygamous Jews from that
which their forefather Jacob did — having
two sisters at once as wives — it is not clear
what is intended by the words, "to vex
her." Why should the first wife be more
vexed that her husband should marry her
sister than any other woman, if a second
wife there must be ? Family arrangements
amongst the Jews would rather point to this
as desirable, if to marry another sister were
lawful at all. But in truth there is reason
to think that the words " a wife to her sister "
mean simply "a woman to her sister,"
" one woman to another," or " one wife to
another," as the margin gives it. (See Bp.
Wordsworth's Commentary, in loco.) Thus
the purport of the verse would be to put a
check on polygamy, prohibiting it in the
interests of domestic peace when it would
"vex" the first wife, who would always
according to Oriental ideas have superior
estimation over those subsequently taken.
Dr. Kalisch however, a very high authority
about Hebrew language and law, regards the
text here as corrupted by interpolation.
(See Historical and Critical Commentary
on Leviticus, pp. 363-365, and 395-397 ;
Longman & Co., 1872). He believes that
the words originally ran simply, "Thou
shalt not take a wife to her sister," and
supports his view by referring to the Koran,
which borrows its legislation in many such
matters from Moses. The corresponding
passage in tbe Koran says plainly, "You
are also forbidden to take to wife two
sisters." (Koran, iv. 27.) It is true that
the Kabbihical Jews unanimously regard
the verse as permitting marriage with the
deceased wife's sister ; but it is to be feared
that here as elsewhere determination to
reject the Christian View of the question has
prejudiced their opinion on the text. It is
significant that the Karaite Jews have
always held marriage with a deceased wife's
sister to be forbidden by the law of Moses ;

AFFINITY
and the Karaites, who have been not inaptly
termed the Protestants of Judaism, pride
themselves on strict adherence to the letter
of the written law, rejecting the whole mass
of oral traditions and expositions with which
the Jewish schools had overlaid the Word
of God, and often made it of none effect.
(See Herzog, Encyclopadie, article Eariier.)
It must also be observed in general that the
clear drift of the whole chapter ought not to
be set aside on tbe authority of an obscure
and doubtful verse ; a verse probably corrupt,
and which, if sound, admits of no less than
fourteen varying interpretations. If marriage
with a deceased wife's sister is sanctioned
here, then, as Kalisch says, " unity of prin<
ciple and harmony of detail are destroyed in
the Levitical lists of forbidden degrees." We
may add, as not without significance, that
the Vatican MS. of the Septuagint contains
in Deut. xxvii. 23 a special malediction
against tho connexion with a wife's sister,
where the A. V. speaks of the mother-in-
law only. If this be an interpolation, it is
certainly a very early one, and reflects at
any rate the mind of the age in which it was
made. It is more probable, however, that
the Greek translator added the clause refer
ring to the sister-in-law by way of bringing||
out more fully the sense of the Hebrew, for
the word (cotheneth) really means any
female relative by marriage.
Difficulties as regards prohibitions based on
affinity have been raised in consequence of
what is known as the law of the levirate laid
down, Deut. xxv. 5-10; comp. St. Matt.
xxii. 23-28. It is to be observed in con
nexion with this subject that marriage with
the wife of a deceased brother was not,
properly speaking, permitted by the Jewish
law at all. On the contrary, it was strictly
forbidden (see Levit. xviii. 16, xx. 21) ; and
denounced too as a defilement and an abomi
nation. On the other hand, in Deut. xxv.
5-10, it is enjoined as a sacred duty, under
certain circumstances only, when a brother
died childless. The general result is surely
clear enough. The alliance in question, -*.'
which, be it observed, is precisely similar so "
far as affinity is concerned to a marriage
between a widower and his late wife's sister,
was sternly prohibited as a rule by the
general moral law. But to protect those
agrarian rights which were at the basis of
the Hebrew system and institutions as
regards property, and to prevent the extinc
tion of a family in Israel, this marriage was
—not permitted— but rendered imperative
under special circumstances by the law of
God. And the ignominious penalties
annexed to violation of this obligation (see
Deut. xxv 9, 10; Euth iv. 11) show W
abhorrent the connexion was to Jewish
customs. Where the special circumstance^

AFFINITY
and the local and national emergencies
have no place, this, like other connexions
within the Prohibited Degrees, must be
deemed to be according to the law of Moses
incestuous and prohibited.
II. The Law of the Christian Church. No
very early references to the subject can be
found, probably because the ancient Eoman
law was very nearly coincident with the
Mosaic. But, a.d. 305, the Council of
Elvira (Can. lxi.) imposed excommunication
for five years on the man who should marry
his wife's sister ; and for Ufe on him who
should marry his step-daughter (Can. Ixvi.)
This is the first known ecclesiastical legis
lation about affinity. The Council of Neo-
Caesarea (a.d. 314) completes the prohibition
on the woman's side. The Apostolical Canons
(Can. ix.) declare marriages with two sisters
or a niece to disqualify for ordination. St.
Basil, in a letter to Diodorus (a.d. 373),
declares connexion with two sisters to be
unholy and " no marriage," and refers to the
Mosaic Law. A Council at Eome under
Innocent I. (a.d. 402) forbids marriage with
a wife's sister, an uncle's wife, or first
cousin; that of Agde (a.d. 506), brands as
incestuous union with a brother's widow,
wife's sister, step-mother, step-daughter,
cousin, or any kinswoman. Like decrees
were formulated by many later Councils, in
which the Levitical degrees are frequently
quoted or referred to. The Council of
Mayence (a.d. 813) forbids marriage to those
related in the fourth degree, and in later
times the restrictions became more multi
plied and rigid, till at length marriage was
interdicted within seven degrees. (Comp.
Decretum Cratiani, P. ii. causa 35.) This
rigour could not be long retained, and at the
fourth Lateran Council (a.d. 1215), under
Innocent III., prohibition was limited to
four degrees; and these were frequently
relaxed by Papal "Dispensations." These
concessions were granted on the assumption
that the Pope possesses the power to suspend
not only the Church Canons, but even the
Scriptural ordinances. About the fact that
relationships up to the second degree at any
rate, whether of affinity or consanguinity,
are barriers to marriage, there has been
universal consent amongst all councils,
churches, and doctors.
III. The Law of the English Church and
Eealm has always been coincident with that
of Christendom generally. The words of the
late Lord Chancellor Hatherley in a speech
delivered in St. James's Hall on Thursday,
Feb. 26th, 1880, (reported in the Guardian
newspaper of March 3rd, 1880) are weighty.
"In England, he unhesitatingly declared,
that there had been no change in the law
since the baptism of Ethelbert." In the
reign of Hen. VIII. and Edw. VI. various

AFFINITY

17

statutes were passed for taking away " dis
pensations," and invalidating all marriages
not within the Levitical degrees. In these
(see 25th Hen. VIII. c. 22; 28th Hen.
VIII. c. 7 ; 2nd and 3rd Edw. VI. c. 23),
marriages within those degrees are already
and repeatedly recognised as " prohibited by
the laws of God." The Table of Prohibited
Degrees was set forth in 1563 only in order to
make clear and easily intelligible the relation
ships to which the statutes referred as obstacles
to matrimony. This table is referred to by
Canon 99 of 1603 as follows : " No person
shall marry within the degrees prohibited
by the laws of God, and expressed in a table
set forth by authority in the year of our Lord
1563, and all marriages so made and con
tracted shall be adjudged incestuous and
unlawful, and consequently shall be dissolved
as void from the beginning, and the parties
so married shall by course of law be separated.
And the aforesaid table shall be in every
church publicly set up at the charge of the
parish." The status of marriage could only, up to
1857, be determined by the ecclesiastical
courts : and persons contracting unlawful
unions availed themselves of the loopholes
left by the requirements of the Canon Law, .
namely, that the parties should be separated
and their marriage dissolved by sentence of
court. They procured the commencement of
a mock suit against themselves for incest, and
this barred the way of a real prosecution, since
two proceedings were not permitted to go on
at the same time for the same offence. The
suit was protracted by technicalities until
the death of one of the parties, after which
the civil courts would not permit the validity
of the marriage to be called in question. In
order to put a stop to these evasions of the
law, the Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, commonly
known as Lord Lyndhurst's Act, was passed
in 1835. It enacted that marriage within
the Prohibited Degrees should be, not merely
voidable by sentence of court as hitherto,
but " absolutely null and void to all intents
and purposes whatsoever." It is therefore
altogether false to assert that marriage with
a deceased wife's sister was legal before 1835,
and made illegal first by Lord Lyndhurst's
Act. That Act only cured certam defects
in procedure by means of which the law
had been sometimes broken, but made no
alteration whatever in the law of marriage
itself. Marriage with a wife's sister was
before 1835, as it still is, just as illegal as
marriage with a man's own sister or own
niece. In no case of incest, however revolt
ing, prior to 1835 could the illegality be
come legally determined and the parties be
separated without sentence of court. Since
1835 such marriages are void ipso facto.
That is all the difference.

18

AFFINITY

IV. The moral and social basis of the Pro
hibited Degrees. Man and wife are "one
flesh " (Gen. ii. 24 ; St. Matt. xix. 5, 6 ;
Eph. v. 31). It is on this principle that the
Levitical Degrees proceed : e.g. Lev. xviii. 8
prescribes, " The nakedness of thy father's
wife thou shalt not uncover ; it is thy
father's nakedness." , , The " nakedness " of
the husband is uncovered in that of the wife
because the two are " one flesh " by their
marriage. Thus the principle is carefully
insisted on in primeval times, under the
Mosaic law, by the Saviour Himself, by the
Apostle of the Gentile Churches. It is an
obvious and necessary consequence that a
man cannot marry connexions by affinity
where he cannot marry the like connexions
by blood, for the former are "part of the
flesh " (Lev. xviii. 7 ; xx. 14) of her who
has become one flesh with him.
Any infringement of this principle is
plainly fatal to the whole idea of marriage
as set forth in the Bible throughout. Nor is
it possible to abandon the principle in one
case and to retain it in others. Either
affinity is a bar to marriage between persons
so related or it is not. If it be a bar, it
must be wrong to marry two sisters ; if it
be not a bar, it is impossible to justify the
existing prohibitions against unions with the
wife's niece, the step-daughter, or the wife's
kinswomen in general. The proposal to
legalize marriage with a deceased wife's
sister strikes thus at the whole foundation
of English domestic life.
These restrictions on marriage are not to
be regai ded as arbitrary. Their reason and
purpose are to be seen in the necessity for
¦ protecting the purity of family life. - Mar
riage involves an intimacy with the wife's
relatives which would not be innocent and
safe unless the impossibility of marriage
with them were clearly understood. The
prohibiiions are intended to throw over the
wife's family precisely the same safeguards as
are by consanguinity provided for the man's
own family ; and relaxation of them must
involve, and has wherever tried been found
to involve, dangers and embarrassments from
which the present state of the law exempts us.
The results on family life of the innovations
in this matter which have been tolerated in
Eepublican America are described in a letter
addressed to the late Lord Hatherley, and
published by him, from which copious
extracts will be found- in the Church
Quarterly Review for January, 1883, p. 424.
In Protestant Germany one relaxation after
another has been admitted under dispensa
tion from the State until marriage with an
own brother's or sister's child has become so
common that an orphan niece cannot live
with her own uncle. In Eepublican France
the ancient law was swept away in 1792,

AFFUSION
and such were the family troubles that
followed, especially in relation to the wife's
sister, that the Code Napoleon in 1802 in
terdicted particularly marriage with that
relative ; and the Conseil d'Etat came to
resolutions to that effect, without admitting
dispensation under any circumstances, on
the ground of the family disorders, the
immorality, and the applications for divorce,
to which the liberty to contract these
marriages had given occasion. It is obvious,
when the subject is reasoned out, that the
Prohibited Degrees as laid down in Leviticus,
and applied by parity of reasoning in the
Table of the Church of England, form a
security for the peace and purity of domestic
life which must be preserved, if at all, in its
integrity. To legalize marriage with a
deceased wife's sister cannot possibly remain
a solitary innovation. We shall have
abandoned the strong ground of the Divine
Laws as interpreted by the Christian Church,
and have taken the first step in a revolution
of the whole of our domestic and much of
our social life. [T. E. E.]
AFFIEMATION. By various modern
Acts of Parliament, beginning with 9
Geo. IV. c. 32, first Quakers, and at last,
by a succession of Acts, everybody who
says he has a conscientious objection to
taking an oath, or is objected to as in
competent, is allowed to make an affir
mation instead in giving evidence, and
a false affirmation is made equivalent to
perjury. "Declarations," as they are
called, have also been substituted for the
old official Promissory oaths of church
wardens and many other public offices ; but
oaths of a very simple kind are substituted
for the old oaths of Allegiance and Su
premacy and Abjuration by 31 & 32 Vict.
c. 72, amending therein the Clerical Sub
scription Act of 1865, only three years
before. Jews used to be excluded from
Parliament, not expressly, but because one
of the oaths concluded with the words "on
the true faith of a Christian," which dis
appeared under that Act of 1868, and
indeed by a previous one of 1866, with a
different form of parliamentary oath, under
which all persons who may lawfully affirm
in Courts of Justice may do so in either
House of Parliament. It was held in
Clarke v. Bradlaugh (7 Q. B. D. 38) that a
parliamentary affirmation by an avowed'
Atheist was not within that Act, even with
the help of the "Evidence Further Amend
ment Acts of 1869 and 1870 TG ,
AFFUSION The pouring of t_ water
on recipients of Holy Baptism. Trine im-
^1^ V^n?"' was the anci^t rule
to which Tertulhan bears witness. (See
Immersion.) The rubric says if thev
certify that the child is weak/ it _Z

AFEICA
suffice to pour water upon it It should
here be noticed, that our Church doth not
direct sprinkling or aspersion, but affusion
or " pouring of water " upon the children to
be baptized. It is true the quantity of
water to be used is nowhere prescribed,
nor is it necessary that it should be; but,
however the quantity be left to the minis
ter's discretion, yet it must be understood
to determine itself thus far : first, that the
action be such as is properly a " washing,"
to make the administration correspond with
the institution ; and this we should observe
as ministers of Christ at large; secondly,
that the action be such, as is properly a
" pouring of water," which is the rubrical
direction to express that washing at all
times when "(lipping" is not practised;
and this we are bound to observe as minis
ters of the Church of England in par
ticular ; taking it always for granted that
there is a reason for whatever is prescribed
in a rubric, and such an one as is not to
be contradicted by our private practice,
or rejected for the sake of any modes
or customs brought in we know not
how. And we should the rather keep to this
rule of affusion, because we have in a man
ner lost that more primitive way of bap
tizing by immersion. Custom having " cer
tified" in general, that it is the opinion
and judgment of all, who bring their chil
dren to the font, that they are " too weak
to endure dipping."
Either of these modes of administering
baptism is sufficient. For it is not in this
spiritual washing, as it is in the bodily,
where, if the bath be not large enough to
receive the whole body, some parts may be
foul when the rest are cleansed. The soul
is cleansed after another manner ; a little
¦water can cleanse the believer, as well as a
whole river. The old fashion was to dip or
sprinkle the person " thrice," to signify the
mystery of the Trinity, and also to sym
bolize the three days during which our Lord
lay buried. The Church so appointed then
because of some heretics that denied the
Trinity ; upon the same ground, afterwards,
it was appoiated to do it but once (signi
fying the unity of substance in the Trinity),
lest we should seem to agree with the
beretics that did it thrice. This baptizing
is to be at the " font." — Bp. Sparrow.
AFEICA, CHUECH IN. The first Chris
tian Missions to Africa were sent by the
Eoman Church. Incredible toils and hard
ships were undergone by these missionaries,
who were of the Capuchin ( >rder ; but they
were enabled to bring some of the savage
natives to a knowledge of Christ, and at
last, in 1652, the cruel Queen of Matamba,
Anna Zingla, allowed herself and her people

AGAP_

19

to be baptized. (Soames' Mosheim, Stubbs'
Edition, iii. 201.)
In the 16th and 17th centuries the Portu
guese sent out missionaries, who afterwards
made several establishments and penetrated
a considerable distance into the interior.
The Dutch, Danes, and English made
attempts to follow the Portuguese in their
enterprise ; but it was not till the formation
of the African Association in 1788 that
much was done in this direction. In 1815
the Cape of Good Hope, which had been.
alternately in the hands of the Dutch and
English, was confirmed to the latter, and
since that time there have been continual
explorations and constant missionary work
carried on. There are at present in Africa,
and the adjacent islands, thirteen English
dioceses, besides a missionary bishopric
(Cape Palmas), founded by the Church of
the United States. These are (in order of
their formation) Cape Town, Sierra Leone,
Graham's Town, Mauritius, St. Helena,
Central Africa, Bloemfontein, Niger, Ma-
ritzburg, Zululand, St. John's, Madagas
car, Pretoria. The bishopric of Maritz-
burg was- founded in consequence of the
deposition of the Bishop of Natal. This
bishop, Dr. Colenso, had written a book
impugning the veracity of Holy Scripture,
in consequence of which a united letter
from all the bishops of England and Ire
land, with the exception of Drs. Thirlwall
(St. David's), Fitzgerald (Killaloe), and
Griffen (Limerick), was sent to him, re
questing him to resign his see. On his
refusal, he was tried before a provincial
synod at Cape Town, on the charges of
denying the Atonement, the Inspiration of
Scripture, the Divinity of our Lord, &c,
and found guilty. He was therefore for
mally deposed on Nov. 27, 1863. The
deposition was subsequently declared null
and void by the Queen in Council, on the
ground that the Metropolitan of Cape Town
had no authority over the Bishop of Natal.
In 1866 a sentence of excommunication
was published against Dr. Colenso by the
Bishop of Cape Town, and a new bishop was
consecrated to take charge of the diocese.
As by law Dr. Colenso was not deposed,
the new bishop was styled Bishop of Pieter-
maritzburg. For an account of the ancient North
African Churches, see Bingham, Ant. bk.
ix. c. 2. [H.]
AGAP_i. Love feasts, or feasts of
charity, among the early Christians, were
usually celebrated in connexion with the
Lord's Supper, but not as a necessary part
of it. The name is derived from the Greek
word aymrf], which signifies love or charity.
In the earliest accounts which have come
down to us, we find, that the bishop or
o 2

20

AGAP_

presbyter presided at these feasts. Before
eating, the guests washed their hands, and
a public prayer was offered up. A portion
of Scripture was then read, and the presi
dent proposed some questions upon it, which
were answered by the persons present.
After this, any accounts which had been
received respecting the affairs of other
Churches were recited; for, at that time,
such accounts were regularly transmitted
from one community to another, by means
of which all Christians became acquainted
with the history and condition of the whole
body, and were thus enabled to sympathise
with, and in many cases to assist, each other.
Letters from bishops and other eminent
members of the Church, together with the
Acts of the Martyrs, were also recited on
this occasion; and hymns or psalms were
sung. At the close of the feast, money was
also collected for the benefit of widows and
orphans, the poor, prisoners, and persons
who had suffered shipwreck. Before the
meeting broke up, all the members of the
Church embraced each other, in token of
mutual brotherly love, and the whole cere
mony was concluded with prayer.
As the number of Christians increased,
various deviations from the original prac
tice of celebration occurred, which called
for the censures of the governors of the
Church. In consequence of these irregu
larities, it was appointed that the president
should deliver to each guest his portion
separately, and that the larger portions
should be distributed among the presbyters,
deacons, and other officers of the Church.
It is uncertain whether the " love-feast " was
held before or after Holy Communion, but
the language in 1 Cor. xi. seems rather to
imply the former.
While the Church was exposed to per
secution, these feasts were not only con
ducted with regularity and good order, but
were made subservient to Christian edifica
tion, and to the promotion of brotherly
love, and of that kind of concord and union
which, was specially demanded by the cir
cumstances of the times.
At first these feasts were held in private
houses, or in other retired places, where
Christians met for religious worship. After
the erection of churches, these feasts were
held within their walls; until- abuses
having occurred which rendered the ob
servance inconsistent with the sanctity of
such places^ this practice was forbidden.
In the middle of the fourth century, the
Council of Laodicea enacted " that agapas
should not be celebrated in churches"; a
prohibition which was repeated by the
Council of Carthage in the year 391; and
was afterwards strictly enjoined during the
sixth and seventh centuries. By the efforts

AGATHA
of Gregory of Neo-Csesarea, St. John Chry-
sostom°and others, a custom was generally
established of holding the agapas only under
trees, or some other shelter, in the neigh
bourhood of the churches ; and from that
time the clergy and other principal members
of the Church were recommended to with
draw from them altogether.
In the early Church it was usual to cele
brate agapas on the festivals of martyrs,
agapse natalitise, at their tombs ; a practice
to which reference is made in the epistle
to the Church of Smyrna, concerning the
martyrdom of Polycarp.
These feasts were sometimes celebrated
on a smaller scale at marriages, agapse con-
nubiales, and funerals, agapse funerales.
The celebration of the agapa? was fre
quently made a subject of calumny and
misrepresentation by the enemies of the
Christian faith, even during the earliest
and best ages of the Church. In reply to
these groundless attacks, the conduct of
the Christians of those times was success
fully vindicated by Tertullian, Minucius
Felix, Origen, and others. But real dis
orders having afterwards arisen, and having
proceeded to considerable lengths, it became
necessary to abolish the practice altogether;
and this task was eventually effected, but
not without the application of various
means, and only after a considerable lapse
of time. — Eiddle, from Augusti and Stegel ;
Bingham, Ant. bk. xv. c. vii. 7.
AGAPET_I or DILEC_E. In the
third century it became a custom amongst
some of the clergy and monks to choose
persons of the other sex, devoted like them
selves to a life of celibacy, with whom
they lived under _e sanction of a kind of
spiritual nuptials, still maintaining their
chastity, as they professed, though living,
in all things else, as freely together as
married persons. These women were called
Agapetse, Subintroductse, 'Svve'uraKTOi. This
practice, however pure in intention, gave
rise to the utmost scandal in the Church;
and those who had adopted it were con
demned severely, both by the individual
authority of eminent writers and bishops,
especially St. Cyprian, St. Jerome, and St.
John Chrysostom, and by the decrees of
councils. See Dowell's Dissertationes Cy-
prianicse. Suicer, Agapetse and Suneisaktoi.
AGATHA. Virgin and martyr. A
Sicilian of noble birth, who suffered in
the Decian persecution (a.d. 253). The
legend is that her breast was cut off with
iron shears, and she is therefore represented
having in one hand the palm, and in the
other a plate, on which is a female breast.
In some representations the shears are
placed in her hands. She is commemorated
in the English black-letter calendar on

AGE
Feb. 5. Her name was originally inserted
in the calendar by Gregory the Great. [H.]
AGE, THE CANONICAL, FOR CONSE
CRATION AND ORDINATION. I. The
age for a bishop was by the Apostolic Consti
tutions laid down as 50 at least (Lib. ii. c. 1) ;
but afterwards younger men were admitted to
the Episcopate, though never under 30,
except in very rare instances. Thus Athana-
sius was probably under that age when he
was made bishop, and Remigius was ap
pointed to the see of Reims when only 22
(a.d. 471). A canon of the Greek Church
prescribes 50 as the age for a bishop ; but
this was modified by an edict of Justinian
stating that he should be above 30. (Novell.
cxxxvii.). The latter is the age required in
the Church of England. II. The Canon Law
defines 30 years to be the canonical age for
the priesthood, which age is also prescribed
by the old Saxon laws, and the councils of
Neo-Ca?sarea (a.d. 314), of Aries (a.d. 524),
of Toledo (a.d. 633), and of Trullo (a.d.
691). The Council of Trent permits the
ordination of deacons at 23, and the priests
at 25 (a.d. 1563). In the Greek Church
the age for a deacon is 25, that which was
required for Levites in the Jewish Church,
and for a priest 30, the age at which our
Lord commenced his ministry. An ancient
canon quoted by Maskell declares that an
exorcist, reader, or porter, should be over
17 ; an acolyte over 14 ; a sub-deacon over
17 ; a deacon over 19 ; a priest over 24 ; and
a bishop over 30.
In the Ordinal of 1552 the age for the
diaconate was 21, and this is still allowed
in the American and Scottish Church. By
stat. 13 Eliz. c. 12, a priest was required to
be 24 years of age. This was followed by
the 34th canon of 1603, and by the rubric
as it at present stands. A deacon must be
23 unless he has a faculty — that is to say,
a licence pr dispensation from the arch
bishop, which may be given to persons of
extraordinary ability. 44 Geo. III. c. 43,
confirmed the right hitherto held by the
primate of all England of granting such
-faculties, but enacted for the first time, that
the ordination of any priest or deacon under
24 and 23 respectively should be "merely
void in law," and be incapable of holding any
preferment by virtue thereof. Archbishops
Sharp and Ussher, Bishops Bull and Jeremy
Taylor, were each ordained before the pre
scribed age. [H.]
AGNES, ST., is commemorated in the
English black-letter calendar on Jan. 21.
She was a Roman maiden of patrician
birth, and was beheaded at the age of 13,
during the Diocletian persecution (a.d. 306).
St. Jerome says that in his time the fame of
St. Agnes was spread throughout the world;
St. Augustine refers in touching terms to

AGNUS

21

her memory, on "this day": thereby
showing the antiquity of the festivals. St.
Agnes is represented as holding a palm
branch in one hand, and caressing a lamb
with the other. [H.]
AGNOETES or AGNOETiE. (ayvoia.)
A sect of Christian heretics about the year
370, followers of Theophronius the Cappa-
docian, who joined himself with Eunomius ;
they called in question the omniscience of
God, alleging that he knew not things past
in any other way than by memory, nor
things to come but by an uncertain pre
science. — Socrat. Eist. Eccles. v. 24.
In the 6th century there arose another
sect of the same name, who followed The-
misteus, Deacon of Alexandria, who, it is
said, believed that Christ knew not when
the day of judgment should happen. But
it appears that these Agnoete merely
denied that the human nature of Christ
became omniscient, by being united with tho
divine nature. Nor did their contemporaries
in general understand them to go further.
But the writers of the middle ages repre
sent them as denying altogether the omni
science of Christ, and many of the moderns,
till quite recently, had similar views of this
sect. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 431 ; but
see also Suicer, Thes. i. v, ayvorirai, and
Blunt's Dictionary of Sects, &c, where a less
favourable view is taken of this school. [H.]
AGNOSTICS. (See Positivists.)
AGNUS DEI. I. A cake of wax, used
in the Roman Church, stamped with the
figure of a lamb supporting the banner of
the cross. The name literally signifies
The Lamb of God. These cakes, being
consecrated by the Pope with great solem
nity, and distributed among the people, are
supposed to possess great virtues. Though
the efficacy of an Agnus Dei has not been
declared by Roman councils, the belief in its
virtue has been strongly and universally
established in the Church of Rome. Pope
Urban V. sent to John Palasologus, emperor
of the Greeks, an Agnus folded in fine paper,
on which were written verses explaining all
its properties. These verses declare that the
Agnus is formed of balm and wax mixed
with chrism, and that being consecrated by
mystical words, it possesses the power of
removing thunder and dispersing storms, of
giving to women with child an easy de
livery, of preventing shipwreck, taking
away sin, repelling the devil, increasing
riches, and of securing against fire.
II. The " Agnus Dei " was also a name
given to an anthem sung by the choir,
while the priest was communicating. The
choir sang thrice : " O Lamb of God, that
takest away the sins, of the world," adding
twice, " have mercy upon us," and the third
time, " grant us Thy peace." It was given a

22

AISLE

place in the first Liturgy of Edward VI.,
but has since neither been prescribed nor
forbidden. [H.]
AISLE. (Ala.) The lateral divisions of
a church, or of any part of it, as nave,
choir, or transept, are called its aisles. (See
Church.) Where there is but one aisle to
a transept it is always at the east. In
foreign churches the number of aisles is
frequently two on each side of the nave
and choir; at Cologne there are three.
This arrangement is very ancient, since it is
found in the Basilicas of St. John, Lateran,
and St. Paul, at Eome. In England this
was very seldom the original plan. All
beyond one on each side are clearly additions,
as at Chichester, Manchester, St. Michael's,
Coventry, Spalding, and several other
churches. But they were clearly original in
the Galilee at Durham, as there are four rows
of Norman arches, and all the substructure
is Norman, though later windows have been
built. The word has been very commonly
also applied to the passages or alleys between
the seats of the congregation. Thus " the
middle aisle " is often used. [G.]
AISE. A linen napkin to cover the
chalice used in Bishop Andrewes' chapel,
and in Canterbury cathedral, before the
Eebellion. See Canterbury's Doom, 1646,
Neale's Hist, of Puritans.
ALASCANS. A name given to those
foreign Protestants in England in the 16th
century who embraced the extreme Zwing-
lian tenets adopted by John Laski, or a
Lasco, a Polish ecclesiastic of noble birth.
He had been first shaken in his opinion by
an interview with Zwinglius in 1524 ; in
1537 he abandoned his preferments and
became minister to a congregation in
Embden, the capital of Friesland. At
the invitation of Archbishop Cranmer he
came to England and resided with him at
Lambeth for six months. He was made
superintendent of the foreign Churches,
German, Flemish, French and Italian, in
London. After the accession of Mary, he
and some of his followers retreated to
Embden again, but he soon deserted them,
and after a short sojourn at Frankfort re
turned to Poland, where he died in 1560.
ALB, or ALBE. A white linen robe
which used to be worn by clergy at cele
bration of Holy Communion, and other
offices. The 58th Canon prescribes a surplice
with sleeves to be worn at the communion,
as well as at other services ; and in the
rubric after the communion in the First
P. B. of Edw. VI., regulating the Wednesday
and Friday services, the priest is to wear
a plain alb or surplice. This however
does not imply that the surplice and alb
were the same, the former being a modifica
tion of the latter. The intention of the Canon

ALBANENSES
evidently was to supersede all other vest
ments by the surplice, which has become
the usual robe for the clergy in the Church
of England. But the alb was an under-
robe, and another vestment was used upon
it, as will be seen from the rubric in the
First Prayer Book of Edw. VI. " Upon the
day and the time appointed for the minis
tration of the Holy Communion the priest
that shall execute the holy ministry, shall .
put upon him the vesture appointed for
that administration, that is to say a white
albe plain, with a vestment or cope. And
when there be many priests and deacons,
then so many shall be ready to help the
priest in tho ministration, as shall be
requisite; and shall have upon them like
wise the vestures appointed for their
ministry, that is to say albes with tunicles,"
&c. " And though there be none to com
municate with the priest, yet these days
(after the Litany ended) the priest shall put
on him a plain albe or surplice, with a cope,
and say all things at the altar," &c. (See
Vestments, Tunicle.)
These rubrics are refen-ed to in our pre
sent Prayer Book, in the notice preceding
the Morning Prayer, commonly called the
" Ornaments Rubric." (See Accessories of
Service.) Many of our most eminent ritualists
have considered the rubric of Ed. VI. as still
binding in strictness of law. But the Privy
Council has several times decided otherwise.
(See Vestment.)
ALBAN MARTYR. Called the proto-
martyr of Britain, commemorated in the
English Calendar on June 17th. He was
born at Verulam, said by Bede to be called
in the English tongue Verlamacsestir or Vset-
lingaccestir, a Roman station near the modem
St. Alban's, and educated at Rome. In the
Diocletian persecution (a.d. 303) he gave
Amphibalus, a Christian priest, shelter, hid
him from the persecutors, and was hy him
converted to the Christian faith. When he
could keep him safe no longer, he dressed
him in his own clothes, and enabled him to
escape. But the fury of the persecutors fell
upon Alban, and being ordered to offer
sacrifice to their gods, and refusing, he was
terribly tortured, and put to death. It is
said that the executioner, astonished at
Alban's firmness, and touched by tlie grace
of God, declared himself a Christian, and
suffered martyrdom at the same time, and
Amphibalus soon after. — Bede, Eccles. Hist.
i.7. [TL]
ALBANENSES. A sect which arose
probably in. the 8th century. They held,
like the Mauicheans, the existence of two
principles, the one good and the other evil.
(See Manicheans.) They denied the Di
vinity, even the humanity of our Lord, and
asserted that he did not really suffer, die,

ALBATI
rise again, aud ascend into Heaven. They
denied free will, rejected the idea of original
sin, and never administered baptism to
infants. The sect derived the name from
Albano, the seat of the principal bishop, and
seems to have been confined to Lombardy,
where it originated. — Soames' Mosheim
(Stubbs' Edition), ii. 149); Blunt's Sects,
p. 14. [II.]
ALBATI, or WHITE BRETHREN.
A set of Christian fanatics (so called from
tho white linen which they wore). Anno
1399, in the time of Pope Boniface IX., they
came down from tho Alps into several
provinces of Italy, having for their guide a
priest clothed all in white, aud a crucifix in
his hand, who asserted that he was the
prophet Elias sent to announce the second
Advent. So great was his influence that he
collected a band of enthusiasts numbering
nearly 40,000, including soino priests and
even cardinals, who marched in troops from
city to city singing hymns and making loud
prayers. The pope, becoming alarmed and
thinking that their leader aimed at his
chair, sent soldiers, who apprehended him
at Yiterbo and brought him to Rome, where
he was burned in 1403, upon which his
followers dispersed.
ALBIGENSES. Religionists in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries who opposed
the superstitions and usages of tho Roman
Church. They were called Albigenses not
because they either originated at Albi,
or resided there alone, or had their chief
church there, but because they were con
demned in a council held a.d. 1176 at
Albi (Albigea), a town of Aquitaine. The
name Albigenses had a twofold application,
the one limited, the other more extended.
In the more limited sense the Albigenses
were those who, in Italy, were sometimes
called Cathari, Publicani, or Tauliciaui,
who approximated to the Manichajans
in their sentiments. But generally the
term, according to Peter Sarnensi.:, a writer
of that time, was applied to all French here
tics, or opponents of the Roman aristocracy
and hierarchy. In 1166 Pope Innocent III.
prohibited all communion with the Al
bigenses, and sent into the southern provinces
of France legates extraordinary to extirpate
heresy, in all its forms and modifications.
From this that terrible tribunal the "In
quisition '' derived its origin. The murder
of one of the legates, Peter of Castelnau,
led to the proclamation by the pope of a
crusade against the Albigenses. Nearly half
a million of men are said to have been
collected for it. It was carried on with
merciless cruelty in the face of a stubborn
resistance. Crusade followed after cra-
sade during the first half of the thirteenth
centmy, and the sect was not finally

ALIENATION

23

stamped out before the beginning of the
fourteenth century, when a scanty remnant
escaped who joined the Waldenses, and a
few others made their way to Bosnia. (See
Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. 70, 239; Faber's
Waldenses and Albigenses ; Maitland's Facts
and Documents illustrative of the History
of the Albigenses, &c.,pp. 95,96; Sismondi;
Fleury.) The Albigenses have been frequently
confounded with the Waldenses ; from whom
however it is said that they differed in many
respects, both as being prior to them in
point of time, as having their origin in a
different country, and as being charged
with divers heresies, particularly Manicha?-
ism, from which the Waldenses were exempt.
ALBIS (Dominica in). See Low Sunday.
ALESS or ALESSE, ALEXANDER.
A Scotchman living at Leipzic, who with
Sir John Clarke translated the first English
Prayer Book into Latin. It was very hasty
and imperfect, but yet seems to have been
used by Peter Martyr and Martin Bucer,
and gave rise to many mistakes. (See Blunt's
Prayer Book, i. xxx. ; Burnet, Mist. Re/or.
ii. 319.) [H.]
ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT. One
of the three most ancient copies of the
Scriptures. Of the other two, one, called the
Vatican, is in the Vatican Library at Rome,
and the other, called the Sinaitic, is in the
Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. The
Alexandriau is in the British Museum. It
was sent to Charles I. by Cyrillus Lucaris,
patriarch of Constantinople about 1628.
Cyrillus brought it from Alexandria (henco
the title), and it appeai-s to have had its
origin in Egypt. It is always denoted by
A : the Vatican by B ; and the Sinaitic by N-
(See Mark's Gospel.) There is a schedule
annexed to the MS. in the British Museum,
in which Cyrillus states that it was written
by Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, " about
1300 years ago," i.e. early in the fourth
century. There is however no trustworthy
evidence in support of this statement, and
the opinion of antiquarians is that it was
written quite at the end of the fourth
century, or even as late as the middle of
the fifth. It consists of four folio volumes,
of which the first three contain the Old
Testament according to the LXX version
almost complete : the fourth contains the
New Testament, with a few chasms, together
with the first epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians, a small fragment of the second,
and a hymn similar in parts to our Te
Deum. — Marsh's Michaelis' Introd. to A.
Test. vol. ii. p. 186 ; vol. iii. p. 655. (See
Bible.) [H.]
ALIEN PRIORIES. (See Priory.) ,
ALIENATION, ecclesiastically speaking,
is the improper disposal of such lands and

21

ALIENATION

goods as have become the property of the
Church. These being' looked upon as
devoted to God and his -service, to part
with them, or divert them to any other use,
may be considered as no' less than the
sin of sacrilege. Upon some extraordinary
occasions, however, as the redemption of
captives from slavery, or the relief of the
poor in the time of famine, this was per
mitted ; in which cases it was not unusual
to sell even the sacred vessels and utensils
of the church. Some canons, if the annual
income of the church was not sufficient to
maintain the clergy, allowed the bishop to
sell certain goods of the church for that
purpose. By subsequent canons, however,
this was prevented, unless the consent of
the clergy was obtained, and the sanction of
the metropolitan, lest, under the pretence of
, necessity or charity, any spoil or devastation
should be made of the revenues of the
church. (See Bing. Orig. Eccl. lib. v. ch.
vi. s. 6.) [H]
ALIENATION IN MORTMAIN, is the
conveying or making over lands or tene
ments to any religious house or other
corporate body. (See Mortmain.)
ALL HOLY MARTYRS is a festival
observed in part in the Eastern Chm-ch, on the
Octave of Pentecost: — our Trinity Sunday.
St. Chrysostom has left a homily, preached
upon this day. But the Western Church
in later times generally observed the Octave
of, Pentecost in honour of the Blessed
Trinity. (See Trinity Sunday.) [H.]
ALL SAINTS' DAY. This festival of
All Saints is not of the highest antiquity.
At the beginning of the seventh century the
Pantheon at Rome, a temple dedicated to all
the gods, was converted into a Christian
Church under the name of the Blessed Virgin
and all Martyrs. This is said to have
taken place on November 1, a.d. 610,
and the festival seems to have been observed
on that day ever since. The Ven. Bede,
indeed, mentions the 13th of May as the
day of Martyrs ; but in- another place he
speaks of the festival as falling on Novem
ber 1. Our Church having, in the course
of her year, celebrated the memories of the
holy apostles, and the other most eminent
saints and martyrs of the first days of the
gospel, deems it unnecessary to extend her
calendar by any other particular festivals,
but closes her course with this general one.
It should be the Christian's delight, on this
day, to reflect, as he is moved by the
appointed scriptures, on the Christian
graces and vjrtues which have been ex
hibited by that goodly fellowship of saints
who, in all ages, have honoured God in their
lives, and glorified him in their deaths ; he
should pray for grace to follow them " in all
virtuous and godly living ; " he should

ALL
meditate on the glorious rest that remains
for the people of God, on which they have
entered; he should gratefully contemplate
that communion of saints which unites him
to their holy fellowship, even while he is
here militant, if he be a faithful disciple of
the Saviour in whom they trusted.; he
should earnestly seek that grace whereby,
after a short further time of trial, he may be
united with them in the everlasting services
of the Church triumphant. The Church of
England seems to have been induced to
sum up the commemoration of martyrs,
confessors, doctors and saints in this one
day's service, from the circumstance of the
great number of such days in the Church of
Rome having led to gross abuses, some of
which are enumerated in the preface to the
Book of Common Prayer.
This day was popularly called "Allhal-
lows day." " Hallow E'en " in Scotland,
and " Holy Eve " in Ireland, means the eve
of All Saints' Day. It is celebrated as a
high festival, or scarlet day, at the Univer
sities of Oxford and Cambridge.
ALL SOULS. A festival or holiday, on
which special prayers are offered for the
souls of the departed. Its observance has
been traced back to the year 998 ; about
which time, we are told, a certain monk,
whose curiosity had led him to visit Mount
_itna, which he, in common with others of
that age, verily believed to be the mouth of
hell, returned to his abbot with the grave
story that he had overheard "the devils
within complain, that many departed souls
were taken out of their hands by the
prayers of the Cluniac monks." (See
Clugniac Monks.) The compassionate
abbot took the hint, and set apart the
second day of November, to be annually
kept by his monks as a day of prayer for
All Souls departed. This local appointment
was afterwards changed by the Pope into a
general one, obligatory on the Western
Churches. Churches are dedicated in
honour of " All Souls," in token that they
"are in the hand of God," and having
" died in the Lord " are " blessed " even
though they were not such burning and
shining lights as to be enrolled in the
catalogue of eminent saints. For the same
reason it was the custom for Christian
people to deck the graves of their friends
and relatives with flowers on this day.
The ceremonies observed were in good
keeping with the purpose of its institution.
In behalf of the dead, persons arrayed in
black perambulated the cities and towns,
each provided with a loud and dismal-toned
bell, which they rang in public places by
way of exhortation to the people to remem
ber the souls in purgatory, and give them
the aid of their ¦prayers. (See Dirge.) In

ALLELUIA
France and Italy, at the present day, the
annual Jour des Morts is observed, by the
population resuming their mourning habits,
and visiting the graves of their friends for
many jears after their decease. At the
period of the Reformation the Church of
England abrogated the observance of this
day. [H.]
ALLELUIA, or HALLELU-JAH. This
is a Hebrew word signifying Praise the
Lord, or Praise to the Lord. It occurs at
the beginning and at the end of many of
the Psalms, and was always sung by the
Jews on solemn days of rejoicing. An
expression very similar in sound seems to
have been use.d by many nations, who can
hardly be supposed to have borrowed it from
the Jews. Hence it has been supposed- to
be one of the most ancient words of devotion.
St. John retains the word without transla
tion (Rev. xix. 1, 3, 4, 6) ; and among the
early Christians it was so usual to sing
Hallelujah, that St. Jerome says little
children were acquainted with it.
In evident imitation of the Jewish custom,
the Chm-ch has from very early times, at
least during the season of Easter, preceded
the daily Psalms with Alleluia, or Praise ye
the Loid. In the Roman and unreformed
offices it was disused during certain peni
tential seasons ; while Alleluia was used in
other parts of the service also during the
Easter season, &c. In the First Book of
King Edward VI., Allelujah was sung after
" Praise ye the Lord," from Easter to Trinity
Sunday. The response, " The Lord's name
be praised," was added at the last review.
It had been inserted in the Scotch Liturgy
in King Charles I.'s time. (See Gloria
Patri.) — Jebb's Clioral Service.
ALMERY. Literally "a place for the
alms," but the term is applied generally to
recesses in the walls of churches, fitted
with shelves and secured by doors, as
receptacles for the altar, vessels, or any
other valuable articles of church furniture.
They are to be found not only by the side of
the altar, but in various other parts of old
'churches ; and sometimes in the cloisters.
ALMQ1GN, FRANK. (See Frank
Almoign.) ALMONEB. An officer in monasteries,
who had the care of the Almonry. In the
cathedral of St. Paul, London, the Almoner
had the distribution of the alms, and the
care of the burial of the poor. He also
educated eight boys in music and in litera
ture, for the service of the Church. The
office afterwards was practically that of a
Choir-master, or Master of the Boys, and
was usually held by a Vicar Choral. —
Dugdale's History of St. Paul's*.
The Lord High Almoner is a Prelate,
who has the disposing of the King's Alms,

ALMS

25

and of other sums accruing to the Crown.
Till King James I.'s accession, when the
office of Dean of the Chapel Royal was
revived, he had the care of the King's
Chapel ; his office being then analogous to
that of the Grand Almoner of France. —
Heylin's Life of Laud.
ALMONRY. A room where alms were
distributed, generally near to the church,
or a part of it. The Almonries in the prin
cipal monasteries were often great establish
ments, with endowments specially appropri
ated to their sustentation, having a chapel,
hall, and chambers for the accommodation
of the poor and infirm. The remains of the
Almonry at Canterbury, for example, are
extensive and interesting. — Jebb's Choral
Service, ALMS. (Sax. almes ; Old Eng. almisie
or almose ; Germ, almosen ; Norw. alm-
oignes ; Fr. aumone ; Gr. eKerjfiocrivTf). Any
thing given gratuitously to relieve the poor,
as money, food or clothing. In the primitive
Church, the people who were of sufficient
substance used to give alms to the poor
every Sunday, as they entered the church.
And the poor, who were approved and
selected by the deacons or other ministers,
were exhorted to stand before the church
doors to ask for alms, as the lame man, who
was healed by Peter and John, at the
Beautiful Gate of the temple. The collec
tion of alms at the time of Holy Communion
is mentioned by Justin Martyr (a.d. 139)
as an invariable rule, and is supposed to be
based on the direction of St. Paul, 1 Cor
xvi. 2. — St. Chrys. Horn. xxv. de verb. Apos. ;
Bing. bk. xiii. c. viii. 11. The order in our
Church is, that the alms should be collected
at that part of the Holy Communion Service
which is called the Offertory, while the sen
tences are in reading which follow the place
appointed for the sermon. The intention of
the compilers of our service was, that these
alms should be collected every Sunday, as
is plain from the directions in the rubric ;
and this, whether there was a celebration
or not. It is much to be regretted that the
decay of charity has caused this good
custom to fall into too general disuse ; but
it is one which churchmen are endeavouring
to restore, and in many cases they have
succeeded. (See Offertory.)
In the seventeenth century extraordinary
collections of alms were made in England
on certain occasions, by letters patent from
the Sovereign. (See Briefs.)
The word alms is now used as a plural,
but it was originally a singular noun. (Acts
iii. 3.) [H.]
ALMS-CHEST. Besides the alms col
lected at the offertory, it may be supposed
that devout persons would make contribu
tions to the poor on entering the church,

20

ALOGIANS

or departing from it, . at evening service ;
and to receive these alms, it is appointed
by the 84th Canon, that a chest be provided
and placed in the church.
ALOGIANS. Heretics in the second
century, who denied the Divine Logos, or
Word, and attributed the writings of St.
John, in which, the Second Person of the
Godhead is so styled, to Cerinthus. St.
Augustine traces their origin to Theodotus
of Byzantium. (Hser. lib. iv. 1, and xxx. ;
Epiph. hser. lib. i., adv. Alog. 3.)
ALPHEGE, ST. Archbishop M.. Com
memorated in the English Calendar on
April 19. His name is also written iEl-
pheah, Alfegus, and Elphege. He was of
uoble family, and in 984, was made Bishop
of Winchester. He was translated to the
see of Canterbury in 1009. Two years
after, the Danes having gained possession of
. the city and taken the archbishop captive,
demanded a ransom which at first he pro
mised to pay, but afterwards refused,
because he could not raise the required sum
except by parting with some of the treasures
of the Church, or by wringing it from his
tenants. After being kept seven months a
prisoner in the, Danish ships, he was dragged
forth and brutally stoned to death at
Greenwich, on the site of the parish church,
which is dedicated to him. (See Hook's
Lives of the Archbishops, vol. i. p. 455.)
He was buried in St. Paul's and afterwards
translated to Canterbury. (See Freeman,
Norman Conq. i. 350-2,and Appx. II.) [H.]
ALPHABET PSALMS. Three psalms,
in which each verse or clause in the
Hebrew, begins with the successive letters
of the alphabet. These are especially
the 111th, 112th, and 119th Psalms.
The latter is of a peculiar character. Each
division is made of verses which begin with
the same letter, the section answering to the
verses of the other alphabet psalms. (See
Acrostic.) ALTAR. (Lat. altare, prob. from altus,
high; Celt, alt.) Originally a mount or
structure on which sacrifices were offered.
In the Christian use of the word it will be
convenient to consider (i.) the name, (ii.)
the material, (iii.) the position of the
altar. I. Altar was the name by which the
holy board was constantly distinguished for
the first three hundred years after Christ ;
during all which time it does not appear
that it was above once called " table," and
that was in a letter of Dionysius of Alexan
dria to Xystus of Rome. And when, in the
fourth century, Athanasius called it a
" table," he thought himself obliged to
explain the word, and to let the reader know
that by table he meant altar, that being
then tho constant, and familiar name.

ALTAR
Afterwards, indeed, both names came to be
promiscuously used ; the one having respect '
to the oblation of the Eucharist, the other to
the participation. — Wheatly.
St. Ignatius, who lived in the Apostolic
age itself, says, " In every church there is
an altar " (ad Philipp.). Other early fathers
frequently allude to the Christian altar as an
object familiar, to Christian sight ; and in
a detailed description of the Cathedral of
Tyre, given by Eusebius in his dedication
sermon, he distinctly names the holy altar
(ayiov dvo-iao-rripiov) placed in the midst of
the apse, at the east end of the church. There
were, however, distinct names given : hy
early Christian writers to the heathen altar
(I3a>fi6s), and the altar of the Church
(dvo-ma-TTipiov), and while they constantly
declare they had not the former, they
frequently speak of the latter, as that on
which was offered the Christian sacrifice
(dvo-la) of the Holy Eucharist.— Blunt, .
Annot. P. B. ii. p. 158.
Irenasus and Origen use the same word
as Ignatius. Tertullian frequently applies
to it the name of " Ara Dei," and " Altare."
Cyprian uses both names, table and altar;
but most commonly altar.
By St. John Chrysostom it is most usually
termed, "the mystical and tremendous
table," &c. St. Augustine usually gives it the
name of Mensa Domini, the Lord's Table.
" It were easy to add a thousand other testi
monies, where the altar is called the Holy
Table,- to signify to us their notion of the
Christian sacrifice and altar at once, that it
was mystical and spiritual, and had no
relation either to the bloody sacrifices of the
Jews, or the idolatries of the Gentiles, but
served only for the service of the Eucharist,
and the oblations of the people." — Bingham*.
Ant. viii. vi. 14.
In the First Prayer Book of King Edward
VI. the terms used for this holy table are the
Altar, and God's Board. In November 1550
an order was issued from the Privy Council
to every bishop " to pluck down the altars;"
and in the lieu of them " to set up a table
in some convenient place of the chancel."
This order was very much resented in some
dioceses by the people as well as by the
clergy and the bishops. Daye, Bishop of
Chichester, refused to obey the order, saying
that " he sticked not in the form, situation,
or the matter, stone or wood of the altar ;
these things he considered indifferent, but
the commandment to take down all altars
and put a table instead seemed to him a
plain abolishment of the altars, both the
name and the thing, and he could not
consent to it." He was consequently
deprived of his bishopric. This order for
the conversion of "altars" into "tables"
was mainly owing to the influence of Hooper

ALTAR
and others who had adopted the low sacra
mental views of the Swiss reformers.
In the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI.
the term " Altar " was omitted, and " Table,"
"Holy Table," or "Lord's Table," sub
stituted, which names were retained at the
last revision in 1662. The phrase "com
munion table" occurs in the Canons only, as
in the 20th, and the 82nd. The word altar
is used in the Coronation Service. It is
employed without scruple by Bishop Overall,
one of the commissioners for the revision
of the Liturgy in King James I.'s reign, and
by those who were employed in the last
Review in 1662, who of course understood
the real spirit of the Church of England.
For example, the following are the words of
Bishop Sparrow, one of the Reviewers.
" That no man take offence at the word
Altar, let him know, that anciently both
these names, Altar, or Holy Table, were
used for the same thing ; though most fre
quently the fathers and councils use the
word Altar. And both are fit names for
that holy thing. For the Holy Eucharist
being considered as a sacrifice, in the repre
sentation of the breaking of the bread, and
pouring forth of the ,cup, doing that to the
holy symbols which was done to Christ's
body and blood, and so showing forth and
commemorating the Lord's death, and
offering upon it the same sacrifice that was
offered upon the cross, or rather the com
memoration of that sacrifice, (St. Chrysost.
in Heb. x. 9,) it may fitly be called an
Altar ; which again is as fitly called an
Holy Table, the Eucharist being considered
as a Sacrament, which is nothing else but a
distribution and application of the sacrifice
to the several receivers." Bishop Cosins
(Nicholl's add. notes, p. 42) speaks of the
king and queen presenting their offering " on
their knees at God's altar : " though he adds
afterwards (p. 50) on the passage " This our
sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving," — " In
which regard and divers others besides, the
Eucharist may by allusion, analogy, and ex
trinsical denomination, be fitly called a
sacrifice, and the Lord's table an altar, the one
relating to the other ; though neither of them
can be strictly and properly so called. . . . The
sacrament of the Eucharist carries the name
of a sacrifice ; and the table, whereon it is
celebrated, an altar of oblation, in a far
higher sense than any of their former sacri
fices did, which were but the types and
figures of those services, which are performed
in recognition and memory of Christ's own
sacrifice, once offered upon the altar of his
cross." Bishop Andrewes says : " The Holy
Eucharist being considered as a sacrifice, it
is fitly called an Altar, which again is fitly
called a Table, the Eucharist being con
sidered as a sacrament." Again, Bishop

ALTAE

27

Beveridge, on the necessity, &c, of frequent
communion,Tises the word ; " Upon Sundays
and holy days, although there be not such
a number, and therefore no communion, yet,
however, the priest shall go up to the altar,"
&c. And Bishop Bull (charge to the clergy
of St. David's), " Before the Priest goes to
the Altar to read the second service," &c.
Hence, though not presuming to dispute
the wisdom of the Reviewers, or, to speak
more reverently, the dispositions of God's
providence, whereby the use of the word
altar was withheld from our Prayer Book,
there can be no doubt that the employment
of the word can be justified, if we under
stand it as the ancient Church understood
it. [Nevertheless it has been decided in the
ecclesiastical courts that the Church of
England has no altars, but only a holy
table or a communion table, which was
called in the early Prayer Books, but not
in the later, " God's Board." This was first
decided in the celebrated stone altar case of
Faulkner v. Lichfield (1 Robertson, 184),
against a new stone altar in the Round
Church at Cambridge, and again in one of
the stages of the Liddell v. Westerton case,
on St. Paul's, Knightsbridge, and St. Barna
bas Churches (Broderick and Fremantle's
Ecc. J. 122) ; where, also, it was said in the
judgment that stone altars are not only
illegal because they are immovable, but
because they are not made of wood. The
same point was decided in Parker v. Leach
(L. R. 1 P. C. 312), which has always since
been followed, and an Act was subsequently
passed, declaring the law accordingly for
the validity of marriages (which is a civil
question of State law entirely), that the
removal of the communion table in re
building and enlarging a church does not
require a reconsecration, as had been as
sumed in a former judgment of a diocesan
court, thereby reversed or superseded. [G].]
II. In the ancient church, altars were
made both of wood and stone. One of wood
is preserved in the church of St. John
Lateran at Rome, of such ancient date that
there is a tradition that it was used by St.
Peter. It is in the form of the Ark, on the
lid, or mensa, of which the Eucharist was
celebrated. A small portable altar also of
wood, but covered with silver, said to have
been used by St. Cuthbert in the seventh
century, is preserved in Durham Cathedral
Library. In St. Augustine's time wooden
altars were in use in African churches, while
stone altars existed in some of the churches
of Asia. The Council of Epone in Gaul (a.d.
51 7) enjoined stone altars, while in England
wooden altars, according to William of
Malmesbury, were in common use. In the
eleventh century Wulfstan, bishop of Wor-

28

ALTAR

coster, ordered all the wooden altars in his
diocese to be changed for altars of stone. They
are generally of wood in the Eastern Church.
(See Blunt, P. B. p. 158). The substitution
of wood for stone was involved in the order
to convert the " altars " into " tables." (See
Mensa.) III. The place of the high altar was
uniformly, in England at least, at the east end
of the church ; but in large churches room
is left for processions to pass behind it, and
in cathedral churches of Norman foundation
for the bishop's throne. Where the end of
the church was apsidal, the high altar was
placed in the chord of the apse. Chantry
altars, not being connected with a service
in which processions were used, were placed
against the wall, and scarcely an aisle or a
transept was without one or more. There
were four at the rood screen across the nave
of St. Alban's, and several more against the
pillars. In form the high altar was generally
iarge and plain, relying for decoration wholly
on the rich furniture with which it was
loaded ; very rarely its front was panelled or
otherwise ornamented. Chantry altars were,
perhaps, in ninety-nine cases in a hundred,
mere slabs built into the wall. At Jervaulx,
however, at the end of each aisle, is a large
plain altar built up of separate stones, much
in the form of a high tomb. In situ but
few high altars remain, but chantry altars
in situ are frequent enough. They are not,
however, often found in the aisles and
transepts of our churches, but in places
where they would more readily escape ob
servation, as, for instance, under the east
window (or forming its sill) of a vestry, or
of a parvise, or in a gateway to a monas
tery, or in private chapels and chapels of
castles. Altar stones not in situ, but used in
pavements and all kinds of places, are almost
innumerable, sometimes two or three or
more occurring in a single small church.
They may be recognised by five little
crosses, one in the centre, and one at each
corner. The multiplication of altars in the
same church is still strictly forbidden in the
Eastern Church, as it was in ancient times.
(See Bingham, bk. viii. c. 6. § 16.)
" In the reign of, Edward VI., besides the
dispute about turning the altars into tables,
which was originated in a sermon by Bishop
Hooper preached before the King (Edw. VI.),
another controversy arose, viz. whether the
table, placed in the room of the altar, ought
to stand altarwise ; i.e. in the same place
and situation as the altar formerly stood?
This was the occasion that in some churches
the tables were placed in the middle of the
chancels, in others at the east part thereof,
next to the wall. Bishop Ridley endea
voured to compromise this matter, and
therefore, in St. Paul's Cathedral, suffered

ALTAR
the table to stand in the place of the old
altar ; but beating down the wainscot parti
tion behind, laid all the choir open to the
east, leaving the table then to stand in the
middle of the chancel. Under this diversity
of usage, things went on till the death of
King Edward; when, Queen Mary coming
to the throne, altars were again restored
wherever they had been demolished; but
her reign proving short, and Queen Eliza
beth succeeding her, the people (just got'
free again from the tyranny of Popery)
through a mistaken zeal fell in a tumultu
ous manner to the pulling down of altars;
though, indeed, this happened for the ge
nerality only in private churches, they not
being meddled with in any of the queen's
chapels, and in but very few of the cathe
drals. And as soon as the queen was sensi
ble of what had happened in other places,
she put out an injunction to restrain the
fury of the people, declaring it to he no
matter of great moment, whether there
were altars or tables, so that the sacrament
was duly and reverently administered ; but
ordering, that where altars were taken
down, holy tables should be decently made,
and set in the place where the altars stood,
and so to stand, saving when the commu
nion of the sacrament was to be distributed ;
at which time the same was to be so placed
in good sort within the chancel, as thereby
the minister might be more conveniently
heard of the communicants in his prayer
and ministration, and the communicants
also more conveniently and in more number
communicate with the said minister. And
after the communion, done from time to
time, the same holy table was to be placed
where it stood before. Pursuant hereunto',
this part of the present rubric was added to
the liturgy, in the first year of her reigri,
viz. that "the table, at the communion
time, having a fair white linen cloth upon
it, shall stand in the body of the church, or
in the chancel, where morning and evening
prayer are appointed to be said : " which
was in those times generally in the choir.
But then it is plain from the aforesaid
injunction, as well as from the eighty-second
Canon of the Church, (which is almost
verbatim the same,) that there is no obliga
tion arising from this rubric to move the
table at the time of the communion, unless
the people cannot otherwise conveniently
hear and communicate. Ihe injunction
declares, that the holy tables are to be set
in the same place where the altars stood,
which every one knows was at the east end
of the chancel. And when both the injunc
tion and canon speak of its being moved at
the time of the communion, it supposes
that the minister could not otherwise be
heard : the interposition of a belfry between

ALTARAGE
the chancel and body of the church hinder
ing the minister in some churches from
being heard by the people, if he continued
in the church. And with the same view
seems this rubric to have been added, and
which therefore lays us under no obligation
to move the table, unless necessity requires.
But whenever the churches are built so as
the minister can be heard, and conveniently
administer the sacrament at the place where
the table usually stands, he is rather obliged
to administer in the chancel, (that being
the sanctum sanctorum, or most holy place,
of the church,) as appears from the rubric
before the Commandments, as also from
that before the Absolution, by both which
rubrics the priest is directed to turn himself
to the people. From whence I argue, that
if the table be in the middle of the church,
and the people consequently round about
the minister, the minister cannot turn him
self to the people any more at one time than
another. Whereas, if the table be close
to the east wall, the minister stands on the
north side, and looks southward, and con
sequently, by looking westward, turns
himself to the people." — Wheatly.
The permission given in Queen Elizabeth's
injunction to move the " Holy Table " from
the east end at the time of Holy Commu
nion, and to place it in " good sort within
the chancel as thereby the minister might
be more -conveniently heard," &c., was taken
advantage of by the Puritan party, and in a
large number of parish churches the table
was placed lengthways in the body of the
chancel, and stood there permanently, no
regard being paid to the direction contained
in the injunction that after the communion
done, the same holy table was to be placed
where it stood before." The consequence
was that it was often treated with the most
shocking irreverence. Laud soon after his
appointment to the Primacy endeavoured to
put a stop to this by ordering the holy
tables to be placed altarwise at the east end
of the chancels, and on the whole, in spite
of much vehement opposition, the order
was successfully enforced ; and, except
during the confusion of the Commonwealth,
the rule has prevailed from that time to the
present day. In. the royal chapels, and in
most, if not all, of the cathedral churches,
no change was made at any time in the
position of the altar. [H.]
ALTARAGE. A legal term used to denote
the profits arising to the priest or parson
of the parish on account of the altar, called
obventio altaris. Since the Reformation
there has been much dispute as to the ex
tent of the vicar's claim upon tithes as
altarage. In the 21st Eliz. it was decided
that the words Alteragium cum manso
competenti would entitle him to the small

ALTAR

29

tithes ; but it has since been holden and
now generally understood, that the extent
of the altarage depends entirely upon usage
and the manner of endowment.
ALTAR CLOTH. By the 82nd Canon
it is appointed that the table provided for the
celebration of the Holy Communion shall
be covered, in time of divine service, with a
carpet of silk, or other decent stuff thought
meet by the ordinary of the place, if any
question be made of it; and with a fair
linen cloth at the time of the ministration,
as becometh that table. The sovereigns
of England, at their coronation, present, as
their first oblation, a pall or altar cloth of
gold, &c. Fringed white cloths at the
communion have been declared illegal, and
the colours of the cloth at other times are
to be decided by the ordinary. Liddell v.
Westerton. (See Liqhts; Cross.) [H.]
ALTAR PIECE. ' A picture placed over
the altar. It is not uncommon in English
churches to place paintings over the altar,
although it is a practice of modern intro
duction, and although there would be a
prejudice against placing paintings in other
parts of the church. The English Reform
ers were very strongly opposed to the intro
duction of paintings into the sanctuary.
In Queen Elizabeth's reign, » proclamation
was issued against pictures as well as images
in churches ; and Dean Nowell fell under
her Majesty's displeasure for procuring for
her use a Prayer Book with pictures. The
Puritans, who formed the religious world
of King Charles's time, both in the Church
and out of it, destroyed pictures wherever
they could find .them, as relics of Popery.
We may add that the feeling against pic
tures prevailed not only in modern times,
but in the first ages of the primitive Church.
In the various catalogues of church furni
ture that we possess, we never read of
pictures. There is a particular breviat of
the things found by the persecutors in the
church of Paul, bishop of Cirta, in Numidia
(a.d. 303), where we find mention made
of cups, flagons, two candlesticks, and vest
ments; but of images and pictures there
is not a syllable. In Spain, at the Council ,
of Eliberis, a.d. 305, there was a positive
decree against them. And, at the end of
that century, Epiphanius, passing through
Anablatha, a village of Palestine, found a
veil there, hanging before the doors of the-
sanctuary in the church, whereon was
painted the image of Christ, or some saint,
which he immediately tore in pieces, and
gave it as a winding-sheet for the poor,
himself replacing the hanging by one
from Cyprus. (Ep. ad Johan. Hierosol.)
The first mention of pictures we find
at the close of the fourth century; when
Paulinus, bishop of Nola, to keep the-

30

ALTAR

country people employed, when they came
together to observe the festival of the
dedication of the church of St. Felix,
ordered the church to be painted with the
images of saints, and stories from Scripture
history, such as those of Esther and Job,
and Tobit and Judith. (Paulinus Natal.
9. Felicis, p. 615.) The reader will find a
learned historical investigation of this sub
ject in note B to the translation of Tertul-
lian's Apology in the Library of the Fathers,
which is thus summed up: 1. In the first
three centuries it is positively stated that
Christians had no images. 2. Private in
dividuals had pictures, but it was dis
couraged. 3. The cross, not the crucifix,
was used; the first mention of the cross
in a church is in the time of Constan-
tine. 4. The first mention of pictures in
churches, except to forbid them, is at the
end of the fourth century, and these his
torical pictures from the Old Testament, or
of martyrdoms, not of individuals. 5. No
account of any picture of our Lord being
publicly used occurs in the first six cen
turies ; the first is a.d. 600. 6. Outward
reverence to pictures is condemned. We
find frequent allusion to pictures in the
writings of St. Augustine. We thus see
that the use of pictures in churches is to
be traced to the fourth century ; and we
may presume that the practice of the age,
when the Church was beginning to breathe
after its severe persecutions, when the great
creed of the Church Universal was drawn
up, and when the canon of Scripture was
fixed, . is sufficient to sanction the use of
pictures in our sanctuaries. That in the
middle ages, pictures as well as images were
sometimes worshipped, as they are by many
Papists in the present day, is not to be
denied. (See Images ; Image Worship.)
It was therefore natural that the Reformers,
seeing the abuse of the thing, should be
.strongly prejudiced against the retention
of pictures in our churches. But much
•of Roman error consists in the abuse of
what was originally good or true. We
imay, in the present age, return to the use of
what was originally good ; but being warned
-that what has led to Popish corruptions
may lead to them again, we must be very
¦careful to watch against the recurrence of
those evil practices to which these customs
have been abused or perverted.
ALTAR RAILS, as such, and as dis
tinguished from the chancel screen, were
not known in the Western Church before
the Eeformation. We probably owe them
to Archbishop Laud, who, in- order to guard
against a continuance of the profanations
to which the holy table had been subjected,
while standing in the nave of the church,
or in the middle of the chancel, ordered that

AMBO
it should be placed at the east end of the
chancel, and protected from rude approach
by rails. As the use of altar rails arose out
of, and visibly signified respect for, the
great mysteries celebrated at the altar, they
were, of course, a mark for the hostility of*
the Puritans ; and accordingly, in the
journal of William Dowsing, parliamentary
visitor of churches in the great rebellion,
we find that they were everywhere de
stroyed. They have generally, however,
been restored; and there are now few
churches in England where they are not
found. In the East, the altar has been
enclosed by a screen or an enclosure re
sembling our rails, from ancient times.
These were at first only the cancelli, or
/ei'-vitAiSes, or, as Eusebius styles them, re
ticulated wood- work. They were after
wards enlarged into the holy doors, which
now wholly conceal the altar, and which
Goar admits to be an innovation of later
times, (pp. 17, 18.) These are not to be
confounded with the enclosure of the choir;
which, like the chancel screen, was origin
ally very low, a mere barrier, but was
enlarged afterwards into the high screens
which now shut out the choir from the
church. — Jebb's Choral Service.
ALTAE SCEEEN, now often called a
Eeredos, though that rather means some
ornamental structure on the screen. A screen
behind the altar, bounding the presbytery.
eastward, and in our larger churches separa
ting it from the parts left free for processions
between the presbytery and the Lady
Chapel, when the latter is at the east end.
(See Cathedral.) These screens were of
comparatively late invention. They com
pletely interfered with the ancient arrange
ment of the Apsis. (See Apsis.) The most
magnificent specimens of altar screens are
in the cathedrals at Winchester and St.
Alban's. In college chapels, and churches
where an apse would be altogether out of
place, and where an east window cannot be
inserted, as at New College, All Souls, and
Magdalene, Oxford, they are as appropriate
as they are beautiful. — Jebb's Choral Service.
ALTAE STEPS. Steps round three
sides of the table were pronounced illegal
in Bradford v. Fry, L. E. 4 Prob. 193.
AMBO, or AMBON (from dva fialvew, " to
go up.") A kind of raised platform or reading
desk, from which, in the primitive Church,
the Gospel and Epistle were read to the
people, and sometimes used in preaching. Its
position appears to have varied at different
times ; it was most frequently on the north
side of the entrance into the chancel.
Sometimes there was one on each side, one
for the Epistle, the other for the Gospel, as
may still be seen in the ancient churches? :
ot St. Clement and St. Lawrence, at Borne,

AMBROSE
&c. The word Ambo has been popularly
employed for a reading desk within memory,
as in Limerick cathedral, where the desk
for the lessons in the centre of the choir
was so called. The singers also had their
separate ambo, and in many of the foreign
European churches it is employed by the
precentor and principal singers; being
placed in the middle of the choir, like an
eagle, but turned towards the altar. — Jebb's
Choral Service. [H.]
AMBEOSE, St., BISHOP, and one of
the four doctors of the Church. Commemo
rated in the English Calendar on April
4. He was the governor of a Eoman pro
vince, and while exercising his authority
in quelling some disturbances at the election
of a bishop to the see of Milan, was himself,
by the unanimous voice of the people,
chosen bishop. He was at the time only
a catechumen, but his nomination by the
people was ratified by the secular and
ecclesiastical authorities, and, after being
baptized, he was presently consecrated
bishop, being of the age of 34 (a.d. 374).
He at once gave up all secular pursuits, and
made over all his property to the Church.
His influence was very great, and a remark
able instance of his moral power was shown
by his forbidding the Emperor Theodosius
.admittance to his cathedral, and partici
pation in the Holy Communion, on account
-of his massacre of 7000 persons on a trivial
pretext at Thessalonica. He introduced
¦great improvements in the conduct of public
¦worship, especially with regard to music.
The works of St. Ambrose now existing are
-composed of sermons and treatises in three
folio volumes. He died a.d. 397. [H.]
AMBROSIAN RITE. An ancient form
of liturgy retained at Milan, which derives
its name from St. Ambrose, though probably
it is even of earlier date. Attempts were
.made at different times by Charlemagne,
Pope Pius V., and Pope Nicolas IL, to
impose the Roman rite on all churches, but
that of Milan sheltered itself under the
.name and authority of St. Ambrose, and
the Ambrosian Ritual has continued in use.
It must be added that gradual approaches
to the Eoman ritual have been made,
rthough it must still be considered a distinct
rite. The music ' connected with this rite
had a very distinct character, like the
English cathedral music. It is impossible
to state accurately the nature and extent
of the influence exerted by St. Ambrose
over the music of the Western Church ; but
there is no doubt that he popularized hymn
; singing in the West, and introduced anti-
phonal psalm chanting. This was used
for the relief of the people during their
night-long services at the time of the Arian
•controversy; and St. Augustine dwells in

AMEN

31

touching terms on the effect produced on
himself at the services at Milan. (Conf.
ix. 7.) From Milan probably the anti-
phonal system of chanting spread through
all parts of Western Christendom. Ambrose
is said to have learnt his system at Antioch,
and it is evidently of Greek, not Jewish,
origin. (See Gregorians.) The Doric,
Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo-Lydian scales
which he used, being modifications of the
ancient Greek scales, correspond to our
scales of D, E, F, and G, only without
accidentals. The influence of St. Ambrose's
system is evidenced by the fact that church
song came to be called generally "Cantus
Ambrosianus," and this may account for
the iitle given to the old melody of the
" Te Deum," which cannot date from such
early times. (See Te Deum.) — Dr. Dykes
in Blunt, P. B. Ivii. [H.]
AMEDIEU, or Friends of God. A kind
of religious congregation in the Church of
Eome, who wore grey clothes and wooden
shoes, had no breeches, girding themselves
with a cord ; they began in 1400, and grew
numerous ; but Pius V. united their society
partly with that of the Cistercians, and
partly with the Soccolanti.
AMEN. This, in the phraseology of the
Church, is denominated orationis signacu-
lum, or devotes conscionis responsio, the
token for prayer — the response of the wor
shippers. It intimates that the prayer of
the speaker is heard, and approved by him
who gives this response. It is also used at
the conclusion of a doxology. (Eom. ix. 5.)
Justin Martyr is the first of the fathers
who speaks of the use of the response. In
speaking of the Eucharist he says, that, at
the close of the benediction and prayer, all
the assembly respond, "Amen," which, in
the Hebrew tongue, is the same as, " So let
it be." St. Jerome, who lived in the fourth
century, tells us that the Amen was pro
nounced with such heartiness by the people,
as to sound like a clap of thunder. Ac
cording to Tertullian, none but the faithful
were permitted to join in the response.
The general meaning is " truly," or " verily."
At the conclusion of a prayer, as the Cate
chism teaches, it signifies so be it ; after
the repetition of the Creed it means so it is.
When in the Prayer Book the Amen is
printed in Roman characters, as at the end
of the Lord's Prayer, Confession, Creeds,
&c, it is to be pronounced by the minister
and people together; when printed in
italics, the Amen is to be said by the people
only. At the reception of the elements the
communicants in the ancient church always
said Amen, which custom is mentioned in
the Apostolic Constitutions, and by Cyril,
Tertullian, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome,

32

AMERICAN

and others. Bishops Andrewes, Sparrow,
Cosin, and Wilson recommended it, but it
is not enjoined in the English Liturgy.
At the administration of baptism also, the
witnesses and sponsors uttered this response
in the same manner. In the Greek Church
it was customary to repeat this response as
follows : " This servant of the Lord is
baptized in the name of the Father,
Amen ; and of the Son, Amen ; and of
the Holy Ghost, Amen; both now and
for ever, world without end; " to which tbe
people responded, " Amen." This usage is
still observed by the Greek Church in
Russia. The repetitions were given thrice,
with reference to the three Persons of the
Trinity. — Coleman's Christian Antiquities.
AMERICAN CHURCH. (See Church in
America.) AMERICAN PRAYER BOOK. After the
separation of the North American Colonies
from England, it appeared likely that there
would be endeavours on the part of some
to introduce unauthorized alterations in the
Prayer Book, and that thus disorder might
spring up in Divine Worship. It was
therefore determined to draw up a form of
Common Prayer and Liturgy, which should
¦be national. The greatest care was taken,
and though the first step was made at the
General Convocation at Philadelphia in
1785, it was not till the General Convocation
in 1789 that the Prayer Book was autho
rized. There were proposals that an en
tirely new book should be prepared, but
other counsels prevailed, and the Preface
declares that the American Church " is far
from intending to depart from the Church
of England, in any essential point of
doctrine, discipline, or worship, or farther
than local circumstances require." (See
Church in America.)
Some of the alterations and additions are :
(1) The language is in some cases modern
ized. (2) The Nicene may be used instead
of the Apostles' Creed. (3) A rubric pre
faces the Apostles' Creed ; " and any church
may omit the words ' He went into Hell,'
or may instead of them use the words ' He
went into the place of departed spirits.'"
(4) The Athanasian Creed is omitted, and
the Absolution in the Visitation of the Sick.
(5) The priest may read our Lord's sum
mary of the law (St. Matt. xxii. 37) after
or instead of the Ten Commandments. (6)
The prayer of oblation and the invocation
in the Liturgy are used in immediate
connexion with the prayer of consecration,
as in the old liturgies. (7) A selection of
psalms is appointed instead of our daily
order. (8) The words of commendation in
the Burial office are slightly changed. (9)
The words " verily and indeed taken " are
changed to " verily and spiritually." [H.]

ANABAPTISTS
AMICE, The. (Amictus.) A broadish,
oblong piece of linen, sometimes much
embroidered and adorned, with two strings
to fasten it. When used it is first placed'
round the head and loosely tied, then
slipped down and worn on the shoulders,
beneath the alb; so that, when in place, it
has the appearance of an ornamental collar,
(See "Rationale" Vestments.)
The word amice is sometimes used with
greater latitude. Thus Milton (Par, Reg,
iv.) : "  morning fair
Came forth, with pilgrim steps, in amice grey."
The grey amice would seem to be the
almutium, almuce, or aumusse — a tippet or
cape of fur. W. Gilbert French, in an.,
interesting and curiously illustrated Essay.
on "The Tippets of the Canons Ecclesi
astical," considers that there is a distinction
between the amice and the almuce. The
former he identifies with the definition
given above. The latter he considers to be
the choir tippet, worn by all members of
cathedral churches, of materials varying
with the ecclesiastical rank of the wearer.
The hood part of the almuce was in the
course of time disused, and a square cap
substituted; and the remaining parts gave
rise to the modern cape, worn in foreign
churches, and perhaps the scarf now worn
by bishops and dignitaries in our Church.
The almuce, or "aumusse," is now an
ornament of fur or other materials carried
over the arm by the canons of many French
and other continental' cathedrals. — Dic-
tionnaire de Droit Canonique, 1787.
Cardinal Bona only mentions the amictus,
describing it as in the first paragraph of
this article. There seems nothing im
probable in the various terms above men
tioned having been originally identical.
(See Band, Hood, Scarf, and Tippet.) [H.]
AMPHIBALUM. (See Chasible.)
ANABAPTISTS. Certain fanatical sec
taries whose designation is derived from
the Greek avaBairrifciv, to baptise again,
because it was one of their tenets, although '
not the most distinctive, that persons
baptized in infancy ought to be baptized
anew. The first appearance of this fanatical
body was in 1521, at Zwickau, where a
draper named Nicholas Storch and other
enthusiasts, who were called the " prophets
of Zwickau," began to teach : (1) That a
visible kingdom of Christ composed of none
but holy persons would shortly be es
tablished on earth. (2) That the members
of this kingdom would be guided by a
divine light within which would place them
above the elementary teaching of Holy
Scripture, and render the restraints of

ANABAPTISTS
human law, as well as all forms of religious
discipline, unnecessary. The practical
results of these doctrines were attempts
of the fiercest and wildest kind to over
throw all existing institutions in order to
set up, as was alleged, the pure kingdom of
Christ upon earth. The first outbreak was
connected with the Peasants' War, a rebel
lion provoked by the tyrannical oppressions
of the feudal nobility. Under the leader
ship of Thomas Munzer, the pastor of
Zwickau, the revolt became a kind of
religious nihilism which raged over a great
part of Germany. It was crushed for a
time by the battle of Frankenhausen (May
15, 1525), when the army of the fanatics
was entirely defeated ; and Munzer having
been taken prisoner, was afterwards exe
cuted. But nine years later, in 1534, there was
a more fearful outbreak of Anabaptist
communism, at Minister, in Westphalia,
under the leadership of Bernard Rothman,
the pastor, and two burghers, Knechting and
Knipperdolling. John Bockhold, a tailor
of Leyden, became the head of the society
under the title of "King of Zion." His
deluded followers beheld in him the re
presentative of God himself, and under him
the movement became a revolting compound
of fanaticism and sensuality. For a whole
year Minister was a scene of appalling blood
shed and profligacy carried on in the name
of religion. The town was taken, however,
on June 24, 1535, when John of Leyden
was executed after cruel torture.
After some short-lived insurrections in
Holland, the continental Anabaptists aban
doned their efforts to establish their prin
ciples by violence, and under Menno of
Friesland, who became their leader about
the year 1537, they gradually subsided
into a peaceable, and more rational commu
nity, yet retaining to the last some tinc
ture of fanaticism, including the doctrine
that a Christian man ought not to under
take the duties of a secular functionary.
In England immigrations of Anabaptists
from time to time during the sixteenth
century caused considerable annoyance and
some alarm. The first direct notice of them
is in a royal proclamation issued in 1534, in
which certain strangers who in contempt
of the Holy Sacrament of Baptism had
re-baptised themselves, are ordered to quit
the realm in twelve days under pain of
death. (Wilkins, Cone. iii. 779.) In 1535,
nineteen men and six women (all from
Holland), holding Anabaptist opinions, after
being examined at St. Paul's, were con
demned to be burnt. Throughout the
reign of Henry VIII., rigorous measures
were taken to prevent the importation of
Anabaptist books, and to enforce the ex-

AMMONIAN

33

pulsion or execution of all persons holding
Anabaptist opinions. The sect consequently
made little progress until the accession of
Edward VI., when it rapidly increased in
the South of England, especially in Kent
and Essex. (See Orig. Letters, Parker Soc.
pp. 65, 66, 87.)
In Queen Elizabeth's reign on three
different occasions, all persons, whether
foreigners or natives, who were Anabaptists,
were ordered to leave the kingdom under
the severest penalties. But neither argu
ment nor terror could subdue their obstinacy,
and Peeters and Turwert, and several others,
were burnt at the stake. The last execution
of Anabaptists in England was in 1575. At
the beginning of the Protectorate the Ana
baptists, under Harrison, had great power,
and deemed themselves called by God to
prepare the way for the reign of Christ with
His saints upon earth. But their aggressive
fanaticism bringing them under the dis
pleasure of Cromwell, he reduced them " to
their original nothing." In 1658 the Ana
baptists sent an address to King Charles II. ,
together with five propositions with regard
to parliaments, regal authority, liberty of
conscience, tithes and amnesty of all
political offenders. The king returned a
general answer, and expressed himself
"willing to confer with some persons of
that party," at Bruges. (Clar. Hist. bk.
xv. ; Lingard, viii. 151 ; xi. 9 ; Collier, iv.
283 ; vi. 332. For general history of the
sect see Stubbs' . Soames' Mosheim, vol.
iii. pp. 136-144; Hardwick's History qf
the Reformation, pp. 252-258; Blunt's
Dictionary of Sects.) Allusion is made to
this sect in the 39th Article, but neither
community of goods, nor tenets subversive
of civil government, are now held by the
Anabaptists, or Baptists. See Baptists.) [H.]
AMMONIAN SECTIONS. In the middle
of the third century Ammonius, an Egyptian
monk, divided the Gospels into sections, in
order that he might construct a Harmony, in
which the four narratives of the Evangelists
might be continued. He took St. Matthew
as the normal Gospel, divided it into
sections, and then arranged against it, in
parallel columns, the corresponding portions
of the other Gospels. The numbers which
denote these Ammonian sections are often
found in the margin of the MSS. of the
Greek Testament.
In the following century Eusebius drew
up the Tables which are commonly called
his Canons. In these the Ammonian sec
tions are so distributed as to show in a
tabular form what portions of the other
Evangelists correspond to that Gospel
which stands first in order in each canon.
The numbers of the canons were subjoined
by Eusebius to the Ammonian sections,
B

34

ANAPHORA

as they stood in the margin of a Greek
copy of the Gospels; hence they became
generally known and used. In some MSS.
they appear as placed by Eusebius; in
others, the Ammonian sections alone are
to be found in the margin ; while at the
foot of the page those numbers are repeated
with a short table of the sections in the
other Gospels which correspond. — Words
worth's Gk. ¦ Test. vol. ii., xxvii. xxviii.
(See Diatessaron : Eusebius' Canons.) [H.]
ANAPHORA. (ava<popa, a raising up.) The
most solemn portion of the Eastern Liturgy,
beginning with the "Sursum Corda," and
including the Prayer of Consecration. The
old Liturgies are all divisible into two main
parts — the Pro-Anaphora, and the Ana
phora ; and the latter was divided into (1)
the great Eucharistic prayer ; (2) the Con
secration ; (3) the great Intercession ; (4)
the Communion. The Anaphora is repre
sented in our English office by the part
which begins with the versicle "Lift up
your hearts."
ANATHEMA (dudB^a), to be dis
tinguished from Anathema (ava&jfia), both,
indeed, meaning something set apart or
devoted to God; but the former for evil,
the latter for good, as with regard to
votive offerings, &c. (St. Luke xxi. 5). The
word anathema, as in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, is
generally used to express the cutting off
of a person from the communion of the
faithful. It was practised in the primitive
Church against notorious offenders. Se
veral councils, also, have pronounced ana
themas against such as they thought cor
rupted the purity of the faith. The Church
of England in her 18th Article anathema
tizes those who teach that eternal salva
tion is to be obtained otherwise than
through the name of Christ, and in her
Canons excommunicates all who say that
the Church of England is not a true and
apostolic Church. — Can. 3. All impugners
of the public worship of God, established
in the Church of England. — Can. 4. All
impugners of the rites and ceremonies of
the Church. — Can. 6. All impugners of
episcopacy. — Can. 7. All authors of schism.
— Can. 9. All maintainers of schismatics. —
Can. 10. All these persons lie under the
anathema of the Church of England. (See
Excommunication.) ANALOGY OF FAITH, [translated in
our version, proportion of faith,_ is the
proportion or proper relation that the doc
trines of the Gospel bear to each other.
(Rom. xii. 6.)
Aristotle defines dvtikoyia as Icorqs \6ya>v,
equality of ratios (Eth. N. v. iii. 8), and
hence comes our use of the word as signify
ing proportion. All things are to be done
in the Church with a constant regard to

ANDREWS
this law of 'AvaKoyla, or proportion. Scrip
ture, that is to say, is to be expounded (1)
not according to men's private notions, nor
(2) from one or two texts or chapters taken
singly and by themselves ; but (3) accord
ing to the general harmony of the whole
body of Christian doctrine — the Regula
Fidei. It has always been the charac
teristic of heretics to interpret the words of
Scripture piecemeal, without regard to the
tenor of the whole. Against this St. Peter
gives warning (2 Pet. iii. 16); and the
warning has been repeated by divines in
all ages of the Church. (Tert. Prsescr.
Eieret. cvi. p. 440, Oxf. Tr. and elsewhere;
Iren. i. 19; Augustine, Joann. Tract 18,
and elsewhere; Cranmer in Reformatio
Legum, i. 13 ; Andrewes, v. 57 ; Waterland,
vol. v. pp. 265 seq. ; &c. &c.) " It is there
fore a happy characteristic of the Church of
England that she reads the whole of the
New Testament, and a great part of the
Old, publicly to her congregation, and thus
endeavours to protect her clergy and her
people against the danger of dwelling ex
clusively on particular texts, and directs
them to interpret each several portion of
Scripture 'according to the proportion of
the Faith,' as displayed in the whole Bible."
— Wordsworth's Gk. Test, Rom. xii. 6.
ANCHORET or ANCHORITE, from
dva^apeiv, to withdraw. A name given to a
hermit, from his dwelling alone, apart from
society. The anchoret is distinguished from
the coenobite, or the monk who dwells in
a fraternity, or Koivoflia. According to
Cursian, the anchorets were derived frony:
the coenobites, who were the descendants
of those who at Jerusalem " had all things
common." (Curs. Colldb. xviii. 5.) St. Paul
and St. Anthony are claimed as the first
anchorites. — Bingham, vii. 2 ; Newman's
Fleury, xx. 5. (See Monks ; Coenobites.)
ANDREWS DAY, ST. : Apostle. Cele
brated by the Church of England, Nov.
30. After the Ascension of Christ, when
the apostles distributed themselves in
various parts of the world, St. Andrew is
said to have preached the gospel in Scythia,
in Epirus, in Cappadocia, Galatia, Bithy-
nia, and the vicinity of Byzantium, and
finally, to have suffered death by cruci
fixion at Patrae, in Achaia, by order of
the proconsul. The instrument of his
death is said to have been in the form of
the letter X, being a cross decussate, or
saltier, two pieces of timber crossing each
other in the middle; and hence usually
known by the name of St. Andrew's
cross. This festival is one of those for which an
epistle and gospel are provided in the
Lectionary of St. Jerome, and which has
also prayers appointed for it in the Sacra-

ANGEL
mentary of Gregory. It is therefore of very
ancient date in the Church.
ANGEL (iyye\os), a messenger. I.
Those who were appointed by the Apostles
as chief overseers of the churches in pro
vinces and principal cities were first some
times called Angels, probably owing to this
designation being given to the presidents
of the Seven Churches. It is not impro
bable that the Apostolical Bishops may
have been called Angels, as ministering the
New Testament, with reference to the fact
of the law having been received by the dis
position of angels (Acts vii. 53 ; Gal. iii.
19 ; Heb. ii. 12), and of our Lord being
called the Angel of the presence (Isa. Ixiii.
9), and of the covenant (Matt. iii. 1 ; Psa.
lxviii. 8 ; Numb. xx. 16 ; Exod. xxxii.
34; xxxiii. 2); and St. Paul says that
the Galatians received him as an " angel of
'God" (Gal. iv. 14). The name did not
last, and the three orders of Bishops,
Priests, and Deacons, were determined and
.distinguished nominally, as in fact they had
.always been recognised. (St. Hieron. Epist.
c. 1. ad Evang., and Comm. in Ep. ad
Tit. c. 1 ; St. Cypr. Ep. Iv. See Introd. to
the Ordinal, Blunt, P. B. p. 531.)
II. But the word is generally applied to
those spiritual beings who surround the
throne of glory, and who are sent forth to
minister to them that be heirs of salvation.
It is supposed by some that there is a
subordination of angels in heaven, in the se
veral ranks of seraphim, cherubim, thrones,
dominions, principalities, &c. We recog
nise in the service of the Church the three
orders of archangels, cherubim, and sera
phim. Two archangels are named in the
prophecy of Daniel, Michael and Gabriel,
who are also mentioned in the New Testa
ment. In the book of Tobit, the probable
date of which is about 350 B.C., Raphael
describes himself as one of the seven holy
angels, which present the prayers of the
saints, and go in and out before the glory
of the Holy One. The office of the arch
angels appears to be (1) the ruling of
the whole angelical host ; (2) the peculiar
charge and guardianship of the Church.
(See Pusey, Daniel, pp. 513, 522.) Of the
two other orders of angels, the cherubim
are mentioned as forbidding the approach
to Eden ; as covering the ark ; as in imme
diate attendance on the Almighty (Ezek.
x.). The seraphim appear only in the
vision of Isaiah. They are spirits of fire
(the word in the Hebrew signifying to
burn), — the fire of love. They are engaged
in ceaseless praise, yet are sent to minister
to us below, for they touched the pro
phet's lips with a coal of fire from the
Altar. It is possible that these two orders
.of angels are alluded to in Psa. civ. 4, " He

ANGELICI

35

maketh his angels spirits ; and his ministers
a flaming fire.
III. The worship of angels as mediators
between God and man was a form of
Gnostic error against which St. Paul warns
the Colossians (Col. ii. 18), as incompatible
with a right belief in the mediatorial office of
Christ. It is clear, however, that it lingered
amongst the Churches of Asia Minor, for
in the middle of the fourth century it was
condemned by the Council of Laodicea in
the following terms (35th Canon) : " Chris
tians ought not to forsake the Church of
God, and depart and call on angels, and
make meetings, which are forbidden. If
any one, therefore, be found, giving him
self to this hidden idolatry, let him be
anathema, because he hath left the Lord
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and hath
betaken himself to idolatry." The same
principle applies to prayers made to any
created being, and is therefore a condemna
tion of the Romish practice of invoking saints
as well as angels. The worship of the crea
ture was regarded by the Church in the
fourth century as idolatry. See Bishop
Beveridge's Expos, of Acts xxii.: see also
Bishop Bull, on the Corruption of the
Church of Rome, sect, iii., who, whilst
showing that the ancient fathers and coun
cils were express in their denunciation of
it, (e.g. the Council of Laodicea, Theo-
doret, Origen, Justin Martyr, &c.,) says,
" It is very evident that the Catholic Chris
tians of Origen's time made no prayers to
angels or saints, but directed all their
prayers to God, through the alone media
tion of Jesus Christ our Saviour. Indeed,
against the invocation of angels and saints
we have the concurrent testimonies of all
the Catholic Fathers of the first three cen
turies at least." Bishop Bull then refers to
his own Def. Fid. Nic. ii., for a refuta
tion of Bellarmine's unfair citation of Justin
Martyr, (Apol. i. 6, p. 47,) where he says,
" I have evidently proved that that plan of
Justin, so far from giving countenance to
the religious worship of angels, makes di
rectly against it." For the adoration paid
to angels in Gregory's time see Milman's
Lat. Christ, vol. i. p. 437. [H.]
ANGELIC HYMN. A title given to
the hymn or doxology beginning with
" Glory be to God on high," &c. It is so
called from the former part of it having
been sung by the angels on their appear
ance to the shepherds of Bethlehem, to
announce to them the birth of the Re
deemer. (See Gloria in Excelsis.)
ANGELICI or ANGELICS. 1. A very-
ancient sect whose name was derived either
from , their paying excessive reverence to
angels, or from their maintaining that the
world was created by angels. They were
D 2

36

ANGELITES

supposed to have their rise in the Apostles'
time, but were most numerous about a.d.
180. 2. A congregation of nuns founded
at Milan in 1534.
ANGELITES. A name assumed by the
Alexandrian Jacobites, who called their
church, erected a.d. 540, Angelium. Nice-
phorus (Hist. Eccles. xviii. 49) asserts that
they held tritheistic opinions; but others
say they held that there is but one Person
in the Godhead — Broughton's Biblio., vol. i.
p. 49.
ANGELUS. A form of prayer, re
hearsed three times a day at the sound of
a bell rung for the purpose, and called the
angelus bell. The service consisted of three
antiphons, each followed by the angelic
salutation (St. Luke i. 28, 42). It is of
mediasval origin, and is never used in Eng
land. ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH. (See
Church of England.)
ANNATES, or FIRST-FRUITS. The
first year's income of newly appointed arch
bishops and bishops exacted by the pope
before he would confirm the election, upon
a pretence originally of defending Christen
dom from the infidels. Afterwards the pope
prevailed on all those who were spiritual
patrons to oblige their clerks to pay these
annates ; and so by degrees they became pay
able by the clergy in general. Some of our
historians tell us that Pope Clement V. was
the first who claimed annates in England, in
the reign of Edward I. ; but Selden, in a
short account which he has given us of the
reign of William Rufus, affirms that they
were claimed by the pope before that reign.
Chronologers differ also about the time
when they became a settled duty. Platina
asserts that Boniface IX., who was pope in
the first year of Henry IV., Annatarum
usum beneficiis ecclesiasticis primum im-
posuit (viz.) dimidium annui proventus
fisco apostolico persolvere. Walsingham
affirms it to be above eighty years before
that time, viz. in the time of Pope John
XXII., who was pope about the middle of
the reign of Edward IL, and that he re-
servavit camerce suae primos fructus bene
ficiorum. The truth would seem to be that
the old and accustomed fees paid here to the
feudal lords were called beneficia ; and that
the popes, assuming to be lords or spiritual
heads of the Church, were not contented with
an empty though very great title, without
some temporal advantage, and therefore
Boniface VIII., about the latter end of the
reign of Edward I., having assumed an
absolute dominion in beneficiary matters,
made himself a kind of feudal lord over the
benefices of the Church, and as a conse
quence thereof, claimed a year's profits of
the Church, as a beneficiary fee due to

ANNATES
himself, the chief lord. But though the
usurped power of the pope was then very
great, the king and the people did not
comply with this demand ; insomuch that,
by the statute of Carlisle, which was made
in the last year of his reign, and about the '
beginning of the popedom of Clement V.,
this was called a new imposition gravis et
intolerabilis, et contra leges et consuetudines
regni ; and by reason of this powerful op
position the matter rested for some time :
but the successors of that pope found more
favourable opportunities to insist on this
demand, which was a year's profits of ,each
vacant bishopric, at a reasonable valuation,
viz. a moiety of the full value : and having
obtained what they demanded, they after
wards endeavoured to raise the value, but
were opposed in this likewise by the parlia
ment, in the 6th of Henry IV., and a
penalty was inflicted on those bishops who
paid more for their first-fruits than was
accustomed. But, notwithstanding these
statutes, such was the plenitude of the
pope's power, and so great was the profit
which accrued to him by this invention,
that in little more than half a century, the
sum of £16,000 was paid to him, under the
name of annates, for expediting bulls of
bishoprics only. The payment of these
was continued till about the 25th year of
Henry VIII., and then an act was made,
reciting, that since the beginning of that
parliament another statute had been made
(which act is not printed) for suppress
ing the. exaction of annates of archbishops
and bishops. But the parliament being
unwilling to proceed to extremities, re
mitted the putting that act in execution
to the king himself ; that if the pope would
either put down annates, or so moderate
the payment that they might no longer be
a burthen to the people, the king, by letters
patent, might declare the act should be of
no force.
The pope, having notice of this, and
taking no care to reform those exactions,-
that statute was confirmed ; and because it
only extended to annates paid for arch
bishoprics and bishoprics, in the next year
another statute was made (26 Henry VIIL
cap. 3), that not only those first-fruits for
merly paid by bishops, but those of every
other spiritual living, should be paid to
the king. Notwithstanding these laws,
there were still some apprehensions, that,
upon the death of several prelates who-
were then very old, great sums of money
would be conveyed to Rome by their suc
cessors ; therefore, Anno 33 Henry VIII.,,
it was enacted, that all contributions of
annates for bishoprics, or for any bulls to
be obtained from the see of Rome, should.
cease; and if the pope should deny any

ANNATES
bulls of consecration by reason of this pro
hibition, then the bishop presented should
be consecrated in England by the arch
bishop of the province ; and if it was
the case of an archbishop, then he should
be consecrated by any two bishops to be
appointed by the king; and that, instead
of annates, a bishop should pay to the
pope £5 per cent, of the clear yearly value
of his bishopric. But before this time
{viz. 31 Henry VIII. cap. 22) there was
a court erected by the parliament, for the
levying and government of these first-
fruits, which court was dissolved by Queen
Mary ; and in the next year the payment
was ordered to cease as to her. But in the
first of Elizabeth they were again restored
to the crown, and the statute 32 Hen.
VIII., which directed the grant and order
of them,, was recontinued ; and that they
should be from thenceforth within the
government of the exchequer. But vicar
ages not exceeding £10 per annum, and
parsonages not exceeding ten marks, ac
cording to the valuation in the first-fruits'
office, were exempted from payment of
first-fruits. By the before-mentioned sta
tute, a new officer was created, called a
remembrancer of the first-fruits, whose
business it was to take compositions for
the same; and 'to send process to the
sheriff against those who did not pay it;
and by the Act 26 Henry VIII. he who
entered into a living without compounding,
or- paying the first-fruits, was to forfeit
double the value.
Queen Anne, taking into consideration
the insufficient maintenance of the poor
clergy, sent a message to the House of
Commons by one of her principal secre
taries, signifying her intention to grant the
first-fruits for the better support of the
clergy ; and that they would find out some
means to make her intentions more effectual.
Thereupon an act was passed, by which the
queen was to incorporate persons, and to
settle upon them and their successors the
revenue of the first-fruits ; but that the
statutes before mentioned should continue
in force, for such intents and purposes as
should be directed in her grant ; and that
this new act should not extend to impeach
pr make void any former grant made of
this revenue. And likewise any person,
•except infants and femmes- coverts, without
their husbands, might, by bargain and sale
enrolled, dispose lands or goods to such
corporation, for the maintenance of the
clergy officiating in the EstabUshed Church,
without any settled competent provision;
and the corporation might also purchase
Jands for that purpose, notwithstanding the
statute of mortmain.
, l^any acts relating thereto have since been

ANNEXED

37

passed, which will more properly De noticed
under Queen Anne's Bounty.
ANNEXED BOOK OF COMMON
PRAYER, The. The copy of the revised
Book of Common Prayer which was attached
or annexed to ie Act of Uniformity in 1661,
and is referred to in it as " the book annexed
and joyned to this present Act." This
Annexed Book was for many years supposed
to have been lost, but a special search
having been made in the year 1867, soon
after the " Royal Commissioners appointed
to inquire into the Rubrics," &c, began
their labours, it was discovered in the Public
Record Office. The book is in manuscript
contained in 544 pages of stout writing
paper, bound with leather. There are six
small holes along the back, through which
the strings whereby it was attached to the
act were passed, the ends of the strings
being still visible, and in the roll of parch
ment on which the act is written, there are
also six holes corresponding exactly with
those which are traceable on the back of the
Annexed Book. At the end of the volume
are three leaves containing the signatures of
the members of the two houses of Convoca
tion in the Province of Canterbury. These
occupy five pages, and are followed by the
signatures of the Convocation of York, which
cover one page.
The discovery of this book has rather an
important bearing, which has been very
commonly overlooked, on the interpretation
of the much-disputed " Ornaments Rubric."
As in one of the English Printed " Sealed
Books," and the Irish MS. copy, this rubric
is omitted, it was maintained by some
persons that there was reason .to suspect
that it was an unauthorised interpolation.
This theory is completely disposed of by
the fact that the rubric in question is con
tained in the Book " Annexed " to the Act
of Uniformity. And it is to be observed
that the words of the rubric are an exact
transcript from the Act of Uniformity
passed in the second year of Elizabeth, 1559,
but the clause which follows in that act
" until other order shall be therein taken,"
which has been supposed to give the act
only a provisional force, is omitted. The
" Annexed Book " being attached to the Act
of Uniformity, is really an integral part of
that act, and it thus appears that the
rubric in question was simply transferred
from the Act of 1559 to the Act of 1661,
the additional clause, which seems to give a
provisional character to the earlier of these
two acts, being deliberately omitted. It
follows that whatever force may havt re
sided in this clause during the reign of
Elizabeth, James I. or Charles I., was can
celled when the Act of 1661 was passed, in
which the directions immediately preceding

38

ANNE

the clause are repeated while the clause
itself is omitted. The order concerning
"the ornaments of the church and the
ministers thereof," which had been pro
visional, was now made absolute, and there
fore to lay any stress upon the Advertise
ments of 1564 or the Canons of 1604, in
the interpretation of this order, appears
to be altogether beside the question. —
[W. R. W. S.j But the Privy Council re
jected that view, in the Purchas and the
Ridsdale cases. [G.]
ANNE, St., commemorated in the English
Calendar, July 26, — the Mother of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, and wife of Joachim.
She is not mentioned in Scripture, but was
doubtless honoured in the primitive Church
as the parent of the Mother of our Lord,
and her figure with her name attached is
often found in the Catacombs, but the
earliest writer who mentions her is Epi-
phanius (a.d. 368). Justinian built a
church at Constantinople in honour of St.
Anne about 550. [H.]
ANNOTINE EASTER. The day on
which the primitive Christians commemo
rated their baptism. Low Sunday, or the
octave of Easter, seems to have been the
usual day (see Low Sunday) ; but sometimes
the fourth Sunday after Easter was thus
observed, while in the Lectionary of St.
Jerome the Pascha Annotinum is set down
for the third Sunday. — Micrologus lvi.,
quoted by Blunt, Dictionary of Theology,
p. 25 ; Annot. P. B. p. 107. [H.]
ANNIVELAIS, or Annualais. The
chantry priests, whose duty it was to say
private masses at particular altars, were so
called ; as at Exeter Cathedral, &c. They
were also called chaplains. (See Annualia.)
ANNUALIA. 1. Oblation anciently
made by relations of a deceased person on
the anniversary of the death, when mass
was celebrated with great solemnity. 2.
The priest's salary for celebrating mass
annually. ANNUNOIADAor ANNUNTIATA. A
denomination common to several orders.
(1) A religious order instituted in 1232
by seven Florentine merchants. (2) A
military order founded by Amadeus VI.,
duke of Savoy. (3) A society founded at
Rome, in the year 1460, by Cardinal John
Turrecremata, for the marrying of poor
maids. It now bestows, every Lady-day,
sixty Roman crowns, a suit of white serge,
and a florin for slippers, to above 400 maids
for their portion. The popes have so great
a regard for this charitable foundation, that
they make a cavalcade, attended with the
cardinals, &c, to distribute tickets for these
sixty crowns, &c, to those selected to
receive them. If any of the maids are
desirous to be nuns, they have each of them

ANOINTING
120 crowns, and are distinguished by a
chaplet of flowers on their head. (4) A
Popish order of women, founded by Queen
Joan, of France, after her divorce from
Lewis XII., whose rule and chief business
was to honour, with a great many beads
and rosaries, the ten principal virtues or
delights of the Virgin Mary; the first of
which they make to be when the angel
Gabriel annunciated to her the mystery of
the incarnation, from whence they have
their name ; the second, when she saw her ¦
son Jesus brought into the world; the
third, when the wise men came to worship
him ; the fourth, when she found him dis
puting with the doctors in the temple, &c.
This order was confirmed by the pope in
1501, and by Leo X. again in 1517. It
was also called the Order of the Ten Virtues,
or Delights, of the Virgin Mary. (5) A
nunnery founded by a Genoese lady in
1600. ANNUNCIATION of the BLESSED
VIRGIN MARY. (1) This festival is ap
pointed by the Church, in commemoration
of that day on which it was announced to
Mary, by an angel, that she should be
the mother of the Messiah. (2) The
observance of this festival is of great an
tiquity, though it is not mentioned in the
Lectionary of St. Jerome. There is a
collect for the day in both the sacramentaries
of Gelasius (a.d. 492) and St. Gregory
(a.d. 590). A homily written on it by
Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople in the
fifth century, is still extant. At the Council
of Toledo (a.d. 656), the date of the festival
was changed to December 18, so that il
should never occur during Lent. The
Council in "Trullo" (a.d. 692) forbade
any festival to be observed in Lent, except
the Sabbath, the Lord's Day, and the An
nunciation, and restored this festival to its
original place. The Church of England
has always observed it on March 25, the
collect, epistle, and gospel being the same in
the modern English as in the Sarum Use.
In the calendar the day is called the "An
nunciation of our Lady," and hence the
25th of March is called Lady-day. It is
observed as a "scarlet day" at the Uni
versities of Cambridge and Oxford. HEL]
ANOINTING. In the Jewish Church,
the ceremonial anointing of persons and
things was very frequent, and in many
cases was appointed by Divine authority ¦
(Ex. xxviii. 41; xxix. 7; xxx. 20-29; 1
Sam. x. 1 ; xv. 1 ; 2 Kings ix. 1-3, &c. &c).
It was adopted into the Christian Church
from the first, and St. James speaks of it as
a regular custom with regard to the sick
(v. 14). 'It was also generallyused at Baptism,
Confirmation, Ordination, and afterwards ab
Coronations, in which latter ceremony it

ANOMCEANS
still has a place. In the office for the sick
in the prayer-book of 1549 there was this
direction, " If the sick person desire to be
anointed, then shall the Priest anoint him on
the forehead or breast only, making the sign
of the cross, saying thus : As with this visible
oil, thy body outwardly is anointed : so our
heavenly Father, Almighty God, grant of
His infinite goodness, that thy soul inwardly
may be anointed with the Holy Ghost," &c.
The Church of Rome has converted this
" godly custom " into a sacrament necessary
to salvation (Council of Trent, Canons L-
IV.), which in early times it never was
considered to be. In the Church of England
anointing is at the present time never used,
except at the Coronation of the Sovereign.
(See Extreme Unction.)
ANOMCEANS. (From „6>>[os, un
like.) The name of the extreme Arians
in the fourth century, because they held
the essence of the Son of God to be unlike
that of the Father. They Iwere sometimes
called Aetians after Aetius, their first leader,
or Eunomians after Eunomius his secretary.
Their chief opponents were Gregory Nyssen.
and St. John Chrysostom. They were con
demned by the semi- Arians, at the Council
of Seleucia, a.d. 359, and more decisively
at the Council of Constantinople a.d. 381.
ANTELUCAN. In times of persecu
tion, the Christians being unable to meet
for divine worship in the open day, held
their assemblies in the night. The like
assemblies were afterwards continued from
feelings of piety and devotion, and called
Antelucan, or assemblies before daylight.
ANTHEM. A hymn, sung in parts
alternately. Such, at least, would appear to
be its original sense. The word is derived
from the Greek 'Avrlcfxava, (not av6vp.vos,
as Dr. Johnson gives it), which signifies, as
Isidorus interprets it, " Vox reciproca," &c,
one voice succeeding another ; that is, two
choruses singing by turns. (See Antiphon.)
In the Greek Church it was more particu
larly applied to one of the Alleluia Psalms
sung after those of the day. In the Roman
and unreformed Western offices it is ordina
rily applied to a short sentence sung before
and after one of the Psalms of the day ; so
called, according to Cardinal Bona, because
it gives the tone to the Psalms which are
sung antiphonally, or by each side of the
choir alternately ; and then at the end both
choirs join in the anthem. The same
term is given to short sentences said or
sung at different parts of the service ;
also occasionally to metrical hymns. The
real reason of the application of the term
in these instances seems to be this, that
these sentences are a sort of response to,
or alternation with, the other parts of the
office. The preacher's text was at the be-

ANTHOLOGIUM

39

ginning of the Reformation sometimes
called the Anthem. (Strype, Ann. of the
Ref. chap. ix. a.d. 1559.) In this sense
it is applied in King Edward's First Book
to the Sentences in the Visitation of the
Sick, "Remember not," &c, &c, "0
Saviour of the world," &c, which were ob
viously never intended to be sung. In
the same book it is applied to the hymns
peculiar to Easter-day, and to the prayer
in the Communion Service, "Turn thou
us," &c, both of which are prescribed to
be said or sung. In our present Prayer
Book it occurs only in reference to the
Easter Hymn, and in the rubrics after the
third Collects of Morning and Evening
Prayer, These rubrics were first inserted
at the last Review, though there is no
doubt that the anthem had always been
customarily performed in the same place.
To the anthem so performed Milton alluded
in the well-known words, " In service high
and anthems clear ; " these expressions, as
well as the whole phraseology of that un
rivalled passage, being technically correct :
the service meaning the Church Hymns,
set to varied harmonies ; the anthems (of
which two were commonly performed in
the full Sunday morning service), the com
positions now in question.
The English Anthem, as the term has
long been practically understood, sanc
tioned by the universal use of the Church
of England, has no exact equivalent in the
service of other Churches. It resembles,
but not exactly, the Motets of foreign
choirs, and occasionally their Responsories
or Antiphons. There are a few metrical
anthems, corresponding to the hymns of
those choirs. But, generally speaking, the
English anthem is set to words from Holy
Scripture, or the Liturgy; sung, not to a
chant, or an air, like that of a hymn, but
to varied consecutive strains, admitting of
every diversity of solo, verse, and chorus.
(See Jebb, Choral Service, p. 377, &c.)
The Easter-day Anthem, at the time of
the last Review, was not usually sung, as
now, to a chant, but to varied harmonies,
(as is still the case at Salisbury cathedral,)
— and in the Sealed Book it is to be ob
served, that it is not printed like the
Psalms, in verses, but in paragraphs.
Properly speaking, our services, technically
so called, (see Service?) are anthems.
An anthem in choirs and places where
they 'sing is appointed by the rubric in
the daily service in the Pi ayer Book, after
the third Collect, both at Morning and
Evening Prayer. [H.]
ANTHOLOGIUM. Book of Flowers.
(In Latin, Fl^ilegium.) The title of a
book in the Greek Church, divided into
twelve months, containing, the offices sung

40

ANTHEOPOLATR—

throughout the whole year, on the festivals
of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and other
remarkable saints. It is observable from
this book that the Greek Church celebrates
Easter at the same time with the Church of
England, notwithstanding that they differ
from us in the lunar cycle. — Broughton,
Bibliotheca, who quotes Cave's Hist.
Lit. ii.
ANTHEOPOLATE_. (Man - wor
shippers.) A name of abuse given to
churchmen by the Apollinarians, because
the former maintained that Christ, whom
both admitted to be the object of the
Christian's worship, was a perfect man, of a
reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting.
This the Apollinarians denied. It was
always the, way with heretics to apply to
churchmen terms of reproach, while , they
assumed to themselves distinctive appella
tions of honour: thus the Manichees, for
instance, while they called themselves the
elect, the blessed, and the pure, gave to the
churchmen the name of simple ones. It is
not less a sign of a sectarian spirit to assume
a distinctive name of honour, than to im
pose on the Church a name of reproach,
for both tend to divided communion in
spirit or in fact. There is this good, how
ever, to be gathered from these slanderous
and vain-glorious arts of heretics; that
their terms of reproach serve to indicate
some true doctrine of the Church: as, for
instance, that of Anthropolatrse determines
the opinion of Catholics touching Christ's
human nature; while the names of dis
tinction which heretics themselves assume,
usually serve to throw light on the history
of their own error.
. ANTHROPOMOEPHITES. Heretics
who were so called because they maintained
that God had a human shape, and held that
such expressions as those in Gen. vi. 8, viii.
21 ; Psa. xxxiv. 15 ; Num. xi. 18 ; Is. v., ix.
&c, were to be understood literally, not
metaphorically. Tertullian has been sup
posed to hold this idea from his words, " Quis
enim negabit Deum corpus esse, etsi Deus
Spiritus est," &c. (Adv. Prax. cvii.), but in
fact he only asserts that God is not a mere
phantom, but has a substantial existence.
Audasus or Audius (a.d. 340), a monk of
Syria, founded a sect of this name (also
called Audajans or Audians) ; and at the
end of the century the ignorant monks of
Nitria (Egypt) held very gross ideas with
regard to the person of God, as related by
Socrates (H. E. vi. 7-17) and Sozomen (viii.
1-19). Hatherius, bishop of Verona in the
tenth century (a.d. 939), had a controversy
with Anthropomorphites ; but these poor
people are not to be classed among heretics,
they were simply ignorant, and formed their
ideas from the pictures, &c, they saw in

ANTINOMIANS
churches. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 316,
339, 378, 612.
ANTICHEIST. The man of sin, who
is to precede the second advent of our
blessed Saviour Jesus Christ.
I. Two texts in Daniel (vii. 8, viii. 4-8)
and one in St. Paul's Epistles (2 Thess. ii.
3-8) have always been considered as referring
to Antichrist. (See Pusey on Dan.) And al
though there are no other passages in the
New Testament which speak of Antichrist
as a person, yet St. John several times
mentions the spirit of Antichrist, and in
one passage writes of the matter as one
with which his readers must be conversant.
" This is that spirit of Antichrist," he says,
" of which ye have heard." (1 St.. John iv.
3). With the passages in Daniel and
St. Paul may be compared the mystical
account of the dragon in Eev. xiii. 4-18.
II. Early writers seem to agree in two
points, namely, that Antichrist will appear
in the age immediately preceding the second
coming of Christ, and that he will be a
person especially under the influence of
Satan, if not Satan himself in human form.
In later times many writers have asserted
that the Pope of Rome is Antichrist, while
others imagine that the spirit of infidelity
will prove to be the destructive dragon;
But it would be impossible to give all the
ideas that have been promulgated on this
most mystical subject. It is dealt with to
some extent in every commentary on Daniel
and the Apocalypse.
ANTIDORON. A name given by the
Greeks to that portion of the bread which
at Holy Communion has been offered, but
not consecrated. It is distributed to non-
communicants, and would seem to be a
relic of the agape. — Neale's Introd. Hist, of
E. Church, 525.
ANTILEGOMENA. Things spoken
against. An ecclesiastical term for dis
puted books, claiming to be portions of Holy
Scripture. Eusebius, H. E. iii. 24, 25,
makes three principal divisions of all
writings which laid claim to apostolical au
thority : (i.) the acknowledged ra o/joXoyw-
peva ; (ii.) the disputed to. avrikeyofieva ; (iii.)
the heretical ; and he subdivided the second
class into two : (a) " the generally known,"
consisting of the Epistles of St. James and
St. Jude, i. St. Peter, ii. & iii. St. John.
O) " the spurious," consisting of the Acts of -
Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Revela
tion of Peter, the Epistle of Barnabas, and
the " Teaching of the Apostles." This last
workhasbeen lately discovered by Bryennios,
archbishop of Nicomedia.
ANTINOMIANS. (dvrl, v6p.oS). Those
who hold that the moral law, the law of
God, is not binding upon believers under
the Gospel.

ANTINOMIANS
In the earliest times error upon this point
seems to have been derived partly from the
Gnostic theory (see Iren. Adv. Hser. i.-vi.
2, 3) that some men were incapable of salva
tion, while others, being of divine origin,
however licentious their lives, must be saved,
partly from a perversion of St. Paul's teach
ing respecting liberty from the law of Moses.
Allusion is probably made to this by St.
Paul (Col. ii. 18, 19 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1-5, vi. 20,
21), and by St. John (1 St. John ii. 18, iii.
7). St. James when he wrote his epistle had
evidently the object of contradicting certain
ideas which had been erroneously based on
some of St. Paul's teaching, in this respect.
(Bishop Bull on Inst. ii. c. 4). Cerinthus,
who was contemporary with St. John,
promulgated these Antinomian fallacies
(Eusebius, Ecc. Hist. iii. c. 38) ; and the
followers of Simon Magus, of whom it was
said, "ex quo universal hasreses substi-
tuerunt," were guilty of the grossest im
moralities under the covering of "faith
unto salvation." (Irenasus, lib. i. c. 24.)
II. Of the more modern Antinomian
heresy the founder was John Agricola, a
Saxon divine, a contemporary, a country
man, and at first a disciple, of Luther. He
was of a restless temper, and wrote against
Melanchthon; and having obtained a pro
fessorship at Wittemberg, he first taught
Antinomianism there, about the year 1535.
The Papists, in their disputes with the
Protestants of that day, carried the merit
of good works to an extravagant length;
and this induced some of their opponents,
as is too often the case, to run into the
opposite extreme. The doctrine of Agri-
cola was in itself obscure, and perhaps
represented worse than it really was by-
Luther, who wrote with acrimony against
him, and first styled him and his followers
Antinomians — perhaps thereby "intend
ing," as Dr. Hey conjectures, " to disgrace
the notions of Agricola, and make even
him ashamed of them." Agricola stood
on his own defence, and complained that
opinions were imputed to him which he
did not hold.
About the same time, Nicholas Amsdorf,
bishop of Naumburg in Saxony, fell under
the same odious name and imputation,
and seems to have been treated more un
fairly than even Agricola himself. The
bishop died at Magdeburg in 1541, and
some say that his followers were called for
a time Amsdorfians, after his name. The
Anabaptists of Minister were Antinomians
of the grossest kind (see Anabaptists), and
Antinomian principles were common among
the Independents in England, during the
Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, who was
himself an Antinomian of the worst sort.
According to them, it was one of the

ANTI-P_DOBAPTISTS

41

essential and distinctive characters of the
elect, that they could not do anything
displeasing to God, or prohibited by the
law. " Let me speak freely to you, and tell
you," says Dr. Tobias Crisp, (who may be
styled the primipilus of the more modern
scheme .of Antinomianism, and whose doc
trines were vigorously opposed by Tillot
son, Baxter, and especially Williams,
author of 'Gospel Truth Stated and
Vindicated '), " that the Lord hath no more
to lay to the charge of an elect person, yet
in the height of his iniquity, and in the
excess of riot, and committing all the
abominations that can be committed; I
say, even then, when an elect person runs
such a course, the Lord hath no more to lay
to that person's charge, than God hath to
lay to the charge of a believer : nay, God
hath no more to lay to the charge of such a
person than He hath to lay to the charge of
a saint triumphant in glory. The elect of
God, they are the heirs of God ; and as
they are heirs, so the first being of them
puts them into the right of inheritance, and
there is no time but such a person is the
child of God."
While the Socinian Unitarians place the
whole of their religion in morality, in dis
regard of Christian faith, the Antinomians
rely so on faith as to undervalue morality.
Their doctrines at least have too much that
appearance. In short, according to Dr. Williams,
Dr. Crisp's scheme is briefly this : " That
by God's mere electing decree all saving '
blessings are by Divine obligation made
ours, and nothing more is needful to our
title to these blessings : that on the cross
all the sins of the elect were transferred to
Christ, and ceased ever after to be their
sins : that at the first moment of concep
tion a title to all those decreed blessings is
personally applied to the elect, and they
are invested actually therein. Hence the
elect have nothing to do, in order to an in
terest in any of those blessings, nor ought
they to intend the least good to themselves
in what they do : sin can do them no harm
because it is none of theirs; nor can God
afflict them for any sin." And all the rest
of his opinions " follow in a chain," adds
Dr. W., "to the dethroning of Christ,
enervating his laws and pleadings, obstruct
ing the great design of redemption, op
posing the very scope of the gospel, and the
ministry of Christ and his prophets and
apostles." — Adams, Diet, of all Religions,
art. Antinomians ; Bogue & Bennet's Hist.
qf Dissenters, vol. i. p. 399.
ANTI-P.-DOBAPTISTS. (From dvrl,
against, irals, child, Bairno-pa, baptism.)
Persons who are opposed to the baptism
of infants. In this country, this sect ar-

42

ANTIOCH

rogate to themselves the title 'of Baptists
par excellence, as though no other body of
Christians baptized : just as the Socinians
extenuate their heresy by calling them
selves Unitarians ; thereby insinuating that
those who hold the mystery of the Holy
Trinity do not believe in one God. (See
Anabaptists; Baptism.)
ANTIOCH, PATEIAECH OF. The
chief bishop of one of the four provinces
into which the Eastern Church is still
nominally divided, the other three being
Constantinople (which ranks first), Alexan
dria, and Jerusalem. There are three
prelates who claim this title and rank (1)
the head of the Greeks, Melchites, or Syrian
Christians, (2) of the Syrian Monophysites,
(3) of the Maronites. To these may be
added a fourth with the same title, created
by the Pope of Eome "in partibus in
fidelium." The orthodox patriarch resides
at Damascus, and has sixteen bishops under
him. (See Colon. Church Chron. 1860,
p. 231.)
ANTIPHON. In its earliest form this
seems to have been a single verse out of any
psalm, repeated after or even before the
recitation of the psalm, with a view of
bringing into prominence, and fastening
attention upon, some special idea connected
with it. Afterwards antiphons came to be
selected, not exclusively from the particular
psalms to which they were affixed, but from
appropriate passages of Scripture which
might be similarly applied. (Blunt, P. B.
lxii.). The antiphon, " 0 Saviour of the
world," in the office of the Visitation of the
Sick, is the only one left of the many anti
phons with which our services were formerly
studded. It emphasises the leading idea of
the previous psalm, and converts it into a
Christian prayer. — P. B., its History, &c,
Evan Daniel. (See Anthem.) [H.]
ANTIPHONY, or antiphonal singing.
The chant or alternate singing of a Chris
tian choir. This is the most ancient form
of church music. Diodorus and Flavian,
the leaders of the orthodox party at Antioch
during the ascendency of Arianism, in the
fourth century, and St. Ambrose at Milan,
instead of leaving the chanting to the
choristers, as had been usual, divided the
whole congregation into two choirs, which
sang the psalms alternately. The custom
is said, by Socrates the historian, to have
been first introduced among the Greeks by
Ignatius. St. Basil tells us that, in his
time, about a.d. 370, the Christians, " rising
from their! prayers, proceeded to singing of
psalms, dividing themselves into two parts,
and singing by turns." Tertullian remarks,
that " when one side of the choir sing to the
other, they both provoke it by a holy
contention, and relieve it by a mutual

ANTI-POPE
supply and change." In, the cathedral
worship of the Church Universal, theJ
psalms of the day are chanted, throughout.
And in order to preserve their responsive^
character, two full choirs are stationed one
on each side of the church. One of these
having chanted one or two verses (the
usual compass of the chant-tune) remains'
silent, while the opposite choir replies in
the verses succeeding; and at the end of
each psalm (and of each division of the
119th Psalm) the Gloria Patri is sung by
the united choirs in chorus, accompanied
by the peal of the great organ.
The reading of the psalms by parson and
clerk, in alternate verses, and the usage now
prevalent in foreign churches subject to
Eome, of chanting one verse by a single
voice, and the other by the full choir, is not
ancient, and is admitted to be incorrect by
some continental ritualists themselves. This
method is quite destructive of the genuine
effect of antiphonal chanting, which ought
to be equally balanced on each side of the
choir. It may indeed be accepted as a
sort of modification of the ordinary paro
chial mode ; but in regular choirs it would
be a clear innovation, a retrograde move
ment, instead of an improvement. — Jebb,
Choral Service, pp. 277 et seq.
ANTIPHON AR. The book which con
tains the invitatories, responsories, verses,
collects, and whatever else is sung in the
choir ; but not including the hymns pe
culiar to the Communion Service, which
are contained in the Gradual, or Grail.
ANTI-POPE. He that usurps the pope
dom in opposition to the right pope. Geddes
gives the history of no less than twenty-
four schisms in the Eoman Church caused
by anti-popes, though according to Gautier
and Bergier (Diet, de Theologie, i. 135,
Paris, 1863) there were more. Some took
their rise from a diversity of doctrines or
belief, which led different parties to elect
each their several pope ; but they generally
took their ri.se from dubious controverted
rights of election. During the great schism,
which, commencing towards the close of the'
fourteenth century, lasted for over sixty years,
there was always a pope and anti-pope;
and as to the fact which of the two rivals
was pope, and which anti-pope, it is im
possible even now to decide. The greatest
powers of Europe were at this time divided
in their opinions on the subject. As is
observed by some Eoman Catholic writers,1
many pious and gifted persons, who are
now numbered among the saints of the
Church, were to be found indifferently in-
either obedience; which sufficiently proved,
as they assert, that the eternal salvation of
the faithful was not in this case endangered-
by their error. The schism began soon

ANTI-TYPE
after the election of Urban VI., and was
terminated by the Council of Constance.
By that Council three rival popes were
deposed, and the peace of the Church was
restored by the election of Martin V. —
M. Geddes, Preb. of Sarum, Miscell. Tracts,
vol. iii., Tract 4, London, 1706. See also
Gibbon, especially viii. 351, ed. Smith, 1854.
ANTI-TYPE. A Greek word, properly
signifying a type or figure corresponding to
some other type : the word is commonly
used in theological writings to denote the
person in whom any prophetic type is ful
filled : thus, our Blessed Saviour is called
the Anti-type of the Paschal lamb under the
Jewish' law.
APHOEISMUS. (From dfoplo-ixos, sepa
ration. A term used in the primitive Church
for the lesser form of excommunication.
Those under this ban were excluded from
participation in the Holy Eucharist, but
were allowed to be present at those portions
of the service at which catechumens could
attend. With regard to the clergy it
implied suspension, but did not involve
excommunication. APOCALYPSE. A revelation. The
name sometimes given to the last book of
the New Testament, the Eevelation of St.
John the Divine, from its Greek title,
dwoKaki-ijns, which has the same meaning.
This is a canonical book of the New
Testament. It was written, according to
Irenasus, about the year of Christ 96, in
the island of Patmos, whither St. John had
been banished by the emperor Domitian.
The Eevelation has not at all times been
esteemed canonical. There were many
Churches of Greece, as St. Jerome informs
us, which did not receive it ; neither is it in
the catalogue of the canonical books pre
pared by the Council of Laodicea ; nor in
that of St. Cyril of Jerusalem ; but Justin,
Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of
Alexandria, Tertullian, and all the fathers
of the fourth, fifth, and following centuries,
quote the Eevelations as a book then ac
knowledged to be canonical.
APOCRYPHA. (See Bible, Scriptures.)
From diro and Kpimra, to hide, "because
they were wont to be read not openly and
in common, but as it were in secret and
apart." Certain books appended to the
sacred writings. (Bible of 1539, Preface
to Apocrypha.) There is no authority,
internal or external, for admitting these
books into the sacred canon. They were
not received as portions of the Old Testa
ment by the Jews, to whom "were com
mitted the oracles of God;" they are not
cited and alluded to in any part of the
New Testament; and they are expressly
rejected by St. Athanasius and St. Jerome
in the fourth century, though these two

APOLLINARIANS

43

fathers speak of them with respect. There
is, therefore, no ground for applying the
books of the Apocrypha " to establish any
doctrine," but they are highly valuable as
ancient writings, which throw considerable
light upon the phraseology of Scripture,
and upon the history and manners of the-
East ; and as they contain many noble
sentiments and useful precepts, the Church
of England doth read them for " example
of life and instruction of manners." (Art.
VI.) They are frequently quoted with
great respect in the Homilies, although
persons who bestow much praise upon the
Homilies are wont to follow a very contrary
course. The Church of Eome, at the fourth
session of the Council of Trent, admitted
them to be of equal authority with Scrip
ture. Thereby the modern Church of Eome
differs from the Catholic Church ; and by
altering the canon of Scripture, and at the
same time making her dictum the rule of
communion, renders it impossible for those
Churches which defer to antiquity to hold
communion with her. Divines differ in
opinion as to the degree of respect due to
those ancient writings. The reading of the
Apocryphal books in churches formed one
of the grievances of the Puritans: our
Eeformers, however, made a selection for
certain holy days ; and for the first lesson
from the evening of the 27th of September,
till the morning of the 23rd of November,
inclusive. But this by the new Lectionary
has been changed, and though passages in
Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, and Baruch are
appointed to be read between October 27
and Nov. 18, and on certain Saints' days,,
the Apocryphal stories of Susanna and Bel
and the dragon, and other parts, have been
eliminated. APOLLINAEIANS. Followers of Apol-
linaris or Apollinarius, about the middle of
the fourth century. In his early life
Apollinaris was a friend of St. Athanasius,
and about a.d. 362 was consecrated to the
see of Laodicea, which, notwithstanding his
heretical opinions, he held till his death in
392. He denied that our Saviour had a
reasonable human soul (vovs), and asserted
that the Logos or Divine nature supplied
the place of it. As Arius denied that
Christ was perfect God, so Apollinaris, not
perhaps intentionally, but in effect, denied
that He was perfect man. This is one of
the sects we anathematize when we read
the Athanasian Creed. The doctrine of
Apollinaris was condemned by several pro
vincial councils, and at length by the
General Council of Constantinople, in 381.
In short, it was attacked at the same time
by the laws of the emperors, the decrees of
councils, and the writings of the learned,
and sank, by degrees, under their united

44

APOLOGY

force. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 254,
308 ; Blunt's Diet, of Sects.
' APOLOGY (diro, Xdyoj), in its primary
sense, and always in theology, means a
defence from attack; an answer to objec
tions. Thus the Greek word dnoXoyla,
from which it comes, is, in Acts xxii. 1,
translated by defence ; in xxv. 16, by answer;
and in 2 Cor. vii. 11, by " clearing of your
selves." The speech of the first martyr, St.
Stephen, in answer to his accusers, is com
monly called his " apology." There were
several Apologies for Christianity in early
times, the chief of which were as follows :
(1) That of Quadratus, presented to Hadrian
in a.d. 123 or 131, (Euseb. iv. 3,) in which
appeal is made for witness, to the many
persons healed by our Lord; (2) of Aris-
tides, presented about the same time ; (3)
two of Justin Martyr, the one addressed to
Antoninus Pius, a.d. 138, the other to
Marcus Aurelius ; and also those of Athena-
goras and Tatian, all of which are extant;
{4) of Melito, bishop of Sardis : and (5)
Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis, both pre
sented to Marcus ' Aurelius ; (6) of Mil-
tiades ; (7) of Theophilus, bishop of Antioch,
presented to Antylocus, a.d. 160 ; (8) of
Tertullian, a.d. 194 written first in Latin,
and afterwards translated into Greek; (9)
of Arnobius of Sicca in Africa, a.d. 303.
The object of the Apologists, besides proving
the reasonableness of their faith and religion
and the errors of heathenism, was to break
the force of those falsehoods and contume
lies by which they were unjustly assailed —
atheists, magicians, self-murderers, haters
of the light, being amongst the ignominious
epithets employed against them by Tacitus,
Suetonius, Celsus, &c. — Eusebius, iv. 3, seq. ;
Bingham, Ant. i. cii. p. 5 ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, i. 137, 162, 168, 169, &c.
APOSTASY. (dnoa-Tdo-is, falling away.)
A forsaking or renouncing of our religion,
either formally, by an open declaration in
words, or virtually, by our actions. The
word has several degrees of signification.
'The primitive Christian Church distin
guished several kinds of apostasy •* the
first, of those who went entirely from Chris
tianity to Judaism. The second, of those
who mingled Judaism and Christianity to
gether. The third, of those who complied
so far with the Jews as to communicate
with them in many of their unlawful prac
tices, without formally professing their re
ligion ; and the fourth, of those who, after
having been some time Christians, volun
tarily relapsed into Paganism. It is ex
pressly revealed in Holy Scripture that
there will be a very general falling away
from Christianity, or an apostasy, before the
second coming of our Lord. (2 Thess. ii.
¦3 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1 ; 2 Tim. iv. 3, 4.)

APOSTLE
In the Eomish Church the term apostasy
is also applied to a renunciation of the
monastic vow.
APOSTLE. (dn-doroXor, aTrooreXXa.) A
missionary, messenger, or envoy. The
highest order in the ministry were at first
called Apostles; but the term is now
generally confined to those first bishops of
the Church who received their commission
from our Blessed Lordj himself, and who
were distinguished from the bishops who
succeeded them, by their having, acted
under the immediate inspiration of the
Holy Spirit, and by their having frequently
exercised the power of working miracles.
I. Their number and names. Lists of the
Apostles are given in three of the gospels,
and there is also a list in the Acts of the
Apostles (chap. i.). Comparing these lists
together we find that the first five names are
but little changed in order. St. Peter is.
always the first, St. Philip always the fifth.
In St. Matthew's and St. Luke's Gospels, St.
Andrew is mentioned directly after St. Peter ;
in St. Mark's Gospel and in the Acts, SS.
James and John are placed before him. St.
James the Less is in each case placed ninth,
while between him and St. Philipi-SS.
Bartholomew, Thomas, and Matthew are
differently arranged. Judas Iscariot is
named last in the three gospels, and before
him are placed in different order, Judas the
brother of James, called also Thadd'eeus, and
Lebbams, and Simon Zelotes, called also
Simon the Canaanite. Though it is interest
ing thus to compare the order in which the
Apostles are mentioned, it is to be remem
bered that they had equal power; a fact
which is emphatically asserted by St. Paul,
After the Ascension, St* Matthias was
chosen into the place of Judas Iscariot, as it
was necessary that "another should take
his bishopric." This was done by solemn
casting of lots, after prayer ; but after the
descent of the Holy Spirit on the first
Whitsunday a similar ceremony was not
required. The number 12 was for the time
kept up, and some time after the martyrdom
of St. James, St. Paul was named an Apostle,
and it may be that Barnabas, called by the
Church an Apostle, was so appointed after
the death of one of the original Apostles.
But even if there were more than the
original number of the Apostles, it may be
said that they were called the twelve, as the
name of their college, so to speak ; in the
same way as the LXXII. translators of the
Old Testament into Greek are called the
LXX.
II. Their commission. Our Lord's first
commission to his Apostles was in the third
year of his public ministry, about eight
months _ after their solemn election ; at
which time he sent them out by two and

APOSTLE
two. (Matt. x. 5, &c.) They were to
make no provision of money for their sub
sistence in their journey, but to expect it
from those to whom they preached. They
were to declare that the kingdom of heaven,
or the Messiah, was at hand, and to confirm
their doctrine by miracles. They were to
avoid going either to the Gentiles or the
Samaritans, and to confine their preaching
to the people of Israel. In obedience to
their Master, the Apostles went into all the
parts of Palestine inhabited by the Jews,
preaching the gospel, and working miracles.
(Mark vi. 12.) The evangelical history is
silent as to the particular circumstances
attending this first preaching of the Apostles,
and only informs us, that they returned,
and told their Master all that they had done.
(Luke ix. 10.)
Their second commission, just before
our Lord's ascension into heaven, was of
a more extensive and particular nature.
They were now not to confine their preach
ing to the Jews, but to " go and teach all
nations, baptizing them in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost." (Matt, xxviii. 19, 20.) Accord
ingly they began publicly, after the descent
of the Holy Ghost on the Day of Pentecost,
to exercise the office of their ministry,
working miracles daily in proof of their
mission, and making great numbers of con
verts to the Christian faith. (Acts ii. 42-
47.) This alarmed the Jewish Sanhedrim ;
whereupon the Apostles were apprehended,
and, being examined before the high priest
and elders, were commanded not to preach
any more in the name of Christ. But this
injunction did not terrify them from per
sisting in the duty of their calling ; for they
continued daily, in the temple, and in
private houses, teaching and preaching the
gospel. (Acts ii. 46.)
III. Their subsequent labours. It is
stated by Clemens Alexandrinus that after
the Apostles had exercised their ministry
for twelve years in Palestine, they resolved
to disperse themselves in different parts of
the world, and agreed to determine by lot
what parts each should take. But there is
no reference made in Holy Scripture to
casting lots after the election of St. Matthias,
which was before the descent of the Holy
Spirit; although the custom under some
circumstances lasted in the Christian Church
till the seventh century. (Bingham, Eccles.
Ant. iv. 1.) St. Paul, we know from
the Acts of the Apostles, worked in Asia
Minor, Macedonia, Arabia, Greece, and
Italy, and according to tradition he went
also to Spain, Gaul and Britain. Tra
dition also associates St. Peter and St. Jude
with Mesopotamia (Turkey in Asia); St.
Bartholomew and St. Jude with Persia ; St,

APOSTOLIC

45

Bartholomew and St. Thomas with Judaaa ;
St. Andrew with Thrace (Turkey in Europe)
and Scythia ; St. Simon Zelotes with North
Africa ; St. Matthew with Ethiopia ; and
St. John with Asia Minor. St. James the
Younger, spent his life in Juda?a, as bishop
of the Church at Jerusalem, and suffered
martyrdom a short time before the destruc
tion of the holy city. It has generally
been believed that all the Apostles, except
St. John, suffered martyrdom ; but with
regard to this there is no evidence. (See
Eobertson, Ch. Hist. i. p. 1-4.) Another
account of the work of the Apostles is given
in Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, vol. i. p. 38.
The several Apostles are usually repre
sented with their respective badges or at
tributes ; St. Peter with the keys ; St. Paul
with a sword; St. Andrew with a cross;
St. James the Less with a fuller's pole ; St.
John with a cup, and a winged serpent
flying out of it ; St. Bartholomew with a
knife; St. Philip with a long staff, whose
upper end is formed into a cross ; St. Thomas
with a lance ; St. Matthew with a hatchet ;
St. Matthias with a battle-axe ; St. James
the Greater with a pilgrim's staff, and a
gourd-bottle ; St. Simon with a saw : and
St. Jude with a club. [H.]
APOSTLES' CEEED. (See Creeds.)
APOSTOLIC, APOSTOLICAL, some
thing that relates to the Apostles, or descends
from them. Thus we say, the apostolical age,
apostolical character, apostolical doctrine,
constitutions, traditions, &c. In the primi
tive Church it was an appellation given to
all such Churches as were founded by the
Apostles, and even to the bishops] of those
Churches, as the reputed successors of the
Apostles. These were confined to four r
Eome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
In succeeding ages, the other Churches
assumed the same title, on account, princi
pally, of the conformity of their doctrine
with that of the Churches which were
apostolical by foundation, and because all
bishops held themselves successors of the
Apostles, or acted in their respective dioceses
with the authority of apostles. The first
time the term apostolical is attributed to
bishops, is in a letter of Clovis to the
Council of Orleans, held in 511; though
that king does not in it expressly denomi- ,
nate them apostolical, but apostolica sede
dignissimi, highly worthy of the apostolical
see. In 581, Guntram calls the bishops,
assembled at Macon, apostolical pontiffs.
In progress of time, the bishop of Eome
increasing in power above the rest, and the
three patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch,
and Jerusalem having fallen into the hands
of the Saracens, the title apostolical came to
be restricted to the pope and his Church
alone. At length some of the popes, and

46

APOSTOLICAL

among them Gregory the Great, not content
to hold the title by this tenure, began to
insist that it belonged to them by another
and peculiar right, as the successors of St.
Peter. In 1406, the Eomish Council of
Eheims declared that the pope was the sole
apostolical primate of the Universal Church.
APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS
AND CANONS. These two collections of
ecclesiastical rules and formularies were
attributed, in the early ages of the Church
of Eome, to Clement of Rome, who was
supposed to have committed them to writing
from the mouths of the Apostles, whose words
they pretended to record. The authority
thus claimed for these writings has, how
ever, been entirely disproved; and it is
generally supposed by critics, that they were
chiefly compiled during the second and
third centuries ; or that, at least the greater
part must be assigned to a period shortly
before the first Nicene Council. We find
indeed references to them in the writings
of Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Athanasius,
writers of the third and fourth centuries ;
but it is the general opinion that they did
not attain their complete form till the
fifth century (Pearson, Vind. Ignat., pt.
1. c. 94 ; Usher, Cotel. Patr. Apost, vol.
ii. p. 220.) I. The Constitutions are com
prised in eight books. In these the Apos
tles are frequently introduced as speakers.
They contain rules and regulations con
cerning the duties of Christians in general,
the constitution of the Church, the offices
and duties of ministers, and the celebra
tion of Divine worship. The tone of
morality which runs through them is severe
and ascetic. They forbid the use of all
personal decorations and attention to appear
ance, and prohibit the reading of the works
of heathen authors. They enjoin Christians
to assemble twice every day in the church
for prayers and psalmody, to observe various
fasts and festivals, and to keep the Sabbath
(i.e. the seventh day of the week) as well
as the Lord's day. They require extra
ordinary marks of respect and reverence
towards the ministers of religion ; com
manding Christians to honour a bishop as a
king or a prince, and even as a kind of God
Upon earth, to render to him absolute
obedience, to pay him tribute, and to ap
proach him through the deacons or servants
of the Church, as we come to God only
through Christ ! This latter kind of (pro
fane) comparison is carried to a still greater
extent, for the deaconesses are declared to
resemble the Holy Spirit, inasmuch as they
are not able to do anything without the
deacons. Presbyters are said to represent
the Apostles; and the rank of Christian
teachers is declared to be higher than that
of magistrates and princes. We find here,

APOSTOLICAL
also, a complete liturgy or form of worship
for Christian churches ; containing not only
a description of ecclesiastical ceremonies, but
the prayers to be used at their celebration.
This general description of the contents
of the books of Constitutions is alone enough
to prove that they are no productions of the
apostolic age. Mention also occurs of several
subordinate ecclesiastical officers, such as
readers and exorcists, who were not intro
duced into the Church until the third
century. And there are manifest contradic
tions between several parts of the work.
The general style in which the Constitutions
are written is such as had become prevalent
during the third century.
It is useless to inquire, who was the real
author of this work; but the date and
probable design of it are of more importance,
and may be more easily ascertained. Epi
phanius, towards the end of the fourth
century, appears to be the first author who
speaks of these books under their present
title, Apostolical Constitutions. But' he
refers to the work only as one containing
much edifying matter, without including it
among the writings of the Apostles; and
indeed he expressly says that many persons
had doubted of its genuineness. On the
whole, it appears probable, from internal
evidence, that the Apostolical Constitutions
were compiled during the reigns of the
heathen emperors, towards the end of the
third century, or at the beginning of the
fourth ; and that the compilation was the
work of some one writer (probably a bishop)
of the Eastern Church. , The advancement
of episcopal dignity and. power appears to
have been the chief design of the work.
II. The Canons relate chiefly to various
particulars of ecclesiastical polity and Chris
tian worship ; the regulations which they
contain being, for the most part, sanctioned
with the threatening of deposition and ex
communication against offenders. • The first
allusion to this work by name' is found in
the Acts of the Council which assembled at
Constantinople in the year 394, under the
presidency of Nectarius, bishop of that see.
But there are expressions in earlier councils,
and writers of the same century, which
appear to refer to the Canons, although not
named. In the beginning of the sixth cen
tury, fifty of these Canons were translated
from the Greek into Latin by the Roman
abbot Dionysius the Younger ; and, about
the same time, thirty-five others were ap
pended to them in a collection made by
John, patriarch of Constantinople. Since
that time, the whole number have been
regarded as genuine in the East ; while only
the first fifty have been treated with equal
respect in the West. It appears highly
probable that the original collection was

APOSTOLICAL
made about the middle of the third century,
or somewhat later, in one of the Asiatic
Churches. The author may have had the
same design as that which appears to have
influenced the compiler of the Apostolical
Constitutions. The eighty-fifth Canon
speaks of the Constitutions as sacred books ;
and from a comparison of the two books, it
is plain that they are either the production
of one and the same writer, or that, at least,
the two authors were contemporary, and
had a good understanding with each other.
The rules and regulations contained in the
Canons are such as were gradually intro
duced and established during the second and
third centuries. In the canon or list of
sacred books of the New Testament, given
in this work, the Revelation of St. John is
omitted ; but the two Epistles of St. Clement
and Apostolical Constitutions are inserted. —
Dr. C. W. J. Augusti, Denkwurdigkeiten
aus der Christlichen Archaologie, vol. i. ;
Krabbe; Dr. J. S. V. Drey; Gieseler, i.
259 ; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 97, 252 et seq. ;
Smith's Diet. Christ. Antiq. i. 12.
APOSTOLICAL FATHERS. An appeUa
tion usually given to the writers of the first
century, who employed their pens in the
cause of Christianity. Of these writers,
Cotelerius (Paris, 1672), and after him Le
Clerc (Amsterd. 1724), have published a
collection in two volumes, accompanied both
with their own annotations and the remarks
¦of other learned men. Among later editions
may be particularly mentioned that by the
Rev. Dr. Jacobson (1847), Regius Professor
of Divinity at Oxford, and afterwards Bishop
of Chester, which, however, does not
include Barnabas or Hermas. The Epis
tles of Clement have been edited by Bishop
Lightfoot (1869). See also 'The Gen
uine Epistles of the Apostolic Fathers,'
by Archbishop Wake, and a translation of
.them in one volume 8vo, by the Rev. Temple
Chevallier, B.D., formerly Hulsean lecturer
In the University of Cambridge. Also
Tillemont, Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire
de TEglise, vol. i., pt. iii., p. 1043; vol.
ii., pt. ii., p. 287, &c. The Apostolical
Fathers were, (1) Clement, bishop of Rome,
probably the same Clemens referred to by
St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3). His first epistle was
written to reprove the spirit of schism in
the Corinthian Church, and is called by
Eusebius iiria-Tokr) p,eyd\rj re Kal Bavjida-ia.
The second epistle has no title, and is
rarely referred to by the Church historian
(Euseb. Hist. iii. 38) ; (2) Ignatius, bishop
of Antioch, supposed to have been martyred
about a.d. 107.' Of twelve epistles ascribed
to him, five are doubtless spurious ; two of
these were addressed to St. John, and one
to the Virgin Mary. Of the remaining
:seven, there is little doubt as to the authen-

APOSTOLICAL

47

ticity, and they are referred to by Irenajus,
Origen, Eusebius, Chrysostom, and many
other early writers. (3) Polycarp, bishop
of Smyrna, martyred at an extreme age in
the middle of the second century. His
epistle was addressed to the Philippians, and
is spoken of in high terms by Irenasus (adv.
Hser. iii. 3), and often quoted by Eusebius.
(4) Hermas, perhaps the same mentioned
by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 14), but more pro
bably the brother of Pius, the bishop of
Rome. The authorship of the ' Shepherd of
Hermas ' is really unknown, but the work is
quoted by many of the most ancient writers.
(5) Barnabas, clearly a different person from
the companion of St. Paul. The epistle
which goes by his name was probably written
early in the second century. This, however,
and the ' Shepherd of Hermas,' are very far
removed from the apostolic dignity of the
epistles mentioned above, than which a more
admirable appendix to the pure word of God,
and a more trustworthy comment on the
principles taught by inspired men, cannot
be conceived. As eye-witnesses of the order
and discipline of the Church, while all was
fresh and new from the hands of the apostles,
their testimony forms the very summit of
uninspired authority. None could better
know these things than those who lived and
wrote at the very time. None deserve a
greater reverence than they who proclaimed
the Gospel, while the echo of inspired
tongues yet lingered in the ears of the
people. [H.]
APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION. (See
Bishops.) We learn from the gospels that
our Lord Jesus Christ chose from among
His disciples twelve Apostles whom He sent
forth to preach. After His resurrection from
the dead He gave to the eleven a more
extended commission. They were to evan
gelise all nations; to be witnesses con
cerning Christ unto the uttermost part of
the earth (Matt, xxviii. 19 ; Acts i. 8).
"As my Father hath sent me," He said,
" even so send I you " (John xx. 21). Other
chosen men were associated with them in
their office ; particularly St. Matthias and
St. Paul, whose call to the apostolate was
the immediate act of Christ Himself.
Under the direction of the Holy Ghost, the
Apostles became the founders and builders
up of the Church. They ordained other
ministers to whom they committed sub
ordinate parts of their work. There are
mentioned in the Acts presbyters (to whom
the name eV/o-KOTrot, bishops, is also given
in the New Testament), and deacons, as
having been thus appointed by the Apostles
(Acts vi. 3, xiv. 23, xx. 17, 28).
When we turn to the records of the early
Church, we find that by the middle of the
second century there were everywhere three

48

APOSTOLICAL.

classes of ministers, bishops, priests (or
presbyters), and deacons. The names
bishop, and presbyter, were now distributed
to different persons. The right of ordina
tion belonged to bishops, and by episcopal
ordination a succession of ministers was kept
up. This confessedly was the rule of the
transmission of holy orders throughout the
universal Church.
The question then arises, what is the
connexion of this fact with the former fact
of the ministry of the Apostles ? There is
clearly a presumption, in the absence of
testimony to the contrary, that a rule uni
versally followed at so early a period must
have been in accordance with the Apostles'
intention and practice. " What is held by
the universal Church, and not ordained by
any council, but has always been retained
in the Church, is to be believed to have
come down from apostolical authority." (St.
Augustine, quoted by Bishop Harold Browne
On the Articles, p. 549, 11 ed.) The phrase
Apostolical Succession expresses the belief
that the rule of episcopal ordination and
government was in its essence no fresh
departure in the history of the organisation
of the Church, but rather the continuance
of the order which prevailed from the begin
ning; the Episcopate being "historically the
continuation in its permanent elements of
the Apostolate" (Haddan, Diet of Christ.
Antiq. v. i. p. 212) ; so that bishops may
be called the successors of the Apostles.
That this belief prevailed generally among
Christians at a very early time is well
known. It is sufficient here to refer to the
often quoted testimony of Tertullian (De
Prsescript. c. 32), " Let [the heretics] produce
the original records of their churches: let
them unfold the roll of their bishops running
down in due succession from the beginning
in such a manner that their first distin
guished bishop (primus ille episcopus) shall
be able to show for his ordainer and pre
decessor some one of the Apostles or of
apostolic men, — a man moreover who con
tinued steadfast with the Apostles. For this
is the manner in which the apostolic
churches transmit their registers." (Trans
lation in Ante-Nicene Library.)
There are not wanting facts in the history
of the Apostolic age itself which confirm
this inference. Str James, the " brother "
of the Lord, superintended as bishop the
Mother Church of Jerusalem. (Acts xii.
17 ; xv. 13 ; xxi. 18.) Timothy and Titus
were appointed by St. Paul to exercise a like
superintendence", the one at Flphesus, the
other in Crete. The angels' of the Seven
Churches of Asia addressed by St. John
seem to have occupied a like position. (See
Abp. Trench, Commentary on the Seven Epp.,
pp. 47 fig..; Lee on Rev. i. 20, and Note F

APOSTOLICAL
in Speaker's Commentary. For objections,
Bishop Lightfoot, On the Philippians, jjj,
199 fig.) These persons in the lifetimetof
some of the Apostles exercised locally a
superintendence like that which the Apostles
exercised more widely. The earliest Chris
tian writer next to the writers of the New
Testament, St. Clement of Rome, speaks of
the provision which the Apostles made for
keeping up a succession in the ministry. In
the Epistle of Clement, indeed, as apparently
in the recently discovered Teaching of the,.
Twelve Apostles, the title eVicrKon-os, bishop^
is still given to presbyters. But Clement (1
Ep. ad Cor. c. 44) speaks of the appointment
of presbyters by the Apostles, " or afterwards
by other eminent men " (KaraaraBivTas m
sKtivasv t) p.era_Hi v(j)' iripav iXkoyijiav
dv8pS>v), who therefore must have exercised
this part of the apostolic office. That the
Apostles were not localised, or diocesan,
bishops may very well be conceded. If St.
James of Jerusalem was an Apostlej?an
opinion not generally entertained, he was
an exception to the rule. The localisation
of the episcopate is a matterpf Church order
and arrangement, not belonging to the
essence of the office. (In Ecclesiast. Pol.
bk. vii. diocesan bishops are called " Bishops
by restraint," the Apostles "Bishops at
large.") Some of the high functions com
mitted to the Apostles may have been
peculiar to them, and not transmissible to
others. Timothy and Titus may perhaps
be more correctly described as apostolic
delegates than as diocesan bishops. But the
functions which they were commissioned to
perform were the functions of a bishop.
That bishops should have sometimes been
called presbyters, as by Irenasus and Au
gustine, is no bar to the belief that the
episcopal office is essentially the higher one.
St. Peter (1 Pet. v. 1) called himself a fellow-
presbyter. _ All this consists with the belief
that certain important functions have been
committed to the episcopal order in suc
cession to the apostolate. "A bishop,"
writes Hooker, " is a minister of God, unto
whom, with permanent continuance, there
is given not only power of administering the
word and sacraments, which power other
presbyters have ; but also a further power
to ordain ecclesiastical persons, and a power.
of chiefty in government over presbyterfr;
as well as laymen, a power to be by way of
jurisdiction a pastor even to pastors them
selves." (Eccl. Pol. bk. vii. 2.)
The theory that episcopacy arose out of
the presbyterate, and was adopted in order
to check the growth of schisms in the Church,
was put forth by Jerome. (See Bp. Lightfoot,
On the Philippians, pp. 205, 206, 227, &c,
who maintains substantially the same view.)
According to this view the presbyterate

APOSTOLICI
would be historically the link between
episcopacy and the Apostles. That the state
ments of Jerome, and of Hilary the Deacon,
are not conclusive is shown by Bp. Harold
Browne, On the Articles, pp. 553 fig., and
Haddan, Diet of Ch. Antiq. vol. i. p. 212.
(See also Bp. Wordsworth, T/ieoph. Anglic, c.
xi. ; Prof. J. J. Blunt, Early Ch. Hist. c. iv.,
and the references in Hook's Lives of the
Abps. of Canterbury, vol. ix. p. 198.)
The promoters of the English Reformation
were careful to preserve in the English
Church the ancient episcopal succession, and
thus, as they believed, the apostolical suc
cession also. There has been no break in
the regular transmission of holy orders in
the English Church. By all Church writers
of note episcopacy is regarded as a sacred
institution possessing the highest sanction.
"The threefold ministry," writes Bishop
Lightfoot, " can be traced to apostolic direc
tion ; and short of an express statement we
can possess no better assurance of a Divine
appointment, or at least a Divine sanction."
(On the Philippians, p. 267.) Episcopal
succession is carefully guarded by all who
have authority in the English Church, or in
Churches which are in communion with her.
" We must conclude with Hooker," writes
Bishop Harold Browne, " ' If anything in
the Church's government, surely the first
institution of bishops was from Heaven, even
of God.' And with Bishop Hall, ' What
inevitable necessity may do, we now dispute
not,' yet ' for the main substance,' episcopacy
' is utterly indispensable, and must so con
tinue to the world's end.' " ( On the Articles,
p. 568.) [J. G. H.]
APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLI. I. A sect
of the twelfth century, whom St. Bernard
assailed with great earnestness. (St. Ber
nard,- opp. vol. iv. p. 1495, ed. Mabillon.)
Their desire was to exemplify in their
conduct the apostolic mode of living. They
were for the most part people of lowly con
dition, but they had friends and supporters
in every rank and order. They allowed
their hair and beards to grow long ; deemed
it unlawful to take an oath: preferred
celibacy, calling themselves the chaste
brethren and sisters; yet each man, after
the manner of the Apostles, as they asserted,
had a spiritual sister with whom he lived
in a domestic relation.— Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 159.
II. Another sect, perhaps the offspring
of the above, was founded by Gerhard Sagar-
elli of Parma, who was burned at the stake
a.d. 1300. For he not only held the ideas
of the Apostolici, but also denounced the
" deformed Roman Church," and foretold its
speedy downfall, and the rise of a holier
Church. His followers moreover were fa
natical communists, dangerous to society

APPEAL

49

like the Anabaptists. His successor, Dul-
cinos of Novara, was even more bold and
energetic in his preaching. He was tortured
to death, together with Margaretta, his
spiritual sister, a.d. 1307. — Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 246.
APOSTOOLIANS. A party of the Men-
nonites which derived its name from Samuel
Apostool of Amsterdam, 1664. Apostool
defended the original doctrines of the Men-
nonites against Galenus, who held different
views with regard to the Divine nature of
Christ, &c. — Mosheim, iii. 459. (See Men-
nonites.) APOTACTI_E, or APOTACTICI. Here
tics who sprang from the Manichamns.
Severe laws had been passed against the
Manichajans, especially one of Theodosius
the Great (a.d. 381) which, pronouncing
them infamous, deprived them of all the
rights of citizens. To avoid this severity
the Manichamns assumed various names, as
Encratites, Saccophori, Apotactics. The
word is derived from dwordo-a-v, and implied
a renunciation of all their possessions, after
the manner of the Apostles. Hence they
have been also called Apostolici.
APPARITOR. Apparitors'(so called from
the principal branch of their office, which
consists in summoning persons to appear)
are officers appointed to execute the orders
and decrees of the ecclasiastical courts. The
proper business and employment of an
apparitor is to attend in court ; to receive
such commands as the judge shall please to
issue forth ; to convene and cite the defen
dants into court; to admonish or cite the
parties to produce witnesses, and the like.
Apparitors are recognised by the 138th
English Canon, which wholly relates to
them. APPEAL. The provocation of a cause
from an inferior to a superior judge. (1
Kings xviii.; Acts xxv.) Appeals are
divided into judicial and extra-judicial.
Judicial appeals are those made from the
actual sentence of a court of judicature.
In this case the force of such sentence is
sometimes suspended until the cause is
determined by the superior judge ; but that
requires an order of either the inferior or su
perior court, which.is seldom refused. Occa
sionally it is so by Act.of Parliament. Extra
judicial appeals are those made from extra
judicial acts, by which a person either is, or
is likely to be, wronged. He therefore resorts
to the legal protection of a superior judge.
By the civil law, appeals ought to be made
gradatim ; but by the canon law, as it existed
before the Reformation, they might be made
omisso medio, and immediately to the pope ;
who was reputed to be the ordinary judge of all
Christians in all causes, having a concurrent
power with all ordinaries. Appeals to the
E

BO

APPEAL

pope were first sent from England to Rome
in the reign of King Stephen, by the pope's
legate, Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester
(a.d. 1135-1154). Prior to that period,
the pope was not permitted to enjoy any
appellate jurisdiction in England. William
the .Conqueror refused to do him homage.
Anglo-Saxon Dooms do not so much as
mention the pope's name ; and the laws of
Edward the Confessor assert the royal
supremacy in the following words : — " Rex
autem, qui vicarius Summi Regis est, ad
hoc constitutus est, ut regnum et populum
Domini, et super omnia sanctam ecclesiam,
regat et defendat ab injuriosis; maleficos
autem destruat et evellat." The Penitential
of Archbishop Theodore (a.d. 668-690)
contains no mention of appeals to Rome;
and in the reign of Henry IL; at the Council
of Clarendon (a.d. 1164), it was enacted,
" De appellationibus si emerserint ab archi
diacono debebit procedi ad episcopum, ab
episcopo ad archiepiscopum, et si archiepi
scopus defuerit in justitia exhibenda, ad
dominum regem perveniendum est postremo,
ut praxepto ipsius in curia archiepiscopi
controversia terminetur; ita quod non debeat
ultra procedi absque assensu domini regis."
Notwithstanding this law, and the statutes
made against " provisors " in the reigns of
Edward I., Edward III.,. Richard IL, and
Henry V., appeals used to be forwarded to
Rome until the reign of Henry VIII., when,
by the statutes of the 24 Henry VIII. c. 12,
and the 25 Henry VIH. c. 19, all appeals
to the pope from England were abolished.
By these statutes, appeals were to be finally
determined by the High Court of Delegates,
to be appointed by the king in chancery
under the great seal. This jurisdiction was,
in 1832, by 2 & 3 William IV. c. 92, trans
ferred from the High Court of Delegates to
the Privy Council, and to the Judicial Com
mittee thereof in 1833 ; which was modified
as to the episcopal members in 1840, 1873,
and 1876. Their " report or recommenda
tion," when sanctioned by the Crown, which
is a matter of course (see below), is a final
judgment. The Crown used to have the power to
grant a commission of review after the de
cision of an appeal by the High Com-t of
Delegates. (26 Henry VIII. c. 1 ; 1 Eliz.
c. 1, Goodman's Case in Dyer's Reports.)
This prerogative Queen Mary exercised by
granting a review after a review in Good
man's case, regarding the deanery of Wells.
(See Lord Campbell's Judgment in the
Court of Queen's Bench in Gorham v. The
Bishop of Exeter, in Brodrick & Fre-
mantle's Ecc. Judgments.) But commissions
of review were abolished by the Act of 1832,
and the P. C. at large will not rehear.
(Hebhert v. Purchas, L. R. 3 P. C. 671.)

APPROPRIATION
Consequently ¦ the decision of the Judicial
Committee is practically final, because the
Crown itself of course adopts it. (See Counts
Christian.) It is a remarkable fact that,
although the statutes for restraint of appeals
had been repealed on Queen Mary's accession,
no appeal in Goodman's case was permitted
to proceed out of England to the pope. The
commissions of review were not granted
by Queen Mary under the authority of
Protestant enactments, but by virtue of
the common law regarding the regalities
of the Crown of England. [G.]
APPELLANT. Generally, one who ap
peals from the decision of an inferior court
to a superior. Particularly those among the
French clergy were called, appellants, who
appealed from the bull Unigenitus, issued
by Pope Clement in 1713, either to the pope
better informed, or to a general council.
This is one of the many instances in which
the boasted unity of the Roman obedience
has been signally broken ; the whole body
of the French clergy and the several monas
teries being divided into appellants and
non-appellants. APPROPRIATION is the annexing of a
benefice to the use of a spiritual corporation.
This was frequently done in England after
the Norman Conquest. Most of the secular
clergy were then Englishmen; and most
of the nobility, bishops, and abbots being
Normans, they had no kind of regard to the
secular clergy, but reduced them as low as
they could to enrich the monasteries; ,and
this was the reason of so many appropriations.
But some persons are of opinion, that it is a
question undecided, whether princes or popes
first made appropriations : though the oldest
of which we have any account were made by
princes ; as, for instance, by the English kings,
to the abbey of Crowland ; by William,. the
Conqueror, to Battle Abbey ; and by Henry
I., to the church of Salisbury. It is true
the popes, who were always jealous of their
usurped supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs,
did in their decretals assume this power to
themselves, and granted privileges to several
religious orders, to take appropriations from
laymen : but in the same grant they were
usually required to be answerable to .the
bishop in spiritualibus, and to the abbot or
prior in temporalibus, which was the com
mon form of appropriations till the latter
end of the reign of Henry II. For at first
those grants were not in proprios usus: it
was always necessary to present a clerk to
the bishop upon the avoidance of a benefice,
who, upon his institution, became vicar, and
for that reason an appropriation and a rectory
were then inconsistent. But because the for
mation of an appropriation was a thing merely
spiritual, the patron usually petitioned the
bishop to appropriate the church ; but the

APPROPRIATION
ting was first to give licence to the monks
that, quantum in nobis est, the bishop might
do it. The king being supreme ordinary,
might of his own authority make an appro
priation without the consent of the bishop,
though this was seldom done. Appropria
tions at first were made only to spiritual
persons, such as were qualified to perform
Divine service ; then by degrees they were
extended to spiritual corporations, as deans
and chapters; and lastly to priories, upon
the pretence that they had to support hos
pitality ; and lest preaching should by this
means be neglected, an invention was found
out to supply that defect by a vicar, as
aforesaid ; and it was left to the bishop to
be a moderator between the monks and the
vicar, for his maintenance out of the appro
priated tithes ; for the bishop could compel
the monastery to which the church was ap
propriated to set out a convenient portion of
tithes, and such as he should approve for
the maintenance of the vicar, before he
confirmed the appropriation.
Is is true the bishops in those days
•favoured the monks so much, that they
connived at their setting out a portion of
small tithes for the vicar, and permitted
them to reserve the great tithes to them
selves. This was a fault intended to be
¦remedied by the statute 15 Rich. II. cap.
6 ; by which it was enacted, that in every
licence made of an appropriation this clause
should be contained, viz. that the diocesan
should ordain that the vicar shall be well and
sufficiently endowed. But this statute was
eluded ; for the abbots appointed one of
their own monks to officiate ; and therefore
the parliament, in the 4th year of Henry
IV. cap. 12, provided that the vicar should
be a secular clergyman, canonically insti
tuted and inducted into the church, and
sufficiently endowed ; and that no regular
should be made vicar of a church appro
priate. But long before the making of
these statutes the kings of England made
appropriation of the churches of Feversham
and Milton in Kent, and other churches, to
the abbey of St. Augustine in Canterbury,
by these words: " Concessimus, &c, pro
nobis, &c, abbati et conventui, &c, quod
ipsi ecclesias predictas appropriare ac eas
sic appropriatas -in proprios usus tenere
possint sibi et successoribus in perpetuum."
The like was done by several of the
Norman nobility, who came over with the
king, upon whom he bestowed large manors
and lands ; and out of which they found
tithes were then paid, and so had continued
to be paid even from the time they were
possessed by the English : but they did not
regard" their law of tithing, and therefore
they held it reasonable to appropriate all,
or at least some part of, those tithes to

APSE

51

those monasteries which they had founded,
or to others as they thought fit ; and in
such cases they reserved a power to provide
for him who served the cure ; and this was
usually paid to stipendiary curates. But
sometimes the vicarages were endowed, and
the very endowment was expressed in the
grant of the appropriation, viz. that the
church shall be appropriated upon con
dition that a vicarage should be endowed ;
and this was left to the care of the bishop.
But whenever the vicar had a competent
subsistence by endowment, the monks took
all opportunities to" lessen it ; and this
occasioned several decretals prohibiting
such usage without tbe bishop's consent,
and that no custom should be pleaded for it,
where he that served the cure had not a
competent subsistence. And it has been a
question whether an appropriation is good
when there is no endowment of a vicarage,
because the statute of Henry IV. positively
provides that vicarages shall be endowed.
But it is now settled, that if it is a vicarage
in reputation, and vicars have been insti
tuted and inducted to the church, it shall be
presumed that the vicarage was originally
endowed. Thus much for the tithes : but
the abbot and convent had not only the
tithes of the appropriate churches, but the
right of patronage too ; for that was ex
tinct, as to the former patron, by tbe ap
propriation, unless he had reserved the
presentation to himself; and that made the
advowson disappropriate, and the church
presentable as before, but not by the old
patron, but by the abbot and convent, who
were then bound, upon a vacancy, to pre
sent a person to the bishop. Sometimes
the bishop would refuse the person pre
sented unless they consented to such an
allowance for his maintenance as he thought
fit, and therefore they would present none.
This occasioned the making another decretal,
which gave the bishop power to present ;
but this did not often happen, because the
monks were favoured by the bishops ; that
is, the poorer sort, for the rich would not
accept his kindness. They always got
their appropriations confirmed by the pope,
and their churches exempted from the
jurisdiction of the bishop. But all those
exemptions were taken away by the statute
31 Henry VIII. cap. 13, and the ordinary
was restored to his ancient right.
APSE, or APSIS. A semicircular or
polygonal termination of the choir, or other
portion of a church. The word signified
in Greek architecture a semi-dome, or a
quarter of a sphere, over a half-cylindrical
wall. Literally it only means a returned
wall of any shape, as in astronomy it
means the returning place in an orbit. It
was called in Latin testudo or concha, from
e 2

52

APSE

the same reason that a hemispherical recess
in the school-room at Westminster was
called the shell. The ancient Basilicas, as
may still be seen at Rome, had universally
a semicircular apse, round which the su
perior clergy had their seats ; at the upper
end was the bishop's throne ; the altar was
placed on the chord of the arc ; the tran
sept, or gallery, intervened between the apse
or the choir. There the inferior clergy,
singers, &c, were stationed, and there the
lessons were read from the ambon. (See
Choir and Chant.) This form was gene
rally observed, at least in large churches,
for many ages, of which Germany affords
frequent specimens. And as Mr. Neale has
shown in his very -valuable remarks on the
Eastern Churches (Hist of the Holy Greek
Church), the apse is the almost invariable
form even in parish churches in the East.
Of this arrangement there are traces in
England. Then large Saxon churches, as
we collect from history, generally had an
eastern apse at least, and often several
others. In Norman churches of large size,
the apse was very frequent, and it was
repeated in several parts of the church.
These inferior apses represented the oriental
exedrse, which usually terminate their
sacristies. Norwich and Peterborough
cathedrals convey a good impression of the
general character of Norman churches in
this respect. Traces of the apse are found
also at Winchester, Rochester, Ely, Lincoln,
St. Alban's, Eipon, Gloucester, and Worcester
cathedrals, besides Malvern, Tewkesbury, and
other conventual churches, and it is known
to have existed in others where no actual
traces remain now. At St. Alban's there
were seven ; for' the transepts had each two
apsidal chapels, besides those of the aisles
and the choir. At Canterbury the apse
seems to have been disturbed by sub
sequent arrangements. But it is remark
able that the ancient archiepiscopal chair
stood behind the altar in a sort of apse till
late in the last century. And the bishop
or priest sometimes celebrated mass stand
ing there, " before the altar " in the opposite
sense to what we understand now. (Ven
ables' Essay on Cathedrals.) Traces of the
ancient apse at Chester have been dis
covered of late years. In small churches,
as Steetley, Derbyshire, and Birkin, York
shire, the eastern apse alone is found, nor
is this at all an universal feature. See Mr.
Hussey's Notice of recent discoveries in
Chester Cathedral. There are three very
interesting English specimens in Hereford
shire, viz. as at Kilpech, Moccas, and Peter
Church ; all small parish churches, and of
Norman date; and with regular chancel
below the apse. In the early British and
Irish churches there is no trace of an apse,

AQUAEII
even in those which the learned Dr. Petrie,
in his essay on round towers, attributes to
the fifth and sixth centuries. With the post-
Norman styles the apse was almost wholly
discontinued, though an Early English 'apse
occurs at Tidmarsh, Berkshire, and a
Decorated apse at Little Maplestead; the
latter is, however, altogether an excep
tional case. There seems to have been
some tendency to reproduce the apse in the
fifteenth century, as at Trinity church,
Coventry, and Henry VII.'s chapel, and the
choir of Westminster; but the latter examples
are all polygonal instead of semicircular, and
generally miss the grandeur of the Norman
apse. The polygonal apse, however, of the
Lady Chapel at Lichfield, erected about 1310,
is dignified as well as graceful. And the later
styles have one great advantage in the treat
ment of this feature in their flying buttresses-
spanning the outer aisle of the apse, which
is often so striking a feature in foreign
churches, and to which the perpendicular
clerestory to the Norman apse of Norwich
makes some approach. In the modern
church of St. Chad's Headingley,- near
Leeds, an apsidal aisle or "periapse"<isthus
curved round the main one, with excellent
architectural effect and very useful. Some '
writers have confounded the apse with the
choir or chancel ; and think that, according
to primitive usage, the holy table ought
to stand between the latter and the nave :
whereas in fact it always stood above the
choir ; so that in churches where there is
no apse (and none was required when there
were no collegiate or capitular clergy) its
proper place is close to the eastern wall of
the church. (See Cathedral.)
AQUAEII. A sect of heretics, who, in
the Primitive times, consecrated water at
the Holy Eucharist, instead of wine. Still
they did it under the delusion that it was uni
versally unlawful to drink wine ; although,
as St. Chrysostom says, our blessed Lord.
instituted the Holy Eucharist in wine, and
himself drank wine at his communion table,
and after his resurrection, as if by anticipa
tion to condemn this pernicious heresy. It
is lamentable to see so bold an impiety re
vived in the present day, when certain men,
under the cloak of temperance, pretend A
Eucharist without wine, or any fermented
liquor. These are not to be confounded with
another sect, who allowed the use of wine,
but in their morning assemblies used water,
for fear the smell of wine should discover
them to the heathen. It was very wrong
and unworthy of the Christian name, but far
less culpable than the pretence of a temper
ance above that of Christ and the Church, in
which the Aquarii boasted. St. Cyprian,
giving an account of these, tells us that it was
the custom of the Church to use watermix'ed

AEABICS
with wine. (See Mixed Chalice.) — Epiph.
Hseres. xlvi. ; August, de Hares, c. 46 ;
Cyprian, Ep. Ixiii. ad Csecilium. ; Bingham,
Antiq. Chr. Ch. bk. xv. c. 2, § 7; New
man's Fleury, xxiv. 55.
AEABICS, AEABICI, or ARABIANS.
Heretics who appeared in Arabia in the
third century. According to Eusebius,
•they taught that the soul died, and was
corrupted with the body, and that they
were to be raised together at the last day.
— Euseb. Hist. Eccl. Lit vi. c. 26.
ARCADE. In church architecture, a
series of arches supported by pillars or
shafts, whether belonging to the construc
tion, or used in relieving large surfaces of
masonry: the present observations will be
confined to the latter, that is, to ornamental
arcades. These were introduced early in the Nor
man style, and were used very largely to
its close, the whole base story of exterior
and interior alike, and the upper portions of
towers and of high walls being often quite
¦covered with them. They were either of
simple or of intersecting arches : it is need
less to say that the latter are the most
elaborate in work, and the most ornamental ;
they are accordingly reserved in general for
the richer portions of the fabric. There is,
moreover, another, and perhaps even more
effective, way of complicating the arcade,
by placing an arcade within and behind
another, so that the wall is doubly recessed,
and the play of light and shadow greatly
increased. The decorations of the Tran
sitional, until very late in the style, are so
nearly those of the Norman, that we need
not particularise the semi-Norman arcade.
In the next style the simple arcade is the
most frequent. This, like the Norman, often
covers large surfaces. Foiled or cusped
arches are often introduced at this period
and greatly vary the effect. The duplica
tion of arcades is now managed differently
from the former style. Two arcades, perfect
in all their parts, are set the one behind the
other, but the shaft of the outer is opposite
to the arch of the inner series, the outer
series is also more lofty in its proportions,
and the two are often of differently con
structed arches, as at Beverley and Lincoln,
where the outer series is of trefoil, the inner
of simple arches, or vice versa, the two
always being different. The effect of this
is extremely beautiful.
But the most exquisite arcades are those
of the Geometrical period, where each arch
is often surmounted by a crocketted pedi
ment, and the higher efforts of sculpture are
tasked for their enrichment, as in the glorious
•chapter-house of Salisbury, Southwell, and
above all York ; these are, however, usually
confined to the interior. In the Decorated

AECHBISHOP

53

period partially, and in the Perpendicular
entirely, the arcade gave place to panelling,
greatly to the loss of effect, for no delicacy
or intricacy of pattern can compensate for
the bright light and deep shadows of the
Norman and Early English arcades. There
are so many varieties, both in form and size,
that we must refer to architectural books for
other examples.
AECANI DISCIPLINA. The name
given to a part of the discipline of the early
Church in withdrawing from public view
the sacraments and higher mysteries of our
religion : a practice founded on a reverence
for the sacred mysteries themselves, and to
prevent their being exposed to the ridicule
of the heathen. Irenajus, Tertullian, and
Clement of Alexandria are the first who
mention any such custom in the Church.
This secrecy, however wise at the time, had
the effect of aggravating the hostility of the
heathen, as they could assert that as the
Christian rites were carried on thus privately,
there must be something in them contrary
to the law of common morality. The Disci-
plina Arcani gradually fell into disuse after
the time of Constantine, when Christianity
had nothing to fear from its enemies. —
Bingham, Antiq. x. v. ; Freeman's Princ.
Div. Serv.. ii. 386.
AECH. All architecture may be divided
into the architecture of the entablature
and of the arch. The subject is much too
large to discuss here, and we must refer to
architectural books for a multitude of ex
amples of all kinds of arches, round, pointed,
cusped, moulded, ogee, four-centred, stilted,
elliptic, segmental, equilateral, &c.
AECHBISHOP. (See also Metropolitan ;
Patriarch ; Primate.) The head of the hie
rarchy in a whole province, who has the over
sight of the bishops as well as of the inferior
clergy in that province.
I. General history. According to Beve-
ridge, Cod. Can. Vindicat. ii., c. v., s. 12,
Hammond, Prsefat. ad Titum, Usher, de Orig.
Episcop. et Metropolit, and others, the office,
though not the title, was of apostolical
institution. This view is founded mainly on
the fact that the Apostles commonly made
the chief city in each province the starting
point and centre of their missionary work,
and that St. Paul, in his epistles, sometimes
addresses the faithful in each province as
forming one community — e.g. " the Church
of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints
which are in all Achaia " (2 Cor. i. 1), and
"unto the Churches of Galatia" (Gal. i. 2).
It is obvious that a Church once established
in the chief city of a province would be likely
to rank above the other Churches. And, in
many cases, this pre-eminence would be two
fold, depending partly on the civil importance
of the capital, partly on the fact that the

54

AECHBISHOP

Church there was the earliest, and so was
looked upon as the mother-Church of aR the
rest in that district.
The 4th Canon of the Council of Nica?a
clearly accepts the civil division as the
basis of the ecclesiastical, for it decrees that
bishops shall be appointed by all the bishops
in the province, and that the right of con
firmation belongs to the metropolitan in each
province. And the 6th Canon declares that
if any one was made bishop without the
consent of the metropolitan, the appointment
ought to be held invalid. Epiphanius,
writing in a.d. 376 (Hseres. lxviii., n. 1), says
that it was the custom for the Archbishop
in Alexandria to have the ecclesiastical
administration of all Egypt, Libya, the
Thebaid, &c. And similar metropolitical
rights are stated in the 6th Canon of Nicaia
to pertain to the sees of Antioch, Rome, and
other capitals of provinces by ancient custom
(rot dpxaia Wr] xpareiraj). When Constantine
made a new partition of the empire into
dioceses, each of which comprised several
provinces, an arrangement nearly analogous
followed in the Church. The bishop of the
capital city in each province was designated
Metropolitan or Archbishop, while the bishop
of the chief city in the diocese ranked above
the other metropolitans, and had the title
in the East sometimes of Exarch, in the
West, of Primate, but the most eminent were
afterwards commonly called Patriarchs, a
name originally applied to any bishop. The
first express mention of this title in the more
restricted sense is at the Council of Chalcedon
in 451, when the see of Jerusalem was made
patriarchal, in addition to those of Rome,
Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch,
which already enjoyed that dignity. This,
however, was on account of its pre-eminent
sanctity, for Cassarea, and not Jerusalem,
was the capital of the province. — Robert
son, Hist i. 313, 461, 475 ; Suicer, sub u.
oWkt/o-is ; Bingham, ii. 17, s. 8.
II. In Britain. There is no evidence of
the existence of archbishoprics in the early
British Church. We may presume that the
three bishops who attended the Council of
Aries in 314, Eburius of York, Restitutus of
London, and Adelphius, whose see has not
been identified, but was probably Caerleon
(Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7), were the most
eminent in the island, but they are not
styled archbishops. At the time of Augus
tine's mission to England in 597, London
and York were no doubt considered the most
important cities in the south and north, and
it is evident, from a letter written to Augus
tine in 601 by Gregory the Great (Bede, i. 29,
and Ep. ad Ecgbertum, s. 5), that the latter
thought the principal sees should, as in the
Roman Empire, be planted in the principal
cities, aid that the dioceses should be framed

AECHBISHOP
upon the lines of some existing civil divisions'.
There were to be twelve dioceses in the south,
over which the Bishop of London was to
preside as archbishop, and to be always
consecrated by his own synod of suffragats.
Augustine was to consecrate a bishop for
York, who, in his turn, was to consecrate
twelve suffragans, and be their archbishop;
bnt Augustine was, during his life, to be
supreme over the northern metropolitan;
This scheme, however, was defeated by the
course of events. London did not become
Christian for many years after the coming
of Augustine, and the see originally estab
lished at Canterbury by King Ethelberht
and Augustine has always retained its
metropolitan rank. The see of York was
founded in 625, but it was not made archie
piscopal till 735, when the Northumbrian
kingdom was in a condition of remarkable
prosperity and independence. (Bede, .Ep. ad
Ecgb., s. 5, Sax. Chron.)
.During a brief supremacy of the Mercian
kingdom, Offa made the see of Lichfield an
archbishopric, but it only lasted from 787
to 803. Down to the time of the Norman
Conquest, the Archbishops of Yorkacquiesced
in the supremacy of the see of Canterbury,1
but after that event it was frequently
disputed. At the consecration of Anselnrin
1093, Thomas of York objected to the Arch
bishop of Canterbury being styled "Metro
politan of Great Britain," and it was then
decided that the Archbishop of York should
be called " Primate of England and Metro
politan," the Archbishop of Canterbury
"Primate of all England and Metropolitan."
The contest, however, did not end here. In
1119, Thurstan, Archbishop elect of York,
refused to make profession of obedience at
his consecration to the Archbishop "of
Canterbury, and was consecrated by the
pope instead. The struggle for precedence,
which was carried on at intervals during the
12th, 13th, and part of the 14th centuries,
turned mainly on this question of profession of
obedience, on the position which each arch
bishop was to occupy at national ceremonials;
and on the right of the Archbishop of York
to have his cross carried before him within
the province of Canterbury. These questions
were finally settled in 1353, during the
pontificates of Simon Islip of Canterbury,
and John Thoresby of York, when, on all
essential points, precedence was secured for
the see of Canterbury. — Hook, Archbishop,
ii. 157, 195, 288, 416 ; iv. 122-124.
Both archbishops have the title of
" Grace " and " Most reverend father in God
by divine Providence " : but the Archbishop ,
of Canterbury ranks as the first peer in the
realm after dukes of royal blood, the Lord
Chancellor ranks second, and the Archbishop
of York third. The Archbishop of Canter-

AECHBISHOP »
bury has the right of crowning the sovereign
and of granting certain dispensations to hold
two livings, to be ordained before the
statutable and canonical age, to be married
anywhere and at any hour, by special licence.
These are relics of the pope's dispensing
power, which was transferred to the arch
bishop when not contrary to God's word, by
25 Henry VIII. c. 31.
Method of Electing. (1) In the early
Church the election of archbishops was made
by the bishops of the province, subject to
the consent of the clergy and laity. (Bing
ham, ii., c. xvi., s. 15). When the kingdoms
which grew out of the ruins of the Western
Empire were converted to Christianity, their
sovereigns naturally exercised much in
fluence upon the election, and the popes
early acquired the right of confirmation.
From the sixth century it became a custom
(which was formally ratified in 742 by the
Synod of Frankfurt) for all metropolitans to
obtain a vestment from the pope called the
"pallium," without which they were not
qualified to consecrate bishops; and when
they received it, they made a kind of pro
fession of obedience to the pope.
(2) In England, prior to the Norman
Conquest, the archbishops, like the bishops,
were commonly appointed by the king and
the Witan in the great national Gemotes.
After the Conquest, and prior to the Refor
mation, the appointments to the see of
Canterbury were the results sometimes of a
concurrence, more often of a conflict between
several parties, who all claimed to have some
voice in the election — the king, who nomi
nated or recommended, the suffragan bishops,
who approved, the Chapter of Canterbury,
who elected, the pope who confirmed. The
popes, however, in various ways acquired an
increasing power over the appointments. In
cases of disputed election, appeal was made
to them, and Innocent III. laid down the rule
that if the electors had chosen an unworthy
person, the appointment lapsed to the pope.
He also rejected the claim of the bishops to
take part in the elections, and it was never
raised again. Stephen Langton was pressed
into the see by the sole authority of the
pope, and, after this, the king and the pope
often conspired to defeat the election of the,
Chapter. The appointment of Robert
Winchelsey in 1294 was one of the rare
cases in which all the electing parties agreed.
—Stubbs, Const. Hist iii. 305, 306 ; Wil-
kins, Cone. ii. 197.
Besides giving the pallium, the pope
bestowed the legatine commission on the
archbishops in England. A prescriptive
right to it was asserted for the see by
Anselm, and finally acknowledged in the
time of Stephen Langton, 1291. Legates "a
latere" were admitted for special purposes, but

ARCHBISHOP

55

the archbishops of Canterbury were regarded
as " legati nati," who had an exclusive right
to a pormanent commission. The effect of
this was to enhance the Papal power by
giving to the archbishop's jurisdiction the
colour of delegated authority from Rome.
The archbishops of York had the pallium
and (from about the year 1350) the legatine
commission also. During the vacancy of
any see in his province, the archbishop is
guardian of the spiritualities, as the king is
of the temporalities, and during such
vacancy all episcopal rights belong to him ;
but the visitatorial power over ; suffragans
has not been exercised since the time of
Archbishop Laud.
Some of the Archbishop of Canterbury's
suffragans rank as his officials under various
titles. The Bishop of London is his dean,
the Bishop of Winchester his chancellor, tho
Bishop of Salisbury his precentor, the Bishop
of Worcester his chaplain, the Bishop of
Rochester his crosier-bearer, the Bishop of
Lincoln his vice-chancellor. The suffragans
of the province of Canterbury are now 22 —
London, Winchester, Bangor, Bath and
Wells, Chichester, Ely, Exeter, Gloucester
and Bristol, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln,
Llandaff, Norwich, Oxford, Peterboro', St.
Alban's (founded in 1877), St. Asaph, St.
David's, Salisbury, Southwell (founded
1884), Truro (founded 1879), Worcester.
The Archbishop of York has eight suffragans
— Durham (who ranks between London and
Winchester), Carlisle, Chester, Liverpool
(founded 1880), Manchester (founded 1848),
Newcastle (founded 1882), Ripon (founded
1836), Sodor and Man. Wakefield will
make a ninth, if the Act of 1878 is carried
into effect, which authorised the foundation
of sees in Liverpool, Newcastle, Southwell,
and Wakefield, whenever an endowment of
£3000 a year is provided for them, or £2500
with a house of the value of £500 a year.
The term suffragan is also applied to any
bishop appointed to assist another. Under
the Act of 26 Henry VIII., there are now
four such in England — Dover, Nottingham,
Bedford, and Colchester. (See Suffragan.)
Jurisdiction qf the Archbishops. (1) In
province of Canterbury. From the Norman
Conquest to the Reformation there were
four courts.
(a) The Court of the Arches (because held
in Bow Church, Sancta Maria de Arcubus),
presided over by tbe archbishop's " official
principal," was the court of appeal from all
the diocesan courts of the province, and
also a court of first instance in all ecclesi
astical cases. The " official principal " was
the representative of the archbishop in his
judicial capacity as completely as the " chief
justice " was the representative of the king.
(b) The Court of Audience, in which the

56

ARCHDEACON

archbishop himself tried cases reserved for
his own personal hearing.
(c) The Prerogative Court, in which the
testamentary jurisdiction was transacted
under a judge called Master-keeper, or
Commissary. (d) The Court of Peculiars, held in Bow
Church, adjudicated on causes arising within
the thirteen London parishes which were
peculiars of the archbishops. The Dean of
the Arches presided in this court ; he was
originally distinct from and subordinate to
the official principal, but ultimately the two
offices were always held by the same person.
Cases of heresy were frequently tried, or
at least investigated, by the archbishop in
convocation. The provincial courts of the Archbishop of
York were (i.) the Chancery Court, nearly
equivalent to tho Canterbury "Court of
Arches ; (ii.) the Prerogative Court. From
the year 1559 to 1832 a right of appeal lay
from the Archbishop's Court to the Court of
Delegates created by the statute 25 Henry
VIII. c. 19. By 3 & 4 William IV. c. 41,
the appellate jurisdiction was conferred on
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
— Report of Royal Commission on Eccles.
Courts, and Historical Appendix.
By the Public Worship Regulation Act,
37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, the office of official
principal, both of Canterbury and York, has
.been transferred to a judge to be appointed
by the archbishops, subject to the approval
of the Crown.
For Archbishops in Ireland and Scotland,
see under Church in Ireland, Scotland, &c.
[W. R. W. S.]
ARCHDEACON. ' APXihi6.Kovos, 'ApXi-
didicav, 'ApxiKevlrrjs, in Latin sometimes
Levita Septimus. (JoJumnes Secundus Vit
Greg. Max. lib. i. c. 25.)
Origin and development of the office, (i.)
in the Church at large ; (ii.) in the Church
of England.
(i.) It is very probable that there was
even in apostolic times a primacy amongst
deacons, but upon what it depended,
whether upon seniority or ability, and
whether it was part of a fixed system, there
is really no evidence to determine. St.
Lawrence (who died a.d. 260) is called Arch
deacon by St. Augustine, Serm. de Di
versis, cxi. c. 9, and so is St. Ca;cilian of
Carthage by Optatus (Lib. i. p. 18, ed. Paris,
1679), but some lines in Prudentius (Perist
Hymn. II.) would seem to indicate that the
former was only the principal of seven
deacons who served at the altar.
" Hic primus e septem viris
Qui stant ad aram proximi,
Levita sublimis gradu."
In the Eastern Church the office does not

ARCHDEACON
distinctly appear before the end pf the
fourth or beginning of the fifth century,
Serapion, who helped to make St. John Cky-
sostom unpopular by advising him to j'ule .
his clergy with more severity (Socr. vi.1 4Y
is called his archdeacon (Sozomen, viii.1 9).
John of Antioch dealt with the envoys of
the Council of Ephesus, 431, throughithis
archdeacon (Mansi, iv. 1223), and [i St,
Athanasius seems to have held a like confi
dential relation towards his bishop > at
Alexandria. In the East, however, the
office never became very prominent, nor
were its duties very clearly defined.
In the Western Church, on the other
hand, where the office appears in the fourth
century, it gradually increases in impor
tance. From a letter of Jerome (Ep, ad
Rusticum, xcv.) we learn that the rule was
to have one chief presbyter, and one chief
deacon in each diocese (" singuli ecclesiarunr ¦'
episcopi, singuli archipresbyteri, singuli
archidiaconi"), and a larger number was
forbidden by the Council of Merida (Emerit)
a.d. 666, but after the eighth century there
was commonly more than one, the number
varying with the size or population of the
diocese. In St. Jerome's time an arch
deacon thought himself injured if he was
ordained a presbyter "injuriam putat si
presbyter ordinetur" (Com. in Ezek. c. 48),
but after the 9th century the custom of not
raising archdeacons to the priesthood began
to be dropped. The functions of archdeacons
were gradually developed from very humble
beginnings. Out of the simple duty of dis
tributing the alms of the faithful as applied
to the threefold purposes of the relief of the
poor, the maintenance of the clergy, and the
repair of the churches, grew the right of
overseeing the general condition of ecclesi
astical fabrics, furniture, and ceremonial,
the morals, the manners, the dress of the
clergy, and even the mode of cutting their
hair; and ascertaining by examination or
enquiry the qualification of candidates for
holy orders. Being the constant companion
of the bishop (as Jerome expresses it, a
pontificis latere non recedit. Com. in Ezek
c. 48), not only at celebrations of the Holy
Eucharist (Ambrose, de Off. lib. i. c. 41),
when it was his duty to minister the cup
after the bishop, but also very often in the
capacity of private chaplain or secretary, he
became intimately acquainted with the
bishop's mind, whence he was called "cor
episcopi," the "bishop's, heart"; and his
principal agent in the oversight of the
diocese, whence his appellation, "oculus
episcopi," the bishop's eye (Apost. Const.
ii. 44 ; Bingham, ii. c. xx. § 18). And so
Isidore of Pelusium, Ep. i. 29, tells his
archdeacon that he ought to be " all eye,"
" oXoj n(pdakp.6s ocpeiXets virdpyea/"

ARCHDEACON
Before the end of the ninth century it is
certain that the archdeacons were occasion
ally at least deputed by the bishop to hold
visitations, and exercise some kind of juris
diction over the clergy; for in a.d. 874,
Hincmar, Archbishop of Reims, addressed
a letter to his archdeacons, Gunthar and
Odelhard, instructing them how to act when
they were making their visitations (Mansi,
xv. 497). And the Council of Chalons in 813
censured the custom of exacting fees for
archidiaconal visitations.
From the tenth century onward the
archdeacons, as a rule, obtained a delegatio
perpetua, which made them irremovable,
and gave them a formidable power of juris
diction, sometimes almost co-ordinate with
that of the bishop himself.
(ii.) In the Church of England the earliest
direct notice of archdeacons occurs in the
Pontifical of Ecgbert, Archbishop of York
(a.d. 735-766), where they are described
as assisting at ordination, and allusions are
made to them in some of Alcuin's letters,
but there do not seem to have been any
territorial archdeaconries in the Northern
Province till after the Norman Conquest,
when Archbishop Thomas divided the dio
cese into five. And in the Province of
Canterbury, although we find the signature
of an Archdeacon Wulfred to a statute of
Archbishop iEthelhard in a.d. 803, Lan-
franc was the first to invest the archdeacons
with powers of jurisdiction in accordance
with the edict of the Conqueror, separating
the civil and ecclesiastical courts. The
large amount of secular business in which
the bishops were involved after the Con
quest, partly as great landowners, partly as
state officials, leading to frequent and pro
tracted absence from their dioceses, threw
an increasing quantity of so-called spiritual
business upon the archidiaconal courts.
These courts, which were originally execu
tive departments merely under the bishop,
had generally acquired a customary juris
diction before the middle of the twelfth
century; and by the Constitutions of
Clarendon, 1164, appeals lay from the arch
deacon's court to the bishop's. This increase
in the archdeacon's independent power was
a subject of alarm to the bishops, and at
tempts were commonly made in the twelfth
century to check it by the creation of the
office of " official," to act as judge ordinary
in all cases pertaining to the bishop's juris
diction. But the check seems to have been
of little avail, and a large amount of business
¦continued to be swept into the archidiaconal'
courts. They were very unpopular both
with the clergy and laity, partly on account
of the petty and vexatious nature of the
suits which were brought into them, and
partly owing to the exorbitant fees which

ARCHDEACQN 57
were exacted by the officials. The inquisi
torial character, too, of the archdeacon's
visitations, and the insolence of the numerous
apparitors and grooms who formed his
retinue, were a continual source of com
plaint. Archbishop Stratford, in 1343, en
deavoured to .redress these grievances by
various regulations (Hook, Archbishops, iv.
64-66), but probably with little success ; for
the common feeling respecting them fifty
years later is reflected in some very uncom
plimentary lines in Chaucer (Prologue to
Canterbury Tales, and the Friar's Tale).
See Hook, Archbishops, iii. 39, 40.
The archidiaconal courts survived the
Reformation in England in the sixteenth
century, being recognised by the statute 24
Henry VIII. c. 12. But the character of the
business transacted in them was necessarily
in many respects changed, as they became
instruments for suppressing many of the
opinions and practices which they had for
merly enforced. Some of the old abuses, how
ever, such as extortionate fees and malicious
information, still clung to them, and against
these a large number of the canons of 1603
are directed. Speaking generally, we may
say that during the sixteenth and seven
teenth centuries the courts were mainly
concerned with the registration of wills and
cases which arose out of the presentments
made by churchwardens and other witnesses
on oath at visitations, embracing a great
variety of questions, the condition of the
churches and their furniture, cases of slan
der, fornication, brawling, unlawful labour
or sports on Sunday, negligence of the
clergy in discharge of their duties, or of the
laity in attending the ordinances of religion.
The archdeacon could compel church
wardens to levy rates for the repair of the
fabrics or the purchase of the needful furni
ture of the chm-ch, they could enjoin resti
tution or penance according to the nature of
the offence, or pronounce excommunication,
and in the event of the latter being disre
garded, could call in the aid of the civil
power. During the eighteenth century, the busi
ness of 'the archdeacon's court steadily
diminished from a variety of causes ; some
departments of it became transferred to
civil courts; others were rendered inopera
tive by Acts of Parliament. And to these
must be added a growing indifference to
ecclesiastical censures, and the general
religious apathy of the age which infected
the archdeacons themselves, as well as those
who might have resorted to their courts. As
the power to do very much declined, the
inclination to do very little increased.
The revival of energy in the Church
during the last fifty years has infused new
life into the office of archdeacons as well as

58

ARCHDEACON

every other department. Although their
powers are not as yet legally enlarged, still
1 their definite duties are not few or insignifi
cant, and the influence which they can
exercise in various indirect ways' is very
considerable, supposing, of course, that they
are men of ability and force of character.
Amongst the regular duties of archdeacons
may be specially mentioned examination of
candidates for Holy Orders, induction of
persons instituted to benefices, conducting
the election of proctors for the clergy in Con
vocation, holding annual visitations of the
clergy and churchwardens, visiting churches
and churchyards, either in answer to an
official request, or periodically with a view
to ascertaining the general condition of the
parishes, and composing parochial misunder
standings or quarrels, if there be any. If
churchwardens disregard his lawful orders,
the archdeacon can "signify" them to the
Queen in Chancery for contempt of court,
and they will thereupon be imprisoned until
they submit. He can also try complaints
against parish clerks and remove them from
their office, if proved to be unfit for it by
reason of. any misconduct (7 & 8 Vict. c. 59).
He holds commissions under the Clergy
Resignation Act, and of inquiry whether
there are prima facie grounds for proceed
ings against a clergyman whose character or
conduct has been impugned. He has, if
desired by the bishop, to inquire into the
boundaries of parishes with a view to their
readjustment, to preach in his turn in the
cathedral if he is a canon, and to attend the
sittings of Convocation. [W. R. W. S.]
By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, s. 2, an arch
deacon may hold with his archdeaconry
two benefices under certain restrictions : or
a benefice and a cathedral preferment.
But these restrictions are by no means
clearly expressed, and are made still more
obscure as to certain archdeaconries by the
subsequent Cathedral Reform Act, 3 & 4
Vict. c. 113, which in different ways annexes
some archdeaconries to canonries. So much
as this is clear from the first, which may be
called the Plurality Act, s. 2 : that nothing
therein shall prevent an archdeacon from
holding a canonry (annexed or not) and a
living in his archdeaconry diocese, the
general prohibition there being against
taking any third preferment ; and an arch
deaconry is defined by s. 124 to be a " cathe
dral preferment," though archdeacons are
not, as such, members of the chapter. But
the Cathedral Act authorised the new can
onry at St. Paul's and Lincoln to be given
by the bishops only to one of their arch
deacons, s. 33, with a power also to give a
third part of its endowment to another
archdeacon, who is also to be reckoned a
holder of cathedral preferment, s. 35 ; which

ARCHIMANDRITE
is something short of absolute annexation,
and requires two collations. Opinions tfei
several diocesan chancellors have been given
that this, and a fortiori absolute annexation,
overrides the prohibition of the previous
Act, and enables the holder of a living in
another diocese to take an archdeaconry and
canonry of London. But the Act is so
expressed that such an archdeacon could
not take a fresh living out of the dioceset
And s. 34 of the Cathedral Act requires
all newly endowed archdeacons to reside
in their diocese eight months a year ; while
s. 38 of the Plurality Act allows them to
reckon as residence any time that they are
visiting " or otherwise engaged in the exer
cise of archidiaconal functions" Probably
the author did not know what he meant
thereby, and prohibitions and penalties have
to be construed strictly. [G.]
ARCHES, COURT OF. The Court of
Arches is an ancient court of appeal, belongs .
ing to the Archbishop of Canterburyywhere-
of the judge is called the Dean of Arches,
because he anciently held his court in the
church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Santa Maria ds
Arcubus) ; where the confirmation of the elec
tion of bishops of the province of Canterbury
still takes place as in an archiepiscopal court.
The Court of Arches used to sit in Doctors?
Commons, until that establishment was
broken up and the ecclesiastical courts
thrown open to the bar and solicitors in
general, and all the probate and divorce
business taken away, and referred to a
common law judge in 1857. Since then it
has generally sat either in the Lambeth
Library or one of the rooms in the Houses
of Parliament. A room stiR remains for it in
Doctors' Commons. A change was made
also in its constitution by the Publie
Worship Regulation Act, 1874, which (after
a temporary arrangement) enacted that on
the next vacancies in the offices of the
Dean of Arches and the Provincial Judge
of York, the two archbishops should appoint
the same person to both with the approval
of the Crown, or the Crown alone if they do
not agree — a mere usurpation of the Crown
for which no reason was even alleged.
The two provincial judges accordingly re
signed very soon, and Lord Penzance, who
had been already appointed "a judge" of
both courts, became the judge of both pro
vinces ; but in all other respects the old
jurisdiction was retained, as was decided
finally by the House of Lords in one of the
many phases of the Mackonochie case. [Cr.]
ARCHIMANDRITE. The word is de
rived from ixdvSpa, literally an enclosed
space, and so a fold or stable. It is ex
plained in old glossaries by tnrios, <nrij\oi«
(Dufresne). The mandrite at first would be
a person who lived in a solitary cave ; then

ARCHPRIEST
the cave (for caves are used in the East as
folds) would gradually enclose a fold of
monks. The head was called the archiman
drite, but this term afterwards was limited
to a general abbot, or head of an aggregation
of monasteries (Cone. Eph. p. 751); and so
the word is still used in Mt. Athos. In the
Russian Church archimandrites are the heads
of superior, the Hegumens of inferior mon
asteries. In the Coptic Church the archi
mandrite is second only in dignity to the
patriarch, being grand-prior of all the con
vents of the country. — Dr. Newman's- note
to Fleury, E. Hist. bk. xxv. 43.
ARCHPRIEST, or ARCHPRESBYTER.
An ancient title of distinction, corresponding
in some degree to our title, rural dean.
Mention is made in the sixth and ninth
centuries of archpriests. There seem to
have been two kinds of cures, the smaller
governed by simple priests, and the bap
tismal churches by archpriests, who also
had the inspection of the other inferior
priests, and gave account of them to the
bishop. There are archpresbyters stiU in
the Greek Church, with authority similar to
that of chorepiscopi. (See C/wrepiscopi.)
The archpriest in foreign churches, in Italy
especially, answers to our cathedral dean:
in some Italian dioceses, somewhat to our
rural dean. The title was revived under
most unhappy pretensions among the Ro
manists of England, in the year 1598.
These men, finding themselves without
bishops, importuned the pope, Clement VII.,
to supply their need; but instead of sending
them, as they desired, a number of bishops,
he gave them, or rather sanctioned, one eccle
siastical superior, Robert Blackwell, who
after all was merely a priest ; an archpriest
indeed he was called, but as such having no
episcopal power. He could not ordain
priests, confirm children, nor consecrate
chapels, should circumstances permit or
require. It is plain, then, that the arch
priest was a very imperfect and insufficient
substitute for a bishop. Neverthless
English Romanism was placed under the
superintendence of three archpriests in suc
cession! — Da,rwe\\,Visitation Serm.; Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, iii. 392.
ARCHONTICS. Heretics who appeared
in the second century, about a.d. 175, and
who were an offshoot of the Valentinians.
They held strange doctrines concerning the
Divinity and the creation of the wrold,
which they attributed to sundry arch-
spirits (apxovres), whence probably the name
of the sect, but others derive the name from
an anchorite called Archon, said to be their
founder. They rejected baptism. — Aug. Hser.
c. 20 ; Epiphan. adv. Hser. lib. i. iii. 40.
ARIANS. Heretics, deriving their name
from Arius.

AEIANS

59

I. History. The Divinity of the Son of
God was a subject on which heresies arose
in the earliest ages. The Gnostics, the
Ebionites, Theodotas, and Paul of Samosata,
with others, fell into error on this vital
point of Christian doctrine (Euseb. Eccl.
Hist v. c. 28, and vii. c. 30), but Arius
reduced the erroneous ideas into a system,
and having great intellectual power, as well
as personal influence, headed a great schism.
He first promulgated his theory, as it is said,
at a convention of clergy under the Bishop
Alexander of Alexandria. Afterwards he
and his followers were excommunicated
by a council of 100 bishops of Egypt and
Libya. But the heresy gained ground,
many distinguished men upholding him
despite the firm attitude of Alexander and
his bishops, and in a.d. 325 the Emperor •
Constantime called together the first council
of Nice, at which 318 bishops were present
from all parts of the world. At this the
word " homoousios," that is, of " the same
substance," was adopted with regard to our
Lord in order to express the exact equality
of the divine nature with that of the, first
person of the Trinity. Arius was ex
communicated, but, three years afterwards,
so explained, or coloured his doctrine, that
Constantine was satisfied. Athanasius, the
bishop of Alexandria, however, refused
communion to Arius, on which an appeal
was again made to the emperor, who said,
" if Arius' profession was false, God would!
avenge the perjury," and ordered Alexander,
bishop of Constantinople, to receive Arius
into communion. Alexander refused, but
before the matter came to a crisis Arius
suddenly died. (Socrat. Ecc. Hist. i. c.
38.) But the spirit of Arianism was not
checked. Constantius, the successor of
Constantine, abetted it, and though Jovian
recalled the Catholic bishops, under Valens
it flourished, till Theodosius used every
means to suppress it. (Socrat. iii. 53;
Soz. vi. 37.) The mischief however remained.
The Vandals in Africa, the Visigoths in
France and Spain, had been converted to
Arianism ; and the orthodox were grievously
persecuted, till the successes of Justinian,
and the Council of Toledo (a.d. 589), es
tablished the Catholic faith among them.
The Lombards in Italy remained Arians for
nearly 100 years after (a.d. 673). In the six
teenth century this heresy was revived, and,
as was the custom of the times, much
cruelty was displayed towards its professors.
Servetus, a Spaniard, was burnt at Geneva,
Calvin consenting, and Gentilis was beheaded
at Berne, for holding Arian doctrines. The
heresy extended to Poland, where Anti-Trini-
tarianism obtained a great hold. — Bees'
trans, of Racovian Catechism, p. 26 seq.
In England one George Paris was burnt

60

ARIANS

in the reign of Edw. VI., and up to the time of
James I. there were executions for Arianism,
but chiefly of ignorant persons.
In the seventeenth century Saunders and
Biddle (see Biddlians), and in the eighteenth
Whiston and S. Clarke, held opinions ap
proaching Arianism. Dr. Clarke's book,
-1 The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity,' was
brought under the notice of Convocation in
1713. But as a sect Arianism has ceased
to exist, though there are traces of it under
other denominations. (See Socinians ; Uni
tarians.) II. Doctrine. The doctrine of Arius may
be thus stated :— The Son sprang not from
the nature of the Father, but was created
from nothing ; he had, indeed, an existence
before the world, even before time, but not
from eternity. He is, therefore, in essence
different from the Father, and belongs to the
order of creatures, whom he, however,
precedes in excellence, as God created all
things, even time, by his instrumen
tality; whence he was called the Son of
God, the Logos, or Word of God. As a
creature the Son is perfect, and as like to
the Father as a creature can be to the
Creator. But as he has received all things
as a gift, from the favour of the Father, —
as there was a period in which he was not, —
so there is an infinite distance between him
and the nature of the Father ; of which
nature he cannot even form a perfect idea,
but can enjoy only a defective knowledge of
the same. His will was originaUy variable,
capable of good and of evil, as is that of all
other rational creatures: he is, comparatively
at least, free from sin ; not by nature, but by
his good use of his power of election ; the
Father, therefore, foreseeing his perse
verance in good, imparted to him that
dignity and sublimity above all other
creatures, which shall continue to be the
reward of his virtues. Although he is called
God, he is not so in truth, but was deified
in that sense in which men, who have
attained to a high degree of sanctity, may
arrive at a participation of the Divine
prerogatives. The idea then of a generation
of the Son from the essence of the Father
is to be absolutely rejected.
This doctrine, which must have corre
sponded to the superficial understandings,
and to the yet half-pagan ideas, of many
who then called themselves Christians,
attacked the very soul of the Christian
doctrine of the redemption ; for, according
to this doctrine, it was not God made man,
but a changeable creature, who effected the
great work of the redemption of fallen man.
The devout Christian, to whom faith in the
God-man, Christ, the only Divine Mediator,
opened the way to an intimate union with
God, saw by this doctrine that his Redeemer

ARMENIANS
and Mediator was as infinitely removed from
the essence of God as himself ; he saw him-
self driven back to the ancient pagan
estrangement from God, and removed to
an unattainable distance from him,-^Rr;
C. Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien, &c, vol.
ii. 395, &c. ; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 283, &c.;
Newman's Fleury, xviii. 1, &c. ; Tillemont's
Hist, of Arians, trans, by Deacon, 1721 ; Bp.
Bull, vol. v., Clar. ed ; Maimbourg, Hist.
of Arians. For an account of the revival of
Arianism in the last century, see Van
Milderfs Life of Waterland, prefixed fo
Waterland's Works, vol. i. [H.]
ARK OF THE COVENANT. So the
Jews called a small chest or coffer, three feet
nine inches in length, two feet three inches
in breadth, and two feet three inches in
height (Prideaux, Connect. Part i. Book
iii.), in which were contained "the golden
pot that had manna, and Aaron's roa\ and
the tables of the covenant," as well the
broken ones (according to the Rabbins) as
the whole. (Heb. ix. 4.) Over the ark was
the mercy-seat, and it was the covering of it.
It was made of solid gold (Exod. xxv.
17-22) ; and at the two ends of it were two
cherubims looking inward toward each other,
with expanded wings, which, embracing the
whole circumference of the mercy-seat, met
on each side in the middle. Over this the
Shechinah glory used to appear.
What became of the old ark, on the
destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar
is a dispute among the Rabbins. Had it
been carried to Babylon with the other
vessels of the temple, it would have been
brought back again with them, at the end of
the captivity. But that it was not so, is
agreed on all hands ; whence it is probable
it was destroyed with the temple. The
Jews contend, that it was hid and preserved
by Jeremiah. Some of them will have it,
that King Josiah, being forewarned by Huldah
the prophetess that the temple, soon after
his death, would be destroyed, caused the
ark to be deposited in a vault, which
Solomon, foreseeing this destruction, had
built on purpose for the preservation of it.—
Buxtorf. de Area, cap. xxi. xxii.
ARMENIANS. The Christians of Ar
menia, the first country in which Christianity
was recognised as the national religion, in
consequence of the preaching of Gregory,
called Tlie Illuminator, in the beginning of
the fourth century. It has been commonly
asserted that the Armenians fell into Nes-
torian and Monophysite errors, but an
Armenian. Synod held in a.d. 491 con
demned both those heresies; and it has
recently been denied that they ever held
them. "L'Eglise Armenienne a constamment
reconnu Jesus-Christ vrai Dieu et vrai

ARMINIANS
homme; par consequent, deux natures en
une personne, la personne du Verbe. Ainsi,
dans tous les temps, elle a rejete les erreurs
opposees de Nestorius et d'Eutyches.
" La cause principale, et presque unique,
des discussions qui s'eleverent parfois entre
les Grecs et les Armeniens, c'est l'ambiguite
du mot Armenien pnoutioun (<piais, nature),
qui signifie plus proprement personne.
" C'est done a tort que quelques auteurS
donnent aux Armeniens les noms de mono-
physites et cYeutycheens. lis n'ont qu'a lire
le discours de Jean Otznetzi, surnomme le
Philosophe, patriarche de l'Armenie du vm°
siecle, discours puttie- a Venise avec une
traduction latine, par le P. J.-B. Aucher,
l'an 1816. Soumis a l'examen des plus
celebres theologiens de Rome, ce discours fut
reconnu completement conforme a la doctrine
de l'Eglise universelle.
" En outre, Saint Nerses Glaie'tzi, patri
arche de l'Armeme du xii° siecle, dit claire-
ment : — ' Dire aussi deux natures en Jesus-
Christ, a cause de la reunion des deux en
une seule personne, n'est pas contraire a
la verite, si toutefois Ton ne divise pas en
deux l'unite.'
" Saint Nerses Lampronatzi plus claire-
ment encore: — 'Dire Jesus-Christ Dieu et
homme, et le dire de deux natures, c'est la
meme chose.' "
[Letters from M. Boghos Dadian to the
Archbp. of Paris ; published by Rev. C. G.
Curtis, Chaplain of Christ Church, Con
stantinople, in the Guardian, May 13, 1885.]
The Armenians do not deny the real
presence in the Eucharist : they administer
in both kinds to the laity : they do not mix
water with their wine, nor do they consecrate
unleavened bread. They abstain from eating
blood and things strangled. They scrupu
lously observe fasting : they administer
the Eucharist to infants : they reject
purgatory and prayers for the dead: they
fast on Christmas day, and they allow
marriage in their priests. The Armenians
were anciently subject to- the patriarchs of
Constantinople, but they now have their own
patriarchs, three in number, of whom the
chief resides in a monastery at Echmiazin, the
other two are of subordinate rank. (Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, ii. 547; Neale's Hist.
of the Eastern Church, vol. ii. 8, 246.)
Armenian Christians have settled for com
mercial purposes in many of the chief cities
of Europe, and are for the most part an
intelligent and enterprising people. The
Armenian Convent of St. Lazaro, near Venice,
has a large library and an excellent printing
press from which books are issued printed in
thirty-two languages. [H.]
ARMINIANS. A powerful party of
Christians, so called from Arminius, whose
real name was Harmensen, latinized into

ARMINIANS

61

Arminius, professor of divinity at Leyden,.
who was the first that opposed the then
received doctrines in Holland, of an absolute
predestination. They took the name of
Remonstrants, from a writing called a Re
monstrance, which was presented by them
to the States of Holland, 1609, wherein they
reduced their peculiar doctrines to these five
articles : —
1. That God, from all eternity, determined
to bestow salvation on those who, as he fore
saw, would persevere unto the end in their
faith in Jesus Christ; and to inflict ever
lasting punishment on those who should
continue in their unbelief, and resist, to the
end of life, his Divine assistance ; so that
election was conditional ; and reprobation,
inlikemanner, the result of foreseen infidelity
and persevering wickedness.
2. On the second point, they taught, That
Jesus Christ, by his suffering and death,
made an atonement for the sins of man
kind in general, and of every individual in
particular; that, however, none but those
who believe in him can be partakers of that
Divine benefit.
3. On the third article they held, That
true faith cannot proceed from the exercise
of our natural faculties and powers, nor from
the force and operation of free will;, since
man, in consequence of his natural corruption,
is incapable either of thinking or doing any
good thing ; and that, therefore, it is necessary
to his conversion and salvation, that he be
regenerated and renewed by the operation of
the Holy Ghost, which is the gift of God,
through Jesus Christ.
4. On the fourth they believed, That this
Divine grace, or energy of the Holy Ghost,
begins, advances, and perfects everything
that can be called good in man ; and that,
consequently, all good works are to be attri
buted to God alone ; that nevertheless, this
grace, which is offered to all, does not force
men to act against their inclinations, but
may be resisted and rendered ineffectual
by the perverse will of tho impenitent
sinner. 5. And on the fifth, That God gives to
the truly faithful, who are regenerated by
his grace, the means of preserving themselves
in this state ; and, though the first Arminians
entertained some doubt with respect to the
closing part of this article, their followers
uniformly maintain, That the regenerate may
lose true justifying faith, fall from a state of
grace, and die in their sins.
The Synod of Dort, consisting of Dutch,
French, German, and Swiss divines, and
held in 1618, condemned these opinions.
Bnt the synod was entirely under Calvinistic
influence. The sect of Arminians or Re
monstrants still exists in Holland. The
largest society is in Rotterdam, which

62

ARMS

numbers 600 members. (See Hallam, Lit.
Hist, of Europe (1855), vol. ii. p. 431;
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, iii. 420- seq.;
Adams' Religious World, ii. p. 245 ; the
works of Arminius translated by Nichols.)
ARMS. Armorial bearings, whether
borne by individuals or by corporate bodies
and corporations sole: among which are
reckoned bishops, colleges, and other eccle
siastical persons and bodies. A bishop
empales his family coat with the arms of his
see, to denote his spiritual marriage with his
Church ; but the arms of the see occupy the
dexter side of the escutcheon, or the side of
greater honour. When a bishop is married,
he empales the arms of his wife with his own
family coat, on a separate escutcheon ; and
this escutcheon is placed by the sinister side
of the shield, empaling his own coat with
the arms of the see. Many of the arms of
bishoprics contain allusions to the spiritual
character of the person who bears them.
Thus the archbishops of Canterbury, Armagh,
and Dublin, each bear a pall, in right of
their sees ; as did the archbishop of York till
his arms were changed about the beginning
of the sixteenth century to two keys crossed
saltierwise, and a crown royal in chief.
Colleges often assume the family coat of
their founder as their arms.
ARNOLDISTS. Followers of Arnold of
Brescia (a.d. 1135-1155) who, seeing the
great evils that arose from the enormous
wealth of the pontiffs, bishops, and clergy,
desired, in the interests of the Church, that
they should be dispossessed. Arnold was
strangled by the orders of the pope (Adrian
IV.), his body was burnt, and the ashes thrown
into the Tiber,' to prevent the people from pay
ing veneration to his corpse, but his followers
were numerous, , and in subsequent times
often reappeared — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim,
ii. 153 ; Milman's Lat. Christ, iii. 274 seq.
ARTEMONITES. A sect mentioned by
Eusebius (Hist Ecc. v. 28) and Epiphanius
(Hxr. lib. iv, 464). They applied philosophy
and geometry to the explication of the
Christian doctrine. But the history of
Artemon is obscure, and his. doctrine is
equally so. At the end of the sixteenth cen
tury one Samuel Crell called himself an Arte-
monite, in order to distinguish himself from
the Socinians, with whom he did not fully
agree. — Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 152.
ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND. In the great movement of the
sixteenth century, when the unsettlement of
the old medijeval system gave occasion to
much wild speculation, " every man challeng
ing to himself the right of private judgment,
and many abusing it " (Blunt's Reform. 223),
it v/as necessary for such religious bodies as
had thrown off the allegiance to Rome to
draw up some declarations of faith and

ARTICLES
discipline, stating definitely what they held
and what they rejected. Therefore there
were framed and published on the continent
several " Confessions," or Articles of Faith, qf
which the , Augsburg Confession was chief.
(See Augsburg Confession.) It was, indeed,
only one of many. Every reformed, body
put out its own confession. Even those who
retained their obedience to Rome were
obliged to define their position, as by the
promulgation of the decrees of the Council
of Trent, and the Creed of Pope Pius IV.
In England, where the Papal Supremacy
was repudiated, it was expressly declared
that there was no intention " to decline or
vary from the congregation of Christ's
Church, in things concerning the very
Articles of the Catholic Faith, or in any
other things declared by Holy Scripture,
and the Word of God necessary to salvation."
This was in 1533. Some years later, in
order to define the position of the Church pf
England in relation to (1) the Church of
Rome, (2) the proceedings of the continen
tal reformers, (3) the revolutionary spirit
naturally following a religious reform, ; or
change, certain articles were drawn up, which,
were afterwards altered and modified.
1. The Ten Articles were issued hy Henry
VIII. in 1536 " for the purpose of removing
difficulties which agitated the Church, and
establishing Christian quietness."
These were prepared by a committee of ,
divines, under the direction of the king, and
his vicar-general, Thomas Cromwell, and
declared that " while the worship of images,
the invocation of saints, and ceremonies ,of
public worship were highly profitable, and
to be retained, they had no power in them
selves to remit sin, or justify the soul."
Convocation embodied these articles in a
book called " The Institution of a Christian
Man," but it was better known as the
Bishop's Book, and was signed by the arch
bishops and many of the bishops, and put
forth with all the influence of the royal
authority. _ But shortly afterwards a call
for further innovation, or reformation, was
made which resulted in the framing of other
articles. 2. The Thirteen Articles (1538) were the
result of the controversy 'between the two
parties headed on the one side by Cranmer
and Cromwell, and on the other by Gardiner.
The former were inclined to join with all
those reformers of the Lutheran school, who
in the face of the extreme Zwinglian and
Calvinistic bodies were ready to acquiesce
in a federation on tho basis of episcopal
government, in which the Church of England
should take the lead. At a conference held
at Lambeth between Lutheran and Anglican
divines, these articles were drawn up,
following the Augsburg Confession, with

ARTICLES
certain modifications regarding justification,
the rights of the civil authority, and the
benefits of confessional absolution. But the
.king did not agree, and so the articles were
not confirmed. There is a manuscript
among Archbishop Cranmer's papers which
is interesting not only as containing the
jesult of this conference, but also as suggest
ing the groundwork of the present articles.
The influence of Gardiner was manifested in
the next edition of " Articles."
3. The Six Articles (1539) were brought
forward in parliament by the Duke of
Norfolk, and notwithstanding the strenuous
opposition of Cranmer and his adherents,
were adopted, and afterwards accepted by
Convocation. By the statute of the six
-.articles (called the whip with six strings)
the doctrine of transubstantiation, the
communion in one kind, vows of chastity,
the use of private masses, the celibacy of the
clergy, and auricular confession, were made
obligatory, and severe penalties were ordered
for those who held or expressed contrary
opinions. A revised version, also, of the
Bishop's Book was published, which bore the
title of " A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition
for any Christian Man," and was known as
the King's Book. This prevented any
further action in King Henry's reign, but
on the accession of Edward VI., fresh
measures were taken.
4. The first Prayer Book of 1549, with its
.preface, might have been thought sufficient
to meet every want of the Reformers.
Nevertheless it was deemed expedient to
promulgate a more complete and definite
body of Articles, and so Forty-two Articles
weve drawn up " and agreed upon by bishops
and other learned men in Synod of London,
1552, for avoiding of controversy, and es
tablishment of godly concord in certain
matters of religion." These were published
by the "King's Commandment" in June
1553, with the order that all beneficed
clergymen should sign them on pain of
deprivation. But the death of Edward put
a stop to the whole proceeding.
5. When Elizabeth came to the throne,
pending the consideration of the above-
mentioned articles, a short and concise code
was issued, called the Eleven Articles, which
accepted Holy Scripture as the basis of faith,
and the creeds as its interpretation ; defined
the authority of the Church, and the
Royal Supremacy ; enjoined the use of the
Prayer Book and the restoration of the cup
to the laity ; rejected private masses, and
the veneration of images and relics, In
the meanwhile the forty-two articles were
being considered, and were shortly after
reduced to their present form.
6. The Thirty-nine Articles, based on the
•Forty-two Articles framed by Archbishop

ARTICLES 63
Cranmer and Bishop Ridley with the advice
of many bishops and. divines, whose opinions
were asked and considered (Burnet, Hist
Ref. vol. ii. 343, Ox. Ed.), in the reign of
Edward VI., were presented by the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, Parker, to the con
vocation of the province of Canterbury
which was convened with the parliament in
January, 1562, and by the convocation they
were unanimously approved. In 1566 a
bill was brought into parliament to confirm
them. The bill passed the Commons, but
by the queen's command . was dropped in
the Lords. In 1571 the convocation re
vised the articles of 1562, and made some
alterations in them. In the same year an
Act was passed, " to provide that the min
isters of the Church should be of sound
religion." It enacted that all ecclesiastical
persons should subscribe to " all the articles
of religion which only contained the con
fession of the true faith and of the sacraments,
comprised in a book imprinted, entitled
' Articles,' whereupon it was agreed by the
archbishops and bishops, and the whole
clergy in convocation holden at London, in
the year of our Lord God 1562, according to
the computation of the Church of England,
for the avoiding of diversities of opinions,
and for the establishing of consent touching
true religion, put forth by the queen's
authority." These Articles were revised,
and some small alterations made in them,
in the year 1571 ; since which time they
have continued to be the criterion of the
faith of the members of the Church of
England on the subjects to which they relate.
The Articles of 1562 were drawn up in
Latin only (in reality the Articles both of
1552 and of 1562 were set forth in our
authorized English version, as well as in
Latin) ; but, in 1571, they were subscribed
by the members of the two houses of convo
cation, both in Latin and English; and,
therefore, the Latin and English copies are
to be considered as equally authentic. The
original manuscripts, subscribed by the
houses of convocation, were burnt in the
Fire of London ; but Dr. Bennet has collated
the oldest copies now extant, and it appears
that there are no variations of any im
portance. " These Thirty-nine Articles are arranged
with great judgment and perspicuity, and
may be considered under four general
divisions : the first five contain the Christian
doctrines concerning the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost ; in the sixth, seventh,
and eighth, the rule of faith is established ;
the ten next relate to Christians, as indi
viduals; and the remaining twenty-ono
relate to them, as they are members of a
religious society. But, as all confessions of
faith have had a reference to existing

64

ARTICLES

heresies, we shall here find, not only the
positive doctrines of the Gospel asserted ; but
also the principal errors and corruptions of
the Church of Eome, and most of the
extravagancies into which certain Protestant
sects fell at the time of the Reformation,
rejected and condemned." — Bp. Tomline.
The various forms through which the
Articles have passed, may be seen in
Cardwell's Synodalia, and Documentary
Annals, and in Hardwick's History of the
Articles. In 1615, a set of Articles of a
Calvinistic nature were compiled by the
Irish Convocation ; but it does not appear
that they ever received the sanction of
parliament. These, however, were super
seded in 1635 by the English Articles,
which were then adopted by the Irish
Convocation. (See Introduction to Stephens'
Book of Common Prayer, from the Dublin
MS., vol. i., xxxvii.-xxxix.) [H.]
ARTICLES OF THE CHRISTIAN
FAITH. (See Creeds.)
ARTS. One of the faculties in which
degrees are conferred in the universities.
In the English and Irish universities there
are two degrees in arts, that of bachelor
and that of master. The whole circle of
the arts was formerly reduced to seven sci
ences, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic,
geometry, music, and astronomy ; and these
again were divided into the trivium, includ
ing the- first three, and the quadrivium,
including the remaining four. Music is
now considered as a separate faculty at
Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin ; as the.
degrees of doctor and bachelor of music are
given. Grammar was a separate but
subordinate faculty at Oxford and Cam
bridge, in which there were three degrees;
doctor, master, and bachelor. There is an
instance in Wood's Athense Oxon., of a
doctor in grammar and rhetoric (Robt.
Whityndon, 1513). The last record of
grammatical degrees at Oxford is in 1568 ;
at Cambridge in 1539. The faculty of arts
is called that of philosophy in some foreign
and more modern universities, where the
degrees are doctor and candidate. [H.]
ASAPH, Psalms of. One of the three
Temple Choirs bore the designation of the
_Sons of Asaph: from Asaph, their leader
in the time of David. They were descend
ants of Gershom, the eldest son of Levi.
Twelve Psalms are entitled Psalms of
Asaph: viz. the 50th, 73rd, 74th, 75th,
76th, 77th, 78th, 79th, 80th, 81st, 82nd, and
83rd. Commentators are divided in opinion,
as to whether these were composed or
adopted by the above-named Asaph, or by
one of the same name, but of later date, or
were appropriated to the peculiar use of the
Sons qf Asaph in the courses of attendance
at the temple.

ASCETICS
ASCENSION DAY. This holy day has
been kept in the Christian Church from the
earliest times. It is reckoned by the com
piler of the Apostolic Constitutions among
the other great festivals, Christmas day, the-
Epiphany, Easter, and Whitsunday; and
St. Augustine (Ep. cxviii. ad Januarj,
speaks of it as either instituted by the
Apostles, or by some early and numerously
attended councils of the primitive bishops,
whose authority he considered most benefi
cial in the Church. "On this day," says
St. Chrysostom (Chrys. Homil. lxii. torn. vii. ;
Homil. xxxv torn, v.), " the reconciliation ,,,
between God and mankind was completed; .1
the long enmity was dissolved, the blasting-™
war brought to an end." " On this day,
we, who had been shown to be unworthy pf ™
earth, were raised to the hope of heaven jS
we, who were not fit to receive dominion
even on earth below were exalted to the
kingdom which is above; and our nature
kept out by cherubim from an earthly
paradise may now sit above the cherubim
on high." Christ, the first-fruits of our
nature, having obtained this perfection, we
that are His members may hope to partake
the same glory. This hope the returning
day of His ascension should ever bring into
our minds, and we should keep it for the
sustaining of our hope, and in thankfulness
for the grace it brought. It is one of the
days which the Church especially recom
mends for the receiving of the Holy Com
munion. (See the Special Preface in the
Communion Office.) It is difficult to ac
count for the too prevalent neglect of this
high festival of our Church, on any other
ground than the encroachment of worldly
principles upon the minds of men, to th*
displacing of the principles of the Church.
Ascension day is one of the six holy days
for which special psalms are appointed.
The three Rogation days are appointed to
prepare us for its right celebration, and yet,
because it is not marked by worldly festivi
ties, many neglect and pass it by. It is
observed as a scarlet day at Oxford and
Cambridge. It is popularly called Holy
Thursday. By 27 Henry VI. cap. 5, the
holding of fairs or markets was prohibited
on Ascension day, as well as on other high
holidays, and on Sundays, &c. ; making an
exception however of the four Sundays in
harvest : and it was enacted that the fair
should be held on some other day preceding:
or following. That part of the Act which
related to Sundays in harvest was repealed- ¦
by 13 & 14 Vict. cap. 23. The rest of the
Act remains unrepealed.
ASCETICS. Men in the second century,
who made profession of uncommon degrees
of sanctity, and virtue, and declared their
resolution of obeying all the counsels of

ASCETICISM
Christ, in order to their enjoying com
munion with God here ; and also, in ex
pectation that, after the dissolution of their
mortal bodies, they might ascend to him
With the greater facility, and find nothing
to retard their approach to the supreme
centre of happiness and perfection. They
looked upon themselves as prohibited the
Use of things which it was lawful for other
Christians to enjoy, such as wine, flesh,
matrimony, and commerce. They thought
it their indispensable duty to attenuate the
body by watchings, abstinence, labour, and
hunger. They looked for felicity in solitary
retreats, in desert places, where, by severe
and assiduous efforts of sublime meditation,
they thought to raise their souls above all
external objects and all sensual pleasures.
Both men and women imposed upon them
selves the most severe tasks, the most
austere discipline ; all which, however it
might be the fruit of pious intention, was
in the issue extremely detrimental to
Christianity, and tended to introduce the
doctrine of justification by inherent right
eousness. These persons were called ascetics
(from ao-fcijeris, exercise or discipline) and
philosophers; nor were they only distin
guished by their title from other Christians,
but also by their garb. In the second
century, indeed, such as embraced this
austere kind of life submitted themselves to
all these mortifications in private, without
breaking asunder their social bonds, or
withdrawing themselves from the concourse
of men. But in process of time, they
retired into deserts ; and, after the example
of the Essenes and Therapeutae, they formed
themselves into certain companies.— Origen,
contr. Cels. lib. v. ; Bingham, Antiq. Chr.
Ch. bk. vii. c. 3 ; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim,
i. 176. ASCETICISM. (&(tktj(tis, used by hea
then writers to express the training of ath
letes.— Hipp. Vet. Med. 10.)
I. In the first place this implies the
practice of the ascetics, who often gave
up the ordinary duties of life and went
into deserts, &c, in order to practise extreme
austerities (see preceding art.); though all
did not so act. They are called by Eusebius
and Epiphanius oTrovdaun.
II. The word also implies, in accordance
with its derivation, the practice of those
who endeavour, like St. Paul, to bring then-
bodies into subjection (1 Cor. ix. 27) by
rules of self-denial and abstinence without
neglecting the duties of their position in
life. Such a one, in ancient times, was
Daniel, who though surrounded by luxury,
and busied with the cares and duties of his
exalted position, always adhered to his pre
scribed rules. But there is no need to look
further than to the example of our Blessed

ASH-WEDNESDAY

G5

Lord, Who, while He mingled with the feasts
of sinners, yet ever lived a life of abstinence,
prayer, poverty, and obedience, that "He
might do the will of Him that sent Him." The
spirit of asceticism, in this sense, the Church
has always encouraged, by appointing days
and seasons for abstinence and fasting. At
different times bodies of Christians have
formed rules of greater strictness for them
selves (as in the case of the Methodists), and
private individuals constantly do so. The
danger is that men are apt to regard the
carrying out such rules of an ascetic cha
racter as meriting salvation instead of, as
was always intended, a training of the body,
that it may be subject to the spirit. [H.]
ASCODRUGITiE. A fanatical sect at the
end of the second century. They used to
dance round an ornamented wine-skin (ao-Kos)
as part of their mysteries. They denied the
validity of sacraments, and are named
amongst those for suppression in the Con
stitution of Theodosius. — Cod. Theod. xvi.,
v. 65.
ASCODRUTES, or ASCODROUTES.
An heretical sect of the Marcosians. They
rejected the sacraments, alleging that things
spiritual cannot be conveyed in corporeal
symbols. Perfect spiritual knowledge was
their redemption. — Bingham, Antiq. Chr.
Ch. bk. xi. 2, and xv. 2.
ASHES. Several religious ceremonies
depend upon the use of ashes. St. Jerome
relates, that the Jews, in his time, rolled
themselves in ashes, as a sign of mourning.
To repent in sackcloth and ashes is a
frequent expression in Scripture, for mourn
ing and being afflicted for our sins. (Numb.
xix. 17, &c.) In the Roman Church, ashes are
given among the people on Ash- Wednesday :
they must be made from branches of olive,
or some other trees, that have been blessed
the foregoing year. (Pescara Cerem. Eccles.
Rom.) The sacristan, or vestry-keeper,
prepares these ashes, and lays them in a
small vessel on the altar : after which the
officiating priest blesses the ashes, which
are strewed by the deacons, and assistants,
on the heads of all that are present, accom
panied with these words, Memento, homo,
quod pulvis es, &c. ; Remember, man, that
thou art dust, &c. — Religious Ceremonies of
all Nations, vol. iii. (See Ash- Wednesday.)
ASH-WEDNESDAY. (See Lent and
Commination.) This day seems to have
been observed as the first day of Lent in
the time of Gregory the Great. It is
supposed by some, that Gregory added three
days at the beginning of Lent, to make the
number forty, in more exact imitation of
the number of days in our blessed Saviour's
fast; and that before his time there were
only thirty-six days, the Sundays being
always kept as festivals. It was called, in
F

66

ASPERGILLUM

his time, Dies cinerum, the day of sprinkling
ashes, or Caput jejunii, the beginning of
the fast. The custom of open penance,
which the name of the day reminds us of,
is one of those things which the Church of
England, at the time of the Eeformation,
wished to see restored; but on account of
the prejudices of the time, she could not
carry out her wishes. (See the Comminution
Service in the Prayer Book.)
ASPE KGILLUM. A brush, used in the
Eoman Catholic Church for the purpose of
sprinkling holy water over objects to be
blessed. ASPE RSION. The sprinkling with water
in the sacrament of baptism. This was
granted originally only in cases of emer
gency, but in subsequent times was very
generally substituted for immersion. Our
Eubric, however, orders " affusion," or pour
ing the water instead of sprinkling. (See
Affusion.) It is said by the Anabaptists that there
is no authority in Scripture for thus ad
ministering the sacrament of baptism. But
we find in the primitive Church, that al
though baptism was regularly administered
by immersion, yet in cases of sickness,
where clinic baptism was administered,
aspersion was used. We conclude, then,
that immersion is not essential to the sacra
ment; and if sickness were an excuse for
not immersing under certain circumstances,
it is still a sufficient excuse, if in our cold
climate to immerse our children would be
attended with danger. (See Bingham, Ant.
xi. i. 9, and xi. 5.)
ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. The title
given to a notable assembly held at West
minster, 1st July, 1643, convoked by an
ordinance of the Lords and Commons, but
forbidden to be held by the king, to take
the liturgy, government, and doctrines of
the Church under consideration. The
members were elected by the knights and
burgesses, two being returned for each
county. According to Clarendon (vol. iv.
p. 260 seq., Ox. Ed.), they were most of
them men of mean learning, and some of
them of scandalous morals. Among the
exceptions to this condemnatory sentence
were Lightfoot and Selden. Usher was
nominated, but with the few Episcopalians
elected did not serve. The Scottish cove
nant was taken by this assembly : and the
confession of faith still received in the
Scottish Presbyterian establishment, and
the larger and shorter catechisms, were
drawn up. But the opinions of the mem
bers differed so widely on many points, that
the assembly broke up without accom
plishing the principal end for which it was
convened. (See Confessions of Faith.)
ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN

ATONEMENT
MARY. A festival of the Romish Church
instituted in the seventh century, and fixed
to the 15th of August, in honour of the im
aginary ascension of the Virgin Mary into
heaven, which, without any authority from
Scripture or tradition, some in that Church
teach to have occurred in a miraculous
manner, some years after her death. In
the early Calendars the festival was called the
" Dormitio," " VLoi/xtjo-is," or " Merdoracrtr,"
of the, " most holy Mother of God ; " the
Assumption being a more recent name.
(See Virgin Mary.)
ASYLUM. A place of refuge. The
right of protecting from arrest all persons
who fled for refuge within the walls of
churches began to be a privilege of the
Church in the time of Constantine. At
first the privilege was confined to the choir,
but it was afterwards extended to the nave,
and finally to the precincts of some churches.
In the middle ages this was sometimes an
advantage, to prevent the excesses of private
revenge ; but in time it became an abuse,
and the privilege was taken away. — Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 461 ; Bingham, bk. viii.
c. 11. (See Sanctuary.)
ASSURANCE. A doctrine which has
been developed from the word 7rXi)po$f>plS
(Col. ii. 2; 1 Thess. i. 5; Heb. vi. ll»
xii.), and implies that to truly converted
persons there is a perfect assurance of peace
with God — present pardon, and future
salvation. While there is a substratum of
truth in this doctrine, certain sects of
Dissenters use it so as almost, if not quite,
to bring them under the denomination of
Antinomians. ATHANASIAN CREED. (See Creeds.)
ATHEIST. (From d and 6e'oy, without
God.) One who denies the being and
moral government, or what is called the
personality of God.
The heathen, who vied with heretics' in
giving names of opprobrium to true Chris
tians, called the primitive Christians Athe
ists, because they did not worship their
gods. ATONEMENT. (See Propitiation, Co
venant of Redemption, Sacrifice, and Jesus
Christ) The word atonement signifies an
act of reconciliation. The etymology of the
word conveys the idea of two parties, pre
viously at variance, being set at one again,
and hence at-one-ment, from originally
signifying reconciliation, comes, by a natural
metonymy, to denote that by which the re
conciliation is effected. The earliest au
thority for the noun " Atonement " in our
language is our Authorized Version, and it
was evidently used by the translators as
better signifying the sense than the word
" reconciliation." The doctrine of the atone
ment is thus stated in the 2nd Article of

ATTEITION
our Church : " The Son, which is the Word of
the Father, begotten from everlasting of the
Father, the very and eternal God, and of one
substance with the Father, took man's nature
in the womb of the blessed Virgin, of her
substance ; so that two whole and perfect
natures, that is to say, the Godhead and
the Manhood, were joined together in one
person, never to be divided, whereof is one
Christ, very God and very Man ; who
truly suffered, was crucified, dead and
buried, to reconcile his Father to us, and
to be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt,
but also for actual sins of men." — Article 2.
But it is to be observed that all the early
writers of the Catholic Church invariably
speak of the reconciliation of man to God,
not of God to man, aud this appears to be
more consonant to the language of Holy
Scripture in the passages cited above, and
in others where the incarnation and death
of Jesus Christ are represented as the
i-esult of God's abiding love for man. (St.
Paul, Col. i. 20; Eom. v. 9, 10; Heb. ix.
14 : x. 19 ; 1 Peter i. 2 : i. 19 ; 1 John
i. 7 ; Eev. v. 9, 10, &c.)
ATTRITION. (See Contrition.) The
casuists of the Church of Eome have made
a distinction between a perfect and an im
perfect contrition. The latter they call
attrition, which is the lowest degree of
repentance, or a sorrow for sin arising from
a sense of shame, or any temporal incon
venience attending the commission of it,
or merely from fear of the punishment due
to it, without any resolution to sin no more :
in consequence of which doctrine, they
iteach that, after a wicked and flagitious
•course of life, a man may be reconciled to
Ood, and his sins forgiven, on his death
bed, by confessing them to the priest with
this imperfect degree of sorrow and re
pentance, whereas contrition by itself is of
no avail. Pamitens ex attrito virtute abso-
lutionis, fit contritus, et justificatur (Bel-
larmine, Psen. ii. 18). "Therefore," says
Jeremy Taylor, "there is no necessity of
contrition at all ; and attrition is as good,
to all intents and purposes of pardon : and a
little repentance will prevail as well as the
greatest, the imperfect as well as the
perfect ! " (Taylor's Works, vol. x. p. 190,
Heber's Ed.) This distinction was settled for
the Church of Eome by the Council of Trent.
{Clone. Trident sess. xiv. cap. 4.) It might be
easily shown that the mere sorrow for sin
because of its consequences, and not on
account of its evil nature, is no more
acceptable to God than hypocrisy itself
can be.
AUDIENCE, COUET OF. The Court
of Audience, which belongs to the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, was for the disposal
•of such matters, whether of voluntary or

AUGSBUEG

67

contentious litigation, as the archbishop
thought fit to reserve for his own hearing.
This court was afterwards removed from
the archbishop's palace, and the jurisdiction
of it exercised by the master-official of the
audience, who presided in the Consistory
Court at St. Paul's. But now the three
offices of official-principal of the archbishop,
dean or judge of the peculiars, and official
of the audience, being united in the person
of the judge appointed under the provisions
of the Public Worship Eegulation Act, its
jurisdiction belongs to him. The Arch
bishop of York had likewise his Court of
Audience, now merged in the same court of
both provinces.
AUGSBUEG or AUGUSTAN CON
FESSION. I. The gradual progress of the Refor
mation movement was, early in the six
teenth century, impeded by the rise of
Anabaptism, and the difference between the
German and Swiss Reformers with regard
to the Holy Eucharist. There seemed to
be no possibility of agreement on the latter
subject, Luther considering the points of dif
ference as fundamental. The Emperor
Charles V. urged Pope Clement VII. to
convoke a general council for the Scriptural
determination of all controversies; but the
pope refused. A diet of the German
princes was therefore convened in 1530 by
the Emperor Charles V., to meet in the
city of Augsburg, on April 8, for the
express purpose of pacifying the religious
troubles, by which most parts of Germany
were then distracted. " In his journey
towards Augsburg," says Dr. Robertson,
"the emperor had many opportunities of
observing tbe dispositions of the Germans,
in regard to the points in controversy, and
found their minds everywhere so much
irritated and inflamed, that nothing tending
to severity or rigour ought to be attempted,
till the other methods proved ineffectual.
His presence seems to have communicated
to all parties an universal spirit of mode
ration and desire of peace. With such
sentiments, the Protestant princes employed
Melanchthon, the man of the greatest learn
ing, as well as the most pacific and gentlest
spirit among the Reformers, to draw up a
confession of faith, expressed in terms as
little offensive to the Roman Catholics as
a regard to truth would admit. Melanch
thon, who seldom suffered the rancour of
controversy to envenom his style, even in
writings purely polemical, executed a task,
so agreeable to his natural disposition, with
moderation and success." (Charles F.ii.256.)
The Confession was read, at a full meet
ing of the diet, on June 25, by the chancel
lor of the elector of Saxony. It was sub
scribed by that elector, and three other
f 2

68

AUGSBURG

princes of the German empire, and then
delivered to the emperor.
II. The singular importance of this docu
ment of Protestant faith seems to require,
in this place, a particular mention of its
contents. It consists of twenty-one articles.
The subscribers of it acknowledge — 1. The
unity of God and the trinity of persons.
2. Original sin. 3. The two natures and
unity of person in Jesus Christ, and all the
other articles contained in the symbol of
the apostles, respecting the Son of God.
4. They declare that men are not justified
before God by their works and merits, but
by the faith which they place in Jesus
Christ, when they believe that God for
gives their sins out of love for his Son.
5. That the preaching of the Gospel and the
sacraments are the ordinary means used by
God to infuse the Holy Ghost, who pro
duces faith, whenever he wills, in those
that hear his word. 6. That faith produces
the good works to which men are obliged
by the commandments of God. 7. That
there exists a perpetual Church, which is
the assembly of saints ; and that the word
of God is taught in it with purity, and the
sacraments administered in a legitimate
manner; that the unity of this Church
consists in the uniformity of doctrine and
sacraments; but that an uniformity of
ceremonies is not requisite. 8. They
profess that the word of God and the
sacraments have still their efficacy, al
though administered by wicked clergymen.
9. That baptism is requisite for salvation,
and that little children ought to be baptised.
10. That, in the sacrament of the last
supper, both the body and blood of the
Lord are truly present, and distributed to
those who partake of it. 11. That con
fession must be preserved in the Church,
but without insisting on an exact enume
ration of sins. 12. That penance consists
of contrition and faith, or the persuasion,
that, for the sake of Jesus Christ, our sins
are forgiven us on our repentance ; and that
there is no true repentance without good
works, which are its inseparable fruits.
13. That the sacraments are not only signs
of the profession of the Gospel, but proofs
of the love of God to men, which serve to
excite and confirm their faith. 14. That a
vocation is requisite for pastors to teach in
the Church. 15. That those ceremonies
ought to be observed which keep order and
peace in the Church ; but that the opinion
af their being necessary to salvation, or that
grace is acquired, [or satisfaction done for
our sins, by them, must be entirely ex
ploded. 16. That the authority of magis
trates, their commands and laws, with the
legitimate wars in which they may be
forced to engage, are not contrary to the

AUGSBURG
Gospel. 17. That there will be a judg
ment, where all men will appear before
the tribunal of Jesus Christ; and that
the wicked wiU suffer eternal torments.
18. That the powers of free-will may produce
an exterior good conduct, and regulate the
morals of men towards society; but that,
without the grace of the Holy Ghost,
neither faith, regeneration; nor true justice
can be acquired. 19. That God is not the
cause of sin, but that it arises only from
the corrupt will of man. 20. That good
works are necessary and indispensable; but
that they cannot purchase the remission :df
sins, which is only obtained in consideraM
of faith, which, when it is sincere, must
produce good works.- 21. That the virtues
of the saints are to be placed before the
people, in order to excite imitation; but
that the Scripture nowhere commands their
invocation, nor mentions anywhere any
other mediator than Jesus Christ. " This,"
say the subscribers of the Confession, "is
the summary of the doctrine taught amongst
us ; and it appears from the expositions
which we have just made, that it contains
nothing contrary to Scripture ; and that it
agrees with that of the Catholic Church,
and even with the Roman Church, as far
as is known to us by their writers. This
being so, those who wish that we should
be condemned as heretics are very unjust.
If there be any dispute between us, it is
not upon articles of faith, but only upon
abuses that have been introduced into the
Church, and which we reject. This, there
fore, is not a sufficient reason to authorize
the bishops not to tolerate us, since we are
agreed in the tenets of faith which we
have set forth: there never has been an
exact uniformity of exterior practice since
the beginning of the Church, and we pre
serve the greater part of the established
usages. It is therefore a calumny to say,
that we have abolished them all. But, as
all the world complained of the abuses
that had crept into the Church, we have
corrected those only which we could not
tolerate with a good conscience; and we
entreat your Majesty to hear what the
abuses are which we have retrenched, and
the reasons we had for doing it. We also
entreat, that our inveterate enemies, whose
hatred and calumnies are the principal
cause of the evil, may not be believed."
They then proceed to state the abuses
in the Church of Rome, of which they
complain. The first is the denial of the
cup in the sacrament of the Lord's supper;
the second, the celibacy of the clergy ; the
third, the form of the mass. On this head
their language is very remarkable: "Our
Churches," they say, "are unjustly accused
of having abolished the mass, since they

AUGSBUEG
celebrate it with great veneration: they
even preserve almost all the accustomed
ceremonies, having only added a few Ger
man hymns to the latter, in order that the
people may profit by them." But they
object to the multiplicity of masses, and
to the payment of any money to a priest
for saying them. The fourth abuse of
which they complain, is the practice of
auricular confession : but, they observe,
that they have only taken from it the
penitent's obligation to make to the priest
a particular enumeration of his sins, and
that they had retained the confession itself,
and the obligation of receiving absolution
from the priest. The fifth abuse is the
injunction of abstinence from particular
meats. Monastic vows they represent as
the sixth abuse. The seventh and last
abuse of which they complain, is that of
ecclesiastical power. They say that "a
view of the attempts of the popes to ex
communicate princes, and dispose of their
states, led them to examine and fix the
distinction between the secular and eccle
siastical power, to enable themselves to
give to Cajsar what belongs to Cassar, and
to the popes and bishops what belongs to
them." That "ecclesiastical power, or the
power of the keys, which Jesus Christ
gave to his Church, consisted only of the
power of preaching the Gospel, of adminis
tering the sacraments, the forgiveness of
sins, and refusing absolution to a false
penitent : therefore," say they, " neither
popes nor bishops have any power to dis
pose of kingdoms, to abrogate the laws of
magistrates, or to prescribe to them rules
for their government ; " and that, " if there
did exist bishops who had the power of
the sword, they derived this power from
their quality of temporal sovereigns, and
not from their episcopal character, or from
Divine right, but as a power conceded to
them by kings or emperors."
Notwithstanding the moderation of tone,
especially with regard to the doctrine of
consubstantiation, in the confession, the
Zuinglians could not subscribe to it, and a
separate confession was drawn up by four
imperial cities, in which they held a real
but not a physical presence of Christ's
body. (See Confession of Faith, 4.) The
confession of Augsburg became the basis of
all subsequent confessions.
III. It is not a little remarkable, that
considerable differences, or various readings,
are to be found in the printed texts of this
important document, and that it is far
from certain which copy should be con
sidered the authentic edition. The German
copies printed in 1530, in quarto and octavo,
and the Latin edition printed in quarto in
1531, are in request among bibliographical

AUGUSTINE

GD

amateurs; but there is a verbal, and, in
some instances, a material, discrepancy
among them. The Wittenberg edition, of
1540, is particularly esteemed, and has been
adopted by the publishers of the ' Sylloge
Confessionum Diversarum,' printed in 1804^
at the Clarendon press. [Later editions of
the Sylloge include also the form of 1531.]
One of the most important of these various
readings occurs, in the tenth Article. In
some of the editions which preceded that of
1540, it is expressed, " that the body and
blood of Christ are truly present, and
distributed to those who partake of our
Lord's supper ; " and the contrary doctrine
is reprobated. The edition of 1540 ex
presses that, " with the bread and wine, the
Body and blood of Christ are truly given
to those who partake of our Lord's supper."
— Caslestimis, Hist. Conf. Aug. ; Butler's
Conf. Faith; Eobertson's Sylloge Confes
sionum ; Stubbs' Mosheim, iii. 138 seq.
AUGUSTINES. A religious order in the
Church of Eome, who followed St. Augustine's
pretended rule, which was laid upon them by
Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. It is divided
into several branches, as hermits of St. Paul,
the Jeronymitans, monks of St. Bridget, and
the Augustines called Chaussez, who go with
out stockings. This branch was begun in
1574, by a Portuguese, and confirmed in 1600
and 1602, by Pope Clement VIII. They were
to have all things in common ; the rich on
entering the order were to give up all:
nothing was to be received without leave
of the superior : and they were bound down
by very minute precepts with regard to
their conduct and mode of living.
The Augustine monks (commonly called
Black Canons, from their dress,) in England
were next to the Benedictines in power and
wealth. The members of these two orders
and their branches were called Monks, those
of the Mendicant orders, as Dominicans and.
Franciscans, were called Friars. (See
Monastery.) But Canon was the title
more usually assigned to the Augustines.
This order was more numerous and powerful
in Ireland than the Benedictines, though
inferior to them in England. The branches
of this order were the Premonstratensians
(or White Canons), the Victorines, and the
Gilbertines. The Arroasians were merely
reformed Augustines, not a separate branch
of the order. The Augustines possessed
two mitred abbeys, Waltham and Ciren
cester; one cathedral priory, Carlisle; one
abbey, Bristol, afterwards converted into a
cathedral by Henry VIII., (Hook's Arch
bishops, vi. 502.) At Paris they are known
as the religious of St. Genevieve, that abbey
being the chief house of the order.
AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN, FRIARS.
These are not to be confounded with the

70 AUGUSTINE
above, being one of the minor Mendicant
orders, observing the rule of St. Augustine.
Fuller says they first entered England in
1252 : " and had (if not their first) their
finest habitation at St. Peter's the Poor,
London, thence probably taking the de
nomination of poverty. They were good
disputants; on which account they were
remembered at Oxford by an act per
formed by candidates for Mastership, called
Keeping of Augustines" This exercise,
with other ancient forms, was abolished by
the University Statute towards the begin
ning of the present century.
AUGUSTINE, ST. First archbishop
of Canterbury. When abbot of St.
Andrew's, Rome, he was sent by Gregory
the Great to convert the English, who does
not seem to have been aware that a Church
was already in existence in Britain. He
landed in Kent a.d. 597, converted Ethel-
bert, the king, who was married to a
Christian princess, and was appointed arch
bishop of Canterbury, being consecrated by
Vergilius, Bishop of Aries, November 16,
597. He afterwards had a conference with
the bishops of the British Church, and
endeavoured to exert jurisdiction over
them, but they resisted on the ground that
their Church was not dependent on the
Church of Rome. He is commemorated
on May 26 in the English Calendar. [H.]
AUGUSTINE, ST., Bishop of Hippo,
Confessor, Doctor, commemorated on August
10. He was born in 354 at Tagaste in
Numidia, and was piously trained by his
mother, Monica. Nevertheless he fell into
dissolute habits, and adopted the views of
the Manichseans. He was afterwards con
verted and baptised by St. Ambrose,
ordained, and after four years' retirement,
consecrated bishop coadjutor of Hippo, to
the sole charge of which see he succeeded
in 396. He was one of the four great
doctors of the Western Church, and has
perhaps exercised a greater influence on the
thought of subsequent ages than any other
of the fathers. The history of his con
version is given by himself. — Conf. of St.
Augustine. [H.]
AUDRY, ST. (See Etheldreda.)
AURICULAR CONFESSION. (See
Confession, Absolution.) The confession of
sins at the ear of the priest. This, the
Church of Rome now affirms, is necessary to
salvation. Yet it is a " ne w doctrine even in
the Church of Rome, and was not esteemed
any part of the Catholic religion before the
Council of Trent." (Jer. Taylor, vol. xi. p.
11, Heber's Ed.) By the chapter on Confes
sion in the Council of Trent, an attempt is
made to invest the Christian priesthood with
the prerogative of the Most High, who is a
searcher of the hearts, and a discerner of

AURICULAR
the thoughts ; in forgetfulness of the very
distinction which God drew between him
self and all men — "man looketh to the
outward part, the Lord trie'th the heart."
As Christ has invested his ministers with
no power to do this of themselves, the'
Tridentine Fathers have sought to supply.'*;
what they must needs consider a grievous
omission on his part, by enjoining all men
to unlock the secrets of their hearts at the
command of their priest, and persons of all
ages and sexes to submit not only to general
questions as to a state of sin or repentance,
but to the most minute and searching
questions as to their most inmost thoughts;:.
The extent to which the confessors have
thought it right to carry these examinations
on subjects concerning which the Apostle
recommends that' they be not once named
among Christians, and which may be seen
either in _ eras' Theology, or Burchard's De
crees, c. 19, Paris, 1549, affords a melancholy,
painful, and sickening subject for contem
plation; especially when it is considered
that they were Christian clergy who did
this, and that it was done in aid, as they
supposed, of the Christian religion. The
effects of these examinations upon the
priests themselves, we will do no more
than aUude to; he who may think it
necessary to satisfy himself upon the point,
may consult the cases contemplated and
provided for (among others) by Cardinal
Cajetan, in his Opuscula, Lugd. 1562, p.
114. In the Bull of Pius IV, Contra
solicitantes in confessione, dated Ap. 16,
1561, (Bullarium Magn. Luxemh. 1727,
ii. p. 48,) and in a similar one of Gregory
XV., dated Aug. 30, 1622, (Gregory. 17.
Constit Rom. 1622, p. 114,) there is laid
open another fearful scene of danger to
female confitents from wicked priests,
" mulieres pcenitentes ad actus inhonestos
dum earum audiunt confessiones alliciendo
et provocando." Against which flagrant
dangers, and the preparatory steps of sap
ping and undermining the mental modesty
of a young person by examinations of par
ticular kinds, it is vain to think that the
bulls- of the bishops of Rome can afford
any security. These observations apply .
to' the system of the Roman Church,
peculiar to itself, of compelling the dis
closure of the most minute details of the
most secret thoughts and actions. As to
encouraging persons whose minds are bur-
thened with the remembrance of fearful
sins, to ease themselves of the burthen by
revealing it to one at whose hands they
may seek guidance, and consolation, and
prayer, it is a totally distinct question, and
nothing but wilful art will attempt to con
found the two.
In the sixth canon of the Council of

AURICULAE,
Trent it runs thus : — " If any shall deny
that sacramental confession was instituted
and is necessary for salvation by Divine
right, or shall say that the custom of con
fessing secretly to the priest alone, which
the Catholic Church has always observed
from the beginning, and continues to ob
serve, is foreign to the institution and
command of Christ, and is of human in
vention, let him be accursed."
Here sacramental confession is affirmed
to be of Divine institution, and auricular
confession likewise, and he is accursed who
shall deny it. Yet the Tridentine Fathers
might have recollected that, in the Latin
Church as late asA.D. 813,it was matter of dis
pute whether there was need to confess to a
priest at all, as appears from the thirty-third
canon of the Council of Cabaillon, which
is as follows: "Quidam Deo solummodo
confiteri debere dicunt peccata, quidam
vero sacerdotibus confitenda esse percen-
sent : quod utrumque non sine magno
fructu intra sanctam fit Ecclesiam. Ita
dumtaxat ut et Deo, qui Eemissor est pec-
catorum, confiteamur peccata nostra, et
cum David dicamus, Delictum meum cog-
niturn tibi feci, &c, et secundum institu-
tionem apostoli, confiteamur alterutrum
peccata nostra, et oremus pro invicem ut
salvemur. Confessio itaque quas Deo fit,
purgat peccata, ea vero quas sacerdoti fit,
docet qualiter ipsa purgentur peccata," &c.
(Cone. vii. 1279.) Was Leo the Third
asleep, that he could suffer such heresy to
be broached and not denounced? But it
is well known, that, till 1215, no decree
of pope or council can be adduced enjoin
ing the necessary observance of such a
custom. Then, at the Council of Late
ran, Innocent III. commanded it. As the
Latin Church affords no sanction to the
assertion of the Tridentine Fathers, so is
it in vain to look for it among the Greeks,
for there, as Socrates (Hist Eccles. v. 19)
and Sozomen (Hist. Eccles. vii. 16) inform
us, the whole confessional was abolished
by Nectarius, the archbishop of Constan
tinople, in the fourth century, by reason of
an indecency which was committed on a
female penitent, when pursuing her pen
ance; which, certainly, he would not have
ventured to have done had he deemed it a
Divine institution. Sozomen, in his account
of the confessional, says, that the public
confession in the presence of all tihe people,
which formerly obtained, havnig been
found grievous, cpopnxov as eiKos, a well-
bred, silent, and prudent presbyter was set
in charge of it ; thus plainly denoting the
change from public to auricular confes
sions. It was this penitential presbyter
whose office was abolished by Nectarius,
who acted by the advice of Eudasmon,

AUTOCEPHALI

71

o-vy)(a>pi)o-ai oe eKaorov, tu> LOia avueioori rav
p.vo-Tt)pia>v (itrixeiv. And the reason he as
signed, is one which the Church of Eome
would have done well to bear in mind;
our© yap fiov<os ^xclv TVV cKKXtjo'iav ro aj3Xao"-
(b_r)p.riTov. (See Perceval on Roman Schism ;
Hooker, Eccl. Pol. book vi. ; Bp. Taylor,
Ductor Dubit. part ii. sect. 11, vol. xi.,
Heber's Ed.)
The difference between the teaching of
the Church of Eome and the Church of
England in respect to this practice has
been summed up in the following words:
" The Church of Rome regards confession
to man, as a means of grace ; this we
deny ; at the same time we regard it as a
means of comfort to weak minds, and
scrupulous consciences, and to persons in
difficulties, or in doubt. The Church of
Rome makes it the rule, we the exception.
The Church of Rome commands it; the
Church of England permits it. The Church
of England, in accordance with Scripture
and the Primitive Church, and the Greek
Church, asserts that confession to God alone
is sufficient, — is the rule — is the course
which ought to be pursued in all but
exceptional cases ; and in this respect to
the Church of England, to the Primitive
Church, and to the written and infallible
Word of the living God, the Church of
Rome stands opposed." — Church and Her
Ordinances, vol. ii. p. 229. Sermon on
Auricular Confession, by W. F. Hook, D.D.
AURORA. The title of a Latin metrical
version of several parts of the Bible, by
Petrus de Riga, canon of Eheims, in the
twelfth century.
AUTOCEPHALI. Airofce'cpaXot, self-
headed, or independent. A name origin
ally given to all metropolitans, as having
no ecclesiastical superior, and being amen
able only to the judgment of a synod.
After the division of the Church into pa
triarchates, it was given to such metro
politans as preserved their independence,
and were not subject to any patriarch —
as the bishop of Constantia, or Salamis,
in Cyprus. Bingham (book ii. chap. 18)
specifies three kinds of autocephali. 1. All
metropolitans, before patriarchates were
established. 2. Certain metropolitans after
the establishment of patriarchates, as those
of Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Iberia: and the
Churches of Britain before the coming- of
St. Augustine: to which may be added
the Church of Ireland, before its submis-'
sion to Rome in the twelfth century. 3.
Bishops immediately subject to the patri
arch of the diocese, who was to them as a
metropolitan. There were twenty-five such
subject to the bishop of Jerusalem. The
immediate suffragans of Rome are of tbe
same class. Bingham considers a fourth

72

AUTO

class mentioned by Valesius on Euseb. lib.
v., c. 23, as very doubtful; viz. bishops
wholly independent of all others.
AUTO DA FE (Spanish). An Act of
Faith. In the Spanish Church a solemn
day was wont to be held by the Inquisition
for the execution of heretics, and the
absolution of the innocent accused. They
usually contrived that the Auto should fall
on some great festival, that the execution
might produce the more awe ; and it was
always on a Sunday. The executions were
arranged with the most cold-blooded pomp,
and cruellest barbarity. The victims were
not merely burnt, but absolutely roasted to
death ; and the number so immolated was
extraordinary. In one year (1481), 298
persons were burnt alive in Seville; and
2000 in other parts of Andalusia ; and it is
said that between 1481 and 1808, 32,000
persons thus perished. Even if the num
bers are exaggerated, there can be no doubt
that the working of the Inquisition in Spain
was attended by an amount of cruelty it is
impossible to contemplate without horror.
The same may be said of Portugal. The
Inquisition was abolished in Spain in
1835 ; in Portugal in 1821. (See Inquisi
tion.) [H.]
AUSTRALIA. (See Church in Colonies.)
AVE MARIA. A form of devotion used
in the Church of Rome, comprising the salu
tation addressed by the angel Gabriel to the
Blessed Virgin Mary. (Luke i. 28.) The
words " Ave Maria " are the first two, in
Latin, of the form as it appears in the
manuals of the Roman Church, thus : " Hail
Mary (Ave Maria), full of grace, the Lord
is with thee, &c. To which is appended the
following petition : " Holy Mary, mother of
God, pray for us sinners, now, and in the
hour of our death. Amen." Here we find,
first, a misapplication of the words of Scrip
ture, and then an addition to them. It was not
used before the Hours, until the sixteenth
century, in the Romish offices. It was then
introduced into the Breviary by Cardinal
Quignon. Cardinal Bona admits that it is
modern. "I cannot but observe," says Bingham,
" that among all the short prayers used by
the ancients before their sermons, there is
never any mention made of an Ave Mary,
now so common in the practice of the
Roman Church. Their addresses were all
to God ; and the invocation of the Holy
Virgin for grace and assistance before
sermons was a thing not thought of. They
who are most concerned to prove its use
can derive its original no higher than the
beginning of the fifteenth century." But
Mosheim (Eccl. Hist vol. ii. 304, Stubbs'
Ed.) says that Pope John XXII. [1316-33]
ordered Christians to add to their prayers

BABYLON
those words with which the angel Gabriel
saluted the Virgin Mary.
AVOIDANCE. Avoidance is where there
is a want of a lawful incumbent on a benefice!
during which vacancy the Church is quasi
viduata, and the possessions belonging to it
are in abeyance. There are many ways hy
which avoidance may happen; by death;
by cession, or acceptance of a benefice in
compatible; by resignation; by consecra
tion, for when a clerk is promoted to a
bishopric, all his other preferments are void
the instant he is consecrated, and the right
of presentation belongs to the Crown, unless
he has a dispensation from the Crown to
hold them in commendam ; by deprivation',
either first by sentence declaratory in the
ecclesiastical court for fit and sufficient causes
allowed by the common law, such as at
tainder of treason or felony, or conviction of
other infamous crimes in the king's courts ;
for heresy, infidelity, gross immorality, and
the like ; or secondly, in pursuance of divers
penal statutes, which declare the benefice
void, for some nonfeasance or neglect, or else
some malfeasance or crime; as for simony;
for maintaining any doctrine in derogation
of the king's supremacy, or of the Thirty-
nine Articles, or of the Book of Common,
Prayer; for neglecting after institution to
read the liturgy and articles in the church,
or make the declarations against Popery, or
take the abjuration oath; for using aray
other form of prayer than the liturgy qf the
Church of England ; or for absenting him
self sixty days in one year from a benefice
belonging to a Popish patron, to which- the
clerk was presented by either of the univer
sities ; in all which, and similar cases, the
benefice is ipso facto void, without any
formal sentence of deprivation. No person
can take any dignity or benefice in Ireland
until he has resigned all his preferments in
England ; and by such resignation the king
is deprived of the presentation. — Stephemm
the Laws relating to the Clergy, p. 91. *
AZYMITES. A name given to the
Latins, by the Greek Church, because they
consecrate the Holy Eucharist in unleavened
bread (iv d_vp,ois).

B.
BABYLON. (1) The capital of Chaldsea,
built by Nimrod. (2) A mystical city
referred to by St. John (Rev. xviii.) Lewis
XII., King of France, designated by this
name the Romish power: and it is the
custom of certain commentators and writers
on religious matters to call the Roman
Chm-ch the modern Babylon. [H.]

BACHELOR
BACHELOR. The first degree in Eng
lish Universities in arts, divinity, law,
music, or physic. It was first introduced
in the thirteenth century by Pope Gregory
IX., though it is now unknown in Italy.
Bachelors of Arts are not admitted to that
degree at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin,
till after having studied four, or at the least
three years, at those universities. Bachelors
of Divinity, before they can acquire that
degree either at Oxford or Cambridge, must
be of fourteen years' standing in the uni
versity. Bachelors, as such, have no voice
in the University convocations or senate ;
but Bachelors in Divinity have, because
they must necessarily have been Masters of
Arts previously.
BALDACHINO, a kind of tabernacle
or canopy over the communion table, which
was pronounced illegal in Wliite v. Bowron,
L. R. 4 Ecc. 207.
BAMPTON LECTURES. A course of
eight sermons founded in 1779 by the Rev.
John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, to be
preached annually before the University of
Oxford. According to the directions in
the founder's will, they are to be preached
upon any of the following subjects : — To
confirm and establish the Christian faith,
and to confute all heretics and schismatics,
upon the Divine authority of the Holy
Scriptures ; upon the authority of the writ
ings of the primitive fathers, as' to the faith
and practice of the primitive Church ; upon
the Divinity of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ; upon the Divinity of the
Holy Ghost; upon the Articles of the
Christian faith, as comprehended in the
Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. For the sup
port of this lecture he bequeathed his lands
and estates to the chancellor, masters, and
scholars of the University of Oxford for
ever, upon trust that the vice-chancellor,
for the time being, take and receive all the
rents and profits thereof; and, after all
taxes, reparations, and necessary deductions
made, to pay all the remainder to the en
dowment of these divinity lecture sermons.
He also directs in his will, that the lecturer
should be chosen by the heads of colleges
only, that no person shall be qualified to
preach these lectures, unless he have taken
the degree of Master of Arts, at least, in
one of the two Universities of Oxford or
Cambridge, and that the same person shall
never preach the same sermon twice.
Thirty copies of the lectures are always
to be printed, and issued to the Bodleian
Library, vice-chancellor, and others, before
the preacher is paid, the cost to come out of
the revenue, which in 1779 amounted to
£120, but has since nearly doubled. A
number of excellent sermons preached at
this lecture are now before the public.

BANNER

73

BAND or BANDS. Two oblong pieces of
cambric or linen, four to nine inches long,
and two or three wide, joined together, and
worn under the chin. This is said by some to
be a relic of the amice ; but it is not an
exclusively clerical vestment, being part of
the full dress of the bar and of the uni
versities, and of other bodies in which a
more ancient habit is retained, as in some
schools of old foundation. [H.]
BANGOEIAN CONTEOVEESY. This
was a celebrated controversy within the
Church of England in the reign of George I.,
and received its name from Hoadly, who,
although bishop of Bangor, was little else
than a Socinian heretic. Hoadly published
" A Preservative against the Principles and
Practice of the Non-jurors," and soon after,
a sermon, which the king had ordered to be
printed, entitled, " The Nature of the King
dom of Christ." This discourse is a very
confused production; nor, except in the
bitterness of its spirit, is it easy, amidst
the author's " periods of a mile," to discover
his precise aim. (Hoadley's Works, vol. ii.
1773.) To the perplexed arguments of
Bishop Hoadly, Dr. Snape and Dr. Sherlock
wrote replies ; and a committee of convoca
tion passed a censure upon the discourse in
1717. An order from government arrested
the proceedings of the convocation. Snape
and Sherlock were removed from their office
of chaplains to the king ; and the convoca
tion was not permitted to assemble again for
the transaction of business until its revival
in the year 1852. But the exertion of
power on the part of the government was
unable to silence those who were deter
mined, at any sacrifice, to maintain God's
truth. This controversy continued to em
ploy the press for many years, until those
who held Socinian views were entirely
silenced by the force of argument. Of the
works produced by the Bangorian Contro
versy, perhaps the most important is Law's
Letters to Hoadly, which were reprinted in
The Scholar Armed, and have since been
republished, 1812. Law's Letters have never
been answered, and may indeed be regarded
as unanswerable. (See Life and Opinions
of William Law, by J. H. Overton; and
English Church in the Eighteenth Century,
by Abbey and Overton.)
BANNEE. In the chapels of orders of
knighthood, as in St. George's Chapel,
Windsor, the chapel of the order of the
Garter; in Henry VII.'s chapel, at West
minster, the chapel of the order of the
Bath; and in St. Patrick's Cathedral, the
chapel of the order of St. Patrick; the
banner of each knight, i.e. a little square
flag bearing his arms, is suspended, at his
installation, over his appropriate stall. The
installation of a knight is a religious cere-

74

BANNS

mony ; hence the propriety of this act. The
same decorations formerly existed in the
chapel of Holyrood House, the chapel of the
order of the Thistle.
BANNS OF MAEEIAGE. "Bann"
comes from a barbarous Latin word which
signifies to put out an edict or proclama
tion. " Matrimonial banns " are such pro
clamations as are solemnly made in the
church, or in some other lawful congrega
tion of men, in order to the solemnization
of matrimony.
Before any can be canonicaRy married,
except by a licence from the bishop's court,
and now by a registrar of births, deaths,
and marriages, the banns are directed to be
published in the church; and this pro
clamation should be made on three days,
in the churches of that place where the
parties, wiRing to contract marriage, dwell.
This rule is principally to be observed when
the said parties are of different parishes;
for the care of the Church to prevent clan
destine marriages is as old as Christianity
itself: and the design of the Church is to
be satisfied whether there be any "just
cause or impediment " why the persons so
asked "should not be joined together in
holy matrimony."
The following are the regulations under
which the Church of England now acts on
this subject : —
No minister shall be obliged to publish
the banns of matrimony between any per
sons whatsoever, unless they shall, seven
days at least before the time required for
the first publication, deliver or cause to be
delivered to him a notice in writing of
their true Christian and surnames, and of
the houses of their respective abodes within
such parish, chapelry, or extra-parochial
place, where the banns are to be published,
and of the time during which they have
inhabited or lodged in such houses respec
tively. This was first enacted by 26 Geo. II.
c. 23, commonly called Lord Hardwicke's
Marriage Act for preventing Clandestine
Marriages, which is superseded and partly
re-enacted by 4 Geo. IV. c. 76. By both
Acts it is enacted, that where the persons
to be married shall dweU in divers parishes
or chapelries, the banns shall be published
in the church or chapel belonging to such
parish or chapelry wherein each of the said
persons shall dweU. And where both or
either of the persons to be married shall
dwell in any extra-parochial place (having
no church or chapel wherein banns have
been usually published), then the banns
shall be published in the parish church or
chapel belonging to some parish or chapelry
adjoining to such extra-parochial place.
And the said banns shall be published upon
three Sundays preceding the solemnization

BANNS
of marriage during the time of morning
service, or of the evening service, if there
be no morning service in such church or
chapel on that Sunday, immediately after
the second lesson.
It was for some years assumed that
this last clause repealed the old rubric for
publication of banns after the Nicene
Creed in Morning Service, and the Uni
versities' and Queen's printers took upon
themselves to omit it, and print that section
of the Act as a new rubric before the Mar
riage Service, in ignorance of the rule of
law that statutes are not repealed inferen-
tiaRy unless the later is absolutely incon
sistent with the earlier. Baron Alderson
pointed out this mistake in a trial of Reg.
v. Benson, in 1866, which arose as usual
from the bad framing of the clause in the
Act of Geo. IV., which only meant to
provide for banns in the evening, when
there is no morning service. The old rubric
has not yet been reprinted, as it ought to
be, with the additional provision for Even
ing Service ; but the old practice is getting
generally restored.
By 6 & 7 WiR. IV. c. 85, and 1 Vict. c.
22, the bishop, with consent of patron and
incumbent, may licence other chapels in the
parish for marriages and banns, and the
parties may be married either there or in
the parish church. But that option ceases
as soon as such chapels have a parish as
signed to them, which thereupon become
separate parishes for aU ecclesiastical pur
poses, which does not, however, destroy the
right of voting for churchwardens of the
old parish. (Reg. v. Stephens, 3 B. & S.
333 ; 32 L. J., Q. B., 70.)
By sect. 8 of the Act of 4 Geo. TV.
c. 76, clergymen are freed from ecclesias
tical censures for marrying minors whose
banns have been duly published, and
not forbidden by parents or guardians,
over-riding the 62nd Canon. Such for
bidding makes the banns void. They also
become void by ss. 2 and 9, if the marriage
is not celebrated in one of the churches
where the banns where published within
three (calendar) months after publication.
When churches are under repair, so that
they cannot be used, the banns may be
published in any adjoining church or build
ing licensed for that purpose by the bishop,
under that Act, and 5 Geo. TV. c. 32.
The Act of 1823 contains also this Dra
conian clause (21), unrepealed yet, that
any person who shall knowingly celebrate a
marriage without due publication of banns
or a licence (which may include a mistake
about the law by himself), or at any time
before 8 a.m. and after 12 (now defined to be
Greenwich time only), or falsely pretending
to be in holy orders, shaU be transported

BAPTISM
for fourteen years for felony. But it is
only felony, with no prescribed punishment,
to marry people without the due formalities
in buildings Rcensed for civil or registrars'
marriages. So a Dissenting minister or
registrar may be imprisoned for a few
days for the same offence for which a
clergyman must be transported for fourteen
years. The canons 62 and 63 relating to
these matters being now superseded by the
Acts, it is quite unnecessary to quote them.
(See Marriage.)
Rubric. And the curate shall say after
the accustomed manner: — "I publish the
banns of marriage between M. of  ,
and N. of  . If any of you know
cause or just impediment why these two
persons should not be joined together in
holy matrimony, ye are to declare it.
This is the first (second, or third) time of
asking." And in case the parents or guardians, or
one of them, of either of the parties, who
shall be under the age of twenty-one years,
shall openly and publicly declare, or cause
to be declared, in the church or chapel where
the banns shall be so published, at the time
of such publication, his dissent to such
marriage, such publication of banns shall
be void. (26 George II. c. 3, s. 3.)
Rubric. And where the parties dwell
in divers parishes, the curate of one parish
shall not solemnize marriage between them,
without a certificate of the banns being
thrice asked, from the curate of the other
parish. The statute 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85, s. 1,
enacts also that where, by any law or canon
in force before the passing of this act, it is
provided that any "marriage may be so
lemnized after publication of banns, such
marriage may be solemnized, in like man
ner, on production of the registrar's certifi
cate as hereinafter provided." [G.]
BAPTISM. (Bmrrew, to dip, and Bair-
n'feiv, to dip repeatedly, or thoroughly ; to
bathe.) Baptism is one of the two sacraments,
which, according to the Catechism, "are
generally necessary to salvation." Our
blessed Saviour says "that except a man
be born again he cannot see the kingdom
of God " (John iii. 3) ; and in explanation
of his meaning he adds, " Verily, verily, I
say unto thee, except a man be born of
water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter
into the kingdom of God " (ver. 5). Upon
this the Church remarks in the Baptis
mal Service, for Adults : " Beloved, ye
hear in this Gospel the express words of
our Saviour Christ, that, except a man
be born of water and of the Spirit, he
cannot enter into the kingdom of God :
whereby ye may perceive the great ne-

BAPTISM 75
cessity of this sacrament where it may be
had. Likewise immediately before his
ascension into heaven, as we read in the
last chapter of St. Mark's Gospel, he gave
command to his disciples, saying, ' Go ye
into all the world, and preach the Gospel
to every creature. He that believeth and
is baptized shall be saved ; but he that be
lieveth not shall be damned.' Which also
showeth unto us the great benefit we reap
thereby. For which cause, St. Peter the
Apostle, when, upon his first preaching of
this Gospel, many were pricked at the-
heart, and said unto him and the rest of
the Apostles, ' Men and brethren, what shall
we do?' replied and said unto them, 'Ee-
pent, and be baptized every one of you for
the remission of sins, and ye shall receive
the gift of the Holy Ghost.' The same
Apostle testifieth in another place, 'even
baptism doth also now save us, not the
putting away of the filth of the flesh, but
the answer of a good conscience towards
God, by the resurrection of Jesus Christ.' "
The Church states in the Catechism, that
a sacrament, as baptism is, hath two
parts, the outward visible sign, and the
inward spiritual grace; that the outward
visible sign or form in baptism is water,
wherein the person is baptized in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost; and that the inward and
spiritual grace, which through the means of
baptism we receive, is a death unto sin, and
a new birth unto righteousness; for being
by nature born in sin and the children of
wrath, we are hereby, i.e. by baptism,
made children of grace. Therefore the
Church, as soon as ever a child is baptized,
directs the minister to say, "Seeing now,
dearly beloved brethren, that this child is
regenerate and grafted into the body of
Christ's Church, let us give thanks unto
Almighty God for these benefits, and with
one accord make our prayers unto him, that
this child may lead the rest of his life
according to this beginning." The Church
here first declares that grace has been
given, even the grace of regeneration, and
then implies that the grace, if not used,
may be lost. On this subject more will be
said in the article on Regeneration. See
also Infant Baptism.
I. In the primitive Christian Church the
office of baptizing wasvested principallyinthe
bishops and priests, or pastors of the respec
tive parishes ; but, with the consent of the
bishop, it was allowed to the deacons, and in
cases of necessity even to laymen, to baptize ;
but never, under any necessity wbatever, was
it permitted to women to perform this
office. Nor was it enough that baptism
was conferred by a person called to the
ministry, unless he was also orthodox in

76

BAPTISM

the faith. This became matter of great ex
citement in the Church ; and hence arose the
famous controversy between Cyprian and
Stephen, bishop of Eome, concerning the
rebaptizing those who had been baptized
by heretics, Cyprian asserting that they
ought to be rebaptized, and Stephen main
taining the contrary opinion.
The persons baptized were either infants
or adults. To prove that infants were ad
mitted to the sacrament of baptism, we
need only use this argument. None were
admitted to the Eucharist till they had re
ceived baptism: but in the primitive
Church children received the sacrament of
the Lord's supper, as appears from what
Cyprian relates concerning a sucking child,
who so violently refused to taste the sacra
mental wine, that the deacon was obliged
forcibly to open her lips and pour it down
her throat. Origen writes, that children
are baptized, " for the purging away of the
natural filth and original impurity inher
ent in them. We might add the testi
monies of Irenasus and Cyprian; but it
will be sufficient to mention the deter
mination of an African synod, held a.d.
254, at which were present sixty-six bishops.
The occasion of it was this. A certain
bishop, called Fidus, had some scruples
concerning the time of baptizing infants,
whether it ought to be done on the second
or third day alter their birth, or not before
the eighth day, as was observed with re
spect to circumcision under the Jewish
dispensation. His scruples were proposed
to this synod, who unanimously decreed,
that the baptism of children was not to be
deferred so long, but that the grace of God,
or baptism, should be given unto all, and
most especially unto infants. — Justin Mar
tyr, Second Apology ; De Lapsis, § 20 ; In
Lucam, Horn. xiv. ; Apud Cyprian. Epist.
lix. § 2-4 ; Tertull. de Baptismo, c. 19.
As for the time, or season, at which
baptism was usually administered, we find
it to have been restrained to the two
solemn festivals of the year, Easter and
Whitsuntide: at Easter, in memory of
Christ's death and resurrection, corre
spondent to which are the two parts of the
Christian life, represented and shadowed out
in baptism, dying unto sin, and rising again
unto newness of life ; and at Whitsuntide,
in memory of the Holy Ghost being shed
upon the Apostles, the same, in some
measure, being represented and conveyed in
baptism. It is to be observed, that these
stated returns of the time of baptism related
only to persons in health: in other cases,
such as sickness, or any pressing necessity,
the time of baptism was regulated by oc
casion and opportunity.
The place of baptism was at first un-

BAPTISM
limited; being some pond or lake, some
spring or river, but always as near as pos
sible to the place of public worship. After
wards they had their baptisteries, or fonts,
built at first near the church, then in the
church-porch, and at last in the church itself.
There were many in those days who were
desirous to be baptized in the river Jordan,
out of reverence to the place where our
Saviour himself had been baptized.
The person to be baptized, if an adult,
was first examined by the bishop, or offici
ating priest, who put some questions to
him ; as, first, whether he abjured the
devil and all his works ; secondly, whether
he gave a firm assent to aU the articles of
the Christian faith : to both which he an
swered in the affirmative. Concerning
these baptismal questions, Dionysius Alex-
andrinus, in his letter to Xystus, bishop of
Rome, speaks of a certain scrupulous per
son in his church, who, being present at
baptism, was exceedingly troubled, when
he heard the questions and answers of
those who were baptised. If the person
to be baptised was an infant, these inter
rogatories were answered by his sponsores,
or godfathers. Whether the use of spon
sors was as old as the Apostles' days, is un
certain; perhaps it was not, since Justin
Martyr, speaking of the method and form
of baptism, does not say a word of them.—
Tertull. de Coron. Milit ; Cyprian, Epist.
vii. § 5 ; Justin Martyr, Apolog. 2 ; Apud
Euseb. lib. vii. c. 9 ; Apolog. 2.
After the questions and answers, fol
lowed exorcism, the manner and end of
which was this. The minister laid his
hands on the person's head, and breathed
in his face, implying thereby the driving
away, or expelling, of the devil from him, v
and preparing him for baptism, by which
the good and holy Spirit was to he con
ferred upon him.
After exorcism followed baptism itself:
and first the minister, by prayer, conse
crated the water for that use. Tertullian
says, " any waters may be applied to that
use ; but then God must be first invo-
cated, and then the Holy Ghost presently
comes down from Heaven, and moves upon
them, and sanctifies them." The water
being consecrated, the person was bap
tized " in the name of the Father, and of
the Son and of the Holy Ghost;" by
which " dedication of him to the blessed
Trinity, the person" (says Clemens Alex-
andrinus) is "delivered from the corrupt
trinity, the devil, the world, and the flesh."
— Tertull. de Baptismo; Justin Martyr,
Apolog. 2.
In performing the ceremony of baptism,
the usual custom was to immerse and dip
the whole body. Thus St. Barnabas, de-

BAPTISM
scribing a baptized person, says, "We go
down into the water full of sin and filth,
but we ascend bearing fruit in our hearts."
And that all occasions of scandal and im
modesty might be prevented in so sacred
an action, the men and women were bap
tized in distinct apartments ; the women
having deaconesses to undress and dress
them. Then followed the unction, by
which (says St. Cyril) was signified that
they were now cut off from the wild olive,
and were ingrafted into Christ, the true
olive-tree ; or else to show that they were
now to be champions for the gospel, and
were anointed thereto, as the old Athletas
were against their solemn games. With
this anointing was joined the sign of the
cross, made upon the forehead of the person
baptized ; which being done, he had a white
garment given him, to denote his being
washed from the defilements of sin, or in
allusion to the words of the Apostle, " as
many as are baptized into Christ have put
on Christ." From this custom some
suppose that the feast of Pentecost, which
was one of the annual seasons of baptism,
came to be called Whit-Simday, i.e. White-
Sunday. But this is probably not the true
derivation. (See Whit-Sunday.) This
garment was afterwards laid up in the
church, that it might be an evidence
against such persons as violated or denied
that faith which they had owned in
baptism. Of this we have a remarkable
instance under the Arian persecution in
Africa. Elpidophorus, a citizen of Car
thage, had lived a long time in the
communion of the Church, but, aposta
tizing afterwards to the Arians, became a
most bitter and implacable persecutor of
the orthodox. Among several whom he
sentenced to the rack, was one Miritas, a
venerable old deacon, who, being ready to
be put upon the rack, pulled out the white
garment with which Elpidophorus had
been clothed at his baptism, and, with
tears in his eyes, thus addressed him before
all the people. " These, Elpidophorus, thou
minister of error, these are the garments that
shall accuse thee, when thou shalt appear
before, the majesty of the Great Judge;
these are they which girt thee when thou
earnest pure out of the holy font ; and these
are they which shall bitterly pursue thee,
when thou shalt be cast into the place of
flames; because thou hast clothed thyself
with cursing as with a garment, and hast
cast off the sacred obligation of thy bap
tism."— Epist. Cathol. § 9; Cave's Pri
mitive Christianity, pt. i. c. 10; Epiph.
Hseres. 79 ; Ambrose, de • Sacr. lib. i. c. 21 ;
Gal. iii. 27; Victor. Utic. de Persecut
Vandal, lib. iii.
But though immersion was the usual

BAPTISM

77

practice, yet sprinkling was in some cases
allowed, as in clinic baptism, or the baptism
of such persons as lay sick in bed. It is
true, this kind of baptism was not esteemed
so perfect and effectual as that by im
mersion or dipping; for which reason, in
some Churches, none were advanced to the
order of the priesthood, who had been
so baptized ; an instance of which we have
in Novatian, whose ordination was opposed
by all the clergy upon that account ; though
afterward, at the entreaties of the bishop,
they consented to it. Notwithstanding
which general opinion, Cyprian, in a set
discourse on this subject, declares that he
thought this baptism to be as perfect and
valid as that performed more solemnly by
immersion. — Epist. Cornel, ad Fabium
Antioch. apud Euseb. lib. vi. cap. 43. Epist.
lxxvi. § 9. Apolog. 2.
When baptism was performed, the per
son baptized, according to Justin Martyr,
" was received into the number of the faith
ful, who then sent up their public prayers
to God, for all men, for themselves, and for
those who had been baptized."
Though baptism was esteemed by the
Church as a Divine and heavenly institu
tion, yet there wanted not sects, in the
earliest ages, who either rejected it in whole
or in part, or greatly corrupted it. (See
Ascodrutes ; Archontics ; Manicheans ; Pau-
licians; Seleucicms.) — Bingham, Orig. Eccles.
bk. x. cap. 2, § 1; Epiph. Hseres. 40;
Theod. Hser. Fab. 1. i. cap. 11 ; August, de
Hseres. cap. 59 ; Philastr. de Hseres. Prse-
destinat Hseres. 40 ; Euthym. Panoplia, par.
ii. tit. 21.
Though the ancient Church considered
baptism as indispensably necessary to sal
vation, it was always with this restriction,
" providedit could be had : " in extraordinary,
cases, wherein baptism could not be hard
though men were desirous of it, they
made several exceptions in behalf of other
things, which in such circumstances were
thought sufficient to supply the want of
it. (Bingham, bk. x. 11, §§ 19, 20.) The
chief of these accepted cases was martyrdom,
which usually goes by the name of second
baptism, or baptism in men's own blood, in
the writings of the ancients. (Cyprian.
Ep. Ixiii. ad Julian.) This baptism, they
suppose, our Lord spoke of, when he said,
" I have another baptism to be baptized
with," alluding to his own future martyr
dom on the cross. In the Acts of the
Martyrdom of Perpetua, there is mention
of one Saturus, a catechumen, who, being-
thrown to a leopard, was, by the first bite
of the wild beast, so bathed in blood,
that the people, in derision of the Christian
doctrine of martyrdom, cried out salvum.
latum, salvum latum, baptized and saved,

78

BAPTISM

baptized and saved. (Bingham, ibid. § 24.)
But these exceptions and. allowances were
with respect to adult persons only, who could
make some compensation, by acts of faith
and repentance, for the want of the external
ceremony of baptism. But, as to infants
who died without baptism, the case was
thought more difficult, because they were
destitute both of " the outward visible sign
and the inward spiritual grace of baptism."
Upon which account they who spoke the
most favourably of their case, would only
venture to assign them a middle state,
neither in heaven nor hell. — Greg. Naz.
Orat 40 ; Sever. Catena in Johan. iii.
For the rest, the rite of baptism was
esteemed as the most universal absolution
and grand indulgence of the ministry of
the Church ; as conveying a general pardon
of sin to every true member of Christ ;
and as the key of the sacraments, that
opens the gate of the kingdom of heaven.
— Bingham, bk. xix. c. i. § 9.
Baptism is defined by the Church of Rome
(see Alet's Ritual) to be "a sacrament,
instituted by our Saviour, to wash away
original sin, and all those we may have
committed; to communicate to' mankind
the spiritual regeneration, and the grace
of Christ Jesus; and to unite them to
bim, as the living members to the head."
The Roman Church aUows midwives, in
cases of danger, to baptize a child before it
is come entirely out of its mother's womb :
where it is to be observed, that some part
of the body of the child must appear before
it can be baptized, and that it is baptized
on the part which first appears: if it be
the head it is not necessary to re-baptize
the child ; but if only a foot or hand ap
pears, it is necessary to repeat baptism.
A still-born child, thus baptized, may be
buried in consecrated ground. A monster,
or creature that has not the human form,
must not be baptized: if it be doubtful
whether it be a human creature or not, it
is baptized conditionally thus, "If thou
.art a man, I baptize thee," &c.
The Greek Church differs from the
Roman, as to the rite of baptism, chiefly,
in performing it by immersion, or plunging
the infant all over in the water, which the
.relations of the child take care to have
warmed, and throw into it a collection of
the most odoriferous flowers. — Rycaut's
.State of the Greek Clmrch.
II. The Church of England (Article
xxvii.) defines baptism to be, " not only a
•sign of profession, and mark of difference,
whereby Christian men are discerned from
others that be not christened ; but it is also
a sign of regeneration, or new birth, where-
'by, as by an instrument, they that receive
Jbajptism rightly are grafted into the Church :

BAPTISM
the promises of the forgiveness of sin, of
our adoption to be the sons of God, by the
Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed,
faith is confirmed, and grace increased, by
virtue of prayer to God." It is added,
"that the baptism of young children is
in any wise to be retained in the Church,
as most agreeable with the institution of
Christ." In the rubric (see Office for Ministration
of Public Baptism) the Church prescribes,
that baptism be administered only on
Sundays and holy days, except in cases of
necessity. She requires sponsors for in
fants ; for every male child two godfathers
and one godmother ; and for every female
two godmothers and one godfather. We
find this provision made by a constitu
tion of Edmund, archbishop of Canter
bury, a.d. 1236 ; and in a synod held at
Worcester a.d. 1240. By the 29th canon
of our Church, no parent is to be admitted
to answer as godfather to his own child.—
Bp. Gibson's Codex, vol. i. p. 439. (See
Sponsors.) The form of administering baptism is too
well known to require a particular account
to be given of it. We shall only observe
some of the more material differences
between the form, as it stood in the first
liturgy of King Edward, and that in our
Common Prayer Book at present. First,
in that of King Edward, we meet with a
form of exorcism, founded upon the like
practice of the primitive Church, which oui
reformers left out, when they took a re
view of the liturgy in the 5th and 6th of
that king. It begins : —
" Then let the priest, looking upon the
children, say ;
" I command thee, unclean spirit, in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost, that thou come out, and
depart from these infants, whom our Lord
Jesus Christ hath vouchsafed to call to his
holy baptism, to be made members of his
body, and of his holy congregation," &c.
The form of consecrating the water did
not make a part of the office in King
Edward's liturgy, as it does in the present,
because the water in the font was changed
and consecrated but once a month. The
form likewise itself was something different
from that we now use, and was introduced
with a short prayer, that "Jesus Christ,
upon whom (when he was baptized) the
Holy Ghost came down in the likeness of
a dove, would send down the same Holy
Spirit, to sanctify the fountain of baptism;
which prayer was afterwards left out, at the
second review.
In King Edward's First Prayer Book, the
minister is directed to " dip the child in the

BAPTISM
water thrice ; first dipping the right side ;
secondly, the left ; the third time dipping
the face toward the font." This trine im
mersion was a very ancient practice in
the Christian Church, and used in honour
of the Holy Trinity: though some later
writers say, it was done to represent the
death, burial, and resurrection of Christ,
together with his three days' continuance
in the grave. Afterwards, the Arians
making an ill use of it, by persuading the
people that it was used to denote that the
three persons in the Trinity were three
distinct substances, the orthodox left it
off, and used only one single immersion. —
Tertull. adv. Prax. c. 26 ; Greg. Nyss. de
Bapt. Christi ; Cyril, Catech. Mystag.
In the same book, after the child was bap
tised, the godfathers and godmothers were
instructed to lay their hands upon it, and
the minister was to put on him the white
vestment commonly called the Chrysome,
and to say : " Take this white vesture, as a
token of the innocency which, by God's grace,
in this holy sacrament of baptism, is given
unto thee; and for a sign, whereby thou
«,rt admonished, so long as thou Rvest, to
give thyself to innocence of Uving, that,
after this transitory life, thou mayest be
.partaker of the life everlasting. Amen."
As soon as he had pronounced these words,
Re was to anoint the infant on the head,
saying, "Almighty God, the Father of our
iord Jesus Christ, who hath regenerated
thee by water and the Holy Ghost, and
hath given unto thee remission of aR thy
sins; vouchsafe to anoint thee with the
unction of his Holy Spirit, and bring thee
to the inheritance of everlasting life.
Amen." This was manifestly done in imi
tation of the practice of the primitive
•Church. (See Chrysome.)
The custom of sprinkling children, in
stead of dipping them in the font, which
at first was allowed in case of the weak
ness or sickness of the infant, has so far
prevailed, that immersion is at length
almost excluded. What princi'paUy tended
to confirm the practice of affusion or sprink
ling, was, that several of our EngRsh
divines, flying into Germany and Swtzer-
land, during the bloody reign of Queen
Mary, and returning home when Queen
Elizabeth came to the crown, brought back
with them a great zeal for the Protestant
Churches beyond sea where they had been
sheltered and received; and, having ob
served that at Geneva (Calvin, Instit. lib.
iv. c. 15) and some other places baptism
was administered by sprinkling, they
thought they could not do the Church of
England a greater piece of service than by
introducing a practice dictated by so great
;an oracle as Calvin. This, together with

BAPTISM

70

the coldness of our northern climate, was
what contributed to banish entirely the
practice of dipping infants in the font.
It remains to be observed, that, by a
provincial constitution, made in the year
1236, (26th of Hen. III.,) neither the water,
nor the vessel containing it, which have
been made use of in private baptism, are
afterwards to be applied to common uses:
but, out of reverence to the sacrament, the
water is to be poured into the fire, or else
carried into the church and put into the
font; and the vessel to be burnt, or else
appropriated to some use in the church.
But no provision is made for the disposition
of the water used in the font at church.
In the Greek Church, particular care is
taken that it be not thrown into the street
like common water, but poured into a
hoUow place under the altar (called
BaKao-a-ihiov or xav^'ovd where it is soaked
into the earth, or finds a passage. — Brough
ton ; Bp. Gibson's Codex, tit. xviii. c. 2, vol.
i. p. 435 ; Dr. Smith's Account of the Gr.
Church. [H.]
BAPTISM, ADULT. "It was thought
convenient, that some prayers and thanks
givings, fitted to special occasions, should
be added; particularly an office for the
baptism for such as are of riper years ;
which, although not so necessary when the
former book was compiled, yet by the
growth of anabaptism, through the licen
tiousness of the late times crept in amongst
us, is now become necessary, and may be
always useful for the baptizing of natives
in our plantations, and others converted to
the faith." — Preface to the Book of Com
mon Prayer.
Rubric. "When any such persons of
riper years are to be baptized, timely notice
shall be given to the bishop, or whom he
shall appoint for that purpose, a week
before at the least, by the parents or some
other discreet persons; that so due care
may be taken for their examination, whe
ther they be sufficiently instructed in the
principles of the Christian religion ; and
that they may be exhorted to prepare
themselves with prayers and fasting for
the receiving of this holy sacrament. And
if they shall be found fit, then the god
fathers and godmothers (the people being
assembled on the Sunday or holy day
appointed) shall be ready to present them
at the font, immediately after the second
lesson, either at morning or evening prayer,
as the curate in his discretion shall think
fit. And it is expedient that every person
thus baptized should be confirmed by the
bishop, so soon after his baptism as con
veniently may be ; that so he may be ad
mitted to the holy communion."
BAPTISM, INFANT. Article 27.

80

BAPTISM

" The baptism of young children is in
anywise to be retained in the Church, as
most agreeable with the institution of
Christ." Rubric. " The curates of every parish
shaR often admonish the people, that they
defer not the baptism of their children
longer than the first or second Sunday
next after their birth, or other holy day
falling between; unless upon a great and
reasonable cause, to be approved by the
curate." The practice of infant baptism seems to
be a necessary consequence of the doctrine
of original sin and of the grace of baptism.
If it be only by union with Christ that
the children" of Adam can be saved ; and
if, as the Apostle teaches, in baptism " we
put on Christ," then it was natural for
parents to ask for permission to bring their
little ones to Christ, that they might be
partakers of tbe free grace that is offered
to all; but though offered to all, to be
applied individually. It may be because
it is so necessary a consequence of the
doctrine of original sin, that the rite of
infant baptism is not enjoined in Scripture.
But though there is no command in Scrip
ture to baptize infants, and although for
the practice we must plead the tradition
of the Church Universal, still we may find
a warrant in Scripture in favour of the
traditional practice. We find it generally
stated that the apostles baptized whole
households, and Christ our Saviour com
manded them to baptize all nations, of
which infants form a considerable part.
And in giving this injunction, we may
presume that he intended to include in
fants, from the very fact of his not ex
cluding them. For he was addressing
Jews ; and when the Jews converted a hea
then to faith in the God of Israel, they were
accustomed to baptize the convert, together
with all the infants of his family. And,
consequently, when our Lord commanded
Jews, i.e. men accustomed to this practice,
to baptize nations, the fact that he did not
positively repel infants, implied an injunc
tion to baptize them ; and when the Holy
Spirit records that the Apostles, in obe
dience to that injunction, baptized whole
households, the argument gains increased
force. This is probably what St. Paul
means, when, in the seventh chapter of the
First Corinthians, verse 14, he speaks of
the children of believers as being holy:
they are so far holy, that they may be
brought to the sacrament of baptism.
From the Apostles has come down the
practice of baptizing infants, the Church
requiring security, through certain sponsors,
that the children shall be brought up to
lead a godly and a Christian life. And by

BAPTISM
the early Christians the practice was con
sidered sufficiently sanctioned by the pas
sage from St. Mark, which is read in our
baptismal office, in which we are told, that
the Lord Jesus Christ, having rebuked
those that would have kept the children
from him, took them up in his arms and
blessed them. He blessed them, and his
blessing must have conveyed grace to their
souls; therefore, of grace, children may be
partakers. They may receive spiritual life,
though it may be long before that life
develop itself; and that life they may lose
by sinning.
BAPTISM, PRIVATE. Rubric. "The
curates of every parish shaU often warn the
people, that without great cause and ne
cessity, they procure not their children to
be baptized at home in their houses."
Canon 69 insists on the obligation of
ministers baptizing infants in danger of
death. If, having been summoned, the
minister neglect to go, and the infant dies
unbaptized, the said minister shall be sus
pended for three months.
Rubric. " The. child being named by some
one that is present, the minister shall pour
water upon it.
" And let them not doubt, but that the
child so baptized is lawfully and sufficiently
baptized, and- ought not to be baptized
again. Yet, nevertheless, if the child
which is after this sort baptized do after
ward live, it is expedient that it be brought
into the church, to the intent that the
congregation may be certified of the true
form of baptism privately before adminis
tered to such child."
BAPTISM, PUBLIC. At first baptism
was administered publicly, as occasion
served, by rivers; afterwards the baptis
tery was built, at tbe entrance of the
church or very near it, which had a large
basin in it, that held the persons to be
baptized, and they went down by steps
into it. Afterwards, when immersion
came to be disused, fonts were set up at
the entrance of churches.
By the "Laws Ecclesiastical" of King
Edmund, it is directed that there shall be
a font of stone, or other competent mate
rial, in every church; which shall be de
cently covered and kept, and not converted
to other uses.
And by canon 81, There shall be a font
of stone in every church and chapel where
baptism is to be administered ; the same to
be set in the ancient usual places: in
which only font the minister shall baptize
publicly. " The rubric directs that the people are
to be admonished, that it is most conveni
ent that baptism shall not be administered
but upon Sundays and other holy days,

BAPTISM
when the most number of people come to
gether; as weR for that the congregation
there present may testify the receiving of
them that be newly baptized into the
number of Christ's Church, as also because
in the baptism of infants, every man pre
sent may be put in remembrance of his
own profession made to God in his bap
tism. Nevertheless, if necessity so require,
children may be baptized upon any other
day." And by canon 68, No minister shall
refuse or delay to christen any child
according to the form of the Book of
Common Prayer, that is brought to the
church to him upon Sundays and holy
days to be christened (convenient warning
being given him thereof before). And
if he shall refuse so to do, he shall be sus
pended by the bishop of the diocese from
his ministry by the space of three months.
The rubric also directs, that when there
are children to be baptized, the parents
shall give knowledge thereof over-night,
or in the morning before the beginning of
morning prayer, to the curate.
The rubric further directs, that there
shall be for every male child to be bap
tized two godfathers and one godmother ;
and for every female, one godfather and
two godmothers.
By the 29th canon it is directed, that no
parent shall be urged to be present, nor
admitted to answer as godfather for his
own child ; nor any godfather or godmother
shall be suffered to make any other answer
or speech, than by the Book of Common
Prayer is prescribed in that behalf. Neither
shall any persons be admitted godfather
or godmother to any child at christening or
confirmation, before the said person so under
taking hath received the holy communion.
According to the rubric, the godfathers
and godmothers, and the people with the
children, must be ready at the font, either
immediately after the last lesson at morn
ing prayer, or else immediately after the
last lesson at evening prayer, as the curate
by his discretion shall appoint.
The rubric appoints that the priest com
ing to the font, which is then to be filled
with pure water, shall perform the office of
public baptism.
It may be here observed, that the ques
tions in the office of the 2nd Book of Edward
VI., " Dost thou renounce ? " and so on, were
put to the child, and not to the godfathers
and godmothers, which (with all due sub
mission) seems^more applicable to the end
of the institution; besides that it is not
consistent (as it seems) with the propriety
of language, to say to three persons collec
tively, "Dost thou in the name of this
child do this or that?"

BAPTISM

81

By a constitution of Archbishop Peck-»
ham, the ministers are to take care not to
permit wanton names, which being pro
nounced do sound to lasciviousness, to be
given to children baptized, especially of
the female sex ; and if otherwise it be done,
the same shall be changed by the bishop
at confirmation ; which being so changed
at confirmation (Lord Coke says) shall be
deemed the lawful name, though this ap
pears to be no longer the case. In the
ancient offices of Confirmation, the bishop
pronounced the name of the child; and if
the bishop did not approve of the name, or
the person to be confirmed, or his friends,
desired it to be altered, it might be done by
the bishop's then pronouncing a new name ;
but by the form of the present liturgy, the
bishop doth not pronounce the name of the
person to be confirmed, and therefore can
not alter it.
The rubric goes on to direct — The priest,
taking the child into his hands, shall say
to the godfathers and godmothers, " Name
this child : " and then naming it after them,
(if they shall certify him that the child
may well endure it,) he shall dip it in the
water discreetly and warily, saying, " N. I
baptize thee in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."
But if they certify that the child is weak,
it shall suffice to pour water upon it.
Here we may observe that the dipping
by the office of the 2nd Book of Edward VI.
was not of the whole body ; but they first
dipped the right side, then the left, then
the face towards the font.
The rubric directs that the minister shall
sign the child with the sign of the cross.
And to take away all scruple concerning
the same, the true explication thereof, and
the just reasons for retaining of this cere
mony, are set forth in the thirtieth canon.
The substance of which canon is this, that
the first Christians gloried in the cross of
Christ; that the Scripture sets forth our
whole redemption under the name of the
cross ; that the sign of the cross was used
by the first Christians in all their actions,
and especially in the baptizing of their
children ; that the abuse of it by the Church
of Rome does not take away the lawful use
of it ; that the same has been approved by
the reformed divines, with sufficient cau
tions nevertheless against superstition in
the use of it ; that it is no part of the sub
stance of this sacrament, and that the infant
baptized is by virtue of baptism, before it
be signed with the sign of the cross, received
into the congregation of Christ's flock as a
perfect member thereof, and not by any
power ascribed to the sign of the cross ; and
therefore, that the same, being purged from
all Popish superstition and error, and re-
G

82

BAPTISM

duced to its primary institution, upon those
rules of doctrine concerning things indiffer
ent which are consonant to the word of
God and to the judgments of all the ancient
fathers, ought to be retained in the Church,
considering that things of themselves in
different do, in some sort, alter their natures
when they become enjoined and not pro-
Ribited by lawful authority.
BAPTISM, REGISTRATION OF.
When the minister has baptized the child
he has a further duty to perform, in making
anentry thereof in the parish register, which
is a book in which formerly all christenings,
marriages, and burials were recorded, and
the use of which is enforced both by the
canon law and by the statute.
The keeping of parochial registries of
baptism, and also of burial, are, so far as
regards the duties of clergymen in that
respect, regulated by the statute 52 Geo.
III. c. 146, whereby it is enacted that re
gisters of public and private baptisms,
marriages, and burials, solemnized accord
ing to the rites of our Church, shaR be
made and kept by the rector or other the
officiating minister of every parish or cha
pelry, on books of parchment, or durable
paper, to be provided by the king's printer,
at the expense of the parishes; and the
particular form of the book, and of the
manner of making the entries, are directed
according to a form in the schedule to
the act.
The register book is to be deemed the
property of the parish; the custody of it
is to be in the rector or other officiating
minister, by whom it is to be kept in an
iron chest provided by the parish, either
in his own house, if he resides in the parish,
or in the church, and the book is to be
taken from the chest only for the purpose
of making entries, being produced when
necessary in evidence, or for some of the
purposes mentioned in the Act.
The Act 6 & 7 W. IV., called the General
Registration Act, provides that nothing
therein contained shaR affect the registration
of baptisms or burials, as now by law
established ; so that whatever any parish
ioner, incumbent, or curate had respectively
a right to insist upon, with regard to the
regulation of baptisms, may be equally
insisted upon by either party now. There
are, however, enactments of 6 & 7 W. IV.
c. 86, which are to be observed in addition
to those of 52 Geo. HI. c. 146.
If any child born in England, whose birth
shall have been registered according to the
provisions of 6 & 7 W, IV. c. 86, shall,
within six calendar months after it has
been so registered, have any name given to
it in baptism, the parents or persons so
procuring such name to be given may,

BAPTISTS
within seven days afterwards, procure and
deliver to the registrar a certificate ac
cording to a prescribed form, signed by the
minister who shall have performed the rite
of baptism, which certificate the minister is
required to deliver immediately after the
baptism, whenever it shall then be de
manded, on payment of the fee of Is., which
he shaR be entitled to receive for the same;
and the registrar, or superintendent registrar,
upon the receipt of that certificate, .and
upon payment of a fee of Is., shall, without
any erasure of the original entry, forthwith
register that the child was baptized by such
a name; and such registrar, or super
intendent registrar, shaR thereupon certify
upon the certificate the additional entry So
made, and forthwith send the certificate
through the post to the registrar-general.
Every rector, &c, and every registrar, &c,
who shall have the keeping for the time
being of any register book, shall, at all
reasonable times, aRow searches to be made,
and shaR give a copy certified under his
hand of any entry or entries in the same,
upon payment of a fee of Is., for every
search extending over a period of not more
than one year, and 6d. additional for every
haR year, and 2s. 6d. for every single
certificate. [H.]
BAPTISTERY. Properly a separate, or
special, building for the administration of
holy baptism. In this sense, a baptistery,
originally intended and used for the purpose,
exists in England at Cranbrook in Kent;
for that which is caRed the baptistery at
Canterbury, and contains the font, was
never so called, or so furnished, tiR the last
century. The remains of an ancient bap
tistery chapel have lately been discovered
in Ely cathedral ; and the chapel has now
been restored.
One of the most ancient baptisteries now
existing is that of St. John Lateran at
Rome, erected by Constantine. It is a
detached building, and octagonal. In the
centre is a large font of green basalt, into
which the persons to be baptized descended
by the four steps which stiR remain. It
has two side chapels or exedrae.
Detached baptisteries stiR exist in many
cities in Italy : the most famous are those
at Florence and Pisa. These served for the
whole city; anciently no town churches
but the cathedral church having fonts.
(See Bingham, book viii. ch. 7, § 6.)
Sometimes the canopy to the font grows
to so great amplitude as to be supported by
its own pillars, and to receive persons within
it at the baptismal service, and then it may
be called a baptistery. This is the case at
Trunch and at Aylsham, both in Norfolk.
(See Font)— Did. Christ. Ant. i. 176.
BAPTISTS. A name assumed by those

BAPTISTS
who deny the validity of infant baptism,
defer the baptism of their own children,
and admit proselytes into their community
by a second baptism. They would be more
properly called Anabaptists, from their bap
tizing again (see Anabaptists) ; or Antipajdo-
baptists, from their denying the validity of
infant baptism.
1. History. The Baptists sprang origin
ally from the Brownists, or early Independ
ents, who had a good deal of communication
with the Dutch Anabaptists. In 1633,
from a congregation of Dissenters of this
sort, a number determined to secede, and
form a new congregation of their own,
holding very distinct views against infant
baptism. This they did under Spilsbury,
and were the first assembly of so called
Baptists. Another congregation was formed
in Crutched Friars in 1639, of whom one
Blunt was sent over to Holland to' be
baptized, and on his return baptized the
other members. But though thus they
acknowledged the principle, they did not of
course hold apostolic succession, (Crosby's
Hist Eng. Baptists, i. 101 seq.) Their
numbers increased, and in 1646 there were
said to be forty-six of their congregations
in and about London, and in America also
Roger Williams was propagating the doc
trines of this sect. During the Rebellion
the Baptists exercised considerable influence,
but so great was the difference of opinion
amongst men at that time, and with so
little sound thought was it accompanied,
that in one year (March 1647) a declaration
in favour of Baptist theories was pro
mulgated by the Lords and Commons,
while in the next year (May 2, 1648) an
ordinance was passed declaring that the
propagation of such doctrine was unlawful.
— Neale's Hist. Purit. iii. 375.
Before the Restoration a division took
place among the Baptists, though they had
been in existence so short a time, (i.) The
General Baptists, called also Arminian
Baptists, held the anti-Calvinistic doc
trine — that Christ died to save all, not only
an elect few. These- became imbued with
Unitarian ideas so much that in 1770 a
number seceded from them and called
themselves the "New Connection of
General Baptists." (ii.) The Particular
Baptists retain the same opinions as their
sect did when it was first originated in
1633. Their title is derived from their
holding the Calvinistic doctrine of " Par
ticular Redemption." The Baptist Union
was formed in 1812, in order to unite the
different sections, but the term " Baptist "
generally means the Particular Baptists.
Of late years there has been a great amount
of energy amongst this sect, and especially
with regard to providing education for their

BAPTISTS

83

ministers. There are ten colleges in Eng
land, Wales, and Scotland for this purpose ;
and Mr. C. H. Spurgeon in London has not
only caused a large " tabernacle " or chapel
to be raised for his ministrations, but has
organised schools, training associations, and
other institutions in connexion with it,
which reflect the highest credit upon his
perseverance, ability, and power of organisa
tion. II. Doctrine. The members of this
denomination are distinguished from aR
other professing Christians by their opinions
respecting the ordinance of Christian bap
tism. Conceiving that positive institutions
cannot be' established by analogical reason
ing, but depend on the will of the Saviour
revealed in express precepts, and that
apostolical example illustrative of this is
the rule of duty, they differ from their
Christian brethren with regard both to the
subjects and the mode of baptism. With
respect to the subjects, from the command
which Christ gave after his resurrection,
and in which baptism is mentioned as con
sequent to faith in the Gospel, they conceive
them to be those, and those only, who
believe what the apostles were then enjoined
to preach. With respect to the mode, they
affirm that, instead of the water being
sprinkled or poured, the person ought to be
immersed in it, referring to the primitive
practice, and observing that the baptizer as
well as the baptized having gone down into
the water, the latter is baptized in it and both
come up out of it. (Acts viii. 38, 39.) They
say that John baptized in the Jordan, and that
Jesus, after being baptized, came up out of it.
Believers are said also to be " buried with
Christ by baptism into death, wherein also
they are risen with Him ;" and the Baptists
insist that this is a doctrinal allusion in
compatible with any other mode than im
mersion. But they say that their views of
this institution are much more confirmed,
and may be better understood, by studying
its nature and import. They consider it as
an impressive emblem of that by which
their sins are remitted or washed away, and
of that on account of which the Holy Spirit
is given to those who obey the Messiah. In
other words, they view Christian baptism
as a figurative representation of that which
the Gospel of Jesus is in testimony. To
this the mind of the baptized is therefore
naturally led, while spectators are to con
sider him as professing his faith in the
Gospel, and his subjection to the Redeemer.
The Baptist therefore would say, that none
ought to be baptized except those who seem
to believe this Gospel ; and that immersion
is not properly a mode of baptism, but
baptism itself.
Thus the English and most foreign Bap-
a 2

84

BARDESANISTS

tists consider a personal profession of faith
and an immersion in water as essential to
baptism. The profession of faith is generally
made before the congregation, at a church
meeting. On these occasions some have a
creed to which they expect the candidate to
assent, and to give a circumstantial account
of -his conversion ; but others require only a
profession of his faith as a Christian. The
former generally consider baptism as an
ordinance, which initiates persons into a
particular church ; and they say that with
out breach of Christian liberty, they have a
right to expect an agreement in articles of
faith in their own societies. The latter
think that baptism initiates merely into a
profession of the Christian religion, and
therefore say that they haye no right to
require an assent to their creed from such
as do not intend to join their communion ;
and in support of their opinion, they quote
the baptism of the eunuch, in the eighth
chapter of the Acts of the Apostles. Some
of both the general and particular sections
allow mixed communion, by which is under
stood, that those who have not been baptized
by immersion on the profession of their
faith, (but in their infancy, which they
themselves deem valid,) may sit down at
the Lord's table along with those who have
been baptized. This has given rise to much
controversy on the subject.
Some of both classes of Baptists are, at
the same time, Sabbatarians, and, with the
Jews, observe the seventh day of the week
as the Sabbath. This has been adopted by
them from a persuasion that all the ten
commandments are in their nature strictly
moral, and that the observance of the
seventh day was never abrogated or re
pealed by our Saviour or his apostles.
In discipline, the Baptists differ little
from the Independents. In Scotland they
have some peculiarities, not necessary to
notice. [H.]
BARDESANISTS. Christian heretics in
the East, and the followers of Bardesanes,
or Bardaisan, son of Daisan, who lived in
Mesopotamia in the second century, and
was first the disciple of Valentinus, but
quitted that heresy, and wrote not only
against it, but against the Marcionite and
other heresies of his time; he afterwards
unhappily fell into the errors he had refuted.
The Bardesanists differed from the Catholic
Church on three points : 1. They held the
devil to be a self-existent, independent
being. 2. They taught that our Lord was
not born of a woman, but brought his body
with him from heaven. 3. They denied
the resurrection of the body. (Euseb. Hist.
Eccles. iv. c. 30 ; Epiph. Hseres. 5, 6 ; Origen,
contr Marcion, § 3, p. 70, ed. Wetstein.) Two
good monographs on Bardaisan have been

BAESANIANS
produced in Germany (i.) by Merx, 1863,
(ii.) by Hilgenfeld, 1864. (See Diet, of
Christian Biography, s. v. Bardaisan.)
BARNABAS, EPISTLE OF. The
Epistle of St. Barnabas was published by
Archbishop Wake, among his translations
of the works of the Apostolic Fathers ; but
by others it is referred to the second century,
and is supposed to be the work of a converted
Alexandrian Jew. By Clemens Alexandrinus
and Origen, by Eusebius and St. Jerome,
the work is attributed to St. Barnabas,
though they declare that it ought not to be
esteemed of the same authority as the
canonical books, "because, although, Mt
really belongs to St. Barnabas, yet it is not
generally received by the whole Catholic
Church." — Clem. Alex. Strom, lib. ii. ; Orig.
contr. Cels. lib. i. ; Du Pin, Can. Scnjp. tonu
ii. c. v. ; Wake's Genuine Epist. See " Apos
tolical Fathers," Smith's Diet of Christian
Biography ; Hefele, Das SendschreiSbe%, des
Apostels Barnabas ; and J. G. Miiller,
Erkldrung des Barnabasbriefes,
BARNABAS' DAY (ST.). 11th of
June. This apostle was born in the island
of Cyprus, and was descended from parents
of the house of Levi, He became a student
of the Jewish law, under Gamaliel, who
was also the instructor of St. Paul. St.
Barnabas was one of those who freely
gave up his worldly goods into the com
mon stock, which was voluntarily formed
by the earliest converts to Christianity.
After the conversion of St. Paul, St. Bar
nabas had the distinguished honour of
introducing him into the society of the
apostles ; and was afterwards his fellow-
labourer in many places, especially at An
tioch, where the name of Christian was
first assumed by the followers of Jesus.
It has been said that St. Barnabas founded
the Church of Milan, and that he was
stoned to death at Salamis, in Cyprus;
but these accounts are very uncertain.
For the Epistle ascribed to him, see tho
preceding article.
BARNABITES. Called canons regular
of St. Paul: an order of Romish monks
approved by Pope Clement VII. and Pope
Paul III. There have been several learned
men of the order, and they have several
monasteries in France, Italy, and Savoy:
they call them by the name of canons of
St. Paul, because their first founders had
their denomination from their reading St.
Paul's Epistles ; and they are named Bar-
nabites for their particular devotion for St.
Barnabas.— Du Pin, Hist. Ant. xvi.
BARSANIANS, or SEMIDULITES.
Heretics that began to appear in the sixth
age ; they maintained the errors of the
Gradanaites, and made their sacrifices
consist in taking wheat flour on the top

BARTHOLOMEW'S
of their finger, and carrying it to their
mouths. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY (ST.). 24th
of August is the day appointed for the
commemoration of this apostle. In the
catalogue of the apostles, which is given
by the first three of the Evangelists, and in
the Acts (see Apostles) Bartholomew makes
one of the number. As he is always named
by them immediately after Philip, and St.
John, who does not mention Bartholomew,
records the introduction of Nathanael to our
Lord by Philip, it has been commonly sup
posed that Bartholomew and Nathanael were
the same person. St. Bartholomew is said
to have preached the gospel in the Greater
Armenia, and to have converted the Lyca-
bnians to Christianity. It is also believed
that he carried the gospel into India : and
as there is no record of his return, it is not
improbable that he suffered martyrdom in
that country. — Euseb. H. E. v. 10.
On St. Bartholomew's day was committed
that most horrid and atrocious carnage,
called the Parisian Massacre. In the reign
of Charles IX., numbers of the principal
Protestants, or Huguenots, were invited to
Paris, under solemn oath of safety, to
celebrate the marriage of the King of
Navarre, with the sister of the French king.
On Aug. 24, 1572, there was a general
massacre of the " heretics," the king him
self taking part in it. Ten thousand per
sons of all ranks, and among them Admiral
Coligny, were slaughtered in Paris ; and the
lust of carnage spread. At most of the
chief towns in France, and especially at
Lyons, similar atrocities were committed,
•insomuch that it is asserted that on this
dreadful occasion more than 30,000 persons
¦were put to death. This atrocious massacre
met with the deliberate approbation of the
pope and authorities of the Romish Church.
See Hook's Archbishops, ix. 456; White's
Hist, of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew
(Murray.) pi.]
BARUCH (THE PROPHECY OF).
One of the apocryphal books, subjoined
to the canon of the Old Testament. Ba-
ruch was the son of Neriah, who was the
disciple and amanuensis of the prophet
Jeremiah. It has been reckoned part of
Jeremiah's prophecy, and is often cited by
the ancient fathers as such. Josephus
tells us, Baruch was descended of a noble
family ; and it is said, in the book itself,
that he wrote this prophecy at Babylon ;
•but at what time is uncertain. — Clem.
Alexand. Psedag. ch. x. ; Cyprian, de Testi-
mon. ad Quirinum, lib. ii.
Three copies of this book are extant, one
in Greek, two in Syriac; but which of
these, if any, is the original, is uncertain.
(Hieron. in Frxfat ad Jerem.) The Jews

BASILICA

85

rejected this book, because it did not appear
to have been written in Hebrew ; nor is it in
the catalogue of sacred books given us by
Origen, Hilary, Ruffinus, and others. But in
the Pseudo-Laodicene catalogue and in those
of SS. Cyril, Epiphanius, and Athanasius, it
is contained as a separate book.
BAS1LIAN MONKS. Monks of the
order of St. Basil, who lived in the fourth
century. He founded a monastery in the
province of Pontus (Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, xxxvii.) and for the better regulation
of this new society, he drew up certain rules,
which were to be binding upon all who
entered his order. This new order soon
spread over all the East, and it was not long-
before it passed into the West. Some
authors pretend that St. Basil, before he
died, saw himself the spiritual father of
more than 90,000 monks in the East only ;
but this order, which flourished for more
than three centuries, was considerably di
minished by heresy, schism, and the change
of Empire. Constantine Copronymus per
secuted the Basilian Monks, and many of
their monasteries were abandoned, and spoiled
of their goods. It is said that this order
produced 14 popes, 1805 bishops, 3010 ab
bots, and 11,085 martyrs. It also boasts of
several emperors, kings and princes who
have embraced its rule. Tbe Basilian Monks
of Sicily, Calabria, and Rome follow the
Greek rite, but conform in many things to
the Latin Church. They add the words
" qui ex patre filioque procedit," in the
Creed, which the Greeks do not. In Spain
Clement VIII. gave the Basilian Monks
constitutions, which are inserted in his
brief of Sept. 23, 1603. The order of St.
Basil prevails almost exclusively in the
orthodox Greek Churches. — Tillemont, Hist
Eccles. torn, ix., St. Basil, art. 21, 22.
BASILICA. The halls of justice and of
other public business among the Romans
were thus called ; and many of them when
converted into Christian churches retained
the same name. The general ground plan
of the basilica was also frequently retained
in the erection of a church. The basilica
terminated with a conchoidal recess, or apsis
(see Apse), where the praetor, and magistrate
sat : beneath this was a transverse hall or
gallery, the origin of the transept, and below
was the great hall with its side passages,
afterwards called the nave and aisles.
The bishop of Rome had seven cathe
drals called Basilica?. Six of these were
erected or converted into churches by
Constantine, viz. St. John Lateran, (the
regular cathedral of Eome,) the ancient
church of St. Peter, on the Vatican Hill,
St. Sebastian, St. Laurence, the Holy
Cross, St. Mary the Greater; and one by
Theodosius, viz. St. Paul. There are other

86

BASILIDIANS

very ancient churches in Eome, basilicas in
form and name, but not cathedrals; for
example, St. Clement's church, supposed to
have been originally the house of the
apostolical Dishop of that name, and the
most ancient existing church in the world.
Several Italian churches are called basilicas ;
at Milan especially ; often more than one in
a city. (See Cathedrals.)
It is sometimes said, but without any
certain foundation, that some of the
churches in England with circular apsidal
terminations of the chancel, (such as Kil-
peck and Steetly,) were originally Eoman
Basilicas. They rather derive their form
from the Oriental country churches, which
are uniformly apsidal. The most that can
be said of them is, that they do, in some
respects, resemble the basilicas in arrange
ment. But as to the cathedrals of England,
the case is different : and since old Saxon
or Norman churches were unquestionably
local developments of the Eoman style in
their architectural features, it is possible
that they derived from Rome the charac
teristics uniformly observed in the old
basilicas. The conversion of the apses into
sepulchral chapels for shrines, as at West
minster and Canterbury, as superstition
increased, destroyed the ancient arrange
ments. BASILIDIANS. A sect of the Gnostic
heretics, the followers of Basilides, of Alex
andria, a disciple of Menander. Cave as
signs the date a.d. 112 to him : he was
certainly alive in the reign of Hadrian (117-
138), as Clemens Alexandrinus tells us, who
knew him personally. Between St. John's
death and Hadrian's reign, only 20 years
elapsed, during which time heresies grew
with " mushroom growth." Basilides
taught that from the Unborn Father was
born his Mind, and from him the Word,
from him Understanding ((ppdwjo-ts), from
~him Wisdom and Power, and from them
Excellencies, and Princes, and Angels,
who made a heaven. He then introduced
a successive series of angelic beings, each
set derived from the preceding one, to the
number of 365, and each the author of
their own peculiar heaven. To aR these
angels and heavens he gave names, and
assigned the local situations of the heavens.
The first of them is called Abraxas, a
mystical name, containing in it the number
365 : the last and lowest is the one which
we see ; the creators of which made this
world, and divided its parts and nations
amongst them. In this division the Jew
ish nation came to the share of the prince
of the angels ; and ,as he wished to bring
all other nations into subjection to his
favourite nation, the other angelic princes
and their nations resisted him and his

BASON
nation. The Supreme Father, seeing
this state of things, sent his first-begotten
Mind, who is also called Christ, to deliver
those who should believe in him from the
power of the creators. He accordingly^
appeared to mankind as a man, and wrought'
mighty deeds. He did. not, however, really
suffer, but changed forms with Simon of
Cyrene, and stood by laughing, while
Simon suffered ; and afterwards, being
himself incorporeal, ascended into heaven.
Building upon this transformation, Basili
des taught his disciples that they might,
at all times deny him that was crucified,
and that they alone who did so understood
the providential dealings of the Most
High, and by that knowledge were freed
from the power of the angels, whilst those
who confessed him remained under their
power. Like Saturninus, however, but in
other words, he asserted that the soul alone
was capable of salvation, but the body
necessarily perishable. He taught, more
over, that they who knew his whole system,
and could recount the names of the angels,
&c, were invisible to them all, and could
pass through and see them, without being
seen in return ; that they ought likewise
to keep themselves individually and per
sonally unknown to common men, and even
to deny that they are what they are ; that
they should assert themselves to be neither
Jews nor Christians, and by no means re
veal their mysteries. — Epiph. Hseres. xxiv.
c. 1 ; Uhlhorn, das Basilidianische System,
1855 ; Gnostic Heresies, by Dean Mansel ;
Article Basilides in Dictionary of Christian
Biography; Clemens Alex. Strom, vi.;
Tertull. de Prsescrip. xlvi. ; Aug. Hser. iv. ;
Cave, Hist Liter. Ssec. Gnosticum.
BASLE, CONFESSION OF. This was
composed by certain Protestants, who met
together at Basle in 1532, under the feeling
that the Confession of Augsburg retained
too much of Catholic doctrine and practice.
It was remodelled by Bucer and the Wur-
temburg theologians ; and became the Hel
vetic confession. Afterwards, in 1560, it was
translated into Latin by Bullinger, and re
ceived generally by the Protestant Evangeli
cal Committees. It consisted of 27 articles,
treating of the subjects then in controversy,
such as "original sin," "free will," "in
sufficiency of good works," "the invisible
Church," " no succession of orders," " sacrar
ments," "exclusion of ornaments, images,
vestments, &c, and all ' such profane ad
juncts.' "—Blunt, Diet. Sects, p. 449;
Stubbs' Mosheim, iii. 23.
BASON (or BASIN) [so spelt in the
sealed books] FOR THE OFFERTOKY.
" Whilst the sentences for the Offertory are
in reading, the deacons, church-wardens,
and other fit- persons appointed for that

BATH-KOL
purpose, shall receive the alms for the poor,
and other devotions of the people, in a
decent bason, to be provided by the parish
for that purpose." — -Rubric.
It ia clear from this expression, " other
devotions," that our reformers did not in
tend to interfere with the ancient destina
tion of alms in the holy communion ; but
that they intended that all our gifts,
whether for the relief of the poor — to which
indeed the Church assigns the first place —
or for any other good purpose, should be
made as an offering to God ; the word
devotions signifying an act of giving up and
dedicating to Almighty God, and accom
panied with prayer. (See Offertory.)
BATH-KOL, or BATH-COL, signifies
Daughter of the Voice. It is a name by
which the Jewish writers distinguish what
they call a revelation from God, after verbal
prophecy had ceased in Israel, that is, after
the prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
The generality of their tradition and customs
are founded on this Bath-Kol. They pre
tend that God revealed them to their elders,
not by prophecy, but by secret inspiration,
or tradition: and this they call the Daughter
of the Voice. The Bath-Kol, as Dr. Prideaux
shows (Connect, pt. ii. bk. 5), was a fantas
tical way of divination, invented by the
Jews, like the Sortes Virgilianse among the
heathens. With the heathen the words they
happened to dip upon, in opening the works
of Virgil, were the oracle by which they prog
nosticated those future events of which they
desired to be impressed. In like manner by
the Jews, when they appealed to Bath-
Kol, the next words which they heard were
considered as the desired oracle. , Some
Christians, when Christianity began to be
corrupted, used the Scriptures in the same
manner as the heathens employed the works
of Virgil. At the consecration of William,
second Norman bishop of Norwich, the Bible,
it is said, was " dipped " into, and the words
" not this man but Barabbas," came up. —
Du Cange.CWoss. in Sortes ; Wharton, Anglia
Sacra. BATTLE, or more properly, BATTEL,
Wager of. One of the ancient forms of
ordeal or appeal to the judgment of God,
in the old Norman courts of the kingdom.
(See Ordeal.) Under certain circumstances
the accused at a trial might throw down his
glove, and declare his willingness to defend
his innocence with his body. Both accuser
and accused, before battle, took solemn oath
on the Gospel that their cause was right,
and repeated the formula " So help me God,
and His saints." In "the court of chivalry
the proceedings were somewhat different.
A full account of this ordeal is given by
Lingard (vol. ii. p. 288, ed. 1837).
Trial by battle was used not only in

BEADS

87

military and criminal cases, but also in one
kind of civil action, namely, in writs of
right, which were not to determine the jus
possessionis, but the less obvious and more
profound question of the jus proprietatis.
In the simplicity of ancient times, it was
thought not unreasonable that a matter of
such difficulty should be left to the decision
of Providence by the wager of battle. In
this case the battle was waged by cham
pions, because, in civil actions, if any party
to the suit dies, the suit must abate, or end,
and therefore no judgment could be given.
The last trial by battle that was allowed
in the Court of Common Pleas at West
minster was in the thirteenth year of
Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1571, as reported
by Sir James Dyer ; and was held in Tothill
Fields "non sine magna juris consulto-
rum perturbatione." There was after
wards one in the Court of Chivalry in 1631,
and another in the county palatine of
Durham in 1628.
The Wager of Battle was accounted ob
solete, until it was unexpectedly demanded
and admitted in 1817, in a case of murder,
but not held ; and it has since been abolished.
by Act of Parliament, 59 George III. c. 46. '
BAY. (More anciently Severy.) One'
whole compartment of a church or hall,
which comprises several similar and equal
or nearly equal divisions, generally marked
off by pillars with an arch between them. •
In very large churches there are generally
one or more openings above the main arches,
into the space between the vaulting and the
outer roof of the aisles, which are called the
triforium, whether there are three or more,
or fewer openings, like unglazed windows.
Over these come the clearstory windows to'
give light into the church, of which the
tops are very little below the stone vaulting
of the nave, if there is any. In smaller,
and in very late large churches, such as
Bath Abbey, there is no triforium, but
larger clearstory windows than in the
earlier styles.
BEADS, or BEDES. A word of Saxon
origin, which properly signifies prayers;
hence Bidding the Bedes meant desiring the
prayers of the congregation, and from the
forms used for this purpose before the
Reformation is derived the Bidding of
prayer, prescribed by the English canons
of 1603. (See Bidding Prayer.) From
denoting the prayers themselves, the word
came to mean the little balls used by the
Romanists in rehearsing and numbering
their Ave-marias and Pater-nosters. (See
Rosary.) A similar practice prevails among
the dervises and other religious persons
throughout the East, as well Mahometans
as Buddhists and other heathens. The
ancient form of the Bedes, or Bidding-

88

BEATIFICATION

Prayer, is given in Collier's Eccl. Hist.
Records, No- liv., vol. ix. p. 234, ed. 1841,
which shows that our present Bidding
Prayer was founded on that model. [H.]
BEATIFICATION. (See Canonization.)
In the Romish Church, the act by which
the pope declares a person happy after death.
Beatification differs from canonization. In
the former the pope does not act as a judge
in determining the state of the beatified, but
only grants a privilege to certain persons to
honour him by a particular religious worship,
without incurring the penalty of super
stitious worshippers. In canonization the
pope speaks as a judge, and determines, ex
cathedra, on the state of the canonized. It
is remarkable, that particular orders of
monks assume to themselves the power of
beatification. . BEDDEEN, BEDEENA. The name
still retained of the vicar's college at York,
and of the old collegiate building at Beverley.
Query, whether it may be somewhat the
same as Bedehouse, i.e. an hospital ? — Jebb.
BEDE, BED A, or more correctly BAEDA,
commonly called the Venerable Presbyter,
commemorated May 27. He was born at
or near Jarrow, in Northumberland, and edu
cated in the monastery of that name, and
the sister monastery of Wearmouth. He
wrote many works, chiefly theological, but
the most celebrated is the Historia Ecclesi-
astica Gentis Anglorum. He died in 735. [H.]
'¦ BEGHARDS. A sect of mediaeval here
tics. The name is derived from the old
German " beggen," or " beggeren," and, per
haps, at one time, the foUowers were at
tracted by high motives in leading a life of
honesty. But this cannot be said generally
of the Beghards in the middle ages, who
were mere vagrants. They were associated
with the Fraticelli in the thirteenth century,
held Antinomian ideas, and had the gravest
charges of immorality laid against them. —
Mosheim, de Beghardis, et Beguinabus;
Stubbs' Soames' Eccl. Hist. ii. 73, 206. (See
Adamites ; Picards.)
, BEGUINES. An association of nuns,
' similar to the above. The name is derived
either from St. Begghe, duchess of Brabant,
in the seventh century, or from Lambert
le Begue, a priest and native of Liege,
who lived in the twelfth century ; or, as
is most likely, from the old German " beg
gen." They were established first at Liege,
and afterwards at Nivelle, in 1207, or, as
some say, in 1226. From this last settle
ment sprang the great number of Beguin-
ages, which are spread over all Flanders, and
which have passed from Flanders into
Germany. In the latter country, some of
them fell into extravagant errors, and per
suaded themselves that it was possible in
the present life to attain to the highest per-

BELLS
fection, even to impeccability, and a clear
view of God, and in short, to so eminent a
degree of contemplation, that, after this,
there was no necessity of submitting to the
laws of mortal men, civil or ecclesiastical.
The Council of Vienne, in 1311, condemned
these errors, but permitted those who con
tinued in the true faith to live in chastity
and penitence, either with or without vows.
There stiR subsist many communities of
Beguines in Flanders. — Hist des Ord. Relig.
viii. c. i.
BEL AND THE DRAGON (THE
HISTOEY OF). An apocryphal and un-
canonical book of Scripture. It was always
rejected by the Jewish Church, and is extant
neither in the Hebrew nor the Chaldee lan
guage, nor is there any proof that it ever
was so. St. Jerome gives it no better, title
than " the fable of Bel and the Dragon." In
the old Lectionary of. the Church of England,
it was appointed to be read, but in the new
Lectionary it is omitted.
BELFRY. The place where the hells
are hung; sometimes being a small arch
placed on the gable of the church, some
times a tower or turret. The belfries were
originally detached from the church, as may
be still seen in many places in Italy. In
stances of this have been known in England.
as at Chichester, and at Salisbury (the
belfry in the latter place was destroyedJby
Wyatt the architect, with multitudes of
other antiquities there and in other cathe
drals about a century ago). The great
central towers of our cathedrals and abbeys
were not originaRy constructed for bells, but
for lanterns, to give light to the central
portion of the church. The bells were con
tained in the towers, or turrets, at the west
end, or at the angles of the church. Many
churches had more than one bell tower. In
Canterbury, York, Lichfield, Lincoln, Wells,
St. Paul's, the. ring of bells is contained in
one of the western towers. Among bell-
ringers the place where they ring is called
the belfry,nnd the place where the bells are,
the beR-chamber.
BELIEVERS (mo-rol, or Faithful). A
name given to the baptized in the early
Church, as distinguished from the Catechu
mens. The believer was admitted to all the
rites of Divine worship, and instructed in all
the mysteries of the Christian religion.'—
Bingham, bk. i. c. 3.
BELLS. Bells of a small size are very
ancient, but larger ones are of a much later
date. The lower part of the blue robe worn
by the Jewish high priest was adorned with
pomegranates and gold bells. The kings of
Persia are said to have had the hem of their
robes adorned in like manner. But bells of
that kind, and the only ones that were
known fpr many centuries after that, were

BELLS
made of thin sheet metal, and not cast of a
thick brittle metal like church bells. The
origin of them is very obscure. They are
said in various books to have been invented
by Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania,
about 400 a.d., but that is not very proba
ble, though he may have first used them ;
and it has been denied by other writers, but
no other origin has been discovered. Large bells
existed in the ninth century in some of our
abbeys. For a long time there were no
fixed bell-foundries, probably from the diffi
culty of carrying heavy bells by road in
early times, when even building stones were
carried by pack-horses. The founders
traveRed about and cast bells where they
were wanted, as bell-founding does not re
quire anything like the heat of iron smelt
ing ; indeed, you can melt bits of .bell metal
in a common fire, though not the copper
without the tin, which helps it to fuse. The
best bell metal consists of thirteen lbs. of
copper to one of tin, and with no other in
gredient ; silver in bells is a mere vulgar
error and does no good, and all inferior
metals are mere adulteration. A great deal
of historical and other matter about bells
will be found in the Rev. H. T. Ellacombe's
' Bells of Devon,' &c. ;. and aR the practical
information about making and hanging bells
in Sir E. Beckett's 'Clocks, Watches and
Bells,' together with the particulars of the
principal large bells in the world, and the
largest peals in England, and instructions
for making contracts with founders to secure
good ones. Modern experience dbes not
justify the notion of some persons, that
better bells are made abroad than the best
that are made here. No other European
country rings peals of bells as we do, though
they play a much greater number of small
bells in chimes, either by hand or by
machinery. The best number for a peal of
very heavy bells is ten ; it is impossible to hear
twelve bells distinctly of any weight that
can be rung. All peals of bells sound the
notes of the diatonic scale, and therefore
they all depend upon the largest beR or
tenor of the peal. Nevertheless, they are
always numbered from the smallest or
treble. Consequently, a peal can only be
increased in number at the smaller end,
unless some of the middle bells are changed
to make the notes come right : except that
four larger ones, but no less number, may
be added to make a peal of six into ten.
Six are the lowest number that make a
pleasant peal, but five will just do.
, It may be useful to mention that there is
absolutely no cure for a cracked bell but
recasting it, for which the invariable price
is two guineas a cwt., though the price of
new ones fluctuates from six to seven. The
heaviest beR in England is the new one of

BELL-RINGING

89

St. Paul's Cathedral, but it is ill-placed and
hard to ring, and the clock does not strike
on it, and so it is much less effective- than
the rather smaller and partially cracked Big
Ben of Westminster. The largest ringing
peal also is in the same cathedral ; and that
and Worcester are decidedly the finest.
There are a few larger in town halls, but
only used for chiming by machinery. Steel
bells were tried for a time, being cheaper
than bell metal, but the sound is very in
ferior, and in fact so unpleasant that it is
absurd to spend money on them. Those
who contemplate having good peals of bells
in new churches should take care beforehand
that the tower is built large enough to hold
them properly, according to the rules given
in the aforesaid book on clocks and bells.
It would be useless to go into more de
tails here.
The incumbent has the control of the
bells, as has been several times decided, but
he would probably not be allowed to stop
their being properly rung for service
against the churchwardens, as the rubric
orders at least one to be rung then. But
certainly at no other times have they or
their ringers any right of entrance to the
belfry. Nor may the bells be rung at
other times so as to cause a nuisance. An
incumbent when inducted locks himself in,
and rings a, bell as a sign of taking pos
session. [G.]
BELL-RINGING, CHANGES AND
CHIMES. This is the only country, unless
the art has travelled to America, where
bells are rung round in full swing and in the
regular changes ; which again mean two
different things : one being a change of the
order of the bells at every round according
to certain rules ; and the other a mere repe
tition of the same order or change for a con
siderable time until another is " called." In
bell-ringing language bells are not said to
be rung when each bell is only tolled or
swung just enough to make the clapper
strike the side of the bell on which it is
pulled. When only one bell is so used it is
called tolling ; when more than one they are
said to be chimed. Generally, they are only
chimed " round " or in the order, one, two,
three, &c; and bells are always counted
from the smallest, or treble, up to the largest,
or tenor, which is contrary to the order of
the notes ; and, moreover, the notes have
always to be fixed, on the diatonic scale,
reckoning from the tenor or lowest note.
Consequently a peal can only be added to
by smaller bells above the treble, and not
by larger below the tenor, unless some of the
middle ones are thrown away, because other
wise the half -notes would come in wrong
places. Taking the key of C as the most
convenient to illustrate by, though^ peals of

90

BELL-RINGING

bells may be in any key, and only very
large ones are in C, a peal of eight stand
thus : _ -
12345678
CBAGFEDC,
the bracketed intervals being the half notes,
which must always be in those places of
the peal reckoning from the tenor. You
may go on repeating the same notes an
octave higher up to ten or twelve bells, the
most that are ever used for ringing, though
not for chimes that play tunes. But if
you add even one bell below, which must
here" be B flat, the half-note intervals will
all come wrong. The only thing to do is
to change the E into E flat, and the B
above into B flat, and either discard the C
treble, as nine bells are never used, or add
a new D treble above it. It is important
to remember this, because people some
times get a lightish peal of six at first, and
fancy they can afterwards add a heavier
tenor without losing any of the first peal.
Sometimes, too, changing the middle bells
requires a larger frame, which means entire
reconstruction and great expense. The
passion for having twelve bells is a mere
piece of vanity, for adding the two trebles
always spoils the sound of the peal and
makes it much more difficult to ring and
hear distinctly, even with the largest, and
consequently slowest-swinging bells that
can be rung.
Though chiming- is seldom accompanied
with changes, except when it is done by
machinery, a few changes can be introduced
every now and then by good hands, but
hardly more than the transposition of two
bells at once, and must be dumb for the
moment ; and that order must be kept up
for some rounds, whereas in ringing every
bell can change its place every time if
necessary. We must now explain why that
is, and what " ringing " means in the lan
guage of the belfry ; which word, remember,
means the ringing chamber, and the one
where the bells are is the "bell-chamber,"
though it is often architecturally called
the belfry, when it is not necessary to dis
tinguish them ; when it is, the others are
the proper names.
In order to " ring " a bell, you have to
begin by tolling it, but increasing the swing
at every pull, till you have got it to swing
right up, so that the mouth is upwards. At
a certain (i.e. uncertain) height of swing,
the clapper seems suddenly to change its
mind if you watch it, and to strike which
ever is for the moment the upper side of the
bell, running after it faster than the bell itself
goes. The place where it begins to do that
depends mathematically on the distance of
the clapper pivot below the pivots or " gud
geons" of the beU. And all that can be

BELL-RINGING
said further about it here is that if the hell
is " tucked up in the stock " (as the large
bells of the peal must be to some extent)
too much, they always " rise false," or with
the clapper on the low or following instead
of the upper or leading side. The men after
wards go up and change them, and the
clappers are generally kind enough to re
main right till the bells " fall " again. But
why do not the bells topple over when
raised upright, for of course they will not
exactly balance ? Because there is a strong
arm called the stay, fixed to the stock and
pointing upwards when the bell is down-
and therefore down when it is up, which, if
stopped by any fixed stop at the bottom of
the frame, would prevent the bell from goin°-
quite up to the vertical, either at one swing
or at both. That would not do, and there
fore the stop itself must be allowed to slide
a few inches when the stay catches it, and
it is thence called the " slider." The bell
then can go not only up to the vertical, but
a little past it, and will stay there until it
is pulled off again. All this, and the ar
rangement of the rope in the wheel, must be
seen to be understood fully, and as they can
be seen in every bell-chamber, it is not worth
while to give more space to them here!
The result is that at one pull of the rope
this " sally," or part with wool woven into
it to make it soft to hold, comes to about
the same level when the bell is "up" or
" set at the forestroke" as when it is down;
but at the other pull, or " set at the hack-
stroke," the sally is a long way up, nearly to
the beRry ceiling, or through it if it is not
high enough, and you have only the tail of
the rope to pull by, which is generally
looped. If the stay breaks, through the
ringer having pulled too hard, and not
caught the sally properly or held the tail of
the rope, the bell topples over and pulls the
rope away altogether, and the man with it
if he does not let go immediately. That is
the danger to beginners, for nothing looks
easier when you see it done, and nothing
more impossible to do until you have learnt
it gradually. An inexperienced person
cannot tell from the look or feel of the ropes
in a belfry whether the bells are up or
down, unless they are left at the back stroke,
as they always should be if left set at all,
and therefore no such person should meddle
with them until he knows that they are
down — as they generally are.
This powel- of setting the bells is the
foundation of change-ringing. Even for
ringing round the small bells have to go
higher than the large ones, which go
slowest, but you can ring round without
even the treble going quite up. In fact, in
''raising and falling" a peal in order, which
is the most pleasant sound and the most

BELL-RINGING
difficult to do well, the bells swing in suc
cession through all degrees, the small ones
always going highest for the time and
"speaking double" soonest in rising and
longest in falling. But when you come to
changes, it means that the second bell of
every pair which have been ringing close
together before has to be stopped for a
moment by being set, and the others accele
rated by being pulled again before it is quite
up, and so their places are changed. It
must not be supposed that they are allowed
to go as far as the stay and slider will let
them, for good ringers can hold them just
enough overbalanced to pause without that,
which would waste labour and time in
pulling them off again.
That is the whole mechanical secret of
change-ringing, but the musical secret in
volves a variety of complicated rules, for
real changes, changing every time the bells
go round. It would take far too much space
to give specimens of them here, and speci
mens alone would be of no use to those who
wish to learn change-ringing, as many
clergymen do with great benefit to them
selves in the exercise, which is probably the
best of any, except that it is not in the open
air — and often very much the contrary —
and also to the ringers. The best books on
the subject are by two eminent ringers,
Colonel Troyte and Mr. Jasper Snowdon,
who supplies them from Bank Chambers,
Leeds. The making and hanging and con
tracting for bells, and forms of specifications
for them, and the size of tenor they require,
and the dimensions of the largest peals, are
fully dealt with in Sir E. Beckett's book on
' Clocks, Watches, and Bells.' Everyone who
has learnt arithmetic knows that the number
of possible changes on n bells is 1 x 2 x 3
x n. If the tenor bell is kept " behind "
or last at every change, which sounds much
the best, of course the number of changes is
the same as with n — 1 bells.
Bell-chiming by machinery worked by
one man is a capital protection against re-
belRous ringers. The bellfounders and bell-
hangers (who sometimes do not cast bells
themselves) will supply the different ma
chines for it. It is enough to say that one
machine is the old-fashioned barrel with
pin lifting levers which raise hammers out
side the bells, like clock hammers, and play
any tune for which the barrel is prepared ;
and the other has a number of smaller
hammers which lie down generally, but are
pulled up to strike the inside of the bells by
small ropes aR brought down into a frame
in the belfry, within reach of one man.
This was invented by the Rev. H. T. Ella-
combe, the author of the ' Bells of Devon '
and some other works, who was a beRringer
at the age of nearly ninety.

BENEDICITE

91

The playing of tunes at various hours of
the day by the church clock, and now by
the clocks of sundry town halls and private
houses, on heavy peals of a great many
bells, has nothing particular to do with
church services, and is a large subject by
itself. Such machines have been brought
to a state of great musical perfection of late
by several clockmakers, and for them also,
and the comparison in other respects be
tween them and the simple old kind, we
must refer to the same book on Clocks and
Bells. [G.]
BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE. Be
tween the seventh and the tenth century,
the sentence of excommunication was at
tended with great solemnities. The most
important was the extinction of lamps or
candles by throwing them on the ground,
with an imprecation, that those against
whom the curse was pronounced might be
extinguished or destroyed by the vengeance
of God. The people were summoned to
attend this ceremony by the sound of a beR,
and the curses accompanying the ceremony
were pronounced out of a book by the
minister, standing in a balcony. Hence
originated the phrase of cursing by bell,
book, and candle.
BELGIC CONFESSION OF FAITH,
This was based on the Helvetic confession
(see Conf. of Basle), and was composed in
the Walloon language, by Guy de Bres, and
afterwards printed in French in 1562. It is
almost in unison with the French or
Gallican confession, and differs from that
of Augsburg in many ways, especially with
regard to the Lord's Supper. It was con
firmed by the Synod of Dort in ^1619. —
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, iii. 25 ; Blunt's
Doctrinal Theol. p. 107.
BEMA. The name of the bishop's throne
in the primitive church, or, as some under
stand it, the whole of the upper end of the
church, containing the altar and the apsis.
This seat or throne, together with those ot
the presbyters, was always fixed at the
upper end of the chancel, in a semicircle
beyond the altar. For anciently, the seats
of the bishops and presbyters were joined
together, and both were called thrones.
The manner of their sitting is related by
Gregory Nazianzen in his description of the
church of Anastasia, where he speaks of
himself as bishop, sitting upon the high
throne, and the presbyters on lower benches
on each side of him. — Euseb. lib. x. c. 4;
Nazian. Somn. Anastas. vol. ii. ; Bingham,
bk. viii. c. 6. (See Apsis and Cathedral.)
BENATURA. A stoup for " holy water."
BENEDICITE. A canticle used at
Morning Prayer, after the first lesson;
so called because, in the Latin version, it
begins with that word. It is also called

92

BENEDICTINES

"The Song of the Three Children," be
cause Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah
(whom the prince of the eunuchs named
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, Dan.
i. 7) are reported to have sung it in the
burning fiery furnace, into which they were
cast by order of Nebuchadnezzar for ad-
¦ hering steadfastly to their God (Dan. iii.
19), and in which God preserved them in
a miraculous manner (ver. 27).
' The Benedicite is mentioned by several of
the fathers as being used in the services
of the church. St. Chrysostom speaks of it
as " that marvellous song, sung everywhere
throughout the world" (torn. iv. p. 520).
Athanasius refers to it (De Virg. p. 122,
ed. 1698), and at the Council of Toledo the
clergy were especially enjoined to sing it
every Lord's day (Cone. Tolet iv. 14). In
the old Gallican ritual it was sung, as at
present, between the lessons (Mabillon, de
Lit. Gall. lib. ii. p. 108). The rubric in
the Prayer Book of 1549 ordered its use
in Lent only, but this was altered in 1552,
and the Benedicite may be used instead of
the Te Deum at any time. — Bingham, bk.
xiv. c. ii. sec. 6. ; Blunt's P. B. 11-15.
, BENEDICTINES. An order of monks
who profess to follow the rule of St. Bene-
dict,_who died about a.d. 543. I. The rule of
Benedict was very strict. The monks were
to rise at 2 for vigils, and pass the time till
daybreak in meditation and reading. At
sunrise matins ; then four hours labour ;
then two hours reading; then dinner and
private reading till 2.30; then prayer;
afterwards labour till vespers. Twenty-four
psalms were to be chanted every day.
Their labour was agriculture or mechanical
trades, as the superior thought fit ; none
could choose for himself, for personal liberty
was renounced. Their food was of the
simplest, and no conversation was allowed
at meals. They might not go abroad but
two together. No one could receive a
present, or have any correspondence with
an outsider, without the abbot's inspection.
The abbot, elected by common suffrage of
the brotherhood, was despotic, and could
inflict punishment, or pronounce expulsion
on any recalcitrant or erring brother. (See
the Rule, Hospinian, torn. iv. pp. 202-222.)
But the strictness of this rule was relaxed,
4nd the Benedictines became luxurious, and
took part in political and civil affairs. They
gained immense power, and numbered
amongst their ranks many eminent persons.
Pope John XXII., who died in 1354, after
an exact inquiry, found, that, since the first
rise of the order, there had been of it twenty-
four popes, near 200 cardinals, 7000 arch
bishops, 15,000 bishops, 15,000 abbots of
renown, above 4000 saints, and upwards of
37,000 monasteries. There have been like-

BENEDICTION
wise of this order twenty emperors and, ten
empresses, forty-seven kings, and above fifty
queens, twenty sons of emperors, and forty-
eight sons of kings, about one hundred
princesses, daughters of kings and emperors,
besides dukes, marquises, earls, countesses;
&c, innumerable. This order has produced
a vast number of eminent authors and other
learned men. Rabanus set up the school of
Germany. Alcuinus founded the university
of Paris. Dionysius Exiguus perfected the
ecclesiastical computation. Guido improved
the scale of music, and Sylvester the
organ. They boast to have produced
Anselm, Ildephonsus, Venerable Bede, &c.
There are nuns likewise who follow the
order of St. Benedict : among whom those
who call themselves mitigated, eat flesh
three times a week, on Sundays, Tuesdays;
and Thursdays ; the others observe the rule
of St. Benedict in its rigour, and eat no flesh
unless they are sick.
II. The time when this order came into
England is Well known, for in 596 Gregory
the Great sent hither Augustine, prior of
the monastery of St. Andrew at Rome,
with several other Benedictine monks. Au
gustine became archbishop of Canterbury;
and the Benedictines founded several mon
asteries in England, as also the metropolitan
church of Canterbury. But the Benedictine
order, in the modern sense of the word,
was not completed until the reformation of
the second Benedict, and Benedict of Aniane
died in 821. Before Dunstan's time we may
doubt the existence anywhere in England
of the Benedictine rule in its completeness.
(Hook's Archbishops, vol. i. pp. , 34, 35.)
Afterwards it increased rapidly, and the
Benedictines were the most extensive and
powerful order in England. All the cathe^
dral convents, with the exception of the
Augustinian monastery of Carlisle, were of
this order, as were four out of the five that
were converted into cathedrals by Henry
VIII., viz. Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough,
and Chester : and all the mitred abbeys,
with the exception of Waltham and Ciren
cester, which were Augustinian. In Ireland
they yielded in importance and numbers to
the Augustinians. They were the great
patrons of church architecture and of learn
ing in England. The chief branches of the
Benedictine order in England were the
Cluniacs, founded by Bernon, abbot of Gig-
niac, in 913 ; and the Cistercian, founded
by Robert, abbot of Moleme, at Citeaux in
Burgundy, in 1098. (See Cluniac Monks,
and Cistercians.)
BENEDICTION. A solemn act of
blessing performed by the bishops and
priests of the Church.
I. Of Persons. In the Jewish Church,
the priests, by the command of God, were

BENEDICTION
to bless the people, by saying, " The Lord
bless thee, and keep thee. The Lord make
his face to shine upon thee, and be gracious
unto thee. The Lord lift up his counte
nance upon thee, and give thee peace."
In the Christian Church bishops and
priests only are allowed to pronounce bene
diction. It was a general custom in the
primitive Church to bow the head at
receiving the benediction of a bishop, and
the emperors themselves did not refuse to
comply with it. — Bingham, bk. ii. c. 9, sec. 1.
In the Western Churches a benediction
was pronounced immediately before the
communion, after the Lord's Prayer. This
is called in the Gallican Missals " Benedictio
populi." (MabiRon, de Lit. i. c. 4.) In the
Council of Toledo certain priests were
censured for communicating after the Lord's
Prayer, without giving the benediction to
the people. (Cone. Tolet iv. 17.)
In the Church of England several forms
of blessing are used, agreeing with the
particular office of which they form a part.
Of the ordinary benediction at the end of
the communion office, the first clause (taken
from Phil. iv. 7) was appointed in 1548 ; the
second, which resembles " Blessings " given
in Hermann's Consultation, and the Anglo-
Saxon offices, was added in 1549.
Other forms of blessing, or modifications
of the above, may be found in the offices
for Confirmation, Matrimony, and Visitation
of the Sick. The benediction at the end of
the Communion Service must be said by the
bishop, if he be present.
II. Of Things, (i.) Benediction of the
Font. An ancient ceremony; also a name
given formerly to the consecration of the
water at baptism. According to the custom
in the Western Churches the water was not
blessed at every administration, but once a
month; our present practice accords with
the Eastern custom. (See Baptism, Blunt's
P. B. 209 ; Bingham, bk. xv. 6.)
(ii.) In the Roman and Greek Churches,
and among other Christians of the East,
water, with a mixture of salt, is blessed by a
priest, according to a set form of benediction.
The holy water is used to sprinkle persons,
things and places, and is regarded with great
reverence. (iii.) In the Roman Church, on Holy
Thursday, the officiating priest blesses,
consecrates, and exorcises, three sorts of oils.
The first is that used in extreme unction ;
the second that of the Chrysma ; the third
that of the Catechumens ; ending with this
salutation, Ave sanctum oleum, " Hail holy
oil ! " after which the new-made holy oils
are earned in procession into the sacristy. —
Piscara, Praxis Cerem.
(iv.) On Easter-eve is performed the
ceremopy of blessing the new fire. At the

BENEDICTUS

93

ninth hour, the old fire is put out, and at
the same time an acolyth lights the new
fire without the church. The officiating
priest, with his attendants, walks in proces
sion to the place where the ceremony is to
be performed. The fire is sprinkled with
holy water and solemnly blessed.
(v.) The principal use of this holy fire,
among the Romanists, is to light therewith
the Paschal taper ; which likewise receives
its benediction, or blessing, by the priest's
putting five grains of incense, in the form
of a cross, into the taper. This blessed
taper must remain on the gospel-side of
the altar from Easter-eve to Ascension-day.
— Baudry, Manual. Cerem. Fast lib. iii.
144 ; Piscara, Praxis Cerem.
(vi.) On certain occasions the pope used
to bless a banner or sword, which he would
give to those who were engaged in any
cause in which he was interested. Thus
William the Conqueror received together
with a papal bull a banner which had been
blessed. On the eve before Christmas, the pontiff
blesses a sword, and ducal hat enriched with
precious stones. This he sends as a present
to some prince, for whom he has a particular
affection, or some great .general, who has
deserved it by fighting against the enamies
of the Church. Pope Pius II. sent the hat
and sword to Lewis XI.
(vii.) But one of the most extraordinary
benedictions of this kind is that of bells ; in
the performance of which there is a great
deal of pomp and formality. (See Bells.)
Martene has printed a great number of
benedictional services (de Ant. Bit Eccles.
lib. ii), which, it is remarked, a priest is
competent to perform, though it is more
proper that a bishop, if possible, should
officiate thereat. (See Maskell, Mon. Rit.
Eccl. Ang. i. cccvi.) J [H.]
BENEDICTUS. The Latin for " bless
ed," which is the first word in one of the
hymns to be said or sung after the second
lesson hi the Morning Service of the Church.
The Benedictus is taken from St. Luke i.,
from the 68th to the 72nd verse, being part of
the song of Zacharias the priest, concerning
his son John the Baptist, who was to be
the forerunner of Christ, but was then only
in his infancy. The Benedictus has followed
the lesson, at least since 820, when it is
mentioned by Amalarius. It was exclusively
appointed in 1549 ; the alternative of Jubi
late being added in 1552, to avoid repetition.
"The Church hath appointed two songs of
praise and thanksgiving to be used, either
of them after each lesson, but not so
indifferently but that the former practice of
exemplary Churches and reason may guide
us in the choice. For the "Te Deum,"
"Benedictus," "Magnificat," and "Nunc

94

BENEFICE

Dimittis," being the most expressive jubi
lations and rejoicings for the redemption of
the world, may be said more often than the
rest, especially on Sundays and other festi
vals of our Lord."- — Bishop Sparrow.
BENEFICE, in the ecclesiastical sense
of the word, means a church endowed with
a revenue for the performance of Divine
service, or the revenue itself assigned to an
ecclesiastical person, by way of stipend for
the service he is to do that church.
As to the origin of the word, we find it
as follows, in Alcet's Ritual : " This word
was anciently appropriated to the lands,
which kings used to bestow on those who
had fought valiantly in the wars ; and was
not used in this particular signification, but
during the time that the Goths and Lom
bards reigned in Italy, under whom those
fiefs were introduced, which were peculiarly
termed Benefices, and those who enjoyed
them, Beneficiarii, or vassals. For not
withstanding that the Romans also bestowed
lands on their captains and soldiers, yet
, those lands had not the name of Benefices
appropriated to them, but the word bene
fice was a general term, which included all
kinds of gifts or grants, according to the
ancient signification of the Latin word. In
imitation of the new sense, in which that
word was taken with regard to fiefs, it
began to be employed in the Church, when
the temporalities thereof began to be divided,
and to be given up to particular persons, by
taking them out of those of the bishops.
This the bishops themselves first introduced,
purposely to reward merit, and assist such
ecclesiastics as might be in necessity. How
ever, this was soon carried to greater lengths,
and at last became unlimited, as has since
been manifest in the clericate and the
monasteries. A benefice therefore is not
merely a right of receiving part of the
temporalities of the Church, for the service
a person does it ; a right, which is founded
upon the gospel, and has always subsisted
since the apostolic age; but it is that of
enjoying a part of the temporalities of the
Church, assigned and determined in a
special form, so as that no other clergy
man can lay any claim or pretension to it.
— And in this age it is not barely the right
of enjoying part of the temporalities of the
Church; but is likewise a fixed and per
manent right, in such a manner that it
devolves on another, after the death of the
incumbent ; which anciently was otherwise ;
for, at the rise of benefices, they were in
dulged to clergymen only for a stated time,
or for life ; after which they reverted to the
Church." It is not easy to determine when the
effects of the Church were first divided. It
is certain that, till the fourth century, all the

BENEFIT
revenues were in the hands of the bishops,
who distributed them by their OSconomi or
stewards; and they consisted chiefly in
alms and voluntary contributions. When
the Church came to have inheritances, part
of them were assigned for the maintenance
of the clergy, of which we find some foot
steps in the fifth and sixth centuries ; but
the allotment seems not to have been a-
fixed thing, but to have been absolutely
discretional, till the twelfth century.
Benefices are divided by the canonists
into simple and sacerdotal. The first sort
lays no obligation, but to read prayers, sing,
&c. Such kind of beneficiaries are canons,
chaplains, chantors, &c. The second is
charged with the cure of souls, the guidance
and direction of consciences, &c. Such are
rectories, vicarages, &c. The canonists like
wise specify three ways of vacating a bene
fice ; viz. de jure, de facto, and by the sen
tence of a judge. A benefice is void de jure
when a person is guilty of crimes, for which
he is disqualified by law to hold a benefice;
such are heresy, simony, &c. A benefice is
void both de facto and de jure, by the na
tural death, or resignation, of the incum
bent, or by his being instituted to any other
preferment which by Act of Parliament or
common law vacates it. Lastly, a benefice
is vacated by sentence of thejudge^ when the
incumbent is deprived.
The Church distinguishes between dig
nities and benefices. The former title is
only applicable to bishoprics, deaneries,
archdeaconries, and prebends: the latter
comprehends aR ecclesiastical preferments
under those degrees ; as rectories and vicar
ages. (See Plurality.)
BENEFICIAEIES, or BENEFICIATL
The inferior, non-capitular members of
cathedrals, &c, were so called in many
Churches abroad; as possessing a benefice
or endowment in the Church. They very
much corresponded to our minor canons and
vicars choral, &c. — Jebb.
BENEFIT OF CLEEGY. The prime
legium clericale, or, in common speech, the
benefit of the clergy, had its origin from
the pious regard paid by Christian princes
to the Church of Christ. The exemptions
which they granted to the Church were
principally of two kinds : 1. Exemption of
places consecrated to religious offices from
criminal arrests, which was the foundation
of sanctuaries. (See Sanctuary, Asylum.)
2. Exemptions of the persons of the clergy
from criminal process before the secular
magistrate in a few particular cases, which
was the true origin and meaning of the
privilegium clericale. Originally the law
was held that no man should be admitted
to tbe privilege of the clergy but such as
had the habitum et tonsuram clericalem.

BEEEANS
But, in process of time, a much wider and
more comprehensive criterion was estab
lished, every one that could read being
accounted a clerk or clericus, and allowed
the benefit of clerkship, whether in holy
orders or not.
BEREANS. An obscure sect of se-
ceders from the Scottish, establishment.
They took their name from those Bereans
" who received the word with all readiness
of mind, and searched the Scriptures daily,
whether those things were so." (Acts xvii.
11.) They allow no authority to the Church,
but only look to the Scriptures, which they
interpret according to their own ideas.
BEREFELLARII. In the collegiate
church of Beverley the seven inferior
clergymen, ranking next after the preben
daries, were so called. The origin of the
name is unknown ; though it appears from
ancient records that it was a popular and
vulgar one ; their proper designation being
Rectores ' Chori ; that is, a sort of minor
canons. They were also called Personse. —
Dugdale's Monasticon, ed. 1830, vi. 1307.
BERENGARIANS. A denomination,
in the eleventh century, which adhered to
the opinions of Berengarius, archdeacon of
Angers, the learned and able opponent of
Lanfranc, whose work has been in part
recovered, and was printed a few years
since at Berjin. "It was never my asser
tion," says he, " that the bread and wine
on the altar are only sacramental signs.
Let no one suppose that I affirm that the
bread was not become the body of Christ
from being simple bread by consecration
on the altar. It plainly becomes the body
of Christ, but not the bread which in its
matter and essence is corruptible, but in
as far as it is capable of becoming what it
was not, it becomes the body of Christ,
but not according to the manner of the
production of his very body, for that body,
once generated on earth so many years
ago, can never be produced again. The
bread, however, becomes what it never
was before consecration, and from being
the common substance of bread, is to us
the blessed body of Christ." His fol
lowers, however, did not hold to his doc
trines, which, in themselves, were a Catho
lic protest against Roman doctrines.— Cave,
Hist Literar. Ssec. Hildebrand. For life
of Berengarius see Mabillon, torn. ix. p. 7 seq.
BETROTHAL. The pledging of troth
or truth, between man and woman. In
olden times betrothals were often made
long before marriage could take place.
According to the Roman law "sponsalia"
or betrothals, could take place after the
parties were seven years of age ; and in the
Church there were distinct and separate
ceremonies for betrothals, and marriage.

BIBLE

95

In the Code of Justinian several rules with
regard to betrothal are laid down (Cod.
Justin, lib. v. 4, &c), chiefly relating to the
age, and free will of the betrothal. When
the contract was made, pledges of future
marriage were given, which were called
"Ame," or "donationes sponsalitiaa." A
ring also was given, and a formal kiss, and
joining of hands in the presence of witnesses.
(Cod. Theod. lib. iii. v., ed. 1665, vol. i. p.
267.) French betrothals were used in England
up to the time of the Eeformation, but
now the betrothal and marriage are joined
in one office. In the marriage service the
words of betrothal are almost identical with
the term in the Sarum Use, one sentence
being omitted — "if holy Chyrche it wol
ordeyne." In the York Use the words
"for fairer, for laither" were said before
"for beter, for wors": the word laither,
from the old English " lath," hateful, (with
which perhaps is connected the French
word "laid," ugly, meaning loathlier, or
uglier). The ancient ceremonies with
regard to betrothal are given by Bingham,
bk. xxii. c. 3.
BIBLE. (See Scripture.) The name
applied by Christians by way of eminence
to the sacred volume, in which are con
tained the revelations of God. The names
and numbers of the canonical books will be
found under the word Scripture.
I. Ancient History.
II. Early English versions,
III. Later Translations.
IV. Irish and Welsh.
V. Division into chapters.
I. The Bible has been handed down to us
in four principal languages, Hebrew, Greek,
Syriac, and Latin; but Hebrew was the
language of the Old Testament generally,
except Ezra, ch. iv. v. 8, ch. vi. v. 19, and
ch. vii. vv. 12-27 ; Jeremiah, ch. x. v. 11 ;
and Daniel, ch. ii. v. 4 — ch. vii., which were
in Chaldee.
(a) Whether the art of writing had its
origin in the communication of God with
Moses on Mount Sinai, is doubtful. Some
imagine that the passage, Gen. xxiii. 17,
is an actual abridgment of the conveyance
of the field of Ephron made to Abraham.
It is certainly not improbable that the
patriarchs might have compiled records of
their time, and that by inspiration; and
that Moses might collect these, as Ezra
did in after times. And this is argued by
some from a supposed difference of style.
Moses himself was expressly directed to
write by way of record; a custom which
continued under the Judges and the Kings,
some of the latter of whom collected and
arranged the books then existing ; as it is
clear Hezekiah did the proverbs of Solo-

96

BIBLE

mon. The prophesies of Jeremiah, we
know, were publicly read ; and when Ezra
made his collection, the number of copies
was great, and the difference existing be
tween them is supposed to form the
marginal readings, amounting in all to
840. It was after his time that transla
tions began ¦ to be made. Ezra brought
together all the ancient books, -and changed
the old characters that had been used, to
those of his own time. He also wrote the
later historical books, and in his time, or
shortly after, was added the last inspired
book of prophecy — that of Malachi. It is
impossible to say how widely MS. copies
of the Scriptures were spread abroad; but
it is interesting to note that between a very
ancient Hebrew MS. written on goat-skins,
>nd brought from Malabar, and other nearer
copies, only a few (40) slight variations
were found. Dr. Kennicott some years ago
collated 700 MSS. of the Hebrew Bible :
but none of them date from before our
Lord. Many other copies of the seventh
and eighth centuries have since been dis
covered. "Accurate notes" and "expla
nations " in Chaldee of the Hebrew Bible
were made at a very early date (30 B.C.)
by learned Hebrew doctors who desired
both to instruct the people, and to preserve
the integrity of the text. (See Masora,
Targum.) (/3) All the books of the Old Testament
were translated into Greek about 300 years
before Christ. . According to Josephus, this
translation was made by order of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (b.c. 277), and was carried
out by 72 learned men, who at enormous
expense (said to have been £136,000) were
formed into a sort of college for the purpose
in the isle of Pharos, near Alexandria.
Hence it is called the Septuagint, as a
general term, though the translators were
two in number over the 70. (Jos. Ant bk.
xii. c. 2.) This was probably the version
used by the Apostles, as it is often quoted
in the New Testament ; and it was also
that used by the early Christian writers.
The oldest MS. copies known in the
Greek of the Old and New Testament
(though none are quite complete) are those
in the British Museum, called the Alex
andrine MS. of the fifth century, in the
Vatican library at Rome of the fourth
century, and a third, probably of the fourth
century, discovered partly in 1844, partly in
1859, by Professor Tischendorf, which is
deposited in the Imperial library at St.
Petersburg. , There are four principal
modern editions : the Complutensian, a.d.
1514-1517 ; the Aldine, 1518 ; the Eoman
of Sixtus V., 1587 ; and Grabbe's, printed at
Oxford, 1707-1720. A list of the Ancient
Greek MS. of the New Testament in uncial

BIBLE
letters is given in Wordsworth's Greek
Testament, vol. i. p. xxxvi. The Cursive
MSS. amount to more than 500.
(y) The Syriac, called the Peschito, i.e-.
simple literal version of the Old and New
Testament, is of great antiquity, dating as
far back as perhaps the beginning of the
second century. (See Peschito.) Syriac was
the language used in upper Mesopotamia and
Asia Minor, and was very similar to the dial
led; spoken by the Jews in our Lord's time.'
(8) The Gothic version was made by
Ulphilas, Bishop of the Goths in 348,
Although he was an Arian, it is free from
all taint of that heresy. The late Cardinal
Mai when examining some palimpsests' at
Milan, found some Gothic writing under that
of one of the codices. Pursuing his investi
gations, his labours resulted in the discovery
of almost the whole of the thirteen epistles
of St. Paul, and parts cf the gospels.—
Dictionary of the Bible, p. 1620.
(e) While the Septuagint was the common
version of the Bible for the Jews and early
Christians, and three of the gospels and the
epistles were certainly written in Greek,
which was the general language of the
educated classes, there was also a Latin
version current in the second century;
There is no doubt that for the common
people of Italy, translations of portions of
the Bible were made into Latin. But there
were also a great number of other trans
lations, Persian, Coptic, Armenian, &c, &c,
with regard to which we must refer to the
exhaustive articles on " Versions " by Tre-
gelles and others in the Dictionary of the
Bible. The Latin translations were brought
together by St. Jerome, who revised them,
and, when necessary, added his own trans
lations. This, which is called the Vulgate;
was after his time, and in the medieval
times, chiefly used ; and by the Roman
Church is considered of the highest autho
rity. From it were made the early trans-1
lations into English, up to and including
thatofWyclif. II. In England the Bible has always been
regarded with the greatest reverence, and at
a very early date parts of it were translated
into the vernacular. Bede speaks of laymen
as well as monks being engaged in studying
the Scriptures.
Casdmon, a lay brother in the monastery of
Streaneshalch or Whitby, in the 7th cen
tury, made a metrical version into English
of Genesis and Exodus, and cast the chief
incidents of our Lord's life, the' descent of
the Holy Spirit, and the teaching of the
apostles, into a kind of lyric poem. (Bede,
iv. 24.) It has been asserted by Archbishop
Ussher, but without proof, that a large part
of the Bible was translated by Eadfritb,'
bishop of Lindisfarne in 710, and a httle

BIBLE
earlier by Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne.
King Alfred began a version of the Psalms
which was not finished, and the four chapters
of Exodus xx.-xxiii., together with the letter
of the Council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 23-29,
in English, form the preface to his code of
law. Abbot iElfric, called Grammaticus (circa
1005), made an abridged translation of the
first seven books of the Old Testament, and
of the Book of Job.
An ancient MS. discovered by Sir Thomas
Phillips in the library of Worcester
Cathedral, of the twelfth century, refers to
Alcuin as a translator of the Bible. " He,"
says the writer, " translated the books
Genesis, Exodus, &c, and through them
taught the people in English, with the
bishops (of whom a list is given). But now,"
it is mournfully added, " it is another people
who teach our folke, and they perish."
"The hole Byble," says Sir T. More, "was
longe before Wickliffe's daies, by vertuose
and well learned men translated into the
English tongue, and . . . well and reverently
read." There are grounds, however, for
doubting Sir T. More's assertion. For no
such translations of the entire Scripture are
extant. " No traces of them appear in any
contemporary writer " (Plumptre in Diet of
Bible, p. 1665), nevertheless Archbishop
Cranmer in his preface to the Bible (a.d.
1540) speaks of it as having been " trans
lated and redde in the Saxones tonge, which
at that time was our mother tongue." In
the Bodleian Library, the British Museum
and elsewhere, numerous old copies of por
tions of the Bible translated into the ver
nacular are to be found.
III. Wyclif translated the Bible, about
1360, from the Vulgate. His object was to
restore the Bible to the people in their own
language, for it had been " withholden from
them." The New Testament, Dr. Water-
land thinks, was translated by Wyclif
himself, while the Old Testament was
copied from previous translations. There are
some beautiful copies of Wyclif's Bible to
be seen in the Bodleian Library, and in the
British Museum ; and the whole of Wyclif s
translation has been published at Oxford,
(1851). J. de Trevisa, who died about
1398, is also said to have translated the
whole Bible ; but whether any copies of his
translation are remaining, does not appear.
The first printed Bible in our language was
that translated by W. Tyndal, assisted by
Miles Coverdale, printed abroad in 1525;
but most of the copies were bought up and
burnt by Bishop Tunstal and Sir Thomas
More. Of this edition but two copies are
known to exist, one of which was discovered
by Archdeacon Cotton, in St. Paul's Library.
It only contained the New Testament, and

BIBLE

97

was revised and republished by the same
person in 1530. The prologues and prefaces
added to it reflect on the bishops and clergy ;
but this edition was also suppressed, and tho
copies burnt. In 1532, Tyndal and his
associates finished the whole Bible, except
the Apocrypha, and printed it abroad.
Several editions were brought out after this,
until Tyndal's noble labours were closed by
a martyr's death in 1536. An independent
translation based partly on Tyndal's, and
four otherversions, had meanwhile been made
by Miles Coverdale and printed at Zurich in
1535. It was succeeded by another trans
lation executed in 1537. The printing of the
book was begun abroad, and carried as far as
the end of Isaiah, at which point it was taken
up and continued by the English printers
Grafton and Whitchurch. It was the work of
John Rogers, superintendent of an English
Church in Germany, and the first martyr in
the reign of Queen Mary. He translated the
Apocrypha, and revised Tyndal's translation,
comparing it with the Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
and German, and adding prefaces and notes
from Luther's Bible. He dedicated the
whole to Henry VIII. under the borrowed
name of Thomas Matthew ; whence this
has been usually called Matthew's Bible, and
licence was obtained for publishing it in
England, by the favour of Archbishop
Cranmer, and the Bishops Latimer and
Shaxton. In 1539 appeared a revised
edition of Matthew's Bible by Eichard
Taverner; but the first Bible printed
by authority in England, and publicly
set up in churches, was Tyndal's version,
revised and compared with the Hebrew,
and in many places amended, probably
by Miles Coverdale, afterwards Bishop
of Exeter; and examined after him by
Archbishop Cranmer, who added a preface
to it; whence this was called Cranmer's
or the Great Bible. It was printed in
1539 by Grafton and Whitchurch, and
again by Whitchurch, (some copies hava
" Eichard Grafton,") and published in
1540; and, by a royal proclamation, every
parish was obliged to set one of the copies
in their church, under the penalty of forty
shillings a month. Yet, two years after, the
Popish bishops obtained its suppression by
the king. It was restored under Edward VI.,
suppressed again under Queen Mary's reign,
and restored again in the first year of Queen
Elizabeth, and a new edition of it given,
1562, printed by Harrison. Some English.
exiles at Geneva, in Queen Mary's reign,
viz. Goodman, Gilbie, Sampson, Cole,
Whittingham, and Knox, made a new trans
lation, printed there in 1560, the New
Testament having been printed in 1557 ;
hence called the Geneva Bible, containing
the variations of readings, marginal annota-
ii

98

BIBLE

tions, &c'., on account of which it was "much
valued by the Puritan party in that and the
following reigns. Coverdale has also been
supposed to have had a part in this version ;
but from what is known of his movements, it
appears, doubtful whether he can have been
, concerned in it. The first edition of this
version was for many years the most popular
One in England, as its numerous editions
may testify. After the appearance of King
James's translation, the use of it gradually
declined; although thirteen reprints in
whole or in part were issued between 1611
and 1617. A fondness also for its notes
still lingered ; and we have several instances
of their being attached to editions of the
royal translation, one of which kind was
printed so lately as 1715. Archbishop
Parker resolved on a new translation for the
public use of the Church ; and engaged the
bishops and other learned men to take each
a share or portion ; these, being afterwards
joined together and printed, with short
annotations, in 1568, in large folio, by
Eichard Jugge, made, what was aftewards
called, the Great English Bible, and com
monly the Bishop's Bible. In 1569 it was
also published in octavo, in a small but fine
black letter; and here the chapters were
divided into verses, but without any breaks
for them, in which the method of the
¦Geneva Bible was followed, which was the
first English Bible where any distinction of
Verses was made. It was afterwards printed
in large folio, with corrections, and several
prolegomena, in 1572 ; this is called Matthew
Parker's Bible. The initial letters of each
translator's name were put at the end of his
part ; ex. gr. at the end of the Pentateuch,
W. E. for William Exon ; that is, William
(Alley), Bishop of Exeter, whose allotment
ended there ; at the end of Samuel, E. M.
for Eichard Menevensis, or Eichard (Davies),
Bishop of St. David's, to whom the second
allotment fell, and so with the rest. The
archbishop overlooked, directed, examined,
and finished the whole. This translation
was used in the churches for forty years,
though the Geneva Bible was more read in
private houses, being printed above twenty
times in as many years. After the transla
tion of the Bible by the bishops, two other
private versions had been made of the New
Testament ; the first by Laurence Thompson,
from Beza's Latin edition, with the notes of
Beza, published in 1582, in quarto, and
afterwards in 1589, varying very little from
the Geneva Bible ; the . second by the
Eomanists at Eheims, in 1584, called the
Ehemish Bible, or Rhemish translation.
These translators finding it impossible to
keep the people from having the Scriptures
in their vulgar tongue, resolved to give a
version of their own, as favourable to their

BIBLE
cause as might be. It was printed on large
paper, with a fair letter and margin'. One
complaint against1 it was, its retaining a
multitude of Hebrew and Greek words un
translated, for want, as the editors express
it, of proper^ and adequate terms in the
English to render them by ; as the words
azymes, tunike, holocaust, prepuce* pasche,
&c. : however, many of the copies were
seized by Queen Elizabeth's searchers, and
confiscated; and Thomas Cartwright was
solicited by Secretary Walsingham to refute
it ; but after some progress had been made in
the work,Archbishop Whitgift prohibited his
proceeding further, judging it improper that
the doctrine of the Church of England should
be committed to the defence of a Puritan.
He appointed Dr. Fulke in his place,!,who
refuted the Ehemists with great spirit ¦> and
learning. Cartwright's Refutation was also
afterwards published in 1618 under Arch
bishop Abbot.
About thirty years after their New
Testament, the Roman Catholics published
a translation of the Old, at Douay, 1609 and
1610, from the Vulgate, with annotations; so
that the English Roman Catholics have now
the whole Bible in their mother tongue;
though it is to be observed, they are for
bidden to read it without a licence from their
superiors ; and it is a curious fact, that there
is not an edition of the Bible which does not
lie under the ban of one or of all the popes,
most of them being in the Index Expur-
gatorius. King James bore to the Geneva
version an inveterate hatred, on account of
the notes, which he charged as partial,
untrue, seditious, &c. The Bishops' Bible,
too, had its faults. The king frankly owned
that he had seen no good translation of the
Bible in English ; but he thought that of
Geneva the worst of all.' The authorized
English Bible was that which proceeded from
the Hampton Court conference in 1603-4 ;
where, many exceptions being made to the
Bishops' Bible, King James gave order for a
new one: not, (as the preface expresses it,)
" for' a translation altogether new, but to
make a good one better, or, of many good ones,
one principal good one." Fifty-four' learned
men were appointed to this office by the king,
as appears by his letter to the archbishop,
dated 1604 ; which being three years before
the translation was entered upon, it is
probable seven of them were either dead, or
had declined the task ; since Fuller's list of
the translators makes but forty-seven, who,
being ranged under six divisions, entered on
their province in 1607. These were all men
of "ponderous" learning, headed by Bishop
Andrewes, who was master of Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and fifteen modern
languages. It was published in 1611 in fol
by Barker, with a dedication to James, and a

BIBLE
learned preface ; and is commonly called
King James's Bible. After this, all the
other versions gradually dropped, and fell
into disuse, except in the epistles and gospels
in the Common Prayer Book, which were
¦retained according to the bishop's trans
lation till the alteration of the liturgy in
,1661. See for a full list of the editions of
the English Bible, Archd. Cotton's List of
the Editions of the English Bible, &c. ; Pre
face to the English Hexapla (Bagster) ; and
generally for the subject of this article, The
¦ Bible in the Church, by Canon Westcott ;
Introduction to the Criticism of the New
Test, by Dr. Scrivener (3rd ed.) ; Article
on " Versions " in Smith's Diet of the Bible."
Some editions of the Bible have received
strange names, as the "Breeches Bible,"
(1599), called from the word breeches being
used for the coverings Adam and Eve used
after the fall. The " Wicked Bible " was
' the name assigned to the Bible printed by
Barker and Lucas in 1631. The word
" not " was omitted in the seventh command
ment. Laud had the printers heavily fined
for this mistake.
In February, 1870, the Convocation of
Canterbury determined on a revision of the
Authorized Version of the Bible, and in the
'¦ following May two companies were formed,
one for the Old, the other for the New Testa
ment, and certain principles and rules were
drawn up for their guidance. These were,
shortly, that there should be as few altera
tions as possible; that the expression of these
should be limited as much as possible to the
language of the Authorised and earlier Eng
lish Version; that the headings of chapters
and pages, paragraphs, italics and punctua
tion should be revised; that reference, when
considered desirable, should be made to
divines or literary men, at home and abroad ;
¦ that the text to be adopted should be that for
which the evidence is decidedly preponder
ating. Other details were laid down as that
each portion should be gone over twice;
and no change in the text should be made
unless it was adopted by two-thirds of those
present. The co-operation of American
scholars was invited, and two committees
were formed in America to act with the two
English companies. The various portions of
¦ the two revisions were sent over as they
were completed, and received the criticism
of the American committees". When the
¦ revised version of the New Testament was
finished, it was sent over as a whole, and
the Americans pointed out certain alterations
which they still deemed would be advisable.
These are printed at the end of the book,
and are not very numerous. The first is to
omit " S." (i.e. saint) at the headings of the
pages, and from the title of tne Gospels;
.another is to change all the old-fashioned

BIBLE

99

words for modern forms. The work of
revision was begun June 22, 1870 ; and the
New Testament was issued Nov. 11, 1880.
The revisors state that they had faithfully
and consistently endeavoured to follow the
rules given. One, only, they had been
unable to observe, which was with regard to
headings of chapters and pages. These they
judged it best to omit. The revision of the
Old Testament was published in May, 1885,
and copies presented by the Archbishop of
Canterbury to the Queen and Prince of
Wales. To enter into the subject of the new
translation either of the Old or New Testa
ment, would be to enter into a controversy
not possible in a Dictionary.
IV. The New Testament was translatedinto
Irish in the sixteenth ' century. Nicholas
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's, and John
Kearney, treasurer of the same cathedral,
began this work in 1573. In 1577 Walsh
was appointed Bishop of Ossory, but still
proceeded in his undertaking, till he was
murdered in 1585. Some years before this,
Nehemiah Donnellan (who was archbishop
of Tuam in 1595) had joined Walsh and.
Kearney in their undertaking. This trans
lation was completed by William O'DonDell,
or Daniel, successor of Donnellan in the
archiepiscopal see, and published in 1603.
. Bishop Bedell procured the Old Testament
to be translated by Mr. King, who being
ignorant of the original languages, executed
it from the English version. Bedell revised
it, comparing it with the Hebrew, the LXX.,
and the Italian version of Diodati. He
supported Mr. King, during the undertaking,
with his utmost ability, and, when the
translation was finished, would have printed
it at his own house, if he had not been pre
vented by the troubles in Ireland. This
translation (together with Archbishop
Daniel's version of the New Testament) was
printed in London in 1685, at the expense
of the celebrated Robert Boyle. — King's
Primer of fhe Church History of Ireland ;
Home's Introduction to the Holy Scriptures.
The Welsh version (the New Testament
only) was published in tbe'sixteenth century.
The Act of 5 Eliz. c. 28, directed that the
Bible and Prayer Book should be translated
into Welsh; committing the direction of
this version to the four Welsh bishops. The
translators were, Thomas Huet, precentor
of St. David's, Richard Davies, bishop of St,
David's, and William Salesbury. It was
printed in 1567. The former edition was
revised, and the Old Testament translated,
chiefly by William Morgan, bishop of
Llandaff, afterwards of St. Asaph . This was
printed in 1588, and was revised by Richard
Parry, bishop of St. Asaph, and reprinted in
1620 : the basis of all subsequent editions.—
Home's Introd. H 2

100

BIDDING

The Manx version of the Bible was begun
by the exertions of Bishop Wilson, by whom
the Gospel of St. Matthew only was printed.
His successor, Bishop Hilderly, had. the New
Testament completed and printed between
the years 1756 and 1760. The Old Testa
ment was completed two days before his
death in 1772.— Home's Introd. ; Butler's
Life of Bishop Hilderly.
By the 80th canon, " a Bible of the largest
volume " is one of those things which the
churchwardens are bound to provide for
every parish church.
V. The most ancient copies of the Bible
are written in capital letters without any
breaks between the words, and with no
verses or chapters.
The division of the Scriptures into
chapters, as they are at present, took place
in the middle ages. Some attribute it to
Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury,
in the reigns of John and Henry III. But
the real author of this invention was Hugo
de Sancto Caro, commonly called Hugo
Cardinalis, from his being the first Dominican
raised to the degree of Cardinal. This
Hugo flourished about the year 1240. He
wrote a Comment on the ' Scriptures, and
projected the first Concordance, which- is
that of the Latin Vulgate Bible. As the
intention of> this work was to render the
finding of any word or passage in the Scrip
tures more easy, it became necessary to
divide the book into sections, and the sections
into subdivisions. These sections are the
chapters into which the Bible has been
divided since that time. But the subdivision
of the chapters was not then in verses as at
present. Hugo subdivided them by the
letters a, b, o, d, e, f, g, which were placed
in the margin at an equal distance from each
other, according to the length of the chapters.
About the year 1445, Mordecai Nathan, a
famous Jewish Babbi, improved Hugo's in
vention, and subdivided the chapters .into
verses, in the present manner. [H.]
BIDDING PEAYEE : originally bidding
of prayer. The custom of bidding prayers
is very ancient, as may be seen in St. Chry-
sostom's and other liturgies, where the
biddings occur frequently, and are called
Allocutiones, irpoacJHovrio-eis. (See Beads.)
The formulary which tbe Church of England,
in the 55th of the canons of 1603, directs to
be used before all sermons, lectures, and
homilies, is called the Bidding Prayer, be
cause in it the preacher is directed to bid or
exhort the people to pray for certain specified
objects. The 55th canon of the Convocation of
1603 is as follows: "Before all sermons,
lectures, and homilies, the preachers and
ministers shall move the people to join
with them in prayer, in this form, or to this

BIGAMY
effect, as briefly as conveniently they may:
' Ye shall pray for Christ's Holy Catholic
Church, that is, for the whole congregation
of Christian people dispersed throughout
the whole world, and especially for the
Churches of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
And herein I require you most especially to
pray for the king's most excellent Majesty,
our sovereign Lord James, King of England,
Scotland, France, and Ireland, defender of
the faith, and supreme governor in these his
realms, and all other his dominions and
countries, over all persons, in all causes, as
well ecclesiastical as temporal. Ye shall
also pray for our gracious Queen Anne, the
noble Prince Henry, and the rest of the king
and queen's royal issue. Ye shall also pray
for the ministers of God's holy word and
sacraments, as well archbishops and bishops,
as other pastors and curates. Ye shall also'
pray for the king's most honourable council,
and for all the nobility and magistrates of
this realm, that all and every of these in
their several callings may serve truly and
faithfully, to the glory of God, and the edi
fying and well-governing' of His people,
remembering the account that they must
make. Also ye shall pray for the whole
commons of this realm, that they may live
in the true faith and fear of God, in humble
obedience to the king, and brotherly charity
one to another.. Finally, let us praise God
for all those which are departed -out of this
life in the faith of Christ, and pray unto
God that we may have grace to direct our
lives after their good example, that, this life
ended, we may be made partakers with them
of the glorious resurrection in the life ever
lasting,' always concluding with the Lord's
Prayer." It is necessary to observe, that the Church
of Scotland alluded to, is not the present
Presbyterian establishment. (See Presby
terian Establishment in Scotland.)
BIDDLIANS. Followers of John Biddle
the Unitarian. Biddle was educated at
Oxford, and was afterwards master of a Free
School in Gloucester in 1641. He translated
the Racovian Catechism, and in consequence
of his writings, in whicH he denied tlie
divinity of our Lord and of the Holy Ghost,
was frequently in prison. Yet his writings
had- great influence, so much so that it was
asserted in 1665, that there was not a town
or village in England where there were not
some Unitarians. — Neale's Hist, of the Puri
tans, vol. iv. p. 157. [H.]
BIER. (Sax. bser). A carriage on which
the dead are carried to the grave. It is to-
be provided by the parish.
BIGAMY, according to the modern
sense of the word, is the crime of having
two wives at once. But by early Church
writers it seems to have been used for th*

BlEETTA
marriage of a second wife after death of the
first. (See Digamy.)
BlEETTA. A square cap of black silk
Or other stuff, in form of a flattened pyramid ;
worn by clergy at processions and other out
door functions. It has only of late years
been used at ali in England. It does not
seem to have been originally an exclusively
ecclesiastical headdress, as in the eleventh
century the biretum was worn as a badge of
honour or victory. [H.]
BIETH-DAYS. In the ancient Church
this term, in its application to martyrs,
and the festivals in honour of them, ex
pressed the day on which they suffered
death, or were born into the glory and
happiness of the kingdom above. In this
sense it stood distinct from the time of their
natural birth into the world, which was
considered as an event so inferior, that its
ordinary designation was merged in that of
a translation to the joys of a better world.
"When ye hear of a birthday of saints,
brethren," says Peter Chrysologus, bishop of
Eavenna in the fifth century, " do not think
that that is spoken of in which they are
born on earth, of the flesh, but that in
which they are born from earth into heaven,
from labour to rest, from temptations to
repose, from torments to delights, not fluctu
ating, but strong, and stable, and eternal :
from the derision of the world to a crown
and glory. Such are the birth-days of the
martyrs that we celebrate."
BISHOP. (See Orders, Apostolical Suc
cession, Archbishop.) This is the title now
given to those who are of the highest order
in the Christian ministry. The English
word comes from the Saxon bischop, which
is a derivative from the Greek 'Emo-icoiros, an
overseer or inspector. I. The office in the
Apostolic times. II. The office in the
Early Christian Church. III. The office
in the Church of England.
I. The doctrine of Scripture, as it relates
to the office of bishop, may be briefly stated
thus : — As the Lord Jesus Christ was sent
•by the Father, so were the apostles sent
by him. "As my Father hath sent me,"
¦he Says soon after his resurrection, " even so
send I you." Now, how had the Father
sent him? He had sent him to act as his
supreme minister on earth ; as such to ap
point under him subordinate ministers, and,
to do what he then did when his work on
earth was done, to hand on his commission
to others. The apostles, in like manner,
-were sent by Christ to act as his chief
ministers in the Church, to appoint subordi
nate ministers under them, and then, as he
had done, to hand on their commission to
others. And on this commission, after our
Lord had ascended up on high, the apostles
proceeded to act. They formed their con-

BlSHOP

101

verts into Churches : these Churches con
sisted of baptized believers, to officiate
among whom subordinate ministers, priests,
and deacons were ordained; while the
apostle who formed any particular Church
exercised over it episcopal superintendence,
either holding an occasional visitation, by
sending for the clergy to meet him, (as St.
Paul summoned to Miletus the clergy of
Ephesus,) or else transmitting to them those
pastoral addresses, which, under the name
of Epistles, form so important a portion of
Holy Scripture. At length, however, it
became necessary for the apostles to proceed
yet further, and to do as their Lord had
empowered them to do, to hand on their
commission to others, that at their own
death the governors of the Church might
not be extinct. Of this we have an instance
in Titus, who was placed in Crete by St.
Paul, to act as chief pastor or bishop; and
another in Timothy, who was in like manner
set over the Church of Ephesus. And
when Timothy was thus appointed to the
office of chief pastor, he was associated with
St. Paul, who, in writingto the Philippians,
commences his salutation thus : " Paui
and Timotheus to the servants of Jesus
Christ who are at Philippi, with the
bishops and deacons." Now we have here
the three orders of the ministry clearly
alluded to. The title of bishop is, doubtless,
given to the second order : but it is not for
words,' but for things, that we are to con
tend. Titles may be changed, while offices
remain ; so senators exist, though they are
not now of necessity old men ; and most
absurd would it be to contend that, when
we Speak of the emperor Constantine, we
can mean that Constantine held no other
office than that held under the Roman re
public, because we find Cicero also saluted as
emperor. So stood the matter in the first age
of the gospel, when the chief pastors of the
Church were generally designated apostles or
angels, i.e. messengers sent by God himself.
II. In the next century, the office re
maining, the designation of those who held
it was changed, the title of Apostle was
confined to the Twelve, including St. Paul ;
and the chief pastors who succeeded them
were thenceforth called bishops, the subordi
nate ministers being styled priests and
deacons. For when the name of bishop was
given to those who had that oversight of
presbyters, which presbyters had of their
flocks, it would have been manifestly incon
venient, and calculated to engender confusion,
to continue the episcopal name to the second
order. And thus we see, as Christ was
sent by the Father, so he sent the apostles ;
as the apostles were sent by Christ, so did
they send the first race of bishops ; as the
first race of bishops was sent by the apostles

102

BISHOP

so they sent the second race of bishops, the
second the third, and so down to our present
bishops, who thus trace their spiritual de
scent from St. Peter and St. Paul, and prove
their divine authority to govern the Churches
over which they are canonically appointed
to preside.
They were frequently designated the
successors of the apostles. Irenajus speaks
of them as those " to whom the apostles de
livered the Churches" (adv. Hseres. v. 20).
And they were evidently the first order,
taking the position of the apostles, in the
several Churches. " Unitatem," St. Cyprian
says, " per apostolos nobis successoribus
traditam, obtinere curemus " (Ep. ad Cornel.
45). In , the same way St. Jerome, in
several passages, speaks of the successors of
the apostles. " Nunc autem," he writes on
Ps. xiv., " quia illi (apostoli) recesserunt a
mundo, habes pro his apostolos." (See also
Ep. ad Marcellam 54 ; ad Evangelum, 46, &c. )
The bishops at the council of Carthage spoke
of the ''Apostolos . . . quibus hos successi-
mus." So St. Augustine in his sermon on the
45th Psalm, says, " pro Apostolis . . . consti
tuti sunt episcopi." A bishop's see, there
fore, was called "sedes apostolica." St. Au
gustine says, " Christiana societas per sedes
Apostolorum, et successiones episcoporum,
certa per orbem propagatione diffunditur."
Bishops were also called "princes of the
people," or by the Greek writers " apxovres
iKK\t]a-tS>v." (Jerome in Ps. xiv. &c. ;
Euseb. vi. c. 28 ; Origen. Ham. xi. in Jerem.,
&c.) The word " papa " or " pope " is also
given to bishops generally, and was not con
fined to one see, or arrogated to himself by
one bishop, as was afterwards the case. (See
Tertull. de Pudic, c. 13 : and many others
as Dionysius, Jerome, and even Arius, who
addressed Alexander as " papa," Ep. ad
Euseb. Nicom. ap. Theod. lib. i. c. 5.) St.
Jerome, writing to St. Augustine, addressed
the bishop " beatissimo Papa} Augustino "
(Ep. lxi. ad Pammach.); and epistles
written to St. Cyprian are addressed " Cy-
priano papae " (Ep. xxx.-xxxi. &c.) It was
often held, after the apostolic age, that
bishops and presbyters were of the same
order. Such an opinion Aerius held; but
it is explained by the fact that he was dis
appointed in not obtaining a bishopric. (See
Aerius.) Some of the schoolmen use the
word "order" in a different sense to the
ancient writers, and assert that bishops and
presbyters do not differ in order, but in
jurisdiction. St. Jerome is quoted as being
of the same opinion ; but this is satisfactorily
disproved by Bingham, Hooker, and Morinus.
— Bingham, bk. ii. c. 1, sec. 1 ; Moriuus, de
sacris Ordin. Exerc. iii. c. 3 ; Hooker, bk.
vii. c. 6, &c; Blunt's Parish Priest;
Murray, p. 291.

BISHOP
1IL Tbe Church of England has always
maintained the distinction between bishops
and priests. After the Reformation, indeed,
there was an endeavour to make the two,
orders one : but it was repressed. Bancroft,
and others powerfuRy maintained the superi-,
ority of bishops " jure divino," which right,
had been, and afterward was again com-,
pletely acknowledged by the Church of
England. (Hook's Archbishops, vol. x.;,
Jewell, Apol. p. 10, and elsewhere, Ed. Camb.,
1847.) The episcopate and the priesthood
possess, indeed, alike the power of the keys,
and of administering God's word and sacra
ments ; but the episcopate alone possess the
power of ordaining, and of confirmation, and,
is supreme in matters of government and
discipline. The judgment of the Church of England
with respect to the primitive existence of
the episcopal order is this: "It is evident
unto all men diligently reading Holy Scrip*
ture and ancient authors, that from the
apostles' time there have been these orders
of ministers in Christ's Church,— bishops,
priests, and deacons." — Preface to the Ordi
nation Service.
(For a somewhat different view of the
origin of the Episcopal order as developed
out of tbe Presbytery, see a Dissertation on
the Divine Ministry by Bishop Lightfoot,
in his Commentary on the Epistle to the
PhRippians. Another theory has lately been
propounded (Hatch's Bampton Lectures,
1880), which appears to be singularly desti
tute of any sound historical foundation.)
In the time of the Saxons, as indeed was
generally the case throughout Europe, all
bishops and abbots sat in state councils, by
reason of their office, as they were spiritual
persons, and not upon account of any
tenures ; but after the Conquest the abbots
sat there by virtue of their tenures, and the
bishops in a double capacity, as bishops and
likewise as barons by tenure. When, in the
eleventh year of Henry II., ArchbishopBecket
was condemned in parliament, there was a
dispute who should pronounce the sentence,
whether a bishop, or a temporal lord: those
who desired that a bishop should do it,
alleged that they were ecclesiastical persons,
and that it was one of their own order who
was condemned ; but the bishops replied,
that this was not a spiritual but a secular
judgment ; and that they did not sit there
merely as bishops, but as barons ; and told
the House of Peers, Nos barones, vos baron®,
pares hic sumus. In the very year before,
in the tenth of Henry IL, it was declared by
the Constitution of Clarendon, that bishops,
and all other persons who hold of the king
in capite, have their possessions of him sicut
baroniam, et sicut cseteri barones, debent
interesse judiciis curise regis, &c. j and that

BISHOP'S
they ought to sit there likewise as bishops ;
that is, not as mere spiritual persons, vested
with a power only to ordain and confirm, &c,
but as they are the governors of the Church.
They sit as " the lords spiritual," and in
old times the guardian of the spiritualities
during a vacancy was summoned to parlia
ment. For that and other reasons fiallam
thought they did not sit as barons, and cer
tainly all that have been created since the
middle ages have not. (See Guardian of
Spiritualities.) [H.]
BISHOP'S BIBLE. (See Bible.)
BISHOP'S BOOK. (SeeArticles,The Ten.)
BISHOPS, ELECTION OF. When
cities were at first converted, to Christi
anity, the bishops were elected by the
clergy and people : for it was then thought
convenient that the laity, as well, as the
clergy, should concur in the election, that
he who was to have the inspection of them
all might come in by general cbnsent.
But as the number of Christians in
creased, this was found to be inconvenient ;
for tumults were raised, and sometimes
murders committed, at such popular elec
tions. To prevent such disorders, the
emperors, being then Christians, reserved
the election of bishops to themselves ; but
the bishop of Rome, when he had obtained
supremacy in the Western Church, was
unwilling that the bishops should have any
dependence upon princes; and therefore
brought it about that the canons in cathe
dral churches should have the election of
their bishops, which elections were usually
confirmed at Rome.
But princes had stiR some power in those
elections ; and in England we read, that, in
the Saxon times, aR ecclesiastical dignities
were conferred by the king in parliament.
From these circumstances arose the long
controversy about the right of investiture,
a point conceded, so far as our Church is
concerned, by Henry I., who only reserved
the ceremony of homage to himself from
the bishops in respect of temporaRties.
King John afterwards granted his charter,
by common consent of the barons, that the
bishops should be eRgible by the chapter,
though the right of the Crown in former
times was acknowledged. This was after
wards confirmed by several Acts of Parlia
ment. This election by the chapter was to
be a free election, but founded upon the
king's conge d'elire: it was afterwards to
have the royal assent ; and the newly ^
elected bishop was not to have his tem
poralities assigned until he had sworn
allegiance to the king ; but it was agreed,
that confirmation and consecration should
be in the power of the pope, so that foreign
potentate gained in effect the disposal of all
the bishoprics in England.

BISHOPS

103

But the pope was not content with this
power of confirmation and consecration ;
he would oftentimes collate to the bishop
rics himself: hence, by the 25 Edward
III. st. 6, it was enacted as follows, viz. :
The free elections of archbishops, bishops;
and all other dignities and benefices elective
in England, shall hold from henceforth
in the manner as they were granted by
the king's progenitors, and the ancestors
of other lords, founders of the said dignities
and other benefices. And in case that
reservation, collation, or provision be made
by the. court of Eome, of any archbishopric,
bishopric, dignity, or other benefice, in dis
turbance of the free elections aforesaid,
the king shall have -for that time the col
lations to the archbishoprics and other
dignities elective which be of his advowry,
such as his progenitors had before that free
election was granted; since that the election
was first granted by the king's progenitors
upon a certain form and condition, as to de-1
mand licence of the king to choose, and after
the election to have his royal assent, and
not in other manner ; which conditions not
kept, the thing ought by reason to resort to
its first nature.
Afterwards, by the 25 Henry VIII. c. 20,
all Papal jurisdiction whatsoever in this
matter was entirely taken away : by which
it is enacted — That no person shall be
presented and nominated to the bishop of
Eome, otherwise called the pope, or to the
see of Rome, for the office of an archbishop
or bishop ; but the same shall utterly cease,
and be no longer used within this realm.
And it is enacted (omitting immaterial
words) that " at every avoidance of a bishop
ric the king may grant unto the dean and
chapter of the cathedral church a licence
under the great seal as of old time to proceed
to election of a bishop, with a letter missive
containing the name of the person whom
they shall elect. . . . And if they defer or
delay the elections above twelve days after
such letter missives delivered to them,
then the king shaR nominate and present
by letters patent such person as he shall
think able and convenient." . . . And if the
said dean and chapter shall not proceed and
signify the election within twenty days, or
if the archbishop and bishops directed to
consecrate the person presented to them by
the king shall omit to do so for twenty
days, they shall all respectively incur the
penalties of prsemunire under the Acts of
25 Edward III. and 16 Richard II. ; which
are forfeiture of lands and goods and im
prisonment for life. The bishops of the
new sees (where there is no chapter) are
appointed by letters patent as there' is no
dean and chapter to elect them.
In the case of Bishop Hampden in 1848;

104

BISHOPS

the material parts of the law were stated as
follows by Erie, J., on an application for
a mandamus to the Archbishop of Canter
bury to hear objections to the confirmation
of the bishop's election, on which the judges
of the Queen's Bench were equally divided,
and so the mandamus was refused, and the
question has never been tried again, nor is
likely to be, though an opposition was sub
sequently rejected by a vicar-general to
Bishop Temple's confirmation in 1829.
(Stephens' Laws cf the Clergy, 1397.) He
said, "The reference to history leads me
to the conclusion that bishoprics were
donatives under the Saxon and Norman
kings. From the charter of King John
to the 25th of Edw. III., bishops were
elected by the chapter and confirmed by
the archbishop ; and from Edw. III. to the
25th of Hen. VIII. c. 20, the pope had
superseded the archbishop, except on a few
occasions when he was powerless. The
question turns on the effect of that sta
tute which was varied by 1 Edw. VI, c. 2,
and bishoprics made donatives again ; and
that was repealed by Mary, and not re
stored by 1 Eliz. c. 1, but that of Hen. VIII.
was. The preamble of s. 3 recites that
the manner of electing, presenting, and
consecrating bishops had not been plainly
expressed by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 20, and for
remedy thereof enacts that the chapter
shall elect the person named in the letters
missive of the king within twelve days;
and in case of default the king may nominate
and present to the archbishop (by letters
patent) such person as he thinks able and
convenient, and by s. 5 in case of such
nomination the archbishop shaR with all
due speed invest and consecrate him ; and
in case the chapter shall elect the person
named their election shall stand good, and
the person so elected, after certification to
the king, shall be reported and taken by the
name of lord elected of the bishopric. Then
the oath of fealty being made to the king
he shall signify the said election to the
archbishop commanding him to confirm the
said election and to invest and consecrate
the person so elected. And by s. 7 if any
archbishop after any such election or nomi
nation signified do not confirm and consecrate
the person so elected or nominated within
twenty days, or if any person [i.e. any
archbishop's vicar general for instance] shall
admit any process to the contrary of the due
execution of this act he shall incur the
penalties of a praemunire." On several sub
sequent occasions the archbishop's officials
have accordingly refused to hear opponents
to the confirmation on grounds of personal
fitness. It might be different if an objection
was made to the regularity of the election,
ps e.g. that a majority of the chapter had

BISHOPS
voted against it. It may be the duty of
the official in that case to report that the
chapter had not made an election, and leave
the Crown to deal with them.
The following are the formalities observed
when a bishop dies or is translated : The
dean and chapter certify the Queen thereof
in Chancery, and pray leave of the Queen
to make election. Thereupon the sovereign
grants a licence to them under the great
seal, to elect the person named in her letters
missive. Within twelve days after the
receipt of this licence they are to proceed to
election. And the dean and chapter certify
it under their common seal to the Queen,
and to the archbishop of the province, and
to the bishop elected ; then the Queen gives
her royal assent under the great seal,
directed to the archbishop, commanding
him to confirm and consecrate the .bishop
thus elected. The archbishop subscribes it
thus, viz. Fiat confirmatio, and grants a
commission to his vicar-general to perform
all acts requisite to that purpose. Upon
this the vicar-general issues a citation to
summon all persons who oppose this election,
to appear, &c, which citation (in the pro
vince of Canterbury) is affixed by an officer
of the Arches, on the door of Bow church,
and he makes proclamation there for the
opposers to appear.
By the Act of Henry VHI, the mandate
for confirmation and consecration of an
archbishop goes to the other archbishop
with some other bishops, or to four bishops
only. The confirmations of the northern
bishops usually take place in St. James's
church, Piccadilly, under licence from the
Archbishop of Canterbury, by the Vicar-
General of York. The present Archbishop
of York was confirmed there by Bishop
Tait of London, in. person, and the Arch
bishop of Canterbury was confirmed by four
southern bishops. It having been decided
by the Dean of Arches and some assessors
in the case of Bishop Lee, and by the Vicar-
General of Canterbury, and by the Queen's
Bench as above mentioned, that confirma
tion is a mere form, and that the person who
is ordered- to confirm can hear no objections
to the bishop elected, it may be thought
strange that the House of Commons in 1881
rejected a bill for abolishing that ceremony ;
of which the prominent parts are these. Im
mediately before morning prayer or the Litany,
the proctor for the electing chapter presents
to the bishop elect in the vestry a certificate
of the election and "earnestly prays his
lordship to consent to it." He then signs a
"schedule of consent," and they go to the
service. After that the vicar-general, in his
doctor's robes (if he is one), or a bishop if
confirming an archbishop in person, takes
his seat at a table just outside the com-

BISHOPS
munion rails; and the cathedral's proctor
presents to him the Queen's letters patent
for the confirmation, and the vicar directs
them to be read by the metropolitan regis
trar, and the proctor prays him to decree
that it be proceeded with. The vicar
decrees accordingly. The bishop elect then
takes his seat opposite to him, and the
proctor "judicially produces his lordship
and exhibits an original mandate" and a
certificate endorsed thereon, and prayS that
opposers be publicly called : which the
vicar orders to be done, .and it is done
accordingly, and they are told that they
shall be heard. But if any respond to that
invitation the vicar has to tell them they
eannot be heard — except perhaps as aforesaid.
Then the proctor " accuses of contumacy all
and singular persons who have been cited
and publicly called and have not appeared,
"and prays that they be precluded from
further opposing, and that the business may
proceed," and says, " I porrect a schedule
and pray that it may be read," and the
vicar does read and signs it.
The proctor next "in pain of the con
tumacy of all such persons" as aforesaid,
" gives in a summary petition " and " prays
that it be decreed to proceed summarily
and plainly, and that the term be assigned to
prove the same"; and the vicar decrees
accordingly. Then " in supply of proof of
the matters contained in the summary
petition," the. proctor exhibits a certificate
of the election, and the public instrument of
the bishop's consent thereto, and " prays
that a time may be assigned for him to
hear sentence instantly." And the vicar
does so. Then the proctor prays that
opposers may be called again, and the vicar
says, " Call them again," and they are called
again, and again accused of contumacy for
not coming; and the proctor "porrects
another schedule," which the vicar reads
and signs. The proctor then informs him
that the bishop is ready to take the oath
and sign the declaration required by law,
and he does so. Then the proctor prays a
definitive sentence in writing, and the vicar
reads and signs and gives it. Then the
proctor, for himself and the lord bishop
elected and confirmed, prays a public instru
ment and letters testimonial touching the
premises ; and the vicar says, " We do decree
as prayed"; and so ends this remarkable
ceremony, of which it would be a pity if no
i record survived in case it should ever be
¦ abolished. The form does not appear to
have had any real authority, but was
voluntarily revived when confirmation was
re-enacted. The bishops of the new sees
without chapters are presented for consecra
tion simply by letters patent, according to
the Acts for them, until they shall have

BLASPHEMY

105

chapters. It is hardly credible that some
persons ihave seriously urged the necessity
for chapters in the new sees in order that
their bishops may be elected and confirmed.
Confirmation takes place on translation to
another see, after election, and completes it,
except that the bishop has still to "do
homage to the Queen for his temporalities,"
which include all his patronage. The pre
amble of 2 Eliz. c. 4, which abolished
election of the Irish bishops, contains this
very true recital : " Forasmuch as the elec
tions of bishops in Ireland " (and why there
only ?) " be as well to the long delay as to
the costs and charges of such persons, and
such elections be in very deed no elections,
but . . . shadows and pretences, saving to
no purpose ; " and thereupon made them
donative. The bishop of Gloucester and
Bristol, by 6 & 7 W. IV. c. 77, is elected
by .the two chapters alternately. Bath
and Wells has no chapter at Bath, any
more than Lichfield and Coventry (as Lich
field was called until the same Act) had at
Coventry. [G.]
BLASPHEMY. (From the Greek word,
|3Xao-<p>jfie<B, quasi /3Xdn-ro) rrpi <bfip.riv.) An
injury to the reputation of any, but now
used almost exclusively to designate that
which derogates from the honour of God,
whether by detracting from his person or
attributes, or by attributing to the crea
ture what is due to God alone.
Blasphemy is a crime both in the civil
and canon law, and is punishable both by
the statute and commondaw of England.
The siii of blasphemy incurred the pub
lic censure of the primitive Christian
Church. They distinguished blasphemy
into three sorts. 1. The blasphemy of
apostates, whom the heathen persecutors
obliged, not only to deny, but to curse
Christ. Pliny in a letter to Trajan gives an
account of some apostates who worshipped
the images of the emperor, and of the gods,
and cursed Jesus Christ. (Plin. Ep. 97,
lib. x.)
2. The blasphemy of heretics, and others,
who though Christians, yet by impious
doctrine or profane discourses, derogated
from the majesty and honour of God and
His holy religion.
3. The third sort of blasphemy was that
against the Holy Ghost : concerning which
the opinions of the ancients varied. Some
applied it to the sin of lapsing into idolatry
and apostasy, and denying Christ in time of
persecution. Others made it to consist in
denying Christ to be God ; in which sense
Hilary charges the Arians with sinning
against the Holy Ghost. Origen thought
that whoever, after having received the
gifts of the Holy Ghost by baptism, after
wards ran into sin, was guilty of the un-

106

BLASPHEMY

pardonable sin against the Holy Ghost.
Athanasius refutes this notion, and delivers
his own opinion in the following manner.
" Tbe Pharisees, in our Saviour's time, and
the Arians, in our own, running into the
same madness, denied the real Word to be
incarnate, and ascribed the works of the
Godhead to the devil and his angels. — They
put the devil in the place of God — which
was the same thing as if they had said,
that the world was made by Beelzebub,
that the sun rose at his command, and the
stars moved by his direction. — For this
reason Christ declared their sin unpardon
able, and their punishment inevitable and
eternal." St. Ambrose likewise defined
this sin to be a denying the Divinity of
Christ. • There are others, who make it to
consist in denying the Divinity of the Holy
Ghost. Epiphanius calls these blasphemers
irvevp.aTofmx0''' "fighters against the Holy
Ghost." Others, again, place this sin in
a perverse and malicious ascribing the
operations of the Holy Spirit to the power
of the devil ; and that against express
knowledge and conviction of conscience.
St. Augustine speaks often of this crime,
and places it in. a continued resistance of
the motions and graces of the Holy Spirit,
and persisting in impenitency to our death.
" Impenitency is the blasphemy, which has
neither remission in this world, nor in the
world to come ; but of this no one can judge
so long as a man continues in this life."
Bacchiarius, a contemporary of St. Au
gustine, adds that it is such a despair of
God's mercy, that men give up „1 hopes,
and go on sinning without repentance.
The schoolmen, from the writings of the
ancients, "according to their usual chem
istry, have extracted five several species of
blasphemy against the Holy Ghost ; viz.
despair, presumption, final impenitency,
obstinacy in sin, and opposition to the
known truth. — Cypr. Ep. 10 ; Hilar, in
Mat can. xxxi. p. 184; Athan. in illud,
Quicunque dixerit verbum, &c, torn. i. p. 971;
Ambros. Comment in Luc. lib. vii. c. 12 ;
Epiphan. Hseres. Ixxiv. ; Aug. Serm. xi. ;
de Verbis Domini, c. iii. ; de Vera et Falsa
Psen. cap. , iv., and elsewhere ; Bacchiar.
Epist. de recipiend. lapsis; Bib. Patr.
turn. iii. p. 133; Bingham, bk. xvi.
c. vii. [H.J
BLASPHEMY OR BLASPHEMOUS
LIBEL. It has been decided in every
case which has been tried in modern times,
that the publication of " coarse and brutal "
reflections either on our Lord personally or
on either the New or the Old Testament, or
Christianity in general, are still blasphemous
libels at common law, which has not been
altered by what are popularly called the
Toleration Acts; but no one has long

blood:
been or is even likely to be convicted for
publishing fair arguments on the subject.
It is for the ecclesiastical courts in the
case of clergymen to. decide whether any
particular publication about religion over
steps the limits of fair argument ; and so
clergymen have been deprived for dogmatij
cally denouncing whole books of the Bible
or any clear doctrine of the Church. That
was Mr. Voysey's offence as a clergyman
bound to teach nothing contrary thereto,'
or else to leave his position. Several other1
clergymen of very different opinions es
caped, being thought only to have argued
fairly for what was held not to be expressly
prohibited by the Cburch.
This is quite in accordance with the law
about seditious libels, which may be called
blasphemy against the state. Everybody
knows that it is lawful to advocate; any
reform of the law by fair and reasonable
discussion ; and everybody knows thatthere
is and ought to be a' limit beyond which
the language used for that purpose becomes
seditious; and that has to be determined
in every case by the judge and jury for
themselves. Even in common libel cases
a cautious and able writer might do ari
opponent a great deal more harm with im
punity as to any risk of damages than an
incautious or stupid one might do by coarse
personal abuse, for which a British jury
would be sure to give large damages. We
are therefore quite unable to understand
how an able legal writer can have per-
suaded himself that the law of blasphemous
libel ought to be abolished,: in order that
the great majority of the people of Eng
land may be far more offended than by
the grossest seditious or personal libel, all
for the sake of some theoretical or abstract
legal logic; which would do nobody any
good except those few persons who are
every now and then convicted and richly
deserve worse punishment than they get,- or
ever will get through a judge and jury. [G.]
BLACK LETTER DAYS. The minor
festivals are so called because in the
calendar their names are printed in black;
while those of the greater festivals are
printed in red letters.
BLACK EUBPJC. A name sometimes
given to the " declaration on kneeling " at the
end of the communion office. It was pro
bably drawn up by Cranmer, and was
signed by the king, but was not added to
the Prayer Book till the last revision in
1661. One important alteration was made
on the original declaration ; the words
corporal presence being substituted for
" real and essential presence."
BOOKS OF HOUES. (See Prymers.)
BLOOD. From the earliest times the
clergy have been forbidden to sit in judg-

BODY
ment on capital offences, or in cases of
blood ; a rule still maintained among us ;
for the bishops, who, as peers of parlia
ment, are a component part of the highest
court of judicature in the kingdom, al
ways retire when such cases are before the
House. BODY. The Church is called a body.
(Rom. xii. 5; 1 Cor. x. 17; xii. 13; Eph.
iv. 4 ; Col. iii. 15.) Like every other body,
society, or corporation, it has a prescribed
form of admission, baptism ; a constant
badge of membership, the Eucharist; pecu
liar duties, repentance, faith, obedience ;
peculiar privileges, forgiveness of sins, pre
sent grace, and future glory ; regularly
constituted officers, bishops, priests, and
deacons. The Church is the body, of
which Christ is the Head.
BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. A sect
which sprung up in Bohemia early in the
sixteenth century. In 1503 they were ac
cused by the Roman Catholics to King
Ladislaus IL, who published an edict
against them, forbidding them to hold any
meetings, either privately or publicly.
When Luther declared himseR against the
Church of Eome, the Bohemian Brethren
endeavoured to join his party. At first, that
reformer showed a great aversion to them
as they denied the presence of Christ in the
Lord's supper, but the Bohemians sending
their deputies to him in 1535, with a full
account of their doctrines which they
modified, he acknowledged that they were a
society of Christians whose doctrine came
near to the purity of the gospel. This sect
published , a confession of faith in 1532,
which was formally presented to Ferdinand,
king of Hungary and Bohemia, in 1535, in
which they renounced Anabaptism, which
they at first professed ; upon this an union
was concluded with the Lutherans. But
after thS death of Luther they united them
selves with the Swiss, or Zuinglians, whose
opinions from thenceforth they continued to
follow. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, iii. 27 ;
Du Pin, vol. xii. bk. ii. c. 30; Blunt's
Dictionary of Sects, pp. 45, 74.
BOUNTY, QUEEN ANNE'S (See
BOUNDS, BEATING OF THE. This
was an old custom, which is still kept up in
a few parishes. The minister, accompanied
by his churchwardens and parishioners, used
on one of the rogation days, to go round the
bounds of the parish, pray to God for a
blessing on the fruits of the earth, and to
preserve the rights and properties of their
parish. It is supposed that this custom
had its origin in the heathen feast of " Ter-
minalia " ; but however this may be, it was
invested in Christian times with considerable
religious observance. It is referred to in the

BOWING

107

" Canons of Cuthbert," Archbishop of Can
terbury a.d. 747, and rogation days are
called " gang dagas," or days of peram
bulation, in the laws of Alfred.
In the Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth, it
is ordered that " the curate shall, at certain
and convenient places, admonish the people
to give thanks unto God, for His benefits
. . . . and shall inculcate such sentences as
' cursed be he which translateth the bounds
and doles of his neighbour.' "
In the Homilies an especial exhortation
is given " to be spoken to such parishes,
when they use their perambulation in
Eogation Week." — Brand's Antiq. p. 265 ;
Horn, ad loc. [H.]
BOWING. I. At the name of Jesus.
This ancient custom is founded on that
Scripture, where it is declared, that " God
hath given Him a Name which is above
every Name ; that at the Name of Jesus
every knee should bow, and every tongue
should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to
the glory of God the Father" (Phil. ii. 9),
&c. The bowing at the name of our Lord
has always been especially observed in re
citing the Creed, when, also, it has been the
custom to turn to the east. (See East.)
In the Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth, of
1559, it was ordered " That, whensoever the
Name of Jesus shall be in any lesson,
sermon, or otherwise in the church pro
nounced, due reverence be made, with low-
ness of courtesy," &c. In the 18th canon
of 1604, it is ordered that " When in time
of Divine service the Lord Jesus shall be
mentioned, due and lowly reverence shall
be done by all persons present, as it hath
been accustomed ; testifying by these out
ward ceremonies and gestures, their inward
humility, Christian resolution, and due ac
knowledgment that the Lord Jesus Christ,
the true eternal Son of God, is the only
Saviour of the world," &c. (See also Hooker,
Ecc. Pol. bk. v. c. xxx. 3.)
II. At entering or leaving church. This
was an ancient custom ; but there is no
distinct rule found in the ancient Fathers
or councils on this point. (Bingham, Ant,
bk. viii. c. x. 7). This reverent custom is
still practised at Windsor Chapel, in college
chapels and cathedrals, and has been re
tained or revived in many churches. In
the Canons of 1640, agreed upon by the
synods of London and York, it is said, "We
heartily commend it to all good and well-
affected people, that they be ready to
tender to the Lord their reverence and
obeisance, both at their coming in and
going out of church, according to the most
ancient custom of the primitive Church in
the purest times." — Sparrow's Coll. p. 263. .
III. To the altar. This may be included
under the latter head, the Church of England

108

BOYLE'S

having discarded the mediaeval idea of ador
ing the elements, while at "the same time
she has not discarded the reverence to be
shown in the sanctuary.
As the Jews worshipped, " lifting up
their hands towards the mercy-seat (Psal.
xxviii. 2), and even the cherubim were
formed with their faces looking towards it
(Exod. xxv. 19), so the primitive Chris
tians did in their worship look towards the
altar, of which the mercy-seat was a type.
But reverence is paid not to the altar, but
to Him that sanctifies the altar. " Shall I
bow," says Archbishop Laud, " to men in
each House of Parliament, and shall I not
bow to God in His house ? Surely I must
worship God, and bow to Him, though
neither altar or communion table be in the
church."^Hook'S Archbishops, vol. xi. p.
196 ; Laud's Works (Parker), vol. iv. 285.
IV. At different parts of the service. At
the Gloria Patri, and whenever the Holy
Trinity is mentioned or referred to ; when,
also, there is reference to our Lord's Incar
nation, as at the words "and Was made
man " ; it is customary in some churches to
bow. With regard to this, the " note " in
the first book of Edw. VI. gives advice ;
"these customs may be used or left, as
every man's devotion serveth, without
blame." So also in the Canons of 1640 above
referred to, with regard to bowing, these
words occur : " In the practice of omission of
this rite, we desire that the rule of charity
prescribed by the apostle may be observed,
which is, that they which use this rite
despise not those who use it not, and they
who use it not, condemn not them who use
it." [H.]
BOYLE'S LECTURE. A lecture founded
under the will of the Hon. Robert Boyle, in
1661, which consists of a course of eight
sermons, to prove the truth of Christianity
against infidels, and to answer new difficul
ties, &c, without entering into controversies
existing among Christians. The lectures
are delivered in the Chapel Royal at White
hall on some of the Sundays after Easter in
the afternoon.
BRANDENBURG, CONFESSION OF.
A formulary, or confession of faith, drawn
up in the city of Brandenburg, in 1614, by
order of the elector, John Sigismund, with
a view to reconcile the tenets of Luther
with those of Calvin, and to put an end to
the disputes occasioned by the Confession
of Augsburg. — Soames' Mosheim, iv. 156.
BRASSES. Monumental slabs of brass,
much used in the middle ages, with effigies
carved in outline upon them. An historical
and descriptive account of brasses used as
sepulchral memorials would occupy too
much space for this work. Perhaps as

BRASSES
mueh of the history as we shall be ex
pected to give is included in the following
paragraph from the "Manual of Monu
mental Brasses," (Oxford, 1848,) to which
we may refer for a full discussion on this
subject. " The earliest brass of which we have
any record was that of Simon de Beau
champ, who died before 1208, thus men
tioned by Leland, 'He lyith afore the
highe altare of S. Paule's chirch in Bede-
ford, with this epitaphie graven in bras,
and set on a fiat marble stone : —
De Bello Campo jacet hic sub marmore Simon
Fundator de Neweham.'
Several others of the thirteenth century,
now lost, are 'enumerated by Gough;
At the present time, the earliest brass
known is • that of Sir John d'Abernon,
1277, at Stoke d'Abernon in Surrey ; one
other of the same century still remains at
Trumpington. From this period their num
bers gradually increased until about the
middle of the sixteenth century, when they
became less common. The latest observed
example is at St. Mary Cray, Kent, 1776,
It is remarkable that the earliest brasses are
quite equal, in beauty of form and execution,
to any of a later date. From the early part
of the fifteenth century a gradual decline of
the art is visible, and towards the end of
the sixteenth century it became utterly de
generate. It seems needless to add, that the interest
of brasses is derived, in a great degree,
from the light which they throw on me
diaeval costume, and the habits of our an
cestors. The destruction of brasses at the
Reformation was great; at the Rebellion
still greater. The mention of this spolia
tion by Drake, the historian of York, is
worth volumes of mere particulars. "Let
no man hereafter say, ' Exegi monumentum
sere perennius;' for now an seris sacra
fames has robbed us of most of the ancient
monumental inscriptions that were in the
church. At the Reformation this hair-
brained zeal began to show itself against
painted glass, stone statues,- and grave
stones, many of which were defaced and
utterly destroyed, along with other more
valuable monuments of the Church, till
Queen Elizabeth put a, stop to these most
scandalous doings by an express Act of Par
liament. In our late civil wars, and during
the usurpation, our zealots began again
these depredations on grave-stones, and
stripped and pillaged to the minutest piece
of metal. I know it is urged that their
hatred to Popery was so great, that they
could not endure to see an 'orate pro
anima,' or even a cross, over a monument
without defacing it ; but it is plain that it

BRAWLING
was more the poor lucre of the brass, than
zeal, which tempted these miscreants to
this act, for there was no gravestone which
had an inscription cut on itself that was
defaced by anything but age throughout
this whole church."
BRAWLING, may be generally defined
as behaving improperly in a church or
churchyard, and as far as- laymen are con
cerned, who can no longer be proceeded
against in the ecclesiastical court for it, it is,
by the latest Act, 23 &24 Vict. c. 32, which
partly adopts the words of much older ones,
" being guilty of riotous, violent, or indecent
behaviour in any church or chapel or church
yard, whether during divine service or at
any other time ; or molesting, disturbing,
vexing, or troubling any preacher or clergy
man ministering there"; and the offender
on conviction before two justices may be
either fined up to £5, or at their discretion
imprisoned for two months. And that
applies to clergymen as well as laymen.
The earliest of those Acts was 5 & 6 Ed. VI.
c. 4, and is not repealed. It enacts that " if
any person shall by words only, quarrel,
chide, or brawl in any church or churchyard,
it shall be lawful for the ordinary .... to
suspend him, if a clerk, from his ministra
tion for so long as he shall think fit : " the
words about laymen are now repealed. But
both Lord Stowell and Sir H. Jenner said
that this was only a new enactment of
penalties for what was already the general
ecclesiastical law, and that a clerk might be
proceeded against under either. In the
latest reported case, Langley v. Burder on
appeal to the P. C. (Ecc. Judgments, 40)
they affirmed a suspension for 8 months for
delivering an irregular speech before a ser
mon, though it was not directed at any
person by name. That was the first case
under the Clergy Discipline Act of 1840.
It is impossible to say before the
question is tried, how far the common
law judges will • interpret the words
"indecent conduct" to extend: whether
they will hold it to mean any conduct
unbecoming in a church, having regard to
its proper uses, or confine it to the mere
technical meaning of "indecency." The
question is left open with the usual careless
ness of modem ecclesiastical legislation.
The penalty on laymen for brawling in the
destroyed ecclesiastical jurisdiction really
consisted in the costs, which appear some
times to have been ten or twelve times the
extreme penalty of the recent Act, and
might be enforced by imprisonment under a
significavit. Any misuse of a church could
doubtless be restrained by the ecclesiastical
court independently of brawling, as churches
only exist for the performance of divine
service according to the Prayer Book by

BREVIARY

109

the Acts of Uniformity. The short service
Act allows no other prayers, nor anything
except sermons. The legality of a layman
giving lectures in Westminster Abbey, when
Dean Stanley once allowed it, was disputed
in a controversy in the Times, and the ex
periment was not repeated. Architectural
lectures on and in a church under repair,
have been frequently given without ques
tion, and can hardly be less legal than the
talking of or to the workmen. Such things
would probably be decided according to
common sense, and the bona fides of the
proceeding, as some other ecclesiastical suits
have been. [G.]
BREAD. (See Wafer Bread.)
BEEVIARY. An arrangement of certain
divine offices, comprising prayers, hymns,
psalms, and canticles, with readings from
the Holy Scriptures, and the writings of the
Fathers. Other terms to signify the same
arrangement were " Officium Divinum " ;
or " Canonicum " ; " Hora; Canonicas" ; and
sometimes " Cursus " (Wilkins, Cone. torn. i.
147). The first mention of the word Breviary,
with this signification, is in Micrologus ; the
author of which treatise wrote about 1080.
He speaks of matters to which " in antiquis
brevariis reperimus." This " abbreviation "
or re-arrangement was at that very time
being carried out by Gregory VII. (1070-
1086). Changes afterwards were made in
different places, but not such as to affect
the structure or design of the work ; and in
1566 Pope Pius V. ordered a number of
learned and able men to re-arrange the
Breviary. By his bull, Quod a nobis, July
1568, he sanctioned it, and commanded the
use thereof to the clergy of the Roman
Catholic Church all over the world. Cle
ment VIII., in 1602, finding that the
Breviary of Pius V. had been altered and
depraved, restored it to its pristine state ;
and ordered, under pain of excommunica
tion, that aU future editions should strictly
follow that which he then printed at the
Vatican. Lastly, Urban VIII., in 1631,
had the language of the whole work, and
the metres of the hymns, revised,
The " Reformed Eoman Breviary " of
Quignonez, or Quignonius, must be noticed,
because, although it was afterwards abolished
by Pius V. as not " proving a prescription
of 200 years," it was, nevertheless, ap
parently used by our Eeformers. It set the
example of compression, and also to some
extent of method, in the services. In it the
ancient confession and absolution are re
moved to the beginning of the daily services,
and a system of two lessons, on ordinary or
ferial days, the one from the Old, the other
from the New Testament, is established.
(See Concerningthe Service.) Of this Breviary
there are six copies in the Bodleian, and one

110

BRIEFS

each in the British Museum, the Routh
Library of Durham, the Public Library at
Cambridge, and Queen's College, Oxford.
The Breviary, or Portiforium of Sarum,
was arranged from old sources by Osmund,
bishop of Salisbury, and adopted in that
diocese in 1085. It came close, therefore,
after Gregory's " abbreviation." Afterwards,
with the Missal, it was generally used in
the Church of England, and was called the
Sarum Use. (See Use.) The York Breviary
was very similar (Bodleian Lib. Venet. Ed.
a.d. 1493). An account of the Breviary
fad usum Sarum," is given in Maskell's
Monumenta Ritualia Eccles. Anglicanse,
from whose work we quote the following :
"People have been apt to think that a mere
Saying, however hurried and formal, of the
daily service was held to be sufficient.
Nothing can be farther from the truth.
No less before the middle of the 16th century,
than after it, the Church was anxious to
impress upon the minds of both her clergy
and her people, the absolute necessity of
earnest devotion — a worshipping not with
the mouth only, but the heart also." —
Maskell, as quoted above ; Seager's Portifo
rium ; Blunt's Annot P. B. [H.]
BRIEFS (see Bulls) are (1) pontifical
letters issued from the court of Rome, sealed
in red wax, with the seal of the fisherman's
ring : they are written in Roman characters,
and. subscribed by the secretary of briefs,
who is a secretary of state (usually either a
bishop or a cardinal), required to be well
versed in the legal style of papal documents,
and in the sacred canons. (2) The word
Brief, in our Prayer Book, signifies the
sovereign's letters patent, authorising a
collection for a charitable purpose; or, as
they are now styled, Queen's letters. These
are directed to be read among the notices
after the Nicene Creed. They were very
general in the seventeenth century, and
mention of them is found in many parish
registers. For example, in the register of
Porlock, Somerset, such entries as these
¦occur,: "Anno doi 1662 collected for the
Protestant churches in Lithuania, whose
deputy was John Kramo Kramski, 8s. 8p.
left in the hands of Andrew Kent. H. C."
" For Mrs. Darmond, the wife of Dr. Dar-
mond in Ireland, 5s." For the " sad fire in
London," for the "redemption of slaves in
Algeria," briefs were issued. But the process
was inconvenient and costly, and Acts were
passed to improve it (4 Anne, 9 Geo. IV.).
Briefs may still be issued by the Crown, but
#here have been none since 1854. [H.]
BRITIUS, OE BRICE, BISHOP. Com
memorated on Nov. 13. He was a native of
Tours, and afterwards bishop of that city,
-succeeding St. Martin. He died in 444.
.. BROACH. In strictness any spire, but

BURIAL
generally used to signify a spire, the junction
of which with the tower is not marked by a
parapet, and consequently wider and blunter
than spires with a parapet on the tower.
Lancet and Geometrical spires are generally
thus treated; Decorated, frequently; Per
pendicular, rarely.
BULL, in Ccena Domini. This is the
name given to a bull in the Church of Rome,
which is publicly read on the day of the
Lord's supper, viz. Holy Thursday, hy a
cardinal deacon in the pope's presence,
accompanied with the other cardinals and
the bishops. It was probably originated by
Boniface VIII., and contained an excom
munication against heretics; but it was
altered by Urban V. (a.d. 1364) so as to
include also all who were "stubborn and
disobedient to tbe holy see, whether emperors,
kings, or dukes." The Council of Tours, in
1510, declared the bull in Coma Domini
void in respect of France, which has often
protested against it, in what relates to the
king's prerogative, and the liberties of the
Gallican Church ; and there are now but few
other Popish princes or states that have
much regard to it. In 1773 Clement XIV.
stopped the annual publication of the bull ;
but it is considered by Romanists as still in
force. — Ranke's Popes, xiii. 326; Blunt's
Diet. Doct Theol. 132.
BULLS (see Briefs) are pontifical letters,
in the Eomish Church, written in old Gothic
characters upon stout and coarse skins, and
issued from the apostolic chancery, under a
seal (bulla) of lead ; which seal gives validity
to the document, and is attached, if it be a
"Bull of Grace," by a cord of silk ; and, if
it be a "Bull of Justice," by a cord of hemp. ,
The seal of the fisherman's ring cor
responds, in some degree, with the privy
seal ; and the bulla, or seal of lead, with the
great seal of England.
The bulla is, properly, a seal of empire.
The imperial bulla is of gold ; and it was
under a seal of this description that King
John resigned the crown of England to the
pope. Bulls are more important than briefs, and
put forth with more solemnity ; but both are
equally acts of the pope, though issued
from different departments of the pontiffs
government. BURIAL. (SeeCemetery,Dead.) Chris
tians in the first centuries used to bury
their dead in the places used also by the
heathen, in caves or vaults by the wayside,
or in fields out of their cities. The heathen
used to burn the bodies of .the dead, but the
patriarchs and Jews buried them, and then
restored the older and better practice of
laying the remains decently in the earth.
Their persecutors, knowing their feelings on
this subject, of ten . endeavoured to prevent

BUEIAL
them from burying their dead, by burning
the bodies of their martyrs, as they did that
of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna ; or by
throwing their ashes into rivers, as they did
those of the martyrs of Lyons and Vienne in
France, a.d. 177. And although the heathen
seemed to think it unluckyand of evil omen
to perform their funerals by day, carrying
out their dead after night-fall, and by torch
light, the Christians used to follow their
deceased friends to the grave, in the light of
the sun, with a large attendance of people
walking in procession, sometimes carrying
candles in 'token of, joy and thanksgiving,
and chanting psalms; It was also the
custom, before they went to the grave, to
assemble in the church, where the body was
laid, and a funeral sermon was sometimes
preached. The holy communion was ad
ministered on these occasions to the friends
of the deceased, for which a service, with an
appropriate Collect, Epistle, and Gospel, was
set forth in our own Church in the First
Book of King Edward VI., and in the reign
Of Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1560. The office
for the Burial of the; Dead used by the
English Church corresponds with the offices
of the primitive Church, particularly as
regards the psalms, the anthem, " Man that
is born of a woman," &c, and the portions
of Scripture appointed to be read.
By the operation of several recent Acts,
practically no burial can now take place in
churches without leave from, the Secretary
of State, except a very few, such as West
minster Abbey, and occasionally where a
burying-place within the church is prescribed
for as belonging to a manor house. By the
common law of England, any person may be
buried in ¦ the churchyard of the parish
where he dies, without paying anything for
breaking the soil, unless a fee is payable by
prescription, or immemorial usage. But
ordinarily a person' may not be buried in the
churchyard, of another parish than that
wherein he died, at least without the consent
of the churchwardens, whose parochial right
of burial is invaded thereby, and also of the
incumbent whose soil is broken ; but where
a person dies on his journey or otherwise, out
of the parish, or where there is a family
vault or burial-place in the church, or
chancel, or aisle of such other parish, it may
be otherwise. Burial cannot be legally
refused to dead bodies on account qf debt,
even although the debtor was confined in
prison at the time of his death.
By canon 68. " No minister shall refuse
or delay to bury any corpse that is brought
to the chm-ch or churchyard (convenient
warning being given him thereof before),
in such manner and form as is prescribed in
the Book of Common Prayer. And if he-
shall refuse so to do, except the party

BURIAL

111

deceased were denounced excommunicated
majori excommunicatione, for some grievous
and notorious crime (and no man able to
testify of his repentance), he shall be sus
pended by the bishop of the diocese from his
ministry by the space of three months." But
by the rubric before the office for Burial of
the Dead, the said office likewise shall not
be used for any that die unbaptized, or that
have laid violent hands upon themselves;
and this is not affected by the Act of
1882, which permits suicides to be buried in
churchyards instead of in the highway, but
makes no alteration in the law of the Prayer
Book, so that a clergyman may still not read
the service over them, but anybody else may,
under the Act of 1880, which has effaced most
of the differences between consecrated and
unconsecrated burial grounds. It is difficult,
if not impossible, to- say yet how some
questions will be decided arising from that
Act, together With others, and especially one
of the preceding year. The whole series of
Burial Acts have become a mass of confusion,
which is increased rather than diminished
by every new one. Different laws apply to
what Lord Campbell conveniently designated
" commercial cemeteries," and public ones.
R. v. Manchester Justices (5 Ell. & Bl. 702,
25 L. J., M. C. 45). No one knows yet
whether ' cemeteries established by town
councils or boards of health at the cost of
the ratepayers, under the Act of 1879, will be
held to be public burial grounds in which all
persons within their district have a right to
be buried ; and then whether they are to
be legally regarded as parochial burying
grounds, or whether the board can thereupon
be made a burial board. So far as they are
decided to be public burial grounds, they
will come under the Act of 1880 ; but that
Act expressly gives no right of being buried
(in any given place) to any one who has it not
aliunde. Such grounds are put by the Act
of 1879 under the Cemeteries Clauses Act,
which contemplates consecration of at least
some portion of the ground, and also under
the Public Health Act, 1875.
The Act of 1880 gives no new right to be
buried in any consecrated ground, but only
the right to be buried there, i.e. in any
public graveyard (not that of a commercial
cemetery company, or private trustees), with
any decent and orderly Christian service
performed by anybody, or without any
serviee at all, on giving forty-eight hours'
notice to the incumbent or chaplain, who
may object to the time proposed as in
convenient, and arrange another time, and he
may absolutely prohibit such burials on
Sunday, Christmas Day, or Good Friday.
On the other hand, clergymen may now
perform the burial service in unconsecrated
ground, and use any other burial service

112

BURIAL

consisting only of prayers in the Prayer
Book, and portions of the Bible approved by
the ordinary, and " at the request of the
person having the charge of the burial," who
may be the undertaker, or somebody much
worse, who is thus put in the position of
joint ordinary with the bishop for a church
funeral, but for no other — a very pretty
specimen of modem legislation for the
Church. Sect. 9 excepts grounds vested in trustees
(who have the right of prescribing " express
conditions for interment ") and any ground
not being the burial ground of the parish
where it is, which apparently enables ground
to be so vested on a condition that only
funerals of a particular kind may be per
formed there : and there is nothing to prevent
such ground from being consecrated — what
ever that now means. The incumbent or the
cemetery authority is to register the funeral
with the name only of " the person who had
charge of it," and who is also to send the
notice, except where it is performed by
the incumbent himself. The "convenient
warning" under the 68th canon means
reasonably convenient for the clergyman,
which must be decided according to all the
circumstances. (Titchmarsh v. Chapman,
1 Rob. 175.)
There is nothing in any of the Acts to
prevent, and s. 9 of 1880 recognises the right
for any private person, or a few trustees,
or even an incumbent from holding land
for the purpose of burying there, with any
rites that they choose to specify in the trust.
Probably the burial grounds attached to some
Quakers' and other meeting-houses have
always been held in that way. And now
that clergymen are at liberty to perform the
burial service of the Church anywhere, there
seems no reason why land may not be added
to the churchyard on a special trust, taking
care not to have it legaRy consecrated, or it
will become a parochial churchyard. A
mere religious service by the bishop is not
consecration in the legal sense, and gives
no new rights to anybody. Indeed, it is
difficult to say what legal consecration of a
burial ground now does, except giving the
right to everybody dying in the parish to be
buried there. Formerly it meant that no
body could be buried there except with a
church funeral, and conversely no clergyman
could bury in any ground not consecrated.
Now both those limitations are effaced.
Consequently, several bishops have assumed
that they will " consecrate " no more ceme
teries. The consecration of churches is a
different matter. A chapel built on the
consecrated part of a cemetery is not a
church, and consecration of the ground
on which it stands does not make it the
freehold of the parson, as the consecration of

BURIAL
a church does, except private chapels exempt
by ancient laws or certain modem Acts;
The only persons who have an absolute
right to be buried in a churchyard are those
who die in the parish, wherever they come
from, except in private graves reserved under
Acts or faculties. And it has been several
times laid down that the parson has no
right to bury strangers without the consent
of the churchwardens, who ought to have
regard to the capacity of the unoccupied
ground and the probable future wants of the
parishioners. A multitude of Acts about burials and
cemeteries have been passed in this century,
besides those technically called Private Acts
for establishing commercial cemeteries (as
Lord Campbell called them) in the hands of
companies which are now no longer needed;
various local and parochial authorities can
provide them either jointly (under 9 & 10
Vict. c. 68) or separately. The " Cemeteries
Clauses Act, 1847," contains the clauses
which used to be in all the cemetery
companies' Acts, and it is now incorporated
into the general Acts of 1879 — a very short
one, but very important ; for it authorises
all " local authorities " to establish cemeteries
as if they had been included in the Public
Health Act, 1875, and subject to the Ceme
teries Clauses Act, but with no provision
whatever about fees, or to prevent them
from starting an unlimited competition out
of the public rates against every other
churchyard or burial ground within reach:
which had all been carefully provided against
before by s. 35 of 15 & 16 Vict. c. 85, which
was extended from London to all England
in the following year, 1853.
Those two Acts, and another in 1854,
established burial boards, which are now
generally the town council or the local
authority of any district. The first step is
that the Queen in Council, on the represen
tation of any town council, &c, may order
any parochial burial ground to be closed
wholly or partially for the protection of-
public health, and then may constitute the
town council a burial board for the borough,
&c, and for the whole of the parishes wholly-
or partly within the borough ; and then it-
may provide new ground, of which it might'
be generally said that part was to be conse
crated and part not ; and there were to he two
chapels, one " on the consecrated ground"
(which was the only enactment about con
secrating the chapel), and the other not.
Higher burial fees may be charged for parish
ioners outside the borough, because they do»
not contribute to the borough rates (s. 8 of
1854), and there are provisions for settling'
the fees payable to incumbents with the
approval of the bishop (s. 10). They have-
the right to bury their own parishioners ; and:

BUEIAL
there are provisions to prevent the board
from underbidding the settled clerical fees by
lower ones in the unconsecrated ground (s. 17
of 1857). Another curious provision of that
Act is that church funerals may be performed
in ground that is only intended to be con
secrated, by licence only, of the bishop in
some cases, and, if he refuses, by that of the
archbishop, and even of the Secretary of
State, for a time which may be indefinite
(ss. 12, 13). There are many other provisions
which it is impossible to describe here in
that confused series of chiefly Burial Board
Acts of 1853, 4, 5, 7, 9, 60, 62, 71, 79, 80,
the mere enumeration of which is enough to
prove the carelessness with which they were
all framed and passed.
Then there are the various registration
Acts, and odd clauses about registration in
Acts mostly about other things. It is well
known that all funerals have to be registered
at the churchyard or cemetery where they
are performed. And by the Public Health
Act, 1875, as by a former one, the person
who performs a funeral service anywhere
without the certificate or a coroner's order,
| which ought to be given to him, must notify
the same to the registrar of the district under
a penalty of £10. Dead children must not
be buried as still-born, nor still-born ones
without a proper certificate or declaration
as the Act provides. It has been decided
several times that a corpse belongs to nobody,
but it must not be kept unburied so long as
becomes dangerous to health. Where they
are kept beyond a few days, quick-lime
ought to be put into the coffin, or even
common earth. A lead " shell " is a mere
undertaker's job, and only keeps up the
process of putrefaction as long as possible,
while earth at once begins the process of
cremation innoxiously, if there is plenty of
it. Brick graves ought to be prohibited for
the same reason. Bodies once buried may
not be removed without a faculty from the
diocesan court, in churchyards or parochial
cemeteries, or a licence from the Secretary of
State elsewhere ; and it is a criminal offence
to do so. It should be understood that no
payment for making vaults or brick graves
in a churchyard can confer any future right
of burial there ; nor can people choose their
place for burying. In cemeteries graves
may be purchased. Lastly, tenants for life,
as well as owners in fee, may give land for
enlarging a churchyard by 30 & 31 Vict.
c. 133 ; and by that Act, and c. 47 of the
following year, they may reserve a sixth, or
fifty square yards, for their own family.
The rubric directs that the priests and
clerks meeting the corpse at the entrance of
the churchyard, and going before it, either
into the church or towards the grave, shall
say or sing as is there appointed. By which

BURIAL

113

it seems to be discretionary in the minister,
whether the corpse shall be carried into the
church or not. And there may be good
reason for not bringing it into the church,
especially in cases of infection.
Canon 67. After the party's death there
shall be rung no more than one short peal,
and one before the burial, and one other after
the burial. The ringing of one bell on a
death is called the Passing bell. (See Passing
Bell). After the funeral, if a peal is rung at
all, the bells are " muffled " by tying leather
round the clappers on one or both sides, to
make them sound soft.
A corpse belongs to no one, but is subject
to ecclesiastical cognizance, if abused or
removed ; and a corpse, once buried, cannot
be taken up or removed without licence from
the ordinary, or the Secretary of State, if it
is to be buried in another place, or the
like ; but in the case of a violent death, the
coroner may take up the body for his in
spection, if it is interred before he comes to
view it. [G.]
The Order for the Burial of the Dead is
much modified from the service in the First
Book of King Edward VI. The psalms were
the 116th, 139th, and 146th: the prayers
were in many respects different ; and there
are certain passages omitted in the Second
Book. The psalms in the First Book were
omitted in the subsequent revisals, and the
lesson was recited after the anthem, " I heard
a voice from heaven : " and the present psalms
were not inserted till the last Review.
BURIAL FEES are in a very anomalous
and unsatisfactory state. Theoretically, and
by various old laws, no fees were payable for
mere burying. But in those days there were
"mortuaries," and other payments to the
clergy. And the law now is that customary
burial fees are payable in old parishes, and
fees fixed by the chancellor of the diocese in
new ones under 6 & 7 Vict. c. 37. But it
seems very doubtful if there is any legal
power to vary them in either c&se_ though
Lord Stowell did so, after deciding the case
of Gilbert v. Buzzard (3 Phil. 335) about
iron coffins, for which he allowed a larger
fee. But a further anomaly is that the
ecclesiastical court cannot try the custom if
it is. denied, and the common law courts are
not the proper ones to sue in for burial fees ;
and yet further, the clergyman has no right
to stay the funeral until the fees are paid,
however undisputed their amount may be,
though he can prevent gravestones until the
fee is paid for them. (See Graves.) The
whole of the law on this subject requires
consolidating and revising, but probably the
opportunity would betaken to rob the Church
still more, as in fact a committee of the
House of Commons recommended in 1882.
In special cemetery Acts provision is gene-
I

114

BUTTRESS

CABBALAH

rally made for the fees payable to the
incumbents; and the general "Cemeteries
Clauses Act of 1847 " enacts that such fees
shall be paid to them as the special Acts
provide. The Act of 15 Vict. c. 85, extended
to all towns by 16 Vict. c. 134, making
further provision for cemeteries and burial
boards, requires the fees payable to the
clergy to be settled by the vestry and the
bishop, or if none are so settled, then the
customary fees are to be paid in respect of
selling any exclusive right of burial (which
the clergy have no power to do), and con
structing vaults, and placing stones, which
they have power to do. The Act strangely
omits the consent of the incumbent, and
there is a famous case where Bishop Blom
field allowed the value of a metropolitan
living to be almost destroyed by making
such a " settlement" without even consulting
the incumbent, or inquiring what were the
established fees for burying in the vaults
under tbe church.
Several church-building Acts reserve the
rights for life of the incumbents of old
parishes out of which new ones are carved,
and afterwards the fees arising in the new
parishes go to their incumbents. (See
Banns.) The Public Health Act authorises
local boards to establish mortuaries — not
fees, but places to keep dead bodies waiting
for burial. And another Act which passed
almost unnoticed in 1879, called the Public
Health Interments Act, enabled them also
to establish cemeteries either within or
without their district, subject to the Ceme
teries Clauses Act, 1847, and the Public
Health Act, 1875, and with no special
provision about fees : which may cause some
litigation. [G.]
BUTTRESS. An external support to a
wall, so arranged as to counteract the lateral
thrust of roofs and vaulting.
The buttress is not used in Classic archi
tecture, where the thrust is always vertical ;
and in Romanesque it is hardly developed.
It is, in fact, a correlative of the pointed
arch, especially when used in vaulting, and
so first attains considerable depth in the
Lancet period. In the later periods, when it
had to support vaulting of vast expanse and
weight, its depth or projection was pro-
portionably increased.
A flying buttress is a half arch carrying
the thrust of a vault beyond the clearstory
wall, which only rests on pillars, over the
aisle roof to the main buttresses, and so to
the ground : or any similar construction. Or,
more accurately, they are, or ought to be, a
stone beam supported by the half arch, with
the joints at right angles to the beam.
The pinnacles which frequently termi
nate buttresses are intended to add to the
weight of the supporting mass.

0.
CABBALAH, or KABBALAH, (TOD).
The name is derived from *}____, to receive,
and implies a doctrine received by oral tradi
tion. This mysterious teaching, according to
the Cabbalists, is of pra-Adamite existence.
God Himself, they say, taught it first to a
select company of angels, who, after the fall,
communicated it to the disobedient child of
earth, to supply the means of returning to
the pristine state of happiness and com
munion with the Deity. From Adam it
was handed down to Noah, Abraham, and
afterwards to Moses, who laid down the
principles of it in the first four books of the
Pentateuch. Moses initiated the 70 elders
into its secrets, and they were transmitted
in an unbroken line to David, Solomon,
&c, till the time of the destruction of
Jerusalem, when Simon ben Yochai was the
last depositary of this tradition. His son,
and his disciples, are said to have been the
compilers of the celebrated work called
Sohar, that is, " the Splendour," which is
the grand storehouse of Cabbalism. On the
fanciful ideas of the Cabbalah — the nature
of the Supreme Being, the emanations from
Him, the Creation, the psychology, or
doctrine about tho nature of the human soul
— it is not necessary here to dwell ; they are
concisely given in the Dictionary of Chris
tian Biography (vol. i. p. 359, seq.) The
teaching of the Cabbalah is founded, after
the oral tradition, on the arrangement of
letters and words in the Bible, according to
rules, something after the fashion of an
acrostic. Thus every letter of a word is
reduced to its numerical value, and the word
is explained by another of the same quantity,
This is called Gematria. Or every letter of
a word is taken as the initial or abbreviation
of a word — which is called Notaricon. Or
two words occurring in the same verse are
joined together and made into one word, &c.
It is, probably, to these interpretations of
the written law our Saviour's censure is to
be applied, when He reproves the Jews for
"making the commands of God of none
effect through their traditions."
It is the opinion of some that Pythagoras
and Plato learned the Cabbalistic art of the
Jews in Egypt; others, on the contrary,
say the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato
furnished the Jews with the Cabbalah.
Most of the heretics, in the primitive Chris
tian Church, fell into the vain conceits of
the Cabbalah; particularly the Gnostics,
Valentinians, and Basilidians.— Franck, La
Cabbale ; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 28, 56;
Milman's Hist, nf Jews, v. iii. 431. [H.]

CABBALISTS
CABBAL1STS, or KABBALISTS. Those
Jewish doctors who profess the study of the
Cabbalah. The chief Cabbalistic author was
Simon, son of Joachai, or Yochai, referred
to above. (See Cabbalah.)
Though this mysterious doctrine is of
peculiarly Jewish origin, yet it was intro
duced into the Christian Church; and an
explanation of the secret which binds all
created things together, and unites them
with the Creator, was sought in the Cabbalah
by such distinguished scholars as Lully
(1235), Reuchlin (1455), and our own
countrymen Fludd (1574), and Henry More
(1614).— Diet Christ. Biog., &c.
CAINITES. An obscure sect of the
Gnostics of the second century, who paid
respect to Cain, Korah, the Sodomites, and
Judas the traitor. They are mentioned
by Irenasus and other early writers. — Iren.
ad Hser. xxxi. ; Epiphan. Hser. xxxviii. ;
Bp. Kayes, Tertull. 522.
CjEOILIA. Virgin and Martyr ; com
memorated in the English Calendar on
Nov. 22. She suffered martyrdom in the
reign of Severus. Cast into a bath of boil
ing water, she took no harm ; and when the
executioner was bidden to put her to death,
he was so much moved by her patient
endurance, that he would only inflict three
wounds upon her — and then, ashamed of
himself, fled. She survived for three days,
singing hymns up to the last moment of
her life. She is regarded as the patron
saint of music ; and by the old painters is
generally depicted with a musical instru
ment in her hand. The wreath of roses,
which is generally to be seen in old pictures
of St. Ca-icilia, refer to the legend that her
betrothed, Valerian, had a vision, in which
he saw an angel with two crowns of roses
gathered in Paradise, immortal in them
selves, but invisible to the eyes of unbe
lievers, with which he encircled the brows
of Caecilia and Valerian, as they knelt before
him. — Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints ;
Smith and Wace's Diet. Christ. Biog. [H.]
CALENDAR, from the Latin Calendar-
ium, an account-book for debts, so called
because the Roman settling-day was the
Calendse, or first day of the monttu I. Eccle
siastical calendars are of very early date,
coeval with the commemoration of martyrs
(Euseb. iv. 15). One of the middle of the
fourth century is still extant, and others of
very early date are given by Martene ( Vet.
Scrip, collect, vol. vi. 1724). The early ca
lendars were compiled mainly for the pur
pose of indicating the days on which the
martyrs and confessors of the Church were
to be commemorated, but afterwards the
names of saints who had been canonized
were added, until there was a vast accu
mulation, as may bo seen in the " Acta

CALENDAR

115

Sanctorum," not yet finished. — Bollandus,
cum continuationibus Henschenii., &c, 54
vols. 1734-1861.
II. In England the earliest calendar
known is attributed with good reason to
Bede, who died a.d. 735 ; and it is printed
by Martene ( Vet. Scrip, vol. vi. 635). In
the library at Durham Cathedral there is a
calendar of the eleventh or twelfth century,
which differs little from one reprinted from
a Missal of 1514, which belonged to Bp.
Cosin's library. To the English Calendar,
during the medieval times, few names
were added, while in the Roman Calendar a
great many were inserted. The multitude
of holy days, urged by the priests, en
couraged idleness, and thus injured the pros
perity of the country. In Henry VIII.'s
time, therefore, the observance of some of
these days was abrogated, and especially it
may be noticed that two days dedicated to
St. Thomas a Becket were omitted. In the
book of 1549, the calendar contains only
the chief names of those mentioned in the
Sarum Use, and in 1552 the names of St.
Mary Magdalene and St. Barnabas were
struck out ; the latter, however, being pro
bably omitted by a printer's error. It was
restored in 1559, and the names of St.
George and St. Lawrence were added. In
1561 a commission was appointed for a
revision of the Calendar, and the " eves " of
saints' days were noticed. In 1 661 the names
of two national saints were added — St. Alban
and the Venerable Bede, and of one Gallican
bishop, St. Eunurchus. In the English
Calendar twenty-five days are dedicated to
saints mentioned in Holy Scripture, or con
nected with the life of our Lord ; twenty
days are dedicated to martyrs who died for
the faith between a.d. 90-316 ; twenty-one
days are dedicated to saints especially con
nected with the Church of England; and
eleven days to other saints, among whom
are the "Doctors" Ambrose, Jerome, Au
gustine, and Gregory. Wheatly gives se
veral reasons why those minor festivals
were retained in our Prayer Book.
III. Our calendar in the Prayer Book
consists of several columns. The first shows
the days of the month in their numerical
order ; the second contains the first letters of
the alphabet affixed to the day s of the week ;
called the Sunday Letter ; so that the letter
for each year denotes all the Sundays therein.
The third, as printed in the larger Common
Prayer Books, (as it ought to be in all,)
has the calends, nones, and ides, which
was the method of computation used by the
old Romans and primitive Christians, and
is still useful to those who read ecclesiastical
history. The last four columns contain the course
of lessons for morning and evening prayer
I 2

1IG

CALIXTINES

for ordinary days throughout the year. The
intermediate column, namely, the fourth,
contains the holy days observed by the
Church of England.
A new Table of Lessons was issued by
authority of Parliament in 1871, and made
obligatory from 1879. (See Lessons.)
By the Acts 24 Geo. II. c. 23, and 25 Geo.
II. c. 30, the calendar was reformed, and the
new style introduced. (See Sir E. Beckett's
Astronomy without Mathematics, where an
explanation of the principles of the change
of " style " is given.) Until 1752, the years
began on March 25, and September 3 of
that year was made September 14 by the
Act. The general tables at the end of the
calendar in the Prayer Book for finding
Easter and Sunday are erroneous before
the change of style, and do not enable
you to find on what day of the week any
day fell while old style prevailed, and, a
fortiori, any Easter. A proper table for
old style is given in the book just men
tioned. — Martene, Veterum Scriptorum, &c. ;
Collectio, vol. vi. 1724 ; Blunt, P. B. [36] ;
Wheatly, Common Prayer Book ; Diet.
Christ Ant [H.]
CALIXTINES. I. A section of the Hus
sites, who derived their name from the
" cup " (calix), which they desired to have
restored to all in the Holy Communion.
Their views were moderate, and in this
they differed from another section of Hus
sites — the Taborites — who demanded that
both religion and the government of the
Church should be restored to its primitive
simplicity. The requirements of the Calix-
tines were : — (1) That the word of God might
be preached in its purity and simplicity to
the people. (2) That the Communion might
be administered in both kinds. (3) That the
clergy might be brought to a life suiting
the successors of the Apostles, and not have
such wealth and power. (4) That the greater
or " mortal ". sins might be duly punished. —
Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. 354; Blunt's Diet.
Sects, p. 95.
II. The name Calixtines was also given in
the 17th century to the followers of George
Calixtus, a celebrated divine amongst the
Lutherans. His endeavour was to unite
the Roman, Lutheran, and Calvinistic
Churches in the bonds of charity and
mutual forbearance, under the idea that, as
there was truth in the three communions,
they should not keep apart. He affirmed
that the Apostles' Creed, together with the
light thrown upon the exegesis of Scripture
by the early Christian writers, was a suffi
cient bond of unity amongst Christians.
Those who hold such liberal ideas have also
been called Syncretists. — Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, iii. 312, 317, 321-323 ; Broughton,
Biblio. vol. i. ; Blunt's Sects, p. 585.

CALOYERS
CALL TO THE MINISTRY. There are
two sorts of calls to the ministry. (1) First
the outward ; whereby those who are ap
pointed to recommend a person to the
execution of any ecclesiastical office, fix
upon him, as one in their judgment quali
fied for it; and, having examined him,
present him to the bishop. The arch
deacon, or, in his absence, one appointed in
his stead, presents the candidate; and the
bishop, approving the judgment, admits
him into such office in due manner, as the
laws of God, and the rites of the Church
require. But (2) the inward call is some
thing preceding this, and required by our
Church as a qualification for the outward
call. The candidate for holy orders has the
question of the inward call put to him
thus : Do you trust that you are- inwardly
moved by the Holy Ghost to take upon
you this office and ministration to serve
God, in promoting his glory, and the edi
fying of his people ?
" This is a great question indeed, and
that which no man can give a true and
positive answer to, without having searched
narrowly into his own heart, and seriously
considered the bent and inclinations of his
soul. But it is a question very necessary
to be propounded, for the Holy Ghost now
supplies the place and room of our blessed
Saviour in his Church militant here on
earth. And therefore the bishop requires
the candidates to deal plainly and faithfully
with him and the Church, and to tell him
whether they really trust that they are
moved by the Holy Ghost to take this
office upon them ? To which every one is
bound to answer, ' I trust so ; ' not that he
knows it, or is cer ;ain of it, for it is possible
that his heart may deceive him in it, but
that he trusts or hopes it is so." — Bp.
Beveridge. Calvin's definition of the " inward call"
in his book of Institutes, which was pub
lished about ten years before the Ordinal of
Edward VI., might probably have been
a guide to our Reformers in framing this
question. It was, " That it is the good testi
mony of our own heart, that we have taken
this office, neither for ambition, covetousness,
nor any evil design, but out of a true fear
of God, and a desire to edify the Church."
CALOYERS. A general name given to
the monks of the Greek Church. It is taken
from the Greek raXoyepaiot, which signifies
" good old men." (Helyot, Hist, des Ord.
Relig. i. cap. 19.) These "religious" con
sider St. Basil as their father and founder,
and look upon it as a crime to follow any
other rule than his. There are three de
grees among them; the novices, who are
called Archari ; the ordinary professed,

CALVLNISTIC
called Microchemi; and the more perfect,
called Megalochemi. They are likewise
divided into Coenobites, Anchorets, and
Recluses .
The most considerable monastery of
the Greek Caloyers in Asia is that of
Mount Sinai, which was founded by the
emperor Justinian. They have a great
number of monasteries in Europe; among
which that of Penteli, a mountain of Attica,
near Athens, is remarkable for its beauti
ful situation, and a very good library.
But the most celebrated monasteries of
Greek Caloyers are those of Mount Athos
in Macedonia. They are twenty-three in
number ; and the "religious " live in them so
regularly that the Turks themselves have
a great esteem for them, and often recom
mend themselves to their prayers. Every
thing in them is magnificent; and, not
withstanding they have been under the
Turk for so long a time, they have lost
nothing of their grandeur.
The Caloyers of Mount Athos have a
great aversion to the pope, and relate that a
Eoman pontiff, having visited their mona
steries, had plundered and burned some of
them, because they would not adore him.
There are female Caloyers, or Greek nuns,
who likewise follow the rule of St. Basil.
Their nunneries are always dependent on
some monastery. The Turks buy sashes
of their working, and they open their gates
freely to the Turks on this occasion.
Those of Constantinople are widows, some
of whom have had several husbands. They
make no vow, nor confine themselves within
their convents. The priests are forbidden,
under severe penalties, to visit these re
ligious. — Broughton, Biblio. vol. i.
CALVINISTIC METHODISTS. (See
Calvinists.) CALVINISTS. Those who interpret
Scripture in accordance with the views of
John Calvin, who was bom at Noyon,
a.d. 1509, and afterwards settled at Geneva,
and who established a system both of doc
trine and of discipline peculiarly his own.
I. The influence of Calvin's ideas and
works was felt in England from the time
when the " Lytell Treatyse of ye soper of
the Lorde made by Callwyn" was pub
lished and prohibited in 1542 (Burnet's
Hist. Reform., vol. i., ii. 390). He did not
accept an invitation from Cranmer to
attend a conference at Lambeth, but he
was constantly writing to the Protector
Somerset, to Cranmer, and to Edward VI.,
and in these letters he delighted. He says
that Cranmer himself urged him to write
often to the king, " which affords me greater
delight than if I had received a large present
of money." (Gorham's Reform Gleanings,
267. See also Burnet, vol. ii. 180 seq.)

CALVINISTS

117

He condemned the Eeformation of the
Church of England, as it was being carried
out, and there can be no doubt that his
influence over Somerset, Bucer, and Peter
Martyr had a great deal to do with the
alterations made in the Prayer Book of
1552. With Elizabeth he gained no favour,
the queen declining to accept his "Com
mentary on Isaiah" in such forcible lan
guage, that he wrote a remonstrance to Sir
William Cecil. (Zurich Letters, ii. 34.) But
the Marian persecution had done its work ;
and numbers returned to England imbued
with the Genevan or Calvinistic doctrines.
The most powerful among these was probably
John Knox, but many other eminent men
were also greatly infected by Calvin's ideas.
So much so that Hooker writes, in 1549,
" his books were almost the very canon to
judge both doctrine and discipline by." —
Ecc. Pol., Pref. ii. 8.
The Calvinist Directory was written in
French, and afterwards published in Latin
in 1545. It was published in England, in
1551, for the Strasburg refugees, who had
settled at Glastonbury, by Pollanus (Pul-
lain), their pastor.
Most of the modern Dissenters hold in a
greater or less degree the doctrines of Cal
vin, but the name Calvinists, or Calvinistic
Methodists, is generally given to those who
followed the ideas of Whitfield rather, than
those of John Wesley, who was an opponent
of Calvinism at the end of the last century.
They have adopted now the title of " In
dependent Methodists," and follow the usages
of the Independents. But there is a large
community in Wales, which still retain the
old name, " Welsh Calvinists," or " Cal
vinistic Methodists." These number about
60,000, with over 200 ministers.
II. The essential doctrines of Calvinism
have been reduced to these five : particular
election, particular redemption, moral in
ability in a fallen state, irresistible grace,
and the final perseverance of the saints.
These are termed, by theologians, the five
points ; and ever since the synod of Dort
(see Dort), when they were the subjects of
discussion between the Calvinists and
Arminians, and decrees were made which
are the standard of modem Calvinism,
many controversies have been agitated re
specting them. Even the Calvinists them
selves differ in the explication of them ; it
cannot therefore be expected that a very
specific account of them should be given
here. Generally speaking, however, they
comprehend the following propositions : —
1st, That God has chosen a certain
number in Christ to everlasting glory, be
fore the foundation of the world, according
to his immutable purpose, and of his free
grace and love, without the least foresight

118

CAMALDOLITES

of faith, good works, or any conditions per
formed by the creature; and that the rest
of mankind he was pleased to pass by, and
ordain them to dishonour and wrath for
their sins, to the praise of his vindictive
justice. 2ndly, That Jesus Christ, by his suf
ferings and death, made an atonement only
for the sins of the elect.
3dly, That mankind are totally depraved
in consequence of the fall; and, by virtue
of Adam's being their public head, the
guilt of his sin was imputed, and a corrupt
nature conveyed to all his posterity, from
which proceeds all actual transgression; and
that by sin we are made subject to death,
and all miseries, temporal, spiritual, and
eternal. 4thly, That all whom God has predesti
nated to life, he is pleased, in his appointed
time, effectually to call, by his word and
Spirit, out of that state of sin and death, in
which they are by nature, to grace and
salvation by Jesus Christ.
And 5thly, That those whom God has
effectually called and sanctified by his
Spirit, shall never finally fall from a state
of grace.
CAMALDOLITES, or CAMALDULEN-
SIANS. A religious order of Christians
founded by Romuald, an Italian of noble
birth, at the beginning of the eleventh
century (a.d. 1023). Those who belong to
it are divided into Coenobites, and Eremites,
and follow the rule of St. Benedict. The
first monastery was built at Camaldoli, or
Campo-Malduli, on the Apennines. The
order was approved by Pope Alexander II. ;
and its constitutions were drawn up by
Rodolphus, fourth General, in 1102. The
congregation of hermits of St. Romuald, or
of Mount Couronne, is a branch of the
Camaldoli, to which it was joined in 1532.
Paul Justinian, of Venice, began its estab
lishment in 1520, and founded the chief
monastery in the Apennines, in a place
called the Mount of the Crown, ten miles
from Perugia, and dedicated to our Saviour
in 1555. Besides these there are the con
gregations of St. Michael de Murano, of
Turin and of France. — Helyot's Hist, des
Ord. vol. i. p. 236 ; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim,
ii. 43.
CAMERONIANS. A party of Presby
terians in Scotland, so called from Richard
Cameron, a field preacher, the first who
separated from communion with the other
Presbyterians, who acquiesced in the
indulgences granted to the ministers by
Charles II. in 1669 and 1672. They were
also called Cargillites, from Donald Cargill,
another field preacher. They considered
the acceptance of the indulgence to be a
countenancing of the supremacy in ecclesi-

CAMISARDS
astical affairs. The other Presbyterians
wished the controversy to drop, till it could
be determined by a general assembly; but
the Cameronians, through a transport of
zeal, separated from them, and some who
associated with them ran into excess of
frenzy ; declaring that King Charles II. had
forfeited his right to the crown and society
of the Church, by his breaking tbe solemn
league and covenant, and by his vicious life,
they pretended both to dethrone and ex
communicato him, and for that purpose
made an insurrection, but were soon sup
pressed. After the accession of King Wil
liam III. to the crown, they complied with
and zealously served the government; and
as regarded their former differences in Church
matters, they were also laid aside, the
preachers of their party having submitted
to the General Assembly of the Scottish
establishment in 1690. The party, however,
still exists. In 1743 John MacmiUan, who
had been expelled from the Kirk in 1703,
gathered together a considerable number of
persons who, under the name of " Reformed
Presbyterians," claimed to be the represen
tatives of the old Cameronians or Cove
nanters. In 1860 the oath of allegiance
had by them to be considered (in conse
quence of the volunteer movement), and
at the same time came up the question of
the use of the franchise in elections for
Parliament. Both had been forbidden by
the society, but in 1863 their synod enacted
" that while recommending the members of
the Church to abstain from the use of the
franchise, and from taking the oath of allegi
ance ; discipline to the effect of suspension
and expulsion from the Church shaR cease."
This did not meet with the general assent of
the party, and at the present time there are
two distinct bodies in Scotland under the
same name. In America, and in Ireland,
there are branches of this sect, which
represent the Cameronians under the name
of Reformed Presbyterians. — Lingard, xii.
294 seq. ; Lawson's Ep. Ch. Scot. c. xi.;
Hetherington's Hist, qf Ch. of Scot ; Blunt's
Diet, of Sects, p. 98.
CAMERONITES. A sect of French
Protestants, who derived their name from
John Cameron, of Glasgow, professor of
Theology at Saumivr, about 1610. He
endeavoured to reconcile the Calvinist and
Catholic doctrines with regard to the Divine
decrees ; asserting that God wills the salva
tion of all men, and not only of the elect
few : that none are excluded from Divine
favour who make their choice aright
between good and evil. But his semi-
Calvinism was condemned at the Council of
Dort (1618). His works were printed at
Geneva in a folio volume in 1658.
CAMISAEDS. The popular name of

CANCELL1
the Protestants who rose in the Cevennes
against the oppression of Louis XIV. of
France, after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes in 1685. There are various etymo
logies of the word ; the most probable is
that which derives it from camisa or chemise,
in allusion to the blouse or smock-frock
which was generally worn.
CANCELLI. (See Chancel.)
CANDLES. (See Ligh/s on the Altar.)
CANDLEMAS DAY. A name formerly
given to the festival of the Purification of
the Virgin Mary, observed in our Church,
February 2. In the mediaeval church, this
day was remarkable for the number of
lighted candles which were borne about in
processions, and placed in churches, in
memory of Him who, in the words of
Simeon's song at the Purification, came to
be " a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the
glory of his people Israel." From this
custom the name is supposed to be derived.
It was usual for women to bear candles
when they were churched. (See Lingard, ii.
65.) These candles were solemnly blessed
according to a form given by Hospinian. —
Brand's Antiq. p. 220.
CANON. The laws of the Church are
caRed canons, the word canon being derived
from a Greek word, which signifies a rule or
measure. Since the Church is a society of Christians,
and since every society must have authority
to prescribe rules and laws for the govern
ment of its own members, it must neces
sarily follow that the Church should have
this power; for otherwise there would be
great disorder amongst Christians. This
power was exercised in the Church before
the Roman empire became Christian, as
appears by those ancient canons which were
made before that time, and which are men
tioned in the writings of the primitive
fathers; by the apostolical canons, which,
though not made by the apostles themselves,
are nevertheless of considerable antiquity ;
and by various canons which were made in
councils held in the second century, which
were binding, and to be observed by the
clergy, under the penalty of deprivation;
and by the laity, under pain of excommuni
cation. Under this title we will mention :
1. Foreign canons. 2. Such as have been
received here. 3. The power of making
new canons.
I. As ' to the first, Constantine the
Great, the first emperor who gave Christians
some respite from persecution, caused
general councils and national and provincial
synods to be assembled in his dominions ;
where, amongst other things, rules were
made for the government of the Church,
which were called canons; the substance
of which was at first collected out of the

CANON

119

Scriptures, or the ancient writings of the
fathers. It is not necessary to give a long
history of provincial constitutions, synodals,
glossaries, sentences of popes, summaries,
and rescripts, from which the canon law
has, by degrees, been compiled, since the
days of that emperor ; it is sufficient to
state, that they were collected by Ivo,
bishop of Chartres, about the 14th year
of our King Henry I., in three volumes,
which are commonly called the Decrees.
These decrees, corrected by Gratian, a Bene
dictine monk, were published in England in
the reign of King Stephen ; and the reason
of the publication at that time might be to
decide the quarrel between Theobald, arch
bishop of Canterbury, and Henry, bishop of
Winchester, the king's brother, the appoint
ment of whom to the office of legate, the
archbishop looked upon as a diminution of
his own power, and an encroachment upon
that privilege which he had as legatus natus.
(See Legate.) These decrees were received
by the clergy of the Western Church, but
never by those of the East, which is one
reason why their priests continued to marry,
which the clergy of the West were, by these
decrees forbidden to do.
The next, in order of time, were the
Decretals (see Decretals), which are canoni
cal epistles written by popes alone, or
assisted by some cardinals, to determine any
controversy ; and of these there are likewise
three volumes. The first volume of these
Decretals was compiled by Raimundus
Barcinus, who was chaplain to Gregory IX.,
and were published by him about the 14th
year of King Henry III., a.d. 1226. This
was appointed to be read in all schools, and
was to be taken for law in all ecclesiastical
courts. About sixty years afterwards,
Simon, a monk of Walden, began to read
these laws in the university of Cambridge,
and the next year in Oxford. The second
volume was collected and arranged by
Boniface VIII., and published about the
27th year of our King Edward I., a.d. 1298.
The third volume was collected by Clement
V., and published in the Council of Vienne,
and likewise here, in the 2nd year oi
Edward IL, a.d. 1308, and from the name
of the pope were called Clementines.
These decretals were never received in
England, or anywhere else, except in the
pope's dominions, and are therefore called
by canonists Patriae obedientise, as particu
larly the canon concerning the investiture
of bishops by a lay band. John Andreas,
a celebrated canonist in the fourteenth cen
tury, wrote a commentary on these de
cretals, which he entitled Novelise, from a
very beautiful daughter he had of that
name, whom he bred a scholar : the father
being a professor of law at Bologna, had

120

CANON

instructed his daughter so well in it, that
she assisted him in reading lectures to his
scholars, and, therefore, to perpetuate her
memory, he gave that book the title of
Novelise. About the tenth year of King Edward
II. , John XXII. published his Extrava-
gants. But as to the Church of England,
even at that time, when the papal authority
was at the highest, none of these foreign
canons, or any new canons, made at any
national or provincial synod here, had any
manner of force if they were against the
prerogative of the king, or the laws of the
land. It is true that every Christian nation
in communion with the pope sent some
bishops, abbots, or priors, to those foreign
councils, and generally four were sent out
of England ; and it -was by those means,
together with the allowance of the civil
power, that some canons made there were
received here, but such as were against the
laws were totally rejected.
Nevertheless, some of these foreign canons
were received in England, and obtained the
force of laws by the general approbation of
the king and people (though it is difficult
to know what these canons are), as there was
never any authoritative collection of them ;
and it was upon this pretence that the pope
claimed an ecclesiastical jurisdiction, inde
pendent of the king, and sent his legates to
England with commissions to determine
causes according to those canons, which
were now compiled into several volumes,
and called Jus Canonicum : these were not
only enjoined to be obeyed as laws, but
publicly to be read and expounded in all
schools and universities as the civil law was
read and expounded there, under pain of
excommunication to those who neglected.
Hence arose quarrels between kings and
several archbishops and other prelates, who
adhered to those papal usurpations.
II. Besides these foreign canons, there
were several laws and constitutions made
here for the government of the Church, all
of which are now in force, but which had
not been so without the assent and confirm
ation of the kings of England. Even from
William I. to the time of the Reformation,
no canons or constitutions made in any
synods were suffered to be executed if they
had not the royal assent. This was the
common usage and practice in England,
even when the papal usurpation was most
exalted ; for if at any time the ecclesiastical
courts did, by their sentences, endeavour to
force obedience to such canons, the courts
at common law, upon complaint made,
would grant prohibitions. So that the
statute of submission, which was afterwards
made in the twenty-fifth year of Henry VIII. ,
seems to bo declarative of the common law,

CANON
that the clergy could not de jure, and by
their own authority, without the king's
assent, enact or execute any canons. These
canons were all collected and explained by
Lyndwood, Dean of the Arches, in the reign
of Henry VI., and by him reduced under
this method. But it is not to be supposed
that these are valid as the law of England.
They are a mere historical collection. There
is in fact no such thing as a canon law of
England. There are the canons lawfully
made and ratified, and there is the " Kino's
ecclesiastical law," as it has often been .
called by the judges, and no more.
1. The canons of Stephen Langton, arch
bishop of Canterbury, made at a council
held at Oxford, in the sixth year of Henry
III. 2. The canons of Otho, the pope's legate,
who held a council in St. Paul's church, in
the twenty-fifth year of Henry III., which
from him were called the Constitutions of
Otho ; upon which John de Athon, one of
the canons of Lincoln, wrote a comment.
3. The canons of Boniface, of Savoy,
archbishop of Canterbury, in the forty-fifth
of Henry III., which were aR usurpations
upon the common law, as concerning the
boundaries of parishes, the right of patron
age, and against trials of the right of tithes
in the king's courts against writs of pro
hibition, &c. Although he threatened the
judges with excommunication (some of the
judges being at that time clergymen) if
they disobeyed the canons, yet they pro
ceeded in these matters according to the
laws of the realm, and kept the ecclesiastical
courts within their proper jurisdiction.
This occasioned a variance between the
spiritual and temporal lords ; and upon this
the clergy, in the thirty-first of Henry III.,
exhibited several articles of their grievances
to the parliament, which they called Ar-
ticuli Cleri : the articles themselves are lost,
but some of the answers to them are extant,
by which it appears that none of these
canons made by Boniface was confirmed.
4. The canons of Cardinal Ottobon, the
pope's legate, who held a synod at St. Paul's,
in the fifty-third of Henry III., in which he
confirmed those canons made by his pre
decessor Otho, and published some new ones ;
and by his legatine authority commanded
that they should be obeyed: upon these
canons, likewise, John de Athon wrote
another comment.
5. The canons of Archbishop Peckham,
made at a synod held at Reading, in the
year 1279, the seventh of Edward I.
6. The canons of the same archbishop,
made at a synod held at Lambeth, two years
afterwards. 7. The canons of Archbishop Winchelsea,
made in the thirty-fourth of Edward I.

CANON
8. The canons of Archbishop Reynolds,
at a synod held at Oxford, in the year 1322,
the sixteenth of Edward II.
9. The canons of Symon Mepham, arch
bishop of Canterbury, made in the year
1328, the third of Edward III.
10. Of Archbishop Stratford.
11. Of Archbishop Simon Islip, made
1362, the thirty-seventh of Edward III.
12. Of Symon Sudbury, archbishop of
Canterbury, made in the year 1378, the
second of Richard II.
13. Of Archbishop Arundel, made at a
synod at Oxford, in the year 1403, the tenth
of Henry IV.
14. Of Archbishop Chichely, in the year
1415, the third of Henry V.
15. Of Edmond and Richard, archbishops
of Canterbury, who immediately succeeded
Stephen Langton.
It was intended to reform these canons
soon after the Reformation ; and Archbishop
Cranmer and some other commissioners were
appointed for that purpose by Henry VIII.
and Edward VI. under the authority of Acts
of Parliament. The work was finished,
but the king dying before it was confirmed,
it remains unconfirmed to this day. The
book is called "Reformatio Legum Eccles-
iasticarum ex Authoritate Regis Henry VIII.
inchoata et per Edward VI. provecta:" it
was put into elegant Latin by Dr. Haddon,
who was then university orator of Cam
bridge, assisted by Sir John Cheke, who
was tutor to Edward VI.
III. The next thing to be considered
is, the authority for making canons since the
statute 25 Henry VIII. c. 19, commonly
called the Act of submission of the clergy,
which was founded upon " The submission of
the clergy " in their convocations the year
before, 16th May, 1532. Thereby they did
" offer and promise in verbo sacerdotii imto
your highness that we will never from
henceforth presume to attempt allege claim
put in use, or enact, promulge or execute
[the words of different copies vary slightly
and immaterially] any new canons or con
stitutions or any other new ordinance,
provincial or synodal, in our convocations in
time coming ; which convocation is, always
/ hath been, and must be assembled only by
your high commandment of writ [and]
unless only your highness shall license us to
assemble our convocations and to make
promulge and execute the same, and then to
give your royal assent and authority.
Secondly, that whereas diverse constitutions
and canons provincial which have been
heretofore enacted be thought not only
much prejudicial to your prerogative royal
but also over-much onerous to your high
nesses subjects your clergy aforesaid is con
tented, if it may stand so with your high-

CANON

121

nesses pleasure, that it may be committed
to the examination and judgment of your
grace and of thirty-two persons, whereof
sixteen to be of the upper and nether house
of the temporalty, and other sixteen of the
clergy to be appointed by your highness, so
that finally whichsoever of the said constitu
tions, &c, shall be thought and determined
by your grace, and by the most part of the
said thirty-two persons, annulled [or] not to
stand with God's laws and the laws of your
realm, the same to be abrogated and taken
away," but (in short) all others to stand.
The Act substantially followed the words
of the submission, reciting it, and authorised
the appointment of the thirty-two com
missioners, of whom it is a striking fact
with reference to present discussions that
half was to be laymen, and the clergy to be
appointed by the Crown. Somehow or
other neither that commission nor the
similar one authorised and appointed under
Edward VI. ever completed their work so
far as to obtain the final royal sanction of
the Reformatio Legum as just now men
tioned. That Act of, 25 Henry VIII. did
more, which is not material to this question
of canons, for it prohibited all appeals to
Rome, and substituted the appeal to " Dele
gates " to be appointed by the king in
Chancery (see Delegates); and with all that
part of the Act the convocations had nothing
to do, and never have had with any legislation
about jurisdiction or ecclesiastical courts.
The result has always been acknowledged.
to be that the convocations cannot lawfully
meet without the king's writ, and cannot
even discuss any question of canons without^.
special licence therefor, nor afterwards
" promulge " any new canon without ratifi
cation under the Great Seal ; and that course
was followed in the only modern instance of
a new canon, viz., the alteration of tho
thirty-sixth, though it was only to follow
an Act of Parliament, altering the terms of
clerical subscription in 1866. In another
case ratification under the Great Seal was
finally refused, even though the royal licence
to deal with the canon (29) had been given
beforehand. No new canons were made under Henry
VIII. or- Edward VI. Some were made in
1571 under Elizabeth, recognising her Ad
vertisements of 1565, (q. v.), but they were
never ratified by her; but the present ones
of 1603 are much the same in effect. Again,
there were some canons made under and
ratified by Charles I. in 1640, but immedi
ately voted null and void by the Long
Parliament, and many of them were so
plainly ultra vires of any convocation as to
neutralise the whole, besides other real or
alleged defects of form ; and they have
never been contended to be valid. So the

122

CANON

CANON

only valid post-Reformation canons are
those of 1603-4. And it is now impossible
to say, except from general legal recognition,
which of the older canons really were
adopted into the King's Ecclesiastical Law,
or were even treated as valid here at all.
The old ecclesiastical law is in that respect
like the old common law, for which no
statutable authority exists, and which is
only known from legal decisions and tradi
tions preserved in law books.
It is also impossible to state any general
rule for determining the legal validity of
any particular canon in matters affecting
the laity, directly or indirectly. It has
been decided whenever they have come
before tho law courts that they never do
bind the laity proprio vigore, or so far as
they were new, and the ecclesiastical courts
were always prohibited when necessary from
enforcing them. But where there is reason
to believe that they were only an affirmance
of the old ecclesiastical law of the realm,
the civil courts recognise them. For in
stance, they decided lately on that ground
in R. v. Allen (L. R. 8 Q. B. 70) that the
election of churchwardens ought to be
according to canon 89, though churchwardens
are not solely ecclesiastical officers, and the
civil courts, not the ecclesiastical, accordingly
try the validity of their election (see Church
wardens). But it is an entire mistake to
suppose that the canons are binding on the
laity whenever they are not overridden by
Acts of Parliament. It is quite true that by
the Act of Henry VIII. they become as valid
and as widely effective as canons can be,
when duly ratified under the Great Seal.
But in that respect they are only analogous
to the bye-laws or private statutes of corpora
tions of all kinds, whether enforceable by the
visitors or by the courts of law, on those
who were before legally subject to that
jurisdiction and to such bye-laws as the
given bodies may have from time to time. It
must be carefully borne in mind that the
Church of England as a body of clergy and
laity has never been legally held to be
represented by the two convocations, but
quite the contrary. It has been well ob
served, by an unmistakable writer of clerical
distinction, in the Quarterly Review of
July, 1885, that the decree of the very
" first Christian Council " (in Acts xv.) was
not promulgated without the concurrence of
the " brethren " as well as the " Apostles and
Elders." And if the Reformatio Legum
had been passed, the canon law of the
Church would have been made by as many
laymen as clergymen. [G.]
It may be as well, for the convenience of
students, to insert here, from Bishop Halifax's
Analysis of the Civil Law, a few explana
tions of the method of quoting the Jus

Canonicum. The Decretum of Gratian
(which must not be confounded with the
Decretals) is divided into, 1. Distinctions.
2. Causes. 3. Treatise concerning consecra
tion. The Decretals are divided into, 1.
Gregory IX. Decretals in 5 books. 2. The
sixth Decretal. (Boniface. 1298.) 3. The
Clementine Constitutions (of Pope Clement
V.). Now in the Decretum, 1st part, e.g.
" 1 dist. c. 3, Lex, [or i. d. Lex,] is the first
distinction, 3rd Canon, beginning with the
word Lex. In the Decretum, 2nd part, e.g.
" 3 qu. 9, c. 2," means the third cause, ninth
question, 2nd Canon. The 3rd part of the
Decretum is quoted as the first, with the
addition of the words de consearatione.
In the Decretals (the first division) is
given the name of title, number of chapter,
with the addition of extra, or a capital X.
E.g. " c. 3, extra de usuris," means the 3rd
chapter of Gregory's Decretals inscribed
" de usuris," i.e. the 19th of the 5th book.
" c. cum contingat 36 X. de off. et Pot. Jud.
del.," means the 36th chapter beginning
with " cum contingat," of the Title in Gre
gory's decrees, inscribed " de officio." The
sixth Decretal, and the Clementine Consti
tutions, are quoted the same way, except
that instead of extra, or X., is subjoined m
sexto, or in 6 ; and in Clementini, or in
Clem. The Extravagants of John XXII.
are contained in one book, xiv. titles.
The following are the
CANONS OF 1603.
Constitutions and Canons Ecclesiastica],
treated upon by the Bishop of London,
President of the Convocation for the Pro
vince of Canterbury, and the rest of the
Bishops and Clergy of the said Province;
and agreed upon with the King's Majesty's
Licence, in their Synod begun at London,
Anno Domini 1603, and in the year of the
Reign of our sovereign Lord James, by the
Grace of God, King of England, France,
and Ireland, the First, and of Scotland
the Thirty-seventh: and now published
for the due observation of them, by his
Majesty's Authority under the Great Seal
of England.
It will be observed that this does not
mention the Province of York. But the same
canons were afterwards, on 10th March,
1604-5, duly voted by the York Convocation
and the king's assent to them prayed. And
at the end of canons as usually printed,
there is another ratification expressly for
both provinces ; but it is undated, and it
does not seem to be now demonstrable that
royal ratification was again given after the
vote of the York Convocation. But on
legal principles that is immaterial, for the
presumption omnia fuisse rite acta is amply
sufficient after such long and undisputed

CANON
usage in York as well as Canterbury. (See
Trevor on the Two Convocations.)
The Tabic of the Constitutions and Canons
Ecclesiastical.
Of the Church of England.
1. The King's Supremacy over the Church
of England, in Causes Ecclesiastical,
to be maintained.
2. Impugners of the King's Supremacy
censured.
3. The Church of England a true and
apostolical Church.
4. Impugners of the public Worship of
God, established in the Church of
England, censured.
5. Impugners of the Articles of Religion,
established in the Church of England,
censured.
6. Impugners of the Rites and Ceremonies,
established in the Church of England,
censured.
7. Impugners of the Government of the
Church of England, by Archbishops,
Bishops, &c, censured.
8. Impugners of the Form of consecrating
and ordering Archbishops, Bishops,
&c. in the Church of England, cen
sured.
9. Authors of Schism in the Church of
England censured.
10. Maintainers of Schismatics in the Church
of England censured.
II. Maintainers of Conventicles censured.
12. Maintainers of Constitutions made in
Conventicles censured.
Of Divine Service, and Administration of
the Sacraments.
13. Due Celebration of Sundays and Holy-
days.
14. The prescript Form of Divine Service
to be used on Sundays and Holy-days.
15. The Litany to be read on Wednesdays
and Fridays.
16. Colleges to use the prescript Form of
Divine Service.
17. Students in Colleges to wear Surplices
in time of Divine Service.
18. A reverence and attention to be used
within the Church in time of Divine
Service.
19. Loiterers not to be suffered near the
Church in time of Divine Service.
20. Bread and Wine to be provided against
every Communion.
21. The Communion to be thrice a Year
received.
22. Warning to be given beforehand for the
Communion.
23. Students in Colleges to receive the
Communion four times a Year.
24. Copes to be worn in Cathedral Churches

CANON

123

by those that administer the Com
munion.
25. Surplices and Hoods to be worn in
Cathedral Churches, when there is no
Communion.
26. Notorious Offenders not to be admitted
to the Communion.
27. Schismatics not to be admitted to the
Communion.
28. Strangers not to be admitted to the
Communion.
29. Fathers not to be Godfathers in Bap
tism, and Children not Communicants.
30. The lawful use of the Cross in Baptism
explained.
Ministers, their Ordination, Function, and
Charge.
31. Four solemn times appointed for the
making of Ministers.
32. None to be made Deacon and Minister
both in one day.
33. The Titles of such as are to be made
Ministers.
34. The Quality of such as are to be made
Ministers.
35. The Examination of such as are to be
made Ministers.
36. Subscription required of such as are to
be made Ministers.
The Articles of Subscription.
The Form of Subscription.
37. Subscription before the Diocesan.
38. Revolters after Subscription censured.
39. Cautions for Institution of Ministers into
Benefices.
40. An Oath against Simony at Institution
into Benefices.
41. Licences for Plurality of Benefices
limited, and Residence enjoined.
42. Residence of Deans in their Churches.
43. Deans and Prebendaries to preach during
their Residence.
44. Prebendaries to be resident upon their
Benefices.
45. Beneficed Preachers, being resident upon
their Livings, to preach every Sun
day.
46. Beneficed Men, not Preachers, to pro
cure monthly Sermons.
47. Absence of Beneficed Men to be supplied
by Curates that are allowed Preachers.
48. None to be Curates but allowed by the
Bishop.
49. Ministers, not allowed Preachers, may
not expound.
50. Strangers not admitted to preach with
out showing their Licence.
51. Strangers not admitted to preach m
Cathedral Churches without sufficient
Authority.
52. The Names of strange Preachers to be
noted in a Book.
53. No public Opposition between Preachers.

124

CANON

CANON

54. The Licences of Preachers refusing Con
formity to be void.
55. The Form of a Prayer to be used by all
Preachers before their Sermons.
56. Preachers and Lecturers to read Divine
Service, and administer the Sacraments
twice a Year at the least.
57. The Sacraments not to be refused at the
hands of unpreaching Ministers.
58. Ministers reading Divine Service, and
administering the Sacraments, to wear
Surplices, and Graduates therewithal
Hoods.
59. Ministers to catechise every Sunday.
60. Confirmation to be performed once in
three Years.
61. Ministers to prepare Children for Con
firmation.
62. Ministers not to marry any Persons
without Banns or Licence.
€3. Ministers of exempt Churches not to
marry without Banns or Licence.
64. Ministers solemnly to bid Holy-days.
65. Ministers solemnly to denounce Recu
sants and Excommunicates.
66. Ministers to confer with Recusants.
67. Ministers to visit the Sick.
68. Ministers not to refuse to christen or
bury.
69. Ministers not to defer Christening, if
the Child be in danger.
70. Ministers to keep a Register of Christ
enings, Weddings, and Burials.
71. Ministers not to preach, or administer
the Communion, in private Houses.
72. Ministers not to appoint public or
private Fasts or Prophecies, or to
exorcise, but by Authority.
73. Ministers not to hold private Conven
ticles.
74. Decency in Apparel enjoined to Min
isters.
75. Sober Conversation required in Min
isters.
76. Ministers at no time to forsake their
Calling. Schoolmasters.
77. None to teach School without Licence.
78. Curates desirous to teach, to be licensed
before others.
79. The duty of Schoolmasters.
Things appertaining to Churches.
80. The Great Bible, and Book of Common
Prayer, to be had in every Church.
81. A Font of Stone for Baptism in every
Church.
82. A decent Communion-Table in every
Church.
83. A Pulpit to be provided in every
Church.
84. A Chest for Alms in every Church.
85. Churches to be kept in sufficient Repa
rations.

86. Churches to be surveyed, and the decays
certified to the High Commissioners.
87. A Terrier of Glebe-lands and other
Possessions belonging to Churches.
88. Churches not to be profaned.
Churchwardens or Quest-men, and Side-men

89. The choice of Churchwardens, and their
Account.
90. The choice of Side-men, and their joint
office with Churchwardens.
Parish-Clerks.
91. Parish-Clerks to be chosen by the Min
ister.
Ecclesiastical Courts belonging to the Arch
bishop's Jurisdiction.
92. None to be cited into divers Courts for
Probate of the same WiU.
93. The rate of Bona Notabilia liable to the
Prerogative Court.
94. None to be cited into the Appeals or
Audience, but dwellers within the
Archbishop's Diocese, or Peculiars.
The Restraint of double Quarrels. '
Inhibitions not to be granted without
the Subscription of an Advocate.
Inhibitions not to be granted, until the
Appeal be exhibited to the Judge.
Inhibitions not to be granted to factious
Appellants, unless they first subscribe.
None to marry within the Degrees pro
hibited.
None to marry under Twenty-one
Years, without their Parents' coDseDt.
By whom Licences to marry without
Banns shall be granted, and to what
sort of persons.
102. Security to be taken at the granting
of such Licences, and under what
Conditions.
103. Oaths to be taken for the Conditions.
104. An Exception for those that are in
Widowhood.
105. No sentence for Divorce to he given
upon the sole confession of the parties.
106. No Sentence for Divorce to be given
but in open Court.
In all sentences for Divorce, Bond to
be taken for not marrying during each
other's life.
The Penalty for Judges offending in
the Premises.

95. 96.
97.

100.
101.

107.

108.

Ecclesiastical Courts belonging to tlie Juris
diction of Bishops and Archdeacons, and
the Proceedings in them.
109. Notorius Crimes and Scandals to be
Certified into Ecclesiastical Courts by
Presentment.
110. Schismatics to be presented. (

CANON
111. Disturbers of Divine Service to be
presented.
il2. Non-Communicants at Easter to be
presented.
113. Ministers may present.
114. Ministers shall present Recusants.
115. Ministers and Churchwardens not to
be sued for presenting.
116. Churchwardens not bound to present
oftener than twice a year.
117. Churchwardens not to be troubled for
not presenting oftener than twice a
year.
118. The old Churchwardens to make their
Presentments before the new be
sworn.
119. Convenient time to be assigned for
framing Presentments.
120. None to be cited into Ecclesiastical
Courts by process of Quorum No
mina.
121. None to be cited into several Courts
for one Crime.
122. No Sentence of Deprivation or Deposi
tion to be pronounced against a
Minister, but by the Bishop.
123. No Act to be sped but in open Court.
124. No Court to have more than one Seal.
125. Convenient Places to be chosen for the
keeping of open Courts.
126. Peculiar and inferior Courts to exhibit
the original Copies of Wills into the
Bishop's Registry.
Judges Ecclesiastical, and their Surrogates.
127. The Quality and Oath of Judges.
128. The Quality of Surrogates.
Proctors.
129. Proctors not to retain Causes without
the lawful Assignment of the Parties.
130. Proctors not to retain Causes without
the Counsel of an Advocate.
131. Proctors not to conclude in any Cause
without the Knowledge of an Ad
vocate.
132. Proctors prohibited the Oath, In ani-
mam domini sui.
133. Proctors not to be clamorous in Court.
Registrars.
134. Abuses to be reformed in Registrars.
135. A certain rate of Fees due to all Eccle
siastical Officers.
136. A Table of the Bates and Fees to be
set up in Courts and Eegistries.
137. The whole Fees for showing Letters of
Orders, and other Licences, due but
once in every Bishop's time.
Apparitors.
138. The Number of Apparitors restrained.

CANON

125

Authority of Synods.
139. A National Synod the Church Repre
sentative.
140. Synods conclude as well the absent as
the present.
141. Depravers of the Synod censured.
CANONS OF 1640. On the 27th May,
1640, the Archbishop of Canterbury stated
before the Convocation that the Canons
agreed upon in the sacred synod had been
read before the king and the privy council,
and unanimously approved. They were as
follows :
I. With regard to the Royal Authority
and Supremacy.
II. For the better keeping of the day of
his Majesty's most happy inauguration.
III. For suppressing the growth of
Popery. IV. Against Socinianism.
V. Against sectaries.
VI. An oath enjoined for the preventing
of aR innovations in doctrine and govern
ment. VII. A declaration concerning some rites
and ceremonies.
[Declares the standing of the communion
table sideways under the east window of
every chancel or chapel, to be in its own
nature indifferent, and that therefore no
religion is to be placed therein, or scruple to
be made thereof.]
VIII. Of preaching for conformity.
IX. One Book of Articles of inquiry to be
used at all parochial visitations.
X. Concerning the conversation of the
clergy. XI. Chancellor's patents.
XII. Chancellors alone not to censure any
of the clergy in sundry cases.
XIII. Excommunication and absolution
not to be pronounced but by a priest.
XIV. Concerning commutations and the
disposing of them.
XV. Touching concurrent jurisdiction.
XVI. Concerning licences to marry.
XVH. Against vexatious citations.
These canons were ratified by the king
under the great seal, June 30th, 1640. An
attempt was made at the time to set aside
their authority, upon the plea that convoca
tion could not lawfully continue its session
after the dissolution of parliament, which
took place on the 5th of May; but the
opinion of all the judges taken at the time
was unanimously in favour of the legality
of their proceeding, as appears by the
following document : —
"The convocation being called by the
king's writ under the great seal, doth con
tinue until it be dissolved by writ or com-

126

CANON

mission under the great seal, notwithstanding
the parliament be dissolved.
" 14th May, 1640. " Jo. Finch.
" C. S. H. Manchester.
" John Bramston.
" Edward Littleton.
" Ealphe Whitfield.
" Jo. Bankes.
"Eo. Heath."
An Act of Parliament, passed in the thir
teenth year of Charles IL, leaves to these
canons their full canonical authority, whilst
it provides that nothing contained in that
statute shall give them the force of an Act of
Parliament. The acts of this convocation were una
nimously confirmed by the synod of York.
—CardweU, vol. ii. p. 593, vol. i. p. 380 ;
Wilkins, Cone. vol. iv. p. 538.
These canons, though passed in convoca
tion, are not in force for the following
reason : In 1639 a parliamentary writ was
directed to the bishops to summon these
clergy to parliament ad consentiendum, &c,
and the convocation writ to the archbishops
ad tractand. et consentiend. The parliament
met on the 13th of April, 1640, and was
dissolved on the 15th of May following.
Now though the convocation, sitting by
virtue of the first writ directed to the
bishops, must fall by the dissolution of that
parliament, yet the lawyers held that they
might sit till dissolved by like authority.
But this being a nice point, a commission
was granted about a week after the dissolu
tion of the parliament for the convocation to
sit, which commission the king sent to them
by Sir Harry Vane, his principal Secretary
of State, and by virtue thereof they were
turned into a provincial synod. The chief
of the clergy then assembled desired the
king to consult all the judges of England on
this matter, which was done : and upon
debating it in the presence of his council,
they asserted under their hands the power
of convocation in making canons. Upon
this the convocation sat a whole month,
and composed a Book of Canons, which was
approved by the king by the advice of his
privy council, and confirmed under the broad
iseal. The objection against the Canons was
that they were not made pursuant to the
¦statute 25 Hen. VIII., because they were
made in a convocation, sitting by the king's
writ to the archbishops, after the parliament
was dissolved, though there is nothing in
the statute which relates to their sitting in
time of parliament only.
After the Restoration, when an Act was
passed to restore the bishops to their ordinary
jurisdiction, a proviso was made that the
Act should not confirm the Canons of 1640.

CANON
This clause makes void the royal confirma
tion. Hence we may conclude that canons
should be made in a convocation, the parlia
ment sitting ; that being so made, they are
to be confirmed by the sovereign ; and.that
without such confirmation they do not bind
the laity, much less any order or rule made
by a bishop alone, where there is neither
custom nor canon for it. — Phillimore's Sum
iv., App.
CANON OF SCRIPTURE. The books
of Holy Scripture as received by the Church
who, being the; "witness and keeper of
Holy Writ," had authority to decide what
is and what is not inspired. (See Scripture ¦
Bible.) CANON OF THE LITURGY. (See
Liturgy.) Canon is used in the service of
the Church to signify that part of the
communion service, or in the Roman Church
the mass, which follows immediately after
the Sanctus and Hosanna ; corresponding to
that part of our service which begins at the
prayer, " We do not presume," &c. It is
so called as being the fixed rule of the Liturgy,
which is never altered. Properly speaking,
the canon ends just before the Lord's Prayer,
which is recited aloud ; the canon being
said in a low voice. In the First Book of
King Edward VI., the word is used in this
sense, viz. in the Visitation of the Sick,
after the Gospel, the service proceeds as
follows :
" The Preface. The Lord be with you.
Answer. And with thy spirit.
T Lift up your hearts, &c.
Unto tbe end of the canon."
The Anaphora of the Greek Church
resembles the canon of the Roman. (See
Anaphora.) — Jebb. Professor Cheetham in
Diet Christ. Antiq. vol. i. 269.
CANONICI. (See Clergy^)
CANON LAW. The canon law which
regulates the discipline of the Romish
Church consists, 1. Of the Decree of
Gratian (Decretum Gratiani), a compilation
made by a Benedictine monk, whose name
it bears, at Bologna in Italy, in 1150, and
made up of the decrees of different popes
and councils, and of several passages of the
holy fathers and other reputable writers.
2. Of the Decretals, collected by order of
Pope Gregory IX., in the year 1230, in five
books. 3. Of the compilation made by order of
Boniface VIII., in 1297, known by the name
of the Sixth Book of Decretals, because
added to the other five, although it is itself
divided into five books.
4. Of the Clementines, as they are called,
or Decretals of Pope Clement V., published
in the year 1317 by John XXII. N
5. Of other decretals, known under the
name of Extravagantes, so called because

CANON
not contained in the former decretals.
These Extra vagantes are twofold : — the first,
called common, containing constitutions of
various popes down to the year 1483 ; and,
secondly, the particular ones of John XXII.
These, containing besides the decrees of
popes and the canons of several councils,
constitute the body of the canon law.
The constitutions of subsequent popes and
councils have also the force of canons,
although not hitherto reduced into one body,
nor digested, as the others, under proper
Reads, by any competent authority. These,
together with some general customs, or
peculiar ones of different places, having the
force of laws, and certain conventions entered
into between the popes and different Roman
Catholic states, determine the discipline of
the Church of Rome. But all that has no
relation to this country, where there is in
fact no such thing as canon law apart from
the general or king's ecclesiastical law, as
before stated, though some of it was derived
from old canon law, as some other English
law was from Roman.
CANON, CANONICUS. I. General
history of the term. It was originally applied
not only to the clergy, but to all officials of
the Church, as readers, singers, porters,
whose names were enrolled on the list of
ecclesiastics, the Kavav (Latine matricula,
tabula, album : Thomas., Vet. et Nov.
Discip. i., ii. 34 ; Bingh. i., iv. § 10) ; or even
persons who were maintained by the alms
of the Church, widows, orphans, &c. (Bing
ham, ib.) But in time the word came to be
restricted to those clergy who lived under
some special rule, more particularly such as
formed the staff of the bishop and resided
either in or near his dwelling. Thus
Augustine, Ambrose, Eusebius of Vercelli,
Hilary of Aries, and others, lived under the
.same roof with their clergy and imposed
a kind of monastic discipline upon the
"whole society. The second council of
"Toledo, 531, mentions schools conducted by
the " canoniei in domo ecclesiae sub Episcopi
prsesentia," and Gregory of Tours, Hist. x.
ad fin., speaks of the " mensa canonica," the
common meal of the canoniei established
by Bandinus, archbishop of Tours. But
•Chrodegang, archbishop of Metz (760) was
the founder of a rule for canonical life which
met with more general approbation than any
¦other. It was based upon the Benedictine.
The bishop was to be as the abbot of the
¦community, the archdeacon as the prior;
all were to confess to the bishop in Lent
and Autumn. The day was portioned out
into hours for divine service, manual labour
and study ; there was a common dormitory
.and refectory, and a distinctive garb. Thus
the life of the society was assimilated to that
• of monks ; but with certain differences.

CANON

127

Canons were permitted to retain their
private property during their life (after
death it passed into the possession of tbe
canonical body); they took no vows, and
were forbidden to wear the monk's cowl. In
short, as regulated by the rule of Chrode
gang, canons might be described as secular
clergy living in a semi-monastic style.
Charles the Great endeavoured to impose
the system of Chrodegang on all the clergy
in his empire, and although he was not
successful in this attempt, the number of
colleges for canons, besides the cathedral
chapters, of which nearly all in France,
Germany, and Italy adopted the rule, rapidly
increased. The rule of Chrodegang, however,
was not very long maintained anywhere in
its integrity. The canons were continually
striving for exemption from the bishop's
authority, for a share in the government of
the diocese, and for more independence in
the management of their property. In
many instances the common dormitory and
refectory were given up ; each canon had
his own house in the precincts of the cathe
dral or collegiate church. Some of them
lived a part of the year on the property
which formed the separate endowment (pras-
benda) of their stall, at a distance from the
cathedral or collegiate church, discharging
their duties there by means of vicars. They
were not uncommonly married men, or lived
in a state of concubinage. In fact, in the
eleventh century the rule of Chrodegang
had become almost extinct.
II. Canonical Life in England. The con
version of England was mainly-accomplished
by monks of the Roman or Irish school, and
consequently the monastic system had a
peculiar claim upon the reverence of the
English people. The missionary bishop
being himself a monk, naturally surrounded
himself with monks as his fellow-labourers,
and thus the original chapter of most of the
earliest cathedrals in England was monastic
in character. As Christianity spread and
the dioceses were divided, the principal
church of the new district was commonly
made a bishop's see, and here the bishop,
whether a monk or not, generally formed
his chapter out of the parochial clergy of the
city, who were, of course, secular priests.
As members of the chapter they were called
canons. But the rule of Chrodegang never
found favour in England. A few of the
bishops who were either foreigners or who
had been trained in continental schools, such
as Gisa, bishop of Wells, 1061, Leofric,
bishop of Exeter, 1056, Thomas, archbishop
of. York, 1070, tried to introduce it, but with
very partial and short-lived success. The
older type of monachism died out in England
during the period of the Danish invasion,
but the monastic system was revived in the

128

CANON

tenth century under Odo and Dunstan in a
more aggressive form. Monachism was ex
tolled as the highest type of life: a much
sharper distinction than had existed before
was drawn between regular and secular
clergy, and from several of the cathedrals
canons were removed to make way for
monks. Cnut and Harold, indeed, founded
colleges for secular canons, but these were
exceptions to the general practice (Freeman,
Norm. Conq. ii. 443; Stubbs' Introd.
to Epp. Cant. xxi. and de Invent, cruc.
Introd. ix.). Down to the time of Henry
VIII. some of the cathedrals were served
by monks, others by secular canons. The
number of canons varied from about twelve
in some of the Welsh cathedrals, to as many
as forty or fifty in some of the English.
Most of the stalls were separately endowed,
and as holding this endowment or prebenda,
the canons were also called prebendaries.
(See Prebendary?) The whole body of
canons seldom resided at the same time
in the cathedral precincts, but the number
of residents, and non-residents, varied very
much at different times and in different
places. III. Canons Residentiary, and others. In
most cathedrals the number of residents
gradually became fixed, seldom more than
nine, or less than four, and when a vacancy
occurred, the bishop, or the dean, or the
Crown, or the residentiary body filled it up
by electing one of the non-resident canons,
and in some cases strangers could be ap
pointed. It is a question now whether the
bishops must first make a stranger a preben
dary where that limitation existed before.
When the monasteries were dissolved in the
sixteenth century, the monastic cathedrals
were remodelled, a dean and a fixed number
of canons being substituted for the abbot and
monks. These are called cathedrals of the
new foundation, as distinguished from those
which, having always been served by
secular canons, remained unaltered in consti
tution, and are therefore called cathedrals of
the old foundation. By the Cathedral Act of
1840, the number of residentiary canons was
in many cases reduced tq four, and the non
residents were deprived, with some few ex
ceptions, of their endowments, although
they are still called prebendaries, and retain
their stall in the choir, and on certain occa
sions ' their voice in the chapter. The
appointment of all non-residentiary canons,
in cathedrals of the old foundation, was
given by the same Act to the bishop of the
diocese ; and he may appoint twenty-four
" honorary canons " with stalls in the new
cathedrals ; and by custom assign them a
preaching turn. They have no emoluments
and no voice in the chapter, and are quite
distinct in origin from the non-resident

CANON
canons or prebendaries in cathedrals of the
old foundation. (See Cathedral.)
IV. Canons Regular, to be carefully dis
tinguished from the secular canons. Pope
Nicolas II. had endeavoured, in 1060, to
revive the rule of Chrodegang, which had
become generally relaxed. But Ivo, bishop
of Chartres, and others went further, and
formed some communities which were
modeRed entirely on the monastic pattern,
the members even renouncing all right to
private property. They were called regular
canons of St. Augustine (or more briefly
Augustinian shortened again into Austin
canons), because their rule was said to be
based upon some regulations of St. Augus
tine. They were also commonly called
black canons, because their habit was a long
black cassock, and a black cloak and hood
over a white rochet. A new and strictly
reformed order of Austin canons was founded
in 1121 by Norbert, afterwards archbishop
of Magdeburg at Premonstre in Champagne,
whence they were caRed Premonstratensian
canons, and sometimes " white canons," from
their white habit. The earliest house of
"regular canons" in England was that of
St. Julian and St. Botolph, at Colchester,
founded about 1105. The chief patrons of
the order were William of Corbeuil, prior of
St. Osyth's, afterwards archbishop of
Canterbury, and Athelwulf, prior of Nostel,
afterwards bishop of Carlisle. This was the
only cathedral in England which was served
by Austin canons. The first foundation of
Premonstratensian or white canons in
England was at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire,
in 1146, but the abbey of Welheck, in
Nottinghamshire, ranked as the chief
English home of the order. There were
some other varieties of canons regular in
England, as the order of Sempringham or
Gilbertine canons, instituted by St. Gilbert
at Sempringham, in Lincolnshire, in 1148,
for men and women, and the canons regular
of the Holy Sepulchre or of the Holy Cross,
but none were so numerous or important as
the Augustinian and Premonstratensian
orders. — Robertson, Ch. Hist. ii. 211-13,
222, 252, 512-13, 774 ; Stubbs' Mosheim,'
i. 494, 538 ; ii. 47, and note 122.
V. Canons Minor, Priests in cathedrals,
not members of either the great or small
chapter, who are responsible for performing
the service, but not preaching. In some of
the old cathedrals they are called priest
vicars and vicars choral, and the singing men
lay vicars. In some they form a separate
corporation with or without the lay vicars.
Their numbers vary, but are seldom less
than four, and must not exceed six, and,'
they are always appointed by the chapter
(of residentiaries) by 3 & 4 Vict. 113, s,
54 (1840), except where the dean alone

CANONICAL
had the appointment before. Since that Act
their stipend was not to be less than £150.
Minor canonries are " cathedral preferment "
within the Pluralities Act, 1 & 2 Vict. c.
106, and no minor canon now may hold
any benefice more than six miles from the
cathedral. They are also among the persons
to whom cathedral livings must be given
by the Act of 1841. Several later Acts have
been passed relating to their estates where
they are separate corporations, in 1864-5. [H.]
CANONICAL. That which is done in
accordance with the canons of the Church.
CANONICAL HOURS. The first, third,
the sixth, and the ninth hours of the day,
that is, six, nine, twelve, and three o'clock,
are so denominated. Bishop Patrick re
marks that " the Universal Church anciently
observed certain set hours of prayer, that
all Christians throughout the world might
at the same time join together to glorify
God ; and some of them were of opinion
that the angelic host, being acquainted with
those hours, took that time to join their
prayers and praises with those of the
Church." The directions in the Apostolical
Constitutions are as foRows : " Offer up your
prayers in the morning, at the third hour,
at the sixth, and at the ninth, and in the
evening; in the morning returning thanks
that the Lord hath sent you light, and
brought you through the perils of the night ;
at the third hour, because at that hour the
Lord received sentence of condemnation
from Pilate; at the sixth, because at that
hour he was crucified ; at the ninth, because
at that hour all things were in commotion
at the crucifixion of our Lord, as trembling
at the bold attempt of the wicked Jews, and
at the injury offered to their Master ; in the
evening, giving thanks that he has given
thee the night to rest from thy daily labours."
See also Tertul. de Orat ix. 26 ; Cyprian, de
Orat Dom. xxii.
Tbe names given by the Anglo-Saxons to
the canonical hours were uhtsang, prime-
sang, undersang, middaysang, noonsang,
evensang, and nightsang. These corre
spond with prime, tierce, sext, and nones, at
the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours of the
day, counting from six in the morning ;
vespers at the eleventh hour, and compline
at the twelfth. Matins was always to be
said at some time after midnight. — Wilkins'
Cone. torn. i. 252 ; Maskell, Mon. Rit Ang.,
iii., iv. [H.]
CANONICAL OBEDIENCE. (See
Orders.) The obedience which is due,
according to the canons, to an ecclesiastical
superior. Every clergyman takes an oath
of canonical obedience to his bishop when
he is instituted to a benefice or licensed to
a cure. CANONISATION. (See Beatification,

CANONEY

129

and Saints.) A ceremony in the Roman
Church, by which persons deceased are
ranked in the catalogue of saints. It succeeds
beatification. The word was derived from the
custom of inserting the names of saints in the
canon of the mass, before martyrologies were
composed. When a person is to be canon
ised, the pope holds four consistories. In
the last he orders the report concerning the
deceased to be read, and then takes the
votes of the assembled cardinals and pre
lates, whether he is to be canonised or not.
The ceremony is performed in the church of
St. Peter's with great pomp.
Canonisation was not known to the
Christian Church till the tenth century,
though before that time festivals in honour
of holy men had been wont to be held. In
the Council of Lateran (a.d. 993), John XV.
added to the names of saints that of Udalric,
bishop of Augsburg; but it was. not till
1170 that the pope (Alex. III.) claimed the
reservation of the rite to the Roman see.
Innocent III. confirmed this in a bull issued
in 1200. It has been objected against
canonisation, that it is performed by human
beings, who assume a power of rendering
some one an object of divine worship, who
in this life was no more than mortal ; that
it is a direct violation of the Saviour's com
mand, "Judge not; " and that it lies at the
foundation of that idolatry of which the
Church of Rome is charged. — Broughton,
Biblio., vol. i. ; Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord.
Bened., vol. • vii. ; del. Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, vol. ii. 275-427.
CANONRY. A canonry is a name of
office, and a canon is the officer. But con
versely, a prebendary is the holder of a pre
bend, which is the maintenance or stipend
both of the one and the other. It seems
most likely that the word canon meant to
designate one who resided at the cathedral
church constantly, and followed the rule
of Divine service there : so the application
of the word at home and abroad would seem
to indicate. (But see Canon.) Thus, till a
late enactment, 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1 13, the word
canon was restricted in cathedrals of the
old foundation to the residentiaries. Pre
bendary was statutably applied to all,
because all had a " prabenda," either affixed
stipend, or an estate for life : while in the
cathedrals of new foundation all were called
canons or prebendaries, because all were
equally bound to residence ; but they were
much fewer than the canons and preben
daries of the old foundations, who were
24 at Exeter and Hereford, 27 at Lichfield,-
28 at Chichester, 30 at St. Paul's and York,
49 at Wells, 52 at Lincoln, and 53 at Salis
bury. (See Report of Cathedral Commission,
1854.) By s. 93 of that Act the word
"canon" alone is interpreted to mean

130

CANTATE

canons residentiary, who at first - were the
only ones meant to be retained, and yet by
s. 1, all members of the chapter are to be
called canons. But the Act was altered
in its course through parliament, with
considerable carelessness. And the non-
residentiary canons or prebendaries were
finally retained, and their endowments only
taken away. In the "new cathedrals,"
where there were no non-residentiaries
before, the bishops were allowed to appoint
twenty-four honorary canons ; but they
have no votes in the chapter, as the pre
bendaries have in different degrees in the old
cathedrals. (See Cathedral.) The bishops
have the same .power in the still newer
cathedrals founded in this century, in most
of which there is no chapter at all.
The fellowships of the collegiate church
in Manchester, on its elevation , into a
cathedral, were erected into canonries, and
the warden of former times into dean. ¦ But
they all have parochial duties too, under the
Manchester Parish Division Act. [G.]
Canonry, or chanonrie, in Scotland, was
the same as the cathedral precinct in Eng
land. Thus at Aberdeen the canonry in
cluded the cathedral, bishop's palace, pre
bendal . houses, - gardens, and an. . hospital,
all surrounded by a stone wall. (Kennedy's
Annals of Aberdeen.) The cathedral town
of Rosemarkie, or Fortrose, in the diocese
of Ross, was sometimes called the canonry
town, or channery town.
CANTATE DOMINO. This Psalm was
inserted in the Prayer Bopk.of 1552, as an
alternative for the Magnificat, to be sung or
said after the first lesson at evening service.
it is not easy to understand why this ad
dition was made, unless it was to please the
Genevans, who disliked the use of the
Magnificat. There are parallel expressions
in . the Magnificat and " Cantate Domino,"
which probably led to its being selected as
analternative. (See Blunt's Annotated P. B.
pp. 33-34.)
CANTICLE. This literally signifies
song, but , it is peculiarly applied to a
canonical book of the Old Testament, called
in Hebrew the Song of Songs, that is, the
most excellent of all songs, called also the
Song of Solomon. The wordcanticle in our
Prayer Book is applied to the, Benedicite,
and was so first used in King ,¦ Edward's
. Second Book. But it also denotes all those
r hymns which are said or sung after the
lessons at the morning and evening services.
With the exception of the Te Deum, all
are taken from Holy Scripture.
CANTORIS. In cathedral churches except
Ely (see Abbot), the stall of the dean (De
canus) is to the right on entering the choir,
hence the south side was called Decani ; and
as the Praxentor (Cantor) sat opposite, his

CAPITAL
side was called "of the Cantor," or Can
toris. CANTUS AMBEOSIANUS. (See Am-
brosian Rite.) The term given generally
to church music in the West before the
time of Gregory. It is derived from St.
Ambrose, who -introduced into the West
the system of hymn singing, and antiphonal
psalm chanting, which he is said to have
learnt at Antioch, from whence he brought
his melodies. Ambrose admitted the four
Greek scales (Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian,
Mixo-Lydian) corresponding to our scales
of D, ,E, F, G, without accidentals; the
melodies written in each ranging only from
the key note to its octave, and ending
properly on the key note, thence called the
final. CAPITAL. The highest member of a
pillar. The capital consists of the abacus, the
bell, the neck, or astragal, and each of these
varies in the -several styles, as well in form
as in relative importance. A few of the
more prominent variations may be enume
rated. In the Saxon period, the abacus is usually
a low, flat, unmoulded slab ; the rest of the
capital, if it has any character, approaches
that of the succeeding style.
In . the Norman capital the abacus is
square, of considerable thickness, generally
slightly bevelled at the lower side,- and
sometimes moulded. The bell, resting on
a cylindrical shaft, and fitted with a square
abacus, is circular at the bottom, and be
comes square at the top, and the way of re
solving the round into the square gives it
its peculiar character. In examples, how
ever, of any richness, the abundance of
decoration often obscures its constructive
character. In the period of transition to Early Eng- ,
lish, the abacus sometimes becomes octa
gonal, seldom however a regular octagon,
but a square with the corners slightly cut
off. It is also sometimes circular. The
upper surface continues flat, but the under
part is more frequently moulded. The bell
often approaches the Classic capital in
design, and sometimes even in treatment,
as at Canterbury ; but this is a rare amount
of excellence. More frequently a lotus-like
flower rises from the neck, and curls beneath
the abacus. The neck is still a mere round
bead. In the next, or Lancet period, the abacus
more frequently becomes circular, the top
is seldom flat, the mouldings usually con
sist of two rounds, with a deep undercut,
hollow. between, the upper one a little over
hanging the under, and in the hollow a
trail of nail-head or dog-tooth is often
found. The bell, also, is deeply undercut,

CAPITAL
and in some instances, where effect is
sought in moulding rather than in carving,
it is repeated ; but, in moderately rich
examples, the bell is usually covered with
foliage of which the stems spring from the
neck, generally crossing one another as
they rise, and breaking into leaves near
the top, where they throw off a profusion
of crisped foliage, which curls under, the
abacus ; a stray leaf, in very rich and
rather late examples, sometimes shooting
up, over the hollow, to the upper member of
the abacus. The whole treatment of this
foliage in capitals and corbels, where it
follows the same law, has sometimes a
boldness and a grace, though , it never
deserts its conventional type, of which no
description, and no engraving even, except
on a large scale, can convey an idea. - The
n'eck of the Early English capital is gener
ally either a rounded bowtel of rather more
than half a cylinder, or a semi-hexagon,
' the latter with the sides sometimes slightly
hollowed. In the Geometrical or early Decorated
period, the abacus continues round. It is no
longer flat at the top : the scroll moulding
begins to appear, and sometimes a hollow in
tervenes between it and the first member of
the bell. The bell, when moulded, rather
follows the routine of the last style; but, when
foliated, the leaves or flowers, without losing
anything of the force and boldness of the
latter,have a naturalness never approached in
any other style : we begin to recognise the
oak, the hawthorn, or the maple, as familiar
friends, and no longer - need to employ
conventional terms to disignate their foliage,
or the method of its treatment.
In the late Decorated period, the scroll-
moulding is generally- employed for the
abacus and for the neck; the ball-flower
sometimes occurs in the hollow of the
abacus, but not so frequently as the dog
tooth in the Lancet period. - The mouldings
of the beR are generally the roll and fillet,
or the scroll, in some of their forms ; and
the foliage entirely loses the nature of the
-Geometrical, without recovering the force
•of the Early English. It surrounds the
bell as a chaplet, instead of creeping up it,
and, instead of indicating the shape which
it clothes, converts the whole between the
neck and the abacus into a flowered top. .
In ,the Perpendicular period, the .abacus
is sometimes so nearly lost in the bell, or
the beR in the abacus, that it is hard to
separate them. The form of both becomes
¦generally octagonal, and a great, poverty
of , design is apparent : this is the case in
ordinary instances of pillars with entire
capitals. In later examples, and where
there are greater pretensions, the capital
does not extend to the whole pillar, but

CAPUCHINS

131

the outer order of the arches is continued
to the base, without the intervention of a
capital, only the inner order, being sup
ported and stopped by an, attached shaft,
or bowtel, with its capital, and , so the
capital loses all its analogy with the classic
architrave, and no longer stops the eye by
a horizontal line. The effect is very in
ferior and monotonous, as is generally the
case in that style.
CAPITULUM. (See Chapter.)
CAPITULARY. Literally a collection
of " capitula " or little chapters. The term
was commonly applied to the series of laws
and ordinances, issued from time to time by
the early Frankish sovereigns, and as the
great majority of laws in those collections
were of an ecclesiastical character, it denoted
generally, though not always, a series of
laws relating to ecclesiastical affairs. The
earliest capitulary in the edition of Baluze,
is Childebert's Constitution- for. the Abo
lition of Idolatry, a.d. 554. But by far
the most important are those of Pepin le
Bref, a.d. 752, and Charles the Great. The
public capitularies of the latter number
about sixty, each containing many capitula
or articles, amounting in all to 1150. The
latest capitularies are those of Carloman, in
882, after which -there is a long suspension
of legislation. . . The Frankish laws were
proposed in the assemblies held itwice a-
year; the clergy and ,-laity sat either
separately or together, according to the
nature of the subject under discussion ; but
the right of initiative and decision rested
with the sovereign, and the decrees were
issued in his name. Besides , those which
were distinctly ecclesiastical, -there were
others which - dealt with every department
of human life, moral, social, and political.
What share, the freeholders as a body had
in all this , legislation is a subject which has
been debated, and cannot be entered upon
here. (See Hallam, Middle Ages, ch. ii.
part ii. ; and Guizot's Lectures on Civilisa
tion.) The first formal collection of capitu
laries was one edited in four books by
Angesius, Abbot of Fontenella, who died in
833. , It contains the laws of Charles the
Great and Louis the Pious. Benedict, a
deacon of Mayence, added three more books
about the year 842, containing those of
Lothaire, Charles and Louis, sons of Louis
the Pious. Father Simon published those
of Charles the Bald, and these editions have
been supplemented by anonymous compilers.
(Capitularia Regum Francorum, by Stephen
Baluze, Paris, 1677, 2 vols; Herzog's Real-
Encyclopddie, Article Capitularien ; Pertz,
Monumenta Germanise Historical)
CAPUCHINS. Monks of, the order of
St. Francis. They owe their origin to
Matthew de Baschi, a Franciscan of the
k 2

132

CAPUCHINS

duchy of Urbino, who, having seen St.
Francis represented with a sharp-pointed
capuche, or cowl, began to wear the like
in 1525, with the permission of Pope Cle
ment VII. His example was soon followed
by two other monks, named Louis and
Raphael de Fossembrun ; and the pope, by
a brief, granted these three monks leave to
retire to some hermitage, and retain their
new habit. The retirement they chose was
the hermitage of the Camaldolites near
Massacio, where they were very charitably
received. This innovation in the habit of the order
gave great offence to the Franciscans, whose
provincial persecuted these poor monks, and
obliged them to fly from place to place.
At last they took refuge in the palace of
the Duke de Camerino, by whose credit
they were received under the obedience of
the conventuals, in the quality of Hermits
Minors, in the year 1527. The next year,
the pope approved this union, and confirmed
to them the privilege of wearing the square
capuche, and admitting among them all
who would take the habit. Thus the order
of the Capuchins, so called from wearing
the capuche, began in the year 1528.
Their first establishment was at Colmen-
zono, about a league from Camerino, in a
convent of the order of St. Jerome, which
had been abandoned; but, their numbers
increasing, Louis de Fossembrun built
another small convent at Montmelon, in
the territory of Camerino. The great num
ber of conversions which the Capuchins made
by their preaching, and the assistance they
gave the people in a contagious distemper
with which Italy was afflicted the same
year, 1528, gave them an universal esteem.
In 1529, Louis de Fossembrun bvnlt for
them two other convents, the one of Alva-
cina in the territory of Fabriano, the other
at Fossembrun in the duchy of Urbino.
Matthew de Bassi, being chosen their vicar-
general, drew up constitutions for the
government of this order. They enjoined,
among other things, that the Capuchins
should perform Divine service without
singing; that they should say but one
mass a day in their convents ; they forbade
the monks to hear the confessions of seculars,
and enjoined them always to travel on foot ;
they recommended poverty in the ornaments
of thtiir church, and prohibited in them the
use of gold, silver, and silk ; the pavilions
of the altars were to be of stuff, and the
chalices of tin.
This order soon spread itself all over
Italy and Sicily. In 1573, Charles IX.
demanded of Pope Gregory XIII. to have
the order of Capuchins established in
France, which that pope consented to ; and
their first settlement in that kingdom was

CARDINAL
in the little town of Picpus near Paris;
which they soon quitted to settle at Meu-:.
don, from whence they were introduce!
into the capital of the kingdom. In 1606,
Pope Paul V. gave them leave to accept
an establishment which was offered them
in Spain. They even passed the seas to
labour in the conversion of the infidels;
and their order became so considerable, that
it was divided into more than sixty pro
vinces, consisting of near 1600 convents,
and 26,000 monks, besides the missions of
Brazil, Congo, Barbary, Greece, Syria; and
Egypt ; but these numbers have been much
reduced by the suppression of the religious
orders in France and Italy.
Among those who have preferred the
poverty and humility of the Capuchins to
the advantages of birth and fortune, was
the famous Alphonso d'Este, duke of Modena
and Eeggio, who, after the death of his wife
Isabella, took the habit of this order at
Munich, in the year 1626, under the name
of Brother John-Baptist, and died in the
convent of Castelnuovo, in 1644. In France,
likewise, the great Duke de Joyeuse,-after
having distinguished himseR as a general,
became a Capuchin in September, 1587.—
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 518; Hist.
des Ord. Rei., vol. vii. c. 27 ; Broughton's
Biblio., vol. i.
CAPUCHINES. Capuchin nuns. Their
foundress was Maria Laurentia Longa, a
noble lady of great piety and devotion.
She built a monastery of virgins, called.
" Our Lady of Jerusalem " (a.d. 1538), in
which was observed the third rule of St.
Francis. Afterwards they embraced the
more rigorous rule of St. Clara, from the
austerity of which they had the name of
Nuns qf the Passion, and that of Capuchines
from the habit they took, which was that
of the Capuchins.
After the death of their foundress, an
other monastry of Capuchines was estab
lished at Rome, near the Quirinal palace,
and was called the Monastery of the Holy
Sacrament ; and a third, in the same city,
built by Cardinal Baronius. These founda
tions were approved, in the year 1600, by
Pope Clement VIII., and confirmed by
Gregory XV. There were afterwards
several other establishments of Capuchines,
in particular one at Paris, in 1604, foundei
by the Duchesse de Mercosur, who put
crowns of thorns on the heads of the young
women whom she placed in her monastery.
CAPUT JEJUNII. The head or be
ginning of the fast : an old name for the
first day of Lent. (See Ash Wednesday.)
CAPDTIUM. (See Hood.)
CARDINAL. A title originaUy given
to those presbyters and deacons who were
permanently attached to any church as

CAEDINAL
being the principal clergy of that church,
the hinges upon which all the work turned.
As applied to a certain office in the
Eoman Church the following statements
comprise the important historical facts :
1. The institution of the office has been
ascribed by respectable Eoman Catholic
writers to Christ himseR, to the apostle of
their faith, to the Eoman bishop Evaristus,
to Hyginus, Marcellus, Boniface III., and
others. But we only know that the deacons
and presbyters and bishops of the regions or
twenty-eight parishes into which Rome was
divided bore this name. The title was also
conferred upon the suffragan bishops of
Ostia, Albano, and others in the immediate
vicinity, but without any other rights than
those which were connected appropriately
with the ministerial office.
2. The import of the term was varied
still - more in the ninth century, and espe
cially in the eleventh, by Nicolas IL, in
a.d. 1059, who in his constitution for the
election of the Eoman Pontiff, not only
appointed his seven suffragan bishops as
members of the pope's ecclesiastical council,
but also conferred on them the right of
initiative in the election of the pope, which
had to be subsequently ratified by the
assent of the other clergy and the people,
and also the emperor.
This is the important period in history
when the first foundation was laid for
rendering the hierarchy of the Church in
dependent both of the clergy and of the
secular power. This period has not been
noticed so particularly by historians as its
importance requires. They seem especially
to have overlooked the fact, that the famous
Hildebrand (Gregory VII.), in the year
1073, concerted these measures for the
independence of the Chm-ch, as the follow
ing extract will show : " It was the deep
design of Hildebrand, which he for a long
time prosecuted with unwearied zeal, to
bring the pope wholly within the pale of
the Church, and to prevent the interference,
in his election, of all secular influence and
arbitrary power. And that measure of the
council which wrested from the emperor a
right of so long standing and which had
never been called in question, may de
servedly be regarded as the master-piece
of popish intrigue, or rather of Hildebrand's
cunning. T^6 concession which disguised
this crafty design of his was expressed as fol
lows : that the emperor should ever hold from
the pope the right of appointing the pope."
3. As might have been expected, this
privilege was afterwards contested by the
princes of the German States, especially
by those of Saxony and the House of
Hphenstaufen. But these conflicts uni
formly resulted in favour of the ambitious

CAEDINAL

133

designs of the pope. A momentary con
cession, granted under the pressure of cir
cumstances, became reason sufficient for
demanding the same over afterwards as an
established right. In the year a.d. 1179,
Alexander III., through the canons of the
Lateran, confined the election of the pope
exclusively to the cardinals, so that, after
this, the ratification of the emperor, clergy,
and people, was no longer of any import
ance. Something similar was also repeated
by Innocent III., a.d. 1215, and Innocent
IV., a.d. 1254. The former bad already,
in the year a.d. 1198, renounced the civil
authority of Eome, and ascended the papal
throne. In the year 1274, the conclave ot
cardinals for the election of the pope was
fully established by Gregory X., and remains
the same to this day.
.4. The college of cardinals, which, until
the twelfth century, had been restricted
to Eome and its vicinity, has since been
greatly enlarged, so as to become the su
preme court of the Eomish Church through
out the world. Priests of illustrious name
in other provinces and countries have been
elevated to the dignity of cardinals. Of
this, Alexander III. gave the first example
in the year 1165, by conferring the honour
upon Galdinus Sala, archbishop of Milan,
and upon Conrad, archbishop of Mentz.
But, to the injury of the Church, the greater
part have ever been restricted to the limits
of Eome and Italy.
5. The formal classification of the car
dinals into three distinct orders, 1. cardinal
bishops ; 2. cardinal presbyters ; 3. cardinal
deacons, was made by Paul II. in the
fifteenth century. He also gave them,
-instead of the scarlet robe which they had
worn since the year 1244, a purple robe,
from whence they derived the name of the
purple; a title 'indicative, not merely of
their superiority to bishops and archbishops,
but of their regal honours and rights.
Boniface VIII. gave them the title of
eminentissimi, most eminent ; and Pius V.,
in the year 1567, decrees that no other
should have the name of cardinal.
6. The number of cardinals was at first
not less than seven ; and, after having
ranged from seven to fifty-three, it was
reduced again in the year 1277 to the
minimum above mentioned. The General
Assembly of the Church of Basel limited
the number to twenty-four ; but the popes
from this time increased them at their
pleasure. Under Leo X. there were sixty-
five cardinals : Paul IV. and Pius V. decreed
that the maximum should be seventy —
equal in number to the disciples of our
Lord. These were arranged under the
following grades: 1. Six cardinal bishops,
with the following titles: — the bishops of

134

CARMELITES

•Ostia, Porta, Alhano, Frascati,1 Sabina, and '
Palasstrina; 2. Fifty cardinal priest's, who
were named after the parochial and cathe
dral churches of Rome ; 3. Fourteen car
dinal deacons, who were named after the
chapels. This number was seldom full;
but, since ,1814, they have again become
quite numerous. — Augusti.
The canons in some foreign cathedrals
are called cardinals ; as at Milan and Sa
lerno. In the cathedral of St. Paul's,
London, two of the minor canons are still
so designated. Their statutable duties are
to superintend the behaviour of the mem
bers of the choir, in order to the correction
of offenders by the dean and chapter, and
to see to the burial of the dead, &c. — Jebb,
. Choral Service ; Robertson's Hist: of Ch.,
ii. 584; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 24,
25, 117, 505; Jovet's Hist des Rei., vol. i.
pp. 213, 221.
CAEMELITES, or WHITE FRIARS.
Monks of the order of. Our Lady of Mount
Carmel. ¦. They claim to derive their origin
from Elijah ; but their real history is, that
in the. middle of . the twelfth century: a
certam Berthold, a Calabrian, with a few
comrades migrated to Mount Carmel, ¦ and
took up his abode in a place where tradition
pointed, out that Elias had hid himself.
This 1 community increased rapidly, and
Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, gave them
a rule of life in 1205, which Pope Honorius
III. confirmed in 1224.
The' peace concluded by the emperor
Frederic II. with > the Saracens, in the year
1229, so disadvantageous to-. Christendom,
and so beneficial to the infidels, occasioned
the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land under
Alan, the fifth general of the order. : They
founded monasteries at Cyprus, Messina,
Marseilles, and many other places .- in
Europe, and soon gained considerable
ground in England, where in the year
1245 they held their first European general
chapter, at Aylesford. They were mendi
cants, and had .their name " White Friars "
from the colour of their habit. This. was
changed by order of Honorius IV.
After, the establishment of the Carmelites
in Europe, their rule was in some respects
altered : , the first time, by Pope Innocent
IV., who added to the first article a precept
of chastity, and relaxed the eleventh, which
enjoins abstinence at all times from flesh,
permitting them, when they travelled, to
eat boiled flesh. Their rule was again
mitigated by the Popes Eugenius IV. and
Pius II. , Hence the order is divided into
two branches, viz. the Carmelites of the
ancient observance, called the moderate or
mitigated, and those of the strict observance,
who are the barefooted Carmelites ; a re
form set on foot, in 1540, by St. Theresa, a

CAEPOCEATIANS
riun of the convent of Avila, in Castile:
these last are divided into two congrega
tions, that of Spain and that of Italy. -
The Carmelites had a bitter controversy
with the Jesuits in the seventeenth century
as to their origin. ¦ They accused Papebrock,
a learned Jesuit, of erroneously stating that
their order was not derived from Elijah,and
cited him before Innocent III. In Spain
his works were condemned ; and in 1697 all
the controversial writings against the Car
melite theories were proscribed by the
inquisition. The next year, however, the
pope . ordered both parties to leave off
wrangling, and to stop the controversy.—
Helyot, Hist des Ord. Rei., vol. i. 282;.
Broughton, Biblio., vol. i. ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, vol. ii. 123, 193.
CAROLS. Ital. Carola,fromLat.Choreok
Hymns' sung by the people at Christmas in
memory of the song of the angels, which
the shepherds heard at our Lord's birth.
¦ CAEPOCEATIANS. Heretics - who
sprang up in the second century ; followers
of Carpocrates of Cassarea. - ¦ <
-Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 7) says that ac
cording to Irenams, who lived in the second!
century, Carpocrates was the father of tne
heresy- of the Gnostics ; and it is true that
all " the infamous things imputed to the
Gnostics are ascribed likewise to the
Carpocratians. Carpocrates believed in bne
supreme God, but also admitted' iEons as
the offspring of God; the creation of the
world from evil matter by angels ; divine
souls unfortunately enclosed in bodies and
the like. He maintained that our Lord
Jesus was born of Joseph and Mary in the
ordinary course of nature, and was only
superior to other men in fortitude and
greatness of soul ; that his soul only was
received into heaven, his body remaining on
earth ; and accordingly he rejected the
resurrection of the body. He gave his
disciples licence to sin, and moreover in
sisted on the necessity of their sinning,
asserting that a man cannot arrive at per
fection, nor deliver himself from the power
of the princes of this world, as he expressed
it, without having passed through all sorts
of criminal actions : laying it down for a
maxim, that there is no action bad in itself,
but only from the opinion of men. — Clem.
Alex. Strom, iii. ; Euseb. ut sup. ¦
Epiphanius relates of himseR, that in
his youth he accidentally fell into company
with some women of this sect, who1 re
vealed to him the most horrible secrets _ of
the Carpocratians. They were armed with
beauty sufficient to make an impression on
a person of his age; but, by the grace of
God, he says he escaped the snare which
the devil had laid for him. — Epiph. An
xxvi. c. 17, 18.

CARTHUSIANS
Carpocrates left a son, Epiphanes, who at
the age of 17 wrote a book, which contains
the tenets of his father. "It is doubtful
whether he ought to be called a Christian.
Two inscriptions in the true spirit of this
' philosopher,' recently discovered in Cyrene
in Africa, have given rise to a conjecture
that his sect continued till the sixth
century." — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 147.
CARTHUSIANS. A religious order,
founded in the year 1084 by Bruno, a very
learned man, a native of Cologne, and master
of the cathedral school at Rheims. The name
is derived from Chartreuse, a rugged and
mountainous spot near Grenoble, to which
Bruno, unable to bear the conduct of his arch
bishop Manasses, took himself with six com
panions. There is a legend that Bruno took
his resolution of retiring into the desert,
on account of the miraculous utterances of
Raimond Diocre, a canon of Paris, who,
after he was dead,- and laid on the bier, on
three successive days raised himself and said,
" By the just judgment of God I am ac
cused." " By the just judgment of God
I am judged." " By the just judgment of
God I am condemned." But this is "ac
counted a fable even in the Romish Church
itself." — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 44.
Hugo, bishop of Grenoble, assigned to
Bruno a spot of ground where he built his
monastery. ' He adopted the rule of Bene
dict, though with more austere and rigid
observances : and his successors added to
the severity of the rules.
In the year 1170, Pope Alexander III.
took this order under the protection of the
holy see. In 1391, Boniface IX. exempted
them from the jurisdiction of the bishops.
In 1420, Martin V. exempted them from
paying the tenths of the lands belonging to
them ; and Julius IL, in 1508, ordered that
all the houses of the order, in whatever
part of the world they were situated, should
obey the prior of the Grand Chartreuse, and
the general chapter of the order.
It is computed that until the recent sup
pression of religious orders in Italy and
France, there were a hundred and seventy-
two houses of Carthusians, whereof five
were of nuns, who practised the same aus
terities as the monks, four in France, and
one at Bruges. They are divided into six
teen provinces, each of which has two
visitors. ' There have been several canonised
saints of this order ; four cardinals, seventy
archbishops and bishops, and a great many
very learned writers.
There are a few monks still left in the
Grand Chartreuse, but the chief home of
the order is at Cowfold in Sussex, where
buildings on a very large scale have re
cently been erected. The Carthusians
settled in England about the year 1140.

CATACOMBS

135

They had several monasteries here, particu
larly at Witham, in Somersetshire ; Hinton
in the same county; Beauval, in Notting
hamshire ; Kingston-upon -Hull ; Mount
Grace, in Yorkshire ; Eppewort, in Lincoln
shire ; Shene, in Surrey, and- one near
Coventry. In London they had a famous
monastery, since called, from the Carthu
sians who settled there, the Charter House.
(See Dugdale's Monasticon; Mabillon's
Prsef. ad ssecul. vi. pt. ii. of his Acta
Sanct. Ord. Bened. p. 37 ; Helyot's Hist.
des Ord., vol. vii. p. 366.)
CARTULARIES, according to Jerom de
Costa, were papers wherein the contracts,
sales, exchanges, privileges, immunities, and
other acts that belong to churches and
monasteries were collected, the better to
preserve the ancient deeds, by rendering
frequent reference to them less necessary.
CASSOCK. The under- dress of all
orders of the clergy; it resembles a long
coat, with a single upright collar. In the
Church of Rome it varies in colour with the
dignity of the wearer. Priests wear black ;
bishops, purple; cardinals, scarlet; and
popes, white. In the Church of England,
black is worn by all the three orders of the
clergy, but bishops, upon state occasions,
often wear purple coats. A short cassock
(popularly called a bishop's apron) is gene
rally worn by bishops and dignitaries of tbe
Church'. The seventy-fourth English canon
enjoins that beneficed clergymen, &c, shall
not go in public in their doublet and hose,
without coats or cassocks.
CASUIST. One who studies cases of
conscience. CASUISTRY. The doctrine and science
of conscience and its cases, with the rules
and principles of resolving the same ; drawn
partly from natural reason or - equity, ' and
partly from the authority of Scripture, the
canon law, councils, fathers, &c. ' T° casu
istry belongs the decision of all difficulties
arising abqut what a man may lawfully do
or not do ; what is sin or not sin ; what
things a man is obliged to do in order to
discharge' his duty, and what he may let
alone without breach of it. The most cele
brated writers on this subject, of the Church
of England, are Bishop Jeremy Taylor, in
his 'Ductor Dubitantium :' and- Bishop
Sanderson, in his ' Cases of Conscience.'
There was' a professor of casuistry in the
university of Cambridge, but the title of
the professorship has now been altered to
Moral Philosophy.
CASULA. (See Chasible.)
¦ CATACOMBS. : Burying-places near
Eome ; 'not for Christians- only, but for-' all
sorts of people. There is a large vault
about three miles from Rome, used : for
this purpose ; and another ' near Naples,

136

CATAPHEYGES

That at Naples consists of long galleries
cut out of the rock, of three stories, one
above another. These galleries are gene
rally about twenty feet broad, and fifteen
high. Those at Rome are not above three
or four feet broad, and five or six feet high.
They are very long, full of niches, shaped
according to the sizes of bodies, wherein the
bodies were put, not in coffins, but only in
burial clothes. Many inscriptions are still
extant in them; and the same stone some
times bears on one side an inscription to
heathen deities and marks of Christianity
on the other. But see a full account of
these by Canon Venables in the ' Dictionary
of Christian Antiquities ' (Murray, 1883).
CATAPHEYGES. Christian heretics,
who, made their appearance in the second
century ; they had this name given to them
because the chief promoters of this heresy
came out of Phrygia. They followed
Montanus's errors. (See Montanists.)
CATECHISM, from Kari,x«". to teach by
word of mouth, signifies instruction in the
first rudiments of any art or science, com
municated by asking questions and hearing
and correcting the answers. From the earliest
ages of the Church the word has been em
ployed by ecclesiastical writers in a more
restrained sense, to denote instruction in the
principles of the Christian religion by
means of questions and answers.
I. The catechism of children is enjoined
by God (Deut. vi. 7 ; Prov. xxii. 6), and was
always practised by pious men. Josephus
'tells us that the Jews were above all things
careful that their children should be in
structed in the law (Jos. Antiq. lib. iv. c.
,8), and in every town a person was ap
pointed for this purpose. At the age of
13 the children were brought to the house
of God and publicly examined, and this
has been suggested as the object of our
Saviour's offering himself to the doctors in
the temple (Grotius in Luc. ii. 42 ; Words
worth, Greek Test i. 143). The word
kotyix^v is used several times in the New
, Testament (St. Luke i. 4 ; Acts xviii. 25 ;
Rom. ii. 18 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 9 ; Gal. vi. 6, &c),
with the general meaning " insonere ali-
cujus auribus," to sound instruction in one's
ears (Rose's Parkhurst's Lex.) ; and among
the early Christians an officer was appointed
in every church whose business it was to
instruct the catechumens. (See Catechist)
In the Apostolic Constitutions the author
orders that catechumens be instructed in
such subjects as " the order of the world,"
" the Providence of God," " the incarnation
of our Lord," but no mention is made of
the doctrine of the Eucharist, as teaching
on this point came after baptism. St.
Augustine wrote to " brother Deogratias "
a treatise on Catechising, in which he

CATECHISM
speaks of the instruction not only of the
ignorant, but also of those who had re
ceived a liberal education, and of gram
marians and professional speakers (vol. is!
pp. 265, 281-284, Clark's ed. 1873). Series
of catechetical lectures by Clemens Alex-
andrinus, entitled "Paedagogus" (circ. a.d.
210), and Cyril of Jerusalem (347) are extant.
II. In the mediajval Church short explar
nations of the Creed and Lord's Prayer
were used. The Sarum Use orders "si in-
fans sit compatritus et commatritus iis injun-
gatur, ut doceant infantem Pater Noster, pt
Ave Maria et Credo in Deum, vel doceri
faciant" But it appears from the Injunc
tions of 1536 and 1538, that this instruction
was not systematic, and that the greatest
ignorance on even the simplest rudiments of
religious knowledge prevailed. These in
junctions direct curates to recite one sen
tence of the Lord's Prayer or Creed, and
afterwards of the ten commandments,
several times, on each Sunday or holy
day, till the whole was learned : and each
sentence was to be expounded. In the
Prayer Book of 1549, the Catechism, -com
posed by Dean Nowell, was inserted: jn
1552 the preface to the commandments,
and in 1604 the part relating to the
sacraments, said to be by Bishop Overall,
were added. Before 1662 the catechism
was prefixed to the order of confirmation,
and was to be used when that rite was
administered. Canon 59 directs that " Every
parson, vicar, or curate, upon every Sunday
and holy day, before evening prayer, shall,
for haR an hour or more, examine and
instruct the youth and ignorant persons of
his parish, in the ten commandments, the
articles of the belief, and in the Lord's
Prayer ; and shall diligently hear, instruct,
and teach them the catechism set forth in
the Book of Common Prayer. And all
fathers, mothers, masters, and mistresses
shall cause their children, servants, and
apprentices, that have not learned the
catechism, to come to the church at the time
appointed, obediently to hear, and to be
ordered by the minister, until they have
learned the same." Ministers were to be
severely rebuked and punished if they
neglected this duty. The rubric orders the
catechising to take place after the second
lesson at evening prayer.
In the office of public baptism the mini
ster directs the godfathers and godmothers
to " take care that the child be brought to
the bishop, to be confirmed by him, so soon
as he or she can say the Creed, the Lord's
Prayer, and the ten commandments in the
vulgar tongue, and be further instructed in
the Church Catechism set forth for that
purpose."
, III. The Canon with regard to catechising

CATECHIST
has not been generally observed : the
reason for this was that the clergyman pre
ferred preaching. King James refers to this
neglect in a letter to Archbishop Abbot ;
and Evelyn in his diary says that he
catechized his children at home, " those ex
ercises universally ceasing in parish churches
— all devotion being now placed in hearing
sermons of speculative things." Another
reason may be in the universality of
Sunday Schools, where the children learn
what is required. But perhaps the chief
reason is that the difficulty of catechising is
great, and that it requires a special gift,
and great labour and study. "Let not," says
Bishop Jebb, " the common prejudice be en
tertained, that catechizing is a slight and
trifling exercise, to be performed without
pain and preparation on your part. This
would be so, if it were the mere rote-work
asking and answering of the questions in
our Church Catechism : but to open, to
explain, and familiarly to illustrate those
questions, in such a manner, as at once to
reach the understanding and touch the
affections of little children, is a work which
demands no ordinary acquaintance at once
with the whole scheme of Christian the
ology, with the philosophy of the human
mind, and with the yet profounder mys
teries of the human heart, It has, there
fore, been well and truly said, by I recollect
not what writer, that a boy may preach,
but to catechize requires a man." See Her
bert's Country Parson — " The Parson
Catechizing ; " Hooker, v. xviii. 3 ; Bather,
Hints on the Art of Catechizing, Eiving-
ton, 1849; J. J. Blunt's Parish Priest
(Murray), pp. 186, 324; J. H. Blunt's
Annot. P. B. p. 241 seq. ; P. B. with Com
mentary, S. P. C. K., p. 119 ; Evan Daniel's
P. B. p. 359. [H.]
CATECHIST. A person who catechizes.
There were officers of this name in the
ancient Church; but they did not form a
distinct order. Sometimes the bishop or
presbyters catechized, sometimes the cate-
chists were selected from the inferior orders,
as readers, &c. But it was an office of
honour, and was probably assigned to the
most promising man in each church.
Origen was- a catechist before the age that
he could be ordained deacon (Euseb. lib. vi.
c. iii.), and St. Chrysostom performed the
office when a presbyter at Antioch (Horn.
xxi. ad pop. Ant.) Augustine's treatise de
Catechizandis Rudibus, referred to in the
previous article, was addressed to Deogratias
as a deacon: and Cyril's Catecheses were
delivered by him, partly as a deacon, partly
as a presbyter. "The word Catechist,
therefore, implied a function, not a class." —
Bingham, bk. iii. c. 10 ; Diet. Christ. Ant
(Murray), vol. i. p. 318.

CATENA

137

CATECHUMENS. (KaTVxov^voi, from
Karrfxeiv, to teach by word of mouth). A
name given, in the first ages of Christianity,
to the Jews or Gentiles who were being
prepared to receive baptism. They were
instructed by persons appointed for the
purpose (see Catechist) ; and had also a
peculiar place in the church where they
used to be taught, which was called the place
of catechumens, as appears by the canons
of the Council of Neo-Cajsarea. The cate
chumens were not permitted to be present
at the celebration of the Holy Eucharist ;
but, immediately after the Gospel was read,
the deacons cried with a loud voice:
"Withdraw in peace, you catechumens "
(Constit. Apost viii. 5). The service
from the beginning to the Offertory was
called Missa catechumenorum. The cate
chumens, not being baptized, were not to
receive, nor so much as permitted to see,
the consecrated elements of the Eucharist.
Some writers suppose that they received
some of the consecrated bread called eulogise
or panis benedictus ; but Bingham shows
that this idea is founded on a misconstruc
tion of a passage in St. Augustine, and that
the use of eulogise was not known in the
Church, until long after the discipline of
the catechumens had ceased. According to
a canon of the Council of Orange, they were
not permitted to pray with the faithful or
those in full communion. There were
several degrees of favour in the state of the
catechumens : at first they were instructed
privately, or by themselves not being ad
mitted into the church. But with regard
tp the existence of this class there are
doubts : it rests only upon inference drawn
from the fifth Canon of the Council of Neo-
Csesarea : afterwards they were admitted to
hear sermons in the church ; and these last
were called audientes. There was a third sort
of catechumens, called prostrati or genuflec-
tentes, because they were present and con
cerned in some part of the prayers : to which
we may add a fourth degree, which were the
competentes ; for so they were called when
they desired to be baptized. — Bingham, bk.
x., c. i., seq. ; Dean Plumptre in Diet Christ.
Ant, i. p. 317.
CATENA. From a Greek word sig
nifying a chain. By a Catena Patrum is
meant a string or series of passages from
the writings of various fathers, and ar
ranged for the elucidation of some portions
of Scripture, as the Psalms or Gospels.
They seem to have originated in the short
scholia or glosses which it was customary in
MSS. of the Scriptures to introduce in the
margin. These by degrees were expanded,
and passages from the homilies or sermons
of the fathers were added to them. The
most celebrated catena is the Catena Aurea

138

CATHARI

of Thomas Aquinas. It was translated at
Oxford, under the superintendence of Mr.
J. H.Newman, of Oriel College — afterwards
Cardinal Newman. But it appears that
Thomas Aquinas has sometimes falsified
the quotations he has made from the
fathers ; and the whole, as a commentary,
is inferior to the commentaries of modern
theologians. (See Commentaries; Com
mentators.) CATHARI, or CATHAEISTS. The
last surviving sect of Manichseans, or
Gnostics, who gave themselves that name
(from KaSapbs, pure,) to indicate their
superior purity. There were many differ
ent degrees of error among them, but the
following tenets were common to all : That
matter was the source of all evil; that the
Creator of the visible world was not the
same as the Supreme Being; that Christ
had not a real body, nor was properly
speaking born, nor really died ; that the
bodies of men were the production of. the
evil principle, and were incapable of sanctifi
cation and a new life ; and that the sacra
ments were but vain institutions, and
without, power. They rejected and de
spised the Old Testament, but received the
New with reverence. The consequence of
such doctrines was, of course, that they
made it the chief object of their religion to
emancipate themselves from whatever was
material, and to macerate their bodies to
the utmost; and their perfect disciples, in
obedience to this principle, renounced ani
mal food, wine, and marriage. • The state
of their souls, while united with the body,
was in their estimation a wretched incarcera
tion, and they only escaped from some por
tion of the horrors of such a dungeon, by
denying themselves all natural enjoyments,
and escaping from the solicitations of all
the senses.
The Catharists in the twelfth century
spread themselves from Bulgaria over most
of the European provinces, but they met
everywhere with extensive persecution, and
are not heard of after that time. — Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 210 ; ii. 148.
CATHEDRA. In the first place the
word meant the seat or throne of the
bishop in his church. Eusebius calls the
bishop of Jerusalem's seat " Bpovov dirooro-
Xikov," because St. James the apostle first
occupied it : and so Gregory Nazianzen
calls that at Alexandria "Mdpicov dpovov."
(Eus. lib. vii. c. xix. ; Greg. Naz. vol. i. p.
377.) It was also called " Bfjp,a " and " Bpavos
v-fyrjkos," although not allowed to be a
pompous or splendid erection, but only
something higher than the seats . of the
presbyters. One of the charges laid
against Paul of Samosata was that he built
himself a " stately tribunal, as one of the

CATHEDRAL
rulers of the World." (Euseb. vii. c. xxx.)
Episcopal chairs are frequently represented
in early Christian sculpture or mosaics, and
some seats cut in tufa stone in • the
Catacombs are supposed to have been
bishops' seats. The word afterwards was
used in a more extended sense for the
bishops' sees, but more especially for the
churches in which were the bishops' seats
(Cone. Tarracon. a.d. 516), the principles
Cathedra, or Ecclesise CathedraUs. (See
Cathedrals.) — Bing., bk. ii. c. 9 ; Du Cahge.
CATHEDRA PETRI, Festival of. ¦ There
were two days as early as the eighth century,
on which tbe " bishopric of St. Peter " was
commemorated — Jan. 18 and Feb.- 22.
This perhaps, may be due to the idea that
St. Peter was bishop of Antioch before he
was bishop of Eome (see St. Leo's Homilies,
82-84 : also Epist cxix. 2, vol. i. pp. 321
1212, seq., ed. Ballerini). But it would
seem more probable that in the Roman and
Gallican Churches, the festival was observed
on different days, and afterwards these
commemorations were noticed in the same
calendar. The earliest mention of the
festival is in the Bucherian calendar, where
it is fixed as on viii. Cal. Mart. It is not
mentioned in the Gelasian sacramentary, or
in the Ambrosian liturgy ; but the majority
of calendars and martyrologists notice the
two festivals. — Patrol, lxxii. 181 ; Ixxiv. 877 ;
exxi. 590 ; Mabillon, de Liturgia Gall. lib.
ii. 119.
CATHEDRAL. The chief church in
every diocese is called the Cathedral, from
the word cathedra, a chair, because in it the
bishop has his seat or throne. • The cathe
dral church is the parish church of the
whole diocese (which diocese was commonly
called parochia in ancient times, till the
application of this name to the lesser
branches into which it was divided, caused
it for distinction's sake to be called only by
the name of diocese). It was not called the
cathedral church tiR the tenth century, before
which the term ecclesia matrix, to distinguish
it from the ordinary churches, or ecclesias
dioecesanse, was used. In it the bishop was
formally enthroned, and ordinations held;
and in the Celtic and Saxon times the
manumission of serfs took place before the
altar of the cathedral.
By the 5th canon of the 5th Council of
Carthage it is ordained that every bishop
shall have his residence at his principal or
cathedral church, which he shall not leave,
to betake himself to any other church in
his diocese ; nor continue upon his private
concerns, to the neglect, of his cure, and
hindrance of his frequenting the cathedral
church. — Bingham. '.
The constitution of Archbishop Langton
(1222), of Otto (1237), and of Ottobon

CATHEDRAL
(1268), enjoin attendance of the bishops at
their cathedrals, especially in Advent and
Lent. By the canons of the Church of
England it is enjoined that " in all cathedral
and collegiate churches, the holy communion
shall be administered upon principal feast
days, sometimes , by the bishop (if he be
present) and sometimes by the dean, and
sometimes by a canon or prebendary ; the
principal minister using a decent cope, and
being assisted with the gospeller and epistoler
agreeably, according to the advertisements
published in the seventh year of Queen
Elizabeth. (Canon 24.) (See below.)
"Every dean, master, or warden, or
chief governor of any cathedral or col
legiate church, shall be resident there
fourscore , and ten days, conjunctim or, di
visim, in every year at the least, keeping
good hospitality, and preaching in their
own houses as often as they are bound
by law, statute, ordinance or custom : and
that they shall suffer no stranger to
preach, unless by leave of the archbishop,
bishop, or by either of the universities,
and, no strange doctrine to be published."
(Canons 42, 43, 51.) '
" Prebendaries at large shall not be absent
from their cures above a month in the
year; and residentiaries shall divide the
year among them; and, when their resi
dence is over, shall repair to their benefices."
(Canon 44.)
The passage of the advertisements pub
lished in the seventh year of Queen Eliza
beth, referred to in Canon 24, is as follows :
" Item, in the ministration of the holy
communion - in cathedral and collegiate
churches, the principal minister shall use a
cope, with gospeller and epistoler agreeably ;
and at all other prayers to be said at the
communion table, to use no copes but
surplices.. Item, that the dean and pre
bendaries wear a surplice, with a silk hood,
in the choir ; and when they preach in the
cathedral or collegiate church, to wear a
hood." (See Advertisements.) And at the
end of the service book in the second year
of Edward VI., it is ordered that "in all
cathedral churches, the archdeacons, deans,
and prebendaries, being graduates, may use
in the choir, besides their surplices, such
hoods as pertaineth to their several degrees,
which, they have taken in any university
within this realm."
The office of dean is of comparatively
late date, the first in England having been
the dean of St. Paul's in a.d. 1086. (See
Dean and Chapter; Cathedral Establish
ments.) Churches collegiate and conventual were
always visitable by the bishop of the dio
cese, if no special exemption was made by
the founder thereof. The bishop's right to

CATHEDRAL

139-

visit his cathedral church was frequently
and strenuously opposed in England before
the Reformation, but was generally main
tained. Archbishop Laud held a visitation
(asarchbishop) of St. Paul's Cathedralin 1636,.
but the dean and chapter protested that it
was contrary to all precedent — of course in.
vain ; but the claim has never been repeated
anywhere, and there is no authority for it,,
except of course in the two metropolitan
dioceses. (See Phillimore, 206.)
CATHEDRAL ESTABLISHMENTS.
Cathedrals are divided into "Old" and
" New," but - the new comprise those of
various dates and constitutions. The old
are those which existed as cathedrals, with
deans and prebendaries, before the confisca
tion of the monasteries, the churches of
which, in some cases, were also cathedrals
or the seats of bishops, and were refounded
as such under Henry VIII. Even the great
churches of Canterbury, Durham, Ely, and
Winchester were so, and accordingly rank
as New cathedrals together with Rochester,.
Norwich, Carlisle and Worcester, which
eight are called the Conventual Cathedrals,
being only refounded by Henry VIII., but
bishoprics long before. Those of the old
foundation are York, London, Lincoln, Lich
field, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, Chichester,
Hereford, Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph, St.
David's (which was once an archbishopric — ¦
of Menevia, and the bishops used to sign
" Menevensis "). These alone have pre
bendal stalls, though now robbed of their
provender by the Act of 1840, and " great
chapters" as distinguished from the residen--
tiary or smaR chapters. The other cathedrals
have only 24 " honorary canons " besides the
residentiaries. Five sees were altogether
founded by Henry VIII., viz. Chester, Peter
borough, Gloucester, Bristol, and Oxford,,
besides Westminster for a very short time,
having had only one bishop, Thirlby. What
may be called the very new cathedrals, all
of this reign, are Ripon and Manchester,
which were converted from collegiate
churches like Westminster and Windsor
into cathedrals, the former in 1836, the latter
in 1848; St. Alban's, founded in 1877
under an Act of 1875 ; and Truro under an
Act of 1876 .; Liverpool in 1880 ; Newcastle,
1882;. Southwell, 1884, which was an old,
collegiate church before, but destroyed as
such in 1840 ; and Wakefield not yet : the
last four under an Act for them of 1878.
And in 1884 was passed an Act for sepa
rating Gloucester and Bristol again, which
were united in 1840, whenever sufficient
funds are raised. None since 1840 have any
dean and chapter, but have honorary canons ;
and as no adequate chapter endowments
could be provided for less than £100,000
each, and nobody knows what they are

140

CATHEDRAL

wanted for, they are likely to remain so,
except that there is no reason why the re
spective rectors should not be called deans.
Most of the old cathedrals have a dean,
sub-dean, chancellor (of the church, not of
the diocese, q.v.), treasurer, precentor ; who
are generally, but not always, canons resi
dentiary. At York sometimes neither
.chancellor, sub-dean, nor precentor are
residentiaries, and there is no treasurer.
Sometimes also there is a succentor. In
some of them, the minor canons, or vicars
choral, clerical and lay, are a separate
corporation. In the new cathedrals the
' precentor is generally a minor canon. Towns
where cathedrals are have a right to be
called cities, Lord Coke said ; but that right
has been assumed to have been inadvertently
taken away by the Municipal Reform Act,
1837, so as now to require a warrant or
letters patent from the Crown. But if it
really was taken away by the Act of
Parliament naming the corporations (not
the towns) by other titles, it is not easy to
see how letters patent can override it, and
therefore of what use they are.
Cathedrals or their chapters are governed
by statutes of their own, like colleges, which
their visitors, i.e. the bishops, used to vary
from time to time with the consent of the
whole corporation. (See Cathedral Com
missions.) The new cathedrals of Henry
VIII. had statutes given by him, but it
was doubtful if they were duly made, and
by 1 Eliz. c. 22, power was given to her
personally to make statutes through royal
commissioners : which it seems were made
by them in 1572, but never ratified by her ;
and by 6 Anne, c. 21, it was enacted that
in all cathedrals founded by Henry VIII.
such statutes as have been usually received
and practised since the Restoration, and
which the deans and canons have been used
to swear to should be valid. In some cases
statutes have been varied by special Acts
of Parliament, in matters considered to
be beyond the power of a visitor, with
the concurrence of the chapter. In Lich
field completely new statutes have been
often made by the bishop with the assent
of the chapter. Alterations in details not
inconsistent with the general law have been
frequently made in modern times by the
bishops and the chapter together ; and much
larger ones in old times, even to the extent
of annexing canonries to offices, and sus
pending them altogether to apply the
proceeds to repairs or other purposes : which
is all impossible since the Act of 3 & 4
Vict. c. 106.
By some means or other, bishops have
been gradually ousted of their jurisdiction
¦over and in their cathedrals more than in
all the other churches in their diocese. In

CATHEDRAL
old times we always read of the great
works in cathedrals, including rebuilding,
being done by the bishops. Now at last
it has come to be held that not even the
bishop's licence or faculty is required for
any cathedral alteration (in the Exeter
reredos case, Philpotts v. Boyd, 7 P. 0. 435),
and consequently that he has no power to
interfere, except by visitation ; and then only
if the alteration made is absolutely illegal in
itself, such as setting up a crucifix or some
thing of that kind, for which the chapter
may be prosecuted. It is by no means clear
that he could prevent them from pulling
down half the cathedral, if they could
show that they left enough for performing
divine service. Nor has he any means
of enforcing a right to preach, except on
days which happen to be assigned to him
(if any) by the statutes; or to use the
church for ordinations or any other diocesan
purpose. Probably all this has arisen from
the very fact that his jurisdiction was so
much a matter of course in pld times that it
was thought unnecessary to express it in
cathedral statutes. (See Cathedral Com
missions.) By the Cathedral Acts Amendment Act,
1873, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners may
accept plans for re-endowing any "sus
pended " canonry or founding new ones and
annexing thereto any special clerical or edu
cational duties, and making the tenure
depend on their performance. One such
re-endowment has taken place in St. Paul's
for the diocesan inspector of church schools.
[G.] CATHEDEAL ARCHITECTURE. The
normal plan of an English cathedral is in
the form of a Latin cross; a cross, that
is, whose transverse arms are less than the
lower limb, and the upper smaller still. In
a general architectural description its parts
are sufficiently distinguished as nave, choir,
and transept, with their aisles, western
towers, and central tower ; but in more
minute description, especially where ritual
arrangements are concerned,-these terms are
not always sufficiently precise, and we shall
hardly arrive at the more exact nomencla
ture without tracing the changes in a
cathedral church from the Norman period
to our own.
In a Norman cathedral, the east end, or
architectural choir, usually terminated in
an apse, (see Apse,) which was surrounded
by the continuation of the choir aisles, often
forming a path for processions round the
back of the altar, which was called thepro-
cessionary. The bishop's throne was placed
behind the altar, and the altar itself in the
chord of the apse ; and westward of this
was a considerable space, unoccupied bi
ordinary cases, which was called the pres-

CATHEDEAL
bytery. The choir, or place in which the
daily service was performed, was partly
under the central tower, with one or two or
three bays of the nave in addition, as it is
still at Westminster and some others.
In the transepts and aisles, and also in
the crypt, which generally extended be
neath the whole eastern limb of the church,
were numerous altars, and little chapels
were often thrown out, of an apsidal form,
for other altars. One chapel especially was
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, and called
the Lady Chapel. Its place was not constant,
but generally it was a lower extension
eastwards from the choir. The most notable
exception is at Ely, where it is north of the
choir ; and it once was at Peterborough.
Subsequent churches were of course
subject to many variations, but they gene
rally followed much this course. First, the
apse was taken down, and the eastern arm
of the cross was extended considerably, so
as to enlarge the presbytery, or part in
which the altar stood, and to add a retro-
choir in place of the old processionary be
hind it; and this change was generally
connected in prospect, and often at once,
with entirely carrying the working or ritual
choir eastward of the great tower, or, in
other words, reconciling the ritual with the
architectural arrangement. After this yet
another addition was made to the east end,
which so became often nearly equal to the
nave in length ; and the Lady Chapel was
built beyond the presbytery and retrochoir.
In the course of these arrangements the
several screens, the rood screen and the
altar screen, had to be removed. The
rood screen was placed under the eastern
arch of the tower, which may be called
its proper place wherever the church has
received its usual additions. This screen
was often a wide structure and became
almost universally used as an organ loft;
and though the organ intercepts the view
from the west end of the church, it is
now agreed, after trying various other
places, that is the most effective place for
the organ. The altar screen first became
necessary at the enlarging of the space be
hind the altar : it formed the separation of
the presbyteiy from the retrochoir. In
some instances this arrangement has been
disturbed in modern times, but always
with bad effect, and the old one has been
now restored everywhere.
The modifications of these plans and
arrangements are various, but oftener on
the side of excess than of defect. The
great transept is never omitted (Manchester
can hardly be called an exception, since it
has only lately been made a cathedral) ;
but a second transept to the east of the
tower was often added, as at Canterbury,

CATHEDEAL

1411

York, Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, Worcester,
Hereford, Exeter (low ones), Southwell,
and Beverley, the most complete church in
plan in the kingdom, having both a great
transept with double aisles and a smaller
one with eastern aisles, and proper space
between them, which Salisbury wants so
much. At Durham the second transept is at
the east end of the church, which it crosses
in the form of a T. Sometimes there was a
western transept, treated in the same way as
at Ely and Peterborough ; and . at Durham,
Ely, and Lincoln is another considerable
addition, called the Galilee, which at Durham
is large enough for a separate church ; at
Ely it is a large western porch, and at Lincoln
a smaller porch west of the south transept.
At Canterbury the whole arrangement at
the east is very remarkable, the crown
of Archbishop Becket taking the usual place
of the Lady chapel. The shrines of reputed
saints, and chantry monuments inserted in
different portions of the fabric, with little-
respect for its general effect, are constant
additions to the plan ; but it would be end
less to enumerate particular cases.
The cathedrals in Ireland were always1
very small. That of Armagh, the largest,
it is supposed, of ancient date, and originally
built by St. Patrick, was without transepts,
which were added many ages after. The
most interesting relics of very ancient cathe
drals in Ireland are at Tuam and Clonfert.
The two Dublin cathedrals were restored'
a little before the Irish Church was dis
established and robbed ; St. Patrick's at
the sole cost of the then Mr. Guinness, the
celebrated brewer, and Christ Church by
Mr. Roe, an equally eminent distiller. St.
Patrick's is only as large as some of the
largest English parish churches, and Christ
Church about half the size. The Scotch
cathedrals were also very small compared
with ours, but some of them of much finer
architecture than any in Ireland, which'
seems to have been very poor in architecture
always. Glasgow has been well restored,
and contains some fine features, but is spoilt
by the shortness of its transepts. St. Giles's
so-called cathedral at Edinburgh, though no
bishop sits there, which had become divided
into several churches (all Presbyterian), has
been restored to its proper condition. A
new cathedral, called St. Mary's, for the
episcopal church and bishop of Edinburgh,
was founded by two ladies named Paterson,
and was one of Sir Gilbert Scott's last
works. For the dimensions of all these we
must refer to the list at the end of Sir
Edmund Beckett's book on Building, and
for other matters to Church Architecture
farther on.
Nearly all the English cathedrals have
been more or less restored in recent times :

142

CATHEDEAL

a few, and specially Lichfield, twice over,
in consequence of the badness of the first
restoration by Wyatt. In some of them
important parts have been entirely rebuilt,
generally as copies or supposed copies of
the original work of some Gothic period,
where it was distinguishable. The most
notable case of adopting a later style
instead of the earlier, which remained in a
.semi-ruinous state, is at Canterbury, where
the Norman N.W. tower was pulled down,
in the time of many people now living, and
rebuilt as a copy of the Perpendicular S.W.
one. The steeple of Chichester, which fell
in 1862, was rebuilt almost exactly as it
was before, only with the tower rather
higher, including the peculiar shape or plan,
which is not square, but wider from E. to
W. than from N. to S. The tower of St.
Alban's is also two feet wider from E. to W.
The tower of Bath Abbey is, much more
oblong the other way, which makes it look
mean and narrow in all the long or N. and S.
views of the church, while the smaller sides
of Chichester are the full width of the
cathedral as usual. In other words, Chi
chester and St. Alban's are widened, but
Bath narrowed, into the oblong form. The
only cathedrals and minsters that now
have western towers besides a central one,
however low, are York, Lincoln, Durham,
Canterbury, Westminster, St. Paul's, Wells,
Lichfield, Beverley, Southwell, Peterborough
(one), and the one great mid- western tower of
Ely, which Hereford once had. The central
towers of Beverley and Westminster only just
aise above the roofs. The two Exeter Norman
towers are at the ends of the transepts, and
are therein unique, and they were originally
towers of a very wide west front, of the
nature of that of Wells, where alone the
towers stand outside the aisle, and yet not
far enough; for they appear to pinch the
west parts of the aisles into only, just
enough width for doorways. Several of the
greatest abbeys also had west towers beyond
the aisles, as Bury and St. Alban's, but all
of them vanished long ago : indeed nothing
iremains of that great church of Bury, once
the largest in the kingdom except old St.
Paul's, which was much longer both ways
than Wren's, who did not appreciate the
:great English characteristic of length, and
had the highest spire in the world besides.
¦Coventry cathedral, with .three larger spires
than Lichfield, was destroyed by Thomas
•Cromwell, who destroyed far more churches
than Oliver. ¦ The nave of Bristol had been
•destroyed, and vanished entirely, but the
;site was rescued by the efforts of Canon
Norris, and a new nave built quite recently.
It is of no great length, and it will be much
better to raise the present low and dilapi-
• dated central tower, than to build the ugly

CATHEDEAL
west ones designed by the late Mr. Street.
St. David's and Llandaff have also been
restored from a condition almost worse than
destruction. And St. Alban's has been
saved from imminent ruin all over. First
the great central tower was on the' point of
falling like that of Chichester, and one of
the piers had to be almost entirely rebuilt
and another was nearly as bad. Then the
western 100 feet of the south clearstory,,
which had long been leaning above 2 feet
outwards,- showed signs of falling, and had
to be pumped upright by hydraulic pressure,
and in a great measure rebuilt outside.
Then : the west front, which had been
patched up several times, and finally with
brick walls, increased its cracks and other
symptoms of going. Four bays of the north
aisle had been so badly rebuilt, that the
wallwas pushed over after a little under
cutting. And neither they nor the corre
sponding bays of the south wall' had any
windows. All the roof was rotten, and
therefore rebuilt of the original high pitch.
Five pillars of the nave, and those the five
youngest, of the Decorated- period, were
cracking all over, and had to be almost
rebuilt. All traces of the original' west
front, including the faces of the three
porches, had so completely vanished that
any pretence of " restoring " it must have
been mere invention, and indeed impossible
without building towers also, for which the
original front was at any rate designed.
Consequently Sir Edmund Beckett, who
had undertaken the work of restoration by
himself in 1880, designed an entirely new
front of the style to which most of the
windows of the church belonged, except
those of the clearstory, restoring as much of
the porches as was possible, exactly like the
original ones, and building turrets at the
angles instead of towers. Every window
in the nave aisles has been rebuilt, wholly
or nearly, and eight new ones added in the
previously dark bays, and all the buttresses
are either new or restored, and a great
deal of the walls ; and the aisles re-roofed.
That cathedral is unique in its materials,
being built originally of large fiat Roman
bricks of the adjacent Verulamium, even
to the pillars, which are plastered with
Norman plaster, except those which were
replaced try Early English and Decorated
ones. Some of that work remains outside
mixed with flint work, in which much of the
restoration has been done again. Moreover,
nearly the whole church inside is, and
always was, plastered, except the decorative
parts : which is a decisive rebuke to archi
tects who go about destroying the plaster
in smaller.churches, and leaving them like
a wall in a field, and worse than any
cottage back kitchen. External plaster

CATHEDEAL
is a different thing, and never looks well or
lasts long. The Roman bricks and great
thickness of cement (all renewed) give a
peculiar and pleasing colour to the great
Norman tower of that unique cathedral.
The transepts are in equal need of restora
tion, which is begun.
The two greatest restorations yet com
pleted, measuring by cost, are of Worcester
and Chester cathedrals. The latter, was
decayed many inches deep all over, so that
the stones mostly looked more like boulders
than square-faced and moulded ashlar, and
every bit of ornamental work had gone.
The tower of Worcester was as bad, or worse,
for all the ornamental features had been
deliberately cut off, and a good deal of the
upper part was only brick plastered. It is
now one of the finest Decorated towers in
the kingdom — perhaps second only to Lin
coln — which was done at the cost of the
late Lord Dudley. Almost the whole ex
ternal face of the cathedral has been
restored, and some very bad modern east
and west windows replaced with Early
English and Decorated ones ; and the inside
made more gorgeous with marble and gilding
than that of any other cathedral, from being
.about the shabbiest both inside and outside.
The taking down of the tower of Peter
borough in 1883 to prevent its faRing, like
several' others from original bad Norman
building, ought to be recorded, though a
grand opportunity of restoring it like the
much higher original Norman was missed
because a majority of the chapter, against
the dean and the architect, and a majority
-of ,3 to 1 of the subscription committee,
persisted in rebuilding an exact copy of the
.accidental mongrel of Norman and Decorated
which had grown up from constructional
defects, and the committee were weak enough
to abdicate their power to an external arbi
trator who sided with the chapter. It must
not be forgotten too that first the choir and
then the nave of our largest cathedral,
York, were burnt down within eleven years,
the last in 1840, and had to be rebuilt at
¦enormous cost, the vaulting being of wood.
The Canterbury choir roof was set on fire
by plumbers, but as there was a stone vault
underneath it only burnt itself. The west
front of Lichfield had been hacked to pieces
-and rebuilt of stucco by Wyatt, the fashion
able architect of a century ago, and the de
vastator of every cathedral he was allowed
to touch, and has lately been restored again
to stone at great expense, and his internal
devastations also replaced with mostly very
good work. His ruination of Salisbury is
beyond restoration, and Scott's attempts at
it were less successful, both internal and
-external, than in most of the numerous
¦cathedrals and churches which he restored,

CATHEDEAL

143

during the 30 years before 1878, when he
died. He was much more successful in
restoring than in building, for he had the
radical defect of no eye for proportions,
especially on a large scale, as some of his
works show lamentably.
While we are writing there is a call for
£80,000 to restore the national abbey church
of Westminster, which is said to have be
come even dangerous. There are also some
very ominous looking cracks in the grandest
of all towers, Lincoln. The architectural
peculiarities of all the cathedrals are ex
hibited in so many books that we need not
lengthen this article by describing them.
(See Nave.) [G.]
CATHEDRAL COMMISSIONS. This
subject has acquired sufficient importance of
late for a separate article. What was called
the Church Commission of 1835 and several
years early in this reign, and produced the
great Cathedral Reform Act of 1840, 3 & 4
Vict. c. 113, really became a commission for
diverting to parochial purposes as much of
cathedral, and afterwards episcopal revenues,
as the commission thought fit. And un
doubtedly there was much truth in Sydney's
remark, that the author of it all, Bishop
Blomfield of London, had become " the
Church of England here upon earth." Lord
Russell, who was himself one of those com
missioners, said, long afterwards, that he
thought they had done too much, but that
it was all Bishop Blomfield's doing.
What they and the Act did was sub
stantially this. They intended at first, and
the bill was so brought in, to abolish all the
canqnries and prebendaries in England and
Wales, after the deaths of the existing
holders, except four canons residentiary in
each cathedral and collegiate church, and
two or three more in a few special cases,
and abolishing all in the collegiate churches
except Westminster, Windsor, Manchester,
and Ripon; of which the two last were , to
be made cathedrals with the usual establish
ment. During its progress through Parlia
ment abolition was altered into what was
called " suspension " of the endowments of
all those prebends, and. the bishops were
authorised to appoint twenty-four " honorary
canons " in all the " new cathedrals," (which
had only residentiaries before,) with stalls
therein, but no other rights. But the Act
reserved to those in the old cathedrals all
their rights except to any endowment,
which means the right of voting for whatever
has to be done by the "greater chapter"
and not by the residentiaries alone, which
differs in different cathedrals. Nor was that
all the confiscation effected. There were
generally separate endowments of each
canonry, besides an aliquot proportion of
the corpus of the capitular estates, of which

144

CATHEDEAL

the dean usually had two shares and each
canon one. The commission chose to take
away all the separate endowments, including
all their separate patronage, and that of every
diocesan official, and all share of the general
ones too which would leave a dean more
than £2000 a year (except two of them),
and the canons £1000, and the bishops
took all that patronage for themselves. But
when they came to "level upwards" by
redistribution they only levelled deans up
to £1000 a year — after taking away all
their separate property too — and canons to
£500. 'Ihe otherwise poor deanery of Lich
field had been endowed by a special Act
with a living a few miles off, and even that
was afterwards taken away and given to the
Crown by another special Act; and the
Dean of Wells was deprived by a Crown
lawsuit of another in that city, because
its gross income was above £500 a year,
though the net income was below it. And
yet further still, when an attempt was
made at a late stage of the bill to rescue the
trifling amount of £20 a year as payment to
the "rifled canons" for their expenses of
institution and coming to preach and attend
chapters, it was resisted by the author of all
this " holy innovation," as he called it, and
defeated. Their dealing with the episcopal
estates does not belong to this article. All
the estates and funds thus obtained were to
be and have been ever since administered
by the then-established Ecclesiastical Com
mission for parochial purposes, and of course
have been enormously beneficial in that
way. Some years after these reforms had begun
to operate on new deans and canons, the
gross inadequacy of the smaller deaneries
lor the duties and the houses of the deans
had induced the Ecclesiastical Commission
to raise one of them to the sum below
which none were to be reduced by Bishop
Blomfield's commission, except by taking
their separate estates ; and another with
one of the largest houses was all but raised
too when the chairman of the Ecclesiastical
Commission objected to it, and an opinion
was given by the Attorney-General that
they had no power to do it, and so the
improvement of the poor deaneries was
stopped. If he was right, the powet Ought
to have been got at once ; and now that
deans are prohibited from holding any
extra-mural living, by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 94,
s. 19, and there is a tendency to require
such residence both of deans and canons
as will allow them to hold no other
preferment, it is evident that either the
poor ones must be augmented or the chapters
will be filled with a lower class of men, or
accidental rich ones, if such are to be found,
whether fit or not.

CATHEDRAL
The next commission was in 1852, "to
inquire into the state of the cathedrals and
collegiate churches . . . with a view to
rendering the same more efficient " (we omit
a heap of superfluous words), " with a vie\v
to the suggestion of such measures as may
make them available in aid of the erection
of new sees, or of other arrangements for the
discharge of episcopal duties;" which last
words have been utterly disregarded in
founding all the subsequent new sees, with
an absolute prohibition of applying any of
the Ecclesiastical Commission funds in aid
of them, even to secure bishops' residences.
It is important now to contrast the class of
commissioners then and always previously
appointed, with those whom it has become
the fashion to appoint in later times to
revise the Church of England, its courts
and its cathedrals. They were the two
archbishops, the Bishop of London and
"S. Oxon," the then Dean of Arches, Sir John
Patteson, and Sir W. P. Wood, Christopher
Wordsworth, afterwards bishop, Dr. Hook,
then perhaps the most distinguished of
parochial clergymen, though not yet a dean,
J. Jackson, afterwards bishop of London,
and M. Villiers, afterwards bishop, and
William Selwyn, Canon of Ely and Mar
garet Professor of Divinity at Cambridge,
who had the chief hand in saving the
canonries in 1840 from entire destruction.
They sat for two years and made several
reports, which fill about 900 pages of blue
books closely printed with cathedral statutes
and statistics. Their most important state
ments and recommendations were as follows.
They describe the early history and state of
the cathedrals, saying particularly that the
bishop when present had an assigned' part
in the services, that he presided over the
whole body, and made regulations with their
advice. " In the conventual cathedrals (of
Henry VIII.) it is declared that the dean
and prebendaries shall be incorporated and
united with the bishop for all future time ;
and in the new ones the chapter is declared
to consist of the bishop, dean and pre
bendaries ; and there is no definition of the
bishop's rights, except as visitor." _ Also,
that the archdeacons had a place in the
choir and a voice in chapter (which has long
been silent unless they happen to be canons) ;
that the cathedral was the parish church of
the diocese ; that the chapter was the bishop's
council of advice in all weightier causes
(which is quite contrary to the modern idea
that they have as little to do with each
other as possible). "We have shown iri
our first report that the connection between
the bishop and the cathedral has been very
much impaired by a variety of causes.
They were advised that both in the old and
new cathedrals no power remains either in

CATHEDRAL
the king or the visitor to make new statutes,
though, it existed originally and was often
used. The latest commission report how
ever shows that the contrary view of the, law
has always been acted on in at least one
cathedral, Lichfield, where many successive
bishops, up to the present time, have made
new statutes with the assent of the chapter ;
and the same was done at York and London
_ old times though not lately. And as
the Crown or the visitor generally can —
or could till lately — alter statutes of eccle
siastical and eleemosynary corporations
with their consent, it seems odd that the
power should have been lost in the cathe
drals, except by some legislative blundering.
Their main recommendation, which in fact
superseded all the, others, was that a new
cathedral commission should be appointed
by Act of Parliament for ten years, con
sisting of the archbishop and two bishops of
each province, one dean and three other
persons to be nominated by the Crown,
being members of the Church of England,
and that each chapter be required to prepare
a draft of new or amended statutes to be
approved by their visitor, and then laid
before the commission for revision; or in
default, that the commission should make
them ; and that after the expiration of that
commission further alterations might be
made from time to time by the chapters
with the approval of their visitor, and the
archbishop and the Crown : which all seems
very reasonable. The only one of their
recommendations in detail that need be
noticed is that they advised exactly the
contrary of the course that has been taken
about new bishoprics. They say, " Inasmuch
as the Ecclesiastical Commission have al
ready (and will have more) a large surplus
from the episcopal estates, and it was under
stood when their fusion with the ' common
fund ' was enacted, that the obligation to pro
vide for the endowment of additional sees from
the surplus of the episcopal fund was not
thereby diminished, the Crown should be
authorised by an Act like 31 Hen. VIII.
c. 9, to divide dioceses, and that the requisite
funds should be provided partly by local
contributions or out of episcopal property in
the hands of the commission : " which was not
only disregarded but absolutely prohibited
by a clause introduced into all the new
bishopric Acts, it is believed, by some of
the bishops themselves, with the idea of
making the scheme popular. One of their
recommendations, and only one, was adopted
by the Bishops' ^Resignation Act, 1869, viz.
to enable coadjutor bishops to be appointed
to assist disabled ones, with the right of
succession. But infirm bishops have always
hitherto resigned on a pension instead of
accepting coadjutors.

CATHEDEAL

145

Nothing else came of that commission,
notwithstanding the unusual experience and
ability of its members, and the completeness
of their investigations. Indeed their work
seems to have been utterly forgotten, if
ever known, by the Prime Minister of 1879,
for he thought fit to issue a new royal
commission to do exactly the same work
over again without the least reference to it ;
and they chose to do a great deal more
besides. So far from their being authorised
to propose new statutes, they were to report
whether in their opinion such power should
be given to some authority by legislation,
and if so, to what. It is worth while
to contrast both the names of the com
missioners of 1852 and the future ones
proposed by them, with those of 1879.
The former consisted of both archbishops
and' two principal bishops, and three subse
quent ones, three great judges, and two very
distinguished ecclesiastics, and for the future
a dean and three other nominees of the
Crown : the latter, of only one archbishop
(who died and was not replaced) and one
bishop, one Chief Justice, who soon resigned,
and one Queen's Counsel of no ecclesiastical
experience who also died ; the dean and one
canon for each cathedral to be operated on,
excluding the bishop even where he was
also metropolitan ; Lord Cranbrook, Mr.
Beresford Hope, and Mr. Charles Dalrymple ;
to whom the next Prime Minister added
Lord Blachford, and Sir Walter James, which
two last he also put on the Ecclesiastical
Courts Commission.
They at once set to work, without the least
authority, to invent new statutes for every
cathedral, and therewith advised that an Act
should be passed to establish a committee of
the Privy Council " to approve, and if they see
fit amend them . . . and that they should then
have the force of law." Such a bill was ac
cordingly brought in by one of the members
of the commission and passed the House of
Lords twice, but got no farther. Though
they seem to have consulted not a single
bishop, where there is a dean, about the
statutes of his own cathedral, which in old
times he always had a hand in making, they
published some correspondence with several,
and also from several of tho deans on the
vexata qusestio of the relations between
them and the bishops ; which the 1854 com
mission said had somehow got completely
altered, and the bishops made to understand
that they had no rights in their cathedrals
but to sit in the throne ruling nothing, and
to visit them every three or four years, which
practically means nothing. The most striking
thing on that point is the amazing difference
between the proposed position of the bishop in
the only cathedral where he sat as dean on the
commission, because there is none (nor indeed

146

CATHOLIC

any actual chapter, only a contingent one),
and. all the others, where the deans sat and
acted for themselves.
In sundry points their proposed statutes are
contrary to the general law of the realm as
well as to the several old cathedral statutes.
But we cannot afford more space to what
are mere proposals. [G.]
CATHOLIC, (icaff Skov.) Universal or
general. " The Church," says St. Cyril, " is
called catholic, because it is throughout the
world, from one end of the earth to the
other; and because it teaches universally
and completely all the truths which ought
to come to men's knowledge, concerning
things both visible and invisible, heavenly
and earthly ; and because it subjugates, in
order to godliness, every class of men,
governors and governed, learned and un
learned; and because it universally treats
and heals every sort of sins which are com
mitted by soul or body, and possesses in
itself every form of virtue which is named,
both in deeds and words, and every kind
of spiritual gifts." — Catechetical Lectures,
xviii. 23.
The term was first applied to the Chris
tian Church to distinguish it from the
Jewish, the latter being confined to a single
nation, the former being open to all who
should seek admission into it by holy bap
tism. Hence, the Christian Church is
general or universal. The first regularly
organised Christian Church was formed at
Jerusalem. When St. Peter converted
three thousand souls (Acts ii. 41), the new
converts were not formed into a new Church,
but were added to the original society.
When Churches were formed afterwards at
Samaria, Antioch, and other places, these
were not looked upon as entirely separate
bodies, but as branches of the one holy
Catholic or Apostolic Church. St. Paul
says (1 Cor. xii. 13), "By one Spirit toe
are all baptized into one body ; " and (Eph.
iv. 4), " There is one body and one Spirit."
A Catholic Church means a branch of this
one great society, as the Church of England
is said to be a Catholic Church ; the Catho
lic Church includes all the Churches in the
world under their legitimate bishops.
When in after-times teachers began to
form separate societies, they frequently
called them by their own name. Thus the
Arians were named from Arius, the Mace
donians from Macedonius; and, in later
times, Calvinists from Calvin, and
Wesley ans from Wesley. But the true
churchmen, refusing to be designated by
the name of any human leader, called
themselves Catholics, i.e. members, not of
any peculiar society, but of the Universal
Church. And the term thus used not only
distinguished the Church from the world,

CELESTINES
but the true Church from heretical and
schismatical parties. Hence, in ecclesi
astical history, the word catholic means the
same as orthodox, aod a catholic Christian
denotes an orthodox Christian.
At some times a portion or section of
Christians have called themselves or have
been called " Catholics," as with regard to
those who receive the decrees of the Council
of Trent. But though Tridentines- or
Romanists may be called members of the
Catholic Church, to call them exclusively
"Catholics," would be to call all others
" heretics." The word is also used as applied to faith
and to religion (Athan. Creed), and in later
times in a much restricted sense, as dis
tinguishing a church from an oratory, a
parish church from a monastic church. —
Cone. Trull., Can. lix. ; Du Cange ; cf. Epi-
phan. Hser. lix. 1.
CATHOLIC EPISTLES. The Epistles
of St. James, St. Peter, St. Jude, and St.
John are called Catholic Epistles, either
because they were not written to any par
ticular person, or Church, but to Christians
in general, or to Christians of several coun
tries : or because, whatever doubts may at <
first have been entertained respecting some
of them, they were all acknowledged by
the. Catholic or Universal Church, at the
time this appellation was attached to them,
which we find to have been common in the
fourth century.
CAUTEL_ MISS_. The shortened
final rubrics which in 1552 superseded
those which had been placed at the end of
the Holy Communion office in 1549. The
orders for " unleavened bread," the reception
of the bread in the mouth, and not in the
hand. &c, were omitted.
CEALCHYTHE (or CALCHU-
THEUSE), Councils of: held somewhere
in Mercia — probably at Chelsea (Chelchett).
Their objects were, at different times, to
increase the amity between England and
Rome; and to make grants to different
Churches. — Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 444,
478, &c.
CAVEAT. A caveat is a caution entered
in the spiritual court (now the probate
and divorce court) to stop probates,,
administrations, licences, &c, from being
granted without the knowledge of the party
that enters the caveat.
CELESTINES. A religious order of
Christians, which derives its name from its
founder, Pietro de Morone, afterwards
Celestin V., a hermit, who followed the
rules of St. Benedict, who founded the order
in 1254, and got the institution confirmed
by Pope Urban VIII. in 1264, and" by
Gregory X. in 1273, at the second general-
Council of Lyons : this order soon multiplied

CELIBACY
in Italy, and was brought into France in
1300, by Philip the Fair, who gave them
two monasteries, one in the forest of Orleans,
at a place called Ambert, and the other in
the forest of Compiegne, in Mount Chartres.
Charles, dauphin and regent of France, in
1352, while King John, his father, was
prisoner in England, sent for six of these
monks of Mount Chartres, to establish them
at Paris, at a place called Barrez, in which
they were confirmed by King John, and
where there was, till the Revolution, a
monastery of that order. The Celestines
were called hermits of St. Damian before
their institutor became pope. Their first
monastery was at Monte Majella, in the
kingdom of Naples.
CELIBACY. The state of unmarried
persons : a word used chiefly in speaking of
tbe single life of the Romish clergy, or the
obligation they are under to abstain from
marriage. At the time of the Eeformation, scarcely
any point was more canvassed than the
right of the clergy to marry. The celibacy
of the clergy was justly considered as a
principal cause of irregular and dissolute
living; and the wisest of the Reformers
were exceedingly anxious to abolish a prac
tice, which had been injurious to the
interests of religion, by its tendency to
corrupt the morals of those who ought to
be examples of virtue to the rest of man
kind. The marriage of priests was so far
from being forbidden by the Mosaic institu
tion, that the priesthood was confined to
the descendants of one family, and con
sequently there was not only a permission,
but an obligation upon the Jewish priests
to marry. -. Hence we conclude that there is
no natural inconsistency, or even unsuitable-
ness, between the married state and the
duties of the ministers of religion. Not a
single text in the New Testament can be
interpreted into a prohibition against the
marriage of the clergy under the gospel
dispensation; but, on the contrary, there
are many passages from which we may
infer that they are allowed the same liberty
upon this subject as other men enjoy. One
of the twelve apostles, namely, St. Peter,
was certainly a married man (Matt. viii.
14) : and it is supposed that several of the
others were also married. Philip, one of
the seven deacons, was also a married man
(Acts xxi. 9); and if our Lord did not
require celibacy in the first preachers of the
gospel, it cannot be thought indispensable
in their successors. St. Paul says, " Let
•every man have his own wife " (1 Cor. vii.
2) ; and the writer of the Epistle to the
Hebrews, that marriage is honourable in all
.(xiii. 4), without excepting those who are
employed in the public offices of religion.

CELIBACY

147

St. Paul expressly says, that "a bishop
must be the husband of one wife " (1 Tim.
iii. 2); and he gives the same direction
concerning elders, priests, and deacons.
When Aquila travelled about to preach the
gospel, he was not only married, but his
wife Priscilla accompanied him (Acts xviii.
2); and St. Paul insists that he might have
claimed the privilege " of carrying about a
sister or wife (1 Cor. ix. 5), as other
apostles did." Though he says to the un
married, " It is good for thee to abide even
as I " (1 Cor. vii.), yet the " forbidding to
marry " (1 Tim. iv. 3) is mentioned as a
character of the apostasy of the latter times.
That the ministers of the gospel were al
lowed to marry for several centuries after
the days of the apostles appears certain.
Polycarp (Ep. ad Philip, n. 11) mentions
Valens, presbyter of Philippi, who was a
married man, and there are now extant two
letters of Tertullian, a presbyter of the
second century, addressed to his wife.
Novatus was a married presbyter of Carthage
as we learn from Cyprian (Ep. 49, al. 52,
ad Cornell), who was, in the opinion of some
historians, himself a married man (Pagi
Grit, in Baron, ad an. 248); and so was
Caacilius, the presbyter who converted him,
and Numidicus, another presbyter of Car
thage ; and many other instances might be
given. In the Council of Nice, a.d. 325, a
motion was made, that a law might pass to
oblige the clergy, if married, to abstain from
all conjugal society, a rule which had been
akeady enjoined by the Council of Elvira in
305 ; but it was strenuously opposed by
Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian bishop, who,
although himself unmarried, pleaded that
marriage was honourable, and that so heavy
a burden as abstaining from it ought not to
be laid upon the clergy. Upon which the
motion was laid aside, and every man left to
his liberty, as before. (Socrat. lib. i. c. 11 ;
Sozom. lib. i. c. 23.) All that Valesius, after
Bellarmine, has to say against this is, that
he suspects the truth of the thing, and begs
leave to dissent from the historian. (Vales,
not. in Socrat. as above.) There seems, how
ever, no question but that the Council of
Nice decreed in favour of the married clergy.
(Du Pin, Biblio. vol. ii. p. 253, ed. Anglic. ;
Soames' Mosheim, i. 390.) The same thing
is evident from other councils of the same
age; as the Councils of Gangra, Ancyra,
Neocaesarea, E liberis, and Trullo. We have
also a letter from Hilary of Poitiers, written
to his daughter when he was in exile ; and
from what can be collected concerning her
age, it seems probable that she was born
when he was a bishop. At the same time
it must be owned, that many things are
said in praise of a single life in the writings
of the ancient fathers; and the law of
l 2

148

CELEBEANT

celibacy had been by some proposed, before
or about the beginning of tbe fourth century.
In the Eastern Church the rule which
still exists was established, that men who
were married before ordination might con
tinue to live with their wives (Socrat. lib. v.
c. 22), though afterwards a difference was
made between bishops and presbyters the
wives of the former being ordered to retire
to a convent. (Cone. Trullo, cc. 13, 48.)
In the West more stringent rules were made
at an early period. At the Council of Elvira
(a.d. 305) the idea of living "as brother-
and-sister"had been put forward, but Siricius,
who, according to Dufresnoy, died in the
year 399, [397, Baronius,] was the first pope
who forbade the marriage of the clergy, and
several councils, more especially the eighth
and ninth of Toledo, 653 and 659, renewed
the prohibition : but the celibacy of the
clergy seems not to have been completely
established till the papacy of Gregory VII.,
at the end of the eleventh century, and even
at that time it was loudly complained of by
many writers. The history of the foUowing
centuries abundantly proves the bad. effects
of this abuse of Church power. The old
English and Welsh records show that the
clergy were married as late as the eleventh
century. The rule of celibacy, which was
but indifferently kept, was abolished in
England in 1549.— Hume, Ed. VI. c. 1 ;
Bingham, Ant. bk. iv. c. v. ; Liber Landa-
vensis, passim. The original of this is at
Owston, Doncaster, — the property of Davies
Cooke, Esq. ; it was originally the property
of Llandaff cathedral. — Diet. Christ. Ant.
(Murray), vol. i. 323.
CELEBEANT. The priest who cele
brates (or administers) the Holy Communion.
For dress of celebrants see Vestments; for
his position at the holy table see North
Side. CELLA, or CELLA MEMOEIAL. A
small memorial chapel built near or over a
tomb, where the friends of the deceased
would meet together and partake of a feast
in his honour. (See Diet. Christ. Ant. 327.)
CELLITES. A certain religious order
of Popish Christians, which has houses in
Antwerp, Louvain, Mechlin, Cologne, and
in other towns in Germany and the Ne
therlands, whose founder was one Mexius,
a Eoman, mentioned in the history of
Italy, where they are also called Mexians. —
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 285.
CEMETEEY. noiprjTTipiov, from Koipda, to
sleep, means originally a place to sleep in, and
hence by Christians, who regard death only as
a kind of sleep, from which men are to awake
at the general resurrection ; it is used to
designate a place of burial. The first Chris
tian sepulchres were crypts or catacombs
Arcse Sepulturarum (see Catacombs). Ter-

CENSURES
tul. ad Scapul. c. 3) ; but there is abundant
evidence that there were open-air cemeteries
before the end of the third century. The
custom of burying in churches was not
practised for the first 300 years of the
Christian era ; and severe laws were passed
against burying even in cities. All corpses
had to be interred without the walls.
(Chrys. Horn. 67, t. v. p. 989 ; Chrys. de
Martyr, t. v. p. 972.) The first step to
wards the practice of burying in churches,
was the transferring of the relics of mar
tyrs thither: next, sovereigns and princes
were allowed burial in the porch: in the
sixth century churchyards came into use.
By degrees the practice prevailed from the
ninth to the thirteenth century, encouraged
first by special grants from popes, and by
connivance, though contrary to the express
laws of the Church. (See Bingham, bk.
xxiii. c. 1.) The word cemetery in early
Christian documents appears frequently to
include the buildings, memorial chapels,
oratories, &c, which were erected in a
graveyard. Sometimes, but more rarely, it
denotes the grave itself. (See article on
"Cemetery" in Dictionary of Christian
Antiquities, by Canon Venables, aud the
references there given. See Burial; Con-
'ifjG'FCbtl.OTI, I
CENOBITES. (See Coenobites.)
CENOTAPH. (Kcvordqjiov, from ncvbs
and rdtbos, an empty tomb.) A memorial of
a deceased person, not erected over his
body. So far as churches may be con
sidered memorials of the saints whose
name they bear, they are analogous either
to monuments, when the bodies of the
saints there repose (as, .for instance, St.
Alban's, and the ancient church at Peran-
sabulo), or to cenotaphs, when, as is far
more generally the case, the saint is buried
far off. A great part of the monuments
which disfigure Westminster Abbey and
St. Paul's are cenotaphs.
CENSER. (See Thurible.)
CENSURES ECCLESIASTICAL. The
penalties by which, for some remarkable
misbehaviour, Christians are deprived of
the communion of the Church, or clergy
men are prohibited from executing the sacer
dotal office. These censures are, excom
munication, suspension, and formerly inter
dict. The censures on clergymen were the
more severe, for laymen could not of course
be affected by suspension, degradation, or re
duction to lay communion. — Bingham, bk.
xvii. c. 1, &c.
The canonists define an ecclesiastical
censure to be a spiritual punishment, in
flicted by some ecclesiastical judge, where
by he deprives a person baptized of the use
of some spiritual things, which conduce,
not only to his present welfare in the

CENTENARIUS
Church, but likewise to his future and
eternal salvation.
Whatever may have been the case in for
mer times, ecclesiastical censures of laymen
pro salute animse can hardly be said legaRy
to exist now in consequence of sundry acts
of parliament, except that they may still be
monished by the ecclesiastical courts against
interfering in any unlawful way in ecclesiasti
cal matters, as, for instance, performing divine
service and preaching in a church, except
reading the lessons and saying or singing
the psalms, as a lay defendant was by the
Court of Arches in Johnson v. Freind,
6 Jur., N.S., 280, for reading the burial ser
vice in a churchyard — of course before the
Burials Act of 1880. (See Burial.) And
disobedience may still be " signified " as con
tempt, which means imprisonment. Any
one making alterations in a church without
& faculty may be monished to restore it to its
former condition. That was pronounced a
serious ecclesiastical offence in Sieveking v.
Kingsford, 36 L. J., N.S. And some church
wardens were signified and imprisoned for
contempt, even by an archdeacon's court a
few years ago. The ecclesiastical censures
on clergymen are suspension, deprivation,
and degradation, or deposition from orders,
excommunication being extinct. Nor has
degradation been inflicted for a long time. [G.j
CENTENARIUS. An officer in a mona
stery who presided over 100 monks, as the
decasius preside&over 10. — Bingham, bk. vii.
c. 3.
CENTURIES, MAGDEBURG. A cele
brated and extraordinary ecclesiastical his
tory, projected by Matthias Flacius, and
prosecuted by him, in conjunction with
several others, many of them divines of
Magdeburg. Their names were Nicolaus
Gallus, Johannes Wigandus, and Matthias
Judex, all ministers of Madgeburg, as
sisted by Caspar Nidpruckius, an Imperial
Counsellor, Johannes Baptista Heincelius,
an Augustinian, Basil Faber, and others.
The centuriators thus describe the process
employed in the composition of their work.
Five directors were appointed to manage
the whole design; and ten paid agents
supplied the necessary labour. Seven of
these were weR-informed students, who
were employed in making collections from
the various pieces set before them. Two
others, more advanced in years, and of
greater learning and judgment, arranged
the matter thus collected, submitted it to
the directors, and, if it were approved, em
ployed it in the composition of the work.
As fast as the various chapters were com
posed, they were laid before certain in
spectors, selected from the directors, who
carefully examined what had been done,
and made the necessary alterations ; and,

CEREMONY

149

finally, a regular amanuensis made a fair
copy of the whole.
At length, in the year 1560 (though
probably printed in 1559), appeared the
first volume of their laborious undertaking.
It was printed, at Basle. But the city in
which the first part of it was composed has
given it a distinctive title; and the first
great Protestant work on Church history
has been always commonly 'known as the
Magdeburg Centuries. Thirteen volumes
folio were produced between 1560 and 1574,
each containing the history of a century.
The exact title of the work is Historise
Ecclesiasticse per aliquot studiosos et pios
viros in Urbe Magdeburgicd Centuriss xiii.
It was, in every point of view, an extra
ordinary production. Though the first
modern attempt to illustrate the history of
the Church, it was written upon a scale
which has scarcely been exceeded. It
brought to light a large quantity of un
published materials; and cast the whole
subject into a fixed and regular form.
One of its most remarkable features is the
elaborate classification. This was strictly
original, and, with all its inconveniences,
undoubtedly tended to introduce scientific
arrangement and minute accuracy into
the study of Church history. Each cen
tury is treated separately, in sixteen head?
or chapters. The first of these gives a
general view of the history of the century ;
then follow, 2. The extent and propaga
tion of the Church. 3. Persecution and
tranquillity of the Church. 4. Doctrine.
5. Heresies. 6. Rites and Ceremonies.
7. Government. 8. Schisms. 9. Coun
cils. 10. Lives of Bishops and Doctors.
11. Heretics. 12. Martyrs. 13. Miracles.
14. Condition of the Jews. 15. Other re
ligions not Christian. 16. Political con
dition of the world. — Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, ii. 521, and note.
Mr. Dowling (Introduction to the Critical
Study of Ecclesiastical History) observes,
that this peculiarity of form rendered the
work of the centuriators rather a collection
of separate treatises, than a compact and
connected history ; while, their object being
to support a certain form of polemical
theology, their relations are often twisted
to suit their particular views.
CERDONIANS. Heretics of the se
cond century, followers of Cerdo. The
heresy consisted chiefly in laying down the
existence of two contrary principles ; in
rejecting the law, and the prophets as
ministers of a bad God ; in ascribing, not
a true body, but only the phantasm of a
body, to our blessed Lord, and in denying
the resurrection. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim,
i. 143. CEREMONY. This word is of Latin

150

CEEEMONY

origin, though some of the best critics in
antiquity are divided in their opinions, in
determining 'the original from which it is
derived. Joseph Scaliger 'proves by ana
logy, that as sanctimonia comes from
sanctus, so does ceremonia from the old
Latin word cerus, which .signifies sacred or
holy. The Christian writers have adopted
the word to signify external rites and customs
in the worship of God ; which, though they
are not of the essence of religion, yet contri
bute much to good order and uniformity in
the Church.
I. From the very earliest ages -of the
Church certain ceremonies were observed in
divine worship. Indeed, as St. Augustine
said, "No religion can exist without some
ceremonies." But these were kept within
proper and reverent limits ; and when cer
tain persons wanted to introduce some ex
travagances into the service, St. Chrysostom
spoke strongly against them. (Horn, i., de
verb. Esai, t. iii. p. 836 ; also Horn. xix. p.
195.) St. Augustine, also, complained of
the number of ceremonies that were creeping
in (Ep. Iv. ad Jan. c. xix. 35); but he
urged tolerance with regard to different
customs held in different places (Ep.
Ixxxvi.). Gregory the Great urged Augustine
of Canterbury not to be troubled about the
difference between the Eoman and Gallican
customs, but " select what things are pious,
religious and right." (Respons. ad qusest. ;
Bede, lib. i. c. 27.). In the middle ages
ceremonial and superstitious observances
. increased to such an extent that " the
burden of them was intolerable." — P. B.
Introd., and " Of Ceremonies."
II. At the Reformation the tendency of
the extreme Reformers, and afterwards of
the Puritan, was to do away with forms and
ceremonies altogether. The Reformation,
says Sherlock, gave such a turn to weak
heads, that had not weight enough to poise
themselves between the extremes of Popery
and fanaticism, that everything older than
yesterday was looked upon to be Popish and
anti-Christian. At the same time, Calvin, in
his book of the True Way of Reformation,
said he would not contend about ceremonies,
not only those which are for decency, but
those that are symbolical. Bucer thought
the use of the sign of the cross after baptism
neither indecent nor unprofitable. Grotius
says, that the " nature of ceremonies is to be
taken from the doctrine which goes along
with them; if the doctrine be good, the
rites are so, or at least are tolerable ; if it
be false, then they are troublesome and not
to be borne." Moreover, Bucer, in a letter
to Johannes a Lasco, says, " If you will not
admit such liberty and use of vesture to
this pure and holy Church, because they
lave no commandment of the "Lord, nor no

CEREMONY
example for it, I do not see how you can
grant to any Church, that it may celebrate
the Lord's Supper in the morning, &c. ; lor
we have received for these things no com
mandment of the Lord, nor any example;
yea, rather, the Lord gave a contrary
example." The rule of the English Reformers is thus
given by Bishop Jewel : — We still keep and
esteem, not only those ceremonies which we
are sure were delivered us from the Apostles,
but some others too besides, which we
thought might be suffered without hurt to
the Church of God ; for that we had a desire
that all things in the holy congregation
might, as St. Paul commandeth, be done
with comeliness and in good order. But as
for all those things which we saw were
either very superstitious, or utterly un
profitable, or noisome, or mockeries, or
contrary to the Holy Scriptures, or else
unseemly for sober and discreet people,
whereof there be infinite numbers nowa
days, where the Roman religion is used;
these, I say, we have utterly refused with
out all manner of exception, because we
would not have the right worshipping of
God to be defiled any longer with such
follies. HI. The portion of the Introduction to
the P. B. entitled "Of Ceremonies, why
some be abolished and some retained," was
written by Archbishop Cranmer — at least it
is included in some early lists of his works.
It was placed, first, at the end of the P. B;,
and was followed by certain directions with
regard to vestures, kneeling, crossing, holding
up of hands, &c, which last "may be used
or left as every man's devotion serveth."
These were omitted in 1552, and the part
" Of Ceremonies " was placed as at present.
It has been said that the only ceremonies
enjoined there, and in the book of 1662,
properly speaking, are the cross in baptism,
and the wedding-ring. But it must be
remembered that Ceremonia in its classical
sense was a general term for worship.
Johnson's definition, outward rite, external
form in religion, is fuRy supported hy his
references, and especially Hooker, who,
throughout his book, applies it to all that is
external in worship. It seems that rite and
ceremony are thus to be distinguished. A
rite is an act of religious worship, whether
including ceremonies or not. A ceremony
is any particular of religious worship (in
cluded in a rite), which prescribes action,
position, or even the assumption of any
particular vesture. The latter sense is
plainly recognised by Hooker. (Eccl. Pol.
bk. iv. sect. 1; bk. v. sect. 29.) The
Preface to the Book of Common Prayer
speaks first of common prayer, viz. the
offices intended for the common and

CERINTHIANS
periodical use of all at stated times; next,
the administration of the sacraments ; next,
of other rites and ceremonies ; i.e. the occa
sional services, whether public or private,
and all the methods of administration
which these involve. Now among cere
monies, the prescribed procession in the
Marriage and Burial Services, the standing
at certam parts of the service, the bowing
at the name of Jesus, as prescribed by the
18th canon, ought to be included. It may
be observed, that the 18th canon expressly
calls the bowing just mentioned, a ceremony,
as also in the 30th canon, the sign of the
cross. — See Hooker, bk. iii. sect. 11, and bk.
v. sect. 6 ; Stephens's Com. P. B., vol. i. p.
139. But there is a legal distinction
between ceremonies prescribed as parts of
the service, such as the use of the cross in
baptism, the ring in marriage, the lay
ing on of hands in ordination, and so
forth, and mere extraneous ceremonies,
which may be called authorised but not
enforceable. [H.]
CERINTHIANS. Ancient heretics, the
followers of Cerinthus. This man, who
was a Jew by birth, and lived probably
near the end of the first century at Ephesus,
having been educated at Alexandria, at
tempted to form a new and singular system
of doctrine and discipline, by combining the
doctrines of Christ with the opinions and
errors of the Jews and Gnostics. He
taught that the Creator of the world, whom
he considered also as the Sovereign and
Lawgiver of the Jews, was a Being endued
with the greatest virtues, and derived his
birth from the Supreme God ; that this
Being gradually degenerated from his for
mer virtue ; that, in consequence of this, the
Supreme Being determined to destroy his
empire, and, for that purpose, sent upon
earth one of the ever happy and glorious
aeons whose name was Christ; that this
Christ chose for his habitation the person
of Jesus, into whom he entered in the form
of a dove, whilst Jesus was receiving bap
tism of John in the waters of Jordan ; that
Jesus, after this union with Christ, opposed
the God of the Jews, at whose instigation
he was seized and crucified by the Hebrew
chiefs ; that when Jesus was taken captive,
Christ ascended on high, and the man Jesus
alone was subjected to the pain of an
ignominious death. — Stubbs' Mosheim, i.
90 ; Irenaeus, adv. Hser. iii. 3.
CESSION. This is where the incum
bent of any living is promoted to some
other benefice incompatible with his tenure
of the former ; the church in that case is
void by cession. When a parson possessed
of ecclesiastical benefices of any kind, except
unendowed canonries, is promoted to a
bishopric in England, they become void by

CHALCEDON

151

cession, and the right of presentation be
longs to the Crown.
CHAD, or CEADDA. Saint and
Bishop; a man of singular piety and holi
ness of life, commemorated in the English
Calendar on March 2nd. Educated partly
at Lindisfarne under St. Aidan, partly in an
Irish Monastery, he was afterwards conse
crated Bishop of York (a.d. 664), but
resigned that see in favour of Wilfred
(a.d. 669). He was made bishop of the
Mercians in 670, and fixed his see at Lich
field and lived at Ecclesball, which re
mained the bishop's seat till 1868. He died
in 672.
CHALCEDON, COUNCILS OF. It would
not be necessary to refer to that council,
which was called the " Synod of the Oak,"
from the name of a 'suburb of the city, were
it not that by it St. John Chrysostom was
deposed 403 a.d. Through the machinations
of Theophilus, who assumed, as patriarch
of Alexandria, supremacy over all Eastern
bishops, a council of thirty-six bishops, of
whom all but seven were Egyptian, was
assembled with the intention of getting rid
of St. Chrysostom, who had offended them
by his strictness of life, and denunciation
of prevalent vices. The charges brought
against St. Chrysostom were frivolous ; but
still the council pronounced against him,
and the weak emperor Arcadius confirmed
this sentence. With the people Chryso
stom was most popular, and riots ensued in
consequence of the attitude of the emperor
and bishops towards him ; nevertheless he
was condemned to exile, which sentence was
afterwards ratified by another "packed"
council at Constantinople. (See Constanti
nople, Councils of. For a full account see
Stephens's Life of St. John Chrysostom,
second edition, pp. 309-339.)
The fourth General Council, was convened
by the emperor Marcian in 451, shortly
after his elevation to the throne. It was
very fully attended, and according to some
accounts 630 bishops were present (Beve-
ridge, ii. 107). But perhaps the 6 and 3
were misplaced in the record, and 360
would represent the number of bishops at
the opening of the council. There were
more, however, afterwards, for 470 sub
scribed to the fifth action, and indeed the
council is spoken of as one of 600 bishops.
(Mansi, vii. 57, .note.)
The chief object was to settle the matter
of the heresy of Eutyches, who maintained
that there was only one nature in Christ,
namely, the Word's, but that an incarnate
nature. (See Eutychians.) At a previous
council, managed by the Eutychians, in
Theodosius II.'s reign, the doctrine of two
natures in the Incarnate Word had been
condemned, and Dioscorus, bishop of

152

CHALD_I

Alexandria, had compelled 'by violence, with
the aid of a band of soldiers, 149 bishops
to sign in favour of the ideas of Eutyches.
This is known as the " Robbers' Assembly,"
as everything was carried by fraud and
violence. But in the Council of Chalcedon
the acts of the Ephesine, or "Robbers'"
council, were rescinded, and Dioscorus was
deposed, and banished. The exposition of
faith in the fifth action of this council was
designed to guard against both Eutychian
and Nestorian errors. (See Nestorians.)
After recognising the Nicene Creed, they
proceed to say: "Following, therefore,
these holy fathers, we unitedly declare,
that one and the same Son, our Lord
Jesus Christ, is to be acknowledged, as
being perfect in His Godhead, and per
fect in His humanity ; truly God, and truly
Man, with a rational soul and body; of
like essence (o/aoovcrior) with the Father, as
to His Godhead ; and of like essence with
us, as to His manhood; in aR things like
unto us, sin excepted; begotten of the
Father, from all eternity, as to His Godhead ;
and of Mary the mother of God (6cot6kov)
in these last days for us and for our salva
tion, as to His manhood, recognised as one
Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten ; ' of two
natures, unconfounded, inseparable; the
distinction of natures not at all done away
by the union ; but rather the peculiarity of
each nature preserved, and combining into
one substance ; not separated or divided
into two persons : but one Son, only-begotten,
God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ, as
the prophets before [taught] concerning
Him : so He, the Lord Jesus, hath taught
us, and the creed of the Fathers hath
transmitted to us." — Stubbs' Soames' Mo
sheim, i. 374 ; Diet Christ. Ant. [H.]
CHALDiEI, or CHALD_ANS. Astro
logers or Magicians, deriving their name
from the prophets of the East, celebrated
for their magical arts. They professed to
foreteR future events, and to discover
secrets by the position and motion of the
stars, and by enchantments. Under the
Eoman emperors many edicts were pub
lished against them as impostors and
introducers of dangerous superstitions, and
they were styled in the Codes, " Malefici et
Mathematici." (Cod. Theod. 9, lib. 16; Cod.
Just- 9, 38; see also Sac. Annal. ii. 32;
Sueton. Tiber. 36 ; Vitell. 14, &c.) Amongst
Christians the practice of these arts was
absolutely forbidden by councils (Cone.
Tolet. 1 ; Cone. Laod. c. 36), and by
those in authority (Constit Apost i. 4 ;
viii. 32). Many of the fathers also wrote
against all kinds of divination as owing
its origin to the evil one, and as the parent
of all sorts of blasphemy and deceit. —
Aug. de Doct Christ, ii. 21, de Civ. Dei, v.

CHALICE
1, &c. ; Tertull. de Idol. 9 ; Origen, Euse
bius, &c. [H.]
CHALDEANS. A modern sect of Chris
tians in the East, in obedience to the see of
Rome. In 1681, the Nestorian metropolitan
of Diarbekir, having quarrelled with his
patriarch, was first consecrated by the pope
patriarch of the Chaldeans. The sect was
as new as the office, and created for it.
Converts to Papacy from the Nestorians
" were dignified with the name of the'
Chaldean Church. It means no more than
Papal Syrians, as we have in other parts
Papal Armenians and Papal Greeks." (See
Nestorians ; Badger's Nestorians and their
Rituals, vol. i. pp. 177, 181; Stubbs'
Mosheim, i. 372.
CHALDEE LANGUAGE. This was a
dialect of the Hebrew, almost identical with
the old Syriac, spoken formerly in Assyria,
and the vernacular language of the Jews
after the Babylonish captivity. The follow
ing parts of the Old Testament are written
in Chaldee : Jer. x., xi. ; Dan. ii. 4 to the
end of chap. vii. ; Ezra iv. 8 to vi. 19, and
vii. 12-17.
CHALDEE PARAPHRASE. (See Tar-
gum.) CHALICE. (Lat. calix.) This word
was formerly (as by Shakspeare) used to
denote any sort of cup, but is now usually
restricted to the cup in which the con
secrated wine for the Eucharist is adminis
tered. The primitive Christians, desirous
of honouring the holy purpose for which it
was used, had it made of the most costly
substances their circumstances would allow
— of glass, crystal, onyx, sardonyx, and gold.
(See on this point Bingham, bk. viii. c. vi.
§ 21.) Afterwards inferior material seems in
certain places to have been used, for in some
provincial councils the use of wood or horn
was prohibited (Cone. Tribur. c. 18 ; Cone.
Calcut c. 10), and by a canon of the Council
of Eheims, in Charles the Great's time, all
churches were obliged to have chalices of
some pure metal. The ancient chalices
were of two kinds : the greater, in which
the wine mingled with water (as was
always the custom in those days) was con
secrated ; and the lesser, called ministeriales,
into which the priest poured a small
quantity, that it might be administered to
the people ; for communion in one kind was
not then invented by the Eomish Church.
It was an ancient rule that there should
not be more than one chalice on the altar, to
which Gregory II. alludes in his epistle to
Boniface, a.d. 731. (Ducange.) SeeCvp;
Communion in one kind ; Mixed Chalice.
The earliest chalice known to be existing
is one found at Gourdon in France, and now
preserved in the Bibliotheque Imperiale to
Paris. It is made of gold ornamented with

CHALONS-SUE-SAONE
thin slices of garnets, and from the date
;and condition of some gold coins found with
it, it is believed to belong to the first quarter
of the sixth century. [H ]
CHALONS-SUR-SAONE, Councils of
(Cabillonensia Concilia), five in number —
the first held in 470, the fifth in 650. The
appointment or deposition of certain bishops,
and the regulation of discipline, were the
objects of these councils.
CHAMFER. The flat slope formed by
cutting away an angle in timber, or ma
sonry. It resembles a splay, but is much
smaller. The chamfer is ihe first approach
to a moulding, though it can hardly itself
be called one. The chamfer plane, in
speaking of mouldings, is used for the
plane at an angle of 45°, or thereabouts,
with the face of the wall, in which some of
the mouldings often, and sometimes all of
them, lie. The resolution of the chamfer into
the square is called a stop-chamfer ; which
"frequently have ornamental terminations,
indicative of the style to which they belong.
CHANCEL. The upper part of the
church, containing the Holy Table, and
the stalls for the clergy. It is so caRed a
Cancellis, from the lattice-work partition
betwixt the choir and the body of the
church, so framed as to separate the one
from tho other, but not to intercept the
sight. By the rubric before the Common
Prayer, it is ordained that "the chancels
shall remain as they have done in times
past," that is to say, distinguished from the
body of the church as they then were,
against which distinction Bucer (at the
time of the Reformation) inveighed vehe
mently, as tending only to magnify the
priesthood; but though the king and the
parliament yielded so far as to allow the
daily service to be read in the body of the
church, if the ordinary thought fit, yet
they would not suffer the chancel to be
taken away or altered. In cathedrals,
college chapels, and some large churches it
is called the _chorif or] choir ; and in many
of the ancient English parish churches it is
inferior in height and width to the nave,
but never was in old times with a central
tower, unless the nave and choir were of
different ages; or even with a bell-gable
between them: a distinction now usually
overlooked. (See Choir.)
The chancel is the freehold of the rector,
even when he is not the incumbent ; and he
is bound to repair it ; but an incumbent is
not bound to repair the rest of the church,
though it is also his freehold. With regard
to seats in the church, the rector impropri
ate is entitled to the chief seat. But fre
quently the old custom of the clergy and
choir only having seats in the chancel is
followed. This however is under the dis-

CHANCELLOE

153

position of the ordinary. With .regard to
the situation of the Lord's Table in the
chancel, see Altar. [H.]
CHANCELLOR. I. In ancient times,
emperors and kings esteemed so highly the
piety of bishops, that they gave them ju
risdiction in particular causes, as in mar
riages, adultery, last wills, &c, which were
determined by them in their consistory
courts. But when many controversies
arose in these and other causes, it was not
consistent with the character of a bishop
to interpose in every litigious matter, nei
ther could he despatch it himself; and
therefore it was necessary for the bishop
to depute. some surbordinate officer, expe
rienced both in the civil and canon law, to
determine those ecclesiastical causes: and
this was the original of diocesan chan
cellors. For, in the first ages of the
Church, the bishops had officers who were
called ecclesiecdici, that is, church lawyers,
who were bred up in the knowledge of
the civil and canon law, and their business
was to assist the bishop in his jurisdiction
throughout the whole diocese. But pro
bably they were not- judges of ecclesias
tical courts, as chancellors are at this day,
but only advised and assisted the bishops
themselves in giving judgment ; for we
read of no chancellors here in all the
Saxon reigns, nor after the Conquest, be
fore the time of Henry II. That king
requiring the attendance of bishops in his
state councils, and other public affairs, it
was thought necessary to substitute chancel
lors in their room, to despatch those causes
which were properfor thebishop'sjurisdiction.
In a few years a chancellor became
such a necessary officer to the bishop,
that he was not to be without him ; for if
he would- have none, the archbishop of
the province might enjoin him to depute
one, and if he refused the archbishop
might appoint one himself; because it is
presumed that a bishop alone cannot
decide so many spiritual causes as arise
within his diocese. The person thus ap
pointed by the bishop has his authority
from the law ; and his jurisdiction is not,
like that of a commissary, limited to a
certain place and certain causes, but ex
tends throughout the whole diocese, and
the appointment is for life. But a good
deal of this jurisdiction has been taken away
by the Clergy Discipline Act of 1840, and
transferred to the Provincial Courts, and
all the testamentary business to the Probate
and Divorce Court in 1857. See Philli-
more's Ecc. Law.
The Act of 37 Hen. VIII. c. 17, recited
that the restriction of the judicial officer of
ecclesiastical courts to clerics was a popish
usurpation, and threw them open to laymen

154

CHANCELLOR

by enacting that married men, being doctors
of law or incorporated in any university,
being duly appointed, may examine all
manner of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. And
this was not considered to limit the offices to
doctors of law, being only declaratory of the
old law ; many have been only M.A's. There
are a few clerical chancellors, but they are
mostly lawyers, and it is evidently desirable
that they should be, as they have to decide on
legal principles, and they are sometimes a
sort of standing counsel in legal matters to
the bishop. The question whether the
bishop himself can sit in his court, any
more than the Queen, seems to depend on
the terms of the appointments, which in a
few dioceses nominally reserve that power,
but generally not ; and even where it is
reserved it is hardly ever exercised. A new
power of sitting with assessors was given to
the bishop by the Clergy Discipline Act of
1840, but that has been very seldom used,
and he can decide nothing without being
subject to appeal to the Provincial Court.
The only directly penal jurisdiction which
seems to remain to the chancellors is that of
suspending, and even depriving for a third
offence, clergymen for trading, under 1 & 2
Vict. c. 106, s. 31 : which is further remark
able because it had been considered or as
sumed that no diocesan chancellor had power
himself to deprive, by Canon 122, though
the provincial judge has. At any rate, Lord
Stowell once called in the Bishop of London
to deprive a clergyman whom he as chan
cellor (not as Dean of Arches) had sentenced
to be deprived. The question is now
obsolete, but if such was not the law before
1603, the convocations then had no power to
make it so. It has been decided that the
Dean of Arches can deprive : indeed he has
often done so. The principal remaining
function of the chancellors is that of deciding
on faculties for altering churches (see
Faculty) and on disputes about pews in
certain cases. The chancellor is also the
bishop's vicar-general and official principal.
It is singular that the chancery court of
York is provincial ; and, since the Public
Worship Act, the Dean of Arches is the official
principal thereof. The chancellor of York is
only judge of the consistory court, which is
diocesan. As a fact, but not of necessity,
he is generally or always vicar-general for
the province also, but has no judicial func
tions as such. (See Vicar-General.) [G.]
II. The chancellor of cathedral churches,
and anciently in some colleges, was a canon,
who had the general care of the literature
of the church ; and of the preaching. He
was the secretary of the chapter, the
librarian, the superintendent of schools con
nected with the church, sometimes of the
greater schools in the diocese; sometimes,

CHANT
as in Paris, had an academical .jurisdiction!
in the university of the place. He also had
the supervision of readers in the choirs, the
regulation of preachers, in the cathedral, and.
in many places the more frequent delivery
of sermons and of theological lectures than
fell to the turn of the other canons.
All these offices were not always com
bined ; but one or more of them always. '
belonged to the chancellor. Every cathe
dral of old foundation in England had
originally a chancellor, who ranked as th*
third of those four dignitaries who took
precedence of all other members of the
chapter, the other three being the dean,
the precentor, and the treasurer. The title
was not so common in France or Italy
where the above-named offices were fre
quently divided among canons with other
official titles. The chancellor of the chunk
(the above-named officer) is not to be
confounded with the chancellor of the
diocese. — Jebb.
CHANT. This word, derived from the
Latin cantus, " a song," applies, in its
most extended sense, to the musical per
formance of all those parts of the liturgy
which, by the rubric, are permitted to be
sung. The chant properly, signifies that
plain tune to which the prayers, the litany,
the versicles, and responses,, and the psalms,
and (where services are not in use) the
canticles, are set, in choirs and places where
they sing.
The early history of the chant is involved
in great obscurity. While we know that
music had a great part in the services of the
Temple, and that our Lord and his disciples
sang hymns — or the " hallel " — and that St.
Paul urged the singing of " psalms and
hymns and spiritual songs" — yet there are
no works extant to tell us the character of
the music : and the chant does not seem
to have been derived from a Hebrew source.
St. Ambrose was the first who founded a
musical school, and he certainly used not
Hebrew but Greek modes (see Ambro&ian
Rite), while St. Gregory, about 200 years
afterwards, merely improved upon St
Ambrose's system, and brought music to a
much greater perfection in the Divine
Services on the same method. (See
Gregorian Tones.)
To this were added in the Western
Churches of the early and middle ages
certain details, until it may be said the
"Cantus" was thus divided: (i.) Cantus
Collectarum — the chant for tbe prayers*
St. Athanasius objected, according to Si.
Augustine, to much inflexion of voice in
the saying the Divine Office, but in later
times considerable inflexion was used, (ii.)
Cantus Prophetarum, or chant for the
Scripture lections, which was also used

CHANT
for the versicles and responses. The in
flexions were (a) the " accentus medius " —
dropping the voice a minor third (as from
Gto'E) at each comma; (j3) the "accen
tus gravis" — dropping a perfect fifth (as
from G to C) at each full stop. There
was also the " accentus acutus " (G, E, G)
and the " accentus moderatus " (G, E, F J),
which last, with the "medius," is commonly
used in the versicles at the present time in
the Church of England, (iii.) Chants for
Psalms. There were three ways of singing
the Psalms, (a) the " Cantus directus," in
which the Psalm is sung through by the
whole choir ; (|3) the" Cantus Antiphonalis,"
in which the choir is divided into two
sides and sing alternately ; (y) the Cantus
Responsarius, in which the precentor and
choir sing alternate verses, (iv.) Chants
for hymns, prefaces, and antiphons. In the
later mediaeval times, when the people were
not supposed to take part, the chant
became very ornate and debased — as many
as twenty notes or more being given to one
syRable. This evil was felt both in Eng
land and abroad, and when our English
services were made congregational again,
and the Prayer Book established in the
vernacular, steps were taken to reform also
the "Cantus."
II. In a letter to Henry VIII. Archbishop
Cranmer, presenting to His Majesty the
English " Processional," or book of services
translated, says " the song that shall be
made thereto should not be full of notes,
not as near as may be a syllable for any note,
so that it may be sung distinctly and
devoutly, as to the Matins and Even
song, Venite, Hymns, Te Deum, &c. . . .
and in tbe Mass, Gloria in Excelsis, Gloria
Patri, &c." Upon this principle the Litany
was published in 1544, simply set to the
old chant — which was subsequently rehar-
monized by Tallis ; and is in use at the
present time. But the most important
work was the "Booke of Common Praier
noted," edited by John Merbecke, and
published in 1549 — the same year with
Edward VI.'s first Prayer Book. In this
for the prayers the " Cantus Collectarum,"
for the versicles and responses the " Cantus
Prophetarum" is used (see above); but
the Scripture lections are to be "sung,
after the manner of distinct reading." To
the Te Deum, the Ambrosian melody is
set ; for the other canticles, the Nicene
Creed, Gloria, &c, simplified forms of
Gregorian melodies are used, and after the
Venite (set to the 8th Gregorian tone 1st
ending) the words occur, '• And so forth with
the rest of the Psalms as they are ap
pointed." By this authorized publication
two points were established ; first, that our
•services did not lose their old choral

CHANTRY

155

character ; and secondly, that they were
made of so plain and ¦ simple a character
that the people generally might participate.
Afterwards a number of different forms
were published by eminent musicians, but
the word " Chant " hardly applies to those
musical arrangements of the] canticles,
hymns, aud of the Nicene Creed, used in
collegiate churches, and technically called
"services," which though originally de
rived from chants, have long found a
distinct feature in the choral service, and
have now been brought to great musical
perfection. III. There are two kinds of chant used
at the present day for the Psalms — the
Gregorian, founded on the old tones, and
the Anglican. This latter is of two kinds,
single and double. The single chant, which
is the most ancient kind, is an air con
sisting of two parts ; the first part ter
minating with the point or colon (:),
which uniformly divides each verse of the
psalms or canticles in the Prayer Book, the
second part terminating with the verse
itself. The double chant is an air con
sisting of four strains, and consequently
extending to two verses. This kind of
chant does not appear to be older than the
time of Charles fl. ; and is peculiar to the
Church of EngW d. (See Music.) [H.]
CHANTER j r CANTOR. (See Pre
centor.) In fLeign churches it is syn
onymous with our lay clerks. The
chanters in Dublin College are certain
officers selected from the foundation
students, whose duty is to officiate as
chapel clerks. They are so called from
formerly constituting the choir of the
chapel. CHANTRY. A chapel, or other sepa
rated place in a church, for the celebration
of masses for the soul of some person de
parted this life. The chantry sometimes in
cluded the tomb of the person by whom it
was founded, as in the splendid examples in
Winchester cathedral. It was sometimes
an entire aisle, as the golden choir at St.
Mary's, Stamford; and sometimes a sepa
rate chapel, as the Beauchamp chapel, St.
Mary's, Warwick, and Henry VII.'s chapel
at Westminster.
In the reign of Henry VIII., when the
belief in purgatory began to decline, it
was thought an unncessary thing to con
tinue the pensions and endowments of
chantry priests; therefore, in the 37 of
Henry VIII. cap. 4, those chantries were
given to the king, who had power at any
time to issue commissions to seize their
endowments, and take them into his pos
session : but this being in the last year of
his reign, there were several of those en
dowments which were not seized by virtue

156

CHAPEL

of any such commissions; therefore, by the
Act 1 Edward VI. cap. 14, those chantries
which were in being five years before
the session of that parliament, and not
in the actual possession of Henry VIII.,
were adjudged to be, and were, vested in
that king. Cranmer endeavoured to ob
tain that the disposal of the chantries, &c,
should be deferred until the king should be
of age — hoping that if they were saved
from the hands of the laity until that time,
Edward might be persuaded to apply the
revenues to the relief of the poor paro
chial clergy; but the archbishop's exer
tions were unsuccessful.
CHAPEL. In former times, when the
kings of France* were engaged in wars,
they always carried St. Martin's cope
(cappa) into the field, which was kept as a
precious relic, in a tent where mass was
said, and thence the place was called
capella, the chapel. There is however
much doubt about this derivation. (See
Diet. Christ. Ant i. 341.) The word was
gradually applied to any consecrated place
of prayer, not being the parish church.
With us in England there are several
sorts of chapels :
1. Royal chapels. (See Chapel Royal.)
2. Domestic chapels, built by noblemen
for private worship in their families. 3.
College chapels, attached to the different
colleges of the universities. 4. Chapels of
ease, built for the ease of parishioners, who
live at too great a distance from the parish
church, by the clergy of which the ser
vices of the chapel are performed. 5. Pa
rochial chapels, which differ from chapels
of ease on account of their having a per
manent minister, or incumbent, though
they are in some degree dependent upon
the mother church. A parochial chapelry,
with all parochial rites independent of the
mother church, as to sacraments, marriages,
burials, repairs, &c, is called a reputed
parish. 6. Free chapels; such as were
founded by kings of England, and made
exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. 7.
Chapels which adjoin to any part of the
¦church; such were formerly built by
persons of consideration as burial-places.
To which may be added chapels of corpo
rations, societies, and eleemosynary founda
tion ; as the mayor's chapel at Bristol,
&c, the chapels of the inns of court,
of hospitals, almshouses and colleges. Some
of these are exempt from episcopal jurisdic
tion ; and school chapels from any right of
Interference by the incumbent of the parish
by 32 & 33 Vict. c. 86, and 34 & 35 Vict.
c. 66. II. The word chapel in foreign countries
frequently means the choir or chancel.
This may possibly be the meaning in-

CHAPEL
tended in the rubric preceding Morning
Prayer, directing the Morning and Even
ing Prayers to be used in the accustomed
place of the church, chapel, or chancel.
It may allude to the college chapels, or'
such collegiate chapels as St. George's at
Windsor, or to the usage of some cathedrals
of having early morning prayer (as at
Gloucester, &c.) in the Lady chapel, or
late evening prayer (as at Durham) in the
Galilee chapel. Henry VII.'s chapel at
Westminster was, at least in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, used for this purpose. In
mediaeval documents the word "capella''
often signifies the furniture required by
a priest for divine service, i.e. vestments,
eucharistic vessels, &c.
CHAPELS, PROPRIETARY. What
are caRed " proprietary chapels " in London,
and a few large towns, are not consecrated,
and are really no more chapels than any
"church school," in which the bishop
licenses a clergyman to perform service
with the consent of the incumbent Of the
parish, for he cannot do so without, how
ever much everybody else may wish it.
That is the true and legal meaning of what
people call the " parochial system." It is
curious that that power of licensing— not
chapels, but clergymen to do duty there-
grew up without any express legal autho
rity ; and it has several times been de
cided that the bishop has an absolute right
to revoke such licences, which do not con
stitute a curacy, and therefore there is no
appeal to the Archbishop against the revoca
tion. A clergyman is guilty of an ecclesi
astical offence and may be punished if he
persists in acting there after the licence is
revoked. The Act of 18 & 19 Vict, c. 86,
does not supersede the necessity for a fence
from the bishop, though it does not mentioh
it. It was decided in MacAUister v. Bishop
of Rochester (L. R. 5 C. P. 200) that the
mere building and consecration of a chapel
does not make it a " chapel of ease" in
which the incumbent has a right, and by
Bishop of Winchester v. Rugg (2 P. C. 223)
the obligation, to perform service, though he
retains the right to prevent any other
clergyman from doing so : nor has he the
patronage by the mere effect of consecra
tion. An incumbent is not compellable to
keep up the service in any certainly uncon
secrated chapel however long it may have
been continued. Very long continuance
may however raise a sufficient presumption
of consecration. The Dissenters' Marriage
Act 6 & 7 W. IV. c. 85, s. 26, contains a kind
of recognition of " chapels duly licensed for
the performance of divine service : " which
is a wrong term, for there is nosuchthing,as
stated above, the licence being personal. [GJ
CHAPEL ROYAL. The chapel royal

CHAPLAIN
is under the government of the dean of the
chapel, and not within the jurisdiction of
any bishop. But the archbishop is the
first chaplain and parochus of the sove
reign. The deanery was an office of ancient
standing in the court, but discontinued in
1572, till King James's accession, then it
was revived in the person of Dr. Montague.
— Heylin's Life of Laud.. Next to the
dean is the subdean, who has the special
care of the chapel service ; a clerk of the
court, with his deputies, a prelate or clergy
man, whose office it is to attend the sove
reign at Divine service, and to wait on her
in her private oratory. There are forty-
eight chaplains in ordinary, who " wait " four
in each month, and preach on Sundays and
hoRdays ; to read Divine service when re
quired on week-days, and to say grace in
the absence of the clerk of the closet. The
other officers are, a confessor of the house
hold, now called chaplain of the household,
who has the pastoral care of the royai
household ; ten priests in ordinary (whose
duties are like those of chaplains, or vicars
in cathedrals); sixteen gentlemen of the
chapel, who with ten choristers now form
the choir ; and other officers. The officiat
ing members of the chapel royal were
formerly much more numerous than now ;
thus there were thirty-two gentlemen of the
chapel in King Edward VI.'s reign, and
twenty-three in King James I.'s. The
priests in ordinary, properly speaking, form
part of the choir. In strictness this estab
lishment is ambulatory, and ought to ac
company the sovereign, of which practice
we have, many proofs in ancient records.
The chapels royal now existing in England
are St. George's, Windsor, and in London
St. James', Whitehall, and the Savoy.
CHAPLAIN. A person authorised to
officiate in the chapels of the queen, or in
the private oratories of noblemen, or col
leges or public institutions. The name
is derived from capella; the priests who
superintend the capella being called Capel
lani. According to a statute of Henry
VIII., the persons vested with a power of
retaining chaplains, together with the num
ber each is allowed to qualify, are as fol
low : " an archbishop, eight ; a duke or
bishop, six ; marquis or earl, five ; viscount,
four; baron, knight of the garter, or lord
chancellor, three; a duchess, marchioness,
countess, baroness, the treasurer or comp
troller of the king's household, clerk of the
closet, the king's secretary, dean of the
chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls,
each of them, two ; chief justice of the
King's Bench, and warden of the Cinque
Ports, each, one." ' In England there are
forty-eight chaplains to the queen, as
above mentioned. Clergymen who offi-

CHAPLAIN

is-;

ciate in the army and navy, in the gaols,
public hospitals, and workhouses, are called
chaplains. Chaplain is also a comprehen
sive name, applied, more rarely in England
than abroad, to the members of cathedrals
and collegiate churches and chapels, who
are responsible for the daily service. In a
few instances it is applied to the superior
members. Thus at Lichfield, there were
five capellani principales, major canons,
whose office it was to serve at the great
altar, rule the choir, &c, (Dugd. Mon. ed.
1830, vi. 1257,) and at Winchester college
the ten fellows are called, in the original
charter, " capellani perpetui ; " in contra
distinction to the capellani conductitii, or
remotivi ; — and the principal duty of these
chaplain-fellows was to officiate in the
chapel. But in general, a chaplain signi
fied a minister of the church of inferior
rank, a substitute for and coadjutor of the
canons in chanting, and in the performance
of the Divine offices. (See Dictionnaire de
droit canonique, par Durand de Maillane,
Lyons, 1787.) They were so called from
serving in the capella or choir, at the
various offices, and in the various side-
chapels, in contradistinction to the capitular
canons, whose peculiar privilege it was to-
serve at the great altar. Under the name
of chaplain, were included minor canons,
vicars choral, and similar officers, who had
a variety of designations abroad, unknown
to us, such as porticuristi, demi-canons,
semi-prebendaries, &c, &c.
The name of chaplain, in its choral sense,
is retained with us only at Christ Church
Oxford, Manchester, and the colleges at the
universities. At the latter, they are fre
quently styled in the old charters, capellani
conductitii or remotivi ; by which is to be
understood, that they were originally, at
least, intended to be mere stipendiaries,
adjuncts to the foundation ; as contrasted
with those who have a permanent, corporate
interest, or an endowment in fee ; like the
prsebendati in the foreign cathedrals, or the
incorporated vicars choral in our own cathe
drals. (See College, Prebendary, and Vicars-
Choral.) The chaplains at Cambridge and
Eton were till lately called conducti, though
originally they were designated, as at
Oxford, capellani conductitii. Before the
Reformation the capellani to be found in
many of the old cathedrals were exclusive
of the vicars choral, and were chanting-
priests. These sometimes formed corpora
tions or colleges. Abroad, the chaplains in
many places discharged both the duties of
chanting priests and vicars choral, or minor
canons ; each having his separate chapel for-
daily mass ; but all being obliged to unite
in discharging the Divine offices, at least-
at matins and vespers in the great choirs.

158

CHAPTEE

CHAPTER (See Bible.) The word is
derived from the Latin caput, bead; and
signifies one of the principal divisions of a
book, and, in reference to the Bible, one
of the larger sections into which its books
are divided. This division, as well as that
consisting of verses, was introduced to fa
cilitate reference, and not to indicate any
natural or accurate division of the subjects
treated in the books.
CHAPTEE. (See Dean and Chapter and
Cathedral.) I. "A chapter of a cathedral
church consists of persons ecclesiastical,
canons and prebendaries, whereof the dean
is chief, all subordinate to the bishop, to
whom they are as assistants in matters re
lating to the Church, for the better ordering
and disposing the things thereof and for con
firmation of such leases of the temporalities
and offices relating to the bishopric, as the
bishop from time to time shall happen to
make. And they are termed by the
canonists capitulum, being a kind of head,
instituted not only to assist the bishop .in
manner aforesaid, but also anciently to rule
and govern the diocese in the time of vaca
tion."— Cod. 56. The old Cambridge Caput,
which had a veto on all University "graces"
or votes, was evidently another form of the
word Chapter or Capitulum.
II. Of these chapters, some are ancient,
some new. In cathedrals of the old founda
tion chapters are of two kinds, the greater
and the lesser. The greater chapter con
sists of all the major canons and prebend
aries, whether residentiary or not ; and their
privileges are now considered to be limited
to the election of a bishop, of proctors in
convocation, and in some cases they vote on
the patronage of the chapter; the lesser
chapter consists of the dean and residentia
ries, who have the management of the chapter
property, and the ordinary government of
the cathedral. This, however, has been the
growth of later ages : as it is certain that all
prebendal members had a voice in matters
which concerned the interests of the cathedral
church. The new chapters are those eight
which were founded or re-modelled by King
Henry VIII. in the places of abbots and
convents, or priors and convents, which
were chapters whilst they stood ; or they are
those which were annexed to the five new
bishoprics founded by King Henry VIII.
The chapter of a ' collegiate church is
more properly called the college : as at West
minster and Windsor, where there is no
episcopal see.
III. There may be a chapter without any
dean ; as the former chapter of the collegiate
church of SouthweR : and grants by or to
them are as effectual as other grants by
dean and chapter. In the cathedral
churches of St. David's and Llandaff, there

CHASUBLE
used to be no dean, but they are now y
on the same footing as other cathedrals. *
The word chapter is occasionally applied
abroad to boards of universities or other con
porations. The assemblies of the knights of the or
ders of chivalry (as of the Garter, Bath, &c.)
are also called chapters.
CHAPTER HOUSE, The part of a
cathedral in which the dean and chapter
meet for business. Until the thirteenth
century, the chapter house was always
rectangular. Early in that century it be
came multagonal, and occasionally round,
and the roof generally supported by a central
shaft, and so continued to the latest date at
which any such building has been erected.
The greatest cost was expended on the de
coration of the chapter house, and there is
little even in the choirs of our cathedrals of
greater beauty than such chapter houses as
Lincoln, Salisbury, Southwell, Wells, West
minster, Worcester, Lichfield, Howden, and
the most beautiful of all, York, which has
no central pillar. Those at Durham and
Canterbury are or were magnificent long
rooms, but Durham was half destroyed in
the last century. That of old St. Paul's, in
London, to judge by the plates in Dugdale's
History of St. Paul's, must have been very
beautiful. It stood in an unique position, in
the centre of a cloister. It is now a house
in the street north of the cathedral. For
the plan of the chapter house, in the arrange
ment of the conventual buildings, see Mono-
stery. Some have imagined that the idea
of the circular or polygonal chapter houses
was derived from the circular baptisteries
abroad. [G.]
CHARGE. This is the address delivered
by a bishop, or archdeacon, at a visitation
of the clergy under his jurisdiction. (See
Visitation ; Archdeacon.)
CHARLES I., MARTYRDOM OP. The
30th of January was appointed a holy day,
in commemoration of this event at the
Eestoration, and a special service was ap
pointed. The observance however was
abolished by Eoyal order in 1859, and
the service removed from the Prayer Book.
(See State Services.)
CARTA CORNUTIANA. (See Comesof
St. Jerome.)
CHARTREUX. (See Carthusians)
CHASUBLE. (Casula.) The dress for
merly worn over the albe by the priest in
the service of the altar, but not generally
now used in the English Church, though it
was prescribed under the title of Vestment,
in the rubric of King Edward VI.'s First
Book, to be worn by the priest or bishop
when celebrating the communion. In the
time of the primitive Church, the Roman
toga was becoming disused, and the pamula

CHERUB
-was taking its place. The pasnula formed a
-perfect circle, with an aperture to admit the
head in- the centre, while it fell down so as
•completely to envelope the person of the
wearer. The casula appears to have been
identical with the pamula and is described
by St. Isidore of Seville, c. 600 a.d. (De
Origin, xix. c. 21), as "a garment furnished
with a hood (vestis cucullata) and is a
•diminutive of " casa, " a cottage, seeing that,
like a little hut, it covers the entire person."
A short paenula was more common, and a
longer for the higher orders ; it was this last
which was used by the clergy, both at first
•as an outdoor garment (Acta Sanct. Augusti.
d. xxvii. torn. vi. " Cassarii Vita ") and after
wards exclusively in their services. The
Romish Church has altered it much by
cutting it away literally, so as to expose the
arms, and leave only a straight piece before
and behind. The Greek Church retains it
In its primitive shape, under the title of qbai-
voKiov, or <bevi>\iov : the old brasses in Eng
land also show the same form, some even
since the Reformation. And many tombs
of bishops in the thirteenth century, and
later, show it in a graceful and flowing form.
(See " Vestiarum Christianum," by Eev.
W. B. Marriott.)
CHEEUB, or (the plural) CHEEUBIM,
a particular order of angels. When God
drove Adam and Eve out of Paradise, " he
placed at the east of the garden of Eden
cherubims, and a flaming sword which
turned every way, to keep the way of the
tree of life." (Gen. iii. 24.) When Moses
was commanded by God to make the ark of
the covenant with the propitiatory, or
mercy-seat, he was (Exod. xxv. 19, 20) to
make one cherub on the one end, and
another cherub on the other end ; but Moses
has left us in the dark as to the form of
these cherubims. The Jews suppose them
to have been in the shape of young men,
with wings ; and the generality of inter
preters, both ancient and modem, suppose
them to have had human shapes. But it is
certain that the prophet Ezekiel (i. 10, and
x. 14) represents them quite otherwise, and
speaks of the face of a cherub as synonymous
with that of an ox or calf; and in the
Revelation ' (iv. 6) they -are called f£a,
beasts. Josephus (Antiq. lib. iii.) says that
they were a kind of winged creatures,
answering to the description of those which
Moses saw about the throne of God, but the
like to which no man had ever seen before.
Grotius, Bochart, and other learned moderns,
deriving the word from charab, which in
the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, signifies to
plough, make no difficulty to suppose that
the cherubim here spoken of resembled an
ox, either in whole or in part. But it is
not necessary to dwell on fanciful ideas

CHILIASTS

159

with regard to. the appearance of the
cherubim, which may be found in Park-
hurst's Lexicon.
It is certainly derogatory to right ideas of
religion, to suppose that these mysterious
symbols were derived from the images of
heathen idolatry, in order to indulge the
prejudices of the Israelites. It is more
consistent and probable to believe that the
corresponding symbols of Egyptians and
Assyrians (the latter so wonderfully illus
trated by the late discoveries at Nineveh)
were derived from patriarchal traditions;
distortions of that pure worship of God
which was derived to the whole world from
Noah. This solution will account for many
of those extraordinary resemblances which
may be traced between heathen and Jewish
customs. By many it has been considered
that the four symbols, applied from very
ancient times to the four evangelists, are
derived from the cherubic figures.
CHERUBIC HYMN. A title sometimes
given to the Tersauctus or Trisagion. (See
Tersanctus.) CHILIASTS, or MILLENARIANS.
(See Millennium.) A school of Christians
who believe that, after the general or last
judgment, the saints shall live a thousand
years upon earth, and enjoy all manner of
innocent satisfaction. It is thought Papias,
bishop of Hierapolis, who lived in the second
century, and was disciple to St. John tho '
evangelist, or, as some others think, to
John the Elder, was the first who main
tained this opinion. The authority of this
bishop, supported by some passages in the
Revelation, brought a great many of the
primitive fathers to embrace his persuasion,
as Irenams, Justin Martyr, aud Tertullian ;
and afterwards Nepos, an Egyptian bishop,
living in the third century, was so far
engaged in this belief, and maintained it
with so much elocution, that Dionysius,
bishop of Alexandria, thought himself
obliged to write against him : upon which
Coracion, one of the principal abettors of
this doctrine, renounced it publicly, which
practice was followed by the generality of
the West. The Millenarians were in like
manner condemned by Pope Damasus, in a
synod held at Rome against the Apolli
narians. (Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 192.) Some
of the modern Millenarians have refined the
notion of Cerinthus, and made the satis
factions rational and angelical, untainted
with anything of sensuality or Epicurism.
As for the time of this thousand years,
those that hold this opinion are not -per
fectly agreed. Mr. Mede makes it to
commence and determine before the general
conflagration ; but Dr. Thomas -Burnet sup
poses that this world will be first destroyed,
and that a new paradisaical earth will be

160

CHIMERE

formed out of the ashes of the old one,
wliere the saints will converse together for a
thousand years, and then be translated to a
higher station.
CHIMERE. The upper robe worn by
a bishop, to which the lawn sleeves are
attached. The name is probably derived
from the Italian zimarra, which is described
as " vesta talare de' sacerdoti et de' chierici."
— Palmer. Hody says that before the Reformation,
and in the reigns of Henry VIII. and
Edward VI., the bishops wore their Doctor
of Divinity scarlet habit with their rochet,
the colour being changed for the black satin
chimere late in the time of Queen Elizabeth.
The chimere seems to resemble the garment
used by bishops during the middle ages,
and called mantelletum ; which was a sort
of cope, with apertures for the arms to
pass through. (See Du Cange's Glossary.)
The scarlet chimere strongly resembles the
scarlet habit worn in congregation, and at
St. Mary's, by doctors at Oxford and Cam
bridge. Some have supposed that our
episcopal dress is in fact merely a doctorial
habit. Perhaps however the origin of both
the chimere, the Oxford habit, and the
Cambridge doctorial cope and gown, and
the episcopal mantelletum, may aR be
derived from the dalmatic or tunicle (see
Dalmatic), which was formerly a charac
teristic part of the dress of bishops and
deacons : from which the chimere differs in
being open in front. The sewing of the
lawn sleeves to the chimere is a modern
innovation. They ought properly to be
fastened to the rochet.
CHOIR, or QUIRE. This word has
two meanings. The first is identical with
chancel (see Chancel), signifying the place
which the ministers of Divine worship oc
cupy, or ought to occupy. The word, ac
cording to Isidore, is derived from chorus
circumstantium, because tbe clergy stood
round the altar.
I. There were three divisions in a church,
the sanctuary, or presbytery, (bema) the
choir, and the nave, but with regard to the
distinction between the sanctuary and choir,
there is considerable difficulty. In an an
cient council it was ordered " Sacerdotes
ante altare communicant, in choro clems,
extra chorum populus" (Cone. Tolet. iv. c.
18.) It seems most probable, however, that
the chief division was between the choir
and nave ; and that there were the cancelli,
or rails of wood. St. Jerome forbade the
Emperor Theodosius to communicate within
the choir, and a similar strictness seems to
have been observed in some, churches for a
considerable period (Theodor. lib. v. c. 15 ;
Soz. lib. vii. c. 25 ; Cone. Trull, c. 69 ; see

CHOIR
also Eus. lib. x. c. 4.) But there were
different customs in different places. In
the third century in Alexandria we read of
men and women standing at the Holy Table
and receiving the Eucharist there ; and in
Fiance lay persons were certainly admitted
into the choir to communicate, though at
other times they were forbidden entrance—
Dionys. ap. Euseb. lib. vii. c. 9 ; Cone. Turon*
ii. c. 4.
At the eastern end of the choir, or chancel,
there was often an apse (conchula bematis),
and this may have given rise to the mention
of three divisions in a church, as above-
(See Apse.)
Custom has in later times usually re
stricted the name of chancel to parish
churches, that of choir to cathedrals, and
such churches or chapels as are collegiate.
In the choirs of cathedrals (see Cathedral),.
which are very large, the congregation also
sometimes assemble ; but the clergy and
other members of the foundation occupy the
seats on each side -(which are called stalls),
according to the immemorial custom of all
Christian countries.— Du Cange's Glossary;
Diet. Christ. Antiq.
H. The second, but more proper sense of
the word, is, a body of men set apart for
the performance of aR the services of the
Church, in the most solemn form. Pro
perly speaking, the whole corporate body of
a cathedral, including capitular and lay
members, forms the choir ; and in this ex
tended sense ancient writers frequently
used the word. Thus the " glorious com
pany of the apostles " is called in Latin
"apostolorum chorus." The choir is used
in some very ancient documents for the-
cathedral chapter. But, in its more re
stricted sense, we are to understand that
body of men and boys who form a part of
the foundation of these places, and whose
special duty it is to perform the service to
music. The choir properly consists of
the precentor, the priest vicars or minor
canons, lay vicars or singing men, and.
boys ; and should have at least six men and
six boys at every week-day service, these
being essential to the due performance of
the chants, services, and anthems. Every
choir is divided into two parts, stationed on
each side of the chancel, in order to sing
alternately the verses of the psalms and
hymns, one side answering the other. (See
Decani; Cantoris.)
In the first Prayer Book of King Edward
VI., the rubric at the beginning of the
morning prayer ordered the priests, " being
in the quire, to begin the Lord's Prayer ;"
so that it was the custom of the minister to
perform Divine service at the upper end of
the chancel near the altar. Against this,
Bucer, by the direction of Calvin, made a

CHOREPISCOPI
great outcry, pretending " it was an anti
christian practice for the priest to say
prayers only in the choir, a place peculiar
to the clergy, and not in the body of the
church among the people, who had as much
right to Divine worship as the clergy."
This occasioned an alteration of the rubric,
when the Common Prayer Book was revised
in the fifth year of King Edward, and it was
ordered, that prayers should be said in such
part of the church " where the people might
best hear." At the accession of Queen
Elizabeth, the ancient practice was restored,
but with a dispensing power left in the
ordinary, of determining it otherwise if
he saw just cause. Convenience prevailed,
so that the prayers were very commonly
read in the body of the church, and in
those parish churches where the service
was read in the chancel, the minister's place
was at the lower end of it. In Griffin
v. Dighton (1864), Lord C. J. Erie decided
that the chancel is the place appointed for
the clergyman, and those who assist him
in Divine service, subject to the jurisdiction
of the ordinary. [H.]
CHOREPISCOPI. (Country bishops,
Xtopewio-KOTroi, Episcopi rurales, called also
villani or vicani episcopi, as opposed to
cathedrales episcopi.) They are mentioned
in the councils of Ancyra, Neo-Csesarea,
Ephesus (a.d. 314), and of Nice, when
fifteen were present.
Some considerable difference of opinion
has existed relative to the true ministerial
order of the chorepiscopi, some contending
that tbey were mere presbyters, among
whom are Morinus and Du Cange, others
that they were a mixed body of presbyters
and bishops, as Bellarmine, and a third class
that they were all invested with the au
thority of the episcopal office. That the
latter opinion, however, is the correct one,
is maintained by Bishop Barlow, Dr. Ham
mond, Beveridge, Cave, and other eminent
divines of the English Church, together with
Bingham, in his " Antiquities of the Christian
Church " (ii. xiv). Their origin seems to
have arisen from a. desire on the part of the
city or diocesan bishops to supply the
churches of the neighbouring country with
more episcopal services than they could
conveniently render. Some of the best
qualified presbyters were therefore conse
crated bishops, and thus empowered to act
in the stead of the principal bishop, though
in strict subordination to his authority.
Hence, we find them at first ordaining
presbyters and deacons under the licence of
the city bishop ; and confirmation was one
of their ordinary duties. This, however,
was afterwards stopped, for in the council of
Antioch it was ordered that they ^re Trpeo-
Sirepov, /*ijte biaxovov ^etporoceii/ roKfidv :

CHOREUT—

1C1

though tbey might make readers, sub-
deacons and the like. (Cone. Antioch. c.
10.) Letters dimissory were also given to
the country clergy by the chorepiscopi, and
they had the privilege of sitting and
voting in synods and councils. The dif
ference between the chorepiscopus and
what was, at a later period, denominated
a suffragan, is scarcely appreciable, both
being limited to the exercise of their powers
within certain boundaries, and enjoying only
a delegated power from the diocesan during
his pleasure.
The chorepiscopi were at first confined
to the Eastern Church. In the Western
Church, and especially in France, they be
gan to be known about the fifth century.
They have never been numerous in Spain
and Italy. In Germany they must have
been frequent in the seventh and eighth
centuries. In the East, the order was
nominally abolished by the Council of Lao
dicea, a.d. 361. But so little respect was
entertained for this decree, that the order
continued until the tenth century. They
were first prohibited in the Western Church
in the ninth century; but, according to
some writers, they continued in France
until the twelfth century, when the arro
gance, insubordination, and injurious con
duct of this class of ecclesiastics became a
subject of general complaint in that country.
They are said to have existed in Ireland
until the thirteenth century. The non-
episcopal functions of the chorepiscopi are
now in great part performed by archdeacons
and rural deans. (See Suffragans.)
CHORISTER. A singer in a choir. As
early as the beginning of the fourth century,
there was an order of singers in the Church,
called cantores or psalmistse, and also moni
tors or suggestors (imojSoXds:), their office
being, first, to lead the congregation, after
wards to sing instead of the congregation.
(Cone. Laod. c. 15, 24; Can. Apost c. 69;
Constit Apost. lib. iii., c. 11, &c.) The for
mer was their usual duty, until mediaeval
times (though this has been denied by more
modern Roman authors) ; and constant re
ferences are made to congregational singing
by Augustine, Ambrose, Chrysostom, &c.
In some churches the choristers or psal
mistse sang the first half of a verse of a
psalm, the people taking up the second half
as a response. (Vales, in Socrat. v. c. 22.)
Choristers or singers needed no ordination
by the bishop, but might be appointed by a
presbyter using this form. " See that thou
believe in thine heart what thou singestwith
thy mouth, and approve in thy works what
thou believest in thy heart." (Cone, Car-
thag. iv. c. 10.) [H.J
CHOREUT_. A sect of heretics, who,
among other errors, persisted in keeping

162

CHRESTUS

the Sabbath as a fast. — Stubbs' Mosheim, i.
316. CHRESTUS. CHRESTIANS. A
mistaken pronunciation of the name of our
Lord, and His followers, by certain of the
heathen, who derived it from xpijcrros,
sweet or good. It is noticed by Justin
Martyr, Tertullian and others. (Bingham,
bk. i. c. 1.) It has been supposed that the
language of Suetonius (Claud, c. 25) in
describing the expulsion of the Jews from
Eome by Claudian, indicates the same con
fusion between Christus and Chrestus.
" Judaios, impulsore Chresto, assidue tumul-
tuantes Eoma expulit." The word Christus
was no doubt the watchword in all Jewish
insurrections; hence the notion may have
arisen that some person named Christus or
Chrestus was the instigator of them.
CHEISM. (Xpio-p.a, oil.) Consecrated oil
used in baptism, confirmation, ordination,
and extreme unction.
I. When the use of the chrism first began
in the Church is uncertain, but it was of very
early date. Bishop Pearson (Lect in Act.
v.) thinks that if not of apostolic origin, it-
was introduced very shortly after the apos
tles' time, and it certainly was in use in the
third century, when it is mentioned by
Tertullian (de Baptismo) and Origen (in
Levit. Horn. ix.). Later writers frequently
mention it, and they often refer to two
unctions. Thus the writer of the Apostolic
Constitutions speaks of xPla'lv H-wrtKov
iXalov, and xpfoiv pfipov, or ^picr/ia,
— the one being given before the baptism,
the other after. (Constit. vii. c. 42 and c. 44 ;
see also Cyril. Catech. Myst. ii. § iii. ; Ambrose,
de Sacra, i. c. 2.) The first might be done
by a deacon, the person baptized being
" Unctus quasi athleta Christi" (Chrys. Horn.
vi. in Colos. ; Ambrose, ut sup.) ; but the
second was reserved to the bishop, who with
it gave the imposition of hands, and sign or
seal of the Lord — the cross on the forehead.
This confirmation, and attendant unction,
was generally administered at the same
time as baptism, but if the bishop should
be absent, it was to be deferred as short a
time as possible. — Const Apost vii. 43, 44 ;
St. Jerome, cant Lucifer, c. 4, &c.
When baptism and confirmation were
separated, the chrism was attached to each.
The priest might anoint, if the chrism had
been consecrated by a bishop : but he might
not lay on hands. — Innoc. Ep. ad Decent c. 3.
The unction with the chrism at ordination
appears first in the Sacramentary of Gelasius.
— Morin. 267.
The custom of anointing the sick with oil
is scriptural, and observed generally by the
Church till the Eeformation. But the Eoman
Church exalted it to a sacrament, and de
clared it necessarv to salvation. It was

CHRIST
retained in the first Prayer Book of Edward
VI., but omitted in the second. (See Ex
treme Unction.)
II. The chrism originally was consecrated
by the bishop as occasion required ; hut as
certain presbyters took upon themselves to
prepare and consecrate it (a proceeding
which was forbidden in the first council of
Toledo) for convenience sake, it became
the custom for the bishops to consecrate a
quantity of the unguent on a fixed day-^
Maundy-Thursday — so that it should be
always in readiness. In the sacramentaries
of Gelasius and of Gregory directions for
the consecration on that day are given; and
the blessing of the chrism is still one of the
ceremonies of Maundy-Thursday in the
Greek and Eoman Churches. (Mignet,
Patrol, lxxiv. ; Morin. 267 ; Bingham, bk.
xi. cc. 1, 2 : ix. 1 seq. : bk. xii. 1, &c»;
Blunt, Annot P. B. 210, 222, &c.) There
are two sorts of it ; the one is a composition
of oil and balsam, made use of in baptism,
confirmation, and orders ; the other is only
plain oil consecrated by the bishop, and
used for catechumens and extreme unction.
Chrism has been discontinued in the Church
of England since the Eeformation. [H.]
CHRISMAL, CHEISOM or CHRISOME,
A name sometimes used for a vessel to hold
the consecrated oil, or for the reservation of
the consecrated Host : but more frequently
for the piece of white linen bound round
the head of the newly baptized, to retain
the "Chrism" on the head, which the
priest used to put upon the child, saying,
"Take this white vesture for a token of
innocence." By a constitution of Edmund, archbishop
of Canterbury, a.d. 736, the chrisomes,
after having served the purposes of baptism,
were to be made use of only for the making
or mending of surplices, &c, or for the
wrapping of chalices.
The first Common Prayer Book of King
Edward orders that the woman shall offer
the * chrisome, when, she comes to be
churched ; but, if the child happens to die
before her churching, she was excused from
offering it ; and it was customary to use it
as a shroud, and to wrap the child, in it
when it was buried. Hence, by an abuse
of words, the . term is now used not to
denote children who die between the time
of their baptism and the churching of the
mother, but to denote children who die
before they are baptized, and so are in
capable of Christian burial. [H.]
CHRIST. From the Greek word (XpiVros)
corresponding with the Hebrew word Mes
siah, and signifying the Anointed One. It
is given pre-eminently to our blessed Lord,
and Saviour Jesus Christ. As the holy,
unction was given to kings, priests, and

CHRISTEN
prophets, by describing the promised Sa
viour of the world under the name of Christ,
Anointed, or Messiah, it was 'sufficient evi
dence that the qualities of king, prophet,
and high priest would eminently centre in
him; and that he would exercise them no;,
only over the Jews, but over all mankind.
and particularly over those whom he should
elect into his Church. Our blessed Saviour
was not, indeed, anointed to these offices by
oil ; but he was anointed by the power and.
grace of the Holy Ghost, who visibly de
scended upon him at his baptism. Thus
(Acts x. 38) "God anointed Jesus of
Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with
power." See Matt. iii. 16, 17 ; John iii.
34. (See Jesus and Messiah.)
CHRISTEN, TO. To baptize ; because,
at baptism, the person receiving that sacra
ment is made, as the catechism teaches, a
member of Christ.
CHRISTENDOM. All those regions in
which the kingdom or Church of Christ is
planted. CHRISTIAN. The title given to those
who call upon the name of the Lord Jesus.
It was -at Antioch, where St. Paul and St.
Barnabas jointly preached the Christian re
ligion, that the disciples were first called
Christians (Acts xi. 26), in the year of our
Lord 43, probably by way of derision, the
inhabitants of Antioch being renowned for
the invention of scurrilous and opprobrious
names. They were generally called by one
another brethren, faithful, saints, and be
lievers. The name of Nazarenes was, by
way of reproach, given them by the Jews.
(Acts xxiv. 5.) Another name of reproach
was that of Galilseans, which was the em
peror Julian's style whenever he spoke of
the Christians. Epiphanius (Hser. 39, n. 4)
says, that they were called Jesseans, either
from Jesse, the father of David, or, which is
more probable, from the name of Jesus,
whose disciples they were. The word Chris
tian is used but three times in Holy. Scrip
ture : Acts xi. 26 ; xxvi. 28 ; 1 St. Pet. iv. 16.
CHRISTIAN NAME. (See Name.)
The name given to us when we are made
Christians, i.e. at our baptism.
The Scripture history, both of the Old
and New Testament, contains many in
stances of the names of persons being
changed, or of their receiving an additional
name, when they were admitted into co
venant with God, or into a new relation
with our blessed Lord; and it was at cir
cumcision, which answered, in many re
spects, to baptism in the Christian Church,
that the Jews gave a name to their chil
dren. This custom was adopted into the
Christian Church, and we find very ancient
instances of it recorded. For example,
Thascius Cyprian, at his baptism, changed

CHRISTMAS .

163

his first name to Csecilius, out of respect for
the presbyter who was his spiritual father.
The custom is still retained, a name being
given by the godfather and godmother of
each child at baptism, by which name he is
addressed by the minister when he receives
that holy sacrament. (See Baptismal Ser
vice.)
CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS. (See
Thomas, St., Christians qf.)
CHRISTMAS DAY. Festum Nativitatis
(French " Noel " said to be a corruption of
natalis). The 25th December ; the day on
which the universal Church celebrates the
nativity or birthday of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ.
I. Though there can be no doubt that
such a festival was held from the earliest
ages of Christianity, yet it was not always
observed on the same day. Clement of
Alexandria speaks of May 20 or April 21,
as being days on which the nativity was
celebrated. In the Eastern Church it was
generally kept concurrently with the Epi
phany, Jan. 6, there being a tradition that
our Lord was baptized on that day. St.
Chrysostom, addressing the people of Antioch,
says that ten years were not past since they
came to the true knowledge of the day of
Christ's birth, which they before kept on
Epiphany until tbe Western Church enlight
ened them (Horn. xxxi. de Natali Christi;
also Horn. xxiv. de Bapt. Christ). Other
Churches followed this example, but to this
day the Armenian Church continues to cele
brate Christmas and the Epiphany on Jan. 6.
(Les Allot, de Dom. et Hebd. Gr. c. 32.) The
observance of this festival on Dec. 25 in the
Western Church is most ancient, although we
may not give much belief to the statement
of the forged decretal epistles, that Telesi-
phorus, who lived in the reign of Antoninus
Pius, ordered Divine service to be celebrated,
and an angelical hymn to be sung, the night
before the nativity. While the persecution
raged under Diocletian, who kept his court
at Nicomedia, that tyrant, among other acts
of cruelty, finding multitudes of Christians
assembled together to celebrate the nativity
of Christ, oommanded the church doors to
be shut, and fire put to the building, which
soon reduced them and the place to ashes.
The chronological correctness of keeping
the birthday of our Lord on the 25th of
December, has been demonstrated in a most
careful analysis, by Dr. Jarvis, in his
Chronological Introduction to the History of
the Church. See also article in Diet of
Christ Antiq. p. 359.
II. The festival was always kept with
great veneration and joy ; and the eve was
also observed with solemnity. Clemens of
Alexandria, quoted above (Strom, lib. i. c.
- 21), says of certain Christians of his day
M 2

164

CHRISTOLYTES

that they spent the night before in readings :
and St. Chrysostom bids the people purge
their houses before they come and see our
Lord. The German name Weihnacht implies
that the observance of the festival is con
sidered to commence with the night of
Christmas-eve, and before the Reformation
in the Church of England there was special
service on the eve, mass soon after midnight,
another at cock-crow, and a third at the
usual hour — the first two being omitted in
the first P. B., the third in the second. All
possible honour was shown to the day;
there were always sermons, many preached
by the Fathers being extant; and solemn
communion (Chrys. Horn. xxxi. de Philo-
gonis); persons were ordered to attend the
chief churches, and not to go to any of
the lesser churches in the country (Cone.
Ansel, i. cc. 27); public games and shows
were prohibited (Cod. Theod, lib. xv. de
Spectaculis ; see also Naz. Orat. 38) ; and it
was to be a day of rest equally with the
Lord's Day (Const. Apost. viii. 33 ; Bingham,
xx. civ).
III. In the First Book of King Edward,
there were separate Collects, Epistles, and
Gospels appointed for the first and second
communion on this and on Easter-day. It is
one of the days for which the Church of
England appoints special psalms, and a
special preface in the Communion Service :
and if it fall on a Friday, that Friday is
not to be a fast dav. [H.]
CHRISTOLYTES. (XpurroXirai, separa
tors of Christ) A sect in the sixth century,
which held, that when Christ descended into
hell, he left his soul and body there, and
only rose with his Divinity to heaven.
^ CHRISTOPHORI and THEOPHORI,
(Xpi<rro(l>6poi Kal Qcotpopot, Christ-bearers
and God-bearers,) names given to Christians
in the earliest times, on account of the com
munion between Christ, who is God, and the
Church. Ignatius commences his Epistles
thus, 'lyvdrws 6 Kal Oeoq^opos: and it is
related in the acts of his martyrdom, that
hearing him called Theophorus, Trajan
asked the meaning of the name ; to which
Ignatius replied, it meant one that carries
Christ in his heart. " Dost thou then," said
Trajan, " carry him that was crucified in
thy heart ? " *' Yes," said the holy martyr,
" for it is written, I will dweR in them, and
walk in them." — Bingham, i. 1, 4.
CHRONICLES. Two canonical books
of the Old Testament. They contain the
history of about 3500 years, from the cre
ation until after the return of the Jews
from Babylon. They are fuller and more
comprehensive than the Books of Kings.
The Greek interpreters hence call them
Hapa\earop.iva, supplements, additions. The
Jews make but one book of the Chronicles,

CHURCH AECHITECTUEE
under the title Dibree hajamin, i.e. journal
or annals. Ezra is generally supposed to
be the author of these books. The Chroni
cles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridgment,
in fact, of the whole Scripture history of the
Old Testament. St. Jerome so calls it, " Om
nis traditio Scripturarum in hoc continetur."
The First Book contains a genealogical
account of the descent of Israel from Adam,
and of the reign of David. The Second
Book contains the history of Judah to the
very year of the Jews' return from the
Babylonish captivity — the decree of Cyrus
granting them liberty being in the last
chapter of this Second Book.
CHUECH AECHITECTUEE. This
subject is much too large to treat of here
except very generally, and especially all
beyond the Gothic styles, to which nearly
all church architecture out of Italy and
Spain belongs. That which is called Italian
Gothic — an entirely different thing from
that called the Italian or classical style-
was hastily taken up by architects at the
instigation of Mr. Ruskin and because they
wanted something new, and has already
subsided again, after producing not one good
English specimen, and a multitude of very
ugly ones. It is very inferior to the real
Gothic, which reached its highest perfection
in this country and most others in the
fourteenth century ; which period was
occupied here by the early or Geometrical,
and by the later or Flowing Decorated
styles, while the Early English or lancet
window style occupied the thirteenth,
speaking roundly, and the Norman the
twelfth. The Perpendicular succeeded the
Decorated and lasted quite through the
fifteenth century and somewhat more, till
it sank into the Tudor : by which time new
churches almost ceased to be built, and
many old ones were destroyed with the
monasteries to which they belonged. Since
then all the architecture of Europe has been
only copied or compounded from some
older styles ; and probably always will he
for the future. All attempts at new ones
have been miserable failures.
The chief differences between the great
foreign churches and the British are, that
we cultivated length and the continentals
height, and they decidedly beat us in the
magnificence of their porches. Many of
their cathedrals too have double aisles, and
very few of ours. But our proportions are
on the whole much better than theirs;
and so are our steeples of all kinds. There
is nothing abroad comparable to those of
Lincoln and Salisbury and some others.
Excessive height of body dwarfs and
spoils every other dimension, but length
does not. That may be seen at West
minster, which looks too narrow, though it

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE
is among our widest naves ; while the great
visible length of Ely or Canterbury and of
the naves of St. Alban's, Winchester, Nor
wich or Peterborough, does not at all
detract from their other dimensions, but
increases the grandeur of the whole. The
great height and double aisles of the foreign
cathedrals, with the necessary multitude of
flying buttresses, also confuse their outline,
besides making them look short. Mr. Fer-
gusson truly says that the very high
foreign naves give an uncomfortable im
pression of effort, if not of insecurity, very
inferior to the repose which is the charac
teristic of our cathedrals with their beauti
ful proportions, varied as they are, but
observing one almost constant rule, that the
whole internal width is equal to the internal
height, which Westminster alone much
transgresses, being only 75 feet wide and
103 high.
The great useless hall of the new Law
Courts, to which the general construction
was sacrificed and enormous expense wasted
on it, is just wider than the middle or
nave proper of our largest cathedrals, and
of about their height, and yet looks so
narrow that it has been likened to " a covered
•ditch." The architect forgot that in all
the cathedrals the eye wanders through
piRars into aisles, and even in King's
chapel (which most resembles it, and is
longer still, and yet does not look narrow)
into side chapels through windows all along,
while the other is confined by bare walls.
Westminster HaR is about half as wide
again, and not too high, aud the many
doors along one side of it take away any
idea of confinement, besides the sort of
transept which Barry dexterously added at
the end, giving the effect of an unlimited
opening sideways. Continuing the remarks
on the dimensions of cathedrals from what
was said under that head, and on the
-sometimes disputed question of length, it
seems that "Winchester is the longest of all
Gothic cathedrals by a very few feet over
St. Alban's. They are both practically a
tenth of a mile long inside. But the nave
of St. Alban's is the longest by a whole
bay or severy, and almost exactly the same
as King's Chapel, 289 feet. Neverthe
less York, Lincoln, Ely and Canterbury all
look longer, and particularly Ely from its
shape and position, because their high roofs
go from one end to the other, while at the
two longest, and at sundry others, the Lady
chapels at the east end drop and are not
seen from a distance. The two highest
towers are at Lincoln and Boston, both
266 feet. The spire of Salisbury is much
the finest in the world, though not the
highest, 404 feet. The cross of St. Paul's
is only 375, though it used to be called as

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE 165
high as Salisbury. The oldest cathedral in
any considerable part now remaining is
probably St. Alban's, though there are some
older churches. And it is remarkable that
the whole of its inside is plastered, except a
few pieces of arcades and pillars subsequent
to the square Norman ones.
The general arrangement of English
cathedrals has been described already. The
monastic and collegiate churches of con
siderable size generally followed much the
same plan of the Latin cross, with aisles
and other appendages according to the size
that was wanted. Perhaps also some that
were only intended for parish churches were
on the same plan; but undoubtedly some
very large ones of early dates were not, but
consisted only of a nave with aisles and a
chancel with or without them, and a steeple
at the west end. Boston and Grantham at
once occur as examples of that kind. Boston
tower is practically of the same height as
Lincoln, and Grantham is the next spire to
Salisbury in size and architecture together,
and of the same style, though Norwich and
a few others are higher. There is no doubt
that churches of that type are better for
work than those of the cathedral type,
though not nearly so handsome. After
these come what may be called the college
chapel type, which architecturally consist
of a chancel only ; or at any rate the
chancel is the part used by the congregation,
though there may be an ante-chapel besides,
like those of Merton, New College, Mag
dalene (Ox.), and the modern St. John's of
Cambridge, which would have been much
better without all its western part, both
tower and transepts being ill-proportioned
and clumsy, which the chancel, a real
chapel, is not. King's chapel is uniform
throughout its whole length of 289 feet, and
only divided internally by the wooden
screen ; and so is that of Trinity, of which
the screen was moved quite lately farther
west. Even the four round churches of
the Temple, Cambridge, Northampton and
Little Maplestead, are of that order, the
square chancels being the working part,
and the " rounds " forming only a west
tower and ante-chapel. The working nave
of St. Alban's, which is practically the
parish church, divided from the choir by a
stone screen with only two small doors,
makes a church of the college chapel kind,
and is of just the same length as the whole of
Bath Abbey ; for three of the architectural
nave bays belong to the working choir, as
at Westminster. It is unnecessary to
pursue these details farther.
In a few large churches the vestry is a
low building at the east end, like a Lady
chapel ; and occasionally there was a room
over the south porch called a parvise, for a

166 CHUECH ARCHITECTURE
clergyman to live in. The south door of the
chancel is generally called the priest's door.
The font is usually near the west end,
either in the tower or the S.W. corner
of the nave, unless there is a separate
baptistery; the pulpit is generally at the
N.E. corner of the nave in large churches,
but often S.E. in small ones ; and in some
cathedral naves ; though the choir pulpit is
always on the north in cathedrals, facing
the bishop's throne on the south. Some of
the modern nave pulpits in cathedrals are
against the S.E. great pier of the tower.
In all these matters there is no law but
convenience. When there is a litany desk,
it is generally at the east end of the nave.
The 82nd canon requires a convenient
seat to read the prayers from. It is gene
rally placed at the west of the choir seats ;
and it is very convenient, and now usual,
to have two such reading desks for the
clergy who take different parts of the
service, besides a lectern for the Bible ;
which always faces the people if there is
one, and in a long church should have two
or three steps. The kneeling stools for
pulpits, and still more for reading desks,
require more attention than they generally
receive. They should always be open un
derneath, not closed boxes or hassocks, to
leave room for the reader's feet, and also
to enable him to pull the stool forward by
his own foot. Another way is to make the
top turn on a hinge, nearly balanced, so
that you can tip them up out of the way
when you have to stand, and bring them
down again quietly for kneeling. The
inner edge of the book desk for men of
moderate height should be three feet from
the floor ; and the desk itself at least six
teen inches wide, and more for a folio book.
It is a very good plan to put the slip
or fillet five or six inches up the desk for
the prayer book to rest on while you are
kneeling, as it keeps your arms off the
book, and leaves room for hymn-books
below, without continual shifting. No one
need expect architects to attend to such
details. The desk round the top of a
pulpit ought also to be wide, and rather
sloping. If it is about three and a half feet
above the floor, an ordinary man not short
sighted will not require a separate little
sermon-desk. In some old churches there remains a
small bell-cot over the east wall of the
nave, like that which is often built for a
single bell, or for two, at the west in small
churches with no tower. That was called
the sanctus bell, and was rung at the " eleva
tion of the host," and at the words " Sanctus,
sanctus, Deus sabaoth," to inform the people
outside. The bell gable in small churches
is sometimes built over the arch dividing

CHURCH, EARLY BRITISH
the chancel from the nave and in that
case they ought to be of the same height,
and always were in old times ; and so the
roofs all round a central tower were always
of the same height, except' occasionally
when they were of different dates and not
parts of one plan. [G.]
CHURCH, THE EARLY BRITISH.
Materials for the history of its origin are
exceedingly meagre. Any national con
temporary records which may have existed
during the first five centuries have perished.
This was the complaint of Gildas (Hist.
§ 4, p. 13), writing in the sixth century.
Our knowledge of the subject, such as it is,
comes from a few passages scattered through
the pages of foreign historians; but con
jecture of course has been busy, and the
legendary matter is very copious, in propor
tion to the scantiness of trustworthy in
formation. The notion that the British Church was
of apostolic origin rested almost entirely
upon one sentence in the writings of St.
Clement, Bishop of Eome a.d. 95 (Ep. ad
Cor. 5), where he says that St. Paul came
" to the boundary of the West (eVi ro reppd
ttjs Sio-eas i\dtbv), an expression which
may probably denote a visit to Spain,
possibly one extended to Gaul; but not
beyond. Nor is there any positive evidence
that Christianity was introduced into Britain
in the second century, although there is a
presumption in favour of the supposition.
The story told by Bede (_ _ i. 4, v. 24),
that Lucius, a British king, wrote a letter
to Pope Eleutherus requesting instruction -
from him in Christianity, and that he
obtained the fulfilment of his pious wish;
may be a mere fable, as the date of
Eleutherus was about a.d. 177, and the
statement in Bede is derived from a Roman
catalogue of the Popes framed in a.d. 530.
Moreover, Nennius (c. xviii.), writing in the
ninth century, ascribes the conversion of
Lucius to Pope Evaristus, a.d. 100-109,
and magnifies the story into the conversion
of all Britain. Some support, however, for
the narrative may perhaps be found in the
statement of Tertullian (Adv. Jud. vii.)
about a.d. 200, that "places in Britain
hitherto unvisited by the Romans were
subjected to Christianity."
Origen, writing early in the third century,
(Horn. vi. in Luc. i. 24,) speaks of Britain
as converted to the Christian faith, and
more rhetorically in Homil. iv. in Ezek,
but on the other hand, in Homil. xxviii. «'»
St. Matt xxiv., he mentions the Britons
amongst a number of barbarous nations of
whom the greater part (plurimi) " had not
yet heard the word of the Gospel."
Eusebius, also, in one rhetorical passage,
Dem. Ev. iii. 5, c. a.d. 315, writes as if

CHURCH, EARLY BRITISH
some of the twelve or of the seventy had
crossed the ocean " to the isles called
British," but in his History, iii. 1, where he
describes the mission-fields of the Apostles
on the authority of Origen, he makes no
mention of Britain.
On the whole, we may safely infer from
these scattered notices, combined with the
statements of later writers in the fourth
century, such as St. Athanasius, St. Jerome,
and St. Chrysostom, which seem to imply
the existence of a Church long settled in
Britain, that Christianity was introduced
in the second or early in the third century :
probably by missionaries from Gaul, al
though Gaul itself, according to Greg.
Tur. Hist. i. 28, was not completely con
verted before the third century. The new
religion probably took most hold of the
Roman residents or Romanized natives, and
did not strike its roots very widely or
deeply. The story of the persecution of
Christians in Britain at the end of the third
century (Sax. Chron.), or beginning of the
fourth (Bede, H. E.i.7; Gildas, Hist viii.),
and of the martyrdom of St. Alban (perhaps
also of Aaron and Julius), cannot safely be
rejected, although naturally mixed up with
a large quantity of legendary matter.
Three British bishops were present at the
Council of Aries summoned by Constantine
in a.d. 314 to settle the difficulties which
arose out of the Donatist schism (Labb. i.
1430 ; Mansi, ii. 466, 467).
There is no evidence for or against the
presence of British bishops at the Council
of Nicasa, a.d. 325, but the British Church
generally assented to the decrees of that
council respecting Arianism and the time of
keeping Easter (Athanas. ad Gov. Imper.,
and Constant. Epist. ad Eccles. ap. Euseb.
Vit Const, iii., xvii.). The British Church
also assented to the resolution of the Coun
cil of Sardica, a.d. 347, directed against
those who maligned Athanasius (Athan.
Apol. Cant Arian. and Hist. Arian. ad
Monach.). British bishops were present at
the Council of Ariminum (Rimini) a.d. 359,
which was entrapped into surrendering the
terms olo-ia and opoovo-ios ; and Sulpicius
Severns relates (Hist Sac. ii. 41), that three
of them were so poor that their expenses
were paid out of the imperial treasury.
The general orthodoxy however of the
British Church in the fourth century is
abundantly testified by Athanasius himself
(loc. cit. supra), by St. Chrysostom, e.g.
Serm. de Util. Sect. Script and Contra
Judseos, and by Jerome repeatedly (see
especially Ep. 101, ad Evangel.).
In the fifth century the tranquillity of
the British Church was disturbed, and its
reputation somewhat tarnished, by the
heresy of Pelagius. He was a native of

CHURCH, EARLY BRITISH 167
Britain, and although he does not seem to
have resided there, his doctrines were pro
pagated in the island with some success by
Agricola, son of a bishop Peverianus, who
had adopted the notions of Pelagius (Prosp.
Aquitan. Chron.). The British clergy ap
pealed to the Church in Gaul for help in
contending with this pernicious teaching,
and a large synod of the Gallican Church, a.d.
429, elected* Germanus, bishop of Auxerre,
and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, as missionary
envoys to bring back the erring British to
the right faith. The election had either
been recommended or was afterwards
approved by Pope Celestine (Comp. Prosp.
Aquit. and Constant, de Vila German, i.
19, 23; Bede, i. 17). The Gallican
deputies were diligent in preaching not
only in churches, but in the open air ; the
people generally were reclaimed to the
Catholic faith, and the Pelagianists, who
ventured after some deliberation to challenge
their antagonists to a public debate, were
ignominiously refuted at Verulam. The
triumph of the orthodox party was clenched
by some miracles supposed to be wrought by
the prelates, especially at the tomb of St.
Alban,. and still more by a great victory
sained by the Britons over the Picts and
Saxons on the borders of North Wales under
the direction of Germanus and Lupus, who
had baptized a large number of the comba
tants on Easter-eve just before the battle.
The host rushed upon their foes with loud
shouts of Alleluia, and completely routed
them, whence the fight was called the
Alleluia victory. (Bede, i. 20 ; Constant,
Vita. Germ. i. 19, 23, 25.) The Gallican
bishops then left Britain, but Germanus
paid a second visit in 447, accompanied by
a disciple of Lupus, Severus, bishop of
Trier (Treves). Some people who had
relapsed into, heresy were reclaimed, and
some false teachers expelled. Germanus
died in the following year, and his name
was held in great honour in the British
Church in the regions of Wales and Corn
waU. The death of Germanus nearly coincides
with the beginning of the period of Saxon
conquest, which, roughly speaking, extended
from the year a.d. 450 to 680; and the
history of the British Church between these
dates may be summed up in a few words.
If there is any truth at all in the declama
tions of Gildas, the moral condition of the
British, including the clergy, at the time
when the Saxon invasion began, was deplor
ably corrupt. The great majority of the1
people were gradually forced westwards by
the invaders" and the few who remained
either as slaves or in a half-servile condition
amongst their conquerors were unable or
unwilling to convert them to the faith of

168 CHURCH, EARLY BRITISH
Christ. WTales was the principal stronghold
of the national life, both political and
religious. Several large colleges or monas
teries, called Bangor, which signifies " high
circle," i.e. "distinguished community,"
were the principal centres of religious
knowledge and activity. A large number
of monks were slaughtered at Bangor Yscoed,
near Chester, in 613, by the Anglian invader
_lthelfrith, king of Northumbria. Between
the dates 550 and 570 a mission was sent
to Ireland from Wales under the auspices of
St. David, St. Gildas, and St. Cadoc, to
restore the Christian faith, which was said to
be decadent there. Two synods were held
in Wales about the year 569, one at Lland-
dewi Brefi, near the site of the Roman Loven-
tium, the other at a place called Lucus
Victorias, the Wood of Victory, of which the
site cannot be identified, but it was pro
bably near Llanddewi Brefi. All records,
however, of the purposes for which these
synods were convened, and of the transactions
which took place at them, have been lost.
The lives of the Cornish and Welsh saints
have been overlaid with such a mass of
legend, that it is almost impossible to
recover their real history. All that can be
safely affirmed respecting the celebrated
St. David is that he attended, probably
presided at, the councils just mentioned,
that he founded the see at Menevia, which
was called after his name (see St. David),
and died about the year 600.
Dubricius was the first bishop of Llandaff,
and died, after resigning his see, at Bardsey,
in 612. The story of an archbishopric held
first by him at Caerleon, and afterwards
transferred by St. David to Menevia, is
totally without foundation ; nor is there any
trustworthy evidence of any archbishopric
in Britain prior to the coming of St. Augus
tine. (See Archbishop.) The three British
bishops who were present at the Council of
Aries, Restitutus of London, Eborius of
York, and Adelpbius (conjecturaliy) of
Caerleon, were probably selected as the most
eminent representatives who could be sent,
but they are not called archbishops. The
Welsh sees were, (1) Bangor, (2) Llanwelly
or St. Asaph, (3) St. David's, (4) Llanda-
ham (in Cardigan), (5) Llandaff.
Two British bishops, probably from Devon
or Cornwall, are mentioned by Bede, H. E.
iii. 28, as taking part with Wini, bishop of
Winchester, in the consecration of Ceadda
to the see of York, in 664. St. Germans
and Bodmin dispute the claim to be the
original see of Cornwall, and the question
cannot certainly be determined. In North
Britain (Strathclyde and Cumbria), the
bishopric of Candida Casa, i.e. Whitehorn,
was founded by St. Niuian early in the fifth
century, and that of Glasgow by Kentigern

CHURCH, EARLY BRITISH
about the middle or latter part of the sixth;
(See Church in Scotland.) The monastery •
of Hy or Icolmkill (Iona) was founded in
563 by the celebrated Irish missionary St.
Columba, who died soon after the landinp
of St. Augustine in Kent.
It will be apparent from the foregoing
sketch that there was no direct continuity,
between the early British Church and the
Church of England founded by Augustine
at the close of the sixth century. The
conversion of England, indeed, especially of
the northern parts, was largely due, after
the arrival of Augustine, to Celtic mission
aries, but generally of Scottish, i.e. Irish,
origin or training, and in no way to he
regarded as emissaries or representatives of
the British Cnurch. The British clergy as
a body shared in the national antipathy
to the Saxon invader, and looked with
suspicion and jealousy upon Augustine and
his companions as foreigners who had in
some measure allied themselves with the
conquerors of Britain. Augustine's want of
tact and conciliatory demeanour at the
synod of Augustine's Oak (Bede, ii. 2)
repelled them still further, and rendered
any cordial union or co-operation impossible.
And besides these obstacles to fusion, which
were inherent in the character and circum
stances of the two parties, there were some
differences in discipline aud ritual, which
were the outward and formal hindrances to
it. (i.) The British Church regulated the
time of keeping Easter by the cycle which
the Roman Church had used up to the year
458, but had subsequently changed, and
counted as Easter-day the Sunday which
feR next after the Equinox between the
fourteenth and twentieth day of the moon,not
as it had come to be at Rome, between the
fifteenth and twenty-first (Bede, iii. 17, and
ii. 2). (See Easter.) (ii). There was some
difference between the Roman and the
British mode of administering baptism
(Bede, ii. 2), though what it was is not
definitely stated, (iii.) The British mode
of tonsure differed both from the Roman
and the Greek (Bede, iv. 1; v. 21). The
British had also some rites and ceremonies
peculiar to themselves in the mode of cele
brating mass, of ordaining the clergy and
consecrating bishops.
All these divergences from the practice of
the Roman Church, although many of them
were insignificant in themselves, helped to
make the Italian missionaries, and those
who followed their teaching, look down upon
the British Church as barbarous, and behind
the age, if not positively heretical, while the
British on their side clung for the most part
to their ancient usages with the tenacity
natural in a proud, insulated people smarting
under the wrongs of foreign conquest.—

CHURCH OF ENGLAND
Haddan and Stubbs' Councils, vol. i. ; Bright,
Early English Ch. Hist chap. i. ; Lingard,
History of Anglo-Saxon Church, chap. i.
[W. R. W. 8.1
CHCECH "OF ENGLAND. By the
Church of England we mean that branch of
the Catholic Church which is established
under canonical bishops in England.
I. Its origin dates from the mission of
Augustine sent by Pope Gregory the Great,
with a band of about 40 monks in the year
a.d. 597. British Christianity had been
forced back with the Britons by their
Teutonic invaders into the remote western
parts of the island. It does not seem to
have retained a very strong hold upon the
Britons themselves; still less had it exer
cised any appreciable influence upon the
minds of their conquerors. And since
Augustine and his followers did not enter
into any alliance with the Britons for the
conversion of the English, it cannot be
truly said that there was any continuity of
life between the old British and the English
Church. (See Church, the Early British.)
After converting —thelberht, king of
Kent, and his people, Augustine, crossed
over to Gaul, and having been consecrated
by. Vergilius, bishop of Aries, returned to
England and became the first archbishop
of Canterbury, the Metropolitan See. The
Sees of Rochester and London were founded
scon afterwards (in a.d. 604), and the See
of York, although not made Metropolitan
till many years later, was founded in 625,
and these were the only Sees directly due to
the mission of Augustine. The conversion
of the rest of the country was a very
gradual process, covering nearly a Century,
and not conducted on any fixed plan, or
resulting from the combined efforts of a
large body of missionaries, but due rather
to the zeal and enterprise of individuals of
different nationalities labouring indepen
dently in the several kingdoms. Thus
Wessex was converted by Birinus, a
missionary from North Italy ; East Anglia
by Felix, a Burgundian ; Northumbria and
Mercia mainly by Celtic teachers; Essex
by Cedd, a Northumbrian, but trained in the
Scottish school ; and last of all (about 680)
Sussex by Wilfrith, a native of Northumbria,
but an adherent of the Roman school.
The dioceses were as a rule originally
conterminous with the kingdoms in which.
they were founded, but as the kingdoms
were enlarged the dioceses were subdivided ;
generally, however, in accordance with the
lines of some tribal settlement. The first
home of the bishop was generally near
some royal dwelling ; here was his church
containing his chair (cathedra), throne or
" stool," as it was called in old English ;
and here was the centre of missionary work

CHURCH OF ENGLAND

169

from which the monks and priests who
lived with the bishop (generally under
some kind of monastic rule) went forth to
convert the surrounding country, and to
which they returned to recruit their strength
and prepare themselves by study and prayer
for further labours. They preached and
baptized at the foot of the crosses which
were set up in villages, or on the estates of
nobles until parishes were formed, parish
churches erected, and permanent clergy
attached to them. The endowments of the
churches, whether cathedral, monastic, or
parochial, and the emoluments of the clergy
were derived from various sources, lands,
tithes, free offerings, and fees of several
kinds, but they were all due to the piety
and liberality of individual benefactors, not
to any formal enactments of the state.
Prior to the Norman Conquest there was
the closest connexion between the Church
and the State, first in the several kingdoms,
and afterwards in the whole nation when
the kingdom of Wessex had absorbed all
the others. The ecclesiastical councils are
sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the
Witanagemotes ; they were frequently at
tended by the kings and ealdormen, and on
the other hand the bishops sat in the
Witanagemotes, and presided co-ordinately
with laymen in the hundred-moot and
shire-moot. The unity of faith, of cere
monial, and of discipline which was due in a
great measure to the organisation by Arch
bishop Theodore in the seventh century,
helped more than any other influence to
consolidate the nation by creating a tie of
sympathy between the tribal divisions. In
their lay aspect men might be Mercians or
West Saxons, Englishmen or Danes, but as
members of the same Church they realized
that they were fellow-countrymen. Thus
it would be more true to say that the
Church established the nation than that the
nation established the Church.
H. The effects of the Norman Conquest
upon tne Church were manifold, but may
be summed up under a few main heads.
(i.) The invasion of England by William,
having been expressly sanctioned by the
pope, brought the Church into immediate
and direct connexion with the Papal See,
which had hitherto exercised only a vague
and precarious influence over it; and so
paved the way for many encroachments of
the Papacy on the national rights and
liberties of the Church, (ii.) the separation
made by the Conqueror between the
ecclesiastical and secular courts, and the
trial of ecclesiastical causes by canonical law
instead of customary law, just when the
canon law was growing into a vast system
of jurisprudence, gave the clergy a position
of remarkable importance and independence,

170

CHURCH OF ENGLAND

strengthened the connexion with Rome, to
which appeals now became customary, and
laid the foundation of much future strife
between the Church and the Crown, (iii.)
the appointment of foreigners to bishoprics,
often royal chaplains, men of secular ha
bits, employed on much secular business,
possessing manors and castles like other
barons of the realm, and often living more
like lay barons than bishops, weakened
the tie between the bishop and his
clergy, and especially at the cathedral
church of which he became rather the
absent lord and visitor than the resident
head, (iv.) a great developement of mo-
nasticism, leading to the transfer of a
large amount of ecclesiastical patronage and
property to monastic bodies, which again
strengthened the connexion with Rome,
many of the houses in England being
dependencies of foreign abbeys, and ex
empted by the pope from episcopal juris
diction. III. Some of the changes already in
dicated as traceable to the Norman Conquest
combined with other elements gradually
to produce discontent, and demands for re
form which came to a crisis in the six
teenth century. These disturbing influences
may be ranged under the following heads,
(i.) the continually increasing encroach
ments of the Papal power on the liberties
of the national Church, manifested in a
variety of ways, as, interference with the
election of bishops, claims to patronage,
oppressive exaction qf dues, exemption of
monasteries from the jurisdiction of the
ordinary, interference with the authority of
bishops, and even of the primates, by the
appointment of legates, (ii.) the wealth
and splendour of the higher orders in the
hierarchy, the increasing complexity of
ritual, side by side with the low moral and
intellectual standard of the parochial clergy,
the monks and the mendicant orders, pro
voking a spirit of contempt and discontent
amongst a large number of the people. This
manifested itself first in the movement of
which Wycliffe was the leader, and the half
religious, half political insurrections of the
people called Lollards. There was, how
ever, no direct outward connexion between
these protests against medieval corruption in
the fourteenth and early part of the fif
teenth century, and the actual reformation
effected in the sixteenth, for Lollardism,
whether as a distinct form of heresy or of
political rebellion, bad been nearly sup
pressed before the reign of Henry VIII. But
the feelings which produced these earlier
revolts against ecclesiastical abuses con
tinued to work,andwere strengthened by (iii.)
the great advances made in learning towards
the close of the fifteenth century, and by an

CHURCH OF ENGLAND
increased spirit of piety. To these must be '
added, after a time, the influence of Lutheran
books and tracts. The quarrel of Henry
VIII. with the pope on the subject of his
divorce from Catherine of Aragon was only
the occasion which brought the real causes
of reformation into activity. The repudia
tion of the Papal supremacy at once removed
the principal obstacle to all changes in
doctrine, ritual, and discipline. The sup
pression of the monasteries, the translation
of the Bible into English, the compilation
of the Book of Common Prayer, were all
accomplished within less than twenty yeara
after the rupture with Rome. It must be
carefully borne in mind that neither Henry
VIII. nor Edward VI., nor any of their
ministers, had the faintest intention of es
tablishing a new Church. Their object was
merely to reform the existing national
Church, and to restore it to a closer con
formity with the Catholic Church of an
earlier and purer age. "They stripped
their venerable mother of the meretricious
gear in which superstition had arrayed her,
and left her in that plain and decorous attire
with which, in the simple dignity of a
matron, she had been adorned by apostolic
hands." Legally and historically the con
tinuity of the Church remained quite un
affected by the changes effected in the six
teenth century. No legal deed, or Act of
Parliament, or Order in Council was ever
framed by which one Church was disestab
lished and another set up in its place, or by
which the property of one Church was trans
ferred to another. The succession of bishops
and of parochial incumbents went on with
out interruption; they occupied the same
Sees, and held the same benefices, and de
rived their emoluments for the most part
from the same endowments after the events
of the Reformation as before.
The restoration of the connexion with
Rome in the reign of Mary, and the harsh
ness with which it was enforced, only deep
ened the feelings of resentment against it,
and led to the development of that excessive
Puritanism which in the reign of Elizabeth
was the most serious obstacle to the settle
ment of the Church on the principles of
sound and moderate reform. There were for
a time three parties striving for mastery, (i.)
those who thought that reform was being
carried too far. Many of these relapsed into'
Romanism and became the founders of the
English branch of the Roman Catholic
Church; (ii.) those who thought that
reform was not being carried far enough.
Many of these also gradually seceded from
the Church and were ultimately absorbed
into other communities; (iii.) the milded
party, of which Hooker is the most dis
tinguished representative, who were Pro-

CHURCH OF ENGLAND
testant as against the usurpations and cor
ruptions of Rome — Catholic in their ad
herence to the teaching and practice of the
Church of an earlier and purer age. This
party became dominant, and maintained the
upper hand until the general overthrow of
Church and State in the great rebellion of
the seventeenth century. After the Re
storation it recovered its ascendancy ; and
its principles, although occasionally in abey
ance owing either to apathy or the tempo
rary prevalence of some other party (as of the
Evangelicals in the latter half of the last
century), were never lost sight of, and in fact
were steadily held by a long succession of
the most learned, able, and pious men who
have been the backbone of the Church of
England and her best protectors against
Romanism on the one hand and the mani
fold varieties of Protestant dissent on the
other. And the strengthening and deepen
ing of these principles has been the main
result of what was called the Tractarian
movement which began at Oxford about
fifty years ago. The consequence is that
the party known as the high Anglican is by
far the largest, the most active, and the most
progressive in the Church of England at the
present day.
Several provisions have been made by the
civil law for the safeguard of the doctrine
and discipline of the Church of England.
By 12 & 13 of William III. c. 2, s. 3, it is
enacted that whoever shall come into pos
session of the Crown of England shall join
in communion with the Church of England
as by law established. By 1 Will. III. c. 6,
an oath shall be administered to the
sovereign at his coronation that he will to
the utmost of his power maintain the laws
of God, the true profession of the Gospel,
and Protestant reformed religion established
by law, and will preserve unto the bishops
and clergy of this realm, and to the churches
committed to their charge, all such rights
and privileges as by law do or shall apper
tain unto them or any of them. By l. 5
Anne, c. 5, the sovereign at his coronation
shall take and subscribe an oath to main
tain and preserve inviolably the settlement of
the Church of England and the doctrine,
worship, discipline and government thereof
as by law established, (s. 2). — Bede,
Historia Ecclesiastica; Bright, Early
English Church History; Stubbs' Consti
tutional History; Fuller, Church History;
Collier, Eccles. History; Hook, Lives of
the Archbishops ; Hardwick, Church History,
2 vols. [W. R. W. S.]
If a legal definition of the Church of
England is required, as it is sometimes,
probably no better can be given than that
it consists of all the English bishops and
clergy who still accept the Prayer Book and

CHUECH OF IEELAND

171

Articles and the decisions of the lawful
tribunals on any doubtful points therein,
and also of all English people (including
foreigners residing here) who profess to
accept those same authorities. The Privy
Council decided (rightly or wrongly as one
may think) in Merriman, Bishop, v. Wil
liams, in 1882, that a Colonial Church
which expressly accepts the Prayer Book
and Articles, but not the decisions of our
courts thereon, is not even in connexion
with the Church of England ; and therefore
it is necessary to introduce those words
about the courts in a legal definition, so
long as that judgment stands. The defini
tion, at the beginning of the preceding
artiele is too abstract for a legal one, seeing
that the standards of doctrine and ritual of
the Church of England differ from those of
two other great branches of the Catholic
Church, and that it might be disestablished
any day, and still remain the same Church.
It must be remembered that no formal act
has to be done by laymen to signify or make
them members of the Church of England ;
and that they are not required to express
even a general assent to the Prayer Book and
Articles, and much less a particular assent,
and that a man may accept them all and
yet never go to Church either for good or
bad reasons. Consequently any definition
of the Church must be liable to the remark
that it is indefinite as to the persons it in
cludes, though its standards of doctrine and
ritual are as definite and fixed, as they are
for most of the sects. (See Dissenters.) [G.]
CHURCH IN IRELAND. The first
teacher of Christianity in Ireland, of whom
we possess anything like a trustworthy
record, was Palladius, who, according to
Prosper Aquitan. (Chron.), was consecrated
by Pope Coelestine, in 431 a.d., to be the
first bishop of the Scots. These Scots,
however, are described as being already
believers, " ad Scotos in Christum credentes
* * * primus Episcopus mittitur;" but
by whom they had been converted it is
impossible to say. Anyhow, the Gospel
had not taken much hold of them, for
Palladius found them so barbarous and
ferocious, that he soon abandoned the
country, and crossed over to North Britain,
where he died, probably at Fordun. — Book
of Armagh, fol. 2 a. a.
The real founder of the Irish Church was
the celebrated St. Patrick. His history is,
of course, overlaid with a great deal of
fabulous matter, but there is little doubt
that he was bom in Scotland, near Dum
barton, at the end of the fourth or be
ginning of the fifth century, probably of
British parents ; that at the age of sixteen
he was carried captive to Ireland, and after
enduring great hardships there for six

172

CHURCH IN IRELAND

years, escaped to his native country.
After some time spent in study and tra
velling, he was ordained presbyter, and
having, as he believed, been summoned by
visions to preach Christianity in the land
where he had been a captive, he crossed
to Ireland, probably soon after the de
parture of Palladius (about 432 a.d.), and
carried on his evangelistic labours there for
many years with great success, although
in the face of considerable opposition. He
died about 490 a.d. The value of St.
Patrick's work was proved by its fruits.
During the greater part of the next two
-centuries, Ireland was an active centre of
Christian learning ¦ and missionary zeal.
St. Columbanus founded monasteries in
Burgundy and the Apennines : St. Gall was
the apostle of Switzerland. St. Columba,
the apostle of Scotland (563 a.d.), was
abbot of a monastery in the north of Ire
land, and the founder of mauy others ; and
the conversion of the English was largely
effected by men who had been trained in
Irish monasteries. In the eighth and ninth
centuries Irish Christianity and civilization
received a severe check from the incursions
of the Northmen. But when the Danes
themselves had become converted to Chris
tianity, it was through the Danish settlers
on the east coast of Ireland that the Irish
Church was brought into closer connexion
and conformity with the Church of Eng
land than had hitherto existed. The see of
Armagh had been founded by St. Patrick,
and enjoyed a kind of metropolitan rank,
but no fixed system of diocesan jurisdiction
seems to have existed in the early Irish
Church. The chief administrators were
abbots, and the appointments both of
abbots and bishops fell so completely into
the hands of the tribal chiefs that the
offices were regarded as family property,
and the emoluments were frequently given
to laymen. But in the reign of William
the Conqueror applications were made to
Archbishop Lanfranc by some of the kings
and bishops in Ireland, both native and
Danish, for advice on ecclesiastical matters.
In 1074 Lanfranc consecrated Patrick arch
bishop of Dublin at the request of the
clergy and people. His successor, Donach,
was also consecrated by Lanfranc in 1084,
and his successor, Samuel, by Anselm in
1096. The occasional consecration of Irish
bishops to the sees of Dublin, Waterford,
and Limerick, by the English primates,
goes on to the time of the conquest of
Ireland by Henry II. ; and it was regarded
as an encroachment upon the rights of
Canterbury when the Pope Eugenius III., in
1151, sent a legate to Ireland with four palls
for the establishment of four archbishoprics,
Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam, and

CHUECH IN IRELAND
decreed that each metropolitan was to have
five suffragans.
The conquest of Ireland by Henry II.
was viewed with contentment by the
hierarchy, because it offered a hope of
escape from the tyranny of the native tribal
chieftains by bringing the Church into a
closer and more vital connexion with the
Church of Rome. At the synod of Cashel,
in 1171, it was resolved that the Church of
Ireland should in every respect be conformed
to the model of the Church of England.
The invasion of Ireland by Henry was
undertaken with the express sanction of the
pope (Adrian IV.), who claimed a right to
dispose of all islands " upon which Christ,
the sun of righteousness, has shined."
And thus the origin of Enghsh rule,
which the Irish people have always detested,
is due to the head of the Roman Church, to
which they have been always warmly
attached. Unfortunately, the Enghsh did
not follow up their first occupation of the
country by a complete subjugation of it,
similar to that which the Normans had
effected in England, nor by wise and
humane legislation ; so that the people were
neither subdued nor conciliated. Outside
the Pale, a small district near Dublin, the
English exercised little real authority,
either in civil or religious matters. Those
who settled beyond the Pale adopted Irish
habits of life, and shared in time all their
animosity against the English rule ; it was
indeed a common saying that they became
" Hibemis ipsis Hiberniores." Efforts were
made in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries to enforce the English supremacy
by a variety of measures, civil and eccle
siastical, which only served to exasperate
the natural antagonism between the two
races. Englishmen were put into the sees,
and nearly all the highest offices of the
Church and the monasteries were filled
with Cistercians, or Augustinians, imported
from England or Normandy ; it was made
highly penal to present an Irishman to an
ecclesiastical benefice, or to receive him
into a monastic house, unless he produced
a charter of naturalization, and conformed
to all English usages, civil and religious;
the English were forbidden to marry into
Irish families, or to stand as sponsors for
Irish children. The alien hierarchy thus
planted in the midst of a hostile people
sought to maintain their independence, both
of the native chiefs and English lords, by
cultivating a close alliance with the Roman
See ; and the assertion of the royal supre
macy by Henry VIII. was stoutly resisted
by most of the Irish bishops, although ac
quiesced in by the majority of the laity.
The royal claims were supported by Browse,
archbishop of Dublin, formerly provincial

CHURCH IN IRELAND
of the English Augustinian friars, but
Cromer, archbishop of Armagh, was the
leader of the opposition, which was pro
moted by the agents of the pope, who also
instigated some of the disaffected chieftains
to try and regain their independence by
rising on behalf of the Papal claims.
Nevertheless the Irish Parliament recog
nised the royal supremacy in 1537 ; the
monasteries were dissolved; and it was
enacted that benefices should be conferred
only on persons who could speak English,
and that English should be taught in all
the parish schools.
The first Prayer Book of Edward VI. was,
after some opposition, accepted, and used
for the first time in Christ Church Cathe
dral, Dublin, on Easter-day, 1551. Dow
dall, the archbishop of Armagh, who had
been the principal leader of the opposition,
went into exile, and the Primacy, by order
of council, was transferred to the see of
Dublin. John Bale, originally a Carmelite
friar, was appointed to the see of Ossory
in 1553, and became a vehement champion
of the Reformation. Under Mary, the Papal
authority was re-established in Ireland.
Under Elizabeth, the Acts of supremacy
and of uniformity were passed by the Irish
Parliament in 1560, only two out of the
whole body of Irish prelates openly dis
senting; but unfortunately the difficulty
of translating and printing the liturgy in
Erse was found to be so formidable that the
clergy, if ignorant of English, were still
permitted to say the offices in Latin. There
was no translation of the New Testament
into Irish before 1603, and even then it
was only a private enterprise on the part of
two learned bishops. The attempts made
in the reign of Elizabeth to civilise the
country by placing the whole under one
system of law, were resented by the sel
fishness of the English in the Pale and of
the native chieftains outside it. The revolt
of O'Neil was only one of a series which
disturbed the reign of Elizabeth. They were
diligently fomented by the Popes Pius V.
and Gregory XIII., and strengthened by
intrigues with France and Spain. The
people, being very ignorant, poor, and
entirely subject to their hereditary lords,
were easily persuaded that Romanism was
the only true form of Christianity, and that
to fight the English, who were opposed to
it, was a sacred duty. On the other hand,
the revolts were suppressed with barbarous
severity, and punished by large confis
cations of the soil. These harsh measures
cannot be justified, but are not to be won
dered at, considering that the revolts were
made under the sanction of Roman pontiffs,
who had issued bulls deposing the Queen,
absolving her subjects from their alle-

CHURCH IN IRELAND

173

giance, and promising remission of sins to
all who should rise in rebellion against her ;
and although misgovernment, and a long
train of wrongs may be pleaded as extenua
ting circumstances, it remains an unde
niable fact that the Roman Catholic Church
in Ireland had its origin in political re
bellion, and in schism from the ancient
Catholic Church of the country. The
bishops of the Reformed Church are de
scended by a regular line of succession from
St. Patrick, whereas the Roman prelates
derive their origin from the pope in the
reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
The Irish Church unfortunately became
largely infected with the Puritanism which
in the reign of Elizabeth was a source ot
much trouble in the Church of England.
In 1615 the Irish Convocation drew up a
series of articles strongly Calvinistic in
tone, but in 1635 they accepted the
English 39 Articles. The English Prayer
Book was translated, but it did not obtain
any public sanction, and was very rarely
used. In fact, the Eeformed Church in
Ireland never became the Church of the
Irish people, and one main cause of the
great rebellion of 1641 was their belief that
it was the intention of the English to
extirpate the Roman Catholic religion.
This conviction was deepened by the action
of the English Parliament after the out
break of the rebellion, when it voted that
no toleration of the Romish faith should
henceforth be granted in Ireland. Large
tracts of land were at the same time
bestowed on English adventurers, who had
raised small sums to aid in the subjugation
of the country. And thus the insurrection
became a fierce struggle for religious and.
agrarian rights, and the barbarous cruelty
with which it was suppressed by Cromwell,.
the ejection of native landowners, and sub
sequently the iniquitous provisions of tho
Act of Settlement embittered the hatred of
Protestantism and the English. During the
reigns, however, of Charles II. and James IL,
the country was gradually becoming more-
settled, when it was again upset by the
Revolution of 1689 ; the Irish naturally
supporting the cause of James, as the
friend of the more popular Church.
The victory of William extinguished the
last hope of religious equality in Ireland.
In Scotland Presbyterianism was established,
because it was the religion of the great
majority of the people. In Ireland the-
established Church was the Church of the
people in one sense only — that they paid
for it. Its adherents were less than one
seventh of the population. The real re
ligion of the people was oppressed by penal
laws, which surrounded the Roman Catholic
worship with the most humiliating restrio-

174 CHUECH IN IRELAND
tions, condemned the bishops and clergy to
poverty, shut out the 'laity from every kind
of political and municipal office, and all
the learned professions, except medicine,
thus paralysing industry, and driving the
best men out of the country. The tithes
for the support of tbe established Church
were wrung with difficulty from a reluctant
and impoverished people, and consequently
many of the Protestant clergy were op
pressed by poverty. All the best benefices
were bestowed on Englishmen, generally as
a reward for political services. Many in
cumbents lived in Dublin, instead of re
siding on their benefices, and owing to
pluralities and non-residence large districts
were destitute of all pastoral care. Some
of the bishops, such as Bishop Berkeley and
Archbishop King, were men of whom any
Church might well be proud, but the
majority were politicians rather than
fathers of the Church, and most of them
were non-resident, or, if they did reside in
their dioceses, lived less like bishops than
luxurious country gentlemen. After the
final downfall of the Jacobite cause in
1745, the condition of the Roman Catholics
slowly improved. The penal laws were
mitigated in 1778. Pitt proposed endow
ment of their clergy in 1799, but without
success. In 1800 the Act of Union for the
two kingdoms was passed, and by the fifth
article of union it was ordained that " the
Churches of England and Ireland as now
by law established be united into one
Protestant 'Episcopal Church, to be called
'the United Church of England and Ire
land.' " The number of the Irish sees had
been gradually reduced by a process of
amalgamation from 32 to 22. In the
year 1833 it was brought down to 12 by
the suppression of 10 sees, and provision
was made partly out of their revenues,
partly out of a tax on benefices above £200
a year, for the vestry cess (a charge similar
to church rates), for the building of
churches and parsonages, and the aug
mentation of small livings. The greatest
grievance, however, was the tithe ; the
great majority of the tithe-payers being
Roman Catholics. It had generally to be
collected by force, the cost of collection
often exceeded the amount raised, and
many of the clergy were consequently
reduced to the greatest poverty. A tithe
bill was passed in 1834, by which the
tithe was to be converted into rent-charge
payable by the landlord, and in the same
year a commission was appointed to in
vestigate the general condition of the Irish-
Church. In the following year Lord John
Russell moved that the temporalities of the
Irish Church should be considered by a
committee of the whole House, and, in

CHURCH IN IRELAND
committee, he proposed that any surplus
which might remain alter fully providing
for the spiritual instruction of members of
the establishment, should be applied to the
general education of all classes of Chris
tians. A biR embodying this proposal
passed the Commons, but the appropriation
clauses were rejected by the House of
Lords. There was a growing conviction
however in the public mind that an esta
blished Church, which had existed for
many centuries, and yet comprised barely
one-seventh of the whole population, was in
a false position. A system of " concurrent
endowment," by which the Roman Catho
lics, the Protestant Episcopalians, and the
Presbyterians, would have been propor
tionally benefited, seemed to many the
most equitable way of redressing the
balance. But English Protestant prejudice
rendered any measure of that kind im
practicable. On the 30th of March, 1868,
Mr. Disraeli being then Prime Minister,
Mr. Gladstone moved his three celebrated
resolutions in favour of disestablishing the
Irish.Church. After a debate, lasting over
eleven nights, the first of these was carried
by a majority of sixty-five. Parliament
was dissolved in the following autumn ; and
as the result of the elections showed -that
there would be a large majority for the
Opposition in the new parliament, Mr.
Disraeli resigned, and Mr. Gladstone formed
a now ' administration. On the 1st of
March, 1869, he introduced his measure
for the disestablishment and partial dis-
endowment of the Irish Church. After
protracted debates the bill passed both
Houses, and became law on July 26, when
the royal assent was given. By this Act
the political union between the Churches of
England and Ireland was dissolved. After
January 1st, 1871, the Church of Ireland
ceased to be an established Church, and its
property, subject to life interests, became
confiscated to the future disposal of Par
liament. The ecclesiastical courts were
abolished, but the ecclesiastical laws, arti
cles, &c, were to remain provisionally in
force, until modified or altered by the
Church itself. The Church was to be
governed by a representative body or con
vention of elected clergy and laity, which
the Queen was authorised to incorporate
with power to hold lands and other pro
perty for the benefit of the Church. In
1877 this convention (or synod, as it is
called) revised the Book of Common Prayer.
The principal 'alterations made were the
following — (i.) The rubric directing the use
of the Athanasian Creed is omitted, al
though the Creed itself is retained, (ii.) The
special absolution in the " Visitation of the
Sick " is omitted as " unknown in ancient

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND
times," and the form in the Communion
Service is substituted for it; yet with a
curious inconsistency the passage in the
Ordinal for Priests, "Receive the Holy
Ghost," &c, is retained intact, (iii.) All
the lessons from the Apocrypha are omitted.
(iv.) A rubric at the end of the Communion
Service allows the words of administration
to be said to a whole railful of communi
cants, " provided that they be said separately
to any communicant so desiring it." How
or when he is to express his desire is not
explained, (v.) The " Ornaments Rubric "
is expunged. A few new services have been
added for special occasions, as a harvest
thanksgiving, and consecration of a church
and burial-ground. A body of statutes and
canons was framed by the convention in
1879, too numerous to be quoted here.
The 36th canon forbids the erection of a
cross, ornamental or otherwise, on the com
munion table, or on the covering thereof,
nor shall a cross be. erected or depicted on
the wall or other structure behind the
communion table " ; and there are some other
regulations respecting public worship which
it is to be hoped wiR some day be modified
under the influence of a larger and more
tolerant spirit. Meanwhile, in all the most
essential and vital articles of the faith, the
Church of Ireland may still be regarded as
in full communion with the Church of
England. — Haddan and Stubbs, vol. ii.pt. 2 ;
Soames' Mosheim (Stubbs' Edition), vol. iii. ;
Hard wick's History of the Reformation;
Eccles. Histories of Ireland, by Brenan
(Rom. Cath.) ; Mant (Prot. Episc.) ; Reid
and Killen's (Presbyterian) ; Lecky's Hist.
of England, vol. ii., chaps, vi. and vii.)
[W. R. W. S.]
CHURCH IN SCOTLAND. In speaking
of the origin of the Church in Scotland, it
must be borne in mind that the Scots did
not migrate from Ireland into North Britain
before the beginning of the 6th century, and
that they then occupied only a small part of
the country, which afterwards was called by
their name. The first founder of the
Scottish Church, strictly speaking, was St.
Columba, who crossed from Ireland in 563,
but it may be convenient just to glance at
some earlier missionary efforts north of the
Tweed, partly because they prepared the way
for St. Columba's work, and. partly because
the regions in which they were carried on
ultimately became incorporated with the
kingdom of Scotland. Passing by some
vague traditions respecting the conversion of
North Britain in the third century, the first
trustworthy fact to start from is the mission
of St. Ninian early in the fifth century. He
was bom probably in Galloway or Cumber
land, of Christian parents, visited Eome,
was trained in the. doctrine and discipline of

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND 175
the Roman Church, consecrated bishop by
Pope Siricius a.d. 397, and returning to his
native country, built a church of stone at
Candida Casa (Whitehom) and founded a
monastery there. He laboured first amongst
the Britons in the province of Valentia — the
country between the two Roman walls — and
afterwards converted the Southern Picts, the
people who dwelt between the Grampians
and the Forth. — Bede, iii. 4 ; iv. 26.
St. Ninian's work was carried on after his
death (circa 432) by Palladius, a Roman
missionary who had accompanied Germanus
and Lupus to Britain for the suppression of
Pelagianism, and had afterwards crossed to
Ireland, but not being successful in his
missionary efforts there, went over to
North Britain and settled at Fordun in the
Mearns. He and his disciples and successors,
St. Serf, St. Ternan, and St. Kentigern,
strengthened and extended the work which
Ninian had begun. Kentigern was con
temporary with St. Columba, and the two
missionary abbots met near the site of the
modern Glasgow and exchanged pastoral
staves in token of friendship. St. Columba,
abbot of Durrow in Ireland, was connected
by birth with the reigning prince of the
Dalriad Scots, who early in the sixth century
had crossed from Ireland and settled in
Argyllshire. In 563 Columba arrived with
twelve companions and established his
monastery in Iona, which had been probably
given him by the Scottish prince Conal. A
small wooden church and a few wretched
huts clustering round it in the little storm-
beat island formed the humble germ from
which the Church of Scotland sprang. St.
Columba and his companions laboured with
impartial zeal amongst the Scots, the Picts,
and the English of Northumbria. The
Northern Picts were now first converted to
the faith, and Iona became the Christian
metropolis of their kingdom as well as of the
Dalriad Scots. St. Columba died June 9,
597, aged 76, very soon after the landing of
St. Augustine in Kent.
After the defeat of _!th.elfrith, king of
Northumbria, in 617, by Redwald, king of
the East Angles, his sons took refuge at
Iona, and this led to a close connexion
between the Scotch monastery and the
Northumbrian kingdom, for when one of
the exiles, Oswald, became king in 635, he
applied to Iona for an evangelist to teach
his people Christianity, and the holy Aidan
was sent, who fixed his see at Lindisfarne.
This again afterwards led to missionaries of
Scottish origin or training being sent into
the midland and eastern parts of England,
so that we may say the influence of the
Scottish Church was felt from the Orkneys
to the Thames.
Early in the 9th century the Danes began

176.

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND

to ravage the west coast of Scotland. In
825 they attacked Iona and murdered an
abbot as he was officiating at the altar.
The relics of. St. Columba, however, had
already been removed. For some years
they were carried about from place to
place for safety, but after the union of the
Picts and Scots under one king, Kenneth
MacAlpin, in 843, they were settled at
Dunkeld, which became the ecclesiastical
metropolis of North Britain about 849, and
so remained until 905, when the primacy
was transferred to St. Andrew's.
The Church thus established in Scotland
was remarkably independent of the See of
Rome. It was in agreement, however, with
the Western Church on all vital points of
doctrine, but differed from it in the mode of
reckoning Easter, in the fashion of the ton
sure, and in some few liturgical matters :
and the greatest peculiarity of all was the
supremacy of the abbots. They were the
chief rulers of the Church, the bishops being
subordinate to them except in the discharge
of purely episcopal functions such as ordi
nation and comfirmation. The bishops had
not fixed dioceses, and the succession seems
to have been one of the order only, not of
jurisdiction within prescribed limits.
These peculiarities were abolished by
King Malcolm Canmore and his English
wife Margaret, the granddaughter of Edmund
Ironside, in the 11th century (1070-1089),
with the advice and assistance of Lanfranc
archbishop of Canterbury. An irregular
order of clergy called Keledei (contracted
into Culdees) who were for the most part
married men and transmitted their ecclesi
astical property to their families, were
gradually suppressed and their places sup
plied by properly organised bodies of monks
or canons.
David (afterwards canonised), the son of
Malcolm and Margaret, carried on the work
which his parents had begun. He founded
the Abbey of Holyrood and many other
monastic houses, and revived or established
several episcopal sees, including Dunblane,
Brechin, Aberdeen, Ross, Caithness, and
Glasgow. When he died in 1153 the
organisation of the Scottish Church had
been brought into conformity with that of
the rest of Western Christendom. The
claim for metropolitan rights over Scotland
was disputed during the twelfth century
between York and Canterbury until Pope
Clement III. took advantage of the strife to
assert his own supremacy, and declared the
Scottish Church (in 1188) to be directly
dependent on the Roman See and on that
alone. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
the clergy took an active part in the
national struggle against England, andin the

CHUECH IN SCOTLAND
succeeding conflicts between the kings and
the nobility they invariably supported the
Crown. Their active participation in war
and secular affairs- lowered their moral cha
racter and weakened their moral influence,
but increased their political importance.
The monastic houses, however, in Scotland
as elsewhere, in an ignorant and barbarous
age, were the principal centres of learning
and civilisation ; and the foundation of the
universities of St. Andrew's, Glasgow, and
Aberdeen, in the fifteenth century, was
due to bishops of those sees. In 1471 Pope
Sixtus IV. erected St. Andrew's into the
Metropolitan See for all Scotland, including
the See of Man and the southern isles
(Suderei)and the Orkneys and other northern
isles (Norderei) which had formerly been
subject to the archbishop of Drontheim in
Norway. Glasgow was made an archiepi
scopal see twenty years later, and for a long
time there was much strife between the two
archbishoprics, to the great injury of the
Church and realm. In no country did the
corruptions of the mediaeval Church grow to
a greater height than in Scotland : and in
no country was the revolt against them
more thorough, or more violently conducted.
The issue of the struggle was not a reforma
tion but a destruction of the Church. The
Lollards and Wycliffites do not seem to
have been numerous or powerful in Scotland,
but Lutheran doctrines soon obtained a firm.
hold upon the public mind. The first
person put to death for teaching these
principles was Patrick Hamilton, in 1528 ;
and after this trials and executions for heresy
were frequent. Cardinal Beaton, archbishop
of St. Andrew's, was the chief promoter of
these prosecutions and of alliance with
France after the death of James V. The
reforming party was aided by Henry VIII.,
who had designs for marrying his son Edward
to the young Queen Mary, daughter of
James V., and subjugating Scotland. An
English army under the Earl of Hertford
ravaged the Lowlands and destroyed many
of the great abbeys, including Holyrood and
Melrose. The execution of George Wishart
in 1544 at St. Andrew's, one of the most
powerful and popular preachers of Lutheran
doctrine, exasperated the people, and Cardi
nal Beaton was murdered, in 1546, in the
castle of St. Andrew's. The assassins held
the castle against a besieging force for a
year, when it was taken with the aid of the
French. Amongst the prisoners was John
Knox, a disciple of George Wishart. After
a captivity of nineteen months in the French
galleys he was released, and sojourned for
a time in England. He paid a short visit to
Scotland in 1556, after which he resided at
Geneva till 1559, when he returned to Scot
land and became the vehement leader of the-

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND
reforming party there. A violent sermon
which he preached at Perth soon after his
return, against idolatry, led to a riot, which
was followed by a series of destructive
attacks on the monastic houses in various
parts of the country. A Confession of
Faith and a Book of Discipline, both of them
based upon Lutheran principles, were com
posed by Knox and four others, and ratified
by Parliament in 1560. Tbe Book of
Common Order, also framed by Knox, and
containing some meagre forms for public
worship and the administration of the
sacraments, supplanted the Book of Common
Prayer about 1565. Episcopacy was prac
tically abolished by the Book of Discipline,
for although appointments were made to the
sees for some years afterwards, and the so-
called bishops sat in Parliament, they exer
cised no spiritual functions. In 1580 these
titular bishoprics were condemned by the
General Assembly. A second Confession of
Faith and second Book of Discipline were
compiled, by which the Presbyterian system
was more thoroughly established, and these
provisions were ratified by Parliament in
1592. James VI., however, (I. of England)
succeeded in reviving Episcopacy for a time.
At a Parliament held in December, 1597, it
was agreed that any ministers provided by
the king to the office of bishop, abbot, or
other prelate, should have a vote in Parlia
ment as freely as any other prelate in times
past ; but the General Assembly, held at
Montrose in 1600, passed a resolution that
each one of the persons appointed to these
offices should be selected out of six nomi
nated by the Church, should receive their
instructions from the Assembly and give
an account to it of their proceedings. In
1609 bishops were admitted as presidents
or moderators of diocesan synods, and con
sistorial jurisdiction was restored to them.
None of the bishops, howeyer, had yet been
properly consecrated, the old line of succes
sion having been Iqst, and consequently,- in
1610; three, were consecrated in London by
the bishops of London, Ely, Rochester,, and
Worcester. At the General Assembly held
at Perth in 1618, it was , resolved that the
Holy Communion, should be received kneel
ing; the baptism- of infants, the catechiz
ing of children, and the observance of the
chief religious festivals was enjoined. An:
Ordinal was framed in 1620 on the English-
model, and thee English Liturgy was used
here and there, but Knox's Book of Common
Order more generally prevailed, and alto
gether, both in the worship and govern
ment of the Church, there was a curious
mixture of Episcopalian and Presbyterian
elements. Charles I. was unsuccessful in
his attempts to recover those lands of the

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND

177

Church which had passed into the hands of
lay impropriators, but he settled the pay
ment of tithes on an equitable footing, and
the Perth Articles were becoming more
generally observed, when the hope of a
peaceful settlement was frustrated by the
ill-advised attempts of the king to force
upon the Church a Book of Canons published
(in 1635) merely by bis own authority and
that of the bishops, to revive a Court of
High Commission which had been ex
tremely unpopular in his father's time, and
lastly, in 1637, to introduce the Book of
Common Prayer, and enforce its use. This
was the immediate provocation of rebellion.
The National Covenant framed in 1638 was
signed at Edinburgh by an immense multi
tude who pledged themselves to defend what
they called " the true Reformed Religion "
against all innovations and corruptions. The
king, with incredible weakness, consented
to revoke the Service Book, the Book of
Canons, and the High Commission, and
even disallowed the observance of the Perth
Articles, although they had been enjoined
by an Act of Parliament. The Covenanters
rapidly increased in numbers and power, and
even the forms of worship adopted in the
time of Knox were abandoned ; Episcopacy
was condemned by the General Assembly
in November 1638, and the bishops deposed.
The king visited Scotland in 1641, sanc
tioned all that had been done by the Cove
nanters, and in fact established Presby
terian forms of worship and government.
The solemn league and covenant by which
the Scotch and English bound themselves
" to labour to bring the Churches in the three
kingdoms to the nearest conjunction and
uniformity in religion, and to endeavour the
extirpation of popery, prelacy, superstition,"
&c, was drawn up in the General Assembly
and passed by the English and Scotch
Parliaments in 1643. The Confession of
Faith and the Directory of Public Worship
drawn up by the mixed Assembly of Seotch
and English ¦ divines at Westminster in
1644, were approved and adopted by the
General Assembly in Scotland in the fol
lowing year.
With the extinction of the hierarchy and
of an orthodox liturgy and orthodox
standards of faith and worship the Church
of Scotland ceased to exist. It was revived
after the restoration of Charles IL, when
Episcopacy was re-established, and diocesan
synods were constituted, but very little was
effected in the way of liturgical reform.
After the Revolution of 1688 the Scotch
bishops and most of tbe clergy declined to
acknowledge William III., conceiving them
selves bound by their oaths to uphold the
house of Stewart. They were consequently
deprived ; and in 1690 Presbyterianism was
K

178

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND

formally established in Scotland by Parlia
ment, and the Westminster Confession
declared to be the standard of faith. The
Church was never completely extinguished,
although reduced for a time to a state of
deep depression. The bishops lived in se
clusion. In 1704 only five out of the origi
nal number of fourteen were remaining, and
to preserve the succession two more were con
secrated, and again two more in 1709, but
they were without sees. An Act of Tolera
tion was passed in 1712 for Episcopal clergy
who were willing to take the oaths of alle
giance and abjuration ; but after the Jacobite
rising of 1715, which was supported by
many of the Episcopalians, an Act was
passed (1719) which prohibited divine
service being held where more than nine
persons were present, unless George I. and
the royal family were prayed for by name.
With the death of Bishop Rose of Edin
burgh in 1720 the line of prelates who exer
cised any diocesan jurisdiction came to an
end, and the remaining bishops then formed
themselves into a college which elected
one of their number to be primus, but with
out metropolitan authority.
The Jacobite insurrection of 1745 was fol
lowed by very severe penal laws against the
clergy, although they do not appear to have
been largely concerned in it. By the Act
of 1746, clergy who officiated without having
taken the oaths, and registered their letters
of orders, or who refused to pray for the
king and. royal family, were liable to be
imprisoned six months for the first offence,
and for the second to be transported for
life, and they were forbidden to celebrate
divine service in any place where more than
four persons in addition to the household
were assembled. The numbers of the Church
were greatly diminished by these harsh
measures. After the accession, however, of
George III. in 1760 the penal laws were in
abeyance ; churches began to be built, and
the clergy ventured to discharge their duties
more openly. In 1764 a new edition of the
Scotch Communion Office was published.
(See Scotch Communion Office.) In 1784,
after the declaration of American Indepen
dence, Dr. Seabury, who had been elected
bishop by the clergy of Connecticut, was
consecrated at Aberdeen (November 14) by
the Scotch primus and two other bishops,
legal and political objections having been
raised to the consecration being performed
by English bishops. (See Church in
America.) Prince Charles Stewart died in 1788, after
which all Episcopalians agreed to pray for
King George. A deputation of Scotch bishops
went to London, 1789, to petition relief from
the penal statutes, which, after considerable
delay, chiefly owing to the opposition cf

CHURCH IN SCOTLAND
Lord Chancellor Thurlow, were at last re
pealed in 1792, but the Act declared Scotch
clergy incapable of holding any benefice' in
England, or even of officiating in any church
in England, unless they had been ordained
by an English or Irish bishop, and this
ridiculous disability was not removed till
the year 1840, and even then not without
some restrictions.
The Church in Scotland is administered
by a college of seven bishops having- dio
cesan jurisdiction, and is in thorough con
cord with the Church of England indocftiDe
and forms of worship. The Scotch Com
munion Office indeed differs from the Eng
lish, but like the English, it is based upon
primitive Catholic models, and in some
respects conforms more closely to them.
(See Liturgy, and Scotch Communion
Office.) J. Hill Burton, History of Scot
land ; George Grub, Ecclesiastical History
of Scotland ; Hardwick, Church History.
[W.R. W. S.]
CHURCH IN SCOTLAND, LAW OF:
The legal disabilities of the clergy of the
Scotch Episcopal Church since its revival
have been due to two causes; first, their
having been non-jurors after the Revolution
of 1688, and notoriously siding with the
Pretender in 1745. A Toleration Act- for
them had been passed in 10 Anne, c. 7, but
in 1746 and 1748 that was overridden by
two Acts which prohibited their congre
gations except under clergymen ordained in
England. But those again were repealed in
1792, provided that every minister pray for
the king as in England and take the oaths
prescribed and subscribe the 39 Articles.
That Act still prohibited them from offi
ciating here, as it also did clergymen or
dained here for the Colonies ; and a fortiori
those ordained in the Colonies. (See Chwch
in the Colonies.) The second cause was
their adoption and retention of several
variations from the consecration prayer in
the communion service. The first, which
was called Laud's, of 1637, reverted sub
stantially to the first Prayer Book of Ed
ward VI. which only lasted three years
here. But the second Scotch service 'of
1764, which had no royal authority, went
still further backwards towards transuh-
stantiation by making the consecration
prayer run thus : " We most humbly be
seech thee to bless and sanctify with thy
word and Holy Spirit these the creatures of
bread and wine, that they may become the
body and blood of thy most dearly beloved
Son," instead of the 1549 and 1637 form-
" that they may be unto «s the body," &o.\
while all our Prayer Books since 1552 have
had no prayer for consecration at all, but
only the recital of the original words of
institution of the communion. The Scotch

CHUECH IN SCOTLAND
Canons of 1811 ordered that the service of
1764 should be used at consecrations and
synods, i.e. on their most solemn occasions.
But some new canons in 1863 practically
leave the choice between that and ours to
the minister and congregation, and now ours
is to be «used on the great occasions, just
reversing the former position.
As there has long ceased to be any doubt
about the loyalty of the Scotch Episco
palians, and as their clergy must not use
their special communion office here, nor are
bound to use it at home, the restrictions
upon their admission to officiate here have
been more and more relaxed. The Acts
now in force for that purpose are chiefly
27 & 38 Vict. c. 94, which enacts that no
one ordained by a Scotch bishop may hold
any benefice or curacy in England without
the leave of the bishop of that diocese, and
without subscribing as he would have had
to do in an English ordination, unless he
has already held an English benefice. The
year before that, viz. in 1863, Bishop
Trower, who had been consecrated in Scot
land, was appointed by letters patent bishop
of Gibraltar, which recited that he having
been already canonically consecrated could
not be consecrated again, and therefore the
archbishop of Canterbury was only to ad
minister to him the oaths of allegiance and
supremacy and of canonical obedience to
himself as metropolitan (set out in full in
Phill. Ecc. Law, 2228). 37 & 38 Vict.
c 77, though called the Colonial Clergy
Act, 1874, relates both to Colonial and
Scotch clergy, and allows any " bishop in
-communion with the Church of England"
to ordain by request and commission from
the bishop of any English diocese under
15 & 16 Vict. c. 52, which would doubtless
include American bishops if so requested
and commissioned (sect. 8). The Act is
drawn with the usual clumsiness and invo
lution and complication by reference to
other Acts; and it is in form mainly
prohibitory, though practically permissive.
Sect. 6 annuls all appointments, admissions,
and institutions to ecclesiastical preferment
here which are contrary to the Act, and
sect. 7 imposes a penalty on all persons offi
ciating contrary to it. Sect. 3 enacts that
no person ordained by any but the bishop
-of an English diocese (and perhaps Irish) or
his commissary (by sect. 8) shall officiate
here without the licence of the archbishop
¦of the province, and without subscribing
this declaration adapted from the Clerical
Subscription Act, 1865: "I assent to the
459 Articles and the Book of Common
Prayer ; I believe the doctrine of the Church
of England as therein set forth to be agree
able to the word of God ; and while mini
stering in England I will use the form in

CHURCH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S. 179
the said book and no other." The bishop's
licence is also requisite by general law.
Nor, by s. 4, may clergymen not ordained
by our bishops or their commissaries hold -
any curacy or proferment without the li
cence of the bishop : i.e. they cannot claim
institution on merely being presented by a
patron. It is to be observed that this in
cludes ordinees of Roman or Greek bishops,
who are popularly supposed to require no
thing more than a profession of conversion,
or some kind of reception into our Church —
a process unknown to our law, though forms
of it are given in some books. Whether
the words of the preface to the ordination
services and the Act of Uniformity, " unless
he hath formerly had episcopal ordination,"
were or were not intended to include Roman
or Greek clergy, they have always been
assumed to include Roman ones, and were
said to do so by Lord Lyndhurst (but obiter,
or as no necessary part of the judgment) in
R. v. Millis, H. L., 10 CI. & Fin. 534 (the
Irish marriage case). The late enactment.
of 1874 seems to have rendered that question
immaterial now. Ordinees of American
bishops are at least equally included, and
the condition in all cases is the licence of
the bishop of the dioceses and archbishop of
the province. Moreover by s. 5 such foreign
ordinees may have a perpetual licence from
the archbishop, in a form prescribed, after
holding any curacy or benefice for two
years, and then become on the same footing
with the English clergy. [G.]
CHURCH, THE PROTESTANT EPI
SCOPAL, IN THE UNITED STATES
OF AMEEICA. Before the revolt of the
colonies in America, and the declaration of
Independence, the Church had only a pre
carious existence in that country. The first
band of English colonists who landed in
Virginia in 1607 were Episcopalians, and
brought a chaplain with them who had
been approved by Archbishop Bancroft ; but
a body of Puritans who landed in 1620 at
Cape Cod, in New England, were the
founders of a community which was exceed
ingly hostile to prelacy. In most of the
charters, indeed, granted to the several
colonies there was a stipulation that
Christianity should be supported according
to the forms of the Church of England ; but
it was scarcely possible to observe the stipu
lation, because there was no resident bishop.
All the colonies were nominally subject to
the Bishop of London's jurisdiction. Com
missaries were appointed by him from time
to time, but their authority was feeble aud
dubious. New parishes were not formed,
churches were not consecrated, missions for
the conversion of the Indians were not
established, children could not be comfirmed,
and candidates seeking ordination had
N 2

180 CHURCH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S.
to make a perilous voyage of six or seven
weeks to England, where many of them fell
victims to the small-pox — a disease singu
larly fatal at that time to persons who
crossed the Atlantic from the West, Queen
Anne had intended to endow four bishoprics
in North America, and a sum of money
derived from the sale of land in St. Chris
topher's had been set apart for the purpose,
but the design was frustrated by her death.
The Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts, and many eminent
and zealous prelates, including Archbishop
Seeker, Bishops Berkeley, Butler, Sherlock,
Terrick, Louth and Gibson, repeatedly urged
the great need of a bishop for America on
the attention of the English government,
and their representations were backed by
petitions from the clergy and laity in many
of the colonies. But all their efforts were
vain. " Foreigners occupied the throne :
the court, including the royal mistresses, was
ruled by foreigners : and the single object
of our only great minister until the appear
ance of Pitt was to defeat the measures of
the Pretender. The imbecility of Walpole's
successors was proved by the loss of the
Colonies." In spite of all disadvantages, however,
Church principles made some progress in
America, and a decided impulse had been
given to- them in 1722, when an able and
learned man named Samuel Johnson, the
first president of King's College in New
York, seceded from Presbyterianism with
several other Presbyterian ministers, and
crossed the Atlantic to seek ordination at
the hands of English bishops. After the
war of Independence it was obviously
impossible that the ecclesiastical connexion
of America with the See of London could be
even nominally maintained. The first step
taken for the organization of the Church was
at a meeting at New Brunswick in May
1784, attended by a few of the clergy from
Hew York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
The union of the Churches throughout the
States was only an incidental topic at the
meeting, but it led to another being held in
October at New York, in which some general
principles were agreed upon as the ground on
which a future ecclesiastical government
should be established. It was also recom
mended that the several States should send
clerical and lay deputies to a meeting to be
held in Philadelphia on September 27th in
the following year. Meanwhile the clergy of
Connecticut, had independently elected for
their own bishop a man named Samuel
Seabury, the son of a New England J?resby-
terian who had gone over to the Church.
Samuel Seabury had been a missionary of
the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel, and had received an Oxford degree

CHURCH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S.
of Doctor in Divinity by diploma in 1777
for his services to the Episcopal cause in his
own country. He arrived in London in
1784 with credentials and testimonials from
the clergy of Connecticut and a petition for
consecration. He was cordially received by
the Bishop of London and other English'
prelates, but they shrank from the respon
sibility of consecrating him, partly on
political, partly on legal grounds; more
especially aa the See of Canterbury hap
pened at the time to be vacant. In this
perplexity a son of Bishop Berkeley, who
had inherited his father's zeal for the
cause of the Church in America, recom
mended Dr. Seabury to apply for consecra
tion to the bishops qf the Church of Scotland.
They were quite willing to comply with his
request, but the abject condition to which
they had been reduced by the penal laws
which oppressed their Church rendered them
afraid to proceed to consecration until1 they
had been assured of the approbation of the
English bishops. This having been given,
Dr. Seabuiy was consecrated by three
Scottish prelates at Aberdeen on November
14, 1784, and landed in his native country
early in the following summer.
The independent action of tho clergy of
Connecticut in obtaining a bishop without
consultation with the other States, although
not altogether approved by them, was not
seriously resented, but it was determined to
proceed more regularly in future. The first
general convention composed of clerical and
lay deputies from seven States out of thirteen,
being New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South
Carolina, assembled on September 25, 1785.
Articles of union were passed, several
alterations in the Liturgy were proposed, and
an address to the English bishops was drawn
up, thanking them for their past favours
received through the Society for the Propa
gation of the Gospel, and praying them to
consecrate such persons as might be sent
over for that purpose after being duly elected
to the Episcopate. In June, 1786, the
convention met again in Philadelphia. The
two English archbishops and eighteen
bishops had meanwhile returned a favour
able reply to the American address, but
objected to some of the proposed changes in
the Liturgy, and to one point in the con
stitution. The latter was rectified by the
convention then sitting, and the former was
reserved for reconsideration at a special
convention in October, and was (hen ex
punged. Application was then made to England
for the consecration of three bishops. Dr.
Provoost for New York, Dr. White for
Pennsylvania, and Dr. Griffith for Virginia.
The latter, however, was too poor to pay the

CHUECH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S.
expenses of the voyage ; the other two set
sail on November 2, 1786, and were conse
crated at Lambeth on February 4, 1787, by
the Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Moore,
assisted by Dr. Markham, Archbishop of
York, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, and
the Bishop of Peterborough, an Act of Parlia
ment having been obtained authorising
episcopal consecration for foreign countries.
They quitted England before the end of the
month, and landed at New York on Easter
Day (April 7), a happy omen of the resusci
tation of the Church in the New World.
In July, 1789, the convention again as
sembled ; the episcopacy of Bishops White
and Provoost was recognised, the constitution
of 1786 was revised, terms of union with
Bishop Seabury and the northern clergy
were happily arranged, and the Communion
Office was brought nearly , to its present
form. In 1790 Dr. , Madison was conse
crated Bishop of Virginia by the Archbishop
of Canterbury at Lambeth. There being
now three bishops of the English succession
and one of the Scotch in America, there was
no longer any need to repair to the mother
country for the continuation and extension
of the episcopacy. Accordingly the line
of American consecration was opened in 1792
by the four bishops uniting in the consecra
tion of Dr. Claggett, elected bishop of
Maryland. In 1795 Dr. Smith was conse
crated for South Carolina, in 1797 the
Eeverend Edward Bass for Massachusetts,
and in the same year Dr. Jarvis for Con
necticut, that diocese having become vacant
by the death of Bishop Seabury. From
that time the consecration of bishops has
proceeded according to the needs of the
Church without any impediment to the
present day. Thus was founded the
Reformed or Anglo-Catholic Church in
America under the title of the Protestant
Episcopal Church : Protestant as opposed
to the See of Rome ; Episcopal as deriving
its descent from the Apostles through the
succession of its ministers. By the close
of the eighteenth century it was in a state
of complete organization. It was still
regarded by many, either on religious or
political grounds, with jealousy and sus
picion ; but by scrupulously avoiding all
direct interference with State politics, and
by strictly adhering to its principles, it
gradually and quietly worked its way into a
prominent rank amongst the religious
denominations of the country, especially
attracting well-educated and sober-minded
people who recoiled from the extravagant
and absurd doctrines and practices of the
fanatical sects which abounded in America.
A new departure in the history of the
Church dates from the Episcopate of John
Henry Hobart, who was consecrated bishop

CHUECH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S. 181
of New York on May 29, 1811, at the early
age of 36. This remarkable man by his
great ability, and indefatigable zeal infused
a fresh spirit into the somewhat languishing
energies of the Church. At first he had to
encounter a great deal of obloquy and oppo
sition, but by degrees friends rallied round
him, and long before his death he could
reckon amongst his supporters some who
had been at one time his bitterest opponents.
It was through his efforts that the General
Theological Seminary was established (1817-
1821), and afterwards a Domestic and
Foreign Missionary Society (1835). These
were followed by ,the diocesan seminaries
of Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky ; measures
were taken for building up the Church, west
of the Alleghany mountains, and in other
parts of the country where hitherto it had
maintained only a feeble existence ; and in
fact the American Church became from that
time a great missionary organization, ex
tending her operations not only to the more
remote districts of the American continent,
but to the most distant parts of the world.
With the Church of England she has
continually remained on terms of the most
cordial sympathy. In 1841, Dr. Doane,
the bishop of New Jersey, preached at the
consecration of the Parish Church in Leeds.
He was the first bishop from the American
Republic who ever officiated in England.
In 1852, the American Church, in token of
her connexion with the Church of England,
and of gratitude for benefits received from
the Society for Propagating the Gospel when
the American States were part of the British
dominions, deputed Bishop McCoskry, of
Michigan, and Bishop de Lancey, of Western
New York, to attend the third Jubilee of the
Society. They were warmly welcomed, and
the Bishop of Michigan preached the Jubilee
sermon in St. Paul's Cathedral. A few
months later the English Bishop Fulford, of
Montreal, assisted at the consecration of
Dr. Wainwright to be coadjutor bishop of
Eastern New York. In 1853, Bishop Spen
ser, Archdeacon Sinclair, and the Rev. Ernest
Hawkins were deputed by the Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel to return the
visit of the American prelates, and were re
ceived with great cordiality by the General
Convention of the American Church. In
1867 a large number of American bishops
came to England at the invitation of Arch
bishop Longley to attend what was called
the Pan- Anglican Conference at Lambeth :
a great gathering from all parts of the world
of the bishops of Churches which were in
communion with the Church of England.
Eighty years before two American strangers
had presented themselves at Lambeth,
suppliants for consecration, doubtful of their
reception. On the part of the applicants

182 CHUECH, EPISCOPAL, IN U.S.
and of the archbishop there had been anxiety
lest the communication between the clergy
of a Republic and the primate of an Estab
lished Church under a monarchy should be
viewed in either country with displeasure
and distrust. In 1867 the descendants by
Episcopal succession of those two humble
visitors were welcomed on equal terms by
the bishops of the English Church, and
alike by clergy and laity their visit to the
land of their forefathers was regarded as an
honour. In 1884 the centenary of Bishop Seabury's
consecration was celebrated at Aberdeen.
The Bishop of Connecticut (the fourth suc
cessor of Seabury), accompanied by four
other bishops and a delegation of Presbyters,
came over from America for the ceremony,
which was attended by all the Scottish
bishops except the aged primus, who was too
ill to be present, seven English and Irish
prelates, and about 200 clergy. The services
were held in St. Andrew's Church — the cele
brant on the first day was the Bishop of
Aberdeen — the Scottish office was used, and
the same introit as when Seabury was con
secrated ; the sermon was preached by the
Bishop of Connecticut. On the morrow the
English office was used, with holy vessels
which were presented by the diocese of
Connecticut, after which the Bishop of
Aberdeen at an Episcopal Synod of the
Scottish Church presented a pastoral staff
to the Bishop of Connecticut. The celebra
tion of the centenary was concluded by a
service in St. Paul's Cathedral, London,
when the Bishop of London celebrated. Dr.
Seabury, a grandson of the bishop, read the
Gospel, and the sermon was preached by the
Primate of All England.
It may fairly be said that there is no
branch of the Catholic Church which stands
upon a firmer foundation, which has been
organised on sounder principles, or which
has made steadier and more satisfactory pro
gress than the Church in the United States
of America. The grain of mustard seed has
grown into a stately tree. In the course of
a century the number of bishops has been
increased from 1 to 65, who preside over 48
confederated home dioceses, and missionary
charges in America, Asia and Africa. The
number of the subordinate clergy has risen
from 190 in the year 1790, to nearly 4000.
The appro imate number of communicants
is 350,000 and the total number of lay
members may be roughly estimated at about
3,000,000. Institutions, societies, guilds,
sisterhoods of every description flourish and
abound. The Church is governed by a bodv
called the General Convention, composed of
the House oi Bishops, which contains all
the diocesan and missionary bishops; and
of the House of Deputies, consisting of 4

CHUECHES, COLONIAL
clerics and 4 laymen from each diocese.
This body legislates for the American Church
within the limits of the United States, but
can make no alteration in the constitution
or in the Liturgy and offices, unless the
same has been adopted in one convention'
then submitted to all the dioceses, and
afterwards ratified in another convention.—
Bishop White's Memoirs of the Prot. and
Episcopal Church in America ; Caswall's
America and the American Church; Life
of Bishop Hobart, by J. M. C. Vicar, D.D.,
with preface by W. F. Hook, D.D. ; Life of
Sam. Seabury, D.D., by E. Edwards Beards-
ley, D.D., LL.D.; History of the Prot. Epise.
Church in America, by Samuel Lord Bishop
of Oxford. For account of American Liturgy,
see under Liturgy. [W. E. W. S.]
CHUECHES, COLONIAL AND
MISSIONAEY. The earliest attempts at
the establishment of Colonial Churches
were as crude and unsystematic as were the
efforts made to found the colonies them
selves. The early labourers in either depart
ment did not realize the magnitude of the
venture on which they embarked, nor where
unto their work would grow. When Queen
Elizabeth authorised Sir Humphrey Gilbert
" to take possession of all remote and bar-'
barous lands unoccupied by any Christian
prince or people," the foundations of the
Colonial Empire were roughly laid ; nor was
the religious element overlooked; the newly-
gotten possession was attached, by a legal
fiction, to the manor of Windsor or Green
wich, and the propagation of the Gospel among
the heathen was set forth as a prominent
obligation on the colonist. In 1633, dis
turbances having arisen in the congregations
at Hamburg and Delft, an Order in Council
" Merchants in Foreign Parts " placed those
congregations under the jurisdiction of the
Bishop of London (vide Heylin's Life of
Laud). This was extended in 1726 by
another, Order in Council which empowered
the Bishop of London " to exercise spiritual
jurisdiction in the plantations," which then
included the American States, Nova Scotia,
Newfoundland, Windward and Leeward
Islands, and the Bermudas. Thus a, sem
blance of episcopal rule was given, and the
principle recognised. Without the care of
the State the very origin of many of our
colonies compelled the settlers to the pro
fession of their religion : it was the very
cause of their leaving their native land.
The Eoyalists, "seeing the cause of their
sovereign daily becoming weaker, looked to
other lands, and thus tbe calamities of
England served to people Barbados," and
that island the Authorities divided into
parishes, laying a tax on every acre for the
maintenance of the Church, and punishing
by fine and imprisonment all who absented

CHURCHES, COLONIAL
themselves from public worship. Puritans,
on the other hand, in the early years of the
seventeenth century, covered New England,
and proscribed " Churchmen, Quakers, Ada
mites, and other heretics." Virginia, under
its special Charter, was a Church Colony,
Baltimore a Eoman Catholic, and Pennsyl
vania a Quaker settlement. In 1648 "the
Commons of England assembled in Parlia
ment," acknowledged the duty of convert
ing the heathen in New England, and the
New England Company, which was founded
by the Long Parliament m 1649, still exists,
laving received a Charter from Charles II.
under which it aimed at the evangelization
of the Red Indians. The same monarch estab
lished " a Council of Foreign Plantations,"
whose instructions included the following :
" To take care to propagate the Gospel : to
send strict orders and instructions for regula-
tingandreformingthedebaucheriesofplantersand servants ; to consider how the natives,
or such as have been purchased from other
parts to be servants or slaves, may be best
invited to the Christian Faith."
Towards the end of the 17th century,
when persecution was ceasing, the religious
enthusiasm, on which many of the colonies
had been founded, also cooled, and the
variety of creeds, each with its own deterio
ration and divisions, was a matter of great
concern to such pious men as Sir Leoline
Jenkins, Robert Boyle, and Robert Nelson.
The time had come when the Church saw the
necessity of doing its work in more syste
matic fashion. Under the representations of
the good men mentioned above the project of
a bishop for Virginia was nearly accom
plished. The bishop of London had sent
his commissaries, Dr. Blair and Dr. Bray, to
Virginia and Maryland respectively, the first
in 1683, the latter in 1695. Their repre
sentations led to the establishment of the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
" in 1698. In 1700 the Lower House of the
Convocation of Canterbury appointed a
Committee " de Promovenda Christiana Re-
ligione in Plantationibus," and Archbishop
Tenison made a representation to the Crown
which on June 16, 1701, established by
Eoyal Charter the Society for the Pro
pagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
(q. v). At this time the West Indie's
and the American States were nearly the
whole of the English colonies. Queen
Anne was willing to sanction the establish-
mont of two bishoprics in America and two
in the West Indies, but the scheme perished
at once. The demands of the Church in
America for the gift of the episcopate are well
known (vide Church of the United States).
In 1784 the declaration of Independence and
the consecration of Samuel Seabury at Aber
deen at once struck off thirteen states from

CHURCHES, COLONIAL

1S3

the roll of our colonial possessions, and gave
to the Church in those regions its own epi
scopate, which was completed by the conse
cration of Drs. White and Provoost in 1787.
The same year saw the consecration of the
first colonial bishop. A number of Loyal
ist refugees had towards the end of the
American war of Independence made a
home in Nova Scotia ; in 1758 the English
Liturgy had been legally established there
as " the fixed form of worship." Eighteen
clergymen, on March 5th, 1783, petitioned
for a bishop, and on August 12th, 1784, Dr.
Inglis was consecrated. In 1793 Canada
was detached i'rom Nova Scotia, and the
diocese of Quebec was formed. In 1814
the bishopric of Calcutta was created by
Act of Parliament (53 Geo. 3, c. 155) under
severe restrictions, the East India Company
being responsible for the stipends of the
bishop and archdeacons, who held their office
during the pleasure of the Sovereign (an ob
noxious condition which still finds place in
the letters patent of the bishop of Calcutta)
and of the chaplains who seived under them.
In 1819 Parliament legislated respecting the
clergy in colonial orders, and laid restric
tions against their ministrations in England,
which were modified and lightened by the
Colonial Clergy Act (37 & 38 Victoria, c.
77), known commonly as Lord Blachford's
Act. In 1824 the Sovereign, by letters
patent, established the bishoprics of Jamaica
and Barbados, and public funds were charged
with the payment of the incomes of the
bishops. In the next 15 years (1825-1839)
there were founded five sees, Madras (1835),
Sydney (1836), Bombay (1837), Toronto
(1839), and Newfoundland (1839). Thus
ten bishoprics in foreign parts had been
founded, of which six were wholly dependent
on public funds for their continuance.
This closes the first stage of the Colonial
Episcopate. The next opens with the
foundation of the Colonial Bishoprics Fund
in 1841, and ends with 1852, when the
Colonial Episcopate may be said to have
been complete, the whole of the colonies
being under their proper bishops, although
the number was insufficient and the dioceses
were in size unmanageable. The manifesto
of the Council, published on Whitsun-
Tuesday, 1841, gave new life to the Church
at home and abroad. The scheme was
statesmanlike and grand. Before the close
of the year. Bishop Selwyn was on his way
to New Zealand, and in twelve years (1841-
1852) the following sixteen dioceses were
established :— New Zealand (1841), Tas
mania (1842), Antigua (1842), Guiana
(1842), Gibraltar (1842),' Fredericton
(1845), Colombo (1845), Capetown (1847),
Newcastle (1847), Melbourne (1847), Ade
laide (1847), Victoria (Hong-Kong) (1849),

184

CHURCHES, COLONIAL

Rupert's Land (1849), Montreal (1850),
Sierra Leone (1852), and the abnormal and
unhappy bishopric at Jerusalem,' which
under a special Act of Parliament was
created in 1841. From numbering twenty-
six in 1852, the bishoprics in foreign parts
have now reached the total of seventy-five.
.This number is composed of sees which are
subdivisions of older ones, and also of purely
missionary bishoprics in countries not
under the rule of our Sovereign. The first
missionary bishop of this type was Bishop
McDougall, of Borneo. He had to receive
a title which attached him to a portion of
the empire, and was consecrated by letters
patent bishop of Labuan, and thus was
technically a colonial bishop. But the
Rajah of Sarawak, an independent sovereign,
assigned to him the spiritual charge of his
territory, and in Borneo his great work lay.
In 1861 legal difficulties were removed, and
at once purely missionary bishops were
consecrated for Honolulu at Westminster,
at Capetown for Central Africa, and at
Auckland for Melanesia. In 1863 a
missionary bishop was consecrated for the
Orange Free State, in 1864 for the Niger,
in 1870 for Zululand, in 1872 for Mid-
China, in 1873 for Kaffraria, in 1874 for
Madagascar, in 1879 for Travancore and
Cochin, in 1880 for North China, in 1883
for Japan, and in 1884 for Eastern Equa
torial Africa, while the bishop of Pretoria,
who was consecrated in 1878 as a colonial
bishop, has become, by the change of the
relations. of the Transvaal Republic to this
country, a missionary bishop. Many of the
colonial dioceses have learned how very
weak a reed is the promise of Imperial or
Colonial Treasuries to provide Clerical
incomes. The West Indian dioceses have
all undergone the experiences of what is
called disendowment, or more properly, the
total withdrawal of annual salaries. State
aid is no longer known in the Australian
colonies ; the diocese of Colombo enjoys it
only during the life of the existing incum
bents. Only the Indian dioceses and the
sees of Mauritius and Guiana continue to
receive public moneys without challenge or
warning of cessation. The efforts which
disendowment have called forth show the
great power of self-support which even poor
dioceses possess. The negro flocks in the
West Indian dioceses, at a time of great
depression, have s»cured, or are within view
of securing, out of their poverty, with help
from England, the permanent endowments
of their bishoprics, and are able to maintain
their parochial clergy to a large extent by
weekly contributions.
The colonial bishops, at an early date,
saw the necessity of providing for self-
government on strictly Church lines. In

CHURCHES, COLONIAL
1844 Bishop Selwyn summoned his clergy
to a diocesan synod, " to frame rules for
the better management of the Mission, and
the general government of the Church."
In 1850 the metropolitan of Australia and
five suffragans met in convention at Sydney,
In 1851 five Canadian bishops met at
Quebec and represented to the archbishop
of Canterbury the necessity of diocesan
synods, and of a Canadian metropolitan.
In 1857 Bishop Gray held his first diocesan
synod, and in 1883 the West Indian dioceses,
having already established diocesan synods
or their equivalents, were grouped into one
province. The amount of autonomy gained
by these synods, combined with certain
legal judgments given on appeal from
South Africa, which showed the colonial
Churches to be destitute of the privileges of
the Established Church at home, won for
them the liberty which is enjoyed by
voluntary bodies. Foremost of 'all was the
right to elect their own bishops. This
problem was worked out by the Canadian
Church. In 1857 the diocese of Toronto
determined to cut off a portion of its terri
tory, and to constitute the diocese of Huron,
to which a bishop was elected by the free
suffrages of the clergy and laity in synod
assembled. The elected bishop had to
come to England for consecration under
letters patent ; but in 1862, when a further
division of the diocese was required, the-
bishop of the new see of Ontario was elected '.
and consecrated in Canada under royal
mandate, and thus was established a prece
dent which has never since been disputed.
In 1867 a third step was taken on the
consecration of Bishop Bethune. The
Crown declined to have anything to do with
the matter, the Colonial Secretary declaring
that letters patent and royal mandate were
equally without value, and the election and
consecration of Bishop Bethune were con
ducted solely on the spiritual authority of
the Church. Provincial and diocesan synods
are now everywhere in full workins order,
giving cohesion to the several dioceses.
The Province of Canada has now nine
dioceses, the Province of Rupert's Land six,
the Province of British Columbia three, the
Province of New Zealand six and the
missionary diocese of Melanesia, the Pro
vince of Australia thirteen, the Province
of South Africa eight, the Province of
Calcutta seven, and the West Indian Province
eight, including the inchoate and unen
dowed dioceses of Honduras, which is for
the present under the charge of the bishop
of Jamaica, and the Windward Islands,
equally without endowment, but having a
separate synod, under the bishop of Barbados.
It is probable that Australia will shortlyhave
separate provinces in New South

CHURCHES, COLONIAL
Victoria, Queensland, and South Australia,
but the bishop of Sydney will still be
the primate over all. These sees are now
wholly or partially endowed, with the ex
ception of a few, which for the present are
subsidized by the S. P. G. or the C. M. S.
The office of metropolitan is not in all cases
attached to a particular see, but is settled
by election in Canada, Rupert's Land,
Columbia, and the West Indies. In Africa
it is attached to Capetown, in Australia to
Sydney, in India to Calcutta, while in New
Zealand, as in the United States, it devolves
on the senior bishop of the province. In
these dioceses theological colleges and even
universities have been founded in numbers
which in some cases are in excess of what
prudence and necessity demand. In India
there are Bishop's College, Calcutta, Vepery
College at Madras, the Divinity College at
Lahore, the Training Institution for Natives
at Kemiriendine, Rangoon, Caldwell College
at Tuticorin, and the Training College at
Cottayam in Travancore. In America, St.
John's College, Newfoundland ; Windsor
College, Nova Scotia ; Lennoxville College,
Quebec; Trinity College and University
at Toronto ; St. John's College at Winni
peg; Emmanuel College in the diocese
of Saskatchewan. In Africa, Zounebloem
Native College at Capetown, the Kafir
Institution at Graham's Town, and a Native
College at Ambatoharanana, Madagascar.
In New Zealand, Christ College at Christ
church; in Australia, Moore College,
Sydney, and Christ College, Tasmania ; and
in the West Indies, the old foundation of
Codrington College, Barbados. The dioceses
which still owe direct allegiance to Canter
bury are Newfoundland, to which is attached
Bermuda, the Falkland Islands, Mauritius,
Victoria (Hong-Kong), Sierra Leone, Singa
pore and Sarawak, Gibraltar, and the mission
ary dioceses of Madagascar, Central Africa,
Eastern Equatorial Africa, the Niger,
Honolulu, Mid-China, North China, Jeru
salem, and Japan. In all these vast regions
the Church is working on her own principles,
and in her own independent strength,
except in India, where there is a body of
clergy numbering not one-fourth of the
whole, who, including the bishops, are paid
by public moneys, and governed by Acts of
Parliament. When the first bishop was
sent to India, the whole clerical body were
chaplains of the E. I. Company, ministering
to the civil and military servants of the
Company, which paid them their salaries.
There are now more than 620 clergymen in
India, of whom one-third are natives ; but
the presence of a salaried portion of this
body, numbering about 164, hinders the
expansion of the Church and the growth of
the Episcopate, and the development of

CHURCHES, COLONIAL

185

missions. -Bishops and archdeacons must
be chaplains, and be paid by the Government,
and more bishops are not sanctioned by the
Government except as assistants to the
State bishops. Two such prelates, paid by
English societies, overlook the missionary
work in South India, but the number of
bishops of this type is not likely to be
increased, and in some change of the relations
of Government to- the Church is to be found
the hope of Church extension on Church
principles in Hindostan.
This sketch of our Colonial and Missionary
Churches has been written on the principle
" Ubi Episcopus, ibi Ecclesia," and the
historioal fact is that the extension of the
Episcopate is the extension of the Church,
and therein the multiplication of both clergy
and laity. The Church in foreign parts has
now 147 bishops (including 67 American
bishops with five suffragans), 7000 clergy
men, and at least 3,000,000 laity.
The following list gives the dates of the
existing colonial dioceses, and the names of
their incumbents.

Nova Scotia  1787
Quebec  1793
Calcutta  1814
Jamaica  1824
Barbados, 1824 (and Windward
Islands, 1878) .... 1824
Madras  1835
Sydney (formerly Australia) . 1836
Bombay  1837
Toronto  1839
Newfoundland ..... 1839
Auckland (formerly New Zealand) 1841
Jerusalem  1841
Tasmania  1842
Antigua  1842
Guiana  1842
Gibraltar  1842
Fredericton  1845
Colombo  1845
Capetown  1847
Newcastle  1847
Melbourne  1847
Adelaide  1847
Victoria (China)  1849
Rupertsland  1849
Montreal  1850
Sierra Leone  1852
Grahamstown  1853
Mauritius  1854
Singapore, Labuan, and Sarawak 1855
Christchurch (N.Z.) .... 1856
Perth  1857
Huron  1857
Wellington  1858
Nelson  1858
Waiapu  1858
Brisbane  1859
St. Helena  1859

186 CHURCH IN COLONIES
38. Columbia  1859
39. Nassau  1861
40. Central Africa (formerly Zambesi) 1861
41. Honolulu  1861
42. Melanesia  1861
43. Ontario  1862
44. Bloemfontein (formerly Orange
River)  1863
45. Goulburn  1863
46. Niger  1864
47. Dunedin  1866
48. Grafton and Armidale . . . 1867
49. Maritzburg  1869
50. Bathurst  1869
51. Falkland Islands .... 1869
52. Zululand  1870
53. Moosonee  1872
54. Trinidad  1872
55. Mid-China  1872
56. Algoma  1873
57. St. John's (formerly Indepen
dent Kaffraria) .... 1873
58. Athabasca (Old Diocese, see 75)
now called Mackenzie River . 1874
59. Saskatchewan  1874
60. Madagascar  1874
61. Ballaarat  1875
62. Niagara  1875
63. Lahore  1877
64. Rangoon  1877
65. Pretoria  1878
66. North Queensland .... 1878
67. Caledonia  1879
68. New Westminster .... 1879
69. Travancore and Cochin . . . 1879
70. North China  1880
71. Japan  1883
72. Riverina  1884
73. Qu'Appelle (formerly Assiniboia) 1884
74. Eastern Equatorial Africa . . 1884
75. Athabasca (New Diocese, see 58) 1884
CHURCH IN THE COLONIES, LAW
OF. The Colonial Clergy Act, 1874, has
put those clergy practically in the same
position as the Scotch (q. v.). But a late
decision of a small and not very weighty
judicial committee of the Privy Council
affirmed a proposition of considerable con
sequence to Colonial Churches which think
they are in connexion with the Church cf
England when anything turns upon those
words. It was decided in Merriman, bishop
of the so-called South African Church, v.
Williams, titular dean of Cape Town, 1882,
7 App. Cases, 484, that although the bishop
would certainly have had the rights he
claimed (to preach in the church) if it had
really been " in connexion with the Church
of England," it was not so ; because, al
though it expressly adopted all the standards
and formularies of the Church of England,
it also "provided that in the interpretation
of them it is not to be bound by decisions

CHUECH IN COLONIES
other than those of its own ecclesiastical
tribunals," i.e. not by those of the English
ecclesiastical courts and Privy Council. 'The
reason given for the judgment was that
such a Church might excommunicate clergy
men for preaching doctrines which have;
been decided not to be ground for deprivation
here, and vice versa. And yet the eccle
siastical courts here could not anyhow be
given jurisdiction by a Colonial Church, and
the Privy Council is not an ecclesiastical
court of appeal for the Colonies, but only
the common law court of appeal instead of
the House of Lords, and it was so acting in
that very case. The great case of Bishop
Colenso was decided on a mere technicality
about the letters patent, and is of no eccle
siastical importance.
After what has been said about the last
Colonial Clergy Act, 1874, it is unnecessary
to go through the history of the earlier Acts
for providing bishops and clergy for the
Colonies, and the gradual extension of their
privileges here. It is sufficient to say that
the first of such Acts, 24 Geo-. III. c. 35,
authorised the bishop of London to ordairt
subjects of other dominions without the
oath of allegiance, but they are not to offi
ciate in the king's dominions, and the Act
made no provision for bishops. Consequently
the Church in America resorted to the
Scotch bishops for a short time. But by
26 Geo. III. c. 84, power was given to con
secrate foreigners as bishops without any
royal mandate which was recited to be re
quisite for any consecration by the law of
England. 59 Geo. III. c. 60, empowered the
archbishops and other bishops to consecrate
bishops expressly for the Colonies. Acts of
3 & 4 Vict. c. 33, and 5 Vict. c. 6, and 15
& 16 Vict. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49,
require a proper testimonial from the Colony.
And the ordinees of all the Colonial
bishops and all others, except those of this
country, were prohibited from officiating
here, except by consent of the archbishop
and bishop of the place where they want to
hold a benefice or curacy. And this was
the case of ordinees of Roman bishops, who
can claim no recognition on becoming
Protestants without the consent of our
bishops and archbishops. And further, by
15, & 16 Viqt. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict. c.
49, the Colonial or foreign bishop ordaining
must either have actual jurisdiction over
some diocese, or else have been acting by
commission from an English bishop. (R B
a curious specimen of legislation that the
first of those Acts only mentioned Man
bishops, omitting the Colonial ; indeed all
these Acts are a mass of confusion about on
a level with the church building Acts.)
The Act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 33, s. 3, expressly
puts the bishops and clergy of the Protes-

CHUECH, GALLICAN
taut Episcopal Church in America on the
same footing here as those of the Episcopal
Scotch Church.
The Act 37 & 38 Vict. c. 77 (1874), called
the Colonial Clergy Act (but it covers Scot
land also), repealed the whole of 3 & 4 Vict.
c. 33, and parts of several of the others,
as already stated under Church in Scotland.
Either by accident or intention the licence
from either archbishop operates all over Eng
land, and it is not revocable. Of course the
.bishop's licence to a curate is. The prac
tical result is that no one who " has had
espiscopal ordination " (as the Act of Uni
formity says) is now precluded from offi
ciating and holding either a curacy or a
benefice in the Church of England under
the formal licence of the bishop and arch
bishop having jurisdiction in the place ; but
no clergyman who was not ordained in and
for England can claim any right to be so
licensed on being presented to a living;. [G.]
CHUECH, THE GALLICAN. By this
name is to be understood the Church in
that part of Europe which, after having
been a portion of the Roman province of
Gaul, was occupied by several Teutonic
tribes, of which the Franks became the
most powerful, and gave their name to
the country. The kingdom of France,
properly speaking, dates from the accession
of Hugh Capet in 987 a.d.
Passing by vague traditions concerning the
introduction of Christianity into Gaul by St.
Paul, or St. Luke, Crescens and Trophimus,
the first clearly established fact is the
arrival of a band of missionaries from Asia
Minor about the year 155 a.d., under the
leadership of Pothinus and Irenasus, disciples
of Poly carp. Th ey found ed the sees o f Lyon s
and Vienne, which became the centres of
a large and flourishing Church in southern
Gaul. No Church suffered more severely
from the persecution which was directed
against Christianity in the reign of M.
Aurelius Antoninus, a.d. 177 ; and amongst
the martyrs was the aged bishop of Lyons,
Pothinus. He was succeeded by the holy
and learned Iremeus, who died about 203
a.d. By some it is asserted that he also
suffered martyrdom, but there is no trust
worthy evidence of this.
Towards the middle of the third century,
another missionary band was despatched to
Gaul by Fabian, bishop of Rome, under
the direction of Dionysius (St. Denys), (who
was confounded in popular legends with
Dionysius the Areopagito), Saturninus,
Stremonius, Martialis, Trophimus, Gatian,
Paul. They founded the sees of Paris, and
Toulouse, and the Church in Auvergne,
Limoges, Aries, Tours, and Narbonne. Most
of them suffered martyrdom during the
persecution in the reigns of Valerian and

CHURCH, GALLICAN 187
Diocletian, 260-286 a.d. ; but the Church
continued to grow, and by the beginning of
the fourth century it was firmly established
in most of the principal cities of central
and southern Gaul.
The most illustrious names during the
fourth century are, St. Hilary, bishop
of Poictiers — in 350 a.d. one of the most
able and eloquent champions in Western
Christendom of the orthodox faith against
the Arian heresy; and St. Martin, bishop
of Tours and founder of the celebrated
Abbey of Marmoutiers : he had previously
founded the Abbey of Liguge near Poictiers,
which was the first monastery planted in
Gaul. Hardly less distinguished, although
more short-lived than the Abbey of Mar
moutiers, was the monastery founded early in
the fifth century by St. Honoratus, in the
isle of Lerins, near Frejus. Honoratus
became bishop of Aries, and was succeeded
in that see by his disciple Hilary, who was
almost as renowned as his namesake Hilary
of Poictiers. In the same monastery were
trained Lupus, who accompanied Germanus
of Auxerre, into Britain to suppress 1he
Pelagian heresy, and afterwards became
bishop of Troyes; St. Vincent, the author
of the celebrated definition of the true
Catholic faith as that which was held
" semper, ubique, et ab omnibus," (always,
everywhere, and by all); and Cassian, the
friend of St. John Chrysostom and the
founder of the Abbey of St. Victor at
Marseilles. The Abbey of Lerins was de
stroyed by the Saracens in the eighth cen
tury, and although it was revived it never
recovered its former importance.
During the decay of the Eoman empire
three Teutonic tribes made their way into
Gaul, and gradually occupied nearly the
whole of it : the Visigoths and Burgundians,
who settled in the south and south-eastern
parts; and the Franks, who entered from
the north-east and pressed southwards until
they became the dominant power. The
Teutonic invaders of Gaul, however, did
not, like the Teutonic invaders of Britain,
drive the conquered inhabitants into remote
corners of the country, nor attempt to
extirpate their religion. They had been
brought more into contact with Eoman
civilization and Eoman law than the con
querors of Britain, and had too much re;
spect for both to wish to sweep them away.
The Visigoths and Burgundians had em
braced Christianity, though under the form
of Arianism, before they entered Gaul. The
Franks remained heathen until the con
version of their king Chlodwig to the
Catholic faith in 496 a.d. This event
greatly assisted him in subduing the other
Teutonic tribes in Gaul, as it secured for
him the support of the Church, and the

188

CHUECH, GALLICAN

sympathy of the great bulk of the Gallo-
Eomau population which had adhered to
the orthodox creed. Thus, whereas in
Britain the religion of the conquered people
was rejected and despised by the conquerors,
and helped to keep the two races apart, in
Gaul, on the contrary, the religion of the
conquered being adopted by their con
querors, was the common bond which drew
them more and more together. And as in
Gaul Eoman institutions were not violently
overthrown, the ecclesiastical system was
carried on upon the same principles on
which it had been framed in the time of the
Empire. The boundaries of the several dio
ceses followed the lines of civil divisions : each
city became a see, and the chief city in each
province became the seat of an archbishop.
The Merovingian dynasty lasted 140
years from the death of Chlodwig in 511
to the accession of Pippin the Short in 752,
during which period there was a very close
alliance between the Church and the Crown.
But it cannot be said that the character
of either was improved by the connexion ;
with the increase of wealth the discipline
of the monasteries became relaxed, the
parish priests were for the most part very
illiterate, the bishops became mixed up with
the political intrigues that continually dis
tracted the three kingdoms of Austi'asia,
Neustria, and Burgundy, into which the
kingdom of Chlodwig after his death was
divided ; and they seem to have done little
or nothing to purify the morals of the
palace, where gross licentiousness prevailed,
or check the treachery and cruelty with
which the strifes between the rival kingdoms
were commonly conducted.
Charles 'Martel confiscated a large amount
of Church property to remunerate the
warriors to whose devotion and courage he
was indebted for his splendid victories.
The Church, which had been demoralised
by too much wealth, became completely
disorganised by this act of spoliation, but
it was reformed in some measure by
the sons of Charles, Pippin, and Carloman,
aided by the illustrious Englishman Wini-
frith, better known as St. Boniface, arch
bishop of Mainz. In 752 the last of the
Merovingians was formally deposed, and
Pippin having been proclaimed king of the
Franks with the sanction of the pope, was
¦anointed by St. Boniface.
The defeat of tbe Saracens in Gaul by
Charles Martel, and of the Lombards in
Italy by his son Pippin, and Pippin's more
illustrious son Charles, earned the gratitude
of the Church, and more particularly of the
Eoman See. The coronation of Pippin was
renewed by Pope Stephen III. with his own
hands ; and the title of Patrician of Eome
was conferred upon him. A grander title

CHUECH, GALLICAN
and more substantial power was bestowed
upon Charles, when the pope placed the
imperial crown upon his head in St. Peter's
at Eome, a.d. 800, and the multitude
saluted him as " Charles Augustus, crowned
by God, the great, pious, and pacific Em-
peror of the Romans." Gaul formed only
a part of the vast empire of Charles the
Great : but the Church there, as elsewhere
profited by his vigorous administration.'
His capitularies (see Capitulary) dealt with
ecclesiastical affairs as well as with every
department of life, and the system of schools
devised and organised by his minister, the
celebrated Englishman Alcuin, and estab
lished in all the cathedral cities and the
larger monasteries, made the Church a centre
of useful and religious learning and educa
tion. Under the successors of Charles the Great,
and amidst the confusion which accom
panied the break up of his empire, the
Church again deteriorated. The popes saw
their opportunity in the disorganisation of
the Church to establish their own claims
to interference. They asserted an absolute
right to receive appeals in all ecclesiastical
causes, to convoke councils at their pleasure,
preside over them in person, or by legates a
latere, and confirm or cancel their decisions,
These pretensions, however, were firmly re
sisted from time to time, and by none more ¦
ably than Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims,
in the latter half of the ninth century, who
may be regarded as the first great champion
of the constitutional liberties of the Gal
lican Church. And although Hincmat
was worsted in his contest with the astute
and ambitious Pope Nicolas I., who sup
ported the Papal claims by the aid of the
False Decretals, which were easily accepted'
in that uncritical age, yet the principles for
which Hincmar strove were never lost sight
of by the Gallican Church ; the principles
that the decrees of general councils were
superior to the authority of popes, and
that provincial councils had the right of
deposing bishops, and generally dealing
with insubordinate clerics without any in
terference on the part of the Papal See.
The leading characteristic in fact of the
Gallican Church has continually been the
union of general deference to the Eoman
See, and adherence to Roman doctrine, with
a considerable amount of national indepen
dence in the administration of the Church.
The strife concerning investitures which
distracted the Church at large during the
latter part of the eleventh century was less
violent in France than other parts of Chris
tendom, and was equitably settled by the
admission on tbe part of the clergy that the
sovereign was entitled to invest prelates
with the temporalities of their office; the

CHUECH, GALLICAN
Crown, on the other hand, consenting that
the oath taken should be that of " hommage
simple," not " hommage lige," and should be
preceded by canonical election and consecra
tion. The interference of the Crown with epi
scopal elections was resisted in Carolingian
times by Hincmar of Rheims : at that
period the right of election was asserted to
pertain to the clergy and faithful laity of
the diocese; towards the close of the
twelfth century it was claimed for the
cathedral chapters on the analogy of the
election of the pope by the College of
Cardinals — a practice which had been estab
lished in 1059 during the pontificate of
Nicolas II. This right of the chapters to
elect was formally ratified by the 24th
canon of the great Lateran Council in 1215.
There were three different modes of pro
cedure in electing — by "inspiration," by
" compromise," or by " scrntiny," borrowed
from the usages of the Roman conclave;
and the election was to be confirmed by
the metropolitan, with an appeal in case of
dispute to the pope. This system, which
lasted during the greater part of three cen
turies, did not work well ; the Crown was
perpetually pushing its own favourites into
the sees, which led to simoniacal contracts,
and appeals to Rome became so frequent
that the appointments in the great majority
of cases were directly or indirectly made by
the pope. The Pragmatic Sanction of St.
Louis promulgated in 1268, which has been
styled the foundation stone of the Gallican
liberties, was intended to be a remedy for
these evils. In six articles it (1) declared
that all patrons of benefices should freely
enjoy their rights'; (2) guaranteed to cathe
dral chapters the right of episcopal election;
(3) directed the suppression of simony ; (4)
ordained that ecclesiastical appointments
should be made conformably to the common
law, the canons of councils, and ancient
institutions of the Fathers ; (5) prohibited
the heavy pecuniary burdens imposed by
the Papal Court on the Church of France,
and provided that none should hereafter be
levied except for reasonable, pious, and
urgent causes, with the free consent of the
king and the Church ; (6) confirmed all
franchises and privileges granted by the
king and his predecessors to the several
ecclesiastical bodies in his realm.
The Pragmatic Sanction, however, of St.
Louis had little permanent effect in check
ing simoniacal corruption, or Papal inter
ference with election. The Church was
more successful in maintaining the inde
pendence of her provincial councils. From
the time of Nicolas I. the popes had
asserted ' on the strength of the Pseudo
Decretals that no council was legitmate

CHURCH, GALLICAN

183

unless sanctioned by the Holy See ; and by
the extraordinary powers with which their
legates a latere were invested they en
deavoured to obtain absolute control over
the action of local councils. These pre
tensions were firmly resisted in France,
especially by the canonists Gerbert and Ivo
of Chartres, and the legatine authority was
gradually restricted, until it became com
paratively harmless, and after the middle
of the fourteenth century Papal legates
rarely presided in Gallican councils.
Near the close of the fourteenth century
there was a long and obstinate contest
between the King Philip IV. (the Fair)
and the Pope Boniface VIII. The dispute
originated in the imposition of a certain tax
on the clergy by the Crown without the
Papal consent, and in the creation of an
episcopal see and the appointment to it by
the pope on his own sole authority. The
struggle, which was carried on with great
pertinacity and warmth on both sides, re
sulted in a victory for Philip; but from
this epoch must be dated the tendency of
the Church in France to fall more and
more into a state of subjection to the
Crown. This subjection was also effected by the
steady aggression during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries of the civil power on the
authority of the spiritual courts. The
clergy were brought more and more within
the range of secular jurisdiction — -a great
variety of causes touching all departments
of life were gradually transferred from the
ecclesiastical to the civil courts; and the
appeal to the Crown called "appel comme
d'abus," which was originally intended (as
the name implies) only to check the abuses-
of spiritual jurisdiction, was more and more
resorted to on various pretexts in matters
small as well as great, until it completely ¦
crippled even the legitimate action of the
ecclesiastical courts.
During the residence of the popes in
Avignon, for seventy years, 1309-1376, they
were practically vassals of the French kings,
who readily connived at their iniquities in
order to obtain pontifical sanction for their
own encroachments on the liberties of the
national Church.
The Church of France, however, may
claim the merit of making the first effectual
effort to heal the schism in the Papal suc
cession, , which distracted the Western
Church (1378-1429) by means of a general
council, and the master spirit of the Council
of Constance (1414 a.d.), which deposed
Pope John XXIII, was Jean Gerson, Chan
cellor of the University of Paris, who ably
maintained the authority of a general
council to be superior to that of the pope.
Tho same doctrine was upheld by the

190

CHURCH, GALLICAN

Council of Basle, 1431, which deposed, a.d.
1439, the Pope Eugenius IV., and the decrees
of Basle were accepted with some modifica
tions by the French Church in a National
Council held at Bourges, 1438. This
council, however, did not acquiesce in the
deposition of the pope.
The same council drew up the decrees
which constitute the Pragmatic Sanction of
Bourges. They were expressed in 23 articles,
of which the most important were those
which declared the authority of general
.councils, enjoined ecclesiastical elections to
be made in accordance with the canons, by
cathedral, collegiate, and conventual chapters,
secured the rights of patrons to benefices,
only reserving a veto for the pope in the
event of unfitness or uncanonical election,
and the nomination to benefices of which
the incumbents happened to die at Rome,
abolished the practice of " reserves," " an
nates," and "expective graces," and regu
lated the order of ecclesiastical appeals,
which were in no case to be carried to the
pope until the suit had passed through the
intermediate tribunals. The Pragmatic
Sanction was registered by the Parliament
of Paris in July, 1439, and so became part
of the statute law of France. Its publica
tion caused great satisfaction throughout
the kingdom, and great indignation at Rome,
where it was vehemently denounced by one
pope after another. Louis XI. was induced
iby mingled threats, flatteries, and entreaties
from Rome, to revoke it soon after his
accession in. 1461. He also hoped to obtain
more power of interference with the capitular
rights of election, and with private patron
age, an expectation in which he found him
self thwarted by Papal artifices. The
Pragmatic Sanction was never formally re
pealed by the parliament, and Louis XII.
lie-established it by royal edict, which in
volved him in strife with Pope Julius IL,
a.d. 1509. The death of Julius in 1513,
and of Louis in 1515, followed by the
accession of Leo X. to the Papal chair, and
of Francis I. to the French throne, rendered
the prospect of a settlement more hopeful.
This was effected by the Concordat of
Bologna, 1516, which sacrificed many of the
liberties secured by the Pragmatic Sanction
either to the king or the pope. The right
of nomination to bishoprics was transferred
from the capitular bodies to the Crown, and
the Papal claim to annates was tacitly
allowed. Thus it has been well remarked,
"the pope surrendered to the king a
spiritual privilege, and obtained in return
a purely secular advantage." No mention
was made of the decrees of Constance, Basle,
and Bourges, which established the superi
ority of councils over the pope. The
Parliament of Paris, after resisting to the

CHURCH, GALLICAN
verge of an open rupture with the king,
consented, under protest, to register tie
Concordat ; and the Pragmatic Sanction was
abrogated by Lateran Council, Dec. 19,
1516 ; but the Concordat was very ir
regularly and grudgingly obeyed by the
clergy, and the Gallican Church never lost
an opportunity of protesting against it.
Such was the condition of the Church in
France on the eve of the reforming move
ment. It must be bome in mind that all
this time, whilst contending for freedom of
administration, the Gallican Church re
mained steadfastly obedient to the Roman
See in all other respects. No Church had
responded with more enthusiasm to the
repeated calls to the Crusades ; no Church
had produced a more fervent and powerful
champion of the faith than was exhibited in
the person of St. Bernard ; no Church had
suppressed heresy with more relentless
rigour; no Church fell more under the
influence of the Franciscans and Dominicans
in the thirteenth century, or of the Jesuits
in the sixteenth and seventeenth.
During the reforming movement the
same combination of a spirit of national
independence, with adherence to Eoman
doctrine, is observable in the French Church
as in earlier times. The conference held
at Poissy in 1560, with a view of reconcilihg
the differences between Catholics and Protes
tants, was a total failure. On the other
hand, although the articles of faith drawn
up by the Council of Trent were accepted,
the canons relating to Church government
were repudiated by the Parliament of Paris
as infringing upon national liberties. The
adoption of the articles of Trent as. an
authoritative definition of doctrine was an
almost insurmountable barrier to reconcili
ation between the Church of France and the
Protestants, and the hope was finally ex
tinguished by the cruel massacre of the
Huguenots on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572,
and the conversion to the Roman Catholic
faith of Henry of Navarre after his accession
to the throne. Henry, indeed, secured free
religious toleration for the Huguenots by the
Treaty of Nantes, 1598. On the other hand.
he recalled the Jesuits who had been
banished from the kingdom after the
assassination of Henry III., being accused of
teaching that princes deposed by the pope
lost their claim to the allegiance of their
subjects. Henry IV. also required a Jesuit
preacher to reside at Court to be answerable
for the good conduct of his order, the result
of which was that he himself fell under the
influence of the preacher selected, who
became his confessor, and that a series of
Jesuit confessors directed the consciences^ of
his successors— Louis XIH., XIV., and XV.
When the States-General met in 1614, the

CHURCH, GALLICAN
'Tiers Etat declared in their report that no
power on earth has a right to depose
¦sovereigns. This declaration was provoked
by a treatise written by the Jesuit Suarez
against James I. of England; and from this
time the Jesuit influence at Court was
exerted to prevent tbe reassembling of the
;States-General, a policy in which they
succeeded only too well, for the States did
not meet again till 1789, the eve of the
Revolution which swept both Church and
Throne away. The persecution of the
.Jansenists (see Jansenists) in the seven
teenth century was mainly conducted by the
¦Jesuits. Their cold and rigid dogmatism
in theology, and their system of casuistry
in morals, would have been fatally injurious
to the Church, if their influence had not
been counteracted in some measure by the
saintliness of such men as St. Francis de
Sales, St. Vincent de Paul, and Fenelon, and
the wide learning and large-mindedness of
.such men as Pascal and Bossuet.
The orthodoxy of the Gallican Church
from the Roman point of view remained
unassailable during the long period of its
subjection to the Crown, ruled by Jesuit
influence. But Louis XIV. was as tenacious
of his rights over the Church, as jealous of
Papal interference, as any of his predecessors.
He was involved in a long strife with Pope
Innocent XI. respecting the rights of the
¦Crown over vacant sees, which ended in the
promulgation by the king in 1682 of the
-celebrated four articles, (i.) That the ecclesi
astical power has no right over tbe tempo
ralities of the kingdom (ii.) That a general
council is superior to the pope, (iii.) That
the exercise of the Papal power should be
controlled by canons and local customs.
(iv.) That the judgment of the pope is not
infallible except when confirmed by the
"Church. The persecution of the Protestants,
and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
1685, deprived France of a large number of
the most intelligent and industrious in
habitants. The Church however generally
approved of this harsh and unwise measure,
end from this time forward the close
alliance between the clergy and a despotic
monarchy, the repressive line adopted by
both towards all freedom of scientific and
religious thought, the luxurious and secular
«tyle of life prevalent in the upper ranks of
the hierarchy, and their close connexion
with a highly-privileged and wealthy aristo
cracy, estranged the Church from the love
and respect of the people, and rendered it
quite incapable of stemming the advancing
tide of atheistic philosophy and political
discontent. At last the crash came. In
1789 the States-General abolished tithes,
confiscated the landed property of the
Church, and dissolved the monasteries. In

CHURCH, GALLICAN

191

1790 it framed the "Civil Constitution of
the Clergy," which was, in fact, a reconsti-
tution of the Church. It suppressed 135
bishoprics, and erected 83 in their stead, to
correspond in number and extent with the
civil division of the country into depart
ments. Bishops and clergy were to be
elected by the people, and confirmed by the
metropolitan ; the pope was to be informed
of the appointments, but no application to
be made for his consent. All the clergy
were required to take an oath of fidelity to
the constitution. This caused a schism, for
many of the clergy refused to take the oath ;
but jurors and non-jurors were soon alike
overwhelmed in the storm of political and
religious anarchy which swept over France.
For ten years all national recognition of
Christianity was suppressed, all forms of
Christian worship proscribed.
When Napoleon Buonaparte became First
Consul in a.d. 1800, the storm had spent
itself, and the public mind had become
wearied and disgusted by the horrors of the
Reign of Terror. Buonaparte's own religious
belief seems to have been of the vaguest
description, but from political considerations
he determined to restore the public pro
fession of Christianity. For this purpose
he entered into negotiations with Pope
Pius VII., which resulted in the celebrated
Concordat of 1801, of which the following
were the principal provisions: (i.) The
Roman Catholic religion was declared to be
that of the. French government, and of the
majority of Frenchmen ; its worship was to
be publicly celebrated throughout France.
(ii.) The ancient sees — 159 in number — were
suppressed by the pope, and 60 new ones
were created in their stead, to which the
First Consul was to nominate and the pope to
institute, (iii.) The bishops were to collate
to the parochial cures, their choice being
subject to the approval of the government.
(iv.) The Pope sanctioned the sale of Church
property which had taken place during the
Revolution ; and the French government, in
return, pledged itself to make an, adequate
provision for the maintenance of the clergy
of all ranks, (v.) All clerics were to take an
oath of allegiance to the existing govern
ment. Several articles called the " Organic
Decrees," artfully appended to the Con
cordat, and regulating the details of ad
ministration and public worship, rendered
the Church more entirely dependent on the
State than it had ever been. The pope and
the clergy remonstrated against them, but
in vain. In some respects the Concordat
had been effected by the exercise of a
despotic power on the part of the pope, but
Buonaparte took care that his own authority
should be paramount. At his coronation in
Paris the pope anointed him, but he placed

192

CHURCH, GREEK

the crown on his head with his own hands.
The re-establishment of the Church was
only to impart a kind of dignity and sanctity
to his usurpation of the throne, and to assist
in imposing the fiction on the world that he
was a modem reproduction of Charles the
Great, and the representative of the ancient
line of Roman emperors.
After the fall of Buonaparte and the
restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, the
vigour and activity of tbe Church revived.
The Jesuits, who had been banished in
1764, returned; and, unfortunately, their
influence, in alliance with an Ultramontane
party, prevented any return to true Gallican
principles. Ultramontanism was supreme
during the reign of Charles X. In the latter
part of the reign of Louis Philippe there was
a remarkable development of spiritual and
intellectual life in the Church, of which the
most distinguished leaders were Lacordaire,
Montalembert, and Lamennais. The latter
endeavoured to combine Ultramontane views
with advanced democratical principles, but
he ultimately lapsed into infidelity. Mont
alembert remained to the last a Liberal in
politics, and a loyal son of the Church ; but
lie died out of favour with the Pope Pius IX.,
because he protested against the dogma of
Papal infallibility. Since the promulgation
of this dogma, the breach between the
Liberal party and the Church in France, as
in other Roman Catholic countries, has
grown continually wider, and under the
present Republic, the hope of reconciliation
seems more distant than ever. No doubt,
in spite of much infidelity and indifference,
a large proportion of the French people are
still attached to the Church, and most of
the clergy are irreproachable in conduct;
some of them able, learned, and eloquent ;
but they are oppressed with poverty, the
State is more inclined to reduce than to
increase their scanty emoluments, and
much spiritual destitution, especially in the
rural districts, is the inevitable result. The
expulsion of the monastic orders and other
tyrannical acts are highly discreditable to a
Republican government in an age of religious
toleration. — Histoire de I'Eglise de France,
by the Abbe Guettee ; Histoire de I'Eglise
Gallicane, Jacques Longueval and his Suc
cessors ; History of the Church of France,
by Reverend W. H. Jervis; The Student's
History of France, by the same ; The Gal
lican Church, by Reverend Julius Lloyd,
S.P.C.K. [W. R. W. S.]
CHURCH, THE GREEK CATHOLIC,
OR EASTERN ORTHODOX. The desig
nation Greek Church or Eastern Church, if
used in reference to the first six centuries of
the Christian era, is only a geographical ex
pression to denote the Church in the eastern
portions of the Roman Empire where Greek

CHUECH, GEEEK
was generaRy spoken. The Church through
out Christendom was substantially one in
doctrine and modes of worship. But after
the removal of the seat of empire from
Rome to Byzantium there was a continually
increasing tendency to disruption, and a
division of the Chm-ch into two distinct
branches, with Rome and Constantinople as
the two separate heads. The process of
separation, however, was slow and gradual,
and the causes were mixed, being partly
political, partly theological, and partly de
rived from those differences in temperament
and habits of thought which distinguish
Oriental from Western races.
All that can be attempted in the compass
of this article is briefly to indicate the prin
cipal outward events which led on step by
step to a complete and final rupture between
the Eastern and Western branches of the
Church. One of the first symptoms of serious rivalry
between the occupants of the Eoman and
Byzantine sees was in a.d. 594, when
Gregory the Great objected to the assump
tion of the title "oecumenical Bishop"
(which he also disclaimed for himself) by the
patriarch of Constantinople. The adoption
of the title, however, was sanctioned by the
6th and 7th General Councils, and has been
retained by the patriarchs to the present
day. The first grave discord between East and
West on theological grounds was the Mono-
thelite controversy (see Monothelites) which
was carried on with great acrimony. Mono-
thelism was condemned at Rome by a coun
cil (a.d. 649), called the 1st Lateran Council,
a few years after which (653) the Pope
Martin I. and Maximus, a moiibwho had
been the ablest opponent of Monothelism,
were violently carried to Constantinople and
treated with barbarous cruelty. The Em
peror Constantine IV. (Pogonatus) endea
voured to heal the controversy by a general
council (the 6th, called in Trullo), a.d. 680,
which condemned Monothelism and its
adherents, including a former pope, Honorius
I., who had been favourable to Monothelistic
opinions. The decrees of the council were.
signed by the representatives of East and
West. But five years later (685) a kind of
supplementary synod, also held at Constan
tinople, enacted some disciplinary canons
which were direGtly contrary to Roman
usages ; by the 13th, e.g. clergy married
before their ordination as subdeacons were
permitted to retain their wives; by the
55th fasting on any Saturday except Easter-
eve was forbidden, whereas at Rome it was
the custom to observe all Saturdays in Lent
as fast days. The Pope Sergius I. declared
that he would rather die than subscribe to
these canons, and in this resolution he was

CHUECH, GREEK
supported by the Roman populace, who
rescued him from an imperial officer who
had been sent to seize him.
The next great cause of dissension was
the Iconoclastic controversy. The severe
edicts issued by the Emperor Leo the Isaurian
a.d. 724 against the veneration of sacred
images were strongly resented by the West
ern Church. Pope Gregory IL, however,
although he rejected the edicts did not take
any strong measures of opposition. His
successor, Gregory III., held a council a.d.
731 attended by 98 bishops, which con
demned iconoclasm and iconoclasts, although
the emperor was not mentioned by name.
He retaliated by confiscating the Papal
revenues in Sicily and Calabria, and trans
ferring Greece and Illyricum from the
Roman to the Byzantine patriarchate. Con
stantine V. (Copronymus) held a council in
754 which condemned the use of images.
It was attended only by those bishops who
were completely subservient to the court
influence, and the summons was disregarded
by Pope Stephen altogether.
Leo IV. (a.d. 775), the son of Constantine,
was more tolerant of the veneration of
images, and his wife Irene, who was posi
tively favourable to the practice, issued an
edict of toleration after his death. A general
council summoned in 786 met first at Con
stantinople, and afterwards adjourned to
Njcaea. The pope was represented by two
envoys. The council sanctioned the vene
ration of images (wpoa-Kivvo-is) but forbade
such service (Xarpela) being paid to them
as belonged to the Divine nature only. And
it is to be noted that the images sanctioned
by this council were not to be works of
sculpture, but only paintings or mosaics ;
and to this limitation the Eastern Church
has ever since adhered.
The decisions of this council were accepted
at Rome, but rejected by a synod of the
Frankish clergy held at Frankfort in 794
under Charles the Great. The friendly
relations, however, between the Papacy and
Charles were not disturbed by this division
of opinion. The tie of political interest in
fact between the Pope and the great
sovereign of the West was far stronger now
than any tie, political or religious, between
the Papacy and the Eastern Empire. The
power of Eastern rule was stiR felt in Italy
in the vexatious form of taxation; it was
not felt in the only way which would
have been acceptable: the supply of help
against Lombard invasion. These causes of
political discontent added to jealousy of
the pretensions of the Byzantine See, the
removal of Greece and Illyricum from the
Roman jurisdiction, and the recollection of
past theological differences, all tended to
loosen the bond of union between the two

CHURCH, GREEK 193
Churches. Such was the condition of things
towards the close of the eighth century.
The controversy concerning the Double
Procession of the Holy Spirit (see Procession)
and the insertion of the Filioque clause in
the Nicene Creed, which was destined to be
the most fatal cause of schism, began early
in the ninth century. It seemed to be laid
to rest before the end of Charles the Great's
reign, but it smouldered on under the surface,
as it were, only to break forth at last with
uncontrollable fury.
In 859 the intervention of the pope was
soRcited to help in settling a disputed
election to the See of Constantinople, but
the haughty dictatorial tone assumed by
Nicolas I. only provoked resentment, and
led to an angry correspondence between him
and the Emperor Michael III. Nicolas also
excited much indignation at Constantinople
by interfering with ecclesiastical affairs in
Bulgaria which had been originally converted
to Christianity by Byzantine missionaries.
The patriarch issued a circular letter de
nouncing the intrusion of the pope and
accusing the Roman Church of irregular
practices, and heretical opinions especially
in regard to the Procession of the Holy
Ghost. A council held at Constantinople in
869 decided that Bulgaria belonged to the
Byzantine See, and all the Latin clergy
were expelled from that country. The
quarrel about the election to the patri
archate, and the respective rights of Eome
and Constantinople over Bulgaria, lingered
for several years longer. Friendly relations
were re-established in a.d. 900, but the
reconciliation was not cordial, and during
the tenth century (a very dark period in
the annals of the Papacy) there was but
little intercourse between the two Churches.
In the following century the increasing
power of the Papacy, and the advance of
the Normans in Southern Italy, which
threatened to deprive the Eastern Empire
of its Italian possessions, were sources of
grave anxiety to the emperor and the
patriarch. In 1024 they made a proposal
to John XVIII. that the title of " oecumeni
cal " should be equally enjoyed by the
bishops of Constantinople and Eome. The
suggestion was accompanied by handsome
offerings which induced the pope to listen
to it, but the negotiation ultimately came
to nought.
In 1053 the patriarch of Constantinople,
Michael Cerularius, and Leo, tho metro
politan of Bulgaria, addressed a letter to the
bishop of Trani, in Apulia, warning him of
the errors of the Eoman Church, which were
ranged under four principal heads, (i.) the
use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist ;
(ii.) the practice of fasting on Saturdays in
Lent ; (iii.) the eating of things strangled ;
o

194

CHUECH, GEEEK

(iv.) the singing of the great Hallelujah at
Easter only. Three envoys were despatched
by the Pope Leo IX. to Constantinople to
discuss these questions, and were favourably
received by the emperor, but the patriarch
refused to treat with them, and they in their
turn anathematized the patriarch.
It might have been expected that the
Crusades would have drawn Eastern and
Western Christendom together in the bands
of a common enterprise against the infidel :
but the contempt with which the crusaders
treated the Greek Christians in Palestine
and elsewhere, the cruelty and profanity of
the crusading army which captured Con
stantinople in 1204, and the elevation of an
Italian, Morosini, to the patriarchal throne
embittered the relations between the two
Churches beyond hope of remedy.
A serious effort however to effect a
reconciliation was made by Pope Gregory X.
and the Emperor Michael Paheologus in
1274. It was indeed the interest of each to
be on friendly terms with the other. The
pope wanted assistance for a crusade, and the
emperor needed protection against the designs
of Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily. A great
council was convened at Lyons at which the
patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch
were present, more than 500 bishops and
upwards of 1000 smaller dignitaries. The
Greek ambassadors were received with great
honour; and the representatives of the
Greek Church generally were in the most
submissive mood. They admitted the prim
acy of the Eoman See ; they even chanted
the Nicene Creed with the " Filioque "
clause. At the fourth session of the
council the reconciliation of the Churches
was formally ratified. But animosities of
long standing cannot be healed by the
decrees of a council, and the cruelty with
which the emperor fried to force the terms
of the union upon his subjects only increased
the irritation, and rendered the discord
between the Churches after his death more
hopeless than ever.
During the fobrteenth century and the
.beginning of the fifteenth, the pressure of
the Mohammedan power on the Eastern
Empire made the emperors look once more
to Western Christendom for help : and they
supported their appeals by professing a
desire for the reconciliation of the Churches :
but the majority of the Eastern Christians
held the Latins in abomination, and neither
the overtures of the Emperor Andronicus
III. (a.d. 1330-1341) nor the submission of
his son John Paheologus (a.d. 1369), who
acknowledged the Eoman supremacy and
the " double procession," and did homage to
the pope in St. Peter's, had any lasting
beneficial effect.
When the Council of Basel met, a.d. 1431,

CHURCH, GEEEK
the Greeks were invited by the council and
the pqpe to a conference upon the points in
dispute between the two Churches. But
the pope and the council could not agree
upon the place of meeting. At length the
pope (Eugenius IV.) and his party, although
in a minority, fixed on Ferrara and opened
a council there, January 8, 1438. The '
Greek emperor and patriarch, and their
followers, more than 500 in all, were con
veyed to Italy in Venetian ships and reached
Ferrara on March 12. After some vexa
tious disputes at the outset about questions
of ceremony and precedence twelve champions
were selected from either side to discuss the
theological questions. These were ranged
under four principal heads : (i.) Double Pro
cession ; (ii.) Purgatory ; (iii.) Unleavened
bread; (iv.) the Papal Supremacy. The
formal discussion did not begin till October
1438. In February 1439 the council was
transfered to Florence, and held its last
session there on March 24. Some articles
of union were drawn up in a spirit of com
promise upon the disputed points, and
subscribed by the representatives of the two
Churches ; but .they proved as ineffectual as
aR former devices for healing the schism ;
and a few years later, 1443, the Council of
Florence was denounced by the patriarchs
of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and
the patriarch of Constantinople and all other
prelates who had signed the articles of
union were stigmatised as traitors to the
Church. On the other hand, no effective
help was sent from the West to the support
of the Eastern Empire against the Moham
medan power, and this circumstance of
course tended to increase the estrangement
between the two Churches.
After the capture of Constantinople by
the Turks, a.d. 1453, and the ruin of the
Eastern Empire, the Greek Church was
reduced to that depressed state in which _ it
has more or less remained in all countries
subjugated by the Turk. The scattered
fragments continued to look to the patri
arch of Constantinople as their head, but
the patriarchs of Constantinople were held
down in such abject subjection to the
Sultan, being obliged to purchase investiture
at his hands, and liable to deposition at his
abitrary will, that their real power was very
small indeed. And although they are now
nominated for life, they have but little
freedom; their political position debars
them from cordial communion and co-opera
tion with the Christians of Greece and
Russia, with whom they would naturally
be inclined to sympathise. A vigorous
attempt was made during the pontificate of
Pope Urban VIII. (a.d. 1623-1644), to
subject tbe Eastern Christians to the
Roman See. It was firmly resisted how-

CHURCH, GREEK
ever, especially by Cyril Lucar, then
patriarch of Constantinople, an able and
learned man, who was on friendly terms
with severa! reformed divines in England
and Holland. The Jesuits contrived his
ruin by accusing him to the Sultan of
treason, on which charge he was condemned
and strangled in a.d. 1638. His successor
actually apostatised to the Roman faith,
but the next patriarch was animated by
the hereditary hostility of his countrymen
to the Latins, and all succeeding patriarchs
have remained rigidly opposed to com
munion with Rome.
The patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch
and Jerusalem still exist in name, but their
jurisdiction is very limited. In the two
former, the Monophysite Christians (see
Monophysites) are far move numerous than
the orthodox (see Copts, Armenians, also
Nestorians, Jacobites, Maronites), while the
patriarchate of Jerusalem contains a great
variety of Christian bodies, and only about
15,000 orthodox Greeks.
The only really powerful branch of the
orthodox Eastern Church is the Russian.
The conversion of Russia dates from the
latter half of the tenth century. Wlodimir,
duke of Eussia and Muscovy, married
Anna, sister of the emperor Basil the
younger. Through her influence her
husband was converted, and his people
followed his example. Down to near the
end of the sixteenth century, the Eussian
primate was appointed by the patriarch of
Constantinople, but in 1589 the patriarchate
of Moscow was established. The appoint
ments to it were at first subject to confir
mation by the patriarch of Constantinople,
but before the end of the next century this
relic of dependence was removed. An un
successful attempt was made by the Pope
Gregory XIII., a.d.1590, throughthe instru
mentality of Jesuit agents, to unite, or rather
subject, the Eussian Church to the Chm-ch
of Rome. Some of the Russian inhabitants
of Poland, however, were induced to join
the Latin Church a.d. 1596. They formed
a community called the United Greeks or
Uniats, and the schism lasted till 1839,
when two millions of the Uniats under
three bishops were reconciled to the national
Church. Peter the Great effected great reforms
in the Russian Church, established schools,
and abolished persecution for heresy, but
prohibited the Jesuits from teaching ; he
suppressed the office of patriarch, and
appointed an exarch with limited powers,
responsible partly to himself, partly to the
synod of bishops, but in 1720 he abolished
the exarchy, and substituted for it, as the
supreme governing body, " the Holy Legis
lative Synod," consisting originally of 12,

CHURCH, GREEK

195

afterwards of an indefinite number of the
higher clergy selected by the Czar. The
head of the synod is a layman, who is the
representative of the Czar, and has a
negative upon all resolutions until they
have been submitted to the emperor. The
large powers, however, with which the
emperor is vested have not been abused
even by Czars of the most despotic dis
position ; the election of bishops, although
nominally in the hands of the emperor, is
virtually decided by the synod, whose advice
on all ecclesiastical subjects is generally
received with respect. There is in fact a
a remarkable harmony between Church and
State in Russia, and although schismatics
are very numerous, there can be no question
that the Orthodox Church is the Church of
the nation.
After Greece had shaken off the Turkish
yoke, the Church was made independent of
the patriarch of Constantinople, but other
wise remained in full communion with the
Orthodox Eastern Church. It is governed
by a synod framed on the model of the Holy
Legislative Synod in Russia. The metro
politan of Athens is president of the synod,
and the bishops are selected by the king
out of three fit persons nominated by the
synod. The Servian Church owes its origin tothe
labours of SS. Cyril and Methodius, two
missionaries despatched from Constanti
nople to central Europe about the middle of
the ninth century. As the Servian princes
acknowledged a kind of feudal superiority
in the Emperor of the East, so the Church
recognised the primacy of the Byzantine
See, but without acknowledging the patri
archal jurisdiction. During the reign of
Stephen Dushan in 1354, the chief bishop
of the Servian Church was constituted a
patriarch by a national synod, and the title
was recognised by Pope Innocent VI.
In 1689, the Servian patriarch having
joined the Emperor Leopold in an un
successful attempt to expel the Turks from
Europe, was compelled to emigrate with
37,000 Servian families into Hungary,
where he became archbishop of Carlowitz,
and the head of a flourishing Church which
has existed to the present day. The
Sultan set up a patriarchate in Servia,
dependent on himself, which lasted till 1765;
after which Servia became a province of
Constantinople to a.d. 1830, when its inde
pendence was recognised, and the people
were allowed to elect their own patriarch.
In 1838, when Belgrade was made the
capital of Servia, that city became the Archi
episcopal See; the metropolitan has three
suffragans,and enjoys the authority although,
he does not take the title of patriarch.
The Bulgarian Church wavered in mediaeval
o 2

196

CHURCH OF ROME

times between allegiance to the Roman and
Byzantine Sees, and was (see above) one of
the, bones of contention between the two
Churches, but ultimately it became
attached to the Eastern communion with
an independent patriarchate. The Jesuits
founded a Uniat Church in 1860, but it had
a very short-lived existence.
The little state of Montenegro, originally
a part* of the kingdom of Servia, has with
singular courage and tenacity of purpose
maintained its independence both in secular
and ecclesiastic™ affairs. For 350 years
(a.d. 1499-1851) it was governed by an
hereditary dynasty of prince bishops. At
the close of that period the temporal and
spiritual powers were separated.
The most essential points of difference
between the Greek and Roman Churches
are, (i.) the rejection by the former of
Papal supremacy ; (ii.) the administration of
the Holy Eucharist in both kinds, and the
use of leavened bread ; (iii.) the rejection of
the Filioque clause in the Nicene Creed;
(iv.) the administration of the Eucharist to
infants, and of confirmation, performed not
by a bishop but by a priest ; (v.) the use of
pictures only, and prohibition of sculptured
forms in churches; (vi.) the obligation of
parish priests to be married men.
The last official communication between
the Greek and Roman Churches took place
in 1848 soon after the accession of Pope
Pius IX. ; but the lofty tone of absolute
authority adopted in the Papal address
irritated the feelings of the Eastern prelates,
and provoked a very stiff reply, so that the
prospect of any reconciliation between these
two great branches of the Catholic Church
seems as distant as ever. Between the
Greek Orthodox Church and the Church of
England there is and has long been far more
sympathy, and we may still venture to
hope that some terms of alliance, if not
actual union, may in time be effected
between them.
{History of tlie Holy Eastern Church, by
J. M. Neale, 5 vols. ; Mouravieffs History of
the Russian Church (translated by Black-
more) ; Lectures on the Eastern Church, by
A. P. Stanley, late Dean of Westminster ;
History of the Christian Church, by J. C.
Robertson, late Canon of Canterbury, 4
vols. ; Mosheim's Church History, Stubbs'
edition. For an account of the Eastern Christian
bodies not in communion with the Ortho
dox Church, see under Armenians, Copts,
Jacobites, Maronites, Nestorians^ [W. R. W. S.]
CHURCH OF ROME. (See Pope,
Popery, Council of Trent, Romanism.) The
Church of Rome is, properly speaking, that
branch of the Church Catholic over which

CHUECH OF ROME
the Bishop of Rome presides, as the Church
of England is that branch over which the
Archbishop of Canterbury presides. To
trace, even in outline, the gradual cor
ruption of doctrine and practice in the
Roman Chm-ch, the gradual progress'"'of
Papal power, and gradual development »bf
Papal pretensions, would exceed the limits,
and the scope of this Dictionary.
For the purpose of this work it will
suffice to give an account of the intro
duction of Romanism or Popery into this
country, and into Ireland, subsequently to
the Eeformation. From the preceding
articles it will have been seen that the
Churches of England and freland were
canonicaRy reformed. The old Catholic
Church of England, in accordance with the
law of God and the canons, asserted its an
cient independence. That many members
of the Church were in their hearts opposed
to this great movement, is not only pro
bable, but certain ; yet they did not incur
the sin of schism by establishing a sect in
opposition to the Church of England, until
the twelfth year of Elizabeth's reign, when
they were hurried into this sin hy foreign
emissaries from the Pope of Rome, and
certain sovereigns hostile to the Queen;
Mr. Butler, himself a Romanist, observes,
that " Many of them conformed for a while,
in hopes that the Queen would relent, and
things come round again." (Memoirs, ii.
p. 280.) " He may be right," says Dr.
Phelan, " in complimenting their ortho
doxy at the expense of their truth ; yet it
is a curious circumstance, that their hy
pocrisy, while it deceived a vigilant and
justly suspicious Protestant government,
should be disclosed by the tardy candour
of their own historians." The admission,
however, is important ; the admission of a
Romanist that Bomanism was for a season
extinct, as a community, in these realms.
The present Eomish sect cannot, therefore,
consistently claim to be what tbe clergy
of the Church of England really and truly
are, the representatives of the founders of
the English Church. The Romish clergy
in England, though they have orders, have
no mission, on their own showing, and are
consequently schismatics. The Romanists
began to fall away from the Catholic Church
of England, and to constitute themselves
into a distinct community or sect, about the
year 1570, that is, about forty years after
the Church of England had suppressed
the Papal usurpation. This act was en
tirely voluntary on the part of the Roman
ists. They refused any longer to obey their
bishops ; and, departing from our commu
nity, they established a rival worship, and
set up altar against, altar. This .sect was
at first governed by Jesuits and missionary

CHUECH OF EOME
priests, under the superintendence of Allen,
a Roman cardinal, who lived in Flanders,
and founded the colleges at Douay and
Rheims. In 1598, Mr. George Blackwell
was appointed archpriest of the English
Romanists (see Archpriest), and this form
of ecclesiastical government prevailed
among them till 1623, when Dr. Bishop
was ordained titular bishop of Chalcedon,
and sent from Rome to govern the Romish
sect in England. Dr. Smith, the next
bishop of Chalcedon, was banished in 1628,
and the Romanists were without bishops
till the reign of James II. (Palmer, ii. 252.)
During the whole of the reign of James I.,
and part of the following reign, the Romish
priesthood, both in England and in Ire
land, were in the interest, and many of
them in the pay, of the Spanish monarchy.
The titulars of Dublin and Cashel are
particularly mentioned as pensioners of
Spain. The general memorial of the Ro
mish hierarchy in Ireland, in 1617, was
addressed to the Spanish court, and we
are told by Berrington, himself a Roman
ist, that the English Jesuits, 300 in num
ber, were all of the Spanish faction. In
Ireland, as we have seen before, the bishops
almost unanimously consented, in the be
ginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, to re
nounce the usurped jurisdiction of the Roman
Pontiff, and consequently there, as in Eng
land, for a great length of time there were
scarcely any popish bishops. But " Swarms
of Jesuits," says Carte, " and Romish
priests, educated in the seminaries founded
by King Philip II., in Spain and the Ne
therlands, and by the cardinal of Lorraine
in Champagne (where, pursuant to the
vows of the founders, they sucked in, as
well the principles of rebellion, as of what
tliey call catholicity), coming over to that
kingdom, as full of secular as of religious
views, they soon prevailed with an igno
rant and credulous people to withdraw from
the public service of the Church." Mac-
gauran, titular archbishop of Armagh, was
sent over from Spain, and slain in an act
of rebellion against his sovereign. In 1 62 1
there were two popish bishops in Ireland,
and two others resided in Spain. These
persons were ordained in foreign coun
tries, and could not trace their ordina
tions to the ancient Irish Church. The
Romish hierarchy in Ireland are thus
the successors, not of St. Patrick, but
of certain Spanish and Italian prelates,
who, in the reign of James I., originated,
- contrary to the canons of the Church, the
Romish sect — a sect it truly is in that
country, since there can be but one Church,
and that is the Catholic, in the same place
(see article on the Church), and all that
they can pretend to is, that without having

CHURCH OF ROME

197

any mission, being therefore in a state of
schism, they hold peculiar doctrines and
practices which the Church of Ireland may
have practised and held for one, two, three,
or at the very most four hundred out of
the fourteen hundred years which have
elapsed since its foundation ; while even as a
counterpoise to this, we may place the
three hundred years which have elapsed
between the Reformation and the present
time. The Roman Catholics then, in England,
are descended from those who in the reign
of Elizabeth split off from the national
Church because they thought the Refor
mation had been carried too far, just as
the Puritan party fell away from it because
they thought it had not been carried far
enough. The alienation of the Eomanists from
the national Church involved them in fre
quent intrigues for the overthrow of the
established constitution in Church and
State; and as a natural consequence they
were long subjected, like most other Non
conformists, to civil disabilities, and severe
penal restriction upon the exercise of their
religion. With the gradual advance how
ever of more enlightened views upon the
subject of religious toleration, and the re
moval or abatement of most of the causes
of political disaffection, the Eoman Catho
lics have been released, in common with
Protestant Dissenters, from these galling
fetters. In 1850 Pope Pius IX. organised a new
Eoman hierarchy in England by the division
of the country into twelve dioceses. This
project, which was stigmatised as the " Papal
aggression," excited popular indignation and
alarm to a degree which in the retrospect
at the present day seems almost ridiculous.
A bill was carried in Parliament prohibiting
the use of the new titles by the Eoman
bishops, but it was a futile measure. There
is no reason to doubt that the Eoman
Catholics in Great Britain are thoroughly
loyal to the constitution, and in Ireland
the causes of discontent among the Eoman
Catholic population are agrarian and poli
tical rather than religious, especially since
the disestablishment of the Protestant Epis
copal Church. During the last few years
there has been a considerable increase in
the number of Eoman churches and mo
nastic societies established in England ; and
the Eoman Catholic Church is, next to the
Church of England, the most numerous of
all the religious communions in the United
Kingdom. In great Britain its members
may be computed at about two million,
while in Ireland in 1881 tbey numbered
3,951,888. — Palmer's Treatise on the Church,
vols. i. & ii. ; Lives of the Archbishops of

198 CHURCH-BUILDING ACTS
Canterbury, by W. F. Hook, D.D. ; Hard-
wick's History of the Reformation.
CHURCH-BUILDING ACTS. The
confused state of these Acts is notorious.
Lord Selborne when Attorney-General
brought in a bill to consolidate them, but
was prevented from carrying it by the
opposition of Dissenters in the House of
Commons, though it did not the least affect
them. "The law of building churches,
parsonages, and schools, and the division
of parishes," is given in the most condensed
form in a book by Mr. Trower published
in 1867, and it has been altered by statute or
defined by dicisions since, to the extent we
shall shortly mention. We can only give
a very short summary of it, omitting many
details. The first church-building Act was 43 G.
III. c. 108, which enabled absolute owners
of land to give or leave not more than five
acres for building churches or parsonages,
notwithstanding the Mortmain Acts (see
Mortmain). The Queen Anne's Bounty Act,
2 & 3 Anne, c. 20, only authorised such
gifts for augmentation of benefices, as some
previous Acts of 17 & 29 Car. II. had done
with respect to tithes in lay hands. 51
G. III. c. 115, enabled the lord of a manor to
grant five acres of a common for a church,
churchyard, parsonage or glebe. 58 G. III.
c. 45, established the Church Building
Commissioners, since merged in the Ec
clesiastical Commission, and Parliament
granted a million for building new churches,
but their powers and the general provisions
of the Act were not confined to those
churches, especially by later Acts. In that
and some of the later Acts the site for a
church was to be conveyed to the Com
missioners, and it is still prudent to do so
when the cost is defrayed by subscription or
the site is given by someone who does not
himself buuld the church. But other
wise there is no need for it; for the Act of
Consecration vests the freehold in the in
cumbent by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 70, s. 13, and 19 &
20 Vict. c. 104, s. 10, without any conveyance,
the owner of the land having petitioned for the
consecration, without which it cannot take
place or be valid. The powers given by 58
G. III. were somewhat extended by 59 G.
III. e. 134, which, among other things, allows
churches to be removed to new sites by
faculty, with consent of all parties inte
rested (s. 40). Neither of these Acts, nor any
other yet, enables a tenant for life to give
land for a church, but only to sell it for its
proper value, which sum is to be entailed
instead, and then all incumbrances on the
land are barred. But it has been- decided
that this does not ratify conveyances by
persons who are not at all authorised to
make them, and such conveyances may be

CHUECH-BUILDING ACTS
set aside by the real owners, and the land
ordered to be reconveyed to them. 28 &
29 Vict. c. 69, has enabled tenants for life to
give an acre of land (with wonderful absurd
ity) for a parsonage, though not for a church i
but 36 & 37 Vict. c. 50, and 45 & 46 Vict,
c. 21, enables a tenant for life, with the,
concurrence of the next heir, if there is one^
or his guardian (which has been decided to
include the tenant for life himself if guardian)'
and corporations, to give an acre for any
place of worship. And 6 & 7 Vict. c. 37
(Peel's Act), enables absolute owners to give
or devise any quantify of land or goods to
the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for provid
ing a new church for a new ecclesiastical
district. By the Mortmain Acts money
could not be bequeathed to build a church,
except on land already belonging to some
ecclesiastical body ; and 58 G. Ill allowed
only £500 to be so left. There are sundry
other Acts relating to church building and
the formation of new parishes, ohjeets whicli
are necessarily connected. Indeed the build
ing of new churches to be consecrated only
as chapels of ease has almost or quite
ceased, for the good reasons, that an un
consecrated building is not an immovable
incumbrance on the vicar of the old church,
who is bound by law, or can be compelled
by the bishop, to serve it by himself or a
curate for ever, a consecrated chapel of (so-
called) case ; secondly, because unconsecrated
buildings can also be used for schools ; and
further, because the service can be read and
sermons preached by laymen, if necessary;
which certainly cannot legally be done in a
consecrated church or chapel (except private
ones, which are only consecrated — a peculiar
sense, and over which there is no ecclesias
tical jurisdiction). Laymen can only read
or sing the psalms and canticles and the
lessons in churches, by virtue of the rubrics
carefully altering tho usual language, and
being altered as to 'the lessons from, those
of the older Prayer Books, so as not to
require " the minister " to read those things
himself. The first part of the Litany, in
few cathedrals, is read solely or jointly by
the lay vicars choral ; but it seems very
doubtful if that is lawful now anywhere
else, though it may possibly have been so
when those cathedral statutes were made.
At any rate universal usage is against it.
Although the incumbent of a parish has
still the right to prevent any clergyman
from officiating in his parish, even with the
approval of the bishop and every parishioner
(which ought on various grounds to be
abolished), there is power under 1 & 2 W.
IV. c. 48, and 1 & 2 Vict. c. 10, for the bishop
to authorise anybody else to build a church
two miles from the parish church without the
cbnsent of the patron and incumbent, unless

CHURCH-BUILDING ACTS
they will do it themselves ; and the patron
age will belong to the person who builds it,
or to trustees if the builders are numerous.
And such churches may be made parish
churches and a district assigned to them. It
is needless to encumber this book with the
formalities required, as they will always be
furnished by diocesan officials.
There is a clause in one of the Church
Building Acts, 3 Geo. IV. c. 72, s. 8, whioh
at first sight appears to give to the (now)
ecclesiastical commissioners the very extra
ordinary power of taking (by compulsion)
any land they choose, not only for enlarging
churches (which would be reasonable) or
rebuilding them (which is absurd on the
face of it) or building altogether new ones
when " a parish is unable to procure any
land for the purpose by reason of tho in
ability or unwillingness of any person
interested in such (what ?) land to agree for
the sale thereof." Sir W. V. Harcourt, in
supporting a Dissenters' bill in 1885 for
giving them direct power to take land by
compulsion for their chapels, asserted that
the Church has that power. That was
contradicted in the Times by a diocesan
chancellor, and reasserted by an anonymous
representative of the Home Secretary, on
the strength of the above clause.
The " chancellor " replied that it does not
contain any of the long-established pro
visions for compulsory taking which had
existed in Acts for all kinds of public works
long before the Lands Clauses Act, 1845,
and that it was plainly intended only to
deal with defects of title and to supplement
the two previous Acts of 58 & 59 Geo. III.
which it recited, except (as he said) that it
might perhaps apply to enlargements of
churches and churchyards, as the 59 Geo.
III. s. 26, does expressly, and in that case
the land is already indicated; which is
different from pouncing upon a piece of land
anywhere the commissioners like, without
notice or judicial inquiry of any kind as to
the necessity for it or the objections to it ;
a power which exists for no other public
purpose whatever. The language of the
Acts is so confused that the extent of the
powers in question can be settled by nothing
short of a trial at law, of which there is no
chance ; for it seems to be well understood
that the commissioners have never and
never will try it against a real refusal by
competent persons in possession, who are
prepared to fight, though it would probably
be effective — and was only intended to be —
where the person in possession is ready to
sell, but other persons "interested in the
land " refuse or are unable to treat. In that
case the powers of the previous Acts may
be put in force, and a valuation made as is
usual in the later stages of compulsory pur-

CHUECHING

109

chases, by a jury or an arbitrator, and the
money paid into Court. It is material to
observe that the technical words " by com
pulsion " do not appear in any of the three
Acts, and that it is "accept and take" in
the principal Act, to which the others were
subsidiary. It is therefore useless to ask
the commissioners to try to obtain land
for church building by compulsion ; and it
would be strange indeed if they could. [G.]
CHURCHING OF WOMEN; or thanks
giving of women after child-birth. I. This
custom was, no doubt, derived from the
rite cf purification, which is enjoined so
particularly in the twelfth chapter of Le
viticus, and which was observed, with its
attendant ceremonies and offerings, by the
Mother of our Lord. Nor indeed may the
Church be so reasonably supposed to have
taken up this rite from the practice of tbe
Jews, as she may be, that she began it in
imitation of the Blessed Virgin, who though
she was rather sanctified than defiled by the.
birth of our Lord, and so had no need of
purification from any uneleanness, whether
legal or moral ; yet wisely and humbly sub
mitted to this rite, and offered her praise,
together with her Blessed Son, in the temple.
And that from hence this usage was derived
among Christians seems probable, not only
from its being so universal and ancient,
that the beginning of it can hardly any
where be found ; but also from the practice
of the Eastern Church, where the mother
still brings the child along with her, and
presents it to God on her churching -day. —
Wheatly, chap. xiii. p. 502.
In the Greek Church the time for per
forming this office is limited to be on the
fortieth day. Dionysius of Alexandria, quoted
by Beveridge (Concil. torn. ii. p. 4), lays it
down as a matter about which there could
be no doubt, that a woman ought not to be
present at church, or receive the Holy Com
munion within forty days after her having
given birth to a child. In the West the
time was never strictly determined, though
St. Augustine speaks of the forty days
required by the old dispensation being still
binding under the new (Quiest in Levit. lib.
iii. qusest. 64.) When the other Augustine
wrote from Britain to Gregory, and, amongst
other things, asked his advice on this matter,
"you know the time required in the Old
Testament," was the answer, " yet if she
enter into church and render thanks the
very hour she has given birth, she sins not."
—Bede, i. 27.
Our present rubric does not pretend to
limit the day when the woman shall be
churched, but only supposes that she will
come "at the usual time after her de
livery." The "usual time" is now about
a month, for the woman's weakness will

200

CHUECHING

seldom permit her coming sooner. And
if she be not able to come so soon, she is
allowed to stay a longer time, the Church
not expecting her to return her thanks for
a blessing before it is received. — Wheatly, p.
503. II. The seivice itself was probably, in
eirly times, left to the discretion of the
minister ; at all events, there is no such
office in the ancient Sacramentaries, though
forms are to be found of later date, which
are given by Martene (de Rit. Eccl. ii. 136),
and Goar (p. 267). Our present service is
taken from the service for the purification
of women in the Sarum Manual. The old
title was retained in 1549, but altered in
1552, lest there should be the lingering idea
that the woman comes to get rid of a defile
ment, instead of to offer up thanksgiving for
God's mercies.
III. According to the rubric, before the
Eeformation, the "convenient place" for
the woman to kneel was the church door.
This was altered in 1549 to "quire
door," and in 1552 to " nigh unto the Table,"
Bishop Andrewes used the choir door. In
bishop Wren's injunctions for the diocese of
Norwich (1636) and Bishop Brian Duppas's
articles of visitation " a side near the com
munion table" is recommended. But no
general rule is either prescribed or observed
as to time or place, and therefore these are
matters which fall within the office of the
ordinary to determine. Many read the office
just before the General Thanksgiving : others,
though not so usually, at some part of the
Communion Service ; some at the altar,
others at the desk : the woman in some
churches occupies a seat specially set apart
for this office ; in others she kneels at the
altar, and there makes her offering. And in
others a custom prevails of performing this
service at some time distinct from the office
of Common Prayer.
IV. The "decent apparel" required by
the rubric is supposed to refer to a veil,
which was usually worn. (See Hale's Pre
cedents, p. 259). In 1549, the rubric ran,
" the woman that is purified must offer her
'Chrisome' and other accustomed offerings."
1 (See Chrisome.) The former was omitted in
1552. But, besides the accustomed offering,
the woman is to make a yet much better
and greater offering, namely, an offering of
herself, to be a reasonable, holy, and lively
sacrifice to God. For the rubric declares,
that " if there be a communion, it is con
venient that she receive the holy com
munion ; " that being the most solemn way
of praising God for him by whom she re
ceived both the present and all other God's
mercios towards her ; and a means also to
bind herself more strictly to spend those
days in his service, which, by this late

CHURCHWARDENS
deliverance, he hath added to her life.— «
Wheatly, p. 510. [H.]
CHURCH BATES. Compulsory pay
ment of church rates being abolished by
31 & 32 Vict. c. 109, except a few which
were pledged for money borrowed under
special Acts of Parliament for building
churches, there is no need to say much
about them. It is still lawful, however, for
trustees, corporations, and other persons
under disability to pay a voluntary church
rate. A rate may still be agreed upon by
a vestry meeting as before, but nobody is
bound to pay it. The impropriator of
great tithes was not exempt by reason of
his being liable to repair the chancel, which
liability has not been taken away.
CHURCHWARDENS. These are very
ancient officers, and by the common law are
a lay corporation, to take care of the goods
of the church, and may sue and be sued as
the representatives of the parish. Churches
are to be repaired by the churchwardens, at
the charge of all the inhabitants, or such as
occupy houses or lands within the parish.
In the ancient episcopal synods, the
bishops were wont to summon divers
creditable persons out of every parish, to
give information of, and to attest the dis
orders of clergy and people. They were
called testes synodales; and were, in after
times, a kind of empanelled jury, consisting
of two, three, or more persons in every
parish, who were, upon oath, to present all
heretics and other irregular persons. And
these, in process of time, became standing
officers in several places, especially in great
cities, and from hence were called synods-
men, and by corruption sidesmen : they are
also sometimes called questmen, from the
nature of their office, in making inquiry
concerning offences. And these sidesmen
or questmen, by Canon 90, are to be chosen
yearly in Easter week, by the minister and
parishioners (if they can agree), otherwise
to be appointed by the ordinary of the
diocese. But for the most part this whole
office is now devolved upon the church
wardens, together with that other office
which their name more properly imports, of
taking care of the church and the goods
thereof, which has long been their function.
By Canon 118. The churchwardens and
sidesmen shall be chosen the first week
after Easter, or some week following,
according to the direction of the ordinary.
And by Canon 89. All churchwardens
or questmen in every parish shall be chosen
by the joint consent of the minister and the
parishioners, if it may be; but if they
cannot agree upon such a choice, then the
minister shall choose one, and the parish
ioners another; and without such a joint or
several choice, none shall take upon them

CHURCHWARDENS
to be churchwardens. But if the parish is
entitled by custom to choose both church
wardens, then the parson is restrained of his
right under this canon. (See Dean Prideaux's
Practical Guide to tlie Duties of Church
wardens in the execution of their Office, and
Cripps' Practical Treatise on tlie Laws of
the Church.)
Since the abolition of compulsory church
rates, the functions of churchwardens have
become less important. And it seems
strange that not even an attempt was made
by the bishops or anybody else in Parlia
ment, when that was done to prevent any
but churchmen from being elected church
wardens, though there is that provision for
new parishes under 1 & 2 W. IV. c. 38. In
some parishes, by ancient custom, the
parishioners elect both wardens. It should
be understood that as soon as they are
appointed there is really no such thing as
" the vicar's churchwarden," or " the
people's." At Doncaster, and possibly else
where, by old custom, the mayor appoints
one churchwarden, and the vicar the other.
When a vicar is absent, the curate is
entitled to take the chair at vestry meetings,
and to nominate one churchwarden. In
some places there are more than two. But
they are a corporation, and can only act
jointly, and not by a majority. They have
no right to alter anything in a church, or to
do more than ordinary repairs, without a
faculty. It has even been held that they
must not themselves remove the most un
questionably illegal " ornament" introduced
by the incumbent ; but the limits of their
power in that respect have not yet been
determined by the supreme ecclesiastical
Court. It is said that the vicar alone
cannot remove the sexton or vergers who
take care of the church and act under the
churchwardens in seating the people. And
though the Act 7 & 8 Vict. c. 50, gave the
archdeacon power to suspend or remove a
parish clerk, that was forgotten in the case
of sextons or vergers. They can however
be removed for proved misconduct by the
vicar or churchwardens. A mere grave-
digging sexton is said to be under the vicar
only. The seating of parishioners in church is
one function still remaining to church
wardens; and in this they are only the
officers of the ordinary or bishop ; and must
act with discretion, and not capriciously, or
so as to deter parishioners from coming to
church, and certainly not in accordance with
other theories of those who think the law
must be whatever they wish it to be, and
not what every ecclesiastical judge has said
that it is. Even an alleged custom for
them to place and displace summarily is
bad. (Prideaux^ p. 116.) We are speak-

CHURCHWARDENS

201

ing of ordinary parish churches, and not of
those in which pews or sittings may be sold
or let under certain Acts of Parliament, or
may be required to be unappropriated. The
parishioners are entitled to have sittings
assigned to them as far as possible, subject
to their coming to church in time. And
Rolfe, B., held in Reynolds v. Monkton (2 M.
& Rob. 384) that churchwardens must
exercise a reasonable discretion in seating
them, and may even remove intruders, or
those who unduly resist them. When sit
tings have been assigned to a man and his
family, they must not be capriciously taken
away again (Groves v. R. of Hornsey, 1
Hag. 195). No payment for them can be
enforced or demanded, but it is frequently
agreed to, and preferred by some congrega
tions to other modes of raising money for
church expenses. By Canon 85, the church
wardens are to " see that at every meeting
of the congregation peace be well kept;"
and consequently they remove disorderly
persons. And by Canon 52 they are to see
that a record is kept of all strange preachers,
and that no one preaches who is not duly
licensed. But that is practically obsolete.
They are not solely ecclesiastical officers,
being sometimes overseers of the poor ; and
for that reason it was decided in li. v.
Stephens, 3 B. & S. 333, that the inhabi
tants of " new parishes for all ecclesiastical
purposes," do not lose the right of voting
for churchwardens of the old parish, though
it is now settled that they do lose all other
rights in the old church (Fuller v. Alford, 10
Q. B. D. 418). Since the abolition of church
rates it has been held that churchwardens
are not personally bound to pay the visitation
fees if they have no funds ( Veley v. Pertwee,
L. E. 5 Q. B. 573). But they must go and
be sworn in — or rather, make the statutable
declaration ; and cannot act until they do.
It may be done however after the visitation.
If there is a dispute about who is elected,
the archdeacon, or the chancellor or commis
sary at an episcopal visitation, cannot deter
mine it, for it belongs to the temporal courts.
He must admit both claimants. But it
seems, on the balance of the decisions, that
if the commissary is satisfied that one who
comes to be admitted was plainly not elected,
he may aud should decline to admit him,
and that such a return to a mandamus is
good, provided he can maintain it on the
trial. (R. v. Stephens in Q. B., cited in
Prideaux, and R. v. Williams (in 1828), 8
B. & C. 681, and 3 Man. & Ey. 403.) But
the law on this point seems so uncertain, or
the distinctions so fine, that the safer way is
to admit all the claimants who have any
appearance of having been elected, even rival
ones, and let them fight it out elsewhere.
Old churchwardens remain in office till new

202

CHUECHYAED

ones are admitted ; and the full number
must be elected, whatever it may be, accord
ing to the custom of that parish, or it is no
election at all.
Another somewhat obscure function of
churchwardens, according to the last rubric
in the communion service, is to dispose of
the alms collected at the offertory to such
pious and charitable uses as they and the
minister shall think fit : but if they disagree,
the alms shall be disposed of as the ordinary,
i.e. the bishop, shall appoint. This does not
prevent collecting money for any special
purpose announced beforehand ; and if any
churchwardens should dispute it, the ordi
nary would be sure to decide that oblations
must be applied for the purpose for which
they were offered, and therefore for that
which was announced beforehand. We
have heard of a practice of dividing the alms
into three parts for the vicar and chuich-
wardens to dispose of individually ; but that
is illegal, and clearly not the meaning of the
rubric. Church expenses are generally now
provided for by the offertory so announced
beforehand, and, whoever dispenses the
money, the vicar and churchwardens are
equally entitled to see the accounts ; which
in all well-ordered parishes are periodically
published, including the produce of all
collections, sometimes even to the coins
given. (See Sidesmen, and Visitation.) [G.l
CHURCHYARD. The ground ad
joining to the church, in which the dead
are buried. As to the original of burial-
places, many writers have observed, that,
at the first erection of churches, no part
of the adjacent ground was allotted for the
interment of the dead ; but some place for
this purpose was appointed at a further
distance. The laws of the empire forbade
burial within the walls of cities, and for the
first five or six centuries few or none but
Christian emperors were interred in the
precincts of town churches. In the time of
Gregory the Great, monks and priests pro
cured leave for liberty of sepulture in
churches or places adjoining to them. But,
by the 9th Canon, entitled De non sepeli-
endo in ecclesiis, this custom of sepultnre in
churches was restrained, and no such liberty
allowed for the future, unless the person
was a priest or some holy man, who, by the
merits of his past life, might deserve such
peculiar favour. In the East, however,
about the year 900, the Emperor Leo VI.
(Novell. 53) abrogated the laws against
burial in cities. In the English Church,
prior to the Norman Conquest, most of the
turial grounds belonged to the monastic
houses. They were originally intended for
the inmates only, but being considered
more Sacred, and therefore safer, than other
grounds, the right of interment in them was

CIRCUMCELLIONS
purchased by a large number of the laity,'
either through gifts of land, or other hene^
factions, or the payment of mortuary fees.
By Canon 85. The churchwardens or
questmen shall take care that the church
yards be well and sufficiently repaired,
fenced, and maintained with walls, rails;
or pales, as have been in each place accus
tomed, at their charges unto whom by law
the same appertains.
The churchyard is the freehold of the
parson : but it is the common burial-place
of the dead, and for that reason it is to be
fenced at the charge of the parishioners,
unless there is a custom to the contrary,
or for a particular person to do it, in re
spect of his lands adjoining to the church
yard; and that must be tried at common
law. But though the freehold is in the
parson, he cannot cut down trees growing
there, except for the necessary repairs of
the chancel ; because they are planted and
grow there for the ornament and shelter
of the church. (See Burial,a,iic\ Cemetery)
CIBORIUM. 1. An ornamental canopy
overshadowing the altar. " This was raised
in the form of a little turret upon four
pillars at each corner of the altar." 2.
Afterwards the pyx went by the name of
" Ciborium" which originally is an Egyptian
name for the husk of a beam — thence it
cannot mean a cup or bowl. — Bingham, bk.
viii. c. vi. sect. 19.
CIRCUMCELLIONS. A fanatical sect
of the Donatist Christians in Africa, iu the
fourth century, being so called, because they
rambled round the cottages (celte) of fhe
peasantry, having no fixed residence. They
affected zeal for the public reformation and
redressing of grievances ; they manumitted
slaves without their master's leave, forgave
debts which were none of their own, and
committed a great many other insolences:
they were headed by Maxides and Paser.
They are mentioned by St. Augustine
frequently, as being notoriously violent and
wicked. At the beginning of their disorders
they marched only with staves (Aug. in
Ps. x., v. 5), which they called the staves of
Israel, in allusion to the custom of the
Israelites eating the paschal lamb with staves
in their hands, but afterwards they made
use of all sorts of arms against the Catholics'.
Donatus called them the saints' chiefs, and
revenged himself by their means upon the
Catholics. A mistaken zeal for martyrdom
made these people destroy themselves ; some
of them threw themselves down precipices,
others leaped into the fire, and some cut
their own throats: so that their bishops,
not being able to prevent such horrible and
unnatural violences, were obliged to apply
themselves to the magistracy to put an end
to their phrensy. — August. Hseres. 69 ; C.

CIRCUMCISION
Gaudent. i. 28, 32 : Litt. Petil. i. 16, ii. 19,
&c. ; Theod. Hser. lib. iv. c. 6. ; Soames'
Mosheim, i. 290-292.
CIRCUMCISION OF JESUS CHRIST.
This feast is celebrated by the Church, to
commemorate the active obedience of our
Lord in fulfilling all righteousness, which
is one branch of the meritorious cause of
our redemption ; and by that means ab
rogating the severe injunctions of the
Mosaical establishment, and putting us
under the grace of the Gospel. In the
earliest ages of the Church, the day was
kept as the Octave of the Nativity, and it
was not till the sixth century that both the
Octave and the Feast of the Circumcision
were observed on it. But one time, indeed,
it was kept as a fast, as a protest on the
part of the Christians against the excesses of
the people on the heathen festival of the
Saturnalia with which it coincided. It is
not mentioned in the Calendar of Buclerius
(fourth century) or in the Comes of St.
Jerome, except as Octava Domini ; but there
is a mass for it in the Gelasian Sacramentary,
and in the Gregorian, though it is still called
the Octave, the circumcision is referred to in
the proper Preface and Benediction. In the
Gallican Lectionaries (see Mabillon, p. 112)
and in the Sarum Missal it is named as it is
now. The rubric at the end of the gospel
was inserted by Bishop Cosin, and differs
from that of 1552 insomuch that it orders
the Collect, Epistle and Gospel to be used
every day till the Epiphany, whereas the
latter only provided for the Sunday.
It is one of the scarlet days at the Uni
versities. CIRTA, Council of (African), a.d. 305,
held to elect a bishop in the place of a
CISTERCIANS, in a.d. 1098, Robert,
Abbot of Molesme, in Burgundy, having
employed, in vain, his most zealous efforts
to revive the decaying piety and discipline
of his convent, and to oblige his monks to
observe more exactly the rule of St. Benedict,
retired with about twenty monks to a place
called Citeaux, near Dijon, in the diocese of
Chalons. In this retreat Bobert founded
the famous order of the Cistercians, which
was organised by his two successors Alberic,
and the Englishman Stephen Harding ; but
the greatest genius and saint of the order was
St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux a.d. 1115.
The Cistercians spread with astonishing
rapidity through the greatest part of Europe
during the twelfth century, and their houses
were enriched with the most liberal and
splendid donations. By the year 1151 there
were more than 500 Cistercian houses in
Europe. The great and fundamental law of
this new fraternity was the rule of St.
Benedict, which was to be rigorously ob-

CLEARSTORY

203

served. Alike in their habits of life, their
dress, their fare, their ceremonial, music,
vestments, and the structure and adornment
of their churches, the strictest simplicity
was to be enforced. But all these rules
were relaxed with the lapse of time and
accession of wealth. (See Benedictines.)
The first Cistercian monastery in England
was that of Waverley, in Surrey, 1129.
Rievaux, Tintern, Fountains, and others of
less note soon followed ; and by the reign of
Edward I. there were sixty-one Cistercian
monasteries in England. — Monast. Angl. ;
Helyot, Hist, des Ord. Relig. torn. v. c. 33;
Robertson, Ch. Hist. ii. p. 771, iii. p. 6-12 ;
Annales Cistercienses ; Mabillon, Annates
Benedict, vols. 5 and 6.
CITATION. "A citation is a judicial
act, whereby the defendant by authority of
the judge (the plaintiff requesting it) is
commanded to appear to enter into suit, at
a certain day, in a place where justice is
administered." (Phillimore, Eccl. Law.)
Citations were to be read after the offertory ;
but the only kind of citation now heard is
the " Si quis " of candidates for Holy Orders,
calling on any one who knows anything
against the candidate, to declare the same
to the bishop. (See Orders, Holy.)
CLAIRE, ST. A religious order of
women in the Romish Church, the second
that St. Francis instituted. This order
was founded in 1213, and was confirmed
by Innocent III., and after him by Hono
rius III., in 1223. It took its name from
its first abbess and nun, Clara of Assisi, and
was afterwards divided into Damianists
and Urbanists ; the first follow the ancient
discipline in all its rigour, but the other
the rule with Urban IV.'s allowance. —
Hist, des Ord. Relig. torn. vii. c. 25.
CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF.
Certain constitutions made in the reign of
Henry II., a.d. 1164, in a parliament or
council held at Clarendon, a village three
miles distant from Salisbury. They were
sixteen in number, and were intended to
uphold the supremacy of the Crown in
ecclesiastical affairs, including the right to
decide questions of patronage ; to try crimi
nous clerks; to hold the court- of final
appeals ; to regulate the election of prelates ;
to give or withhold permission for clergy, ¦
especially dignitaries, to quit the realm ; and
to require the discharge from the latter of
baronial duties. (See Stubbs' Select Char
ters, 129; Constit Hist. i. 464.) These
constitutions were the principal ground
work of the struggle between Henry II. and
Thomas Becket.
CLEARSTORY. That part of a church
with aisles which rises on the nave arches
clear of the aisle roofs. This has been already
described in cathedrals, which have mostly1

204

CLEMENT

vaulted roofs, of which the main ribs spring
from shafts or corbels between the clearstory
windows, and the top of the vault is seldom
higher than the clearstory, so that flat tie-
beams of the wooden roof lie right across
the walls clear of the vaulting. In churches
with open wooden roofs not imitating vault
ing this is not so, except that the main ribs
or principals of high-pitched roofs often
spring from about the middle of the clear
story windows. Many old clearstories were
raised in Perpendicular times, to make
larger windows, while the roofs were lowered
considerably below the ancient height, and
still more below the ancient pitch, notwith
standing the raising of the walls. Some
times this was done in order to use the old
beams again, of which the ends had rotted
from contact with the walls ; and also for
the sake of larger windows to be filled with
painted glass ; which however is better
absent there as it darkens the church, and
the glass cannot be clearly seen. It is only
tolerable round an apse. The common
spelling of the word as " clerestory " is
absurd, for it means nothing but the clear
story above the aisle roofs. [G.]
CLEMENT, ST., Bishop and Martyr;
commemorated in the English Calendar on
Nov. 23. He is supposed to be the Clement
mentioned by St. Paul as one of his fellow-
labourers (Phil. iv. 3). He is said to have
been made bishop of Rome in 91. His
1st epistle to the Corinthians (about a.d. 96)
was for a time read in public service, and
esteemed almost equally with the Canonical
Epistles. A MS. of this epistle is appended
to the Codex Alexandrinus in tbe British
Museum. The legend is that he suffered under
Trajan, being cast into the sea bound to an
anchor, which is his emblem. [H.]
CLERGY. (See Bishop, Presbyter,
Priest, Deacon, Apostolical Succession,
Orders.) The general name given to the
body of ecclesiastics of the Christian Church,
in contradistinction to the laity. It is de
rived from KKijpos, a lot or portion, not that
they were chosen by lot, for that was not
the case; but that they are "de sorte
Domini," or that " Ipse Dominus sors," the
Lord is their lot or inheritance. (St. Jerom.
Ep. 2, ad nepot.) The distinction into
clergy and laity was derived from the
Jewish Church, and adopted into the Chris
tian Church by the Apostles themselves.
St. Paul (1 Cor. xiv. 16), and St. Clement
of Rome, and other of the earliest writers
refer to it. Tertullian says that it was a
sign of the heretics to confound the offices
of clergy and laity together (de Prseseript c.
41). It was indeed said by the writer
under the name of St. Ambrose, " omnibus
concessum est et evangelizare, et baptizare "
&c. (Ambrose, or Hil. in Eph. iv. p. 948), but

CLERGY
this is not to do away with the distinction,
as St. Jerome shows when he speaks of the
" laical priesthood." (St. Jer. Dial. c. Luci
fer, torn. ii. p. 136.) Clemens Alexandrinus
speaks of St. John, after his return from
Patmos, setting apart men for the clergy;
and wherever a body of Christian converts
was numerous enough to be formed into a
separate church, clergy were always or
dained to minister to them. (Epiphan. Hxr.
75.) See also St. Chrys. in Ps. cxiii. v. 19 ;
St. Ambrose, De dign. Sacerd. c. iii.; St.
Cyprian, Ep. 59 ad Com.
I. The clergy originally consisted only of
bishops, priests, and deacons ; but, in the
third century, many inferior orders were
appointed, as subservient to the office of
deacon, such as sub-deacons, acolyths,
readers, &c. The three proper orders were
afterwards distinguished as "primi clerici"
(Cod. Theod. lib. xiii.), or as UpanKoi (Cone.
Laod. cc. 24, 27, &c. ; Const. Apostol. c. 13
seq. 50 seq.) The clergy were also called
"canoniei," from the word " <avi>v" which
signifies, in this connexion, the roll or list
of ecclesiastics belonging to each church
(Cone. Chalcedon, c. 2 ; Cone. Nic. c. 16),
and which was called by St. Augustine the
"tabula clericorum" (Horn. 50). The
clergy were, after the introduction of monks,
divided into regulars and seculars. The
regular clergy consist of those monks, or
religious, who have taken upon them holy
orders, and perform the offices of the priest
hood in their respective monasteries. The
secular clergy are those who are not of any
religious order, and have the care and direc
tion of parishes. In 1059 Pope Nicolas
established a new rule for canoniei, which
was followed by a stricter rule enjoined by
Ivo, bishop of Chartres, and another more
generally adopted, drawn up by Chrodegang,
bishop of Metz. Those who adopted the
former were called Secular, the latter
Regular or Augustinian Canons. (Diet.
Christ. Antiq. 397. See Monks) The
canons of such cathedrals as were not
monastic foundations were called secular
canons. But cathedral monasteries are
almost peculiar to England. (Stubbs'
Introd. to Epp. Cantuar. xxi.)
II. The privileges and immunities which
the clergy of the primitive Christian Church
enjoyed, deserve our notice. In the first
place, whenever they travelled upon neces
sary occasions, they were to be entertained
by their brethren of the clergy, in all places,
out of the public revenues of the Church,
When any bishop or presbyter came to a
foreign Church, they were to be compli
mented with the honorary privilege of per
forming divine offices, and consecrating the
Eucharist in the church. If any controver
sies happened among the clergy, they freely

CLERGY
consented to have them determined by their
bishops and councils, without having re
course to the secular magistrate for justice.
The great care the clergy had of the charac
ters and reputations of those of their order
appears from hence, that, in all accusations,
especially against bishops, they required the
testimony of two or three witnesses, accord
ing to the Apostles' rule ; they likewise
examined the character of the witnesses,
before their testimony was admitted; nor
would they suffer a heretic to give evidence
against a clergyman. These instances relate
to the respect which the clergy mutually
paid to each other.
With regard to the respect paid to the
clergy by the civil government, it consisted
chiefly in exempting them from some kind
of obligations, to which others were liable,
and in granting them certain privileges
and immunities which others did not enjoy.
Thus, by a law of Justinian, no secular
judge could compel a bishop to appear in a
public court, to give his testimony, but was
to send one of his officers to take it from
his mouth in private; nor was a bishop
obliged to give his testimony upon oath, but
only upon his bare word. Presbyters, we
find, were privileged from being questioned
by torture, as other witnesses were. But a
still more extensive privilege was, the
exemption of the clergy from the ordinary
cognizance of the secular courts in all causes
purely ecclesiastical ; such being reserved
for the hearing of the bishops and councils,
not only by the canons of the Church, but
by the laws of the State also ; as appears
from several rescripts of the emperors Con-
stantius, Valentinian, Gratian, Theodosius
the Great, Arcadius and Honorius, Va
lentinian IL, and Justinian.
Another privilege, which the clergy en
joyed by the favour of Christian princes,
was, that, in certain cases, they were ex
empt from some of the taxes laid upon the
rest of the Roman empire. In the first
place, they were exempt from the census
capitum, or personal tribute, but not from
the census agrorum, or tribute arising from
men's lands and possessions. In the next
place, they were not obliged to pay 'the
aurum tironicum, soldiers' money, nor; the
equorum eanonicorum adseratio, horse mo
ney; which were taxes laid on some pro
vinces, for furnishing the emperor with new
levies, and fresh horses, for the wars. A
third tax from which the clergy was exempt
was thexpvo-dpyvpoi,the silver and gold tax,
which was laid upon trade and commerce ;
and the fourth, the metatum, so called from
the word metatores, which signifies the
emperor's forerunners or harbingers; being
a duty incumbent on the subjects of the
empire to give entertainment to the emperor's

CLERGY

205

court and retinue, when they travelled.
The clergy were also exempt from contribut
ing to the reparation of highways and bridges,
and from the duties called angarise and
parangarise, &c, by which the subjects
were obliged to furnish horses and carriages
for the conveying of corn for the use of the
army. Another sort of immunity which the
clergy enjoyed, was their exemption from
civil offices in the Roman empire. But this
privilege was confined to such of the clergy
as had no estates, but what belonged to the
Church by the laws of Constantine. For
the Christian princes always made a wide
difference between the public patrimony of
the Church, and the private estates of such
of the clergy as had lands of a civil or secular
tenure. For the one, the clergy were
obliged to no duty or burden of civil offices ;
but for the other, they were, and could not
be excused from them otherwise than by
providing proper substitutes to officiate for
them. III. We consider next the principal laws
made for the regulation of the lives and
conversations of the Christian clergy.
And, first, we may observe what sort of
crimes were thought worthy of degradation.
It was not every slight failing or infirmity,
for which a clergyman was degraded, but
only crimes of a deeper dye, such as theft;
murder, fraud, perjury, sacrilege, and adul
tery : to which may be added, drinking and
gaining, as, also, the taking of money upon
usury, which is condemned by many of the
ancient canons as a species of covetousness
and cruelty. The clergy, on the contrary,
were to be exemplary for hospitality and
charity to the poor, frugality, and a contempt
of the world. And, to guard against de
famation and scandal, it was enacted by the
canons of several councils, that no bishops,
presbyters, or deacons should visit widows
and virgins alone, but in the company and
presence of some other of the clergy, or
some grave Christians.
With regard to the laws, more particu
larly relating to the exercise of the duties
and offices of their function, the clergy were,
in the first place, obliged to lead studious-
lives. But it was not all sorts of studies
that were equally recommended to them.
The principal was the study of the Holy
Scriptures : next to the Scriptures, they were
to study the canons of the Church, and the
best ecclesiastical authors. In after ages, in
the time of Charles the Great, we find some
laws obliging the clergy to read, together
with the canons, Gregory's book De Cures
Pastorali. As to other books, they were
more cautious and sparing in the study and
use of them. Some canons forbad a bishop
to read heathen authors ; nor was he aRowed

206

CLERGY

to read heretical books, except when there
was occasion to confute them, or to caution
others against the poison of them. But the
prohibition of heathen learning was to be
understood with a little qualification. It
was only forbidden so far as it tended to the
neglect of Scripture and more useful studies.
We pass over the obligations incumbent on
them to attend the daily service of the
Church, to be pious and devout in their
public addresses to God, to be zealous in
defending the truth, and maintaining the
unity of the Church, &c.
By the ecclesiastical laws, no clergyman
was allowed to relinquish or desert his
station without just grounds and leave : yet,
sometimes resignation was allowed — such
as in the case of old age, sickness, or other
infirmity. No clergyman was to remove
from one diocese to another, without the
consent, and letters dimissory, of his own
bishop. The laws were no less severe
against all wandering clergymen, or such
as, having deserted their own church, would
fix in no other, but went roving from place
to place : these some of the ancients called
fSaKavrifioi or Vacantivi. By the laws of the
Church, the bishops were not to permit such
to officiate in their dioceses, nor indeed so
much as to communicate in their churches.
Other laws there were, which obliged the
clergy to residence, or a constant attendance
upon, their duty. The Council of Sardica
has several canons relating to this matter.
Others inhibited pluralities, or the officiating
in two parochial churches. In pursuance of
the same design, of keeping the clergy strict
and constant to their duty, laws were also
made to prohibit them following any secular
employment, which might divert them too
much from their proper business and calling.
In some times and places, the laws of the
Church were so strict about this matter,
that they would not suffer a bishop, or
presbyter, to be left trustee to any man's
will. By other laws they were prohibited
from taking upon them the office of pleading
.at the bar in any civil contest.
Another sort of laws respected the out
ward behaviour of the clergy. Such were
the laws against corresponding and con
versing too freely with Jews, and Gentile
philosophers; and the canons which re
strained them from eating and drinking in
a tavern, or being present at the public
theatres. To this sort of laws we may
reduce the ancient rules which concern the
garb and habit of the clergy ; which were to
be such as might express the gravity of
their minds, without any affectation, or
superstitious singularity. As to the kind
or fashion of their apparel, it does not
appear, for several ages, that there was any
other distinction observed therein between

CLERGY
them and the laity, than the modesty and
gravity of their garb, without being tied to
any certain habit, or form of dress.— Bing
ham, bk. i. 2, v. 3, vi. 2, &c.
These were the principal laws and regu
lations by which the clergy of the primi
tive Christian Church were governed ; and
it is remarkable, that the apostate emperor
Julian was so convinced of their excellency,
that he had a design of reforming the
heathen priesthood upon the model of the
Christian clergy.
IV. In 1343, by Archbishop Stratford's
Constitution, the , apparel of the clergy
was defined, and the 74th canon of 1603
enters into details with regard to dress,
but, as Burn observes, "it is impossi
ble to lay down rules for apparel in one
age which will not appear ridiculous in
the next." Canon 75 refers to the moral
behaviour of the clergy, and forbids their
joining in unlawful sports. This, however
does not include lawful recreations which
are "good for the clergy" (Coke, 2 Inst,
309) ; and although by the canon law they are
prohibited, yet by the common law they are
permitted to " use the recreation of hunting."
It was ever held that a person who had been
ordained a clergyman could not resign his
trust (see Bingham, xvii. ii. 5 ; Hooker, v.
lxxvii. 3 ; Jer. Taylor, Episc. Assert, s. xii.
xxxi. 3), but this rule no longer exists in
the law of the Church of England, (See
Abdication of Orders.) [H.]
CLERGY, DISCIPLINE OF. It is
difficult to decide how much to put under
the head of clergy, seeing that all church law
relates to the clergy. We shall confine this
article to their privileges and liabilities, leav
ing other matters to other articles through?
out tbe book ; and especially the subject cf
clerical judicature as established at the He-
formation should be noticed here. What
ever privileges they, or the Church of Rome
on their behalf, may have had or usurped
before, their relations to the State were so
materially altered then, that we shall not
attempt the impossible problem of deciding
what they were before. Some of the Refor
mation Acts did not profess to make new
laws, but only to declare the old law of the
realm ; but it is unnecessary to regard that
distinction in this case. The first important
Act of that kind was that of 1533, 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 19, " for the submission of the
clergy," founded partly on " The submission
of the clergy " themselves, in the two convo
cations, which was completed 16 May, 1532,
whereby they promised in verbo sacerdoH
not to attempt to make any more canons
without the royal assent, and also agreed
that all the existing canons (which were
by no means definable either then or now)
should be submitted to thirty-two royal

CLERGY
commissioners, of whom half were to be lay
and half clerical ; but that was never done.
" The Act for the Submission of the Clergy "
enacted the same, and also by a separate set
of clauses, with which the convocations had
nothing to do, that the final court of appeal,
to ivhich (by the previous Act of 24 Hen.
VIII. c. 12) all ecclesiastical causes should
go, snould be " Delegates " appointed from
time to time for each suit by the Crown in
Chancery. (See Delegates?)
The Delegates were unlimited, and ap
pointed pro hoc vice only in every case,
and were generally some common law judges
and " civilians," i.e. lawyers of the ecclesias
tical courts, and some bishops with them —
never bishops alone : nor apparently even a
majority. By the Acts 2 & 3 W. IV. c. 9,
and 3 & 4 W. IV. c. 4, the Delegates were
replaced by, or (we may say) practically
limited to, the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council, in which alterations have
been made by several later Acts of 1840,
1873, and 1876. (See Judicial Committee.)
All the four Acts of Uniformity, i.e. of
¦2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 1, establishing the first
Prayer Book : of 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 1, estab
lishing the second book: of 1 Eliz. c. 2,
making a few slight alterations in Edward's
second book : and of 13 & 14 Car. II. (the
first year of the Restoration), establishing
the present Prayer Book, have contained or
retained an enactment that clergymen may
be indicted at the assizes, where the bishop
may sit with the judge, for wilfully using
any but the authorised prayers or cere
monies, or preaching or speaking in de
rogation thereof. And for the first offence
they shall be imprisoned six months, and a
year for the second with deprivation of
.ail spiritual promotions, and be imprisoned
for life for the third ; saving also the juris
diction of the ecclesiastical courts. But
they must be indicted at the next assizes
after the offence. The first Act of Uni
formity contains an unrepealed proviso,
s. 7, " that it shall be lawful for all men "
•(meaning all who may lawfully perform
divine service) " to use any psalm or prayer
taken out of the Bible, at any due time, not
letting or omitting thereby any part " of the
service in the Prayer Book. The notion of
:some amateur lawyers that such a proviso
authorised laymen to perform divine service
•of any kind in churches is — only fit for
amateurs, who fancy that Acts of Parliament
;are held by the Courts to mean anything
that their words can be twisted into saying.
And these, after all, would only authorise
reading a small part of the Bible in church,
¦which is very far from what they want.
It is unnecessary now to dwell on the
.Court of High Commission, which was
established under 1 Eliz. c. 1, with all the

CLERGY

207

powers of the ecclesiastical courts, beyond
saying that it was abolished by 16 Car. I. c.
11, and illegally revived by James II. until his
fall, and declared to be illegal by 1 W. & M .
sess. 2, c. 2. No material alteration was
made in clerical judicature until the modern
Acts already mentioned. The Clergy Dis
cipline Act, 3 & 4 Vict. c. 86, practically
abolished all criminal jurisdiction of the
diocesau courts over the clergy, except in
one matter (see Chancellors) ; for the new
episcopal jurisdiction, with an appeal to the
provincial court, was not a revival of the old
jurisdiction of the diocesan courts ; but a
new contrivance (of Bp. Philpotts) for giving
personal jurisdiction to the bishops with
only the advice of assessors. Practically
that clause might as well not be in the
Act, for all clerical offences are sent to the
provincial court by letters of request from
the bishop ; and ' it has been held that the
provincial judge must accept them. A
diocesan chancellor may also send letters of
request, but not in criminal cases, as that
would be contrary to this Act. But it does
not appear that he can thereby send a case
which he ought to try himself to the
provincial court ex mero motu, though it is
said that he may at the plaintiffs request
(Phillimore, Eccl. Law). A bishop cannot
now punish any offence at a visitation, but
can only use the visitation to inquire into
it. But it has not yet been decided that
he could not "signify" a person to the
Lord Chancellor for contempt at a visita
tion. The Public Worship Regulation Act,
1874, was intended to remedy some of the
defects of the Discipline Act, but only made
them worse, partly from the usual modern
faults, of being overloaded with techni
calities, and being badly drawn, or amended,
chiefly by Lord Cairns, then Chancellor ;
but most of all from the astonishing folly of
leaving the suspension of a clergyman for
disobedience to stand for three years before
it ripens into deprivation. The fusion of
the offices of the two provincial judges was
more likely to secure a fully competent one ;
but requiring the approval of the Prime Min
ister to an appointment by both archbishops
was a needless and offensive usurpation. The
chief improvement was one very little known,
viz. that it dispensed with the cumbrous
proceeding by articles, but unluckily only in
prosecutions under that Act itself. In short,
there is hardly a clause in it which has not
been in one way or another abortive,
offensive, or objectionable, and it has pro
bably become a dead letter except as to the
provincial judge's appointment.
Two important alterations were made in
1801 and 1870, in the capacity of the clergy
for undertaking various lay functions. Un
til 41 Geo. III. c. 63, clergymen could and did

208

CLERGY

occasionally sit in the House of Commons,
and they do still in the Lords if they happen
to be peers. But in 1801 an Act was passed,
notoriously to incapacitate the Eev. J. Home
Tooke, who had sat in one Parliament
already and was a candidate again ; which
professed to remove doubts on the subject,
and enacted that no person ordained a priest
or deacon, or a minister of the (Presbyterian)
Church of Scotland, shall sit in Parliament.
About tbe same time all the Inns of Court
resolved that no such person should be
called to the bar. The latter prohibition
was rescinded by them all, about 1860, for
clergymen who bona fide give up clerical
work ; and by 33 & 34 Vict. c. 91 (repealing
canon 76), they are allowed to abdicate by
an irrevocable deed registered, and can
never afterwards perform any clerical func
tions, and so they become laymen for all
practical purposes, but cannot be reordained.
The abdication is not complete or irrevocable
till the clergyman registers it. Beneficed
or licensed clergymen may not trade or
hire more than eighty acres to farm, by 1
& 2 Vict. c. 106, without a bishop's licence,
nor be a director or managing partner
of any trading company not being of the
nature of an assurance office ; and those who
do are to be suspended byithe chancellor,
and for a third offence deprived, s. 31.
Clergymen are exempt from serving on
juries, in municipal corporations, and gene
rally from all offices and duties that are
usually performed by laymen. Moreover,
by canon 75, they are prohibited from
resorting to taverns, except for their honest
necessities, and from boarding or lodging
there, and from playing at dice, cards,
tables, or other unlawful games. They
may be deprived as well as suspended for
gross immorality and habitual drunkenness,
the degree of which has to be judged by the
Court. But it seems that drunkenness
must be proved to be very habitual indeed,
to be published by deprivation, according to
modern practice, the inexpediency of which
is evident. And the difficulty of getting
witnesses to prove it is notorious.
There is another most important Act of
13 Elizabeth, c. 12, " For ministers to be of
sound religion." It is shortly this, and is
in every way a model for modem bill-
drawers, who often cannot make their Acts
to work for three years — while this has
worked for more than three centuries. " If
any ecclesiastical person shall advisedly
maintain any doctrine repugnant to any of
the thirty- nine articles of religion, and shall
persist them, or not revoke his error, or
repeat it afterwards, it shall be just cause to
deprive him of his ecclesiastical promotions."
Many privations have taken place there
under ; and the revocation to avoid it must

CLERK
be simple and complete. (Burder v. Heath,
Ecc. Judgments in P. C.) The Acts of
Uniformity, besides the temporal penalties
already mentioned for "depraving" the
Prayer Book, reserve power to the ecclesias
tical courts to punish the same offences by
deprivation, and minor censures as before.
And clergymen punished by the ecclesias
tical courts shall not be again convicted
before the justices ; and vice versa. It
seems that one Fleming was convicted and
punished in 26 Eliz. for baptising in a
different form from that prescribed in the
Prayer Book. It has also been held that
the power of the ecclesiastical court to
deprive for such offences was not then first
given, but was only reserved as of old.
What are now called ritual offences are of
this kind, being transgressions of the rubrics
of the Prayer Book. The theoiy of "a
minimum of ceremonial required, and a
maximum allowed," has always been re
pudiated by the Privy Council, though it
found favour with a late Dean of Arches.
(See Ritual, Rubrics, Advertisements, and
tiimony ; Curates' Residence, Divine Service;
Clerical Subscription, Plurality.) [G.]
CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION. This
was considerably modified by the Act of
1865, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, and the 36th
canon of 1603 was accordingly altered by the
convocations under royal licence in 1865.
The only assent now required is in these
words : " I assent to the thirty-nine articles
of religion, and to the Book of Common
Prayer, and ordering of bishops, priests, and
deacons. I believe the doctrine of the
Church of England as therein set forth to-
be agreeable to the Word of God, and in
public prayer and administration of the
Sacraments I will use the form in the said
book provided and no other, except so far
as may be allowed by lawful authority."
This declaration has to be made on every
ordination, institution, or licence, besides the
" reading in " to a benefice, or reading the
articles in church on the first Sunday he
officiates, or on some other by leave of the
bishop. And the assent is to follow such
reading. Curates do not read the articles,
but only signify their assent as above. [&.]
CLEEK. The word is in fact only an
abbreviation of the word clericus, or clergy?
man, and the proper designation of a clergy
man is " clerk in Holy Orders."
But it is also used to designate certain
laymen, who are appointed to conduct or
lead the responses of the congregation, and
otherwise to assist in the services of the
church. In most cathedrals and collegiate
churches, and in some colleges, there are-
several of these lay clerks (see Vicar dwral,
Secondary, and Stipendiary) ; who werey
originally, real clerks, i.e. clergymen, gen-

CLERK
erally in minor orders, who assisted the
officiating priest. Bnt the minor orders have
long ceased to be conferred, except as sym
bolical steps towards the higher grades of
the ministry; so that in countries of the
Eomish communion as well as among our
selves, the office-which used to be performed
by one or more clergymen has devolved upon
laymen. There were, in the first place,
several of these clerks in each church who
used to sing the office with the minister in
the " quire " ; but in later times the service
was frequently read outside the quire, at a
"reading pue" erected for the purpose in
accordance with the opinion of Bucer, who
held it " anti-christian " for the minister
to read from the quire. Tho clerks, then,
were reduced to one ; the authorised mode
of divine worship was altered in the
generality of churches in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries ; and the responses
were said by a parish clerk, the congregation
hardly joining in at all. This is contrary
to the eighteenth canon, and to the idea
of "clerks" as mentioned in the rubrics.
The eighteenth canon direots all persons,
man, woman, and child, to say in their due
places, audibly with the minister, the Con
fession, the Lord's Prayer, and the Creed,
and make such other answers to the public
prayer as are appointed in the Book of
Common Prayer; and the laity forfeit a
high privilege when they leave their share
of the service to the lay-clerk alone.
Clerks, in the plural, are mentioned in the
Prayer Book in the rubric before the second
occurrence of the Lord's Prayer, in Morn
ing and Evening Prayer : " The minister,
clerks, and people shall say the Lord's
Prayer with a loud voice ; " in the Marriage
Service, " The minister and clerks, going to
the Lord's table, shall say or sing this
Psalm following;" in the Burial Service,
" The priest and clerks meeting the corpse
at the entrance of the churchyard, &c,
shall say or sing ; " and when they are come
to the grave, " The priest shall say, or the
priest and clerks shall sing;" and in the
Commination Service, " The priest and
clerics, kneeling (in the place where they
are accustomed to say the Litany), shall
say this Psalm, Miserere mei, Deus" The
clerk in the singular number is mentioned
but once only, which is in the Marriage
Service ; where the man is directed to lay
the ring on the book " with the accustomed
duty to the priest and clerk." The parish
clerk originally was the aqusebajalus, or
holy water carrier, an office anciently con
ferred upon poor clergy (Boniface, Lind. 142).
According to canon 91, parish clerks are
to be chosen by the minister, who shall sig
nify his choice to the parishioners, in the time
of divine service.

CLOISTER

209

Since the making of this canon, the
right of putting in the parish clerk has
often been contested between incumbents
and parishioners, and prohibitions prayed,
and always obtained, to the spiritual court,
for maintaining the authority of the canon
in favour of the incumbent, against the plea
of custom in behalf of the parishioners.
All the incumbents once had the right of
nomination of the parish clerks, by the
common law and custom of the realm.
Parish clerks, after having been duly
chosen and appointed, are usually licensed
by the ordinary. And when tbey are li
censed, they are sworn to obey the minister.
By a recent regulation (7 & 8 Vict. e.
59) persons in holy orders may be appointed
to the office of parish clerk, which is to be
held under the same tenure as that of a
stipendiary curacy. Lay parish-clerks may
also be dismissed by the archdeacon on
complaint, but he must hear them first.
By 7 & 8 Wm. III. c. 35, a parish clerk,
for assisting at a marriage, without banns
or licence, shall forfeit five pounds for every
such offence.
CLINIC BAPTISM. Baptism on a sick
bed (kKIvv) was so called in the primitive
Church. In the earlier ages of Christianity
certain solemn days were set apart for tbe
administration of holy baptism, and only
on extraordinary occasions were converts
baptized, except on one or other of those
days; but if one already a candidate for
baptism fell sick, and if his life was en
dangered, ho was allowed to receive clinic
baptism. And this not by immersion, but
by affusion (see letter of St. Cyprian to
Magnus, circ. a.d. 255, Ep. lxix. 11, 12).
But abuses crept in with regard to
clinic baptism ; some persons who were
converts to the doctrines of Christianity
would not be baptized while in health
and vigour, because of the . greater-
holiness of life to which they would ac
count themselves pledged, and because they
thought that baptism administered on their
death-bed would wash away the sins of
their life. Such persons, though they re
covered after their baptism, were held to
be under several disabilities, and especially
they were not admitted as candidates for
holy orders.
CLOISTER. (See Monastery.) A
covered walk, generally occupying the four
sides of a quadrangle, which is almost
an invariable appendage to a monastic or
ancient collegiate residence. The most
beautiful cloister remaining in England is
at Gloucester cathedral. Many of the
cathedrals have or had cloisters ; as old St.
Paul's, Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lincoln,
Salisbury, Wells, Worcester, Durham, Nor
wich, Peterborough, Chester, Oxford, St.
p

.210

CLOVESHO

Alban's, and formerly St. Patrick's in Dub
lin : and some colleges, as New College ¦
Magdalen, and Corpus at Oxford ; Trinity,
Jesus, Queen's, at Cambridge ; Winchester
and Eton. A cloister was projected for
King's College by the founder, but never
built. St. George's Chapel at Windsor has
also a cloister.
CLOVESHO, Councils of. The exact
locality of these is not known, except that it
was in Mercia, probably near London. There
were five of these councils, the first being
held in 716 for confirming certain privileges
to the churches of Kent, by a synod of
bishops. The chief was the third (747),
when an attempt was made to enforce the
Roman Liturgy on all the dioceses of the
country, which "was quickly evaded." —
Haddan and Stubbs' Counc. ; Hook's Arch
bishops, vol. i. 224, seq.) [H.]
CLUNIAC MONKS. " Religious " of the
order of Cluny. It was the first reformed
branch of the order of St. Benedict.
I. Berno, abbot of Gigni, of the family
of the earls of Burgundy, was the founder
of this order. In the year 912, at the
invitation of William, Duke of Auvergne,
he built a monastery for the reception of
Benedictine monks, in the town of Cluny, or
Clugny, in France, situated in the Ma-
connois, 11 miles N.W. of Macon on the
river Grone. The noble abbey of Cluny was
destroyed in 1789.
The monks of Cluny were remark
able for their sanctity. They every day
sang two solemn masses. They so strictly
observed silence, that " they would rather
Rave died than break it before the hour
of prime." When they were at work,
they recited psalms. They fed eighteen
poor persons every day, and were so pro
fuse of their charity in Lent, that one year,
at the beginning of Lent, they distributed
salt meat, and other alms, among 7000 poor.
The preparation they used for making
the bread which was to serve for the Eu
charist is worthy to be observed. They first
chose the wheat grain by grain, and washed
it very carefully. Then a servant carried it
in a bag to the mill, and washed the grind
stones, and covered, them with curtains.
The meal was afterwards washed in clean
water, and baked in iron moulds.
The extraordinary discipline observed in
the monasteries of Cluny soon spread its
fame in all parts. France, Germany, Eng
land, Spain, and Italy, desired to have some
of these " religious," for whom they built new
monasteries. They also passed into the
East ; and there was scarcely a place in
Europe where the order was not known.
By the end of the twelfth century the
number of Cluniac houses amounted to 2000.
The principal monasteries in which the dis-

COADJUTOE
ci pline and rules of Cluny were observed, were
those of Tulles, in the Limousin, Aurillac
in Auvergne, Bourgdieuand Massa in Berri,
St. Benet on the Loire in the Orleanois, St.
Peter le Vif at Sens, St. Allire of Clermont,
St. Julian of Tours, Sarlat in Perigord,
and Roman-Mourier in the country of Vaux.
This order was divided into ten provinces,
being those of Dauphine, Auvergne, Poitiers,
Saintonge, and Gascony, in France ; Spain,
Italy, Lombardy, Germany, and England.
At the general chapters, which were at
first held yearly, and afterwards every three
years, two visitors were chosen for every
province, and two others for the monasteries
of nuns of this order, fifteen definitors, three
auditors of causes, and two auditors of ex
cuses. There were formerly five principal
priories, called the first five daughters of
Cluny ; but, after the dissolution of the
monasteries in England, which involved
that of St. Pancras, at Lewes in Sussex,
there remained but four principal priories,
being those of La Charite sur Loire, St.
Martin des Champs at Paris, Souvigni, and
Souxillanges. II. The Cluniac monks were first brought
into England by William, Earl of Warren,
in the year of our Lord 1077, to occupy the
priory founded by him and his wife
Gundrada at Lewes. These "religious,"
though they lived under the rule of St.
Benedict, and wore a black habit, yet,
because their discipline and observances
differed in many things from those of the
Benedictines, were not called Benedictines,
but monks of the order of Cluny. In
the reign of Henry V., the Cluniac monas
teries, by reason of the war between England
and France, were cut off from the obedience
of the abbot of Cluny, nor were they
permitted to have any intercourse with the
monasteries of their order out of England.
The monasteries of Cluniac monks in
England amounted in number to thirty-
eight. — Broughton's Bibliotheca Historico-
Sacra. ; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 601 : ii. 43 ;
Robertson, Hist, of Ch. ii. part ii. p. 521-4.
COADJUTOR. When a bishop became
very aged, or was otherwise incapacitated
from fulfilling the duties of his office, a
coadjutor was allowed to him. The ancient
rule, indeed, confirmed by the Nicene canon,
was that there should not be more than one
bishop in a city ; but exceptions were made
in such cases. Thus Alexander was made
coadjutor to Narcissus, bishop of Jerusalem,
who was 120 years old (Euseb. lib. vi. c. 11) ;
and many other instances are given by the
early historians (Soz. vi. 8 ; Socrat. iv.
26, &c). There was often a question as
to whether the coadjutor should succeed,
and it was generally allowed at first, as in
the case of St. Augustine at Hippo, who, ¦

CODICES
however, seems to have been himself
doubtful on the matter, and would not
ordain Eradius bishop while he himself
lived, for, he said, " quod reprehensum est
in me, nolo reprehendi in filio meo " (Aug.
Ep. 110 ; see also Ep. 31, and Possid. Vit.
Aug. 48). Afterwards no right of succession
was allowed (St. Greg. M. Epist. ix. 41).
In England the coadjutor to a bishop was
often appointed to look after the temporali
ties only, and as such need not be a bishop,
the spiritual part being committed by the
metropolitan to a suffragan bishop (see
Suffragans) ; and for archdeacons, digni
taries, or parochial ministers coadjutors could
be appointed ; and in the time of Archbishop
Abbot, and of Archbishop Sancroft, we find
the commission explained by orders to be
observed "between the minister and his
coadjutor in point of profits," &c. — Gibs.
137, 901, 902 ; Bingham, bk. ii. c. xiii. ;
Diet. Christ Ant 398.
Coadjutor bishops can be appointed now
under the " Bishops' Eesignatiou Act, 1869,"
who have the right to succeed. But not
one has been made yet, the bishops having
all preferred to resign completely.
CODICES CANONUM. Of these the
chief are — the code of the Roman, and the
code of the Greek Church. The former was
compiled by Dionysius Exiguus, from two
previous collections, and showed 157 canons ;
the latter was compiled by John Scholas-
ticus (who became patriarch of Constanti
nople in the last year of Justinian), and
displayed 224 canons exclusive of 68 of St.
Basil.— Migne's Patrol, lxvii. 135, 139;
lvi. 18, 206, 747, 816, &c.
CCBNO BITES. Monks, who lived to
gether in a fixed habitation, and formed one
large community under a chief, whom they
called father or abbot. The word is derived
from koivo8iov, vitse communis societas.
(See Monks.) The ancients discriminated
between a ccenobium and a monastery.
The latter was properly the dwelling of a
solitary monk or hermit ; the former, of
associated monks who lived together in a
society. The institution of Coenobites was,
according to Cassian, to be traced to the
faithful at Jerusalem who, in the Apostles'
time, "had all things common." (Cass.
Collat xviii. c. 5.) But as an order, the
founder was Pachomius, who lived fifty
years before Cassian's visit to Egypt, and
who planted several establishments on the
banks of the Nile. Before his death in 348,
the Coenobites numbered over 7000 persons.
The monks under Pachomius's rule lived in
dwellings, grouped together yet detached,
each house containing three monks. These
clusters were called Lauraj. (See Laura.)
Basil the Great seems to have been the first
to build houses in which all lived together. —

COLLECTS

211

Newman's Fleury, xx. 5 ; Eobertson, Hist.
of Ch. i. 266,-328-330 ; Bingham, Ant. vii. 2 ;
Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 336.
CC3NA DOMINI. The supper of our
Lord. This title was given in early times
to the fifth day in Holy Week. (See
Maundy- Tliursday.)
C_NA DOMINI. (See Bull in Csena
Domini) COFFIN, literally a basket ; Gk. kocdivos ;
Fr. "coffre"; Norm. Fr. "cofin"; Sp.
" cofin " ; Welsh " cofawr," from cof, a hollow
trunk. The word was used for a shrine or box
(Wyntown's Chronykil), but it now gener
ally denotes the box of wood or of lead in
which a dead body is placed for burial. From
the seventh to the twelfth century coffins
were generally of stone, when used at all ;
but for common people they were not used.
COLLATION. The term used when a
bishop gives a benefice, which either he had
as patron, or which came to him by lapse.
It is also used by ecclesiastical writers to
denote the spare meal on days of abstinence,
consisting of bread or other fruits, but
without meat ; sometimes also the reading
from the lives or collations of the fathers in
a monastery before compline.
COLLECTS. I. The meaning of the
term. II. The construction. III. The
sources. I. Collects are certain brief and com
prehensive prayers, which are found in all
known liturgies and public devotional offices
of the Western Church. Ritualists have
thought that these prayers were so called
because they were used in the public congre
gation or collection of the people ; or from the
fact of many petitions being here collected
together in a brief summary ; or because they
comprehend objects of prayer collected out
of the Epistles and Gospels. But whatever
may be the origin of the term, it is one of
great antiquity. It is indeed difficult to
trace the antiquity of repeating collects at
the end of the service. It certainly, however,
prevailed in our own Church, the Church of
England, even during the period preceding
the Norman Conquest. The very collects
that we still use, formed part of the
devotional offices of our Church long before
the Reformation.
The more usual name in the Latin Church
was orationes collectse, because the prayers
of the bishop or priest, which in any part of
the service followed the joint prayers of the
deacon and congregation, were both a recol
lection and recommendation of the prayers
of the people. In this sense Cassian takes
the phrase, colligere orationem. When
speaking of the service in the Egyptian
monasteries and Eastern churches, he says,
" after the psalms they had private prayers,
which they said partly standing and partly
kneeling : which being ended, he that
p 2

212

COLLECTS

collected tbe prayer rose up, and then they
all rose up together with him, none presum
ing to continue longer upon the ground, lest
he should seem rather to pursue his own
prayers than go along with him who collected
the prayers, or closed up all with his con
cluding collect." (Institutes, ii. 9). Where
we may observe, that a collect is taken for
the chief minister's prayer at the close of
some part of divine service, collecting and
concluding the people's preceding devotions.
Uranius, speaking of one John, bishop of
Naples, who died in the celebration of
divine service, says, " he gave tho signal to
the people to pray, and then, having summed
up their prayers in a collect, he yielded up
the ghost." — Bingham, bk. xv. c. 1, seq.
Walpidius Strabo (De Reb. Eccl. c. 22),
as quoted by Wheatly, says that they are
so called because the priest collects the pe
titions of all in a compendious brevity.
Archbishop Trench gives as his opinion that
they have their name because they collect, as
into a focus, the teaching of the Epistle and
Gospel, gathering them up into a single
petition. (See also Freeman's Principles qf
Divine Worship, i. 146, 212, 367.) They
are in fact used in contradistinction to the
alternate versicles, and the larger and less
compendious prayers. (Bona, Rer. Liturg.
ii. 5 ; Micrologus, iii.)
Morinus, in his notes on Greek Ordination,
remarks on the resemblance between the
Greek word avvaTTT-q, and the Latin collecta :
but shows that the avvatrri), though meaning
a connected prayer, has a very different use.
The <rovawrr\ was sometimes a sort of litany,
sometimes a set of versicles resembling the
"preces" of the Roman Church, or our
versicles and responses after the Creed. The
a-vvaiTTj] p.tyaKrj again, is like our Prayer
for the Church Militant. The Greek ei^ij
said after the avvarrri] is more like our collect :
but there is nothing exactly resembling it
in the Greek formularies. Their prayers
are generally much longer.
II. The collects are for the most part
constructed upon one uniform rule, subject
to a threefold division, which has thus been
stated :
1. Introduction. — Invocation of God's
Name : often, but not always, including a
commemoration of one of His attributes, or
of one of His actiqns. 2. Main part. —
Petition for some boon, often, but not always,
accompanied by a statement of the good
to be expected from such boon. 3. Con
clusion. — Glory given to God, or affiance
in Christ, or both together. (Freeman's
Principles of Divine Service, i. 372.)
As a general rale a collect is addressed to
God the Father, as it is the supplication of
many gathered into one by the voice of the
minister, and offered by him to the Father,

COLLECTS
through our only Mediator. The eucharistie
worship, too, has regard to the sacrifice
offered to the Father by the Son. (Bona, i.
3, ii.) Three collects in our Prayer Book
address the Son, namely, those for St,
Stephen's day, the third Sunday in Advent,
and the first in Lent. These were composed
or adapted in 1549 and 1661.
III. With regard to the sources from
which we derive our collects, Dean Comber
says, " In the Prayer Book of the Church of
England the collects may be ranked in three,
classes. First, the ancient primitive collects,
containing nothing but true doctrine, void
of all modern corruptions, and having a
strain of the primitive devotion, being
short, but regular, and very expressive ; so
that it is not possible to touch more sense
in so few words. That most are very
ancient, appears by their conformity to the
Epistles and Gospels, which were selected
by St. Hierom, and put into the lectionary
ascribed to him. Many believed he first
framed them for the use of the Roman
Church, in the time of Pope Damasus, a.d.
376. Certain it is that Gelasius, who was
bishop of Rome a.d. 492-6, did arrange
those collects, which were then used, into
order, and composed some new ones; and
that office of his was again corrected by Pope
Gregory the Great, a.d. 600, whose .Sacra-:
mentary contains most of those collects
which we now use, with some additions
made to it by the abbot Grimoaldus. Many
of these were retained in their native purity
in the Missals of York and Salisbury, and
the Breviaries. The second order of collects
are also ancient as to the main ; but where
there were any passages that had been
corrupted, they were struck out, and tbe
old form restored, or that passage rectified ;
and where there was any defect it was sup
plied. The third order are such as had
been corrupted in the Roman Missals
and Breviaries, and contained something
of false doctrine, or at least of superstition,
in them ; and new collects were made,
instead of these, at the Reformation,
under King Edward VI. ; and some few
which were wanting were added, anno
1661." Entering more particularly into the sub
ject, we find that most of the collects are
substantially prior to the Reformation, and
indeed of the greatest antiquity. The two
prayers recorded in tbe Acts " of the
Apostles (i. 24, 25; iv. 24 seq.) have a
striking resemblance to the prayers we now
know as collects ; and they may have been
patterns for the forms used by the early
Christians But those which can be satis-i
factorily traced are in the fragmentary
Sacramentary, called the Leonine, after Leo
the Great, c. a.d. 420 ; in the Sacramentary of

COLLECTS
Gelasius, c. a.d. 492 ; and in that of Gregory
180 years later.
1. Five collects are " Leonine," the third
after Easter ; the fifth, ninth, thirteenth,
and fourteenth after Trinity.
2. The Gelasian Sacramentary adds the
second and part of the third morning collect,
the second and third evening collects, the
collects for the fourth Sunday in Advent,
Innocents' day, Palm Sunday, two for Good
Friday, first half of that for Easter Day, for
the fourth and fifth Sundays after Easter,
and first, second, sixth, seventh, eighth,
eleventh, fifteenth, sixteenth, eighteenth,
nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first after
Trinity, with portions of the tenth and
twelfth ; the collects " Assist us mercifully "
at the end of H. Communion, and " 0 Lord,
we beseech Thee,"inthe Commination service.
3. Gregory, who revised and abridged the
Gelasian Sacramentary, added the collects for
St. Stephen's Day; St.; John the Evangelist's;
Epiphany ; first, second, third, fourth, fifth
Sundays after Epiphany : Septuagesima, Sexa-
gesima ; second, third, fourth, fifth Sundays
inLent; one for Good Friday; the other part of
the Easter collect ; Ascension ; Whitsunday;
third, fourth, seventeenth, twenty-second,
twenty-third, twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth
Sundays after Trinity ; Purification ; Annun
ciation; St. Michael; "0 God, whose
nature," " Prevent us," with parts of others.
4. In 1549 the collects for first and second
Sundays in Advent, Christmas Day, Circum
cision, Quinquagesima, Ash- Wednesday, first
Sunday in Lent, third for Good Friday, first
and second Sundays after Easter, together
with thethird, fifth and sixthat the endof the
communion office, the collect for communion
of the sick, were added. The collects for
many of the Saints' days were changed, as
they referred to the intercession of Saints. In
1552 threecollects were struck out — for " first
communion," on Christmas-day, for Easter-
day, and for St. Mary Magdalene. (See
Calendar) 5. In 1661 two new collects — third Sun
day in Advent, and sixth after Epiphany
— were inserted; and the collect for St.
Stephen's day considerably altered. The col
lect for second Sunday after Epiphany, four
teenth seventeenth, twenty-first, twenty-
third after Trinity, Annunciation, and that
in the Commination, are literally repro
duced in English, and others are translated
nearly word for word. But generally there
are alterations or amplifications, as indeed
the difference of idiom between the Latin
and English would often require ; and in
some cases a change was deemed necessary
in consequence of the extravagance of super
stition into which the Church in the Middle
Ages had fallen.
it is not necessary to quote a multi-

COLLEGE

213

tude of writers to show what has always
been felt with regard to the collects. " It
is," says Canon Bright (Ancient Collects, 198)
"the wonderful blending of strength and
sweetness, in the collects, which has called
forth so much love and admiration, and has
made them such a bond of union for pious
minds of different times and countries ; "
and Lord Macaulay speaks of " those
beautiful collects which have soothed the
griefs of forty generations of Christians "
(Hist Eng. i. 160). Among the advantages
in making use of these short collects are (i.)
the relief they give to the worshipper ; (ii.)
the variety they throw into the service ;
(iii.) the fixing of attention by new impulses
of thought ; (iv.) the solemnizing of the mind
by frequent invocations ; (v.) the constant
reference of all our hopes to the merits and
mediation of Christ, in whose name every
collect is offered ; and (vi.) the inspiring
feeling, that in them we are offering up our
prayers, in the same words which have
been on the lips of the martyrs and saints
of all ages. — Hooker, bk. v. c. 33, who
quotes St. Augustine, Ep. 130; Bingham,
xiv. c. i. s. 7 ; Canon Bright, Ancient
Collects; On the Collects, S. P. C. K.
Prayer Book; Diet Christ. Ant 403. [H.]
COLLEGE. A community. Hence we
speak of an episcopal college, or college of
bishops. It was an old maxim of Roman
law that a college could not be formed
of fewer than three persons. Hence, as a
bishop is to be consecrated not by a single
bishop, but by a synod or college, at least
three are required to be present at each
consecration. Every corporation, in the
civil law, is called a college, and so it has
been applied in England, in some rare in
stances, irrespective of social combinations :
and abroad it was very extensively applied
to incorporated boards. But in England it
generally implies a society of persons, living
in a common habitation, and bound together
by statutes which have respect to their daily
life. The colleges of the universities, and
those of Eton and Winchester, are specially
so termed : and some residences for the
members, a chapel, hall, and library, are
considered essential features of the college.
Our academical colleges were all instituted
for the promotion of godliness, as well as of
human knowledge, and as handmaids of the
Church, and their recent secularisation was
a mere act of violence by the State. All
cathedral and collegiate churches are col
leges ; and the word in this sense compre
hends all the members of each establishment,
whether inferior or superior. The buildings
of some of our cathedrals containing the
residence of the members, are stiR often
popularly called " the college," as at Wor
cester. The word is also applied to those

214

COLLEGIATE

inferior corporations attached to the cathe
drals of old foundation. (See Minor Canons,
and Vicars Choral.)
The colleges of our universities are each
independent societies, having their own
statutes, and property as strictly their own
as that of any lay proprietor. Still they
are connected with a greater corporation,
which is called the university. It has been
commonly thought, that these relations
between minor and major academical cor
porations is an anomaly peculiar to England.
The fact is otherwise. The most ancient uni
versities, as Paris, Bologna, and Salamanca,
had each several colleges, which bore an
analogous relation to the university. (See
University.) COLLEGIATE CHURCHES. Churches
with a body of canons and prebendaries,
&c, and inferior members, with corporate
privileges. The services and forms in these
churches are, or ought to be, like those in
cathedral churches. The number of col
legiate churches has been much diminished
since the Reformation; Westminster and
Windsor alone remain. Southwell, Wolver
hampton, Middleham, and Brecon, were abo
lished by the Cathedral Reform Act of 1840.
COLLYRIDIANS. Certain heretics, ac
cording to Epiphanius all females, who
worshipped the Virgin Mary as a goddess,
and offered cake in sacrifice to her. They
appeared in the fourth century, about the
year 373, coming from Thrace and Scythia.
Their name is derived from xoKKvpis, a little
cake. — Epiphan. Hseres. lxxviii., lxxix.
COLO URS. I. The use of different colours
in the vestments and ornaments of the
church, to mark certain seasons, dees not
appear to have been adopted in the very
early ages of Christianity, but there were
particular ideas connected with the various
colours. White was the symbol of purity,
and as such was worn by all ranks of the
ministry: sometimes striped with purple,
sometimes embroidered with gold (Theod.
lib. ii. c. 27 ; St. Jerom. lib. i. cont Pelag. ;
Marriott's Hist. Christ,xxii.). Newly baptized
persons wore white during the eight days
immediately following their baptism (see
Chrisome), (Cyril. Catech. Myst. 4, n. 2;
Socr. lib. v. c. 8) ; and angels and saints were
depicted as clad in white robes — for thus
was symbolized the pure light of truth.
(Clem. Alex. Pssdag. ii. 10; Dionys. De
Hierarch. Cselest. c. 15.) Red would natu
rally imply fire, aud was connected with
the idea of ardent affections or impulses —
" the angelic squadron turned fiery red "
(Milt. Par. Lost, bk. iv. ad fin.); green is the
colour of life and growth, the idea being
taken from living vegetation (Dionys. De
Hierarch. ut supra), and violet — black and
red combined — symbolized sorrow and love.

COLOURS
Our Lord, as the loving " Man of Sorrows,'' is
depicted in ancient mosaics (as at Ravenna
and Milan) in a violet garb. Those virgins
who in ancient times forsook the pleasures
of the world and adopted the religiouslife
wore violet veils. (Jerome, Epist. 22 ad
Eustoch.) In the work of Innocent III., de
Sacro Altaris Mysterio, the colours are
spoken of as arranged in due order (lib. i. c.
65), and probably they were used consider- .'
ably earlier than that date.
II. With regard to the Church of England
we may judge as to the " colours" used,
from (1) the different " Uses," Bangor,.
Hereford, York, but especially the Salisbury
" Use," which seems to have been gener
ally preferred (Wilkins, Cone. iii. 861),
(2) the directions in the Prayer Book of
1549, and (3) the inventories of ornaments
which were made in 1552-3, according to
instructions to the commissioners appointed
to survey the Church goods throughout
the kingdom. Many of these inventories
are preserved in the Public Record Office,
Fetter 'Lane, London. In the " Ritual In
troduction to the Prayer Book " (Blunt's
Annot P. B., pp. lxxv. seq.) Mr. Perry
gives the results of a careful comparison J,
between the inventories of the cathedrals
(Holy Trinity, Winchester, and St. Paul's), '
two London churches (St. Martin Outwich, '
and St. Nicolas, Cole Abbey), and a country '
church (Stanford-in-the-Vale, Berks), with
the Sarum Missal, and St. Osmund's Register.
The Roman rule is strict, the Eastern
Church never gave minute rules as to
colours. The comparative table of colours
according to the English and Roman use
was thus drawn out : —
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF COLOURS ACCORD; '
ING TO THE SARUM AND EOMAN USE. ¦ .

Seasons.

Advent, Sundays in . . .
„ Week days in . .
Christmas, Octave of . . .
„ rest of ... .
Epiphany, Octave of . . .
„ rest of ... .
Septuagesima to Easter Sun-

Week days fFcrial)
Ash-Wednesday .
Maundy-Thursday .
Good Friday. . .
Easter Eve . . .

Easter throughout . . .
Ascension, Octave of . . .
„ rest of . .
Vigil of Pentecost . . . .
Pentecost 
Vigil of Holy Trinity . '. '.
Trinity Sunday 
Sundays in Trinity . . .
Week days (Ferial) in Trinity

Sakbm.

R. B.
W.
W.W. ,
Uncertain. R.
R. or
purple. R.R.
R.R.
W.
w.IV.
R. (0
R.K.
R.(?) R. O.

ROJTAK.

V.V.
w.w. w.
G.V.V.V.V.B.
V. (WWtB
lor Mass.)
W.
W. W.
V. tlii-d
for Mass.)
R. R. W.G.

COMES
COMPARATIVE TABLE— continued.

COMMENTARY

215

Fkstivai.% ktc.1

Sarum,

Roman.

Circumcision and Trausflgu-

"\v.

W.

Festival of the Name of Jesus

"U\

W.

Festivals of the Holv Cross .

R.

R.

Festivals of the B. V. Mary .

"W.

W.

St. Michael and All Angels .

"W.

W.

St. John Baptist, Nativity of.

Uncertain.

R.

„ „ Beheading of

R.

R.

Apostles, out of Eastertide .

R.

R.

St. John Evangelist in Christ-

AV.
W.
si. John Evangelist, ante
Uncertain.
R.
Conversion of St. Paul. . .
W.
Lammas day, St. Peter ad
t
W.
Evangelists, out of Eastertide
R.
R.
R.
R.
„ in Paschal time .
W.
W.
Holy Innocents, if not Sunday
R.
V.
„ „ if Sunday .
prob. Y
R.
Y.
W.
w.
W.
Uncertain.
V.
„
V.
Masses for the dead . . .
B.
H.
Offices for the dead ....
Blue or
purple.
B.
Uncertain.
V.
Dedication of a Church, Octave
"
W.
w.
R.
V.
PL]
COMES. An ancient Lectionary, or ar
rangement of epistles and gospels, attributed
to St. Jerome. The antiquity of this has
been doubted, and it is by some supposed
to be not earlier than the seventh century
(Diet Christ Ant. ii. 962). Bingham
says, referring to Stillinafleet, Orig. Britan.
c. 4, p. 229, and Cave, Hist. Lit. vol. i. p. 225,
that the Comes is reckoned " a counterfeit,
and the work of a much later writer, because
it mentions lessons out of the Old Testament,
whereas, in St. Jerome's time, there were no
lessons read besides the epistles and gospels
in the Church of Rome." It is interesting
to observe that in a foundation deed belong
ing to a church in France, called " Charta
Cornutiana," the " Comes " is mentioned,
aud this charta is as early as a.d. 471
(Mabillon, Lit. Gall. Pref. vii.); that no
saints are mentioned in the Comes of a later
date than the time of St. Jerome; and the
Epiphany is called by the name of the
Theophania, which was only used in the
early times of the Western Church. It is
mentioned by Amalarius (iii. 40), and Micro-
logus (xxv.), who speaks of it as "Liber
Comitis sive Lectionarius, quem Sanctus
Hieronymus compaginavit." It is to be
found in the Lilurgicon Ecclesiie Latinm of
Pamelius under the name of St. Jerome, and
is also in the eleventh volume of St. Jerome's
works, p. 526. — Bingham, bk. xiv. c. iii. ;
Maskell, Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. i. lviii. ;
Blunt's Annot. P. B. p. 70 ; Blunt's Diet.
Theol. p. 133. [H.]
COMFORTABLE WORDS : texts read
in tho Holy Communion office immediately
after the Absolution. This is peculiar to
the English Liturgy, and the use seems to
have been derived from the " Consultation "
of Archbishop Herman.
COMMANDERIES. New houses of the
same kind among the Knights Hospitallers
as the Preceptories among the Templars.
(See Preceptories.)
COMMANDMENTS, THE TEN. The
use of these in the Communion service is
peculiar to tho English Church. It is
probably derived from the custom of reciting
and expounding them at certain intervals,
as enjoined by ancient synods and bishops.
They were introduced into the Communion
office in 1552, before which time the collect
for Purity was followed by the Introit, which
again was followed by the Kyrie Eleison
repeated nine times, as in the old service.
(See Kyrie.) In the American P. B., and
in the Scotch, our Lord's summary of the
law (St. Matt. xxii. 37-40) is allowed instead
of the Decalogue. The translation of the
commandments in our Prayer Book is that
of the Great Bible of 1539-40, not of the
present version.
COMMEMORATIONS. The recital of
the names of famous martyrs and confessors,
patriarchs, bishops, kings, great orthodox
writers, munificent benefactors : which reci
tation was made at the altar out of diptychs
or folded tables. There are Commemoration
days at Oxford and Cambridge, on which
the names of all the known benefactors
to the universities are proclaimed, special
psalms and lessons recited, and special
collects and versicles. These have been
coeval with the Reformation, and sanctioned
by the highest authority. (See Diptychs.)
COMMENDAM. Commendam is a living
commended by the Crown to the care of a
clergyman until a proper pastor is provided
for it. These commendams for some time
have been seldom if ever granted to any
but bishops, who, when their bishoprics were
of small value, were, by special dispensation,
allowed to hold their previous benefices,
which, on their promotion, had devolved
into the patronage of the Crown. But by
6 & 7 Will. IV. s. 18, it was enacted that'
every commendam thereafter granted shall
be absolutely void.
COMMENDATORY LETTERS. (See
Literse formats.)
COMM ENTARY. An exposition ; a book
of annotations on Holy Scripture.
To give a complete list of commentaries,
or a history of commentators, "would re
quire a volume of no ordinary dimensions,"
ranging from the earliest ages of Christianity
to the present day. Much interesting in
formation will be found in Rosenmiiller's
Historia Interpreiationis Librorum Sa-
216

COMMINATION

crorum in Ecclesia Christiana, inde ab
Apostolorum uEtate usque ad Origenem,
1795-1814." This elaborate work treats
exclusively of the early commentators.
In selecting a commentary much care is
necessary, because a skilful commentator
Gay wrest the Scriptures so as to make
them support his private opinion. In the
midst of a great many speculative writings
with regard to the Bible, there was, till
lately, a want of some free commentary
upon the sacred books, in which the latest
information might be made accessible to
men of ordinary culture, on some kind of
authoritative basis. In 1863, the Speaker
of the House of Commons, the Right Hon.
J. Evelyn Denison, consulted some of the
bishops as to the best way of supplying the
deficiency, and the result was the work,
known by the name of the " Speaker's
Commentary." In this the Authorised
Version from the edition of 1611, with the
marginal references and renderings, is re
printed ; and comments, chiefly explanatory,
but presenting in a concise form the results
of learned investigations, carried on in this
and other countries during the last half
century, are given. The committee con
sisted of ten members, the archbishops of
Canterbury and York heading the list, and
the editorship was entrusted to the Rev.
Canon Cook. " The editor thought it
desirable to have a small committee of
reference, in cases of dispute, and the Arch
bishop of York, with the Regius Professors
of Divinity of Oxford and Cambridge, agreed
to act in this capacity." (Preface, Speaker's
Commentary.) There were about forty con
tributors, each book having been assigned
to some writer who "had paid particular
attention to the subject of it."
A simple and short, but very excellent
commentary, has been published by the
S, P. C. K. To this also there are many
contributors. Commentaries on portions
of the Scripture are too numerous to be
mentioned, but no list would be complete
without the late Bishop Wordsworth's Com
mentary on the Old and New Testament,
the late Dean Alford on the New, Bishops
Ellicott and Lightfoot on various Epistles,
and Dr. Pusey on Daniel and the minor
Prophets. (See Testament) [H.]
COMMINATION, means a threat or de
nunciation of vengeance. I. The office in
the Church of England is entitled " A
Commination, or denouncing of God's Anger
and Judgment against Sinners, with certain
Prayers, to be used on the first Day of
Lent, and at other times, as the Ordinary
shall appoint." This office, says Palmer
(.Orig. Liturg. ii. 243), is one of the last
memorials we retain of that solemn peni
tence, which during the primitive ages

COMMINATION
occupied so conspicuous a place in the
discipline of the Christian Church. In the
earliest ages, those who were guilty of
grievous sins were solemnly reduced to the
order of penitents; they came fasting, and
clad in sackcloth and ashes, on the occasion,
and, after the bishop had prayed over them,
they were dismissed from the church. They
then were admitted gradually to the classes
of hearers, substrati or kneelers, and con-
sistentes or co-standers, i.e. allowed to join in
the prayers, but not to partake of the
Eucharist, until at length, after long trial
and exemplary conduct, they were again
decreed worthy of communion. To this
discipline St. Basil (a.d. 370) refers, and an
account of it is given by Gratian. (Bos.
Can. 22, 56, seq. ; Orat. Did. 50, cap. 64.)
But at length, from various causes, it became
extinct, both in the Eastern and Western
Churches ; and, from the twelfth or thirteenth
century, the solemn office of the first day of
Lent was the only memorial of this ancient
discipline in the West. The Church of
England has long used this office nearly as
we do at present, as we find almost exactly
the same appointed in the MS. Sacramentary
of Leofric, which was written for our Church
about the ninth or tenth century; and
year by year she directs her ministers to
lament the defection of the godly discipline
we have been describing. The title in 1549
was merely " the First Day of Lent, com
monly called Ash- Wednesday." It was
altered in 1552 at the suggestion of Bucer,
who wished for the frequent use of the
service, and for a revival of open penance,
to "A commination against sinners, with
certain prayers to be used divers times in
the year." It was changed to its present
form in 1661.
II. With regard to the " other times, as
the ordinary shall appoint," it appears from
the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Grindal
for the province of Canterbury, in the year
1576, that it was appointed four times a year ;
namely, on one of the three Sundays next
before Easter, on one of the two Sundays
next before Pentecost, and on one of the two
Sundays next before Christmas, as well as
on Ash- Wednesday. Ash- Wednesday was
indeed the solemn day of all, on which this
office was never to be omitted ; as may be
gathered from the preface, which is drawn
up for the peculiar use of that day. (Card-
well's Docum. Annals, i. 398.) In the Scotch
Common Prayer, a clause was added, that it
was to be used " especially on the first day
of Lent, commonly called Ash- Wednesday."
But the service is now never made use of
at other times than Ash- Wednesday, except
that sometimes the latter part, from the 51st
Psalm to the end, has been said on solemn
days of fasting and humiliation. This would

COMMISSARY
be the " certain prayers," for the Commina
tion properly means that part of the special
service which precedes the Psalm. [H.]
COMMISSARY, is a title of jurisdiction,
appertaining to him that exercises ecclesias
tical jurisdiction, in places so far distant
from the chief city, that the chancellor
cannot call the people to the bishop's prin
cipal consistory court without great trouble
to them.
Chancellors, or bishops' lawyers, were
first introduced into the Church by the 2nd
canon of the Council of Chalcedon, and
were men trained up in the civil and canon
law, to direct bishops in matters of judg
ment relating to ecclesiastical affairs.
Whatever the extent of the chancellor's
authority as a judge may be, throughout
the diocese, with relation to the bishop's,
it is quite clear that the commissary's autho
rity extends only to such particular causes,
in such, parts of the diocese, lor which he
holds, the bishop's commission to act.
In the Clementine constitutions this
officer is termed offieialis foraneus. By
21 Henry VIII. cap. 13, he shall not be
within the statute of non-residence ; he may
grant licences ; he may excommunicate,
and prove a last will and testament; but
that shall be in tho name of the ordinary ;
and a grant of such power does not hold
good beyond the life of the ordinary, and
does not bind his successor : where, by pre
scription or by composition, there are arch
deacons, who have jurisdiction in their
archdeaconries, as in most places they have,
there the office of commissary is superfluous.
— See Gibson's Codex, vol. i. Introductory
Discourse, p. 25.
COMMON PRAYER. (See Liturgy,
Prayer Book.) By Common Prayer we are
to understand a form of prayer adapted and
enjoined for common or universal use ; in
the vernacular language, such as may be
understood of people, and in which they are
required to join with one heart and voice.
The term is very ancient, being found in
use as far back as St. Cyprian's time (a.d.
252), who speaks of the Lord's Prayer as
¦" Publica nobis, et communis oratio." This
refers to our blessed Lord's own words,
"" When two or three are gathered together
in My Name, there am I in the midst of
them " (St. Matt, xviii. 20). The joining
thus together in prayer, is a holy duty, and
has been observed in all ages ; the ordained
minister leading the prayers, and the con
gregation joining with him. This was incul
cated by many canons, as for instance the so-
¦called Apostolic Canon (7), which suspended
those who did not join in prayers. (See also
•Cone. Antioch. can. 2 ; Cone. Eliber. can. 621,
Ac.) In the Church of England the term
seems first to have been used authoritatively

COMMUNION

217

in a rubric to the English Litany of 1544,
which runs, " It is tliought convenient in
this common prayer of Procession, to have
it set forth, and used in the vulgar tongue,
for stirring the people to more devotion ; "
and • it occurs again in the Injunctions of
Edward VI., issued in 1546-7.
Bishop Sparrow observes, that the Common
Prayer contains in it many holy offices of
the Church ; as prayers, confessions of faith,
holy hymns, divine lessons, priestly ab
solutions, and benedictions ; all which are
set and prescribed, not left to private men's
fancies to make or alter. So it was of old
ordained (Cone. Carthag. can. 106, and in
many others). "It is ordained, that the
prayers, prefaces, and impositions of hands,
which are confirmed by the synod, be ob
served and used by all men : these, and no
other." So is our 14th English canon. . . .
" And as these offices are set and prescribed,
so are they moreover appointed to be one
and the same throughout the whole national
Church." Canons 4, 38, 98, deal with those
who would reject, or fail to use the order of
Common Prayer.
COMMUNION. (See Holy Communion,
Jhucn ft vt^ti i
COMMUNION OF THE SICK. I. Al
though the Church maintains that the
Eucharist, as a general rule, is to be publicly
administered in the consecrated house of
God, and has signified her disapproval of
solitary communion in all cases; yet, when ,
by sickness her members are incapable of
presenting themselves at the altar, there is
a wise and tender relaxation of her usages,
corresponding with the peculiar necessity of
the case. This is in accordance with the
earliest practice of thej primitive Church;
as is plainly shown in the writings of the
Fathers, in canons and other ancient docu
ments. In the Western Church the Eucharist
administered to a sick person was called
viaticum, in the Eastern icboSiov, both
words denoting provision for a journey — ¦
the journey to the other world. When St.
Clement of Rome uses the term to e<p68ia
rov 6eo0, he does not necessarily imply
the Eucharist ; but his namesake of Alex
andria joined to it the words trains aldiov,
which resemble the words in the liturgies
of St. James, St. Basil, and St. Mark, foi^y
alaviav, which are used in a manner
clearly denoting the Eucharist. (Clem. Alex.
Strom, vi. 33; Hammond, Liturgies,^. 191.)
The Council of Nice (can. xiii.) forbad that
any, even the lapsed, should be deprived of
the very last and most necessary icpo&wv,
and this was repeated by other councils, as
the 4th of Carthage, a.d. 398 (can. lxxvii.),
" Qui in infirmitate sunt viaticum accipiant,"
of Epaon, a.d. 517 (can. xxxvi.), and many-
others.

218

COMMUNION

" There are many instances," says Palmer
(Orig. Liturgy, ii. 232), "in antiquity, of
the celebration of the Eucharist in private
for the sick. Thus Paulinus, bishop of
Nola, caused the Eucharist to be celebrated
in his own chamber, not many hours before
his death. Gregory Nazianzen informs us,
that his father communicated in his own
chamber, and that his sister had an altar
at home ( Orat. 19, de Laude Patris. Orat 11);
and Ambrose is said to have administered
the sacrament in a private house at Rome
(Vita A. a Paulino, can. xlvii.). The
Church is therefore justified in directing
the Eucharist to be consecrated in private
houses, for the benefit of the sick ; and she
has taken care, in the rubric immediately
preceding the office, that the sacrament shall
be decorously and reverently administered."
In the English Church great stress has
always been laid upon the reception of the
Eucharist by the sick. Archbishop Theodore
(a.d. 671) dwells on the matter in his
Penitential (cap. 41), which was the first
work published by authority in the Western
Church, and was the foundation on which
all the other "libelli pasnitentiales " rested,
such as those published by Bede and Eg
bert (Hook's Archbishops, i. 168). The canon
No. 65 of King Edgar (a.d. 960) orders
every priest to give " housel " to the sick
when they need it; and a canon of the
Synod of Westminster (1138) confirms this.
In the Prayer Book of 1549 there is a long
rubric with regard to the manner of
administering the Eucharist to sick persons ;
but this was set aside in 1552 because it
implied reservation of the Holy Sacrament.
II. By the present rubric, before the office
for the Communion of the Sick, it is ordered
as follows : " Forasmuch as all mortal men
be subject to many sudden perils, diseases,
and sicknesses, and ever uncertain what
time they shall depart out of this life ;
therefore, to the intent they may be always
in a readiness to die whensoever it shall
please Almighty God to call them, curates
shall diligently from time to time (but
especially in the time of pestilence or other
infectious sickness) exhort their parishioners
to the often receiving of the holy communion
of the body and blood of our Saviour Christ,
when it shall be publicly administered in
the church ; that, so doing, they may, in
case of sudden visitation, have the iess
cause to be disquieted for lack of the same.
But if the sick person be not able to come
to the church, and yet is desirous to receive
the communion in his house, then he must
give timely notice to the curate, signifying
also how many there are to communicate
with him, (which shall be three, or two at
the least.) and having a convenient place
in the sick man's house, with all things

COMMUNION
necessary so prepared, that the curate may
reverently minister, he shall there celebrate
the holy communion."
III. The reservation of a portion of the
elements consecrated in the church, for the,
use of the sick, is probably of primitive
origin. Justin Martyr refers to this in his
Apology (i. 65), though his words may,
include more than the sick, as he says,
" Kal rois ov irapovo-l (biaKOVOt) diro<pipovm.
Eusebius speaks (quoting from Dionysius) of
a priest, who being sick, sent by a messenger
to a dying person a " morsel of the eucha*. '
rist " (Euseb. Hist Eccl. vi. 44), and the
canons of the early councils imply the con
veying of the viaticum. But it was not
allowed to be conveyed by any but an
ordained minister, except under very par
ticular circumstances. Bona states that
reservation in the Church was designed' for
the sick only (Rerum Liturg. ii. 17), and
that this was the idea in the English.
Church in early times is evident from the.
excerpt of Archbishop Egbert, " Ut pres
byter eucharistiam habeat semper paratam
ad infirmos, ne sine communione moriantur."
By the Synod of Westminster above referred
to, it was ordered that " Ultra octo dies
Corpus Christi non reservetur ; " nor should
it be conveyed " nisi per sacerdotem, aut
per diaconum, aut necessitate instante,
per quemlibet cum summa reverentia",
(Maskell, Mon. hit i. ccxxiii).
By a constitution of Archbishop Peckham
(a.d. 1279), the sacrament of the Eucharist
" shall be carried with due reverence to the
sick, the priest having on at least a surplice
or stole, with a light carried before him in a
lantern, with a bell, that the people may be
excited to due reverence; who hy the
minister's direction shall be taught to
prostrate themselves, or at least to make
humble adoration, wheresoever the King of
Glory shall happen to be carried under the
cover of bread."
But by the rubric of the 2 Edward VI.
it was ordered, that there shall be no eleva-1
tion of the host, or showing the sacrament
to the people. The rubric of 1549 ordered
that, in the case of a sick person, the priest
shall " reserve (at the open communion in
the church) so much of the sacrament of
the body and blood as shall seive the sick
person, and so many as shall communicate
with him (if there be any), and as soon as
he conveniently may, after the open com
munion ended in the church, shall go and
minister the same, first to those that are
appointed to communicate with the sick (if
there be any), and last to the sick person
himself." The curate was charged to use
the general confession, the absolution, the
comfortable words, and the collect after com--
munion. If there was not open communion

COMMUNION
in the church, the curate was to visit the sick
person afore noon, and " having a convenient
place," celebrate the holy communion. A
second rubric at the end of the office orders
that if the curate has to celebrate in any
sick man's house, and there be more sick
persons to be visited the same day, he shall
reserve so much as shall serve the other
sick persons, and shall immediately carry it
and minister it to them. This was altered
in 1552, and private celebrations were alone
provided for, the present collect, epistle and
gospel in the office for the communion of
the sick being then appointed. In the
Latin Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth's
reign, in the Scottish Church, and by the
non-jurors, the practice of reservation was
upheld. In cases of great epidemics, it
would seem to be in accordance with a
primitive practice, and the canons of ancient
councils, that it should be retained ; and
when in the great outbreak of cholera at
Leeds, Bishop Longley, afterwards arch
bishop of Canterbury, was appealed to on
this subject, he said, that "while he could not
authorize reservation, he did not feel himself
justified mforbidding it in that emergency."
(Hist. Considerations, &c, by Rev. T. W.
Perry ; Blunt's Annot P. B. p. 290.) The
late primate (Dr. Tait) and the bishop of
London (Dr. Jackson) are both said to have
allowed the sacrament to be reserved, when
sickness was prevalent in a populous London
parish (Lit. Churchman, Feb. 7, 1885) ; but
at the first meeting of the Upper House of
Convocation in 1885 the question was dis
cussed, and the opinion of their Lordships was
unfavourable to such a practice (Ibid. p. 87).
In view of an epidemic, one rubric orders
that " In the time of plague, sweat, or other
such like contagious times of sickness or
diseases, when none of the parish can be
gotten to communicate with the sick in
their houses, for fear of infection, upon
special request of the diseased, the minister
may only communicate with him." And
another, that in the distribution of the
elements "the sick person shall receive last."
This is done, "because those who com
municate with him, through fear of some
contagion, or the noisomeness of his disease,
may be afraid to drink out of the same cup
after him." [H]
In the Sarum Manual provision is made
for spiritual communion in cases where
actual reception of the elements is impossible ;
and in the same way our rubric directs that
" if a man, either by reason of extremity of
sickness, or for want of warning in due
time to the curate, or for lack of company
to receive with him, or by any other just
impediment, do not receive the sacrament
of Christ's body and blood, the curate shall
instruct him, that if he do truly repent him

COMMUNION

219

of his sins, and stedfastly believe that Jesu&
Christ hath suffered death upon the cros8-
for him, and shed his blood for his redemp"
tion; earnestly rememhering the benefits
he hath thereby, and giving him hearty
thanks therefor ; ho doth eat and drink
the body and blood of our Saviour Christ
profitably to his soul's health, although he do-
not receive the sacrament with his mouth."
COMMUNION OF SAINTS. (See
Saints.) This is an article of the Creed in
which we profess to believe, as a necessary
and infallible truth, that such persons as
are truly sanctified in the Church of Christ,
while they live among the crooked genera
tions of men, and struggle with the miseries
of this world, have fellowship with God tho
Father (1 St. John i. 3 ; 2 St. Peter i. 4), with
God the Son (1 St. John i. 3 ; 2 St. John 9 ;
St. John xvii. 20, 21,'23), with God the Holy
Ghost (Phil. ii. 1 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 14), as
dwelling with them, and taking up their
habitations in them ; that they partake of
the care and kindness of the blessed angels,
who take delight in the ministration for
their benefit, being " ministering spirits
sent forth to minister for them who shall be
heirs of salvation " (Heb. i. 14 ; St. Luke xv.
10; St. Matt, xviii. 10); that besides the
external fellowship which they have in the
word and sacraments, with all the members
of the Church, they have an intimate union
and conjunction with all the saints on earth,
as the living members of Christ. (1 St. John
i. 7 ; Col. ii. 19.) Nor is this union sepa
rated by the death of any ; bnt as Christ,
in whom they live, is the Lamb slain from
the foundation of the world, so have they
fellowship with all the saints, who, from
the death of Abel, have departed in the
true faith and fear of God, and now enjoy
the presence of the Father, and follow the
Lamb whithersoever he goeth. (Heb. xii.
22, 23.) " Indeed," says Bishop Pearson,
from whom this article is taken, " the com
munion of saints in the Church of Christ
with those who are departed is demonstrated
by their communion with the saints alive.
For if I have communion with a saint of
God as such, while he liveth here, I must
still have communion with him when he is
departed hence ; because the foundation or
that communion cannot be removed by
death. The mystical union between Christ
and his Church, the spiritual conjunction
of the members with the head, is the true
foundation of that communion which one
member hath with another, all the members
living and increasing by the same influence
which they receive from him. But death,
which is nothing else but the separation
of the soul from the body, maketh
no separation in the mystical union, no
breach of the spiritual conjunction; and.

220

COMMUNION

consequently, there must continue the same
communion, because there remaineth the
same foundation. Indeed, the saint before
his death had some communion with the
hypocrite, as hearing the word, professing
the faith, receiving the sacraments together ;
which being in things only external, as they
were common to them both, and all such
external actions ceasing in the person dead,
the hypocrite remaining loseth all com
munion with the saint departing, and the
saints surviving cease to have farther fellow
ship with the hypocrite dying. But seeing
that the true and unfeigned holiness of
man, wrought by the powerful influence of
the Spirit of God, not only remaineth, but
also is improved after death; seeing that
the correspondence of the internal holiness
was the true communion with other persons
¦during life, they cannot be said to be
divided by death, which hath no power
over that sanctity by which they were first
conjoined. But although this communion
of the saints in paradise and on earth, upon
the mystical union of Christ their head, be
fundamental and internal, yet what acts or
external operations it produces is not so
certain. That we communicate with them
in hope of that happiness which they
actually enjoy is evident ; that we have the
Spirit of God given us as an earnest, and so
a part of their felicity, is certain. But what
they do in heaven in relation to us on earth
particularly considered, or what we ought
to perform in reference to them in heaven,
besides a reverential respect and study of
imitation, is not revealed unto us in the
Scriptures, nor can be concluded by ne
cessary deduction from any principles of
Christianity. They who first found this
part of the article in the Creed, and delivered
their exposition to us, have made no greater
enlargement of this communion, as to the
saints of heaven, than the society of hope,
esteem, and imitation on our side, of desires
and supplications on their side ; and what is
now taught by the Church of Rome is as an
unwarrantable, soa novitious, interpretation."
COMMUNION IN ONE KIND. " The
principal advocates of Popery at the begin
ning of the Reformation were not willing
to own, that the universal practice of the
primitive Church was against the modern
sacrilege of denying the cup to the people ;
and, therefore, though they confessed there
were some instances in antiquity, of com
munion under both kinds, yet they main
tained the custom was not universal. So
Eckius and Harding, and many others.
But they who have since considered the
practice of the ancient Church more
narrowly, are ashamed of this pretence, and
freely confess, that for twelve centuries
there is no instance of the people's being

COMMUNION
obliged to communicate only in one kind,
in the public administration of the sacra
ment ; but in private they think some few
instances may be given."
This is shown by Leo Allatius (de Missa
Prsesanct. p. 1559), and not denied hy
Cardinal Bona, who says (Rer. Liturg. lib. ii.
c. 18), " It is very certain that anciently
all in general, both clergy and laity, men
and women, received the holy mysteries in
both kinds, when they were present at the
solemn celebration of them, and they both
offered and were partakers. But out of the
time of sacrifice, and act of the Church, it
was customary always and in all places to
communicate only in one kind. In the first
part of the assertion all agree, as well
Catholics as sectaries ; nor can any one
deny it, that has the least knowledge ot
ecclesiastical affairs. For the faithful always
and in all places, from the very first found
ation of the Church to the twelfth century,
were used to communicate under the species
of bread and wine ; and in the beginning of
that age the use of the cup began by little
and little to be laid aside, whilst many
bishop's interdicted the people the use
of the cup, for fear of irreverence and
effusion." Before this, with the same object
of reverence, the wine was in some places
administered by the bread being dipped
into it, of which custom mention is made
in the third Council of Braga, held a.d.
675. (See Intinction.) This was sometimes
condemned in the West, sometimes allowed.
Ernulf, for instance, bishop of Rochester,
wrote in favour of it in 1120, the Synod of
Westminster prohibited it in 1175. In
consequence of which disputes, according to
Bona, the Council of Constance, to settle
the matter, withdrew the cup altogether
from the laity. (Rer. Liturg. lib. ii. 19,
quoted by Bingham, bk. xv. c. 5.) The
order runs that, " although in the primitive
Church this sacrament was received of the
faithful under both kinds, yet for the
avoiding any dangers and scandals, the
custom has reasonably been introduced,
that it be received by the officiating persons
under both kinds, but by the laity only
under the kind of bread ; smce it is to be
believed most firmly, and in nowise to be
doubted, that the whole body and blood of
Christ is truly contained as well under the
species of bread as under that of wine."
" On which we may fairly remark, ' full
well ye reject the commandment of God,
that ye may keep your own tradition.' For
Christ, when he celebrated the Eucharist,
gave the cup to all who were present : and
when He appointed His Apostles His
ministers to celebrate it, He bade them do
the same, ' Do this in remembrance of Me.
But ye say, whosoever shall dare to do as

COMMUNION
Christ has bidden him, shall be effectually
punished." (Perceval on the Roman Schism.)
At this day the Greeks, and Maronites, and
Abyssinians, and all the Orientals, never
communicate but in both kinds.
COMMUNION TABLE. A name for
the altar in the Christian Church. It is
both altar and table. An altar with respect
to the oblation ; a table with respect to the
feast. (See Altar.)
COMMUTATION OF PENANCE.
Penance is an ecclesiastical punishment,
used in the discipline of the Church, which
affects the body of the penitent ; by which
he is obliged to give public satisfaction to the
Church for the scandal he has occasioned by
his evil example. Commutation of Penance
is the permission granted by the ecclesiastical
judge to pay a certain sum of money for
pious uses, in lieu of public penance. But
it does not now really exist. (See Penitents.)
COMPETENTES. Catechumens in the
primitive Church, being the immediate
candidates for baptism. They had pre
viously to undergo a long preparation, being
(1) merely catechumens ; (2) audientes, or
hearers of the word in church ; (3) genu-
flectentes, allowed to kneel with the other
worshippers ; (4) competentes. St. Cyril
calls them <^a>ri^6p.evoi, the apostolic con
stitutions BaTrni'op.evoL ; not as having
received tbe light, or having been baptized,
but being in readiness for baptism. (St.
Cyr. Catech. i. 2 ; Apost Constit. viii. 8.)
The names of the candidates were registered
in the Slirrvxa foWow — so called to dis
tinguish them from the other diptychs. — and
read out to the congregation. (See Diptychs,
Catechumens.) COMPLINE, or COMPLETORIUM, was,
before the Reformation, the last service of
the day. This hour of prayer was first
appointed by the celebrated abbot Benedict,
in the sixth century. "Complyn ys the
seuenthe and the last howre of dyuyne
seruyce, and yt' ys as moche to say as a
fulfyllynge. And therwyth also is ended,
and fuffylled spekynge, etynge, and
drynkynge, and laborynge, and all bodyly
besynesses. So that after that tyme oughte
to be kepte stylnes, and scylence not only
from wordes, but also from all dedes saue
only softe prayer and holv thynkeynge, and
bodely sleape. For complyn betokeneth the
ende of mannes lyfe. And therefore ecbe
persone oughte to dyspose him to bedde
warde, as yf hys bedde were hys grave." —
Tlie Mirrour, fol. lxxxix; Maskell, Mon.
Rit.iu.W. pi.]
CONCEPTION (IMMACULATE) OF
THE HOLY VIRGIN. The immaculate
conception is a festival of the Roman
Church, observed on December 8, in honour
of tho alleged conception of the Virgin

CONCEPTION

221

Mary without sin. The doctrine itself was
invented about the middle of the twelfth
century. The devotion offered to the
Blessed Virgin having grown to an extrava
gant height, it was asserted by some theo
logians, not only that she was sanctified
from her birth, but also that she was con
ceived without sin. The opinion was at first
generally condemned, and it would have had
its place among other forgotten heresies, if
Duns Scotus, the great opponent of the Do
minicans, had not undertaken its defence.
The festival was included in the English
Calendar for the first time, by Archbishop
Islip's Constitutions, a.d. 1362, though it
has been said that it was included at Arch
bishop Langton's Council at Oxford (a.d.
1222), not as a dny of obligation, but
optional. This rests, however, only on one
Belgian MS. (Dr. Pusey's Eirenicon, ii. 365.)
It has now been dogmatically asserted in
the Bull, " Ineffabilis Deus," which was
promulgated on Dec. 8, 1854, by the late
Pope Pius IX., the substantial point of
which is that the Blessed Virgin Mary was,
by the grace and favour of Almighty God,
preserved perfectly free from all taint of
original sin, "ex prima instanti sua} con-
ceptionis." In this no one can deny that an
addition has been made to the ancient creeds,
and in a case to which even the loose prin
ciple of development could hardly be made
applicable ; while at the same time there is
animpliedcondemnationnotonlyof theprim-
itive fathers, but of the greatest theologians
whom the Church has ever produced. [H.]
CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY. A
religious order in the Romish Church,
founded by Beatrix de Sylva, sister of
James, first count of Portolegro, in the king
dom of Portugal. The king of Castile
falling in love with her, she fled to Toledo,
where she imagined that the Virgin Mary
appeared to her, and bid her found an order
in honour of her own immaculate conception.
This she did in 1484, and Pope Innocent
VIII. confirmed the order in 1489, and
granted them permission to follow the rule
of the Cistercians. The second convent of
the order was founded in the year 1507, at
Torrigo, in the diocese of Toledo, which
produced seven others, the first of which
was at Madrid. This order passed into
Italy, and got footing in Rome and Milan.
In the reign of Louis XIV., king of France,
the Clarisses of the suburb of St. Germain,.
at Paris, embraced the order of the Concep
tion. These religious, besides the grand
office of the Franciscans, recite on Sundays
and holy-days a lesser office, called the
office of the Conception of the Holy Virgin.
CONCEPTION, MIRACULOUS. The
production of the human nature of the
Son of God out of the ordinary course of

222

CONCERNING

generation, by the power of the Holy Ghost.
<St. Matt. i. 18, 25.)
"It were not difficult to show that the
miraculous conception, once admitted, na
turally brings after it the great doctrines
of the incarnation and the atonement. The
miraculous conception of our Lord evidently
implies some higher purpose of His coming
than the mere business of a teacher. The
business of a teacher might have been per
formed by a mere man, enlightened by the
prophetic spirit. For whatever instruction
men have the capacity to receive, a man
might have been made the instrument to
convey. Had teaching, therefore, been the
sole purpose of our Saviour's coming, a mere
man might have done the whole business, and
the supernatural conception had been an
unnecessary miracle. He, therefore, who
came in this miraculous way, came upon
some higher business, to which a mere man
was unequal. He came to be made a sin-
offering for us, that we might be made the
righteousness of God in Him." — Bp. Horsley.
And see especially sermon by J. H. Newman
for Christmas Day in vol. ii. of Parochial
¦and Plain Sermons.
CONCERNING THE SERVICE OF
THE CHURCH. The explanatory intro
duction to, originally the Preface, of the
Prayer Book. It is supposed to have been
written by Cranmer, and. was inserted in its
present position in 1661, when the Preface
was added. It is derived chiefly from the
Reformed Roman Breviary of Quignonez.
{See Breviary.)
CONCLAVE. The place where the car
dinals meet for the choosing of a new pope :
the assembly itself is also called by this
name, and it depends upon the members
•themselves to choose the place, although for
some time the Vatican has been constantly
used. Here they erect, in a large apartment,
.as many cells of deal wood as there are
cardinals, with lodges and places for the con
clavists, who shut themselves in to wait and
serve , the cardinals. These little chambers
have their numbers, and are drawn by lot,
so that it often happens that cardinals of
different factions lodge near one another.
CONCORDANCE, a dictionary or index
to the Bible, wherein all the leading words
are ranged alphabetically, and the books,
chapters, and verses wherein they occur,
referred to, to assist in finding out passages,
and comparing the several significations of
the same word. I. The earliest attempt at
a Concordance is the collection of parallel
passages in the margin of the 5th volume of
the Complatensian Polyglot. Hugo de St.
Caro, or Cardinal Hugo, who is said to have
employed 500 monks, compiled a Concord
ance of the Vulgate in the middle of the
thirteenth century. The earliest Concordance

CONCORDAT
of the Hebrew Text is by Rabbi Mordecai
Nathan (Venice, 1523); that of Calasio (1621)
is the fullest ; but there are niany others
by Buxtorf, Taylor, Noldius, &c. Kircher
and Tromm compiled a Concordance of the
Septuagint : Williams (1767) ; and Schmidt
(a very beautiful 12mo edition of which
was edited by Mr. Greenfield in 1830) ; and
several others of the Greek New Testament.
II. The first English Concordance to the
New Testament was " imprinted by Thos.
Gybson" before 1540. The first to the
entire Bible was published by John Merbeck,
Merbecke, or Marbeck, the celebrated Eng»
lish musician, in 1550.
But of English Concordances, Cruden's is
the best known and is valued by every bibli
cal student. An excellent Concordance was
published by the S.P.C.K. in 1859, including
a Concordance to the apocryphal books and to
the Prayer Book version of the Psalter. [H.]
CONCORDAT. An agreement between
the See of Rome and any foreign govern
ment, by which the discipline of the clergy,
and management and disposal of churches
and benefices are regulated. The Con
cordat of Worms, a.d. 1122, between the
Emperor Henry and Pope Calixtus IL,
regulated the election of bishops and abbots,
each side making concessions. The Ger
manic Concordat, a.d. 1448, made between the
Emperor Frederick III. andPope Nicholas V.,
and confirmed by Clement VIII. and Gregory,
XIII., comprehended four parts; in the
first of which the pope reserved to himself
the conferring of all vacant benefices at
Rome, and 100 days' journey from it, of
whatever degree, either secular or regular,
which before went by election, without
exception of cardinals or other officers of the
holy see. The second concerns the elections
that are to be confirmed by the pope, with
regard to metropolitans, bishops, &c. The
third deals with livings that are successively
given by the popes and their proper patrons;
that the pope has the privilege to confer
both secular and regular livings, for the
months of January, March, May, July,
September, November; and the bishop or
archbishop within the district of their dio
ceses during the other months. The fourth
and last part speaks of the annates or first-
fruits, after the death or removal of the
incumbent. In a.d. 1516 an agreement
was made between Francis I. of France and
Pope Leo X., which was called a concordat ;
and by which the pragmatic sanction was
abrogated (see Pragmatic Sanction). A
concordat was agreed upon in a.d. 1801,
between Buonaparte and Cardinal Consalvi,
acting in the name of Pope Pius VII., by
which the head of the state had the nomina
tion to the vacant sees, but the pope was to
confer canonical institution, the clergy were

C0ND1GNITY
subjected to the civil power, and all im
munities were abolished. Another concordat-
was made between Louis XVIII. and Pius
VII., in a.d. 181 7, with regard to the re
construction of dioceses. — Stubbs' Mosheim,
vol. ii. pp. 331, 376 : iii. pp. 536, 545 ;
Milman's Lat. Christ, iii. p. 215 ; Burnet's
Hist Reform, iii. 13.
CONDIGNITY and CONGRUITY.
Terms used by the schoolmen to express
their peculiar opinions relative to human
merit and deserving. The Scotists maintain
that it is possible for man in his natural
state so to live as to deserve the grace of
God, by which he may be enabled to obtain
salvation; this natural fitness (congruitas)
for grace, being such as to oblige the Deity
to grant it. Such is the merit qf congruity.
The Thomists, on the other hand, contend
that man, by the divine assistance, is
capable of so living as to merit eternal life,
to be worthy (condignus) of it in the sight
of God. In this hypothesis, the question of
previous preparation for the grace which
¦enables him to be worthy, is not introduced.
This is the merit of condignity.
Article XIII. "Works done before the
grace of Christ, and the inspiration of his
Spirit, are not pleasant to God, forasmuch
as they spring not of faith in Jesus Christ,
neither do they make men meet to receive
grace, or (as the school-authors say) deserve
grace of congruity : yea, rather, for that
they are not done as God hath willed and
commanded them to be done, we doubt not
but they have the nature of sin."
CONDUCT. A name given to chaplains
of colleges in the university of Cambridge
and at Eton ; meaning a " Capellanus con-
ductitius." (See Chaplain.)
CONDITIONAL BAPTISM. The ad
ministration of the rite of baptism, when
it has not been assured that it has been
before properly performed. Mention is
, made of this in the statutes of St. Boniface
¦(Martene, de Rit Ant. i. Ixvi. 10). The
fourth rubric (Priv. Bapt.) directs public
certification by the priest of the private
baptism by himself, or examination by him
into the matter if another had baptized.
Up to 1604 the latter only was mentioned
in the rubric. The examination is confined
to two points, (a) evidence of the fact of
baptism; (0) evidence of baptism in due
form, by water and in the name of the Holy
Trinity. If such evidence is not forthcoming,
then only is conditional re-baptism allowed.
CONFALON, or GONFALON, Society
of the. So called from the Gonfalon, or
banner, bearing the figure of the Virgin
Mary, which was their ensign. — Raynaldus.
A confraternity of seculars in the Church of
Rome, called penitents, established first of
all by some Roman citizens in 1267: and

CONFESSION

223

confirmed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1576.
Henry HI. began one at Paris in 1583, and
himself assisted in the habit of a penitent,
at a procession wherein the cardinal of Guise
carried the cross, and his brother the duke
of Mayenne was master of the ceremonies.
CONFERENCES. (See Congress.)
CONFERENCE, DIOCESAN. (See Con
gress, ad fin., II.)
CONFERENCES, DIOCESAN, CEN
TRAL COUNCIL'OF. (See Congress, III.)
CONFESSION." (See Auricular Con
fession.) The verbal acknowledgment of
sin. The article is thus divided. I. Early
ideas about confession. II. The doctrine of
the Church of England. III. Forms of
confession. I. In the primitive Church, no other con
fession of sins was required in order to
receive baptism than the general renuncia
tion of the devil aud all his works.
Nor did the Church lay any obligation
on the consciences of men, to make either
public or private confession of their sins to
any but God, in order to qualify them for
Holy Communion. The confessions of the
primitive Christians were all voluntary, and
not imposed upon them by any laws of the
Church. Notwithstanding which it must
be owned, that private confession, though
not absolutely required, yet was allowed
and encouraged by the ancients, in some
cases, and _ upon special occasions. For,
first, they advised men, in case of lesser
sins, to make confession mutually to each
other, that they might have each other's
prayers and assistance, according to the
advice of St. James, " Confess your faults
one to another, and pray for one another,
that ye may be healed." Which, though
it be produced by the Romanists in favour
of auricular confession to a priest, yet the
ancients understood it only as a direction to
Christians to confess mutually to each other.
(See Chrys. Horn, xxviii. in 1 Cor. : Horn.
viii. de Psenitent) 2. In case of injuries done
to any private person, it was expected that
the offender should make a private con
fession of his fault to the person injured.
3. St. Cyprian says that penitents opened
their minds to God's . priests ; not to one
alone, but before the whole consistory. (De
Lapsis ; see also Tertul. de Psenitent. c. 10.)
But sometimes when men were under any
perplexities of mind, or troubles of con
science, this was a case in which they were
directed to have recourse to some pastor,
and to take his counsel and advice. 4. Ori
gen (Horn. ii. in Ps. xxxvii.) gives another
reason for confessing private sins to the
priest, which is, that he was the fittest judge
when it was proper to do public penance for
private offences. (Sec Penitentiary.) —
Bingham, bk. xv. ch. viii. § 6.

224

CONFESSION

All that can plainly be deduced from the
scriptural doctrine concerning confession is
this, that, in common or ordinary sins, we
are to acknowledge them before Almighty
God, either particularly in our private, or
generally in our public devotion ; but as for
some sins of a more extraordinary kind, the
heinousness whereof ordinary Christians
may not be sufficiently apprized of, or which
may be attended with such nice circum
stances as perplex their consciences, here
resort is proper to be made to the ministers
of the Church, who, as physicians of the
soul, are best able to advise the fittest
remedies upon such uncommon emergencies.
Matters of this kind stood within these
limits for a considerable time after the first
propagating of the gospel ; bnt, during the
piety of very early times, another sort of
confession came in use, for it having been
the practice for excommunicates, before
their reception into the Church, to make a
solemn confession of their faults before the
whole congregation, some persons who had
fallen into a great sin, though they had
never been censured for it, thought it a part
of their duty to take upon themselves a
public shame for it, by discovering it to the
whole congregation they were members of,
and to desire their prayers to God for their
pardon. Some difficulties and inconvenience
arising from this practice, about the year
360, the office of a public penitentiary in
the Greek Church began, who was to be a
presbyter of good conversation, prudent, and
one who could keep a secret ; to whom those
who were lapsed into any greater sin might
confess it ; and he, according to his discre
tion, was to enjoin a penance for it. But
still there was no command for aR people to
confess their sins to this presbyter. In the
Latin' Church, the practice of public con
fession to the whole congregation continued
100 years longer, viz. till the time of Pope
Leo, which was about the year 450, who
by an injunction of his, abrogated it ; and
after some time, the Greek Church began to
grow weary of this private confession to a
penitentiary, and so laid it aside. But
whilst private confession to ministers was
practised, in some of the earlier ages of the
Church, recourse was had to them only as
spiritual physicians and counsellors, as
appears by many passages of antiquity.
By the Lateran Council, a.d. 1215, every
person, of each sex, was obliged once in a
year to confess to the minister of his parish,
the sins which he had been guilty of.
Auricular confession to the priest being thus
established, some of the school divines of
the Roman Church carried it to further
lengths, making it to be an article of faith ;
to be received by the priest, not ministerially,
but judicially and authoritatively; that

CONFESSION
every single sin must be discovered to them
with all its aggravating circumstances, &c.
All which tyranny over men's consciences,
and diving into the secrets of families and
governments, was confirmed by the Council
of Trent.
It appears then certain that before the
time when Innocent III., in 1215, promul
gated the celebrated 21st Canon, " Omnis
utriusque sexiis," above referred to, privata
confession was not deemed a necessity, but
that afterwards it was. Local synods, as
for instance that of Lambeth,' a.d. 1378, re-
imposed the canon in a still stricter form,
and it became generally taught that con
fession was part of a sacrament which is
generally, necessary to salvation. "This,"
says Jeremy Taylor, " the Church of Rome
now affirms, and the Church of England
denies ; and complains sadly that command*
ments of men are changed into the doctrines
of God by a pharisaical empire, and super
stition." (Works, vol. xi., Heber's ed.p. 11.)
" We find," Hooker sums up, " the use of
confession, especially public, allowed of by -
the Fathers, but that extreme and rigorous
necessity of auricular and private confession
which is at this day so mightily upheld by
the Church of Rome we find not." — Ecc.
Pol. bk. vi., iv. 13.
II. The doctrine of the Church of England
on this point is shown in two places- in the
Prayer Book.
1. The Warning for the Celebration of
the Holy Communion: "Because it is
requisite that no man should come to the
holy communion but with a full faith in God's
mercy, and with a quiet conscience ; there
fore, if there beany of you who by this means
cannot quiet his own conscience therein,
but requireth further comfort or counsel,
let him come to me, or to some other dis
creet and learned minister of God's word,
and open his grief, that by the ministration
of God's holy word he may receive the
benefit of absolution, together with ghostly-
counsel and advice to the quieting of his
conscience, and avoiding of all scruple aDd
doubtfulnes." (2). Rubric, in the Office for
the Visitation of the Sick : " Here shall the
sick person be moved to make a special
confession of his sins, if he feel his con
science troubled with any weighty matter.
After which confession, the priest shall
absolve him (if he humbly and heartily
desire it) after this sort." By the 113th
canon, empowering ministers to prevent
offences at the court of visitation, it is pro
vided that "if any man confess his secret
and hidden sins to the minister, for the
unburdening of his conscience, and to re
ceive spiritual consolation and ease of mind
from him, he shall not in anywise be bound
by this constitution, but is strictly charged*.

CONFESSION
and admonished that he do not at any time
reveal and make known to any person
whatsoever, any crime or offence so com
mitted to his trust and secrecy (except
¦they be such crimes as, by the laws of this
realm, his own life may be called in question
for concealing the same), under pain of
irregularity." The 113 th canon also refers
to the subject, enjoining secrecy of the
minister in respect to confessions made to
'him. In the 2nd part of the Homily of
Repentance the' words used in the "Warning
for Holy Communion " are repeated, and en
larged upon. " As forprivate confession," says
Bishop Jewel, " abuses and errors set apart,
we condemn it not, but leave it at liberty."
III. Forms of confession are generally
to be met with in the liturgies of antiquity,
but a form superior, or equal, to that in our
own, called the " General Confession," is
nowhere to be found. Like the prayer
which Jesus taught us, though concise, it
is comprehensive and full ; though conceived
in general terms, yet at the same time it is
so particular, that it includes every kind
of sin.
The General Confession with the Abso
lution, was first inserted in the Morning
and Evening Prayer, by the Second Book
of King Edward VI.
A Confession was formerly recited in the
office for the first hour of the morning,
according to the rites of the English
Churches. It occurred in the course of
prayers which came at the end of the
service : and had this arrangement been
regarded by the reformers, the Confession
and Absolution would now be placed imme
diately before the collect for the day. " There
were, however, good reasons for placing the
Confession at the beginning of the office.
Christian humility would naturally induce
us to approach the infinitely holy God with
a confession of our sinfulness and unworthi-
ness ; and this position of the Confession is
justified by the practice of the Eastern
Church in the time of Basil, who observes
that the people all confessed their sins with
great contrition, at the beginning of the
nocturnal service, and before the psalmody
and lessons commenced." — Palmer, i. 104.
{See Breviary.)
At the time of the review of tho liturgy,
a.d. 1661, it was objected by the Pres
byterian clergy against this Confession,
that there was no preparatory prayer for
God's assistance and acceptance; aud that
it was defective in not clearly expressing
f ' original sin," nor enumerating actual sins
with their aggravations. To which it was
answered by the Episcopalian commission
ers, that the preparatory sentences, and
the preceding exhortation, amply supplied
this; and that the form being so general

CONFESSIONS

225

is rather a perfection than a defect, as in
such case all may join, since in many
things we offend all. And as to the notice
of original sin, they conceived that to be
sufficiently acknowledged in the sentence
(with others, as the " devices and desires of
our own hearts," &c), " and there is no
health in us." With respect to the general
terms used throughout the Common Prayer
Book, dissenters have complained of such
expressions as, " that we may do God's
will " — " that we ma3' be kept ¦ from all
evil," &c. ; to which the Episcopalians pro
perly remark, " these are almost the very
terms in the Lord's Prayer; so that they
must reform that, before they can pretend
to amend our liturgy in these petitions."
We may judge how far the objections are
worthy of notice, by the form composed by
Calvin himself, and used by the French
reformed Churches, which begins, " 0 Lord
God, Eternal and Almighty Father, we ac
knowledge and confess that we are miserable
sinners . . . but yet, O Lord, we are heartily
sorry," &c.
It appears, indeed, that our form of confes
sion was in great measure suggested by this
form, or rather by the translation of it
made by Valerandus Pollanus, for the re
formed congregation of Strasburg. (See
Laurence's Bampton Lectures.)
The Confession in the Holy Communion
Office is partly taken from Hermann's
Consultation, partly from the ancient Use.
The rubric in the " Order of Communion "
of 1549 ran, "Then shall a general con
fession be made in the name of all those
who are minded to receive the Holy Com
munion, either by one of them, or else by
one of the ministers, or by the priest
himself." It continued so till 1662, when
an objection was made at the Savoy Con
ference against public prayer being read by
a layman, aud the rubric was altered to
its present form. (See Liturgy.)
CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. The
systems of theology drawn up by foreign
reformers were frequently called Confes
sions of Faith. The following are the
Confessions of the different Churches.
1. That of the Greek Church, entitled
" The Confessions of the True and Genuine
Faith," which was presented to Mohammed
II., in 1453, but which gave place to the
" Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and
Apostolic Greek Church," composed by
Mogila, metropolitan of Kiev, in Russia,
and approved in 1643, with great solemn
ity, by the patriarchs of Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. It
contains the standard of the principles of
the Russian Greek Church. See Palmer's
Collection of Russian Symbolical Books and
Neale's Hist, qf the Greek Church. 4

226

CONFESSION

2. The Church of Rome, though she has
always received the Apostles', Nicene, and
Athanasian Creeds, had no fixed public
and authoritative symbol till the Council
of Trent. A summary of the doctrines
contained in the canons of that council is
given in the creed published by Pius IV.
(1564) in the form of a bull. It is intro
duced by the Nicene Creed, to which it
adds twelve articles, comprising those doc
trines which the Church of Rome finally
¦adopted after her controversies with the
Reformers. (See Creed of Pope Pius
IV.) 3. The Lutherans call their standard
books of faith and discipline, " Libri Sym-
bolici Ecclesiae Evangelicaj." They contain
the three creeds above mentioned, the
Augsburg Confession, the Apology for that
Confession by Melanchthon, the Articles of
Smalcald, drawn up by Luther; the Cate
chisms of Luther ; and, in many churches,
the form of Concord, or Book of Torgau.
The Saxon (composed by Melanchthon),
Wurtemberg, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mans-
feldtian, and Copenhagen Confessions agree
in general with the symbolical books of the
Lutherans, but are of authority only in the
countries from which they are respectively
called. (See Augsburg Confession.)
4. The Confessions of the Calvinistic
Churches are numerous. The following
are the principal : — (1.) The Helvetic
Confessions are three— that of Basle, 1530 ;
the Summary and Confession of the Hel
vetic Churches, 1536 ; and the " Expositio
Simplex," &c, 1566, ascribed to Bullinger,
(2.) The Tetrapolitan Confession, 1531, —
which derives its name from the four cities
of Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, and
Lindau, by the deputies of which it was
signed, — is attributed to Bucer. (3.) The
Palatine or Heidelberg Confession, framed
by order of the Elector Palatine John
Casimir, 1575. (4.) The Confession of the
Gallic Churches, accepted at the first synod
of the Reformed, held at Paris, 1559. (5.)
The Confession of the Reformed Churches
in Belgium, drawn up in 1559, and approved
in 1561. C6.) The Confession of Faith of
the Kirk of Scotland, which was that
composed by the assembly at Westminster,
and was received as the standard of the
Scotch national faith in 1690. See Har
mony of Confessions, or the Faith of Chris
tian and Reformed Churches 1643 ; and
Sylloge Confessionum sub tempus Refor-
mandse Eaclesise, Oxon. 1804.
CONFESSION OF FAITH, WEST
MINSTER. The Confession of Faith
which was drawn up by the Puritans in
England, and which is adopted by the
Scottish establishment. The ordinance
under which the assembly which drew up

CONFESSION
this Confession sat at Westminster com
mences thus :
"An Ordinance of the Lords and Commons
assembled in Parliament, for the callings
an Assembly of learned and godly Divines,
and others, to be consulted with by the-
Parliament, for the settling of the govern
ment and liturgy of the Church of England;
and for vindicating and clearing of the
doctrine of the said Church from false
aspersions and interpretations. June 12,
1643." The assembly contained so many
Presbyterians, that the Episcopalians and
Independents who had been summoned were
utterly powerless on a division. The chief
point was the extirpation of Popery and
Prelacy. The Confession consisted of thirty-
three chapters, based upon the Calvinistie
Confessions on the continent.
The Westminster Confession of Faith was
approved by the General Assembly of the
Kirk of Scotland, on the 27th of August,,
1647, sess. 23, and was ratified by Act of
the Scottish Parliament, 7th February,
1649. See next article.
CONFESSION -OF FAITH OF T_J
KIRK OF SCOTLAND, or THE NA
TIONAL COVENANT. " Subscribed
at first by the King's Majesty, and his
Household, in the Year 1580 ; thereafter by
persons of all ranks in the. year 1581, by
ordinance of the Lords of secret council, and,
acts cf the General Assembly; subscribed
again by all sorts of persons in the year
1590, by a new oidinance of council, at the
desire of the General Assembly: with a
general bond for the maintaining of the true
Christian religion, and the King's person _
and, together with a resolution and promise,
for the causes after expressed, to maintain
the true religion, and the King's Majesty,
according to the foresaid Confession and acts
of Parliament, subscribed by Barons, Nobles,
Gentlemen, Burgesses, Ministers, and Com-r
mons, in the year 1638 : approven hy the
General Assembly 1638 and 1639; and
subscribed again by persons of all- ranks and
qualities in the year 1639, by an ordinance
of council, upon the supplication of the
General Assembly, and act of the General
Assembly, ratified by an act of Parliament
1640 ; aiid subscribed by King Cliarles II.
at Spey, June 23, 1650, and Scoon, January
1, 1651." The Confession contains severe
denunciations against " all contrary religion
and doctrine ; but chiefly all kind of
Papistry in general and particular heads,
even as they are now damned and ponfuted
by the Word of God, and Kirk of Scotland.^
The corruptions of the " Roman Antichrist,"
his "five bastard Sacraments ;" his "absolute
necessity of baptism ; " his " blasphemous-
opinion of transubstantiation, or real
presence of Christ's body in the element;"

CONFESSION
his " blasphemous litany ; " his " manifold
orders ; " his " three solemn vows, with
shavellings of sundry sorts," &c, &c; are
condemned. All Papists and priests, to
gether with the spreaders and makers of
erroneous books and libels (the term in
cluding all except those that were iri ac
cordance with the covenant), were to be
punished " with manifold civil and ecclesi
astical pains, as adversaries to God's true
religion." Those who "went to crosses,"
or observed the " festival days of saints,"
were to be punished as idolaters. The
Confession then goes on to order that
" none shall be reputed as loyal and faithful
subjects to our sovereign Lord, or his
authority, but be punishable as rebellers,
and gainstanders of the same, who shall not
give their confession, and make their pro
fession of the said true religion." The
"National Covenant" closes with a very
long oath, taken "before God, His angels,
and the world" — called in the Act of
Assembly " our great oath."
It is evident that this was aimed against
the Church of England as well as against
the Church of Rome. Together with the
Solemn League and Covenant, it is bound
up with and added to the Westminster
Confession of Faith, and published by
authority of the Scottish Establishment.
But it has been stated, on good authority,
that no licentiate or minister of the Scottish
Establishment has signed or been asked
to sign this, or the Solemn League and
Covenant, for the last 150 years. This does
not,, however, exonerate the religious com
munity which still publishes these docu
ments authoritatively from the charge of
intolerance ; and all classes of Episcopalians,
including of course the Church of England,
are involved in the fearful anathemas put
forth by the Covenanters.
CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG, or
AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. A con
fession, of faith, drawn up by Melanchthon,
and presented by him and Luther to the
emperor Charles V. at Augsburg, in the
year 1530. It was divided into two parts,
and was designed to support all the points
of the Lutheran reformation, and to show
the heterodoxy of the Church of Rome. —
Maimbourg, Hint, du Lutheranisme.
It was signed by. the Elector of Saxony,
and his eldest son, by the Marquis of
Brandenburg, by the Landgrave of Hesse,
the Prince of Hainault, and the republics of
Nuremberg and Rutlingua. It was argued
before the emperor Charles V.,but rejected ;
the Roman Catholics having a majority of
votes in the council. This was followed by
a conference between seven deputies of each
party; in which, Luther being absent,
Melanchthon, by his mollifying explanations,

CONFIRMATION

227

brought both sides to an agreement in
relation to fifteen of the first twenty-one
articles. But the conference broke up with
out adjusting all the differences between
them. (See Augsburg Confession.)
CONFESSIONAL. (See Confession and
Auricular Confession) An enclosed seat
or closet of wood in Roman churches where
penitents make confession to the priests.
There is none older than the 15th century ;
no example is known of the confessional
forming part of the fabric of a church.
CONFESSOR. I. A name given to
those who confessed the doctrine of Christ
before heathen or persecuting judges ; or to
those who firmly endured punishment for
defending the faith : if they died under
their torments they were called martyrs.
Tertullian speaks of confessors as martyrs
elect, and St. Cyprian wrote an epistle to
the "Martyrs and confessors of Jesus
Christ."— Die*. Christ. Antiq. p. 424.
II. A name given to a priest who receives
confession. (See Auricular Confession)
CONFIRMATION. This is a Latin
word which signifies strengthening. It is
used to express the rite in which the
in-dwelling grace of the Holy Ghost is
sought for those who have been made
children of God in baptism; to which
sacrament it is, strictly speaking, a supple
mental rite. This ordinance is called con
firmation, because they who duly receive it
are confirmed or strengthened for the ful
filment of their Christian duties by the
grace therein bestowed upon them. The
words which accompany confirmation in the
Eastern Churches are, "The seal of the
gift of the Holy Ghost : " and the effect of
it is well expressed in that ancient prayer
which, from the earliest times, has been
used in all the Western Churches : " Al
mighty and everlasting God, who hast
vouchsafed to regenerate these thy servants,
by water and the Holy Ghost, and hast
given unto them forgiveness of all their
sins,— pour into them thy sevenfold Spirit,
the Holy Comforter from heaven ; " or,
" Strengthen them, we beseech thee, with
the Holy Ghost, the Comforter."
In the early Church confirmation was.
administered with the chrism, or consecrated
oil (see Clirism); and this is still done in
the Greek and Roman Churches, Tertullian,
Cyprian, Cyril of Jerusalem, and other
Fathers speak of the anointing as well as of
the laying on of hands in confirmation,
(Tertull. de Bapt. xii.; Cyp. Ep. lxx. 3,
Ixxiii. 8 ; Cyril, Catecli. Lect xix., xx.) ; and.
offices for the rite are found in the Sacra-
mentaries of Gelasius and of Gregory. In
the Church of England, only the laying oh
of hands by the bishop is retained, the use
of the chrism having been entirely abrogated,
Q. 2

228

CONFIRMATION

in consequence of the superstition attaching
to it. Indeed this laying on of the bishop's
hands is the only rite mentioned in con
nection with it in the Scriptures : " Then
laid they their hands upon them, and they
received the Holy Ghost." (Acts viii. 17.)
_ In the Epistle to the Hebrews, confirma
tion (there spoken of under the term
"laying on of hands") is ranked among
the chief fundamentals of Christian doctrine
(Heb. vi. 2), and must therefore be of per
petual obligation. In the first ages of the
Church, confirmation appears to have been
administered . in all cases as soon after
baptism as possible, as it continues to be in
the Greek and African Churches. But in
the Western Churches, for the last three or
four hundred years, the bishops have
interposed a delay of seven years after
infant baptism : which delay in the English
Churches has latterly been extended to from
thirteen to sixteen years — the determination
of the age being left to the bishop. At the
last revision of our Prayer Book, in 1661,
confirmation was made an occasion of
requiring from those who have been baptized
in infancy, a renewal, in their own persons,
of the engagements of the baptismal cove
nant. The dispositions of mind required of
those who would benefit by confirmation
are the same which are necessary to fit men
for receiving grace in the sacraments;
namely, repentance and faith : without
which, where persons are capable of them,
neither this nor any of the means of grace
can benefit those to whom they are adminis
tered. The rubric states that no persons are
admissible to the holy communion unless
they have been confirmed, or are ready and
desirous to be confirmed.
The 60th canon orders that confirmation
should be performed by the bishops once in
three years, but there are few dioceses in
England in which the bishop does not now
find it necessary to hold confirmations more
frequently. The 61st canon bids every
minister to "use his best endeavour to
prepare and make able, and likewise to pro
cure as many as he can to be then brought,
and by the bishop to be confirmed." [H.]
CONFIRMATION^ OF A BISHOP.
To understand what is meant by the con
firmation of a bishop, it may be proper to
state the process adopted in England before
a presbyter can be consecrated to the epis
copal office. The king having issued his conge
oVelire to the dean and chapter, and having
nominated, in his "letters missive," the
person whom he thinks fit to be chosen, the
dean and chapter are obliged, within twenty
days next after the receipt of this licence, to
make the election, which being accepted by
the party elected, is certified both to the

CONGE D'ELHtE
sovereign and to the archbishop of the pro
vince. If the dean and chapter fail to
certify the election within twenty days
after the delivery of the " letters missive,"
they incur the penalty of prasmunire ; and
if they refuse to elect, the king may
nominate by letters patent. The election
being certified, the king grants his royal
assent under the great seal, directed to the
archbishop, commanding him to confirm and
consecrate the bishop thus elected ; and the
archbishop subscribes it "fiat confirmation
and grants a commission to his vicar-general
for that purpose. The vicar-general issues
a citation to summon opposers, which,
for the province of Canterbury, is affixed
on the door of Bow Church, and three
proclamations are made thereof ; this being
certified to the vicar-general, at the time
and place appointed, the proctor for , the
dean and chapter exhibit the royal assent,
and the archbishop's commission directed
to the vicar-general. After this, a long
and formal process is gone through, and
after six proclamations for opposers, if
none appear, they are pronounced con
tumacious. It is then decreed to proceed to
sentence. The bishop elect takes the oaths
of office, the sentence is subscribed by the
vicar-general, and the election is ratified
and decreed to be good. (See Bishops, Elec
tion of.)
Not only bishops, but deans of many
cathedrals, were confirmed by their dio
cesans ; as at St. Paul's in London, and St.
Patrick's in Dublin. (See Oughton, Ordo
Judicium de ecclesici Cathedr. cxxvii., and
Mason's Hibernia, p. 219.)
CONFORMITY, DECLARATION OF.
A declaration is required of all persons who
are to be licensed or instituted to an ecclesi
astical charge in the Church of England, in
the following words : — " I, A. B., do declare
that I will conform to the liturgy of the
Church of England, as it is now hy law
established." This declaration is to be made
and subscribed before the bishop or his
commissary, and the making and subscrip
tion thereof is to be testified under the
episcopal seal of the bishop, and under the
hand of the bishop or his commissary. (See
also Reading in)
CONGE D'ELIRE. This is a Norman-
French term, and signifies leave to choose ;
and is the king's writ or licence to the
dean and chapter of the diocese to choose
a bishop, in the time of vacancy of the see.
Before the Norman Conquest, bishops in
England were commonly appointed by the
king and the Witenagemot. After the
conquest the chapters elected, but the
election was commonly made in the King's
chapel, and was subject to his approvals so
that it was not practically free. Prior to

CONGREGATION
the reign of Henry I., the kings of England
used to invest bishops with the ring and
staff. Henry I., as the result of his contest
with Anselm, so far ceded this right as to
give a conge d'elire to deans and chapters
for the election of bishops. Henry VIII.
added " letters missive," nominating the
person whom he required them to elect,
under pain of praemunire ; and Edward VI.
(1 Edw. VI. c. 1, 2) abolished elections by
writ of conge d'elire, as being "indeed no
elections," and " seeming also derogatory
and prejudicial to the king's prerogative
royal, to whom only appertaineth the col
lation and gift of all archbishoprics, and
bishoprics, and suffragan bishops, within his
Highness's said realm." The statute goes
on to enact, " That no election of any arch
bishop or bishop shall be made by the dean
and chapter ; " but that the king by his
" letters patent, at all times when the arch
bishopric or bishopric be void, shall confer
the same to any person whom the king shall
think meet." This statute was repealed by
Queen Mary, and never afterwards revived.
The law now rests upon the 25 Henry VIII.
c. 20, which statute was revived by Queen
EUzabeth. (See Jurisdiction.) But in
Ireland, the Act of 2 Eliz. c. 4, established
the same manner of appointment by the
sovereign, without election, as the English
Act of Edward, and so it continued till the
disestablishment of the Irish Church. [G.]
CONGREGATION. In its largest sense,
this word includes the whole body of Chris
tian people, considered as assembled, not
locally, but in some act of fellowship, as
when it is said, " Let the congregation of
saints praise Him : " but the word is more
commonly used for the worshippers, being
members of the true Church assembled in
a particular place; a sense in which the
word is plainly used in the prayer for the
Church militant, where an especial distinc
tion is made between all God's people, or
the congregation of the saints, and the parti
cular congregation present when the prayer
is used : " To all Thy people give Thy
heavenly grace, and especially to this con
gregation here present." The word con
gregation follows therefore the use of the
word Church ; we use " Tlie Church" for the
whole body of Christ's people, and "a
Church," or " this Church," for a particular
portion of them. And as a Church is the
immediate bond of union to each individual
with the Church, so is a congregation the
immediate company with which the indi
vidual joins, and the immediate sign of his
adherence to the congregation of saints.
Thus, in the Order of Confirmation, the
preface declares that before the Church
children should ratify their baptismal vow,
and they are consequently asked by the

CONGRESS

229

bishop whether they do this " in the pre
sence of God and of this congregation."
Congregation and Church are considered
by our translators convertible terms : e.g.
Psal. xxii. 22, " In the midst of the con
gregation " is rendered in Heb. ii. 12, " In
the midst of the Church." In the early
translations of the Bible the word ex/cX^o-ia
was rendered " congregation " in St. Matt.
xvi. 8; Acts ii. 47: vii. 3: xii. 1 ; Eph. i.
22, 23. In the Bishop's Bible (1568) the
words of our Lord to St. Peter are given
"on this rock I will build my congregation."
In the Latin version of Articles xix., xxiii.,
xxiv., congregation is rendered by " ecclesia."
Compare also the beginning of the Bidding
Prayer : " Let us pray for Christ's Holy
Catholic Church; that is, for the whole
congregation of Christian people dispersed
throughout the world."
CONGREGATION IN THE PAPAL
COURT, means a committee of cardinals
met for the despatch of some particular
business, and each congregation is denomi
nated from the peculiar business it has to
despatch. Such are the " Pope's congregation " insti
tuted by Sixtus V. for arranging business :
the congregation of the Holy Office (see In
quisition) : the congregation " do Propaganda
fide " instituted by Gregory XV. : the con
gregation for explaining the Council of Trent
(see Trent, Council of) : the congregation of
the Index (see Indexes) : the congregation
of Bishops and Regulars ; for the examination
of bishops; of the morals of bishops; for
the Residence of bishops ; for monasteries ;
of apostolical visitation ; of relics ; of in
dulgences ; of rites ; for the building of
churches. (See Relics, Indulgences, Brough
ton's Biblio. vol. i.)
Congregation is also applied in
England to one of the assemblies of the
university of Oxford, consisting of Regents,
who transact the ordinary business of the ¦
university. CONGREGATIONALISTS are nearly
the same as Independents. (See Inde
pendents.) The principle which this sect
professes is shown by their name ; that each
congregation should be quite independent of
every other in the management of its affairs
and teaching.
CONGRESS, CHURCH. I. There hasof
late years been a strong and growing desire
among Churchmen to obtain a more hearty
co-operation between clergy and laity. In
the earlier times of the Church the leading
laymen were consulted by the bishops, and
others held offices, and assisted in the work
of the Church, without being admitted to
holy orders. (See Lay Helpers.) This lay
help became absorbed by the monks and
friars, and when in England monasteries

230

CONGRESS

were swept away, and these religious com
munities abolished, there was nothing to
take their place. After the Reformation
laymen were little consulted, and indeed
there seems for a long time to have been
little concerted action on the part of the
rulers of the Church, which perhaps was
one of the causes which led to the apathy
arid want of energy which characterized the
end of the last century and the beginning
of this. When convocation was revived
(see Convocation) a proposal was made that
a certain number of laymen should be
elected as proctors; and this has been re
newed since. But there were many ob
jections to such an innovation on the old
idea of convocation. It therefore was de
termined by some earnest Churchmen to
organise annual meetings, or congresses, to
promote Church extension and Church de
fence, at which the prominent and important
practical subjects of the day should be
discussed by leading men both of the clergy
and laity, the discussion of points of theo
logical doctrine and speculation being ex
cluded. The congress was to be open to
all, but eminent men were to be invited to
prepare papers, and to deliver speeches, and
none but members of the Church of Eng
land or of Churches in communion with her
allowed to speak. The first Church con
gress was held at Cambridge in 1861, under
the presidency of Archdeacon France, and
from that time to the present such meetings
have been held annually. At Oxford in
the next year the bishop of the diocese, Dr.
Wilberforce, who took a great and active
interest in the working of these congresses,
presided ; and since then the bishop of the
diocese in which the place of meeting is
situated has acted as president. At York
In 1866, and at Sheffield in 1878, the Arch
bishop of York presided ; as did the Arch
bishop of Canterbury at Croydon in 1877.
The congresses have been largely attended,
and representative men, both of theclergyand
laity, have taken part in the proceedings.-
II. The Church congresses were followed
by the revival of ruri-decanal action and also
by Diocesan Conferences. These are meet
ings of the clergy and laity in individual
dioceses, certain clerical and lay members
being elected, generally at ruri-decanal
meetings, tc represent the others at the
general diocesan conference. The times
of meeting vary in different dioceses, at the
will of the bishop, but in most cases the
conferences are annual. Conferences of this
kind are held in all the dioceses except
Worcester. The result of these diocesan
conferences was even better than was ex
pected ; great interest has been taken in them,
and they have been the means of bringing
leading laymen, and clergy in the different

CONSANGUINITY1
dioceses, together, to discuss the burning
questions of the day, and they have become
handmaids to convocation. But even this
was not altogether satisfactory, and a more
united action seemed to be required. There
fore in 1879 and 1880 some of the secre
taries and leading men of the conferences
met together in London, to consider whether
any and what steps should be taken to
further such more united action in both
provinces, and to bring the combined voice
and wishes of Churchmen, lay as well as
clerical, to bear upon the two convoca
tions, the Parliament and the country, for
the promotion of measures acknowledged
as desirable. The result of their delibera
tions has been the formation of —
III. The Central Council of Diocesan Con
ferences. This Council is now constituted of
representatives elected by the diocesan con
ferences, in the proportion of six to each
diocese, three clerical and three lay. Others,
though not representatives, may by special
invitation be present and speak but not
vote. The president is elected annually.
The business of the council is directed hy
an executive committee composed of 15 lay
and 15 clerical members, elected yearly.
The main objects are (1) to gather up the
past decisions of diocesan conferences, and
to discuss them through their representa
tives ; (2) to suggest subjects for considera
tion in future diocesan conferences; (3) to
obtain the general opinion of the Church
on matters affecting its welfare, with a
view to their being brought prominently, if
thought desirable, before the convocations
and Parliament. The system has been
worked out carefully, and seems to be
complete. The ruri-decanal chapters or
meetings appoint representatives, lay and
clerical, for the diocesan conference; the
diocesan conference appoints representatives
for the central council; the central coun
cil lays the collected decisions before the
bishops and convocation : while at the same
time annual congresses of the whole Church
of England are held, at which any one may
express his individual opinion. (See Offi
cial Year Book, 1883, p. 380, 405; 1885,
p. 336.) [H.]
CONGRUITY. (See Condignity)
CONSANGUINITY. Connexion hy
blood, as affinity is alliance by marriage.
The degrees of consanguinity and affinity
within which marriages are null and void
by the Act of 1835, and were previously
voidable by the ecclesiastical courts, are
those contained in the Table of Prohibited
Degrees compiled by Abp. Parker in the
time of Queen Elizabeth and printed in all
Prayer Books, though it is legally no part
thereof, and derives its real authority from
the Act of 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, and the

CONSCIENCE CLAUSES
previous law of the Church. This Table is
to be found in all Prayer Books. (See
Affinity.) CONSCIENCE CLAUSES. (See Schools.)
CONSECRATION. The solemn aet of
dedicating any thing or person to a Divine
service and use.
CONSECRATION OF A BISHOP. By
this we mean the separating of a person for
the holy office of a bishop, by imposition of
hands and prayer.
I. The laying on of hands, accompanied
with prayer, and earnest preparation, was
all that was required in the time of the
Apostles, and is of Scriptural authority
<Acts vi. 6 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14 ; v. 22 ; 2 Tim. i.
6). But in this case, as in many others, in
the early age of Christianity, other rites
were adopted, and these again, in the
'mediaeval age, received further additions.
The earliest addition made to the " imposi
tion of hands," was the laying of the gospels
upon the head, or neck, or shoulders, of
the person to be consecrated to the holy
office. Of this mention is made in the
Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 4), where two
deacons are appointed to hold the gospels
¦over his head ; aud in one of the councils
¦of (Carthage (iv. c. 2), at which it was
ordered that two bishops were so to hold
the book of the gospels while the chief
bishop, or primate, with two other bishops
assisting him, pronounced the prayer of
consecration. St. Chrysostom also refers
to this custom. (Bingham, bk. ii. c. 11.)
Another rite was the anointing of the
head at the consecration, but reference to
this is not found in very early writers. In
the sixth century it was probably the
.custom in Italy (St. Leo, M. Serm. viii. de
Passion Domini), but rarely elsewhere,
though mention is made of it as existing in
England in the eighth century (Egbert's
Pontif. ed. Greenwell). The delivery of a
pastoral staff and a ring was also part of the
Western rite of consecration, and this is
mentioned in the Pontificals of Gregory the
Great, and of Egbert, but not in the earlier
ones of Leo or Gelasius. It also is referred
to in the fourth council of Toledo, a.d. 633.
The delivery of the paten and chalice is
mentioned in the Sacramentary of Gregory,
but the delivery of the mitre was later.
(See Mitre; Maskell'silfon. Rit Any. Eccl. ii.
290, note.) Connected also with the con
secration of bishops was the enthronization,
and delivery of the pallium. (See Enthroni
zation, Pallium; Maskell, ii., cxliii. and ii.,
cclv. seq. ; Diet Christ. Ant. 222.)
II. The ordainers or consecrators were
necessarily bishops, and two or more were
required to take part " 'EwIo-kottos xe'P°™»'-
f'la-Bai vnb imo-Kotrav bia> fj rpiav" is the
first so called Apostolic canon ; and a

CONSECRATION

231

similar order is given in the Constitutions
(Apost. Const viii. 4). Many councils re
quire a larger number to participate; for
instance, according to a canon of the first
Nicene Council (Can. IV.) there must be
four, or at least three, bishops present at
the consecration of a bishop. This rule has
generally been followed. In the form of
ordaining or consecrating a bishop in the
English Church, the rubrics imply the
presence of at least three. The archbishop,
or some other bishop appointed by lawful
commission, performs the office: "another
bishop shall read the Epistle," " then
another bishop shall read the Gospel."
The bishop elect is also presented by two
bishops to the archbishop. In the preface
to this form it is stated that " no one shall
be accounted or taken to be a bishop,
or suffered to execute the same function,
unless he be called, tried, and admitted
thereunto according to that form, or liath
had formerly episcopal consecration." The
concluding portion of this sentence recognises
the validity of consecrations given in foreign
Churches by any Other form adopted by
those Churches. Thus a French, or an
Italian, or a Greek bishop, conforming to
the rules of the Church of England, would
seem to require no fresh consecration, but is
at liberty to officiate among us.
But that alone does not give them or
their ordinees any right to officiate here ;
much less to hold benefices or curacies.
Even those who were ordained in our own
colonies could not until recent legislation,
as explained under the Church in Scotland
and in the Colonies. The present position of
all bishops and clergy not consecrated or
ordained by bishops of an English diocese is
determined by the Colonial Clergy Act, 1874.
Some persons appear to have apprehended
that that Act per incuriam put ordinary
English suffragans in the same position
as Colonial, Scotch, American, or Roman
clergy. But the apprehension is unfounded,
and contrary to the rules of legal construc
tion. No such repeal of old rights is ex
pressly made by the Act ; and a suffragan
bishop would certainly be held to be "a
bishop of the English diocese " in which he is
commissioned under the Suffragan Act of
26 Hen. VIII., so long as he was acting
under and within his commission.
After the Reformation an attempt was
made to prove that the line of English
bishops (see Apostolic Succession) had been
broken by a defect in the consecration of
Archbishop Parker (see Nag's Head Fiet ion);
but this has been refuted, and by no one
more decisively rejected than by Dr. Lingard,
himself a Roman Catholic. — Hist, of Eng.
vol. vi., Appendix, Note DD.
By the eighth canon it is ordered, " Who-

232

CONSECRATION.

ever shall affirm or teach, that the form and
manner of making and consecrating bishops,
priests, and deacons, containeth anything in
it that is repugnant to the word of God;
or that they who are made bishops, priests,
or deacons in that form are not lawfully
made, nor ought to be accounted, either by
themselves or others, to be truly either
bishops, priests, or deacons, until they
have some other calling to those Divine
offices ; let him be excommunicated ipso
facto, not to be restored until he repent, and
publicly revoke such his wicked errors."
The 36th Article, and the Act of Uni
formity (13 & 14 Car. IL), also assert the
validity of the said form. [H.]
CONSECRATION OF CHURCHES.
The law recognises no place as a church
until it has been consecrated by the bishop.
In the Church of England the bishop is
left to his own discretion as to the form he
will use in the consecration of a church ;
but in the 21 Henry VIII. c. 13, which
limits the number of chaplains that each
person may have, one reason assigned why
a bishop may retain six chaplains is because
he must occupy that number in the con
secration of churches.
The custom of solemnly setting apart,
from ordinary and secular use, whatever
is appropriated to the service of Almighty
God, has the highest possible sanction ; for
many are the instances of it recorded in the
Holy Scriptures. True it is that there is
no record of any such ceremonial having
been used among Christians in reference to
churches, before the fourth century, though
some ritualists are of opinion that a form of
dedication was common much earlier. No
sooner, however, was the sword of persecu
tion sheathed, and God permitted His Church
to serve Him in all godly quietness, than
such solemnities became general. Then,
as Eusebius tells us, (H. E. x. 2,) " there
was an incessant joy, and there sprung up
for all a certain celestial gladness, seeing
every place, which but a short time before
had been desolated by the impieties of the
tyrants, reviving again, and recovering
from a long and deadly distemper ; temples
again rising from the soil to a lofty height,
and receiving a splendour far exceeding
those which had been formerly destroyed."
And again: "after this the sight was
afforded us, so eagerly desired and prayed
for by all, — the festival of dedications, and
consecrations of the newly-erected houses of
prayer throughout the cities. After this,
the convention of bishops, the concourse of
foreigners from abroad, the benevolence of
people to people, the unity of the members
of Christ concurring in one harmonious
body. Then was it according to the prophe
tic declaration, mystically indicating what

CONSECRATION
would take place, ' bone was brought to bone,:
and joint to joint,' and whatsoever other-
matters the Divine word faithfully intimated
before. There was, also, one energy of the
Divine Spirit pervading all the members,
and one soul among all, cne and the same
ardour of faith, one song of praise to the
Deity; yea now, indeed, complete and
perfect solemnities of the prelates and headij
of the Church, sacred performances of
sacred rites, and solemn rituals of the
Chm-ch. Here you might hear the singing
of psalms; there, the performance, of
divine and sacred mysteries. The mystic
symbols of our Saviour's passion were ceW-
brated ; and, at the same time, each sex of,
every age, male and female, with the power
of the mind, and with a mind and whole
heart rejoicing in prayer and thanksgiving,
gave glory to God, the author of all good.
Every one of the prelates present also de
livered panegyrical discourses, desirous of
adding lustre to the assembly, according to
the ability of each." One such discourse,
pronounced by Eusebius himself, still re
mains. In his life of Constantine, Eusebius gives
an instance of the ceremonial thus described
in the consecration, amid a full synod of
bishops, of the Church of Jerusalem, which,
Constantine bad built over our Saviour's
sepulchre, a.d. 335. Socrates records a
similar consecration of the famous Church of
Antioch, called Dominicum Aureum, which
was begun by Constantine and finished by
Constantius, a.d. 341. Testimony to the
prevalency of this custom is also borne by
St. Athanasius, who defends himself in his
apology to Constantius (c. 14-18), when
charged with having used a building for,
public worship, before it was dedicated by
the emperor, and consecrated by himself, on
the ground of necessity ; for since during
Lent the congregations in the ordinary
churches had been so crowded as to prove
injurious to the persons present, and anti
cipating still more crowded assemblies at
Easter, he thought himself justified, under,
such circumstances, to use an edifice which,
was unconsecrated. St. Gregory Nazianzen,
likewise speaks of this ceremonial as an
ancient custom (770X0109 v6p,os).
Such then were the offices connected with
the consecration of churches in primitive,
times. Bishops, from distant provinces,;
with a vast concourse of clergy and laity,.
were present; an appropriate sermon or
sermons were preached ; the holy Eucharist
was ahvays administered ; in the course of,
which prayers suitable to the occasion were
offered. Of these prayers one is still pre-,
served in the writings of St. Ambrose.
On this model it was that the consecra-,
tion services of the Church Catholic were

CONSECRATION
formed, each church, at first, varying in
non-essentials, as circumstances may have
required. In the English Church, various records of
very early date exist relating to the conse
cration of churches. Geoffrey of Monmouth,
who professes to follow Gildas, says that in
the time of King Lucius (a.d. 162) pagan
temples were consecrated in Britain to the
honour of the true God. And we find from
Bede, H. E. i. 25, 26, that the passage just
quoted from Eusebius was applicable to our
own island. It is known that Bertha, wife
of Ethelbert, king of Kent, repaired or re
built a church, first built by the Romans,
and had it dedicated to the honour of St.
Martin of Tours, an eminent saint among
the Christians of her native country. This
was the church granted by Ethelbert to
Augustine, on his landing in the isle of
Thanet, a.d. 596. Some time after his
arrival, Gregory the Great sent Augustine
particular instructions about the dedication
of the temples of the Anglo-Saxons; and
when tbe bishop had his episcopal see as
signed him in the royal city, he recovered
therein a church, which he was informed
had been built by the ancient Roman
Christians, and consecrated in the name of
our holy Saviour, God and Lord, Jesus
Christ. From the same historian we learn,
that Laurentius, Augustine's successor in
the primacy, consecrated a church to St.
Peter and St. Paul, afterwards called St.
Augustine's, in honour of Augustine, who
had commenced building it. Mellitus,
who succeeded Laurentius, consecrated the
church of the Holy Mother of God, built by
King Eadbald, a.d. 622. There is a de
tailed account of the consecration of the
church of Ripon, by Wilfrid, archbishop of
York, a.d. 665, given in the life of that
prelate, written by Eddius and Fridegode.
Numerous subsequent canons are found,
bearing on the same subject. For instance,
one of Archbishop Ecgberht's " Excerptions,"
a.d. 740, relates to the consecration of
churches. In Archbishop Wulfred's canons,
passed at the Council of Chalchuith :
" When a church is built, let it be con
secrated by the bishop of its own diocese,
according to the ministerial book." — Wilkins,
Cone. torn. i. 169.
Again, in the canons of Archbishop
William of Corbeuil, a.d. 1126, in the
canons at Westminster, a.d. 1138, and in
Archbishop Richard's canons, a.d. 1175,
similar injunctions are given.
From the Constitutions of Otho, a.d.
1237, it would appear that this solemnity
was then much neglected. This is evident
from the title " de consecratione, et reforma-
tione status ecclesias," and from the first of
the canons, which, after observing that the

CONSECRATION

233

dedication of royal temples is known to have
taken its beginning from the Old Testament,
and was observed by the holy fathers in the
New Testament, under which it ought to be
done with the greater care and dignity, &c,
goes on to enact,
" That because we have ourselves seen, and
heard by many, that so wholesome a mystery
is despised, at least neglected, by some (for
we have found many churches, and some
cathedrals, not consecrated with holy oil
though built of old), we, therefore, being
desirous to obviate so great a neglect, do
ordain and give in charge, that all cathedrals,
conventual and parochial churches, which
are ready built, and their walls perfected, be
consecrated by the diocesan bishops, to
whom they belong, or others authorised by
them, within two years : and let it so be
done in a like time in all churches hereafter.
to be built ; and lest so wholesome a statute
grow into contempt, if such like places be
not dedicated within two years from the
time of their being finished, we decree them
to remain interdicted from the solemnization
of masses until they be consecrated, unless
they be excused for some reasonable cause."
In the constitutions of Othobotf, a.d.
1268, there is a similar canon.
The reformers, when reforming the other
services of the Church, did not extend their
labours to that of consecration. Indeed, as
the sixteenth century was a period, to use
the words of Bishop Short, when more
churches were destroyed than built, there
was no immediate use for the service in
question. This task was reserved for Bishop
Andrewes, whose service was compiled, as
were all the offices of the English Church,
from the formularies in use before the Re-,
formation. Unanswerable as was Hooker's defence of
the consecration of churches (Eccl. Pol. v.
12), it was insufficient to protect Laud from
the clamour of his implacable enemies, when
he consecrated St. Catherine Cree church, as
bishop of London, in 1630. And in the
well-known London petition, presented to
the Long Parliament, by the notorious
Alderman Pennington, about ten years later,
the consecration of churches was not for
gotten to be included " among the manifold
evils, , pressures, and grievances, caused,
practised, and occasioned by the prelates
and their dependants."
At the Restoration the custom revived,
and the subject was again discussed ; but as
there was no authorised office (Laud, having
been prevented from drawing up a form, as
he intended, in the convocation of 1640),
the preparation of one was committed to.
Bishop Cosin in the convocation of 1661.
When prepared it was presented to the,
house, and referred to a committee of four,

£31

CONSECRATION

bishops for revision, but nothing seems
ultimately to have • been done about it.
Since that period each bishop has adopted
any form he thought best, though perhaps
the form of consecrating churches, chapels,
and churchyards, or places of burial, which
was sent down by the bishops to the lower
houses of convocation (1712), and altered
by a committee of the whole house, is the
one, not that it is enjoined by any competent
authority, now most generally used.
Different rites were prepared by Barlow,
bishop of Lincoln ; Patrick, bishop of Ely ;
and King, bishop of London. — Palmer,
Orig. Lit. ii. 371. (See Harrington, on the
Consecration of Churches ; Maskell, Mon.
Rit. Eccl. Ang. i. 326.)
[The Acts of Parliament which prescribe
or give certain legal effects to consecration
of churches and churchyards prescribe no
particular form of it. The customary re
ligious service alone would have no legal
effect, nor the absence of it. That is pro
duced by the bishop signing in the church
the usual " sentence of consecration " on the
petition of the then owners of the land and
building, which he also orders to be registered
in the registry of the diocese. From this it
followed, as lawyers must have known, be
fore the decision of the Privy Council in
Parker v. Leach (1 P. C. 312), reversing a
former decision, founded on Popish law,
that reconsecration, where no more ground
is added, has no legal meaning, necessity, or
effect, though it had often been done when
churches were entirely rebuilt. The religious
service called consecration may be performed
there, if the bishop pleases, but nothing else
should be done. Moreover, all rites and
ceremonies will be valid, by the Declaratory
Act, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 133, if any part oi
the church remains on the old site. But
if it covers any new ground, that will not
become the property of the church without
either conveyance or consecration or lapse
of time. By 59 G. III. c. 134, s. 40, churches
may be removed to entirely new sites by
faculty and consent of all the parties in
terested. Such churches, of course, require
consecration. The consecration of parochial
churchyards or cemeteries now does nothing,
since the Burials Act, 1880, and some
bishops accordingly refuse to do it.] [G.]
CONSECRATION OF THE ELE
MENTS. A prayer of consecration, or
setting apart the bread and wine to the
sacred purpose in which they are about to
be employed, hath been used for that end
at least 1600 years. Aud the mention
which our office makes of the institution of
the Lord's supper, from the words, " who in
the same night that he was betrayed," to
the conclusion, is in every old liturgy in
the world.

CONSECRATION
It is contained in the well-known account
by Justin Martyr (Apost. i. c. 65) of the
celebration of Holy Communion in his time.
Irenasus speaks of the consecration of the
bread ; " it has," he says, " the invocation
of God upon it, and then it is no longer
common bread, but the Eucharist." " Qui
est a terra pan is, percipiens invocationem
Dei, jam non communis panis est, sed
Eucharistia" (lib. iv. cap. 34). In the
Apostolic Constitutions the words of conse
cration are quoted (viii. c. 12). St. Cyril of
Jerusalem gives an account of the service
as it was actually celebrated at his own
church in the early part of the fourth cen
tury. After prayer and preparation "we
beseech," he says, " the merciful God to send
forth His Holy Spirit upon rd npoKelpevctJ'
that is, the elements placed on the altar,
"to make the bread the Body of Christ,
and the wine the Blood of Christ " (Cyr.
Catecli. Myst. iii. n. 3). In Tertullian's
works, in those of Origen, Basil, Chrysostom,
and in fact in most of the early writers, we
find similar allusions made to the consecra
tion of the elements. — Bingham, bk. xv. c. 3.
II. In the Eastern Church there is a dis
tinct invocation of the Holy Spirit, "Sharer
of the throne and of the kingdom with God
and Father and Thine Only Begotten Son,
consubstantial, co-eternal," that He "may
hallow and make this bread the holy body
of Thy Christ ; and this cup the precious
blood of Thy Christ ; " without which the
consecration of the elements is not considered
complete (Lit. of St. James ; Neale and
Littledale's trans. Anc. Lit. p. 51). But
the Western Church has always maintained
that the consecration is completed by the
recitation of our Blessed Lord's words, as
bringing Himself in to be the Consecrator
of the Holy Sacrament. In most of the
ancient liturgies, before "He blessed ",the
words are inserted, "our Lord looked up
to heaven," though this is not mentioned in
the accounts of the Institution given in tlie
gospels. The Sarum and Roman liturgies
direct the celebrant to raise his eyes to
heaven. " It is peculiar to this celebration," says
Bishop Cosin, " that the death of our Lord
is commemorated therein, not by bare words
as in other prayers, but by certain sacred
symbols, signs and sacrament, which are,
according to St. Augustine, a sort of ' visible
words.' " According to the Prayer Book of
1549, following the "Sarum Use," the
celebrant was to make the sign of the cross
over the elements several times ; but this
was discontinued in 1552, and the only
direction is that he shall take the paten into
his hands, break the bread, lay his hand
upon _ all the bread, take the chalice, and
lay his hand upon every vessel in, which

CONSECRATION
there is any wine to be consecrated. The
prayer of consecration was also changed, the
words "and with Thy Holy Spirit," and
" vouchsafe to bless and sanctify these Thy
gifts and creatures that they may be to
us the body and blood of Christ," being
omitted. In the American and Scotch
Liturgies tbey are re-inserted, except that
the Scotch office omits the words " to us."
— Bingham, book xv. o. iii. ; Annot P. B.
ii. 187 ; See Mixed Chalice, Eucharist.
" We do not eat our common food without
first praying for a blessing on it; which
pious custom is so universal, that it is
certainly a piece of natural religion; how
much more then are we obliged, before we
eat and drink this bread and wine, which
Christ designed to set forth the mystery of
His death, to consecrate it and set it apart
by a solemn prayer ; especially since Christ
Himself in the institution of this sacred
ordinance, while He was teaching His
Apostles how to celebrate it, did use a form
of blessing over it (St. Matt. xxvi. 26) ; which
St. Paul calls "giving thanks" (1 Cor.
xi. 24). Wherefore all Churches in the
world, from the Apostles' days, have used
such a form, the ancient and essential part
of which is the words of our Saviour's insti
tution ; for, since He makes this sacramental
charge, it hath been thought fit by all
churches to keep His own words, which
being pronounced by a lawful priest, do
properly make the consecration ; wherefore
our Church has cut off all the later super
stitious additions, by which- the Roman
Church hath corrupted this form, and given
us a prayer of consecration, consisting only
of the words of our Saviour's institution,
and a proper prayer to introduce it. The
first part is a prayer directed to " Almighty
God our heavenly Father," commemorating
His mercy in giving His Son to die for us,
and the all-sufficient merit of His death,
together with His command for our remem
bering it in this sacrament; and on these
grounds desiring that, since we obey Him
in thus celebrating it, we' may therein
receive Christ's body and blood. The
second part is the repetition of the words
and actions of our Lord at the institution,
concerning both the time and the manner
of its institution." — Dean Comber.
CONSECRATION OF THE WATER
IN BAPTISM. (See Baptism.) The
form of consecration in the Prayer Book
of 1549, began with this prayer, " 0 most
merciful God, our Saviour Jesus Christ,
who hast ordained the element of water,
for tbe regeneration of Thy faithful people,
upon Whom being baptised in the river
Jordan, the Holy Ghost came down in
the likeness of a dove. Send down, we
beseech Thee, the same, Thy Holy Spirit,

CONSTANCE

235

to assist us, and to be present at this our
invocation of Thy Holy Name: sanctify
this r_ fountain of baptism, Thou that art
the sanctifier of all things, that by the power
of Thy word, all those that shall be baptized
therein may be spiritually regenerated, and
made the children of everlasting adoption."
This was omitted in 1552, the present words
"sanctify the water" &c. were added in 1662.
CONSECRATION OF SOVEREIGNS.
(See Coronation.)
CONSISTENTES. (Co-standers.) The
last order of penitents in the primitive
Church, so-called from their having their
liberty, after other penitents, energumens,
and catechumens were dismissed, to stand
with the faithful at the altar, and join in
the common prayers, and see the oblation
offered ; but yet they might neither make
their own oblations, nor partake of the
Eucharist wif;h them. (See Catechumens.)
— Bingham, bk. xviii. c. 1.
CONSISTORY (from Low Latin " consis
torium," a place of assembly). A word used
to denote the Court Christian, or Spiritual
Court. In the Church of England, before
the Norman Conquest, the ecclesiastical juris
diction was not separated from the civil ; for
the earl and bishop sat in one court, that is,
in the ancient county court. William the
Conqueror separated the secular from the
ecclesiastical courts; and after that time every
bishop had his consistory court, in which he
tried spiritual causes, either in person or
through an official appointed by himself.
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF. This
council assembled in 1414, by the combined
authority of the emperor and. the pope. It
was attended by thirty cardinals, three
patriarchs, twenty archbishops, one hundred
and fifty bishops, besides an immense
number of the inferior clergy. It included
sovereign princes, electors of Germany, as
well as representatives from every country
in communion with Rome. Its objects
were, to put an end to the Papal schism, to
reform the Church, and to put down the so-
called heresy of Bohemia.
I. During a period of nearly forty years
rival popes had claimed the see of Rome.
The council not only removed the two popes
whose title had been previously disallowed,
but also deposed the third, who had been
legitimately appointed, and had forfeited his
right by many and great crimes, namely,
John XXIII. Martin V. was appointed
pope. II. John Huss, who was a learned and
eloquent man, of blameless life, and of great
influence, arrived at Constance soon after the
meeting of the council. He had embraced
the opinions of Wiclif, and had been
especially earnest in denouncing the avarice
and immoralities of the priests, as well as

236

CONSTANTINOPLE

the frauds practised upon the people by
pretended miracles. He was accused and
thrown into prison. The emperor at first
expressed great indignation at his arrest, but
having been influenced by members of the
council, he not only withdrew his protection,
but deputed the elector palatine, as vicar of
the empire, to place him in the hands of the
secular magistrate. The pleas on which
this breach of faith have been defended by
Roman writers are inconsistent and self-
contradictory. Some endeavour to maintain
that Huss did not possess the safe-conduct
until after his arrest; some, that he broke
the conditions on which it was granted ; and
some, that no engagement of the emperor
could limit the authority of the council. AR
impartial judges have long been agreed in
condemning the act as a deep and indelible
disgrace lo the Roman Church. The letters
of the martyr himself, as well as the language
of his defence, describe in touching and
Christianly terms the harshness and in
justice with which he was treated. Having
resisted all efforts to procure his recantation,
whether by threats or persuasion, he was
condemned, and met his death with wonder
ful calmness and heroism, on the 7th July,
1415. The immediate effect of bis condem
nation, and that of Jerome of Prague, which
speedily followed, was to kindle the flames
of civil war in Bohemia, during which the
names of Wiclif and Huss formed the
watchword on the one side, and that of the
pope on the other.
III. In the fourth and fifth sessions, the
absolute superiority of a general council
over the pope was expressed in the form of
an exact decree. The decision of the council
was gravely and deliberately adopted ; and
it had the fullest support of the learned
divines who were present, such as Cardinal
P. d'Ailli, who had been chancellor of the
university of Paris, and his still more illus
trious pupil and successor, John Gerson,
who, beyond all other theologians, influenced
and represented the mind of that age. It
has always furnished an insurmountable
difficulty to controversialists of the ultra
montane school. They cannot reject its
authority without giving up the legitimacy
of every pope since Martin V. ; while, on
the other hand, it , is plainly at variance
with the decrees of the Council of Florence.
Materials for the history of the Council of
Constance are provided abundantly by the
invaluable collection of documents made by
H. Von der Hardt.
CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF.
There were many councils held at Constanti
nople, the first of which was in the year 336.
It was convened by Constantine the Great,
was composed of bishops from Asia Minor
and Thrace, under the presidency of Eusebius

CONSTANTINOPLE
of Nicomedia, and had for its chief objects- ¦
the expulsion of Athanasius and the recep
tion into communion of Alius. (Euseb. cent.
Marcel, i. 4.)
The most important was that known
by the name of the 2nd General Council,
which was convened by Theodosius in the,
year 381. On the accession of Theodosius,
the Churches, particularly of the East, were,
almost in a state of schism one with another,.
in consequence of the-bitterness of the Arian,
controversy. (See Arius.) There were two,
or even three, claimants to some of the sees ;
as, for instance, that of Antioch, where
Paulinus, the representative of the old,
orthodox succession, which was in com
munion with Alexandria and the West;
Meletius, who had been an Arian, but after
his appointment conformed to the orthodox
faith, and a representative of the new Arians,
were in opposition. At Constantinople the
Arians were predominant, and Maximns,
had been consecrated to the see by Peter of
Alexandria, the successor of Athanasius ; but,
St. Gregoiy Nazianzen had gone thither as
a sort of missionary bishop. He had been
appointed by St. Basil to the see of Sasima,
but St. Basil's jurisdiction being disputed,
he had administered the church of Nazianzus
for his father, who was very old, and was
from thenoe summoned to Constantinople.,
On the unfounded pretence of Gregory's
uncanonical translation from see to see,-
Maximus grounded his right to the episco
pate of Constantinople. The Arians, too,
were divided into two parties — the Eunoni-
ians, or Eudoxians, and the semi- Arians.
The latter were also called Macedonians,
from Macedonius, who had been bishop of
Constantinople, but had been deprived of
his office at a previous council held in 360.
(See Macedonians.) They held that the.
Holy Spirit is a divine Energy diffused
throughout the universe, and not a Person
distinct from the Father and the Son. To
dissipate this sect, and to promote unity
among the Churches, the emperor held this
general council. Meletius of Antioch at
first presided, but he died in the course of
the session, and Gregory Nazianzen took,
his place. But there was doubt with some,
whether Gregory, as having had another see,
could have been properly appointed bishop.
of Constantinople. He therefore resigned.
" If my election disturbs you," he exclaimed/
"I will become Jonas : throw me into the
sea to appease the storm, although I did.
not raise it. If the rest would follow my
example, all the disorders of the Church
would soon be appeased." (Ruffin. Hist. xi.
9; Greg. Naz. t. ii. p. 770, ed. , 1828.)
Timotheus of Alexandria, and afterwards,
Nectarius, who had been appointed bishop
of Constantinople after great consideration

CONSTANTINOPLE
and opposition, were the other presidents.
At least one hundred and eighty-six bishops
attended, but of these thirty-six were
Macedonians, and refused to have anything
to do with passing the canons, so that the
eouncil has been often called that of the
150 (q. v.). It defined fully and perfectly
the doctrine of three persons in one God,
which was only done in part by the Nicene
Council. (See Creed, Nicene.) The first
decree respects the creed and anathemas ;
the second confines bishops to their
provinces ; the third gives the bishop of
Constantinople the rank of second patriarch ;
and the four remaining decrees are com
paratively of less importance. " From the
date of this council Arianism was formed
into a sect exterior to the Catholic Church,
and, taking refuge among the barbarian
invaders of the empire, is merged among
those external enemies of Christianity,
whose history cannot be regarded as strictly
ecclesiastical." (Newman's Arians of the
Fourth Century, 421.) The professions of
the council were confirmed by Theodosius in
a constitution dated July 30, 381 ; and the
Eunomians and Arians were deprived of
their churches. Though the Western
bishops attended the council, the first
canons were accepted by Pope Damasus,
and have been regarded in the West as
oecumenical. (Cod. Theod. xvi. tit. 1, 1. 3;
tit. 5, 1. 8 ; Mansi, iii. 353 ; Newman's
Fleury, bk. xviii. 1 ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, i. 244, 312 ; Beveridge, Synod.
ii. 98 ; Clinton's Fasti R. a.d. 379, col. 4.
For the " Eunomian heresy," see Cave, Hist.
Lit. i. 210.)
In 404 a council, if it may be so called,
inet at Constantinople, to judge with regard
to St. Chrysostom. He had been declared
by a synod packed by his enemies, and held
near Chalcedon the year before, unworthy
of the episcopal office, and had been banished.
{See Chalcedon, Council of.) The people
of Constantinople, who were - attached to
their bishop, became tumultuous, and im
peded the execution of the unjust sentence.
But when the tumult had subsided, the
same judges, the Egyptian bishops, in order
to gratify the enmity of Eudoxia, the
wife of Arcadius, the emperor, to whom
Chrysostom's strictness of life and severity
in lashing the vices of the times was very
distasteful, renewed the sentence against
him, and he was banished to Cucusus, a
remote village on the borders of Cilicia, and
the lesser Armenia. (See Stephens' Life qf
Chrysostom, 2nd ed. pp. 309-333 ; Newman's
Fleury, bk. xxi., xxxiii. seq.)
In 553 the fifth general council was
held, by order of the Emperor Justinian,
at which one hundred and sixty-five bishops
attended, with Eutychius, the patriarch of

CONSTANTINOPLE

237

Constantinople, as president. This was to
confute the errors of the Nestorians, and the
matter brought before the council was con
tained in the " Three Chapters," a title which
gave the name to the controversy which
was then taking place. The phrase does
not imply certain acts of the Council of
Chalcedon, as has been sometimes supposed ;
but it denoted three subjects (Capitula)
which were condemned by a decree of
Justinian, which has been called Jus
tinian's Creed. (Evasrius, Hist. Eccl. lib.
iv. c. 38.) These were a condemnation of
(1) the writings of Theodoras, bishop of
Mopsuestia, whom the decree pronounced a
heretic and a Nestorian ; (2) the writings of
Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, not universally,
but only as they favoured Nestorianism, and
Cyril of Alexandria, and his twelve an
athemas; and (3) an epistle said to have
been written by Ibas, bishop of Edessa,
which censured Cyril and the first Council
of Ephesus, and favoured the cause of
Nestorius. (See Nestorians.)
To understand the contest about the Three
Chapters, it should be remembered, that the
Nestorians, who separated the two natures
of Christ too much, and the Eutychians or
Monophysites, who commingle them too
much, were the two extremes, between
which the orthodox took their stand, con
demning both. But the orthodox them
selves did not all think alike. Some, in
their zeal against the Nestorians, came
near to the Monophysite ground ; and these
of course felt willing to condemn the Three
Chapters. Others zealous, only against the
Monophysites, were not far from being
Nestorians; and these of course defended
the Three Cliapters ; for Theodorus, Theo
doret, and Ibas had been leading men of this
very character. Hence the interest shown
by the Oriental bishops in this controversy.
But in the West, where the Nestorian and
Eutychian contests had been less severe,
and where the persons and writings of Theo
dorus, Ibas, and Theodoret were little known,
the Three Chapters were felt to be of little
consequence except as the condemning them
seemed to impair the authority of the de
crees of Chalcedon and to asperse characters
once held in veneration in the Church. It
was doubtless a most rash thing in Justinian
to condemn the Three Chapters. But having
done it, he resolved to persevere in it. The
Church was agitated long and severely, and
at length this precipitate act of the emperor,
being sanctioned by the requisite authority,
had the effect of shaping the creed of the
Catholic Church from that day to this.
The Pope Vigilius was present in Constan
tinople when the council was sitting, but
he did not attend, nor would he at first
assent to its decrees. He was treated,

238

CONSTANTINOPLE

therefore, with indignity by the emperor,
and sent into banishment ; nor did he re
turn till he had received the decrees of the
fifth council. He then wrote two documents,
one addressed to the patriarch of Constanti
nople, signifying his assent. He died, how
ever, on his way home. Pelagius, his suc
cessor, and the subsequent Roman Pontiffs,
received those decrees ; but the Western
bishops would not follow their example, and
some, indeed, on this account seceded from
communion with the Roman Pontiff; nor
could this great wound be healed but by
length of time. The errors of Origen had
been considered in a synod held at Constan
tinople in 538 ; but according to the acts of
this council, as they have come down to us,
he was not otherwise condemned, than by
having his name inserted in the list of here
tics, collectively anathematized in the eleventh
anathema. — Mansi, Concil. ix. 413 seq.
The council called the sixth general
council was convened by the Emperor
Constantius Pogonatus in the year 680. It
was held in the banqueting hall of the
Palace, called Trullus, from the dome-shaped
roof. It was intended to set at rest dis
putes which had arisen on the "Mono-
thelite " theory. This was shortly — that
the divine and human natures of Christ
did not possess separate Divine and Human
Wills, but one Will partly Human and
partly Divine. (See Monothelites.)
On such a feeble pretext, party feeling
ran high. The emperor himself presided
at the council, and though at first but few
bishops attended, the number afterwards
swelled to two hundred. All the great
patriarchs were present. The result was
the condemnation of the Monothelites.
Macarius, patriarch of Antioch, was de
posed ; those who had followed him were
likewise condemned- as heretics, and the
doctrine of two wills, a human and Divine,
and two kinds of voluntary acts in Christ,
defined and established. At a preliminary
council of 125 bishops held at Rome under
Pope Agatho against the Monothelites the re
nowned English bishop Wilfrid was present,
and took home the acts of the council to
be accepted by the Church of England at the
Council of Hatfield. — Haddan and Stubbs'
Councils, iii. 140 ; Eddius, V. Wilfr. c. 51.
The council held in 691-2 was distin
guished as the Trullan Council, though the
sixth council had been also held in the domed
hall. It was convened by order of Justinian
II. (692) with the object of settling questions
with regard to the external part of worship,
the government of the Church, and the
conduct of Christians. The patriarchs of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alex
andria, and Justiuiana, with more than 200
bishops attended, but the decisions were not

CONTRITION
approved by tbe Roman Pontiff, Sergius,
Amongst others, canon 5 approves of the 85
apostolic canons ; canon 13 allows priests to
live in wedlock ; canon 55 condemns fasting
on Saturdays ; canon 86 declares the equality
of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople.,
A councR called by the Greeks the seventh
general council was summoned by Con
stantine Copronymus in 754. This was
composed of 338 bishops ; a greater number
than had ever before been assembled. They
maintained that all worship of images was
contrary to Scripture; and that even the
use of images was of dangerous tendency,
and ought to be abolished (Cave, Hist. Lit. \.
p. 646, seq). For the many other councils
at Constantinople see Diet Christ. Ant. 436.
seq. ; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, notes, vol. i.
374, 423, 460, 467, 470, 510, 558 ; Mansi,
Concil. ; Beveridge's Synod. ; Clinton's
Fasti ; Cave, Hist. Lit. [H.]
CONSUBSTANTIAL. Co-essential; of
the same substance with another. Thus we
say of our blessed Lord, that he is consub-
stantial with the Father, being "of one
substance with the Father." The term
(6p.oova-i.os) was first adopted by the fathers
in the Council of Nicasa, a.d. 325, to express
more precisely the orthodox doctrine, and
to serve as a precaution against the sub-r
tleties of the Arians, who admitted- every
thing except the consubstantiality, using a
word similar in sound, but very different in
meaning, 6p.oiovcios. This word is still the
distinguishing criterion between the catholic
or orthodox Christian and the Arian heretic.
CONSUBSTANTIATION. The Roman
divines fell into the error of endeavouring
to explain the manner in which our blessed
Lord is present in the Eucharist. (See
Transubstanliation.) Luther and his fol
lowers, while opposing the Romanists, did
not much differ from them in this point, only
insisting on a different manner of explain
ing the inexplicable mystery. They main-r
tained, that, after the consecration of the
elements, the body and blood of our
Saviour are substantiaRy present together
with the bread and wine. This doctrine
is called Consubstantiation. They believe
that the real body and blood of our Lord
are united in a mysterious manner, through
the consecration, with the bread and wine,
and are received with and under them in
the sacrament of the Lord's supper. (See
Real Presence.)
CONTRITION. (See Attrition) Con
trition has been defined " a sorrow for sin,
with a sincere resolution of reforming." The
word is derived from the Latin conterere, to
break or bruise. The Psalmist says, " A
broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou
wilt not despise." (Psalm li. 17.)— Cone*
Trident. § 14, c. 4.

CONVENT-
" Contrition is not usually the beginning of
repentance, but is a great progression in it ;
and it contains in it obedience. He that is
attrite, leaves his sin ; but he that is contrite
obeys God, and pursues the interests and ac-
quists of virtue : so that contrition is not only
a sorrow for having offended God, whom the
penitent loves ; that is but one act or effect
of contrition ; but contrition loves God and
hates sin ; it leaves this and adheres to
Him ; abstains from evil, and does good ;
dies to sin and lives to righteousness ; and
is a state of pardon and acceptable services.
But then there is a sorrow also proper to it.
It hates sin upon higher contemplations
than he that hates it upon the stock of fear.
For it is sorrow proceeding from love." —
Jeremy Taylor's Works, vol. ix. p. 239,
ed. Heber. (See Attrition.)
CONVENT. A religious house ; a mon
astery; more usually used to signify a
nunnery. For its architectural arrange
ments, see Monastery.
CONVENTICLE. The Latin name
conventiculum in its original notation
signifies no more than an assembly, and is
frequently used by the ancient writers for
a church, — Bingham, bk. viii. 1.
In England the word was first attributed
as an appellation of reproach to the re
ligious assemblies of Wiclif. It is now
the legal term to denote any place of wor
ship used by those who depart from the
Church of England.
By the 73rd canon it is thus ordained :
"Forasmuch as all conventicles and secret
meetings of priests and ministers have ever
been justly accounted very hateful to the
state of the Church wherein they live, we
do ordain that no priests or ministers of
the Word of God, nor any other persons,
shall meet together in any private house,
or elsewhere, to consult upon any matter or
course to be taken by them, or upon their
motion or direction by any other, which
may any way tend to the impeaching or
depraving, of the doctrine of the Church of
England, or the Book of Common Prayer,
or any part of the government or discipline
now established in the Church of England,
under pain of excommunication ipso facto."-
CONVERSION. A change, literally a
" turning round " of heart and life from sin
to holiness. This change, when it takes
place in a heathen or an infidel, comprises
a reception and confession of the truths of
Christianity : when it takes place in a person
already baptized and a Christian in pro
fession, it implies a saving and influential
impression on his heart, of those truths
which are already received by the mind and
acknowledged with the lips, To the heathen
and infidel conversion is absolutely and
always necessary to salvation. The baptized

CONVOCATIONS

239

Christian may by God's grace so continue
in that state of salvation in which he was
placed in baptism (see Church Catechism),
that conversion, in this sense, is not ne
cessary to him : still even he, day by day,
will fall into sins of infirmity, and he will
need renewal or renovation : and all these —
the daily renewal of the pious Christian, tRe
conversion of the nominal Christian, and
the conversion of the infidel or heathen —
are the work of the Holy Spirit of God on,
the hearts of men.
Some persons have confused conversion
with regeneration, and have taught that all
men — the baptized, and therefore in fact
regenerate — must be regenerated after
wards, or they cannot be saved. Now this
is in many ways false; for regeneration,
which the Lord. Jesus Christ himself has
connected with holy baptism, cannot be ,
repeated: moreover, not all men (though
indeed most men do) fall into such sin
after baptism, that conversion or, as they
term it, regeneration, is necessary to their
salvation; and if a regeneration were ne
cessary to them, it could only be obtained
through a repetition of baptism, which were
an act of sacrilege. Those who speak of
this supposed regeneration, uncharitably
represent the orthodox as denying the ne
cessity both of regeneration and of con
version ; because they themselves call these
by wrong names, and the orthodox only
proclaim their necessity in their true sense.
(See Regeneration.) .
CONVOCATIONS. Constitution.— Ihe-
Convocations or Provincial Synods of Can
terbury and York are ecclesiastical assemblies-
severally representing the Church in their
respective provinces; and when acting in
concert constitute, in the words of the 139th.
Canon, "the Sacred Synod of this Nation" — ¦
" the true Church of England by representa
tion." The Provincial Synod of Canterbury con
sists of the Metropolitan and the diocesan
bishops within his jurisdiction; with these
assemble all deans of cathedrals in the
province, the Dean of Westminster, and the-
Dean of Windsor, the. Provost of Eton, all
archdeacons in the province, one proctor
elected by each cathedral chapter, a proctor
for the Westminster Chapter [and old records-
specify a proctor for Wolverhampton], and
two proctors elected by the beneficed clergy
of each diocese.
The Provincial Synod of York in like man
ner consists of the Metropolitan, bishops,
deans of cathedrals, archdeacons, chapter
and clergy, proctors of the dioceses within
the province — together with two proctors
for the officialty of the Chapter of Durham.
But in one respect York differs from Canter
bury, as two proctors are elected by each

240

CONVOCATIONS

archdeaconry in the former province, whereas
in the latter two are elected by each diocese.
Territorial Divisions. The ancient terri
torial .divisions of the Church for her go
vernment were — 1. Diocese (irapoiKia).
2. Province (irrapxia), a combination of
dioceses. 3. Exarchate or Patriarchate
(hioUrjcis), a combination of provinces.
Each division had its proper synod, the
Bishop presiding in that of the diocese,
the Metropolitan in that of the province,
the Patriarch, Exarch, or Archbishop (for
these words appear ¦ to have been used
synonymously), in that of the Exarchate or
Patriarchate. Of _cumenical Councils, to which of
course the decrees of all other synods are
subordinate, it is not needful here to write
at any length, as not being immediately con
nected with our present subject.
Diocesan Synods. In the Diocesan Synod
the bishop sat in conjunction with all the
presbyters of his diocese. The earliest ex
ample we have is that mentioned in Acts
xxi. 18-25 : when S. James, Bishop of
Jerusalem, convened his presbyters, and at
which previous decisions of the Apostolic
Council of Jerusalem recorded in Acts xv.
were enforced and promulged. In the
primitive Church, though the bishop had a
ruling superiority, yet, as we know from the
¦example of S. Cyprian, he was wont in all
weighty matters to consult his presbyters.
So it is that S. Ignatius describes presbyters
as " the Counsellors and assistants of
Bishops," S. Chrysostom as "the Court
and Sanhedrim of the Presbyters," S.
Cyprian as "the Venerable Bench of the
Clergy," S. Jerome as " the Church's Senate,"
and Origen as " the Council of the Church."
As the bishop was thus wont to sit in
council with his presbyters, special places of
honour were assigned to them in those early
assemblies. Tbe bishop sat in the centre
on a high throne, and the presbyters on
¦either side of him on somewhat lower
thrones. And so universal was this custom,
that the expressions, " they of the second
throne," or the " Corona Presbyterii," were
synonymous with presbyters. Conformably
with these facts, there is a vision recorded
by Gregory of Nazianzus, poetically de
scribing his Diocesan Synod, of which he
writes thus : "I thought I saw myself
sitting on the high throne, and the presbyters,
that is, the guides of the Christian flock,
sitting on both sides by me on lower thrones,
and the deacons standing by them."
Records of Diocesan Synods held in Eng
land before the Reformation may be found
in the pages of Wilkins's " Concilia Magnje
Britannias," and the forms with [which they
were celebrated may be seen in vol. iii. p.
681 of that work. Since the Reformation

CONVOCATIONS
few have been in this country summoned to
meet. Some instances, however, have oc
curred, as Diocesan Synods were convened
by Bishop Davies at S. Asaph in 1561, by
Bishop Freake at Norwich about 1580, by
Bishop Lloyd at S. Asaph in 1683, by Bishop
Wilberforce at Oxford in 1850, by Bishop
Philpotts at Exeter in 1851, by Bishop
Wordsworth at Lincoln in 1871, and by
Bishop Maclagan at Lichfield in 1884. ' (See
Congress. Diocesan Conference.)
Of late years many diocesan conferences
have been convened, that is, mixed assem
blies of clergy and laity, but into this sub
ject, as not properly connected with the ,
present enquiry, it is not needful to enter.
Provincial Synods. — In an ascending
order the next ecclesiastical assembly to he
considered is a Provincial Synod, or Synod
o f combined dioceses ; and as our Convocations
are of this character the subject requires
especial attention. The ancient forms of
proceeding in holding provincial synods
may be found in full detail laid down in
the 4th Canon of the fourth. Council of
Toledo. They are too long to be here
inserted, but are well worthy of study,, aDd
may be seen in Brans, pp. 222 seq.
Provincial organization, which is em
phatically that of the Church of England,
may be traced to the earliest, even to
Apostolic times. Timothy is reported by S.
Chrysostom to have been entrusted with
the supervision of the whole of Proconsular
Asia, in which were several bishops. And
it is affirmed by Eusebius that Titus was
charged with the oversight of the Churches
of Crete, and to have superintended the
whole island. In the second century, uhere
are some further evidences of provincial
organization, and of metropolitical authority
over diocesan bishops. Irenasus of Lyons in
177 superintended the Gallican dioceses.
Philip of Gortyna was styled "Bishop of
all the dioceses of Crete," and that there
was at that time more than one diocese in
the island is certain from the fact that at
that time Pinytus was Bishop of Gnossus,
the inevitable conclusion being that Philip
was Metropolitan. Towards the decline of
the second century the plainest proofs of
this provincial organization and of metro-
political authority appear, in one passage
of Eusebius' history (Lib. v. c. 23). Pro
vincial synods were at that time convened
to consider the proper time for celebrating
the Paschal festival. And that historian
informs us that in the Synod of Palestine
Theophilus of Cajsarea presided, in that
of Rome Victor, in that of Gaul Irenseus
of Lyons, in that of Proconsular Asia
Polycrates of Ephesus. This arrangement
of provincial organization is moreover
canonically authorized by the 33rd, some-

CONVOCATIONS
times numbered the 35th of the Apostoli
cal Constitutions, which runs thus : — " The
Bishops of each Province ought to own him
who is chief among them, and own him as
their head, and to do nothing extraordinary
without his consent, but each one those
things only which concern his own parish
[i.e. diocese] and the country subject
to it." And again the Council of Nice
speaks of the jurisdiction of Metropolitans
as being settled at that date, 325 : for the
fifth Canon of that Council provides that
twice in every year all the bishops of each
province should meet in Provincial Synod.
British Provinces. — This provincial or
ganization was established here in England
in very early times. There were originally
three provinces before the Saxon invasion
a.d. 445 — 1. London ; 2. York ; 3. Caerleon-
upon-Usk. Indeed it is affirmed on high
authority that at the Council of Aries,
a.d. 314, these three British prelates were
present, — Restitutus of London, Eborius of
York, and Adelfius of Caerleon-upon-Usk.
On the arrival of Augustine the monk,
about 600 a.d., Christians of the two first-
named provinces had been persecuted by their
invaders well-nigh to extermination. But
in the Western province of Caerleon-upon-
Usk, or as sometimes called, S. David's,
Christianity still flourished. This is plain
from the fact that at the interview at the
Apostle's Oak, between Augustine and the
authorities of the British Church, seven
bishops from the West attended, the Bishops
¦of Bangor, Hereford, Llanbadarn, Llandaff,
Margam, S. Asaph, and Worcester. These
were accompanied by many most learned
¦clergy ; of whom one of the chief was Dinoth,
Abbot of Bangor Iscoed. The points dis
cussed referred first to the time proper for the
¦celebration of the Paschal festival, which here
differed from the Koman calculation, and was
¦originally derived from the Eastern Church
(though a miscalculation had been made
after the Council of Nice by the Britons) ;
secondly, to the proper form for the ad
ministration of Baptism ; thirdly, to a union
•with Augustine for preaching the Gospel to
the Anglo-Saxons. Augustine disinclined
the Britons from accepting his propositions,
first by his haughty demeanour in receiving
them as he was sitting, and then by insist
ing on their obeying him. So finally they
declined his proposals, saying that they
¦could not satisfy him " nor receive him for
their Archbishop." For the conditions he
¦demanded of them were not so much terms
of brotherly communion as confessions of
¦submission and inferiority. " If," said he,
"in these three things you will obey me,
then will I bear with all other things."
And the decision of the assembly was tersely
lummed up in the words of Dinoth above

CONVOCATIONS

2ir

mentioned, who said, "Be it known and
without doubt unto you, that we all are and
every one of us obedient and subject to
the Church of God and to the Pope of Rome
and to every godly Christian to love every
one in his degree in perfect charity, and to
help every one of them'by word and deed to
be children of God; and other obedience
than this I do not know due to him whom
you name to be Pope, nor to be the father
of fathers to be claimed and to be demanded.
And this obedience we are ready to give
and to pay to him and to every Christian
continually. Besides, we are under the
government of the Bishop of Caerleon-upon-
Usk, who is to oversee under God over us
and to cause us to keep the way spiritual."
Indeed to have transferred their allegiance
to Augustine from their own Metropolitan
would have been a grave offence, for to the
ancient Metropolitan See of Caerleon-upon-
Usk they owed obedience; and though
that See had been removed to S. David's
about 80 years previously, i.e. by the Council
held at Llandewi Brevi a.d. 519, yet the
ancient title of Caerleon and its jurisdiction
was still retained. Not long after this
some of the dioceses of the Welsh bishops
became subject to the metropolitical See
of Canterbury, but it is plain that the
provincial jurisdiction was attached to the
See of Caerleon or S. David's through many
subsequent centuries, at least over some of
the Welsh dioceses. [But see, on all this,
article on Church, Early British. — Ed.]
Giraldus Cambrensis, a Welshman born, and
an author whose evidence on this point may
be without dispute accepted, proves from
authentic records that the Bishops of S.
David's consecrated suffragans and exercised
all other branches of metropolitical authority
till the reign of Henry I. At that time Ber
nard, who had been chaplain to Adelais,
that monarch's second queen, upon being
raised to the See of S. David's submitted to
the Metropolitan of Canterbury, and thus
about a.d. 1115 the Western province of
Caerleon became merged into the Southern
province. The Convocations of Canterbury
and York are consequently now the Pro
vincial Synods representing the Church ex
isting in England and Wales. Finally, that
Provincial Synods consist respectively and
exclusively of the bishops of a province
with conjoined presbyters, and that this
was their constitution from the earliest ages
of the Church, is plain from manifest proofs
too long to be here inserted, but the evidence
is as clear as the evidence of any fact can be.
Such is the constitution of our Convocations,
and has been from time immemorial.
Acurious Error, the Premunientes Clause.
— A curious error has been published, chiefly
by legal writers, to the effect that our Convo-

_tt

CONVOCATIONS

cations were established by King Edward I.
The mistake has arisen from the fact that
he called the clergy to Parliament in order
that they might there vote their subsidies,
which they had formerly done in their
synods. This he did by citing the clergy
to his Parliaments at Northampton and York
in 1282, and subsequently in 1295, by a
clause inserted in the writ which summoned
each bishop to Parliament as a peer of the
realm. That clause began with the word
" Prasmunientes," a barbarism for " Praano-
nentes," forewarning each bishop to bring
with him some clergy to Parliament ; and
those whom he should so bring were specified
in the same order as they had before that
time attended in their Convocations. Hence
the error. But this call to Parliament is in
no way further connected with our synods.
When the Sovereign before that reign
desired a provincial synod to be convened,
he directed a writ to each metropolitan for
such purpose. But the writ now in question
was addressed to each bishop, citing him
to attend in Parliament, and was a wholly
different instrument and directed to a diff
erent end. Indeed that King Edward I.
did not originate our provincial synods is
manifest from the simple fact, not to men
tion earlier proofs which are abundant, that
even in his own time three provincial synods
had been convened under their present con
dition before such call to Parliament as he
initiated was ever issued; that is to say,
one in 1273 and one in 1277 by Archbishop
Kilwardby, and one in 1280 by Archbishop
Peckham. And it is at this point observable
that Archbishop Kilwardby's mandates for
the Provincial Synod of 1277 precisely, ex
clusively, and exhaustively prescribe the
members who were to attend, being men
exactly the same as those who now con
stitute our Convocations, i.e. the bishops,
the greater persons of the chapter, the
archdeacons, and the proctors for the clergy.
But the writ containing the call to Parlia
ment by the " Preemunientes " clause was
not issued till long after, i.e. in the year
1295. The original mandates calling to
gether the Convocations in 1273 and 1277
just mentioned, are now preserved in the
diocesan registry at Worcester Cathedral
[Reg. Giffard, folios 41-71], and have
been perused by the present writer. The
latter, precisely and exactly defining the
present constitution of our Convocations,
proves conclusively and incontestably bow
unfounded is the notion that our Convoca
tions were inaugurated by King Edward I.
Curiously enough, too, this call of the clergy
to Parliament by the " Prammnientes" clause
in each bishop's writ of summons to Parlia
ment is continued to this hour ; and were
any bishop now to execute the writ in

CONVOCATIONS
accordance with the Royal commands, and
were the clergy summoned by it to attend,
it would be interesting to know what place
would be assigned by the officials to the
clergy who presented themselves at the
doors of Parliament, where Royal commands
are not usually lightly respected.
On this subject any curious enquirer may
find interesting information in a treatise,
" De modo tenendi parliamentum," signed
R. Duddeley, Earl of Leicester [British
Museum Add. 15191, MS. Vellum of the
16th century], and also in Bibl. Cotton.
Julius, B. 4, p. 4, pi. xviii. c. after Arch
bishops' and Bishops' summonses, Mo 21.
Synods of the Exarchates. — The consti
tution of exarchates, or combinations of
provinces, is of later date in the Church
than that of provinces. But at any rate
as early as the beginning of the 4th century
the territorial division of exarchate had
been generally established. As the bishop-
was chief ecclesiastical officer in his diocese
and the metropolitan in his province, so the
exarch, patriarch, or archbishop was chief in
his exarchate ; and under his presidency
synods of the exarchate or oWkj/o-is were
convened. That to these synods of tho ex-'
archate the judgments of provincial synods
were subject, we have plain proof in the
6th Canon of the 2nd CEcumenical Council,
which defines at length the order of juris*
diction, and indeed enacts that, in the case
of a bishop arraigned, he shall have no.
appeal from the decision of a synod of the
exarchate, not even to an CEcumenica].
Council. British Practice in this respect. — This
union of our provincial synods into such.
a joint assembly has been effected in Eng
land on many occasions. An early and
very notable instance is that of the Council
of Whitby in 664, convened for the con
sideration of the introduction of Romish
practices into the Church here, and from
that time downwards as many as forty-
five occasions at least may be reckoned
when this union has occurred (on some of
those occasions a legate presiding), ranging
to the year 1540, when the members of the
Canterbury and York Synods assembled
together in London for the investigation of
the legality of the marriage of Anne of
Cleves to King Henry VIII., and to the
year 1562, when both synods united for the,
ratification of the 39 Articles, as appears-
from their heading. The authority to unite
our two provincial synods into a synod of,'
the exarchate was specially given to the,
Archbishop of Canterbury at the CouncR
of Windsor a.d. 1072, and was confirmee1 by.
subsequent synods, as may be learned ik
consulting the " Concilia M. B." vol. i. ppl
325, 391, 493, and vol. iv., app. 786. Thl

CONVOCATIONS
forms also of proceeding aro specially de
scribed in various parts of that work, and
may thus be condensed : — On arriving at the
church, the place of meeting where prepara
tions had been previously made by provid
ing seats rising in the form of steps from
the ground, the members took their places
in defined order. The Archbishop of Can
terbury as president occupied the chief seat.
On his right hand was placed the Metro
politan of York, and on his left the Bishop
of London. Next the Metropolitan of York
sat the Bishop of Winchester ; but if the
Metropolitan of York was absent, then the
Bishop of London sat on the right of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop
of Winchester on his left. After these pre
lates had taken their places, the other
bishops seated themselves according to the
dates of their respective consecrations.
These rules of precedence were settled in
the Synod of London a.d. 1075, in accor
dance with the tenor of some old canons
and after consultation with aged and ex
perienced men who could remember the
ancient practice of the Anglo-Saxon Church.
When all had been arranged in their places
and silence obtained, the Gospel " I am the
good Shepherd," &c, was read. CoRects
were then offered up and the hymn " Veni
Creator " sung. Next followed the sermon, at
the end of which the Archbishop explained
the cause of the meeting ; formal business
was introduced by the officials, and the
matters thus introduced discussed.
After discussion the opinions of the
members were taken, their decisions reduced
to writing, signed and sealed by the Arch
bishop and signed by the other members of
the assembly. Should our authorities see fit
at any time hereafter to unite our two pro
vincial synods for any special purpose in a
synod of the exarchate, there may, as above
stated, be found ample precedents for the
regulation of proceedings.
In imitation of the example of the early
Church, when not merely provincial but
national interests have been concerned, the
two provincial synods of Canterbury and
York have, as above described, united in a
synod of the exarchate ; but other methods
have been adopted to secure the authority
of the synodical exarchate.
A second method has been to hold the
two provincial synods simultaneously,
though separately, each in its usual place,
for deliberation on the same business. This
plan was pursued when the Canterbury and
^brk Synods were held concurrently and
0Ij the same business, the one at Lambeth,
<h(3 other at Beverley, in 1261, and in our
ffn times, when the revision of the Rubrics
,__i simultaneously discussed by those as-
,]4blies.

CONVOCATIONS

243

A third method for securing the joint
authority of our two provincial synods has
been to ratify documents in one assembly
and then to transmit them to the other for
authorization. This was the method adopted
in passing the decrees abolishing the papal
supremacy (hereafter to be mentioned
specially) in 1534 ; in the enactment of the
141 canons of 1603-4 ; in the enactment of
the 17 canons of 1640 ; and more recently in
our own times, when the articles of clergy
subscription in the 36th and other Canons
were remodelled and re-enacted.
A fourth method has been for the Metro
politan and bishops of the Northern Pro
vince, together with deputies from the
lower house of their synod, to attend at the
Southern Synod and there to unite in joint
deliberations. This was the case in the
authorization of our present Prayer Book,
when the Northern Metropolitan and
bishops and six delegates for York attended
the Canterbury Synod in London. To the
act of authorization ratifying that book their
signatures, appended on December 20, 1661,
appear after those of the Archbishop, bishops
and clergy of the Canterbury Synod. In
the report of the late Ritual Commission
the signatures " in extenso " are nominally
printed. Proper Functions of Convocations. —
The proper functions of provincial synods,
and such as have been exercised by them
in the Church of England, may generally
be ranked under five heads: 1. Prescript
tion of the Canon of Scripture. 2. Promiil*
gation of symbols of doctrinal belief. 3.
Condemnation of heretical tenets. 4. En
actment of Canons. 5. Authorization of
liturgical formularies.
(I.) So early as in the 84th of the Apostolic
Canons, and in the 60th Canon of the Synod
of Laodicea, we find prescriptions of the
Scriptural Canon ; and so late as at the Con
vocation of both our provinces held in
London in 1562, we find the Canonical
Scriptures defined by the 6th of the 39
Articles then ratified.
(II.) The promulgation of symbols of doc-<
trinal belief, one of the prime duties of synods.
in all ages, was a function here exercised
when the 8th Article of the Church of
England was synodically adopted and pro-
mulged, which specifies the Three Creeds as
symbols of faith, which "ought thoroughly
to be received and believed."
(III.) The condemnation of heretical tenets'
by provincial synods is a duty which has
been discharged by them continually in'
past ages, as our early ecclesiastical records
abundantly prove ; and so late as in Queen
Anne's time, on application being made to
the judges of the civil courts on this subject,
eight out of the twelve, together with the
r. 2

244

CONVOCATIONS

Attorney- and Solicitor-general, decided that
this was a proper part of the functions of
our Convocations. It was then exercised by
the synodical condemnation of Whiston's
book, and on a late occasion in this genera
tion by the condemnation of Dr. Colenso's
volume on " The Pentateuch," &c, and of
the book entitled " Essays and Reviews."
(IV.) The next office of provincial synods
— the enactment of Canons — requires rather
fuller consideration on account of some pecu
liarities in this country which affect such
proceedings. Before the year 1534, our pro
vincial synods enacted Canons at their will.
In that year the. Statute 25 Henry VIII.
19 was passed, which enacted that Canons
might not be here "enacted, promulged,
executed or put in ure " without a licence
from the Sovereign. The proceedings in
such a case are now as follows. First the
synod debates the subject-matter of the
proposed Canon or Canons. Drafts made
of the conclusions arrived at are then sub
mitted to the Crown. If the Sovereign
approves of the proposals, a licence issues
¦to " enact." On the receipt of this instru
ment the synod meets, and the Canons
proposed are engrossed on parchment. In
the presence of the whole assembly, both
houses being joined in session for the pur
pose, the Metropolitan, standing, holds the
parchment in his right hand ; the Prolo
cutor, standing on his left side, holds it with
his left hand. The contents are then read
out by the Metropolitan, and the document
being placed on the table, is signed first by
himself, then by the provincial bishops
present, and lastly in order by the assembled
clergy. Such Canons are thus "enacted"
and become law. No parliamentary ap
proval is constitutionally required, and
they are "promulged" to be "executed
and put in ure " by the ecclesiastical judges
in ecclesiastical courts; and their judg
ments founded on such Canons will be sus
tained by the civil courts so long as the con
tents do not contravene Royal prerogative,
common or statute law. The above was
the course taken a few years since when the
36th Canon and others were remodelled.
(V.) The last general duty to be men
tioned of provincial synods is the author
ization of Liturgies and Ritual. In earlier
times, and indeed in this country, liturgies
spmetimes varied in different dioceses of the
same province, as is testified by the different
" Uses" which here prevailed. But it was
perhaps more common in the Church that
each province or combination of dioceses
should conform to one use, and measures
for this purpose were at times taken, as
history testifies. At the Reformation this
latter principle was extended in England,
and the .first Prayer Book of 1549 was

CONVOCATIONS
issued for the use of both provinces. The
compilers were certainly all members of
Convocation, but the records ot the Canter
bury Synod having been burnt in the
disastrous fire in London in 1666, the
authentic records ot the authorization of the
first reformed Prayer Book are not forth
coming. Trustworthy historians, however,
do not doubt, but on the contrary positively
assert, that it had convocational sanction.
The second reformed Prayer Book was dis
tinctly authorized by the 35th Article of
1552 ; and our present Prayer Book, compiled
from the earlier ones with additions, had the
sanction of both our provincial synods in
1661, as above mentioned, given in the most
formal and emphatic manner imaginable, —
that is, by the personal signatures of all the
members of the Canterbury Synod, fortified
by the signatures of the Northern prelates
and six of the delegates deputed by that
synod to attend in London.
One jurisdiction which has been con
ferred on our provincial synods is a peculiar
one, not common to synods of the Church
generaRy, but here consequent on two
statutes of the realm — 24 Hen. VIII. 12,
as confirmed by 25 Hen. VIII. 19. By.
the 9th section of the first-mentioned Act,
as confirmed by the 3rd section of the
second and subsequently ratified by 1 Eliz.
1, it was enacted that in all ecclesiastical
cases "touching the King" an appeal
should lie to the Upper House of Convoca
tion of the province in which the cause
arose, and thither only. Such causes cer
tainly came under convocational juris
diction in the cases of the divorces of
Catharine of Arragon, Anne Boleyn, and
Anne of Cleves. Notwithstanding tho
decisions of the Courts of Q. B. and C. P.
in the Gorham Case that this jurisdiction
has been superseded, it is impossible to
reconcile such a conclusion with the terms
of the statutes above quoted, and it is
moreover quite contradictory, to the positive
assertions of our text writers — Dyer, Bacon,
Comyn, Woodeson, Blackstone, Ayliffe, and
Burn — who with one voice affirm that the
jurisdiction was never abolished. More
over it is within the certain knowledge of
the writer of these lines that in the opinion
of some of our highest legal authorities of
the present day, the forementioned decisions
of two of our law courts should be, to say
the least, carefully reconsidered. It is
manifest that the above jurisdiction might
be a great safeguard to the Church in the
case of a man of unsound doctrine bein/
nominated to a bishopric or a benefice
the gift of the Crown.
Methods qf Proceeding. — Previously i
the year 1534, when the Act 25 Hen. Vf|
19 was passed, each Metropolitan -in EF

CONVOCATIONS
land could convene his Provincial Synod at
any time he thought fit; but by that
statute it became necessary that a writ
from the Crown should issue before the
convocation of such an assembly. Such a
writ to each Metropolitan is always now
issued from the Crown Office acourse with
the writs for the assembling of Parliament,
and directs him to call together his Synod
on the next day after the meeting of the
former body. Each Metropolitan then
directs his mandate (in Canterbury through
the Bishop of London) to the several
bishops within his jurisdiction, warning
them to attend with the clergy of their
diocese, as first above detailed,'at a specified
time and place. So long as the Parliament
sits, the Metropolitans may call together
their Provincial Synods as often as they
please. When Parliament is prorogued,
the Synods by Royal writ are also at the
same time generally prorogued, though not
necessarily so, as was decided by the judges
in Charles I.'s time. But there is this
distinction between the practice of the
two bodies : Parliamentary committees do
not meet out of session; the Convocation
committees meet at any time, whether the
parent body is in session or not. And it is
in these committees that the real work of
the synods is mainly done.
The Canterbury Provincial Synod has
been for many years summoned to meet
first at S. Paul's Cathedral by the Arch
bishop's mandate. On their assembly the
proceedings are as follows : — The members,
vested in their proper habiliments, pass from
the chapter-house in formal procession to
the choir of the cathedral. A Latin Litany
is read by the junior bishop, and an anthem
sung by the choir. A Latin sermon is then
preached by a member appointed by the
Archbishop. After sermon the members
of the lower house retire to one of the side
chapels for the election of a prolocutor, who
on being presented to the Archbishop at
a subsequent session, if approved of by him
(and there is no instance, so far as the writer
is aware, of disapproval), becomes chairman
of the lower house, and not only there pre
sides, but is the channel of communication
between the two houses, carrying messages
from the upper to the lower, and reporting
the proceedings of the lower to the upper.
This separation of the provincial synods
respectively into two houses does not date
from any remote antiquity. It seems to have
, originated about the end of the fourteenth
*>r the beginning of the fifteenth century.
offhe practice was at first adopted only on
%>ecial occasions, but in later times, at least
ow the Canterbury province, has become the
K^le, not the exception. After the election
™ the prolocutor, the Convocation is then

CONVOCATIONS

245

prorogued. Through many ages the subse
quent sessions were usually held at S.
Paul's until Oliver Cromwell's cavalry defaced-
the goodly chapter-house there. Now the
synod is prorogued to Westminster Abbey.
Of late, on assembling there, Holy Commu
nion has been administered to the members in
Henry VII.'s Chapel, and at the conclusion
of the service the whole Synod meets in
the Jerusalem Chamber within the Abbey
precincts. The Archbishop there addresses
them on any subject which to him may
seem expedient, and then retires with his
suffragans forming the upper house to the
Bounty Board Office in Dean's Yard, West
minster, where their sessions are held,
leaving the members of the lower house in-
the Jerusalem Chamber.
Proceedings in Lower House of Canter
bury. — At each of the sessions of the Lower
House of Canterbury, which are held some
times in the Jerusalem Chamber, sometimes
in the Westminster College Hall, the Latin
Litany is first read. The roll of the members
is then called over — a process denominated
" praconization," — when those present answer
to their names. Except on the first day of
a group of sessions, the proceedings of the
previous day having been fairly transcribed
are then read by the actuary, i.e. the
officer entrusted with the documents of the
assembly, and by a vote of the house:
reduced to Acts ; but on the last day
of a group of sessions this is done on the
evening of the day itself. The prolocutor
afterwards nominates some members, usually
about six or eight, as his assessors, who
accompany him whenever he proceeds to
the upper house, and who are also consulted
by him, if he so desires, should any doubtful
question arise touching the proceedings of
the assembly. Notices of motion are then
given, and petitions and " gravamina "
presented. As regards the presentation of
a gravamen — which is a practice of the
highest antiquity — itis the statement of any
grievance touching the Church to which the
member presenting desires to call attention,
and to it is usually appended a "refor-
mandum;" that is, a suggestion for the
correction of the evil. Such a document
may be dealt with in four different ways :
1. It may be signed only by the presenter ;
2. or may receive the signatures of as many
members as agree with it, and so in either
case be carried by the prolocutor to the
upper house ; 3. or it may be referred by
a vote of the house to either of the com
mittees who are sitting on the subject it
involves; 4. or by such vote it may be
discussed with a view to its being made
an " articulus cleri," that is, an _ act of
the lower house, and so be transmitted to
the upper. Then follow the debates arisiug

246

CONVOCATIONS

either from messages sent from the upper
house, or upon motions after proper notice
of individual members ; but business sent
from the upper house always takes pre
cedence. Each day's sitting is termed a
separate session, and each day a prorogation
of the whole synod takes place in the upper
house, and is formally communicated to the
lower. When the Convocation meets for
several days consecutively, it is termed a
group of sessions.
York Convocation.— -There is no pecu
liarity on which it is needful to dilate in
the proceedings of the York Convocation
differing from the above, save that there the
two houses have usually deliberated, at least
of late, in one body, it being not the rule
but the exception to separate, and it is a
grave question whether Canterbury might
not profit by the York example.
Separation into two Houses. — For, as was
remarked above, the separation into two
houses does not date from very high
antiquity. Indeed it is plain from the
history of the earlier ages of the Church
that while the " Corpus Synodi" was in the
Bishops, yet that those who were below the
episcopal order united with them in common
deliberation, and on some occasions at least
were by their learning and eloquence the
chief champions in debate. Striking ex
amples of this may be found in the records
of places and ages widely different. Thus at
the. Council of Antioch in the third century
Malchion was chief speaker, and as Eusebius
writes (Eccles. Hist. vii. 29), "he alone
prevailed to detect the subtle-minded man,"
when Paulus Samosatenus was delated for
false teaching. At Nice, in the fourth
century, Athanasius was chief champion of
the orthodox faith. At our National
Council of Whitby, in the seventh century,
Wilfrid was chief speaker, and from the
result appears to have been the most effectual
advocate. But neither Malchion, Athana
sius, or Wilfrid were bishops on the occasions
referred to.
To come much nearer to our own times,
it is to the learning and eloquence of a
presbyter in the Canterbury Synod that the
Church of England is deeply indebted for
the preservation of her Liturgy in its
integrity. In King William the Third's
reign, endeavours were made under Dutch
influence and with the sanction of courtier
bishops to puritanize the English Prayer
Book. It was the brilliant and touching
address of Dr. Jane (then prolocutor of the
lower house), which he wound up with the
historical words of the Barons of old time
— " nolumus leges Anglia? mutari " — that
in great measure prevailed to sway that
assembly and avert the catastrophe.
Method of appointing Presbyters to the

CONVOCATIONS
English Provincial Synods. — In the ap^
pointment of Presbyters as members of
our Convocations, a practice must here be
referred . to which seems to be peculiar to
England. In early times the Presbyters
who attended Church Councils were ap
pointed by their respective Bishops. Thus
in the " Tractorise " or letters of summons
directed to Chrestus, Bishop of Syracuse, and
calling him to attend the Council of Aries
(a.d. 314), he is commanded to bring with
him " two of the second throne," i.e. two
presbyters. And this appears to have
been the ancient practice. But in England
proctors are elected by the Cathedral
Chapters and parochial clergy. WKen this
practice first arose' is a question not easy of
solution; but at any rate such elected
proctors are mentioned in a mandate of
Archbishop Kilwardby summoning his Prd»
vincial Synod in 1277, and also in a Canon
of the Council of Reading in 1279.
Condensed Summary of some memorable
Acts of our Convocations. — The Acts of our
Convocations are recorded in the folios of
Lyndwood and Spelman, and in the ele
phantine tomes of the " Concilia Magna!
Brittannise " edited by Wilkins at the be
ginning of the last century. These immense
columns may fairly daunt the most per
severing student ; but they are full of in
formation respecting the history of the
Church of England, which well repays
labour, and which gives an aspect to that
history very different from that presented by
most of our historians. These writers have
studied Acts of Parliament carefully enough,
but the Acts of our Synods have for the most
part been wholly overlooked and absolutely
ignored. On comparison of dates it will be
found that in the most important ecclesiastical
matters, Acts of our Synods have preceded
the enactment of statutes on ecclesiastical
subjects, so that the latter were merely the
embodiment and civil ratification of what
synodical authority had previously deter
mined. Before the dawn of the Reformation the
recorded Acts of our Convocations mostly
pertain to the enactment of Canons and the
trial of heretics and heretical opinions.
After that date the information contained
in the records of the Convocations becomes
of the highest interest, as it gives the true
estimate of the prevailing part which they
took in that movement.
The chief corner-stone of the Reforma
tion, from an ecclesiastical point of view,
was laid by the Convocations of Canterbury
and York in the year 1534. On March 31,
in that year, the Canterbury Convocation,
with only four dissentients in the lower
house, and on May 5 the Convocation of
York unanimously, decreed that —

CONVOCATIONS
" The Pope of Rome has no greater
•jurisdiction conferred on him by god
in holy Scripture in this kingdom or
England than any other foreign bishop "
<Conc. Mag. Britt. iii. 769, and Wake's
MSS. Ch. Ch. Library, ad ann. 1534).
Thus by the formal decrees of our two
Convocations the Papal Supremacy in
¦England was discharged, and thus the
primitive independence of the British
¦Church was synodically restored.
Thus was the principle here vindicated,
which is distinctly asserted by Canon VI.
of the First (Ecumenical Council (Nice),
when the primitive independence and
rights of the Egyptian, Libyan, Penta-
politan, and Antiochian provinces were con
firmed as being in conformity with the
"ancient customs which should prevail."
This principle was again re-affirmed by
•Canon II. of the Second CEcumenical Coun
cil (Constantinople I.), the words being
as follow : — " Let no Bishops go beyond
their dioceses [exarchates] to churches
beyond their bounds nor disturb the
•churches, according to the Canons. Let the
Bishop of Alexandria administer the affairs
•of Egypt, and the Bishops of tbe East govern
¦the East alone, the rights and privileges of
the Church of Antioch sanctioned in the
Nicene Canons being preserved inviolate.
Let the Bishops of the Asian diocese [exar
chate] administer the Asian affairs only,
and the Bishops of the Pontic diocese the
affairs of Pontus only, and they of Thrace
the affairs of the Thracian diocese only.
But let not Bishops go out of their diocese
for ordination or any other ecclesiastical
administration uninvited. The superscribed
'Canon touching the dioceses being observed,
it is manifest that in each province the
Synod of the Province will rule according
to the decrees which were defined at Nice."
This governing principle is known in eccle
siastical history as the Jus Cyprium, con
firmed by Canon VIII. of the Third Ecu
menical Council (Ephesus), as quoted by
high authorities, and which runs thus :
" The same rule shall be observed in all
other dioceses and provinces whatsoever, so
that no bishop shall occupy another pro
vince which has not been subject to him
(from the beginning; and if he shall have
made any such occupation or seizure, let
him make restitution, lest the Canons of
the Holy Fathers be transgressed," &c.
The chief corner-stone of this Reforma
tion having been thus synodically laid by
our Convocations in the matter of jurisdic
tion, it is interesting to trace how in matters
of doctrine, ritual, and discipline the Refor
mation was carried on by degrees and finally
"Completed by that same authority. The
progress can only be set down here in brief ;

CONVOCATIONS

247

the lengthened proofs from the convoca
tional and from trustworthy records could be
in each case supplied did space permit.
In the reign of King Henry VIII., Con
vocations compiled or sanctioned in 1536
the Ten Articles of that year. In 1537, the
" Institution of a Christian Man." In 1542,
" the New and Expurgated Edition of the
Sarum Use." In 1543, " the Necessary
Doctrine and Erudition of any Christian
Man." In 1544, "th? English Reformed
Litany." In the reign of Edward VI., in
1547, the authority "to administer the
Communion in both kinds." In the same
year " the Abrogation of the Ccelibacy of the
Clergy." In 1548, " the Order of the Com
munion." In 1549, " the First Reformed
Prayer Book." In 1552-3, "the Second Re
formed Prayer Book." In the same year,
"the 42 Articles of 1552-3," the 35th of
which sanctioned the book last mentioned ;
and in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1563,
N.S., the present 39 Articles of Religion, at
which date the English Reformation may
be said to have culminated.
It is here observable that the Committee
of Divines appointed to draft the " Order of
the Communion " in 1548 was composed
entirely and exclusively of members of the
Convocations of Canterbury and York.
This appears from the styles and titles of
all save two, i.e. Robertson and Redmayn.
But the first was, we know from other
evidence, Archdeacon of Leicester at the
time, and that the latter was a member we
learn from the fact that he is represented as
having delivered his opinion in writing pre
viously on the subject of the celibacy of the
clergy, because he was not in his place at
the session of Convocation in which that
matter was debated. The committee which
afterwards compiled the first reformed Prayer
Book was smaller than the committee which
compiled the " Order of the Communion,"
but was composed exclusively of persons
who had served on the earlier committee.
Thus plainly both the committees above
mentioned which compiled these reformed
Offices were composed exclusively of mem
bers of Convocation. So unfounded is tho
notion that these committees were merely
Royal Commissions.
Passing onwards in chronological order
after the Reformation settlement, some me
morable Acts of the Convocations were as
follows. In Q. Elizabeth's reign the trial
of Hilton for heresy in 1584, the enactment
of articles of discipline in 1585, and of the
twelve constitutions in 1597-8. In King
James I.'s reign, the enactment of the 141
Canons of 1603-4, and the trial of Crashaw
for false doctrine in 1610. In King Charles
I.'s reign, the enactment of the 17 Canons
of 1640. In King Charles II.'s reign, the

248

CONVOCATIONS

revision aud synodical authorization of
our present Prayer Book in 1661. In
King William III.'s reign, the rejection of
the " Comprehension Liturgy," which would
have reduced the Prayer Book to a puritan
standard, and was proposed by that monarch
and some of his sycophant bishops in 1689.
On this occasion it is observable that a
joint address of both Houses of Parliament
was presented to the Crown requesting that
Convocation should be consulted " according
to the ancient practice and usage of this
kingdom." In Queen Anne's reign, a letter
of business from her Majesty having been
directed to the Archbishop Tenison express
ing a desire that Convocation would repress
loose principles, Whiston's book, "An
Historical Preface," &c, was brought before
the Canterbury Convocation and synodicaUy
condemned in 1711. The above brief sum
mary of some events, which it would require
volumes to describe in full, will suggest
what are the proper functions of our Convo
cations, what duties they have discharged in
past times, what engagements are proper
for them now, and what will continue to be
so while the Church of England abides in
her pristine character.
Suspension of Convocational Action. — In
the year 1716, Hoadley, Bishop of Bangor,
published a book entitled "The Preser
vative," &c, and in the year following
preached a sermon before King George I. at
S. James's. Both book and sermon were
accused of false doctrine, and were so
charged before the Canterbury Synod in
1717. A warm controversy, known as the
Bangorian controversy, was kindled, and
the Whig Government of the day was
induced for the time to suspend convoca
tional action by prorogation on the 14th
February, 1718. From that date synodical
action of any importance was suspended
down to the year 1852 ; for though Convo
cations met and transacted some business in
1728 and 1741, yet their meetings were
generally, in the interval above named,
merely pro forma. They did indeed
assemble contemporaneously with the meet
ing of every Parliament, solemnly opened
their sessions, formed a lower house, elected
a prolocutor, and were then dismissed,
being continued from time to time by
prorogations of the Metropolitan. The
blame, however, of this suspension of action
must not be laid to the civil power, as is
sometimes done, but to the Metropolitans,
bishops and clergy themselves ; for by the
Royal writs always issued acourse with the
writs for Parliament, the Convocations were
uninterruptedly placed in a condition to
proceed to business without let or hin
drance, so far as civil authority was con
cerned.

CONVOCATIONS
Before the year 1664 it was impossible
that they should so separate without pro
ceeding to active work, .because until that
year they taxed themselves in their Convo
cations and were not generally amenable tp
parliamentary taxation. In Saxon times
the lands of all clergy were held by frank-
almoigne ; that is, were free from all other
taxation except for the support of castles,
bridges, and expeditions. But William the
Conqueror turned the frankalmoigne tenures
of the bishops into baronies which became
thenceforward subject to escuage, a money
payment in lieu of. supplying soldiers. But
the lower clergy not possessing baronies still
held their lands in frankalmoigne, and were
in a great measure exempt from the charges
which fell on other subjects. It was con
sequently deemed right that they should
contribute more equitably to the public
burdens ; and after several methods for this
purpose had been tried, the practice at last
obtained that they should tax themselves in
their Convocations and there vote "sub
sidies" or "benevolences" to the Crown,
This practice continued as above said to the
year 1664, when by a private agreement
between Archbishop Sheldon, the Lord,
Chancellor Clarendon, and some other of
King Charles II. 's ministers, it was con
cluded that the clergy should waive the
privilege of taxing their own body, and
should permit themselves to be included in
the money bills prepared by the House of
Commons. So great a constitutional change
has perhaps never before or since heen
effected by a private arrangement. Jeremy
Collier prophesied that after the clergy
ceased to tax themselves their opinions and
interests would be more slenderly regarded ;
and he seems to have been, from subsequent
experiences, no false prophet.
Revival of Convocational Action.— After
the admission of Jews and other aliens from
the Church's faith into Parliament a feeling
began to prevail among Churchmen, and
indeed among all reasonable people, and
rapidly spread, that that assembly was not
a fitting or convenient arena for the dis
cussion at least of spiritual matters affecting
the Church. It was thought that the Church
should herself speak on such matters, and
that her voice could only be rightly heard
through her Provincial Synods or Convoca
tions. Consequently as the first half of this
century approached completion strenuous
efforts were made for the revival of their
active functions. Among the most active
promoters of this object were, the late-
Samuel Wilberforce, then Bishop of Oxford,
and the late Mr. Henry Hoare. Although,
our two Metropolitans at that time, Dr.
Sumner and Dr. Musgrave, were not favour-,
able to the movement, still the general feel-

CONVOCATIONS
ing in the Church finally, prevailed, and
from the year 1852 Convocations have re
sumed their active and proper functions.
They now meet acourse with every session
of Parliament, and usually each holds two or
three groups of sessions in every year during
the parliamentary session.
The most prominent acts of the Convo
cations since the revival of their active
functions have been — the revision and
re-enactment of the Canons touching clergy
subscription ; the revision of the lectionary
in the Prayer Book; the provision for
shortened services (and it is encouraging to
observe that the Act of Parliament for this
purpose, 35 & 36 Vict. c. 35, amending the
Act of Uniformity, recites according to
ancient and time-honoured practice, a refer
ence to the Convocations in its preamble);
the synodical condemnation of Dr. Colenso's
writings and of the book entitled " Essays
and Reviews ; " the five decrees synodi
cally ratified touching the Vatican Council
in i870; and the promulgation of a har
vest service. Numerous reports also of
the highest interest on clergy discipline
and other cognate subjects have been issued,
recommending measures which, if canoni
cally enacted, would prove of incalculable
benefit to the Church.
Moreover at this time (1885) the upper
house of Canterbury is engaged in providing
" a Manual of Family Prayer," and the
lower house "Manuals of Private Prayer,"
for members of the Church of England.
And it is to be hoped that in due time they
will provide other Offices emphatically
needed in this Church. Such are Offices for
the consecration of churches and cemeteries ;
for the reception of renegades ; for the
confirmation of those who have been
baptized as adults; for the dedication of
bells; for the appointment of lay deacons
and deaconesses, and for other like purposes.
Such additions to our authorized formularies
are much needed, and to supply them
would be but to imitate the example of the
Eastern Church (the mother of this Church),
which supplies offices in her "Euchologion "
for the manifold contingencies of the Chris
tian life.
Conclusion. — In conclusion it is worthy
of remark that the constitution of our
Convocations or Provincial Synods, con
sisting of bishops and presbyters, without
any admixture of laymen with voices de
cisive, is in accordance with the principle
which has governed the constitution of
Synods in all ages of the Church. That
principle may be traced back even to Apo
stolic times. The first Council of Jerusalem,
recorded in the 15 th chapter of the Acts,
has always been considered in the orthodox
Church to be the true prototype and model

CONVOCATIONS

249

for the constitution of such assemblies. The
history, therefore, of that Apostolic Council
is of the highest possible interest, and is-
closely applicable to the present subject. A
question had arisen in the Church at
Antioch on a matter of disciplinary ritual —
whether circumcision were necessary or not
for Christians. For the settlement of doubts
it was decided that S. Paul and Barnabas,
with others, should go up to Jerusalem " unto
the Apostles and Elders " about this question.
" 27je Apostles and Elders " only assembled
to consider of the matter. After discussion,
S. James, Bishop of Jerusalem, and so chief
of the assembly, delivered judgment. Mes
sengers were then despatched from the
whole Church of Jerusalem to Antioch,
bearing letters thither containing the results
of the deliberations. The superscription of
the letters was that of " the Apostles and
Elders " only, for it is to be observed that the
word " and " before the word " Brethren "
attached to the superscription in our Author
ized Version is not warranted by the best
MSS. All such give the superscription thus,
"The apostles and elders — brethren send
greeting," &c. And it is further observable
that when S. Paul and Silas subsequently
journeyed through the cities, they delivered
them "the decrees for to keep that were
ordained by ' the Apostles and Elders ' which
were at Jerusalem." Thus we see that in
this Apostolic Council the question under
discussion was submitted to the Apostles
and Elders only, that they only came to
gether to consider the matter, that they only
signed the Encyclical Letter, and that to
them only tho decrees of the Council are
subsequently attributed.
As the Apostolic band was chosen by the
Lord to constitute the first order "of the
ministry in His Church, so the second order
of Presbyters or Elders was inaugurated when
the Lord " appointed seventy other also, and
sent them two and two before His face into
every city and place whither He Himself
would come." Of these two orders the first
Apostolic Council of Jerusalem was composed;
and in conformity with the example of that
model Council, and deeming it the true
prototype for all subsequent Synods, Church
Councils have in all ages been convened con
sisting of the first and second Orders of the
Ministry of Christ— Bishops and Presbyters.
Such is the constitution of the two Convo
cations or Provincial Synods of the English
Church ; and contemplating her adherence to
Apostolic precedent, and to the example of
the first Council of Jerusalem in this respect,
the words may well recur to memory —
" Her foundations are upon the holy hills."
The prophetic exhortation has been faith
fully obeyed by this Church of England —
" Stand ye in the ways, and see, and ask

250

CONVOCATIONS

for the old paths, where is the good way, and
walk therein." [J. W. J.j
CONVOCATIONS, POWER OF. The
Convocations since their revival in 1852, after
a sleep of 135 years, have only once had " let
ters of business " for the purpose of making
a new canon on a matter not already the
subject of a Bill in ParUament, viz. to repeal
the prohibition of fathers being godfathers
to their children in Canon 29; but after
all it never received the Royal ratification
afterwards, which is also necessary to make
.a valid canon. Their adoption of the passing
Bill for altering clerical subscription under
the 36th Canon has been already noticed
(see Canons), and is evidently a different
matter from independent legislation, as it
made no difference whether the Convocations
followed Parliament or not. The appoint
ment by one Convocation of two committees
in 1872 to revise the Authorized Version of
the 0. and N. T. was not canon-making, and
neither had nor needed any Royal authority,
nor had any in itself. In 1864 the Southern
Convocation passed a resolution in -both
Houses that they " synodically condemned
the volume entitled Essays and Reviews"
under very high legal advice that they had
still the right to do so, though not to take
any other proceedings against the authors.
In 1872 they did something more important,
under " letters of business," in preparing the
shortened services afterwards authorized by
Act 35 & 36 Vict. c. 35 ; and their having
¦done so is recited in the Act, as their approval
of the Prayer Book of 1662 is recited in the
Act of Uniformity, 14 Car. II. c. 4. The Prayer
Book of 1 Eliz. c. 2 was not submitted to
the Convocations, for the very good reason
¦that the great majority of the bishops and
clergy were still Papists, as stated by Bishop
Stubbs in the report of the Commission on
Ecclesiastical Courts of 1883. But it con
tained very slight alterations on the Second
P. B. of Edward VI.
It is quite clear, however, that no Act
about ecclesiastical judicature was ever sub
mitted to the Convocations. The distinction
between that and the making of canons and
alterations in the Services and Articles of the
(Church, with the sanction of the Crown and
Parliament, is decisively exhibited by the
primary Acts of the Reformation, 24 Hen.
VIII. c. 12, for ecclesiastical appeals, and " for
the submission of the clergy," 25 Hen. VIII.
«c. 19, of which one-half enacted the submission
made previously by the Convocations (pro
mising to attempt to make no more canons
without royal licence), and again the other
hnlf of the Act established a new court of
ecclesiastical appeal to unlimited "delegates,"
who were limited to the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council just three centuries after.
That part of the Act was never submitted to

COPE
the Convocations, nor did they attempt to
meddle with it. Neither were they consulted
when the delegates were limited to the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council in 1832-3.
Indeed the Convocations were not then al
lowed even to sit. The attempt to give
them any kind of control over jurisdiction is
absolutely modern and unjustified by a
single precedent.
In Phillimore's Ecc. Law, p. 1949 et seq., is
a valuable report of a committee of the Lower
House of Canterbury in 1854, soon after its
revival, under the presidency of a most able
Prolocutor, Dean Peacock, which concluded
that the Lower House has no right, to decide
on disputed elections. To which it may be
added, that the Courts of Law have decided
that all the canons or prebendaries of an
" old " cathedral have the right to vote ; but
no other case has occurred of an election of
proctors being tried there. That and other
books specially on this subject, such as Loth-
bury's, must be consulted as to the procedure
and rules of Convocation. It seems to be ad
mitted that the President of each Convoca
tion, i.e. the Archbishop while there is one,
has a final veto, besides a casting vote if they
are equal.
Various great legal officials, both of the
Crown and Archbishops of Canterbury, have
given opinions that the Convocations have no
power to alter their own constitution, and that
the Crown can authorize no canons for that
purpose. In that state of things, it is quite
certain that the Crown will not profess to
authorize them, and it is useless to go further
into the question. It is a different one how
far the two primates have power to adapt
the elections of proctors to the circumstances
of new dioceses, as they have done without
objection; and that is not altering the con
stitution, which there is no evidence that
any convocation has ever attempted to do,
either by canons or otherwise. The only
power that can do it now is ParUament,
which limited the power of the convocation
by the Act of Submission. [H.]
COPE. (Cappa, called also pallium, or
pluviale.) A kind of cloak worn during
Divine service by the clergy. It reaches
from the neck nearly to the feet, and is
open in front, except at the top, where it
is united by a band or clasp. It is in use
in the Western Church only; and is pro
bably only a modification of the vestment,
or chasuble. The latter, in the Roman
Church, is used by the officiating priest at
mass only ; the other, by all orders of the
clergy in procession, &c, on solemn occa
sions. The rubrics of King Edward VI.,
considered by some to be still legally in
force, prescribe a cope or vestment for the
priest administering the Holy Communion,
and for the bishops, when executing any

COPIAT_
public ministration in the church ; for
which a vestment may be substituted either
by priest or bishop. By the 24th Canon of
1603 the cope only is prescribed to the
priest administering the Communion, and
that only in cathedral churches. But the
rubric being subsequently enacted in 1662,
which refers to the regulation of Edward
VI.'s First Prayer Book, the latter is by
many considered to be more strictly the law
of the Church. The Privy Council however
has twice decided otherwise. It was used in
several churches and college chapels in the
seventeenth century, and was in use at
Durham cathedral and Westminster till the
middle of the last century. De Foe, in his
anonymous Tour 'through England, 1762,
says that " the old vestments, which the
clergy before the Reformation wore, are still
used on Sundays and holidays, by the
residents." The assertion made by Dean Sampson
and Humphries in Queen Elizabeth's reign,
" that copes were brought in by the Papists,"
was ably refuted by Archbishop Parker. —
Jebb, Choral Service, p. 217 ; Strype's
Parker, 158.
COPIAT„. The office of the Copiataj
(kottioo), to labour), who are called in Latin
Fossarii, and in Justinian's novels lecticarii,
was to superintend funerals, and to see that
all persons had a decent burial. They per
formed their office gratuitously towards the
poor. — Bingham, bk. iii. 8.
COPTS, or COPTIC CHURCH. The
Monophysite, or Jacobite, Christians of
Egypt, who have been for many centuries
in possession of the patriarchal chair of
Alexandria, and the dominant sect among
the Christians of that region, are called
Copts, probably from Coptos, a city in Upper
Egypt; but other derivations are given.
Their existence as a separate or heretical
Church dates from the time of the Council
of Chalcedon. (See Chalcedon, Councils of.)
The banishment of Dioscurus, patriarch of
Alexandria, by that council, fully deserved
as it was, was the origin of the schism in
the Church of Alexandria. Proterius was
elected in Dioscurus' place, and it was hoped
that the Monophysite heresy would die
out. But it did not. The followers of
Dioscurus, after his death, elected Timothy
iElurus, who being active (he was nick
named "the cat") and very vehement
gained a great following. Proterius was
barbarously murdered; Timothy, on the
other hand, was banished,, but afterwards
recalled. The Catholics and the Copts, or
Jacobites, from that "time bad each their
leader; trouble after trouble ensued; and
though many attempts were made for peace,
the rupture was never healed. When the
wave of Mohammedanism swept along, and

CORONATION

251

Alexandria was taken by Amer, the general
sent by the Caliph Omar, the Copts received
the support of the Mohammedan as against
the Catholics, and were placed in possession
of the Egyptian churches.
Their numbers are now perhaps about
150,000. They have three liturgies, — that
ascribed to St. Basil, which they use on
ordinary fast days ; that of St. Cyril, which
they use in Lent ; and that of St. Gregory,
which they use on festivals. Their service is
very much crowded with ceremonies. The
Coptic tongue, in which their worship is con
ducted, is to them a dead language, and not
even understood by many of their priests.
Their habits of life are ascetic, and they
have many monasteries. They have a
patriarch, who resides at Cairo, but takes
his title from Alexandria. (Neale's Hist.
Patriarch.) A full account of the Coptic
Church to the present time is to be found'
in Smith and Wace, Diet, cf Biog., &c, 665
seq., and in a work by Mr. Butler, a fellow
of Brasenose, Oxford (Clarendon Press, a.d.
1885). CORBEL. A bracket. A projection
supporting a weight; and so corbel-table,
a table or horizontal projection supported
by corbels. Corbel-tables are almost con
fined to the Norman, Transition, and Early
EnglisR periods. Corbels in other places
are of course continued ; they are often
beautifully decorated with heads, angels, or
foliage, and sometimes grotesque. [G.]
CORDELIERS. (Monks of the Order
of St. Francis.) They wear coarse grey
cloth with a little cowl, and a rope girdle
with three knots; from this girdle they
are called Cordeliers. They are the same
with the Minorites ; but had the name of
Cordeliers given them upon a certain occa
sion, when, having repulsed the infidels in
a war which St. Louis made against them,
the king asked their name, and was
answered, they were des Gens des Cordeliers
— people with cords about them. (See
Franciscans.) CORONATION AND CONSECRA
TION OF SOVEREIGNS. The solemn
religious rite by which a sovereign prince
is consecrated to his high office, in which
also the queen consort in Christian countries
is usually associated with her husband, not
for office' sake, but honoris gratia.
Consecration with unction. — This reaches
to a greater antiquity than the ' Christian
era. We have but to refer to the history
of the Old Testament to see that it was
divinely ordered and sanctioned. St. Au
gustine speaks of the rite of consecration
as peculiar to God's people, and not ever
adopted by the heathens. But who was
the first Christian prince consecrated and
crowned by the bishops of the Church is

252

CORONATION

not known. Theodosius the Younger is
supposed to have been the first who was
crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople,
and there is little doubt as to the consecra
tion of the Emperor Justin (519). But
before this there was the famous tradition
of the coronation and anointing of Chlod
wig or Clovis, the oil being miraculously
supplied from heaven. Hincmar, Arch
bishop of Rheims in the ninth century,
also claimed for the holy oil that it had
been miraculously afforded. But this was
probably asserted in order to prove that the
Frank sovereigns had a precedence over
others. In our country there seems to be
sufficient evidence that the rite of anointing
at coronations can be traced, with certainty,
higher than in any other. Pepin was the
first king of the Franks who was anointed.
(Martene, de Ant. Ecc. Rit torn. ii. p. 213.)
But before the coronation of Pepin, the
pontifical of Archbishop Egbert (a.d. 737)
ordered the rite of unction at a coronation.
And long before this, in the earlier Britisb
Church, there is the testimony in Gildas,
" unguebantur reges, et non per Deum, sed
qui cseteris crudeliores exstarent: et paulo
post ab unctoribus, non pro veri examinati-
one, trucidabantur, aliis electis trucioribus."
(Hist. sec. 21.) For the consecration in such
a solemn manner we have evidence in the
Saxon Chronicle, following a more ancient
writer. " Egberth," it is said, " was hallowed
to king" — " rex est consecratus." (Stubbs'
Councils, vol. iii. p. 444.)
From those early times to the present,
great solemnity has been observed with
regard to the consecration and coronation of
sovereigns. As the consecration of chrism
has been discontinued since the Reformation,
the account of this part of James the
Second's coronation may be interesting.
Early in the morning the Dean of West
minster, with the assistance of the pre
bendaries, consecrated the holy oil for their
majesties' anointing. The dean happened
to be a bishop (the Bishop of Rochester),
and it may be supposed that at other times
the archbishop himself, or some other
bishop, would consecrate the oil. (Maskell,
Mon. Rit. ii., iii.) We have still the forms
used in the ancient times, from which our
Coronation Service (slightly modified from
time to time) is substantially derived. (See
Dr. Silver's Coronation Service, or Consecra
tion of the Anglo-Saxon Kings)
It is a form of immemorial prescription,
substantially the same as that used at the
inauguration of our Christian monarchs in
Saxon times, and sanctioned by the solemn
approval of all the estates of the realm,
the nobility, the clergy, and the people,
assembled at its celebration. The prayers
are framed in the best spirit of antiquity,

CORNET
with the rhythm so characteristic of prinuV
tive forms, and with an elevation and
majesty of sentiment unsurpassed in any
part of our liturgy. The service is, however,
peculiarly valuable, as recording certain
high religious and political principles, which
of course must be considered as receiving
the full sanction of the Church and nation.
Thus there is an acknowledgment of the
sovereignty of Christ over the whole world,
and the derivation of all kingly. power from
Him. " When you see this orb set under
the cross, remember that the whole world is
subject to the power and empire of Christ
our Redeemer. For He is the Prince of the
kings of the earth, King of kings, and Lord
of lords ; so that no man can reign happily,
who derives not his authority from Him,
and directs not all his actions according to
His laws." It is declared that Christian
sovereigns, like the Jewish kings of old, are
consecrated to the fulness of their office by
the religious right of unction, and that
their function is not merely secular. " Bless
and sanctify Thy chosen servant Victoria,
who by our office and ministry is now to be
anomted with this oil, and consecrated
Queen of this realm." There is a strict
recognition of the prerogative of the clergy,
empowered, as the ministers of Christ, to
assert the dominion of our Lord, who exalts
her to her holy dignity : " Stand firm and
hold fast from henceforth the seat and the
state of royal and imperial dignity, which is
this day delivered to you in the name and
by the authority of Almighty God, and by
the hands of us, the bishops and servants
of God, though unworthy : and as you see
us to approach nearer to God's altar, so
vouchsafe the more graciously to continue
to us your royal favour and protection.
And the Lord God Almighty, whose
ministers we are, and the stewards of His
mysteries, establish you therein in righteous
ness, that it may stand fast for evermore." —
Palmer. By ancient custom, the coronation of the
Sovereign of England belongs to the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, and that of the queen
consort to the Archbishop of York. The
place is Westminster Abbey, and under the
coronation chair is the sacred stone upon
which the kings of Scotland were crowned at
Scone, whence it was brought by Edward I.
(For Coronation Services, see Maskell, Mon.
Rit. ii. 1, and Coronation Service according
to the use of the Church of England, edited
by J. F. Russell, B.C.L., Pickering, 1875.)
PL] CORNET. A species of horn or trumpet
formerly much used in the Church service,
in the king's chapel especially. Dr. Rim-
bault, in his Notes on Roger North's Memoirs
of Music, states, that in the statutes of

CORPORAL
Canterbury cathedral provision is made for
players on sackbuts and cornets on high
festivals. After the Restoration, as appears
.from North's Life of Guildford, the cornet
was used at Durham and York cathedrals ;
¦and Matthew Lock says, that for about a
year after the opening of the Royal Chapel,
the cornet was used to supply the want of
treble voices.
Evelyn, in his Memoirs (21 Dec, 1663),
complains of violins being substituted in
¦the Royal Chapel " instead of the ancient,
grave, and solemn wind-music accompanying
the organ ; " and that " we no more heard
the comet, which gave life to the organ, that
instrument being quite left off, in which the
English were so skilful."
CORPORAL. This is the name given to
the linen cloth on which the elements are
consecrated in the Holy Communion. In
the Eastern Church it is called the veil. It
is mentioned in the Liturgy of St. Chry
sostom, and in the Sacramentary of St.
Gregory there is a prayer for its benediction.
It was of common use in the Chm-ch in the
fifth century, as is evident from the testimony
of Isidore of Pelusium, who observes that
the design of using it was to represent the
body of our Saviour being wrapped in fine
linen by Joseph of Arimathea; and in a
prayer for blessing the corporal, the words
occur, " sicut in sindone linea et munda
sepultam cognovimus carnem D. nostri I.
Christi, qui tecum vivit." (Martene, de Rit.
torn. ii. 248.) [H.]
The direction concerning this " fair linen
cloth " in our Order of the Holy Communion
is as follows : " When all have communi
cated, the minister shall return to the Lord's
table, and reverently place upon it what
remaineth of the consecrated elements,
covering the same with a fair linen cloth."
CORPO 11 ATION ACT. A statute passed
by the First Parliament of Charles II. , 1661,
which enacted that all officers of corpora
tions should receive the Sacrament of Holy
Communion, according to the rites of the
Church of England, within twelve months of
their appointment, on their election should
take the - oaths of supremacy, allegiance,
and non-resistance, and abjure the Solemn
League and Covenant. The Act was re
pealed in 1828, having long become a dead
letter. CORPUS CHRISTI, FEAST OF. A
Roman festival, instituted by Pope Urban
IV., a.d. 1264, and observed on the Thurs
day of the week after Pentecost. The insti
tution was the natural result of the accep
tance of the doctrine of transubstantiation.
The festival was established in honour of
the consecrated host, and with a view to its
adoration. (See Transubstantiation.)
i CORRODY. The. right of a founder or

COUNCILS

253

benefactor of a monastery to board and
lodging for himself or his family within the
religious house. Other privileges were also
sometimes included under this name, as
the education of the benefactor's- sons, and
the training of some of his servants.
CORSNED. (See Ordeal.)
COUNCILS. (See Synod.) General or
oecumenical councils, or synods, are assem
blies of bishops from all parts of the Church,
to determine some weighty controversies of
faith or discipline. Of such councils the
Catholic or Universal Church has never
received or approved more than six, although
the Roman Church acknowledges several
others. The first Catholic Comicil is that of
Nicaaa, which was convened by the Emperor
Constantine, a.d. 325, to terminate the
controversy raised by Arius, presbyter of
Alexandria, who denied the divinity of the
Son of God, maintaining that he was a
creature brought forth from nothing, and
susceptible of vice and virtue. The Council
condemned his doctrine as heretical, and
declared the faith of the Church in that
celebrated creed called the Nicene Creed,
which is repeated by us in the Communion
Service, and which has, ever since its pro
mulgation, been received and venerated by
the Universal Church, and even by many
sects and heretics. (See Nice.) The second
general council was that of Constantinople,
assembled by the Emperor Theodosius the
Elder, in 381, to appease the troubles of the
East. (See Constantinople.) The third
general council was assembled at Ephesus,
a.d. 431, by the Emperor Theodosius the
Younger, to determine the controversy
raised by Nestorius; bishop of Constanti
nople. By this council the Nestorian
heretics were condemned. (See Ephesus.)
The fourth general council was assembled by
the Emperor Marcian, in 451, at Chalcedon.
(See Chalcedon, Council of.) The fifth and
sixth general councils were held at Constan
tinople in 553 and 680. " These are the
only councils," says Mr. Palmer, "which
the Universal Church has ever received and
approved as general." The doctrine of these
general councils, having been approved and
acted on by the whole body of the Catholic
Church, and thus ratified by an universal
consent, which has continued ever since, is
irrefragably true, unalterable, and irreform-
able; nor could any Church forsake or
change the doctrine without ceasing to be
Christian. In the Act of the 1st of Elizabeth ....
the commissioners, in their judgment of
heresies, were enjoined to adhere, in the first
place, to, the authority of the canonical
Scriptures ; secondly, to the decisions of the
first four general councils; and thirdly, to
the decision of any other general council,

254

COUNSEL

founded on the express and plain words of
Holy Scripture. In this Act; one particular
deserves and demands very special attention ;
namely, the unqualified deference paid to
the first four general councils. The latest
of these councils sat and deliberated in the
year 451. A point of time, therefore, is
fixed, previously to which the Church
of England unreservedly recognises the
guidance of the Catholic Church, in the
interpretation of Christian verities. — Bishop
Jebb, Appendix to Practical Sermons.
Provincial councils consist of the metro
politan and the bishops subject to him.
Diocesan councils are assemblies of the
bishop and his presbyters to enforce canons
made by general or provincial councils, and
to consult and agree upon rules of discipline
for themselves. (For an account of the
Romish councils, see Lateran. For the
authority of councils in the Church of
England, see Heresy.)
COUNSEL. Besides the common sig
nification of the word, it is frequently used
in Scripture to signify the designs or purposes
of God, or the orders of His providence.
(Acts iv. 28, and Psalm Ixxiii. 24.) It also
signifies His will concerning the way of
salvation. (St. Luke vii. 30 ; Acts xx. 27.)
This word is also used by the doctors of
the Roman Church to denote those precepts
which they hold to be binding upon the
faithful, in virtue of an implied direction or
recommendation of our Lord andHis apostles.
Thus the celibacy of the clergy is numbered
by them among "evangelical counsels,"
which, receiving the acceptance of the
Church, they hold, heretically, to be equally
binding with the commands of canonical
Scripture. COURT CHRISTIAN. The ecclesiasti
cal courts are so designated. In the Church
of England there are six spiritual courts.
1. The Archdeacon's Court, which is the
lowest, aud is held in places where the
archdeacon, either by prescription or compo
sition, has jurisdiction in spiritual or ecclesi
astical causes within his archdeaconry. The
judge of this court is called the official of the
archdeaconry. 2. The Consistory Courts of the arch
bishops and bishops of every diocese, held
generally in their cathedral churches, for
trial of all ecclesiastical causes within the
diocese. The bishop's chancellor is the
judge. But their jurisdiction was very
much limited by the Clergy Discipline Act,
3 & 4 Vict.
3. The Court of Audience, which origi
nated in the personal jurisdiction of each
primate. 4. The Arches Court (so called because
anciently held in the arched church of St.
Mary (St. Maria de Arcubus) in Cheapside^

COUSINS-GERMAN
London) is that which has jurisdiction upon
appeal in all ecclesiastical causes. rJhe
judge is the official principal of both the-
archbishops by the Public Worship Act,
1874. 5. The Court of Peculiars, of the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, subservient to, and in
connection with, that of the Arches.
The Court of the Province of York, which
corresponds to the Court of Arches, and now
has the same judge, is called the Chancery
Court, though its judge is not the chancellor,
who is only the diocesan judge and vicar-
general of the archbishop for the province
also. 6. The Final Appeal Court, from both
provinces, is the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council, which was substituted for
the Privy Council itself in 1833, which was
substituted in 1832 for the unlimited
delegates appointed by the Crown for each
case, who had existed for exactly three
centuries; for they remained concurrently
with the Court of High Commission while it
lasted, which Queen Elizabeth was author
ised to establish by the first Act of her
reign, with the powers of all the ecclesiasti
cal courts. It was abolished by the Bill of
Rights or the Act 16 Car. I. c. 11, which was
re-enacted as to that by 13 Car. II. c. 12. It
was set up again illegally by James IL, and
again abolished or declared illegal by 1 W.
& M. sec. 2, c. 2. By the Clergy Discipline
Act, 1840, the bishops who are members of
the Privy Council, i.e. the archbishops and
the Bishop of London, were added to the
Judicial Committee for appeals under that
Act, and they were in practice summoned
as assessors in other ecclesiastical causes.
In 1873 Bishop Wilberforce got them
removed from the Judicial Committee by a
few words in the Judicature Act ; but in
1876, in another Judicature Act, all the
bishops were introduced as assessors ini
rotation, and three of them must sit even on-
questions of legal technicality or procedure,
of which they can know nothing nor be of
any use. It is unnecessary to speak of the
report of the Commission of 1883 on these
courts until something comes of it. [G.]
COUSINS-GERMAN. Intermarriage be
tween cousins-german was not prohibited by
the Jewish law, nor in the early ages of
Christianity. St. Augustine refers to such
as unadvisable, but not illegal. "With
regard to marriage between cousins," he
says, "we have observed that in our own
time the customary morality has prevented
this from being frequent, though the law
allows it. It was not prohibited by divine
law, nor as yet had human law prohibited
it; nevertheless, though legitimate, people
shrank from it, because it lay so close to
what was illegitimate, and in. marrying a

COVENANT
cousin scorned almost to marry a sister, for
cousins are so closely related that they are
called brothers and sisters, and are almost
really so." (City of God, xv. 16.)
In the " Trullan " Council, marriage with
an uncle's daughter was forbidden; and
later on, marriages of relations within the
•fifth, sixth, and even seventh degree were
prohibited. (See Affinity.) [H.]
COVENANT. A mutual agreement
between two or more parties. (Gen. xxi.
32.) In the Hebrew the word signifies :
1. A disposition, dispensation, institution, or
appointment of God to man. (Hebrews ix.
16, 17, 20.) 2. The religious dispensation
or institution which God appointed to
Abraham and the patriarchs. (St. Luke
i. 72 ; Acts iii. 25, vii. 8.) 3. The dispen
sation from Sinai. (Heb. viii. 9 ; Gal. iv. 24.)
4. The dispensation of faith and free justi
fication, of which Christ is the Mediator
(Heb. vii. 22 — viii. 6), and which is called
new in respect of the old or Sinai covenant
(2 Cor. iii. 6 ; Heb. viii. 8, 13— ix. 15), and
whence the New Covenant or Testament
became the title of the books in which this
new dispensation is cqntained. Into this
covenant we are admitted by union with
Christ; and into union with Christ all
infants, and such adults as are properly
qualified by faith and repentance, may be
admitted in holy baptism. (Gal. iii. 27.)
5. The old dispensation is used for the books
of Moses containing that dispensation by St.
Paul. (2 Cor. iii. 14.)
We renew our baptismal covenant in our
confirmation, and in each faithful participa
tion of the Eucharist.
COVENANT OF REDEMPTION. This
is said to be the mutual stipulation between
the everlasting Father and the co-eternal
Son, relating to the salvation of our fallen
race, previously to any act upon the part of
Christ under the character of Mediator.
That there was such a covenant, either tacit
or express, we may assuredly conclude, from
the importance of the work undertaken by
God the Son, and the awful sacrifice made
for its accomplishment. All the prophecies
which relate to what was to be done by the
Messiah on the one hand, and the benefits
and rewards which were to be conferred
upon Him and His people on the other, may
properly be considered as intimations of such
a covenant. (1 St. Pet. i. 11. Compare St.
John xvii. 1-5, 14— vi. 37 ; Tit. i. 2 ; 2 Tim.
i. 9 ; Eev. xiii. 8 ; Ps. lxxxix.T9.)
COVENANT. (See League and Cove
nant) COWL (cuculla, cucullus, cucullio), a large
hood worn by monks, prescribed by St.
Benedict, founder of the order which bears
his name, Reg. 55 and 62, where ho directs
that it shall be of a shaggy material for

CREDENCE

255

winter, and of a lighter texture for summer
wenr. But it seems to have been worn
before the time of Benedict by Eastern
monks and nuns. (Pallad. Hist. Laus. 38
and 41.) It covered the head and shoulders,
and was intended to be symbolical of
humility, being worn by infants, or else to
prevent the wearer from looking too freely
round about him. (Cass. Instit. \. 5 ; Sozom.
Hist. Eccles. iii. 13, 14.)
CRAMP-RINGS. A ring given by King
Edward (the Confessor) in his last illness to
the Abbot of Westminster was long pre
served as a relic, and applied to the cure of
nervous diseases. Afterwards kings, as well
as " touching " for the " king's evil," used,
on Good Friday, to bles3 rings for the same
purpose, and these were called "cramp-
rings." "The king's majesty," we are told in
Borde's Breviarie, "hath a greate helpe
in the matter, in halowing cramp-rings, and
so given without money or petition." There
was an office in English for the blessing off
the cramp-rings, .which is given by Mr.
Maskell from a MS. in his possession ; but
it was never used after the Reformation,
although it was revised and prepared for use-
in the reign of James II. A Latin form of
the office, similar to what had been used by
Henry VIII., was prepared for Queen Mary
in 1554. Though the blessing of the rings,
with a religious service, no longer exists, the
tradition remains; and in the north of
England, and in Sweden especially, persons
wear rings to avert cramp or rheumatism.— r
Wilkins' Concil. iv. p. 103 ; Pegge's Curi-
alia Misc. ; Maskell, Mon. Rit. iii. 383. [H.]
CREDENCE, or CREDENTIAL. A
table or shelf near the altar, on which the
bread and wine to be used in the Eucharist
are placed, previously to consecration, called
in the Greek Church, rpdircfa irpodeaeas,
mensa proposition-is. The table of Prothesis-
in the Greek Church is placed in a side
vestry; and here many prefatory prayers
and ceremonies are performed, before the'
priest goes into the chancel. The word.
"credence" appears to be derived from the
Italian credenzare, to taste meats and
drink before they were offered to be enjoyed).
by another; an ancient court practice,
which was performed by the cup-bearers-
and carvers, who for this reason were also-
called in German credenzer. Hence, also,
the credenz-teller — credence-plate, on whicR
cup-bearers credenced the wine; and, in
general, a plate on which a person offers-
anything to another : credenz-tisch, credence-
table, a sideboard, an artificial cupboard with.
a table for the purpose of arranging in order
and keeping the drinking apparatus therein.
(See Adelung's German Dictionary, word
" Credenzen.") This table or shelf is used.

256

CREED

for the more convenient observance of the
rubric following the Offertory sentences, in
which it is directed : " And when there is a
communion, the priest shall then place
upon the table so much bread and wine as
he shall think sufficient." Though credences
were declared illegal by the Court of Arches
in Lichfield v. Faulkner, that judgment
was practically reversed by the Privy
Council in Liddell v. Westerton, and they
are now very common.
CREED. By the word creed (from credo,
I believe) is meant the substance of the
Christian's faith. There are three creeds
recognised by the Catholic Church — the
Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the
Athanasian Creed. The Latin name for
creed is symbolum, which signifies a watch
word, or signal in war. Ludolph of Saxony,
in his Life of Christ, describes the creeds of
the Catholic Church thus : " There are
three symbols (watchwords or tokens, such
as are ttsed among soldiers of a garrison,
to recognise their comrades, and to detect
insidious intruders), the first of the Apostles,
the second of the Nicene Council, the third
of St. Athanasius ; the first for instruction
in the faith, the second for the explanation
of the faith, the third for defence of the
faith." Three in name, but one in fact, and
which, except a man believe faithfully, he
cannot be saved.
The cause of a gradual adoption of a series
of creeds is simply this : the truth being
but one and unvarying, the plain assertion
of it is, in the first instance, all that is
necessary, all that can be done for it ; and
this was done by the Apostles' Creed. Error,
on the other hand, is multiform ; and conse
quently, as error upon error continued to
rise, correctives, unthought of before, were
to be found to meet the exigency : hence
the Nicene Creed. Again, subsequent to
that, new errors were broached, the old were
revived, clever evasions of the terms of the
existing creeds were invented, the vehemence
of opponents was increased ; but all desiring
still, with all their mischievous errors, to be
within the pale of the Chm-ch, it became
still more imperatively necessary to fence in
the Church from such dangers : and the
creed called that of St. Athanasius was
compiled from the logical forms of expression
which prevail in his writings, and those of
similar champions of the Catholic faith, and
was very soon adopted by the Church as an
additional bulwark to preserve that faith in
its original integrity and purity. Luther
calls this creed "the bulwark of the
Apostles' Creed."
It is a mistake to imagine that creeds
were at first intended to teach, in full and
explicit terms, all that should be necessary
to be believed by Christians. They were

CREED, APOSTLES*
designed rather for hints and minutes of the
main credenda, to be recited by catechumens
before baptism; and they were purposely
contrived short, that they might be the more
easily retained in memory, and take up the
less time in reciting. Creeds very probably,
at first, were so far from being paraphrases
or explications of the form of baptism (or of
Scripture texts), that they went no farther,
or very little farther, than the form itself,
and wanted as much explaining and para
phrasing, in order to be rightly and distinctly
understood, as any other words or forms
could do. Hence it was that the cate
chumens were to be instructed in the
creed, previously to baptism, for many days
together. As heresies gave occasion, new
articles were inserted; not that they were
originally of greater importance than any
other articles omitted, but the opposition
made to some doctrines rendered it the more
necessary to insist upon an explicit belief
and profession of them. — Waterland's Ser
mons on the Divinity of Christ.
CREED, THE APOSTLES'. The great
creed of the West. I. This is a type of the
simplest kind of creed, growing up freely,
and with local variations, out of the Bap
tismal Confession: originally preserved by
oral recitation, and not written; having in
itseff no polemical purpose, and no anathema
appended to it ; but intended only to bring
out with clearness, simplicity, and due pro
portion, the essential rudiments of the
Christian faith. It is the creed accepted
by our Church in Baptism, taught in the
Catechism, used daily in the Services, and
taken as the test of Christian faith in the
dying (see Visitation of Sick) ; as containing
the absolute essentials of true Christianity.
II. History.- — Of creeds we have embryo
formations in Scripture (see 1 Cor. xv. 3-8 ;
Heb. vi. 1, 2; 1 Tim. iii. 16), in which
doctrine is moulded into a formal definite
shape. It seems impossible to doubt that
the Apostles had some " form " of creed, and
there is a tradition that each Apostle con
tributed an article, beginning -with St. Peter
and ending with St. Matthias (Aug. de
Tempore Ser. 115). But the words as
signed to St. Matthias, " the life everlast
ing," are clearly proved to have been added
at a comparatively late period ; and the same
maybe said of the article on the descent into
hell (Hades) assigned to St. Thomas. —
Pearson on Creed, art. v. 225.
" But though," says Lord Chancellor King,
" this Creed be not of the Apostles' imme
diate framing, yet it may be truly styled
apostolical, not only because it contains
the sum of the Apostles' doctrine, but
also because the age thereof is so great,
that its birth must be fetched from the
very apostolic times. It is true, the exact

CREED, APOSTLES'
form of the present Creed cannot pretend
to be so ancient by four hundred years ;
but a form, not much different from it,
was used long before. Irenaaus, the scholar
of Polycarp, the disciple of St. John, where
he repeats a creed not much unlike to ours,
assures us, that 'the Church, dispersed
throughout the whole world, had received
this faith from the Apostles and their
disciples ; ' which is also affirmed by Ter
tullian, that 'the rule of faith had been
current in the Church from the beginning
of the Gospel : ' and, which is observable,
although there was so great a diversity of
creeds, as that scarce two Churches did
exactly agree therein, yet the form and
substance . of every creed was in a great
measure the same ; so that, except there
had been, from the very plantation of
Christianity, a form of sound words, or a
system of faith, delivered by the first
planters thereof, it is not easy to conceivo
how all Churches should harmonize, not
only in the articles themselves into which
they were baptized, but, in a great measure
also, in the method and order of them."
(History of the Apostles' Creed: which G.
Olearius translated into Latin and published,
Leips. 1704.)
The words of Irenasus, who wrote about
a.d. 180, here referred to, are not a creed,
but a summary of Christian doctrine, re
sembling, indeed, our Creed in many of the
expressions. The Creed originally was not
allowed to be written, but was to be learnt,
as is evident from many passages in the
early writers. Thus St. Augustine says,
" The handling of the faith is of service for
the protection of the Creed ; not, however,
that this should itself be given instead of
the Creed, [which is to be] committed to
memory, and repeated by those who are
receiving the grace of God, but that it may
guard the matters which are retained in the
Creed against the insidious assaults of the
heretics, by means of Catholic Authority,
and a more entrenched defence." (On Faith
and the Creed, c. i.) Irenasus's summary
may be translated, " The Church, dispersed
as it is, holds one faith received from the
Apostles and their followers— the belief in
one God the Father Almighty, Maker of
heaven and earth, the sea, and all things in
them : and in one Christ Jesus the Son of
God, who was incarnate for our salvation ;
and in the Holy Ghost, who by the prophets
proclaimed the dispensation and advent of
our dear Lord, and his birth of a Virgin,
and His suffering, and his Resurrection, and
His Ascension in the flesh, into heaven, aud
His coming again from heaven in the Glory
of the Father, to sum up all things, and to
raise up all flesh of the whole human race."
(Lib. i. cc. i., ii., and iii.) Origen, some

CREED, APOSTLES*

257

forty years later, gave another such form of
apostolical doctrine, in his books of Chris
tian Principles (irep\ dpx&v), and Tertul-
lian's words, to which reference is made by
Lord Chancellor King as quoted above, re
semble very closely our Creed, though not
in that form (De Veland. Virgin, c. i. ; also
de Prsascript advers. Hseret. cc. 13, 14, and
elsewhere). From St. Cyprian's writings it appears
that a creed used in his time (248-258)
embraced belief in the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Ghost, together with the forgive
ness of sins, and the life everlasting. (Ep.
lxix., ad Magnum ; Ep. lxx., ad Episc.
Numid. &c.) With this is to be compared
the treatise de Trinitate of Novatian about
ten years later, in which traces of a similar
creed are to be found (Migne, vol. iii. p. 886).
Socrates gives an account of a creed written
by Lucian, a presbyter of Antioch, cir. 311
(H. E. ii. 10). A few years afterwards
came the great Council of Nicsea (see Creed,
Nicene). But in the West the teaching
long continued : " Symbolum non in tabulis
scribitur, sed in corde receptum memoriter
retinetur" (Mabillon, de Lit Gall. 340).
The first written creed in the West is one
which Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, in Ga
latia, set forth in a letter to Pope Julius I.,
to testify the purity of his faith, for he
had been banished through the influence
of the Arians. As it was accepted, and
Marcellus was received into communion
by the Pope, it may be supposed that it
was in accordance with the Creed used at
Rome ; and indeed it is very similar to the
" Apostles' Creed " in form. Ruffinus, or
Rufinus (who asserts that this Creed had
never been written before in a continuous
form), a priest of Aquileia, has preserved
the two versions of the Creed used re
spectively in the Churches of Rome and
Aquileia in his day, a.d. 390 (Ruffin. Expos.
de Symbol.).
In the Aquileian Creed the words "in
visible and impassible" occur after "tho
Father Almighty;" and in the sentence on
the resurrection, the word " this " is inserted
— " hujus carnis resurrectionis." In the
Roman form the words " descended into
hell" are not found: in neither Creed,
" Maker of heaven and earth ; " which are
first found in two baptismal creeds of the
Gallican Church. (Heurtley's Harm. Symb.
pp. 68, 110.)
The clauses "conceived by the Holy
Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary " ; " suffered,
dead"; "God (the Father) Almighty";
" the communion of Saints " ; " the li fe ever
lasting " ; and the word " Catholic," were also
later additions. The exact words of the
Creed, as at present used, are first to bo
found, it is said, in a work by Pirminius, a
s

258

CREED, APOSTLES'

bishop in Gaul, about 750. (Tbis is
published by Mabillon from an ancient
MS., "Libellus Pirminii de singulis libris
Canonicis scarapsus " ( ? " scriptus ").
The following list shows the gradual
stages in the form of the Apostles' Creed.
(1) Cyprian, a.d. 250, wrote, " I believe in
God the Father, in Christ the Son, in the
Holy Ghost, through the Holy Church."
(2) Novatian, in a.d. 2,60, added "Al
mighty" after "Father"; "Jesus" before
" Christ" ; " our Lord God " after the " Son."
(3) Marcellus' Creed (a.d. 341) was, " I
believe, in God Almighty and in Jesus
Christ His only begotten Son our Lord,
from the Holy Ghost born, and Mary the
Virgin ; under Pontius Pilate crucified and
buried: and on the third day rose again
from the dead, ascended in heaven, and
sitteth on the right hand of the Father,
from thence He shall come to judge the
quick and the dead ; and in the Holy Ghost,
the Holy Church, the forgiveness of sins ;
the resurrection of the body ; the ife ever
lasting." (4) Rufinus (see above), a.d.
390 ; Augustine of Hippo, a.d. 400 ; Nicetas,
a.d. 450, who added the word " Catholic " ;
Eusebius GalRiSj circ. a.d. 550, who inserted
the words " was conceived by " ; " dead,"
aiid " the Communion of Saints " ; 'all have
forms with httle variation ; and (5) finally
we have Pirminius' Apostolic Creed, a.d.
750, in the same form as it at present exists.
A creed in Saxon characters is preserved
at the end of Athelstan's Psalter, which
has omissions similar to those of Aquileia ;
and is. of great antiquity. ' A large number
of Early English versions areextant, differing,
of course, in words and spelling, but similar
in substance. Several are given from MSS.
in the British Museum, &c, by Mr. Maskell
(Mon. Rit. iiL 251 seq., ed. 1882).
III. ¦ It is impossible to trace when the
Apostolic Creed was . introduced into the
daily services of the Church. Amalarius,
a deacon of Metz (circ. 820), speaks of the
creed as used in the office of Prime. This
was not necessarily the extended form of
Pirminius;' but after a time that became
the accepted form*
In the early English Church the Apostles'
Creed' was used at prime : later on it was
said by the choir before the lessons at
Matins* and inaudibly (except the last
clause), by the priest at the commencement
of prime and compline. Guignonius (see
Breviary) directed that the Apostles' Creed
should' be used on all days except Sunday,
and the Athanasian Creed on Sundays. The
Prayer Book of 1549 directs the Apostles'
Creed to be said by the minister; that of
1552 by the minister and people. It is to
be said or sung standing. (See also East.)
The American Liturgy has this rubric

CREED, ATHANASIAN
before the Creed : " and any Church may
omit the words ' He descended into hell,'
or may instead of them use the words
' He went into the place of departed spirits,'
which are considered as words of the same
meaning in the Creed ; " and it also allows
the Nicene Creed to be used instead of ^he
Apostles' Creed., (See Smith and Wace, Did.
Eccles. Biog., &c, p. 695 seq. ; also Dict^
Christ. Antiq. ; Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim^
i. 71, 457; Bingham, bk. x. 3; Bishop
Barry's P. B. ; Blunt's Annot P. B. i. 36;
Dr. Lumby in S. P. C. K. Prayer Book;.
Heurtley's Harmonia Symbolica.) [H.]
CREED, THE ATHANASIAN. _
this article it is proposed to treat succinctly
of, I. The language in which the Creed was
originally written; II. Date; III. Author
ship ; IV. Titles ; V. Use and receptionin the
Church Catholic ; VI. Use and reception in
the Church of England in modern times.
, I. , 2'he original Language. — On this
point the following passage from Waterland
is conclusive: "Ihe style and phraseology j
of the Creed ; its early reception among- the j
Latins, while unknown to the Greeks ; the
antiquity and number of the Latin manu
scripts, and their agreement (for the most
part) with each other, compared with the
lateness, scarceness, and disagreement of the
Greek copies, all concur to demonstrate that
this Creed was originally a Latin composurji '
rather than a Greek one : and as to any
other language besides these two none is
pretended." (Waterland's Critical History
of the Atlianasian Creed, p. 66. Oxford
edition, 1870.) To these reasons for be
lieving in a Latin original it might be added;
as, if possible, a still more cogent argument,
that much of the terminology of the Creedin
reference both to the Trinity and the In
carnation is distinctly Augustinian, obviously
drawn from the writings of the great Father
of Western Theology, while at the same
time it contains several expressions which
are no less clearly traceable to another Lathi
Father— St. Vincent of Lerins. In proof of
this it is sufficient to refer to the parallel
passages, which have been arranged-/ by
Waterland side by side with the Creed, and
at the bottom of the page. (Ibid. pp. 176-
191.) II. The Date. — We may arrive at an
approximate determination of this pointi
Within the necessary limits of thepresent
article it would be impossible to attempt a
full and adequate exposition of the argument
from external and internal evidence, by
which the antiquity of the Quicunque
vult may be proved. We can do little
more than give a general outline of it.
There is abundant and clear evidence that
at the commencement of the ninth century
the Athanasian Creed was nqt only, extant

CREED, ATHANASIAN
In its entirety, as we now have it, but was
used in the offices of the Church, and was
commonly regarded as the genuine work of
St. Athanasius. And these two facts would
alone establish for it a previous existence of
some considerable duration. The people of
the ninth century would not have believed
a document, which they knew to be the
product of their own age, or of an age
shortly preceding their own, to be the com
position of a man who had died more than
four hundred years before ; nor would a
formulary be recited in the services of the
Church immediately after its construction.
It must first become known and gain esteem
and credit and authority : and this is the
work of time. Considering the great scarcity
•of MSS. earlier than the ninth century,
which have survived the wreck of a thou
sand years and more, to expect to find
numerous copies of the Athanasian Creed,
which can claim such a remote antiquity,
would be unreasonable. But there are four
¦extant codices of it, which have been
assigned by competent authorities to the
eighth century. That there should be so
many, is alone a proof of its antiquity. A
fifth belonging to the same period, which
was extant in the last century, is probably
uow lost. Of the four MSS. at present
•extant three are placed at the close of the
century, and of these three one is imperfect
owing to mutilation. The fourth is the
only one which requires any special notice
.at present, because it is the earliest known
MS. of the Creed. It is deposited in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan. Muratori,
¦who was custodian of the library at the end
of the seventeenth century, confidently
assigned it to the close of the seventh
¦century; Montfaucon believed it to have
been written in the eighth ; and the present
learned librarian agrees with Montfaucon as
to the date. No palseographical authority
has ever placed it later, than the eighth
century. The Creed is introduced without
any title, and is given in its entirety with
•certain verbal variations, some of which,
being evidently the result of mere careless
ness on the part of the scribe, are an obvious
proof that he was transcribing from an
•earlier copy. There is another MS. of the
eighth century, as it is universally judged
to be, which cannot be passed by in silence ;
for, though not a copy of the Quicunque, it
•supplies distinct evidence of its high an
tiquity. It is commonly, but most in
accurately, spoken of as the Colbertine MS.
of the Athanasian Creed. It was once the
property of the minister Colbert, and is now
in , the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris; it
contains a collection of canons. Among, the
contents appears a fragment, found by the
scribe, according to his own statement, at

CREED, ATHANASIAN

259

Treves, of a sermon, which was evidently
addressed to Catechumens at the Traditio
Symboli previous to baptism : for there is
an express reference to this ceremony. This
document, without actually quoting the
Quicunque, bears a sufficiently close re
semblance to it, notwithstanding large va
riations, to show that the preacher was well
acquainted with our Creed. He appears to
have known it by heart, and accordingly
adapts its language for teaching the doctrine
of the Incarnation, amplifying and altering
to suit the occasion. Not less than thirteen
verses are thus made use of. Now the date
of the Paris manuscript, and that of the
sermon, of which it preserves a fragment,
are obviously two distinct matters. The
sermon must have been composed and
preached some considerable time before it
was found in a fragmentary state at Treves
by the writer of tbe Paris MS. We cannot
suppose it to be later than the seventh
century, and it may not improbably have
been a work of the sixth. But whenever it
was composed, the Athanasian Creed, being
obviously well known to the preacher, must
have been then in existence, and probably
had been so for some time ; otherwise it
would not have been so familiar to theo
logians of the day. So that this MS. carries
up the existence of the Creed certainly to
the early part of the seventh century,
probably earlier. Though we cannot pro
duce any MS. of the Quicunque of a date
prior to the eighth century, we are able to
point to yet more ancient testimonies of its
use or existence. Such is the Canon of
Autun enacted about a.d. 670, at a synod
which was presided over by Leodegar, or
St. Leger, bishop of that city. This canon
enjoins the correct recital of the Creed by
the clergy, and, it is particularly to be noted,
describes it as " The Faith of the Holy
Athanasius Prelate;" There is a com
mentary extant on the Quicunque, which
may with good reason be assigned to the
beginning of the eighth century or the close
of the seventh. This we shall by and by
refer to as the Oratorian Commentary, by
which title it has been described. (See
Early History of the Athanasian Creed, by
G. D. W. Ommanney, pp. 32, 33.) Another,
from its emphatic allusions to the two wills
and two operations in our Lord's person,
appears to belong to the period when the
Monothelete controversy was raging — the
middle of the seventh century or a little
after. This has been described as the
Troyes Commentary. (Ibid. pp. 32, 33.)
In regard to a third— the commentary which
has been commonly attributed, though upon
uncertain grounds, to Venantius Fortunatus
—the absence of any of the terms peculiar
to that controversy, together with other
s 2

260

CREED, ATHANASIAN

internal evidence, points to the beginning of
the seventh century or the close of the sixth
as the epoch which produced it. (See
Athanasian Creed: Reasons for rejecting
Mr. Foulkes's theory as to its Age and
Author, by Professor Heurtley ; also Early
History of the Athanasian Creed, by G. D.
W. Ommanney, pp. 36, 37, and Athanasian
Creed: Examination of recent Theories re
specting its Date and Origin, by the same
writer, pp. 279-281.) Our last testimony
belongs to the sixth century. The Bal-
lerini brothers cite a canon or rather
capitulum from an Epistola Canonica, which
according to those learned canonists was
well known at the beginning of that century
— requiring the clergy to learn by heart the
"Fides Catholica" (Editorum Observationes
III. de Auctore Symboli Quicunque in
Galland's Sylloge Dissertationum, torn, i.);
and they contend, that by this title nothing
but the Athanasian Creed could be meant,
inasmuch as the laity were obliged to. learn
the Apostles' Creed by heart, and the Nicene
was commonly called " Fides Nicena."
It is essential to notice that the preface to
the Oratorian Commentary speaks of the
Quicunque as being attributed to St. Athana
sius in old manuscripts. These codices,
which were considered old at the beginning
of the eighth century, could not be supposed
to be later than the conclusion of the sixth
century, and what they contained must
have been the entire Creed, as we have it
at the present day, the whole of it being
quoted verse by verse in this Commentary.
Thus from the testimonies prior to the
eighth century it appears that the Athana
sian Creed was in the seventh century the
subject of commentaries, and of a local
canon, which enjoined its recital upon the
clergy, that so early as the latter part of
the sixth, century it was regarded as the
work of St. Athanasius, and at the com
mencement of the same century was
ordered by an ecclesiastical document of
authority to be learnt by the clergy by
heart. What is the inevitable conclusion,
but that it was not composed later than the
middle 'of the fifth century? It must be
borne in mind that a Commentary necessarily
implies the pre-existence of some duration
of the document, forming its subject-matter.
And similarly the Creed must have been
produced some time before it became the
subject of a canonical injunction, and was
ascribed to a wrong authorship.
The conclusion thus arrived at upon
external grounds is confirmed by internal evi
dence. Waterland argues from the absence
of any express mention in the Quicunque of
the two natures of Our Lord, and from its
use of an illustration respecting them which
was driven out by the Eutychian contro-

<REED, ATHANASIAN
versy, that h must have been drawn up-
before the Coiucil of Chalcedon, a.d. 451.
A comparison oi our Creed with the Defi
nition of Faith adored at that council may
convince any one tii the truth of this
position. The doctrinal terninology of the
former document is clearly priest*.- that of
the latter. For the most part, as*?. M«m
been already remarked, it is distinctly
Augustinian. On the other hand, the fact
that the language of the Creed is largely
drawn from the writings of St. Augustine,,
is an obvious proof that it was composed
subsequently to the latest work of that
Father, from which its materials were
derived. Hence the date of the Quicunque-
is determined, as on the one side not being
later than a.d. 451, and on the other not
earlier probably thaii 428, about which year
the second book against Maximinus, which
seems to have been one of the sources of the
Creed, was issued, certainly not earlier than
420, to which the Enchiridion and the
completion of the work on the Trinity may
be approximately assigned. St. Augustine
died in 430.
III. The Authorship. — The Athanasian-
Creed being of Latin origin, and its phrase
ology being largely drawn from the writings
of St. Augustine, it follows that it cannot be-
a genuine work of the illustrious champion
of the Catholic Faith, with whose name it is-
associated, and to whom it was universally
ascribed during the Middle Ages. Since it
ceased to be considered the composition of
Athanasius, it has been attributed to several
Latin writers, to Vigilius Tapsensis by Quesnel
and Pagi and Bingham, to St. Vincent of
Lerins by Antelmi, to VenantiusFortunatus'
by Muratori, to St. Hilary of Aries by
Waterland, and to Victricius, bishop of
Rouen, by the late Mr. Harvey. To St.
Vincent of Lerins alone are there any pro
bable reasons for assigning it. He flourished
at the very period, to which, as we have seen,
both external and internal evidence point as
the period of its composition, his Com-
monitorium being written in the year 434,
and his death occurring in 450 ; and there
is no writer of that epoch to whom it can
be attributed with equal reason. He was a
native and a monk of Gaul, which was pro
bably the birthplace of the Creed, a writer
upon dogmatic theology, and as a Gallicajai
theologian he would be well acquainted
with the writings of St. Augustine, whose
language is largely reproduced in the
Quicunque. But in addition to all this,
there is a special reason for connecting it
with the author of the Commonitoriumt
inasmuch as both in the part relating to the
Trinity and in that relating to the Incarna-'
tion it contains several expressions which
are to be found in that work, but do not

CREED, ATHANASIAN
occur in St. Augustine. That these ex
pressions should have been drawn from St.
Vincent's work and inserted in the Creed by
another hand must appear veiy improbable,
if we believe it to have been composed not
later than a.d. 451. The only alternative
is that the author of the Commonitorium
was also the author of the Quicunque. Still,
.though highly probable, this cannot be
affirmed with certainty.
IV. Titles. — In the earliest known extant
MS. of the Athanasian Creed, already men
tioned as belonging to the Ambrosian Library
at Milan, it appears without any title. Nor
has it any in a Paris MS. of the end of the
eighth century. In the Epistola Canonica,
assigned by the Ballerini, as previously
stated, to the early part of the sixth century,
it is called " Fides Catholica," and this is
;the title in the famous Utrecht Psalter, the
date of which has been the subject of a
remarkable difference of opinion among
palaeographers, some referring it to the sixth
^century, others not considering it older than
Jthe eighth or ninth : this title is also found
in the Oxford MS. of Fortunatus' Commen
tary, and in a Wolfenbiittel MS. both of the
ninth century, and occasionally in later MSS.
.This is probably the oldest title. Much
;more frequently it is expressly assigned to
|(vthanasius, as in the Canon of Autun, where
it is described as " Fides sancti Athanasi pre-
^sulis ; " and in ancient MSS., particularly
-Psalters, it is commonly designated by such
titles as " Fides sancti Athanasii episcopi,"
or "Fides Catholica sancti Athanasii epi-
fecopi," or " Fides dicta a sancto Athanasio
Sbpiscopo," or the like. Sometimes, but with
comparative rarity, the term " Sermo " is
applied to it. The earliest instance of this
is to be found in a canon or capitulum of a
synod held at Rheims, in 852, under Hincmar,
where it is described as " Sermo Athanasii de
,fide." The earliest instances known to the
|.writer of its being called " Hymnus " are of
,the tenth century, in two Psalters, both
written in England, one belonging to the
-British Museum, the other to the Cathedral
Library at Salisbury. In both it has the
same title: "Hymnus Athanasii de Fide
Trinitatis." Still later was the introduction
cf the word " Psalmus" in relerence to it in
(the title " Psalmus Quicunque vult." The
.writer is not aware of any instance of this
.previous to the thirteenth century. It
should be borne in mind that there is
nothing inconsistent with its position as a
-Creed in any of these terms, whether sermo
or hymnus or psalmus. No specific in
stance of " symbolum " being used in
.reference to it can apparently be adduced
earlier than the twelfth century ; but from
the thirteenth century downwards it is
commonly described as " Symbolum Qui-

CREED, ATHANASIAN 261
cunque," or "Symbolum Athanasii," and
classed as one of the three symbols, particu
larly in Breviaries. In the Sarum Breviary
it is headed "Symbolum Athanasii," and
in the Roman Breviary " Symbolum S.
Athanasii." Waterland is certainly mistaken
in saying that Hincmar speaks of the
Athanasian Creed as a " Symbolum " (Water-
land's Critical History, chap. xi. p. 28,
Oxford edit. 1870), the Confession of Faith
to which he alludes not being the Quicunque,
but a confession entitled "Fides Roma-
norum," sometimes attributed to Athanasius.
It is however very remarkable that in
Psalters of the Ambrosian rite, which is
highly interesting not only on account of its
great antiquity, but because it is in living
use at the present day, the Quicunque is
headed simply " Symbolum."
V. Reception and use. — It may be safely
asserted that the Athanasian Creed has been
received and used in the Western Church
for more than a thousand years. We do
not mean to claim for it an universal recep
tion and use even in the West for so long a
period : for necessarily it was received and
used in some countries and local Churches
earlier than in others. To suppose that
uniformity of ritual was generally prevalent
in ancient times is a fallacy. The use and
reception of the Quicunque, which had been
partial previously, appears to have become
general in the ninth century, and universal
throughout Western Christendom at the
close of the eleventh. To expect full and
exact information respecting its history in
the early ages of its existence would be un
reasonable, considering the extent of our
ignorance as to those ages and how very few,
comparatively speaking, of the MSS. which
they produced have survived to our times.
The evidence is but limited and imperfect,
and it could not be otherwise. But so far as
it goes, it is of real value.
That the Athanasian Creed was received
and used in the offices of the Church in
Northern Italy at an early period, appears
probable from the mere fact of its use being
enjoined by the Ambrosian rite, having
regard to the great antiquity of that rite.
But we have direct evidence that this was
the case as early as the sixth century in the
Epistola Canonica — a document issued by
authority apparently in some province or
diocese of North Italy.
It has been already noticed that the Com
mentary of Fortunatus may be assigned
to the end of the sixth century or the be
ginning of the seventh, the Troyes to the
middle of the seventh, and the Oratorian to
the end of the seventh or the early part of
the ei°\hth. These Commentaries most
probably were all drawn up in Gaul. And
if the Athanasian Creed was made the sub-

262

CREED, ATHANASIAN

ject of commentaries in Gaul in the seventh
century, it must have been known and
received in that country as a work of
authority, and a true exposition of the
Catholic Faith in the sixth century, if not
earlier. Comments are not written upon
new and unaccredited documents, but upon
those which are highly and generally es
teemed for their intrinsic value, or as being
invested with the character of antiquity or
the sanction of authority. By the Canon of
Autun we are led to believe that the Qui
cunque was recited in the Church service
in the seventh century, at least in one
diocese of Gaul. For why should the
clergy have been required to learn it by
heart, but that they might say or sing it
in the Church offices ? Of its use and re
ception in Gaul from the time of Charle
magne downwards, the evidence from extant
MSS., especially Psalters, and Canons, and
the testimonies of writers by way of quota
tion or allusion or mention, is clear and
abundant. In our limited space it would
be impossible to notice it in detail.
With regard to Germany, the Treves
fragment would appear to indicate that the
Athanasian Creed must have been in the
hands of theologians, at least in that city
and its neighbourhood, so early as the
seventh century. Of its use and reception
in Germany in the ninth century, we have
evidence — in a capitulum or canonical
injunction of Hatto or Ahyto, bishop of
Basle, about -a.d. 820, requiring the recital
of the Creed by the clergy at the service of
prime — in a series of capitula, also enjoining
its use, which were drawn up within the
dominions of the Emperor Lothair, for the
dominions of Lothair, it must be remembered,
were co-extensive at one period with those
of his grandfather, Charlemagne, and even
after the treaty of Verdun a.d. 843, by
which they were limited, they still em
braced part of Germany, having the Rhine
for their eastern boundary — in a costly
Psalter, still extant, which was written in
honour of the same emperor, and which
includes the Quicunque among its contents
(Early History of the Athanasian Creed, by
G<D. W. Ommanney,' p. 144, also pp. 167-
70) — in a German translation of our Creed
made about the middle of the century by
a monk of Wissemburg (Catechesis Theo-
tisca. Eccard., Hanov. 1713), such a trans-
ation into the vernacular being a clear
proof of its popular and long-established use
— in the admonition of Anschar, archbishop
of Hamburg and Bremen, addressed to his
clergy about a.d. 865, that they should sing
it — in the Constitutions of Regino, abbot of
Prum, which were drawn up at the begin
ning of the tenth century, and were clearly
founded on previously existing usage, one

CREED, ATHANASIAN
of them enjoining enquiry to be mad*
whether the clergy were in the habit of
learning it by heart. In the Imperial
Library at Vienna is a magnificent Psalter;.
containing the Quicunque, which is stated
upon the authority of ancient records to
have been presented by Charlemagne, a.d.
788, to the Church of Bremen.
That the Athanasian Creed was known
and received in England in the eighth cen
tury, we have proof in the profession1 of
faith made by Denebert, a.d. 798, on his
consecration to the bishopric of Worcester,
in which he quotes several verses of the;
Creed, and adopts them as the expression of
his own faith on the subject of the Trinity;
Of the use of the Quicunque in the offices
of the English Church prior to the Norman
Conquest there are visible memorials in
Psalters still extant, written in England, in
which it is found accompanied with an
Anglo-Saxon gloss or version. Three such
Psalters are remaining, which are assigned;
to the tenth century, one being in the
British Museum, another in the Lambeth
Library, the third in the Cathedral Library
at Salisbury. Abbo of Fleury in the same
century refers to the Creed as being sung
responsively in the Church of England as
well as in France.
It is remarkable that the oldest known
MS. of the Athanasian Creed is written in
an Irish hand. Before it was transferred at
the beginning of the seventeenth century
to its present domicile, the Ambrosian
Library at Milan, the codex containing this-
copy was the property of the monastery of
Bobbio in North Italy, which was founded
by the Irish Saint Columbanus a.d. 613'-
Being in an Irish hand, it must clearly have
been written in Ireland, as Dr. Ceriani, the
Ambrosian librarian, thinks most probable,
or in one of the monastic offshoots of the
Irish Church whether in Great Britain or on
the Continent. The circumstance points
directly to the inference, that our Creed was-
known and esteemed by the early Irish
Church, a point of great interest, considering
the independent position of that Church, the
peculiarities of its organization and ritual,.
and its great missionary activity. And
this is confirmed by another Irish MS., in
which the Creed appears, a Book of Hymns,
at present deposited in the church of the
Franciscans on Merchants' Quay, Dublin,
and written, in the judgment of Dr. Reeves
of Armagh, not later than a.d. 1100. (See-
Appendix by Dr. Reeves to a Sermon by
the late Archdeacon Lee, on the Athanasian-
Creed.) Of the early use and reception of the
Athanasian Creed in Rome and Central Italy
we have no precise information ; but it is
impossible to suppose that it was introduced

CREED, ATHANASIAN
there later than the tenth century, consider
ing that it is found in Psalters both of the
Roman or Gregorian and of the Benedictine
or Monastic rite, -considering also the close
intercommunion which existed in the early
Middle Ages between Rome and countries
where we have evidence of the Creed being
received and used at that period.
The Athanasian Creed not being found
in Psalters of the Mozarabic rite, would
appear not to have been used in the offices
of the Spanish Church until the latter part
of the eleventh century, when that rite was
superseded in Spain by the Gallican.
In the Western Church this Creed has
been always sung at prime, which is properly
the service to be said at seven in the morn
ing. Owing to its being thus used in the
Church Offices, it is commonly found at the
end of ancient MS. Psalters, following the
Old and New Testament and ecclesiastical
canticles, and sometimes, also, the Apostles'
Creed and Lord's Prayer, more rarely the
Nicene or Constantinopolitan Creed ; occa
sionally it is followed by a, litany and
prayers and hymns and collects. Hence its
appearance in Psalters is evidence of its
recital. From the Psalters it passed into
Breviaries. It was not recited with the
same frequency in all places and times and
rites. In the Roman rite it was said on
Sundays, but in the Ambrosian, and by
some religious orders, as the Carthusians and
Cluniacs, every day. In England and
Scotland previous to the Reformation, it
appears also to have been recited daily,
according to the Uses of Sarum and York and
Aberdeen. In Bishop Hilsey's Primer,
issued in the reign of Henry VIII., a.d.
1539, it is called : " The Symbol or Creed
of the Great Doctor Athanasius, daily used
in the Church." Honorius of Autun in the
twelfth century says that in some churches
it was recited daily at prime, so that its
daily use does not appear to have been
universal at that time. But it is occasionally
mentioned earlier. Thus Martene (De An-
tiquis Ritibus Ecciesie, lib. iv. cap. viii.)
refers to its daily recital at St. Martin's,
Tours, in the tenth century. In the capi
tulum of Hatto of Basle, already noticed, in
the early part of the ninth century it was
directed to be recited on the Lord's Day at
prime. Two circumstances in the history of the
Athanasian Creed must here be noticed, as
evidence of its wide acceptance and general
use for the purposes both of instruction and
devotion.
,, First, from the seventh century to the
fifteenth inclusive, it was the subject of
numerous commentaries. The writer is able
to reckon no fewer than twenty-seven in
Latin, besides one in English, apparently a

CREED, ATHANASIAN 263
Wicliffite work, and no doubt there are
others with which he is unacquainted.
Several of these consisted originally of
marginal notes attached to the text of the
Creed in Psalters.
Secondly, it ha» been translated into
various languages.
Several Psalters are existing, as has been
previously mentioned, written before tlie
Norman Conquest, in which the Creed
appears with an interlinear Saxon version
or gloss. In the Eadvvin Psalter of the
twelfth century it is accompanied by a
Normanno-Saxon version. In a British
Museum MS. of the fourteenth century,
Addit. 17,376, is an English version of the
Psalter — the earliest, as is believed, in ex
istence — with the Canticles and Quicunque
also in English. This translation is attri
buted, but on uncertain grounds, to William
de Schorham, Vicar of Chart, near Ledes in
Kent. A later English translation, probably
by a follower of Wiclif, occurs in several
MSS. of the fifteenth century, in some
being subjoined to Psalters of Richard Ham-
pole's version, in others to Psalters of the
later Wicliffite version. This translation is
clearly by the same hand as the commentary
above referred to, as they accompany one
another. The translation in Bishop Hilsey's
Primer, a.d. 1539, is distinct from both
these, apparently made for the occasion'.
And that which appeared in the first Prayer
Book of Edward VI., a.d. 1549, and
which is substantially the same as our
present version, the variations being unim
portant, is again another translation, so that
the fourteenth and two following centuries
produced no fewer than four different English
translations of the Quicunque.
And in France, as in England, it has
always been the practice to render the
Athanasian Creed into the vernacular. Thus
Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, in his
capitula dated a.d. 852, charges his presby
ters not only to commit it to memory and
understand its meaning, but to explain it in
the vernacular (verbis communibus enun-
tiare). A Romance version of it appears in
a MS. of the fourteenth century in the
Library of the Ecole de Medecine at Mont-
pellier. The version itself must be older
than the fourteenth century, as at the
commencement of that century the Romance
language had fallen into complete decay.
Montfaucon in his Diatribe gives two old
French versions of it, one dating about the
end of the eleventh century, another about
1300. In the Eadwin Psalter at'. Trinity
College, Cambridge, which is assigned to the
reign°of Stephen, it appears with what '
Wanley calls a Normanno- Gallican version.
Monsieur Michel has edited from a British
Museum MS. of the thirteenth century

264

CREED, ATHANASIAN

(Cotton, Nero, c. iv.) a French version of
the Apostles' and Athanasian Creeds, as well
as the Canticles, and from a MS., probably
not of later date, belonging to the Biblio-
theque Nationale at Paris, a metrical version
in French of the same Creeds and the Psalms
and New Testament Canticles. (See " Epis
tola ad Lectorem " at the commencement of
"Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Gallica,
edidit Franciscus Michel." Oxon. 1860.)
There are several German translations of
the Athanasian Creed of various ages. The
earliest, as has been already mentioned,
dates as far back as the ninth century.
It has been preserved in a Wolfenbuttel
MS. of that century, which originally be
longed to the Abbey of Wissemburg. In
the following century another translation
was produced by Notkerus Balbulus. Both
of these, together with a third, rather later,
have been edited in Massmann's " Die
Deutschen Abschbrungs-, Glaubens-, Beicht-
tind Betformeln vom achten bis zum zwolften
Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1839. The first was
originally edited, together with the other
contents of the Wolfenbuttel MS., by G.
Eccard in 1713, under the title : " Incerti
monachi Weissenburgensis Catechesis Theo-
tisca sseculo ix. conscripta, nunc vero
primum edita." Waterland refers to accounts
of later German versions by Lambecius,
Tentzelius, and Le Long, but more particu
larly by Tentzelius.
This brief summary is sufficient to show
that the Western vernacular versions of the
Athanasian Creed are not only numerous, but
extend over a wide range of years. On the
other hand, the Greek translations are com
paratively few and late. The earliest mention
of any Greek version is made by Nicolaus
Hydruntius about a.d. 1200 ; and probably
the Quicunque was translated into Greek
some time before. But none of the Greek
manuscripts now extant date so high even as
that. Montfaucon says that he had seen none
older than the fifteenth century. Waterland
gives some account of those which were
extant in his time, but none of them is
assigned by him to an earlier date than the
fourteenth century. Four Greek copies may
be seen in Montfaucon's " Diatribe in Sym
bolum Quicunque," in the second volume
of the Benedictine edition of St. Athanasius.
Two more, one from a MS. in St. Mark's
Library at Venice, and the other from a MS.
in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, are
edited by Caspari in his Quellen, vol. iii. pp.
263-7. The mention of the comparative scarcity
and lateness of Greek versions and transla
tions brings us to the last point which
requires to be noticed in reference to use
anl reception. The Athanasian Creed, as
the Apostles', is not recited in the offices of

CREED, ATHANASIAN
the Eastern Church or any of its branches,
nor has it ever been. Its position in the
Russian Church, and it may be presumed in
the Eastern Church generally, is thus de
scribed by Platow, Archbishop of Moscow :
"Symbolum sancti Athanasii ecclesia nostra
agnoscit, et inter libros ecclesiasticos re-
peri tur, et, ut ejus fidem sequamur, in-
culcatur, tamen nunquam recitatur. Satis
pro nobis est, quod nihil quidquam in se
contineat, quod sanae atque orthodoxa? doc
trina? non sit consentaneum." (See Nares
On the Three Creeds, p. 82.) It is added at
tho end of the Great Horologium or Book of
Hours, which was printed and published at
Venice, and is expressly stated on the title-
page to be " in accordance with the rule of the
Eastern Church of Christ," and a note. is
subjoined declaring it to be agreeable to the
mind of the orthodox Church. But it must
be observed that the words "and the Son"
are omitted in the verse relating to the Pro
cession qf the Holy Spirit.
VI. Use and reception in the Church qf
England in modern times. — In the first
Prayer Book of Edward VI., a.d. 1549, the
Athanasian Creed was ordered to be sung
or said on the Feasts of Christmas, the
Epiphany, Easter, the Ascension, Pentecost,
and Trinity Sunday. But in the second
Prayer Book of Edward, which was adopted
only three years later, in 1552, its recital
was required on seven more Feasts, viz. : St.
Matthias, St. John Baptist, St. James, St.
Bartholomew, St. Matthew, St. Simon and
St. Jude, and St. Andrew, making thirteen
days in the year altogether. And no altera
tion as regards the days of its recital has
been made by any subsequent revision of the
Prayer Book. The increased recital enjoined
by the second Book of Edward is a very
notable circumstance, considering that on
other points that book as compared with
the first was an evident departure from
previous Catholic usage. It has been ac
counted for by the fact that the excesses of
the Anabaptists and other fanatics who
traversed the country openly denying the
essential doctrines of Christianity, such as
the Trinity and Incarnation, had alarmed
the minds of Cranmer and the authorities
of the Church, and led them to attach an
increased value to the great Confession of
the Faith, in which those doctrines are most
distinctly and explicitly enunciated.
In both these books, but especially the
first, there was an apparent inconsistency in
the rubrics referring to the Apostles' Creed
and that of St. Athanasius. In the book of
1549, after the Benedictus came the rubric,
" Then shall be said daily through the year
these prayers following, as well at Evensong
as at Mattins, all devoutly kneeling." Then
followed the short Litany, and next the

CREED, ATHANASIAN
rubric, "Then the minister shall say the
-Creed and the Lord's Prayer in English with
a loud voice." On the other hand, the
rubric preceding the Athanasian Creed
•ordered that on certain Feasts, already
mentioned, it should " be sung or said im
mediately after Benedictus." The incon-
.sistency, which was no doubt the result of
haste or inadvertence, is obvious. In 1552
an alteration was made clearly in order to
remedy the difficulty. The Apostles' Creed
was removed from its previous position and
placed immediately after the Benedictus, or
father the Jubilate, which was then inserted
as an alternative canticle, and in the rubric
preceding it the words " daily through the
year " were omitted ; it ran thus : " Then
.shall be said the Creed by the minister and
the people standing." No alteration was
made in the rubric preceding the Quicunque
vult beyond the insertion of the additional
Feasts on which it was to be recited. But
there still remained a want of harmony in
the rubrics taken literally. This was com
pletely rectified at the Revision in 1662,
when in the rubric before the Apostles'
Creed the words were introduced: "Ex
cept only such days as the Creed of St.
Athanasius is appointed to be read," and in
that before the Quicunque the words " im
mediately after Benedictus" were altered to
" at Morning Prayer instead of the Apostles'
Creed." '
In the latter rubric too the Quicunque
was described as " His Confession of our
Christian Faith, commonly called the Creed
of St. Athanasius ; " previously it had been
described simply as " this Confession of our
Christian Faith." There is every reason to
believe that these rubrics of 1662 made no
practical change — that they merely gave an
express sanction to the established usage.
No alteration was made in 1662, as already
remarked, in regard to the frequency of
recital. It must be borne in mind that the Church
of England since the Reformation has not
only constantly maintained the use of the
Creed of St. Athanasius in her services, but
has accepted and authorized it in the most
emphatic and explicit manner by declaring
in the Thirty-nine Articles, which were
passed by Convocation finally in the year
1571, that together with the other two
Creeds it " ought thoroughly to be received
and believed." In the Latin version of the
Articles, which is equally authentic with
the English, as both versions were sub
mitted to Convocation in 1562, it is entitled
"Symbolum," the heading of the eighth
Article being "De tribus Symbolis," and
the three Creeds being described in it, as
" Symbola tria, Nicamum, Athanasii et quod
vulgo Apostolorum appellatur."

CREED, ATHANASIAN

265

On two occasions since the last Revisions
of the Prayer Book, it has been proposed to
add an explanatory note to the Quicunque
vult, with the view of satisfying object
tors. In 1689 a commission of ten bishops
and twenty divines was appointed " to pre
pare alterations in the Liturgy and Canons "
and for other purposes. One of the sugges
tions of the commissioners was to add the
following to the rubric before the Athana
sian Creed : — " The Articles of which ought
to be received and believed, as being agree
able to the Holy Scriptures, and the con
demning clauses are to be understood as
relating only to those who obstinately deny
the substance of the Christian faith." This
proposal fell to the ground owing to the
known determination of the Lower House
of Convocation to reject the scheme of the
commissioners in toto.
The other proposal of a similar kind was
made recently, when the Church was con
vulsed by a controversy respecting the
retention of the Creed in her services. In
an amiable desire to pour oil upon the
troubled waters, the Convocation of the
Province of Canterbury adopted in the year
1873 the following declaration : — " For the
removal of doubts and to prevent disquietude
in the use of the Creed commonly called
the Creed of St. Athanasius, this Synod
doth solemnly declare: — 1. That the Con
fession of our Christian Faith, commonly
called the Creed of St. Athanasius, doth not
make any addition to the faith as contained
in Holy Scriptures, but warneth against
errors which from time to time have arisen
in the Church of Christ. 2. That as Holy
Scripture in divers places doth promise life
to them that believe and declare the con
demnation of them that believe not, so doth
the Church in this Confession declare the
necessity for all who would be in a state of
salvation of holding fast the Catholic Faith,
and the great peril of rejecting the same.
Wherefore the warnings in this Confession
of Faith are to be understood no otherwise
than like warnings in Holy Scripture, for
we must receive God's threatenings even as
His promises, in such wise as they are
generally set forth in Holy Writ. Moreover
the Church doth not herein pronounce
judgment on any particular person or persons,
God alone being the Judge of all." Happily
this ambiguous utterance, which might
more fitly be designated a mystification than
an explanation, was not accepted by the
Convocation of York, the bishops of that
province refusing to concur in it : so that it
cannot be regarded as the voice of the whole
Church of England represented in her
lawful synods. In this, as in the previous
case, the result was nugatory ; and the
Creed retains its place in the Prayer Book

266

CREED, NICENE

without being encumbered by a so-called
explanatory note or declaration.
It does not come within the scope of the
present article to reply to the objections
frequently alleged against the Quicunque,
especially the so-called damnatory clauses,
upon dogmatic grounds. For a complete
vindication of it from these objections the
reader may be referred to a masterly paper
by the late Professor Mozley, contained in
his " Lectures and other Theological Papers,"
published by Rivingtons, . 1883. [G. D.
W. 0.]
CREED.THE NICENE ; sometimes called
the Constantinopolitan Creed. This Creed
was chiefly composed by the orthodox fathers
of the first general Council of Nicaea, a.d.
325, to define the Christian faith, in opposi
tion to the heresy of Arius.
The Church for three hundred years had
been content to profess in her Creed, that
Christ was the Lord ; comprehending, under
this title, the highest appellations given to
Him in Scripture, without stating minutely,
or scrutinizing too narrowly, a doctrine pro
posed rather to us as an object of faith than
of understanding. Happy had it been for
the Christian world, if the moderation of the
Church had been suffered to continue ; but
Arius, a discontented priest of Alexandria in
Egypt, either having conceived a different
opinion, or wishing to bring himself into
notice by the assertion of a novelty, took
upon him to maintain that Christ was not a
Divine person, in the highest, sense, but a
creature, superior indeed to human nature,
but not a partaker of the supreme Godhead.
The publishing of this opinion raised a
violent ferment and schism in the Church.
Constantine, the Roman emperor, summoned
a council at Nicasa, in Bithynia, to settle
this dispute; and there, in the year 325,
Arius' doctrine was condemned in an
assembly of 300 bishops, and that creed
framed which from the name of the city
was called the Nicene Creed.
To the early creeds, not written down in
a set form, but implied by the earliest
writers, reference is made in the article on
the " Apostles' Creed." The original form
of the Nicene Creed is as follows : " We
believe in one God the Father Almighty,
Maker of all things both visible and invisible;
and in our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of
God, begotten of the Father, only begotten,
that is to say of the substance of the Father,
God of God, Light of Light, very God of
very God, begotten, not made, being of the
substance with the Father, by whom all
things were made, both things in heaven
and things in earth ; who for us men and
for our salvation came down and was made
flesh, and was made man, suffered, and rose
again on the third day, and went up into the

CREED, NICENE <
heavens, and is to come again to judge the
quick and the dead. — And in the Holy
Ghost." " But those that say, ' there was when He
was not,' and ' before He was begotten He
was not,' and that ' He came into existence
from what was not,' or who profess that the
Son of God is of a different 'person' or
' substance ' (irepas {moordo-eas rj ovmas),.
or that He is created, or changeable, or
variable, by the Catholic Church are an
athematized." (Stanley's Eastern 'Church,
p. 140.)
The concluding clauses as we have them
(with the exception of " from the Son ") are
generally supposed to have been added to the
Creed at the second general Council at Con
stantinople, when the heresy of Macedonius
with regard to the Divinity of the Holy Ghost
was condemned. (Bingham, bk. x. 4.) But
there seemed some uncertainty as to the
matter: for Socrates, Sozomen, and Theo
doret, the historians of the time, make men
tion of the Evangelic faith ratified at Nicaea
being adhered to at Constantinople, but not
of any creed or symbol being set forth then.
The words are used by Epipbanius (A nchorat.
n. 120, t. ii. p. 120), seven years before the
Council of Constantinople, which shows that
the additional clauses were not prepared by
the 150 Fathers, though sanctioned by them.
(See Constantinople, Councils of.) At the
Council of Chalcedon, when the Nicene
symbol was recited, all tbe bishops exclaimed,
" This is the faith of the orthodox. We all
thus believe." The Exposition of the Con
stantinopolitan Fathers was then read, but
not amid the same enthusiasm ; from which
it may be inferred that that of Nicsea was
regarded by the bishops as the symbol of
faith — the additions of Constantinople as a
profession received among the Churches in
that patriarchate. (Dr. Lumby, S. P. C. K.
Prayer Book, p. 64 seq.) The enlarged form
was probably used when the Creed was re
peated in every Church Assembly. The
first who ordered this to be done was Peter
Fullo, bishop of Antioch, in 471 ; and a
similar order was made for Constantinople
by Timotheus, the bishop in 511. (Theodor.
Lector. Hist. lib. ii. pp. 563, 566.) In 540
it had become the generally accepted form, as
may be gathered from a letter (XV.) of Pope
Vigilius of that date. In 589 a council was
summoned by Recared, king of the Goths,
at Toledo, against Arianism ; when the king,
speaking of belief in the Holy Ghost, used
the words " He proceedeth from the Father,
and from tlie Son." One of the canons
runs, "Quicunque Spiritum Sanctum non
crediderit, a Patre ei Filio procedere, an
athema sit." These words were gradually
adopted by the other Churches of the West,
but never by the Eastern Church. (See

CREED, NICENE
Filioque.) The objections were, (1) that
the words went beyond Scripture ; (2) that
they had never been sanctioned by a general
council. In 809 a council was summoned by
Charles the Great at Aquis-Grani, or Aachen
(Aix-la-Chapelle), for the purpose of discus
sing this "double Procession." The opinion
was in favour of the addition ; but Pope
Leo III. would not sanction the interpolation,
and caused a copy of the Creed, without
" Filioque," to be engraved on silver plates,
and set up in St. Peter's. It was, however,
afterwards accepted by the Roman Church ;
and became one of the abiding causes of the
great schism between the Eastern and
Western Churches.
From the time of Peter Fullo (a.d. 471)
to the present day, the Creed has been recited
after the Gospel in the Communion office.
" The Creed is a summary of the doctrine
of the Gospel, and here is placed next to it,
because it is grounded upon it. In the
Gospel we 'believe with our heart unto
righteousness ; ' in the Creed we ' confess
with our mouth unto salvation' (Rom. x.
10) ; for all the people ought to repeat the
Creed after the minister. It doth more
largely condemn all heresies than the Apos
tles' Creed ; wherefore it is fitly enjoined to
be recited by all before the Sacrament, to
show that all the communicants are free
from heresy, and in the strictest league of
union with the Catholic Church ; as also
to prepare themselves for worthy receiv
ing, by exercising that faith of which they
have so much use at the Lord's table, as
the Council of Toledo ordained in the year
600 [589]. So that every one must openly
profess and firmly embrace all these articles,
before he can be fit to receive ; yea, and
while he repeats them with bis lips, he
must resolve to show forth in his life,
that he doth sincerely believe them, by
strictly living according to them." — Dean
Comber. " What more glorious hymn than this
can we sing to the honour of God? Is it
possible to mention anything else that can
so much redound to His glory ? May not
this our service be well styled the Eucha
rist, when we thus give praise and glory
to Almighty God for the wonderful mani
festation of His attributes, and the inesti
mable blessings He hath bestowed upon us ?
Let not any one therefore think, that repeat
ing the Creed is barely a declaration of his
faith to the rest of the congregation : for,
besides that, it is a most solemn act of wor
ship, in which we honour and magnify God,
both for what He is in Himself, and for what
He hath done for us. And let us all, sensible
of this, repeat it with reverential voice and
gesture ; and lift up our hearts with faith,
thankfulness, and humble devotion, when-

CREED

267

ever we say, 'I believe,' &c." — Archdeacon
Yardley. The Nicene Creed is properly sung in all
choirs. Bishop Beveridge says, " We stand
at the Creeds ; for they being confessions of
our faith in God, as such they come under
the proper notion of hymns or songs of praise
to Him." The rubric sanctions — that is,
enjoins in choirs — the custom : and such has
been the usage of most choirs since the
Reformation ; an usage kept up throughout
the Western Church, according to Mr. Palmer,
since the year 1012. (Orig. Liturg. n.
iv. p. 53.) It is not adapted to chanting,
like the Psalms. In our Prayer Book it is
divided, like the Apostles' Creed and the
Gloria in excelsis, into three paragraphs, of
which the central one has special reference
to God the Son. [IL]
CREED OF POPE PIUS IV. A suc
cinct and explicit summary of the doctrine
contained in the canons of the Council of
Trent, is expressed in the creed which was
published by Pius IV. in 1564, in the form
of a bull, and which usually bears his name.
It is received throughout the whole Roman
Catholic Church ; every person who is ad
mitted into the Roman Church publicly
reads and professes his assent to it.
The "Symbol of Faith," our Catholic
creed, is first recited, but to it additions are
made which cannot be called Catholic, such
as — "I most firmly admit and embrace
apostolical and ecclesiastical traditions, and
all other constitutions and observances of
the Church of Rome ; " " Seven Sacraments,
really and truly ; " " the ceremonies of the
Catholic Church, in regard to these sacra
ments ; " " all the definitions declared in the
Council of Trent concerning original sin and
justification ; " " transubstantiation — the
conversion of the whole substance of the
bread into the Body, and of the wine into
the Blood ; " " Christ received under either
kind alone ; " " purgatory ; " " invocation of
saints ; " " veneration to images ; " " power
of the Church to grant indulgences." The
profession goes on : —
"I acknowledge the holy Catholic and
Apostolic Roman Church, the mother and
mistress of all Churches ; and I promise
and swear true obedience to the Roman
bishop, the successor of St. Peter, prince of
the apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ.
" I also profess and undoubtedly receive
all other things delivered, defined, and de
clared by the . sacred canons and general
councils, and particularly by the holy
Council of Trent ; and likewise I also con
demn, reject, and anathematize all things con
trary thereto,and all heresies whatsoever con
demned and anathematized by the Church.
" This true Catholic faith, out of which
none can be saved, which I now freely

268

CRESSELLE

profess and truly hold, I, N., promise, vow,
and swear most constantly to hold and
profess the same, whole and entire, with
God's assistance, to the end of my life.
Amen." CRESSELLE. An instrument of wood,
made use of in the Roman Church during
Passion week, instead of bells, to give
notice of Divine service. This is done in
imitation of the primitive Christians, who,
they suppose, made use of such an instru
ment, before the invention of bells, to call
their brethren secretly to prayers. There
are mysteries in the Cresselle. It repre
sents Christ praying on the cross, and
calling nations to His preaching; as also
His humility, &c.
CREST. (In ecclesiastical architecture.)
An ornamental finish at the top of a screen,
or other subordinate feature.
CRISPIN. Martyr. Born at Rome, he
with his twin-brother Crispinian, St. Quentin
and others, accompanied St. Denys on a
mission from Rome into Gaul in the third
century. He and his brother worked at
their trade of shoemaking to support them
selves ; hence they have always been con
sidered the " patron saints " of shoemakers.
They were beheaded, after terrible torture, in
a.d. 288. In the old Calendar the two
brothers were commemorated on the same
day, to which Shakespeare seems to refer :
" And Crispin Crisplan shall ne'er go by,
But we iii it shall be remembered." Henry V. Act iv. s. 3.
St. Crispin's day in the Calendar is the "1st
of October. [H.]
CROSIER. The pastoral staff of a bishop,
crooked at the top and pointed at the bottom,
and thus symbolical of the bishop's functions
in that part of the church where under Christ
he is the chief shepherd. The meaning of
the several parts is aptly described in the
line, " Curva trahit, quos virga regit, pars
ultima pungit," inscribed on the staff of St.
Saturninus at Toulouse.
There are allusions to the pastoral staff of
bishops in Greek writers of the 4th century
(Greg. Naz. Orat. 42), and Latin writers of
the 5th. (Letter of Pope Celestine in Labbe,
Cone, ii.)
The common notion that the crosier was
a staff surmounted by a cross, and was
therefore distinct from the ordinary pastoral
staff, and in fact the distinguishing mark of
the archiepiscopal office, appears to be in
correct. Crosier is derived not from cross,
but like cross itself, and a multitude of
other words (as crook, crutch, crotchet,
crochet, croquet, cricket), from a root " cruk "
or " crok," whichnot only in Teutonic but also
in Celtic languages is found in all words into
which the notion of crookedness enters. In
mediasval Latin crocea, crocia, croceus sig-

CROSS
nify sometimes a hook, as well as a crooked
staff. (See Ducange ; also Professor Skeat's
Etymological Dictionary, and the references
there given, especially the line,
" Because a crosier staff ia best for such a croolced time.")
An archbishop is of course entitled to
carry a pastoral staff or crosier as bishop of
his own diocese, but as primate he is also
entitled to have a staff surmounted by a
cross, as one of the chief insignia of his
archiepiscopal office. It is noticeable that
in some very early representations of Gregory
the Great, one being supposed to belong to
the 7th century, he appears holding a staff
surmounted by across. (See Marriott, Vesti-
arum Christianum, p. 237.) [W. R. W. S.]
CROSS. The cross was the instrument
of death to our most blessed Lord and
Saviour, and it has been considered in all
ages by the Church as the most appropriate
emblem, or symbol, of the Christian re-
lio-ion. The sign of the cross was made
in the primitive Church in some part of
almost every Christian office. The Church
of England, in the Constitutions of 1603,
has a long canon (the 30th) on this subject,
wherein it is said: "The Holy Ghost, by
the mouths of the Apostles, did honour the
name of the cross, being hateful among the
Jews, so far that, under it, He compre
hended not only Christ crucified, but the
force, effects, and merits of His death and
passion, with all the comforts, fruits, and
promises which we receive or expect there
by. Secondly, the honour and dignity of
the name of the cross begat a reverent
estimation even in the Apostles' times, for
aught that is known to the contrary, of the
sign of the cross, which the Christians
shortly after used in all their actions;
thereby making an outward show and pro
fession, even to the astonishment of the
Jews, that they were not ashamed to ac
knowledge Him for their Lord and Saviour,
who died for them upon the cross. And
this sign they not only used themselves,
with a kind of glory, when they met with
any Jews, but signed therewith their chil
dren, when they were christened, to dedicate
them by that badge to His service, whose
benefits bestowed upon them in baptism
the name of the cross did represent. And
this use of the sign of the cross was held in
the primitive Church, as well by the Greeks
as by the Latins, with one consent, and
great applause. At which time, if any had
opposed themselves against it, they would
certainly have been censured as enemies of
the name of the cross, and consequently of
Christ's merits, the sign whereof they could
no better endure. This continual and
general use of the sign of the cross is
evident by many testimonies of the ancient

CROSS
Fathers. Thirdly, it must be confessed
that in process of time the sign of the cross
was greatly abused in the Church of Rome,
especially after that corruption of Popery
had once possessed it. But the abuse of a
thing doth not take away the lawful use of
it. Nay, so far was it from the purpose of
the Church of England to forsake and reject
the Churches of Italy, France, Spain, Ger
many, or any such like Churches, in all
things that they held and practised, that, as
Bishop Jewel's ' Apology of the Church of
England ' confesseth, it doth with reverence
retain those ceremonies which do neither
endamage the Church of God, nor offend the
minds of sober men; and only departed
from them in those particular points where
in they were fallen, both from themselves in
their ancient integrity, and from the apo
stolical Churches which were their first
founders. In which respect, amongst some
other very ancient ceremonies, the sign of
the cross in baptism hath been retained in
this Church, both by the judgment and
practice of those reverend fathers and grave
divines in the days of King Edward VI., of
whom some constantly suffered for the pro
fession of the truth ; and others, being exiled
in the time of Queen Mary, did, after their
return, in the beginning of the reign of our
late dread sovereign, continually defend and
use the same."
CROSS, CREEPING TO. Before the
Reformation, on Good Friday, a cross was
set up in front of the altar, and the clergy
and people prostrated themselves before it.
A proclamation dated 30 Hen. VIII. orders :
" On Good Friday it shall be declared howe
creepynge of the crosse signifyeth an
humblynge of ourselfe to Christe before
the crosse, and the kissinge of it as a
memorie of our redemption made upon the
crosse." While the prostration went on
before the cross, the " reproaches " were
sung; and during the ceremony the altar was
draped in black. (See Reproaches!) [H.]
• CROSS, INVENTION OF. The legend
is that St. Helena, the mother of Constantine
the Great, was directed in a dream to search
at Jerusalem for the cross on which our
Lord was crucified. Hadrian had en
deavoured to obliterate every trace of the
holy sepulchre, had raised the ground above
the spot, and built thereon temples to
Jupiter and Venus (Patrol, xx. 321). Con
stantine determined to do away with the
abominations, and build in their place a
temple to the true God. (Euseb. Vita Const.
iii. 26 ; Socrat. i. 17.) In view of this, led
by her dream, Helena caused Mount Calvary
to be excavated. She was rewarded by
finding the sepulchre and three crosses near
it, with the superscription which Pilate had
written hard by, but not attached to a cross.

CRUSADE

26!>

The question was, which was the true cross
To solve the difficulty Macarius, bishop of
Jerusalem, ordered that the three should be
separately applied to a sick lady, and the effect
watched. At the touch of the third the sick
lady recovered, and therefore it was naturally
supposed that that was the true cross. One
part was set in silver and committed to
Macarius to be preserved at Jerusalem, and)
the remainder was sent to Constantine. Tho
nails were still in the cross, and one was after
wards attached to the emperor's helmet,
another to the bridle of his horse. Socrates,
Sozomen, and Theodoret give details of this-
legend, together with other early writers.
(Patrol, xvi, xxi., lxi. &c.) Paulinus, writ
ing in the early part of the fifth century,
tells us that the cross " very kindly afforded
to man's importunate desires, wood, without
any loss of its substance." (Ep. ad Severum,.
31.) According to St. Ambrose's account,
Pilate's inscription was found fastened on the
cross, but if this was the case the miracle
with regard to the sick lady mentioned above
would not have been necessary. (Ambrose, de
obitu Theod. c. 46.) It is not clear when the
"Invention of the Cross " was first observed
as a holy day, but it is supposed to have
been instituted by Pope Sylvester I. about
330.. There are offices for the day in the
Sacramentaries of Gelasius and Gregory, in
which it is marked for the 3rd of May, on
which day also it is observed in our
Calendar, [H.]
CRUCIFIX. A cross upon which a
sculptured or carved image of the body of
our Lord is fastened. It is much used)
by the Romanists and the Lutheran Pro
testants, but prohibited in the Church of
England since the Reformation, on the
ground of its having been abused to super
stition and idolatry.
The attempts that have been made to
revive it have been condemned as illegal,
though not so when it only forms one of
the group of images representing the whole
crucifixion, as in the Exeter Reredos case,
6 P. C. 449, and Hughes v. Edwardsr
2 Prob. Div. 361, where a sculptured tablet
of the whole crucifixion was allowed. In
Ridsdale v. Clifton, 2 Prob. Div. 304, P. C.
again condemned a crucifix. [G.]
CRUSADE. A name given to the-
Christian expeditions against the Infidels,
for the recovery of the Holy Land out of
their hands, because they who engaged
themselves in the undertaking wore a cross
on their clothes, and had one on their
standards. There were eight crusades:
the first, in 1096, at the solicitation of
the Greek emperor and patriarch of Jeru
salem. Peter the Hermit, who was the
preacher of this crusade, was made general
of a great army, a thing that did not very

270

CRUSADE

well agree with his profession, being a
priest ; and all the princes — Hugo the
Great, count of Vermandois, brother to
Philip I., king of France ; Robert, duke of
Normandy ; Robert, count of Flanders ;
Raymond, count of Toulouse and St. Giles ;
Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine,
with his brothers, Baldwin and Eustace ;
Stephen, count of Chartres and Blois ;
Hugo, count of St. Paul, with a great
number of other lords — took different ways
to meet at Constantinople. The first who
marched his troops was the famous God
frey de Bouillon, who had a greater share
than any of the rest in this undertaking,
though not the command of the whole
army. He commenced his march Aug. 15,
1096, with 10,000 horse and 70,000 foot;
and before the other princes were come to
Constantinople, passing the Hellespont,
be besieged Nicrea, which, notwithstanding
the double-dealing of the Greek emperor
Alexius, after six weeks' siege was surren
dered to him; after which he victoriously
entered Syria and took Antioch. Jeru
salem was taken in 1099, and Godfrey of
Bouillon chosen king ; a little after which
the Christians gained the famous battle of
Ascalon against the Sultan of Egypt, which
victory pu,t an end to the first crusade;
for the princes and lords, with those who
followed them, believing they had fully ac
complished the vow they had made, took
their leave of Godfrey, and returned to
their respective countries.
The second crusade was in 1145, and
this was headed by the Emperor Conrad III.
and Louis VII. of France: the emperor's
army was either destroyed by the enemy,
or perished through the treachery of the
Greek emperor Manuel and his brother-in-
law ; and the second army, through the un
faithfulness and treachery of the Christians
of Syria, was forced to quit the siege of
Damascus, 1148.
The third crusade was in 1188, after the
taking of Jerusalem by Saladin, sultan
of Egypt. The most distinguished per
sons engaged in this expedition were the
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ; Frederick,
duke of Swabia, his second son; Leopold,
¦duke of Austria; Berthold, duke of Mo
ravia ; Herman, marquis of Baden ; the
«ounts of Nassau, Thuringen, Meissen, and
Holland, and above sixty more of the
chief princes of the empire, with divers
bishops. Barbarossa, in spite of the Em
peror of Constantinople, having got into
Asia Minor, defeated the sultan at Ico-
•mum, but, drawing near to Syria, sickened
and died in 1190 ; however, his son Fre
derick led the army to Antioch, and joined
with Guy, king of Jerusalem, in the siege
¦of Ptolemais, but, failing of success, he

CRUSADE
died soon after, which proved the ruin of
his army. Nevertheless, Richard, king
of England, and Philip Augustus, king of
France, arriving some months after in the
Holy Land, with a great force, compelled
Ptolemais to surrender, July 12, 1191,
After which, Philip returned home in dis
content, while the brave King' Richard
concluded a peace with Saladin, upon these
conditions — that all the coast from Joppa
to Tyre should be left to the Christians,
and that Saladin should have all the rest
of Palestine, except Ascalon, which was to
belong to the party who, at the end of the
truce, obtained possession of it; and that,
during the truce, which was to last, three
years, three months, three weeks, and three
days, it should be lawful for the Christians
to go to Jerusalem in small companies to
pay their devotions there.
The fourth was undertaken in 1195, by
the Emperor Henry VI., after Saladin's
death ; his army started for the Holy Land
three several ways, and, he himself at
length arriving at Ptolemais, the Chris
tians gained several battles against the
Infidels, and took many towns; but the
death of the emperor compelled them tp
quit the Holy Land, and return into Ger
many. The fifth crusade was published by the
artifice of Pope Innocent III. in 1198.
Most of fhe adventurers in this expedition
employed themselves in taking Zara for
the Venetians, and afterwards in making
war against the Greek emperor, or rather
usurper, Alexius Comnenus. Constanti
nople was taken in 1203 by Baldwin, count
of Flanders, who was elected emperor, in
1204. Those who proceeded to Palestine
suffered a defeat in the same year.
The sixth crusade began in 1217, in
which the Christians took the town of Da-
mietta in 1218, but were forced to surrender
it again. The Emperor Frederick II., in
1228, went to the Holy Land, and next year
made a peace with the sultan for ten years,
upon these conditions — that the sultan
should deliver to the Christians the towns
of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Tyre
and Sidon, but the Temple of Jerusalem
should be left to the Saracens, to perform
the free exercise of their law; after which
the emperor returned home. About 1240,
Richard, earl of Cornwall, and brother to
Henry III., king of England, arrived ia
Palestine, but, finding all efforts useless
while the Templars and Hospitallers con
tinued their disputes and private animosi
ties, he, with the advice of the Duke of
Burgundy, the great master of the Hospital
lers, and other chief persons of the crusade,
accepted the advantageous conditions the
sultan offered, whereby the Christians, .were

CRYPT
to enjoy some lands in Palestine, then in
the soldan's possession. In 1244, the Co-
rasniins, the descendants of the ancient
Parthians, fell upon the Christians in Pa
lestine, and almost extirpated them.
The seventh crusade was led by St.
Louis, king of Franco, who appeared be
fore Damietta, after the feast of Whitsun
tide in 1249. He took it, but after some
battles his army was at last defeated, and
himself taken prisoner ; after which a truce
was concluded for ten years, and the Chris
tians were to keep what they were in pos
session of, except Damietta, which was to
be delivered to the sultan for the king's
ransom, with a great sum of money ; this
¦done, the king sailed for Syria, and having
put Acre and other seaports in a good
condition, returned home in 1253.
The same prince put himself at the head
of the eighth crusade in 1270, and laying
siege to Tunis without success, died there ;
but his son, Philip the Bold, and Charles,
king of Sicily, afterwards brought the king
•of Tunis to agree to a truce for ten years,
upon condition that he should set all the
slaves of his kingdom at liberty; that he
should give tho Dominican and Franciscan
friars leave to preach the Gospel in his
territories, and build monasteries, and bap
tize all those who should desire it, besides a
.sum of money to be paid to Charles yearly.
About this time, Prince Edward of England
arrived at Ptolemais with a small force of
300 men. He hindered Bendocdar from
laying siege to Ptolemais, but was obliged
•soon after to quit the Holy Land on ac
count of his father's death, and his conse
quent succession to the crown of England.
In 1291 the town of Ptolemais, or Acre,
was taken, and the Christians were driven
•out of Syria. Since which time there has
been no crusade, though the Popes have
more than once attempted to stir up Chris
tians to the undertaking.
CRYPT. The subterranean vault under
any portion of a church. The original use
of the crypt seems to have been to increase
the number of places for altars ; they were
¦also sometimes used as places of burial,
not as being set apart for that purpose,
but that persons would desire to be buried
before this or that altar, or in some par
ticular place in the crypt, as they chose
any part of the church for the same
purpose. The crypt is generally found under tire
cast end of the church, and it is often the
•oldest part of it, and, as such, full of in
terest to the student of ecclesiastical archi
tecture and antiquities. It often contains
evidence of the form and extent of the
.church in its original condition, which
would elsewhere be sought in vain. The

CULDEES

271

most remarkable crypts in England are those
of Canterbury, Gloucester, Worcester, and
Rochester. At Wrexham and Ripon portions
of the Saxon remains are retained in the
crypt, and at York the size and form of the
Norman choir is displayed in the older
portion of the crypt.
CULDEES. (Kelidei or Colidei.) Many
derivations have been given of this term,
such as from the Gaelic Kill, " a cell," and
dee or tee, "a house;" but Braun (J)e Cukhex,
1140) and Dr. Reeves ( On the Culdees, 1864)
prove the origin of the name from the
C&le-di (or Irish Ceile De) — i.e. " servus
Dei." The name has been connected with
St. Columba and his mission at Iona, but
there seems no authority for this, nor are
the Culdees named by Adamnan in his Life of
that saint, though it appears that when iu the
ninth century the ecclesiastical supremacy
of Iona was transferred to Dunkeld, the
latter establishment is mentioned, as be
longing to the Culdees. About the latter
part of the eighth century the name was
taken by a very ascetic order of monks,
established by Maelruain, who died a.d.
792, at Tallaght, near Dublin (the old
name being Tamhlacht). In the tenth
and eleventh centuries, tho Culdees appear
elsewhere in Ireland. In Scotland the
order seems to have been introduced shortly
after a.d. 800, and the name Colidei occurs
in England at York a.d. 936, when the
officiating clergy of the Minster were thus
styled. The Colidei, or Culdees in general (as
appears from the old authorities and from
Ware), were in fact the ancient colle
giate clergy of Ireland and Scotland, in
cluding those who led a monastic life — that
is, under vows of celibacj' ; yet including
communities of cathedral canons, who
were frequently married, though living to
gether near their cathedral, with an abbot
or prior at their head. In Scotland the
Culdees constituted the chapter of several
cathedrals, and elected the bishop, as Mr.
Goodall shows from charters and docu
ments still extant. At St. Andrew's they
were the sole chapter and electors of the
bishop till 1140, when canons regular were
introduced, who shared the privileges of
the Culdees till 1273. Great jealousy sub
sisted between these ancient communities
and the interior secular canons and monks,
who in the course of time expelled or su
perseded the Culdees. There was no dif
ference of doctrine however between them ;
for the Culdees, though originally inde
pendent of Rome, adopted Roman systems,
like the other clergy. The causes of dispute
were those differences in discipline, and
those jealousies which have ever prevailed
among rival communities.

272

CUP

They held to what they thought their
rights, and in 1297 opposed the election
of Lamberton to St. Andrew's, who had
been appointed by the canons; but, on
appeal to the Pope, they lost their case.
It was then . said, " omne jus deinceps
Keldeis abrogatum est." But they were
not finally excluded from taking part in
the election of bishops till 1332; after
which their name never occurs in records,
being changed into a provostry, under the
title of " propositum ecclesias beataa Marias
civitatis Sancti Andreae," which after the
Reformation was vested in the Crown. —
Dr. Reeves' Culdees, 38 ; Bp. Russell's edi
tion of Keith's Scottish Bishops, with
Goodall's Preliminary Dissert. ; Burton's
Scotland, ii. p. 31 ; Ussher, de Prim. p. 659 ;
Dr. Reeves' Dissertation in the Proceedings
of the Royal Irish Academy, 1860 ; Grub.
Eccles. Hist. Scot [H.]
CUP. The sacred vessel in which the
consecrated wine in the Lord's Supper is
conveyed to the communicant, distinguished
from the flagon, in which the wine is
brought to the altar, and in which, if more
than the cup will conveniently hold is
required, it is consecrated. The rubric
directs that it shall be delivered to each
communicant. Rubric. "When the priest, standing
before the table, hath so ordered the bread
and wine, that he may with the more readi
ness and decency break the bread before
the people, and take the cup into his hands,
he shall say the prayer of consecration, as
followeth." And in the prayer of conse
cration, "Here he is to take the cup into
his hand," and " Here to lay his hand upon
every vessel (be it chalice or flagon) in
which there is any wine to be consecrated."
" The minister that delivereth the cup
to any shall say, The Blood of our Lord
Jesus Christ," &c.
Article 30. " The cup of the Lord is
not to be denied to the lay people; for
both the parts of the Lord's sacrament,
by Christ's ordinance and commandment,
ought to be ministered to all Christian men
alike." This article is directed against the
Romish custom of denying the cup to the
laity, concerning which it may be enough
to say, that it is clearly and confessedly
contrary to the custom of the Church ;
that for twelve centuries there was no in
stance to be adduced of any receiving in
one kind at the public celebration of the
Eucharist ; and that it was even accounted
sacrilege to deprive any of either part of
our blessed Lord's ordinance. (Bingham,
xv. 5, and xvi. 6-27 : see Communion in
one Kind ; Fistula ; Mixed Chalice.)
It appears from the unanimous testimony

CUP
of the Fathers, and from all the ancient
rituals and liturgies, that the sacrament of
the Lord's Supper was, in the early ages
of the Church, administered in both kinds,
as well to the laity as to the clergy. The
practice of denying the cup to the laity
arose out of the doctrine of transubstan
tiation. The belief that the sacramental
bread and wine were actually converted
into the body and blood of Christ, natu
rally produced, in a weak and superstitious
age, an anxious fear lest any part of them
should be lost or wasted. To prevent
anything of this kind in the bread, small
wafers were used, which were put at once
into the mouths of the communicants by
the officiating ministers; but no expedient
could be devised to guard against the
occasional spilling of the wine in admin
istering it to large congregations. The
bread was sopped in the wine, and the
wine was conveyed by tubes into the
mouth, but all in vain; accidents still
happened, and therefore it was determined
that the priests should entirely withhold
the cup from the laity. It is to be sup
posed that a change of this sort, in so im
portant an ordinance as that of the Lord's-
Supper, could not be effected at once. The
first attempt seems to have been made in
the twelfth century ; it was gradually sub
mitted to, and was at last established by
the authority of the Council of Constance,
in the year 1414 ; but in their decree they
acknowledged that " Christ did institute
this sacrament of both kinds, and that the
faithful in the primitive Church did receive-
both kinds ; yet a practice being reasonably
introduced to avoid some dangers and
scandals, they appoint the custom to con
tinue of consecrating in both kinds, and of
giving to the laity only in one kind," thus-
presuming to depart from the positive
commands of our Lord respecting the
manner of administering the sign of the
covenant between Himself and mankind.
From that time it has been the invariable
practice of the Church of Rome to cohfinft
the cup to the priests. And it was again
admitted at the Council of Trent, that the-
Lord's Supper was formerly administered;
in both kinds to all communicants, but it
was openly contended that the Church had
power to make the alteration, and that
they had done it for weighty and just
causes. These causes are not stated in
the canon of the council. The reformed
Churches, even the Lutheran, which main
tains the doctrine of consubstantiation, re
stored the cup to the laity. In a convo
cation held in the first year of Edward VI.'s-
reign, it was unanimously voted that the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper should
be received in both kinds by the laity as

CURATE
(veil as the clergy; and therefore it is
remarkable that there was nothing on this
subject in the articles of 1552 ; both this
and the preceding article [29th] were added
in 1562. — Bp. Tomline.
[It was decided by the Privy Council in
Elphinstone v. Purchas, reversing a decision
of Sir R. Phillimore, that it is unlawful to
mix water with the wine, either before or
at the time of Celebration. The contention
that the wine used at the original in
stitution, and on many other occasions
referred to in the New Testament, was not
wine in the common sense, but unfermented
grape-juice, would certainly share the same
fate. Courts of Justice do not allow new
meanings to be given to well-understood
words, even if they can be shown to be
used somewhere else in such new sense, or
to be etymologically or otherwise capable
of it: not that the word "wine" can be
argued with the smallest probability — or
we may say, honesty — to be ever used in
the Bible for unfermented grape-juice]. [G.]
CURATE. The person who has the cure
of souls in a parish. In this sense the word
is used in the Prayer Book, " all bishops and
curates," as the word is still employed in
other countries.
But with us the word is generally used
to denote the minister, whether presbyter or
deacon, who is employed under the spiritual
rector or vicar, as assistant to him in the
same church, or else in a chapel of ease
within the same parish, belonging to the
mother church. Where there is in a parish
neither spiritual rector nor vicar, but a clerk
employed to officiate there by the impropria
tor, this is called a perpetual curacy, and the
priest thus employed the perpetual curate.
But all perpetual curates have been made
vicars by 31 & 32 Vict. c. 13 7, amending a
previous Act of 1868 partially to the same
effect, at least of churches where marriages
may be performed, which is practically all
district churches. The appointment of a
curate to officiate under an incumbent, in
his own church, must be by such incumbent's
nomination of him to the bishop. To every
©ne of these several kinds of curates, the
ordinary's licence is necessary before he
shall be admitted to officiate.
For by Canon 41, " No curate or minister
shall be permitted to serve in any place
without examination and admission of the
bishop of the diocese, or ordinary of the
place having episcopal jurisdiction, under his
hand and seal, having respect to the great
ness of the cure, and meetness of the party."
And by the same canon, " If the curates
remove from one diocese to another, they
shall not be by any means admitted to
serve without testimony in writing of the
bishop of the diocese, or ordinary of the

CURATE

273

place having episcopal jurisdiction, from
whence they came, of their honesty, ability,
and conformity to the ecclesiastical laws of
the Church of England."
By Canon 36, " No person shall be suf
fered to preach, to catechize, or to be a
lecturer, in any parish church, chapel, or
other place, except he be licensed either by
the archbishop or by the bishop of the
diocese, and except he shall first subscribe to
the three articles specified in the said canon,
concerning the king's supremacy, the Book
of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-nine
Articles of religion."
But that is modified by the Clerical Sub
scription Act, 1865, and curates have to
declare their assent to the Prayer Book and
Articles, but not to read the Articles, on the
first Sunday when they officiate under
licence. It has been held that this and
some other enactments and canons do not
apply to persons only officiating temporarily
or occasionally for an incumbent.
And by Canon 37, " None who hath been
licensed to preach, read, lecture, or catechize,
aud shall afterwards come to reside in
another diocese, shall be permitted there to
preach, read, lecture, catechize, or ad
minister the sacraments, or to execute any
other ecclesiastical function, by what au
thority soever he be thereunto admitted,
unless he first consent and subscribe to the
three articles before mentioned, in the
presence of the bishop of the diocese
wherein he is to preach, read, lecture,
catechize, or administer the sacraments as
aforesaid." A curate not licensed may be removed
at pleasure ; but, if licensed, he can be re
moved only by the consent of the bishop, on
six months' notice from the incumbent;
except that a new incumbent may dismiss
the old curates on six weeks' notice at any
time within his first six months, by 1 & 2
Vict. c. 107, s. 95. And by s. 97 a curate
may not leave without giving three months'
notice to the incumbent and the bishop, on
pain of forfeiting six months' salary. By
s. 98 the bishop may summarily revoke a
curate's licence for reasonable cause, subject
to appeal to tbe archbishop, but none further
to the Privy Council, as the appeal is made
to the archbishop himself and not his court.
The curate has no appeal from the
bishop merely authorising the incumbent
to dismiss him, as the judgment of them
both has concurred ; but if he refuses, the
incumbent, if resident, or wanting to
return, may appeal (s. 95). In the archi
episcopal dioceses there can be no such ap
peal (See Chapel).
By the 76th section of that Act it is
enacted as follows: "And be it enacted,
that in every case where a curate is ap-
T

274

CURATE

pointed to serve in any benefice upon
which the incumbent either does not re
side, or has not satisfied the bishop of his
full purpose to reside during four months
of the year, such curate shall be required
by the bishop to reside within the parish
or place in which such benefice is situate,
or if no convenient residence can be pro
cured within such parish or place, then
within three statute miles of the church or
chapel of the benefice in which he shall be
licensed to serve, except in cases of neces
sity, to be approved of by the bishop, and
specified in the licence, and such place of
residence shall also be specified in the
licence." By the 81st section of the same Act it is
enacted as follows : " And be it enacted,
that every bishop to whom any application
shall be made for any licence for a curate
to serve for any person not duly residing
upon his benefice, shall, before he shall
grant such licence, require a statement of
all the particulars by this Act required to
be stated by any person applying for a
licence for non-residence ; and in every
case in which application shall be made to
any bishop for a licence for any stipendiary
curate to serve in any benefice, whether
the incumbent be resident or non-resident,
such bishop shall also require a declaration
in writing, to be made and subscribed by
the incumbent and the curate, to the pur
port and effect that the one bona fide in
tends to pay, and the other bona fide in
tends to receive, the whole actual stipend
mentioned in such statement, without any
abatement in respect of rent or consider
ation for the use of the glebe house, and
without any other deduction or reservation
whatever." By the 83rd section of the same Act it is
enacted as follows : " And be it enacted,
that it shall be lawful for the bishop of
the diocese, and he is hereby required,
subject to the several provisions and re
strictions in this Act contained, to appoint
to every curate of a non-resident incum
bent such stipend as is specified in this
Act ; and every licence to be granted to a
stipendiary curate, whether the incumbent
of the benefice be resident or non-resident
thereon, shall specify the amount of the
stipend to be paid to the curate ; and in
case any difference shall arise between the
incumbent of any benefice and his curate
touching such stipend, or the payment
thereof, or of the arrears thereof, the
bishop, on complaint to him made, may
and shall summarily hear and determine
the same, without appeal; and in case of
wilful neglect or refusal to pay such sti
pend, or the arrears thereof, he is hereby
empowered to enforce payment of such

CURATE
stipend, or the arrears thereof, by moni
tion, and by sequestration of the profits of
such benefice."
The following papers are to be sent to
the bishop by a curate applying to be
licensed : —
1. A nomination by the incumbent.
The following form of nomination is in
tended to serve where the incumbent is
non-resident." To the Right Reverend  Lord Bishop
of 
" I, G. H. of  , in the county of  ,
and your lordship's diocese of  , do
hereby nominate E. F., bachelor of arts (or
other degree), to perform the office of a
curate in my church of  aforesaid;
and do promise to allow him the yearly
stipend of  , to be paid by equal quar
terly payments, [as to amount of stipend see
1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, and the latter part of this
article,] with the surplice fees, amounting
to  pounds per annum (if they are in
tended to be allowed), and the use of the
glebe house, garden, and offices which he
is to occupy (if that be the fact ; if not,
state the reason, and name where and at
what distance from the church the curate
purposes to reside) : and I do hereby state
to your lordship, that the said E. F. does
not serve any other parish, as incumbent
or curate ; and that he has not any cathe
dral preferment or benefice, and does not
officiate in any other church or chapel (if,
however, the curate does serve another church
as incumbent, or as curate, or has any cathe
dral preferment, or a benefice, or officiates
in any other church or chapel, the same
respectively must be correctly and particu
larly stated) : that the net annual value of
my said benefice, estimated according to
the Act 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, ss. 8 & 10,
is  , and the population thereof, accord
ing to the latest returns of population
made under the authority of parliament,
is  ; that there is only one church
belonging to my said benefice (*/ there he
another church or chapel, state the fact);
and that I was admitted to the said benefice
on the  day of  , 18 — .
Witness my hand this  day of
 , in the year of our Lord one
thousand eight hundred and  .
[Signature and address of] G. H."
Declaration to be written at the foot of the
Nomination.
" We the before-named G. H. and E. f.
do declare to the said Lord Bishop of  ;

CDRATE
as follows : namely, I the said G. H. do
declare, that I bond, fide intend to pay, and
I the said E. F. do declare that I bona fide
intend to receive, the whole- actual stipend
mentioned in the foregoing nomination and
statement, without any abatement in re
spect of rent, or consideration for the use of
the glebe house, garden, and offices, thereby
agreed to be assigned, and without any other
deduction or reservation whatsoever.
Witness our hands this  day of
 , one thousand eight hundred
and  .
[Signatures of] G. H. and E. F."
The following form of nomination is pro
posed where the incumbent is resident.
.The same form as the preceding, so far as
" quarterly payments " ; then proceed as fol
lows : " And I do hereby state to your lord
ship, that the said E. F. intends to reside
in the said parish, in a house (describe its
situation so as clearly to identify it) distant
from my church  mile (if E. F. does
not intend to reside in the parish, then state
at what place he intends to reside, and its
distance from the said church) ; and that
the said E. F. does not serve any other
parish as incumbent or curate; and that
he has not any cathedral preferment or
benefice, and does not officiate in any other
church or chapel (if, however, the curate
does serve another parish, as incumbent or
as curate, or has any cathedral preferment
or a benefice, or officiates in any other church
or chapel, the same respectively must be cor
rectly and particularly stated).
Witness my hand this  day of
 , in the year of our Lord one
thousand eight hundred and  .
[Signature and address of] G. H."
Declaration to be written at the foot of the
Nomination.
The declaration to be signed by the in
cumbent and curate is to be in the same
form as that given above, so far as the
-Word " statement " ; after which, proceed
as follows : " Without any deduction or
reservation whatsoever.
Witness our hands this  day of
 , one thousand eight hundred
and  .
[Signatures of] G. H. and. E. F."
2. Letters of orders, deacon and priest.
3. Letters testimonial to be signed by
three beneficed clergymen, in the following
form :
" To the Rt. Rev.  , Lord Bishop of 
" We, whose names are hereunder writ-

CURATE

275

ten, testify and make known that A. B.
clerk, bachelor of arts (or other degree),
of — — college, in the university of  ,
nominated to serve the cure of  , in
the county of  , hath been personally
known to us for the space of * three years
last past; that we have had opportunities
of observing his conduct; that during the
whole of that time we verily believe that
he lived piously, soberly, and honestly, nor
have we at any time heard anything to the
contrary thereof; nor hath he at any time,
as far as we know or believe, held, written
or taught anything contrary to the doctrine
or discipline of the Church of England ;
and, moreover, we believe him in our con
sciences to be, as to his moral conduct, a
person worthy to be licensed to the said
curacy. In witness whereof we have hereunto
set our hands this  day of  ,
in the year of our Lord one thou
sand eight hundred and  .
t C D. rector of  .
E. F. vicar of  .
G. H. rector of  ."
To be countersigned, if all or either of
the subscribers to the testimonial are not
beneficed in the diocese of the bishop to
whom it is addressed, by the bishop of the
diocese wherein their benefices are re
spectively situate.
On receipt of these papers, the bishop,
if he be satisfied with them, will either ap
point the clergyman nominated to attend
him, to be licensed, or issue a commission
to some neighbouring incumbent.
Before the licence is granted, the curate
is to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles,
and the three articles in the 36th canon ;
to declare his conformity to the liturgy of
the Church of England, and to take the
oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and of
canonical obedience : —
" I, E. F., do swear that I will pay true
and canonical obedience to the Lord Bishop
of  in all things lawful and honest.
So help me God."
The licence will be sent by the bishop
to the registry-office, and from thence it
will be forwarded to the churchwardens.
Within three months after he is licensed,
the curate is to read in the church the
declaration appointed by the Act of Uni
formity, and also the certificate of his
having subscribed it before the bishop.
* If the clerk nominated shall have been ordained a
less time than three years, the testimonial may be irum
the time of ordination.
t It is recommended that the clergyman nominating
be not a subscriber to the testimonial. T 2

276

CURATE

By the 106th section of >the Residence
Act (1 & 2 Vict. c. 106), it is enacted that
no spiritual person shall serve more than
two benefices in one day, unless in case of
unforeseen and pressing emergency, in which
case he shall forthwith report the circum
stance to the bishop.
The directions as to notices to be given
for the curate to give up the cure, are con
tained in the 95th section of the said Act,
and for his quitting the house of residence
in the 96th section; and as to notice of the
curate's intention to relinquish the cure, in
the 97th section ; and power is given to
the bishop, by the 98th section, to revoke
any licence to a curate (after having given
him sufficient opportunity to show reason
to the contrary), subject to an appeal to
the archbishop of the province within one
month after service of revocation.
(1.) Form of notice by a new incumbent to
a curate to quit curacy, or to give up
possession of house of residence.
"I, A. B., clerk, having been duly ad
mitted to the rectory of  , in the county
of  , and diocese of  , do hereby, in
pursuance of the power and authority for
this purpose vested in me by Virtue of the
Act of Parliament passed in the first and
second years of her present Majesty's reign,
intituled ' An Act to abridge the holding
of benefices in plurality, and to make
better provision for the residence of the
clergy,' give notice to and require you,
C. D., clerk, to quit and give up the curacy
of  aforesaid [the following to be added
where applicable, and to deliver up posses
sion of the rectory house of  aforesaid,
and the offices, stables, gardens, and ap
purtenances thereto belonging, and (if any)
such part of the glebe land as has 'been
assigned to you] at the expiration of six
weeks from the giving of this notice to
you. Witness my hand this  day of
 , one thousand eight hundred
and  ."
(2.) Form of notice by an incumbent,
• with consent of the bishop, to a curate
to quit curacy, or to give up house of
residence. " I, A. B., clerk, rector of  , in the
county of  , and diocese of  , in
pursuance of the power and authority for
this purpose vested in me by virtue of the
Act of Parliament passed in the first and
second years of her present Majesty's reign,
intituled ' An Act to abridge the holding
of benefices in plurality, and to make
better provision for ' the residence of the
clergy,' do hereby, with the permission of
the Right Reverend  Lord Bishop of

CURATE
the diocese of  aforesaid, signified hy
writing under his lordship's hand, give
notice te, and require you, C. D., clerk, my
licensed curate of  aforesaid, to quit
and give up the said curacy of  [the ,
following to be added where applicable, and '
the rectory house of  aforesaid, 'and
the offices, stables, gardens, and appur
tenances thereto belonging, and (if any)
such part of the glebe land as has been
assigned to you] at the expiration of six
calendar months from the giving of this
notice to you.*
Witness my hand this  day of
 , one thousand eight hundred
and  ."
Form of bishop's permission to an incum
bent to give his curate notice to quit
curacy, or give up possession of house of
residence. (Applicable to Notice No. 2 only).
" I,  , Lord Bishop of  , do here
by, on the application of A. B., clerk, rector
of  , in • the county of  , and my
diocese of  -, signify my permission for
him to require and direct C. D., clerk, his
licensed curate at  aforesaid, to quit
and give up the said curacy [the following
to be added where applicable, and to deliver
up possession of the rectory house of 
aforesaid, and the offices, outhouses, gar
dens, and appurtenances thereto belonging, '
and (if any) such part of the glebe land as
has been assigned to the said C. D. as such
curate] upon six calendar months' notice
thereof being. given to such curate.
Given under my hand this  day
of  , one thousand eight hun
dred and  ."
Note. — The notice No. 1 applies only to
an incumbent newly admitted to a benefice,
and must be given within six months after
such admission.
The notice No 2 applies to every other
case of an incumbent requiring his curate
to quit the curacy. The consent of the
bishop is required only in the latter case.
The 112th section of the Act referred
to in the notices contains directions as
to the mode in which the notice is to be
served ; and it directs that " it shall be
served personally upon the spiritual person
therein named, or to whom it shall be di
rected, by showing the original to him and
leaving with him a true copy thereof, or,
in case such spiritual person cannot be
found, by leaving a true copy thereof at
his usual or last known place of residence,
and by affixing another copy thereof upon
the church door of the parish in which
* This notice must be dated on a day subsequent to
the date of the bishop's permission.'

CURATE
such place of residence shall be situate."
The notice must, immediately after the
service thereof, be returned into the Con
sistorial Court (or the Court of Peculiars,
in the case of an archbishop's or bishop's
peculiar ; see sect. 108,), and be there filed,
together with an affidavit of the time and
manner in which the same shall have been
served. The stipends to bo paid to curates by
non-resident incumbents must be in con
formity with the directions of the Act of
Parliament 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106.
Non-resident incumbents are to allow
stipends according to the following scale,
prescribed by the eighty-fifth section :
The lowest stipend is . . . £80
If the population amount to 300,
the stipend is to be . . . £100
If the population amount to 500,
the stipend is to be . . . £120
If the population amount to 750,
the stipend is to be . . . £135
If the population amount to 1000,
the stipend is to be . . . £150
or the whole value of the benefice, if it does
not exceed these sums respectively. Where
the net yearly income of a benefice exceeds
£400, the bishop may (by sect. 86) assign
a stipend of £100, notwithstanding the
population may not amount to 300; and if
with that income the population amounts
to 500, he may add any sum not exceeding
£50 to any of the stipends payable by the
last-mentioned incumbent, where the curate
resides within the benefice, and serves no
other cure. Where the population exceeds
2000, the bishop may require the incumbent
to nominate two curates, with stipends not
exceeding together the highest rate of sti
pend allowed to one curate.
Incumbents who have become incapable
of performing their duties from age, sickness,
or other unavoidable cause (and to whom,
from these or from any other special and
peculiar circumstances, great hardship would
arise if they were required to pay the full
stipend), may (by sect. 87) be relieved by
the bishop, with the consent of the arch
bishop of the province.
The bishop may (by sect. 89) direct that
the stipend to a curate licensed to serve two
parishes or places, shall be less for each by a
sum not exceeding £30 per annum than the
full stipend.
All agreements for payment of a less
stipend than that assigned by the licence
are (by sect. 90) declared to be void; and
if less be paid, the remainder may be after
wards recovered by the curate or his re
presentatives. When a stipend, equal to
the whole value of a benefice, is assigned to
the curate, he is (by sect. 91) to be liable
to all charges aud outgoings legally

CURFEW

277

affecting the benefice; and (by sect. 94)
when such a stipend as last mentioned is
assigned, and the curate is directed to reside
in the globe house, he is to be liable to the
taxes, parochial rales, and assessments of
the glebe house and premises ; but in every
other case in which the curate shall so
reside by such direction, the bishop may, if
he shall think fit, order that the incumbent
shall pay the curate all or any part of such
sums as he may have been required to pay,
and shall have paid, within one year, ending
at Michaelmas day next preceding the date
of such order for any such taxes, parochial
rates, or assessments, as should become due
at any time after the passing of the Act.
For other particulars as to curates' sti
pends and allowances, &c, see the Act 1 &
2 Vict. c. 106, from sect. 75 to 102, both
inclusive. CURE. The spiritual charge of a parish,
or, in a larger sense, the parish itself.
When Christianity was first planted in this
nation, the bishops were constantly resident
at their cathedrals, and had several clergy
attending them at that place, whom they
sent to preach and convert the people,
where there was the greatest probability of
success; and the persons thus sent either
returned or continued in those places, as
occasion required, having no fixed cures or
titles to particular places ; for being all
entered in the bishop's registry (as the
usual course then was), they could not be
discharged without his consent. After
wards, when Christianity prevailed, and
many churches were built, the cure of souls
was limited both as to places and persons.
The places are those which we now call
parishes, the extent whereof is certainly
known, and the boundaries are now fixed
by long usage and custom. The parsons
are the ministers, who, by presentation,
institution, and induction, are entitled to
the tithes and other ecclesiastical profits
arising within that parish, and have the
cure of souls of those who live and reside
there : and this the canonists call a cure In
foro interiori tantum; and they distinguish
it from a cure of souls, In foro exleriori,
such as archdeacons have, to suspend,
excommunicate, and absolve, and which is
Sine pastorali cura : and from another cure,
which they say is In utroque simul, that is,
both In exteriori et interiori foro ; and such
the bishop has, who has a superintendent
care over the whole diocese, intermixed with
jurisdiction. CURFEW (Literally a fire cover:
couvre-feu). The ringing of a bell at eight
or nine o'clock in the evening is a curious
relic of a statute of William the Conqueror
(repealed in 1100 by Henry 1.), ordering
all fires and lights to be extinguished when

278

CURSIVE

that bell rang at eight o'clock. The object was
to keep the people at home and prevent private
meetings with a view to rebellion. It is still
continued in a great many places with a slight
change of time. Thus Great Tom of Oxford is
tolled 101 times every night at nine, and the
great bell of St. Mary's, Cambridge, rings for
a quarter of an hour, and then tolls the day of
the month. It is continued at Lincoln's Inn
Chapel, and when it was given up for a short
time experimentally, a remonstrance was
made and it was resumed. In some places,
as at Doncaster, some variation is made in
the evening bells before Sundays and Saints'
days. The curfew must not be confounded
with the gleaning bell, which is rung some
what earlier than that in some country
churches in harvest time. An early morning
bell is sometimes still rung in towns, and
called the " Apprentices' bell." [G.]
CURSIVE. Those manuscripts which
are written in a running or flowing hand
are so called to distinguish them from the
uncial, which are printed in capitals. The
cursive manuscripts of the Gospels alone,
that have been already collated, amount to
more than 500 (Wordsworth, Gk. Test.
xxxviii.). The uncial style of writing pre
vailed, speaking broadly, from the fourth to
the tenth century, the cursive beginning
in the ninth or tenth, gradually superseded
ir, and lasted until the invention of print-
ing. [IL]
CURTAINS at the east end of the
chancel were sometimes called altar veils.
These seem to have been generally used
in England instead of the baldachin or
canopy which surrounds the altars of
foreign churches; but solid pillars were
substituted for them in the elaborate clas
sical altar screens of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. In Durham Cathedral
those which were anciently in daily use
were of white silk (Blunt's Annot. P. B. ii.
p. 165). Curtains were also used to close
the doorway between the nave of the
church and the sanctuary, or perhaps,
rather, to fill the open panels or cancelli of
the door, during the time of the consecration
of the Eucharist (St. Chrys. in Ephes.
Horn. iii. sec. 5. See Smith and Cheetham's
Diet. Christ Ant. p. 522). [H]
CUSPS, in Gothic architecture, otherwise
called foliation, are points formed by small
curves projecting inwards from the subordi
nate arches or circles of windows in all the
styles after the Early English. A circle in
window tracery may have any number of
cusps from three up to eight, which number
is very seldom exceeded, aud there are not
often more than six. The circles are then
called trefoils, quatrefoils, &c. Each side
of the arch at the head of the long window
lights generally has one cusp and occasionally

Lancets do not seem to

DAILY CELEBRATION
two, but never more. The cusps are some
times a mere thin flat piece, neither pierced,'
nor decorated ; but these are rare in genuine
English Gothic, and ugly. They are often
pierced so as to form
what are called
eyes : and some
times ornamented
with sunk mould
ings or with raised
carving. When the
eyes are large the
cusp looks weak
and hardly fit for
stone- work, especi
ally when also thin
from back to front
as in Figs. 2 and
2a, Figs. 1 and la
being solid cusps.
Occasionally win
dows of several
lights, i.e. not single
lancets, are left un-
cusped, and look
very bare and ugly.
require cusps, and were generally without,
but not always. In very rich arcades the
hollow of a large cusp is sometimes cusped
again, forming what is called " double folia
tion."

D.
DAILY CELEBRATION of Holy Com
munion. I. The passage in the Acts, where
the Apostles are spoken of as " breaking bread
from house to house," or, as the New Ver
sion renders it, " at home," that is, in their
Christian worship apart from or besides the
worship in the temple which was due
from them as Jews, has been generally
taken to refer to the Holy Communion.
But whether the " ko6' rjpjpav " at the be
ginning of the sentence refers to this, or
only to their " con turning with one accord"
in the temple, is not clear. Nor does it
appear from Holy Scripture, that daily
communion became a custom of the Church
in the days of the Apostles. There can be
no doubt, however, that it was celebrated
on every Lord's Day, if not oftener, in the,
earliest ages of Christianity. Ignatius, ia
his epistle to the Ephesians, exhorts them
to be diligent in assembling frequently to
celebrate the Eucharist; but this may
simply refer to the Lord's Day, as seems
probable from a statement by Pliny, his
contemporary (lib. x. Ep. 97), who speaks
of the Christians always binding themselves
by a " sacramentum " on that day. Tertullian
however (a.d. 190-214) speaks of a greater
frequency of celebrations. On Wednesdays,

DAILY CELEBRATION
Fridays, and Saturdays, on all festivals of
the martyrs, as well as on Sundays, the
Holy Eucharist was celebrated, and between
Easter and Pentecost there was one con
tinual festival, during which without doubt
the highest festival service was observed on
each day (Tertull. de C'oron. Mil. iii. ; de
Orat. c. xiv.). So that in Tertullian's days
there must have really been daily celebra
tions. Sixty years afterwards St. Cyprian
says, " Eucharistiam quotidie ad cibum
salutis accipimus." Still it is not to be
supposed that in every place the same rule
was observed, and this is well brought
before us in a letter by St. Augustine
to Januarius. " In some places," he writes,
" no day passes without the sacrifice being
offered ; in others it is only on Saturday and
the Lord's day, or it may be only on
the Lord's day. In regard to these, and all
other variable observances which may be
met anywhere, one is at liberty to comply
with them or not as he chooses ; and there
is no better rule for the wise and serious
Christian, than to conform to the practice
which he finds prevailing in the Church to
which it may be his lot to come " (Letter
LIV.). In the Sacramentari.es provision is
made for celebration on every day at the
more sacred seasons of the year ; and, in
general, on Wednesdays and Fridays at
other times; and this is also the case
with the Salisbury Missal, which during a
large part of the year has epistles, gospels,
&c, for several or all of the week days. But
no canon of the Church of England exists
imposing daily celebration as a rule on the
English clergy, though the rule as to Sunday
was strict and definite.
II. " The first Prayer Book of Edward VI.
looked for ' daily communion ' in cathedrals :
and in parish churches for communion on
Sundays and holy days; the priest being
ordered earnestly to exhort his parishioners
to be more diligent in attendance, if he saw
them negligent to come on those days.
Herein the practice of the primitive Church
was followed, which appears to have con
sidered the Holy Communion as the great
feature of public worship — the centre about
which it all revolved. The second Prayer
Book of King Edward relaxed largely.
Daily communion was dropped, even in
cathedrals, and weekly communion substi
tuted for it; and on holy days there might
or might not be a communion. The declen
sion proceeded ; and accordingly our Church-
at present contents herself with requiring in
the rubric, that on Sundays and holy-days,
although there be no communion, the
service be read to the end of the prayer for
the Church Militant; as though to show
thai the priest, for his part, is ready to ad
minister on those days, if the people are

DANCERS

279

ready to receive." — Blunt's Parish Priest,
p. 340. [H.]
DAILY PRAYERS. "All priests and
deacons are to say daily the morning and
evening prayer, either privately or openly,
not being let by sickness or some other
urgent cause. And the curate that minis-
tereth in every parish church or chapel, being
at home, and not being otherwise reasonably
hindered, shall say the same in the parish
church or chapel where he ministereth, and
shall cause a bell to be tolled thereunto a
convenient time before he begin, that the
people may come to hear God's word, and
pray with him." — Preface to the Book of
Common Prayer.
DALMATIC (from Dalmatia, where it
was first manufactured,) is a tunic with
long sleeves, reaching below the knees, and
open at each side for a distance varying at
different periods. It is not marked at the
back with a cross like the chasuble, but in
the Latin Church with two narrow stripes,
the remains of the angusticlavi worn on the
old Roman dress. The dalmatic was
originally a dress of state, assumed by
senators, and persons in high position, and
was in later times worn by sovereigns at
their coronation. The first trustworthy
mention of it as an ecclesiastical dress is
in an order of Pope Silvester, a.d. 338, " that
deacons should wear ' dalmatics ' instead of
'collobia'" (Vit Silvest p. 266. Ed.
Combefis) ; the collobion being a Greek
dress of somewhat similar shape. The
dalmatic was also worn by bishops, and is
seen on the effigies -of bishops on monu
ments, and in some old brasses, over the
alb and the stole, the fringed extremities
of which reach just below it.
In the ancient " Celebratio Ordinum," the
dalmatic was given to the deacons. " Tunc
tradat singulis eos circumeundo dalmaticam,
dicens," &c. But the English Churches
only admitted it into their ordinal early in
the thirteenth century. It is not noticed
in the Winchester pontifical, but ordered in
the Bangor MS. (Maskell, Mon. Rit. Eccl.
Ant ii. 212). It is similar to the tunicle,
which is directed to be worn according to
the rubrics of King Edward VI.'s First
Prayer Book, by the priests and deacons who
may assist the priest at the Holy Communion
(See Tunicle: Diet Christ. Ant 523).
DANCERS. A sect which originated in
the year 1373 at Aachen, and spread
through the Belgic provinces. They
wandered about from place to place, lived by
begging, and esteemed the public worship of
the Church and of the priesthood of little
value. At public or private assemblies
persons of both sexes would suddenly begin
dancing inamostviolentmanner,and continue
till they fell down exhausted. A somewhat

280

DANIEL

similar sect rose in France in the eighteenth
century, called "Convulsionists;" and more
lately the Welsh Methodists developed some
"jumpers" who at their religious services
would dance about crying "Gogoniant,"
until they fell down breathless and mazed.
In America this sect is represented by the
Shakers, who also at their meetings are
wont to jump, or dance till exhausted,
in the manner of the dancing dervishes of the
East, — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 309 ;
Blunt's Diet. Sects, 246.
DANIEL (THE BOOK OF). A canon
ical book of the Old Testament. Daniel
was descended from the royal house of
the kings of Judah, and was contemporary
with Ezekiel (a.c. 606). He was of
the children of the captivity, being carried
to Babylon when he was about eighteen
years of age. His name is not prefixed to
his book ; yet the many passages in which
he speaks in the first person, are a sufficient
proof that he was the author of it.
The Jews do not reckon Daniel among
the prophets ; and the reason they assign is,
that he rather lived the life of a courtier,
in the palace of the king of Babylon, than
that of a prophet. They add, that, though
he had Divine revelations given to him, yet
it was not in the prophetic way, but by
dreams and visions of the night, which
they look upon as the most imperfect way
of revelation, and below the prophetic.
But Josephus (Antiq. x. 12) reckons him
among the greatest of the prophets, and
says further of him that he conversed
familiarly with God, and not only foretold
future events, as other prophets did, but de
termined likewise the time when they should
come to pass. Our Saviour, by acknowledg
ing Daniel as a prophet, puts his prophetic
character out of all dispute among Christians.
Part of the book of Daniel was originally
written in the Chaldean language ; that is,
from the fourth verse of the second chapter
to the end of the seventh chapter ; and the
reason was, because, in that part, he treats
of the Chaldean or Babylonish affairs. All
the rest of the book is in Hebrew (Hieron.
in Prssf. ad Dan.). The Greek translation,
used by the Greek Churches throughout the
East,, was that of Theodotion. In the
Vulgate, there is added, in the third chapter,
after the twenty-fourth verse, the Song of
the Three Children, and, at the end of the
book, the History of Susanna, and of Bel
and the Dragon: the former is made the
thirteenth, and the latter the fourteenth chap
ter of the book, in that edition. But these
additions were never received into the canon
by the Jews ; neither are they extant in the
Hebrew or the Chaldee language, nor is there
any proof that they ever were so (See Bible).
It is believed that Daniel died in Chaldea,

DEACON
and that he did not take advantage of the
permission granted by Cyrus to' the Jews of
returning to their own country. St. Epi-
phanius says he died at Babylon, and herein
he is followed by the generality of historians
( Smith's Diet, of Bible : Speaker's Commen
tary and Dr. Pusey's: Sir I. Newton's
Observations on Daniel, pp. 15, 24).
DARREIN PRESENTMENT, Assize of.
An action to determine the lawful patron of
a benefice. This inquest was instituted by
Henry IL, and Magna Charta (Art. 18)
directed it to be held four times a year along
with the assizes of mort d'ancester and
novel disseisin. The process, however, early
became obsolete, as the writ " quare impe
dit " supplied a readier mode of prosecuting
claims to advowson, and it was abolished by
3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 27.
DAVID, ST. The national saint of Wales
commemorated in the English Calendar on
March 1. It is difficult to disentangle his
real history from the mass of legend with
which it has been overlaid. All that can be
asserted with any degree of certainty is (1) that
he established a see and monastery at Men
evia late in the sixth or early in the seventh
century, selecting the site probably on ac
count of its seclusion ; (2) that his diocese
was regarded as co-extensive with the terri
tory of the Demetas ; (3) that he took a pro-j
minent part in a synod of the British held
at Llanddewi Brefi, near the site of the
ancient Loventium, but of the objects of this
convention nothing is certainly known.
His date, like that of Dubricius, first bishop
of Llandaff, has been put back by the
chroniclers more than a century, in order ta
bling him into connexion with King Arthur;
but he probably died early in the seventh
century. The story of a regular Welsh
archbishopric, held first by Dubricius at
Caerleon and. transferred by David to
Menevia, is a fable ; nor is there any evidence
that the Welsh Church in that age had any
metropolitans. Bishop David was canonised in a.d. 1126
by Pope Calixtus II. (See Haddan and
Stubbs, vol. i. 148, 149, 159 ; Jones and Free
man's Hist, of St. David's ; Bright's Early
Engl. Ch. Hist p. 32).
DATARY. An officer in the Pope's
court. He is always a prelate, and some
times a cardinal, deputed by his Holiness
to receive such petitions as are presented
to him, touching the provision of benefices.
DEACON (See Bishop, Presbyter,
Priest, Orders, Clergy). I. The name
Aiaxoi/ot, which is the original word for
deacons, is sometimes used in the New
Testament for any one that ministers in the
service of God: in which large sense we
sometimes find bishops and presbyters styled
deacons, not only in the New Testament, but

DEACON .
in ecclesiastical writers also. But here we
take it for the name of the third order of
the clergy in the Church. Deacons are
styled by Ignatius (Ep. ad Trull, n. 2)
"ministers of the mysteries of Christ,"
adding that they are " not ministers of
meats and drinks, but of the Church of God."
In another place (Epist. ad Magnes, n. 6)
he speaks of them as "ministers of Jesus
Christ," and gives them a sort of presidency
over the people, together with the bishops
and presbyters. Cyprian speaks of them in
the same style, calling them " ministers of
episcopacy and the Church," and referring
their origin to the Acts of the Apostles ;
and he asserts that they were called ad
altaris ministerium, to the ministry and
service of the altar (Ep. 65 al. 3 ad
Rogatian). Optatus had such an opinion of
them as to reckon their office a lower degree
of the priesthood. At the same time it is
to be observed, that in this he was singular.
.By those who regarded them as a sacred
order, they were generally distinguished
from priests by the name of ministers and
Levites. The ordination of a deacon differed
in the primitive Church from that of a
presbyter, both in the form and manner of
it, and also in the gifts and powers that
were conferred by the ordinance. In the
ordination of a presbyter, the presbyters
who were present were required to join in
imposition of hands with the bishop. But
the ordination of a deacon might be per
formed by the bishop alone, because, as the
[fourth] Council of Carthage words it, he
was ordained not to the priesthood, but
to the inferior services of the Church;
"quia non ad sacerdotium sed ad minis
terium consecratur." It belonged to the
deacons to take care of the holy table and
all the ornaments and utensils appertaining
thereto ; to receive the oblations of the
people, and present them to the priest ; in
some churches, to read the Gospel both in
the communion service and before it also;
to minister the consecrated bread and wine
to the people in the Eucharist ; in some
churches, to baptize ; to act as directors to
the people in public worship, for which
purpose they were wont to use certain
known forms of words, to give notice when
each part of the service began, and to ex
cite people to join attentively therein ; to
preach, with the bishop's licence; in ex
treme cases to reconcile the excommuni
cated to the Church; to attend upon the
bishop, and sometimes to represent him in
general councils.— Bingham, bk. ii. cxx.
II. The deacon was never allowed fo pro
nounce the absolution, or minister at the
Holy Communion, except as an assistant.
With regard to baptism in ordinary cases
it would seem that in some places deacons

DEACON

281

had the authority to administer it, not in
others. As to extraordinary cases, not only
deacons but laymen were admitted to baptize
in the primitive Church. According to the
Apostolic Constitutions, a deacon may not
"baptize or offer" (viii. 28), but is to minister
to the bishops and presbyters therein (iii..
11); and Epiphanius affirms the same (Hser.
79 ; Collysid. n. 4). But from Tertullian, St.
Jerome, St. Cyril and others, it appears that
deacons had this power " by the bishop's
leave." The fifth canon of the Council of
York, 1195, decreed " ut non nisi summa
et gravi necessitate diaconus baptiset "
(Wilkins, Concil. i. 501). But the general
rule seems to have been, as it is at present,
that he might baptize, but only in the ab
sence of the priest (See Maskell, Mon. Rit.
ii. 202).
The ancient rule of the Church in respect
of marriages was that they should be cele
brated " per presbyterum Sanctis ordinibus
constitutum." No change was made in this
rule at the Reformation or subsequently ;
and there is no authority for a deacon cele
brating the rite. Chief Justice Tindal gave
his opinion, and that of his brother judges,
before the House of Lords on July 7th, 1843,
that it was the rule of the Church of England
to require the ceremony to be performed by
a priest. This indeed was a question about
clergymen and laymen, not deacons and
priests ; but the marriage office is certainly
one of Benediction, which is beyond the
power of a deacon ; the rubrics throughout
contemplate the minister of the office as a-
priest; and no authority is given to the
deacon to celebrate marriages at his ordina
tion or at any other time (Blunt's Annot.
P. B. 264).
If the rubrics be strictly construed ac
cording to the letter, the deacon cannot read
the versicles before the Psalms, or after the
Lord's Prayer (at its second occurrence),,
nor the latter part of the Litany, beginning
at the Lord's Prayer; nor any part of the
Communion Service, except the Gospel (not
according to the rubric, however, but in
virtue of the licence in the Ordination
Service), the Creed, and the Confession.
These rubrics are now much more generally
observed than they used to be.
III. The Church of England enjoins (and
there is an Act to the same effect (44 Geo.
III. c. 43)), that " none shall be admitted a
deacon except he be twenty-three years of
age, unless he have a faculty " (see Age) ; and
she describes the duties of a, deacon in her
office as follows : " It appertaineth to the
office of a deacon, in the church where he
shall be appointed to serve, to assist the-
priest in Divine service, and specially when.
he ministereth tbe Holy Communion, and to.
help him in the distribution thereof, and

2S2

DEACONESS

to read Holy Scripture and homilies in the
church ; and to instruct the youth in the
catechism ; in the absence of the priest to
baptize infants, and to preach, if he be
admitted thereto by the bishop. And,
furthermore, it is his office, where provision
is so made, to search for the sick, poor, and
impotent people of the parish, to intimate
their estates, names and places where they
dwell, unto the curate, that by his exhorta
tion they may be relieved with the alms of
the parishioners, or others." [H.]
DEACONESS. A woman-deacon. An
order and office in the Church, possibly
derived from the older order et' Widows
(Acts vi. 1 ; 1 .Tim. v. 9). Its scriptural
authority is equal, or superior to, that of
the episcopate. It is directly mentioned by
St. Paul (Romans xvi. and 1 Tim. iv. 11),
and was undoubtedly a prominent feature
of the Apostolic Church.
In the century next after the Apostles,
and thenceforward for several centuries, we
find not only deaconesses working in the
cities and dioceses, but deaconesses admitted
by formal imposition of the hands of the
bishop, constituting a distinct order of the
primitive ministry. They were always
widows or unmarried. They were generally
of mature age — according to the Council of
Chalcedon not less than forty, though it
seems certain that in some cases an earlier
age was admitted. Their duties were to
visit, tend, and nurse the poor, the sick,
and the afflicted, signally those of their own
sex ; to minister to the martyrs in prison ;
to prepare female converts for holy baptism,
and attend them at the time ; and probably
to teach generally the youns converts or
young children of the Church ; to preside
over those widows who were pensioners on
the Christians' bounty ; to keep order among
the female worshippers in the house of
prayer ; and to be the means of introduction
and communication between the clergy
and the women of their flock. But in no
case were they permitted to exercise sacer
dotal functions.
The office and order of deaconess lasted
for ten or twelve centuries in the churches
of the East. It had fallen out of use much
earlier in the West, probably before the
end of the eighth century. It had been
found necessary to confine it to persons
living under special rule of life, and in
community ; and it was superseded by the
great independent communities or nunneries.
These conventual establishments being
essentially lay institutions, were not canon
ically subject to the bishop of the diocese,
and very generally defied his interference,
while they exercised great spiritual power
in bis diocese. And the last stage in the
mediasval history of the female diaconate in

DEACONESS
the West was its adoption by the bishops to
support the diocesan system when seriously
threatened by this danger.
In this view they insisted upon the
superiors of the nunneries being made
deaconesses, just as they sought to compel
the higher officials in the monasteries to
receive ordination, in order to obtain canonical
rights over them. Other circumstances con
spired to reduce the communities .to sub
mission, and the order of deaconess then, fell
completely into abeyance. But abbesses
seem to have sometimes retained the title
of deaconess for some time after the actual
office had passed away.
The setting apart of women for the work
of visiting and instructing the poor, for
tending the sick and generally for such
benevolent ministrations as women are
well adapted for, was revived on a con
siderable scale by German and French
Protestants at Kaisersworth in 1836, at
Strasburg and Muhlhausen in 1842, and
the time-honoured title of deaconess was
assumed by them. These have grown into
flourishing institutions. But these so-called
deaconesses are not to be confounded with
the Apostolic order and office. It has un
fortunately resulted from the unauthorised
assumption of the ancient and apostolical
title by these women, upon whom no such
office was canonically conferred, that their ex
ample has been followed in England, and
that the name is frequently claimed by
many women who are often mere nurses,
and are in no way connected officially with
the order of the Catholic Church.
In 1861, after being in abeyance for one
thousand years, the ancient order was at last
revived in the person of Catherine Elizabeth
Ferard, invested duly with the office of
deaconess by Bishop Tait of London. Since
that time it has maintained its ground.
There are now deaconesses in several
English dioceses, generally associated in
communities to live in a certain state of
life (see Sisterhoods), but attached for
temporary or permanent work to particular
parish churches, or to the care of special
benevolent institutions.
They are sometimes called sisters, but
this title refers only to their state of life,
not to their office in the Church, and is of
course inapplicable to those deaconesses who
do not belong to a sisterhood. Their duties
are much the same as those of the deaconesses
of the primitive Church. Various questions
are still unsettled as to their position in the
Church, the tenure of their office, the regu
lation of their outward life, the possibility
of their being married, &c. It seems to be
generally agreed that women-deacons should
be as closely as possible on parallel lines
with the men-deacons of the Apostolic age,

DEAD
owing canonical obedience to the bishop of
the diocese, and that their communities
should be directly under his personal control,
and should not be subject to the incumbent
of the parish in which they are situated.
Above all, it is a matter of experience, that
none should be admitted to the office with
out training and probation.
The complete adjustment and discipline
of the revived order and office of women-
deacons in the English branch of the
Catholic Church awaits the formation of a
canonical system in the synods of the
English provinces. This alone can prevent
distracting collisions of merely diocesan
regulations. [B. C]
DEAD (See Burial). I. At all times,
and among all nations, funeral rites, of some
sort or other, have been performed over the
dead. The most ancient manner was by
" laying them in the earth," sometimes em
balming them first, as in the case of the
Egyptians and other nations of the East,
and sometimes placing them as 'they were in
the ground. There is abundant testimony
in the books of Moses of the burial of their
dead by the patriarchs, and it is evident
that their funerals were performed, and their
sepulchres provided with pious care (Gen.
xxiii. 4 ; xxv. 9 ; xxxv. 29 ; xlix. 31).
Among certain n-itions, notably the Greeks
and Romans, it. became a custom to burn
the bodies of the dead (see Pliny, Nat. Hist.
1. 7, c. 54). And it has been imagined by
some from 1 Sam. xxxi. 12, and Amos
vi. 10, that the rite of burning was also
sometimes used by the Jews. But it appears
that the burnings there mentioned were
simply the burning of odours and spices
about their bodies — an honour usually paid
to kings (2 Chron. xvi. 14 ; xxi. 19 ;
Jer. xxxiv. 5). As with tbe Jews, so with
the Christians, the rite of interment, with
religious observances, was the only one ; and
wherever Paganism was extirpated, the
custom of burning was disused, and that of
laying the bodies of the deceased entire in
the grave took its place.
II. From the primitive ages of Christian
ity, the greatest cave has been taken with re
gard to the dead, in closing their eyes, laying
them forth, watching with them, washing
their bodies, dressing them, and carrying
them to burial with psalms and hymns
(See Euseb. lib. vii. 22, &c). The singing of
psalms, expressive of the joy and hope with
which the separation of death was regarded,
was always the custom at the burial of the
dead. In the Apostolic Constitutions the
direction is given, " in the funerals of the
departed, accompany them with singing, if
they were faithful in Christ " (vi., xxx.),°and
many passages in the Fathers show the im
portance that was attached to this part

DEAD

2S3

of the rite (e.g. St. Chrysost. Horn. iv. in
ITebr. 29 ; de Dormient. Hieron. Ep. xxvii.).
Ministers also were appointed, with a sort
of clerical character, to look after the
funerals, and take heed that all was done in
order, who were styled " Copiatse," or
" Fossarii " (Bingham, iii. 8). The medias-
val services included, (1) the commenda
tion of the souls of the dead, said in the
house between the death and burial; (2)
the Inhumation ; (3) the mass for the
dead, or Requiem ; (4) the office for the dead,
called the " Dirge " ; (5) Trentals, or masses
said for thirty days after the day of death ;
and (6) anniversary commemorations. In
the Prayer Book of 1549, there was a prayer
for the soul of the departed, beginning, " O
Lord, with whom do live the spirits of
thern that be dead, and in whom the souls
of them that be elected, after they be de
livered from the burden of the flesh, be in
joy and felicity ; grant unto this Thy servant,
that the sins which he committed in this
world be not imputed unto him," &c.
There was also to be a celebration of Holy
Communion, a practice dating as early as
the fifth century. But in the Prayer Book
of 1552, the prayer and the celebration of
Holy Communion were omitted, as also
the words to be spoken by the priest as he
cast earth upon the corpse, " I commend
thy soul to God, and thy body to the
ground." The present form of commenda
tion was substituted, according to which
the words with regard to the body only are
spoken by the minister, while "someone
standing by " casts earth upon the body.
III. With regard to the condition of the
dead in Christ intermediately till their
bodies are raised, it must be observed that
no practice is of more primitive antiquity
than that of praying for the souls of the
faithful departed. Tertullian, the opposer
of any innovation, speaks of it frequently as
the established rule of the Church (de Cor.
Mil. c. 3; Exhort, ad Castit. c. 11, &c).
Cyprian, Origen, Cyril, nearly all the fathers
in fact, refer to it. In all the old liturgies
there are prayers for " all souls, that they
may have rest in the land of the living, in
the Paradise of God " (Neale's Anct Lit).
" It may be observed," says Bishop Heber,
" that the Greek Church and all the Eastern
Churches, though they do not believe in
"purgatory," pray for the dead; and that
we know the practice to have been universal,
or nearly so, among the Christians, a little
more than 150 years after our Saviour."
Augustine, in his Confessions, has given a
beautiful prayer, which he himself used for
his deceased mother, Monica; and among
Protestants, Luther and Dr. Johnson are
eminent instances of the same conduct.
To the same effect Jeremy Taylor writes,

284

DEADLY SIN

" Such general prayers for the dead as those
above reckoned (i.e. as used by the primitive
Christian), the Church of England never
did condemn by any express article, but
left it in. the middle; and by her practice
declares her faith of the resurrection of the
dead, and her interest in the communion of
saints, and that the saints departed are a
portion of the Catholic Church, parts and
members of the body of Christ ; but ex
pressly condemns the doctrine of purgatory,
and consequently all prayers for the dead
relating to it " (Taylor's Works, Heber's ed.,
vol. x. p. 148. See Purgatory). [H.]
DEADLY SIN. We pray in the Litany
to be delivered from " all deadly sin." In
the strict sense of the word, every sin is
deadly, and would cause eternal death if it
were not for the intervention of our blessed
Saviour. Even what are called infirmities
and frailties are in this sense deadly. But
persons under grace have for these offences
" an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ
the righteous, and He is the propitiation for
our sins " (1 St. John ii. 2). Their infirmities
and frailties, therefore, if they are trying to
overcome them, are not deadly to persons
under grace, or baptized persons justified by
faith, although, if persevered in, and un
corrected, they may terminate in deadly
sin; and they consequently require con
tinual repentance, lest they should grow
into such a fearful burden. But even to
persons under grace we learn from 1 St. John
v. 16, 17, that there are " sins unto death,"
— which must mean sins that put us out of
a state of grace, and this is done by any
wilful sin persevered in. Pride, avarice,
lust, envy, gluttony, anger, sloth, have been
called the " seven deadly sins ; " but by
deadly sin in a Christian is meant wilful
sin, persevered in, which deprives us of all
Christian privileges (See Sin).
DEAN. I. Certain officers of the college
or guild of Copiata; at Constantinople, whose
duty it was to arrange and attend funerals,
were called decani (See Copiatse, Bingham,
bk. iii. c. 8). But the term was more
usually applied to the heads of the " decu-
ries " in monasteries, especially in those of
the Benedictine order. The whole convent
was thus divided, and the dean or tenth
person presided over the other nine. His
duty was to see after every man's daily
work, and give an account of it to the
ceconomus, or steward, who had to give a
monthly account to the head, or abbot.
" Opus dici statum est, quod decano redditum,
fertur ad ceconomum, qui et ipse per singulos
menses patri omnium reddit rationem" (St.
Jerome, Ep. 22, ad Eustoch. c. 15). This
rule was consistently carried on, and when
in later times cathedral establishments
contrasted unfavourably with the Bene-

DEAN
dictine monasteries, an attempt was made
in the middle of the 8th century to effect a
reform in France. Chrodegang, archbishop
of Metz, gave to the cathedral clergy a
canon or rule of a semi-monastic character.
There were canons before the time of Chro
degang, and the name was probably derived
from the Kavav or list on which they were
enrolled, not from the rule which they ob
served. As the monks were placed under
the superintendence of a " decanus " or of a
prior, so the canons were subjected to a dean
(Hook's Lives cfthe Archbishops, vol. i. 284).
The system was introduced into England,
and Ceolnoth, afterwards archbishop, was the
first dean of Canterbury, in a.d. 826. The
arrangement seems, however, not to have
succeeded at first, and the time of its intror
duction was unfortunate. The historians
of tbe day, being monks, and opposed
to cathedral establishments under secular
canons, have not given any particulars. It
is certain, however, that there was a dean
of St. Paul's in 1086, and from that time
or soon after all the cathedrals in England
which were not served by monks had a dean
as their head, without whom the Corporation
of the Dean and Chapter is incomplete.
But some of the collegiate churches, and also
several of the Welsh cathedrals until 1840,
were without deans, of which Southwell
with a large body of prebendaries was the
chief example.
The dean is the first dignitary of the
cathedral ; the head of the corporation ; and,
in subordination to the bishop, has, according
to the statutes of more ancient cathedrals,
the cure of souls over the members of the ,
cathedral, and the administration of the
corrective discipline of the Church. He has
also duties in the choir and the chapter in
common with all the chapter. He is by
our law a sole corporation, that is, he re
presents a whole succession, and is capable
of taking an estate as dean, and conveying
it to his successors. But all their sepa7
rate estates were taken away by the Act
of 1840.
The deans have different degrees of
power under the statutes of different
churches. At Westminster he is generally
understood to be absolute : at any rate
Dean Stanley insisted that he was. At
Durham, it appears from the reports of the
last cathedral commission, that the Dean
has lately claimed absolute authority over
the services ; and a legal opinion is printed
that the claim is good though new. In
some other cathedrals it seems to be alleged
that the deans have gradually usurped
more power than they have legally. In
others they have not even a casting vote in
addition to their single one. At Peter
borough lately it was of public notoriety

DEAN
that a majority of the chapter voted down
both the dean and a large majority of the
committee which had the command of the
funds, and weakly submitted to arbitration,
in the matter of the rebuilding of the tower.
In some chapters the dean has a casting
vote besides his primary one. By the great
cathedral reform Act of 1840 the deans are
ordered to reside eight months, and they can
only hold a living of less than £500 a year
(gross value) besides, within three miles of
the cathedral ; and if they have any living
except such as those it becomes vacant in
six months after their appointment as dean ;
but it does not go to the Crown like bishops'
preferments. The incomes of the deans
were dealt with most unfairly by the Act
of 1840, which reduced all above £2000 a
year to that, but made not a few as low
as £1000 a year by taking away all the
separate property, and in some cases with
houses large enough for a bishop's palace. The
incomes appear in Whitaker's Almanack.
Altogether the office and position of deans
are considered to be in a very unsatisfactory
condition, and various schemes have been
proposed for both increasing their usefulness
and restoring better relations between them
and the bishops than notoriously exist in
some places. One commission, of 1854,
went so far as to recommend consolidating
the two offices, which simply means abolish
ing deans, and making the bishops the
real instead of the nominal heads of their
chapters once more. Another plan suggested
is to utilize them as suffragan bishops under
the Act of 26 Hen. VIII. c. 74, as such
are frequently wanted, and there are no
funds to pay them now that the cathedral
patronage has been so enormously reduced.
It would be out of place to discuss the rival
schemes here : we only notice them.
II. Deans, Rural. Their office is of
ancient date in the Church of England, long
prior to the Reformation, as it has been
throughout ¦ Europe. In one of the laws
ascribed to Edward the Confessor, the rural
dean is called the dean of the bishop (Ken.
Par. Ant. 633). Their chief duty is to
visit a certain number of parishes, and to
report their condition to the bishop. Till
within the last few years the title of Rural
Dean in modern times existed only in name.
But now they hold chapters, at which
subjects submitted to them by the bishop
are discussed, and they present a report
annually to the bishop of their diocese (See
Rural Deans).
Rural deans are recognised by 37 & 38
Vict. c. 63, authorising new deaneries to be
formed by the bishop and the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners ; but every rural deanery is
to be wholly within one archdeaconry ; and
also every archdeaconry wholly within one

DEAN AND CHAPTER

285

diocese, the Act containing powers also to
re-arrange them.
III. The "Dean of Faculty" in most
ancient and some modern universities,
presided over the meetings at their several
faculties, and maintained the academical
discipline. There are also deans in nearly
all the Oxford and Cambridge colleges, who
generally have the chief management of
the chapel discipline and services, and are
always Fellows of their college.
IV. There are also a few titular " Deans
of Peculiars," though the Peculiar juris
dictions are abolished. They are mere
incumbents, who have kept the title, which
is now unmeaning and misleading. The
Bishop of London is, as a " peculiar," dean
of the province of Canterbury. [H]
DEAN AND CHAPTER. This is the
style and title of the governing body of a
cathedral. A chapter consists of the dean,
with a certain number of canons, or preben
daries, beads of the church — capita ecclesise.
The origin of this institution is to be traced
to a remote antiqui ty. A missionary bishop,
when converting our ancestors, commonly
fixed his see in some spot which either from
its central position, or from its proximity
to the royal court, was the most convenient
abode for him and his attendant priests,
who as opportunity offered, would go to the
neighbouring villages to preach the gospel,
and administer the other offices of the
Church. But they resided with the bishop,
and were supported out of his revenues. By
degrees parochial settlements were made ;
but still the bishop required the attendance
of certain of the clergy at his cathedral, to
be his council ; and also to officiate in his
principal church or cathedral. These persons,
to qualify themselves for their office, gave
themselves up to study, and to the main
tenance and decoration of their sanctuary;
the services of which were to be a model to
all the lesser churches of the diocese. Form
ing, in the course of time, a corporation, they
obtained property, and ceased to be dependent
upon the bishop for a maintenance. And
being considered the representatives of the
clergy, upon them devolved the government
of the diocese when vacant; and they
obtained the privilege, doubtless on the same
principle, of choosing the bishop, which
originally belonged to the whole clergy of the
diocese, in conjunction with the bishops of
the province. In this privilege they were
supported by the kings of the country, who
perceived that they were more likely to
intimidate a chapter into the election of the
royal nominee, than the whole of the clergy
of a diocese. But still, the deans and
chapters sometimes acting independently,
an Act was passed in 1533 (25 Hen. VIII.
c. 20), by which a dean and chapter re-

286

DECALOGUE

fusing to elect the king's nominee to the
bishopric become individually outlawed, lose
all their property, and are to be imprisoned
during pleasure, and the sovereign then
appoints by letters patent. The Act 3 &
4 Vict. c. 113, which has wrought a con
siderable change in the condition and
constitution of deans and chapters, is given
at length in Phillimore's Eccl. Law (See
Canons and Cathedrals).
DECALOGUE. The ten precepts, or
commandments, delivered by God to Moses,
and by him written on two tables of stone,
and delivered to the Hebrews, as the bivsis
and foundation of their religion. The history
of this great event, together with the ten
commandments themselves, are recited at
large in the 19th and 20th chapters of 'the
book of Exodus.
The Jews called these commandments,
by way of excellence, the ten words, from
whence they had afterwards the name of
Decalogue. But it is to be observed, that
they joined the first and second into one, and
divided the last into two (De Legib. Hebr.
lib. i. c. 2). The Church of Rome follows
this division : the Church of England that re
cognised by Josephus and the Greek Church.
The use of the Decalogue in the com
munion service, introduced in 1552, is
peculiar to the English Church. It is
probably derived from the custom of
reciting and expounding them at certain
intervals which is so frequently enjoined by
the ancient synods, and the bishops of the
Church of England, and was perhaps also
intended as a warning against the Anti
nomianism of the age. The translation in
our Prayer Book is that of the " Great
Bible" of 1539-40.
The 32nd canon orders that "the ten
commandments be set up on the east end
of every church where the people may best
see them, and other chosen sentences on
the walls, ... at the cost of the parish."
On which it may be observed that one of
these orders is no more binding than the
other, though it seems often to be assumed
that it is. Also that there is no order for
the Creed and the Lord's Prayer, which
were generally painted or inscribed with
the commandments ; but they have all be
come much disused, and there is probably
no cathedral where they appear. In Rhodes
v. Wrangham, in the Consistory Court of
York in 1882, the plaintiff cited, the vicar
for not painting up the commandments,
the old ones having perished and not being
replaced in a restoration of the church
under an unopposed faculty. The Chancellor
of York dismissed the suit with costs as
plainly vexatious, and held that there was
no obligation on the vicar to put up the
commandments. [H.]

DECORATED
DECLARATION (See Conformity).
DECORATED. This term is applied to
the two styles of architecture, which lasted
nearly through the fourteenth century, or,
the reigns of Edward II. and III. 1307-
1877, between the Early English and the
Perpendicular. .The great characteristic of
both of them is windows of any number
of upright lights (which never exceed nine),
headed by some, kind of curved tracery,
which stiffened into almost entirely upright
and horizontal bars in Perpendicular. But
there are Decorated windows of one light
only, hardly distinguishable from Early
English. The distinction between the early
or geometrical Decorated, and the late or
flowing, is that the tracery in the former
windows makes geometrical and regular and
mostly circular patterns, both of stone and
glass, and in the latter the stone-work is in
flowing patterns, and often contains ogee
curves, or " curves of contrary flexure " (in
mathematical language), and the lights have
no definite patterns, but, as builders say,
" find themselves," or are merely what the
tracery makes them. The other differences,
are that the loose or " disengaged " shafts
round Early English pillars become "en
gaged," or partly embedded in the pillars,
and consequently with horizontal divisions
or beds instead of distinct long shafts of
stone or marble. Therefore the Decorated
are much stronger and more durable.
Another great difference from Early English
is that the carved foliage becomes " natural,"
or like nature, and very rich, and sometimes
with birds and beasts among the foliage,
instead of the " conventional," or rather
celery-stalk-looking patterns of the Early
English, which, however, was often very
rich too. The Decorated mouldings of arches,
are generally smaller and more numerous,
but begin to be deficient in depth and
strength and shadow. When Early English
and Decorated arcades are seen together, as
at Lichfield, Lincoln, or St. Alban's, that is
very apparent, and generally also an inferi
ority in general proportions ; and still more
in the late than in the early Decorated. The
ogee curves are common in all later mould
ings, and have a weak and somewhat un-
Gothic look, both there and in Perpendicular.
They rarely occur in the early styles.
As the "dog-tooth" moulding is dis
tinctive of Early English, so is the " ball-
flower " of Decorated. Both are recognised
in a moment when seen, and no description
will explain them without seeing. Early
Decorated doors and windows, like Early
English, generally have capitals at the top
of the side shafts, which are oftener omitted
in later Decorated and Pei-pendicular, and
large double doorways gradually became
more uncommon as we leave the Early

DECRETALS
English period ; which is odd, while
windows grew larger. In late Decorated
the mullions and tracery became altogether
thinner, and look as if the builders wanted
to treat the stone as flexible ; and also
shallower from the outside of the wall. And
those two manifest defects are constantly
imported by modern architects into all their
mullioned windows of eveiy style. But
tresses became very deep in the early
Decorated style, having been gradually in
creasing from Norman, which were little
more than pilasters, much wider than their
depth or projection ; and the bases and tops
and set-offs were often enriched with many
mouldings. Diaper ornament of fiat surfaces
was still used, and differed very little from
Early English. The steeple of Salisbury,
both tower and spire, which is incomparably
the finest in the world, is of the early
Decorated style ; and so is the great tower of
Lincoln, which holds the same rank among
unspired towers, and the " Angel choir " of
that cathedral, which is generally reckoned
our finest piece of architecture, though
perhaps the choir of Ely inside is as fine.
It has been truly said, both by advocates
of the superiority of the early and of the
late styles, that the change from geometrical
to flowing is the real turning point between
the two groups) though the name Decorated
is added to both those titles. And the
late group is called by its admirers Continu
ous and the earlier Discontinuous, as if
such epithets proved anything as to the
merits of either. The preponderance of
opinion, including Scott and Ruskin, besides
other writers, is decidedly with the early
Decorated, for reasons they have given, and
Scott showed that it was the only style that
was ever universal, and that after reaching
that climax, Gothic architecture divided
again into different streams in different
countries. Messrs. Freeman and Petit have
advocated the later styles, and still more
strangely, the Perpendicular as the better of
those two, which is almost universally con
demned as an obvious decline, monotonous,
stiff, and unimaginative. Its best feature
is fan-vaulting, all the rest being mere
degradation of previous freedom and variety
into monotonous straight lines and rect
angular pannels. [G.]
DECRETALS. The name given to the
letters of Popes, being in answer to questions
proposed to them by some bishop or ecclesi
astical judge, or even particular person, in
which they determined business as they
thought fit. The first decretal is attributed
to Pope Siricius, and dated the third of the
Ides of February under the consulship of
Arcadius and Bauto ; i.e. Feb. 11 a.d. 385.
It is an answer to certain questions which
had been sent by Himerius, bishop of

DECRETALS

287

Tarracona (Newman's Fleury, bk. xviii.
xxxiv.). In the ninth century there appeared a
collection of nearly one hundred decretal
letters ascribed to more than thirty Popes,
succeeding each other in the first three
centuries. Certain peculiarities of language
indicate that the collection was of Frankish
origin, and Meutz is now commonly
supposed to have been the place of fabrica
tion, but they passed under the name of
Isidore, bishop of Seville, a voluminous
writer of the seventh century upon whom
an earlier collection of decretals current in
Spain had been fathered. Their uniform
tendency is to exalt papal power, and
exactly on those points for which no
sanction can be alleged from Scripture, or
from the early periods of any genuine Church
history ; such as supreme authority over
bishops, the receiving appeals from all parts
of the world, and the reservation of causes
for the hearing of the Roman See. In the
words of Fleury, "They inflicted an irre
parable wound on the discipline of the
Church, by the new maxims which they
introduced in regard to the judgment of
bishops and the authority of the Pope." Dr.
Barrow mentions them among the chief
causes by which the power of the bishop of
Rome has been advanced : " The forgery of
the decretal epistles (wherein the ancient
popes are made expressly to speak and act
according to some of his highest pretences,
devised long after their times, and which
they never thought of, good men) did hugely
conduce to his purpose ; authorising his
encroachments by the suffrage of ancient
doctrine and practice." " Upon these spu
rious decretals," writes Hallam, " was
built the great fabric of papal supremacy
over the different national Churches : a
fabric which has stood after its foundation
crumbled beneath it ; for no one has pre
tended to deny, during the last two centuries,
that the imposture is too palpable for any
but the most ignorant ages to credit"
(Middle Ages, vol. ii. c. 7, p. 236, ed. 1826).
Their effect was to magnify the power and
privileges of the clergy : bishops are exempt
from all secular judgment ; no layman
might accuse a bishop or even a clerk ; but
they tended to diminish the authority of
metropolitans and provincial synods, by
allowing to an accused bishop, not only the
right of appeal, but the power also of re
moving any process into the supreme court
at Rome. And on this account it has been
supposed that the decrees were forged by
some bishop who desired to reduce the power
of his immediate superior. But whoever
may have been the author, and whatever the
origin, there is no doubt that the popes
became, from the first, their most strenuous

¦288

DEDICATION

defenders. " The acceptance of the pseudo-
Isidorian statutes established the great
principle which Nicolas I. had before an
nounced of the sole legislative power of the
pope. Every one of Ahese papal epistles
was a canon of the Church ; every future
bull therefore rested on the same irrefragable
.authority, commanded the same implicit
¦obedience. The Papacy became a legislative
as well as an administrative authority.
Infallibility was the next inevitable step, if
infallibility was not already in the power
asserted to have been bestowed by the
Lord on St. Peter, by St. Peter handed down
in unbroken descent, and in a plenitude
which could not be restricted or limited, to
the latest of his successors" (Milman's
Lat Christ, vol. ii. 309. See also Hook's
Archbishops, i. 300). In the 12th century
Gratian made them the foundation of his
Decretum, which became the standard law
book of the Church during the middle ages.
Accounts of these forgeries are to be found
in the posthumous work of Van Espen,
Comment, in Jus Novum Canonicum, part ii.
diss. 1, p. 451-475, and in Heinschius'
Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianse. See also
De Marca, De Concord, iii. c. 4, 5, p. 242 ;
Natalis Alexandri, Hist. Eccles. sa?c. i. diss.
13, p. 213 ; Coci Censura quorumdam
Scriptorum, Sec, passim. [H.]
DEDICATION, Festival of. I. When
churches were solemnly dedicated to the
service of God, it was very natural that the
anniversary of the dedication should be
observed. These anniversary feasts were
called in ancient times the Encasnia, and
Gregory Nazianzen speaks of them as an
ancient usage. According to Sozomen an
anniversary festival, 'in memory of the
dedication of the church which Constantine
built to the honour of our Saviour, was
kept with great solemnity. It lasted eight
days, during which time there were continual
assemblies and services (Sozom. lib. ii. c.
26), and from this time the custom was
observed in other churches (Bingham, bk.
xx. c. 8). Gregory the Great gave direc
tions to Mellitus, who was to take them to
Augustine in England, that the people
should then have Uberty to erect booths
round about the church, and therein feast
and entertain themselves, in lieu of their
ancient sacrifices while they were heathens
(Haddan and Stubbs, vol. iii. 37). This is
also mentioned by Bede (lib. i. c. 30). These
feasts, however, degenerated into licentious
revels, and had to be checked, as was done on
the continent by the Council of Chalons, a.d.
650, at which a canon was passed against
the singing of ribald songs near the porch of
the church on the dedication festivals.
II. These festivals were also called
"wakes," a word derived probably from

DEDICATION
Kyrchweiches, that is, church feasts (Hos-
kin, de Festis, in appendice de Encseniis, -p.
113). Tbe reason of the name is thus assigned
in an old manuscript.: "Ye shall under
stand and know how the evens were first
founded in old times. In the beginningijf
Holy Chtuch it was so, that the people
came to the church with candles burning,
and would wake and come with lights
towards night to the church in their
devotions: and after, they fell to lechery,
and songs, and dances, harping and piping,
and also to gluttony and sin ; and so turned
the holiness to cursedness. Wherefore the
holy Fathers ordained the people to leave
that waking, and to fast the even. But it
is still called vigil, that is, waking in.
English : and it is also called the even, for
at even they were wont to come to church."
It was in imitation of the primitive dydirai,
or love feasts (see Agapse), that such public
assemblies, accompanied with friendly enter
tainments, were first held upon- each return
of the day of consecration, though not in
the body of churches, yet in the church
yards, and most nearly adjoining places.
This practice was established in England by
Gregory the Great, as mentioned above.
But as the love feasts held in the place of
worship were soon liable to such great
disorders, that they were not only con
demned at Corinth by St. Paul, but pro
hibited to be kept in the house of God by
the twentieth canon of the Council of
Laodicea, and the thirtieth of the third
Council of Carthage: so, from- a sense of
the same inconveniences, this custom did
not long continue of feasting in the churches
or churchyards; but strangers and in
habitants paid the devotion of prayers and
offerings in the church, and then adjourned
their eating and drinking to the more proper
place of public and private houses. TUe
institution of these church encsenia, or
wakes, was, without question, for good and
laudable designs: at first, thankfully to
commemorate the bounty and munificence
of those who had founded and endowed the
church ; next, to incite others to the like
generous acts of piety; and, chiefly, to
maintain a Christian spirit of unity and
charity, by such sociable and friendly
meetings. And therefore care was taken to
keep up the custom. The laws of Edward
the Confessor gave peace and protection
in all parishes during the solemnity of
the day of dedication, and the same
privilege to all that were going to or
returning from such solemnity. In a
council held at Oxford, in the year 1222, it
was ordained, that among other festivals
should be observed the day of dedication of
every church within the proper parish.

DEDICATION
And in a synod under Archbishop Islip
(who was promoted to the see of Canterbury
in the year 1349), the dedication feast is
mentioned with particular respect. This
solemnity was at first celebrated on the very
day of dedication, as it annually returned.
But the bishops sometimes gave authority
for transposing the observance to some other
day, and especially to Sunday, whereon the
people could best attend the devotions and
rites intended in this ceremony. Henry
VIII. enjoined that all wakes should be
kept the first Sunday in October.
This custom of wakes prevailed for many
ages, till the Puritans began to exclaim
against it as a remnant of Popery. By
degrees the humour grew so popular, that
at the summer assizes held at Exeter,
in the year 1627, the Lord Chief Baron
Walter and Baron Denham made an order
for suppression of all wakes. And a like
order was made by Judge Richardson for
the county of Somerset, in the year 1631.
But on Bishop Laud's complaint of these
innovations, the king commanded the last
order to be reversed ; which Judge Richard
son refusing to do, an account was required
from the Bishop of Bath and Wells, how
the said feast days, church ales, wakes, and
revels, were for the most part celebrated and
observed iu his diocese. On the receipt of
these instructions, the bishop sent for and
advised with seventy-two of the most
orthodox and able of his clergy; who
certified under their hands, that, on these
feast days (which generally fell on Sundays),
the service of God was more solemnly
performed, and the church much better
frequented, both in the forenoon and after
noon, than on any other Sunday in the year ;
that the people very much desired the
continuance of them; that the ministers
did in most places the like, for these reasons,
viz. for preserving the memorial of the
dedication of their several churches, for
civilizing the people, for composing dif
ferences by the mediation and meeting of
friends, for increase of love and unity by
these feasts of charity, and for relief and
comfort of the poor. On the return of this
certificate, Judge Richardson was again cited
to the council table, and peremptorily
commanded to reverse his former order.
After which it was thought fit to reinforce
the declaration of King James, when
perhaps this was the only good reason
assigned for that unnecessary and unhappy
licence of sports: "We do ratify and
publish this our blessed father's decree, the
rather because of late, in some counties
of our kingdom, we find, that, under pre
tence of taking away abuses, there hath
been a general forbidding not only of
ordinary meetings, but of the feasts of the

DEGRADATION

289

dedication of churches, commonly called
wakes." At the present time, though the revelry
of " wakes " has passed away, services are
held in many churches on the day of the
festival of dedication, and continued through
out the octave, in accordance with the
primitive custom. [H.]
DEFENCE, CHURCH INSTITUTION.
(See Societies, Church.)
DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. (Fidei
Defensor.) A peculiar title belonging to
the sovereign of England ; as Catholic to the
King of Spain, and, in the time of the Mo
narchy, Most Christian to the King of
France. These titles were given by the Popes
of Rome. That of Fidei Defensor was first
conferred by Pope Leo X. on King Henry
VIII., for writing against Martin Luther;
and the bull for it bears date quinto idis
Octobris, 1521. It was afterwards confirmed
by Clement VII. On Henry's suppression of
the monasteries, the Pope of Rome deprived
him of this title, and had the presumption
and absurdity to depose him from his
throne. Therefore the title was conferred
by the parliament of England, in the thirty-
fifth year of Henry's reign. Some antiqua
rians maintain that the bull of Leo only re
vived a title long borne by the Enghsh kings.
DEGRADATION is an ecclesiastical
censure, whereby a clergyman is deprived
of the holy orders which formerly he had,
as of a priest or deacon ; and by the canon
law this may be done two ways, either
summarily or by word only, or solemnly,
as by divesting the party degraded of those
ornaments and rights which were the en
signs and order of his degree.
Collier thus describes the form of de
gradation of a priest, in the case of Fawke,
burnt for heresy in the reign of Henry IV.
After being pronounced a heretic relapsed,
he was solemnly degraded in the following
manner :
/l Priest. \ II. The paten, chalice,
and pulling off his
chasuble.
Deacon. a 2. The New Testament
'B and the stole.
Sub-deacon. g 3 The albe and the
8 maniple.
Acolyth. "£,.' 4 The candlestick,
.5 \ taper, urueolus.
Exorcist. ^ 5 The office for exor-
-" cisms.
6 Reader. pj 6 The lectionarium, or
legend book.
1 Ostiarius, or Sex- 1 The keys of the
ton. church-doors, and
\ j \ surplice.
After this, his ecclesiastical tonsure was
obliterated, and the form of his degrada
tion pronounced by the archbishop ; and
being thus deprived of his sacerdotal cha
racter, and dressed in a lay habit, he was
put into the hands of the secular court,
u

2 3
5

1 .

>290

DEGREES

with the significant request, that he might
be favourably received. This follows very
closely the old order, which is given by
Martene, de Rit. Ant. Eccl., hb. iii. c. 2.
The ancient law for degradation is set
forth in the sixth book of the Decretals ;
and the causes for degradation and depri
vation are enumerated by Bishop Gibson.
(See Gibson's Codex, p. 1066-1068.)
By Canon 122, sentence of either depri
vation or degradation " shall be pronounced
by the bishop only" &c. But this was
expressly decided not to be law as to
deprivation by the Dean of Arches, in
Bonwell v. Bishop of London (B. & F.'s
Ecc. Cases), whether it is or not as to
degradation. The only application for
degradation that we find in modern times
was refused by the same dean, though for
a very gross offence. He also intimated
that if it had to be done, it would require
the presence of several bishops as well as
the archbishop, according to authorities
older than the canons of 1603, which had
no power to regulate the proceedings of
the king's ecclesiastical courts, or to in
crease or diminish the previous powers of
either bishops or judges. [G.]
DEGREES. Psalms or Songs of De
grees is a title given to fifteen psalms,
which are the 120th, and all that follow to
the 134th inclusive. The Hebrew text
.calls them a song of ascents. Junius and
Tremellius translate the Hebrew, by a
song of excellencies, or an excellent song,
because of the excellent matter of them,
as eminent persons are called men qf high
degree (1 Chron. xvii. 17). Some scholars,
as Gesenius and Delitzsch, suppose that the
title denotes the peculiar rhythmical struc
ture of these psalms, according to which a
word in one verse is taken up and repeated
in the next in a kind of ascending scale.
Some call them psalms ofelevation,beca,use,
they assert, they were sung with an exalted
voice ; or because at every psalm the voice
was raised: but the translation "psalms of
degrees " has more generally obtained. Some
interpreters think that they were so called
because they were sung upon the fifteen
steps of the temple ; but they are not
agreed about the place where these fifteen
steps were. Others suppose they were so
called, because they were sung in a gallery,
which they say was in the court of Israel,
where sometimes the Levites read the law.
But the most probable reason why they are
called songs of degrees, or of ascent, is,
because they were composed and sung by
the Jews, either on their annual pilgrimages
to keep the great festival at Jerusalem, or
on the occasion of their going up to Jerusa
lem, after the deliverance from the captivity
of Babylon, whether it were to implore this

DEISTS
deliverance from God, or to return thanks for
it after it had happened ; perhaps they were
severally composed not only upon this but
upon other remarkable occasions when they
made their ascent to the temple. [H.]
DEGREES in the universities denote
a quality conferred on the students or
members thereof, as a testimony of their
proficiency in the arts and sciences, and
entitling them to certain privileges. They
were first instituted by Pope Eugenius III.
at the suggestion of Gratian, the cele
brated compiler of the canon law in 1151 ;
but were limited to the faculty of canon
law, for the encouragement of which they
were Rrstituted ; and consisted of the ranks
of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor. Short
ly after Peter Lombard instituted similar
degrees in theology in the university of
Paris. In the course of time degrees were
given in other faculties, those of arts and
medicine being added. In many of the
foreign universities, theology and canon
law have each their three classes of de
grees as above stated; medicine has gene
rally but two, bachelor and doctor; and
arts two, bachelor and master. The de
signation of doctor in philosophy is very
modern. The Enghsh universities have
only two degrees, bachelor and doctor in
the superior faculties ; bachelor and master
in arts. The degrees both of bachelor and
master of arts were conferred at Oxford in
the time of Henry VIII., but that of master
of arts probably much earlier. The degrees
for Laws are said to have come into the
universities in 1149. Formerly separate
degrees were given in England (as abroad) in
canon and civil law; but the distinction
ceased in the seventeenth century. Oxford
has for some time ceased to confer degrees in
utroque jure (i.e. civil and canon law), but
only in civil law. Hence her graduates are
D.C.L. and B.C.L., and not LL.D. and
L.L.B., as at Cambridge and Dublin. The
three ancient universities of England and
Ireland confer degrees in music.
DEGREES, FORBIDDEN. (See Affi
nity.) DEISTS. (Deus, God.) Those who
deny the existence and necessity of any
revelation, and profess to acknowledge that
the being of a God is the chief article
of their belief. The same persons are
frequently called infidels, on account of
their incredulity, or want of belief in the
Christian dispensation of religion. — Con
sult Boyle's Lectures, Leland's View of
Deistical Writers, Leslie's Short and Easy
Method with the Deists, Watson's Apology
for the Bible.
Dr. Clarke (Evidences of Nat. and Rev.
Bel. Introd.), taking the word in its most
extensive signification, distinguishes deists

DEISTS
into four sorts. The first are, such as
admit the existence of an eternal, infinite,
independent, intelligent Being; and who,
to avoid the name of Epicurean Atheists,
teach also, that this Supreme Being made
the world ; though, at the same time, they
agree with the Epicureans in this, that they
fancy God does not at all concern himself
in the government of the world, nor has
any regard to, or care of, what is done
.therein. The second sort of deists are those, who
believe, not only the being, but also the
providence of God, with respect to the na
tural world; but who, not allowing any
¦difference between moral good and evil,
deny that God takes any notice of the
morally good or evil actions of men ; these
things depending, as they imagine, on the
arbitrary constitution of human laws.
A third sort of deists there are, who,
having right apprehensions concerning the
natural attributes of God, and his all-go
verning providence, and some notion of
his moral perfections also, yet deny the
immortality of the human soul, and believe
that men perish entirely at death, and that
¦one generation shall perpetually succeed
another, without any future restoration or
renovation of things.
A fourth sort of deists are such as
believe the existence of a Supreme Being,
together with His providence in the
government of the world, as also all the
obligations of natural religion; but so far
only as these things are discoverable by
the light of nature alone, without believing
any Divine revelation.
[To these must be added at least a fifth
sort, of whom Carlyle and his biographer
may be taken as types, as they seem
anxious to inform us ; who believe : not
only in a future life, but in some kind of
judgment and retribution, though only as a
matter of probability, and not from re
velation. Carlyle distinctly repudiated
Christianity and all certainty about a
future life, but nevertheless read the Bible
¦and accepted its moral doctrines, though
they can have no authority with such
persons, except so far as their own opinions
agree with them. Probably no very de
finite lines can be drawn between the
¦different degrees of deism that exist in
the world, any more than between the
degrees of Arianism among those who have
some kind of belief in Jesus Christ, but
none of His being the second person of the
Trinity, " one with the Father," Who " was
from the beginning with God, and was
•God."] [G.]
Prateolus (Elench. Haires.) mentions a
set of deists (as they were called) which
sprang up in Poland In the year 1564.

DEMIURGE

291

They were a branch of the Lutherans, and,
coming into France in 1566, settled at
Lyons. Their leader (he tells us) was one
Gregorius Pauli, a minister of Cracow.
They boasted that God had bestowed on
them much greater gifts than on Luther
and others, and that the destruction of
Antichrist was reserved for them. They
asserted that there is one nature, or Deity,
common to the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost, but not one and the same essence ;
and that the Father alone is the one only
true God. These deists ought rather to be
denominated Arians.
DELEGATES. The court of delegates
was so called, because these delegates sat
by force of the king's commission under the
great seal, upon an appeal to the king in
the court of Chancery,, in three causes:
1. When a sentence was given in any eccle
siastical cause by tho archbishop or his
official: 2. When any sentence was given
in any ecclesiastical causo in places exempt,
i.e. peculiars : 3. When a sentence was given
in the admiral's court, in a suit civil and
marine, by the order of the civil laws.
And these commissioners were called dele
gates, because they were delegated by the
king's commission for these purposes.
For the origin of the delegates in eccle
siastical appeals, see 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12,
and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, § 4. By the 2 &
3 Wm. IV. c. 92, the powers of the high
court of delegates, both in ecclesiastical and
maritime causes, were transferred to her
Majesty in council. (See Judicial Com
mittee.) By the Clergy Discipline Act 1840 (3 & 4
Vict. c. 86, s. 18) every bishop of the Privy
Council, i.e. tho archbishops and the bishop
of London, was to be a member of the Judicial
Committee on appeals under that Act, unless
he has himself sent the letters of request or
issued the commission. The powers of the
Committee were further regulated and ex
tended by 6 & 7 Vict. o. 38, and 7 & 8
Vict. c. 69, and 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83. In
1873 those bishops were put off the Com
mittee, and in 1876 all the bishops were
introduced as assessors in rotation, three
being required to sit in every ecclesiastical
case, and five summoned. (See Courts
Christian, and Judicial Committee.)
DEMIURGE. (From Sr/piovpyos, an arti
ficer.) The name given by some Gnostic
sects to the Creator of the world, Who, ac
cording to them, was different from the
supreme God. (See Gnostics.) Valentinus
in the second century added to the fantastic
ideas of tho Gnostics. The Demiurge or
Architect of the world, he asserted, became
so inflated with pride, as to wish men to
think Him the only God ; to- repress which
insolence Christ descended. An account of
u 2

292

DEMONIACS

this system is given in Irenseus contra
Heres. lib. i. c. 1-7. (See Valentinians ; Bp.
Kaye's Tertullian, 509 ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, i. 148.)
DEMONIACS. Persons possessed of the
devil. That the persons spoken of in the
New Testament as possessed of the devil
were not simply lunatics, is clear from a
mere perusal of the facts recorded. The
devils owned Christ to be the Messiah;
they besought Him not to torment them;
they passed into the swine and drove them
into the sea. The manner in which our
Lord addressed the demoniacs clearly shows
that they were really such : He not only
rebuked the devils, but called them unclean
spirits, asking them questions, commanding
them to come out, &c. We find also that,
for some time, in the early ages of the
Church, demoniacs existed, as there was a
peculiar service appointed in the Church for
their cure. (See Energumens : Exorcists.)
DENARII DE CARITATE. Customary
oblations, anciently made to cathedral
churches, about the time of Pentecost, when
the parish priests, and many of their parish
ioners, went in procession to visit their
mother-church. This custom was after
wards changed into a settled due, and usually
charged upon the parish priest, though at
first it was but a gift of charity, or present,
towards the support and ornament of the
bishop's see.
DENOMINATIONS, THE THREE.
The general body of dissenting ministers
of London and Westminster form an as
sociation so styled, which was organized
in 1727. The object of the association
appears to be political. The Three De
nominations are, the Presbyterian (now
Socinian), Independent, and Baptist.
DENYS, ST., Bishop ; commemorated in
our Calendar October 9 : the patron saint of
France. He was sent as a missionary bishop
(of Paris) in the third century, and suffered
martyrdom in the Aurelian persecution, circ.
, a.d. 272. He was often confused with
Dionysius the Areopagite, the convert of
St. Paul (Acts xvii. 34), and by tradition
first bishop of Athens ; and also with an
other Dionysius, said to have been sent as
missionary by Clement or the successors of
the Apostles. — Dictionary of Christ. Biog.
s. v. Dionysius ; Barry's P. B. [TS..]
DEO GRATIAS. (Thanks to God.) A
form of salutation, anciently used by Chris
tians, when they accosted each other. The
Donatists ridiculed the use of it ; but St.
Augustine defended it, affirming, that a
Christian had reason to return God thanks
when he met a brother Christian. It is at
present used only in the sacred offices of the
Roman Church. We have something like
it in the Communion Service of our own

DEPRIVATION
Church, in which the minister says, Let us
give thanks unto our Lord God.
DEPOSITION. Theologians and canon
ists not unfrequently confound deposition
and degradation. While in the earliest
times they might have been regarded as the
same, in later practice there was a difference
between the two. Simple deposition pro
hibited a clerk either from exercising the
powers of his order, or any ecclesiastical
office ; or from receiving the revenues of his
benefice ; but it did not remove him from
the spiritual and subject him to lay juris
diction. But degradation included the in
fliction of all the penalties which accom
panied deposition, and committed theoffende?
also to the power of the temporal courts.
For a clerk deposed or degraded to consecrate
the Eucharist, would be an unlawful act,
and aggravate his offence, but the power is
not taken away, for "ha^c potestas est
simpliciter inimpedibilis." — Maskell, Mon.
Rit. Eccl. Ang. vol. ii. clx.
DEPRECATIONS. Prayers in the Litany
for deliverance from special evils; they
include also " obsecrations " or prayers for
deliverance from evil and its consequences,
based on all our Lord has done and suffered
for mankind. — Evan Daniel's P. B. See
Litany. DEPRIVATION is an ecclesiastical
sentence, whereby a clergyman is deprived
of his parsonage, vicarage or other spiritual
promotion or dignity.
By Canon 122. Sentence against a mini
ster, of deprivation from his living, " shall
be pronounced by the bishop only with the
assistance of his chancellor and the dean,
(if they may conveniently be had,) and
some of the prebendaries, if the court be
kept near the cathedral church ; or of the
archdeacon, if he may be had conveniently,.
and two other at the least grave ministers
and preachers to be called by the bishop,
when the court is kept in other places."
But it is very doubtful whether that canon
was not ultra vires. (See Degradation.)
The causes of deprivation may be re--
duced to three heads, viz. to want of
capacity, contempt, and crimes. Noncon-c
formity is thus specially punished by
1 Eliz. c. 2, 13 Eliz. c. 12, 14 Car. II. c. 4.
In all causes of deprivation, where a person
is in actual possession of an ecclesiastical
benefice, these things must concur : 1st, A
monition or citation of the party to appear -
2nd, A charge given against him by way of
libei or articles, to which he is to give an
answer : 3rd, A competent time must he
assigned, for proofs and interrogatories I
4th, The person accused shall have the
liberty of counsel to defend his cause, to
except against witnesses, and to bring legal
proofs against them : and 5th, There must.

DESK
be a solemn sentence by the Dea'n of Arches,
after hearing the merits of the cause, or
pleadings on both sides. There is however
another process ending in deprivation under
the Public Worship Act, 1874 (q.v.).
By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, s. 31, spiritual
persons trading contrary to the provisions
of that Act, may be, for the third offence,
deprived by the chancellor of the diocese ;
notwithstanding the Clergy Discipline
Act ; for it is held not to be an ecclesiastical
offence, but a mere breach of the Act which
created that special jurisdiction for it.
DESK, CLERGY; for reading prayers.
The eighty-second canon orders among
other things that "a convenient seat be
made for the minister to read service in."
The first Prayer Book, of 1549, ordered " the
priest being in the choir to begin the Lord's
Prayer " (which then began the service) ; in
the second Prayer Book this was altered to
" The morning and evening prayers shall be
usedjin such places of the church or chancel,
and the minister shall so turn him as the
people may best hear. And if there be any
controversy therein the matter shall be re
ferred to the ordinary, and he or his deputy
shall appoint the place." This rubric was
altered in the Elizabethan Prayer Book to the
present form, that " the morning and evening
prayers shall be used in the accustomed place
in the church, chapel or chancel, except it
be otherwise ordered by the ordinary." And
then came the canon of 1603. For many
years a fashion had grown up of making a
lower pulpit for the reading desk in front of
the preaching pulpit, which is also to be
provided in " a convenient place," by the
eighty-third canon, and a third still lower
for the clerk. The three together had come
to be popularly called a " three-decker." In
some town churches of the Georgian era
another fashion was to make the reading
desk exactly to match the pulpit on the
opposite side of the "middle aisle" or
passage, for the benefit of the galleries.
Probably all these have been cut down in
the last forty or fifty years, and the three-
deckers in the middle aisle have been
generally broken up and the pulpit removed
to one side, and the clerk's desk abolished.
As a distinct seat for the minister is still
ordered, it is now commonly placed at the
south-west or north-west corner of the
chancel, and very often one at both corners
to enable two ministers to divide the service.
In some large cross churches, as at Don-
caster, St. Mary's, Beverley, &c, the reading
desk is placed against the north-west or
south-west pier of the central tower, as the
place where " the people can best hear," and
see the minister. These rules do not apply
to cathedrals and college chapels and other
churches of that kind with no distinct

DIAPER

293

chancel, and there the reading desk is
commonly behind or near the singers. [G.]
DEUS MISEREATUR. The Latin
name for Psalm Ixvii., which may be used
after the second lesson at evening prayers,
instead of the Nunc Dimittis, except on
the twelfth day of the month, when it oc
curs among the psalms of the day. It was
first inserted in its present place in the
Second Book of King Edward VI., but it
was familiar in the older services, being the
fourth fixed psalm at Lauds on Sundays.
It was also part of the office of Bidding
Prayers which was used every Sunday.
DEUTERONOMY. A canonical book
of the Old Testament. The word implies
a second law, the principal design of it
being, a repetition of the laws already de
livered. It is the last book of the Penta
teuch, or five books of Moses ; though
some have questioned whether it was
written by that legislator, because, in the
last chapter, mention is made of his death
and burial, and of the succession of Joshua
after him. But this only proves that the
last chapter was not written by Moses, but
added by some other person ; most probably
by Ezra, when he published an edition of
the Holy Scriptures. (See Pentateuch.)
DEVIL. From Aid/3oAos, which signi
fies an accuser, a slanderer. The devil is
so called because he originally accused or
slandered God in Paradise, as averse to the
increase of man's knowledge and happiness ;
and still slanders Him by false and blas
phemous suggestions; and because on the
other hand he is the accuser of our brethren.
(Parkhurst's Diet, Rose's ed.) The two
words, Devil and Satan, are used in Scrips
ture to signify the same wicked spirit, who
with many others, his angels or under-
agents, is fighting against God; and who
has dominion over all the sons of Adam,
except the regenerate.
DIACONATE. The office or order of
a deacon. (See Deacon.)
DIACONICUM. (Gr. and Lat) This
word has different significations in eccle
siastical authors. Sometimes it is taken
for that part of the ancient church in which
the deacons used to sit during the per
formance of Divine service, namely, at the
rails of the altar ; sometimes for a building
adjoining to the church, in which the sa
cred vessels and habits were laid up ; some
times for that part of the public prayers
which the deacons pronounced. Lastly, it
denotes an ecclesiastical book, in which are
contained all things relating to the duty
and office of a deacon, according to the
rites of the Greek Church.
DIAPER. In church architecture, a
decoration of large surfaces with a con
stantly recurring pattern, either carved or

294

DIATESSARON

painted. Norman diapers are usually either.
fretted or zigzag lines, or imbrications of
the masonry; and not only plain surfaces,
but pillars, and small shafts, and even
mouldings, are diapered, as the cable
moulding surrounding the nave at Roches
ter. In the succeeding styles, flowers and
leaves are the most frequent patterns,
which, in the Geometrical style, are often
of extreme beauty and delicacy. After
the fourteenth century, diapers are painted
only, and even the hollows of mouldings
are thus treated. But diaper is conven
tionally understood to mean the dividing of
a stone surface either flat or widely curved
into a reticulated set of polygons divided
by a narrow band, each polygon seldom
more than nine inches wide, except at great
elevations, and each filled up by a flower with
leaves approximately fitting it. Some
beautiful examples of them are given in
Rickman's Gothic Architecture. The only
polygons that will fit alone are squares,
hexagons, and equilateral, or at any rate
isosceles, triangles, which last however are
never found. Nor do we remember any
old example of two polygons being used,
such as octagons and a small square. But
a pentagonal diaper, with the necessary
trapeziums to fill up, is used round the
new nave pulpit of St. Alban's. [G.]
DIATESSARON. A name given to an ar
rangement of the four Gospels (did-reo-o-dpav)
so as to make one continuous narrative.
This was first done by Tatian in the second
century : but he is accused by Eusebius of
tampering with the details, to suit his pur
pose (Hist. Eccl. iv.) ; Theodoret suppressed
all the copies of the Diatessaron he could
find in his churches. (Heres. t. i. 20.)
St. Ambrose asserts distinctly that the
early harmonists did falsify Scripture to
gratify their own whims. Ammonius of
Alexandria also endeavoured to arrange in
columns the Gospels (see Ammonius
Sections), and later on Eusebius of Caasarea
formed his canons upon these sections. —
Wordsworth's Gk. T. vol. i., xxvii. ; Blunt's
Theol. Diet 202.
DIET. The assembly of the states of
Germany. The most remarkable of those
which were held on tbe affairs of religion
were : the Diet of Worms, in 1521, where
Alexander, the Pope's nuncio, having charged
Luther with heresy, the Duke of Saxony
said, that Luther ought to be heard;
which the emperor granted, and sent him
a pass, provided he did not preach on
this journey. Being come to Worms, he
protested that he would not recant unless
they would show him his errors by the word
of God alone, and not by that of men ; where
fore the emperor soon after outlawed him
by an edict ; two diets at Nuremberg, held

DIGNITARY
in 1523 and' 1524 ; two at Spire, in 1526,'
1529 ; four at Augsburg, in 1530, 1547,-,
1548 and 1550; and three at Ratisbon.
The last was in 1557, when a conference
being demanded between some famous;
doctors of both sides, such was presently
held at Worms between twelve Lutheran-
and twelve Romanist divines : but it came
to nothing as the Lutherans were divided-
among themselves. Every diet above men
tioned had for its chief subject the Lutheran.
and Roman question. In the second diet of
Spire the name was invented, which has.
become extensively used, that of Protestant .-
which the Lutherans and afterwards the1
Calvinists and other "reformed" sects
adopted. (See Augsburg, Confession of.)
DIGAMY. Second marriages. I. The
Apostolical rule was that a bishop or a deacon
should be the husband of one wife only;
but with regard to the sense and extent
of that rule different notions were held;
Origen, Tertullian, and many other early
writers, held that all persons were to he
refused orders who were twice married after
baptism ; and this sense was put on St.
Paul's words, by the councils of Agde and
Carthage. (Orig. Horn. 17 in Luc. ; Tertull.
de Monogam. c. ii. &c. ; Ambrose, de Office
i. 501.) Some indeed even put a stricter
interpretation on the rule, and forbad ordi-i
nation to all who had been twice married,
whether before or after baptism. On the
other hand the opinion was sometimes held
that the Apostolic rule was directed against
polygamists, and those who married again
after being divorced. (See St. Chrysost.
Horn. 10; » 1 Tim. iii. 2 ; in Tit. i. 6.)
Canons at many councils were passed against
digamy, although it was sometimes allowed
among the inferior clergy. (See Smith and
Cheetham's Diet. Ecc. Ant. s. v.)
II. The Canons of Neo-Ca:sarea, Laodicea,,
and St. Basil debarred those who married a
second time from communion for one or
two years ; but Bingham is of the opinion
that the object of these canons was to dis-.
countenance marrying after an unlawful
divorce, (iv. v. 4 : xv. iv. 18). The re*
marriage of divorced persons has always
been opposed by the Church, on the au
thority of our Lord himself ; but by the law of
England it is allowed. (See Divorce.) [H.]
DIGNITARY. One who holds any pre-:
ferment to which jurisdiction is annexed*
The dignitaries in British cathedrals are,
for the most part, the dean, precentor, chan
cellor, treasurer, and archdeacon. Some'
times the subdean and succentor eanoni
corum are so called ; and in a few churches
in Ireland, the provost and sacrist (or trea
surer). The only dignitary in cathedrals of
the new foundation is the dean ; as the
archdeacon is not necessarily a member of

DILAPIDATION
such chapters. (See Cathedral.) It is a
vulgar error to style prebendaries, or canons
residentiary, dignitaries. The prebendaries
without dignity were styled canoniei (or
prebendarii) simplices. — Jebb on the Choral
Service, p. 27-50.
DILAPIDATION. The ruin or decay of
the chancel or any other edifice of his
ecclesiastical living, which has been caused
by the incumbent's neglect to repair tlie
same ; and it likewise extends to his com
mitting, or suffering to be committed, any
wilful waste in or upon the glebe, woods, or
any inheritance of the church, which includes
working mines, unless the profits are in
vested for the benefit of the living, and even
cutting down trees unless for repairs of the
property ; and the specific timber need not
be used, but only the value of it: and
altering houses without a faculty, so as to
make them less suitable for the living. The
present law of dilapidations depends upon
an Act passed in 1871, and amended in
1872 as usual, which has been described as
" got up by two or three bishops who did not
understand what they were doing, and two
or three surveyors who did," and it has been
absolutely condemned by a Committee of the
House of Commons in 1876, aud yet remains
unrepealed. The reasons given for it were
that clergymen sometimes die insolvent,
which no Act of Parliament is likely to pre
vent, and that they did not always spend
the money they received for dilapidations in
doing the repairs, for which there had been
a legal remedy ever since 14 Eliz. c. 11,
s. 6, under a penalty of forfeiting twice the
value, of which the authors of the new Acts
apparently knew nothing. The substance
of them is as follows : Diocesan surveyors
are to be appointed who are to have the
benefit of surveying every bit of property
subject to dilapidation on every vacancy,
and to be paid by fees and not by salary ;
instead of leaving people to settle their own
claims as before. If the outgoing parson
has left money enough to pay the valuation
it is paid as before ; but if he does not, the
new one is bound at once to do the repairs
at his own expense whether he wants them
or not. The surveyors' fees are to be fixed
(by the 1873 Act) by no less machinery
than the two archbishops, the Lord Chan
cellor, the two archiepiscopal vicars-general,
the Lords of the Treasury and the Queen in
Council. The surveyor is to inspect aud
report as soon as conveniently may be, and
report to the bishop and to send a copy to
the new incumbent and the executors of the
old one of what works are needed and an
estimate of their cost, and their special cir
cumstances. Either party may object if he
likes to waste his money in having a second
inspection made at his own expense by

DIOCESE

295-

some competent person (who may be the
same surveyor), or have a case laid before
counsel, on which the bishop is to give his
decision in writing ; all which means more,
fees to more officials. He may borrow for
repairs as much as Queen Anne's Bounty will,
lend, up to three years' value, with consent
of the bishop and the patron, on security of
the benefice, as for building a new vicarage,.
and must pay the dilapidation money to
Q. A. B., not simply receive it from his prede
cessor as before, and spend it himself; i.e. he
is to pay it whether he has received it or not,.
and Q. A. B. is to pay the builder. And
when tbe repairs are done there is to be " a
certificate in triplicate " delivered by the
surveyor to Q. A. B., the bishop's registry,,
and the incumbent. And an incumbent
may do the same at any time, with this
singular provision, that such a certificate,
warrants the house good for five years : i.e.
that if he vacates it within that time, by a
day, no dilapidations can be recovered how
ever bad it may have become. That
scheme was invented to tempt incumbents to
repair. All incumbents are required to insure;
for at least three-fifths of tbe value of the,
house ; but that does not protect them from,
having to rebuild if the house is burnt
down, nor does the insurance money go to
tbe incumbent, but to Q. A. B. Another of
the pleasing consequences of this Act for the
benefit of clergy is that if the " dilapida-
tor" (as they call these surveyors) takes it
into his head that some bygone architectural
feature of a house which nobody has wanted,
for centuries ought to be " restored," he may,
order it, whatever it costs. And so much
did the authors of the Act know of the
existing law that they put in a special
clause to authorise the bishop to do exactly
what could be done before by a faculty, viz.
to remove unnecessary buildings. The sole
merit of the Act, compared with some other
bad ones, is that it has not destroyed any
ancient jurisdictions, and so only needs
repealing by a single clause, as the Com
mittee of the House of Commons recom
mended. [G.]
DIMISSORY LETTERS. (See Letters
Dimissory.) DIOCESE. The area of a bishop's juris
diction. A province is the area of an
archbishop's jurisdiction. Each province
contains divers dioceses, or sees of suffragan
bishops; whereof Canterbury now includes
twenty-three and York eight. (See Arch
bishops.) Every diocese in England is divided
into archdeaconries, and each archdeaconry
into rural deaneries, and every deanery into
parishes. The division of the Church into dioceses
may be viewed as a natural consequence of
the institution of the office of bishops. The

296

DIOCESE

authority to exercise jurisdiction, when
committed to several hands, requires that
some boundaries be defined within which
each party may employ his powers ; other
wise disorder and confusion would ensue,
and the Church instead of being benefited
by the appointment of governors, might
be exposed to the double calamity of an
overplus of them in one district, and a total
deficiency of them in another. Hence wo
find, so early as the New Testament history,
some plain indications of the rise of the
diocesan system in the cases respectively
of James, bishop of Jerusalem; Timothy,
bishop of Ephesus ; Titus, of Crete ; to
whom may be added the " angels " or bishops
of the seven Churches in Asia. These were
placed in cities, and had jurisdiction over the
churches and inferior clergy in those cities,
and probably in the country adjacent. The
first dioceses were formed by planting a
bishop in a city or considerable village,
where he officiated regularly, and took the
spiritual charge, not only of the city itself,
but of the suburbs, or region lying round
about it, within the verge of its [civil] juris
diction ; which seems to be the plain reason
of that great and visible difference which
we find in the extent of dioceses, some
being very large, others very small, according
as the civil government of each city happened
to have a larger or lesser jurisdiction.
In England, after the landing of Augustine
in 597, the several kingdoms were gradually
converted to Christianity during nearly a
century according as missionaries obtained
opportunities ; though it must not be for
gotten that the British Church flourished
previously, and the Church of St. Alban's
existed 214 years before. (See Church,
Early British.) The first apostle of the
faith in each kingdom generally became
the first bishop. His see was commonly
fixed in or near any place where he was first
permitted to begin his labours, and his
diocese was as a rule coextensive with the
kingdom. If the size of the kingdom
increased, as in the case of Wessex, the
dioceses were multiplied. In the Church of
England her dioceses, compared with the
population, are still too extensive and too
few. It is impossible for our bishops to per
form all their canonical duties, such as
visiting annually every parish in the diocese,
inspecting schools, Divine service, instruction,
&c, besides baptizing, confirming, consecrat
ing. Episcopal extension, as well as Church
extension, is most important, a truth which
has now been practically recognised. The
dioceses of St. Alban's, Liverpool, Truro,
Newcastle, and Southwell, have been formed
lately, and endowed by the liberality of
Churchmen; and at least two others are in
Contemplation.

DIOCESAN
The bishops have always sat in Parliament
by virtue of their official rank — not as barons
of the realm. (See Stubbs' Constit'Hist.
i. 357 ; ii. 169 ; iii. 443.) The beginning of
a new system was made on the erection of
the see of Manchester, in 1847, since which
time only the 26 senior bishops, including the
5 with special precedence, have seats in the
House of Lords.
DIOCESAN. A bishop, as he stands
related to his diocese. (See Bishop.)
DIPPERS. (See Dunkers.)
DIPPING. (See Immersion; Baptism)
DIPTYCH. A book, or register in which
were inscribed the names of those who were
to be commemorated or for whom prayers
were to be offered. It was called diptych
(b'mrvxos) from its beingfolded together, and
it was the deacon's office to recite the names
written in it, as occasion required. The
names of the " competentes " who had been
accepted, and baptized, were written down ;
and in the Council of Constantinople (4. can.
84) mention is made of an officer whose
duty it was thus to register them. The
registers were called diptychs, but to dis
tinguish them from other diptychs, they
were particularly called 8iim>xa (i>vrav
(Packhymer in Dionys. p. 234). The diptych
generally contained the names of sovereigns,
prelates, patriarchs, and holy men who had
deserved well of the Church; and also of
departed saints, especially such as had been
in connexion with the particular place.
Some distinguish three sorts of diptychs:
one, wherein the names of bishops only
were written, such especially as had been
governors of that particular church; a
second, in which the names of the living
were written, such in particular as were
eminent for any office or dignity, or some
benefaction and good work, in which rank
were bishops, emperors, and magistrates;
lastly, a third, containing the names of such
as were deceased in Catholic communion. —
Bona, Rer. Liturg. lib. ii. c. 12.
Theodoret (lib. v. c. 34), mentions these
kinds of registers in relation to the case of St.
Chrysostom, whose name, for some time,
was left out of the diptychs, because he died
under the sentence of excommunication,
pronounced against him by Theophilus,
bishop of Alexandria, and other Eastern
bishops, with whom the Western Church
would not communicate until they had re
placed his name in the diptychs; for, to
erase a person's name out of these books was
the same thing as declaring him to have
been an heretic, or some way deviating from
the faith. — Bingham, xv. iii. (For a full
account see Diet. Christ Ant. p. 560.) [H.]
DIOCESAN SOCIETIES. In almost
every diocese there is a society for collecting
and distributing funds for the furtherance of

DIRECTORY
church work. Grants are made (a) for build
ing and restoring churches ; (B) for building
parsonage houses ; (y) for augmenting very
poor livings. (See Official Year Book, C. of
E. 1886, p. 24.)
DIRECTORY. A kind of regulation for
the performance of religious worship, drawn
up by the Assembly of Divines in England,
at the instance of the parliament, in the
year 1644. It was designed to supply the
place of the Liturgy, or Book of Common
Prayer, the use of which the parliament
had abolished. It consisted only of some
general heads, which were to be managed
and filled up at discretion ; for it prescribed
no form of prayer or circumstances of
external worship, nor obliged the people to
any responses, excepting Amen. The use
of the Directory was enforced by an
ordinance of the Lords and Commons at
Westminster, which was repeated August
Srd, 1645. By this injunction, the Direc
tory was ordered to be dispersed and pub
lished in all parishes, chapelries, donatives,
&c. The use of the Prayer Book was
forbidden even in private. All copies were
to be given up, and persons who violated
these ordinances were to be heavily fined.
"It was a crime in a child," says Lord
Macaulay, " to read by the bedside of a sick
parent one of those beautiful collects which
had soothed the griefs of forty generations
of Christians." (Hist. i. 167.) In opposi
tion to this injunction, King Charles issued
a proclamation at Oxford, November 13th,
1645, enjoining the use of the Common
Prayer according to law, notwithstanding
the pretended ordinances for the new Direc
tory. To give a short abstract of the Directory :
It forbids all salutations and civil ceremony
in the churches. The reading the Scripture
in the congregation is declared to be part of
the pastoral office. All the canonical books
of the Old and New Testament (but none of
the Apocrypha) are to be publicly read in
the vulgar tongue. How large a portion is
fo be read at once is left to the minister,
who has likewise the liberty of expounding,
when he judges it necessary. ' It prescribes
heads for the prayer before sermon ; among
which part of the prayer for the king is, to
save him from eoil counsel. It delivers rules
for managing the sermon ; the introduction
to the text must be short and clear, drawn
from the words or context, or some parallel
place of Scripture ; in dividing the text, the
minister is to regard the order of the matter
more than that of the words ; he is not to
burden the memory of his audience with too
many divisions, nor perplex their under
standings with logical phrases and terms of
art ; he is not to start unnecessary objections ;
and he is to be very sparing in citations

DISCIPLE

297

from ecclesiastical, or other human writers,
ancient or modern.
The Directory recommends the use of the
Lord's Prayer, as the most perfect model of
devotion. It forbids private or lay persons
to administer baptism, and enjoins it to be
performed in the face of the congregation.
It orders the communion table at the Lord's
supper to be so placed that the communi
cants may sit about it. The dead, according
to the rules of the Directory, are to be buried
without any prayers or religious ceremony.
The Roman Catholics publish an annual
Directory for their laity, which serves tho
purpose of a book of reference in matters
of ceremonial as settled by their com
munion. — Broughton, Biblio. Annot. P. B.
207. DIRGE. I. The office for the dead. It
derives its name from the opening words of
the antiphon, "Dirige in conspectu tuo
viam meam " (Ps. v. 8), and was contained
in the ancient Breviaries, and in the English
Prymers (see Prymer). The office was
also called the " Placebo, " from the antiphon
"Placebo Domino," or the "placebo and
dirge ; " and other names are given to it in
the old books. But in the Prymers of 1538,
1543, and the King's Prymer, it is called
only the dirge. The office consisted of two
parts; the evensong or vespers, and the
matins; but at first it had vespers only.
The ancient rule in England was that it
should be said frequently by the regular
clergy, and those attached to cathedrals,
but this was "not invariable (see Dugdale,
Monast Aug. vol. vi. p. 706). It is not
known by whom it was originally composed.
By some it is said that it dates from the
Apostolic age, and was added to by Origen ;
by others it is attributed to St. Augustine
or to St. Ambrose. But on one point all
agree : that it is of the highest antiquity,
and was used in the earliest ages of the
Church. — Maskell, Mon. Rit. iii. 115.
II. In modern usage the word implies a
solemn song or chant, to express grief and
mourning for the dead. [H.]
DISCIPLE, literally a "learner," from
" discere," to learn. Hence the followers of
any teacher, philosopher, or head of a sect,
are usually called his disciples. In the Chris
tian sense of the term, disciples are the
followers of Jesus Christ in general ;
but, in a more restricted sense, it denotes
those who were the immediate followers
and attendants on His person. The names
disciple and apostle are not convertible terms :
the apostles were persons selected out of the
number of disciples, and commissioned or
" sent forth " (from diroo-TeXKeiv) to be the
principal ministers of His religion. Thus all
apostles were disciples, but all disciples were
not apostles. Of these there were twelve;

298

DISCIPLINE

whereas those who are simply styled dis
ciples were seventy, or seventy-two, in
number. St. Paul indeed was not a follower
of our Lord whilst he was on earth, but he
too became a disciple before he . was an
apostle. There was not as yet any catalogue
of the disciples in Eusebius's time, i.e. in the
fourth century. The Latins kept the festival
of the seventy or seventy-two disciples on
the 15th of July, and the Greeks on the 4th
of January.
DISCIPLINE, ECCLESIASTICAL. The
Christian Church being a spiritual com
munity or society of persons professing
the religion of Jesus, and, as such, governed
by spiritual or ecclesiastical laws, her dis
cipline consists in putting those laws in
execution, and inflicting the penalties en
joined by them against several sorts of
offenders. To understand the true nature
of church discipline, we must consider how
it stood in the ancient Christian Church.
And, first,
The primitive Church never pretended
to exercise discipline upon any but such
as were within her pale, in the largest
sense, by some act of their own profession ;
and even upon these she never pretended
to exercise her discipline so far as to cancel
or disannul their baptism. But the disci
pline of the Church consisted in a power
to deprive men of the benefits of external
communion, such as public prayer, receiv
ing the Eucharist, and other acts of Divine
worship. This power, before the establish
ment of the Church by human laws, was a
mere spiritual authority, or, as St. Cyprian
terms it, a spiritual sword, affecting the
soul, and not the body. Sometimes, in
deed, the Church craved assistance from
the secular power, even when it was hea
then, but more frequently after it was be
come Christian. But it is to be observed,
that the Church never encouraged the
magistrate to proceed against any one for
mere error, or ecclesiastical misdemeanour,
further than to punish the delinquent by
a pecuniary mulct, or bodily punishment,
such as confiscation or banishment; and
St. Augustine affirms, that no good men in
the Catholic Church were pleased that
heretics should be prosecuted unto death.
Lesser punishments, they thought, might
have their use, as means sometimes to bring
them to consideration and repentance.
Nor was it a part of the ancient disci
pline to deprive men of their natural or
civil rights. A master did not lose his
authority over his family, a parent over
his children, nor a magistrate his office and
charge in the state, by being cast out of
the Church. But the discipline of the
Church being a mere spiritual power, was
confined to, 1. The admonition of the of-

DISESTABLISHMENT
fender; 2. The lesser and greater excom-t
munication. As to the objects of ecclesiastica/1 disci
pline, they were all such delinquents as;
fell into great and scandalous crimes after-
baptism, whether men or women, priests
or people, rich or poor, princes or subjects;
That princes and magistrates fell under
the Church's censures, may be proved by
several instances ; particularly St. Chry
sostom relates, that Babylas denied com
munion to one of the Roman emperors on
account of a barbarous murder committed
by him (Chrysos. de Bab. sive cont Gentiles,
vol. i.) : St. Ambrose likewise denied com
munion to Maximus for shedding the blood
of Gratian; and the same holy bishop ab
solutely refused to admit the emperor
Theodosius the Great into his church, not-,
withstanding his humblest entreaties, be
cause he had inhumanly put to death 7OO01
men at Thessalonica, without distinguishing
the innocent from the guilty. — Ambrose,
Ep. 30 ad Vol. Jun. Theod. lib. v. c. 18.
(See Clergy, Regulations of.)
DISESTABLISHMENT OF THE
CHURCH. I. Ieeland. Without discuss
ing the excuses that were made for that act
of robbery in 1869, it is appropriate to this
work to explain what it was and did,
especially as Acts of. Parliament are not
easily accessible to those who have not law
libraries to resort to. It is worth notice
that " Disestablishment " ipso facto meant
disendowment, for the title of the Act is
only " An Act to put an end to the establish
ment of the Church in Ireland " ; and s. 2
simply did so. But then immediately
begins disendowment, or confiscation for
purely secular purposes, as will be seen
farther on. S. 3 appointed three "Com?
missioners of Church Temporalities," i.e.
property, with power to the Crown to fill
up vacancies ; and they were (s. 7) to have
full powers to decide all questions of law and
fact without appeal, except that an arbitra
tion may be demanded on questions of
value (s. 42). All property belonging to
any ecclesiastical person or corporation of
the Church, including the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners for Ireland, except what
was held on private trusts, was vested in
the Church Commissioners (ss. 11, 12),
(Observe, it does not say property of the
Church, for the Church as a whole has none,
though the Dissenters are in the habit of
saying that it has.) Every ecclesiastical
corporation sole or aggregate was dissolved,
and the bishops, even the existing ones,
turned out of Parliament, but allowed to
keep their titles and their precedence for
life (s. 13). And there was an Order in
Council in April, 1885, giving the same
precedence to future archbishops and bishops

DISESTABLISHMENT
of " the Protestant Episcopalian Church,"
and to those of the Roman Church in
Ireland, as those of the Irish Church had
formerly, and inter se according to their
dates of consecration, the primates or arch
bishops of each having precedence as before ;
but that was not to interfere with the prece
dence reserved by the Act to the then
existing bishops.
By s. 14 the existing holders of all clerical
preferment were to receive for life their
previous net income so long as they con
tinued to discharge their previous spiritual
duties, or such as might be substituted for
them by the then created " representative
hody " of the Church, unless they were
permanently disabled. By s. 15 the Com
missioners were also to give annuities to
curates whom they might " deem to have
heen permanent." according to circumstances,
so long as they also did their duties, or only
failed to do so from disability ; and might
also grant to any that they did not deem
permanent, compensation at the rate of £25
for every year that they bad served, but in
no case to exceed £600. S. 16 provides for
annuities to compensate Church school
masters, clerks, and sextons, and other
undefined officers, so long as they also
discharged their duties ; and the Com
missioners were also to commute such
annuities for lump sums if required. Then
comes this important clause (18) as to the
agitated question of the sale of preferment :
The Commissioners were to compensate all
private, i.e. non-official, owners of advowsons
and presentations, whether corporate or
individual. The future government of the Church is
provided for as follows : — By s. 19 all legal
prohibitions of synods or conventions are
repealed; but (s. 20) the present eccle
siastical law of Ireland, and the articles,
doctrines, rites, rules, discipline, and ordi
nances of the Church are to remain, subject
to such modifications, as may be made
therein from time to time in the manner to
be settled by the representative body and its
charter ; and the same shall be enforced when
necessary by the temporal courts (as they
are for Dissenters), and the ecclesiastical
courts were abolished, which, by the bye,
had been legislated for a few years before a
great deal better than the English ones.
S. 22 provided for the future incorporation
by royal charter of a " representative body,"
of bishops, clergy, and laity with power to
hold property, real and personal property.
And that has been done.
It is not very material, but the Church
Commissioners were dissolved, and all the
property in their hands transferred to
another body, established for secular con
fiscation purposes by the same author,

DISESTABLISHMENT

299

called the Irish Land Commission, by an
Act of 1881. S. 23 of the 1869 Act
enabled the clerical holders of annuities
assigned as above, or otherwise enjoyed,
to commute them with the consent of the
representative body, and the Commissioners
" shall pay such commuted or capitalised
value to the representative body charged
with the payment of the annuity. By s.
25 disused churches not suitable for resto
ration but thought worth preserving as
national monuments, are to be transferred
to the Commissioners for Public Works,
with some confused and all but unintelligible
provisions for payment by " the Commis
sioners " to " the said Commissioners " ;
which apparently mean that the Church
Commissioners are to pay the Public Works
Commissioners what the paying ones deem
necessaty for maintaining those buildings
as national monuments ; which is plainly
unjust ; for in no sense was the Church
bound to maintain them for the edification
of admirers of ruins. Churches in use were
to be transferred to the representative body
on their application: but if they did not
apply before a specified time, the founder of
the church or his heirs might apply and get
it ; and failing that also, they may dispose of
it as they like ; and schoolhouses connected
therewith also. S. 26 provides for the transfer
of burial-grounds either tothe representative
body or to guardians of the poor, as that
body may desire, subject practically to the
same law as the English Burials Act of
1880. By ss. 27, 28, ecclesiastical residences
of all kinds were first taken, or in plain
English, stolen, and then were to be sold
back again to the representative body, with
the gardens and curtilage, for ten times the
annual value of the site as land, and the Com
missioners may also sell at an arbitration
price any more land besides, of what was
usually occupied with the residence. The
effect of another confused clause, 29, seems
to be that "the Commissioners were to pay
the representative body half a million in lieu
of (meaning in respect of or for) any real or
personal property becoming vested in them,"
which had arisen from private subscription,
and without prejudice to any claim upon it.
The half million turned out to be more than
the value of such claims, and so by accident
the Church got back a little more of the
property stolen from it than was intended :
which an Irish writer in the Guardian lately
seemed to think rather liberal. The first
time he is robbed of his watch and purse,
and given back a shilling, he will appreciate
it better. The Commissioners may sell to the land
lord (s. 32) any tithe rent-charge for 22£
times its amount' paid down, or for an
annual payment of '0445 on such capitalised

300

DISESTABLISHMENT

value for 52 years, deducting rates : which
is equivalent to paying the present tithe to
the Commissioners for 52 years, and then
censing; but tithes to laymen will continue
¦ — if tbey can be got in, or any payments at
all by that time. They may buy up any
subsisting leases granted by ecclesiastical
corporations. Ss. 34-37 give them large
powers of sale not necessary to set out. ,
Ss. 38-41 extinguished the Regium Donum
to Protestant Dissenters, and the annual
grant to Maynooth, but with some life
¦compensations and fourteen times the last-
mentioned grant as capital. In other words,
we are taxed to that extent for those bodies,
while the money of the Church was mqstly
taken away, and reserved by s. 68 for
future disposal of Parliament, which has not
yet taken place. That section says it is to
be "appropriated mainly to the relief of
unavoidable calamity and. suffering, yet not
so as to cancel or impair the obligations
now attached to property under the Acts for
the relief of the poor " ; but such directions
to future Parliaments are unavailing, every
Parliament being omnipotent while the
money exists unspent. A saving clause
(70) exempts privately-endowed and pro
prietary chapels and their property. It is
not yet known what will, or is likely to be,
the final " surplus " for the " relief of un
avoidable calamity," but it is certain to be
much less than was predicted jvhen the Act
pjassed. Meanwhile the difficulty of pro
viding clergymen of course increases as the
annuitants die off, but the results are too
complicated to attempt to give accurately
here. The declaration of the last Primate
of Ireland is not likely to be controverted
now after fifteen years' experience : " The
disestablishment of the Church has been
only an evil with no compensating benefit
whatever." Certainly the progress of Ireland
towards ruin and barbarism has been rapid
ever since, as it was in the French Revolu
tion after the robbery of the Church. At
the Reformation it was the monasteries that
were robbed, which had become utterly
corrupt : not the working clergy and bishops
and cathedrals ; on the contrary, some were
founded then.
The charter was granted on 15 Oct.,
1870, incorporating as " The Representa
tive Church Body" all the bishops and
48 other persons, viz. : one clerical and
two lay representatives elected for every
diocese under one bishop (not the old
nominal dioceses), and also as many co-opted
members as there are dioceses, to be elected
by the bishops and the elected members ;
but with power for the general synod here
after to alter the members. One third of
the elected and of the co-opted are to retire
annually, but to be capable of re-election by

DISESTABLISHMENT
the synod of each diocese, lay and clerical
members voting severally for their own
representatives. That is substantially the
whole of the charter, the powers of the
representative body having been already
defined by the Act. The synod has from
time to time passed sundry ordinances or
" statutes " of their own besides ; and finally
(for the present), an elaborate constitution
of " the Church of Ireland " was settled in
1879. It is much too long to give here,
beyond a few principal articles. (All these
documents have been published from time
to time in the journals of the general con
vention, and this constitution in a special
volume by W. G. Brooke, M.A., Chief
Clerk to the Lord Chancellor of Ireland.)
The Church receives thereby the Thirty-nine
Articles and the Prayer Book of 1662, and
will use the same subject to such alterations
as may be made from time to time by
authority of the Church. The general
synod is to consist of three orders, the
bishops, the clergy, and the laity ; and of
two Houses, Bishops and Representatives ;
of whom latter are to be 208 clergy and 416
laymen, the numbers for each of the twelve
dioceses being defined, from ten up to
twenty-four. The laymen must be com
municants. Clergymen having property in
the diocese, but without cures, are reckoned
as laymen. The representatives all vote
together, unless seventy members demand a
vote by orders, and then no vote is carried
unless by a majority of both orders. St.
Patrick's Cathedral is to become " a national
cathedral, having a common relation to all
the dioceses and bishops," leaving the
smaller one of Christ Church to the diocese
of Dublin as before. Bishops are elected
by each diocesan synod if any candidate has
finally two thirds of the votes of each order.
If not, two names are sent up to the Bench
of Bishops and they select one. Incum
bents are elected by a Committee of Patron
age of the diocese together with a Board of
(three) Nominators appointed by the vestry
men of the parish vacant. There is a long
chapter of thirty-eight canons (as they may
be called) about ecclesiastical tribunals and
offences— a sort of Clergy Discipline Act by
agreement, which the Disestablishing Act
appears to authorise. Then comes a chapter
of fifty-four constitutions and canons mostly
on divine service. It may be interesting to
notice that the only " vestments" allowed are
" a surplice with the customary scarf of plain
black silk, and the hood of an University
degree," not recognising the fancy and
illegal hoods of theological colleges or other
places. But a black gown may be used in
preaching. And the minister is to stand at
the north side of the table (or what woidd
be north if the church stood east and west)

DISESTABLISHMENT
at the consecration prayer in the Communion
service. And no one shall make the sign of
the cross or bow to the Lord's table, nor
shall any bell be rung during service : nor
incense used, nor water in the wine, nor lights
in the church except when needed, nor
crosses on or near the Communion table,
which is to be a moveable wooden one, nor
banners or processions as a rite or ceremony
except when prescribed by authority. In
short, the legal decisions of the Privy
Council have been followed as to all these
things, and in others the subsisting canons
of 1603 have been generally adopted. There
is an important one added, that the ordinary
and an ecclesiastical court may decide
whether a person is to be excluded from
Communion, all over Ireland, unless he
satisfies a clergyman of his repentance.
II. England. So much has been written
of late on the subject of what is called Dis
establishment in England, which always
means disendowment, which again means
robbery of land and funds now held on
trusts as definite as any Dissenting chapel
or college, that it is hardly worth while to
enter upon it here. We may refer instead
to the various little books of the Rev. T.
Moore (S.P.O.K.), and to the late Professor
Brewer's historical work on the Endowments
of the Church of England, second edition,
with additions by Mr. Dibdin in 1885.
There has been a little subordinate discus
sion in the newspapers about the legal effect
of disestablishment without robbery, but
that is so entirely unpractical that it need
not be considered here. Perhaps the most
audacious forms in which disestablishment
has been proposed are those of some eminent
Dissenting preachers, with a denial that it
is disendowment, viz. : (1) the proposal that
they should have the same rights in our
churches as the clergy have. They have
never been able to explain what more right
they could claim in the churches than Jews,
Turks (Mahometans), Infidels, and Atheists.
The other proposal (2) to abolish all articles
and standards of faith, and to let what are
absurdly there called " congregations " to
choose their own preachers, is practically
worse ; for that is not disestablishing the
Church of England, but destroying it, since
they have not ventured to deny what was put
to them, that a church (for these purposes)
ipso facto means, and is, and must be, a body
with some standards of faith, doctrine, and
rites and ceremonies. Every dissentinc
Church (as they now call them) is so, and
its standards are enforced by the temporal
courts whenever they are called upon, against
any ministers who transgress them, quite as
vigorously, and a vast deal more quickly,
than they are by our ecclesiastical courts.
And as the clergy themselves never scrapie

DISPENSATION

301

to resort to the temporal courts when they
can against the ecclesiastical, and once
selected for that purpose a Jewish Master
of the Rolls (who died before the suit
came on), many people think it would
be better to disestablish the ecclesiastical
courts altogether. And it is a very open
question what good the Church derives from
twenty-six bishops being in Parliament. A
great law-lord asked what else disestablish
ment (without robbery) would mean, and
the only answer of importance was that the
Sovereign may not be a Papist, or marry
one, and has to be crowned by the Primate
of all England ; all which could easily be
provided for still. But the question is
entirely unpractical, and disestablishment
alone means nothing without either robbery
or destruction, such as Mr. Hopps and Dr.
Parker and other Dissenters prefer. The only
other remark that we need make, is, that not
a single tithe-payer is aggrieved by tithes —
and certainly no more by those paid to the
clergy than to the laity. For he or his
ancestors either bought his estate for so
much less by the value of the tithes, or he
is the heir-at-law of the man who originally
gave tbe tithes of his estate to some church,
which is just as good as if he had given a
slice of the estate itself. But again, neither
disestablishers nor disendowers mean to
present the tithes to the landowners who-
pay them. [G.] (See Establishment.)
DISPENSATION. I. The providential
dealing of God with His creatures. We
thus speak of the Jewish dispensation and
the Christian dispensation. (See Covenant
of Redemption.)
II. In ecclesiastical law, by dispensation
is meant the power vested in archbishops of
dispensing, on particular emergencies, with
certain minor regulations of the Church,
more especially in her character as an
establishment. This power had been
usurped in England by the pope, and was
held by him notwithstanding the statute of
provisions, and other statutes against the-
papal encroachments, for the granting dis
pensations was one great branch of revenue
of the See of Rome. But the statute 21
Hen. VIII. c. 21, enacted that all licences,
dispensations, &c, shall be in the power of.
the Archbishop of Canterbury ; though they
shall not be granted, in "cases unwont,"
until the king or his council be advertised
thereof, and determine that the same shall
pass. The Act was not to be prejudicial
"to the Archbishop of York, or to any
bishop of this realm, but that they may
lawfully dispense in all cases in which they
were wont to dispense by the common law,
or custom of the realm before the Act."
III. Dispensation or special licence of
marriage is reserved to the Archbishop of

302

DISSENTERS

Canterbury by the Marriage Act, 26 Geo. II.
c. 33 ; and 4 Geo. IV. c. 76. And he still
grants dispensations for holding two benefices
in the few cases where they are allowed by
the Plurality Acts.
IV. Among customable dispensations, is
the right of conferring degrees of all kinds,
which is vested in the Archbishop of Canter
bury. But though the " Lambeth degree,"
as it is called, allows the persons nominated
by the archbishop to wear the hood of one
of the universities, it does not give to him
the privileges to which the graduates of the
universities are entitled. He has no vote ;
the degree is merely nominal.
DISSENTERS are simply those who
dissent from the doctrine or tbe ritual or
government of the Church of England. Of
late they have taken to call themselves
" Nonconformists " ; but as that designation
has no advantage except length over their
old legal title, we prefer to keep the old
one. As they are now under no disabilities
whatever, it is unnecessary to record the
various enactments relating to them since
the Revolution and before it. They and
their ministers have indeed some privileges
beyond < churchmen and clergymen, but in
matters too trifling to be noticed here, except
perhaps that they are not disabled from
sitting in Parliament or municipal corpora
tions as the clergy are, nor from pursuing
any other calling besides that of preaching,
as the clergy are, with a very few exceptions.
And the modern meaning ot toleration seems
to be that they are entitled to share in en
dowments notoriously founded for church
men, but that all their endowments are
sacred. In one other way any sect may be
called free, viz. : while it is in the act of
forming itself; for undoubtedly any number
of persons may form a new sect professing
any doctrines and establishing any ritual that
they please, and building what the Dissenters
always used to call " meeting houses," but
now "chapels," for themselves. But the
moment they have settled their doctrine
and ritual by any document or trust deed of
their chapels, they are quite as much bound
by it as churchmen and clergymen ; and
experience has shown that their ministers
are dealt with by the civil courts much
more summarily than clergymen by the
ecclesiastical. The great and decisive legal
decisions to that effect are on Lady Hewley's
charity, A. G. v. Shore, Sim and Shore v.
Wilson, 9 CI. & Fin., where a number of
Unitarian ministers and congregations who
had got possession of chapels under her
trust were declared intruders : so many,
that Parliament passed the Act 7 & 8 Vict.
c. 45 at the suggestion of Lord Lyndhurst,
who had himself decided Lady Hewley's
case ; by which 25 years' usage- was allowed

DISSENTERS
to prevail as to chapels and funds of which
there is no express trust by will and deed
prescribing particular doctrines. Secondly,
what is called the Huddersfield case of
Jones v. Stannard, where the Court of
Chancery decided that a preacher not only
may but must be ejected if complained of
for preaching doctrines contrary to the trust
of the chapel or the body to which he
professed to belong. It has even been
carried so far that a minister of what is
called the Scotch Free Church, even in
England, is not free to preach anything
contrary to their principles, although they
separated from the Scotch Church solely on
the question of patronage, which can have
no meaning in England, where they are
both equally Dissenters, and the question of
patrons' rights cannot arise.
Another point in which dissenting minis
ters are much less free than those of the
Church, is that the majority of the congrega
tion or its elders or " deacons," who are a
kind of select vestry, can dismiss the minis
ter absolutely at their pleasure. This also
was decided by the Court of Chancery in
Cooper v. Gordon (8 Eq.) in 1869. And an
other is, that they depend absolutely on the
congregation for their salary. In those two
respects the congregations indeed are free
enough, but the minister is in complete
bondage, even though he conforms ever so
much to the trust deed, or is ever so "or
thodox" according to their standard. If he
violates that, one man can eject him through
the civil court ; and if he does not, amajority
of the congregation can both starve and
eject him without the court. The powers of
the trustees and the congregations may vary
according to the trust deeds ; but this account
of them is generally correct. These are the
real liberties of the ministers of a non-
established Church. That of Roman priests
is notoriously the will of their superiors.
In that Church obedience to bishops does
not mean obedience where the inferior
thinks the superior right and therefore his
commands lawful, but absolute and inevi
table submission. A sexton in the Church
of England has far more security of tenure
than a minister of any other Church or
sect, unless he happens to own his chapel
and to be rich enough to maintain himself
and it, or clever enough to fill his pews
with paying hearers. The impossibility of
altering dissenting doctrines of ritual is so
complete that it has occasionally been done
by special Acts at (we suppose) the unani
mous request of the body. Two of such
Acts were passed in 1882 for the Irish
Presbyterians and the Primitive Methodists.
It is true that any sect may by its original
constitution provide an internal judicature
to decide on the orthodoxy of its ministers,

DIVINE
and some have done so ; and the decision of
that tribunal would be accepted by the civil
court on the same ground of preliminary
contract. But we should think that any
minister charged with heterodoxy would
very much prefer being tried by an ex
traneous court, which the experience of our
supreme ecclesiastical tribunal, the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, has proved
to be far more tolerant than any dominant
majority of ecclesiastics or " elders " or
" deacons " ever were. So that distinction
Is by no means in the direction of " liberty
of preaching," in the sects which have such
a tribunal of their own, which really delivers
over to tho secular arm, or the coercive
jurisdiction of the court, its heretical minis
ters to be imprisoned if they resist the
deprivation by what we may call the eccle
siastical authority.
When the first edition of this Dictionary
was published it was stated that there were
thirty-four dissenting communities or sects ;
there are now more than 170. (See for a list
Whitaker's Almanack, p. 204.) [G.]
DIVINE. Something relating to God;
a minister of the gospel ; a priest ; a theo
logian. (See Clergy.)
"DIVINITY. The science of Divine
things ; theology ; a title of the Godhead.
(See Theology.) In strictness, meaning that
¦department of sacred knowledge which has
more peculiar reference to the attributes
and essence of God.
DIVINE SERVICE. (See Communion,
Holy ; Hours of Prayer ; Eucharist.)
DIVORCE. Until the Act of 1857, 20
& 2 1 Vict. c. 85, no court in this kingdom
had power to decree a divorce a vinculo
matrimonii of persons whose marriage had
not been voidable for some antecedent cause,
and for no subsequent misconduct. A
valid marriage could only be dissolved by a
special or "private" Act of Parliament,
which, by the rules of Parliament, had
to be preceded by an action for crim.
con. and a decree of the ecclesiastical
court for a divorce a mensa et toro. Such
bills always began in the House of Lords,
:and, by standing order, left it with a clause
prohibiting the offending party from mar
rying the co-adulterer; which clause was
always struck out in the House of Com
mons, and the Lords always accepted the
¦amendment. It followed that none but rich
people could obtain a divorce. Whether
•divorces and re-marriages are wrong or
right, that mode of dealing with them
was indefensible, and accordingly the above
Act was passed for estahhshing a new
divorce court with power to try the whole
case against both the adulterers, and to
•give damages as under the former actions,
and to decree either, divorce or judicial

DIVORCE

303

separation, a new term substituted for the
old divorce a mensa, &c. ; and all eccle
siastical " suits for nullity of marriage "
were abolished, and of course divorce Acts
ceased. The Court of Probate and Divorce
established by that Act and one of 1859
was made a Division of the High Court of
Justice in 1873 ; and sundry amending Acts
have since been passed, as usual in modern
legislation, of which it is unnecessary to
give an account here. The court has large
powers as to alimony and the custody of
infant children.
By sect. 16 of the first Act a wife or
husband may obtain judicial separation for
adultery, or cruelty, or desertion for two
years ; and by sect. 21 a wife deserted by
her husband may at any time get pro
tection for her property by an order of
justices, and by a later Act of 1841, a
judicial separation on his being convicted
of an aggravated assault on her. By
sect. 27 a husband may obtain a divorce
from the court for his wife's adultery alone ;
and she may for incestuous adultery by
him, or adultery with cruelty or bigamy,
or with desertion for two years without
good excuse. The party complaining must
always be free from adultery, and there
must be no collusion ; and the intervention
of the Queen's proctor to prove collusion
was allowed by an Act of 1858. But that
is evidently very difficult to prove ; and
even without collusion, as divorcees may
marry their adulterer, or co-respondent, as
the Acts call it, there is practically no
check on a woman transferring herself to a
new husband by committing adultery with
him first. A man must also commit cruelty
for his wife to get a divorce. And, it seems
impossible to prevent that result, so long as
the co-adulterers are allowed to marry each
oth_ That was a comparatively small
evil when divorces were as rare as they
used to be on account of their cost ; but it
is very different now. Clergymen are no
longer bound to marry any one who has
been divorced for adultery, but incumbents
cannot prevent their being married in their
church by any other clergyman who is
willing to do it, if they are otherwise en
titled to be married there. [G.]
Since the Acts which facilitate divorce
and legalise the marriage of divorced persons
have been passed, the number of divorces
has annually increased. This natural but
deplorable consequence of the relaxation
of the marriage tie by human law only
strengthens the conviction held by sound
Churchmen, that by the divine law mar
riage is indissoluble.
I. This conviction is based primarily
upon the direct command of our blessed
Lord : " What God hath joined together

304

DOCET_

let no man put asunder." This He
proclaimed as an absolute rule in contrast
with the permission to obtain divorce
conceded under the Mosaic law (St.
Matt. xix. 3-8). The seeming excep
tion to this absolute rule contained in
the words (v. 9) " except it be for forni
cation " (" ii pf/ im. Tropveta") in reality aug
ments its binding force. The word iropveia
always signifies incontinence in an unmar
ried person as distinguished from poix^la,
or adultery, incontinence in a married per
son (comp. St. Mark vii. 21 ; St. John
viii. 3 ; Gal. v. 19 ; Eph. v. 3 ; Col. iii. 5 ;
Heb. xiii. 4); and our Lord is here re
ferring to and sanctioning the Jewish law
(see Deut. xxii. 20, 21), that an unacknow
ledged act of fornication on the part of the
woman previous to marriage vitiated the
contract. It is essential to the validity of
a contract that both parties should assent
to it, and it is assumed that the man in
such a case, having been deceived, was
not a consenting party. The law then as
laid down by our Lord Himself is that the
marriage tie is indissoluble where the mar
riage contract is valid.
II. The apostolical arguments and pre
cepts respecting marriage clearly proceed
upon the view that the bond is indissoluble
(see Romans vii. 1-3 ; 1 Cor. vii. 16, 17 ;
Eph. v. 23, 25, and especially the latter).
— See on this point the Discourse by Bp.
Andrewes against Marriage after Divorce;
Dollinger's First Age of the Church, p. 366 ;
and a pamphlet on Divorce by J. Keble,
Oxford, 1857.
III. The whole structure and tone of
our marriage service implies the same ; the
solemn warning addressed to the persons
who come to be married to confess any
impediment to their lawful union ; the
question put to them both whether each
will " forsake all other " and " keep only "
to the husband or the wife " as long as they
both shall live " ; the solemn promise made
by both that each will take the other "to
have and to hold from this day forward for
better for worse, till death us do part"
It seems impossible for any faithful
priest of the Church of England to sanction
any release from such an engagement, or to
consent to marry again those who have
violated it. Of course a separation "o
mensa et toro" may be sometimes ne
cessary, but that is quite different from a
divorce, and does not cancel the marriage
bond. [W. R. W. S.]
DOCEIVE (from SW iv, to seem). Here
tics, who taught that our Lord had only a
seeming body, and that His actions and
sufferings were not in reality, but in appear
ance. The foundation of the heresy has
been ascribed to Simon Magus (Hippolytus,

DOMINICAL
Refut vi. 14). There was in the second
century a sect which especially bore this
name ; but the Docetic error was common
to many kinds of Gnostics. (See Gnostics.)
DOCTOR (From docere, to teach). I..
Learned persons whose teaching was of
special importance in the Church. Four
bishops in the early Church were dis-*
tinctively called " doctors," SS. Ambrose,
Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory.
II. In the early Church the "doctor
audientium," master of the hearers, was
the catechist of the lowest order of catechu
mens. — Bingham, iii. x.
III. One who has the highest degree in
the faculties of divinity, law, physic, or
music. (See Degree.)
DOCTRINE. A system of teaching.
By Christian doctrine should be intended.
the principles or positions of the Holy
Catholic and Apostolic Church.
DOGMA (boypa). A Greek word,
which has been adopted into English
without any change of form or (strictly
speaking) of meaning. It is derived from
the verb hoKeiv used in its intransitive
sense, "to seem," and so "to seem good.".
The noun hoypa and the participles to
8o|ai/ or to 8c8oynivov all alike signify
" that which has seemed good," and so
" that which has been resolved or decreed,"'
They are equivalent to the Latin placitum
from placet, that which pleases — that which
has received the approval of the majority.
Thus Plato defines a law as that koivov Soy/ia,
that common decision, or decree which has
been arrived at after \oyio-pos, or delibera
tion in the legislative assembly. — Legg.
6440. So in the Acts of the Apostles the1
resolutions arrived at by the council of
Jerusalem (ch. xv.) are called in ch. xvi. 4
the "dogmata" or "decrees." Properly
speaking, therefore, a dogma is the formal
statement of some truth or principle, whether
political, philosophical, or religious, by a-
representative body as distinct from the-
opinion of an individual. Every science
has its dogmas, which are the results of.
past, and the starting points of future
investigation. [H.]
DOMINICAL or SUNDAY LETTER.
In tbe calendar, the first seven letters of)
the alphabet are applied to the days of the
week, the letter A being given to the 1st of
January, and the others in succession to
the following days. If the year consisted
of 364 days, making an exact number of
weeks, it is evident that no change would
ever take place in these letters : thus, sup
posing the 1st of January in any given
year to be Sunday, all the Sundays would
be represented by A, not only in that year,
but in all succeeding. But as there are;
365 days in tho year, the first letter comes

DOMINICAN
again on tho 31st of December, and conse
quently the Sunday letter for the following
year will be G. This retrocession of the
letters will continue every year, so as to
make F the dominical letter of the third, &c.
If every year were common, the process
would continue regularly, and a cycle of
seven years would suffice to restore the
same letters to the same days as before.
But the intercalation of a day, every leap
or bissextile or fourth year, has occasioned
a variation in this respect. Leap year,
containing 366 instead of 365 days, throws
the dominical letter of the following year
back two letters, so that if the letter at the
beginning of the year be C, the letter of the
next year will be, not B, but A. This alter
ation is not effected by dropping a letter
altogether, but by changing the dominical
letter at the end of February, where the
intercalation of a day takes place.
Consequently all the leap years have two
Sunday letters, of which the first goes to
the 29th of February. That has no letter
given to it in the calendar, but would have
that of the 22nd repeated, which is D, the
same as of March 1 in common years.
For if Febmary 22 is Sunday, of course
February 29 is, and thus March 1 is
Monday, which has D attached to it in the
calendar, and the next Sunday will be
March 7, of which the letter is C ; and
therefore C is the Sunday letter of the rest
of that year, and its two letters appear as
D C in all such tables as above. See
Calendar, in Sir E. Beckett's Astronomy
(S. P. C. K.), and his tables of Easter days
and Sunday letters in Whitaker's Almanack
of 1884 and 1885 for 400 years. [G.]
DOMINICAN MONKS. The religious
Order of Dominic, or friars preachers
(Fratres predicatores) ; called in England
Black friars, and in France Jacobins, or
Jacobites, because the first domicile granted
to them, at Paris, was sacred to St. James
(Rue de St. Jacques).
Dominic de Guzman was born in the
year 1170, at Calahorra or Calarnega, a
small town of the diocese of Osma, in Old
Castile. It has, however, been disputed
that St. Dominic was of the noble house of
Guzman. He was early sent to the high
school at Palentia, in the kingdom of Leon,
where he spent four years in the study of
philosophy and divinity. From that time
he devoted himself to all manner of re
ligious austerities, and he employed his
time, successfully, in the conversion of
sinners and heretics. In 1199 the bishop
of Osma made him a presbyter, and a
canon of his cathedral. He soon after
became sub-prior of the chapter. He was
now very devotional, studious, zealous for
the faith, and a mighty preacher. In 1206

DOMINICAN

305

the bishop took Dominic with him into the
south of France, where they met the legate
of Innocent III., and others who were
labouring to convert the Albigenses. The
bishop of Osma told them that they were
not taking the right course, and that they
ought to go forth, unadorned, without
purse or scrip, like the Apostles. He and
Dominic set them an example which was
followed with good success. After visiting
Rome, the bishop had leave from the pope to
preach in France during two years ; which
be did, with Dominic and others assisting
him. When the bishop returned to Spain,
Dominic remained behind, and here it was
that Dominic resolved to put in execution
the design he had long formed, of institu
ting a religious order, whose principal
employment should be, preaching the
gospel, converting heretics, defending the
faith, and propagating Christianity. By
degrees he collected together several per
sons, inspired with the same zeal, whose
number soon increased to sixteen. Pope
Innocent III. confirmed this institution, at
the request of Dominic, who went to Rome
for that purpose, and attended the general
Lateran Council, a.d. 1215. They then
agreed to embrace the rule of St. Augustine,
to which they added statutes and constitu
tions which had formerly been observed
either by the Carthusians or the Premon-
stratenses. The principal articles enjoined
perpetual silence, abstinence from flesh
at all times, wearing of woollen, rigorous
poverty, and several other austerities.
The first monastery of this order was
established at Toulouse, by the bounty of
the bishop of Toulouse, and Simon earl of
Montfort. From thence Dominic sent out
some of the community to several districts,
to labour in preaching, which was the main
design of his institute. In the year 1218
he founded the convent of Dominicans at
Paris, in the Rue St. Jaques. At Metz, in
Germany, he founded another monastery of
his order; and another, soon after, at
Venice. At Rome, he obtained of Pope
Honorius III. the church of St. Sabina,
where he and his companions took the
habit which they pretended the Blessed
Virgin showed to the holy Renaud of
Orleans, being a white garment and
scapular, to which they added a black
mantle and hood ending in a point. In
1221, the order had sixty monasteries,
being divided into eight provinces, those
of Spain, Toulouse, France, Lombardy,
Rome, Provence, Germany and England.
St. Dominic, having thus settled and en
larged his order, died at Bologna, August
4th, 1221, and was canonized by Pope
Gregory IX., July 13th, 1234.
The order of the Dominicans after the
x

306

DOMINICAN

death of their founder, made a very con
siderable progress in Europe and elsewhere,
They therefore erected four now provinces,
namely, those of Greece, Poland, Denmark,
and the Holy Land. Afterwards the num
ber of monasteries increased to such a de
gree, that the order was divided into forty-
five provinces, having spread itself into all
parts of the world. It has produced a great
number of martyrs, confessors, bishops, and
holy virgins : there are reckoned of this
order 3 popes, 60 cardinals, 150 arch
bishops, 800 bishops, besides the masters
of the sacred palace, who have always been
Dominicans. There are nuns of this order, who owe
their foundation to St. Dominic himself,
who, whilst he was labouring on the con
version of the Albigenses, was so much
concerned to see that some gentlemen of
Guienne, not having wherewith to main
tain their daughters, either sold or gave
them to be brought up by heretics, that,
with the assistance of the archbishop of
Narbonne, and other charitable persons,
he laid the foundation of a monastery at
Prouille, where those poor maids might be
brought up, and, supplied with all neces
saries for their subsistence. The habit
of these " religious " was a white robe, a
fawny mantle, and a black veil. Their
founder obliged tbem to work at certain
hours of the day, and particularly to spin
yarn and flax. The nuns of this order
have above 130 houses in Italy, 45 in
France, 50 in Spain, 15 in Portugal, 40 in
Germany, and many in Poland, Russia, and
other countries. They never eat flesh,
excepting in sickness ; they wear no linen,
and lie on straw beds; but many monas
teries have mitigated this austerity.
In the year 1221, Dominic sent Gilbert
du Fresney, with twelve brothers, into
England, where they founded their first
house at Oxford the same year, and soon
after another at London. In the year
1276, the mayor and aldermen of the city
of London gave them two streets by the
river Thames, where they had a very com
modious monastery; whence that place is
still called Black Friars. They had mon
asteries likewise at Warwick, Canterbury,
Stamford, Chelmsford, Dunwich, Ipswich,
Norwich, Thetford, Exeter, Brecknock,
Langley, Guildford, and other places.
The Dominicans, being fortified with an
authority from the court of Rome to preach
and take confessions, made great encroach
ments upon the rights of English bishops and
the parochial clergy, insisting upon a liberty
of preaching wherever they thought fit.
And many persons of quality, especially
women, deserted from the parochial clergy,
and confessed to the Dominicans, insomuch

DONATISTS
that the character of the local clergy was
greatly lowered thereby. The Dominicans
were everywhere the advocates of the pope,
and enemies to the independence of the
Church of England. They not only set up
altar against altar, but delighted in turn
ing the parish priest into ridicule. This
innovation made way for a dissoluteness
of manners ; for the people, being under no
necessity of confessing to their parish priest,
broke through their duty with less reluc-
tancy, in hopes of meeting with a Domini
can confessor, those friars being generally
itinerant and strangers to their penitents.—
Matthew Paris, 845 ; Broughton's Biblio. ;
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 194; Hook's
Archbps. ii. 53 seq. ; Robertson's Ch. Hist.
iii. 364; Milman's Lat Christianity, iv.
161. [H.]
DONATISTS. Schismatics, originally
partisans of Donatus, an African by birth,
and bishop of Case Nigre, in Numidia.
Another Donatus succeeded Majorinus as
bishop of Carthage, and on account of
his learning and virtues was honoured
by his partisans with the title of Great.
From which the party took its name is im
material, but the first was the cause of the
schism. A secret hatred against Cajcilian,
elected bishop of Carthage, notwithstanding:,
the opposition of Donatus, excited the latter
to form one of the most pernicious schisms
that ever disturbed the peace of the Church.
He accused Ca;cilian of having delivered
up the sacred books to the Pagans, and
pretended that his election was thereby
void, and all those who adhered to him
heretics. Under this false pretext of zeal
for the Church, he set up for the head of
a party, and about the year 312, taught
that baptism, administered by heretics,
was nuR ; (hat the Church was not infal-.
lible; that it had erred in his time; and
that he was to be the restorer of it (Op-
tatus, i. xxiv. : Dupin's Eel. note). But
a council, held at Aides in 314, acquitted
Cascilian, and declared his election valid.
The schismatics, irritated at this^ sen
tence, refused to acquiesce in the decisions
of the council ; and the more firmly to sup
port their cause, they thought it better to
subscribe to the opinions of Donatus, and
openly to declaim against the Catholics:
they gave out that the Church was become
prostituted ; they re-baptized the Catho
lics; they trod under foot the Eucharist
consecrated by priests of the Catholic com
munion ; they overthrew their altars, burned
their churches, and ran up and down da-
crying the Church (See Circumcellio_ns)<
They had chosen into the place of Cascilian
one Majorinus ; but he dying soon after,
they brought in one Donatus, different
from him of Case Nigre.

DONATIVE
This new head of the cabal used so
much violence against the Catholics, that
the schismatics took their name from him.
But as they could not prove that they
composed a true Church, they sent one of
their bishops to Rome, who secretly took
upon him the title of bishop of Rome.
This bishop being dead, the Donatists ap
pointed him a successor. They attempted
likewise to send some bishops into Spain,
that they might say their Church began
to spread itself everywhere ; but it was
only in Africa that it could gain any con
siderable footing, and this want of diffu
sion was much insisted on by their op
ponents as an argument against their pre
tensions. After many vain efforts to crush this
Schism, the emperor Honorius assembled
a council of bishops at Carthage, in the
year 410; where a disputation was held
between seven of each party. At this con
ference 286 Catholic, and 279 Donatist
bishops were present. Marcellinus, the
emperor's deputy, who presided in that
assembly, decided in favour of the Catho
lics, and ordered them to take possession of
all the churches, which the Donatist bishops
had seized on by violence, or otherwise.
St. Augustine brought his power to bear on
the controversy. He 'proved that the
Church, by the unavoidable tolerance of
wicked men, had not forfeited its character
Of sanctity, truth and Catholicity. This
decree exasperated the Donatists; but the
Catholic bishops used so much wisdom and
prudence, that they insensibly brought over
most of those who had strayed from the
Ibosom of the Church. Gregory the Great
afterwards vigorously opposed the Dona
tists, and was successful — at least no men
tion is made of Donatists after his time.
— Broughton's Biblio. ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, i. 289, 292, 362, 427 ; Dollinger's
¦Ch. Hist. (Cox's Trans.), ii. p. 101, &c.
DONATIVE. A donative is when the
king, or any subject by his licence, founds
,a church or chapel, and ordains that it
shall be merely in the gift or disposal of
the patron, and vested absolutely in the
¦Clerk by the patron's deed of donation,
without presentation, institution, or induc
tion. This is said to have been anciently
the only way of conferring ecclesiastical
benefices in England ; the method of in
stitution by the bishop not being estab
lished before the time of Archbishop
Becket in the reign of Henry II. And
therefore Pope Alexander III. (Decretal, 1.
3, t. 7, c. 3), in a letter to Becket, severely
inveighs against the prava consuetudo, as
he calls it, of investiture conferred by the
patron only : this however shows what was
then the common usage. Others contend.

DORT

307

that the claim of the bishops to institution
is as old as the first planting of Christianity
in this island ; and, in proof of it, they
allege a letter from the English nobility to
the pope in the reign of Henry III., record
ed by Matthew Paris (a.d. 1236), which
speaks of presentation to the bishop as a
thing immemorial. The truth seems to be
that, where a benefice was to be conferred
on a mere layman, he was first presented to
the bishop, in order to receive ordination,
who was at liberty to examine and refuse
him : but where the clerk was already in
orders, the living was usually vested in him
by the sole donation of the patron; until
about the middle of the twelfth century,
when the Pope endeavoured to introduce a
kind of feudal dominion over ecclesiastical
benefices, and, in consequence of that, began
to claim and exercise the right of insti
tution universally as a species of spiritual
investiture. By the Act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 97, sec. 9,
the right of perpetual nomination of an
incumbent may be acquired by the person
or body, their heirs, &c, who shall procure
a church to be erected and endowed.
DONNELLAN LECTURES. . Mrs.
Anne Donnellan, in the last century, be
queathed a sum of £1243 to the college
of Dublin, for the encouragement of reli
gion, learning, and good manners; the
application of the sum being intrusted to
the provost and senior fellows ; who, con
sequently, in 1794, resolved, that a lecturer
should be annually appointed to preach
six lectures in the college chapel; the
subject of the lectures for each year being
determined by them. The other regulations
are analogous to those of the Bampton
Lectures at Oxford. Many distinguished
works have been the fruits of this Lec
ture : among them may be mentioned Dr.
Graves' Lectures on the Pentateuch, Arch
bishop Magee on Prophecy, &c.
DORMITORY, DORTOR, or DOR-
TURE. The sleeping apartment in a mon
astic institution.
A place of sepulture is also so called,
with reference, like the word cemetery,
which has the same meaning, to the re
surrection, at which time the bodies of the
saints, which for the present repose in their
graves, shall arise, or awake. But it must
be borne in mind, that the word has refer
ence to the sleep of the body, and not of
the soul, which latter was never an article
of the Christian faith.
DORT (See ; Calvinists). The Synod
of Dort was convened (a.d. 1618-19) to
compose the troubles occasioned by the cele
brated Arminian controversy (See Ar
minians). The English commissioners
were Carleton, bishop of Llandaff; Hall,
X 2

S08

DOXOLOGY

dean of Worcester; Davenant, Margaret
Professor; and Ward, Master of Sidney
Coll., Cambridge. Afterwards Balcanqual,
a Scotchman, joined them. The latter
wrote, " We are like to make the synod a
thing to be laughed at in after ages. The
President and his provincials would have
their canons, so full charged with cate
chetical speculations, as they will be ready
to burst" (Balcanqual Letters in Hales'
Remains, p. 141). The foreigners were
treated with little respect (pp. 73, 78).
The commissioners were sent by the king,
not by the Church of England ; they appear
to have acted with moderation.
The synod adopted the Belgic Confession,
decided in favour of absolute decrees, and
excommunicated the Arminians. Its canons
were published under the title of " Judicium
Synodi nationalis reformatarum ecclesiarum
habiti Dordrechti anno 1618 et 1619, de
quinque doctrinaB capitibus, in ecclesiis
Belgicis, controversis : Promulgatum VI.
Maii MDCXIX. 4to." It concludes the
Sylloge Confessionum, printed at the Claren
don press. — Butler's Confession of Faith ;
Collier, vol. vii.
DOXOLOGY (See Gloria Patri). A
hymn used in the Divine service of Chris
tians. The ancient doxology was only a
single sentence, without a response, running
in these words : " Glory be to the Father,
and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost,
world without end. Amen." Part of the
latter clause, " As it was in the beginning,
is now, and ever shall be," was inserted
fome time after the first composition. The
fourth Council of Toledo, in the year 633,
added the word " honour " to it, and read it,
'' Glory and honour be to the Father," &c,
because the prophet David says, "Bring
glory and honour to the Lord." It is not
easy to say at what time the latter clause
was inserted. Some ascribe it to the
Council of Nice, and suppose it was added
in opposition to the Arians. But the first
express mention made of it is in the second
Council of Vaison, an. 529, above two
centuries later.
There was another difference in the use
of this ancient hymn; some reading it,
" Glory be to the Father, and to the Son,
with the Holy Ghost ;" others, " Glory be
to the Father, in (or by) the Son, and by
the Holy Ghost." This difference of ex
pression occasioned no disputes in the
Church, till the rise of the Arian heresy :
but, when the followers of Arius began to
make use of the latter, and made it a
distinguishing character of their party, it
was entirely laid aside by the Catholics,
and the use of it was enough to bring any
one under suspicion of heterodoxy.
This hymn was of most general use, and

DULCINISTS
was a doxology, or giving of praise to God,
at the close of every solemn office. The
Western Church repeated it at the end of
every psalm, with some few exceptions;,
and omitted it on the three days before
Easter, and in offices of the dead ; and the
Eastern Church used it only at the end of
the last psalm. Many of their prayers were-
also concluded with it, particularly the
solemn thanksgiving, or consecration-prayer
at the Eucharist. It was also the ordinary
conclusion of their sermons.
There was likewise another hymn, of
great note in the ancient Church, called the
great doxology, or angelical hymn, begin
ning with those words, which the angels
sung at our Saviour's birth, " Glory he to
God on high," &c. This was chiefly used
in the Communion Service. It was also
used daily in men's private devotions. In
the Apostolic Constitutions under the head
ing " Daily Prayers " this doxology is given
in almost the same form as at present
(vii. xlvii. sec. v.). In the Mozarabic liturgy
it is appointed to be sung before the lessons
on Christmas day. St. Chrysostom often
mentions it, and observes that the Ascetics,
or Christians who had retired from the
world, met together daily to sing this hymn.
It is also quoted and directed to he used hy
St. Athanasius in his treatise on Virginity
(de Virgin, torn. ii. p. 122. Bened.). Who.
first composed it, adding the remaining part
to the words sung by the angels, is uncertain,
but it is certainly most ancient and probably
Apostolic. Both these doxologies have a place in the
liturgy of the Church of England, the-
former being repeated after every psalm, the
latter used in the Communion Service. —
Bingham, bk. xiv. c. ii.
The concluding words of the Lord's
Prayer in St. Matthew's gospel are also
called the Doxology thereof. In several of
the oldest MSS. it is omitted, but the pre
ponderance of evidence is greatly in favour
of it (See the Speaker's Commentary and
Dean Burqon on the Revised Version). [H.]
DRIPSTONE. In church architecture,
the projecting moulding or label which
crowns doors, windows, and other arches,
outside a building, and sometimes inside.
DULCINISTS. Heretics, so denominated
from one Dulcinus, of Novara in Lombardy,
who lived in the beginning of the fourteenth
century. He pretended to preach the reign
of the Holy Ghost; and while he justly
enough rejected the pope's authority, he
asserted that he himself was the head of
that third reign, saying, that the Father
had reigned from the beginning of the
world, to the coming of Christ; and the
Son's reign began then, and continued until
the year 1300. He was followed by a great

DULIA
many people to the Alps, where he with
Margaretha, the sister whom he had chosen
according to the practice of his sect, was
tortured and burnt by order of Clement IV.
in 1307. The sect long existed, and was
not extirpated till the time of Boniface IX.,
In the beginning of the fifteenth century. —
Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, ii. 246.
DULIA (AovXeia). The worship paid
by Romanists to saints and angels, and to
images. Not denying that all these are
made by them objects of worship, the Pa
pists invent a distinction of many kinds
and degrees of worship, and very accurately
assign to each object of worship its proper
amount of reverence. The lowest degree is
the dulia, which is given to saints and
angels. Hyperdulia (imeph'ovke'ui) is reserved
for the Blessed Virgin alone: and Latria
(Karpeia) is given to the Lord himself, and
to each person in the ever blessed and
glorious Trinity. Images of either of these
receive a relative worship of the same order.
An image of a saint or angel, relative Dulia :
an image of the Blessed Virgin, relative
hyperdulia: an image of either person of
the Blessed Trinity, relative Latria (See
Idolatry, Images, Invocation of Saints,
Latria). ' DUNKERS, or DIPPERS. More pro
perly Tunkers, from German Tunken, to
dip. A sect of Baptists, originating (1724)
in the teaching of one Conrad Peysel or
Beissel, a German, in Philadelphia, one of
the American states. They are distin
guished not only by their adherence to the
right of baptism with trine immersion,
which, like other Baptists, they of course
confine to adults, but also by their rigid
abstinence from flesh, except on particular
occasions; by their living in monastic
societies, by their peculiar garb, like that of
the Dominican friars, and by their scruples
with regard to resistance, war, slavery, and
litigation. Their great settlement is at a
place which they call Euphrata, in allusion
to the lament of the Hebrews in their
captivity, which they used to pour forth to
their harps as they sat on the banks of the
Euphrates. DUNSTAN, ST., Archbishop of Canter
bury, commemorated in the English Calen
dar on May 19, was born near Glastonbury
about a.d. 924. When still young he was
maade abbot of Glastonbury, and reformed the
house which had been in a very lax state.
He was the chief political adviser of Eadred,
in whose reign the West Saxon kingdom
made great advances, and even conquered
Northumbria from the Danes a.d. 955.
Under Eadred's successor, Eadwig, a faction
was formed against Dunstan which succeeded
in forcing him from the country, but he was
recalled by Eadgar, the rival and afterwards

EAGLE

309

the successor of Eadwig, and made bishop,
first of Worcester and ,then of London,
which he held together with the former see.
On the death of Eadwig he was made
archbishop of Canterbury a.d. 960. His
sojourn during his exile at a great Bene
dictine monastery in Flanders had inspired
him with zeal as a monastic reformer, and
during the reign of Eadgar he was earnest,
though not fanatical, in promoting the
substitution of monks for canons in many
of the cathedrals. His political views also
were adopted, and the "glorious reign" of
Eadgar "the peaceful" was in a great
measure the result of his policy. With the
accession of ^Ethelred the Unready his
political influence declined, and the re
mainder of his life till his death, in 988, was
devoted to the administration of his diocese
and province, and the pursuit of literature,
music, and the finer handicrafts. — Memorials
of Dunstan, edited by Dr. Stubbs (Master
of the Rolls Series).
DUPLEX QUERELA is the name of a
suit in the Provincial Court by a presentee
to a benefice against a bishop who refused
to institute him ; and is probably so called
because the patron may sue the bishop at
the same time in the civil court by a quare
impedit (q.v). It is very literally translated
in the 95th Canon, which says that no
double quarrel shall be granted out of the
archbishop's courts until 28 days after the
presentation has been tendered to the bishop ;
and the presentee is to give security for the
costs of the appeal. [G.]

E.
EAGLE. A common, and the most
beautiful, form of the lectern from which
the lessons are read in churches. It has
probably some reference to the eagle, which
is the symbolical companion of St John,
in ecclesiastical design. The eagle is fre
quently employed in foreign churches, but
generally for the chanting of the service,
not for tbe lessons. Sometimes it is em
ployed for the reading of the epistles and
gospels, and there are, instances of one
being on each side of the choir or chancel.
Several of the cathedrals and colleges in
our universities have this kind of lec
tern. Before the civil wars in 1651, there
was in the cathedral of Waterford a
"great standing pelican to support the
Bible, a brazen eagle," and other orna-
ments.-r-Ryland's Waterford. At Durham
there was a pelican, on the north side of the
altar, for reading the Epistles and Gospels,
and a brass eagle stood in the choir for the

310

EARLY ENGLISH

lections. The " Lecierna " or Bible eagle
at Peterborough was given by Abbot
Ramsay and John Maldon in 1471. There
are specimens at Winchester, Lynn, Wells,
(1660), York (1686), Canterbury (1663),
Lincoln (1667), and Salisbury (1719). The
earliest "eagle" does not date before 1300,
but it was often previously carved in front of
the pulpit.— Dugd. Monast. ed. 1830, i. 344 ;
Jebb, Choral Service, p. 195 ; Walcott's
Sac. Arch. p. 236. [H.]
EARLY ENGLISH, or LANCET,
the first style of pointed arch architecture,
fully established about 1190, and merging
in the Geometrical about 1245. The Lan
cet window is the principal characteristic
of this style ; but it has, besides, various pe
culiarities (see Arcade, Capital, Moulding,
Vaulting), among which are the following :
—The door-ways are frequently divided by
a central shaft. As compared with the pre
ceding style, the buttresses have a con
siderable projection, and they usually ter
minate in a plain pediment. The flying
buttress becomes frequent. Gables over
high walls are of very high equilateral pitch,
and about pentagonal over lower walls : the
parapet is more common than in Norman,
and usually has a corbel-table. Piers con
sist of a circular or octagonal shaft, sur
rounded by four or eight smaller ones, which
stand free, except that, when of great length,
they are generally banded in the centre. Pur-
beck or Petworth marble is often used both
for the central, which is really the bearing
shaft, and the smaller ones ; but in this case
the marble of the bearing shaft is laid as
in the quarry, while the smaller shafts are
set upwards, for the sake of greater length,
and they do no real work. The triforium
still maintains its importance, though hardly
so lofty as in the Norman style: it is
usually of two smaller behind a principal
arch, or of four smaller behind two princi
pal arches. The clearstory in very large
churches is sometimes of the three Lancets,
the central one much more lofty than the
two others. The carving is extremely sharp
and good, and very easily recognised when
it contains foliage, by the stiff stalks end
ing in crisped or curled leaves. Panels
are often used to relieve large spaces of
masonry, either blank or pierced ; and
sometimes in window-heads, and in tri
forium arcades, approach very nearly to
the character of tracery. They are also
often filled with figures. The dog-tooth,
which had made its appearance in the
Transition, is now extremely abundant,
often filling the hollows of the mouldings
in two or three continuous trails. The
spires are almost invariably broach-spires.
The proportions of arches and mouldings
are generally best in this style.

EAST
EAST (See also Bowing and
In the aspect of their churches, Christians
reversed the order of the Jews, placing the
altar on the east, so that in facing towards
the altar in their devotions they wore turned
in that direction.
I. In the ancient Church it was an almost
universal practice to turn the face to tbe east
at times of solemn adoration, which custom
seemsderivedfrom the ceremonies of baptism,
when it was usual to renounce the devil with
the face to the west, and then turn to the east
and make the covenant with Christ (Jerome
in Amos vi. 14 ; Amb. de Initiatis. 2).
Several reasons were given by the Fathers
for this, amongst others, 1. As the Jews
began their day with the setting sun, so
Christians began theirs with the rising, sun ;
the east, the place of the day-spring from
darkness, being the symbol of Christ, " the
Sun of righteousness" (Tertul.coni. Valentin.
c. 3 ; Tertul. Apol. c. 16). 2. As the east was
the place of paradise, lost by the fall of the
first Adam, and to be regained by the second
Adam (Clem. Alex. Strom, vii. p. 856';
Basil, de Spir. Sanct c. xxvii.). 3. That
Christ made His appearance on earth in the
east ; there ascended into heaven ; and thence
will again come at the last day (Athan.
Quest, ad Antioch. qu. 37). And, 4. That
the east, as the seat of light and brightness,
was the most honourable part of the creation,
and therefore peculiarly ascribed to God,
the fountain of light, and illuminator of all
things ; as the west was ascribed to the
devil, because he hides the light, and brings
darkness on men to their destruction
(Justin. Quest, ad Orthodox, qu. 118). —

The author of the Apostolic Constitutions
enjoined, " Let the building be with its
head to the east ... let all (the catechumens
and penitents being gone out) pray to God
eastward, who ascended up to the heaven
of heavens to the east; remembering also
the ancient situation of paradise iri the east,
from whence the first man was expelled"
(Lib. ii. Ivii.). " When we stand at prayer,"
says St. Augustine, " we turn to the east
whence the heaven rises ; not as if God
was dwelling there only in the sense that
He Who is everywhere present, not as
occupying space, but by the power of His
Majesty, had forsaken the other parts of the
world; but in order that the mind may he
admonished to turn to a more excellent
nature, i.e. to God, where its own body,
which is earthly, is turned to a more
excellent body, i.e. to a heavenly one"
(Serm. on Mount, bk. ii. c. v. 17).
II. The turning to the east at the Creed in
the English Church, is a survival of the
ancient general custom, dating at least from ,
the time of Tertullian in the second century.

EASTER EVE
In the recitation of the Creed as tho symbo
lum or watchword of the Christian warfare,
there is a special appropriateness in the mar
shalling of all, as one army of Christ, towards
the east (Bp. Barry, P. B. p. 47). But with
regard to this custom there is no rubric:
nor is there one directing the minister to
turn to the people when reading the epistle
and gospel. Therefore it seems clear that
custom was thought to be rule enough —
" Mos pro lege." In tbe Hereford Use the
rubric occurs after the Creed. " Quo finito
vertat se sacerdos ad populum et dicat," &c,
shewing that when reciting the Creed his
face was not towards the people. — Blunt's
Par. Priest, sect. x. 328. [H.]
EASTER EVE. The Saturday of Holy
Week. It was called in the early Church, both
Eastern and Western, " the great Sabbath "
(to piya o-dBSarov ; Sabbatuni magnum).
It is thus described in the Epistle of
the Church of Smyrna, where an account
is given of the martyrdom of St. Polycarp,
who was apprehended on the great Sabbath
(Euseb. iv. 15. 12). Early writers from
Tertullian downwards speak of the vigil of
Easter as observed with great solemnity
(Tertul. ad uxorem, ii. 4) ; the churches were
lighted up " so that it seemed like day," as
a symbol of the lighting of the world by
the Resurrection of the Sun of Righteousness
(Greg. Naz. Orat. xiv. in.Pasch. ; Euseb. de
Vit Const, iv. 22). There was also a tradition
that the second coming of our Lord would be
on this eve : " cujus noctis duplex ratio est,
quod in ea et vitam turn recepit, cum passus
est; et postea orbis terra? regnum recepturus
est" (Lactantius, vii. 19; Hieron. iv. in
Matt. xxv. 6). According to the Apostolic
Constitutions this was the only Sabbath on
which fasting was allowed "for inasmuch
as the Creator was then under the earth, the
sorrow for Him is more forcible than joy for
the creation " (vii. 23). This was the chief
day for baptising the catechumens, as being
the first of the 50 days set apart for this
purpose, and accounted but as one solemn
season for baptism (St. Chrys. Ep. i. ad
Innocent. ; Bingham, xi. 6). On the " great
Sabbath" after the deposition of St.
Chrysostom, there were 3,000 catechumens
awaiting baptism who were brutally dispersed
by the soldiery (Stephens' Life of St.
Chrysostom, p. 333, 2nd ed.).
The ancient collect, epistle and gospel
appointed for this day had reference to
baptism. In the Prayer Book of 1549 they
were changed, but the present collect was
not inserted till 1662. It is based on the
collect in the Scotch Liturgy of 1637,
commonly attributed to Laud. According
to the ancient offices of the English Church,
the Paschal candle, &c, received benediction
on this day (See Benediction). [13..]

EASTER

311

EASTER. The Christian Festival ob
served in memory of our Saviour's Resur
rection. The Latins and others call it
Pascha (n-atr^a) a word derived from the
Aramaic form of the Hebrew name for Pass
over (nM). The " wdo-xa. o-ravpatripov," or
Pascha Bominicas Passionis, was the same
as our Holy Week, the irdo-xa avao-rdcripov,
or Pascha Dominica? Resurrectionis, including
Easter and the days within the octave.
But the great day itself was the Dies Paschaj.
The name was once familiar in England,
and in the north Easter eggs are called
Paste-eggs, or Past-eggs— a corruption of
pasch-eggs. The word Easter, according to
Bede, is derived from " Eostre," a goddess
worshipped in Britain, whose festival hap
pened about the time of the vernal equinox,
and her name is probably derived from the
same root as East, — signifying " to shine "
(De Ratione Temp. xiii. xv.). From the
earliest times Christians ail agreed in
showing a peculiar respect and honour to
this festival. Gregory Nazianzen calls it
the Queen of Festivals (Baa-iXio-o-a ra>vr)pepwv
f/pepa), and says, it excels all others as
far as the sun exceeds the other stars (Or.
xix.). Hence, in some ancient writers, it is
distinguished by the name of Dominica
Gaudii, i.e. the "Sunday of joy." One
great expression of the public joy was given
by the emperors, who were wont to grant a
general release to prisoners on this day,
with an exception only of such criminals as
were guilty of the highest crimes (Cod.
Theod. lib. ix. tit. 38 ; Greg. Nyssen, Horn.
iii. de Resur. Christi). The ancient Fathers
frequently mention these Paschal indul
gences, or acts of grace, and speak of them
with great commendations. It was likewise
usual at this holy season for private persons
to grant slaves their freedom or manu
mission (Cod. Justin, iii. tit. 12).
To these expressions of public joy may be
added, that the Christians were ambitious,
at this time especially, to show their
liberality to the poor. Constantine set a
good example in this respect (Euseb. Vit.
Const, iv. 22). They likewise kept the
whole week after Easter day, as part of the
festival ; holding religious assemblies every
day, for prayer, preaching, and receiving
the Communion (Chrysost. xxxiv. de Resur.
Christi). Upon which account the author of
the Constitutions requires servants to rest
from their labour the; whole week (viii.
33). All public games were prohibited
during this whole season ; as also all pro
ceedings at law, except in some special and
extraordinary cases (Bingham, xx. v. 5).
In the primitive times the Christians of
all Churches on this day used this morning
salutation, "Christ is risen;" to which
those who were saluted answered, "Christ

312

EASTER

is risen indeed;" or else thus, "and hath
appeared unto Simon;" a custom still re
tained in the Greek Church. And our
Church, supposing us as eager of the joyful
news as they were, is loth to withhold from
us long the pleasure of expressing it ; and
therefore, as soon as the absolution is
pronounced, and we are thereby rendered fit
for rejoicing, she begins her office of praise
with anthems proper to the day, encouraging
her members to call upon one another " to
keep the feast ; for that Christ our Passover
is -sacrificed for us, and is also risen from
the dead, and become the first-fruits of them
that slept, " &c— Wheatly, c. v. p. 229.
The first lesson in the morning is the
twelfth chapter of Exodus, in which is
mentioned the institution of the Passover,
loroper for this day, the feast of the Pass
over : for, as St. Augustine observes, " we
do in this feast not only call to mind the
history of our Saviour's resurrection, but
also celebrate the mystery of ours." Christ
is our true Passover, whereof the other was
a type: the lesson then is proper for the
day. So is the first lesson for the evening
(Exod. xiv.), for it is concerning the
Israelites' deliverance out of Egypt, a type
of our deliverance from hell this day by
Christ's glorious resurrection. The second
lessons are plain. The Gospel gives us the
full evidence of Christ's resurrection: the
Epistle tells us what use we should make
of it, " If Christ be risen, seek those things
that are above, " &c. The collect prays for
grace, to make the use of it which the
Epistle directs.
" On this day, as on Christmas day, there
were formerly [in the First Book of King
Edward VI.] two communions, whereof we
have retained the former Epistle and Gos
pel." — Bp. Cosin.--
II. With regard to the time of the
Festival, though all agreed in the observa
tion of it in general, yet they differed very
much as to when it was to be observed;
some keeping it precisely on the same stated
day every year ; the Church of Ephesus, and
the Asiatic Churches dependent on it, on the
fourteenth day of tbe first moon in the new
year, whatever day of the week it happened
on ; and others, on the first Sunday after the
first full moon. This diversity occasioned a
great dispute, in the second century, between
the Asiatic Churches and the rest of the
world ; in the course of which Pope Victor
excommunicated all those Churches. But
the Council of Nice, in the year 325, decreed
that all Churches should keep the Pasch, or
festival of Easter, on one and the same day,
which should be always a Sunday. It was
to be observed on the Sunday following the
Jewish feast of the Passover, which is kept
on the fourteenth day, or full moon of the

EASTER
Jewish month Nisan. This decree was
afterwards confirmed by the Council of
Antioch, in the year 341. Yet this did not
put an end to all disputes concerning the
observation of this festival ; for it was not
easy to determine on what Sunday it was to
be held, because, being a movable feast, it
sometimes happened that the Churches of
one country kept it a week, or a month,
sooner than other Churches, by reason of
their different calculations. Therefore the
Council of Nice is said to have decreed
further, that the bishops of Alexandria
should adjust a proper cycle, and inform
the rest of the world on what Sunday every
year Easter was to be observed. Notwith
standing which, the Roman and Alexandrian
acoounts continued to differ, and sometimes
varied a week, or a month, from each other :
and no effectual cure was found for this, till,
in the year 527, Dionysius Exiguus brought
the Alexandrian canon, or cycle, entirely
into use in the Roman Church. Meantime,
the Churches of Gaul and Britain kept to
the old Roman canon, and it was two or
three ages after, before the new canon — that
is, the Alexandrian canon — was, not without
some struggle and difficulty, settled among
them. — Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. xx. c. 5 ;
Theod. lib. i. c. 10; Socrat. lib. ii. c. 9;
Euseb. de Vit. Const, lib. iii. c. 14; Leo,
Ep. 63, ad Marcian. Imper (See Qrnrto-
deciman). The paschal canon, or rule, of Dionysius
having become the standing rule, for the
celebration of Easter, to all the Western
Churches, it will be proper briefly to explain
it. The particulars of it are as follows : viz.
that Easter be always on the Sunday next
after the Jewish Passover ; that, the Jewish
Passover being always on the fourteenth
day of the first vernal moon, the Christian
Easter is always to be the next Sunday after
the said fourteenth day of that moon ; that,
to avoid all conformity with the Jews in
this matter, if the fourteenth day of -the
said moon be on a Sunday, this festival is to
be deferred to the Sunday following; that
the first vernal moon is that whose fourteenth
day is either upon the day of the vernal
equinox, or the next fourteenth day after it;
that the vernal equinox, according to the
Council of Nice, is fixed to the twenty-first
day of March ; that therefore the first vernal
moon, according to this rule, is that whose
fourteenth day falls upon the 21st of March,
or the first fourteenth day after ; that the
next Sunday after the fourteenth day of
the vernal moon (which is called the paschal
term) is always Easter day ; that, therefore,
the earliest paschal term being the 21st of
March, the 22nd of March is the earliest
Easter possible ; and the 18th of April being
the latest paschal term, the seventh day

EASTER ANTHEMS
after, that is, the 25th of April, is the
Jatest Easter possible ; that the cycle of the
moon, or golden number, always shows us
the first day of the paschal moon, and the
cycle of the sun, or dominical letter, always
shows us which is the next Sunday after. —
Prideaux, Connect, part ii. bk. iv. (See
Smith and Cheetham's Diet, of Christ.
Ant. p. 593).
But it must be borne in mind that it is
only a conventional full moon that regulates
the time of Easter and all the other
movable feasts, and not the real or astro
nomical full moon ; which indeed would be
impossible ; for even in the eastern parts of
England, and much more of Europe, the full
moon near midnight may be a nominal day
later than in the western, as midnight comes
sooner in the east ; and Easter might have
to differ as much as five weeks in two places
not very far apart. The rules on which this
conventional moon depends are those which
were invented for and established by Pope
Gregory XIII., and first adopted in 1582 in
Popish countries with the general reform of
the Calendar, and in this country in 1752,
when eleven days were dropped from Sep
tember 2 to September 14. The matter
is too complicated to be explained here
(See Golden Numbers, and Easter in the
English Cyclopedia, and Sir E. Beckett's
Astronomy without Mathematics, and the
table showing all the Easters for four
hundred years by him in Whitaker's
Almanack for 1885). The rules in the
Prayer Book for finding Easter of the
years before 1753 are erroneous ; they show
what it would have been if the new style had
prevailed always. [H.]
EASTER ANTHEMS. On Easter day,
instead of the Venite, certain anthems are
appointed to be said or sung. At the last
review the first two verses now used were
prefixed, and the authorised translation
adopted. In the First Book of King
Edward VI., these anthems were appointed
to be said or sung " afore matins, the people
being assembled in the church ; " and were
followed by the subjoined Versicle and
Response. Priest. Show forth to all the nations the
glory of God.
Answ. And among all people his wonder
ful works.
With a special prayer. The present rubric,
substituting these anthems for the Venite,
was introduced in 1552. — Blunt's Annot
P. B. i. 105.
EBIONITES. Heretics in the first and
second centuries, who had their origin from
the circumcised Christians, who had retired
from Jerusalem to Pella, during the war
between the Jews and Romans, and made
their first appearance after the destruction

EBIONITES

313

of Jerusalem, about the time of Domitian,
or a little before. The origin of the name is
not clearly known. Tertullian speaks of a
heretic called Ebion, who was a disciple
of Cerinthus, and added to the errors of his
master (de Prsesc. Heret xxxiii. and the
Appendix), believing with him that Christ
was a mere man (De Cam. Chr. xviii.)
(See Corinthians). But Origen states that
" the Ebionites derive their appellation from
their condition of poverty, for Ebion (p*2*g)
means 'poor' in Hebrew" (de Princip. iv.
22) ; and Iremeus also ignores the man, when
speaking of the sect (Contra Heres. i. 26).
The different opinions of later writers are
given in Barton's Bampton Lectures, p. 496.
The Ebionites held the same errors as the
Nazarenes. They united the ceremonies of
the law with the precepts of the Gospel :
they observed both the Jewish Sabbath and
the Christian Sunday. They called their
place of assembling a synagogue, and not a
church. They bathed every day, which was
the custom of the Jews. In celebrating the
Eucharist, they made use of unleavened
bread, but no wine.
Though they observed the law, yet
they differed from the Jews in many
points. They acknowledged the sanctity of
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, and
Joshua ; but they derided those who came
after them. They rejected some parts of
the Pentateuch; and when they were too
closely pressed by these books, they entirely
abandoned them.
They added to the observance of the law
divers superstitions. They adored Jerusalem
as the house of God. Like the Samaritans,
they would not suffer a person of another
religion to touch them. They abstained
from the flesh of animals, and even from
milk: and, lest any one should object to
them those words of the Gospel, where our
Lord says he desires to eat of the passover,
they corrupted the passage.
They disagreed among themselves with
regard to our Lord's nature. Some of them
said that He was born, like other men, of
Joseph and Mary, and acquired sanctification
only by His good works. Others allowed
that He was bom of a virgin, but denied that
He was the Word of God, or had a pre-
existence, before this human generation.
They said He was indeed the only true
prophet, but yet a mere man, who by His
virtue had arrived at being called Christ and
the Son of God. They supposed that Christ
and the devil were two principles, which
God had opposed the one to the other.
Of the New Testament they acknow
ledged only the Gospel of St. Matthew, that
is, that which was written in Hebrew, and
which they called the Gospel according to
the Hebrews. But they took from it the two

314

ECCLESIASTES

first chapters, and corrupted other passages
of it. They absolutely rejected St. Paul as
an apostate, and an enemy of the law, and
published several calumnies against him.
They had likewise false Acts of the Apostles,
in which they mixed a great many fables.
In their manner of life, they imitated
the Carpocratians, the most infamous of all
heretics. They rejected virginity and con
tinence : they obliged children to marry
very young : they allowed married persons
to separate from each other, and marry
again, as often as they pleased.
St. Justin, St. Irenasus, and Origen, wrote
against the Ebionites. Epiphanius treats at
length of them in his Hereses (xxx.), but he
mixes other sects with them. " The cor
rectness of Epiphanius is often called in
question, and perhaps justly. But if the
term ' Ebionites ' designated a variety of
minor sects — all of them Jewish Christians
— who had imbibed Gnostic sentiments,
unknown to the original Ebionites, then
Epiphanius may be here correct." — Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 92, 128, 140 : ii. 66 ;
Blunt's Diet of Sects, p. 138 ; Rose's
Neander, ii. 10.
ECCLESIASTES. A canonical book of
the Old Testament. It is called "The
words of the Preacher, the Son of David,
king of Jerusalem." Nevertheless, since
the days of Grotius there have been grave
doubts expressed as to the authorship of
this book. Words occur in it which are
alleged to be of a later date than Solomon,
and the style is very different from tbe
Proverbs and Song of Songs. Modern
commentators, however, seem generally to
assent to " the firm and unshaken testimony
of primitive tradition, that the author was
Solomon " (See Diet, of the Bible ; Speaker's
Commentary, vol. iv. p. 62).
ECCLESIASTIC. A person holding any
office in the sacred ministry of the Church
(See Bishop, Priest, and Deacon).
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORIANS (See
Hi^foVl Q/ll Si
, ECCLESIASTICUS. The Latin title of
an apocryphal book of Scripture, distin
guished by this name because it was read
(in ecclesia), and which was called in the
Septuagint " the Wisdom of Jesus, the Son qf
Sirach." There is no sign of the use of the
book in Justin Martyr ; and the first distinct
quotations occur in Clement of Alexandria.
But from the end of the second century the
book was much used, and cited with respect.
" While it is destitute of the highest
canonical authority, it is a most important
monument of the religious state of the Jews
at the period of its composition" (circ.
B.C. 200) (Canon Westcott : Smith's Diet.
of Bible, i. 479).
ECLECTICS. A sect which arose in the

EDIFICATION
Christian Church towards the close of the
second century. They professed to make
truth the only object of their inquiry, and
to be ready to adopt from all the different
systems and sects such tenets as they thought
agreeable to it, and to digest these into one
consistent doctrine ; and hence their name,
from eVXeyo), to select. They preferred Plato
to the other philosophers, and looked upon
his opinions concerning God, the human
soul, and things invisible, as conformable
to the spirit and genius of the Christian
doctrine. One of the principal patrons of
this system was Ammonius Saccas, who was
indeed merely a sack porter to the corn-
ships, but in intellectual influence was second
only to St. Clement at Alexandria.. He
(a.d. 193-242) laid the foundation of that
sect, afterwards distinguished by the name
of the New Platonists, in the Alexandrian
school. — Newman's Arians, i. iv., London,
1833 ; Blunt's Diet, qf Sects, 141.
ECONOMICAL. The economical method
of disputing was that in which the disputants
accommodated themselves, as much as
possible, to the taste and prejudices of those
whom they were endeavouring to gain over
to the truth. Some of the early Christians
carried this condescension too far, and abused
St. Paul's example (1 Cor. ix. 20). The
word is derived from olKovopia, dispensatio
reifamiliaris, the discretionary arrangement
of things in a house according to circum
stances. It signifies to do a thing artfully
and dexterously, or with cunning and
sagacity, as a shrewd manager of a house
hold (olKovopos) controls those under him.
As a curious example may be cited the
stratagem by which St. Chrysostom effected
the capture of his friend Basil, in order to
force him into a bishopric (See St. Chry
sostom, de Sacerd. i. c. 9, and Life, by Rev.
W. R. W. Stephens, p. 43 (2nd ed.)).
ECDMEN1CAL, or OECUMENICAL
(From olKovp.ivrj, the world)i A term applied
to general councils of the Church, to dis
tinguish them from provincial and diocesan
synods (See Councils).
EDIFICATION. Literally, a building
up ; and in the figurative language of the
New Testament, the advancement of grace
and holiness, whether in individuals or in
the Church as a whole.
A pretence of greater edification has heen
a common ground of separation from the
Church; but most absurdly, for "edi
fication," says Dean Sherlock, in his reso
lution of some cases of conscience which
respect Church communion, " is building up,
and is applied to the Church, considered as
God's house and temple ; and it is an odd
way of building up the temple of God, by
dividing and separating the parts of it from.
each other." The most proper signification

ECCLESIASTICAL
of the word which our translators render by
"edification,'-' is a house or building; and
this is the proper sense wherein it belongs
to the Christian Church: "ye are God's
husbandry, ye are God's building, " that is,
the Church is God's house or building.
Thus the same apostle tells us that in
Christ, " the whole building " (that is, the
whole Christian Church) " fitly framed to
gether, groweth unto an holy temple in
the Lord" (Ephes. ii. 21). Hence the
governors of the Church are called builders,
and the apostles are called "labourers to
gether with God, " in erecting this spiritual
building; and St. Paul calls himself a
"master builder." Hence the increase,
growth, and advances towards perfection in
the Church, are called the building or
edification of it. For this reason, St. Paul
commends prophecy, or expounding the
Scriptures, in preference to speaking in
unknown tongues without an interpreter,
because by the former the Church receives
building or edification.
ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSION.
This most important body, which now ad
ministers a large part of the revenues of tbe
Church and has sundry other lunctions
which could otherwise only be performed by
continual Acts of Parliament, came into
existence during the short ministry of Sir
R. Peel in 1835. Just before the meeting
of Parliament the Crown issued a commission
of inquiry to the two archbishops, Howley
and Vernon Harcourt, and bishops Blomfield,
Kaye, and Monk, the Dean of Arches (Sir
H. Jenner), and several members of the
Government, who were directed to consider
the more equal distribution of episcopal
revenues, and the state of. the cathedrals
"with a view to the suggestion of such
measures as might be more conducive to the
efficiency of the Church by providing for the
cure of souls and by preventing pluralism."
The ministry which succeeded in April,
1835, issued a fresh commission changing
the official lay members ; and they made the
great report in 1836 which was turned into
an Act of Parliament, 6 & 7 W. IV. c. 77, the
same year, which did in a great measure
equalise the incomes of all the bishops
except the five who have precedence (see
Bishops), and reduced several of those after
the existing ones, and founded the sees of
Ripon and Manchester, leaving the sum
of the episcopal revenues nearly the same as
before. But the surplus from the episcopal
estates soon increased, from the commis
sioners being authorised and able to run
out leases for lives, by which a large propor
tion of the property of the Church and of
colleges had been continually passing away
from them, as no temporary owners of pro
perty so based, unless younger than usual,

ECCLESIASTICAL

315

could afford to run out leases. And even
when they did, they were generally granted
afresh into the family of the owners for a
time, or else an enormous fine was obtained
for their benefit and the impoverishing of
their successors for a long time. A great
many Acts have been passed for them for
which we must refer the reader to the Index;
to the Statutes, and to law books. The
first, in 1836, established the body; the
second, in 1840, and later ones, made it consist
of all the bishops, the deans of Canterbury,
St. Paul's, and Westminster ; The Lord Chief
Justice, Master of the Rolls, and Dean of
Arches; five Cabinet Ministers, and now
twelve laymen appointed by the Crown, two
by the Archbishop of Canterbury- — and by the
Archbishop of York none. By 13 & 14 Vict.
c. 94, the Crown was to appoint a first and
second " estates commissioner " of whom only
the first has a salary, and has always hitherto
been a peer, higher than a baron, and the
archbishop a third, with a salary. The
" estates committee " is to consist of those
three and two more appointed by the general
body, of whom one is to be a layman not
sitting ex officio. Every lay member must
declare that he is a member of the Chm-ch of
England. By the Act of 1850 the surplus of the
episcopal estates was transferred to what is
inappropriately called the Common Fund,
for that is just what it is not, as all the
later Acts, after 1836, for founding new
bishoprics actually prohibit the application
of any of it to their endowment or even to
providing houses for them or buying land
therefor, though the commissioners may
buy it for anything else, and do constantly
make grants for new parsonages. The still
stranger thing is that this restriction was
not imposed by any external interference in
Parliament, but was volunteered by the
commission and the bishops themselves
under the fear of popular cant about " working
clergy," as if the new sees were not founded
because they were wanted, just as much
as Manchester and Ripon, which were
founded out of the General Fund in 1836.
The commissioners have been severely, criti
cised at different times for their indiscreet
purchases and sales and building of episcopal
houses, of course under the guidance of
architects and surveyors. And they made
one very singular mistake, which was not
discovered tiR too late, in selling the separate
estate which represented old York House,
the London residence of the archbishop
under an Act of James I., who took it in
exchange for other property which was to
provide another, house, and in fact did so in
income, and was kept apart from the general
property of the see, and vested for that;
purpose in a special trust during vacancy

316

ECCLESIASTICAL

instead of the income going to the Crown.
Moreover, the Archbishop of York plainly
ought to have a London residence at least as
much as the Bishop of Winchester, who gave
it up, and Ely, who retains the one that was
built for him instead of the old palace and
chapel in Ely Place, Holborn; and that
mistake about York House ought to be
rectified, as it was an illegal piece of con
fiscation. The greater part of their income arises
from the Cathedral Reform Act of 1840, 3
& 4 Vict. c. 113, which turned into a statute
the further report of the Commission for
suppressing — or (as it was amended) " sus
pending " as to income all the non-residen
tiary canonries or prebends, and a good many
residentiaries. That was notoriously Bishop
Blomfield's doing, which was denounced
with humorous but ineffective vigour by
Sydney Smith. They refused an amend
ment to leave rifled canons even en
dowment enough to pay their expenses of
coming to preach the statutable sermons in
their turn. And though a great parade
was made of equalising bishops' incomes,
and all the private patronage of deans and
canons was transferred to the bishops, and
all the separate estates taken away, many of
the deaneries were left with incomes utterly
inadequate for their houses, and for the duties
of a dean. All which Bishop Blomfield de
fended by calling it " a holy innovation " ;
but, though something of the kind was
necessary, it by no means followed that
whatever the holy innovators chose to do
was right, as they expected it to be assumed.
By 19 & 20 Vict. c. 55, the ecclesiastical
commission was made also the church-build
ing commission, which had been established
by 58 Geo. III. c. 45, for spending the mil
lion, afterwards increased to one and a
half millions voted by Parliament for new
churches, before the dissenters combined to
prevent any more such grants, preferring
fhe spread of infidelity to Christianity taught
by the Church, as they did afterwards with
schools. It is impossible to give any full
account here of the multitude of Acts re
lating to church building (q.v.) and endow
ment and tbe creation of new parishes, for
which the ecclesiastical commission have
verylarge powers, and by 29& 30 Vict.c.lll,
confirmation of their grants by the Queen
in council was dispensed with. It was never
more than a mere form.
They make an annual report of all their
doings. Applications for grants, whether
accompanied with offers of " benefactions "
or not, have generally to be made to them
in November, and are decided on in the fol
lowing spring. By 23 & 24 Vict. c. 142, on
every avoidance of a bishopric the commission
may revise the existing arrangement under

ECCLESIASTICAL
which the bishop had either a fixed income
from them, or such portion of the episcopal
estates as were reckoned to produce the net
income prescribed by statute, generally the
Act of 1836. By 31 & 32 Vict. c. 114, they
may arrange with any chapter for a transfer
of all or part of the capitular property for
an annual money payment, or vice versa,
for transferring lands to the chapter in
consideration of any annual sum ; and at
the same time may set apart as part of the
consideration a capital sum to be spent in
repairs, restoration and improvement of the
cathedral. But there seems to be no power
for revising these arrangements from time
to time. [G.]
ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS COMMIS
SION. The various ecclesiastical courts are
treated of under the heads of Chancellor's, or
Consistory, orDiocesan Courts, Arches(Court
of), Judicial Committee of tlie Privy Council,
and also Delegates, which were superseded
thereby. But 'it may be convenient here to
notice the Royal Commission on Eccle
siastical Courts which was issued in 1881.
It was originally composed of twenty-five
commissioners, being the two Archbishops,
the Bishops of Winchester, Oxford and
Truro, the Marquess of Bath, the Earls of
Devon and Chichester, Lords Penzance,
Blachford, Coleridge, Sir R. G. Phillimore,
Sir R. A. Cross, Sir W. C. James, W. C.
Lake, Dean of Durham, J. J. S. Perowne,
Dean of Peterborough, Professors Westcott
and Stubbs, Dr. Deane, E. A. Freeman,
Esq., Rev. Dr.; Espin, Rev. A. C. Ainslie,
Arthur Charles, Esq., F. H. Jeune, Esq., and
Samuel Whitbread, Esq. After the death
of Archbishop Tait, the Bishop of Truro
became Primate, and his original place on
the Commission was not filled up, so that the
whole number was reduced to twenty-four.
The Commission was appointed to " inquire
into the constitution and working of the
Ecclesiastical Courts," in consequence of a
very widespread dissatisfaction in regard to
these courts, more especially since the passing
of the Public Worship Regulation Act in
1874. The sittings of the Commissioners
extended over two years. A large number
of witnesses were examined in order to
ascertain the causes and extent of the pre
valent dissatisfaction, a careful inquiry was
made into the constitution and procedure of
ecclesiastical courts in other Churches in
different parts of the world, whether in
communion with the Church of England or
not, whether established or non-established;
and the history of the Church Courts in
England was investigated from the earliest
times. The main results of these inquiries
were embodied in the Report of the Com
mission; but the history of the English
Ecclesiastical Courts was traced most mi-

ECCLESIASTICAL
nutely and exhaustively in an Appendix
written by the present Bishop of Chester,
Dr. Stubbs.
The recommendations of the Commis
sioners were placed at the end of their
Report ; and the most important of them
are as follows :
(1) That alike in cases of misconduct and
neglect of duty, and in cases of heresy and
breach of ritual, the promoters of the suit
must obtain the bishop's assent to their
proceedings. (2) That suits under either head shall
be brought in the first instance into the
diocesan court, which shall consist of the
bishop with a legal assessor in cases of mis
conduct, and with a legal and theological
assessor in cases of heresy and ritual.
(3) That an appeal shall lie from the
diocesan court to the court of the province,
which shall consist of the official principal.
(4) That an appeal shall lie from the
court of the province to the Crown, and the
Crown shall appoint a permanent body of
lay judges learned in the law to whom such
appeals shall be referred. Every person so
appointed shall before taking office make
and sign a solemn declaration that he is a
member of the Church of England as by
law established. The number summoned
for each case shall not be less than five, to
be summoned by the Lord Chancellor in
rotation. The judges shall have the power
of consulting the archbishop and bishops of
the province, if thought advisable, and shall
be bound so to consult them on the demand
of any one or more of their number present
at the hearing of the appeal.
(5) That the actual decree shall be alone
of binding authority : the reasoning of the
written or oral judgmeuts shall always be
allowed to be reconsidered and disputed.
(6) That the official principals of the
provincial courts shall be appointed by the
archbishops, who may, if they think fit,
appoint the same person to act for both
provinces. An official principal shall be one
who is or has been a lord of appeal, or has
been a judge of the Supreme Court of Judi
cature, or has been in actual practice as a
barrister-at-law for ten years. He shall be
appointed during good behaviour, and before
entering on his office shall make and sign a
declaration that he is a member of the
Church of England; and shall take the
oaths and make the declaration required by
the 127th Canon of 1604.
The Report was signed by twenty-three
Commissioners, although fourteen qualified
their assent by certain reservations, of which
the most important were : (i.) an objection
to the assent of the bishop being required as
an indispensable condition to legal pro
ceedings (signed by Lord Coleridge, the

ECCLESIASTICAL

317

Archbishop of York, J. J. Stewart Pcrowno,
and F. H. Jeune) ; (ii.) an objection to the
Final Court of Appeal consisting of lay
judges appointed by the Crown (signed by Sir
R. Phillimore). Lord Penzance, who had
been prevented by illness from attending
the meetings regularly, appended a sepa
rate report. He came to the conclu
sion " that there is no warrant to be found
in the legal or constitutional history of this
country for the proposition that there have
existed at any time since the Conquest, or
indeed before it, spiritual courts deriving
their original authority from the Church, in
dependent of the Sovereign or the State, and
that the authority for the jurisdiction of the
existing ecclesiastical courts did, on the
contrary, emanate directly from the Crown."
(Report under the Royal Commission, p.
53.) ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT. In
1850 a great commotion was raised by Pope
Pius IX. giving to the Popish bishops in
England and Ireland titles taken from
various places therein, such as Westminster,
Beverley, &c, instead of " Melipotamus (and
other such names) in partibus infidelium."
And it was aggravated by a bombastic ma
nifesto " issued out of the Flaminian Gate "
by Dr. Wiseman, who was thus translated
from Melipotamus to the archbishopric of
Westminster. Thereupon Lord J. Russell
introduced a Bill in 1851, which was passed
with little opposition, to make the assump
tion or use of such titles penal, as well as
illegal ; because the use by Englishmen of all
titles conferred by foreign states is without
royal licence. No such rank as Cardinal
has any legal recognition here, and the
Queen once cancelled a presentation at
Court of some English Roman ecclesiastic-
under the title of Monsignor which had
passed inadvertently through tbe Lord
Chamberlain's office. Mr. Gladstone was
one of the opponents of the Act of 1851,
and just 20 years after, being Prime Min
ister, got it repealed with equally little'
opposition. But the repealing Act contains
a proviso that "such repeal is not to be
deemed in any way to authorise or sanction
the conferring or attempting to confer any
rank, title, or precedence, authority or juris
diction, on or over any subject of this realm
by any person out of this realm other than.
the Sovereign thereof." We set this out in
full because there are occasionally discus
sions, founded on ignorance of the law,,
whether precedence should be given to-
Romish bishops. They have none at all,
as such: nor have the bishops of the
Church in Scotland or Ireland now, nor
suffragans, beyond what may be given them
by courtesy, as is often done to bishops' wives.
in England, at least in their own diocese;.

318

EDMUND

but our Scotch and Irish bishops are recog
nised by sundry Acts of Parliament (See
Church in Scotland and Ireland). [G.]
EDMUND. King and Martyr: com
memorated on Nov. 20. He was bora a.d.
841, and succeeded to the throne of East
Anglia at an early age. He bravely with
stood the Danes, but was by them defeated
and taken prisoner. The Danes offered him
his life and his kingdom if he would
renounce Christianity, but he refused and
was burnt to death, being tied to a tree and
shot at with arrows. An abbey was built
upon the spot where his remains were buried
(at St. Edmund's Burgh), and was afterwards
refounded in his honour by King Cnut. [H.]
EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY. After
the Education Act of 1870, it was a question
whether schools on a Church basis would be
able to hold their own. The Society for the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge, and
the National Society, at once extended their
help ; and by the earnest work of the clergy,
backed by these two great Church Societies,
the Church schools still show the highest
average, both with regard to attendance and
contributions. The following lists speak for
themselves. Accommodation.

Day Schools, Year
ended August 31

1883

1884

1885

€hurch ....
British, &c. . . .
"Wesleyan . .
Boman Catholic

2,413,676 386,839 200,564272,760

2,454,788 394,009203,253284,514
1,490,174

2,505,477 395,104204,879 292,450
1,600,718

4,670,443

4,826,738

4,998,718

Voluntary Contributions.

Bay Schools,
Year ended
August 31

1883

1384

1885

Ohurch . .
British, &c.
Wesleyan .
Boman Ca
tholic
Board . .

£ s. d.
577,313 16 5
71,519 2 9
15,271 14 1
51,564 15 2
1,420 1 3

£ s. d.
585,071 11 10
72,978 10 0
16,802 2 0
57,672 1 2
1,603 7 10

£ s. d.
583,936 3 4
96,832 6 3
15,934 7 11
59,233 8 10
891 11 11

717,089 9 8

734,127 12 10

756,827 18 3

Even these figures, it must, however, be
noted, give a very imperfect impression of
the work of the Schools of the Church of
England and of tbe Voluntary Schools
generally. Going back for a moment to the
year 1870, it is to be observed that during
the fifteen years which have since elapsed
the accommodation in Elementary Schools
has been nearly trebled. The School Board
system and the Voluntary system have been
at work side by side : and while the School
Boards, with their practically unlimited re-

ELDERS
sources, have provided accommodation for
1,600,718 children, Christian zeal and
energy, unaided by the rates, have, in ex
actly the same period, provided accommo
dation for 1,519,416, of which 1,150,690 are
due to the Church. The Church alone had,
in 1885, nearly one million more school
places than are provided in Board Schools. —
Report qf Nat. Soc. 1886. [H.]
EDWARD, son of Eadgar the Peaceful,
king of the West Saxons, was crowned by
Dunstan a.d. 975, and murdered by order
of his step-mother Elfrida on March 18,
978, on which day he is commemorated in
the Calendar. His remains were translated
from Wareham to Shaftesbury on June 20,
980.— Lingard, i. 231. [H.]
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR,
TRANSLATION OF. Commemorated
Oct. 13. Edward succeeded his father, Kin;.;
Ethelred, in a.d. 1041. , He re-established
the ancient Abbey of Westminster in a
magnificent manner. The buildings (not the
present church, of which the greater part is
nearly two centuries later) were completed
and solemnly dedicated to St. Peter on the
Feast of Holy Innocents, a.d. 1065, but
Edward was not able to be present, as he
was " sick unto death." He died Jan. 5,
a.d. 1066, and was buried in the new Abbey
Church before the high altar. His tomb was
richly adorned by William I., and enclosed
in a shrine. The body was removed by
St. Thomas of Canterbury to a richer
shrine, Oct. 13, a.d. 1163 ; and after the
rebuilding of the church by Henry in. a
most sumptuous shrine was erected, a
portion of which still remain's. Edward,
though not perhaps a great king, must be
ranked among the best princes of his time.
The goodness of his heart was adored by his
subjects, who lamented his death with great
grief, and bequeathed his memory as an
object of veneration to their posterity. —
Lingard, i. 276, 399r(See Cramp Rings).
EDWARD VI., PRAYER BOOKS OI1
(See Prayer Book).
ELDERS (7rpeo-(3i/repot, hence Pres
byterians). Presbyterian sects have sup
posed that the order of lay-elders, as they
denominate some of their officers, is sanc
tioned by Holy Scripture. It appears
certain, however, that the "elders" men
tioned by St. Paul (1 Tim. v. 1, 17) did not
hold the same office as those in the Presby
terian sects, but " laboured in the word and
doctrine." In this place the apostle means
simply, ordained ministers, when he directs
that double honour should be paid to the
elders that rule well, especially those who
labour in the word and doctrine; and the
distinction does not appiear to consist in the
order of officers, but in the degree of their
diligence, faithfulness, and eminence in

ELECTION
laboriously fulfilling their ministerial duties.
It is said that Calvin admitted lay-elders into
Church courts, on what he conceived to be
the sanction of primitive practice, and, as an
effectual method of preventing the return of
inordinate power in a superior order of the
clergy. To this it is answered by Catholics,
that neither tb.6 name nor office of lay-elder
was ever known to any general or provincial
council, or even to any particular Church
in the world, before the time of Calvin
(See Presbyterians).
ELECTION (See Predestination, Cal
vinism, Arminianism). There are three
views taken of election, all parties agreeing
that some doctrine of election is taught in
Holy Scripture,-- -the Calvinistic, the Ar
minian, and the Catholic.
I. By the Calvinists (see Calvinism), elec
tion is judged to be the election of certain
individuals out of the great mass of man
kind, directly and immediately, to eternal
life, while all other individuals are either
passively left, or actively doomed, to a cer
tainty of eternal death; and the moving
cause of that election is defined to be God's
unconditional, and irrespective will and plea
sure, inherent in, and exercised in conse
quence of, His absolute and uncontrollable
sovereignty. , II. By the Arminians, or Remonstrants
(see Arminianism), Scriptural election is pro
nounced to be the election of certain indi
viduals, out of the great mass of mankind,
directly and immediately to eternal life;
and the moving cause of that election is
asserted to be God's eternal prevision of
the future preserving holiness and con
sequent moral fitness of the individuals
themselves, who thence have been thus
elected. III. Election under the gospel or Catholic
view denotes, the election of various indi
viduals into the pale of the visible Church,
with God's merciful purpose, that through
faith and holiness they should attain ever
lasting glory, but with a possibility (since
God governs his intelligent creatures on
moral principles only) that through their
own perverseness they may fail of attain
ing it.
Stanley Faber, from whose work (The Pri
mitive Doctrine qf Election. 1842) these defi
nitions are taken, very clearly proves this to
be the doctrine of the reformed Chm-ch of
England : where, in the seventeenth Article,
the Church of England, speaking of predes
tination to life, teaches not an election of
certain individuals, either absolute or pre-
visional, directly and immediately, to eter
nal happiness. But she teaches an election
of certain individuals into the Church
Catholic, in order that there, according to
the everlasting purpose and morally oper-

ELECTION

319

ating intention of God, they may be de
livered from curse and damnation, and
thus, indirectly and mediately, may be
brought, through Christ, to everlasting
glory; agreeably to God's promises, as
they are generically, not specifically, set
forth to us in Holy Scripture.
IV. That such is the real doctrine of the
Church of England — in other words, that
she teaches a predestination to life, not
direct and immediate, but indirect and
mediate— inevitably follows from the cir
cumstance that, while in her sixteenth
Article she hints at the possibility of the
elect individually departing fiom grace
given, in her Homilies and in her Burial
Service she distinctly states, that the elect,
in her sense of the word, may, in their in
dividual capacity, fall away utterly, and
thus perish finally. Now, this statement
is palpably incompatible with the tenet of
a direct and immediate predestination of
individuals to eternal life ; fur individuals,
so predestinated, could not, by the very
terms of their predestination, fall away
utterly and irrecoverably. Therefore, the
predestination to life, mentioned in the
seventeenth Article, can only mean an in
direct and mediate predestination of indi
viduals; or, in other words, it can only
mean a predestination of individuals to
eternal life, through the medium of elec
tion into the Catholic Church ; in God's
everlasting purpose and intention indeed ;
but still (since God, in executing His pur
pose and intention, operates upon the
minds of His intelligent creatures not phy
sically, but morally,) with a possibility of
their defeating that merciful purpose and
intention, and thence of their finally fall-'
ing away to everlasting destruction.
As the article, in connexion with the
other documents of the Anglican Church,
must, unless we place them in irrecon
cilable collision with each other, be under
stood to propound the doctrine of predes
tination after the manner and in the sense
which has been specified ; so it distinctly
enjoins us to receive God's promises, as
they are generally set forth to us in Holy
Scripture. The word generally in this place is not
opposed to unusually, but to particularly,
and signifies generically. And the other
documents of the Church of England agree
with this interpretation of this seventeenth
Article. We may refer, in the first instance, to
the peculiar phraseology introduced into
the office of Infant Baptism. " Regard, we
beseech thee, the supplications of thy con
gregation : sanctify this water to the mys
tical washing away of sin : and grant- that
this child, now to be baptised therein, may

320

ELECTION

receive the fulness of thy grace, and ever re
main in the number of thy faithful and elect
children ; through Jesus Christ our Lord."
Thus, in systematically generalizing
phraseology, runs the prayer. Now the
same prayer is recited over every child.
Consequently, by the inevitable force of
the word "remain" as here used, every
child, baptismally brought into the pale of
the Church, is declared to be, at that time,
one of the number of God's elect.
But the largest charity cannot believe
that every child, baptismally brought into
the pale of the Church, is elect in the
sense of election as jointly maintained by
Calvin and Arminius.
Therefore, agreeably to the tenor of her
own explicit phraseology, the idea which
the English Church annexes to the term
election, can only be that of ecclesiastical
individual election.
The matter is yet additionally estab
lished by the parallel phraseology, which
occurs in the somewhat more modern office
of Adult Baptism.
With the sole requisite alteration of
" this person " for " this child," the prayer
is copied verbatim from the older office.
Every adult, therefore, who is baptismally
introduced into the pale of the Church, is,
as such, declared to be one of the number
of God's elect people.
The same matter is still further estab
lished by the strictly homogeneous lan
guage of the Catechism.
Each questioned catechumen, who, as
an admitted member of the Church, has
already, in the baptismal office, been de
clared to be one of the elect, is directed to
reply : that, as a chief article of the faith
propounded in the Creed, he has learned
" to believe in God the Holy Ghost, who
sanctifieth " him " and all the elect people
of God."
Now, such an answer plainly makes
every catechumen declare himself to be one
of the elect.
But, in no conceivable sense which will
harmonize with the general phraseology of
the Anglican Church, save in that of eccle
siastical individual election only, can every
catechumen be deemed one of God's elect
people. Therefore the idea which to the Scrip
tural term election is annexed by the
Church of England, is that of ecclesiastical
individual election.
The matter is also established by the
Earallel phraseology introduced into the
urial Service.
" We beseech thee, that it may please
thee, of thy gracious goodness, shortly to
accomplish the number of thine elect, and
to hasten thy kingdom ; that we, with all

ELEMENTS
those that are departed in the true faith off
thy holy name, may have our perfect con
summation and bliss, both in body and
soul, in the eternal and everlasting glory,
through Jesus Christ our Lord."
In this prayer, the generic term "we"
occurs in immediate connexion with "the
number of thine elect."
Therefore the evidently studied arrange
ment of the words enforces the conclusion
that every member of the Church, as de
signated by the term " we," must be deemed
one of God's elect people.
Finally, the same matter is established,
even in the familiar course of daily recita
tion, by the language of the very liturgy itself.
"Endue thy ministers with righteous
ness : and make thy chosen people joyful.
" 0 Lord, save thy people : and bless
thine inheritance."
Now, who are the "chosen people''
whom the Lord is here supplicated to
"make joyful"?
Can we reasonably pronounce them, in
the judgment of the Anglican Church, to
be certain individuals of each actually
praying congregation, who, in contradis
tinction to other individuals of the same
congregation, are predestinated, either ab
solutely or previsionally, to eternal life?
Assuredly, the whole context forbids so
incongruous a supposition; for, assuredly,
the whole context requires us to pro
nounce, that " thy chosen people " are
identical with " thine inheritance."
But the whole tenor of the Prayer Book
identifies " thine inheritance " with the Ca
tholic Church.
Therefore, " thy chosen people " and the
Catholic Church are terms, in point ic-i
import, identical (See Perseverance).
ELECTION OF BISHOPS (See Bishops).
ELEMENTS. The materials used in fte
sacraments, appointed for that purpose by
our Lord himself — " the outward and visible
signs of the inward spiritual grace." Thus.
water is the element of baptism, and bread
and wine are the elements of the Eucharist.
I. (a) It has always been the practice of
the Church to use a form of benediction-
upon the water used at baptism. "The
waters," says Tertullian, "are made the
sacrament of sanctification by invocation of
God" (De Bapt. c. 4). St. Cyprian and
many of the Fathers speak in like manner.
St. Augustine, referring to baptism, asks,
"What is the baptism of Christ? The
washing of water by the Word : take away
the water, it is no baptism ; take away the
Word, it is no baptism." — On St. John,.
Tract xv. 4 (See Baptism).
O) The elements for the use of the-
Eucharist were in early times taken out of
the oblations of bread and wine which were

ELEMENTS
offered by the people. The bread used was
common bread, made for ordinary occasions
(Ambrose, de Sacram. lib. iv. c. 4). The
use of wafers and unleavened bread was
not known till the eleventh or twelfth
century. Bona suggests with probability
that it was because of the people leaving
off making their oblations in common
bread, that the clergy themselves provided
the bread, and, from motives of reverence,
substituted unleavened bread or wafers for
what had been before used (Rer, Liturg.
lib. i.) (See Wafer). The wine seems
. always to have been mixed with water in
the early times. Justin Martyr (Apol. i.
c. 65), Irenams (ad Her. lib. v. c. 2, and
c. 36), St. Cyprian (Ep. 63, ad Cecilium),
and many other writers, refer to this custom
(See Mixed Chalice). But there is no
express command with regard to this in
any ancient councils or canons, and divines
of all ages have agreed that it is not es
sential to the sacrament. — Bingham, bk. xi.
c. 10 ; bk. xv. c. 2.
H. In the English Communion Office of
1549 there was no special prayer connected
with the oblation of the elements. The
priest is directed in the rubric to lay " the
bread upon the corporas, or else in the
paten, or in some other comely thing . . .
putting the wine into the chalice, putting
thereto a little pure and clean water, and
setting both the bread and wine upon the
altar." In 1661 the rubric stood thus :
"when there is a communion, the priest
shall then place upon the table so much
bread and wine as he shall think suffi
cient;" Then, that is, after the offertory,
and after presenting the basin with the
alms. This rubric being added to our
liturgy at the last review, at the same
time with the word "oblations," in the
y.ayer following, it is the opinion of many,
Even as Bishop Patrick, that by that word
are to be understood the elements of bread
and wine, which the priest is to offer
solemnly to God as an acknowledgment
of His sovereignty over His creatures,
and that from henceforth they might be
come properly and peculiarly His. For in
all the Jewish sacrifices, of which the peo
ple were partakers, the viands or materials
of the feast were first made God's by a
solemn oblation, and then afterwards eaten
by the communicants, not as man's, but as
God's provisions, who by thus entertaining
them at His own table, declared Himself
reconciled, and again in covenant with
them. And therefore our blessed Saviour,
when He instituted the new sacrament of
His own body and blood, first gave thanks
and blessed the elements ; that is, offered
them up to God as Lord of the creatures,
as the most ancient Fathers expound that

ELEVATION

321

passage; who for that reason, whenever
they celebrated the holy Eucharist, always
offered the bread and wine for the com
munion to God upon the altar by this or
some short ejaculation: "Lord, we offer
thee thine own out of what thou hast
bountifully given us." After which they
received them into the sacred banquet of
the body and blood of His dear Son. — Bp.
Patrick on the Christian Sacrifice ; Water-
land, Doct of Euch. xii. 532 (See Oblations,
Offertory). In the ancient Church there was gene
rally a side table, or prothesis, near the
altar, upon which the elements were laid
till the first part of the communion service
wa3 over (See Credence).
In the coronation service of Queen Vic
toria, after the reading of the sentences in
the Offertory, this rubric occurs. "And
first the Queen offers bread and wine for the
communion, which being brought out of
King Edward's chapel, and delivered into
her hands, the bread upon the paten by the
bishop who read the Epistle, and the wine
in the chalice by the bishop that read the
Gospel, are by th-3 archbishop received from
the Queen, and reverently placed upon the
altar, and decently covered with a fair
linen cloth, the archbishop first saying this
prayer," &c. (See Wheatly, and Maskell,
Mon. Rit. iii. 127). [H.]
ELEVATION. In architecture, a re
presentation of a building, or of any por
tion of it, as it would appear if it were
possible that the eye should be exactly
opposite every part of it at the same time.
Consequently it shows no depths, and is
by itself misleading.
ELEVATION OF THE HOST. This
Romish ceremony, condemned in our
twenty-fifth Article, is not, comparatively
speaking, an ancient rite. In the liturgy of
St. Chrysostom, of St. Basil, and in the
Armenian liturgy, the priest is directed to
elevate the holy bread, and exclaim, " Holy
things for holy persons." But this evi
dently does not imply the elevation for
" adoration." The Roman ritualists, Bona,
Merati, Benedict XIV., Le Brun, &c,
acknowledge that there is no trace of the
elevation for adoration before the eleventh
or twelfth centuiy in the West. The Ordo
Romanus, Amalarius, Walafrid Strabo,
and Micrologus, make no mention of the
rite, though the last of these ritualists
lived at the end of the eleventh century.
The truth is, that no certain documents
refer to it until the beginning of- the
thirteenth century, but it may possibly
have existed in some places in the twelfth.
The synodical constitutions of Odo de Sulli,
bishop of Paris, about 1200, appoint this
elevation, and it was probably then first
T

322

ELEVATION

introduced into the diocese of Paris. In
nocent III., who wrote on the ceremonies
of the mass at the beginning of the thir
teenth century, does not speak of it; but
in the time of Honorius III. it had come
into use, for he mentions it in an epistle
to the Latin Bishops of the patriarchate of
¦Antioch, a.d. 1219, where he commands
that, at the elevation, the people should
.reverently bow. "Sacerdos quilibet fre
quenter doceat plebem suam, ut cum in
celebratione missarum elevatur hostia salu-
i aris, quilibet reverenter inclinet." This was
inserted in the decretals by Gregory IX.,
his successor, and thus became the law of
.the West. It is spoken of by Bonaventure,
Durand, and the Council of Lambeth, in
fhe latter part of the same century ; and
Cardinal Guido is said to have introduced
this rite, or some part of it, at Cologne,
about 1265.
We know then, that, in the thirteenth
.century, the host was elevated, and the
people bowed or knelt at the same time.
But if we are to judge by the authorities
referred to by the Roman ritualists them
selves, the writers of that and the follow
ing ages did not always interpret this as
designed for the adoration of the elements,
pr even of Christ in the Eucharist. Bo
naventure (a.d. 1270) assigns eight' reasons
for the elevation, some .of which, relate to
.the duty or dispositions pf the people on
.the occasion; but he does not notice the
adoration of the elements. William, bishop
of Paris, about 1220, ordered a bell to be
rung at the elevation, that the people
might be excited to pray, but not to worship
the host ; " Praacipitur quod in celebra
tione missarum, quando corpus Christi
elevatur, in. ipsa eleva tione, vel paulo ante,
¦campana pulsetur, sicut aliis fuit statutum,
ut sic mentes fidelium ad orationem ex-
citentur." Cardinal Guido (a.d. 1265)
.ordained, that at the elevation all the
people should pray for pardon. " Bonam
illic consuetudinem instituit, ut ad eleva-
tionem hostias omnis populus in ecclesia
ad sonitum nolas veniam peteret, sicque
usque ad calicis benedictionem prostratus
jaceret." The synod of Cologne (a.d.
1536) explained the people's duty at the
elevation to consist in remembering the
Lord's death, and (returning Him thanks
with minds raised to heaven. "Post ele-
vationem consecrati corporis ac sanguinis
Domini .... turn videretur silendum, et
ab omni populo mortis Dominican comme-
moratio habenda, prostratisque humi cor
poribus, animis in ccelum erectis, gratia;
agendas Christo Redemptori, qui nos san
guine suo lavit morteque redemit."
On the other hand, Durand (1286),
Lyndwood (1430), the diocesan synod of

EMBER DAYS
Augsburg (1548), and Cardinal Hosius,
one of the papal legates at the synod of
Trent, understood the prostration of the
people as designed for the adoration of Christ
as corporeally present ia the Eucharist. Cer
tainly this 'has latterly become the common
opinion, but from what has been said above
it appears that, before the Reformation, and
afterwards, many persons at the elevation
directed their worship to God and Christ
simply, without any exclusive reference, to
the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. —
Bona, Rer. Liturg. ii. c. 13 ; Martene,. de
Rit. Eccl. i. 423 ; Palmer, Treatise on the
Church, i. 240; see also Freeman's Princ.
Div. Serv. Introd. to Pt. ii. ; Diet. Christ.
Antiq. p. 605.
The First Prayer Book of Edward VI.
directed the consecration to be effected
without "any elevation, or showing the
sacrament to the peopl e." And in late years
elevation, beyond the taking up in the
hands, as ordered in the Prayer Book, has,
in courts of law, been declared illegal. ,
EMBER DAYS. I. These are the
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the
first Sunday in Lent, the feast of Whit
sunday, the 14th of September, and the
13th- of December. They are ordered to-be
observed as days of fasting, in preparation
for the following Sundays, which are the
stated times of ordination in the Church.
It is to be remarked, that the Sunday in
December which begins the Ember week
is always the third Sunday in Advent* The
week in which these days fall is called
Ember week. But as Sunday begins the
week, the Ember collect is always to be
read on the Sunday preceding the Ember
days, not on that which follows them, as
is sometimes erroneously done.
II. These days were called "jejirnia
quatuor temporum," i.e. fasts of the four
seasons, whence is derived the German
quatember, a quarter of a year, or quarterly
day. The Dutch word is quatutember ; the
Danish Kvatember. The old English name
of Ember week was Ymb-ren-wuce, The
•prefix " Ymb," which also assumed the
form " emb " or " embe," cognate with
German "um" and Latin "ambi," or
Greek dpcpi means about — around. It was
much used in early English, but has died
out of our language (See Bosworth's Anglo-
Saxon Diet). " Ren"'ox." rene" oi"rywe"
means a course, and so the Ember weeks
( Ymb-ren) would seem to have got the name
from coming round periodically. The deriva
tion of the name from " ashes" or "embers "
need not be considered. In an old English
edition of the Gospels this heading is given,
"Thys godspel sceal to tham ymb-rene
innan harefeste on Saterndasg;" i.e. this
gospel shall be read at the Ember in harvest

EMBLEM
on Saturday. — Thorpe's Edition of Old
English Gospels, St. Luke xiii. 6.
III. Attempts have been made to prove
that these days for ordination were ap
pointed by the Apostles themselves ; but it
appears probable that Gelasius was- the first
who limited the seasons of general ordination
to certain times of the year. According to
Micrologus, "Gelasius papa constituit ut
ordinationes presbyterorum et diaconorum
non nisi certis temporibus fiant " (cap. 24,
p. 448, edit. Hittorp). " There is no doubt,
however," says Maskell, " that the appropri
ation of certain times of the years to the
solemnities of general ordinations, is of an
antiquity reaching if not to Apostolical, at
least to almost primitive times" (For an
' account of the ancient " Ember fast," see
¦Diet Christ. Ant. p. 607). In the Peni
tential of Archbishop Egbert, these words
occur : " Hi sunt legitimi quatuor temporum
dies, qui legitime observari debent : id est,
kal. Martii, prima hebdomada; et kal.
Junii secunda heb*; et kal. Septembr.
tertia heb* ; et kal. Decembr. heb*. proxima
ante natale Christi" (Thorpe, Ancient-
Laws, vol. ii. p. 235). In the excerpts of
Egbert also, reference is made to the ordina
tion of priests and deacons "in quatuor
temporum sabbatis." The reasons why the
Ordinations are fixed to set times have been
thus stated : " (1) That as all men's souls are
concerned in the ordaining a fit clergy, so
all may join in fasting and prayer for a
blessing on it; (2) that both bishops and
candidates, knowing the time, may prepare
themselves for this great work; (3) that
the people, knowing the time, may, if they
please, be present, either to approve the
choice made by the bishop, or to object
against those they know to be unworthy." —
Wheatly, Com. Prayer, c. iv. Append. ; Mas
kell, Mon. Rit. Ang. Eccl. i., exxxv. ; Evan
Daniel, P. B. ; Thorpe, Ancient Laws ; Diet
Christ. Antiq.
EMBLEM. A visible, and usually an orna
mental, symbol of some spiritual thing ; of
some great truth concerning the object of a
Christian's worship, of some object of his faith
and hope, or of some mystery or privilege.
The use of emblems, under which the
truths of Christianity were veiled from the
heathen, while they were presented vividly
to the minds of the faithful, is probably as
old as Christianity itself ; and the fancy of
pious persons has continued it to the present
day ; many particular emblems having been
so generally and almost universally used, as
to have been interwoven almost with the
very external habit of the Church itself.
Among the most apt and venerable may be
mentioned, the trine compass (as it is called
by Chaucer), " That of trine compass Lord and gide is."

EMBOLISMUS

323

or a circle inscribed within an equilateral
triangle, denoting the coequality and co-
eternity of the three Divine Persons in the
ever-blessed and undivided Trinity; the
hand extended from the clouds in the atti
tude of benediction, for the first Person;
the Lamb triumphant ; the fish (see Piscis) ;
the pelican wounding her own breast to
feed her young ; the Good Shepherd and
others, for the second Person ; the dove, for
the third Person in the Blessed Trinity;
the chalice receiving the blood of the
wounded Lamb, for the holy Eucharist ;
the phoenix rising from the names, for the
resurrection; the cross, for the Christian's life
of conflict ; the crown, for his hope of glory.
It is of the essence of a proper emblem
that it be not, nor pretend to be, a simple
representation. It then loses its allusive
character, and becomes a mere picture of
the thing itself. In theology there is another
reason why this should be avoided; for
when we attempt a representation of any
object of Christian worship, we too nearly
fall into idolatry. This was Tertullian's
objection to images- and representations of
all kinds (Le Idol. iii.). But he was writing
against Paganism, and would except the
Scriptural emblems. Clement of Alexandria
also has mentioned some emblems which we
ought to avoid, and others which we may
employ ; of which latter we may name a
dove, a fish, a ship borne along by a full
breeze, and an anchor (Pssdag. iii. 11).
Emblems in architecture are frequent, as
the building in the form of a cross; the
" arch of triumph " between the central nave
and the sanctuary ; the altar at the east, &c.
The emblem of a ship is often used, as by
the author of the Apostolical " Constitutions."
" Let the building be long, with its head to
the east, with its vestries on both sides at
the east end, so it will be like a ship. . . .
The deacons are like the mariners and
managers of the ship " (Bk. ii. 57).
EMBOLISMUS (ip.8o\io-p*s, from ip.-
BdWetv, to insert). The name given to a
prayer against evil and the evil one, inserted
between the last sentence and the doxology
in the Lord's Prayer. It was said by the
priest alone, generally in an undertone, and
then the2doxology was said aloud. In the
Liturgy of St. James, the Embolismus comes
in thus : — After the first part of the Lord's
Prayer has been said by the people, the
priest says secretly, " and lead us not into
temptation, Lord God of Hosts, who knowest
our infirmities, but deliver us from the evil
one and his works, and all his insults and
devices, for thy holy name's sake, by which
our humility is called ; (Aloud) For thine
is the kingdom," &c. In the Mozarabic
Liturgy, the Embolismus is a great deal
i longer.- It does not appear in the Liturgies
y 2

324

EMMANUEL

of St. Chrysostom and St. Basil. It has
been suggested by some that the doxology
at the end of the Lord's Prayer was derived
from the Embolismus ; but it must be re
membered that the doxology is omitted in
only eight or nine out of 800 Greek MSS. ;
that it exists in the Alexandrian Codex
(though absent from N, B and D), and is
quoted by St. Chrysostom and other Fathers
(See Doxology; Scrivener's Supplement to
Authorised Version ; Neale's Introd. Hist.
Eastern Church, 513-626 ; Blunt's Diet, of
Doctrinal Theol. ; Diet Christ Antiq).
EMMANUEL,orIMMANUEL (b««By_).
A Hebrew word, which signifies " God with
us." Isaiah (vii. 14), in that celebrated
prophecy, in which he foretells to Ahaz the
tirth of the Messiah from a virgin, says,
" This child shall be called Emmanuel, God
with us." He repeats this while speaking of
the enemy's army, which, like a torrent,
was to overflow Judea : " The stretching of
his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land,
O Emmanuel." St. Matthew (i. 23) states
that this prophecy was accomplished in the
birth of Christ, bom of the Virgin Mary, in
whom the two natures, Divine and human,
were united ; so that He was really Emma
nuel, or " God with us."
ENG—NIA (iyKaivia). Anniversary
festivals kept in memory of the dedication
of churches. In the peaceable reign of
Constantine, following the disturbed times
of persecution, it was a desirable sight, as
Eusebius says, to behold how the consecra
tions of the new-built churches, and the
feasts of the dedications, were solemnised in
every city (Eusb. lib. x. c. 5). An anni
versary festival, which lasted for eight days,
at which multitudes flocked together, and
frequent services were held, was observed in
the church at Jerusalem, built to the honour
of our Saviour (Soz. lib. ii. c. 26), and from
this the custom spread to other churches.
Gregory Nazianzen speaks of it as an old
usage : " iyKaivia TipdcrOai iraXaws vopos Kai
koKZs fYoiv" (In Novam Dominicam
Orat. xliii.), and Gregory the Great recom
mended such an observance to Augustine
and Mellitus for England (Bede, i. c. 30 ; see
Dedication). Cities were also sometimes
solemnly dedicated to Christ and the saints,
and the " Encamia " celebrated : as especially
in the case of Constantinople (Ducange,
Constant. Christ, lib. i.e. 3). In later times
ceremonies renewed at certain periods, as at
Oxford and Cambridge, at the celebration of
founders and benefactors, are called Encamia.
ENCRATITES, or CONTINENTS. A
name given to a sect in the second century,
because they condemned marriage, forbade
the eating of flesh or drinking of wine, and
rejected with a sort of horror all the com-

ENCHIEIDION
forts and conveniences of life. Tatian, an
Assyrian, and a disciple of Justin Martyr,
was the leader of this sect. He was greatly
distinguished for his genius and learning;
and the excessive austerity of his life and
manners. He regarded matter as the
fountain of all evil, and therefore recom
mended in a peculiar manner the mortifi
cation of the body. He distinguished the
Creator of the world from the Supreme
Being, denied the reality of Christ's body,
and blended the Christian religion with
several corrupt tenets of the Oriental philo
sophy. Epiphanius says that in his time
these heretics abounded in Asia Minor. —
Her. xlvii. ; Mosheim, i. 196.
_ ENERGUMENS, DEMONIACS, from
ivepyovpivoi, which in the largest sense
denotes persons under the motion or oper
ation of any spirit whatever, good or bad;
but is used by ecclesiastical writers in a
restricted sense, to denote persons whose;
bodies are possessed by an evil spirit.
Mention is often made in the primitive
Church of persons possessed of an evil spirit.
The regulations of the Church bestowed
upon them special care. They constituted
a distinct class of Christians, bearing some
relation both to the catechumens and the
faithful; but differing from both in this,
that they were under the special oversight
and direction of exorcists, while they took
part in some of the religious exercises of
both classes. The description given by
Cyprian (de Idol. Vanit), and by Chrysostom
(Horn. iv. de incompreliens. Not. Dei) of
the energumens, or demoniacs, would seem to
show that they were persons suffering under
different stages of insanity or epilepsy; or
some morbid state of mind. Under the wise
regulations of the Church, at all events, the
supposed sudden expulsions of the demon,
mentioned by St. Cyprian, became rare; or
rather we may suppose that the excitement
of the mind was remedied by judicious
treatment. Catechumens who, during their proba-*
tionary exercises, became demoniacs, were
never baptised until thoroughly healed,
except in case of extreme sickness. Be
lievers who became demoniacs, in the worst
stage of their disease, like the weeping
penitents, were not permitted to enter the
church; but were retained under close
inspection in the outer porch. When
partially recovered they were permitted,
with the audientes, to join in public worship,
but they were not permitted to partake of
the Eucharist until wholly restored, except
in the immediate prospect of death. In
egenral, the energumens were subject to the
same rules as the penitents. — Bingham, bk.
iii. c. 4.
ENCHIRIDION. Another title of the

ENDOWMENT
Hora. The contents and arrangement are
exactly similar. It may have been used in
foreign churches to signify the Manual, but
there is no example of it in the English
Manuals. Mr. Maskell knows but two
editions of the Horaa entitled Enchiridion of
the dates 1528 and 1530. — Mon. Rit. Eccles.
Ang. i. cxcv. (See Hore).
ENDOWMENT AND ESTABLISH
MENT. The property of the Church of
England may be roughly classed under the
following heads. (1) Churches and Cathe
drals. (2) Tithes, Glebes,',Easter Offerings,
and Residences. (3) Property under the
administration of Queen Anne's Bounty and
the Ecclesiastical Commission respectively.
No statistics exist from which it would be
possible to frame a reliable money valuation
of the whole mass of Church property or of
its different parts. The anomalous charac
ter of some kinds make an accurate assess
ment peculiarly difficult. Nevertheless
several attempts have been made in recent
years, the results of which ought not perhaps
to be ignored.
In 1877 Mr. Frederick Martin, at the
instance of the Liberation Society, made an
estimate of the annual value of Church
property exclusive of the cathedrals and
churches, and of the surplus revenue of the
Ecclesiastical Commission. He fixed it at
£5,383,560. In 1878 Mr. Arthur Arnold, in an article
on " The Business Aspects of Disestablish
ment," which appeared in the Nineteenth
Century of April in that year, worked out the
same problem, and found the income (ex
clusive of the value of cathedrals and
churches) to be £7,502,602. The Church
Defence Institution, on what grounds is not
stated, assess the Church's revenue (subject
to the same deduction) at £4,200,000.
Our next duty is to ascertain the sources
of Church property. The first churches
erected in England after the Augustinian
Mission (a.d. 597 — it is useless for the
present purpose to go further back) were
built by the bishops, and were either cathe
drals or served as chapels of ease to the
cathedrals or central churches. How far
the expenses were borne by local contribu
tions, or were defrayed out of diocesan funds
under the bishops' control, it is impossible
at this distance of time to determine. In
either case, the source was the same, for the
bishops had nothing but what the people,
small and great, chose to give them. Both
churches and cathedrals were built on land,
and with materials freely offered for the
purpose. As the ecclesiastical organization
of the kingdom became more complete, and
parish churches began to spring up in every
township, the duty of providing buildings
passed out of the hands of the bishops and

ENDOWMENT

325

devolved on the lords or landowners. Each
landowner erected the church on his own
estate, and the bishop consecrated it. The
agreement between them was this, — the
lay-landowner, who thus became patron,
was to nominate the priest to serve the
church, and was bound to provide for his
maintenance ; on the other hand, the bishop
required to be satisfied of the fitness of the
patron's nominee, and of the adequacy of
the provision made for his support before
he granted consecration. The endow
ment consisted chiefly of a house and a few
strips of land in the common fields, set apart
for the priest's use by the lord. It will be
remembered that in Saxon times and for
centuries afterwards all the arable land of
each township was coRected in one great
field, and all the meadow in another. These
common fields, as they were called, were
divided into strips and appropriated to the
lord and his tenants, according to their
different needs and positions. In making
this apportionment it was usual to set apart
a certain number of strips, sometimes more,
sometimes less, for the priest. Domesday
Book, which gives but a very incomplete
account of churches (no return of them
having been ordered), contains ample re
ferences to the provision made for the
priest's support in the common fields. This
is the origin of the rectory and glebe or
manse as the two together were called (see
Glebe). Thus, like the fabric of the church,
the house and land of the clergyman may
be traced to the voluntary offerings of
individual landlords. No law exists, or
ever has existed, by which the lord of a
manor was compelled to build or compelled
to endow a church on his estate. He acted;
if at all, of his own accord, to promote the
good of himself and his tenants, and probably
also to increase the importance of his
property. For the history and development of the
custom of paying tithe and other offerings,
see Tithe.
For an account of Queen Anne's Bounty
and its property, see Annates.
The Ecclesiastical Commission was
founded in the year 1836. There was at
that time a redistribution of the endow
ments of the Church. Sinecures were
abolished. Some of the bishops' incomes
were reduced, and the funds thus set free
were, and are, appropriated to building new
churches, endowing new livings, and other
wise helping the Church's work. It has
been said above that the parish churches of
England were in ancient times built by the
landowners. That state of things continued
until the present century, with exceptions too
trifling to be mentioned.. But for the last
sixty years the Church Building Acts have

326

ENDOWMENT

been in operation. Between 1809 and 1820
eleven grants of £100,000 each, in augmen
tation of livings were made by Parliament.
In 1818 Parliament voted £1,000,000 of
public money for building churches. This
was supplemented in 1825 by afurthergrant
of £500,000. Prior to this, in Queen Anne's
reign, a Bill had been passed for building fifty
new' churches in London and Westminster,
and a duty on coal, which had been pre
viously applied towards rebuilding St. Paul's
Cathedral after the Great Fire, was trans
ferred to answer this purpose. With these
exceptions, it is believed that no State grant
for building or endowing churches has ever
been made.
The churches built under the Church
Building Acts are very numerous. They
have all been paid for out of one of three
sources : —
(1) Private subscriptions ;
(2) Ecclesiastical Commission ;
(3) A rate with the consent of an actual
majority of owners in the parish.
The different sources of Church Endow
ments may he summed up as follows : — •
Cathedrals, churches, glebes and parson
ages have been provided by the separate
voluntary, gifts of individuals either directly,
or, as in the last half century, indirectly
out of funds made available by a readjust
ment of old endowments, the relics of the
pious generosity of former times.
Tithes and Easter offerings are the out
come of a custom which began in voluntary
gifts, was promoted by (1) religious admoni
tion, (2) Church law, and (3) Royal
authority, until it gradually, in the case of
tithes, became universal, and was accepted
as part of the common law, controlled and
ratified by statute.
The property owned by Queen Anne's
Bounty and the Ecclesiastical Commission
belonged to the Church before it was vested
in those bodies, and represents no new or
{separate source of endowment.
The pretence that the State has endowed
the Church is thus seen to be an idle, and
ignorant fiction.
To complete our view of Endowment, it
only remains to explain how Church
¦property is held. In one sense the Church
of England has no property. The church,
the glebe, and the tithes of every parish are
vested in its rector. The bishops are paid
salaries out of the funds of the Ecclesiastical
Commission; the cathedrals and their en
dowments are vested in the Deans and
Chapters. Queen Anne's Bounty and the
Ecclesiastical Commission are corporations,
and each holds its own property. But
although Church property, as to its legal
ownership, is greatly divided, nevertheless
it is all held for common purposes, and is

ENDOWMENT
bound together into one aggregate Whole by
numberless Acts of Parliament. Rector,,
bishop, dean, and chapter, Queen . Anne's
Bounty and Ecclesiastical Commission, one
and all, are strictly trustees for the Church
of England, for the benefit of which they are;
legally and morally bound to use the pro7
perty vested in them respectively.
Establishment is a word which has, in
connexion with the Church, an acquired of
rather a developed meaning, which can only
be understood by reference to the political
history of the Church of England. Thai
history may be divided into three epochs. :
I. From the conversion of England to the-
Reformation, or the Era of Unity, when
there was but one Church known. The
Churches of Rome and England were one
in communion, and although they were
distinct in external organization, there was
no such thing as membership of the one body
to the exclusion of the other. The idea of
Dissent did not exist. To be a Christian
and to belong to the Church were identical
expressions. As there was but one Church*
not only in fact but also in the minds and
thoughts of men, there was no need of any
descriptive adjective. The word "estabT
lished" was not used in connexion with
the Church. It would have been as unT
meaning as to speak of the established king
or the established Aula Regis.
II. From the Reformation to the Revo
lution, or the Era of Uniformity. From the
time when Henry VIII. threw off the Papal
yoke and the Pope excommunicated Henry*
the idea of separate religious bodies gained
possession of men's minds. There were
soon many other divisions besides that
caused by the great breach with Rome. In
1547 the writer of the Homily on Good,
Works could say, " Sects and feigned
religions were not the forty part so many
among the Jews . . . than of late days
they have been among us." But alongside
with the idea of religious division was also.
the idea that division ought not to be tole
rated. From 1534 to 1688 Churchmen,
Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Inder
pendents in turn, as they rose to the top
tried to hold down and suppress their rivals;
During far the greater part of this period
the Reformed Church was predominant, aud
no other form of religion was tolerated. Men
were coerced, into uniformity as far as
possible. Such was the principle of governr
ment universally accepted. It was during
this time that the word " established" came
into use. First, as to establishing the;
Prayer Book (5 & 6 Edw. VI. ch. 1), and
the Articles (13 Eliz. ch. 12), and secondly,
" the Church of England by law established"
(Canons of 1603). Until the Reformation
no liturgy had been enforced by law. Ther?

ENDOWMENT
were various " Uses." Therefore, when it
was intended to insist on the adoption of
One liturgy throughout England, and to do
so by Act of Parliament, " establishing "
was a natural and accurate term to be em
ployed. Tudor Acts usually begin, "Let
it be established and enacted" that, &c.
Gradually, as the word in this context got
more familiar, and the breach with Rome
wider and more fixed, men began to talk of
the Church itself as established by law, to
denote, not any act or process by which the
condition of establishment was produced,
but the condition itself. The Church is,
from the first employment of the word, de
scribed as now established, that is, as already
in the condition of establishment. The
meaning of the expression " established by
law " during this period is that the Church,
with its doctrine and its discipline, was
established by compulsion of law as the
only and national Church, no other religious
body being tolerated. Two ideas are in
volved in the words " established by law."
First, as we have said, that of compulsion,
and secondly, that of contrast with other
religious bodies. The enforcement of con
formity by law was nothing new. Even
before the Lollardy Acts, the Church
Courts would at any time have punished
heresy, and the State would have given its
'aid. But until the Church of England had
rivals, and had, as it were, to struggle to
keep its position, it did not enter into men's
minds to lay stress upon the fact that the
Church was established by law (see Canon
10). UntR then this particular feature of
its constitution was not prominent. The
Church's claims were taken for granted.
No one mentioned them, because no one
questioned them.
HI. From the Revolution to the present
time, or the Era of Toleration. On the
accession of William and Mary the Tolera
tion Act "for exempting their Majesties'
Protestant subjects dissenting from the
Church of England from the penalties of
certain laws" was passed. It is needless
to trace the development of the policy thus
inaugurated. From that time there has
been no establishment of the Church of
England by compulsion of law. The old
meaning had obviously gone when the
Toleration Act was passed, yet the word
itself has come into more constant use than
ever. "The Protestant Reformed religion
established bylaw" (Coronation Oath, 1 W.
&M. ch. 6); "such an establishment" (Bill
of Rights, 1 W. & M. sess. 2, ch. 2) ; Church
of England as by law established (Act of
Settlement, 12 & 13 W. III. ch. 2 ; Treaty
of Union between Scotland and England, 6
Anne, ch. 8, and ch. 11 ; Act of Union with
Ireland, 39 & 40 Geo. III. ch. 67). The

ENOCH

327

expression is retained in ecclesiastical legisla
tion to this day. It cannot any longer be
understood in the sense of legal compulsion.
It must be taken to denote special recogni
tion. This is then the developed meaning
which the word has at the present time. It
will be noticed that in this sense establish
ment does not point specially or exclusively
to the Church of England, but is rather a
generic title under which there may be
many different species. And so it is. The
Scotch, Spanish, German, and Italian
Churches have all, at one time or another,
been established, yet the variations and dif
ferences have been very great indeed. The
only one feature which has been the same in
all has been the fact of special recognition,
by the State. Again, establishment may be
produced by definite act (as in Scotland by1
statute, or, as in several of the continental
States, by concordat). On the other hand,
Establishment may arise, as in England, out
of the mutual relations of Church and State
growing up side by side through long cen
turies. The two have become entwined
together in the course of ages, but it is. impos->
sible to fix on any particular year or event, and
to say that there and then the Church became
established. All that is practicable is to take
any particular epoch, either past or present,
and to endeavour to ascertain in what the
special recognition of the Church by the'
State at that time consists ; in other words,1
to lay down the principal relations between
Church and State, the resultant of which
makes establishment. These relations have1
undergone considerable variation in the last
200 years. Some items of establishment
(e.g. church rates) have vanished, and others
have been altered, yet the condition of
special recognition remains ; just as you
may change component forces without in
terfering with the general direction of their1
resultant. For the leading features of
establishment at the .present time, see
Brewer's Endowment and Establishment,
3rded. p. 291, &c. [L. T. D.]
ENGLAND (See Church of England).
ENOCH, THE BOOK OF. An apocry
phal book, of which there remain but a few
fragments. It is quoted by St. Jude (14—
15), and was apparently well known in the
second and third centuries. Justin, Irenasus,-
Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria
and others refer to it, but it was never
included in the Canon of Scripture. St.
Augustine says that Enoch wrote some
thing divine because he is cited by St.
Jude ; but he adds, it was not without
reason that this book was not inserted
in the Canon, which was preserved in the
temple of Jerusalem, and committed to the
care of the sacrificators. St. Augustine suf->
ficiently insinuates that the authority of

328

ENTHEONIZATION

this book is doubtful, and that it cannot be
proved that it was really written by Enoch.
Indeed the account " it gives of giants
engendered by angels, and not by men, has
manifestly the air of a fable ; and the most
judicious critics believe it ought not to be
ascribed to Enoch. — De Habitu Mulier. c.
iii. ; De Civit. Dei, lib. xv. c. 23.
This apocryphal book lay a long time
buried in darkness ; till Joseph Scaliger,
circ. 1600, recovered a part of it. That
author gives us some considerable fragments
of it, in his notes on the chronicle of
Eusebius ; various suggestions have been
made as to the authorship of this book
(See Article by Canon Westcott in Diction
ary of the Bible, i. 556).
ENTHRONIZATION (See Bishop).
The placing of a bishop in his staR or
throne in his cathedral.
Several forms relating to the enthroniza-
tion of a bishop in the thirteenth 'century
are extant : as also the summons to certain
abbots by Archbishop Winchelsea to attend
the solemnity in his own instance. — Wilkin s,
Cone. torn. ii. pp. 196, 214 ; Maskell, ii.
cxliv. EPACT. The age of the moon at the be
ginning of the solar year ; i.e. of that tabu
lar or calculated moon which is assumed
throughout the Calendar (see Easter) whether
it be the exact astronomical one or not.
That age is eleven days at the end of any
average year (of 365£ days) when the new
moon was on January 1, a lunar being 354A
days. As a lunation is 29£ days, there may
evidently be 29 days of epact in sufficient
time ; but there are only 19 in any given
period by the rules of the Calendar, until
they are shifted at the end of most centuries ;
for the same reason that there are only 19
Golden Numbers or possible days of equi
noctial full moon in the Calendar for each
century: viz., that the real full moons
recur at the same days and hours every 19
average years very nearly, the error being
only that which the Gregorian rules, made
by Clavius the Jesuit and adopted here by
Act of Parliament in 1752, were designed to
correct by the shifts at the end of most
centuries, though not perfectly. Certain
epacts correspond to certain Golden Num
bers ; but the epacts are of no real use in
the calculations for Easter as the Golden
Numbers are, which indicate the days of
the Paschal or equinoctial full moon, the
Sunday after which is Easter. See Rees,
Cyclopedia on the Epact, and Sir E.
Beckett's Astronomy on the Calendar and
Easter. EPHOD. A sacred vestment originally
worn by the high priest only, but after
wards worn by ordinary priests. Attached

EPIPHANY
to the ephod of the high priest was the
breastplate with the Urim and Thummim.-.
St. Jerome observes (vol. vi. col. 32,
Comment, in Hosed) that the ephod was
culiar to the priesthood (significat indu
mentum sacerdotale) ; and it was an opinion
among the Jews, that no sort of worship, true
or false, could subsist without a priesthood
and ephod.
EPIGONATION (imyovdnov, from yoW,
a knee). An appendage of a lozenge shape,
somewhat resembling a small maniple, worn
on the right side, depending from the girdle.
It is considered to represent the napkin with
which our Blessed Lord girded himself at the
last supper, and has embroidered on it either
a cross or the head of our Lord. In the
Roman Church its use is confined to the
pope. In the Greek Church it is used by
all bishops. The epigonation does not oc
cur in the saoerdotal vestments of the
English Church. — Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii.
in fin. ; Ducange, Gloss.
EPIPHANY. (Derived from the com
pound verb imcbcdveiv, to manifest or
declare.) The Epiphany, or manifestation
of Christ to the Gentiles, is commemorated
in the Church on the 6th of January.
I. Epiphany was not originally a distinct
festival, but made a part of that of the
nativity of Christ. This was celebrated
during twelve days, the first and last of
which, according to the custom of the Jews
in their feasts, were high or chief days of
solemnity, and therefore either of these
might fitly be called Epiphany, as that
word signifies the appearance of Christ in
the world (See Christmas).
Those who observed it as a distinct festival
from the Nativity did it at first chiefly on
account of our Saviour's baptism, and after
wards from the appearing of the Star which
conducted the wise men of the East to the
Saviour. Other reasons were also given,
namely, the turning water into wine at
Cana, and the feeding of the five thousand —
thus " God manifesting Himself by miracles
in human nature" (Aug. Serm. xxix. de
Tempore). St. Jerome, indeed, insists only
upon the commemoration of our Saviour's
baptism (in Ezek. i.), and St. Chrysostom
says, " Why is not the day on which Christ
was born called Epiphany, but the day on
which he was baptized ? Because he was
not manifested to all when he was born,
but when he was baptized " (Homil. xxiv.
de Bapt Christi). So also Gregory Nazi
anzen : " This holy day of lights had its
origin from the baptism of Christ, the true
Light" (Orat. xxxix.). So in the Eastern
Church this became one of the days for
baptism, and was called also the dayof
light (rjpepa rmv tpdrav), baptism being
generally called <j)S>s and (pano-pa. Ana

EPIPHANY
St. Chrysostom tells us, that, this being
likewise the day of our Saviour's baptism, it
was usual to carry home water at midnight
from the church, and that it would remain
as fresh and uncorrupt for one, two, or three
years, as if immediately drawn from the
spring (De ¦ Bapt. 'Christi, ut supra).
Dr. Neale supposes that it partly had this
name from the great array of torches and
tapers with which the benediction of the
waters is performed on this day (Hist, of
Holy Eastern Church) ; and reference is
made to this by early writers. The
primitive name of the day was Theophania,
and both this and Epiphania are used in
the Comes of St. Jerome and the Sacramen
tary of St. Gregory ; but the former died
out as the festival became more exclusively
connected with the call and adoration of
the Magi — the first-fruits of the Gentiles.
The Western Church generally adopted the
latter idea, and the eight homilies of Leo I.
{a.d. 440) assign no other rationale for the
observance of the Epiphany.
Theodosius the Younger gave this festival
an honourable place among those days,
on which the public games were not al
lowed; and Justinian made it a day of
vacation from all pleadings at law, as well
as from popular pleasures. It is to be ob
served, likewise, that those to whom the
care of the Paschal cycle, or rule for find
ing Easter, was committed, were obliged,
on or about the time of Epiphany, to give
public notice when Easter and Lent were
to be kept the ensuing year.— .Cod. Theod.
lib. xv. tit. 5, leg. 5 ; Cod. Just. lib. iii. tit.
12, leg. 6.
II. The Feast of Epiphany is mentioned
in all the ancient liturgies, and generally
there is also a form for the vigil. In the
Sacramentary of Gregory there is also
a form for the octave; it is from this
sacramentary that our collect is taken. A
Sunday before Epiphany is denoted in the
Mozarabic or Spanish Missal, as in the
Breviary. The three manifestations (to the
Magi, at the Baptism, at the Marriage Feast)
are generally indicated in the Scriptures
appointed in the liturgies ; and sometimes,
as in the so-called Gothico-Gallic Missal,
reference is made to the feeding of the five
thousand. The second lessons for* morning
and evening service in our Prayer Book
refer to the manifestation of our Lord's
Divine Sonship at His baptism, and of his
Divine Power (" manifesting forth his
glory." St. John ii. 11) at the marriage in
Cana; IIL It has always been the tradition that
the Magi were three in number, and that
the remainder of their lives after the visit
to the Holy Land was spent in the service
of God. They are said to have been bap-

EPISTLE

329

tized by St. Thomas, and to have died as
martyrs for the Faith. Their supposed
relics are in a gorgeous shrine at Cologne,
the names given to them being Gaspar,
Melchior, and Balthazar.
An interesting custom used to be observed
at the Chapel Royal in St. James's Palace
on this festival. The sovereign proceeded
to the altar at the time of the offertory, and
made an offering of gold, frankincense, and
myrrh, which was laid upon the altar, com
memorating the offerings of the Magi. An
officer of the royal household now makes
the offering in the name of the sovereign. —
Bingham, bk. xx. c. iv. ; Martene, de Rit.
iii. 42 ; Suicer in voc. and p. 1196 ; Blunt's
Annot. P. B. p. 83.
EPISCOPACY. The ancient apostolical
form of Church government, consisting in
the superintendency of one over several
other church officers. Bishops were always
allowed to be of an order superior to pres
byters ; and, indeed, having all the powers
that presbyters have, and some more pe
culiar to themselves, they must be of a
different order necessarily. It is their pe
culiar office to ordain, which never was
allowed to presbyters ; and, anciently, the
presbyter acted in dependence upon the
bishop in the administration of the Lord's
supper and baptism, and even in preaching,
in such manner that he could not do it re
gularly without the bishop's approbation.
Our Church asserts, in the preface to
the Ordinal, that the order of bishops was
"from the apostles' time ;" referring us to
those texts of Scripture occurring in the
history of the Acts, and the apostolical
Epistles, which are usually urged for the
proof of the episcopal order (See Bishop,
Archbishop, Orders).
EPISTLE. I. The Scriptural Epistles
are letters which were addressed by the in
spired Apostles to Churches or individuals.
Of these, the Apostle Paul wrote four
teen; if we include the Epistle to the
Hebrews, about the authorship of which
there is considerable doubt. St. James and
St. Jude each wrote one, St. Peter two, and
St. John three general Epistles.
II. But by the Epistle in the liturgy we
mean the first lesson in the Communion
Service, which is so styled because it is
generally taken from the Epistles of the
holy apostles. Sometimes, however, it is
taken from the Acts, and occasionally from
the prophets, but then it is termed the
portion of Scripture appointed for the
Epistle. Almost all the lessons now read
as Epistles in the English liturgy have
been assigned to their present place, and
used by our Church, for many ages. They
are found in all the liturgies of our Church
used before the revision, in the reign of

330

EPISTOLAEIUM

Edward VI., and they also appear in all the
monuments of the English liturgy before
the invasion of William the Conqueror. It
is, in fact, probable that they are generally
as old as the time of Augustine, a.d. 597.
In this view, the lessons entitled Epistles
in our liturgy have been used, with some
alterations, for 1200 years by the Church of
England. The most ancient collection of
Epistles and Gospels is the " Comes of St.
Jerome" (See Comes). It contains Epistles
and Gospels for all the Sundays of the year,
and most of the Festivals. The Roman
lectionary differs considerably from it, but
the English is generally in accord. In the
Sarum Use, for instance, and in our Prayer
Book, the Epistles and Gospels for the
Sundays after Trinity are the same as
those appointed in the Comes, but in the
Roman rite they are different. The prin
ciple of selection is clear. From Advent to
Trinity the leading events in our Lord's life,
His Resurrection and Ascension, and the
descent of the Holy Spirit, are commemo
rated on what are called the Great Festivals.
From Trinity to Advent our practical duties
as Christians are set forth.
EPISTOLARIUM. A service book in
which are contained the Epistles for the
office of Holy Communion (See Evangelis-
tarium ; Maskell, i. cl.).
EPISTOLER. The minister who reads
the Epistle and acts as sub-deacon, or
helper, at a celebration. In the 24th canon,
and in the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth,
we find that a special reader, entitled an
epistoler, is to read the Epistle in collegiate
churches, vested in a cope. The canon and
the injunctions here referred to will be
found under the head Cathedral.
Epistolers are still statutable officers in
several cathedrals of the new foundation:
though in most the institution has fallen
into desuetude. It is retained at Durham.
The epistoler and gospeller are sometimes
called deacon and sub-deacon, in the cathe
dral statutes. By Archbishop GrindaPs In
junctions in 1571, it was required that
parish clerks should be able to read the first
Lesson and Epistle.
EPITAPH (im, rdqbos). An inscription
on a monument in honour or memory of
the dead. In the catacombs of Rome,
inscriptions, sacred emblems, and marks of
the sex or profession of the dead were
carved or smeared on slabs which enclosed
the tomb. Though, as a rule, each recess
contained a single body, yet sometimes it
was of a capacity to receive two, three, or
more corpses. These were called bisomi,
trisomi, quadrisomi, &c, and such epitaphs
were engraved on them as " Hostavie coivgi
neofite bisomv. maritus fecit ; " " Seberus,
Leontius Bictorinus, Trisomu " (Bosio, Roma

EPITAPH
Sotteranea, pp. 216, 507). Many slabs!
have been discovered Rearing names such.
as Anteros (a.d. 236), Fabian (a.d. 251),
Lucius (a.d. 253), and others, with the
words " Episcopus," " Martyr " (in the case of
Fabian), or other inscriptions in the Greek
character (De Rossi, Inscript Christ).
When St. Jerome visited the catacombs
(c. a.d. 354), they seem not to have been
used as the general cemeteries (Hieron. m
Ezech. c. xl.), but the custom of putting
epitaphs on tombs remained; and the
tendency to raise very costly memorials
was such that SS. Basil and Chrysostom
inveighed against the reckless extravagance.
In England it was very often the case
that standing stones, probably associated
with idolatrous worship, were made use ofy
and Christianized by the engraving of at
cross on them (See Monuments). In
Wales and Brittany there are frequent
examples of this. The earliest church
tombs in this country are of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries. They were ridged
in form, and covered with a cross, or, in the
the later period, a recumbent figure. Then:
came tombs recessed in the wall ; and soon
followed the high tomb and effigy detached
from the wall, and placed under a canopy,
from which the advance to chantry chapels,
was easy. In these the epitaph or in-:
scription is sometimes placed round or ab
the back of the tomb, but often the effigy
or monument was considered sufficient
without an epitaph. In the ancient Latin
inscriptions on tombs, either from careless
ness or ignorance of the workmen, curious
mistakes in orthography and grammar oc
curred. Thus we find. _bssa for ossa,
Sordine for ordine, _octobres and iTeterna
for Octobres and Eterna ; on the other hand,
oc appears for hoc, ic for hic, Onorius for
Honorius. The cases also got confused^
accusatives being used for ablatives, as fon
instance, " cum quem vixit ; " " cum uxorem
suam ; " " pro nunc unum sobolem ora ; "
" decessit de saeculum," &c. (De Rossi, Int..
Urb. Rom. pp. 82, 103, 133). Similar
ignorance or carelessness is displayed in
many English churchyards in the eighteenth
and beginning of the nineteenth centuries.
It would appear that the clergy in that dull
time of the Church did not care about the
matter, or at all events did not use that
power of veto which [they possessed then,
though the churchyards are now taken out
of their hands. Such epitaphs as
"Cease now dear friend, and weep no more, t
I are not dead but gone before,"
(Porlock Churcbyaid,)
and " My dearest friends advised be,
Weep for yourselves and not for we,"
are frequent in country churchyards. But

EPOCH
such, in later years, have not been allowed,
and at all events, grammar and orthography
are regarded as essential in epitaphs.
EPOCH. A term in chronology signi
fying a fixed point of time from which the
succeeding years are numbered. The first
epoch is the creation of the world, which,
according to the Vulgate Bible, Arch
bishop Ussher fixes in the year 710 of the
Julian periods, and 4004 years before
Jesus Christ. The second is the Deluge,
which, according to the Hebrew text,
happened in the year of the world 1656.
Six other epochs are commonly reckoned
in sacred history: the building of the
tower of Babel ; the calling of Abraham ;
the departure of the Israelites out of
Egypt ; the dedication of the temple ; the
end of the Babylonish captivity; and the
birth of Jesus Christ. In ancient profane
history four epochs are frequently reckoned :
the " a?ra " of Nabonassar, or death of Sar-
danapalus ; the reign of Cyrus at Babylon ;
the reign of Alexander the Great over the
Persians ; and the beginning of the reign of
Augustus, in which our Saviour was born.
ERA. A term often used as synonymous
with "epoch"; the difference really being
that the latter implies some specified event,
the former a succession of years reckoned
on some common principle from that event.
The idea of the Christian era, the epoch
being the birth of Christ, was first intro
duced by Dionysius Exiguus about a.d.
532. He supposed Christ to have been
born on the 25th December, in the year of
Rome 753, Lentulus and Piso being consuls,
and this computation has been followed to
the present day. It is now generally ac
knowledged that this is not the true year
of our Saviour's birth, but it has been used
so long as an epoch for the Christian era
that it could not be altered. — Bingham, bk.
xx. c. 4; Stubbs' Mosheim (note), i. 31.
ERASTIANISM. A term derived from
Erastus, a Grecised form for Lieber, the
name of a physician of Heidelberg, who
lived a.d. 1524-1583. His name and
principles were brought into prominence in
England at the time of the Great Rebellion.
He had written a number of Tlieses, which he
afterwards collected into a work called a
Book on Excommunication, in which he op
posed the rigid discipline of the Calvinists
with great force, while at the same time
he asserted that there was no authority
over religion except the State, The
pastoral office, according to him, was only
persuasive, like that of a professor of science
over his students. The minister might
dissuade the vicious and unqualified from
the communion, but might not refuse it,
or inflict any kind of censure ; the punish
ment of all offences, either of a civil or

ESTHER

331

religious nature, being referred to the civil
magistrate. These principles were taken
up by the Independents against the Pres
byterians in 1643, the chief exponents
being Selden, Coleman, vicar of Blyton in
Lincolnshire, and Dr. Lightfoot. A ten
dency to resist all ecclesiastical authority,
to assert individual opinion against the
Church's doctrines, and to regard Parlia
ment as the chief authority even in ec
clesiastical matters, are the characteristics
of Erastians. Hobbes expresses the idea
by stating that Christianity is not obli
gatory on any one unless made so by Act
of Parliament, or other competent autho
rity. — Hobbes' Leviathan, iii. 42.
ESPOUSE, ESPOUSALS. I. A cere
mony of betrothing, or coming under obli
gation for the purpose of marriage. It
was a mutual agreement between the two
parties, which usually preceded the mar
riage some considerable time. The dis
tinction between espousals and marriage
ought to be carefully attended to, as
espousals in the East are sometimes con
tracted for years before the parties cohabit,
and sometimes in very early youth. The
two contracts have long been placed to
gether by our Church (See Betrothal).
II. The ceremony is alluded to figura
tively, as between God and His people
(Jer. ii. 2), to whom He was a husband
(Jer. xxxi. 32). The apostle St. Paul says,
that he acted as a kind of assistant (pro-
nuba) to his Corinthian converts (2 Cor.
xi. 2) : "I have espoused you to Christ,"
that is, I have drawn up the writings,
settled the agreements, given pledges, &c,
of that union (See Isa. liv. 5 ; St. Matt.
xxv. 6 ; Rev. xix.).
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH
(See Endowment).
ESTHER, The Book of, is a canonical
book of Scripture. There has been some dis
pute whether it was a canonical book among
the Jews. St. Jerome and other Christian
writers maintain the affirmative, but St.
Athanasius and some others incline to
the opposite conclusion. It has, however,
been received as canonical by the Church.
The last six chapters, beginning at the
fourth verse of the tenth chapter, are not
in the Hebrew text. These are probably
a collection of several pieces put together
by the Hellenistical Jews, and are therefore
deservedly thrown out of the canon of the
sacred books by the Protestant Church ; but
the Latin and Greek Churches hold them
canonical. As to the author of the Book of
Esther, there is great uncertainty. Many of
the Christian Fathers attribute this history
to Ezra. Eusebius believes it to be more
modern. Others ascribe it to Joachim the
high priest, tbe grandson of Josedec. Most

332

ETERNITY

conceive Mordecai to have been the author
of it, and join Esther with him in the com
position of it. It has been remarked, as a
singular circumstance, that the Divine name
does not once occur in this book (See
Speaker's Commentary).
ETERNITY. That mysterious attri
bute of God which implies his existence, as
without end, so without beginning. The
self-existent Being must of necessity be
eternal. The ideas of eternity and self-
existence are so closely connected, that,
because something must of necessity be
eternal, independently and without any
outward cause of its being, therefore it
must, necessarily be self-existent; and,
because it is impossible but something
must be self-existent, therefore it is ne
cessary that it must likewise be eternal.
To be self-existent, is to exist by an
absolute necessity in the nature of the
thing itself. Now this necessity being
absolute, and not depending upon any
thing external, must be always unalterably
the same, nothing being alterable but what
is capable of being affected by somewhat
without itself. That being, therefore,
which has no other cause of its existence
but the absolute necessity of its own na
ture, must, of necessity, have existed from
everlasting, without beginning, and must,
of necessity, exist to everlasting, without
end. As to the manner of this eternal exis
tence, it is manifest it herein infinitely
transcends the manner of the existence of
all created beings, even of such as shall
exist for ever ; that whereas it is not pos
sible for their finite minds to comprehend
all that is past, or to understand perfectly
all things that are present, much less to
know all that is future, or to have entirely
in their power anything that is to come,
but their thoughts, and knowledge, and
power, must, of necessity, have degrees
and periods, and be successive and tran
sient as the things themselves : the eter
nal, supreme cause, on the contrary, must
of necessity have such a perfect, indepen
dent, unchangeable comprehension of all
things, that there can be no one point or
instant of his eternal duration, wherein all
things that are past, present, and to come,
will not be as entirely known and repre
sented to him in one single thought or
view, and all things present aud future be
as equally and entirely in his power and
direction, as if there was really no succes
sion at all, but all things were actually
present at once. — Dr. Clarke, Demonstra
tion of tlie Being and Attributes of God.
This is, in reality, the most incompre
hensible of the divine attributes. God is
without beginning ; the Father, always a

EUCHARIST
Father, without beginning; the Son, al
ways the only begotten of the Father,
without beginning; the Holy Ghost, al
ways proceeding from the Father and
the Son, without beginning; the one God,
always existing in the Trinity of his per
sons, without beginning.
" There is but one living and true God,
everlasting, without body, parts, or pas
sions ; of infinite power, wisdom, and good
ness ; the maker and preserver of all things
visible and invisible ; and in the unity of
this Godhead, there be Three Persons, of
one substance, power, and eternity, the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost."
— Article I.
ETHELDREDA, Virgin,— commemora
ted in the English Calendar on October 17.
She was the daughter of an East Anglian
king, and niece of St. Hilda, the Abbess of
Whitby. For many years she was abbess
of a convent at Ely, which she herself had
founded. Her popular name was St. Audry,
from which is said to be derived our word
" taudry," because cheap finery was sold at
"St. Audry's fair." — Stanley's Canterbury
Cathedral, note, p. 236.
EUCHARIST. I. The word cvxapurrla,
euchairist, originally signified a "sense
of gratitude or thankfulness" (2 Mace.
ii. 27; Acts xxiv. 3). Such a sense of
thankfulness may be expressed either in
word or in act.
II. With the idea of verbal thanksgiving
both the verb tixaptareiv and the sub
stantive eixapto-ria, are often used in the New
Testament. Thus we find the verb applied
(St. Luke xvii. 16) to the grateful leper
who returned and gave thanks to our Lord;
to St. Paul, who seeing the brethren at
Appii forum, he thanked God, and took
courage (Acts xxviii. 15) ; to the joy of the
same Apostle when he thanked God for every
remembrance of the believers at Philippi
(Phil. i. 3); to our Lord, when at the
feeding of the Four Thousand, He took the
seven loaves and the fishes, and gave thanh
(St. Matt. xv. 36).
Again, we find the substantive tixapioria
used of thanksgiving generally, as when
Tertullus thanks Felix for his services to the
Jewish nation (Acts xxiv. 3), and especially
of thanksgiving in public worship, as when
St. Paul says to the Corinthians "how shall
he that occupieth the room of the unlearned
say Amen at thy giving oftlianks" (1 Cor.
xiv. 16).
III. Not a few hold that here the Apostle
is speaking of the thanksgiving offered to
God at the Lord's Supper. That thankfulness
in word soon merged into thankfulness in act,
and so fixapiaria came to denote a thank-
offering, is certain. For Philo describes it
as including hymns, prayers, and sacrifices,

EUCHARIST
and speaks of thank-offerings expressed
by sacrifices. But, whether the word in
the above passage from 1 Corinthians is or
is not to be applied to the Lord's Supper,
it cannot be disputed that the verb
evxapurreiv plays an important part in
every account of its institution. Thus St.
Paul and St. Luke alike tell us that at the
Lord's Supper our Lord " took bread," and
" when He had given thanks, He brake it " (1
Cor. xi. 24 ; St. Luke xxii. 19) ; and likewise
we are told that after taking the cup He gave
thanks, and gave to them (St. Matt. xxvi. 27).
Thus giving thanks was one of His most
significant actions ; and Justin Martyr tells
us in his Apology (i. 65) that the brother
who presided at the primitive celebrations of
the Lord's Supper, receiving bread and a cup
of water and mixed wine, sends up praise
and glory to the Father of all, through the
Name of the Son and the Holy Spirit, and
offers a thanksgiving (eixapiariav) at some
length for that He hath vouchsafed to us
these blessings."
IV. From the utterance of thanksgiving
over the elements of bread and wine at
the celebration of the Lord's Supper, the
verb eixapisreiv came to denote further " to
consecrate, or hallow by word of thanks
giving." Thus, in the passage quoted above,
Justin Martyr, after mentioning the thanks
giving of the brother who presided, speaks
of the bread and wine and water as
made eucharistic, eixapicrrvOivTos aprov Kal
o'lvov xai vSaros (Apol. i. 65), and of
the food as "consecrated" (Apol. i. 66); and
Irenasus speaks of the • bread after the
Epiclesis or invocation, as no longer common
bread, but evxapivria, consisting of two
parts, an earthly and a heavenly (Heres.
iv. 18, 5).
V. But Justin Martyr uses also language
which shows that he regarded the elements
as constituting in themselves a thank-
offering, for ;in his dialogue with Trypho
he speaks of the leper's offering of five
flowers, a type of " the Bread of the Eu
charist," "which the Lord commanded us
to offer in thanksgiving." And similarly,
when Celsus urged against the Christians
that they were ungrateful in not paying due
thank-offerings to the gods of the country,
Origen replies that the bread called evxapic-
ria was the outward token of thankfulness
toward God (c. Celsum, viii. 57).
VL From all this it is easy to see how the
Eucharist became one of the special names of
the Lord's Supper. Thus in the Didache, or
" Teaching of the Apostles " (c. a.d. 90-100),
we read : " but with regard to the Eucharist,
give thanks after this manner " (ix. 1) ; and
again, "Let no one eat or drink of your
Eucharist except those baptised into the name
of the Lord" (ix. 5). And again we find

EUCHARISTIC

333

Clement of Alexandria speaking of the priests
as distributing " the Eucharist," i.e. the
Elements, to the communicants (Strom, i. 5),
and Eusebius speaks of sending " the Eu
charist " to the neighbouring Churches (H. E.
v. 24, 15). From the East the word found its
way into the West, and the Latin Fathers
adopted the same Greek word into their
language. Thus Cyprian (Epist. xv. c. 1)
explains " Eucharistia " as " Sanctum
Domini Corpus," the sacred Body of the
Lord, and Tertullian says that "in the
Eucharist our Lord did not institute a figure
of His Body."
VII. Having once been adopted by the
Latin Fathers the word became common
enough in the West, and hence the name
Sacramentum Eucharistie is the name
given to the Lord's Supper in the 28tb
Article, and in the same Article the words
occur, "Panis et Vini trans ubstantiatio in
Eucharistia." VIII. Ihe propriety of the name is obvious..
It fitly denotes this Holy Service as a
sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving. This
aspect of it comes out in many portions of
our own office. Thus in the Exhortation we
are reminded that " above all things we must
give most humble and hearty thanks to God
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost,
for the redemption of the world by the-
death and passion of our Saviour Jesus
Christ, both God and man ; " and in the
words preceding the Sanctus, after bidding
those who are about to communicate to
"give thanks unto our Lord God, the-
celebrant continues : " It is very meet,
right, and our bounden duty, that we should
at all times and in all places, give thanks unto
Thee, 0 Lord, Holy Father, Almighty,
Everlasting God." Again, in the Post-
Communion Service he says : " 0 Lord and'
heavenly Father; we Thy humble servants
entirely desire Thy fatherly goodness
mercifully to accept this our sacrifice of
praise and thanksgiving ; " and again : " Al
mighty and everliving God, we most
heartily thank Thee, for that Thou dost
vouchsafe to feed us, who have duly received
these holy mysteries." Hence also Hymns-
of Thanksgiving after Holy Communion
are so frequent in the ancient Liturgies, and
in the Gloria in Excelsis " We praise, bless,
worship, glorify and give thanks to our
heavenly King, God the Father Almighty,
for all His mercies in the redemption of the-
world." This completely agrees with the-
words of the Church Catechism, where one
of the requisites for a meet participation of
the Lord's supper is said to be " a lively
faith in God's mercy through Christ, with
a thankful remembrance of his death ""
[G. F. M.]
EUCHARISTIC. Belonging to the ser+

334

EUCHELAION

vice of the holy Eucharist ; or, in a larger
sense, having the character of thanks
giving. EUCHELAION (Gr.). The oil of
prayer. To penitents (in the Greek Church)
is administered the sacrament of to etx&aiov
Euclielaion, which is performed by the
bishop, or archbishop, assisted by seven
priests, and begins with this prayer, " O
Lord, who with the oil of thy mercies
hast healed the wounds of our souls, do
thou sanctify this oil, that those who are
anointed therewith may be freed from their
infirmities, and from all corporeal and
spiritual 'evils." This oil of prayer is pure
and unmixed oil, without any other com
position ; a quantity whereof, sufficient to
serve for the whole year, is consecrated,
on Wednesday in the Holy Week, by the
archbishop, or bishop. The Euclielaion of
the Greek answers to the Extreme Unction
of the Western Church. — Ricaut, Present
State of the Greek Church ; Suicer's The
saurus (s.v.).
EUCHITES ('Evxirai). A sect which
arose in the fourteenth century. They
maintained that prayer only was necessary
to salvation. But it was not to be merely
a habit of prayer, or a daily assigned time
for prayer, but prayer was to be unceasing.
Therefore they gave up all their work and
pursuits. They were sometimes called
Enthusiasts, in allusion to the perfection
they professed to have attained in the re
ligious life. Epiphanius (a.d. 400) treats of
them last in his treatise on Heresies (Her.
lxxx.). " They were wandering beggars,
who supposed that sins might be blotted
out by incessant prayer, whilst they under
valued all public worship, and were led by
the grossness of their imagination to the
most absurd notions " (Gieseler, i. 275).
In the twelfth century there were some
who called themselves Euchites, and Mas-
salians, but the sect was obscure.
In the nineteenth century there is a sect
{Salvation Army) which resembles in many
points the Euchites. Of the Euchites it
was said, "Their principles did not ne
cessarily lead to vicious conduct, yet they
might afford occasion for practising vice.
And accordingly, it is but seldom that any
impugners of their practices do more than
accuse them of excessive frivolity in their
services bordering on impiety. They did
not openly separate from the Church, as
they professed indifference. In some places
.they became the subjects of persecution."
—Stubbs' Mosheim, vol. i. 316; ii. 247;
Blunt's Diet, of Sects, 150.
EUCHOLOGION (From tixn, preces,
and Xd-yor, sermo). The name of a litur
gical book of the Greek Church, containing
a collection of Divine services for the

EULOGL2E
administration of the sacraments, confer
ring of orders, and other religious offices:
it is properly their ritual, containing:
everything relating to religious ceremo
nies. Father Simon observes, that several
of the most considerable divines of that
Church, in Europe, met at Rome under
Pope Urban VIII., to examine the Eu-
chologion: Morinus, who was one of the
congregation, mentions this ritual in his-
book De Congregationibus : the greatest
part of the divines, being influenced hy
the sentiments of the schoolmen, were
willing to reform this Greek ritual by -that
of the Church of Rome, as if there had
been some heresies in it, or rather some
passages which made the administration
of the sacraments invalid ; but some, who
more perfectly understood the controversy,
opposed the censure of the Euchologion:
they proved this ritual was agreeable to
the practice of the Greek Church before
the schism of Photius, and that for this
reason it could not be condemned, with
out condemning all the old Eastern com
munion, In its simplest state the Euchologion is
based on the liturgies of Chrysostom and
Basil. It cannot be affirmed that the
present book existed before the eighth cen
tury, though the Eastern Church must have
had previously an office book corresponding
to it. The standard authority is the edition
of the Euchologion, with notes, by J. Goar,
Paris, 1645, which has been frequently
reprinted (Canon Venables in Diet, of
Christ Ant. 628). [H.]
EUDOXIANS. Certain heretics in the
fourth century, whose founder was Bu-
doxius, bishop first of Germanicia in Syria,
then of Antioch, and afterwards of Con
stantinople. They adhered to the errors of
the Agtians and Eunomians, affirming the
Son to be differently affected in his will
from the Father, and made of nothing,
denying the doctrine of the Trinity.
Gibbon (Decl. and Fall, iii. 25, p. 250,
note) speaks of Eudoxius as mild and timid.
But the historian is led away by his dislike
to the orthodox Christians. One who made
plots to get his different bishoprics, and
who on baptising the emperor Valens, be
fore he started on his Gothic expedition in
367, extracted from him a promise that he
would persecute the Catholics, could not be
called mild or timid. — Nicephorus, Eccles.
Hist. ix. 36 : xi. 15 ; Tillemont's Memoires,
vi. art. lxx. p. 422.
EULOGIZE (lit. "blessings"). A Greek
liturgical word, in the Apostolic times pro
bably synonymous with the Eucharist, from
1 Cor. x. 16 ; but very soon the term was
applied to the consecrated pieces of bread
which the bishops and priests sent to each

EUNOMIANS
-other or to those absent for the keeping up
>a friendly correspondence (which was for
bidden by the Council of Laodicea, a.d.
•365) : those presents likewise, which were
made out of respect or obligation, were
called Eulogie.
St. Paulinus, bishop of Nola, about the
¦end of the fourth century, having sent five
Eulogie at one time to Romanianus, speaks
to him in these terms : " That I may not
be wanting in the duties of brotherly love,
I send you five pieces of bread, of the am
munition of the warfare of Jesus Christ,
¦under whose standard we fight, following
the laws of temperance and sobriety."—
-Paulin. Epist. vii. p. 27.
, It is now used in the Roman and Eastern
Churches as equivalent to the " Panis bene
dictus," or bread over which a blessing is
pronounced, and which is distributed to
those who are unqualified to communicate
<See Diet of Christ Ant. i. 628 ; Neale's
Introd. Hist. East. Church, 525).
EUNOMIANS. A sect, so called from
Eunomius, who lived in the fourth century
of Christianity ; he was constituted bishop of
Cyzicus, and at first stoutly defended the
Arian heresy, but afterwards -went beyond,
and was rejected by those heretics. He
maintained that the Father was of a different
nature from the Son, because no creature
¦could be like his creator : he held that the
Son of God did not substantially unite
himself to the human nature, but only by
virtue of his operations :¦ he affirmed
blasphemously that he knew God as well as
God himself; and those that were baptized
in the name of the Holy Trinity he rebap-
tized, and was so averse to the mystery,
that he forbade the trinal immersion at
baptism. Upon divulging his tenets, he
was deposed from his see, and afterwards
sent into exile. — Socr. Hist Eccles. ii. 35 ;
Sozom. iv. 26 : vi. 26.
" Eunomianism, as a cold logical system,
wanted the elements of vitality, and not
withstanding its wide popularity at its
commencement, did not very long survive
its authors. In the following -century the
body had dwindled to a scanty remnant." —
Smith and Wace, Diet. Christ. Bioq. ii. 287.
, EUNURCHUS (or Evortius), St., bishop
of Orleans in the fourth century. Beyond
¦certain legends nothing is known of him,
•except that he was present at the Council
of Valentia in 374. Commemorated Sep
tember 7.
EUSTATHIANS. A sect in the fourth
century, who derived their name from
Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste in Armenia.
This man was not charged so much with
unsoundness in the faith, as with ill-ad
vised piety. He recommended divorce
¦disobedience of children, &c.„ and was the

EVANGELICAL

335

occasion of great disorders and divisions
in Armenia, Pontus, and the neighbour
ing countries. In consequence, he was
deposed and his principles condemned at
the Council of Gangra, a.d. 380. — Socr.
Hist. Eccles. ii. 33 ; Stubbs' Mosheim, i.
EUTYCHIANS. Heretics in the fifth
century, the followers of the error of
Eutyches, who being a Constantinopolitan
abbot, and contending against Nestorius,
fell into a new heresy. He and his follow
ers affirmed that Christ was one thing,
the Word another ; they denied the flesh
of Christ to be like ours, but said he had
a celestial body, which passed through
the Virgin as through a channel; that
there were two natures in Christ before
the hypostatical union, but that, after it,
there was but one, compounded of both ;
and thence concluded that the Divinity
of Christ both suffered and died. Being
condemned in a synod at Constantinople,
Eutyches appealed to the emperor ; after
which, by the assistance of Dioscorus, bishop
of Alexandria, he obtained a synod at Ephe
sus, which was so unfairly packed, and the
proceedings were conducted with such
violence, that it was called Latrocinium, or
the assembly of thieves and robbers, where
in he got his heresy to be approved ; how
ever, in the fourth general council, under
Marcian, a.d. 451, his errors were a second
time condemned.
EVANGEL (From ev, and dyyeXia,
"good tidings"). The Gospel of Christ.
The revealed history of our Blessed Lord's
life. EVANGELICAL. Agreeable to the
gospel, or " evangel." In the strict and
proper sense of the word, he who is truly
evangelical must be a true member of the
Church, and every true member of the
Church must be truly evangelical. But it
has; been used in a sectarian sense, and
adopted by those who, taking the gospel
according to their interpretation for their
foundation, reject dogmatic and Church
teaching — as by the Evangelical Associa
tion of America, which in 1871 numbered
60,241 members : the Evangelical Union,
or Morisonians in Scotland: the Evangeli
cal Lutherans in Germany, &c. The name
has sometimes been given to those persons
who conform to the Church, but whose
notions are supposed more nearly to coincide
with the ,, opinions of Dissenters than with
the doctrines of the Church ; thereby im
plying that the principles of all consistent
members of the Church are not according
to the gospel. The party called " evan
gelical" in the Church of England did a
good work, and the names of Scott,
Newton, Simeon, Venn, and many others,
will ever be revered for their piety and

336

EVANGELISTS

labour in the Church of Christ. The use
of terms of distinction however1, among
members of the Church, is much to be
reprobated : among sects it cannot be
avoided. EVANGELISTS. Persons chosen by
the apostles to preach the gospel ; it being
impracticable for the twelve only to preach
the gospel to all the world. Philip, among
others, was engaged in this function. As
for their rank in the Church, St. Paul
places them after the apostles and prophets,
but before the pastors and teachers (Eph.
iv. 11), which makes Theodoret call them
apostles of the second rank : they had no
particular flock assigned, as bishops or
ordinary pastors, but travelled from one
place to another, according to their instruc
tions received from the apostles, to whom
they returned after they had. executed their
commission, so that, in short, this office,
being extraordinary, expired with the
apostles. The title of Evangelists is now more
particularly given to those four holy per
sons who wrote the history of our Saviour.
EVENS. Eves, or. vigils. The nights
or evenings before certain holy-days of the
Church (See Vigils).
EVEN-SONG (See Liturgy). Evening
prayer, which is appointed to be sung or
said. The office of even-song, or evening
prayer, is a judicious abridgment of the
offices of vespers (i.e. even-song) and com
pline, as used in our Church before the
Reformation ; and it appears that the re
visers of our offices formed the introduction
to evening prayer from those parts of both
vespers and compline which seemed best
suited to this place, and which presented
uniformity with the introduction to morning
prayer. Even-song occurs in the table of Proper
Lessons for Sundays and Holy-days, and
Proper Psalms. It is in fact the same as
the old word vesper ; and only differs from
the other authorised expression, evening
prayer, in having more special reference to
the psalms and hymns, and the anthem,
those holy songs which make up so large a
portion of the service.
EXALTATION OF THE CROSS. A
festival of the Greek and Roman Churches
observed on the 14th of December. It is
founded on the following legend :
In the reign of Heraclius (a.d. 614) Chos
roes, king of Persia, sacked Jerusalem, and,
together with other plunder, carried off that
part of the cross left there in memory of our
Saviour, by the empress Helena, which Chos
roes sent into Persia. After many battles,
in which the Persian was always defeated,
Heraclius had the good fortune to recover
the cross. This prince carried it to Jeru-

EXAMINATION
salem himself; and, laying aside his impe
rial ornaments, marched with it on his»
shoulders to the top of Mount Calvary,
from whence it had been taken. The me
mory of this action was perpetuated hy the
festival of the re-establishment, or (as it is
now called) the exaltation of the cross.
The latter name -was given to this festi
val, because on - this day they exalted or
set up the cross in the great church at
Constantinople, in order to show it to the
people. EXAMINATION FOR ORDERS.
When a person presents himself for ordi
nation, there are, besides the vocation and
voluntary offer of the candidate, two pre
liminaries, (1) the testimony of the people,
and (2) an examination by the bishop and
clergy. The testimony of the people was
always required, and in the Primitive
Church an iiriKTjpv_}is, or prsedicatio, a pro
clamation, that is of the candidates, was
made before the congregation (St. Cyprian,
Epist. lxviii. 3 ; Lampridius, c. xiv. ; Coun
cil of Chalcedon, c. 21). At the present
time the " Si quis " has to be published
in the parish where the candidate resides
(See Si quis). An examination also was
from early time deemed requisite, and is
referred to by St. Chrysostom, St. Cyprian,
Gregory I., and many others ; besides being
ordered by several councils. Justinian speaks,
of the scandal which had arisen from clerks
having been ordained without due exami
nation (Novell. 137, c. 1), and in order
to make the examination more effective,
Gregory the Great advised a bishop to
associate with himself " graves expertosque
viros" (Ep. iii. 49), This became the
practice throughout the West, and was
observed by the English Church (Councils
of Clovesho, 747, c. vi. ; Cealchythe, 787, c.
yi. ; Oxford, 1222 ; Lambeth, 1330; London,
1557). To ensure that such examination
took place, and to prevent uncanonical in
trusions, bishops are forbidden to ordain
clerks out of their own diocese, unless with
the consent and letters dimissory of the-
diocesan (See Dimissory Letters).
By our Canon 35 it is ordered: "The-
bishop, before he admit any person to-
holy orders, shall diligently examine him,
in the presence of those ministers that
shall assist him at the imposition of hands;
and if the bishop have any lawful im
pediment, he shall cause the said ministers
carefully to examine every such person so
to be ordered. . . . And if any bishop or
suffragan shall admit any to sacred orders
who is not so examined, and qualified as-
before we have ordained [viz. in Canon 34],
the^ archbishop of his province, having
notice thereof, and being assisted thereto
by one bishop, shall suspend the said bishop

EXAMINATION
or suffragan from making either deacons or
priests for the space of two years."
EXAMINATION BEFORE INSTI
TUTION. In the first settlement of the
Church of England, the bishops had their
several dioceses under their own immediate
care, and that of the clergy living in a
community with them, whom they sent
abroad to several parts of their dioceses,
as they saw occasion to employ them ; but
by degrees they found it necessary to
place presbyters within such a compass,
that they might attend upon the service
of God amongst the inhabitants. These
precincts, which are since called parishes,
were at first much larger ; and when lords
of manors were inclined to build churches
for their own convenience, they found it
necessary to make some endowments, to
oblige those who officiated in their churches
to a diligent attendance: upon this, the
several bishops were very well content to
let those patrons have the nomination of
persons to those churches, provided they
were satisfied of the fitness of those per
sons, and that it were not deferred beyond
such a limited time. So that the right of
patronage is really but a limited trust ;
and the bishops are still in law the judges
of the fitness of the persons to be employed
in the several parts of their dioceses. The
patrons never had the absolute disposal of
their benefices upon their own terms; but
if they did not present fit persons within
the limited time, the care of the places
returned to the bishop, who was then bound
to provide for them.
By the statute Articuli cleri, 9 Edward
II. s. 1, c. 13, it is enacted as follows : —
" It is desired that spiritual persons, whom
our lord the king doth present unto benefices
of the Church (if the bishop wiR not admit
them, either for lack of learning, or for other
cause reasonable), may not be under the
examination of lay persons in the cases
aforesaid, as it is now attempted, contrary
to the decrees canonical; but that they
may sue unto a spiritual judge for re
medy, as right shall require." The an
swer is — Of the ability of a person presented
unto a benefice of the Church, the ex
amination belongeth to a spiritual judge;
so it hath been used heretofore, and shall
be hereafter."
" Of the ability of a person presented "
— De idoneitate persone : so that it is re
quired by law, that the person presented
be idonea persona ; for so are the words
of the king's writ, presentare idoneam per
sonam. And this idoneitas consists in
divers expressions against persons pre
sented : — 1. Concerning the person, as if
he be under age or a layman. 2. Con
cerning his conversation, as if he be cri-

EXAMINATION

E37

minous. 3. Concerning his inability to
discharge his pastoral duty, as if he be
unlearned, and not able to feed his flock
with spiritual food. And the examination
of the ability and sufficiency of the person
presented belongs to the bishop, who is
the ecclesiastical judge; and in this ex
amination he is a judge, and not a mini
ster, and may and ought to refuse the
person presented, if he be not idonea per
sona. "The examination belongs to a spiri
tual judge ; " and yet in some cases, not
withstanding this statute, idoneitas personse
shall be tried by the country, or else there
should be a failure of justice, which the
law will not suffer; as if the inability or
insufficiency be alleged in a man that is
dead, this case is out of the statute ; for
in such case the' bishop cannot examine
him ; and, consequently, though the matter
be spiritual, yet shall it be tried by a
jury; and the court, being assisted by
iearned men in that profession, may in
struct the jury as well of the ecclesiastical
law in that case, as they usually do of the
common law.
By a constitution of Archbishop Lang
ton : — " We do enjoin, that if any one
be canonically presented to a church, and
there be no opposition, the bishop shall not
delay to admit him longer than two months,
provided he be sufficient."
But by Canon 95 — "Albeit by former
constitutions of the Church of England,
every bishop hath had two months' space
to inquire and inform himself of the suffi
ciency and qualities of every minister after
he hath been presented unto him to be
instituted into any benefice, yet for the
avoiding of some inconveniences, we do
now abridge and reduce the said two
months unto eight and twenty days only.
In respect of which abridgment we do
ordain and appoint that no double quarrel
(see Duplex querela) shall hereafter be
granted out of any of tbe archbishops'
courts, at the suit of any minister what
soever, except he shall first take his
personal oath, that the said eight and
twenty days at the least are expired after
he first tendered his presentation to the
bishop, and that he refused to grant him
institution thereupon; or shall enter into
bond with sufficient sureties to prove the
same to be true ; under pain of suspension
of the granter thereof from the execution
of his office for half-a-year toties quoties,
to be denounced by the said archbishop,
and nullity of the double quarrel aforesaid
so unduly procured, to all intents and
purposes whatsoever. Always provided,
that within the said eight and twenty
days, the bishop shall not institute any

338

EXAMINATION

other to the prejudice of the said party
before presented, sub poena nullitatis.
" To inquire and inform himself." — In
answer to an objection made, that the
bishop ought to receive the clerk of him
that comes first, otherwise he is a dis
turber, Hobart saith, the law is contrary :
for as he may take competent time to
examine the sufficiency and fitness of a
clerk, so he may give convenient time to
persons interested, to take knowledge of
the avoidance (even in case of death, and
where notice is to be taken and not given),
to present their clerks to it.
Canon 39. "No bishop shall institute
any to a benefice, who hath been ordained
by any other bishop, except he first show
unto him his letters of orders; and bring
him a sufficient testimony of his former
good life and behaviour, if the bishop
shall require it ; and, lastly, shall appear
upon due examination to be worthy of his
ministry." "Except he first show unto him his
letters of orders." — And by the 13 & 14
Charles II. c. 4, no person shall be ca
pable to be admitted to any parsonage,
vicarage, benefice, or other ecclesiastical
promotion or dignity whatsoever, before
such time as he shall be ordained priest,
and bring a sufficient testimony ot his
former good life and behaviour. By the
ancient laws of the Church, and particu
larly of the Church of England, the four
things in which the bishop was to have
full satisfaction in order to institution,
were age, learning, behaviour, and orders.
And there is scarce any one thing which
the ancient canons of the Church more
peremptorily forbid, than the admitting
clergymen of one diocese to exercise their
function in another, without first exhibiting
the letters testimonial and commendatory
of the bishop by whom -they were or
dained; and the constitutions of the Arch
bishops Reynolds and Arundel show that
the same was the known law of the English
Church, to wit, that none should' be ad
mitted to officiate (not so much as a chap
lain or curate) in any diocese in which he
was not born or ordained, unless he bring
with him his letters of orders, and letters
commendatory of his diocesan.
And, lastly, " shall appear, upon due
examination, to be worthy of his ministry."
— As to the matter of learning, it hath
been particularly allowed, not only by the
courts of the King's Bench and Common
Pleas, but also by the High Court of Par
liament, that the ordinary is not account
able to any temporal court, for the mea
sures he takes or the rules by which he
proceeds, in examining and judging (only
he must examine in convenient time, and

EXARCH
refuse in convenient time) ; and that the
clerk's having been ordained (and so presumed
to be of good abilities) doth not take away or
diminish the right which the statute above
recited doth give to the bishop to whom the
presentation is made to examine and judge
(Burn and Phillimore, Ecc. Law, 411).
But these general enactments and dicta
as to the bishop's absolute power of judging
of qualifications and demanding testimonials
have been a good deal qualified by modem
decisions, and it is not very easy to define the
actual limits. It was decided in Bishop of
Exeter v. Marshall, 3 L. R., H. L., 17, that
the bishop cannot reject a presentee for
mere want of testimonials; and that he
must state in what respect he finds him on
examination to be unfit. It is very doubt
ful therefore whether a mere return of
minus sufficiens in literatura would he
sufficient uow, though the King's Bench
under Lord Ellenborough treated it so (15
East, 117) in the matter of Povah, who was
presented as a lecturer in the City, and
had to be licensed and approved by the
bishop ; and he speaks of a previous case
of a living, viz., Hele v. Bishop of Exeter
(Shower's Par. Cas. 88) ; and the whole of
his reasoning goes to the legal impossibility
of anybody but the bishop trying whether
a presentee is idoneus or not, at least in
literature. Probably the true solution is
that the bishop's examination must be
accepted as conclusive on the candidate's
degree of knowledge ; but that even the
civil court on a quare impedit action will
try whether it is a kind of knowledge which
ought to be required. The Welsh bishops
are authorised but not required by 11 & 12
Vict. c. 106, fto require a knowledge of
Welsh from presentees to benefices in their
dioceses. The more recent cases have all been on
examination for what may shortly be called
heresy, or maintaining doctrines or practising
ritual contrary to the Prayer Book or Arti
cles. The Gorham case throughout (Brod-
rick & Fremantle's Ecc. Judgments), and
the late quare impedit case of Heywoodv.
Bishop of Manchester in 1884 have put an
end to any doubt about the bishop's right
to examine on such points. [G.]
EXARCH. Literally "one who leads."
Originally applied to those prelates who
presided over the dioceses which were
formed on the lines of the civil dioceses of
the Roman Empire. These included, each
of them, several provinces, and the metro
politans of the provinces were subordinate to
the exarchs. In later times the name was
applied to an officer appointed by the Patri
arch of Constantinople, whose business it is
to visit the provinces allotted to him, in
order to inform himself of the lives and

EXCOMMUNICATION
manners of the clergy ; take cognizance of
ecclesiastical causes ; the manner of celebra
ting Divine service ; the administration of
the sacraments, particularly confession ; the
observance of the canons; monastic disci
pline ; affairs of marriages ; divorces, &c.
Bingham (bk. ii. c. 17) speaks of the title
" exarchs of the diocese " as being synony
mous in primitive times with that of patri
archs: but it would seem that the title
patriarch was reserved for the heads of the
most important dioceses — Neale's Holy E.
Ch., Introd. ; Diet Christ. Ant. 637. [H]
EXCOMMUNICATION is an ecclesias
tical censure, whereby the person against
whom it is pronounced is for the time cast
out of the communion of the Church. In
the earliest ages of the Church, excom
munication appears to have been of one
kind only, but afterwards it was of two
kinds, the lesser and the greater : the lesser
-excommunication was the depriving the
offender of the use of the sacraments and
Divine worship; and this sentence was
passed by judges ecclesiastical on such
persons as were guilty of obstinacy or dis
obedience, in not appearing upon a citation,
or not submitting to penance, or other in
junctions of the court.
The greater excommunication was that
whereby men were totally expelled the
Church, and deprived of the society and
conversation of the faithful. To these were
added the "anathema," the greatest curse
that could be laid upon man. To this latter
apparently the office in the Sarum pontifical
refers. — Maskell, Mon. Rit. Ecc. Any. ii.
clxv. seq.
After the Reformation there seems to
have been considerable irregularity with
regard to excommunications, for Archbishop
Tenison required his suffragan to see that
¦"none be instrumental in pronouncing
sentences of excommunication and absolu
tion, without such solemnity as that great
and weighty matter requires." Archbishop
Williams calls it that " rusty sword of the
Church," yet in 1681 it was directed against
" Popish recusants," and the year after
against Dissenters. — Blunt's Diet Doct.
Theol. [Excommunication has been considerably
modified and reduced to such small di
mensions by various modern Acts that one
seldom hears of it now. The withdrawal of
all the matrimonial aud other partly civil
matters from the ecclesiastical courts, and
the substitution of a summary process for
contempt of monitions, suspensions, and
other orders, have almost extinguished this
once formidable weapon of the Church, but
not entirely. The extent to which it
remains is substantially defined yet by the
Act 53 Geo. III. c. 127, except in the

EXCOMMUNICATION

339

matters altogether withdrawn from the
ecclesiastical courts. That Act had already
abolished it as a means of enforcing any
civil process therefrom, and substituted
signification for contempt, both in that and
other cases of disobedience to lawful orders
or decrees, as well final as interlocutory,
which is to be followed by imprisonment
until the party either submits or is dis
charged by the court under 3 & 4 Vict.
c. 93, by consent of the other side ; or, it •
has been held, where the object of the suit
has been gained by some other decree, as in
Mr. Green's case after he was deprived
while in prison for contempt. The former
Act (ss. 2 & 3) however in a complicated
way reserved whatever power the ecclesias
tical courts had before of excommunicating
in definitive (or final) sentences as punish
ment for ecclesiastical offences, and also that
such sentences may be followed by such
imprisonment up to six months as the
court directs, signifying the same into
chancery as usual, but with power for the
court to absolve at any earlier time at its
discretion. It seems that excommunication of this
kind may be pardoned by the Queen,
though contempt by disobedience cannot,
any more than disobedience to any other
court. 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 93 extended the
powers of signifying and imprisoning for
contempt. Therefore, although matrimonial
suits, for nullity of marriage and the like,
are withdrawn from the ecclesiastical courts
by the Divorce Act, 1857, nothing seems to
have taken away their power to excom
municate — and even to order penance — for
living in incest, adultery, or fornication.
Sir R. Phillimore, while Chancellor of
Chichester in 1856, in a very gross case of
incest, abstained from ordering either
penance or excommunication at once, but
monished the parties to live apart and to
cease such intercourse, and said that ex
communication would follow if they did not
(see his Ecc. Law, 1375). As the man was
not a clergyman it was not a clerical
offence, and therefore remained in the juris
diction of the Diocesan Court notwith
standing the Clergy Discipline Act, 1840.
It is quite settled that the ecclesiastical
courts must certify the reason for an ex
communication, and that they, and the
bishops personally, while they could ex
communicate, might be ordered by the
superior civil courts to absolve the person
if the reason was insufficient. A judgment
of Lord Eldon's to that effect is cited in the
Ecclesiastical Courts Report, i. 167, besides
several others, in dealing with the question
of the supremacy.
Several of the canons prescribe excom
munication, and " ipso facto excommunica-
z 2

340

EXEAT

tion," for teaching or denying or doing
various things ; but the canons proprio
vigore could give no such jurisdiction, even
over the clergy (see Canons). And it may
be mentioned, that the phrase " ipso facto
excommunicated" was never allowed to
mean " without a judicial sentence," which
must be certified as aforesaid to have any
civil effect. It is quite certain now that
nobody can be punished for maintaining or
doing anything merely contrary to the
Canons and not to the Prayer Book or
Articles, except so far as the Canons only
repeat the older " King's ecclesiastical law " ;
which on questions of doctrine they do not.
The only consequences of excommunication
now, when lawful, are possible imprisonment
under the Act of Geo. III., and liability to
be refused the Communion and burial by a
clergyman. It is said that under old law,
if an excommunicated clergyman officiates
in church he shall be deprived, but the
lawfulness of such excommunication would
have to be examined.] [G.]
EXEAT. The permission given by the
authorities in a college, to persons in statu
pupillari, to leave their college residence
for a time.
EXEDRiE, lit. covered walks or spaces
in front of a house ; but in ecclesiastica]
antiquity it is the general name of such
buildings as were distinct from the main
body of the churches, and yet within the
bounds of the church, taken in its largest
sense. Thus Eusebius, speaking of the
church of Paulinus at Tyre, says, " When
that curious artist had finished his famous
structure within, he then set himself about
the exedrse, or buildings that joined one to
another by the sides of the church " (Euse
bius, lib. x. c. 4). Among the exedre, the
chief was the baptistery, or place of baptism.
Also the two vestries, or sacristies, as we
should call them, still found in all Oriental
churches ; viz., the Diaconicum, wherein
the sacred utensils, &c, were kept ; and the
Prothesis, where the side-table stood, on
which the elements before consecration were
placed. EXEGESIS (i^rjyfjais). An exposition or
explanation. By theological writers it is
used to comprehend not only the explanation
of Scripture, but also of the history and
establishment of the Canon of Scripture,
and sacred philosophy generally.
EXEMPTION, in the ecclesiastical sense
of the word, means a privilege given by
the Pope to the clergy, and sometimes to
the laity, to exempt or free them from the
jurisdiction of their respective ordinaries.
When monasteries began to be erected,
and governed by abbots of great quality,
merit, and figure, these men, to cover their
ambition, and to discharge themselves from

EXHORTATION
the subjection which they owed to the
bishops, procured grants from the court of
Rome, to be received under the protection
of St. Peter, and to be put immediately
under subjection to the Pope. This request
being for the interest of the court of Rome,
inasmuch as it contributed greatly to the
advancement of the papal authority, and all
the monasteries were presently exempted,
The chapters also of cathedral churches
obtained exemptions upon the same score.
St. Bernard, who lived at the time when
this invention was first put in practice,,
took the freedom to tell Pope Eugenius HI.
that it was no better than an abuse, and
that it was by no means defensible, that
an abbot should withdraw himseR from the
obedience due to his bishop; that the
Church militant ought to be governed by
the precedent of the Church triumphant, in
which no angel ever said, " I will not be
under the jurisdiction of an archangel."
In after ages this abuse was carried so
far, that, for a small charge, private priests
procured exemption from the jurisdiction
of their bishop. The Council of Trent
made a small reformation in this matter,
by abolishing the exemption of particular
priests and friars, not living in cloisters,
and that of chapters in criminal causes.—
Sarpi's Council of Trent
EXHORTATION. By this general name,
the addresses, or short homilies, of the
minister to the people are called. The
ancient Church had no such exhortations;
and they were introduced, because of the great
neglect of communion which had sprung up
in the middle ages, and the irreverence which
was displayed by the extreme reformers
respecting it. The necessity of such exhor
tations was felt long before the Reformation.
A long " exhortation before communion" is
to be found in the Harleian MS. (2383) in
the British Museum. It begins : " Good men
and women, y charge you by the auctoryte
of holy Churche, that no man nother wo
man that this day proposyth here to be
comenyd (communicated) that he go note
to Godds bord, lase than he byleue stedfast-
lyeh, that the sacrament that he ys avysyd
here to reseue, that yt ys Godds body
flesche and Mode, yn the forme of bred ; and
that (which) he receyvythe afterwards, ys
no thyng ells but wyne and water, for to
dense, your mowthys of the holy sacra-
mant " ; and it goes on to exhort the hearers
to chastity and Christian consistency of life
and due preparation. — Maskell, iii. 408.
The service of the Church of England is
distinguished by the number and fitness ot
its exhortations. These are : one at the
beginning of Morning and Evening Prayer ;
two in the Communion Service, when notice
is given of the holy communion ; another

EXODUS
at the time of celebration. Five in the
Baptismal Service ; two in the office for
receiving those into the Church who have
been privately baptized ; and five in the
Baptism of those of Riper Years ; one in the
Confirmation Office ; two in the Solemniza
tion of Matrimony ; two in the Visitation
of the Sick ; one in the Churching Service ;
two in the Commination Service; besides
those in the Ordination Service. These
may be considered as so many sermons of
the Church, which assert her doctrines, and
fully show what she expects from the faith
and practice of her children. [H.]
EXODUS (From the Greek f£o8or,
going out). The term generally applied to
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt.
The second book of the Bible is so called,
because it is chiefly occupied with the ac
count of that part of the sacred history. It
comprehends the transactions of 145 years,
from the death of Joseph in 2369 B.C. to
the building of the Tabernacle in 2114.
EXORCISMS (from e£opKi'£co, to conjure)
were certam prayers used of old in the
Christian churches for the dispossessing of
devils. This custom of exorcism is as ancient
as Christianity itself, being practised by the
apostles, and the primitive Church ; and the
Christians were well assured of the preva-
lency of their prayers upon these occasions. —
Tertul. Apol. c. 23.
Before baptism prayers for exorcism — the
conjuring forth of the evil spirit — were always
used. Thus in an old " form of the Greater
Excommunication," these words occur: —
"Clerkes seyh that a childe byfore it be
cristned, it hath a wikked spirit dwelling in
the soule. The wich wikkede spirit is con
jured, and cast out thorough prayers of the
prest, byfore the chirche close whance it
shal be cristned," &c. — Maskell, iii. 310.
In the form of baptism, in the first Prayer
Book of Edward VI., it was ordered thus : —
"Then let the priest, looking upon the
children, say, 'I command thee, unclean
spirit, in the name of the Father, of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost, that thou
came out and depart from these infants,
whom our Lord Jesus Christ hath vouch
safed to call to his holy baptism, to be
made members of his body, and of his holy
congregation ; therefore, thou cursed spirit,
remember thy sentence, remember thy
judgment, remember the day to be at
hand wherein thou shalt burn in fire ever
lasting, prepared for thee and thy angels ;
and presume not hereafter to exercise any
tyranny towards these infants whom Christ
hath bought with his precious blood, and
by this his holy baptism called to be of his
flock " (See Baptism).
This was taken from ancient uses, but
because, in process of time, many supersti-

EXPIATION

341

tious and unwarrantable practices mixed
with this ancient rite, especially in the
Roman Church, our Reformers wisely.
thought fit to lay it quite aside, and to
substitute in lieu of it these short prayers,
wherein the minister and the congregation
put up their petitions to Almighty God,
that the child may be delivered from the
power of the devil, and receive all the
benefits of the Divine grace and protection,
without the ancient ceremony attending
it. Canon 72. " No minister shall, without
the licence of the bishop of the diocese,
under his hand and seal, attempt, upon any
pretence whatsoever, to cast out any devil
or devils, under pain of the imputation of
imposture or cozenage, and deposition from
the ministry."
EXORCISTS were persons appointed in
the latter end of the third century, on pur
pose to take care of such as were demoniacs,
or possessed with evil spirits. In the first
ages of Christianity there were many persons
who are represented as possessed with evil
spirits, and exorcism was performed by
a particular set of men. Afterwards it
was judged requisite by the bishops to
appropriate this office by ordination. They
are still a separate order in the Church of
Rome. — Tertul. de Idol. c. ii.; Epiphan.
Expos. Fid. c. 21 ; Martene, t. i. 121.
An account of exorcising the evil spirit
is given by Jer. Taylor, who adds, " From
what principle it comes that they have
made exorcists an ecclesiastical order ; and
that the words of ordination giving them
power only over possessed Christians ... we
cannot guess at, except they have derived
them from the Jewish Cabbala." — Works,
vol. x. 238, Heber's ed.
EXPECTATION WEEK. The whole
of the interval between Ascension Day
and Whit-Sunday is so called, because at
this time the apostles continued in earnest
prayer and expectation of the Comforter.
EXPIATION. A religious act, by which
satisfaction or atonement is made for some
crime, the guilt removed, and the obligation
to punish cancelled (Lev. xv. 15).
EXPIATION, THE GREAT DAY OF.
An annual solemnity of the Jews observed
upon the 10th day of the month Tisri,
which answers to our September. The
Hebrews call itCeeper (from IP?), " pardon,"
because the sins of the whole people were
then expiated or pardoned. It was a day
of rest, and strict fasting, and on which all
differences were put away, and reconcilia
tions made.
It is of this fast we are to understand
that passage of the Acts, where St. Luke
says, that St. Paul comforted those who
were with him in the ship, " when sailing

342

EXTEMPORE

was become dangerous, because the fast was
already past " (Acts xxvii. 9). [H.]
EXTEMPORE PREACHING. Properly,
preaching without any preparation. This
none but enthusiasts uphold. Unpre
meditated speech was promised to the
apostles in their peculiar difficulties, beyond
human resources (St. Luke xxi. 14 ; St.
Matt. x. 9) ; but this does not imply that
under ordinary circumstances ministers need
not prepare (See 1 Tim. iv. 13). In its
ordinary meaning the term refers to un
written sermons whether previously prepared
or not. Though the sermons in the early
Christian times appear to have been ge
nerally written, there was no rule on fhe
subject. Origen is said to have been the
first who preached unwritten sermons, which
were taken down by raxvypdqboi, or short
hand writers, and so preserved. But this
is mentioned as proof of his study of the
Scriptures, which enabled him to do this,
and write also laborious treatises (Euseb.
lib. vi. c. 36). The two mightiest preachers
of the East and West, SS. Chrysostom and
Augustine, used both methods. The former
after his return from banishment was
forced to go up into his throne, so eager
were the people to hear him, and deliver
an " extempore " discourse, which is still
extant (Sermo post Reditum, t. ii. p. 49),
and he used often to speak his panegyrics
on the Martyrs off-hand without hesitation. —
Suidas, voce Joannes.
St. Augustine also often preached extem
pore, as when the reader had read another
psalm than the appointed one, he preached
upon it, instead of delivering his prepared
address (Possid. Vit. Aug. c. 15). The care
he would have all take in their sermons is
shown in his essay on Christian doctrine (Bk.
iv). From that time to this, the comparative
advantages of extempore or written sermons
have been a matter of discussion. In some
Churches and by some sects the latter are
forbidden, but the Church of England makes
no rule. Archbishop Seeker sums up : "After
all, every man (as the Apostle saith on a
different occasion) hath his proper gift of
God, one after this manner, another after
that. Let each cultivate his own and no one
censure or despise his brother" (Charges, p.
290). It was necessary to speak of cultivat
ing : for there had got " an ill habit of speak
ing extempore, and a loose and careless way
of talking in the pulpit which is easy to
the preacher, and plausible to less judicious
people " (Stillingfleet, Duties of Parochial
Clergy, p. 30). The great Roman orator re
commends "much writing as the best prepa
ration to good speaking," (Caput autem est,
quod (ut vere dicam) minime facimus (est
enim magni laboris, quem plerique fugimus),
quam plurimum scribere" (Cic. de Orat).

EXTREME
And he observes that should the speaker use
writing, the remainder of his speech (i.e. the
unwritten part) would be more correct This
is, as Seeker observes, "a middle way used by
some of our predecessors (i.e. Bishops Burnet,
Bull, &c), which duly managed would be the
best" (Charges, p. 287). — Bingham, bk. xiv.
c. 4; Moule's Christ Orat. of First Few
Centuries ; Cave, Hist. Lit. i. 78 ; Bull's
Life, by Nelson, p. 59; Burnet's Past.
Care. c. ix. [H.]
EXTRAVAGANTS (See Decretds).
A name given to the decretal epistles. of
the popes after the Clementines. The first
Extravagants are those of John XXIII.,
successor to Clement V. ; they were so
named because, at first, they were not
digested, nor ranged with the other papal
constitutions, but seemed to be, as it were,
detached from the canon law ; and they re
tained the same name when they were after
wards inserted into the body of the canon
law. The collection of decretals, in 1483,
were called the Common Extravagants, not
withstanding they were likewise embodied
with the rest of the canon law.
EXTREME UNCTION. The apostles,
anointed the sick, and St. James recom
mends the practice (St. Mark vi. 13; St.
James v. 14). It was followed in every part
of the Church, and is mentioned, with direc
tions, in all the old rituals, but it soon lost
its primitive simplicity (Martene, torn. iv.
240 ; for history of, see Diet Christ. Ant. ii.
2004). In the Greek Church the apostolie
direction is still literally carried out, the
priest anointing the sick as well as praying
for them, but it is used by them solely for
recovery from sickness, as the following
prayer at the application of the oil clearly
shows : " O holy Father, the physician of
our souls and bodies, who didst send thine
only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ,
to heal all diseases, and to deliver us from
death, heal this thy servant M. from the
bodily infirmity under which he now labours,
and raise him up by the grace of Christ."
In the Prayer Book of 1549 there was no
form or order of administering extreme
unction ; but it did not altogether " prevent
people from receiving a consolation they had
been accustomed to look for in sickness."
" If the person desire to be anointed, then
shall the priest anoint him on the forehead
and breast only, making the sign of the
cross, saying thus — As with this visible oil
thy body outwardly is anointed," &c. This
was omitted in 1552. — Maskell, Mon. M.
Eccl. Ang. i. 100.
The reason of the omission was the undue
prominence given to the practice by the
Roman Church. They altered it into a
sacrament. A work published on the eve of
the Reformation asserts, "that all Christian

EXTREME
men should account the same manner of
anointing, among the other sacraments of
the Church, forasmuch as it is a visible
sign of invisible grace '' (Institution of a
Christian Man).
The Roman Council of Trent asserts,
" The holy unction of the sick was instituted
by our Lord Christ, as truly and properly
a sacrament of the New Testament, as is
implied, indeed, in St. Mark; but com
mended and declared to the faithful by
James, the apostle and brother of the Lord.
"Is any sick among you? Let him call
for the elders of the Church, and let them
pray over him, anointing him with oil in
the name of the Lord ; and the prayer of
faith shall save the sick, and the Lord
shall raise him up, and if he have committed
sins they shall be forgiven him." From
which words, as the Church hath learned
from apostolic tradition handed down, she
teaches the matter, form, proper minister,
and effect of this wholesome sacrament ; for
the Church has understood that the matter
is- oil blessed by the bishop, for unction
most aptly represents the grace of the Holy
Spirit wherewith the soul of the sick man
is invisibly anointed : then that the form
consists of these words, " By this anointing,"
&c. The first four canons of that council
order that, "if any man say (1) that ex
treme unction is not a sacrament ; (2) that
it does not remit sins; (3) that the rite
which the Roman Church observes may be
changed ; (4) that the elders mentioned by
St. James were not duly ordained priests
—let him be accursed."
"As for extreme unction," says Bishop
Jeremy Taylor, "used in the Church of
Rome, since it is used when the man is
above half dead, when he can exercise no
act of understanding, it must needs be
nothing; for no rational man can think that
any ceremony can make a spiritual change,
without a spiritual act of him that is to be
changed ; nor work by way of nature, or by
charms, but morally, and after the manner
of reasonable creatures . . . I will add this
only, that there being but two places of
Scripture pretended for this ceremony, some
chief men of their own side have proclaimed
those two invalid as to the institution of it :
for Suarez says (in part iii. disp. 39, sec. 1)
that the unction used by the apostles is not
the same with what is used in the Church of
Rome ; and that it cannot be plainly
gathered from St. James. Cajetan (cited by
Catherinus annot. Paris 1535, p. 31, &c.)
affirms that it did belong to the miracu
lous gift of healing, not to a sacrament "
(Works, vol. iv. p. cccxxvii. Ded. to Holy
Dying). " Now that this miraculous gift (of heal-

FABIAN

343

ing all manner of diseases) is ceased, there
is no reason why the mere ceremony of
anointing with oil should continue ; which
yet is still used in the Church of Rome,
and made a sacrament ; though it signify
nothing; for they do not pretend to heal
men by it, nay, they pretend the contrary,
because they never use it but in extremity,
and where they look upon the person as past
recovery ; and if they do not think so, they
would not use it." — Abp. Tillotson. [H.1
EZEKIEL, THE PROPHECY OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament.
Ezekiel was the son of Buzi, of the house of
Aaron. He was carried captive to Babylon
with Jechoniah. He began to prophesy in
the fifth year of this captivity, which is the
sera by which he reckons in all his prophe
cies. He continued to prophesy during
twenty years. He was contemporary with
Jeremiah, who prophesied at the same time
in Judea. He foretold many events, parti
cularly the destruction of the temple ; the
fatal catastrophe of those who revolted from
Babylon to Egypt ; and, at last, the happy
return of the Jews into their own land. He
distinctly predicts the plagues which were
to fall upon the enemies of the Jews, as the
Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Egyptians,
Assyrians, and Babylonians. He foretells
the coming of the Messiah, and the flourish
ing state of His kingdom. His eighteenth
chapter contains the first definite announce
ment of future reward and punishment
according to the condition in which a man
dies. — Du Pin, Canon of Scripture, b. i. c.
iii. § 20. See Smith's Diet of Bible.
EZRA, BOOK OF. One of the canonical
books of Scripture.
The book of Ezra was written in the
latter end of the author's life, and compre
hends the transactions of about eighty, or,
as some say, a hundred years. It includes
the history of the Jews from the time of
Cyrus's edict for their return, to the
twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus.
Part of this book was written in the
Chaldee language, namely, from the eighth
verse of the fourth chapter to the twenty-
seventh verse of the seventh chapter ; all the
rest was written in Hebrew (See Smith's
Diet of Bible).

F.
FABIAN. Bishop and Martyr. He
was bishop of Rome a.d. 236-250, having
been elected, though a layman, in conse
quence of a dove alighting on his head while
the election was going on (Euseb. H. E.
vi. 29). He is mentioned by St. Cyprian as
having improved the organization of the

344

FACULTY

Church, having ruled her with integrity
(Ep. 30). He suffered martyrdom in tbe
Decian persecution, and a tombstone bearing
his name was recently found in the crypt of
an ancient cemetery on the Appian Way.
Commemorated in our calendar Jan. 20. —
Diet. Christ. Biog. ii. 440. [H]
FACULTY. A licence from the consistory
court or Chancellor of a diocese to make
alterations in or addition to a church, or to
erect monuments, build vaults in an old
churchyard, with the right of the man and
his family to be buried there, or to erect and
hold pews in an old church ; which last two
are never granted now, except in con
sideration of something else for the benefit
of the parishioners. The expense of obtain
ing a faculty has been greatly reduced in
most if not all dioceses to an average between
£2 and £3, if the applicants take the proper
course of applying themselves to the dioce
san registrars, without the Intervention of
proctors or solicitors. It used to be ten
times as much, even without any opposi
tion. The work proposed must be described
as circumstances admit, generally by plans
and specification for all new architectural
works, painted windows, organs &c. They
are generally, if not always, submitted
first to the bishop, except where some legal
right is claimed; though strictly speaking
he can only act through his court, and the
chancellor may feel bound to grant a faculty
even if the bishop disapproves, or one would
probably be granted by the provincial
. Court on appeal. The bishop may how
ever, and often does, express his opinion
to the chancellor, or to the petitioners,
who will then very seldom proceed against
it. When tbe plans go to the chancellor he
has to exercise a judicial discretion as to their
sufficiency or expediency, and it has been
held that he ought to regard the interests of
future parishioners if he sees they are likely
to be affected, and not to allow alterations
without apparently good reasons, whether
there is any opposition or not. In the great
majority of cases there is none. The citation
has to be stuck on the church door for
a fortnight, as a notice to all persons having
any interest, to object if they think fit : i.e.
to all persons living or owning land or houses
in the parish, and no others, unless they
have some special or official connexion with
the church. If there is no opposition, the
faculty is decreed at the next court. If
there is any, the cause is heard by the
chanceRor, unless the parties consent to his
giving judgment on affidavits and statements
sent to him, in order to save expense, which
judgment is read by himself or a surrogate
in court. The parties are generally glad to
adopt that course except in cases of impor
tance enough to be argued by counsel.

FACULTY
Care ought to be taken in all faculties
that the architect's specification, and the
contract, if there is one besides, shall con
tain a clause prohibiting any deviation from
the sanctioned plans or specification without
the written consent of the incumbent at a
specified price, and also of the chancellor.
The common architect's form of specifica
tion and contract legally amounts to a power
to the architect to make any alteration or
additions that he pleases and at the expense
of his employers ; and clergymen are too
often unwilling to see that the clause above-
mentioned is for their 'protection. The
legal form of it, and of others for the same
purpose, is given in Sir Edmund Beckett's
Book on Building. Some such provision is
necessary to allow improvements suggested
as the work goes on, and yet to keep
them and the cost of them under control.
It is not required that small improvements
should be submitted to the chancellor. The
ChanceRor of York said, in a case of Rhodes
v. Wrangham (clerk) in 1882, "matters
of this kind must be governed by common
sense, or church restoration would become
intolerable to the clergy and impracti
cable," and dismissed the complaint against
some trifling deviations as frivolous and
vexatious. In deciding on opposed as well
as unopposed cases the chancellor is bound
to judge as well as he can whether the
proposed works will be a real improve
ment to the church, and not merely to
regard the perhaps temporary wishes and
architectural fancies of the incumbent or the
parishioners, or of those who offer to pay for
the work. He is not at all bound by the
opinion of the architect who has made the
plans, but may consult any other competent
person or his own knowledge. Deans of
Arches have directed and made inquiries of
their own. Where the building is in an un
safe condition, of course that is a substantial
reason for sanctioning any apparently satis
factory design for what is called restoration,
though opinions may be divided about it
and though some persons prefer interesting
ruins and "historical associations "to safe and
useful churches. Lord Penzance recalled
a faculty which had been granted by the
Chancellor of London for what were objected
to as merely fanciful alterations, of a church
with no practical advantage or evident im
provement (See Peek v. Trower, 7 P. D. 21).
In some dioceses they adhere to the strict
practice laid down in books of requiring
security for completion of the alterations
proposed, and especially of a total rebuild
ing, for fear the old fabric should be pulled
down and the new one not rebuilt; but
faculties would often not be taken on those
terms, and they are probably only insisted
on when there appears some special reason

FACULTY
for it. Sometimes it is expedient to limit
the time for a faculty to last, especially as
they are irrevocable. But all these things
depend on the circumstances, and what
would accelerate the work in one case
might prevent it altogether in another.
Though it is not usual to insist on
faculties being taken for small alterations
which cannot rationally be objected to, or
such things as adding a few more bells or
a clock (provided the dial does not spoil
the tower, as at St. Mary's, Beverley) it
should be understood that making impor
tant alterations' without a faculty is a
serious ecclesiastical offence (Sieveking v.
Kingsford, 36 L. J. Ecc. 1866) ; and the
person whodoes so, whether layman or clergy
man, may be ordered to restore the church
to its former condition, and signified for con
tempt and imprisoned if he disobeys the
monition. And even if a confirmatory
faculty is ultimately granted on some
conditions short of entire removal, he is
certain to be condemned in the costs of the
suit. A man has been monished, i.e. pro
hibited, from building so near a church as
to darken it; and on the other hand
a neighbour to a churchyard was held
to have an interest to oppose the build
ing of a mortuary or dead-house close
to him. Faculties have been granted for
turning disused churchyards into gardens;
but refused as ultra vires for throwing a part
of the churchyard into a street. The Dean
of Arches has refused to allow steps round a
communion table as tending to make it
imitate an altar, and also chancel gates,
and high screens, and a crucifix anywhere,
but not groups of statuary ; both which
decisions the Privy Council affirmed; and
see Ornaments as to other things of the
same kind. Faculties are also requisite to
protect incumbents who want to remove
useless buildings on their glebe from being
charged for them as dilapidations if they do
it without one. By an Act of 1882, it is
unlawful to build anything except an en
largement of the church in a burial-ground
that has been closed by order of Council
(See School). [G.]
FACULTY COURT belongs tothe Arch
bishop of Canterbury, and his officer is
called the Master of the Faculties. His
power is to grant dispensation to marry, to
hold two or more benefices ordinarily in
compatible, and such like. But the law of
pluralities is all now regulated by Acts of
Parliament, especially 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106 ¦
but still dispensations are requisite (See'
Pluralities). FAITH (See Grace, Justification).
" We are accounted righteous before God,
only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ, by Faith, and not for our own

FAITH

345

works or deservings. Wherefore, that we
are justified by faith only is a- most whole
some doctrine, and very full, of comfort, as
more largely is expressed in the Homily of
Justification." — Article XI.
Faith, in its generic sense, either means
the holding rightly the creeds of the Catho
lic Church, or means that very Catholic
faith, which except a man believe faithfully,
he cannot be saved. Thus, when the priest
is directed, in the office for the Baptism of
those of Riper Years, to inquire into the
faith of the candidate, he asks his assent to
one of the creeds ; and, in the office for the
Visitation of the Sick, he is required to
use the same test, and this of course agrees
with St. Paul's statement : " With the heart
man believeth unto righteousness, and with
the mouth confession is made unto salva
tion." It should be noted, that we are justified
by faith, not because of faith ; for there is
no more " merit " in our faith, than in our
works. Faith therefore is not the cause,
but the condition, of our justification,
which is solely to be attributed to the
bounty of God, and the merits of Christ.
— Archdeacon Welchman.
There is not any one word which has
more significations than this has in the
word of God, especially in the New Testa
ment. It sometimes signifies the acknow
ledgment of the true God, in opposition to
heathenism; sometimes the Christian reli
gion, in opposition to Judaism; sometimes
the believing the power of Christ to heal
diseases ; sometimes the believing that he is
the promised Messias ; sometimes fidelity or
faithfulness ; sometimes a resolution of con
science concerning the lawfulness of any
thing: sometimes a reliance, affiance, or
dependence on Christ either for temporal or
spiritual matters; sometimes believing the
truth of all Divine relations; sometimes
obedience to God's commands in the evan
gelical, not legal sense ; sometimes the
doctrine of the gospel, in opposition to the
law of Moses ; sometimes it is an aggregate of
all other graces ; sometimes the condition of
the second covenant in opposition to the
first : and other senses of it also there are,
distinguishable by the contexture, and the
matter treated of where the word is used. —
Hammond, Practical Catechism.
With regard to the phrase, " Instrumen
tality of Faith," Waterland says that
some very eminent men have expressed a
dislike ofit ; and have also justly rejected the
thing, according to the false notion which
some had conceived of it. It cannot, with
any tolerable sense or propriety, be looked
upon as an instrument of conveyance in the
hand of the efficient or principal cause ; but
it may justly and properly be looked upon

346

FAITH

as the instrument of reception, in the hand
of the recipient. It is not the mean by
which the grace is wrought, effected, or con
ferred ; but it may be, and is, the mean by
which it is accepted or received: or, to
. express it a little differently, it is not the
instrument of justification in the active sense
of the word, but it is in the passive sense of
it. It cannot be for nothing that St. Paul
so often and so emphatically speaks of man's
being justified by faith, or through faith in
Christ's blood ; and that he particularly
notes it of Abraham, that he believed, and
that his faith was counted to him for justifi
cation ; when he might as easily have said,
had he so meant, that man is justified by
faith and works, or that Abraham, to whom
the gospel was preached, was justified by
gospel faith and obedience. Besides, it is
certain, and is on all hands allowed, that,
though St. Paul did not directly and ex
pressly oppose faith to evangelical works,
yet he comprehended the works of the moral
law under those works which he excluded
from the office of justifying, in his sense of
justifying, in those passages ; and further, he
used such arguments as appear to extend to
all kinds of works : for Abraham's works
were really evangelical works, and yet they
were excluded. Add to this, that if justifica
tion could come even by evangelical works,
without taking in faith in the meritorious
sufferings and satisfaction of a mediator, then
might we have " whereof to glory " as need
ing no pardon ; and then might it be justly
said, that "Christ died in vain." I must
further own, that it is of great weight with
me, that so early and so considerable a writer
as Clemens of Rome, an apostolical man,
should so interpret the doctrine of justifying
faith, so as to oppose it plainly even to
evangelical works, however exalted. It runs
thus : " They (the ancient patriarchs) were
all, therefore, greatly glorified and magnified ;
not for their own sake, or for their own
works, or for the righteousness which they
themselves wrought, but through his good
pleasure. And we also, being called through
his good pleasure in Christ Jesus, are not
justified by ourselves, neither by our own
wisdom, or knowledge, or piety, or the works
which we have done in holiness of heart,
but by that faith by which Almighty God
justified all from the beginning." Here it
is observable, that the word faith does not
stand for the whole system of Christianity,
or for Christian belief at large, but for some
particular self-denying principle by which
good men, even under the patriarchal and
legal dispensations, laid hold on the mercy
and promises of God, referring all, not to
themselves or their own deservings, but to
Divine goodness, in and through a mediator.
It is true, Clemens elsewhere, and St. Paul

FAITH
almost everywhere, insists upon true holi-
ness of heart, and obedience of life, as indis
pensable conditions of salvation or justifica
tion ; and of that one would think there
could be no question among men of any
judgment or probity : but the question
about conditions is very distinct from the
other question about instruments; and,
therefore, both parts maybe true, viz.: that
faith and obedience are equally conditions,
and equally indispensable where oppor
tunities permit ; and yet faith over and above
is emphatically the instrument both of re
ceiving and holding justification, or a title
to salvation.
To explain this matter more distinctly,
let it be remembered, that God may be con
sidered (as has been before noted) either as a
party contracting with man, on very gra
cious terms, or as a judge to pronounce
judgment upon him.
Man's, first coming into covenant (sup
posing him adult) is by, assenting to it, and
accepting of it, to have and to hold it on
such kind of tenure as God proposes : that
is to say, upon a self-denying tenure, con
sidering himself as a guilty man, standing
in need of pardon, and of borrowed merits,
and at length resting upon mercy. So
here the previous question is, whether a
person shall consent to hold a privilege
upon this submissive kind of tenure or
not ? Such assent or consent, if he comes
into it, is the very thing which St. Paul
and St. Clemens call faith ; and this pre
vious and general question is the question
which both of them determine against any
proud claimants who would hold by. a
more self-admiring tenure.
Or, if we next consider God as sitting in
judgment, and man before the tribunal,
going to plead his cause ; here the ques
tion is, What kind of plea shall a man re
solve to trust his salvation upon? Shall
he stand upon his innocence, and rest upon
strict law ; or shall he plead guilty, and
rest in an act of grace ? If he chooses the
former, he is proud, and sure to be cast;
if he chooses the latter, he is safe so far,
in throwing himself upon an act of grace.
Now this question also, which St. Paul has
decided, is previous to the question, what
conditions even the act of grace itself
finally insists upon? A question which
St. James in particular, and the general
tenor of the whole Scripture, has abund
antly satisfied ; and which could never have
been made a question by any considerate or
impartial Christian. What I am at present
concerned with is to observe, that faith is
emphatically the instrument by which an
adult accepts the covenant of grace, consent
ing to hold by that kind of tenure, to be
justified in that way, and to rest in that

FAITH
kind of plea, putting his salvation on that
only issue.* It appears to be a just observa
tion which Dr. Whitby makes (Pref. to the
Epist. to Galat. p. 300), that Abraham had
faith (Heb. xi. 8) before what was said of
his justification in Gen. xv. 6, and after
wards more abundantly, when he offered up
his son Isaac; but yet neither of those
instances was pitched upon by the apostle
as fit for his purpose, because in both,
obedience was joined with faith : whereas,
here was a pure act of faith, without works,
and of this act of faith it is said, " it was
imputed to him for righteousness.'' The
sum is, none of our works are good enough
to stand by themselves before Him who is
of purer eyes than to behold iniquity.
Christ only is pure enough for it at first
hand, and they that are Christ's at second
hand, in and through Him. Now, because
it is by faith that we thus interpose, as it
were, Christ between God and us, in order
to gain acceptance by Him ; therefore faith
is emphatically the instrument whereby we
receive the grant of justification. Obedience
is equally a condition or qualification, but
not an instrument, not being that act of the
mind whereby we look up to God and
Christ, and whereby we embrace the pro
mises. — Waterland on Justification.
FAITH, IMPLICIT (See Implicit
Faith). FAITHFUL (ttioto.: fideles). This
was the name uniformly used in the primi
tive Church, to distinguish those who had
been instructed in the Christian religion,
and received by baptism into the full
communion of the Church from the cate
chumens and penitents.
The Holy Eucharist was called \eirovpyla
t£k 7rioTui' ; missa fidelium ; in distinction
to the Xetrovpym ra>v Karnxovpivav, missa
catechumenorum, which consisted of reading
of the Scriptures, prayers and hymns. The
faithful were allowed to join in all the
prayers of the Church, and the Lord's
Prayer is called by St. Chrysostom " euxn
irurrSiv," and by St. Augustine "oratio
fidelium." The apostolical epistles are all
addressed to the " faithful," that is, to those
who being admitted to the full communion
of the Church were privileged to hear dis
courses upon the most profound mysteries
of religion.— St. Chrys. Horn. ii. in 2 Cor. :
Horn. x. in Colos. ; St. August. Horn. xxix.
de verb. Apost. ; Serm. i. ad Secphytos ; St.
Ambrose, de his qui .mysteriis initiantur,
c. 1.
Other names were at different times, and
in different places, given to the faithful,
* [The verses in St James i. of which Luther spoke so
disrespectfully assert the necessity of faith as much as
any in St, Paul's epistles. Works were not to be a sub
stitute for faith, but a proof of it, when there is time to
do them.] [G.J

FAMILIARS

347

as eeo0dpoi, Ecclesiastici, &c, all these
names expressing some relation to God or
to Christ, and none of them taken from the
names of men, as was and is the case with the
heresies and sects." — Bingham, i. c. iv. ; Diet.
Christ Ant, s.v. ; see Methodists, Indepen
dents, &c. [H.]
FALDISTOKY. (Faldestolium; Faldis-
torium.) A low crossed or folding stool
which might be used either to kneel at or to-
sit upon. It is derived "a longo tardico
falden, plicare ; et stoul, sedes " (Ducange).
In ecclesiastical use it became limited to the
episcopal seat within the chancel ; but more
particularly, the bishop's chair, which was
generally a folding one, near the altar,
mentioned in the Ordination Service, in
which he sits, while addressing the candi
dates for orders, &c.
FALDSTOOL is the English form of the
FaldestoRum. In the " Order of Her
Majesty's Coronation " the rubric speaks of
a Faldstool at which the sovereign shall
kneel. But this, according to pictures of late
coronations, has lost its original shape, and
is merely a kneeling stool (Maskell, Mon.
Rit. ii. 92). And this is generally the case,
for the word has come to mean a small
desk, at which the Litany is enjoined to be
sung or said. In the rubric before the 51st
psahn in the Commination Service, a
peculiar place distinct from that in which
the ordinary offices are performed, is im
plied. The Injunctions of Edward, followed
in this case by those of Elizabeth, specified
the midst of the church. Bishop Andrewes
had in his chapel a faldstool (faldistory)
between the western stalls and the lectern.
Bishop Cosin in his first series of notes on
the Common Prayer says, " the priest goeth
from out his seat into the body of the
church, and at a low desk before the
chancel door, called the faldstool, kneels
and says or sings the Litany." — Blunt's
Annot P. B. i. 48. [H.]
FALL OF MAN. ( See Original Sin.)
The loss of those perfections and that hap
piness which his Maker bestowed on man
at his creation, for the transgression of a
positive command, given for the trial of
his obedience. This doctrine is stated
in the language of our ninth Article, — " On
original sin."
FAMILIARS OF THE INQUISI
TION (See Inquisition). In order to
support the cruel proceedings of the In
quisition in Spain, great privileges were
bestowed upon such of the nobility as were
willing to degrade themselves so far as to
become familiars of the holy office. The
king himseR, Philip IL, assumed the title,
and was protector of the order.
The business of these familiars was to
assist in tho apprehending of such persons

348

FANATICISM

as were accused, and to carry them to
prison ; upon which occasion the unhappy
person was surrounded by such a number
of these officials that, though he was neither
fettered nor bound, there was no possibility
of escaping out of their hands. As a reward
of this base employment, the familiars were
allowed to commit the most enormous
actions, to debauch, assassinate, and kill with
impunity. If they happened to be prose
cuted for any crime, the Inquisition took
upon itself the prosecution, and immedi
ately the familiar entered himself as their
prisoner ; after which he was at liberty to
go where he pleased, and act in all things
as if he were free.
FANATICISM. Such an excessive en
thusiasm and zeal for the cause which they
believe to be the cause of truth as induces
men to pursue their ends by violent or frau
dulent means, and to violate the Christian
law of charity and forbearance.
FARSE. An addition, used before the
Reformation, in the vernacular tongue, to
the Epistle in Latin, anciently used in some
churches, forming an explication or para
phrase of the Latin text, verse by verse,
for the benefit of the people. The sub
deacon first repeated each verse of the
epistle or lectio in Latin, and two choris
ters sang the farse or explanation (See
Burney's Hist. Music, ii. 256).
FASTING (See Abstinence and Fasts).
Total or partial abstinence from food.
By the regulations of the Church, fasting,
though not defined as to its degree, is in
culcated at seasons of peculiar penitence
and humiliation, as a valuable auxiliary to
the cultivation of habits of devotion and
self-denial. Respecting its usefulness, there
does not appear to have been much diver
sity of opinion until late years. Fasting
was customary in the Church of God long
before the introduction of Christianity, as
may be seen in the Old Testament Scrip
tures. It was sanctioned by our blessed
Lord, who gave his disciples particular
instruction respecting it, and. it was after
wards practised by the apostles, especially
before entering upon any solemn act or duty
(St. Matt. vi. 16 ,¦ Acts xiii. 3, &c).
From the days of the apostles to the
present time, fasting has been regarded
under various modifications as a valuable
auxiliary to penitence. In former times,
Christians were exceedingly strict in their
fasting for nearly the whole of the appointed
days, receiving only at stated times what
was actually necessary for the support of
life. " There are those," says St. Chrysostom,
" who rival one another in fasting, and show
a marvellous emulation in it ; some, indeed,
who spend the whole day without food ; and
others who, rejecting from their, tables not

FASTING
only the use of wine and of oil, and of every
dish, and taking only bread and water,
persevere in this practice during the whole
of Lent." And the historian Socrates gives a
similar account : " some abstain from every
creature that has life: others eat fish only:
others birds, because they too at the creation
sprang from water : others abstain from
eggs," &zc.—H. E. v. 22.
At the season of Lent, it was always the
custom to observe the duties of mortification
and open confession of sin, accompanied by
those outward acts which tend to the control
of the body and its appetites ; a species of
godly discipline still associated with the ser
vices of that solemn period of the ecclesias
tical year. There were eight rules enjoined -
by the Fathers of the Church at different '
times with regard to fasting, (1) that it
should be joined with repentance, (2) a real
abstinence from all forms of indulgence (3)
joined with watchings, with (4) undoing
heavy burdens, with (5) alms-deeds (6) sub
servient to prayer, with frequent hearing of
God's word (7) used as a preparation for
receiving (baptism), absolution, or the
eucharist (8) free from hypocrisy (St.
Chrysostom, Horn, els rovs to irpara irdc^a
vno-Tevovras, vol. i. p. 611; see Gunning's
Lent Fast, pp. 132-159). Our Church lays
down no definite rules on the mode of ,
fasting, but leaves it for each individual to
settle for himself. In the Homily " Of Good
works, and of Fasting," three objects are
mentioned — to chastise the flesh ; to make
the spirit fervent in prayer ; to be a testi
mony of our submission to God. In the
practice of fasting, the Christian will not
rest in the outward act, but regard it only
as a means to a good end. This being
understood, fasting will be approved of God,
and made conducive to a growth in spiritual
life. The distinction between the Protestant
and the Roman view of fasting is this, that,
the Roman regards the use of fasting as a
means of grace ; the Protestant, only as a
useful exercise. It is not a means of grace,
for it is nowhere ordained as such in the
Scriptures of the New Testament ; but it is
a useful preparation for the means of grace,
and as such the Scriptures have assumed-
that it will be resorted to by Christians.
FASTING BEFORE COMMUNION.
I. There is no doubt that in the primitive
times the Holy Communion was not received
fasting. It often accompanied or followed
an agape, or a common meal. But this
was soon found to be inexpedient, and in
the time of Tertullian and St. Cyprian
there seems to have been different order,
the latter speaking of the advantage of
morning over evening communion (Ep. Ixiii.
c.15, &c. ; Tertull. de Orat. c. 14). Still

FASTING
the rule of communicating fasting does not
appear to have been recognised before the
fourth century. St. Basil speaks of no one
celebrating the mysteries otherwise than
fasting (Horn. ii. — De Jejuniis). St.
Augustine says, " It is plain that when the
disciples first received the Body and Blood
of the Lord, they received it not fasting.
Does any one then on this account blame the
Universal Church because it always received
fasting? Nay, for it hath pleased the
Holy Ghost that, in honour of so great a
Sacrament, the Body of the Lord should
enter the mouth of the Christian before any
other food, for it is the custom observed
throughout the world. . . He Himself ab
stained from ordering in what manner it
should be received, so it was left for His
Apostles, by whom He was about to arrange
His Church" (Ep. cxviii. ad Januar).
St. Chrysostom, when charged with adminis
tering the Holy Communion to those who
were not fasting, indignantly denied the
charge ; and he elsewhere refers to the sub
ject (Ep. cxxv. p. 683 ; in 1 Cor., Horn.
xxvii. See Stephens' Life, p. 314, 2nd
Ed.). An exception was made on the day
when the institution of the Lord's Supper
was commemorated. Socrates speaks of.
certain congregations in Egypt, near Alex
andria, who communicated occasionally after
their evening meal (H. E. v. 22). But
this was an exceptional case. The rule was
that celebrant and communicants alike
should receive fasting, and this was con
firmed by many councils, such as that of
Carthage, a.d. 397 (iii. c. 29).
II. But there is no rule given as to how
long before, there must have been fasting,
and it would seem only to be implied that
the Holy Communion was not to be
celebrated after the principal meal was
taken. Thus it was ordered by the Cotm-
cii of Macon (ii. c. 6), that no presbyter
with a full stomach or having indulged
in wine shall presume to celebrate : this
implying that it was forbidden to celebrate
directly after the meal ; nor does it appear
that either the early Fathers of the Church,
or the early Canons prohibited such small
quantities of food as might be necessary
to enable persons to go through their
duties without exhaustion, which however
should be taken as long time as possible
before celebrating or communicating, as a
matter of reverence.
The Council of Constance (a.d. 1414)
declared that " after much and mature
deliberation had of many who are learned
both in Divine and human law, although
Christ instituted this venerable sacrament
after supper, and administered it to His
disciples under both kinds of bread and
wine, yet, notwithstanding this, the laudable

FATHERS

349-

authority of the sacred canons, and the
approved custom of the Church has ob
served, that this sacrament ought not to be
performed after supper, nor be received by
the faithful unless fasting, except in the case
of sickness, or any other necessity, either
duly conceded or admitted by the Church."
The Council held at Mayence in 1549
forbad the ministers of Churches to give
the Eucharist to any except those who are
fasting and have made confession. The
Church of England, like the primitive
Church, has no such laws ; and as con
fession is left to the discretion of individuals
(see first exhortation in the Communion
Service), so it is in the case of fasting Com
munion. [H.]
FASTS. Those days which are appointed
by the Chm-ch as seasons of abstinence and
peculiar sorrow for sin. These are the forty
days of Lent, including Ash Wednesday and
Good Friday; the Ember days, the three
Rogation days, and all the Fridays in the
year (except Christmas Day), and the eves
or vigils of certam festivals.
The Ember days are the Wednesday,
Friday, and Saturday before the first Sunday
in Lent ; Trinity Sunday : Sept. 14 ; Dec. 13
(See Ember Days). The Rogation days are
the three days preceding Ascension Day (See
Rogation Days). The eves or vigils to be
observed are those before the Nativity of our
Lord, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, the Annunciation of the Blessed
Virgin, Easter Day, Ascension Day,
Pentecost, St. Matthias, St. John Baptist,
St. Peter, St. James, St. Bartholomew, St.
Matthew, St. Simon and St. Jude, St.
Andrew, St. Thomas, All Saints. And if
any of these feasts fall upon a Monday, then
the vigil or fast day shall be kept upon the
Saturday, and not upon the Sunday, next
before it (See Vigils).
By Canon 72. " No minister shall, with
out the licence and direction of the bishop.
under hand and seal, appoint or keep any
solemn fasts, either publicly, or in any
private houses, other than such as by law
are, or by public authority shall be, ap
pointed, nor shall be wittingly present at
any of them ; under pain of suspension for
the first fault, of excommunication for the
second, and of deposition from the ministry
for the third " (See Fasting).
FATHERS, THE. A term of honour
applied generally to all the ancient Chris
tian writers, whose works were in good
repute in the Church, and who were not
separated from its communion or from its
faith. St. Bernard, who flourished in the
twelfth century, is reputed to be the last
of the Fathers. The Christian theologians
after his time, adopted a new style of
treating religious matters, and were called

350

FATHERS

scholastics. Those writers who conversed
with the apostles are generally called apo
stolical Fathers, as Ignatius, &c. (See Apo
stolic Fathers).
Of the other Fathers the chief were
Justin Martyr (a.d. 103-164) ; St. Ireneeus,
bishop of Lyons (140-202), a disciple of
St. Polycarp, called by Tertullian " Omnium
doctrinarum curiosissimus explorator ; "
St. Clement of Alexandria (d. circ. 216) ;
Tertullian (circ. 194-216); Origen (185-
265) ; St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage
(200-258); St. Gregory Thaumaturgus,
bishop of Neo-Cassarea (d. 265); St. Dio
nysius, bishop of Alexandria (247) ; Lactan-
tius (320) ; Eusebius, bishop of Caasarea
(d. 33.8); St. Athanasius, bishop of Alex
andria (d. 373); St. Cyril, bishop of
Jerusalem (d. 386); St. Hilary, bishop
of Poictiers (d. 367) ; St. Basil, bishop
of Caasarea (326-380); St. Gregory Nyssen,
brother of St. Basil, bishop of Nyssa (332-
396); St. Gregory Nazianzen — so called from
Nazianzus, which was near his birthplace —
patriarch of Constantinople (329-389) ; St.
Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-396) ; St.
John Chrysostom (347-407); St. Jerome
(345-420) ; Ruffinus ; St. Augustine, bishop
of Hippo (354-430) ; St. Cyril, bishop of
Alexandria (d. 444) Socrates (380-440);
Sozomen, about same date; Theodoret,
bishop of Cyrus (386-430) ; St. Leo, bishop
of Rome (d. 461).
Of the authority of the Fathers, the Rev.
Geo. Stanley Faber observes : " Among
certain persons of the present somewhat
confident age, it is not an uncommon saying,
that they disregard the early Fathers ; and
that they will abide by nothing but the Scrip
tures alone. If by a disregard of the early
Fathers, they mean that they allow them
not individually that personal authority
which the Romanists claim for them, they
certainly will not have me for their oppo
nent. And accordingly I have shown,
that in the interpretation of the Scripture
terms, Election and Predestination, I regard
the insulated individual authority of St.
Augustine just as little as I regard the
insulated individual authority of Calvin.
" But if by a disregard of the early
Fathers, they mean that they regard them
not as evidence of the fact of what doc
trines were or were not received by the
primitive Church, and from her were or
were not delivered to posterity, they might
just as rationally talk of the surpassing
wisdom of extinguishing the light of his
tory, by way of more effectually improving
and increasing our knowledge of past events ;
for, in truth, under the aspect in which
they are specially important to us, the
early Fathers are neither more nor less
than so many historical witnesses.

FEASTS
" And if, by an abiding solely by the
decision of Scripture, they mean that, ut
terly disregarding the recorded doctrinal *
system of that primitive Church which
conversed with, and was taught by, the
apostles, they will abide by nothing save
their own arbitrary private expositions
of Scripture ; we certainly may well
admire their intrepidity, whatever we may
think of their modesty ; for in truth, by
such a plan, while they call upon us to
despise the sentiments of Christian anti
quity, so far as we can learn them, upon
distinct historical testimony, they expect
us to receive, without hesitation, and as
undoubted verities, their own more modem
speculations upon the sense of God's holy
word; that is to say, the evidence of
the early Fathers, and the hermeneutic
decisions of the primitive Church, we may
laudably and profitably contemn, but them
selves we must receive (for they themselves -
are content to receive themselves) as well-
nigh certain and infallible expositors of
Scripture." (There is a chronological account or short
lives of all the Fathers in a book called Church
Memorials, by thelate W. Roberts, M. A.) [R]
FEASTS, FESTIVALS, or HOLY-
DAYS. Among the earliest means adopted
by the holy Church for the purpose of
impressing on the minds of her children
the mysterious facts of the gospel history,
was the appointment of a train of anni
versaries and holy days, with appropriate
services commemorative of all the promi
nent transactions of the Redeemer's life
and death, and of the labours and virtues
of the blessed apostles and evangelists.
The Chm-ch begins her ecclesiastical year
with the Sundays in Advent, to remind us
of the coming of Christ in the flesh. After
these, we are brought to contemplate the
mystery of the Incarnation; and so, step
by step, we follow the Church through all
the events of our Saviour's pilgrimage, to
His Ascension into heaven. In all this the
grand object is to keep Christ perpetually
before us, to make Him and His doctrine
the chief object in aR our varied services.
Every Sunday has its peculiar character,
and has reference to some act or scene in
the life of our Lord, or the redemption
achieved by Him, or the mystery of mercy
carried on by the blessed Trinity. Thus
cvery year brings the whole gospel history
to view ; and it will be found as a general
rule, that the appointed portions of Scrip
ture, in each day's service, are mutually
illustrative; the New Testament casting
light on the Old, prophecy being admirably
brought in contact with its accomplishment,
so that no plan could be devised for a more
profitable course of Scripture reading than

FEASTS
that presented by the Church on her holy-
days. • The festivals ordered to be observed in
the Church of England are : " All Sundays
in the year, the Circumcision of our Lord
Jesus Christ, the Epiphany, the Conversion
of St. Paul, the Purification of the Blessed
Virgin, St. Matthias the Apostle, the
Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, St.
Mark the Evangelist, St. Philip and St.
James the Apostles, the Ascension of our
Lord Jesus Christ, St. Barnabas, the Nativ
ity of St. John Baptist, St. Peter the
Apostle, St. James the Apostle, St. Barth
olomew the Apostle, St. Matthew the Apos
tle, St. Michael and all Angels, St. Luke
the Evangelist, St. Simon and St. Jude the
Apostles, All Saints, St. Andrew the Apos
tle, St. Thomas the Apostle, the Nativity
of our Lord, St. Stephen the Martyr, St.
John the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents,
Monday and Tuesday in Easter week, Mon
day and Tuesday in Whitsun week." There
are other minor festivals, on which are com
memorated certain saints, martyrs, or con
fessors who lived after theaposties' time, and
which are called "black letter days" (See
Sunday, Saint Days, Black Letter Days).
Rubric after the Nicene Creed. "The
curate shall then declare to the people what
holy-days or fasting days are in the week
following to be observed."
Canon 64. " Every parson, vicar, or
curate shall, in his several charge, declare
to the people every Sunday, at the time
appointed in the communion book, whether
there be any holy-days or fasting days the
week following. And if any do hereafter
wittingly offend herein, and being once
admonished thereof by his ordinary, shall
again omit that duty, let him be censured
according to law, until he submit himself
to the due performance of it."
Canon 13. "AR manner of persons
within the Church of England shall from
henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's
day, commonly called Sunday, and other
holy-days, according to God's will and
pleasure, and the orders of the Church of
England prescribed on that behalf; that
is, in hearing the word of God read and
taught, in private and public prayers, in
acknowledging their offences to God and
amendment of the same, in reconciling
themselves charitably to their neighbours
where displeasure hath been, in oftentimes
receiving the communion of the body and
blood of Christ, in visiting of the poor and
sick, using all godly and sober conversation."
In the Injunctions of King Henry VIII.
and the convocation of the clergy, a.d.
1536, it was ordered, that all the people
might freely go to their work upon all
holidays usually before kept, which fell

FERIAL

351

either in the time of harvest (counted from
the 1st day of July to the 29th of Sep
tember) or in any time of the four terms,
when the king's judges sat at Westminster.
But these holidays (in our book mentioned)
are specially excepted, and commanded to
be kept holy by every man. — Cosin's Notes ;
Hook's Archbishops, vol. ix. 310.
By statute 5 & 6 Edward VI. ch. 3, it
was provided, that it should be " lawful for
every husbandman, labourer, fisherman, and
every other person of what estate, degree,
or condition they be, upon the holidays
aforesaid, in harvest, or at any other time
in the year when necessity shall require, to
labour, ride, fish, or work any kind of work,
at their free wills and pleasure." This was
repealed by Queen Mary, but revived by
James I. Queen Elizabeth, in the mean
while, however, declared in her "injunc
tions," that the people might " with a safe
and quiet conscience, after their common
prayer," (which was then at an early hour,)
" in the time of harvest, labour upon the
holy and festival days, and save that thing
which God hath sent " (See Calendar).
The moveable feasts are those which
depend upon Easter, and consequently do
not occur on the same day every year ;
such as the Sundays after the Epiphany,
Septuagesima Sunday, the Sundays of Lent,
Rogation Sunday (i.e. the Sunday before the
Ascension), Ascension Day, Whitsunday,
Trinity Sunday, the Sundays after Trinity,
and Corpus Christi, the Thursday in Trinity
week. Advent Sunday is the nearest to
Nov. 30. [H.]
FELLOWSHIP. An establishment in
one of the colleges of an university, or in
one of the few colleges not belonging to
universities, with a share of its revenues, if
any, e.g. King's College, London, has fellow
ships but no divisible revenues. And there
are now " Honorary Fellowships " in the two
Universities. Such Fellows are no part of
the governing body of the college.
FERIAL. According to the derivation
(ferie) this term would apply only to
festival ; but in the Christian Church it has
been used from early times to denote the
days of the week, as feria secunda, feria
tertia for Monday, Tuesday, &c. Tertullian
uses the term "feria quarta," and "feria
sexta," for Wednesday and Friday, therefore
it cannot have originated, as has been
suggested, from the emperor Constantino
appointing the week following Easter-day to
be observed as a continuous festival, giving
each day the festal name (Ducange, Gloss.).
The use of the word probably originated
from the Sunday being called the Feria and
the other days of the week taking their
name from it, as the 2nd day from Sunday
(secunda feria, &c). Then the name Domi-

352

FEUILLANS

nica was given to the Sunday ;- but the old
name clung to the week days, hence they
were called ferial days, as distinguished from
the Dominica and festival days. [H.]
FEUILLANS. A congregation of monks,
settled towards the end of the 15th century,
by John de la Barriere ; he was a Cistercian,
and the plan of his new congregation was a
kind of a reformation of that order. His
method of refining upon the old constitution
was approved of by Pope Sixtus V. ; the
Feuillantines are nuns, who followed the
same reformation.
FIFTH MONARCHY MEN were a set
of enthusiasts in the time of Cromwell, who
expected the sudden appearance of Christ
to establish on earth a new monarchy or
kingdom. FILIATION OF THE SON OF GOD
(See Generation, Eternal).
FILIOQUE. This phrase, which involves
the doctrine of what is called the Double
Procession of the Holy Ghost was inserted in
the Creed at the Council of Toledo a.d. 589,
and became one of the main causes of the
great schism between the Eastern and the
Western Churches. It was from the first
adopted generally through Gaul and Ger
many, and was upheld by Charles tbe Great,
who convoked a council at Aachen in 809 to
consider it, and referred the question for the
Papal decision. The Pope refused to sanc
tion it. Afterwards however Pope Nicho
las I. insisted on its insertion, in spite of
the protests of the Greeks, and the rupture
was completed when on July 16, 1054, the
legates of Pope Leo IX. laid on the altar of
St. Sophia at Constantinople a writ of
excommunication against Michael Cerularius
the patriarch, which was answered by an
anathema on the part of the patriarch and
his clergy. The Eastern Church objected to
the phrase on two grounds : (1) that it
went beyond the language of Scripture ; and
(2) that it was not sanctioned by a general
council. The controversy has been kept up
to the present time ; but in the Western
Church the phrase has always been used;
and at the English Reformation the question
was not raised, but the creed remained in
accordance with the Western usage. [H.]
FINAL APPEAL. COURT OF. The
Judicial Committee of her Majesty's Privy
Council (See Courts Ecclesiastical).
FINIAL, (in church architecture,) more
anciently Crop. The termination of a
pinnacle, spire, pediment, or ogeed hood-
mould. Originally the term was applied to
the whole pinnacle.
FIRST FRUITS. In the earliest times
these were offerings made to God, and
Origen and Irenaeus so speak of them (Orig.
cant. Cels. lib. viii. p. 4, &c. ; Iron. lib. iv.
c. 32). Then they were looked upon also

FLAGELLANTS
as part of the maintenance of the clergy
(Apost. Const ii. c. 25 ; viii. c. 30, Canon 4).
And as the clergy were to the Christians,'
as the Levites had been to the Jews, so
the offering of the first fruits was deemed
obligatory in the former case as it had been
in the latter (St. Jerome on Ezek. xliv.-f
xiv. ; Greg. Naz. Epist. lxxx., Orat. 15).
But in the middle ages, the Pope, claiming
the disposition of all ecclesiastical livings
within Christendom, demanded a year's
value of each living, under the name of
first fruits. This was, as Blackstone says,
" a part of the usurpation over the clergy of
these kingdoms, first introduced by lJan-
dulph, the Pope's legate, during the reigns.'.,:
of John, and Henry III., in the see of Nor-'f
wich, and afterwards attempted to be
made universal by Pope Clement V., and
John XXII. about the beginning of the
14th century. — PhiRimore's Burn, ii. 274.
The Pope during the period of his usur
pation over our Church, bestowed benefices ::
of the Church of England upon foreigners,
upon condition that the first year's pro
duce was given to him, for the regaining of
the Holy Land, or for some similar pretence :
next, he prevailed on- spiritual patrons to
oblige their clergy to pay them; and at
last he claimed and extorted them from
those who were presented by the king or
his temporal subjects. The first Protestant
king, Henry VHL, took the first fruits from
the Pope, but instead of restoring them to
the Church, vested them in the Crown.
Queen Anne restored them to the Church,
not by remitting them entirely, but by
applying these superfluities of the larger
benefices to make up the deficiencies of the
smaller. To this end she granted her royal
charter, whereby all the revenue of first
fruits and tenths is vested in trustees for
ever, to form a perpetual fund for the aug
mentation of small livings. This is usually
called Queen Anne's Bounty (See Annates,
and Q. A. B.).
FISTULA. Also called canna, calamus,
siphon, pipa, &c. A tube through which
it was at one time customary to suck the
wine from the chalice at the Holy Eucharist.
Its use arose from dread lest any wine
should be spilled. It is still retained in
solemn Papal celebrations for the communion
of the Pope. In the Eastern Church a spoon
was made use of for communicating, not the
fistula. — Diet Christ Ant. i. 675. [H.]
FIVE POINTS (see Arminian and
Calvinism) are the five doctrines contro
verted between the Arminians and Calvin
ists ; relating to, 1. Particular Election ; 2.
Particular Redemption; 3. Moral Inability
in a Fallen State; 4. Irresistible Grace;
and 5. Final Perseverance of the Saints.
FLAGELLANTS. A name given, in

FLAGON
the 13th century, to a sect of people among
the Christians, who made a profession of
disciplining themselves : it was begun 'in
1260, at Perugia, by Rainerus, a hermit,
who exhorted people to do penance for their
sins, and had a great number of followers.
In 1349, they spread themselves over all
Poland, Germany, France, Italy, and Eng
land, carrying a cross in their hands, a cowl
upon their heads, and going naked to the
waist ; they lashed themselves twice a day,
and once in the night, with knotted cords
stuck with points of pins, and then lay
grovelling upon the ground, crying out
" mercy : " from this extravagance they fell
into a gross heresy, affirming that their
blood united in such a manner with Christ's
that it had the same virtue; that after
thirty days' whipping they were acquitted
from the guilt and punishment of sin, so
that they cared not for the sacraments.
They persuaded the common people that the
gospel had ceased, and allowed all sorts of
perjuries. The frenzy lasted a long time, not
withstanding the censures of the Church, and
the edicts of princes, for their suppression.
FLAGON. A vessel used to contain the
wine, before and at the consecration, in the
Holy Eucharist. In the marginal rubric in
the prayer of consecration, the priest is
ordered " to lay his hand upon every vessel
(be it chalice or flagon) in which there is
any wine to be consecrated," but in the
same prayer he is told to take the cup only
in his hand ; and the rubric before the form
of administering the cup stands thus, " the
minister that delivereth the cup." The
distinction then between the flagon and the
cup , or chalice is, that the latter is the
vessel in which the consecrated wine is ad
ministered ; the flagon, that in which some
of the wine is placed for consecration, if
there be more than one vessel used.
FLORID STYLE OF GOTHIC ARCHI
TECTURE. The later division of the
Perpendicular style, which prevailed chiefly
during the Tudor asra, and is often called
the Tudor style.'
FLOWERS. Adorning with flowers is
a very simple and most innocent method of
ornamenting the Christian altar, which is
enjoined indeed by no law, but which is
sanctioned by the custom of some churches
in this kingdom, in which also the Protes
tant churches in Germany agree. This way
of bringing in the very smallest of God's
works to praise Him is extremely ancient,
and is several times alluded to by tbe
Fathers ; especially by St. Jerome, who
thinks it worth while to mention in the
panegyric of his friend Nepotian, that his
pious care for the Divine worship was such
that he made flowers of many kinds, and
the leaves of trees, and the branches of the

FONT

353

vine, contrinute to the beauty and ornament
of the church. These things, says St.
Jerome, were, indeed, but trifling in them
selves ; but a pious mind, devoted to Christ,
is intent upon small things as well as great,
and neglects nothing that pertains even to
the meanest office of the Church. This
custom has been immemorially observed in
some English churches. It has also been
the custom in some places, on Easter morn
ing, to adorn with flowers the graves of
those at least who died within the year.
FONT (Fons, a fountain). The large
basin, or vessel which holds the water for
baptism. The rites of baptism in the first
times were performed in fountains and rivers,
both because the converts were many, and
because those ages were unprovided with
other baptisteries. These were placed at first
at some distance from the church (see Bap
tistery), afterwards in the church porch, and
that significantly, because baptism is the en
trance into the Church mystical, as the porch
of the temple. At last fonts were intro
duced into the church itSelf, being placed at
the west end, near the south entrance. They
were not admitted in the first instance into
every church, but into the cathedral of the
diocese, thence called " the mother church,"
because it gave spiritual birth by baptism;
Afterwards they were introduced into rural
churches. Wheresoever they stood, they
were always held in high estimation by true
Christians. A font preserved in the royal
jewel-house, and formerly used for the bap
tism of the infants of the royal family, is
of silver. In England, the fonts are gene
rally placed near the west door, or south
western porch.
By the Constitutions of Edmund, a.d.
1236, there was to be " a font of stone or
other competent material in every church,
which shaU be decently covered and kept,
and not converted to other uses. And the
water shall not be kept above seven days
in the font " (Linwood's Constit).
By Canon 81. " According to a former
constitution, too much neglected in many
places, there shall be a font of stone in every
church and chapel where baptism is to be
ministered, the same to be set in tbe ancient
usual places ; in which only font the minister
shall baptize publicly."
" When there are children to be baptized,
the parents shall give knowledge thereof
over-night, or in the morning before the
beginning of morning prayer, to the curate.
And then the godfathers and godmothers,
and the people with the children, must be
ready at the font, either immediately after
the last lesson at morning prayer, or else
immediately after the last lesson at evening
prayer, as the curate by his discretion shall
appoint. And tho priest coming to the font
"2 A

354

FORMAT_

(which is then to be filled with pure water),
and standing there, shall say." — Rubric to
tlie Ministration of Public Baptism of
Infants, to be used in Church.
In which rubric it may be observed, that
there is no note of a pewter, crockery,
wedgewood, or other such like basin within
the font, to hold the water, which the care
lessness or irreverence of some has permitted
of late ; but that the font is to be filled with
pure water : and also that it is then to be
filled, and not just at the convenience of the
clerk at any time previous ; the like rever
ence being shown herein as in the parallel
order about the elements in the other holy
sacrament. " The priest shall then place
upon the table," &c.
" And if they shall be found fit, then the
godfathers and godmothers (the people being
assembled upon the Sunday or holy-day
appointed) shall be ready to present them
at the font, immediately after the second
lesson, either at morning or evening prayer,
as the curate in his discretion shall think
fit." " Then shall the priest take each person
to be baptized by the right hand, and plac
ing him conveniently by the font, according
to his discretion, shall ask the godfathers
and godmothers the name ? and then shall
diphim in the water, or pour water upon him,
saying." — Rubrics in the Ministration of
Baptism to such as are of Riper Years.
FORMATS (See Litere Formate).
FORMS OF PRAYER, for Special
Occasions. Besides the great festivals and
fasts of the Church universal, there will
be, in each Church, continually recurring
occasions of thanksgiving or humiliation,
and some events of importance, which ought
to be thus celebrated, and for which forms
of prayer will be accordingly appointed by
competent authority. The days thus set
apart in the Church of England for the
celebration of great events in our histoiy
were four : the 5th of November, the 30th
of January, the 29th of May, and the 20th
of June ; but of these the first three — the
thanksgiving for deliverance from the " gun
powder plot," the day of fasting " in com
memoration of the martyrdom of Charles I.,"
and the thanksgiving for the Restoration,
were abolished by order of Council in
1859. There is still " A Form of Prayer
with Thanksgiving to Almighty God, to be
used in all churches and chapels within this
realm, every year, upon the 20th day of
June, being the day on which her Majesty
began her happy reign."
When passing events, such as a pestilence,
or its removal, call for humiliation or thanks
giving, it is usual for the Crown to require
the archbishop of Canterbury to prepare a
form of prayer for the occasion, which is

FORMULARY
then sent through the several suffragan
bishops to the clergy in their respective
dioceses, with the command of the archbishop
and bishop that it shall be used on certain
fixed days, so long as the occasion shall
demand. But it is not very clear under what au
thority this is done, except long usage, which
is probably sufficient evidence of the law in
such a matter. Some other forms of prayer
have a kind of general recognition ; such as
the Coronation Service, which is printed in
Phillimore's Ecc. Law : the usual forms of
service at the consecration of a church, or
churchyard. But it should be understood
that they do not constitute the legal con
secration, which is done before or during
the service by the bishop accepting the
petition and signing the decree for consecra^
tion, which is to be registered in the registry
of the diocese. No particular form of that is
requisite (See Consecration). And in like
manner the religious service is optional with
the bishop, and may well be used on the
reopening of a church after rebuilding on
the consecrated ground, though the legal
ceremony then means and does nothing, aiid
ought not to be used.
The Short Services Act of 1872, called the
Act of Uniformity Amendment Act, author
ises the bishop to allow any special form of
service approved by him to be used on any
special occasion, so that there be not intro
duced anything that is not in the Bible or
the Prayer Book, except hymns and anthems
(and anthems are in the Bible). [G.]
FORMULARY (See Common Prayer,
Liturgy). A book containing the rites,
ceremonies, and prescribed forms of the
Church. The formulary of the Chm-ch of
England is the Book of Common Prayer.
This may be a convenient place to treat
of forms of prayer generally.
To the illustrious divines who conducted
the reformation of our Church, in the reigns
of Henry, Edward, and Elizabeth, any
abstract objections to a prescribed form of
prayer seem never to have occurred, for
these were all the inventions of a later
period. Ridiculous it would be, if we were
going to address a human sovereign, to
permit one of our number to utter in the
royal presence any unpremeditated words,
which might chance, at the time to come
into his head; and not less ridiculous,—
if it be allowable to use such an expression
under such circumstances,— would they have
thought it to permit the priest to offer at
the footstool of the King of kings, a petition
in the name of the Church, of which the
Church had no previous cognizance; to
require the people to say " Amen " to prayers
they had never considered, or to offer as joint
prayers what they had never agreed to offer.

FORMULARY
But, as has been observed, it was not upon
.the abstract question that they were called
to decide. In their Church, the Church of
England, when they were appointed to pre
side over it, they found prescribed forms of
prayer in use. They were not rash innova
tors, who thought that whatever is must be
wrong ; but, on the contrary, they regarded
the fact that a thing was already established
as an argument a priori in its favour ; and
therefore they would only have inquired,
whether prescribed forms of prayer were
contrary to Scripture, if such an inquiry had
been necessary. We say, if such an inquiry
had been necessary, because the slightest
acquaintance with Scripture must at once
have convinced them that contrary to Scrip
ture could not be that practice, for which
we can plead the precedent of Moses and
Miriam, and the daughters of Israel, of Aaron
and his sons when they blessed the people,
of Deborah and Barak ; when the practice
was even more directly sanctioned by the
Holy Ghost at the time he inspired David
and the psalmists ; for what are the psalms
but an inspired form of prayer for the use
of the Church under the gospel, as well as
under the law ? The services of the syna
gogue, too, it is well known, were conducted
according to a prescribed form. To those
services our blessed Lord did Himself con
form : and severely as He reproved the Jews
for their departure, in various particulars,
from the principles of their fathers, against
their practice in this particular never did He
utter one word of censure ; nay, He confirmed
the practice, when He Himself gave to His
disciples a form of prayer, and framed that
prayer too on the model, and in some degree
in the very words, of prayers then in use.
Our Lord, moreover, when giving His direc
tions to the rulers of His Church, at the
same time that He conferred on them author
ity to bind and to loose, directed them to
agree touching what they should ask for,
which seems almost to convey an injunction
to the rulers of every particular Church to
provide their people with a form of prayer.
The fact that we find this injunction in
Scripture, renders probable the universal
tradition of the universal Church, which
traces to the apostles, or apostolic men, the
four great liturgies (which have, in all parts
of the Church, afforded the model according
to which all others have been framed), and
which affirms that the apostles instituted a
form of worship wherever they established a
•Church. It would be easy, if the occasion
required it, to show, from a variety of pas
sages in holy writ, that while much can be.
adduced in corroboration of this tradition,
nothing but conjecture can be cited against
it. With respect to those passages which,
referring prayer to the influence of the Holy

FORMULARY

355

Spirit upon the soul of man, are sometimes
brought forward as militating against the
adoption of a form, they cannot have fallen
under the notice of our reformers, since the
application of them to this purpose was
never dreamt of till about 200 years ago,
when men, having determined in their wilful
ness to reject the liturgy, searched for every
possible authority which might, by construc
tions the most forced, support their deter
mination ; and the new interpretation they
thus put upon Scripture may be considered
as rather the plea of their wishes than the
verdict of their conviction. The adduction,
indeed, of such passages for such a purpose
is a gratuitous assumption of the question in
dispute, and will not for a moment hold
weight in the balance of the sanctuary.
According to the interpretation of those
ancients, whose judgment is the more valu
able because (living before any controversy
was raised on the subject) they were little
likely to be warped, or their opinions deter
mined, by the prejudices of sect, or the
subtleties of system, what these passages of
Scripture mean is this, and simply this : that
the Holy Ghost, who is the author and giver
of every good and perfect gift, must stir up
in our hearts that spirit of devotion and
holiness of temper, without which the ser
vice we render is but the service of the lips,
and is useless, if not profane.
It is, then, to the mind with which we
pray, not to the words which we adopt,
that those passages of Scripture refer, in
which we are exhorted to pray in the Spirit.
But admitting, for the sake of argument,
that where we are told that the Spirit will
teach us to pray, the promise is applicable
to the very expressions, even this cannot be
produced as an argument against a form of
prayer. For, whatever may be a man's
imaginary gift of prayer, this is quite cer
tain, that his thoughts must precede his
tongue ; that before he speaks he must
think. And not less clear is it, that after
he has conceived a thought, he may, for a
moment, restrain his tongue, and set down
that thought upon paper. To suppose that
the intervention of the materials for com
mitting his thoughts to writing must, of
necessity, drive away the Holy Spirit,
would not only in itself be absurd, but it
would be tantamount to a denial of the in
spiration of the written Scriptures. If the
first conceptions were of God and God's
Spirit, then, of course, they are so still, even
after they have been written; — the mere
writing of them, the mere committing of
them to paper, can have nothing whatever
to do with the question of inspiration, either
one way or the other. If a man, therefore,
asserts that his extemporary prayers are to
be attributed to the inspiration of the Holy
2 a 2

356

FORMULARY

Ghost, we can at once reply that our prayers,
in our Prayer Book, are, on his own prin
ciples, quite as much so, with this further
advantage, that they have been carefully
compared with Scripture, and tested thereby.
No Scriptural Christian, no one not mad
with folly, will contend that, on that ac
count, they are less spiritual ; though,
on the other hand, we may fairly doubt
whether an extemporiser is not acting in
direct opposition to Scripture, for Scripture
says (Eccles. v. 2), " Be not rash with thy.
mouth to utter anything before God, for God
is in heaven, and thou upon earth : " and
who in the world is hasty to utter anything
before God, if it be not the man who prays
to him extemporally ?
Again, the bishops and divines, by whom
our Church was reformed, recognised it as
the duty of the Church to excite emotions
of solemnity rather than of enthusiasm,
when, she leads her children to the footstool
of that throne which, if a throne of grace, is
also a throne of glory. And, therefore,
when discarding those ceremonies which,
not of primitive usage, had been abused, and
might be abused again, to the purposes of
suporstition, they still made ample pro-
visiov that the services of the sanctuary
should be conducted with decent ceremony,
and orderly form, and impressive solemnity,
and in our cathedrals and the royal chapels
with magnificence and grandeur. They
sought not to annihilate ; they received
with tbe profoundest respect those ancient
ceremonials and forms of prayer which had
been used in their Church from the first
planting of Christianity in this island.
These ancient forms, however, had been
used in many respects, though gradually
corrupted. In every age, men had made the
attempt to render them more and more con
formable to the spirit of the age, and (in
ages of darkness) superstitions in practice,
and novelties, and therefore errors in doctrine,
had crept in. Our wise-hearted reformers,
intent, not on pleasing the people, nor re
gaining popularity, nor on consulting the
spirit of the age, but simply and solely on
ascertaining and maintaining the truth as it
is in Jesus, having obtained a commission
from the Crown, first of all compared the
existing forms of worship with the inspired
word of God, being determined at once
to reject what was plainly and palpably
at variance therewith. For example, the
prayers before the Reformation had been
offered in the Latin language, a language no
longer intelligible to the mass of the people,
but to pray in a tongue not understood by
the people, is plainly and palpably at variance
with Scripture; and, consequently, the first
thing they did was to have the liturgy
translated into English. Having taken care

FRANCISCANS
that nothing should remain in the forms of
worship contrary to Scripture, they pro
ceeded (by comparing them with the most
ancient rituals) to renounce all usages not
clearly primitive ; and, diligently consulting
the works of the Fathers, they embodied the
doctrines universally received by the early
Church in that book which was the result
and glory of their labours, the Book of
Common Prayer. The work of these com
missioned divines was submitted to the
convocations of the other bishops and clergy,
and being approved by them, and authorised
by the Crown, was laid before the two houses
of parliament, and was accepted by the-
laity, who respectfully thanked the bishops-
for their labour. And thus it is seen, that
the English Prayer Book was not composed
in a few years, or by a few men; it has
descended to us from the first ages of
Christianity. It has been shown by Palmer
(Orig. Liturg.) that there is scarcely a por
tion of our Prayer Book which cannot, in
some way, be traced to ancient offices. And
this it is important to note ; first, because it
shows that as the Papist in England is not
justified in calling his the old Church, since-
ours is the old Church reformed, his a sect,
in this country, comparatively new; so
neither may he produce his in opposition.
to ours as the old liturgy. All that is really
ancient we retained, when the bishops and
divines who reformed our old Church cor
rected, from Scripture and antiquity, our
old liturgy. What they rejected, and the
Papists adhered to, were innovations and
novelties introduced during the middle
ages. And it is important to observe this,
in the next place, since it is this fact
which constitutes the value of the Prayer
Book, regarded, as we do regard it, not only
as a manual of devotion, but also as an
interpreter of Scripture. It embodies the
doctrines and observances which the early
Christians (having received them from the
apostles themselves) preserved with re- '
verential care, and handed down as a sacred
deposit to their posterity.
FRANCISCANS, or MINORITES
(Fratres Minores, as they were called by
their founder). I. An order of friars
in the Romish Chm-ch, and so denominated
from St. Francis, their first founder in
1206, who prescribed the following rules
to them : That the rule and life of the
brother minors (for so he would have those
of his order called) was to observe the gospel
under obedience, possessing nothing as their
own, and to live in charity ; then he showed
how they should receive novices after a
year's noviciate, after which it was not
allowed thorn to leave the order; he would
have his friars make use of the Roman
breviary, and the converts or lay-brethren

FRANCISCANS
to recite every day, for their office, seventy-
six Paternosters ; besides Lent, he ordered
them to fast from All-saints to Christmas,
and to begin Lent on twelfth-tide ; he forbade
them to ride on horseback without some
urgent necessity; and would have them in
their journeys to eat of whatsoever was laid
before them : they were to receive no money,
-either directly or indirectly ; he taught them
that they should get their livelihood by the
labour of their hands, receiving for it any
thing but money ; that they ought to possess
.nothing of their own, and when their labour
-was not sufficient to maintain them, they
ought to go a-begging, and, with the alms
¦so collected, to help one another ; that they
ought to confess to their provincial ministers
fhose sins, the absolution of which was re
served to them, that they might receive from
them charitable corrections ; that the elec
tion of their general ministers, superiors, &c,
ought to be in a general assembly; that
they ought not to preach without leave of
the ordinaries of each diocese, and of their
superiors. Then he prescribed the manner
•of admonition and correction; that they
ought not to enter into any nunnery, to be
¦godfathers to any child, nor to undertake to
go into any foreign countries to convert in
fidels, without leave of their provincial
ministers ; and then he bids them ask of the
pope a cardinal for governor, protector, and
•corrector of the whole order.
Francis, their founder, was born in 1182,
¦at Assisi, in the province of Umbria, in
Italy, of noble parentage, but much more re
nowned for his holy life. His baptismal
name was John, but he assumed that of
Francis, from having learnt the French lan
guage. He renounced a considerable estate,
with all the pleasures of the world, to
embrace a voluntary poverty, and live in
the practice of the greatest austerities.
Going barefoot, and embracing an apostolical
life, he performed the office of preacher on
Sundays and other festivals, in the parish
¦churches. In the year 1206, or 1209, de
signing to establish a religious order, he
presented to Pope Innocent III. a copy of
¦the rules he had conceived, praying that his
institute might be confirmed by the holy
-see. The pope, considering his despicable
appearance, and the extreme rigour of his
rules, bid him go find out swine, and deliver
¦them the rule he had composed, as being
fitter for such animals than for men. Francis,
being withdrawn, went and rolled himself in
the mire with some swine, and, in that filthy
condition, again presented himself before the
pope, beseeching him to grant his request.
The pope, moved hereby, granted his peti
tion, and confirmed his order.
From this time Francis became famous
throughout all Italy, and many persons of

FRANCISCANS

357

birth, following his example, forsook the
world, and put themselves under his di
rection. Thus this order of friars, called
Minors, spread all over Europe ; who, living
in cities and towns, by tens and sevens,
preached in the villages and parish churches,
and instructed the rude country people.
Some of them likewise went among the
Saracens, and into Pagan countries, where
many obtained the crown of martyrdom.
Francis died at Assisi in 1226. He never
received higher orders than the diaconate.
It is pretended that, a little before tho
death of St. Francis, there appeared wounds
in his bands and feet, like those of our
Saviour, continually bleeding, of which,
after his death, there appeared not the
least token. He was buried in his own
oratory at Rome, and his name was inserted
in the catalogue of saints.
II. The first monastery of this order was
at Assisi, in Italy, where the Benedictines of
that place gave St. Francis the church of
St. Mary, called Portiuncula, Soon after,
convents were erected in other places ; and
afterwards St. Francis founded others in
Spain and Portugal. In the year 1215,
this order was approved in the general
Lateran council. Then St. Francis, re
turning to Assisi, held a general chapter,
and sent missions into France, Germany,
England, aud other parts. This order made
so great a progress in a short time, that,
at the general chapter held at Assisi, in
1219, there met 5000 friars, who were only
deputies from a much greater number.
There were in the middle of the last cen
tury above 7000 houses of this order, and
in them above 115,000 monks : there were
also above 900 monasteries of Franciscan
nuns. This order has produced four popes,
forty-five cardinals, and an infinite number
of patriarchs, archbishops, and two electors
of the empire ; besides a great number of
learned men and missionaries.
III. The Franciscans came into England
during the life of their founder, in the
reign of King Henry III. Their first estab
lishment was at Canterbury. They zeal
ously opposed King Henry VIII. in the
affair of his divorce ; for which reason, at
the suppression of the monasteries, they
were expelled before all others, and above
200 of them thrown into gaols ; thirty-two
of them coupled in chains like dogs, and
sent to distant prisons; others banished,
and others condemned to death. Whilst
this order flourished in England, they
divided the kingdom into seven parts or
districts, called custodies, because each of
them was governed by a provincial, or
superior, called the custos, or guardian of
the district. The seven custodies were,
that of London, consisting of nine monas-

358

FRANK ALMOIGNE

teries; that of York, consisting of seven
monasteries ; that of Cambridge, contain
ing nine monasteries ; that of Bristol, con
taining nine monasteries; that of Oxford,
in which were eight monasteries ; that of
Newcastle, in which were nine monasteries ;
and that of Worcester, in which were nine
monasteries ; in all, sixty monasteries.
The first establishment of Franciscans
in London was begun by four friars, who
hired for themselves a certain house in
Cornhill, of John Travers, then sheriff of
London, and made it into little cells ;
where they lived till the summer following,
when they were removed, by John Iwyn,
citizen and. mercer of London, to the parish
of St. Nicholas in the Shambles. There he
assigned them land for the building of a
monastery, and entered himself into the
order. FRANKALMOIGNE. "Tenant in frank
almoigne is when an abbot or prior,, or other
man of religion, or of holy Church, holdeth of
his lord in frank almoigne ; that is to say in
Latine in liberam eleemosinam, that is ' in
free almes.' And such tenure beganne first in
oldetime. Whenamanin oldetirnewnsseized
of certain lands or tenements in his demesne
as of fee, and of the same land infeoffed an
r.bbot or his convent, or prior, and his con
vent, to have and to hold them, and their
successors in pure and perpetual almes, or in
frank almoigne ; or by such words, to hold
of the grantor, or of the lesser and his heirs,
in free almes; in such case the tenements
were holden in frankalmoigne" (Littleton,
sec. 133). On this Coke says, " Since Little
ton wrote, the liturgie or book of Common
Praier of celebrating Divine service is altered.
This alteration notwithstanding, yet the
tenure in frank almoigne remaineth; and
such prayers and divine service, shall be
said and celebrated as now is authorized."
" And albeit the tenure in frank almoigne
is now reduced to a certaintie, contained in
the book of Common Prayer, yet seeing the
original tenure was in frank almoigne, and
the change is by generaU consent by
authority of Parliament (2 Ed. VI. c. 1 ;
5 & 6 Ed. VI. c. 11 ; 1 Eliz. c. 2), whereunto
every man is party, the tenure remains
as it was before " (Coke, s. 135). The
statute 12 Car. IL, which abolishes military
tenure, expressly excepts tenure in frank
almoigne. [H]
FRATERNITIES. Brotherhoods or
societies generally for the improvement of
devotion. Monasteries are really fraterni
ties ; but besides them, either connected
with them or entirely separate, there have
always been associations called by this name.
The Parabolani and Copiatas (which see) of
the early Church were sometimes considered
members of a fraternity (Muratori aut Med.

FREE WILL
AHvi. vol. vi.) ; and that there were many
unauthorized associations is evident from
the fact that at the Council of Chalcedon
clerics were forbidden to form " trwai/xo-
o-ias r) q^parpias." In the 8th and 9th
centuries there were Anglo-Saxon fraterni
ties of a lay constitution but of a more
or less religious character (Brentano on
Gilds, p. 11 seq). In the Roman Church
there are many, the most celebrated perhaps
being the fraternity of the Rosary, estab
lished by Dominic. Guilds and fraternities
are synonymous terms, the former being
generally used in England at present (See
Guilds). FRATRICELLI. Fratres de paupere
vita. Little Brothers. Certain fanatics of
Italy, who had their rise in the Marquisate
of Ancona about 1294. They were monks
who had detached themselves from the
Franciscans, but still professed to follow
the Franciscan rule. But the accounts of
them are confused and contradictory, prob
ably because the term " fratricellus " (little
brother) was a term of reproach among the
Italians of that age, and was applied to any
one who assumed the appearance of a monk
without belonging to the approved monastic
sects. Pope John XXII. condemned the
Fratricelli in a Bull a.d. 1317. — Wadding.
Annates Minorum, vi. 279; Stubbs' Mos
heim, ii. 206 ; Gieseler, iii. 92.
FREEMASONS. An ancient guild of
architects, to whom church architecture
owes much, and to whom is to be attributed
a great part of the beauty and uniformity
of the ecclesiastical edifices of the several
well-marked architectural eras of the mid
dle ages.
The Freemasons at present arrogate to
themselves a monstrous antiquity; it is
certain, however, that thgy were in exist
ence early in the tenth century, and that
before the close of that century they had
been formally incorporated by the pope,
with many exclusive privileges. But the
Roman Church now disavows and prohibits
them. The society consisted of persons of
all nations and of every rank; and being
strictly an ecclesiastical society, the tone of
the architecture to which they gave then-
study became distinctively theological and
significant. The principal ecclesiastics of
the day were ranked among its members,
and probably many of its clerical brethren
were actually and actively engaged in its
practical operations. In the present day, it
is quite certain that freemasons have no-
special knowledge of architecture, or. of
anything else except their secret signs of
brotherhood of different degrees.
FREE WILL. Since the introduction
of Calvinism, many persons have heen led
into perplexity on this subject, by not suffi-

FREE WILL
ciently distinguishing between the free will
of spontaneous mental preference, and the
good will of freely preferring virtue to vice.
By the ancients, on the contrary, who
were frequently called upon to oppose the
mischievous impiety of fatalism, while yet
they stood pledged to maintain the vital
doctrine of Divine grace, this distinction
was well known and carefully observed.
The Manichasans so denied free will, as to
hold a fatal necessity of sinning, whether
the choice of the individual did or did not
go along with the action.
The Pelagians so held free will, as to
deny the need of Divine grace to make that
free will a good will.
By the Catholics, each of these systems
was alike rejected. They held, that 'man;
possesses free will; for, otherwise, he"could;
not be an accountable subject of' God's
moral government. But they also held,
that, in consequence of the fall, his free will
was a bad will : whence, with a perfect
conscious freedom of choice or preference,
and without any violence put upon his
inclination, he, perpetually, though quite
spontaneously, prefers unholiness to holi
ness ; and thus requires the aid of Divine
grace to make his bad will a good will.
The reader may see this point established
by quotations from the Fathers in Faber's
work on " Election," from which this article
is taken. He shows also that the doctrine
taught by Augustine and the ' ancients is
precisely that which is maintained 'by the
reformers of our Anglican Church. ,'
Those venerable and well-informed mo
derns resolve not our evil actions into the
compulsory fatal necessity of Manichasism,
on the one hand ; nor, on the other hand,
according to the presumptuous scheme of
Pelagianism, do they claim for us a spon
taneous choice or preference of good inde
pendently of the Divine assistance.
The simple freedom of man's will, so that,
whatever he chooses, he chooses, not against
his inclination, but through a direct and
conscious internal preference of the thing
chosen to the thing rejected: this simple
freedom of man's will they deny not.
But, while they acknowledge the simple
freedom of man's will, they assert : the
quality of its choice or preference to be so
perverted by the fall, and to>be so distorted
by the influence of original sin, that, in
order to his choosing the good and rejecting
the evil, the grace of God, by Christ, must
both make his bad will a good will, and
must also still continue to co-operate with
him even when that goodness of the will
shall have been happily obtained.
In the tenth Article of the EngUsh
Church, it is often not sufficiently observed,
that our minutely accurate reformers do hot

FUNERAL SERVICES

359

say, that the grace of God, in the work of
conversion, gives us free will, as if we were
previously subject to a fatal necessity ; but
only that the grace of God, by Christ,
prevents us that we may have a good will,
and co-operates with us when we have that
good will.
The doctrine, in short, of the English
Church, when she declares that fallen man
cannot turn and prepare himself, by his
own natural strength and good works, to
faith and calling upon God, is not that we
really prefer the spiritual life to the animal
life, and are at the same time by a fatal
necessity prevented from embracing it ; but
it "is that we prefer the animal life to the
spiritual life, and through the badness of
our perverse will, shall continue to prefer it,
until (as the Article speaks) the grace of
God shall prevent us that we may have a
good will, or until (as Holy Scripture
speaks) the people of the Lord shall be
willing in the day of his power.
FRIAR (From frater, brother). A term
common to monks of all orders : founded on
this, that there is a kind of brotherhood
presumed between the religious persons of
the same monastery. It is however com
monly confined to monks of the mendicant
orders. Friars are generally distinguished
into these four principal branches : — 1.
Franciscans, Minors, or Grey Friars ; 2.
Augustines ; 3. Dominicans, or Black Friars ;
4. Carmelites, or White Friars. From these
four the rest of the orders in the Roman
Church descend. In a more particular sense
the term Friar is applied to such monks
as are not priests ; for those in orders are usu
ally dignified with the appellation of Father.
FRIDAY. Friday was, both in the
Greek Church and Latin, a Litany or hu
miliation d ay, in memory of Christ crucified :
and so is kept in ours. It is our weekly fast
for our share in the death of Christ, and its
gloom is only dispersed if Christmas day
happens to fall thereon (See Stations ; Week
days). '
FRONTAL. The antependium or vest
ment that hangs around and in front of the
FUNERAL SERVICES (See Burial of
the Dead, and Dead). The office which the
Enghsh Church appoints to be used at the
burial of the dead is, like all her other offices,
of most ancient date, having been used by
the Church in the East and the West from
the remotest antiquity, and having been
only translated into English by the bishops
and divines who reformed our Church. But
against this office, as against others, objec
tions have been raised ; chiefly against saying
that we commit our brother's " body to the
ground, earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust
to dust, in sure aud certain hope' of the

SCO

GALILEE

resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord
Jesus Christ," over persons who have no
toriously lived and died in sin and unbelief.
But the " sure and certain hope of the
resurrection" is general and not. applied to
that person, and it is impossible in a pre
scribed service to allow the clergyman to
use his own judgment as to the degree of
hope that may be entertained ; though by
the strange kind of legislation that takes
place now, a dissenting minister may use
that judgment in burying in our church
yards, under the Burial Act, though, a
clergyman may not, except at the request
of relations and the leave of the bishop ;
and that must be for a general alteration of
the service, not a, special one. [G.]

G.
GALILEE. An appendage of some of
our large churches is traditionally known
by this name, and is supposed to be con
nected with some purposes of discipline,
and to have borrowed its name from the
words of the angel at the sepulchre to the
women, " Go your way, tell his disciples
and Peter that he goeth before you into
Galilee : there shall ye see him, as he said
unto you " (St. Mark xvi. 7). The churches
where a Galilee occurs are Durham, Lin
coln, and Ely ; but they have little in com
mon except the name. That at Ely agrees
with that at Durham in being at the west
end of the church, but it differs in being
to all appearance a mere porch of entrance,
while that at Durham is a spacious building
with five aisles and three altars ; and, so
far from its use being as a porch of entrance,
the great west entrance was actually closed
in the fifteenth century, while the Galilee
in all probability retained its original use.
That at Lincoln is at the south-west corner
of the south transept ; it is cruciform in
plan, and has over it another chamber of the
like size, once apparently arranged as a
court of judicature, which favours the idea
that the Galilee had some connexion with
discipline. This was certainly the case at
Durham, for there the consistory court was
held from time immemorial till 1796, when
it was moved into the north transept. The
Galilee is now used as a chapel. Cardinal
Langley erected a font there for the children
of persons who were excommunicate. But
this was nearly 300 years after the building
of the Galilee, which was certainly erected
by Hugh Pudsey in the twelfth century,
that women, who were allowed to proceed
but a short distance into that particular
church, might have a place where they

GEHENNA
might frequent the Divine ordinances ; and
this in itself had something of the nature
of discipline. It may be worth noticing in
addition, that all the three Galilees still re
maining were erected between the middle
of the twelfth" and the middle of the thir
teenth century. [H.]
GALLICAN CHURCH (See Church of
France). GALLICAN LITURGY. The Liturgy
of Ephesus, which is generally supposed
to owe its origin to St. John or St. Paul,
was the foundation of that used in Gaul,
England, and Spain, in the early times.
Missionaries from the Church of Ephesus
had formed a centre at Lyons; and from
thence the doctrines of Christianity had
spread throughout Gaul. Thus the
primitive Liturgy of Ephesus became that
of Gaul, and remained so .for many years.
Additions were indeed made by Musseus,
Sidonius, and St. Hilary of Poictiers, but
they consisted merely of extra Introits, and
Collects, not interfering with the general
form of the Canon. This Liturgy was in use
among the British Christians in England,
where Augustine, when he went on his
mission thither in 596, found the remnant of
an ancient and organised Church, with
many usages however different from those
to which he had been accustomed. He by
the advice of Gregory introduced some
changes to bring it nearer to the Eoman
rite ; but it always retained its Gallican
characteristics, derived from the East. In
fact " the Roman Liturgy was never used
by the Church of England ; and it was only
adopted by the English sect of Romanists
about 150 years ago." The Liturgy thus
derived through the Gallican from the
Ephesine Liturgy was revised by Osmund,
bishop of Salisbury, a.d. 1085, and was the
basis of the different " Uses," of which the
" Salisbury Use " is the best known, and
eventually supplanted the others. For it
is the principal basis of our Prayer Book.
The Gallican Liturgy was abrogated by
Charles the Great in Gaul, and by Alphonso
VI. in Spain, and all priests were ordered
to celebrate according to the Roman manner
only. — Introd. to Liturg. Blunt's P. B. ii.
147 ; Freeman's Princ. Div. Serv. II. ii. 405;
Palmer's Orig. Liturg. i. 143-165. [H.]
GANG DAYS. In the laws of King
Alfred and of Athelstan the rogation days
are called gebeddsegas, or prayer days, and
also gang degas, or days of perambulation.
The name " gang days " is still used in parts
of the north of England (See Bounds,
Beating the).— Blunt's P. B. i. 111. [H.]
GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE. A pro
jecting stone water-spout, usually in Gothic
buildings formed of some grotesque figure.
GEHENNA (03n-*2: ydvva: in LXX.

GELASIAN SACRAMENTARY
yaiivva) the vale of Hinnom, S.E. of Jeru
salem, in which human sacrifices were offered
to Molech, after the introduction of fire-gods
hy Ahaz. The Rabbis say, that the ido
laters were wont to beat a drum, lest the
people should hear the cries of the1 chil
dren that were thrown into the fire when
they sacrificed them to idols. This valley
was, in consequence of these abominations,
polluted by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 10) ; and
afterwards was the place for casting out and
burning all offal, and the corpses of criminals.
The awfulness of the place, and the ever
burning fires, caused it to be used in later
times as the image of hell, " where their
worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched."
The ancient writers did not make use of this
word, and it was first used in the gospel. —
Alford's G. T., St. Matt. v. 22; Diet of
Bible. [H.]
GELASIAN SACRAMENTARY (See
Sacramentaries). GENERAL CONFESSION. So called
<1) because it is for use on general occasions
as distinguished from particular occasions.
{2) Because it is for all persons. The gene
ral confession in the morning and evening
service was probably composed, or rather
compiled, by some of the revisers of 1552.
The other general confessions in our Prayer
Book are in the office for Holy Communion,
and the Commination service. These are
more fervent, as would be expected from their
position, but not so complete. — Bishop
Barry's P. B. (See Confession). [H.]
GENERAL THANKSGIVING, distin
guished from thanksgivings for special bene
fits. The form of general thanksgiving in
our Prayer Book was composed by Bishop
Reynolds and inserted in 1662. The custom
of repeating this thanksgiving after the minis
ter is common in America, and in English
churches on the Continent; but though
this may seem to harmonize with the
meaning of the word " general," it was not
so intended, and is not authorised by the
rubrics. [H.]
GENERATION, THE ETERNAL
(See Eternity). It is thus that the filiation
without beginning of the Only Begotten of
the Father is expressed.
The distinction of a threefold generation
of the Son is thus explained:— 1. The first and
most proper filiation and generation is His
eternally existing in and of the Father, the
eternal Aoyor of the eternal Mind. In respect
of this, chiefly, He is the only begotten, and
a distinct person from the Father. His
other generations were rather condescensions,
first to creatures in general, next to men in
particular. 2. His second generation was
His condescension, manifestation, coming
forth, as it were, from the Father (though
never separated or divided from Him), to

GENERATION

361

create the world: this was in time, and a
voluntary thing ; and in this respect,
properly, He may be thought to be first
born of every creature, or before all creatures.
3. His' third generation, or filiation, was
when He condescended to be born of a pure
virgin, and to become man also without
ceasing to be God. — Waterland.
God the Father from all eternity com
municated to His Son His own individual
nature and substance; so that the same
Godhead which is in the Father originally
and primarily, is also in the Son by deriva
tion and communication. By this com
munication there was given to the Son all
those attributes and perfections which do
simply and absolutely belong to the Divine
nature; there was a communication of aR
the proproties which naturally belong to
the essence communicated ; and hence it is
that the Son is eternal, omniscient, omni
present, and the like, in the same infinite
perfection as His Father is. The natural
properties were thus communicated ; but
we cannot say the same of the personal pro
perties, it being impossible they should be
communicated, as being inseparable from
the person : such are, the act of communicat
ing the essence, the generation itself, aud
the personal pre-eminence of the Father,
founded on that generation. These were
not communicated, but are proper to the
Father ; as, on the other hand, the personal
properties of the Son (filiation and subordina
tion) are proper to the Son, and do not be
long to the Father. And although in this
incomprehensible mystery we use the term
generation (the Scripture having given us
sufficient authority to do so, by styling Him
God's Son, His proper Son, and His only be
gotten Son), yet, by this term, we are not
to understand a proceeding, from non
existence to existence, which is the physical
notion of generation ; nor do we understand
it in that low sense in which it is agreeable
to creatures ; but as it is consistent with the
essential attributes of God, of which neces
sary existence is one. Nor, further, are we
in this generation to suppose any division of
the essence, or any external separation. The
communication of the nature was not a
separate one, like that of finite beings, but
merely internal: and, though the Son be
generated from the substance of the Father
(and thence be a distinct person from Him),
yet He still continues to be in the Father,
and the Father in Him; herein differing
from the production of all created beings,
that in them the producer and the produced
become two distinct individuals, which in
this generation cannot be affirmed. The
term used by the Greek Fathers to express
this internal or undivided existence in the
same nature, ipiripix^pnais ; that of the

362

GENESIS

Latin Fathers, circumincessio ; and that dis
tinction of the schoolmen, generatio ab
intra ; are terms which are as expressive as
any words can be of a mystery so far above
our comprehension. The Father and the
Son by this communication do not become
two Gods (as Adam and Sethare two men),
but are only one God in the same undivided
essence. The communication of this nature
neither did nor could infringe the unity of
it, because tbe Divine essence is simply one,
and therefore cannot be divided; is ab
solutely infinite, and therefore incapable of
being multiplied into more infinities. And
this, by the way, sufficiently shows the
weakness and falseness of that charge which
has been so often thrown on the orthodox
scheme of the Trinity, namely, that it is
downright tritheism, and that to maintain
that tbe three persons are each of them God,
is in effect to maintain three Gods ; a charge
which is so far from being a just conse
quence of our principles, that it is manifestly
inconsistent with them, and impossible to
be true upon them. We hold the Divine
essence to be one simple, indivisible essence ;
we assert that the Father communicated to
the Son, without division, this His individual
substance ; and therefore, upon these our
principles, the unity of the Divine essence
must still unavoidably be preserved; and upon
this scheme the three distinct persons neither
are, nor can be (what is falsely suggested
against us) three distinct Gods. This com
munication of the Divine substance to God
the Son was not a temporary one, but strictly
and absolutely eternal ; eternal in the proper
sense of that word ; in the same sense in
which eternity is ascribed to the Divine
nature itself; and eternal in the same sense
as God the Father Himself is so.
GENESIS. The first book of the Bible.
The Hebrews call it 71W13 (from X13,
to mould by cutting, then to create; see
Davidson on Bib. Grit. app. p. 399, seq.) ;
this being the first word of the book. The
Greeks gave it the name of Genesis, or Gene
ration, because it contains the genealogy of
the first patriarchs from Adam to the sonsand
grandsons of Jacob; or because it begins
with the history of the creation of the world.
It includes the history of 2369 years, from
the beginning of the world to the death of
the patriarch Joseph. [H]
GENTILE (From Gentes). All the
people in the world, except the Jews, were
called Gentiles.
GENTLEMEN OF THE CHAPEL
ROYAL. The lay singers of the Royal
Chapel are so called ; and their duty is to
perform with the priests, in order, the
choral service there, which was formerly
daily. According to the present rule, they
attend in monthly courses of eight at a time.

GENUFLEXION
In ancient times this body was more numer
ous : Edward VI.'s chapel had thirty-two
gentlemen ; Queen Elizabeth's thirty; James
I.'s twenty-three. ;
GENUFLECTENTES (yowMvomM
prostrati). An order of penitents in the
primitive Church. They ranked above the
audientes and below the consistentes. A
form of prayer for the penitents is preserved
in the Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 9, 10).
They were allowed to stay in the church
kneeling while prayers were offered for
them, and their names read out, so that
each might be remembered by the faithful. '
They then received benediction and were
dismissed before the celebration. — St. Chrys.
Horn, xviii. in 2 Cor. ; Horn. lxxiL in Matt. ;
Bingham, x. c. 2 : xviii. c. i.
GENUFLEXION. Literally, bending the
knee. Kneeling, or even prostration, was
the posture of the early Christians in prayer.
"Let us fall down before the Lord," says
Clemens Romanus (Ep. i. ad Cor. c. 48);
and many early writers, too numerous to
mention, refer to this attitude in prayer.
St. Augustine distinguishes between kneel
ing and prostration ; " they who pray," he
says, " do with the members of their body
that which befits suppliants, when they fix
their knees, stretch both their hands, or
even prostrate themselves upon the ground "
(De Cura pro Mortuis, c. v.). And . St.
Chrysostom speaks of lying on the floor-
en-' i8d(bovs Kelpida — when the most solemn
part of the service, those who could not
partake of the Holy Table being shut out,
was solemnized. But this may refer to
kneeling, and there is no doubt kneeling
was the ordinary attitude of prayer;
" Keipevos iirl rois yovao-i " is the phrase
used by Eusebius, from whom also we learn
that St. James's knees, from continual
kneeling, became hard as those of a camel
(Euseb. H. E. ii. c. xxiii. and also v. c. 5).
But the ancients allowed of no- light or
extravagant gestures. They required a grave
deportment in those who were met together
to worship God. Tertullian speaks of
modesty and humility even in lifting up
the hands in prayer (Tertul. de Orat. c. 13) ;
and St. Chrysostom strongly inveighs against
" mimic or theatrical gestures " (Horn. i.
de verb. Esai. torn. 3 ; also 19 in St. Matt).
The mediaeval custom of just touching the
ground with one knee, at certain times,
which goes by the name "genuflexion,"
would seem to have no primitive authority.
— Diet Clirist. Ant; Bingham, xiii. 8. [H.]
GEOMETRICAL. The style of Gothic
architecture which succeeded the Early
English about 1245, and gave place to the
Flowing Decorated about 1315. In> this
style window tracery was first introduced,
and it is distinguished from the tracery of

GESTURES
the succeeding style by the use of simple
geometrical forms, each in general perfect on
itself, and not running into one another (See
Tracery). (See my note on them : they are
useless). From the use of tracery large
windows naturally followed, sometimes even
extending to eight or nine lights ; and from
these larger openings in the walls some con
structive changes followed, especially in the
greater weight and projection of the but
tresses. The cloors are often, as in the
Early English, divided by a central shaft.
The piers very soon lose the detached
shafts, and are rather formed of solid clusters.
In early Decorated the triforium is still re
tained as a distinct feature ; in later, it is
treated as a decorative band of panelling.
Vaulting hardly , advances upon the simple
fonns of the preceding style. All decorative
features are of the very highest order of
excellence, and are far more natural than
either before or after, without losing in
grace, or force, or character. There is no
single decoration peculiar to this style, ex
cept perhaps the ball-flower. And crockets
first appear in it ; on the other hand, the
dog-tooth is quite given up. Sir Gilbert
Scott pointed out that this, which he con
sidered the only complete style, was the
only one common to England and the Conti
nent. From it they declined in different
directions here and abroad. [G.]
GESTURES. Motions of the body or
limbs expressive of sentiment. There has
always been, especially in times of revival,
a tendency to exaggeration in this respect.
Thus St. Chrysostom speaks of " waving of
hands, beating of feet, and agitation of the
body," as being in some places introduced
into the services (Horn. i. de verb. Esai.).
Against such extravagances many of the
early Fathers inveighed. Tertullian, for
instance, requires a " modesty and humility,
even in lifting up the hands in prayer, that
they should not be tossed up indecently on
high;" "ne vultu quidem in audaciam
erecto," &c. (de Orat. c. 13). St. Cyprian,
too, urges quietness and modesty in the
public worship (de Orat Dom. p. 140, old
ed.) ; and St. Chrysostom, as quoted above,
speaks strongly about the extravagant ges
tures that some brought into the church, as
if they were mimics and dancers. But
expressive gestures were always observed
in the ancient times. Thus Tertullian says,
"nos vero (manus) non attollimus tantum,
sed etiam expandimus, et Dominica passione
modulantes, et orantes Christo confitemur "
(De Orat. c. 11). The arms were extended
so as to be like to the cross, and St. Ambrose
is described as praying " expansis manibus
in modum crucis" (Paulin. Vit. Ambros.
p. 12). " As the ancients were in no way
averse to any rites and ceremonies, habits

GIRDLE

363

or gestures, that were decent and signifi
cant in their own nature, and had any real
tendency towards piety ; so they were utter
enemies to such as were insignificant and
trivial, light and theatrical, and discounte
nanced them as the effects of superstition
or vanity, arising from misapprehension of
religion which they laboured to extirpate,
but could not always conquer; men's cor
rupt inclinations disposing them to commute
the great things of religion for those that
were small in comparison, and sometimes
for those which were a real detriment and
disadvantage to it'" (Bingham, bk. xiii.
c. 8). The Church of England has no rules
with regard to "gestures," except about
kneeling and standing, at different parts of
the service. A rubric in King Edward VI.'s.
first book says, " as touching kneeling, cross
ing, holding up of hands, knocking upon the
breast,' and other gestures, they may be used
or left, as every man's devotion serveth with
out shame." " Kneeling in prayer," says Dr.
Dykes, "standing to sing praise, turning
towards the east when saying the creeds,
humbly bowing the head at the name of
Jesus or of the Blessed Trinity :— these are
all significant gestures of reverence towards
One who is really and truly present to
accept the worship which they offer ; One
Who accepts such reverence from the holy
angels and the glorified saints, and Who will
not be otherwise than willing to receive
it from His ministers and members in the
Church on earth."— Blunt's P. B. 1. 1. [H.}
GHOST (Sax. gast ; Ger. geist). (1) A
spirit : the soul of man. It is rarely used
in. this sense, but to this may be referred
the phrase " giving up the ghost." (2) The
soul of a deceased person separate from the
body: an apparition. St. Athanasius says
"visions and shades of the saints, which
appear at the temples and in the tombs, are
not the souls of the saints themselves, but
the good angels appearing in their shapes "
(ol iv tois vaois : Athanasius, torn ii. p. 34).
(3) The third Person in the ever blessed
Trinity is spoken of as the Holy Ghost
(See Holy Ghost). [H.]
GILD. A corporation (See Guild, Fra-

GIRDLE (Cingulum; the Eastern
Pdyass). A cincture binding the alb round
the waist. Formerly it was flat and broad,
and sometimes adorned with jewels ; in the
Roman Church it has been changed into a
long cord with dependent extremities and
tassels. The zone is fancifully regarded
by some ritualists as a type of purity:
also it is supposed to signify the close
mind which the minister ought to have at
prayers when he celebrates. According to
the " Rationale " it signifies the scourge with
which Christ was scourged (See Vestments).

364

GLEBE

GLEBE. Every church is of common
right entitled to house and glebe.
These are both comprehended under the
name of manse, and the rule of the canon
law is, " Sancitum est, ut unicuique ecclesias
unus mansus integer, absque ullo servitio,
tribuatur." This is repeated in the canons
of Egbero ; and the assigning of these was
of such absolute necessity, that without
tnem no church could be regularly conse
crated. The fee simple of the glebe is in
abeyance, from the French bayer, to expect,
i.e. it is only in the remembrance, expecta
tion, and intendment of law.
After induction, the freehold of the
glebe is in the parson, but with these
limitations : (1) That he may not alienate,
nor exchange, except upon the conditions
set forth in the statutes cited below ; (2)
•that he may not commit waste by selling
wood, i&c. But it has been adjudged that
tbe digging of mines in glebe lands is not
waste ; for the court said, in denying a pro
hibition, " if this were accounted waste, no
mines that are in glebe lands could ever
be opened."
Glebe lands in the hands of the parson
do not pay tithe to the vicar, though en
dowed generally of the tithes of all lands
within the parish ; nor being in the hands
of the vicar, do they pay tithe to the
parson. This is according to the known
maxim of the canon law, that " The Church
shall not pay tithes to the Church ; " but
otherwise if the glebe be leased out, for
then it is liable to pay tithes respectively
as other lands are. By a statute of Henry
VIII., if the parson dies in possession
•of glebe, and another is inducted before
¦severance of the crop from the ground,
•his executor shall have the corn, but the
successor shall have the tithes : the reason
is, that, although the executor represents
the testator, yet he cannot represent him
os parson ; inasmuch as another parson is
inducted. By 13 Eliz. c. 10, the term
for leasing glebe is limited to twenty-one
years, or three lives. The 55 Geo. III.
c. 147, 56 Geo. III. c. 52, 1 Geo. IV. c. 6,
are Acts for " enabling spiritual persons to
exchange their parsonage houses or glebe
lands " (See also 6 Geo. IV. c. 8 ; 7 Geo.
IV. c. 66 ; 1 & 2 Vict. c. 23 ; 2 & 3 Vict.
c. 49 ; 5 & 6 Vict. c. 27 ; 1 & 2 Vict. c.
106, s. 93).
Canon 87. A Terrier of Glebe lands, and
ctlier Possessions belonging to Churches. —
"We ordain that the archbishops and all
bishops within their several dioceses shall
procure (as much as in them lieth) that a
true note and terrier of all the glebes,
•lands, meadows, gardens, orchards, houses,
stocks, implements, tenements, and por
tions of tithes, lying out of their parishes

GLORIA PATRI
(which belong to any parsonage, or vicar
age, or rural prebend), be taken by the view
of honest men in every parish, by the ap
pointment of the bishop (whereof the
minister to be one), and be laid up in the
bishop's registry, there to be for a perpe
tual memory thereof."
By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, the bishop may
assign four acres of glebe to the curate,
occupying the house of a non-resident in
cumbent, at a fixed rent, to be approved of
by the bishop.
GLORIA IN EXCELSIS. "Glory be
to God on high." One of the doxologies
of the Church, sometimes called the angelic
hymn, because the first part of it was sung
by the angels at the birth of our Lord. This
first part is found in the Liturgies of St.
James, and that of St. Chrysostom. The
latter portion of this celebrated hymn is
ascribed to Telesphorus, bishop of Eome,
about the year of Christ 137 ; though there is
no evidence that he did more than order ita
use in the Liturgy, if even that. The whole
hymn, with very Httle difference, is to be
found in the Apostolical Constitutions
(vii. 47); it also exists in MS. in the
Alexandrine Codex, is quoted by Athanasius
in his treatise on Virginity (torn. ii. p. 122.
Bened., but this is said to be spurious),
and was established to be used in the Church
service by the fourth Council of Toledo,
a.d. 633. It is used by both the Greek and
Latin Church, but in the former, except
among the Nestorians, as a part of a morn
ing canticle, not in the Holy Eucharist. In
an early English Psalter going by the name
of Athelstan it is caRed a Sunday morning
hymn. "In the Eastern Church," says
Palmer, " this hymn is more than 1500
years old, and the Chm:ch of England has
used it, either at the beginning or end of
the Liturgy, for above 1200 years." It is
now used at the conclusion of the Com
munion Service ; but in the First Book of
King Edward VI. was placed near the
beginning (See Hymn). — Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. ii. 158, &c. ; Blunt, Diet. Doct. Theol.
291 ¦_ Annot P. B. 194. See article by Dr.
Swainson in Diet. Clirist Antiq. [H.]
GLORIA PATRI. "Glory be to the
Father." The Latin title of one of the
primitive doxologies of the Church, some
times called the lesser doxology, to distin
guish it from the Gloria in excelsis, or
angelic hymn. From the times of the
apostles it has been customary to mingle
ascriptions of glory with prayer, and to con
clude the praises of the Church, and also
sermons, with glory to the Father, to the
Son, and to the Holy Ghost. The first
part of the Gloria Patri is traced by St.
Basil to the apostolic age (Ep. Ixiii.). He
believes it to be one of the "traditions9

GLOSS
which St. Paul praises the Corinthians for
keeping, and exhorts the Thessalonians to
hold (1 Cor. xi. 2; 2 Thess. ii. 15). In
the writings of the Fathers, doxologies are
of very frequent occurrence, and in the early
Church they appear to have been used as
tests, by which orthodox Christians and
Churches were distinguished from those
which were infected with heresy. The
doxologies then in use, though the same in
substance, were various in form and mode of
expression. The Arians soon took advan
tage of this diversity, and wrested some of
them so as to appear to favour their own
views. One of the doxologies which ran in
these words, " Glory be to the Father, by the
Son, in the Holy Ghost," was employed by
them in support of their heretical opinions.
In consequence of this, and to set the true
doctrine of the Church in the clearest light,
the form, as now used, was adopted as the
standing doxology of the Church (See
Doxology). It was a hymn of most general use, and a
doxology offered to God in the close of every
solemn office. The Western Church re
peated it at the end of every psalm, and the
Eastern Church at the end of the last psalm.
— The whole commonly running thus : " To
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, be all glory,
worship, thanksgiving, honour, and ador
ation, now and for ever, throughout all ages,
world without end. Amen." — Bingham, bk.
xiv. c. 1; Routh, Reliq. Sac. iii. 299.
Reverence was enjoined at these words, not
only in the choirs of abbeys and convents,
but by provincial canons. " Quoties dicitur
G. P. . . . ad eadem verba Deo humiliter se
inclinent." — Wilkins, Concil. torn. iii. p. 30 ;
Maskell, Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. iii. 3, 4, 94
(See Bowing). [H.]
GLOSS. A comment.
GNOSTICS (ywSo-tr, knowledge). I. The
word Gnostic properly signifies a learned
or enlightened person; and thus Clement
of Alexandria uses it throughout his Stro-
mata (i. 6, &c.) to denote the perfect
Christian, who is the true Gnostic. But
in its more common use, the term signifies
a class of heretics, .who, in the earliest
times, pretended to superior knowledge,
and mixed up some Christian ideas and
terms with systems based on Platonism,
Oriental philosophy, or corrupt Judaism.
Thus the term is used by Irenasus in the
2nd century, and Hippolytus early in the
3rd century (Iren. adv. Her. iii. 4; Hippol.
Philos. v.). To this class most of the
earliest sects belonged. Simon Magus may
be considered as the forerunner of Gnosticism,
but it seems more in accordance with
historical evidence to consider it as the
natural outcome of the combined Jewish and
Gentile intellect when reasoning on the

GNOSTICS

365.

philosophy of Christianity, and of other
religions. In the second century there were
many varieties of Gnostics — as the followers
of Basilides Saturninus, Carpocrates, Valen-
tinus,_&c. Of these the Carpocratians alone-
are said to have assumed the name.
II. The Gnostic systems held in common
a belief in one supreme God, dwelling from
eternity in the Pleroma, or fulness of light.
From Him proceed successive generations of
spiritual beings — called by Valentinus JEons.
In proportion as these emanations are more
remote from the primal source, the likeness
of His perfections in them is continually
fainter. Matter is regarded as eternal, and
as inherently evil. Out of it the world was
formed, not by the Supreme God, but by
the Demiurge — a being who is represented
by some heresiarchs as merely a subordi
nate and unconscious instrument of the
Divine will, and by others as positively
malignant, and hostile to the Supreme.
The Demiurge, it was said, was the national
God of the Jews — the God of the Old
Testament; according, therefore, as he is-
viewed, the Mosaic economy is .either
recognised as preparatory, or is rejected as
evil. The mission of Christ was for the-
purpose of delivering man from the tyranny
of the Demiurge. But the Christ of
Gnosticism was neither very God nor very
man. His spiritual nature, being an
emanation from the Supreme God, was-
necessarily inferior to its original ; and, on
the other hand, an emanation from God
could not dwell in a material, and con
sequently evil, body. Either, therefore,
Jesus was a mere man, on whom the 2Eon
Christ descended at his baptism, to forsake
Him again before His crucifixion ; or the
body with which Christ seemed to be
clothed was only a phantom, and all His
actions ware only in appearance (See

The same view as to the evil nature of
matter led the Gnostics to deny the resur
rection of the body. They could admit no
other than a spiritual resurrection: the
object of their philosophy was to emanci
pate the soul from its gross and material
prison at death; the soul of the perfect
Gnostic, having already risen in baptism,.
was to be gathered into the bosom of God,
while such souls as yet lacked their full
perfection, were to work it out in a series
of transmigrations.
Since matter was evil, the Gnostic was
required to overcome it. .But here arose
an important practical difference ; for,
while some sought the victory by a high.
ascetic abstraction from the things of sense,
the baser kind professed to show their
superiority and indifference by wallowing
in impurity and excess. The Gnostics are

366

GOD

little heard of after the 2nd century ; but
their principles survived among the Ma-
nicha;ans. For a very full account of
Gnosticism see Diet. Eccl. Biog. (See Bar-
desanists, Basilidians, Carpocratians, Mar-
cionites, Ophite, Valentinians).
GOD. The name we give to that eternal,
infinite, and incomprehensible Being, the
Maker and Preserver of all things, who
exists One Being in a Trinity of persons.
The word is found with only slight varia
tions in Anglo-Saxon, Danish, Dutch, Ice
landic, Gothic, and German: all from a
Teutonic base, Gutha, of unknown origin.
Article I. " There is but one living and
true God, everlasting, without body, parts,
or passions ; of infinite power, wisdom, and
goodness; the Maker and Preserver of all
things, both visible and invisible. And in
unity of this Godhead there be three per
sons, of one substance, power, and eternity ;
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost."
Athanasian Creed — " The Father is God :
the Son is God : and the Holy Ghost is
God." 'Ihe Father is God.
God the Father (St. John vi. 27 ; Gal. i. 1,
3; 1 Thess. i. 1). God, even the Father
(1 Cor. xv. 24 ; 2 Cor. i. 3 ; St. James iii. 9).
One God and Father (Eph. iv. 6). One
God the Father (1 Cor. viii. 6) ; and the
passages where God is spoken of as the
Father of our Lord Christ, the Son of the
living God (St. Matt. xvi. 16 ; St. John iii.
16 ; vi. 27 ; Rom. v. 10 ; viii. 3 ; xv. 6),
The Son is God.
I. So expressly declared.
The mighty God (Isa. ix. 6). Make
straight — a highway for our God (xl. 3).
Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever!
(Ps. xiv. 6, with Heb. i. 8). I will save
them by the Lord their God (Hosea i. 7).
Immanuel, God with us (Isa. vii. 14; St.Matt.
i. 23). The Word was God (St. John i. 1)
My. Lord and my God (xx. 28 ; see Ps.
xxxv. 23). Feed the Church of God
which he has purchased with his own blood
CActs xx. 28). Tbey stoned Stephen, call
ing upon God, and saying, Lord Jesus, &c.
(vii. 59). Christ is over all, God blessed
for ever (Rom. ix. 5). God was manifest
in the flesh, &c, believed on in the world,
received up into g.ory (1 Tim. iii. 16).
God our Saviour (Titus ii. 10). The
great God (13). Our God and Saviour,
Jesus Christ (Gr.) (2 St. Pet. i. 1, with Titus
ii. 13). Hereby perceive we the love of
God, because he laid down his life for us (1
St. John iii. 16). The true God, and eternal
life (v. 20).
II. By necessary implication.
The angel Jehovah is God (Gen. xxxi.
11, with 13 ; and xxxv. 9-13, and 15 ; xvi.
9, with 13 ; Ex. iii. 2, with 4, and 6). I

GOD
am Alpha and Omega — he that overcometh
— I will be his God (Rev. xxi. 6, 7). We
must all stand before the judgment seat of
Christ, for,— every tongue shall confess to
God (Rom. xiv. 10, 11). I saw the dead,
small and great, stand before God, &c.
(Rev. xx. 12). Many shall he (John the
Baptist) turn to the Lord their God, for he
shall go before him (St. Luke i. 16, 17 ; with
St. Matt. iii. 11, and xi. 10). The Lord God of
the holy prophets sent his angel (Rev. xxii.
6, with 16). I Jesus have sent mine an<*el
to testify, &c. They tempted the most
high God (Ps. lxxviii. 56), applied to Christ
(1 Cor. x. 9). Behold the Lord God will
come — behold his reward is with him (Isa.
xl. 10, with Rev. xxii. 12, 20). Behold, I
come quickly, and my reward is with me—
I am Alpha and Omega. Surely I come
quickly. Amen. Even so, come, Lord Jesus.
— To the only wise God our Saviour, he
glory, &c. Amen. (St. Jude 25.)
III. From his attributes. >
As He is wisdom itself (Prov. viii. through
out ; St. Luke xi. 49, with Col. ii. 3).— As
He is the holy one (Ps. xvi. 10) ; the most
holy (Dan. ix. 24, with Rev. iii. 7). — As He
is the truth (St. John xiv. 6, and Rev. iii. 7,
with 1 St. John v. 20). — As He is eternal.—
Eternal life (1 St. John i. 1, 2, and v. 20).
— From his unchangeableness (Heb. i. 11,
12, and xiii. 8, with Mai. iii. 6). — His omni
presence (St. John iii. 13; St. Matt, xviii
20; xxviii. 20; Eph. i. 23; iv. 10).— His
omniscience (Rev. ii. 23; St. John ii. 24,
25; v. 42). Knowing tbe thoughts (St.
Matt. ix. 4; xii. 15, 25; St. Mark ii. 8;
St. Luke v. 22; vi. 8; ix. 47; xi. 17; St.
John vi. 61, 64 ; xvi. 19 ; xxi. 17, with 1
Cor. iv. 5; this with 1 Kings viii. 39). Thou,
even thou only (O Lord God), knowest the
hearts of all the children of men. — Omnipo
tence: The works of creation. All things
were made by Him ; and without Him was
not anything made that was made (St. John
i. 3, with Ps. cii. 25; Col. i. 16, and Jer.
x. 10, 11). — And providence. By him all
things consist (Col. i. 17). Upholding all
things by the word of His power (Heb. i. 3)
— Judging the world. The Lord Jesus
Christ, who shall judge the quick and the
dead (2 Tim. iv. 1, &c, with Gen. xviii. 25,
andPs. 1. 6). God is judge Himself.— Raising
the dead (St. John vi. 40, 54; v. 28, 29;
with" Deut. xxxii. 39). I, even I, am He,
and there is no God with me ; I kill, and I
make alive. — The forgiveness of sins (St.
Mark ii. 10, 11, &c, with Isa. xliii. 25). I,
even I, am He that blotteth out, thy trans
gressions, and St. Mark ii. 7.
IV. As Divine worship is due, and paid
to Him.
Being directed by prophecy. All kings
shall fall down before Him (Ps. lxxii. 11).

GOD
All dominions shall serve and obey Him
(Dan. vii. 27). Kiss the Son, lest He be
angry, and ye perish from the way (Ps. ii.
12). He is thy Lord, and worship thou
Him (xiv. 11). Let all the angels of God
worship Him ! (Heb. i. 6). All men should
honour the Son, even as they honour the
Father. External worship was paid by the
wise men (St. Matt. ii. 11)— by the leper
(viii. 2)— by the ruler (ix. 18)— by the dis
ciples in the storm — (xiv. 33)— by the
woman of Canaan (xv. 25)— by the bliud
man (St. John ix. 38)— by the Marys, &c.
(St. Matt, xxviii. 9), and by His disciples
(Rev. i. 17). At the name of Jesus every
knee should bow in heaven and in earth
(Phil. ii. 10; compare this with St. Matt.
iv. 10, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy
God, and Him only shalt thou serve ; and
Neh. ix. 6, Thou, even thou, art Lord alone ;
Thou hast made heaven, &c, and the host
of heaven worshippeth Thee!).
V. As there must be faith, and hope, and
trust in him.
See St. John iii. 15, 16 ; xiv. 1 ; xii. 44 :
Rom. x. 11; xv. 12; Acts xvi. 31; Eph.
i. 12, 13, with Jer. xvii. 5. Cursed be the
man that trusteth in man ; whose heart
departeth from the Lord; but blessed are
they that put their trust in him.
VI. As praise and thanksgiving are of
fered to him.
Daily shall He be praised (Ps. Ixxii. 15).
Unto Him that loved Us, and washed us from
our sins, be glory and dominion for ever and
ever ! (Rev. i. 5, 6 ; compare Ps. cxlviii. 13).
Let them praise the name of the Lord, for
His name alone is excellent. Whosoever
shall call on the name of the Lord shall be
saved. Saints, with all that in every place
call upon the name of Jesus Christ (1 Cor.
i. 2, and Rev. v. 11-13). Worthy is the
Lamb that was slain, to receive honour, aud
glory, and blessing — blessing and honour and
glory and power be unto Him that sitteth
upon the throne, and unto the Lamb, for
ever and ever. Salvation to our God, who
sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb.
Blessing, &c, be unto our God for ever and
ever. Amen. (Rev. vii. 10-12.)
The Holy Ghost is God.
I. In regard to title.
The Spirit of the Lord spake by me — the
God of Israel said, the Rock of Israel spake
(2 Sam. xxiii. 2, 3). That holy thing which
shall be born of thee shall be called the Son
of God (St. Luke i. 35). She was found with
child of the Holy Ghost (St. Matt. i. 18).
Teach all nations, baptizing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost (St. Matt, xxviii. 19) ; which
proves equality of the three Persons. Why
has Satan filled, thine heart to lie to the Holy
Ghost — thou hast lied unto God (Acts v.

GOD-PARENTS

367

3, 4). Born of the Spirit (St. John iii. 6).
Be born of God (1 St. John v. 4). Consider,
too, no man taketh his honour to himself,
but he that is called of God (Heb. v.
4). The Holy Ghost said, Separate mo
Barnabas and Saul for the work where
unto I have called them. — So they, being
sent forth by the Holy Ghost, departed
(Acts xiii. 2, 4). They shall be all taught
of God (St. John vi. 45). Not in the words
which man's wisdom teacheth, but which
the Holy Ghost teacheth (1 Cor. ii. 13).
Ye are the temple of God (1 Cor. iii. 16).
Your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost
(vi. 19). The hand of the Lord God fell
there upon me, and he put forth the form
of an hand, and took me by a lock of mine
head, and the Spirit lifted me up (Ezek. viii.
1-3). See also the following passages, as re
spectively explaining each other : St. Luke
ii. 26, with. St. John xiv. 16, 17, and 1 Cor.
xiv. 25. — St. Matt. iv. 1, with St. Luke xi.
4.-2 Cor. i. 3, with Acts ix. 31 St. John
xiv. 26, &c— 1 Cor. ii. 11, with 14 ; 1 Cor.
iii. 16.— St. Matt. iv. 7, with Acts v. 9 —
Gen.vi. 3, with 1 St. Pet. iii. 20.— St. Luke
xi. 20, with St. Matt. xii. 28.— Acts iv. 24,
25, with i. 16,— and St. Luke i. 68, 70, with
Acts xxviii. 25 ; and various others that
might be noticed.
GOD-PARENTS. Those who take the
child to the baptismal font and answer for
him or her. They are also called Sponsors,
and Sureties ; and. are of three sorts : those
who at a Baptism answer — 1. For an infant ;
2. For an adult person who through sick
ness or other impediment cannot speak for
himself; 3. Who are witnesses at the
Baptism of an adult person who can answer
for himself. They are called Godfather and
Godmother "that the New Birth may be
better represented by new and spiritual
relations " : Sponsors, from making the re
sponses on behalf of the infant ; Sureties, from
the surety or pledge they give that the
child shall know its obligations and be put
in the way of fulfilling them (Comber,
Works, vol. iii.).
The custom of having God-parents or
Sponsors for children is of very ancient date
in the Church, though the number required
has varied: Tertullian (a.d. 192) refers to
it. In the office for Publick Baptism of
Infants the third Rubric directs, " There
shall be for every male child to be Baptized
two Godfathers and one Godmother, and for
every female one Godfather and two God
mothers." The 29th Canon directs that,
" No parent shall be urged to be present or
admitted to answer as Godfather for his
own child; nor any Godfather or God
mother shall be suffered to make any other
answer or speech than by the Book of

.368

GOD'S BOARD

Common Prayer is prescribed in that behalf.
Neither shall any person be admitted God
father or Godmother to any child at Chris
tening or Confirmation before the said
person so undertaking hath received the
Holy Communion." " In 1865 the Convo
cation of the Province of Canterbury, with
the Royal licence, framed a new canon
which repealed tbe prohibition to parents
of being God-parents to their children . This
canon has, however, never been ratified by
the Crown ; and no such canon was passed
by the York Convocation" (Phillimore,
Eccles. Law, i. 642). In the Eastern and
in the Latin Church one Sponsor only was
required though two were allowed, and this
appears to have been the early practice of
the Church in England. The present
rubric was inserted by Bp. Cosin in 1661.
Up to the time of the Council of Mainz,
a.d. 813, parents were not forbidden to
act as Sponsors for their children.
The God-parents' duties with regard to
their God-children are set out in the exhor
tation addressed to them at the end of the
Baptismal Service, and are briefly these, to
see that the child is brought up as a faithful,
well-instructed member of tbe Catholic
Church, and that, when he is come to a
competent age, and is so instructed, he is
brought to the Bishop to be confirmed by
him. One of the God-parents is further
required to attend the Confirmation as a
witness. With the Confirmation of the
child, the Sponsor's duty is finished. It
may be worth mentioning a common error,
viz., that the God-parent is responsible for
all the sins of the God-child up to the
time of his confirmation. It is evident
that there is nothing in the Prayer Book to
sanction this idea, which nevertheless holds
back many persons from undertaking " this
charitable work." [L. P.]
GOD'S BOARD. A term used formerly
for the altar. " y charge yow that no man
nother woman, that he goe note to Godd's
bord, lase than he byleue stedfastlych that
the sacrament that he ys avysyd here to
receue, that yt ys Godd's body fiesche and
blode, yn the forme of bred, and that he
receyvythe afterward, ys no thyng ells but
wyne and water, for to dense your mowthys
of the holy sacrament" (Harleian MS.
2383). It is so called in the rubrics of all
the Prayer Books before 1662. [H]
GOLDEN NUMBER (See Calendar).
The Golden Numbers run from 1 to 19, and
are placed in the calendar for every century
against some 19 days out of the 35 from
March 21 to April 25, on which the
Paschal moon or the first full moon after
March 20 can fall. Those days vary now
in different centuries since the change of
style. Before that they were fixed, as may

GOOD FRIDAY
be seen in the Table of Calendars in Sir E.
Beckett's Astronomy without Mathematics.
The Golden Number for the year is found"
by the Gregorian rule: — add. 1 to the.
year and divide by 19, and the remainder
is the Golden Number, 0 corresponding to
19 ; and that with the table shows the day
of Easter. The Prayer Book tables ire-
wrong for Old Style. [G.]
GOOD FRIDAY. I. "The Friday in
Holy week received this name from the
blessed effects of our Saviour's sufferings,
which are the ground of all our joy, and
from those unspeakable good things He hath
purchased for us by His death, whereby
the blessed Jesus made expiation for the
sins of the whole world, and by the shed
ding of His own blood, obtained eternal
redemption for us." The day has been
distinguished at different times hy various
appellations, as fjpipa rou a-ravpov ; jrdo-yn
o-Tavpaio-tpov — the Paschal Day of the Cruci
fixion, as Easter Day was called vicrxa.
dvao-rdo-ipov ; irapaatKevT) ; dies Parasceves (the
day of preparation) ; Feria Sexta Parasceves ;
dies Dominica? Passionis. In early English
times it was called Long Friday (xElfric's
Can. 37, a.d. 957), probably on account of
the long fasting used; but its present
appellation is tbe one by which it has been
popularly known for many centuries.
The commemoration of our Saviour's
sufferings has been kept from the very
first age of Christianity, and was always
observed as a day of the strictest fasting
humiliation. The fast was general, not con
fined to those who professed to lead a life
of closer devotion. " On the Paschal Day,'"
says Tertullian, "the strict observance of
the fast is general, and as it were public "
(de Orat. xviii.); and it was extended: for
persons were enjoined to fast, if they could
endure it, beyond midnight on the follow
ing day (Apost. Constit. v. 18.). The
rigidity of the fast was in after times
broken, " Quidam in die ejusdem dominies
passionis ab hora nona jejunium solvunt
. . . . illi jejunium tanti diei pollmmt,
epulisque inserviunt." And they were to he
punished by being expelled from the " sacra
mental delight of Easter " (a paschali gaudio
depellentur). The very young, the very old,
and the sick were of course excepted (Cone,
Tolet. iv. viii.). Other observances were
adopted to mark the solemnity of the day.
The kiss of peace, an emblem used in the
early Church, was omitted (Tertull. «. s.) :
the altar was made bare : no chanting
was used in the processions: the bells
were not sounded from the Wednesday
till the Easter morn ; the Reproaches were
said (see Reproaches) : and a cross, blessed
and adored, was placed in front of the altar.
Muratori, Ordo Rom. ii. 714 ; ibid. Sacram.

GOOD FRIDAY
Gelas. i. 559). The cross, after much cere
monial, was held before the altar by two
deacons ; " prseparetur crux ante altare,
interposito spatio inter ipsam et altare,
sustentata hinc inde a duobus Diaconibus "
(Martene, de Ant. Mon. Rit torn. iv. lib. iii.
c. 14). This custom was observed in the
English Church up to the time of the Refor
mation (see Creeping to the Cross); but it was
then abolished as tending to superstition.
II. There was in early times no celebra
tion on Good Friday : but a portion of the
sacrament in one element only having been
reserved from a previous celebration, was
placed in a chalice of unconsecrated wine,
and partaken of by the faithful. This was
called the mass of the pre-sanctified. The
reservation was in the Western Church gene
rally from the celebration on the Maundy-
Thursday, which on that day alone was
at a late service (see Fasting before Com
munion), but in the Eastern Church no cele
bration was allowed during Lent except on
Saturday, the Lord's Day, and the Feast
of the Annunciation (Cone. Laodicea, c. 49,
circ. a.d. 353 ; Trull, c. 52). (See Missa
Prsesanctificatorum). In the Roman Church
the omission of celebration is limited to Good
Friday and Easter Eve ; and the Priest alone
partakes at the Missa Prsesanctificatorum.
In the Church of England there is no re
striction ; and the fact of the appointment
of epistle and gospel seems to show that a
consecration on Good Friday to supersede
the Mass of the Presanctified was intended
by the Reformers. And that this was the
practice is evident from Bishop Andrewes'
sermon on the Passion.
III. Of the collects for Good Friday the
first is from the Sacramentary of Gregory ;
the second from that of Gelasius ; the
third is based upon three collects found in
both Sacramentaries. The epistle (Heb. x.
1-25) proves from the insufficiency of the
Jewish sacrifices, that they only typified a
more sufficient one, which the Son of God
did, as on this day, offer up, and by one
oblation of himseR then made upon the
cross, complete all tbe other sacrifices
(which were only shadows of this), and
made full satisfaction for the sins of the
whole world. In imitation of which Divine
and infinite love, the Church endeavours to
show her charity to be boundless and un
limited, by praying in one of the proper
collects, that the effects of Christ's death
may be as universal as the design of it,
namely, that it may tend to the salvation
of all, Jews, Turks, infidels, and heretics.
In St. Augustine's time the history of the
Passion was read from St. Matthew's Gospel.
St. John's account was probably substituted
for the Gospel of the day because he was
the only one that was present, and stood by

GOOD WORKS

3G9

the cross while others fled : and therefore,
tbe Passion being as it were represented be
fore our eyes, his testimony is read who
saw it himself, and from whose example
we may learn not to be ashamed or afraid
of the cross of Christ. The proper psalms
(the 22nd, as St. Augustine tells us, hav
ing been always used on this day in the
African Church) and both the second lessons
for Good Friday were added at the revision
of 1662. [H.]
GOOD WORKS. " That we are justified
by faith, St. Paul tells us ; that we are also
justified by works, we are told in St. James ii.
24 ; and both may be true. But that this
justification is wrought by faith without
works 'to him that worketh not but
believeth,' saith St. Paul : that this is not
wrought without works, St. James is as
express for his negative as St. Paul was for
his affirmative ; and how both these should
be true, it is something harder to unriddle.
But ' affirmanti incumbit probatio,' therefore
St. Panl proves his doctrine by the example
of Abraham, to whom faith was imputed
for righteousness; and, therefore, not by
works. And what can be answered to this ?
Nothing but this, that St. James uses the
very same argument to prove that our justi
fication is by works also ; ' for our father
Abraham was justified by works when he
offered up his son Isaac' Now which of
these says true ? Certainly both of them ;
but neither of them have been well un
derstood; insomuch that they have not
only made division of heart among the
faithful, but one party relies on faith to
the disparagement of good Ufe, and the other
makes works to be the main ground of our
hope and confidence, and consequently to
include the efficacy of faith ; the one makes
the Christian religion a lazy and inactive in
stitution ; and the other a bold presumption
on ourselves ; one looking on Christ only as
a lawgiver, and the other only as a Saviour.
The effects of these are very sad, and by all
means to be diverted by all the wise con
siderations of the spirit " (Jeremy Taylor,
Sermon on Faith : "Fides Formata," Works,
vi. p. 268, Heber's Ed.).
The controversies on this subject have been
too numerous to be entered on here : the
doctrine of the Church of England is stated
in Articles X.-XVI. : especially XII.
" Albeit that good works, which are the
fruits of faith, and follow after justification,
cannot put away our sins, and endure the
severity of God's judgment ; yet are they
pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ,
and do spring out necessarily of a true and
lively faith ; insomuch that by them a lively
faith may be as evidently known as a tree
discerned by the fruit."
Good works are inseparable from our
2 B

370

GOSPEL

union with Christ ; but then as effects of
that union, not as causes or instruments. —
Heurtley (See Faith, Freewill, Grace, Jus
tification). GOSPEL. I. A word compounded of two
Saxon words, god, " God," and spell, a story,
or history, and so God's narrative, i.e. the
life of Christ; or possibly the story (sc. of
salvation) sent from God. It has been
commonly understood as "good spell,"
"good tidings," and so equivalent to
eiayyikiov ; but this is not correct.
II. In a stricter sense, the word means
each of the four histories of our Saviour,
written by the Evangelists : in a more con
fined sense still, it means that portion of
Scripture which is read immediately after
the Epistle in the ante-communion service,
and which is taken from one of the four
Gospels. A Gospel is also read in the
Baptismal Service.
III. In the English Church before the Re
formation there were peculiar ceremonies
used in honour of the Gospel, as for in
stance, the bringing special lights even
during day-time, placing the book of the
Gospels reverently on the altar, incensing
it, &c, though St. Jerome says that in his
time there was no carrying of lights before
the Gospel in the Western Church.
The versicle " Glory be to Thee, 0 Lord,"
sung before the reading of the Gospel, was
printed in the first Prayer Book, of 1549
(but in no other), having been traditionally
retained from the ancient Church.
IV. It was always the rule and the
rubric directs the people to stand at the
reading of the Gospel ; which rule is men
tioned by the author of the Apost. Constit.
(ii. 57); and St. Chrysostom speaks of
" standing up with attentive ears when the
letters, not of an earthly king, but of the
Lord of Angels, are read to us (Horn. i. in
Matt). St. Augustine also refers to the
custom (Horn, xxvi), but he speaks of all the
people standing whenever any Scripture was
read. In Egypt the monks sat during the
reading of the Gospel ; but this was allowed
because of their excessive fastings and
watchings ; and it was remarked as an
isolated and strange case that the Bishop of
Alexandria did not rise at that time (Soz.
vii. 19). With regard . to this custom
Hooker says : " It showeth a reverend re
gard to the Son of God above all other
messengers, although speaking as from God
also. And against Infidels, Jews, Arians
who derogate from the honour of Jesus
Christ, such ceremonies are most profitable."
— Bingham, bk. xiv. c. 3 ; Annot P. B. ii.
160. [H.]
GOSPELLER. The minister who in the
Communion Service reads the Gospel, stand
ing at the north side of the altar, facing

GOTHIC
the people (See North Side). In some
cathedrals one of the clergy is so designated,
and has this special duty among others to
perform. In primitive times the Epistle
and Gospel were read from pulpits called
Ambones which stood on opposite sides of
the choir immediately within the entrance.
By the 24th Canon, in cathedral and colle
giate churches, a Gospeller (as well as an
Epistoler) is to assist the priest, vested in a
cope. Gospellers are statutable members of
the several cathedrals of the new foundation,
and an officer so called still officiates at
Durham ; contrary to the ancient universal
usage of the Church, even when many
priests and deacons are present, it was usual,
till lately, for but two ministers to attend at
the first part of the Communion Service;
the principal minister reading the Gospel. '
But generally the ancient custom is being
revived. In the ordering of deacons, authority
is given them to " read the Gospel in the
Church of God." — Jebb, Choral Service,
p. 480 (See Epistoler).
GOSSIP. A sponsor for an infant in
baptism, from God and sib, a Saxon word,
which signifies kindred, affinity : kin in
God. All god-children of one person, or
even of a man and his wife, were called
God-sib, and within the prohibited degrees
of the Roman Church, so far as to have to
buy a dispensation to enable them to
marry (See God-parents).
GOTHIC. A general term for that style of
mediasval architecture of which the pointed ,
arch is the most prominent character. To
gether with Romanesque (an equally general
term for that style of which the round arch
is the most prominent character) it com
prehends all mediaeval ecclesiastical archi
tecture in England. The substyles with
their dates may be roughly stated as
follows :
Romanesque —
Saxon ...... 1066
Norman  1066-1145
Transition .... 1145-1190

Gothic —

Early English

. 1190-1245

Geometrical . .

. 1245-1315

Decorated

. 1315-1360

Perpendicular .

. 1360-1550

The more minute characteristics must be.
sought under these several names, and it
must be obvious that the accounts given
within the small limits we can devote to
the subject must be very superficial. The
subject may be pursued in a number of
works now before the public, as, first in
date and not last in importance, Rickman's
"Attempt to distinguish the Styles of
Architecture in England," and Sharpe's
"Seven Periods of English Architecture."
Sir G. Scott advocated the Early Decorated
style as the climax to which all other styles

GOWN
converged, and from which they diverged
again. The following diagrams will be
useful as giving generally the terms used in
Gothic Architecture.

GOWN

371

and Puritanism (the preaching gown) and
so establish uniformity in the only way now
possible," instead of keeping up a very
doubtful piece of ritualism of their own,

TT

A

m

IV

¦TrTrTjtrTrw

fu~

J__

__1*

ExTEKIOK.
A. Aisle. I. Basement.
II. Parapet. a. Corbel table.
6. Cornice.
c. Gurgoyle.
HI. Buttress. d. Pedimental set-off.
e. Plain set-off.
/. Finial.
g. Flying-buttress, or arch-

Interior.
A. Aisle. V. Pier. h. Capital.
k. Base.
VI, Pier arch.
m. Spandril.
VII. Vaulting shaft.
71. Corbel.
B. Triforium.
VIII. Triforium arcade.
p. Blank arches.
q. Pierced arches,
C. Clearstory.
D. Vault. r. Groining ribs.
s. Bosses.

i. Shaft
I. Band.

o. Capital.

IV. Aisle roof.
C. Clearstory.GOWN. It is odd that among the
many ritualistic questions that have been
litigated and decided, that of gown v. surplice
in preaching has not yet been tried :
consequently we do not profess to state
the law upon it with confidence. We are
inclined to repeat the conclusions of the
Quarterly Review of Jan. 1881, p. 207, that
if it did come to be litigated the Privy
Council would probably find its way to
deciding that either garment is legal ; but
that " the current has now run so long and
increasingly in favour of the surplice among
clergymen who are not the least ritualistic,
that those who find themselves at last the
champions of the Act of Uniformity had
better drop that odd compound of Popery

Common to Exterior and Interior .
E. Aisle windows.
t. Jamb shafts.
u. Tracery (Perpendicular).
v. Mullions. w. Transom.
x. Basement lights.
F. Clearstory windows.
y. Tracery (Geometrical.)
z. Cusping or foliation.
aa. Tracery (Flowing).
&&. Hood in the exterior, more
correctly dripstone.
cc. Corbel, or label.

Decorations common to both.
1. Arcading (Norman to Decorated).
2. Panelling (Perpendicular).
3. Nich. 4. Panel. 5. String.
which is unquestionably not prescribed any
where, if it is permitted by silence. The
principal argument against it and prima facie
conclusive, is, that according to the decision
in the Ridsdale case the surplice (with hood
and tippet of the Canons) is the only vest
ment to be worn in all times of their minis
trations in church ; and it is difficult to make
out that a part of the prescribed service in
church is not " a time of their ministration."
The arguments against this are in fact so
minute and ingenious that we could not
represent them in any language but their
authors', which is too long to quote, and so
we refer to Archdeacon Harrison's and Canon
Robertson's books on the Liturgy for them.
Historically they have a more intelligible
2 n 2

372

GRACE

case, and one of no small weight, in the fact
that for a long time, at any rate, none but
members of a cathedral or collegiate corpora
tion ever preached in such churches in a
surplice. But, per contra, they very seldom
preached at all there until quite recent times.
The same custom prevailed in nearly all
town churches till lately. But again, in
those times the preacher generally took no
part in the service before the sermon, but sat
in a pew like the rest of the congregation.
The fact, that preachers in the University
churches always wore a gown goes for no
thing, because those sermons ware not part of
the church service, but rather of the nature
of the sermons at Paul's Cross and any
similar places. There were multitudes
of country churches where long before
modern ritualism no one ever saw the single
clergyman change his surplice for a gown.
That might be accounted for by either
poverty or laziness, no doubt ; but until
some general injunction or early universal
use of the gown is established, it is illogical
to impute the absence of it to those causes.
It is much more probable evidence of
ancient use never superseded.
Another difficulty, to which we have
never seen any answer, is that no single
rubric, canon, Act of Parliament, Injunction
or Advertisement, ever recognised the gown
as a ministering or church dress. They
were prescribed as walking dress, and used
so until modern times ; and it is remarkable
that what used to be called the " preaching
gown," with " pudding sleeves," is still the
Court dress for clergymen, who are not re
ceived there in M.A. gowns ; and the Cam
bridge LL.D. gown only appears, at Court
on Queen's Counsel and Judges. Conse
quently, if a gown is a lawful dress in the
pulpit, we do not see how any special dress
at all is compulsory there. On the whole
we can come to no other conclusion, except
from the usage which has nearly disappeared
again, than that the gown in the pulpit is
what the Quarterly Review called it, a com
pound of Popery (for Popish priests some
times at least use it) and the old puritanical
animosity against the surplice as a minister
ing dress at all. [G.]
GRACE. This word is used in a variety
of senses in Holy Scripture : but the general
idea, as it relates to God, is His free favour
and love ; as it relates to men, the happy
state of reconciliation and favour with God,
wherein they stand, and the holy endow
ments, qualities, or habits of faith, hope, and
love, which they possess.
The most pious of those who lived under
the Mosaic dispensation, often acknowledge
the necessity of assistance from God. David
prays to God to " open his eyes, to guide and
direct him " (Ps. cxix. 18, 32-35) ; to " create

GRACE
in him a clean heart, and renew a right
spirit within him " (Ps. Ii. 10). And Solo
mon, says, that God " directeth men's paths,
and giveth grace to the lowly." Even we,
whose minds are enlightened by the pure
precepts of tbe gospel, and influenced by
the motives which it suggests, must still be
convinced of our weakness and depravity,'
and of the necessity of Divine grace to
regulate and strengthen our wills, and to
co-operate with our endeavours after right
eousness, as is clearly asserted in the New
Testament. See the texts above cited, which
sufficiently prove that we stand in need both
of a preventing and of a co-operating grace ;
or, in the words of the Article, that "we
have no power to do good works pleasant
and acceptable to God, without the grace of
God by Christ preventing us, that we may
have a good will, and working with us, when
we have that good will."
Dr. Nicholls, after quoting many author
ities to show that the doctrine of Divine
grace always prevailed in the Catholic
Church, adds, " I have spent perhaps more
time in these testimonies than was absolutely,
necessary ; but whatever I have done is to
show, that the doctrine of Divine grace is
so essential a doctrine of Christianity, that
not only the Holy Scriptures and the primi
tive Fathers assert it, but likewise that the
Christians could not in any age maintain
their religion without it ; it being necessary,
not only for the discharge of Christian duties,
but for the performance of our ordinary,
devotions." And this seems to have been1
the opinion of the compilers of our most1
excellent liturgy, in many parts of which'
both a preventing and co-operating grace is
unequivocally acknowledged; particularly:
in the second collect for Evening Service, in
the fourth collect at the end of the Com
munion Service, and in the collects for Easter
Day, for the fifth Sunday after Easter, and
for the 3rd, 9th, 17th, 19th, and 25th Sun
days after Trinity.
" This assistance of Divine grace is not in
consistent with the free agency of men (see
Free Will) : it does not place them under an
irresistible restraint, or compel them to aet
contrary to their will. Though human
nature is greatly depraved, yet every good
disposition is not totally extinguished, nor
is all power of right action entirely annihil
ated. Men may therefore make some
spontaneous, though feeble, attempt to act
conformably to their duty, which will be,
promoted and rendered effectual by the co-i
operation of God's grace ; or the grace of
God may so far ' prevent ' our actual en
deavours, as to awaken and dispose us to
our duty ; but yet not in such a degree, that
we cannot withstand its influence. Ia
either case our own exertions are necessary to

GRACE AT MEALS
enable us to 'work out our own salvation,'
but our 'sufficiency' for that purpose is
from God. The joint agency of God and
man in the work of human salvation is
pointed out in the following passage :
'Work out your own salvation with fear
and trembling ; for it is God that worketh
in you both to will ami to do of his good
pleasure' (Phil. ii. 12, 13); and therefore
we may assure ourselves that free will and
grace are not incompatible, though the mode
and degree of their co-operation be utterly
inexplicable." — Bishop Tomline's Elements
of Christ Theol. vol. ii. p. 250 seq.
GEACE AT MEALS. A short prayer,
invoking a blessing upon our food, and
expressive of gratitude to God for supplying
our wants. The propriety of this act is
evident from the traditional custom of the
Chm-ch, and from the Divine command, as
interpreted by this custom (1 Thess. v. 18 ;
1 Cor. x. 31 ; 1 Tim. iv. 5), and from the
conduct of our Lord (Mark viii. 6, 7).
GRADUAL, or GRAIL. A psalm or
portion of a psalm, sung after the Epistle.
Than the book containing these anthems
was called the Gradale, or Graduate ; which
term was afterwards extended and included
other portions ot the service of the Holy
Eucharist A Gradale was one of the books
ordered in the Constitution of Archbishop
Winchelsey. It is to be distinguished from
the Antiphoner, the latter belonging to the
service of the Hours, the former to the Mass.
¦ — Maskell, Mon. Rit. i. xxxix.
GRAD UAL PSALMS. Psalms of degrees,
or the "15 Psalms" (119-134). Several
reasons have been given for the term (Pole,
torn. ii. 1318), but the most common is that
they were sung on the fifteen steps of the
Temple. " They were probably written by
David as part of that preparation which he
made for the building of the Temple, and for
ihe Divine service to be carried on there." —
Blunt's P. B. ii. 496 ; Maskell, Mon. Rit.
iii. 95. The explanation however adopted
by the majority of critics now is that they
were sung by Israelites "going up" to
Jerusalem, either on their return from
exile, or on the pilgrimage for the national
festivals. In the revisedversion of the Old
Testament they are termed "Songs of
Ascents." [H.]
GRAVE. The resting-place of a dead
body. The spoliation and desecration of
ancient sepulchres is as much an ecclesias
tical offence as the robbing of a more recent
grave; but where none feel themselves
especially aggrieved, there are none to seek
redress, and to bring offenders to justice.
The law upon the subject seems to stand
thus: a corpse once buried cannot legally
be taken up to be deposited in another
place, without a licence from the ordinary,

GREGORIAN CHANT

373

or an order of the Secretary of State in some
cases. But in case of a violent death the
coroner may order the body to be disinterred,
if it has been buried before he has had an
opportunity of taking a view for the purposes
of his inquest. If the body be disturbed or
removed, it is a subject of ecclesiastical cog
nizance : yet the common law also protects
the corpse ; for the taking up of dead bodies,
for the purposes of dissection, is an indictable
offence, as highly indecent, and contra bonos
mores* The property of things deposited
with the dead, as the grave-clothes, &c, is in
him that had property therein when the dead
body was wrapped therewith, and the taking
them is felony. The property in hatch
ments, or other ensigns ot honour, is in the
heir, or the person concerned in the heredit
ary distinction (See Burial, and the list of
Acts of Parliament appended to the word
Cemetery). GREEK CHURCH (See Church, Greek).
GREGORIAN CHANT (See Chant).
This general designation is given to the
coRection of chants compiled by Gregory
the Great, bishop of Rome, about a.d. 600.
These chants have continued to be in use
from that time to the present day, in the
Western Church, and form the basis of our
cathedral music. It is known that Gregory
merely collected, arranged, and improved
the chants which had already been used for
centuries before his time. They are derived
from those introduced by St. Ambrose into
his church, at Milan, about a.d. 384.
Great improvements, however, having been
made in the science of music, subsequently
to the time of St. Ambrose, Gregory took
advantage of those improvements, and in
creased the number of ecclesiastical tones.
The four scales admitted by Ambrose called
the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo-
Lydian, modifications of the Greek scales,
correspond to our scales of D, E, F, G,
without any accidentals : the melodies
written in each ranging only from the key
note to its octave ending properly on the
keynote thence called the final. To each
of these Gregory added a subordinate scale,
with the prefix imo — hypo, e.g. hypo-Dorian,
&c, each being a fourth below the original.
The only accidental admitted was the B
fiat. The four original tones are called
authentic, the others plagal. All the eight
are now used in some parts of the Greek
Church, as in Russia, doubtless adopted
from the West. They have been har
monized according to tbe more recently
discovered laws of music, and thus har
monized possess a singular gravity, which
character would alone justify their retention
in the Church as the basis of church music.
* It has been decided that dead bodies are not pro
perty. [G.]

374

GREGORIAN CHANT

The Gregorian chant is not limited to
psalm chants ; it includes the antiphons,
versicles, graduals, &c, — in short, all the
hymns at the various services of the Roman
Church. The eight tones (which are by
some multiplied to twelve) are in fact so
many scales, and all the Gregorian hymns
or anthems must be written in one or other
of these tones. The ancient Gregorian scale
admitted no half notes, with the exception
of B flat. The psalm chants had con
siderable variation in each tone ; these
variations occurring in the second part of
the chant : thus one tone may have three
or four endings ; which in fact form so
many separate chants (See Chant). Much
of the old English church music, since the
Reformation, is based upon the Gregorian
chant : though none of our standard mu
sicians were ever servile followers of a sys
tem, which, though very venerable, is im
perfect- It may be as well to subjoin a simple
rule for ascertaining the tones in which the
Gregorian music is written in the old books.
In the ancient breviaries and antiphonaries,
&c, the word EVOVAE frequently occurs,
written under certain notes preceding the
psalms appropriated to certain offices. This
word contains the vowels of the concluding
words of the Gloria Patri ; viz. sEcVlOrVm
AmEn: and by this is meant, that the
notes placed above it form the second part
of the chant to which the following psalm
or psalms are sung : the first part being
rarely written. Now, to find the tone of
the chant, we must take the first note of
tho Evovae, which is the dominant, or the
prevailing, or reciting note of the chant (not
the dominant as now technically under
stood by musicians) : and we must take the
last note of the antiphon which follows the
Psalm at length : and these two, according
to the table here subjoined, give the tone
of the chant : the first part of each varia
tion in tone being, as before remarked,
always the same; the second part being
given in the Evovae. The Psalm Tones
must be found out in one of the many
movements of the Gregorian chant. Care
must be taken not to take the last note of
the abbreviated antiphon which precedes,
but of that which follows, the psalm.

Final note, in the
Antiphon.

Dominant or re
citing note in the
Evovae.

1st Tone.

D

A

2nd Tone.

D

V

3rd Tone.

E

C

4th Tone.

E

A

5th Tone.

F

C

6th Tone.

F

A

7th Tone.

G

D

8th Tone.

G

C

GREY FRIARS
Of these tones the odd numbers are au<
thentic, the even plagal. The authentic
has always a relation to its plagal which
follows, and has the same final note, though
a different dominant. — Jebb, Choral Ser
vice, 273-294; Blunt's P. B. i. Ivii.; Diet.
Christ. Ant. (See Music).
GREGORY I. (THE GREAT): Bishop
of Rome : commemorated in the Calendar on
March 12. Born of noble parentage at Rome,
a.d. 540, he began his public career as a,
lawyer, and for some time held the office of
Prator. But on the death of his father he
gave up the wealth he inherited to religious
uses, and entered the order of St. Benedict.
He was made Pope, much against his will,
on the death of Pelagius, in 590. By the
extinction of the Western Empire he
became not only Bishop of the Roman .
Church and Patriarch of the West, but
virtual sovereign of Rome. As a ruler and
organizer, as weR as a preacher and writer,
he was undoubtedly the greatest man of his
age. To him England owes the mission of
St. Augustine. Gregory himself had in
previous years desired to go to the far West,
as it was then considered, to preach the
Gospel. This desire had been furthered in
his mind by the sight of some captives'
standing in the market-place of Rome.
" Who are these ? " he asked. " Angles,"
was the reply. " Truly," said Gregory,
" they are angels. From what province ? "
"Deira." "Truly they must be rescued
de irS — from the wrath of God. What is
the name of their king?" "„lla." " Yea,"
said Gregory, "Alleluia must be sung in
the dominions of that king." He started
on his mission, but was recalled by the
Pope, who could not spare so good a man.
When Pope himself, he sent out St. Augus
tine and his monks, and was able to an
nounce to the Archbishop of Alexandria,
two years afterwards, that tbey had baptized
the king of Kent with 10,000 of his people.
In his pontificate the Spanish Visigoths and
the Lombards were converted from Arianism,
Church music, too, received a great impulse
from him, and " Gregorian tones," altered
and modified, are still in use. Moreover, his
Sacramentary, following the earlier one of
Gelasius, is a great storehouse of the ancient
liturgical forms of the Western Church,
from which our Collects are largely taken.
While thus " a man amongst men" he was
of remarkable humility ; he disclaimed the
title of " Universal Bishop " (papa univer
salis), and preferred that of " Servant of the
servants of God." He died March 10, A.n.
604.— Milman's Lat Christ, vol. i. 401, seq. ;
Gibbon, c. xiv. [H]
GREGORY, SACRAMENTARY OF
(See Sacramentaries).
GREY FRIARS. The Franciscans were

GUARDIAN
so called from their grey clothing (See
Franciscans). GUARDIAN OF THE SPIRITUAL
ITIES. This is the person or persons in
whom the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of any
diocese resides, after the death or transla
tion of a bishop. If the vacant see should
be an archbishopric, then the dean and
iter are guardians. If a bishop, then

HALF COMMUNION

375

the archbishop of the province, except in a
few cases, where the dean and chapter claim
the right by ancient usage, as at Durham
and Salisbury.
GURGOILE (See Gargoyle).

HABAKKUK, THE PROPHECY OF.
A canonical book of the Old Testament.
There is no mention in Scripture, either
of the time when this prophet lived, or of
the parents from whom he was descended.
But as he prophesied the coming of the
Chaldeans in the same manner as Jeremiah,
it is conjectured that he lived at the same
time (See Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
s. v.).HADES (usually derived from d,
privative, and ISelv, to see, but the aspirate
makes this very doubtful). The invisible
abode of departed spirits (See Hell).
HAGGAI, THE PROPHECY OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament.
Haggai was born, according to tradition, at
Babylon, from whence he returned with
Zerubbabel. It was this prophet, who, by
command from God, exhorted the Jews,
after their return from the captivity, to
finish the rebuilding of the temple, which
they had intermitted for fourteen years.
His remonstrances had their effect ; and to
encourage them to proceed in the work, he
assured them from God, that the glory of
this latter house should be greater than
the glory of the former house : which was
accordingly fulfilled, when Christ honoured
it with His presence ; for, with respect to
the building, this latter temple was nothing
in comparison of the former. The history
of this period of twenty-one years is con
tained in the book of Ezra, a portion of
which has been ascribed with some proba
bility to the pen of Haggai (See Diet of
Bible, s. v. Ezra).
We know nothing of the time of Haggai's
death. Epiphanius asserts that he was
buried at Jerusalem among the priests.
The Greeks keep his festival on the 16th
of December, and the Latins on the 4th of
July (See Speaker's Commentary).

HAGIOGRAPHA: Holy Writings.
(From ayios, holy, and ypacpr), writing).
A word of great antiquity in the Christian
Church, and often used by St. Jerome,
taken from the custom of tbe synagogues,
by which the Old Testament was divided
into three parts, viz. Moses's law, the Pro
phets, and the Hagiographa ; in which last
is included the Psalms, the Proverbs, Job,
Ezra, Chronicles, Solomon's Song, Ruth,
Ecclesiastes, and Esther. The Jews reckon
the Book of Daniel and the Lamentations
among the Hagiographa, and not among the
Prophets, for which Theodoret blames them :
but it matters not much, since they acknow
ledge those books, which they call Hagio
grapha, to be inspired by God, and part of
the sacred canon, as well as those of the first
and second order. — Home's Introduction,
vol. ii. p. 162 ; Bp. Cosin's Scholast Hist, of
the Canon, c. ii. p. 10 seq.
It is to be observed that in the Jewish
Hagiographa or Chethubim (holy writings),
Daniel is excluded from the number of
prophets, and that his writings, with the
rest of the Hagiographa, were not publicly
read in the synagogues, as were the Law
and the Prophets. This is ascribed to the
singular minuteness with which he foretold
the coming of the Messiah, before the de
struction of the city and sanctuary (Dan. ix.),
and afterwards to the apprehension of the
Jews, lest the public reading of his predic
tions should lead any to embrace the doc
trines of Jesus Christ.
HAGIOSCOPE. In church architec
ture, a contrivance, whether by perforating
a wall, or by cutting away an angle of it,
by which an altar may be seen from some
place in a church, or about it, from which
it would be otherwise hid. There is a
most curious example at Ryhall in Rutland,
where there is (or rather was, for it is now
blocked up) an opening in the west wall of
the north aisle, by which the three altars in
the chancel and two aisles were commanded
by a person outside the church, though
within what seems to have been a little
oratory (now entirely removed) dedicated
to S. Tibald.
Openings sometimes seem to command
other points, and may then be well enough
called " Squints." At Hannington, in
Northamptonshire, for instance, is one
which seems intended to enable a person
in the porch to see the approach of the
minister from Walgrave, a parish generally
united under the same incumbency with
Hannington. HALF COMMUNION, or COMMU
NION IN ONE KIND (See Communion
in one kind ; Cup). The withholding of
the cup in the Eucharist from the laity.
This is the practice of the Church of Rome,

376

HALLELUJAH

HELL

for which no primitive authority can be
found. HALLELUJAH (See Alleluia).
HALLEL. The Hallel are the six psalms
from the 113th to the 118th, deriving
their name from the first word of the first
psalm in the series. They were used at
the principal feasts of the Jewish Church-
Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles, and
also at the later feast of the Dedication.
The Hallel was chanted at the Paschal feast
of each household : before the feast as far as
the break at the close of the 114th Psalm ;
and the remainder afterwards, while the
guests were partaking of the fourth, or final
cup. There is little doubt that our Blessed
Lord and His disciples sang the latter part
of this hymn (Ps. 118) in concluding the
Lord's Supper ; " When they had sung an
hymn." " The proper Psalms for the Even
ing Service on Easter-day are the two
opening and the last Psalms of the Hallel.
They formed, as it seems, the closing service
of praise from Scripture, and were used by
our Lord before He suffered."— Blunt, Theol.
Diet. 301.
HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE.
A conference appointed by James I. at
Hampton Court, in 1603, in order to settle
the disputes between the Church and the
Puritans. Nine bishops, and as many dig
nitaries of the Church, appeared on one side,
and four Puritan ministers on the other.
It lasted for three days, Jan. 14, 16, and 18.
On the third day the king became so en
raged with the Puritans that he broke up
the conference, and the result was a few
slight alterations in the Rturgy; the men
tion of the baptizing of infants by women,
which had been practised in our Church for
many hundred years, was omitted, but not
expressly forbidden (though the service and
rubrics speak only of the " priest") ; "remis
sion of sins " was inserted in the rubric of
absolution ; confirmation termed " laying on
of hands;" all the thanksgivings, except the
general one, were inserted in the Prayer
Book; to the catechism was annexed the
whole of the latter portion, relative to the
two sacraments ; and some words were
altered in the dominical lessons, with a view
to a new translation of the sacred volume.
—CardweU, Conf. pp. 217-225.
HATCHMENT; more properly
ACHIEVEMENT. In heraldry, the whole
armorial bearings of any person fully em
blazoned, with shield, crest, supporters,
&c. This word is used in particular for
the emblazonment of arms hung up in
churches, in memory of a gentleman of
coat armour, or one of any higher degree.
There was formerly much of religion in
heraldry; and as the coat was assumed
with a religious feeling, so was it at last

restored to the sanctuary, in token of thank
ful acknowledgment to Almighty God, with
whose blessing it had been borne.
HEALING, OFFICE OF. This was
published " by his majesty's command " in
1686, and is said to be that which was used
in the time of Henry VII. The office is
given in Maskell's Monumenta, voL , iii
p. 386 (1882) (See King's Evil; Cramp
Rings). [H.] *
HEARSE, or HERSE. French, herse ;
radically the same as harrow; Sw. harf-
Dan. harve. The word signifies (i.) a har
row; (ii.) a frame for lights in triangular
shape, like a harrow, with many branches or
candlesticks ; (iii.) a wooden or metal frame
to support the pall laid over a bier in a
church, with lights upon it. • There are good
examples at Tanfield, .Hurstpierpont, and
the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick; (iv.)a
temporary monument, much adorned with
images, and illuminated with tapers, set up
in churches, and left sometimes for a year ;
(v.) the place in which a dead corse is
deposited (e.g. " King Henry's hearse"
(Shakespeare, Henry VI. Pt. 1) ; (vi.) a horse-
litter for the dead ; or a funeral car on which
the body is laid. Jeremy Taylor speaks
of strewing the herse with flowers. At the
present time the latter is the meaning to
which the word is restricted. — Todd's John
son ; Walcott, Sac. Arch. 311. [H.]
HEATHEN. Literally "dwellers on
the heath ; " hence inhabitants of wild or
remote districts who were the last to be con
verted. Compare " Pagan," from paganw,
a villager. See Professor Skeat's Dictionary,
and Archbp. Trench's Study of Words.
HEAVEN. Sax. heafen, hefen, heofen,
from heafan, to heave. An elevated or
arched place. Among Christians it implies
that place where God affords a nearer and
more immediate view of himself, and a more
sensible manifestation of his glory, than in
other parts of the universe. It is spoken of'
as the abode of angels and saints (St.
Matt, xviii. 10 : xxii. 30, &c). That it is a
place as well as a state, is clear from St. John
xiv. 2, 3, and from the existence of our
Lord's body there. [H.]
HEBDOMAD ARIUS. The priest whose
weekly turn it was to perform the divine
offices in cathedrals and colleges. In some
foreign cathedrals it is the designation of
a clergyman corresponding to our minor
canons, &c. In the Scottish universities
the name was given to one of the superior
members, whose weekly turn it was to su
perintend the discipline of the students.
The office was effectively exercised at St.
Andrew's, at least, till of late years.
HELL (Anglo-Saxon* and Icelandic, hdl,
helle, liela; Ger. Hblle, a "cavern;" "con
cealed place;" a "mansion of the dead").

HELL
I. Three entirely different words in the
original language of the New Testament
are rendered in our version by the single
word "hell." (1) The first of these is
Hades, which occurs eleven times in the
New Testament, and in the Authorised
Version is in every case but one translated
¦"heU." Now Hades is never used to de
note the place of final torment, the regions
of the damned ; but signifies " the place of
departed spirits," whether good or bad —
the place where they are kept until the
day of judgment, when they shall be re
united to their bodies, and go each to his
appointed destiny. (2) Another word,
Gehenna, signifies the place of torment, —
the eternal abode of the wicked. At the
time when our translation was made, and
the Prayer Book compiled, the English
word " hell " had a more extensive meaning
than it has at present. It originally signi
fied to cover over or conceal, and it is still
used in this sense in several parts of
England, where, for example, to cover a
church or a house with a roof is to hell the
building, and the person by whom it is
done is called a hellier. But the word also
denoted the place of future misery, and is
accordingly used in that sense in the New
Testament, as the translation of Gelienna ;
and in consequence of the changes which
our language has experienced during the
last two hundred years, it is now restricted
to this particular meaning (See Gehenna).
(3) St. Peter uses another word, which is
also translated "hell," in the passage, "If
God spared not the angels that sinned, but
cast them down to hell," &c. (2 St. Peter,
ii. 4). Here the original word is Tdprapos,
which impUes the lowest degradation.
II. Bearing in mind that Hades was
translated by the word " hell," for want of
another more exactly corresponding with
the original, it will readily be perceived that
¦the article in the Creed, " He descended into
hell," does not refer to the place of final
misery, but to that general receptacle of
all departed human souls, both penitent
and impenitent, where they are reserved in
a state of comparative enjoyment or misery,
to wait the morning of the resurrection,
when their bodies being united to their
souls, they will be advanced to complete
felicity or woe, in heaven or hell.
It was necessary that our Lord's death
should be attended with all those circum
stances which mark the death of men.
Christ was possessed of a human nature,
both body and soul, beside his Divinity.
The body of man at death sinks to the
grave; and the soul goes to Hades, or the
place of departed spirits. In like manner
the body of our Lord was laid in the tomb,
but his soul went to the general repository

HENOTICON

377

of human disembodied spirits, " the lower
parts of the earth " (Ps. xvi. 10 ; Eph.
iv. 9, with Ps. Ixiii. 9, and Isa. v. 14).
Hades, the place of departed souls, not
Gehenna, the place of , condemnation;
because if it relate to the place of either
bliss or misery, it must be the former, in
consistence with the Lord's promise to the
penitent thief (St. Luke xxiii. 43). Five
different opinions which have been enter
tained with regard to our Lord's descent
into hell are given by Bishop Pearson in
his work on the Creed.
The sound conclusion as to the whole,
and what our belief might be, is, perhaps,
first, as to fact, that the soul of Christ,
separated from his body by death, did go
into the common place of departed spirits,
in order that he might appear, both alive
and dead, as perfect man. All that was
necessary for our redemption, by way of
satisfaction, was effected on the cross. The
exhibition of what was there merited was
effected by his resurrection; and between
these, he satisfied the law of death.
Secondly, as to the effect. As the grave and
hell had no power over him, the " head," so
neither shall it have over " the members."
By his descent he freed us from all fear, by
his resurrection and ascension he has se
cured our hope ; and thus through " death,
destroyed him that hath the power of death,
that is, the devil."— Pearson on the Creed,
v. 251 (See Bp. Horsley, Sermon xx.). [H]
HENOTICON (ivorns). An edict pro
mulgated by the emperor Zeno in the
year 482, with the intention of settling
the manifold dissensions which were then
troubling Church and State. In it the
Creed of the Nicene and Constantinopolitan
Councils was recognised as the only one
allowed by the Church ; and the Nestorians
and Eutychians were pronounced heretics.
Christ Jesus was declared to possess two
natures, in one of which He was opooia-ios,
of one substance with the Father ; and in
the other opooio-tos with us. Thus the
doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon were
fully recognised, although no reference is
made to it. This formula of union was
calculated to unite the more considerate of
both parties, and in Egypt the " Henoticon "
was extensively embraced. But the bishops
of Rome were opposed to it, and were able
to render it generally inefficient. It was
composed by Acacius, patriarch of Constan
tinople, and was addressed to the bishops
and faithful in Alexandria, Libya, Egypt,
and Pentapolis. But it was only the
expression of individual opinion, and had
not the sanction of a general council. —
Evagrius, Hist. Eccl. iii. 14; Gibbon,
Decline and Fall, c. xlvii. ; Diet. Christ.
Biog. s. v. [H.]

378

HERESIARCH

HERESIARCH. A leader in heresy.
HERESY. __ This word is derived from
the Greek, a'ipea-is, a choice, and it means
an arbitrary adoption, in matters of faith, of
opinions at variance with the doctrines
delivered by Christ and the Apostles, and
received by the Catholic Church. At the
same time we may remark, that it is gene
rally agreed that the opinion must be per
tinaciously and obstinately held, in order
to constitute formal heresy. And if there
be a legitimate doubt in a controversy
which of two contrary doctrines is stated in
Scripture and received by the Church,
either may be held without heresy. It is
obvious, also, that mere ignorance, or a
temporary error in ignorance, is altogether
different from heresy.
I. Heresies began very early in the
Christian Church. Eusebius fixes the be
ginning of most of them to the reign of the
emperor Hadrian. And yet it is certain
that Simon Magus had published his errors
before that time, and set up a sect, which
gave rise to most of the ancient heresies.
The laws, both of the Church and State,
were very severe against those who were.
adjudged to be heretics. Those of the
State, made by the Christian emperors from
the time of Constantine, are comprised
under one title, De Hereticis, in the
Theodosian Code. The principal of them
are, (1) The general note of infamy affixed
to aR heretics in common. (2) All com
merce forbidden to be held with them. (3)
The depriving them of all offices of profit
and dignity. (4) The disqualifying them
to dispose of their estates by will, or receive
estates from others. (5) The imposing on
them pecuniary mulcts. (6) The pro
scribing and banishing them. (7) The in
flicting corporal punishment on them, such
as scourging, &c, before banishment. Be
sides these laws, which chiefly affected the
persons of heretics, there were several others,
which tended to the extirpation of heresy,
such as, (1) Those which forbade heretical
teachers to propagate their doctrines publicly
or privately. (2) Those which forbade
heretics to hold public disputations. (3)
Such laws as prohibited all heretical
meetings and assemblies. (4) Those which
denied to the children of heretical parents
their patrimony and inheritance, unless
they returned to the Church. And (5) Such
laws as ordered the books of heretics to be
burned. There were many other penal
laws made against heretics, from the time
of Constantine to Theodosius junior and
Valentinian III. But the few already
mentioned may be sufficient to give an idea
of the rigour with which the empire treated
such persons as held, or taught, opinions
contrary to the faith of the Catholic Church,

HERESY
wnose discipline towards heretics was no
less severe than the civil laws.
For, (1) The Church was accustomed to
pronounce a formal anathema or excommu
nication against them. Thus the Council
of Nice ends her creed with an anathema
against all those who opposed the doctrine
there delivered. And there are innumer
able instances of this kind to be found in
the volumes of the Councils. (2) Some
canons debarred them from the very lowest
privileges of Church communion, forbidding
them to enter into the church, so much as
to hear the sermon, or the Scriptures read
in the service of the catechumens. But
this was no general rule, for liberty was
often granted to heretics to be present at
the sermons, in hopes of their conversion:
and the historians tell us that Chrysostom
by this means brought over many to ac
knowledge the Divinity of Christ, whilst
they had liberty to come and hear his
sermons. (3) The Church prohibited all
persons, under pain of excommunication, to
join with heretics in any religious offices.
(4) By the laws of the Church, no one was
to eat, or converse familiarly with heretics,
or to read their writings, or to contract any
affinity with them : their names were to be
be struck out of the Diptychs, or sacred
registers of the Church ; and, if they died
in heresy, no psalmody, or other solemnity,
was to be used at their funeral. (5) The
testimony of heretics was not to he taken
in any ecclesiastical cause whatever. These
are the chief ecclesiastical laws against
heretics. As to the terms of penance imposed upon
relenting heretics, or such as were willing
to renounce their errors, and be reconciled
to the Church, they were various, and
differed according to the canons of different
councils, or the usages of different Churches.
The Council of Eliberis (soon after a.d. 300)
appoints ten years' penance, before repenting
heretics are admitted to communion. The
Council of Agde (a.d. 506) contracted this
term into that of three years. The Council
of Epone (a.d. 517) reduced it to two years
only. The ancient Christian Church made a
distinction between such heretics as contu
maciously resisted the admonitions of the
Church, and such as never had any ad
monition given them, for none were reputed
formal heretics, or treated as such, till the
Church had given them a first and second
admonition, according to the Apostles' rule.
The principal sects of heretics, which
disturbed the peace of the Church, sprung
up in tbe first six centuries : most of the
heresies, in after ages, being nothing but
the old ones new vamped, or revived. The
following table may serve to give the

HERESY .
reader a compendious view of the most
remarkable of the ancient heresies. Fuller
accounts are given under the different
headings. century I.
1. The Simonians, or followers of Simon
Magus. 2. Cerinthians and Ebionites, fol
lowers of Cerinthus and Ebion. 3. The
Mcolaites, followers of Nicolas, deacon of
Antioch. CENTURY II.
4. The Basilidians, followers of Basilides
of Alexandria. 5. The Carpocratians, fol
lowers of Carpocrates of Alexandria. 6. The
Valentinians, followers of Valentinus. 7.
The Gnostics ; so called from their pretences
to superior knowledge (yvao-is). 8. The Naza-
renes ; who ingrafted the law of Moses on
Christianity, &c. 9. The Millenarians or
Chiliasts ; so called because they expected
to reign with Christ a thousand years upon
the earth. 10. The Cainites ; a branch
of the Valentinians. 11. The Sethians;
who held that Seth, the son of Adam, was
the Messiah. 12. The Quartodecimans ;
who observed Easter on the fourteenth day
of the first month, in conformity to the
Jewish custom of keeping the Passover.
13. The Cerdonians, followers of Cerdon.
14. The Marcionites, followers of Marcion.
15. The Cataphrygians, or Montanists.
16. The Encratites, or Tatianists, followers
of Tatian. 17. The Alogians ; so called.
because they denied the Divinity of the
Word. 18. The Artotyrites ; so called, be
cause they offered bread and cheese in the
Eucharist (apros, ripos). 19. The Angelics ;
so called, because they worshipped angels.
CENTURY HI.
20. The Monarchici, or Patripassians,
followers of Praxeas. 21. The Arabici.
22. The Aquarians ; who used only water in
the Eucharist. 23. The Novatians. 24. The
Origenists, followers of Origen. 25. The
Melchisedechians ; who held Melchisedech
to be the Messiah. 26. The Sabellians,
followers of Sabellius. 27. The Manicheans,
followers of Manes. century rv.
28. The Arians, followers of Arius. 29.
The Colluthians, followers of Colluthus.
30. The Macedonians; who denied the
Divinity of the Holy Ghost. 31. The
Agnoete ; who denied the certainty of the
Divine prescience. 32. The Apollinarians,
followrs of Apollinaris. 53. The Timo-
tlieans ; who held that our Saviour was
incarnate only for the benefit and advan
tage of our bodies. 34. The Collyridians ;
so called, because they made a kind of god
dess of the Blessed Virgin, and offered cakes

HERESY

379

to her. 35. The Seleucians, followers of Se-
leucus. 36. The Priscillianists, followers
of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop. 37. The
Anthropomorphites ; so called, because they
ascribed a body to God. 38. The Jovinia-
nists, followers of Jovinian ; who denied the
virginity of Mary. 39. The Messalians ;
who chiefly pretended to prophecy. 40. The
Bonosians, followers of Bonosus.
CENTURY V.
41. The Pelagians, followers of Pelagius.
42. Nestorians, followers of Nestorius. 43.
The Eutychians, followers' of Eutyches.
44. The Theopaschites,, followers of Petrus
Fullo, bishop of Antioch.
CENTURY VI.
45. The Predestinarians ; so called, be
cause they held that the salvation or damna
tion of „en is pre-ordained, and that no
man is saved or damned by his works.
46. The Aphthartodocetes, or Incorrupt-
ibilists; so called, because they held that
our Saviour's body was incorruptible, and
exempt from passion. 47. A second sect
of Agnoete ; so called, because they held
that our Blessed Saviour, when upon earth,
did not know the day of judgment. 48. The
Monotheletes ; who held that there was but
one will in Jesus Christ.
These were the principal sects of here
tics, which, in those early ages, infested
the Christian Church. The succeeding
ages produced a great variety of heretics
likewise ; as the Gnosimachi and Lampe-
tians, in the seventh century ; the Agony-
elites in the eighth; the Berengarians,
Simoniacs, and Vecilians, in the eleventh ;
the Bogomiles, in the twelfth ; the Fratri-
celli and Beguards, in the thirteenth ; to
enumerate all which would require too much
space. — Broughton, Bibliotheca, vol. i. ; Diet.
Christ. Ant 766.
II. In England the laws against heresy
have been very strict. By the common law
of the Church any bishop was empowered
to punish heresy canonically (Constit.
Arundel, a.d. 1408; Gibson's Codex, tit.
xvi. c. 2). By the statute law, bishops
were ordered to certify to the Lord High
Chancellorthepreachersof heretical doctrines,
and arrest and imprisonment was the pun
ishment (5 Rich. II. c. 5.). The most terrible
statute of all (" de Hasretico Comburendo ")
was passed in 1400 (2 Hen. IV. u. 15).
This Act was repealed by 25 Hen. VIII.
c. 14, though obstinate heretics were still
to be " committed by the king's writ to the
lay power, to bo burned in open places."
The Act 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14 for abol
ishing diversity of opinion in matters of
religion, adjudged that all who inpugned the
doctrine of transubstantiation should be

S80

HERESY

deemed heretics and, " suffer, execution by
way of burning." Four years later it was
•enacted that any indictment for heresy
must be by oath of twelve men (35
Hen. VIII. c. 5).
In the first year of Queen Elizabeth, an
Act of Parliament was passed to enable
persons to try heretics, and the following
directions were given for their guidance : —
" And such persons to whom the queen
shall by letters patent under the great
seal give authority to execute any juris
diction spiritual, shall not in anywise have
power to adjudge any matter or cause to
be heresy, but only such as heretofore
have been adjudged to be heresy by the
authority of the canonical Scriptures, or
¦by some of the first four general councils,
or by any other general council wherein
the same was declared heresy by the ex
press and plain words of the said canoni
cal Scriptures, or such as hereafter shall
be judged or determined to be heresy by
• the high court of parliament, with the as
sent of the clergy in their convocation."
The last writs "de Hasretico Combu-
rendo" were issued in the ninth year of
James I.'s reign, when Legate was burned
for Arianism, and Neile for holding the
iheresies of Ebion, Cerinthus, Arius, &c,
"which he obstinately held and main
tained" (Gibson's Cod., f. 353). The
Brief "de ha?retico " was finally annulled by
the Act 29 Car. II. c. 9. There were other
Acts against heresy, as for instance, that of
¦2 Hen. V. c. 7, which ordered the lands
and goods of any convicted Lollard (see
Lollards) to be escheated (Constit. Arund.,
a.d. 1408). This Act was repealed by
1 Edw. VI. c. 12, revived in Queen Mary's
reign, and finally annulled by 1 Eliz. c. 1.
The Act 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 13 made it a
part of the vow of bishops and priests that they
will " banish and drive away all erroneous
and strange doctrines, contrary to God's
word ; " and reference has been made to the
Act in the first year of Queen Elizabeth, by
which heresy was to be judged "by the
authority of Holy Scriptures, or by some of
the first four general councils, or by Parlia
ment with the assent of convocation." But
the only practical or legal meaning of heresy
now is the teaching of doctrines contrary to
the Prayer Book or the Articles, for which
deprivation is the punishment, unless the
heresy is retracted, under the Act 13 Eliz.
c. 12, under which Mr. Heath and Mr.
Voysey were deprived by the two provin
cial judges, and their decisions affirmed by
the Privy Council in quite recent times.
It would be impossible to state what is
heresy, under the legal term. As an eccle
siastical offence heresy has died away, and
is not even mentioned in modern books.

HERMENEUT_
In a case — Regina v. Stone — Lord Stowell
quoting the above Act, which makes it
an offence to affirm any doctrine contrary
to the 39 Articles, gave judgment against
Stone, but stated that, as temporal judge
he had no power to inflict sentence of de
privation. The Bishop of London there
fore attended the court for the purpose
(Hagg. Cons. 424; Cripps, Eccles. Law.v
585, Ed. 1845). But all that is gone, and the
Dean of Arches can deprive, as was decided
in Bonwell's case. In ecclesiastical courts
of late years trials have been held rather in
respect of the legitimacy of certain vest
ments, than with regard to heresy, and
though in the case of those who hold office in
the Church the law may be invoked, there
may be in every other case entire freedom.
There are at the present time more than
170 sects, more or less antagonistic ito
the Church of England (see Sects). — Philli-
more's Ecc. Law; Palmer's Treatise, i. 14;
Bltmt's Theol. Diet 306 ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, iii. 191, 376. [H.]
HERETIC. Dr. Johnson, in his dic
tionary, defines a heretic to be, " one who
propagates his private opinions in oppo
sition to the Catholic Church ; '; and the
Catholic or universal Church, in the second
general council, has pronounced those to
be heretics "who, while they pretend to
confess the sound faith, have separated and
held meetings contrary to our canonical
bishops." — Cone. Const. Can. 6.
A man may be erroneous in doctrine
and yet not a heretic ; for heresy is a per
tinacious adherence to an opinion when it
is known that the Church has condemned
it (See the preceding article).
Although the Scripture only is our guide,
there are certain points of disputable doc
trine on which the Church Universal has
decided, e.g. the doctrine of the Trinity;
and he who refuses " to hear the Church"
on these points, is held a heretic by
the Chm-ch Universal. There are certain
points on which our own Church has de
cided, e.g. the doctrine of transubstan
tiation, and he who holds this doctrine is
regarded as a heretic by the Church of
England. HERMENEUT_ (From ipprpiia, to
interpret). Persons in the ancient Church,
mentioned by Epiphanius (Expos. Fidei. n.
21), whose business it was to render one lan
guage into another, as there was occasion,
both in reading the Scriptures, and in the
homilies that were made to the people;
an office which was very important in those
Churches where the people spoke different
languages, as in Palestine, where some
spoke Syriac, others Greek ; and in Africa,
where some spoke the Latin, and others
the Punic tongue.

HERMENEUTICS
HERMENEUTICS (From ippnveva, to
interpret). The science of interpretation
of the sacred Scriptures. It differs from
exegesis inasmuch as its province is to
discover the real meaning of the words and
idioms of the text, while the latter implies
the exposition Of this meaning.
HERMIT or EREMITE (ipnpiTr)s),\it. an
inhabitant of the desert — 6 iv ipr)p<p Sta-
yw (Suidas, s. v.). The word includes all
dwellers in the desert, who lived, some in
communities, some in individual seclusion :
but it is commonly used to imply one who
lived a solitary life, generally in a cave or
rude hut of his own construction, and prac
tised the greatest austerities. — Evagr. H. E.
i. 21 ; Soz. vi. 29, 34 ; Aug. de Mor. Eccles.
c. 31 ; Fleury (Newman's Ed.), xx. 5 (See
Monks ; Coenobites ; Anchorets). [H.]
HERMITAGES, calledby St Chrysostom
ohdaKoi Kpavyrjs a7rrjKKayopevoi, were cells
constructed in private and soRtary places
for single persons, or for small commu
nities, and were sometimes annexed to larger
religious houses.
HETERODOX (Gk. iripos, and 8o'|a—
opposed to orthodox, op86s and 8d|a, right
opinion). Contrary to the faith or doctrine
established in the true Church.
HEXAPLA. A book containing the
Hebrew text of the Bible written in He
brew and Greek characters, with the trans
lations of the Septuagint, of Aquila, Theo-
dotion, and Symmachus, in six several
columns. There was added to it a fifth
translation, found at Jericho, without the
author's name ; and a sixth, named Nico-
politanum, because found at Nicopolis:
Origen joined to it a translation of the
Psalms, but still the book retained the name
of Hexapla, because the fifth and six trans
lations did not extend to the whole Bible ;
and so the same book of Origen had but six
columns in divers places, eight in some, and
nine in the Psalms. Others are of opinion
that the two columns of the Hebrew text
were not reckoned ; and that the translation
of the Psalms was not to be considered so
as to give a new name to the book. When
the edition contained only the translations
of the Septuagint, Aquila, Theodotion, and
Symmachus, it was called Tetrapla, and the
name of Octapla was sometimes given to
the eight versions, that is, to tbe collections
containing the translations of Jericho and
Nicopolis. Ruffinus, speaking of this ela
borate work, affirms that Origen undertook
it because of the continual controversies
between the Jews and Christians : the Jews
citing the Hebrew, and the Christians the
Septuagint, in their disputes, this father
was willing to let the Christians understand
how the Jews read the Bible ; and to this
end he laid the versions of Aquila, and

HISTORIANS

381

some other Greek translations, before them,
which had been made from the Hebrew ;
but few people being able to buy so great a
work, Origen undertook to abridge it, and
for that purpose published a version of the
Septuagint, to which he added some supple
ments, taken out of Theodotion's trans
lation, in the places where the Septuagint
had not rendered the Hebrew text ; and
which supplements were marked with an
asterisk, fie added also a small line like a
spit, where the Septuagint had something
that was not in the Hebrew text. The loss
of the Hexapla is one of the greatest which
the Church has sustained. But a few frag
ments remain, published by Montfaucon, in
1713 ; and by Bahrdt (an abridgment, and
not a very skilful one, of the former,) in
1769. Dr. Field, whose work was published
in 1875, has not only revised Montfaucon's
work, but added the result of further
researches (See Diet Christ Biog).
HIERARCHY (See Bishops). A
designation equally applied to the ranks of
celestial beings in the Jerusalem above, and
to the apostolic order of the ministry in the
Church below. In reference to the latter,
it is an error to suppose that it necessarily
implies temporal distinction, wealth, splen
dour, or any other adjuncts with which the
ministry may, in certain times and countries,
have been distinguished. These are mere
accidents, which prejudice has identified
with the being of a hierarchy, but from
which no just inference can be drawn
against the inherent spiritual dignity of the
Christian priesthood.
HIGH PRIEST. The highest person in
the divinely appointed ecclesiastical polity
of the Jews. To him in the Christian
Church answers the bishop, the presbyter
answering to the priest, and the deacon to
the Levite.
HISTORIANS, ECCLESIASTICAL.
Those writers who record the acts and
monuments of the Christian Church. After
the evangelical historians, the most dis
tinguished is Hegesippus, who lived princi
pally in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (a.d.
161-180). He wrote five books of eccle
siastical history, called Commentaries of the
Acts of the Church, wherein he described
the character of the holy Apostles, their
missions, &c, tbe remarkable events in the
Church, and the several heresies, schisms,
and persecutions which had afflicted it from
our Lord's death to the writer's own times.
All the writings of Hegesippus are now lost
except a few fragments. Next follows
Eusebius, bishop of Csesarea, about a.d. 315
to 339, a pupil of Pamphilus, on which
account he is often called Eusebius Pamphili.
He wrote an ecclesiastical history in ten
books, comprising a history of the Church

382

HILARY

from our Lord's birth to the conversion of
Constantine the Great, which he compiled
chiefly from the commentary of Hegesippus.
St. Jerome and Nicephorus derive the
materials of their history from Eusebius.
The histories written by Socrates, Theo
doret, and Sozomen, relate to their own
times only : 4th and 5th centuries. These
are the sources from which all modern
historians of the early Church derive their
materials. Excellent translations of the
early Church, historians have lately been
published by Messrs. Clark, Edinburgh.
HILARY, Bishop and Confessor. Com
memorated in the English Calendar on
January 13. He was appointed bishop of
Poitiers, the place of his birth, about a.d.
354. A strong upholder of the orthodox
faith against the Arian heresy, he was
banished by the emperor Constantius for
his defence of St. Athanasius. In the East
he boldly defended the doctrine of the
Trinity at the Council of Seleucia, in Isau-
ria, a.d. 359. Afterwards he returned to
Gaul, and convened several councils for the
condemnation of the Arian bishops. He
died a.d. 367. To him has been sometimes
assigned the composition of the " Te Deum " ;
but that honour is also given to his name
sake Hilary of Aries, a.d. 440, or (more com
monly) to St. Ambrose (See Te Deum).
Hilary Term in the Courts of Law used
to begin on this festival: but now begins
January 11, and lasts till January 31. [H.]
HOLY CROSS DAY. Observed in the
calendar on September 14. It commemo
rates the exhibition of the True Cross in
the Basilica built by the empress Helena at
Jerusalem in 326 (See Invention of the
Cross). [H.]
HOLY COMMUNION. I. This is one
of the names given to the Lord's Supper,
and is due to St. Paul's language in his
First Epistle to the Corinthians. " The cup
of blessing," he writes, " which we bless, is
it not a communion (koivohvio.) of the blood
of Christ ? The bread which we break, is
it not a communion of the body of Christ?"
(1 Cor. x. 16). "He does not indeed,"
remarks Waterland, "directly call the
Sacrament by this name, as others have
done since ; he was signifying what the
thing is, or what it does, rather than how
it was then called " (Waterland, Works, iv.
473). But undoubtedly his account gave
the first occasion for the name, and from
him it found its way into use in the Church.
In the earlier centuries it does not occur
except in the somewhat doubtful Apostolical
Canons, but we find the word communio
in the time of Cyprian, i.e. about the middle
of the third century. In the following age,
it became very common, both in the Greek
and Latin Fathers. Thus Hilary, about the

HOLY COMMUNION
middle of the fourth century, styles the
Lord's Supper the " Communion of the Holy
Body," or the " Sacrament of the Holy
Communion," or the " Communion of the
Everlasting Sacraments." Basil and Chryso
stom have sometimes the single word
" Communion " to denote the Eucharist
sometimes the " Communion of the Good
Thing," or of " the Mysteries " (Basil, Epist.
Can. prima ad Amphiloch, p. 273 ; Chryso
stom, Horn. x. in Johannem). The Latin
term is Communio, or Communication Par-
ticipatio, and the meaning of the word may
be reduced under three heads : (1) In refer
ence to the communion we therein enjoy
with Christ and with each other; (2) _>"'
reference to the religious banquet of which ¦',
we partake in common with our fellow
Christians; (3) in reference to our being
therein made partners of Christ's kingdom.
II. The earliest account of the Holy Com
munion. — The earliest description of the
Holy Communion is to be found in Justin
Martyr's account of the celebration of the
Eucharist for the newly baptized. This
portion of the series is described as follows
(Apol. i. 65, 66): "Having ended the
prayers, we salute one another with a kiss,
Then is presented to the brother who presides
bread and a cup of wine mixed with water
(Kpdparos), and he, receiving them, sends
up praise and glory to the Father of all,
through the name of the Son and of the-
Holy Ghost, and offers a thanksgiving
(evxapioria) for that He hath vouchsafed
to us these blessings. And when he has
finished the prayers and the thanksgivings,
all the people present respond by saying
Amen. . . . And when the president has
given thanks, and all the people have re
sponded, those who are called among us
deacons give to each of those who are present
to partake of the bread and wine mixed with
water, over which thanks have been given,
and carry a portion to those not present, to
them alone." It is to be observed that no
account is here given of the posture or
gesture either of the ministrant or recipient,
nor are we told anything as regards the
precise words used at the administration.
All that Justin tells us is that after the
Evxapioria, those whom " we call deacons
give to each of those present to partake of the
bread and of the wine mixed with water,
over which thanks have been,and carry away
to those who are not present."
III. Wlio communicated ? — Justin helps us
to answer this question. He expressly tells
us that the deacon gave "to each of those
present." We find the same in all the early
accounts of Holy Communion. Thus Ter
tullian states that in the African Church of
the second century, " the Eucharist was ad
ministered to all who were present" (-0e

HOLY COMMUNION
Oratione, c. 14), and similarly Cyprian (De
Lapsis, c. 25) speaks of the deacon as pre-
seuting the cup, and says " this food is called
among us Evxapioria, the Eucharist," of
which no one is allowed to partake except
one who believes that the things taught by
us are true, and who has passed through the
washing for the remission of sins and new
birth, and so lives as Christ commanded.
For not as common bread or common drink
do we receive these ; but in like manner as
Jesus Christ our Saviour, having become
incarnate by the Word of God, formed both
flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise
have we been taught that the food which is
blessed by the utterance in prayer of His
Word (or of the Word derived from Him), is
the flesh and blood of that incarnate Jesus.
For the Apostles, in the memoirs which they
wrote, which are called Gospels, transmitted
to us that Jesus Christ thus charged them ;
that after taking bread and giving thanks,
He said, " Do this in remembrance of me :
this is My body; " and in like manner, after
taking the cup and giving thanks, He said,
' This is My Blood,' and gave it after conse
cration to all present, and probably in a
certain order." This order is further illus
trated in the second book of the Apostolical
Constitutions, C. Rv. c. 4, where mention is
made of each rank severally partaking of
the Lord's Body and of the precious Blood,
" approaching as to the Body of a king," and
of "the women drawing near with veiled
heads, as becomes the rank of women."
Origen (In Exodum, Horn. xi. c. 7) also
distinctly states that " after the sermon the
people drew near to the Marriage Supper of
the Lamb," and " that not the priest only,
but the faithful also who were present,
received the Sacrament;" and we learn
much the same from St. Cyril (Cat.
Mystag. 20, 22) of Jerusalem, c. a.d. 350.
One class only seems to have been permitted
to be present without communicating, viz.
the consistentes, or fourth class of penitents.
IV. Reception under both kinds. — In none
of the above, or in fact any early accounts
of the administration of the Holy Eucharist,
do we find any trace of the reception other
wise than under both kinds. This is ad
mitted even by Cardinal Bona (Rer. Liturg.
ii. 18), who acknowledges that "the faithful
always and in all places, from the first begin
nings of the Church till the twelfth century,
were used to communicate under the species
of bread and wine," and the Council of
Constance itself confesses that " in the primi
tive Church this Sacrament was received in
both kinds by the people." The danger ot
spilling the consecrated wine led to the dis
continuance of administering the chalice
but only at a very late period ; and the Greek
Church, more ancient than the Roman, " still

HOLY COMMUNION

333

communicates her eighty millions nf believers
in both kinds." There were three different
ways by which the laity were communicated
with the consecrated wine : either the deacon
put the chalice to their mouths, which was
the method anciently in use ; or they sucked
the wine through a reed or pipe, which was
the custom generally in the middle ages ; or
they took the Lord's Body dipped in the
consecrated wine, which method was uni
versally in use after the twelfth century
(Mabillon in Pref. Sec. iii. Benedict.), and
is still the practice in the East.
V. Mode of reception. — There is abundant
proof that the Eucharistic bread was de
livered into the hand of the communicant.
Thus St. Augustine (C. Litt. Petiliani, ii.
23) speaks of a bishop into ivhose hands
his correspondent was wont to place the
Eucharist ; Chrysostom (Horn. xx. ad Pof.
Antioch. c. 7) speaks of the need of having
clean hands to receive the holy species ; ana-
Ambrose asks Theodosius (Theodoret, Hist.
Eccles. v. 17) how he could venture to receive
the Lord's Body in the hands still dripping
with the murder of innocent persons. The
custom was for the men to hold out the naked
right hand, hollowing the palm, and placing
the left hand under it, " as a throne for the
right, as for that which is to receive]a King "
(St. Cyril Hierosol. Cat. Myst.Y.). Sometimes
it was directed that the hands should be
disposed in the form of a cross. But before
the end of the sixth century the women
were directed to hold in their hands a linen
napkin (Dominicale), and were not allowed to
receive the Body of Christ in the naked hand.
But this custom was unknown to the Greek
fathers, and was virtually censured by the
Trullan Council, a.d. 692.
VI. The words used at the administra
tion. — In early times, the celebrant, as he
delivered the Eucharist to each individually,
said, " The Body of Christ " (Apost Const
viii. 14, 3). " Audis enim Corpus Christi, et
respondes. Amen." August. Serm. 272) ; or
according to the Liturgy of St. Mark, " The
Holy Body ; " and, as he delivered the cup,
" Ite Blood of Christ," the " Cup of Life," or
" the Precious Blood of our Lord and God
and Saviour." In the time of Gregory the
Great he said, " The Body of our Lord Jesus
Christ preserve thy soul," to which, by the
time of Alcuin, was added, " unto everlasting
life." Another form was, " The Body and
Blood of the Lord avail (prosit) thee for the
remission of sins, and for everlasting life"
(Ex Sacram. Gregoriano — " Corpus Domini
et Sanguis prosit tibi ad remissionem pecca-
torum et ad Vitam asternam "). The usual
form in England appears to have been, " The
Body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve thy
body and soul unto everlasting life."
VII. The responsive Amen. — To the words

384

HOLY COMMUNION

of the celebrant the communicant answered
in ancient times, " Amen." This custom is
attested in the East by the Apostolical Con
stitutions and St. Cyril (Cat. Myst. c. v.),
and in the West by Tertullian (De Spectac.
c. 25), Augustine, Jerome and Leo. It is di
rected in the Scotch Liturgy of 1637, and
is recommended by Bishops Andrewes and
Cosin. , VIII. Days of Communion. — The words
of St. Luke in Acts ii. 46 are generally under
stood to prove that "the breaking of the
bread" for Holy Communion took place daily
in the primitive Chm-ch. When St. Paul is
represented as "breaking bread" solemnly
it was on the Lord's Day, the first day of
the week (Acts xx. 7) ; and when in his first
Epistle to the Corinthians (xvi. 1) he orders
collections to be made on the first day of
the week, he seems to have desired to
associate alms-giving with the celebration
of the Holy Eucharist. Pliny (Epist. x. 97)
represents the Bithynian Christians as
sembling for the Eucharist "stato die,"
and this day Justin Martyr distinctly
identifies with Sunday, " the day on which
God made the light, and on which Christ
arose from the dead." But as early as the
second century Christians in the West had
celebrations on three days in the week, i.e.
on the Lord's Day, and on station days,
i.e. Wednesdays and Fridays (Tertull.
de Oratione, c. 19, " Statio solvenda ac-
cepto Corpore Domini "). To these, in the
fourth century, a fourth was added, though
chiefly in the Eastern Chm-ch, viz. the
Sabbath, or Saturday (Basil, Epist. 289).
But in process of time, daily celebration
of the Holy Eucharist became general,
though there was no uniformity of discipline
in the different Churches (St. August. Ep.
118, ad Januar. : " Alibi nulla dies quo non
offeretur; alibi Sabbato tantum et Dominico ;
alibi tantum Dominico "). For while in some
no day passed without a celebration (Cyprian,
Epist. 98, c. 9 ; de Orat. Dom. xiii.), in
others it was only on the Sabbath and on
the Lord's Day ; in others only on the Lord's
Day. After the sixth century, however, as
is plain from the Gelasian and Gregorian
Sacramentaries, a daily celebration was
common in all the Churches, and probably
few, if any, exceptions can be found in
mediasval times. In the Prayer Book of
1549, a rubric before the first exhortation
makes provision for daily celebrations.
IX. Hour of Celebration. — When in Acts
xx. 7, 8, we find St. Paul " breaking bread "
in the Troad, it is clear that the service took
place after nightfall, and was not concluded
before midnight. Pliny (Ep. x. 97) tells us
that the Christians were accustomed to meet
before dawn, and while the persecutions
against the Church lasted, Christians held

HOLY-DAY
their services by night. Hence Tertullian
(Apol. c. 2 ; de Cor. Mil. c. 3) calls their as
semblies meetings held " before daybreak,"
and "in the night-time;" and Origen tells
Celsus (c. Celsum, i. 3) that it was to avoid
the death with which they were threatened,
that the faithful met together in secrecy and
darkness. But when the Church received
her liberty and peace, set hours began to-
be appointed for celebrations. On Sundays
and festivals the third hour of the day (nine
o'clock), when the Holy Spirit descended
upon the ApoStles, was fixed ; on ordinary
days, at the sixth hour (twelve o'clock);
in Lent and on other fast days, the ninth
hour (three o'clock) ; and this discipline
was kept up even down to the twelfth
century; it was relaxed, however, in the
thirteenth, and by the fourteenth century
celebrations took place at any hour between
sunrise and noon. Nightly celebrations
were common in the middle ages on the eves
of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, and on
the Saturdays of the Ember weeks.
X. Frequency of Communion. — The
rubric at the close of our service requires
that " every parishioner shall communicate
at the least three times in the year, of which
Easter is to be one." The ancient rule of
the Church seems to have considered weekly
communion essential, and to fail in this was
to be unworthy of Christian privileges.
Theodore of Tarsus testifies, about a.d. 698,
that this was the rule of the Church in the
East in his day. In the West the rule was
at an early period relaxed. Councils held at
Agde, a.d. 506, and Autun, a.d. 670, decreed
that " laymen who did not communicate at
Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, were not
to be considered as Catholics." " Let every
one who understands his own need," says the
Council of Ensham under St. Alphege, ajd.
1009, "prepare himself to go to Housel
(Communion) at least thrice in the year, so
as it is requisite for him." [G. F. M.]
HOLY-DAY. The day of some eccle
siastical festival. The rubric after the
Nicene Creed directs that "the curate
shall then declare to the people what holy-
days or fasting days are in the week fol
lowing to be observed."
Canon 64. " Every parson, vicar, or cu
rate shall, in his several charge, declare to
the people every Sunday, at the time ap
pointed in the Communion Book, whether
there be any holy-days or fasting days the
week following. And if any do hereafter
willingly offend herein, and, being once
admonished thereof by his ordinary, shall
again omit that duty, let him be censured
according to law until he submit himself
to the due performance of it."
Canon 13. "All manner of persons
within the Church of England shall from

HOLY GHOST
henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's
day, commonly called Sunday, and other
holy-days, according to God's will and
pleasure, and the orders of the Church of
England . prescribed on that behalf : that
is, in hearing the word of God read and
taught, in private and public prayers, in
acknowledging their .offences to God, and
amendment of the same, in reconciling
themselves charitably to their neighbours
where! displeasure has often been, in often
times receiving the communion of the body
and blood of Christ, in visiting of the poor
and sick, using all godly and sober con
versation." Canon 14. " The Common Prayer shall
be said or sung distinctly and reverently
upon such days as are appointed to be kept
holy by the Book of Common Prayer, and
their eves."
HOLY GHOST. The third Person of
the adorable Trinity.
"The Holy Ghost, proceeding from the
Father and the Son, is one of substance,
majesty, and glory with the Father and
the Son, very and eternal God." — Article V.
The name Ghost, or Gast, in the ancient
Saxon, signifies a spirit, to which the word
holy is applied, as signifying a communica
tion of the Divine holiness. Having been
baptized " in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," we
cannot say with the ignorant disciples, that
"we have not so much as heard whether
there be any Holy Ghost" (Acts xix. 2) ;
we are therefore called upon to believe in
the Holy Ghost as we do in the Father
and the Son; and for our authority in
considering him to be a person as well as
the others, we have not only the analogy
of faith, but sufficient evidence in holy
writ. First, he is plainly distinguishable from
the others ; from the Father, as proceeding
from Him (St. John xv. 26), and from the
Father and the Son, in being sent by one
from the other; " The Comforter, whom I,"
says our Lord, "will send unto you from
the Father;" "If I go net away, the
Comforter will not come unto you, but if I
depart, I will send him unto you " (St. John
xv. 26 ; xvi. 7). This was the Spirit pro
mised before of the Father (Isa. xliv.
3 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 25, with St. John xiv. 16 ;
Acts. i. 4 ; ii. 33). He is sometimes termed
" the Spirit of the Son," as well as of the
Father (Gal. iv. 6), and is given by the
Father (Eph. i. 17), and sent in his Son's
name (St. John xiv. 26), as at other times
by the Son (St. John xv. 26 ; xvi. 7 ; xx.
21, 22). "Blasphemy against the Holy
Ghost" (St. Matt. xii. 31) can only be
against a person.
Secondly, such properties, attributes, and

HOLY GHOST

385

acts are ascribed to him as are only appli
cable to a person. He is spoken of in
formal opposition to evil spirits, who are
clearly represented as persons (1 Sam. xvi.
14; 2 Chron. xviii. 20, 21) ; and if expres
sions are used not exactly suitable to our
conceptions of a person, this may well be
allowed without its making him a mere
quality or attribute. When God is said to
"give" the Holy Ghost "to them that
obey him" (Acts v. 32), it may be com
pared with similar passages respecting the
Son : " God so loved the world, that he
gave his only begotten Son," &c. (St. John
iii. 16), in conformity to the prophecy,
" Unto us a Son is given " (Isa. ix. 6).
Thirdly, he is also truly God, as is
proved from the titles given to him by fair
implication (Acts v. 3, 4 ; St. Luke i. 35 ; and
see 2 Sam. xxiii. 2, 3), and the attributes
of God (Job xxxiii. 4 ; Ps. cxxxix. 7 ; Isa.
xlv-iii. 16 ; with Acts xiii. 2 ; xx. 28 ; St.
Mark xiii. 11 ; Rom. viii. 14; xv. 13, 19; 1
Cor. ii. 11), and he is in two grand instances
united to the Father and the Son, in
perfect equality, — the form of baptism, by
which we are admitted into the Church of
God (St. Matt, xxviii. 19), and the apostolic
benediction, the common Christian saluta
tion (2 Cor. xiii. 14).
As he is the Holy Spirit of God, "the
Spirit of holiness" (Rom. i. 4), so is he
the cause of all holiness in man. That as
the Son, by his sacrifice, put us in the way
of salvation (St. John iii. 16); so must the
Holy Spirit co-operate in sealing " us
unto the day of redemption," through his
" sanctification," and " belief of the truth "
(Rom. viii. 16 ; 2 Cor. i. 22 ; v. 5; Gal. vi.
8; Eph. i. 13, 14; iv. 30; Phil. i. 19;
2 Thess. ii. 13; Tit. iii. 5), according as
he has been promised (Jer. xxxii. 40;
Ezek. xxxvi. 27 ; St. John vi. 44). . And
this he does by regenerating us at baptism
(St. Matt. iii. 11 ; St. John iii. 5 ; Gal. iv.
29 ; Tit. iii. 5), and making us the " sons
of God " (Rom. viii. 14-16 ; Gal. iv. 6), and
thus uniting us to our "head" (1 Cor. vi.
17 ; xii. 12, 13 ; Eph. iv. 4 ; 1 St. John iii.
24), and by instructing us in our duty
(Prov. i. 23; Ps. clxiii. 10; Isa. lix. 21; 1
Cor. ii. 10, 11; xii. 3 ; 2 Cor. iii. 3; Gal. v.
16, 25), illuminating the understanding
(Neh. ix. 20; Isa. xxxii. 15, 16; Ezek.
xxxvi. 27 ; Micah iii. 8 ; Rom. viii. 2, 5 ;
Eph. i. 17, 18 ; 1 St. John iii. 24; iv. 13),
disposing the will (Heb. iii. 7, 8 ; 1 Pet. i.
2, 22), settling us in the faith and love of
God (Rom. v. 5; 2 Cor. iv. 13 ; 2 Tim. i,
7), giving us power to obey (Zech. iv. 6 ;
2 Cor. iii. 17 ; Eph. iii. 16), helping us in
prayer (Zech. xii. 10 ; Rom. viii. 26 ; 1 Cor.
xiv. 15 ; St. Jude 20), and sanctifying us
(Rom. xv. 16; 1 Cor. vi. 11; Gal. v. 10).
2 c

386

HOLY INNOCENTS

And as his very name, "the Comforter,"
implies, he gives consolation and joy (Acts
ix. 31 ; Rom. xiv. 17 ; xv. 13 ; Gal. v. 22 ;
1 Thess. i. 6).
It is necessary, then, that we believe in
the Holy Ghost, as having been baptised to
God in his name ; and as we would receive the
apostolic benediction (2 Cor. xiii. 14 ; Phil.
ii. 1), and enjoy the kingdom of God on
earth, which is "righteousness, and peace,
and joy," in him (Rom. xiv. 17 ; Acts
xiii. 52) (See Procession ; Trinity).
HOLY INNOCENTS. This festival is
alluded to by St. Cyprian (Ep. 56, al. 58),
St. Hilary (in Matt. can. 1), St. Augus
tine (de Symb. 1. 3, c. 4), and other early
writers, who speak of it as of immemorial
observance. In many churches in England
a muffled peal is rung on this day (See
Innocents). [H.]
HOLY TABLE (&yia rpdvefr) (See
Altar). The altar on which the appointed
memorials of the death of Christ, namely,
the bread and wine, are presented before
God, as an oblation of thanksgiving, is
called the Lord's table, or the holy table ;
because his worshippers do there, as his
guests, eat and drink these consecrated
elements, in faith, to be thereby fed and
nourished unto eternal life, by the spiritual
food of his most precious body and blood.
HOLY THURSDAY. The day of our
Lord's ascension (See Ascension Day).
HOLY WEEK : called also the " Great
Week ; " the " Indulgence Week " (from the
great Absolution at Easter) ; and " Passion
Week." The week before Easter. Its ob
servance is of great antiquity, probably
dating up to the time of the Apostles.
Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, the pupil
and friend of Origen, speaks of it as generally
observed in his days. "Some," he says,
" continue the whole six days without eat
ing;, some add two days together, some
three, some four" (Epist. Canon, can. 1).
Epiphanius and other early historians refer
frequently to this holy season, and St. Chry
sostom in more than one place gives an
account of how it was observed (Horn. vi.
in Gen. ; Horn, in Ps. cxlv., fcc). " While
this week brings to a climax the penitence
and self-discipline of Lent, it naturally
absorbs both into the adoring contemplation
of the Passion and Resurrection of our Lord."
— Bp. Barry, P. B. p. 78 (See Maundy-
Thursday ; Good Friday ; Easter Eve ;
Lent). [H]
HOLY WATER (See Water).
HOMILY. From opiKla, a word which
implies, in the first place, "intercourse."
I. It was used specially to denote the
teaching of a philosopher in his school,
which was given in familiar conversation.
In ecclesiastical language it always implied

HOMILY
a religious address, founded on some passage
of Scripture. The earliest homilies known
are those of Origen ; but those of St. Clement
of Alexandria, of St. Chrysostom, of St.
Augustine, St. Athanasius, St. Gregory
Nazianzen, and of many other Fathers, are
expositions of the Scriptures of the highest
value. St. Augustine gave it as his opinion
that " those who have a good delivery, but
no power of composition, should adopt the
sermons of others " (De. Doct Chr. iv. 62).
From this arose the formation of collections
of homilies or sermons, which were much
used (Mabillon, Acta S. S., Bened. iii. pt. i,
p. 556), and in mediseval times Homilaria,
or books of homilies, were widely circulated
among the clergy (Scudamore's Notitia
Eucharistica, 290).
II. The Homilies of the Church of
England are two books of plain discourses,
composed at the time of the Reformation,
and appointed to be read in churches, on
"any Sunday or holy-day, when there is
no sermon." The first volume of them was
set out in the beginning of King Edward
the Sixth's reign in 1547, having been
composed (as it is thought) by Archbishop
Cranmer and Bishops Ridley and Latimer,
when a competent number of ministers of
sufficient abilities to preach in a public
congregation was not to be found. It was
reprinted in 1560. The second book ap
peared in 1563, having been printed the
year before (see Strype's Life of Parker),
in the reign of Elizabeth. Bishop Jewell is
supposed to have had a great share in its
composition. In the first book, the homily
on " Salvation " was probably written by
Cranmer, as also those on " Faith" and
"Good Works." The homilies on the
" Fear of Death," and on the " Reading of
Scripture," have likewise been ascribed to
the archbishop. That on the " Misery of
Mankind," which has sometimes been attri
buted to him, appears in Bishop Bonner's
volume of Homilies, a.d. 1555, with the
name of " Jo. Harpesfield " attached to it.
The homilies on " the Passion," and on " the
Resurrection," are from Taverner's " Postills,"
published in 1540. Internal evidence arising
out of certain homely expressions, and pe
culiar forms of ejaculation, the like to
which appear in Latimer's sermons, pretty
clearly betray the hand of the Bishop of
Worcester to have been engaged in the
homily against " Brawling and Conten
tion;" the one against "Adultery" may
be safely given to Thomas Becon, one of
Cranmer's chaplains, in whoso works,
published in 1564, it is still to he found;
of the rest nothing is known but by the
merest conjecture. In fhe second book, no
single homily of them all has been
priated.

HOMOIOUSION
The authors of several of the Homilies
are mentioned in Corry's recent edition of
them, who also shows how they were in
tended to bear upon the Antinomian as well
as the Popish errors of the day (See also
Griffith's Ed. of the Homilies).
It would seem that the Homilies were
written in haste, and the Church did wisely
to reserve the authority of correcting them
and setting forth others (See Rubric
before Offertory). For they have many
errors in them in special, although they
¦contain in general many wholesome les
sons for the people.
HOMOIOUSION (6poioi<nos) : "of a
similar substance " with the Father. The
term was invented in the Arian controversy
as a sort of middle idea between that of tho
Catholic belief in Homoousion, or "same
substance," and the extreme opinion of Arius,
who held that Christ was unlike the Father,
being a mere created Being (See Arians ;
Creed). These semi-Arians held that the
nature of God the Son, though not the
same, was similar to that of God the
Father. [H]
HOMOOUSION (Spooio-ios) (See Tri
nity). This is the critical word of the
Nicene Creed, and is used to express the
real Divinity of Christ, and that, as derived
from, and one with, the Father. The word
was adopted from the necessity of the case,
in a sense different from the ordinary philo
sophical use of it. 'O/jooijo-ios properly means
of the same nature, i.e. under the same
general nature, or species ; and it is applied to
things which are but similar to each other,
and are considered as one by an .abstraction
of our minds. Thus Aristotle speaks of the
stars being opooio-ia with each other ; and
Porphyry, of the souls of brute animals being
¦6p.ooio-uu to ours. When, however, it was
used in relation to the incommunicable
essence of God, there was obviously no
.abstraction possible in contemplating Him,
who is above all comparison with His works.
His nature is solitary, peculiar to Himself,
and one ; so that, whatever was accounted
to be opooio-ios with Him, was necessarily
included in His individuality by aR who
would avoid recurring to the vagueness of
philosophy, and were cautious to distinguish
between the incommunicable essence of
Jehovah and all created intelligences. And
hence the fitness of the term to denote
without metaphor the relation which the
Logos bore in the orthodox creed to his
•eternal Father. Its use is explained by
Athanasius as follows : " Though," he says,
" we cannot understand what is meant by
the ova-la of God, yet we know as much as
this, that God exists (elvai), which is the
way in which Scripture speaks of him ; and
¦after this pattern, when wo wish to designate

HOOD

387

him distinctly we say, God, Father, Lord.
When then we read in Scripture, 'I am
6 &v,' and 'I am Jehovah, God,' or the
plain word, ' God,' we understand by such
statements nothing but His incomprehensible
oio-la, and that He, who is there spoken of,
exists (io-rlv). Let no one then think it
strange, that the Son of God should be said
to be ck Tfjs olo-lasTov &tov, of the substance
of God ; rather, let him agree to the expla
nation of the Nicene Fathers, who, for the
words £K Oeov, substituted the « rijs oio-ias.
They considered the two phrases substanti
ally the same, because, as we have said, tho
word God denotes nothing but the olo-ia
avrov rov ovtos . On the other hand, if
the Word be not in such sense ?k tov GeoC,
as to be the true Son of the Father accord
ing to his natare, but be said to be « rov
6eo0, merely as all creatures are such as
being bis work, then indeed he is not e'/c rfjs
ovo-ias tov Harpos, nor Son /car' oio-lav,
buL so called from his virtue, as we may be
who receive the title from grace."
Bishop Bull says that opoovo-ios is used
by standard Greek writers to signify that
which is of the same substance, essence, or
nature. And he shows at large that the
term was not invented by the Nicene
Fathers, but was known in its present
theological acceptation long before ; by
Irenasus, by Origen (as Dionysius of Alex
andria and Athanasius testify), by Gregory
Thaumaturgus, &c. See the 2nd section of
the treatise, "Defensio Fidei Nicene." See
also Suicer in voc, from which it appears that
the ante-Nicene Fathers defined the word as
signifying " that which is of the same nature,
essence, eternity, and energy," without any
difference (See Creed).
HOOD. Sax. hod. The hood, as used by
us, is partly derived from the monastic
caputium, partly from tbe canonical amice,
or almutium.- It was formerly used by the
laity as well as the clergy, and by the
monastic orders. In cathedral and collegiate
churches, the hoods of the canons and pre
bendaries were frequently lined with fur or
wool, and always worn in the choir. The
term almutium, or amice, was peculiarly
applied to these last. And such is the
present usage in foreign churches, where the
capitular canons are generally distinguished
from the inferior members, by the colour or
materials of the almuce (See Amice). —
Palmer, Orig. Liturg. vol. ii. 409.
As used in England and Ireland, it is an
ornamental folded cloth of some material
that hangs down the back of a graduate to
mark his degree. This part of the dress
was formerly not intended for distinction
and ornament, but for use. It was gene
rally fastened to the back of the cope or
other vesture, and in case of rain or cold
2 c 2

388 HORN-BOOKS
was drawn over the head. In the universities
the hoods of the graduates were made to
signify their degrees by varying the colours
and materials. The hoods at our three prin
cipal universities, Oxford, Cambridge, and
Dublin, vary considerably from one another :
with this agreement, that all Doctors are
distinguished by a scarlet hood, the linings
varying according to the different faculties.
Originally however it would appear that
they were the same, probably till after the
Restoration. Masters of Arts had originally
fur hoods, like the proctors at Oxford, whose
dress is in fact that of full costume of a
Master of Arts ; Bachelors in other faculties
wore silk hoods of some intermediate colour ;
and Bachelors of Arts stuff hoods lined with
lambs' wool. The hoods in the Scottish
universities followed the pattern of those of
the university of Paris. — Jebb, Choral Service.
By the 58th Canon, every minister saying
the public prayers, or ministering the sacra
ments, or other rites of the Church, if they
are graduates, shall wear upon their surplice,
at such times, such hoods as by the orders
of the universities are agreeable to their
degrees. [The receivers of Lambeth degrees wear
the hood of such degrees as are worn at the
University of the archbishop who gives
them. Sundry theological colleges have
taken upon themselves, with some pretended
licences from archbishops, to authorise their
students to wear hoods of their own in
vention. But they are entirely illegal
" ornaments " in church, so far as they
differ from "a black tippet not of silk,"
which alone is lawful for non-graduates,
according to Canon 58]. [G.]
HORN -BOOKS. When books were
scarce, endeavours were made in the writing
rooms of the monasteries to make some
provision even for the poorest by means of
Horn-books, on which were written the
Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Angelic
Salutation. The writing was covered with
a thin sheet of horn to prevent its being
thumbed — hence the name. [H.]
HOSANNA (wJ^iirt : i>o-awd, "Save,
we pray "). At the feast of Tabernacles, when
the great Hallel was chanted by the priests,
the multitude joined in at intervals, shout
ing " Hosanna," as they waved branches of
willow or palm ; and the seventh and greatest
day of the feast was distinguished as the
great Hosanna day — Hosanna Rabbi (See
Hallel). According to Rabbi Elias Levita
(Thisby, s. v.) the Jews call the willow
branches, which they carry at the feast,
"Hosannas," because they sing Hosanna,
shaking them everywhere. Grotius observes,
that the feasts of the Jews did not only
signify their going out of Egypt, the memory

HOUR GLASS
of which they celebrated, but also the expec
tation of the Messias : and that still on the
day when they carry those branches, they
wish to celebrate that feast at the coming of
the Messias ; from whence he concludes,.
that the people carrying those branches
before our Saviour showed their joy, ac
knowledging him to be the Messias. — Bux-
torf, Lexic. Talm. 992, 1143: Lightfoot,
Temple Service, xvi. 2 ; Diet, qf Bible, s. v.
HOSPITALS were houses for the relief
of poor and impotent persons, and were
generally incorporated by royal patents, and
made capable of gifts and grants in succes
sion. Some of these in England are very
noble foundations, as St. Cross at Winchester,
founded in the reign of King Stephen.
In most cathedral towns there are hospitals,
often connected with the cathedrals. Christ's-
Hospital in London was one of those manv
excellent endowments, to which the funds
of alienated monasteries would have been
more largely directed, had secular avarice
permitted. HOSPITALLERS, or Knights of St. Johft
of Jerusalem. Knights who took their
name from an hospital built in Jerusalem
for the use of pilgrims coming to the Holy
Land. They were to provide for such
pilgrims, and to protect them on the road.
They came to England in the year 1100,
and here they arrived at such power that
their superior had a seat in the House of
Lords, and ranked as the first lay baron.
HOSPITIUM, or Domus Hospitium. In
ancient monasteries, the place where pil
grims and other strangers were received and
entertained. HOST. From hostia, a victim. In the
first place the word meant any sacrifice or
offering ; then it was applied only to the
elements used in the celebration of the
Eucharist, more particularly to the bread
(See Wafer). Romanists worship the host,
under a presumption that the elements are
no longer bread and wine, but transub
stantiated into the real body and blood of
Christ. The host was treated with the
greatest reverence in the earliest times, as
we learn from Tertullian, Origen, St. Cyril,
St. Jerome, and many others, but this does
not imply adoration, which was not prac
tised till the tweRth century.— Bingham,
bk. xx., v. (See Transubstantiation).
HOSTIARIUS (See Ostiarius). The
second master in some of the old endowed
schools, as Winchester, is so called. Hence
ttsJlPT* HOUR GLASS. The usual length of
sermons in the English Church, from the
Reformation till the latter part of the seven
teenth century, was an hour. Puritans
preached much longer — two, three, and even
four hours. For the measurement of the

HOURS OF PRAYER
time of sermon, hour glasses were frequently
attached to pulpits, and in some churches
the stand for the glass, if not the instrament
itself, still remains.
HOURS OF PRAYER. I. The princi
ple of giving certain times to, prayer and
meditation has always been recognised and
encouraged by the Church. In Holy Scrip-;
iure i mention is made of such hours being
observed by the faithful. The Apostles
were assembled together at the third hour
.(evidently the usual time of meeting), when
the. Holy Spirit descended upon them; it
was at the hour of prayer— the ninth hour
—that St. Peter and St. John, went to the
temple ; the disciples were , praying at mid
night when St. Peter, having been released
from prison, stood amongst them ; and it was
at midnight that St. Paul, and Silas, pro
bably according to their rule, prayed and
sang praises unto God (Acts ii. 1; iii. 1;
xii. 12 ; xvi. 25, &c). Such hours of prayer
.are mentioned by the earliest writers ; and
Tertullian speaks of them as " horse Apo
stoUcas " (De Jejuniis, cap. 10). It is not
necessary to quote passages from St.
Cyprian, St. Basil, St. Augustine, and many
'Others to the purpose. The same hours of
the day and night have not always been ap
pointed for prayer, as under different cir
cumstances changes might have to be made.
In times of . persecution, for instance, the
hours for common prayer would be at
night ; but when the religion was acknow
ledged publicly, the hours for prayer were
stated. They were (1) Nocturns or
-matins, held before daybreak, and properly a
might service ; (2) Lauds, at daybreak, follow
ing and sometimes joined with matins ; (3)
Prime, about six o'clock, "the first hour" ;
t(4) Tierce or terce, nine a.m., " the third
hour " ; (5) Sexts, at noon, " the sixth
.hour" ; (6) Nones, at three p.m., <Jthe ninth
¦hour"; (7) Vespers, in the early evening ;
i(8) Compline, the last evening service. The
author of the Apostolic Constitutions gives
precise directions with regard to the hours
•of prayer (lib. viii.-xxxiv.). The Eastern
offices for daily worship were introduced
into the West in the fifth century, and the
Western offices bear testimony to their in
fluence (Freeman's Princ. Div. Serv. i.
225). The number of the canonical hours
was. fixed at seven, viz. matins and lauds,
prime, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and
compline. The names given by the Anglo-
Saxons to the canonical hours were uht-
sang, prime-sang, under-sang, midday-sang,
noon-sang, even-sang, and night-sang
{Wilkins, Concil. i. 252). Later on the
¦daily offices most commonly used hy the
laity were entitled " the Hours " ; and of
these there were various forms, but the
most famous was the " Hours of the Blessed

HOUSEL

389

Virgin," which was commonly called the
" Little Office," to distinguish it from the
" Divine Office " or larger service of the
Breviary. This was of great antiquity, and
was revised in 1056.
II. "The Church of England, at the
revision of our offices in the reign of Edward
VI., only prescribed public worship in the
morning and evening: and in making this
regulation she was perfectly justified : for
though it is the duty of Christians to pray
continually, yet the precise times and
seasons of prayer, termed Canonical Hours,
do not rest on any Divine command ; neither
have they ever been pronounced binding
on all Churches by any general Council;
neither has there been any uniformity in the
practice of the Christian Church in this
respect." " The office of matins, or morning
prayer, according to the Church of England,
is a judicious abridgment of her ancient
services for matins, lauds, and prime ; and
the office of even-song, or evening prayer, in
like manner, is an abridgment of the ancient
service for vespers and compline. Both
these offices have received' several improve
ments in imitation of the ancient discipline
of the Churches of Egypt, Gaul, and Spain."
—Palmer, Orig. Liturg. vol. i. 204, 212.
The offices for the third, sixth, and ninth
hours, were shorter than the others, and
were nearly the same every day. Bishop
Cosin drew up, by royal command, a form
of devotion for private use for the different
canonical hours. It is supposed that the
seven hours of prayer took their rise from
the example of the psalm, " Seven times a
day do I give thanks unto thee ; " but the
ancient usage of the Church does not
sanction more than two or three times for
stated public prayer (See Prymer). —
Maskell, Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. iii., iv. seq. ;
Blunt, Diet. Doct. Theol. p. 315 ; Freeman,
Princ. Div. Ser. i. [H.]
HOUSEL (Saxon, husel). The blessed
Eucharist. Johnson derives it from the
Gothic hunsa, a sacrifice, which is probably
derived from a root signifying to kill. Todd,
in his emendations, remarks on the verb
to housel, that an old lexicography defines
it specially, " to administer the communion
to one who lieth on his death-bed." It was,
perhaps, in later times more generally used
in this sense : still it was often employed,
as we find from Chaucer, and writers as
late as the time of Henry VIII., as in Saxon
times, to signify absolutely the receiving of
the Eucharist.— Jebb, Choral Service.
In the canons under King Edgar the
word often occurs — " We enjoin, that it never
happen that a priest celebrate mass, and not
taste the housel himself." — Thorpe, Ancient
Laws, vol. ii. p. 253. See Skeat's Etymolog.
Diet.

390

HUGH, ST.

HUGH, ST. Bishop of Lincoln. Born at
Grenoble, a.d. 1140, of noble parents, he
came over to England in 1181, at the desire
of Henry IL, to preside over the first Car
thusian monastery in England, at Witham,
in Somersetshire. Five years later he was
made bishop of Lincoln, and he rebuilt the
cathedral there. He died in 1200, at the
hour when his clergy were singing the
" Nunc Dimittis " at compline. He is com
memorated in the English Calendar on No
vember 17 (See Canon Perry's Life of St.
Hugh). [H.]
HUGUENOTS. A name by which the
French Protestants were distinguished, very
early in their history. The name is of
uncertain derivation; some deduce it from
one of the gates of the city of Tours called
Hugon's, at which these Protestants held
their first assemblies ; others from the words
Hue nos, with which their original protest
commenced; others from the German,
Eidgenossen (associated by oath), which
first became Egnots, and afterwards Hugue
nots. The origin of the sect in France dates
from the reign of Francis I., when the
principles and doctrines of the German Re
formers found many disciples among their
Gallic neighbours. As everywhere else, so
in France, the new doctrines spread with
great rapidity, and called forth the energies
both of Church and State to repress them.
Both Francis and his successor, Henry IL,
placed the Huguenots under various penal
disabilities, and they were subjected to
the violence of the factious French among
their opponents, without protection from
the State : but the most horrible deed
which was perpetrated against them was
the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day
(See Bartholomew) : — a scene which stands
recorded in history, as if to teach us to how
great a depth of cruelty and oppression
mankind may be driven by fanaticism.
In the reign of Henry IV. the Huguenots
were protected by the edict of Nantes,
which was revoked, however, in 1685, by
Cardinal Mazarin, the minister of Louis
XIV.: on this occasion 300,000 of this
persecuted race took refuge in the neigh
bouring Protestant states. At the Revo-
lotion the Huguenots were restored to their
rnil rights, so far as civil rights were left to
any citizens of a libertine and infidel state.
In doctrine and discipline the Huguenots
sym bolized with Calvin and the sect which
he originated at Geneva.
HULSEAN LECTURES. Lectures de
livered at Cambridge, under the will of the
Rev. John Hulse, late of Elworth, bearing
date July 12, 1777. The number, originally
twenty, is now reduced to eight.
HUMANITY OF OUR LORD, is His

HUTCHINSONIANS
possessing a true human body and a true'
human soul (See Jesus).
HUMBLE ACCESS, PRAYER OF. The
prayer immediately preceding the prayer of
consecration in the office of Holy Commu
nion (See Access).
HUSSITES. The followers of John
Huss, of Bohemia, who maintained Wiclif s
opinions in 1407, with wonderful zeal.
The emperor Sigismond sent to him to per
suade him to defend his doctrine before the
Council of Constance, which he did a.d.
1414, having obtained a passport and an
assurance of safe conduct from the emperor.
There were seven months spent in ex
amining him, and two bishops were sent
into Bohemia to inform themselves of the
doctrine he preached; and for his firm ad
herence to the same he was condemned to-
be burnt alive with his books, which
sentence was executed in 1415, contrary to
the safe-conduct, which the Council . of
Constance basely said that the emperor was
not bound to keep to a heretic. His fol
lowers believed that the Church consisted
only of those predestinated to glory, and
that the reprobates were no part of it ; that
the condemnation of the five and forty
articles of Wiclif was wicked and unreason
able. Moreri adds that they partly after
wards subdivided, and opposed both theii'
bishops and secular princes in Bohemia;
where, if we must take his word, they were
the occasion of great disorders and civil
commotions in the fifteenth, 'century. — Mil-
man, Lat Christ vol. vi. ; Stubbs' Mosheim,
ii. 322.
HUTCHINSONIANS. " The name of
Hutchinsonians," says Jones of Nayland,
who, with Bishops Home and Horsley, was
the most distinguished of those who bore
the name, "was given to those gentlemen
who studied Hebrew, and examined the
writings of John Hutchinson, Esq. [bom at
Spennythorne, in Yorkshire, 1674], and
became inclined to favour his opinions in
theology and philosophy." The theological
opinions of these divines, so far as they
were distinguished from those of their own
age, related chiefly to the explanation of the
doctrine of the Trinity [see Note L. to Dr.
Mill's five Sermons on the Temptation of
Christ], and to the manner in which they
confirmed Divine revelation generally, hy
reference to the natural creation. The no
tion of a Trinity, it was maintained, was
taken from the three agents in the system
of nature, fire, light, and air, on which all
natural light and motion depend, and which
were said to signify the three supreme
powers of the Godhead in the administra
tion of the spiritual world. This led to
their opposing Newton's theory of gravity,
and to their denying that most matter is,

HYMN
like the mind, capable of active qualities,
and to their ascribing attraction, repulsion,
&c, to subtle causes not immaterial. They
maintained that the present condition of
the earth bears evident marks of an
universal flood, and that extraneous fossils
are to be accounted for by the same cata
strophe. They urged great precaution in
the study of classical heathen literature,
imder the conviction that it had tended to
produce pantheistic notions, then so popular.
They also looked with some suspicion upon
what is called natural religion, and to many
passages of Scripture they gave a figurative,
rather than a literal interpretation (See
Jones's Life of Bishop Home; Neale's
Life qf Bishop Torry).
HYMN (Gr. vpvos ; Lat. hymnus ;
Eng. hum). A song of adoration. I. The
earliest hymn on record is that which
Moses and Miriam sang after the deliverance
of the children of Israel (Exod. xv. 1, 21).
The Psalms of David were hymns to be sung
with musical accompaniment (1 Chron.
vi. 13; xxi. 5), and very often used anti-
phonally — the choirs answering one another
(See 1 Sam. xviii. 6). In the Captivity the
songs or hymns of Zion were remembered ;
but the faithful Jews refused to sing them
in a strange land (Ps. cxxxvii.). When
the Jews under Ezra were allowed to return
to Jerusalem, singing men and singing
women accompanied them (Ezra ii. 65;
Neh. vii. 67) ; and at the later re-dedication
of the temple after the desecration by
Antiochus Epiphanes, hymns were sung,
accompanied by "citheras and harps and
cymbals" (1 Mace. iv. 54). The Hallel
group of psalms was always sung at the
feast of Tabernacles, and also at the solemn
paschal feast; to this custom reference is
made by St. Matthew (xxvi. 30) when he
speaks of our Lord and His disciples after
supper '•' singing a hymn." Afterwards the
word hymn was not restricted to the psalms,
but implied any words sung, or even rhyth
mically recited; to which St. Paul refers
when he bids the Colossians to teach and
admonieh one another " in psalms and
hymns and spiritual songs " (Col. iii. 16 ;
see also Eph. v. 19). Some commentators
(e.g. Grotius and Michaelis) regard the
words in Acts iv. 24, "Lord, thou art
God," &c, as the first Christian hymn, and
assert that it can easily be reduced to
rhythm. Such passages as those in Eph.
v. 14, " Awake thou that sleepest," &c. ; in
I Tim. iii. 1-16, in 2 Tim. ii. 11; and in
many parts of the Apocalypse, have also
been supposed to be fragments of hymns.
Pliny speaks of the "Carmen," or hymn,
which the Christians were wont to sing to
Christ (Ep. Plin. sec. ad Trajan Imp.) ; but
the words " vpvos " or " vpvokoyeiv " do not

HYMN

391

occur in Justin Martyr, or in the Apostolic
Constitutions, though the latter contains the
hymn " Gloria in Excelsis " (See Gloria).
Origen speaks of hymns to God and Christ
(Cont. Cels. viii. 67), and Eusebius also refers
to them as " _>8al dbfXcpav dir' dpx^s viro
mcrraiv ypa(beio-ai " (H. E. v. 28).
It would seem, therefore, that hymns
were much used in the second, century, and
probably in the first, although we have not
the names nor the composition of any writer
of that early date (See Von Seelen's de
poesia Christiana non a tertio post Christum
natum seculo demum, sed aprimo et secundo
deducenda). St. Basil (De Spirit. Sancto,
c. 29) mentions one Athenogenus, a con
temporary of Clemens Alexandrinus, as
the author of a doxological hymn ; and one
charge made against Paul of Samosata was
that " he had put a stop to the hymns that
were sung to our Lord Jesus Christ," for he
said that they were innovations, the work of
" men of modern times " (Euseb. H. E.
vii. 30). By the second Council of Antioch,
a.d. 269, he was condemned ; but with
regard to protesting against the multiplying
of hymns, it would seem that he had some
justification; for the Council of Laodicea,
some years later, passed a canon prohibiting
the use of hymns composed by private
persons, and this was confirmed by the
Council of Chalcedon a.d. 451. Clemens
Alexandrinus is the earliest Father in whose
works hymns are found, and he was fol
lowed by Gregory Nazianzen, who died a.d.
390, and Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais, who
was some years later. St. Chrysostom had
hymns sung in procession to counteract the
influence of the Arians, who had adopted a
similar course (Soz. H. E. viii. 5). These
hymns were probably, many of them at
least, taken from the compositions of Ephraim
of Edessa, who wrote them to counteract
the influence of the Greek songs and music
which had been introduced by Bardesanes,
or his son Harmonius, and which were
very popular. Ephraim seems to have been
a good choir trainer, standing in the midst
and leading his singers (Soz. iv. 16 ; Au
gusti de Hymnis Syrorum Sacris, 1841).
St. Chrysostom's expedient was attended
with great success, and the hymn-singing
was most hearty (See Neale's Hymns of
the Eastern Church, p. 35 ; Stephens' Life
of St. John Chrysostom, p. 236, 2nd ed.).
But the hymns now in use in the Greek
Church were not introduced till the eighth
and ninth centimes.- — Neale, p. 13.
II. In the Western Church Hilary, bishop
of Poictiers, who died a.d. 368, is said to
have been the first who composed hymns
for public worship. He was followed by
St. Ambrose, who has been called the
father of church music in the West. From

392

HYMN

his time the hymns of the Western sur
passed those of the Eastern Church. To
Ignatius, the disciple and friend of St.
John, tradition attributes the introduction
of antiphonal singing of psalms, and hymns
at Antioch (Soc. H. E. vi. 8). From
Antioch, it is said, that Ambrose gained his
musical and hymnal ideas (See Ambrosian
Rite). However this may be, there can be
no doubt that he did a great work, and
with regard to his success no stronger testi
mony can be given than that of St. Augus
tine. " At that time," the Father says, " it
was instituted, that after the manner of
the Eastern Church, hymns and psalms
should be sung, lest the people should pine
away in the tediousness of sorrow : which
custom, retained from them till now, is
imitated by many : yea, by almost all of
Thy congregation throughout the rest of
the world " (Conf. bk. ix. c. vii.). And
elsewhere he speaks of the delight, mingled
with tears, he experienced in hearing the
' songs of the Church, being moved " not by
the singing only, but by what is sung,
when they are sung with a clear and skil
fully modulated voice." He acknowledges
the "great utility of the custom" (Conf.
x., xxxiii.). The hymns of St. Ambrose are
remarkable, not only for their beauty, but
for their correctness, as dimetre Iambics.
Gregory the Great has left hymns in the
same metre, aud to him has been ascribed
the " Veni Creator Spiritus," though pro
bably it was, in some part at all events, the
composition of St. Ambrose. It has been
assigned also to Charlemagne, but with little
or no authority. Prudentius was the most
prolific writer of hymns in the middle ages.
Other celebrated hymns are the " Pange
Lingua Gloriosi " of the fifth century, and
the " Stabat Mater " and " Dies Iras," the
first attributed to Jacopone da Todi, and
the latter to Thoma di Celano in the four
teenth century. "As a whole the hym-
nology of the Latin Church has a singularly
solemn and majestic tone." — Milman's Lot.
Christ, vol. vi. p. 312.
III. In the Prayer Book of the Church of
England certain hymns are ordered to be
sung, as (i.) those from Holy Scripture —
the "Magnificat," " Nunc Dimittis," "Bene
dictus," and " Benedicite " ; (ii.) those from
very ancient sources, as tbe " Te Deum "
and " Gloria in Excelsis " ; (iii.) the " Veni
Creator Spiritus" in the Ordinal. But
other hymns have always been used. Bede
composed hymns, and successful vernacular
translations of the Latin hymns were made
at an early date. " It cannot be doubted,"
says Mr. Maskell, " that St. Augustine in
troduced the hymnal then used at Rome.
There have been many collections made, not
only of the more ancient hymns, but of

HYDROPARASTAT_ )
those which were composed by -pious mem
bers and fathers of the Church in faicceedhv
ages." At a synod held at Exeter, under
Bishop Quivil, a.d. 1287, among other books
to be provided was a " Ympnare," or, as it
was commonly called in later times, the
" Hymnarium," or " Hymnal " ; and great
care was taken in arranging the music
(Maskell, Mon. Rit. Ecc. Ang. i., cviii.).
Cranmer, whose letter on church music is
well known, was anxious to retain the old
hymns, and set to work himself to translate
them ; but he was not poetical, and found
himself unequal to the task. As there was
no authorised hymnal, it is difficult to say
when tbe practice of popular hymn-singing
established itseR in connexion with the
revised ritual; but such singing was cer
tainly in use very early in Elizabeth's reign,
By a royal Injunction in the year 1559, it
was ordained that "for the comforting of
such as delight in musick, it may be per
mitted, that in the beginning, or the end
of Common Prayer, either at morning or
evening, there may be sung an hymn, pr
such like song to the praise of Almighty
God." From this came the rubric "In
choirs and places where they sing, here
followeth the anthem" — the word "an
them" implying also a metrical. psalm or
hymn (See Anthem). But though, accor
ding to the rubric, this is the only place
where a hymn is definitely authorised, cus
tom has sanctioned a much freer interpre
tation of the rubric than its words actually
imply. And so while the anthem retains
its place, " as a first fruits of sacred musical
skill and science," additional hymns, in
other parts of the service, are not excluded;
and indeed are useful aud delightful means
of quickening the religious feelings of the
congregation. IV. With regard to the hymns now in
use, it is impossible to give an account in a
limited space. Many hymnals have in late
years been published, superseding the stilted
metrical versions of the psalms, by Stemhold
and Hopkins, and by Brady and Tate, &c.
Such collections as "Hymns Ancient and
Modern," the " Hymnal Noted," tbe "Church
Hymnal," "The Hymnary," &c, give a
choice which must satisfy every one. An
exhaustive account of hymns and hymn-
composers, by the Rev. John Julian, has
lately been published by Mr. Murray. It
is entitled " A Dictionary of Hymnology."—
Bingham, bk. xiii., v.; Bates, Christ. Ant.
pt. i., xiii. ; Blunt, Diet Doct. Theol: 317 ;
Dr. Dykes in Annot . P. B. Ixiii. ; Tliesaurus
Hymnologicus (Daniel) ; Hymni Eccl. Cas
sander, pp. 149, 301 ; Neale, Hymni Eccl ;
Smith's Diet Christ. Ant. [H.j
HYDROPARASTAT_. Presenters of
water ; from their using water only m ^e

HYPAPANTE
Eucharist. Irenasus speaks of the Ebionites
as rejecting the commixture of wine (Her.
v. 1), and St. Cyprian says " water cannot
be offered alone" (Ep. ad Cecil). Many
¦of the early Fathers also speak against this
heresy (Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 19 ; Chrys.
Horn, in Matt, lxxxii.). The name was
adopted amongst others by the Manich-
_ns. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 196,
374. HYPAPANTE. The Greek name for
the Purification of the Virgin, or Candlemas
Day. HYPERDULIA (See Dulia and Ido
latry). HYPOSTASIS. A philosophical and
theological Christian term, used originally
to imply a real personal subsistence, as in
the Epistle to the Hebrews (i. 3), where the
word is translated in the Authorized Version
as " Person," but in the Revised Version the
" substance." The Greeks took it in the first
three centuries for particular substance, and
therefore said there were three hypostases,
that is, three "Persons," according to the
Latins. Where some of the Eastern people
understanding the word hypostasis in another
sense, would not call the Persons three
hypostases, Athanasius showed them, in a
council held at Alexandria in 362, that
they all said the same thing, and that all
the difference was, that they gave to the
same word two different significations : and
thus he reconciled them together. It is
evident that the word hypostasis signifies
two things : first, an individual particular
substance; secondly, a common nature or
essence. Now when the Fathers say there
are "three hypostases," their meaning is
to be judged from the time they lived in ;
if it be one of the three first centuries,
they meant all along three distinct agents,
of which the Father was supreme. If
one of much later date uses the expres
sion, he means most probably, Httle more
than a mode of existence in a common
nature. HYPOSTATICAL UNION. The union
of the human nature of our Lord with
the Divine; constituting two natures in
one person, and not two persons in one
nature, as the Nestorians assert (See
Union). HYPOTHETICAL. This term is some
times used in relation to a baptism ad
ministered to a child, of whom it is un
certain whether he has been already bap
tized or not. The rubric states, that "if
they who bring the infant to the church
do make such uncertain answers to the
priest's questions, as that it cannot appear
that the child was baptized with water, in
the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost," then the priest)

ICONOCLASTS

393

on performing the baptism, is to use this
form of words, viz. "If thou art not
already baptized, N  , I baptize thee in
the name," &c.
This, therefore, is called an hypothetical
or conditional form, being used only on the
supposition that the child may not have
already received baptism.
HYPSISTARIANS. Heretics in the
fourth century of Christianity. According
to Gregory Nazianzen (whose own father
had once been a member of the sect, but
afterwards became a Christian bishop), they
made a mixture of the Jewish religion and
paganism, for they worshipped fire with
the pagans, and observed the Sabbath, and
legal abstinence from meats, with the Jews.
— Orat. xviii. 5.

I.
ICONOCLASTS, or IMAGE BREAK
ERS (See Images, Image Worship, and
Idolatry). From eiKav, an image, and xXaoi,
to break. A name given to those who op
posed the veneration of images in the eighth
century. Sarantapechs, or Serantampicus,
a Jew, persuaded Ezidus, or Gizidus, king
of the Arabs, to take the images of saints
out of churches that belonged to the
Christians : and some time after, Bazere
[but Baronius writes Beser], becoming a
Mahometan in Syria, where he was a slave,
insinuated himself so much into the favour
of Leo Isauricus, that this emperor, at his
persuasion and that of other Jews, who had
foretold to him his coming to the empire, de
clared against images, about a.d. 726, ordered
the statue of Christ, placed over one of the
gates of the palace, to be thrown down a.d.
730, and being enraged at a tumult oc
casioned thereby, issued a , proclamation
wherein he abolished the use of statues,
and menaced the worshippers with severe
punishments; and all the solicitations of
Germanus the patriarch, and of the bishop
of Rome, could prevail nothing in their
favour. His son and successor, Constantine,
assembled a council a.d. 754, which decreed
the removal of images and religious pictures
from church-walls. The council was con
demned at Rome, but the emperor strove
more than ever to gain his point, exacting
an oath against image-worship from all his
subjects, and treating those who resisted
with great cruelty. Leo IV. succeeded in 775,
and reigned but four years, leaving his son
Constantine under the tutelage of the empress
Irene. In her time, a.d. 787, was held the
second Council of Nice, in which a decree

394

IDES

was passed that the image of Christ and of
the saints should be restored for reverence
(Trpoo-Kvvnaris) but not for worship (Xarpela).
This decision was confirmed by the Pope:
but was less favourably received north of
the Alps. Charles the Great submitted this
and other acts of the Council to the learned
Alcuin, who pronounced against them in a
long treatise called " The Caroline Books."
The Council, of Frankfort, a.d. 794, which
was a Diet of the Empire as well as an
ecclesiastical synod, confirmed his judg
ment, in opposition to that of Pope Adrian I.
The controversy on this subject lasted in both
the Eastern and Western Church through
part of the following century. Ultimately
the Eastern Church restricted the veneration
of visible forms to paintings Or mosaics on
flat surfaces, while the Western Church,
including the Frankish branch, permitted
the use of sculptured images also. — Robert
son, Ch. Hist. vol. ii. part i. ; Milman's Lat
Christianity, book iv. c. 7 ; Gieseler, ii. ;
Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 510. [H.]
IDES. A word continued in the Roman
calendar from the old Pagan one, and in
serted in all old editions of the Prayer
Book. The ides were eight days in each
month : in March, May, July, and Octo
ber, the ides ended on the 15th, and in
aU other months on the 13th day. The
word Ides, taken from the Greek (dbos),
means an aspect or appearance, and was
primarily used to denote the full moon.
The system of the original Roman calendar
was founded on the change of the moon, the
nones being the completion of the first
quarter, as the ides were of the second.
But they could not really follow the moon. —
Stephens, Book of Common Prayer ; Notes
on the Calendar.
IDIOT_- (Ibiarai). Literally, private
persons ; but the word was used by the early
Fathers to imply laymen as distinct from
those ordained (xXfjooi). St. Chrysostom
(Horn. 35 in 1 Cor. xiv.) says that the word
there used by the Apostle, which we translate
" unlearned," signifies no more than a lay
man. — Bingham, i. 5. [H.]
IDOLATRY (ei'SaXov, an image, and
Xarpela, worship). The superstitious wor
ship paid to idols (See Images; Image-
Worship ; Iconoclast).
ILE (See Aisle).
ILLUMINATI (cpaTi&pfvoi). Those who
were newly baptized were so called (Cone.
Laod. Can. 3) ; " their understandings,"
says Justin Martyr, " being enlightened by
the knowledge consequent on baptism"
(Apol. ii. ; cf. Heb. vi. 4; x. 32). [H.]
ILLUMINATI, or ALLUMBRADOS.
Certain Spanish heretics who began to
appear in the world about 1575; but the
authors being severely punished, this sect

IMAGES
was stifled, as it were, until 1623, and then
awakened with more vigour in the diocese
of Seville. The edict against them specifies
seventy-six different errors, whereof the
principal are, that with the assistance of
mental prayer and union with God (which
they boasted of), they were in such a state
of perfection as not to need either good
works, . or the sacraments of the Church.
Soon after these were suppressed, a new
sect, under the same name, appeared in
France. These, too, were entirely ex
tinguished in the year 1635. Among other
extravagances, they held that friar Anthony
Bocquet had a system of belief and practice
revealed to him which exceeded all that
was in Christianity ; that by virtue of that
method, people might improve to the same
degree of perfection that saints and the
Virgin Mary had ; far above St. Peter and
St. Paul.
In 1776, an order of Rluminati, or
Perfectibilists,-was started in Germany under
Weishaupt, a professor of Canon Law. It
was suppressed by the Elector of Bohemia
in 1785, but its influence had spread widely,
and was very pernicious.
IMAGES. In the religious sense of the
word, there appears to have been httle or no
use of images in the Christian Church for the-
first three or four hundred years, as may be
gathered from the silence of all ancient
authors, and of the heathens themselves,
who never recriminated, or charged the
use of images on the primitive Christians.
There are positive proofs in the fourth
century that the use of images was not
allowed ; particularly, the Council of Eliberis
decrees that pictures ought not to be put ia
churches, lest that which is worshipped le
painted upon the walls (Can. xxxvi).
Petavius gives this general reason for the pro
hibition of all images whatever at that time
— that the remembrance of idolatry was yet
fresh in men's minds. About the latter end
of the fourth century, pictures of saints and
martyrs began to creep into the churches.
Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered his church
to be painted with Scripture histories, such
as those of Esther, Job, Tobit, and Judith.
And St. Augustine often speaks of the-
pictures of Abraham offering his son Isaac,
and those of St. Peter and St. Paul, but
without approving the use of them ; on the
contrary, he tells us the Church condemned
such as paid a rehgious veneration to
pictures, and daily endeavoured to correct
them, as untoward children.
It was not till after the second Council of
Nice, a.d. 787, that images of the Deity, or
the Trinity, were allowed in churches. Pope
Gregory II., in the epistle which he wrote to
the emperor Leo to defend the worship of
images generally, denies it to be lawful to-

IMAGE WORSHIP
make any representation of the Deity. Nor
(Md the ancient Christians approve of massive
images, or statues of wood, metal, or stone,
but only pictures or paintings to be used in
churches, and those symbolical rather than
any other. Thus a lamb was the symbol of
Jesus Christ, and a dove of the Holy Ghost.
But the sixth general council forbade the
picturing Christ any more under the figure
of a lamb, and ordered that he should be
represented by the effigy of a man. By
this time, it is presumed, the worship of
images was begun, anno 692.
By a decree of the Council of Trent, it is
forbidden to set up any extraordinary and
unusual image in the churches without the
bishop's approbation first obtained. As to
the consecration of images, they proceed in
the same manner as at the benediction of a
new cross. At saying the prayer, the saint,
whom the image represents, is named : alter
which the priest sprinkles the image with
holy water. But when an image of the
Virgin Mary is to be blessed, it is thrice
incensed, besides being thrice sprinkled, with
other ceremonious observances.
[The law about the lawfulness of images
in our Church has been settled by the
Exeter reredos case (Phillpotts v. Boyd,
L. R. 6 P. C, and Hughes v. Edwards,
2 Prob. Div.). In both of them it was
decided that the test of the lawfulness of
images is whether they are of such a
character as may lead to idolatry ; and
consequently, that an artistic group of
images, even if representing the whole of
the crucifixion as a general picture, is
lawful, while a single crucifix is not, as has
heen several times decided, and last by P. C.
in Ridsdale v. Clifton, 2 Prob. Div. 304.
It is unnecessary here to go through the
several Acts against images (2 & 3 Ed. VI.
c. 6, and 1 Jac. c. 25), which are fully set
forth and explained in those judgments.
The result is that the Act of Edward VI. is
still in force ' against them, though in other
respects that of James is repealed by 26 &
27 Vict. c. 125.] [G.]
IMAGE WORSHIP. The worship of
images occasioned great contests both, in
the Eastern and Western Churches (See
Iconoclasts). Nicephorus, who had wrested
the empire from Irene, in the year 802, main
tained the worship of images. The emperor
Leo V. (the Armenian) in 813 declared against
the worship of images, and expelled Nice
phorus, patriarch of Constantinople, Theo
doras Studita, Nicetas, and others, who had
asserted it. Michael IL, desiring to re
establish peace in the East, proposed to
assemble a council, to which both the
Iconoclasts (those who broke down images)
and the advocates of image worship should
be admitted ; but the latter refusing to sit

IMAGE WORSHIP

395.

with heretics, as they called the Iconoclasts,
the emperor found out a medium. He left
all men free to worship or not worsnip-
images, and published a regulation, for
bidding the taking of crosses out of the
churches, to put images in their place ; the
paying of adoration to the images them
selves ; the clothing of statues ; the making •
them godfathers and godmothers to chil
dren; the lighting candles before them, and
offering incense to them, &c. Michael sent
ambassadors into the West to get this regu
lation approved. These ministers applied.
themselves to Louis le Debonnaire, who
sent an embassy to Rome upon this subject.
But the Romans, and Pope Paschal I., did
not admit of the regulation ; and a synod,
held at Paris in 824, was of opinion, that
although the use of images ought not to be
prohibited, yet it was not allowable to pay
them any religious worship. At length the
emperor Michael settled his regulation in
the East; and his son Theophilus, who
succeeded him in the year 829, held a
council at Constantinople, in which the
Iconoclasts were condemned, and the worship-
of images, but only in the form of paintings-
or mosaics, restored. , The French and Ger
mans used themselves, by degrees, to pay an-
outward honour to images, and conformed to
the Church of Rome.
All the points of doctrine or practice in.
which the Church of Rome differs from the
Church of England are novelties, introduced
gradually in the middle ages : of these the
worship of images is the earliest practice,
which received the sanction of what the
Papists caR a general council, though the
second Council of Nice, a.d. 787, was, in
fact, no general council. As this is-
the earliest authority for any of the-
Roman peculiarities, and as the Church of
England at that early period was remarkably
concerned in resisting the novelty, it may not
be out of place to mention the circumstances.
The emperor Charles the Great, who was
very much offended at the decrees of this
council in favour of images, sent a copy
of them into England. Alcuin, a most
learned member of the Church of England,
attacked them, and having produced Scrip
tural authority against them, transmitted
the same to Charles in the name of the
bishops of the Church of England. Roger
of Hoveden, Simeon of Durham, and the
so-called Matthew of Westminster, men
tion the fact, and speak of the worship of
images as being execrated by the whole
Church. The emperor, pursuing his hostility
to the Nicene Council, published four books
against it composed by Alcuin, and trans
mitted them to the Pope Adrian I. ; who-
replied to them in an epistle " concerning
images, against those who impugn the Nicene

296 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION
Synod," as the title is given, together with
the epistle itself, in the seventh volume of
Labbe and Cossart's Councils. The ge
nuineness of these books is admitted by all
the chief Roman writers. For the purpose
of considering the subject more fully,
Charles assembled a great council of British,
Gallican, German, and Italian bishops at
Frankfort, a.d. 794; at which two legates
from the bishop of Rome were present;
where, after mature deliberation, the de
crees of the so-called general Council of
Nice, notwithstanding Pope Adrian's coun
tenance, were " rejected" " despised," and
" condemned" The synod at Frankfort re
mains a monument of a noble stand in de
fence of the ancient religion, in which the
Church of England had an honourable
share, occupying, a thousand years ago, the
self-same ground we now maintain, of pro
testing against Roman corruptions of the
Catholic faith.
At the time of the Reformation errors in
doctrine and practice prevailed with regard
to image worship, and were upheld by many
Romanist writers. " Eundem honorem deberi
imagini, et exemplari ; ac proinde imagines
Sanctie Trinitatis, Christi, et Crucis cultu
latrise adorandas esse." Thus Jeremy Tay
lor quotes Almain — "the images of the
Trinity, of Christ, and of the Cross, are
to be adored with divine worship." Bishop
Taylor also mentions many others as up
holding this opinion; amongst them
Aquinas, Bonaventure, Cajetan, &c. And
though much caution was used in the ex
pression, "it is plain that the Council of
Trent intended such honour and worship to
be due " (See Taylor's Works, vol. xiii.
pp. 385 seq., Heber's Ed. : where the matter
is exhaustively treated). In England one
of the earliest works of the Reformation
was to get rid of this superstition, and all
images, "abused by pilgrimages and other
special honours," were to be removed (In
junctions of the King's Vicegerent ; Burnet's
Hist Ref. vol. i. ; Records, p. 276). All such
worship is prohibited by the " Institution
of a Christian Man " (p. 137). In Edward
VI.'s reign all images were removed by order
of Council (Burnet, vol. ii. p. Ill), and
in this the Church acquiesced "under the
conviction that they were unnecessary to
true piety, and liable to the grossest abuses."
¦ — Palmer's Hist, of Church, i. 386, &c.
The article 22 condemning " worshipping
of images and reliques," was written in
1553, and adopted in 1562. While any
thing approaching image worship is sternly
prohibited, the Church of England allows
the use of images in the manner stated in
the preceding article (See Images). [H.]
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION (See
Conception, Immaculate).

IMPLICIT FAITH
IMMERSION. The primitive mode of
administering the sacrament of baptism, by
which the person baptized was thrice
plunged into the water. " Immersion seems,
from the Anglo Saxon time down to the
middle of the 16th century, to have been
always the rule in the Church of England "
(Maskell, Mon. Rit. i. 24, and ccxlvii.). ' Im
mersion is the mode of baptising first pre
scribed in our office of public baptism; but
it is permitted to pour water upon the child,
if the godfathers and godmothers certify
that the child is weak (See Affusion;
Baptism ; Aspersion).
1MPANATION. A term (like transub
stantiation and consubstantiation) used to
designate a false notion of the manner of
the presence of the body and blood of our
Blessed Lord in the holy Eucharist.
This word is formed from the Latin pomis
(bread), and signifies the Divine person
Jesus Christ, God and man, becoming
bread [and wine], or taking the nature of
bread, for the purposes of the Holy Eucha
rist : so that, as in the one Divine person
Jesus Christ there are two perfect na
tures, God and man; so in the eucharistic
elements, according to the doctrine ex
pressed by the word impanation, there are
two perfect natures — one of the Divine Son
of the Blessed Virgin, and another of the
eucharistic elements : the two natures being
one, not in a figurative, but in a real and
literal sense, by a kind of hypostatical
union. The nearest approach to the doctrine of
impanation avowed by any sect, is that of
the Lutherans (See Consubstantiation).
IMPLICIT FAITH. The faith which
is given without reserve or examination,
such as the Church of Rome requires of her
members. The reliance we have on the
Church of England is grounded on the fact,
that she undertakes to prove that all her
doctrines are Scriptural, but the Church of
Rome requires credence on her own au
thority. The Church of England places
the Bible as an authority equal with the
Church, the Church of Rome makes the
authority of the Church above that of the
Bible. The Roman divines teach that we
are to observe, not how the Church proves
anything, but what she says : that the will
of God is, that we should believe and con
fide in his ministers in the same manner as
himself. Cardinal Toletus, in his instruc
tions for priests, asserts, " that if a rustic
believes his bishop proposing an heretical
tenet for an article of faith, such belief is
meritorious." Cardinal Cusanus tells us,
" That irrational obedience is the most con
summate and perfect obedience, when we
obey without attending to reason, as a beast
obeys his driver." In an epistle to the

IMPOSITION
Bohemians he has these words: "I assert
that there are no precepts of Christ but
those which are received as such by the
Church (meaning the Church of Rome).
When the Church changes her judgment,
God changes his judgment likewise."
IMPOSITION or LAYING ON OF
HANDS. St. Paul, or the writer of the
Epistle to the Hebrews (Heb. vi. 2), speaks
of the doctrine of laying on of hands as one
of the fundamentals of Christianity : it is
an ecclesiastical action, by which a blessing
is conveyed from God through his minister
to a person prepared by repentance and faith
to receive it. It is one of the most ancient
forms in the world, sanctioned by the
practice of Jacob, Moses, the Apostles, and
our Blessed Lord Himself. The imposition
of hands undoubtedly took its rise from
the practice of the Jewish Church, in ini
tiating persons for performing any sacred
office, or conferring any employ of dignity
or power. Thus Joshua was consecrated
to his high office (Numb, xxvii. 23).
Hence the Jews derived their custom of
ordaining their rabbis by imposition of
hands. In the early Church the ceremony was
used in benediction, absolution, and unction
of the sick, as well as in confirmation and
ordination. But probably the x«po6leo-ia men
tioned by St. Chrysostom (horn. 52) at the
benediction, implied only the raising of the
hands of the bishop over the congregation ;
and the imposition of hands seems only to
have been considered necessary in the two
cases of confirmation and ordination. With
regard to the former all the early Fathers
deemed it essential, as based upon Scriptural
teaching. (St. Cyprian, Ep. 72, 73 ; Jerom.
cont. Lucifer, cap. iv. ; Aug. de Bapt. lib. 3.
cap. 16, &c. : see Confirmation). And in
respect of the latter this ceremony has been
always esteemed so essential a part of ordi
nation, that any other way of conferring
orders without it has been judged invalid.
We find it used by the Apostles as often as
they admitted any new members into the
ministry of the Church. For, when they
ordained the first deacons, it is recorded, that
after praying " they laid hands on them "
(Acts vi. 6). At the ordination of Barnabas
and Paul it is said- that they "fasted and
prayed and laid their hands on them"
Acts xiii. 3). When St. Paul bids Timothy
have regard to the graces conferred in his
ordination, he observes that these were
conferred by imposition of hands : " Neglect
not the gift that is in thee, which was given
thee by prophecy, with the laying on of
the hands of the presbytery " (1 Tim. iv.
14). And in his other Epistle he exhorts
him to "stir up the gift of God which was
in him by the putting on of his hands "

INCARNATION

397

(2 Tim. i. 6). The primitive Christians,
following exactly after this copy, never
admitted any into orders but with this
ceremony: so that the ancient councils
seldom use any other word for ordination
than "imposition of hands" (Cone. Chalced.
c. 15 ; Trullo, cc. 14, 40 ; Constit Apost. viii.
19) ; and the ancient writers of the Church
signify, that the clerical character, and the
gifts of the Spirit, were conferrred by this
action. It must be observed here, that the im
position of the bishop's hands alone is re1-
quired in the ordination of a deacon, in
conformity to the usage of the ancient
Church. But priests concur in the ordination
of a priest. — Dr. Nicholls, Cone. Nic. c. 19.
This was in the early Church a distinction
between the three superior and five inferior
orders, that the first were given by imposition!
of hands, and the second were not.
IMPROPRIATION. Ecclesiastical pro
perty, the profits of which are in the hands
of a layman : thus distinguished from
appropriation, which is when the profits of
a benefice are in the hands of a college, &c.
Impropriations have arisen from the con
fiscation of monasteries in the time of
Henry VIII., when, instead of restoring the-
tithes to ecclesiastical uses, they were given-
or sold to laymen.
IMPUTATION. The attributing a cha
racter to a person which he does not really
possess ; thus, when in baptism we are
justified, the righteousness is imputed,
as well as imparted to us. The imputation
which respects our justification before God,
is God's gracious reckoning of the righteous--
ness of Christ to believers, and his accept
ance of these persons as righteous on that
account ; their sins being imputed to him,
and his obedience being imputed to them.
Rom. iv. 6, 7 ; v. 18, 19 ; 2 Cor. v. 21
(See Faith and Justification).
INCARNATION. The act whereby the
Son of God assumed the human nature ; or
the mystery by which the Eternal Word
was made man, in order to accomplish the
work of our salvation.
The doctrine of the incarnation as laid*
down in the third General Council, that of
Ephesus (a.d. 431), is as follows:— "The
great and holy synod (of Nice) said, that He
Who was begotten of the Father, as the
only-begotten Son by nature ; Who was true
God of true God, Light of Light, by Whom
the Father made all things ; that He de
scended, became incarnate, and was made
man, suffered, rose on the third day, and
ascended into the heavens." These words
and doctrines we ought to follow, in con
sidering what is meant by the Word of God
being " incarnate and made man."
We do not say that the nature of the

398

INCENSE

Word was converted and became flesh ; nor
that it was changed into perfect man, con
sisting of body and soul: but rather, that
the Word, uniting to Himself personally
flesh, animated by a rational soul, became
man in an ineffable and incomprehensible
manner, and became the Son of man, not
merely by will and affection, but that
different natures were joined in a real unity,
and that there is one Christ and Son, of two
natures ; the' difference of natures not being
.taken away by their union. It is said
also, that He who was before all ages and
begotten of the Father, was " born according
to the flesh, of a woman : " not as if His
Divine nature had taken its beginning from
the Holy Virgin, but because for us, and
for our salvation, He united personally to
Himself the nature of man, and proceeded
from a woman ; therefore He is said to be
" born according to the flesh." So also we
say that He "suffered and rose again," not
as if God the Word had suffered in His own
nature the stripes, the nails, or the other
wounds ; for the Godhead cannot suffer, as
it is incorporeal : but because that which had
become His own body suffered, He is said
to suffer those things for us. For He who
was incapable of suffering was in a suffering
body. In like manner we understand His
"death." Because His own body, by the
grace of God, as St. Paul said, tasted death
for every man, He is said to suffer death.
INCENSE. The use of incense in con
nexion with Christian worship is not men
tioned by writers in the first three centuries
of the Christian sera; in fact there are
numerous passages in which prayer is spoken
of as the only incense offered to God
(Clemens Alex. Strom, vii. 6, 32, &c). It
was probably employed as a disinfectant,
or to cover evil odours, but not with any
rehgious ceremony (TertuR de Cor. Mill.
c. 10). In the Apostolic Canons (c. 3)
the words occur, " dvpiapa ra Kaipa rfjr
dyias ¦n-poo-qbopas" ; but the date of these
canons is very uncertain (See Apostolical
Canons). It was used in the time of Gregory
the Great, in the latter part of the sixth
century. It then became prevalent in the
Church, but fell into disuse in the Church of
England after the Reformation, and although
now revived in some churches, has several
times been decided to be illegal. — Bingham,
bk. viii. 6 ; Diet. Christ. Ant. 830. [H.]
INCOMPREHENSIBLE. In the Atha
nasian Creed it is said, that " the Father
is incomprehensible, the Son incomprehensi-
' ble, the Holy Ghost incomprehensible ; "
which means that the Father is illimitable,
the Son illimitable, the Holy Ghost illimit
able. At the time when this creed was
translated, the word incomprehensible was
not confined to the sense it now bears, of

INDEPENDENTS
inconceivable, or beyond the reach qf our
understanding ; but it then meant, not
comprehended within limits.
INCORRUPTICOL_, or Aphthartodo-
cete, or Phantasiaste. Heretics who had
their origin at Alexandria, in the time of the
emperor Justinian. The beginning , of the
controversy was among the Eutychians,
whether the body of Christ was corruptible
or incorruptible from his conception: Severus
held it corruptible ; Julian of Halicarnassus
held the contrary, that our Lord's body was
not obnoxious to hunger, thirst, or weariness ;
and that he did but seemingly suffer sueh
things ; from whence they were called
Phantasiaste. The emperor Justinian, in
the very end of his reign, favoured these
heretics, and persecuted the orthodox.
INCUMBENT. He who is in present
possession of a benefice. It is quite settled
law that the incumbent has complete control
over and is responsible for the due per
formances of divine service, and it is particu
larly to be observed that though curates are
personally responsible for their own acts, the
incumbent is responsible too for all he
permits and sanctions : Parnell v. Roughton,
6 P. C. 46 ; also that he has full control
over the organist and the choir. Hutchins
v. Denziloe, 3 Phil. 90 ; and Wyndham v.
Cole, in the Court of Arches, Oct. 1875.
INDEPENDENT METHODISTS (See
INDEPENDENTS. A sect deriving its
name from their principle, that every par
ticular congregation is an independent body.
" The founder," Lord Macaulay says, " con
ceived that every Christian congregation
had, under Christ, supreme jurisdiction in
things spiritual ; that appeals to provincial
and national synods were scarcely less
unscriptural than appeals to the Court of
Arches, or to the Vatican ; and that Popery,
Prelacy, and Presbyterianism were merely
three forms of one great apostasy."
I. Robert Brown, a clergyman of the English
Church in Elizabeth's reign, is said to have
been the first who maintained the distin
guishing doctrine of this sect in England;
and they went by the name of Brownists till
1642. Numbers of them were expelled from
the kingdom, or emigrated in 1583. But
Brown did not continue to be their leader.
His "hasty and'arrogant spirit" could not he
borne. His relation, Lord Burleigh, got him
the living of Thorpe-Achurch in North
amptonshire, and there he lived doing no
work, but being constantly in trouble. He
died in Northampton jail in 1630, having
been sent thither not for any religious pro
fessions, but because of an assault on a
constable of his parish, who was also his
godson (Hook's Ecc. Biog. iii. p. 147;
Fuller's Ch. Hist. iii.). Leaders of the sect,

INDEPENDENTS
after Brown's influence had gone were
Barrow, a Cambridge graduate, and a barrister
of Gray's Inn, of whom Lord Bacon speaks,
as one who " made a leap from a vain and
libertine youth, to a preciseness in the
highest degree, and so was much spoken of "
(Bacon's Works, i. 383, Child's Ed.) ; John
Greenwood, and Francis Johnson, Fellow of
Christ's College, Cambridge, who established
a Brownist community at Amsterdam (For
the history of the early Independents, see
Dr. Vaughan's Hist, of English Noncon
formity, 1862). The English Independents
became a most powerful sect, and during the
Commonwealth they were active in pre
venting the establishment of a Presbyterian
Church in England. In 1662 the Act of
Uniformity was passed, which excluded from
the ministerial office in the Church of
England, persons either of the Independent
or Presbyterian opinions (See Uniformity).
After another Act, the " Act of Toleration "
(see Toleration), the Independent sect,
as indeed all the other dissenting sects,
decreased in numbers, till the wonderful
influence of the Wesleys and Whitefield
caused a revival. Many persons then re
fused to join the Wesleyans, as was the
case with Lady Huntingdon's Connexion,
but they coalesced with the old Inde
pendents, and by this accession the latter
became the largest dissenting body in
England, except the Wesleyans. In 1831 a
' Congregational Union was formed, showing,
we may suppose, the weakness of the funda
mental principle of "Independency." The
Congregationalists, or Independents, have
increased in numbers in proportion to the
increase of population.
The earliest account of the number of
Independent congregations refers to 1812 ;
before that period, Independent and Presby
terian congregations were returned together.
In 1812, there seem to have been 1024
Independent chapels in England and Wales
(799 in England, and 225 in Wales). In
1838, an estimate gives 1840 churches in
England and Wales. It is now said that
there are 3500 Congregational or Indepen
dent chapels in the United Kingdom : 110
in Canada, 160 in Australia ; beside mission
ary churches and colleges sustained by the
London Missionary Society. — Congrega
tional Year-Book.
II. In doctrine they are strictly Calvin
istic. But many of the Independents, both
at home and abroad, reject the use of " all
creeds and confessions drawn up by fallible
men ; " and merely require of their teachers
a declaration of their belief in the truth of
the gospel and its leading doctrines, and of
their adherence to the Scriptures as the sole
standard of faith and practice, and the only
test of doctrine, or the only criterion of faith.

INDUCTION

399

And in general they require from all persons
who wish to be admitted into their commu
nion, an account, either verbal or written, of
what is called their experience; in which,
not only a declaration of their faith in the
Lord Jesus, and their purpose, by grace, to
devote themselves to Him, is expected, but
likewise a recital of the steps by which they
were led to a knowledge and profession of
the gospel.
In regard to Church government and
discipline, it may be sufficient to remark
here, after what has already been said, that
Independents in general agree with the
Presbyterians " in maintaining the identity
of presbyters and bishops, and believe that
a plurality of presbyters, pastors, or bishops,
in one church, is taught in Scripture, rather
than the common usage of one bishop over
many congregations ; " but they conceive
their own mode of discipline to be " as much
beyond the presbyterian as presbytery is
preferable to prelacy : " and they assert that
one distinguishing feature of their discipline is
their maintaining " the right of the Church,
or body of Christians, to determine who shall
be admitted into their communion, and also
to exclude from their fellowship those who
may prove themselves unworthy members."
This, their regard to purity of commu
nion, whereby they profess to receive only
accredited, or really serious Christians, has
been termed the grand Independent principle
(Stoughton's Eccl. Hist). [H] ,
INDEXES. The books generally bearing
the title of Prohibitory and Expurgatory In
dexes, are catalogues of authors and works
either condemned in toto, or censured and
corrected, chiefly by excision, issued from
the Church of modern Rome, and published
by authority of her ruling members and
societies so empowered,
The Prohibitory Index specifies and pro
hibits entire authors or works, whether of
known or of unknown authors. This book
has been frequently published, with succes
sive enlargements, to the present time, under
the express sanction of the reigning pontiff.
It may be considered as a kind of periodical
publication of the papacy.
The other class of indexes, the Expurga
tory, contains a particular examination of
the works occurring in it, and specifies the
passages condemned to be expunged or
altered. Such a work, in proportion to the
number of books embraced by it, must be,
and in the case of the Spanish indexes of the
kind, is voluminous. For a general history
of these indexes the reader is referred to
Mendham's " Literary Policy of the Church
of Rome."
INDUCTION. This may be compared
to livery and seisin of a freehold, for it is
putting a minister in actual possession of

400

INDULGENCE

the church to which he is presented, and of
the glebe land and other temporalities
thereof; for before induction he hath no
freehold in them. The usual method of
induction is by virtue of a mandate under
the seal of th-j bishop, to the archdeacon of
the place, who either himself, or by his
warrant to all clergymen within his arch
deaconry, inducts the new incumbent by
taking his hand, laying it on the key of the
church in the door, and pronouncing these
words : " I induct you into the ' real and
actual possession of the rectory or vicarage
of H  , with all its fruits, members, and
appurtenances." Then he opens the door
of the church, and puts the person in pos
session of it, who enters to offer his devo
tions, which done, he tolls a bell to
announce his induction to his parishioners
(Official Year-Book, 1886).
INDULGENCE. 1. In the primitive
times this implied the relaxation of canonical
penance, by the bishop, on sufficient evidence
of true repentance. St. Basil speaks of it
in this sense (Can. 74), and St. Chrysostom
says, " Show your contrition, show your
reformation, and all is done " (Horn. xiv. in
2 Cor.). And in several councils it was left
to the discretion of the bishops to show
favour to true penitents, and to shorten, by
indulgence, their time of penance (Cone.
llerden, can. 5 ; Cone. Chalced. can. 16). In
our Church this is the only allowable idea
of indulgence.— Bingham, bk. xviii. c. 4;
Bishop Taylor's dissuasive from Popery,
Works, vol. x. 131, Heber's Ed.; Hooker,
Ecc. Pol. vi. 5, 8, 9.
II. Indulgences in the Roman Church are
a remission of the punishment due to sins,
granted by the Church, and supposed to
save the soul from Purgatory. The con
ferring of indulgences, which are denomi
nated "the heavenly treasures of the
Church" (Cone. Tri. Decret sess. xx.), is
said to be the " gift of Christ to the Church "
(sess. xxv.). To understand the nature of
indulgences, we must observe, that " the
temporal punishment due to sin, by the
decree of God, when its guilt and eternal
punishment are remitted, may consist either
of evil in this life, or of temporal suffering
in the next, which temporal suffering in
the next life is called purgatory ; that the
Church has received power from God to
remit both of these inflictions, and this re
mission is called an indulgence " (Butler's
Book qf tlie Rom. Cath. Ch. p. 110). ".It
is the received doctrine of the Roman Church
that an indulgence, when truly gained, is
not barely a relaxation of the canonical
penance enjoined by the Church, but also
an actual remission by God himself of the
whole, or part, of the temporal punishment
due to it in his sight" (Milner's End of

INDULGENCE
Controv. p. 305). Indulgences were first
invented by Urban II. in the eleventh
century, as a recomperice to those who went'
to the holy war. Clement V. decreed that
they who should, at the jubilee, visit such
and such churches, should obtain " a most
full remission of all their sins ; " and h&
not only granted a " plenary absolution
of all sins, to all who died on the road to-'
Rome," but " also commanded the angelsof1
paradise to carry the soul direct to heaven."'
Boniface VIII. granted not only a general,
but the most full pardon of all sins to-
all that visit Rome the first year in every
century. Pope Leo X., in his bull De In^
dulgentiis, whose object he states to be "that
no one in future may allege ignorance cf the
doctrine of the Roman Church respecting
indulgences, and their efficacy," declares,
" that the Roman pontiff, vicar of Christ on
earth, can, for reasonable causes,.by the
powers of the keys, grant to the faithful,
whether in this life or in purgatory, indul
gences out of the superabundance of the
merits of Christ and of the saints (expressly
called a treasure) ; and that those who have
truly obtained these indulgences are released
from so much of the temporal punishment
due for their actual sins to the Divine justice,
as is equivalent to the indulgence granted
and obtained" (Bulla Leon. X. adv.
Luther). Clement XL, in the bull Uni-
genitus, speaks most extravagantly on the
subject, as do many other of the popes. " We
have resolved," says Pope Leo XII., in his
bull of indiction for the universal jubilee,
in 1824, " in virtue of the authority given
us by heaven, fully to unlock that sacred
treasure, composed of the merits, sufferings,
and virtues of Christ our Lord, and of His
Virgin Mother, and of all the saints, which
the author of human salvation has intrusted
to our dispensation. During this year of
the jubilee, we mercifully give and grant in
the Lord a plenary indulgence, remission,
and pardon of all their sins, to all the faithful
of Christ, truly penitent and confessing their
sins, and receiving the holy communion, who
shall visit the churches of blessed Peter and
Paul," &c.
The first General Lateran Council granted
" remission of sins to whoever shall go to
Jerusalem, and effectually help to oppose
the infidels " (Can. xi.). The third and
fourth Lateran Councils granted the same
indulgence to those who set themselves to
destroy heretics, or who shall take up arms
against them (See Labbe, vol. x.).
The Council of Trent confirmed this
" novel and strange doctrine ; " and it was
against these indulgences that Luther had
so firmly set himself. Long before Luther,
however, this abuse had rankled in the
heart of Christendom. It was in vain for

INDULGENCE
the Church to assert that, rightly under
stood, indulgences only released from tem
poral penances; that they were a commu
tation, a merciful, lawful commutation for
such penances. The language of the pro
mulgators and vendors of the indulgences,
even of the indulgences themselves, was, to
tho vulgar ear, the broad, plain, direct
guarantee from the pains of purgatory, from
hell itself, for tens, hundreds, thousands of
years; a sweeping pardon for all sins
committed, a sweeping licence for sins to be
committed; and if this false construction,
as it might be, was perilous to the irre
ligious, the seeming flagrant dissociation of
morality from religion was no less revolting
to the religious. No testimony can be pro
duced from any Father, or any document of
the ancient Church, that either this doctrine,
or the practice of such indulgences, was
known or used for 1000 years. — Milman's
Lat. Christ, vol. vi. p. 436 : see also note,
437; Clementius, Exam. Cone. Trid. de
Indulg. c. 4; J. Taylor, ut sup., p. 141
(where the subject is treated at length, and
the doctrine confuted) ; Lingard, vi. 89 ;
Bellarmine, de Indulg. cc. 2, 3 (For English
forms of indulgence see Maskell, Mon. Rit.
iii. 372). [H.]
INDULGENCE SUNDAY. A name
given to the first day in Holy Week in the
Lectionary of St. Jerome, and bylater writers.
It has been supposed that the term origi
nated from the custom of the Christian
emperors of setting prisoners free on that
day, and closing the courts of law during the
week. But this did not take place before
the end of the fourth century, and the term
was older than that. Most probably it was
intended to refer to our Lord's indulgence,
in His work of redemption : and in this sense
the words occur, in the Gregorian Sacramen
tary, " per quem nobis indulgentia largitur ; "
and again, " ut indulgentiam percipere mer-
eamm" (See Palm- Sunday). [H.]
INDULT (Lat. indultum),m the Church
of Rome, is a power of presenting to benefices,
granted to certain persons by the pope. Of
this kind is the Indult of kings and sovereign
princes and cardinals in the Romish com
munion, and, formerly, that of the parliament
of Paris. The power of nominating to bishop
rics was granted to Francis I. by Pope Leo X.,
a.d. 1516, and similar grants were made by
later popes.
The cardinals have an Indult granted
them by agreement between Pope Paul IV.
and the sacred college, in 1555, which is
always confirmed by the popes at the time
of their election. By this treaty or agree
ment the cardinals have the free disposal of
all the benefices depending on them, without
being interrupted byany prior collations from
the pope.

INFINITY

401

INFALLIBILITY OF THE CHURCH.
In one sense the universal Church is infal
lible. It has an infaUible guide in the Holy
Scriptures. Holy Scripture contains all re
ligious truth ; and the Church having the
Scriptures, is so far infallibly guided. But
there is no infallible guide to the interpreta
tion of Scripture. If it were so, then there
would be an authority above the Scriptures.
Hence the wisdom of our twentieth Article :
" The Church hath power to decree rites or
ceremonies," &c. In this the authority of
the Church in subordination to Scripture is
clearly laid down. To the same effect is our
twenty-first Article. "General Councils,"
&c, which ends : " Wherefore things ordained
by them as necessary to salvation have
neither strength nor authority, unless it-
may be declared that they be taken out of
holy Scripture " — Waterland, in " Impor
tance of tne Doctrine of the Holy Trinity."
Chillingworth, Beveridge.
Thus the Church of England ever upholds
the authority of the Church, and accepts
the doctrine of the general councils, while
at the same time she repudiates the idea of
infaUibility as taught by the Church of
Rome. That Church asserts the infallibility
(i.) of the Fathers. "Our constant and
avowed doctrine is, that the doctrine of the
Fathers, speaking of them properly as such,
is infallible" (see Fathers); (ii.) of the
councils, whether they are general or no, if
only connected with the Roman Church ; (iii.)
of the Pope. — Bishop Taylor's Works,Heber's
Ed., viii. 52 : x. 313.
The Council of Trent published no defi
nition on this point. Suarez says that the
Pope's infallibility is a question of faith;
Bellarmine, that it is not; and Stapleton,
that, though the denial of it is scandalous and
offensive, it is perhaps not heretical ; while
Gerson, with a very large and learned school
of Roman theologians, rejects the doctrine
altogether. But the matter has been settled
for the Church of Rome by Pope Pius IX.,
who in a.d. 1870 declared the Pope infal
lible. [H.]
INFANT BAPTISM (See Baptism, In
fant). INFINITY. An attribute of God. The
idea of infinity or immensity is so closely
connected with that of self-existence, that,
because it is impossible but that something
must be infinite, independently and of itself,
therefore it must of necessity be self-existent:
and because something must of necessity be
self-existent, therefore it is necessary that it
must likewise be infinite. A necessarily
existent being must be everywhere as well as
always unalterably the same. For a neces
sity, which is not everywhere the same, is
plamly a consequential necessity only, de
pending upon some external cause. What-
2 D

402

INFIRMARIAN

ever therefore exists by an absolute necessity
in its own nature, must needs be infinite, as
well as eternal. To suppose a finite being to
be self-existent, is to say, that it is a contra
diction for that being not to exist, the ab
sence of which may yet be conceived without
a contradiction, which is the greatest absur
dity in the world.
From hence it follows that the infinity of
the self-existent Being must be an infinity
oi fulness, as weR as of immensity ; that is,
it must not only be without limits, but also
without diversity, defect, or interruption.
It follows, likewise, that the self-existent
Being must be a most simple, unchangeable,
incorruptible Being, without parts, figure,
motion, divisibility, or any other such
properties, as we find in matter. For all
these things plainly and necessarily imply
finiteness in their very notion, and are
utterly inconsistent with complete infinity.
As to the particular manner in which the
Supreme Being is infinite, or everywhere
present — this is as impossible for our finite
understandings to comprehend and explain,
as it is for us to form an adequate idea of
infinity. The schoolmen have presumed to
assert that the immensity of God is a point,
as his eternity (they think) is an instant.
But this being altogether uninteUigible, we
may more safely affirm, that the Supreme
Cause is at all times equally present, both
in his simple essence, and by the immediate
and perfect exercise of all his attributes, to
every point of the boundless immensity, as
if it were really aR but one single point.
The Latin version of the Te Deum renders
" of an infinite majesty," " immensse majes-
tatis." The same epithet, which means " im
measurable," is used in the Athanasian Creed
to imply " incomprehensible " (See Incom
prehensible). INFIRMARIAN. An officer in a mon
astery, who had the care of the sick and
infirm. A dignitary in Nice Cathedral was
so called.
INITIATED. In the early ages of the
Church, this term was applied to those who
had been baptized and admitted to a know
ledge of the higher mysteries of the gospel.
The discipline of the Church at that period
made it necessary that candidates for baptism
should pass through a long probation, in the
character of catechumens. WhRe in this
preparatory state, they were not allowed to
be present at the celebration of the Eucha
rist ; and in sermons and homilies in their
presence, the speaker either waived alto
gether any direct statement of the sublimer
doctrines of Christianity, or alluded to them
in an onscure manner, not intelligible to the
uninitiated, but sufficiently clear to be in
terpreted by those for whom they were
intended, viz. the baptized or initiated.

INJUNCTIONS
Hence the phrase so common in the homilies
of the Fathers, " the initiated understand
what is said," St. Chrysostom and St.
Augustine using it at least fifty times.—
Casaubon, Exerc. 16 in Baron, p. 399.
INJUNCTIONS. I. Of September, 1547.
These are important as showing the spirit
by which the English Reformers were ani
mated. They were eleven in number, and
directed on the one hand against super
stitious abuses, which had taken hold of the
people, and on the other against the negli
gence of the clergy. They were (1) that
the clergy should not encourage the people
to pay reverence to relics, or make pilgrim
ages to shrines ; but should teach that health
(salvation) and grace ought to be sought for
from God only ; (2) that the clergy should
preach at least once in each quarter of the
year, exhort their people to the practice of
those virtues and graces enjoined in Scrip
ture ; and should denounce such things as
offering candles and tapers, or kissing or
licking the same, prayer upon beads, or such
like superstitions; (3) that images which
had been worshipped, should be destroyed,
aud no lights should be burnt before any
image or picture, " but only two lights upon
the high altar, before the Sacrament, which,
for the signification that Christ is the very
true Light of the world, they shaU remain
still " (see Lights) ; (4), (5), (6), (7) order the
reading and reciting the Scriptures, Epistles
and Gospels, Lord's Prayer, Credo, and
Litany, in English: and direct that an
English version of the Bible should he set
up in the chuich for the use of parishioners;
(8) that all shrines, coverings of shrines,
tables, candlesticks, trindles or rolls of wax,
pictures, paintings, and aR other monuments
of feigned miracles, &c, should be destroyed ;
(9) a pulpit to be provided by the church
wardens ; (10) one of the homilies to be read
every Sunday ; (11) that all persons who
did not understand Latin were to use King
Henry's Primer.
II. Of October in the same year. These
ordered that matins should be celebrated at 6,
and evensong and compline at 3, from Lady
Day to October 1 : and at 7, and 2 or 2.30,
during the rest of the year; that only one
massshouldbe celebrateddaily,at9|A.M.; that
the singing of hours, prime, dirige (seeDirge)
commendations should be discontinued.
III. Of Queen Elizabeth. By 1 Mary, s. 2,
c. 2, the alterations made in the reign of
Edward VI. were abolished ; and so, whether
the Injunctions of 1547 had the force of an
Act of Parliament or not, they ceased to be
of any authority. The Injunctions of 1559
were founded upon those of 1547, and were
followed by certain " Interpretations, and
further considerations (See Advertise
ments). [H.]

INNOCENTS' DAY
INNOCENTS' DAY. One of the holy-
days of the Church, observed December 28.
The innocents were they who suffered death
under the cruel decree of Herod, who
thought, by a general slaughter of young
children, to have accomplished the death of
the infant Jesus. They are so called from
the Latin term innocentes or innocui, harm
less babes, altogether incapable of defending
themselves from the malice of their inhuman
persecutors. The celebration of the martyr
dom of these innocents was very ancient. —
Orig. Horn. 3, De Diversis ; Cypr. Ep. 56,
ad Thibar. ; Aug. de Lit. Art. 3, 23.
INQUISITION. A tribunal or com-t of
justice, in Roman Catholic countries, erected
by the popes fpr the examination and pun
ishment of heretics.
Before the conversion of the empire to
Christianity, there was no other tribunal for
the inquiry into matters of faith and doctrine
but that of the bishops ; nor any other way
of punishing obstinate heretics but. that of
¦excommunication. But the Roman em
perors, being converted to Christianity,
thought themselves obliged to interpose in
the punishment of crimes committed against
God, and for this purpose made laws (which
may be found in the Theodosian and Jus
tinian codes), by which heretics were sen
tenced to banishment and forfeiture of es
tates. Thus there were two courts of judi
cature against heretics, the one spiritual, the
other civil. The ecclesiastical court pro
nounced upon the right, declared what was
heresy, and excommunicated heretics. When
this, was done, the civil courts undertook
the prosecution, and punished those, in their
jersons and fortunes, who were convicted of
heresy. This method lasted till after the year
800. From this time the jurisdiction of
the Western bishops OTer heretics was
engaged, and they had now authority both
to convict and punish them, by imprison
ment and several acts of discipline, war
ranted, by the canons and custom : but they
could not execute the imperial laws of
banishment upon them. Matters stood
thus until the twelfth century, when the
great growth and power of heresies (as they
were called) began to give no small dis
turbance to the Church. However, the
popes could do no more than send legates
and preachers to endeavour to convert the
heretics, particularly the Albigenses, who
in the 13th century were the occasion of
great disturbances in Languedoc. Hither
Father Dominic and his followers (caUed
from him Dominicans) were sent by Pope
Innocent III. a.d. 1208, with orders to excite
the Catholic princes and people to extirpate
heretics, to inquire out their number and
quality, and to transmit a faithful account

INSPIRATION

403

thereof to Rome; hence they were called
Inquisitors; and this gave birth to the for
midable tribunal of the Inquisition, which
was established in all Italy, and it was
also introduced into Germany and France.
In the latter country it was exercised with
great severity for a time, but was soon
discontinued, though an unsuccessful at
tempt was made to revive it under Henry
II. against the Huguenots. In Germany it
fell into disuse at the Reformation. In
England it was never received, prosecutions
against heresy being carried on in the
ordinary courts. In Spain, where it was
first introduced in 1248, and in Portugal,
the greatest atrocities were committed by
the Inquisition, the usual punishment for
those found guilty by the tribunal being a
lingering death by burning, besides preli
minary tortures to make the accused confess
(See Auto dafe). It was finally abolished
in 1835.
The Inquisition of Goa, in the Indies, was
very powerful, the principal inquisitor hav
ing more respect shown him than either
the archbishop or viceroy.
The Inquisition of Venice, consisting of
the pope's nuncio residing there, the pa
triarch of Venice, the father inquisitor, and
two senators, was not nearly so severe as
those of Spain and Portugal. It did not
hinder the Greeks and Armenians from the
exercise of their religion; and it tolerated
the Jews, who wore scarlet caps for the sake
of distinction. In fine, the power of this
tribunal was so limited by the States, that, in
the university of Padua, degrees were taken
without requiring the candidates to make
the profession of faith enjoined by the
popes; insomuch that schismatics, Jews,
and those they call heretics, could freely take
their degrees in law and physic there.
The Inquisition of Rome was a congrega
tion of twelve cardinals, and some other
officers, and the pope presided in it in
person. This was accounted the highest
tribunal in Rome. It was founded a.d.
1543, in the time of Pope Paul III., on
occasion of the spreading of Lutheranism ;
its powers were confirmed and extended by
Pius IV. a.d. 1564, reorganized by Sixtus V.
in 1588, suppressed by Napoleon Bonaparte
in 1808.
INSPIRATION (See Holy Ghost).
I. The extraordinary and supernatural in
fluence of the Spirit of God on the human
mind, by which the prophets and sacred
writers were qualified to receive and set
forth Divine communications, without any
mixture of error. In this sense the term
occurs in 2 Tim. iii. 16. " All Scripture is
given by inspiration of God," &c. (See
Scriptures, Inspiration of).
II. The word inspiration also expresses
2 D 2

404

INSTALLATION

that ordinary operation of the Spirit, by
which men are inwardly moved and excited
both to will and to do such things as are
pleasing to God, and through which all the
powers of their minds are elevated, purified,
and invigorated. " There is a spirit in man ;
and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth
them understanding" (Job xxxii. 8). In
this latter sense the term and its kindred
verb frequently appear in the offices of tbe
Church ; as in the petitions, " Grant, that
by thy holy inspiration we may think
those things that are good ; " " Cleanse the
thoughts of our hearts by the inspiration
of thy Holy Spirit ; " " Beseeching thee
to inspire continually the universal Church
with the Spirit of truth, unity, and con
cord ; " and
" Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire,
And lighten with celestial fire ;"
" Visjt our minds, into our hearts
Thy heavenly grace inspire."
INSTALLATION. The act of giving
-visible possession of his office to a canon
or prebendary of a cathedral, by placing
him in his stah. It is also applied to the
placing of a bishop in his episcopal throne
in his cathedral church ; enthronization
being said to be proper to archbishops
only; but this appears a technical and
unreal distinction invented in the middle
ages. The installation of the Knights of the
Garter is a religious ceremony, performed
in the Chapel of St. George, at Windsor
(See Ashmole's Institution of the Order of
the Garter). Those of the Knights of the
Bath in Henry VII.'s Chapel in West
minster Abbey, and of the Knights of St.
Patrick in the Cathedral of St. Patrick's
in Dublin, are, according to the statutes of
the orders, conducted upon the same model.
INSTITUTION. The act by which the
bishop commits to a clergyman the cure of
a church. Canon 40. "To avoid the detestable
sin of simony, every archbishop, bishop, or
other person having authority to admit,
institute, or collate, to any spiritual or ec
clesiastical function, dignity, or benefice,
shall, before every such admission, institu
tion, or collation, minister to every person
to be admitted, instituted, or collated, the
oath against simony."
The following papers are to be sent to
the bishop by the clergyman, who is to be
instituted or collated : —
1. Presentation to the benefice or ca
thedral preferment, duly stamped and exe
cuted by the patron [or petition, not on
stamp, if the person to be instituted happens
to be patron of the benefice.]
The stamp duty upon presentations is
now regulated by the Acts 5 & 6 Vict. c.

INSTITUTION
79, and 6 & 7 Vict. c. 72, and it is an ad
valorem duty upon the net yearly value of,
the preferment or benefice, such value "iifo.
be ascertained by the certificate of the
ecclesiastical commissioners for England.
indorsed upon the instrument of presents-,
tion. The following is the scale of stamp duty
to which presentations are liable : —
Where the annual value is
under £300 . . . £5 stamp.
If it amounts to £300 and is
less than £400 ... 10
If it amounts to £400 and is
less than £500 . . .15
If it amounts to £500 and is
less than £600 . . .20
and so on ; an additional £5 being required!
for every £100 annual value.
In the case of collations, and also of in
stitutions proceeding upon the petition of
the patron, -the certificate of yearly, value
must be written upon, and the stamp af
fixed to, the instrument of collation, or of
institution, respectively.
The foUowing is the scale of duty to
which collations and institutions proceeding
upon petition are liable : —
Where the annual value is
under £300 . . ,. £7 stamp..
If it amounts to £300 and is
less than £400 . . . 12
If it amounts to £400 and is
less than £500 . . . ' 17
If it amounts to £500 and is
less than £600 . . .22
and so on ; an additional £5 being required,
for every £100 annual value.
In order to procure the certificate of
value from the ecclesiastical commissioners,
application should be made by the secretary
to the commissioners, in the following
from : —
Application for Certificate of the value of
a Living under 5 & 6 Vict c. 79, and 6 &
7 Vict. c. 72.
TO THE ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS'
FOR ENGLAND.
The  , of  , in the county of.
 , and diocese of  , and in the
patronage of  , having become vacant
on the  day of  last, by the ¦  of
the Rev.  ; and the Rev.  being
about to be  thereto, the ecclesiastical
commissioners for England are requested to-
certify the net yearly value thereof, ac
cording to the provisions of the Acts 5 & 6-
Vict. c. 79, and 6 & 7 Vict. c. 72.
(Date)  .
(Signature)  ¦.¦
In answer to this application, a form of
certificate will be sent from the office of the,

INSTITUTION
(ecclesiastical commissioners, which is to be
indorsed on the instrument of presentation,
&c, and then transmitted to the same office
for signature ; after which, the presentation,
&c, will, on its being taken to the Stamp
¦Office, be properly stamped.
2. Letters of orders, deacon, and priest.
3. Letters testimonial by three beneficed
.clergymen, in the foUowing form : —
To the Right Reverend  , Lord
Bishop of  .
We, whose names are hereunder written
testify and make known, that A. B., clerk,
A.M. (or other degree), presented (or to be
'collated, as the case may be) to the canonry,
&c, &c. (or to the rectory or vicarage, as
the case may be), of  , in the county of
- — , in your lordship's diocese, hath been
personally known to us for the space of
three years last past; that we have had
opportunities of observing his conduct ;
that, during the whole of that time,
we verily believe that he lived piously,
;soberly, and honestly ; nor have we at any
time heard anything to the contrary thereof ;
nor hath he at any time, as far as we know
-or believe, held, written, or taught anything
¦contrary to the doctrine or discipline of the
United Church of England and Ireland;
and, moreover, we believe, him in our
consciences to be, as to his moral conduct, a
person worthy to be admitted to the said
canonry, or benefice (os the case may be).
In witness whereof we haye hereunto set
our hands, this  day of  , in the
year of our Lord 18 —
C. D. rector of  .
E. F. vicar of  .
G. H. rector of  .
(Official Year-Book of the Church of
England, p. 639).
If all the subscribers are not beneficed in
the diocese of the bishop to whom the
testimonial is addressed, the counter
signature of the bishop of the diocese
wherein their benefices are respectively
situate is required.
4. A short statement of the title of the
patron in case of a change of patron since
the last incumbent was presented.
The same subscriptions and declarations
are to be made, and oaths taken, as by a
clergyman on being licensed to a perpetual
^curacy (See Curacy).
If the clergyman presented, or to be
collated, should be in possession of other
preferment, it wUl be necessary for him
¦(if he wishes to continue to hold a cathedral
preferment, or a benefice with the cathedral
¦preferment, or benefice to which he has
been presented, or is to be collated,) to look
¦to the provisions of the Act 1 & 2 Vict. c.

INTENTION

405

106, sect. 1 to sect. 14, before he is insti
tuted or collated (See Pluralities).
INSTITUTION OF A CHRISTIAN
MAN, or "THE BISHOPS BOOK." This
foUowed the " Articles to establish Christian
quietness," which were put forth by the
authority of Henry VIII. in 1536, and was
intended to explain the Creed, the Lord's
Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and tho
Sacraments. It is interesting to compare
this book with that which is called the
" King's Book," published about six years
later, and in which the influence of Gar
diner is manifest. The chief points in the
" Bishops' Book " are " Justification by the
only merits of Jesus Christ " (60) ; " Good
works not in themselves deserving of re
ward " ; " Christ the only mediator " (45) ;
"The authority of the Pope to be re
nounced" (55). In the " King's Book"
these matters are treated in a very dif
ferent way, and in fact there was a re
trograde movement. But it was only
for a time, and the " Institution of a
Christian Man" did its work in the history
of the Reformation. — Burnet's Reform, i.
228-9 ; Blunt's Parish Priest (Murray), pp.
115 seq., 324 (See Bishop's Book).
INTENTION. (1) A motion of the
will, by which it is proposed or intended to
accomplish or obtain a certain end. "In
every action," says Jeremy Taylor, " reflect
upon the end ; and in your undertaking it,
consider why you do it, and what you pro
pound to yourself for a reward, and to your
action as its end." "Intentions" are the
particular objects which we wish to gain
(whether for ourselves or others) by any act
of devotion.
(2) But the word is used in a different
sense in the Roman Church. On this sub
ject the following is the eleventh canon of
the CouncU of Trent : — " If any shall say
that there is not required in the ministers
whUe they perform and confer the sacra
ments, at least the intention of doing what
the Church does, let him be accursed."
This is a fearful assertion, which supposes
it to be in the power of every malicious or
sceptical priest to deprive the holiest of
God's worshippers of the grace which is
sought in the sacraments. There is mention
of this notion in the Constitutions of Martin
V., and in Pope Eugenius's letter to the
Armenians at the Council of Florence ; but
this was the first time that a reputed general
councU sanctioned it.
Our 26th Article of Religion virtuaUy
repudiates this extreme doctrine of " Inten
tion," declaring that the effect of a sacrament
(where there is faith in the receiver) flows
from its due administration as to form and
words ; and whatever the wickedness of the
minister, this is no bar to its validity. [H.]

406

INTERCESSION

INTERCESSION (derived from Lat. in
tercede™, to go between). A pleading or
entreating in behalf of another. It is spoken
(1) of the intercession of our Lord for
His Church and people (Rom. viii. 34;
Heb. vii. 25) ; (2) of the Holy Ghost in
God's children (Rom. viii. 26 ) ; (3) of the
prayers of Christians for others, offered to
God in virtue of their oneness with Christ.
Such in the Prayer Book are : the prayers
for the Queen and Royal Family, for the
clergy and people, the supplications of the
Litany (beginning "We beseech Thee"),
the prayers for Parliament, for aR sorts and
conditions of men, for the Church Militant,
&c. Examples of Intercession are abundant
in Holy Scripture. For a promise to Inter
cession speciaUy, see St. James v. 14—18 ;
1 St. John v. 16.
INTERCESSIONS. That part of the
Litany in which, having already prayed for
ourselves, we proceed to supplicate God's
mercy for others. The intercessions are
accompanied by the response, "We be
seech thee to hear us, good Lord" (See
Litany). The different species of prayer
are alluded to by St. Paul, 1 Tim. ii. 1.
" I exhort, therefore, that first of aU, suppli
cations, prayers, intercessions, and giving of
thanks, be made for all men;" deqa-eis,
Trpoo-cvyas, ivrevgcis, cvxapurrlas.
INTERCESSOR (See Lord, Jesus, and
Advocate). One who pleads on behalf of
another. The title is applied emphaticaUy
to our blessed Lord, "who ever liveth to
make intercession for us." The practice of
the Romanists in investing angels and de
parted saints with the character of inter
cessors, is rejected as being unsanctioned by
Catholic antiquity, as resting on no Scriptu
ral authority, and as being derogatory to
the dignity of our Redeemer (See Invo
cation ; Saints ; Idolatry).
INTERDICT. An ecclesiastical censure,
whereby the Church of Rome forbids the
administration of the sacraments and the
performance of Divine service to a kingdom,
province, town, &c. Some people pretend
this custom was introduced in the fourth or
fifth century ; but the opinion that it began
in the ninth is much more probable : there
are some instances of it since that age, and
particularly Alexander III., in 1170, super
ciliously put the kingdom of England under
an interdict, forbidding the clergy to perform
any part of Divine service except baptism
to infants, taking confessions, and giving
absolutions to dying penitents, which were
the usual limitations of an interdict ; Inno
cent III. also subjected England to an
interdict in the reign of John, but the
succeeding popes seldom made use of it.
INTERIM (Lat). The name of a

INTERMEDIATE STATE
formulary, or confession of faith, obtruded
upon the Protestants, after the death of
Luther, by the Emperor Charles V., when
he had defeated their forces. It was so-
called, because it was only to take place in.
the Interim, till a general council should
decide aU the points in question between
the Protestants and Catholics. The occa
sion of it was. this: the emperor had made-
choice of three divines, viz. Julius Pflug,
bishop of Naumburg, Michael Sidonius,
titular bishop of Sidon, and John Agricola
of Eisleben, preacher to the Elector of
Brandenburg ; who drew up a project con
sisting of twenty-six articles concerning the
points of religion in dispute between the
Catholics and Protestants. The contro
verted points were, the state of Adam before
and after his fall ; the redemption of man
kind by Jesus Christ; the justification of
sins ; charity and good, works ; the confi
dence we ought to have in God, that our
sins are remitted ; the Church, and its true
marks ; its power, authority, and ministers ;
the pope and bishops; the sacraments; the:
mass ; the commemoration of saints ; their
intercession ; and prayers for the dead.
The emperor sent this project to the pope
for his approbation, which he refused;
whereupon Charles V. published the imperial
constitution caUed the Interim, wherein he
declared, that " it was his will, that all his
Catholic dominions should, for the future,
inviolably observe the customs, statutes,
and ordinances of the universal Church;
and that those who had separated them
selves from it should either reunite them
selves to it, or at least conform to this con
stitution ; and that aU should quietly ex
pect the decisions of the general council."'
This ordinance was pubUshed in the Diet of
Augsburg, May 15th, 1548. But this device
neither pleased the pope nor the Protestant;
the Lutheran preachers openly declared
they would not receive it, aUeging that it
re-established Popery. Some chose rather
to quit their chairs and livings than to sub
scribe it ; nor would the Duke of Saxony
receive it. Calvin, and several others, wrote
against it. On the other side, the emperor
was so severe against those who refused to-
accept, that he disfranchised the cities of
Magdeburg and Constance, for their opposi
tion.— Burnet's Reform, ii. 177; Collier,
Eccles. Hist. v. 318. There were two other
" Interims," one of Franconia, the other of
Leipsic. INTERMEDIATE STATE. A term
made use of to denote the state of the soul
between death and the resurrection. From
the Scriptures speaking frequently of the
dead sleeping in their graves, many have-
supposed that the soul sleeps tiU the resur
rection, i.e. is in a state of entire insensibility.

EXTINCTION
But against this opinion, and as evidence
that the soul, after death, enters immedi
ately into a state of conscious happiness or
misery, though not of final reward or punish
ment, the following passages seem to be
conclusive : Matt. xvii. 3 ; Luke xxiii. 43 ;
2 Cor. v. 6 ; PhU. i. 21 ; Luke xvi. 22, 23 ;
Rev. vi. 9 (See Hell). See Hooker, Serm.
iii.; Bp. Bull, Serm. ii. and iii.; "After
Death," by Canon Luckock ; and " Spirits
in Prison," by Dean Plumptre.
INTINCTION (intingere, to dip in):
administering the elements in the Eucharist
together by breaking the bread into the
wine. In the Eastern Church the laity
communicate in this way. The "eucha
ristia intincta" was forbidden by the 3rd
Council of Braga (c. i.) ; by Urban II. in the
11th century; and, in England, by the
synod held at Westminster in 1175, " we
forbid the Eucharist to be sopped." — Hook's
Archbishops, ii. p. 533 ; Bona, Rer. Lit. ii.,
xviii. 3. [H.]
INTONATION, properly speaking, the
recitation by the chanter, or rector chori, of
the commencing words of the psalm or
hymn, before the choir begins : as is often
practised in the English choirs, with respect
to the Venite, the Te Deum, the Nicene
Creed, and the Gloria in Excelsis. The in
tonations of the Gregorian Psalm chant are
regularly prescribed. Intoning is the recita
tion of the words to be used, on one note or
tone. Objectors to the cathedral mode of
service sometimes aver "intoning" to be
unnatural ; but this objection cannot be
sustained : nor is there any reason to sup
pose that the revisionists of the Liturgy of
the 16th century ever intended to abohsh
the immemorial custom of the Church of
God, alike in Jewish and Christian times,
of saying the Divine service in some form of
solemn musical recitative, and to introduce
the then unheard of custom of adopting
the ordinary coUoquial tone of voice. In
toning has the great advantage of being
better heard in large churches, when well
done. INTROIT. In the ancient Church a
psalm was sung or chanted immediately
before the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel. As
this took place while the priest was entering
within the septum or rails of the altar, it
acquired the name of Introitus or Introit.
Cardinal Bona says that Introits, as used
to the Roman Church, were introduced by
Pope Ccelestine (a.d. 422-432). The Introit
consists of one or more verses, generaUy
from the Psalms, but sometimes from other
parts of Scripture. This anthem is the In
troit, properly so called. Then foUows a
verse from the psalm (anciently a whole
psalm) : then the Gloria Patri, after which
the Introit, or commencing anthem, is re-

INVESTITURE

407

peated. The First Prayer Book of Edward
VI. (a.d. 1549) appoints special psalms to be
used as Introits on aU Sundays and holy-
days. These differ altogether from the Roman
Introits, both in their selection and in their
construction. They are entire psalms, with
the Gloria Patri, and without any verse.
The psalm or hymn now universally sung
in our churches before the Communion
Service, may be said to represent the Introit,
as Bishop Bull observes. " In cathedral or
mother churches there is still a decent dis
tinction between the two services : for before
the priest goes to the altar to read the second
service, there is a short but excellent anthem
sung, in imitation whereof in the churches
of London, and in other greater churches of
the country, instead of that anthem there
is part of a psalm sung." — Jebb's Choral
Service. In Clifford's Introduction (1664) it ap
pears that a voluntary at that time pre
ceded the Communion Service at St. Paul's.
Shortly after this time, the custom arose,
now universal in choirs, of singing a Sanctus
in this place : St. Paul's, Westminster, and
Canterbury were the first to adopt it. In
parish churches, a metrical psalm is fre
quently sung in this place.
INVENTION OF THE HOLY CROSS.
A festival appointed to be observed on May
3, in memory of the day on which it is
affirmed our Saviour's cross was found by
the empress Helena, in the time of Constan
tine the Great (See Cross).
INVESTITURE. In its first legal sig
nification this denoted the transfer, from a
superior to an inferior, of a fief; or, more
generally speaking, of a property, a title, a
power, through the presentation of certain
symbols. When the Church was endowed
by the munificence of kings and nobles, her
temporal possessions were regarded as bene
fices, and the sovereign invested the eccle
siastic with his civil rights. He conferred
the beneficium, through the symbols, — to a
canon of a book, to an abbot of a pastoral
staff, to a bishop of the staff and ring. In
process of time this resulted in the nomina
tion by the emperor, without the interven
tion of the spiritual authorities, to all the
higher preferments in the Church. This
grievance Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) deter
mined to redress ; but he aimed not merely
at reforming a corrupt exercise of right, but
at the overthrow of the right itself. This
gave rise to a contest which lasted for fifty-
six years, and occasioned sixty battles. It
was settled by compromise, the " Concordat
of Worms," between Henry V. and Calixtus
II. in 1122. The great quarrel between
Henry I. and Anselm was on the ques
tion of lay investiture, and had nearly
the same issue. — Hook's Archbishops, ii.

408

INVISIBLES

239 seq. ; Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. 35, 41,
110. INVISIBLES. A distinguishing name
given to the disciples of Osiander, Flacius
Illyricus, Swenkfeld, &c, being so denomi
nated because they denied the perpetual
visibility of the Church. Palmer remarks
(Hist, of the Church, i. p. 26), that the re
formed seemed generally to have taught
the doctrine of the visibility of the Church,
until some of them deemed it necessary,
in , consequence of their controversy with
the Romanists, who asked them where their
Church existed before Luther, to maintain
that the Church might sometimes be invi
sible. This mistaken view appears in the
Belgic Confession, and was adopted by some
of the Protestants; but it arose entirely
from their error in forsaking the defensive
ground which their predecessors had taken
at first, and placing themselves in the false
position of claiming the exclusive title of
the Church of Christ, according to the ordi
nary signification of the term. Jurieu, a
minister of the French Protestants, has
shown this, and has endeavoured to prove
that the Church of Christ is essentially
visible, and that it never remained obscured,
without ministry or sacraments, even in the
persecutions, or in the time of Arianism.
The same truth has been acknowledged by
several denominations of dissenters in
Britain. INVITATORY. Some text of Scripture,
or short versicle, inviting the people to offer
their praise and adoration to God. St.
Cyril speaks of an invitatory psalm being
sung before the celebration of the Holy
Mysteries (Catech. Myst. v., n. 17) ; but the
word was generally used for a short versicle
sung before the Venite, which was intended
to furnish a key-note to the whole service,
by indicating to the congregation the doc
trine which they were more especially to
keep in mind at that particular season. In
the P. B. of 1549, these invitatories were
omitted, probably because the Venite is
itself of a sufficiently invitatory character.
The versicles, however, immediately preced
ing the Venite, " Praise ye the Lord," " The
Lord's Name be praised," may be considered
as an unalterable invitatory. — Bingham, bk.
xv. c. 3 ; Daniel's P. B. pp. 89, 90.
INVOCATION. The commencing part
of the Litany, containing the invocation of
each person of the Godhead, severally, and of
the Blessed Trinity in Unity. This dis
tinction is made in the margin of Nicholls'
edition of the Common Prayer.
INVOCATION OF SAINTS. The thirty-
fifth canon of the Council of Laodicea (circ.
a.d. 370) runs thus : " It does not behove
Christians to leave the Church of God, and
go and invoke angels, and make assem-

INVOCATION OF SAINTS
blies ; which things are forbidden. If,
therefore, any one be detected idling in
their secret idolatry, let him be accursed,
because he has forsaken our Lord Jesus
Christ, the Son of God, and gone to idol
atry." This plain testimony of the Fathers
of the primitive Church, against the. invo
cation and worshipping of angels, which is
denounced as idolatry, is not to be set aside
by all the ingenuity of the Roman writers.
— See Labbe and Cossart, i. 1526. The
subtle distinctions of Latria, Dulia, and the
rest, had not entered the imagination of
Theodoret when he cited this canon as
condemning the worshipping of angels,
avvohos iv AaoSiKela rqr $pvylas j/dpi ;,
KCKciXuKe- to rots dyyikois irpoaeixftrSai
(Comm. Coloss. ii. 18); nor into that of
Origen, who expressly says, that men ought
not to worship or adore the angels, for that
all prayer and supplication, and intercession
and thanksgiving should be made to God
alone (Contra Celsum, v. § 4), and that
right reason forbids the invocation of them.
—Ibid. § 5.
But in the twenty-fifth session of the
Popish Council of Trent, the synod thus
rules : " Of the invocation, veneration, and
relics of the saints, and the sacred images,
the holy synod commands the bishops and
others who have the office and care of in
struction, that according to the custom of
the Catholic and Apostolic Church, which
has been received from the first ages pf the
Christian religion, the consent of the holy
Fathers, and the decrees of the sacred
councils, they make it a chief point dili
gently to instruct the faithful concerning
the intercession and invocation of saints,
the honour of relics, and the lawful use of
images, teaching them that the saints reign
ing together with Christ offer to God their
prayers for men ; that it is good and useful
to invoke them with supplication, and, on
account of the benefits obtained from God
through His Son Jesus Christ our Lord, who
alone is our Redeemer and Saviour, to have
recourse to their prayers, aid, and assistance;
but that they who deny that the saints
enjoying eternal happiness in heaven are to
be invoked, or who assert either that they
do not pray for men, or that the invoking
them that they may pray for each of us, is
idolatry ; or that it is contrary to the word
of God, and opposed to the honour of the
one Mediator between God and man; or
that it is folly, either by word or thought, to
supplicate them who are reigning in heaven ;
are impious in their opinions."
All the researches of the Roman advo
cates have not availed to adduce from
the early ages one single writer, laymanor
ecclesiastic, who has enjoined this practice
as a duty. All that they have succeeded

. IRELAND
jn showing _is, that in the course of the
first five centuries several individual writers
are to be found who commend the practice
as useful. Against these we will cite the
following ; and from a comparison of the
passages cited on both sides, it will be clear
that although, notwithstanding the reproof
of the Apostle (Col. ii. 18), the invocation
of angels, and afterwards of saints, obtained
in some places in the Christian Church, it
was always an open question which men
were free to reject or not, as they might
think fit; and that, therefore, the Council of
Trent in the sixteenth century was violating
ecclesiastical tradition, when by its anathe
mas it sought to -abridge Christian liberty
by confirming a corrupt and foolish custom ;
especially when the caution of the Apostle
St. Paul and the decree of the Council of
Laodicea are taken into consideration. It
is a remarkable thing that, among all
the liturgies which Messrs. Kirke and
Berrington have cited in their volume,
entitled, "The Faith of the Catholics,"
Lond. 1830, amounting to eleven, only
one is, to be found, and that of the Nes
torian heretics, containing an invocation
to a saint for intercession: — thus showing
how wide a distinction is to be drawn
between the excited expressions of indi
vidual writers, and the authorised practice
of the Church. All the other liturgies do
no more than tho Roman canon of the mass ;
viz. 1st, assume, generally, that the saints
departed pray for the saints militant ; and,
2ndly, pray to God to hear their interces
sions. This is no more tantamount to an
invocation of the saints, than a prayer to
God for the assistance of the angels would
be tantamount to a prayer to the angels
themselves. — Perceval, On the Roman
Schism ; Hook's Church and her Ordinances,
vol. ii. p. 151 seq.
IRELAND (See Church of Ireland).
IRVINGITES. The followers of Edward
Irving, a minister of the Scottish establish
ment, who was born in 1792 and died in
1834. In 1822, he was appointed to a
Scotch Presbyterian congregation, and for
some years officiated in a chapel with great
approbation, but was at length deposed
from his ministry by the presbytery, for
holding a heresy concerning our Blessed
Lord, Whose nature he considered capable of
sin. He still continued, however, to act as
minister of a congregation in London. Both
in Scotland and in England he had many
followers ; and since his death Rvingism
has found its way into Germany and other
foreign countries. The first form which his
party assumed was connected with certain
notions concerning the millennium, and the
immediately impending advent of our Blessed
Lord: and presently after, as precursors of

IRVINGITES

409

the expected event, miraculous gifts of
tongues, of prophecy, of healing, and even
of raising the dead, were pretended to by
his followers ; though Irving himself never
laid claim to those more miraculous endow
ments. Superadded to these notions, was
a singularly constructed hierarchy, of apos
tles, angels, &c. They affect the name of
Apostolicals, and call themselves " The Ca-
thohc and Apostolic Church." They have
always protested against the application to
them of the term " Irvingites," which ap
pellation they consider to be untrue and
offensive, though derived from one whom,
when living, they held in high regard as a
devoted minister of Christ.
" They do not profess to be, and refuse to
acknowledge that they are, separatists from
the Church established or dominant in the
land of their habitation, or from tbe general
body of Christians therein. They recog
nise the continuance of the Church from the
days of the first apostles, and of three orders
of bishops, priests, and deacons, by suc
cession from the apostles. They justify
their meeting in separate congregations from
the charge of schism, on the ground of the
same being permitted and authorised by an
ordinance of paramount authority, which
they believe God has restored for the benefit
of the whole Church. And so far from
professing to be another sect in addition to
the numerous sects dividing the Church, or
to be ' the One Church,' to the exclusion of
all other bodies, they believe that their
special mission is to re-unite the scattered
members of the one body of Christ.
" The only standards of faith which they
recognise are the three creeds of the CathoUc
Church — the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene
or Constantinopolitan Creed, and that called
the Creed of St. Athanasius. The speciality
of their religious belief, whereby they are
distinguished from other Christian com
munities, stands in this : that they hold
apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors
to be abiding ministries in the Church, and
that these ministries, together with the
power and gifts of the Holy Ghost, dispensed
and distributed among her members, are
necessary for preparing and perfecting the
Church for the second advent of the Lord;
and that supreme rule in the Church ought
to be exercised, as at the first, by twelve
apostles, not elected or ordained by men,
but called and sent forth immediately by
God" (See Life of E. Irving, by Mrs.
Oliphant). This denomination, of which there were
congregations in England, Scotland, Ireland,
America, Germany, France and Switzer
land, at first made considerable progress;
but lately the numbers have greatly de
creased. [H.]

410

ISAIAH

ISAIAH, THE PROPHECY OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament. Isaiah
is the first of the four greater prophets, the
other three being Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
Daniel. He was of royal blood, his father
Amos being brother to Azariah, king of
Judah. He prophesied from the end of the
reign ot Uzziah to the time of Manasseh;
by whose order, according to a Jewish tra
dition, he was sawn asunder with a wooden
saw. He delivered his predictions under the
reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze
kiah. The first five chapters of his prophecy
relate to the reign of Uzziah ; the vision of
the sixth chapter happened in the time of
Jotham ; the next chapters, to the fifteenth,
include his prophecies under the reign of
Ahaz; and those that happened under the
reigns of Hezekiah and Manasseh are related
in the next chapters, to the end.
Besides the prophecies of Isaiah still ex
tant, he wrote a book concerning the actions
of Uzziah, cited in the Chronicles ; but it is
now lost. Origen, Epiphanius, and St. Je
rome speak of another book, caRed " The
Ascension of Isaiah." Some of the Jews
ascribe to him the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Solomon's Song, and the Book of Job. The
most remarkable of his predictions are those
concerning the Messiah. He, in plain terms,
foretold, not only the coming of Christ in
the flesh, but all the great and memorable
circumstances of his life and death. He
speaks, says St. Jerome, rather of things
past than to come ; and he may rather be
called an Evangelist than a Prophet (See
the Speaker's Commentary: Delitzsch, Ein-
leitung in das Buch Jesaia).
ITALIC VERSION. A recension made
in Italy, probably in the 4th century, of the
old Latin version of the Bible which had
been made in the 2nd century in Africa, and
was in common use throughout the Churches
of the West. The ruggedness of this version
was offensive to Italian ears, and the famili
arity of some of the Italian bishops with
Greek enabled them to detect errors, and to
correct them in the new translation which
was made under their direction. St. Au
gustine commends the superior accuracy and
perspicuity of the Italian Version. — De Doct.
Christ. 15 (See Article on the Vulgate in
Diet, of the Bible).

J.
JACOBINS. Dominicans, sometimes
called Major Friars. In England they were
called Black Friars, from the colour of their
habit ; and the part of London where they

JAMES'S, ST.
first dwelt is stiU called by this name. The
name Jacobins, or Jacobites, was given to-
them in France, because the first domicile
granted to them at Paris was sacred to:
St. James (Rue de St. Jacques).— Stubbs'
Mosheim, ii. p. 195. A revolutionary club
held its meetings in a suppressed convent of
these Dominicans in Paris a.d. 1789; hence
the name has subsequently been applied to-
revolutionists generally, both in France and
England. [H.l
JACOBITES. I. A sect of Eastern Chris
tians, so denominated from Jacobus, sur
named Baradseus (ragged-coated), a Syrian.
monk and a disciple of the school of Euty
ches and Dioscorus, whose heresy he spread
so much in Asia and Africa in the sixth
century, that at last, in the seventh, the
different sects of the Eutychians were-
swallowed up by that of the Jacobites,
which also comprehended aU the Mono
physites of the East, i.e. such as acknow
ledged only one nature in Christ, but the
Jacobites themselves affect to derive their
name from James the Lord's brother. Their
head in Asia is the patriarch of Antioch, who
is assisted by a " Maphrian " or " Primate
of the East," who resides in Mesopotamia;
Alexandria is the see of the African one,
and he foUows the errors of Dioscorus and
the Cophti. M. Simon relates that under
the name of Jacobites must be included
aU the Monophysites of the East, whether
Armenians, Copts, or Abyssinians, acknow
ledging but one nature in Christ ; he adds,
the number of the Jacobites, properly so
caUed, is but smaU, there not being above
thirty or forty thousand famines of them,
which principaUy inhabit Syria and Meso
potamia; they are divided among them
selves, one part embracing, and the other
disowning, the communion of the Church
of Rome. — Neale's Hist, of Holy Eastern
Church ; Simon's Hist, des Chretiens Orien-
taux ; Sim. Asseman, Dissertatio de Mono-
physitis, § viii.
II. A name given to the "nonjurors" in
England, from their adherence to James II.
and his son. [H.]
JAH : a form of the name Jehovah:
which occurs in the song of Moses, Exod.
xv. 2, and Psa. lxviii. (See Jehovah).
JAMES'S, ST., DAY (July 25th). The
day on which the Church celebrates the
memory of the Apostle St. James the Great,
or the Elder. He was one of the sons of
Zebedee, and brother of St. John. He
was the first of the apostles who won the
crown of martyrdom (Acts xii. 2) .
JAMES, ST., THE LESS (See Philip
and James, SS.).
JAMES'S, ST., GENERAL EPISTLE.
A canonical book of the New Testament.
It was written by St. James the Less, called

JAMES, ST.
also the Lord's brother; who was chosen by
the apostles bishop of Jerusalem. The
majority of modern critics place the date
of this Epistle a little before the CouncU
of Jerusalem. St. James suffered martyr
dom about one year before the destruction
of Jerusalem, i.e. in 69 a.d.
This general Epistle is addressed to the
beheving Jews, and the writer's design was
to comfort them under the hardships they
then did, or shortly were to suffer, for the
sake of Christianity, and to warn and
rebuke those who had faUen into dangerous
errors in doctrine and practice. It is
directed to the Jews and Jewish converts
of the dispersion, but no doubt was calcu
lated for the improvement likewise of those
Jews over whom the apostle presided in the
special character of their bishop.
This Epistle is the first of the Catholic or
General Epistles, in the canon of Scripture ;
which are so caUed, because they were
written, not to one, but to several Christian
Churches. JAMES, ST., LITURGY OF. This is
supposed to be the Uturgy originaUy com
posed by St. James, and adopted by the
, patriarchate at Antioch, which comprised
the Churches of Palestine and Mesopotamia.
There were inserted, without doubt, many
interpolations in after times, and the ques
tion of its authenticity has given rise to
much dispute among ritualists. AUatius,
Bona, BeUarmine, and other writers of that
school, receive the Liturgy of St. James of
Jerusalem as genuine, grounding their belief
upon the unbroken tradition of the Greek
Church, which always received it. On the
other hand, Cardinal Perron, Natalis, Alex
ander, Dupin, Le Mourry, and other ritual
ists, reject it as supposititious, because the
author quotes passages from St. Paul's
Epistles, which were not written in the life
time of St. James. Moreover, the foUowing
prayer is contained in it: — "0 Lord our
God, the incomprehensible Word of God, of
one eternal and inseparable substance (opoov-
a-iov) with the Father and the Holy Ghost,
accept the immortal and seraphic hymn, at
Thy holy and bloody sacrifice": which
evidently has reference to that dispute
which arose on the Arian controversy (see
Arians; Creed). But this may have been
added to suit the exigencies of the times ;
and if, as with regard to the creed, the
" form of words " was handed down by word
of mouth, and not written, it might be
expected that there would be additions made
according as there was requirement.
There are two forms of this liturgy : one
in Greek made up from two MSS., of which
the first was written in the tweffth century
at Antioch, the second probably at Mount
Sinai, sometime in the tenth century : the

JANSENISTS

411'

other form is in Syriac, which is still used
by the Monophysites, or Jacobites (see
Jacobites) in the East. The simUarity
between the two points to a common origin,
and as there was no intercommunion between
the Monophysites and the orthodox after
the CouncU of Chalcedon in a.d. 451, it is-
evident that the liturgy was in existence
before that date. But the existing form is
also quoted by writers before that councU.
Justin Martyr, a.d. 160 (Apol. lxvii.), a
native of Samaria, gives a short account
of the liturgy, which coincides with the
present form, though, as it was written for
the heathen, it was given with reserve. St.
Jerome, who quotes words only used in the
Liturgy of St. James (Comment on Is. bk.
n. c. vi.), and Theodoret, refer to it; St-
CyrU describes in his catechetical lectures
the service of the Eucharist, as if he was
quoting from the liturgy called by this
name ; the writer of the Apostolic Constitu
tions does the same. And St. Chrysostom's-
liturgy, which has been used in the pa
triarchate of Constantinople from time im
memorial, is based on that of St. BasU, and
St. BasU's seems to have been based on that
of St. James. It is reasonable to suppose
that the Liturgy of St. James, used by the
Monophysites, and that used on the festi
val of St. James by the Greek Christians,
are versions of that liturgy used in the
" parts about Jerusalem," immediately after
the Apostles ; which was enlarged by St.
Basil into his " Mystical Liturgy," as it was.
afterwards called (Cone. Constant, a.d. 691),
and revised by St. Chrysostom. — Asseman,
Cod. Liturg. v. 68 ; Krazer, de Liturgiis ;
Renaudot, Liturg. Orient; Migne, vol. xxxii.
p. 587 : vol. xxiv. 88 ; Bingham, bk. xiii.
5, 6 ; Bishop Bull, Serm. xui. ; Pahner's
Orig. Liturg. i. 16-21 seq. ; Diet. Christ.
Ant (Murray), ii. 1020. [H]
JANSENISTS: those who foRow the
opinions of Jansenius, a doctor of divinity
of the university of Louvain, and bishop of
Ypres. I. History. In the year 1640, the
two universities of Louvain and Douay
found it necessary to condemn the loose
doctrine of the Jesuits, particularly Father
MoUna and Father Leonard Celsus, con
cerning grace and predestination. This
having set the controversy on foot, Jan
senius opposed to the doctrine of the Jesuits
the sentiments of St. Augustine, and wrote
a treatise upon grace, which he entitled
Augustinus. It was condemned by Pope
Urban VIII. in 1642 ; but this did not put an
end to the controversy, and many polemical
writings concerning Grace were published.
Amauld, Principal of Port Royal, wrote a
defence of the " Augustinus," and Carnet,
syndic of the Theological Faculty at Paris,
drew up five articles, which however the

412

JANSENISTS

Jansenists afterwards repudiated, denying
•that they were derived from the "Augus
tinus." They were : —
1. Some of God's commandments are
impossible to be kept by the righteous,
even though they are willing to observe
them. 2. A man doth never resist inward grace,
in the state of fallen nature.
3. In order to merit, or not merit, it is
not necessary that a man should have a
liberty free from necessity. It is suffi
cient that he hath a liberty free from re
straint. 4. The Semi-Pelagians were heretics,
because they asserted the necessity of an
inward preventing grace for every action.
5. It is a Semi-Pelagian opinion to say,
that Jesus Christ died for all mankind,
without exception.
In 1653, a bull of condemnation was
issued by Pope Innocent X. ; and three
years later, Alexander VII. denounced the
five articles in another buU. In the mean
time Pascal had produced the famous " Pro
vincial Letters " in defence of " Messieurs de
Port-Royal," who were looked upon as the
bulwark of Jansenism (See HaUam's Introd.
1650 ; Macaulay's Hist. vi.). The Reflexions
Morales of Quesnel, and the consequent
spread of Jansenism, caused Louis XIV.,
under the influence of the Jesuits, to solicit
a public condemnation from the Pope
Clement XI. ; the result of which was the
celebrated bull " Unigenitus," so called from
its beginning with the words " Unigenitus
Dei Filius." Persecution followed; those
who preferred exile to subscription found
a home in another land than France (Ranke,
Hist of Popes, viii. 18). The United Pro
vinces in Holland had become Calvinist;
ibut Utrecht and Haarlem remained in the
Roman communion. Peter Codde, arch-
Ibishop of Sebaste, who resided at Utrecht,
a friend of Amauld, had been denounced
¦as a Jansenist ; and to Utrecht the refugees
went, and were received into communion.
There Jansenism stiU exists.
II. Doctrine. The following are the de
ductions of Jan sen from Augustine : Man
was created perfect in his nature, though
capable of corruption: his will was free,
though subordinate to the wUl of God, as
love is subordinate to its object. After
the Fall this freedom became a mere form ;
abstention from sin is simply from fear, or
pride, or constitutional despotism. Per
formance of good is in opposition to man's
wiU. This depraved condition can only be
remedied by the grace of Christ, which
infuses a divine saving principle into the
life of man, sets free the fettered will, and
gives him strength. This grace acts with
irresistible energy, and is always effectual.

JEREMIAH
It supersedes that unreal freedom of will
that came in with the Fall, for grace alone
is freedom, the converse of all external
compulsion. All those shall be saved who
are predestined to salvation from aU eternity;
only for these did Christ die. This gift of
grace manifests its inward presence :by
sensations of spiritual joy, as being the very
indweUing of the Deity. — Stubbs' Mosheim,
iii. pp. 276-280 & 476-478; Broughton,
Biblio. vol. i. ; Tregelles, Jansenists ; Pascal's
Lettres Provinciales ; Bayle's Diet. s. v,
Jansenius. JEHOVAH (njn|). One of the names
given in Scripture to Almighty God, and
peculiar to Him, signifying the Being who is
self-existent, and gives existence to others.
The name is also given to our Blessed
Saviour, and is a proof of his Godhead
(Compare Isaiah xi. 3, with Matt. iii. 3, and
Isaiah vi., with John xii. 41). The Jews
had so great a veneration for this name, that
they left off the custom of pronouncing it,
whereby its true pronunciation was for
gotten. It is caUed the Tetragrammaton
(Terpaypapparov), or name of four letters,
containing in itseR the past and future
tenses, as well as the present participle,
and signifies, He who was, is, and shall
be ; i.e. the Eternal, the Unchangeable, the
Faithful. The same veneration seems to have ac
tuated most' Christian communities in then-
translation of the word, rendered in Greek
by Kvpios, in Latin by Dominus, and in
English by Lord. The word Jehovah
occurs but four times simply, and five times
in composition, in our authorised transla
tion. JEJUNIA QUATUOR TEMPORUM:
the fasts of the four seasons (See Ember
Days). JEREMIAH, THE PROPHECY OP.
A canonical book of the Old Testament.
This divine writer was of the race of the
priests, the son of Hilkiah of Anathoth, in
the tribe of Benjamin. He was called to
the prophetic office when he was very
young, about the thirteenth year of Josiah,
and continued in the discharge of it above
forty years. He was not carried captive to
Babylon with the other Jews, but remained
in Judea, to lament the desolation of his
country. He was afterwards a prisoner in
Egypt, with his disciple Baruch, where it is
supposed he died in a very advanced age.
Some of the Christian Fathers teU us he was
stoned to death by the Jews for preaching
against their idolatry; and some say he
was put to death by Pharaoh Hophra,
because of his prophecy against him.
Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah relates
to the time after the captivity of Israel, and

JEROME, ST.
before that of Judah, from the first chapter
to the forty-fourth ; and part of it was in
the time of the latter captivity, from the
forty-fourth chapter to the end. The
prophet lays open the sins of the kingdom
of Judah with great freedom and boldness,
and reminds them of the severe judgments
which had befallen the ten tribes for the
same offences ; he passionately laments their
misfortune, and recommends a speedy refor
mation to them. Afterwards he predicts
the grievous calamities that were approach
ing, particularly the seventy years' captivity
in Chaldea, He likewise foretells their
deliverance and happy return, and the
recompence which Babylon, Moab, and
other enemies of the Jews, should meet with
in due time. There are likewise several
intimations in this prophecy concerning the
kingdom of ' the Messiah ; also several
remarkable visions and types, and historical
passages relating to those times.
The fifty-second chapter does not belong
to the prophecy of Jeremiah, which con
cludes, at the end of the fifty-first chapter,
with these words : " Thus far are the words
of Jeremiah." The last, or fifty-second
chapter (which probably was added by
Ezra), contains a narrative of the taking of
Jerusalem, and of what happened during
the captivity of the Jews in Babylon, to the
death of Jechonias. St. Jerome has observed
upon this prophet, that his style is more
easy than that of Isaiah and flosea ; that
he retains something of the rusticity of the
vfllage where he was born ; but that he is
very learned and majestic, and equal to
those two prophets in the sense of his
prophecy (See Speaker's Commentary).
JEROME, ST.: Priest, Confessor, and
Doctor: was one of the four great Latin
Fathers. He was born at Stridonium in
Dalmatia, near Aquileia, and in his early
years studied law at Rome. Being baptized
when thirty years of age, he determined to
devote himself to good works, and to per
petual ceUbacy. He went to the East, and
in a desert place near Chalcis, he spent four
years in study and seclusion as an Anchorite.
He afterwards gained great influence over
both clergy and laity in the East, inducing
them to exercise greater abstinence and
simpUcity in their ways of life. His fame
preceded him to Rome, where for three years
he laboured hard, and did a great work.
Among his converts was Paula, a descendant
of the Scipios and the Gracchi, and Marcella
who founded religious houses for women.
Leaving Rome after a ministry of three
years, he settled at Bethlehem, where he
had founded a monastery. The work for
which he is now best known, is the transla
tion of the Scriptures into Latin, which
formed the basis of the Vulgate. , He died

JESUITS

413-

in a.d. 420; and is commemorated in our
Calendar on Sept. 30. — Diet Eccles. Biog.
(Murray) ; Blunt's P. B. i. [55]. [H.1
JERUSALEM, LITURGY OF (See-
James, St., Liturgy of).
JESUITS, or the SOCIETY OF JESUS.
A society which, at one period, extended its-
influence to the very ends of the earth, and.
proved the main pillar of the papal hierarchy,.
— which wormed itself into almost absolute
power, occupying the high places, and lead
ing captive the ecclesiastical dictator of the
world, — must be an object of great interest
to all who study ecclesiastical history.
I. Ignatius Loyola, a native of Biscay, is-
well known to have been the founder of
this, nominally, religious order. He was
born in 1491, and became first a page to
Ferdinand V., king of Spain, and then an
officer in his army. In 1521 he was wounded-.
in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna,.
when having had leisure to study a book of"
Lives of the Saints, he devoted himself to
the service of the Virgin ; and his military
ardour becoming metamorphosed into super
stitious zeal, he went on a pilgrimage into-
the Holy Land. Upon his return to Europe,
he studied in the universities of Spain,.
whence he removed into France, and formed-
a plan for the institution of this new order,
which he presented to the pope. But, not--
withstanding the high pretensions of Loyola--.
to inspiration, Paul III. refused his request,,
tiU his scruples were removed by an irresist
ible argument addressed to his self-interest :
it was proposed that every member should/
make a vow of unconditional obedience to
the pope, without requiring any support
from the holy see. The order was instituted
in 1540, andLoyola appointed to be the first.
general. The plan of the society was completed hy
the two immediate successors of the founder,
Lainez and Aquaviva, both of whom exceUed
their master in ability and the science of
government ; and, in a few years, the society
estabUshed itself in every Catholic country,
acquiring prodigious wealth, and exciting
the apprehensions of aU the enemies of the-
Roman faith.
To Lainez are ascribed the Secreta Monita, .
or secret instructions of the order; which
were first discovered when Christian, Duke-
of Brunswick, seized the Jesuits' college at
Paderborn, in Westphalia, at which time he
gave their books and manuscripts to the
Capuchins, who found these secret instruc
tions among the archives of their rector.
After this, another copy was detected at
Prague, in the coUege of the Jesuits.
In Portugal, where the Jesuits were first
received, they obtained the support of the-
court, which for many years deUvered to
them the consciences of its princes and the--

414

JESUITS

education of the people. Portugal opened
the door to their missions, and gave them
establishments in Asia, Africa, and America.
They usurped the sovereignty of Paraguay,
and resisted the forces of Portugal and Spain,
who claimed it. The court of Lisbon, and
¦even Rome herself, protested in vain against
their excesses. The league in France was,
in reality, a conspiracy of the Jesuits, under
the sanction of Sixtus V., to disturb the
succession to the throne of France. The
Jesuits' college at Paris was the grand focus
of the seditions and treasons which then
agitated the state, and the ruler of the
Jesuits was president of the CouncU of
Sixteen, which gave the impulse to the
leagues formed there and throughout France.
Matthieu, a Jesuit and confessor of Henry
III., was caUed " the Cornier of the League,"
¦on account of his frequent journeys to and
from Rome at that disastrous period.
In Germany the society appropriated the
richest benefices, particularly those of the
monasteries of St. Benedict and St. Bernard.
Catherine of Austria confided in them, and
was supplanted ; and loud outcries were
uttered against them by the sufferers in
Vienna, in the states of Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, and elsewhere. Their cruelties in
Poland will never be forgotten. They were
expelled from Abyssinia, Japan, Malta,
Cochin, Moscow, Venice, and other places,
for their gross misconduct ; and in America
and Asia they carried devastation and blood
wherever they went. The great object of
the persecution of the Protestants in Savoy
was the confiscation of their property, in
order to endow the coUeges of the Jesuits.
They had, no doubt, a share in the atrocities
of the Duke of Alva in the Low Countries.
They boasted of the friendship of Catherine
de Medicis, who espoused their cause, and
under whose influence the massacre of St.
Bartholomew was executed. Louis XIV.
had three Jesuit confessors, which may
explain the revocation of the edict of
Nantes. The Jesuits have been notorious for at
tempting the lives of princes. The reign
of Queen Elizabeth presents a succession
of plots. In her proclamation, dated Nov.
15, 1602, she says, that " the Jesuits had
fomented the plots against her person,
excited her subjects to revolt, provoked
foreign princes to compass her death, en
gaged in all affairs of state, and by their
language and writings had undertaken to
dispose of her crown."
Lucius enumerates five conspiracies of
the Jesuits against James I. before he had
reigned a year. They contrived the Gun
powder Plot (Osborne's Secret Hist, of
Court of James I. p. 448). So late as the
time of George I., both houses of parliament

JESUITS
reported, that the evidence examined by
them on the conspiracy of Plunket and
Layer had satisfactorily shown that it had
for its object the destruction of the king,
the subversion of the laws, and the crown
ing of the Popish Pretender; and they
state that "Plunket was born at Dublin
and bred up at the Jesuits' college at
Vienna." Henry III. of France was as
sassinated by Clement, a Jesuit, in 1589.
The Jesuits murdered Wuliam, prince of
Orange, in 1584. They attempted the life
of Louis XV. for imposing silence on the
polemics of their order, and were also guilty
of innumerable other atrocities.
The pernicious spirit and constitution of
this order rendered it early detested by the
principal powers of Europe; and while
Pascal, by his " Provincial Letters," exposed
the morality- of the society, and thus over
threw their influence over the multitude,
different potentates concurred, from time to
time, to destroy or prevent its establish
ments. Charles V. opposed the order in his
dominions : it was expelled in England by
the proclamation of James I. in 1604 ; in
Venice, in 1606; in Portugal, in 1759; in
France, in 1764 ; in Spain and Sicily, in
1767, and suppressed and abolished hy Pope
Clement XIV. in 1775. Our own age has
witnessed its revival, and is even now
suffering from the increased energy of its
members. II. The Jesuits are taught to consider
themselves as formed for action, in oppo
sition to the monastic orders, who retire
from the concerns of the world ; and so they
engage in aU civU and commercial trans
actions, insinuate themselves into the
friendship of persons of rank, study the
disposition of aU classes, with a view of
obtaining an influence over them, and
undertake missions to distant nations. It
is an essential principle of their policy, by
every means, to propagate Roman doctrines,
and extend the power of the Roman Church.
No labour is spared, no intrigue omitted,
that may prove conducive to this purpose.
The constitution of the society is mon
archical. A general is chosen for hfe by
deputies from the several provinces. His
power is supreme and universal. Every
member is at his entire disposal, and is
required to submit bis wiU and sentiments
to his dictation, and to listen to his in
junctions, as if uttered by Christ himself.
The fortune,, person, and conscience of the
whole society are at his disposal, and he can
dispense his order not only from the vows
of poverty, chastity, and monastic obedience,
but even from submission to the pope
whenever he pleases. He nominates and
removes provincials, rectors, professors, and
aU officers of the order, superintends the

JESUITESSES
universities, houses, and missions, decides
controversies, and forms or dissolves con
tracts. No member can express any
opinion of his own ; and the society has
had its prisons, independent of the secular
.authority. There are four classes of members, — the
novitiates or probationers, the approved
•disciples, the coadjutors, and the professors
-of the four vows. The education of youth
was always considered by them as their
pecuUar province, — aware of the influence
which such a measure would infaUibly
.secure over another generation ; and before
the conclusion of the sixteenth century the
Jesuits had obtained the ohief direction of
the youthful mind in every Roman Catholic
-country in Europe. They had become the
confessors of almost aU its monarchs, and
the spiritual guides of nearly every person
distinguished for rank or influence. At
•different periods they obtained the direction
of the most considerable courts, and took
part in every intrigue and revolution.
Notwithstanding their vow of poverty,
they accumulated, upon various pretences,
immense wealth. They claimed exemption
from tithes under a bull of Gregory XIII.,
who was devoted to their interests; and
by obtaining a special licence from the
¦court of Rome to trade with the nations
whom they professed to convert, they car
ried on a lucrative commerce in the East
and West Indies, formed settlements in
different countries, and acquired possession
of a large province in South America
(Paraguay), where they reigned as sove
reigns over some hundred thousand sub
jects. Pius IX., under whom the tempo
ral sovereignty came to an end, was noto
riously under their influence ; and it has
been remarked that Jesuit influence has
always ended unluckily, however success
ful it may have been for a time.
Their poUcy is uniformly to inculcate
attachment to the Order, and by a pUant
morality to soothe and gratify the passions
of mankind, for the purpose of securing
their patronage. They proclaim the duty
of opposing princes who are mimical to the
Roman faith, and have employed every
weapon, every artful and every intolerant
measure, to resist the progress of the Re
formed Church. — Cahour, " Les Jesuites par
<un Jesuit;" Hallam's Introd. to Lit. of
Eur., 1650-1700 ; Macaulay, H. E. 1686 ;
Ranke's Hist, of Popes ; Guizot, Hist, de
la Civil., sect, xii.; Cartwright's Hist, of
JESUITESSES. An order of nuns,
who had convents in Italy and Flanders.
They followed the Jesuit rules ; and though
their order was not approved at Rome, yet
they had several convents, where they

JESUS

415

had a lady abbess, who took the Jesuit
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
They did not confine themselves to their
cloisters, but went abroad and preached.
They were two English young women,
who, by the instigation of Father Gerard,
set up this order, intending it for the use of
missionaries into England. This order was
suppressed by a bull of Pope Urban VIII.,
a.d. 1630.
JESUS is the same with the Hebrew
name Joshua, or Jehoshua, i.e. Jehovah
the Saviour. As the name Jesus was given
to the Blessed Lord by Divine command, so
was the name of the son of Nun changed
by Moses from Hoshea to Joshua, the
Saviour; he being a type of our Blessed
Lord (Num. xiii. 16) (See Christ,
Messiah, Lord), the name that was given
by the Divine command to the Saviour of
the world. He is called Christ (anointed),
because He was anointed to the mediatorial
office, and Jesus (Saviour), because He came
to save his people from their sins.
We are to regard Him, as He is our
Saviour. I wUl place salvation in Jesus
"the Saviour" (PhU. iii. 20),— thus de
clared by prophecy (Isa. xix. 20), and for
this reason so expressly called (St. Matt. i.
21 ; St. Luke i. 31), and the prophecies
truly fulfilled (St. Luke ii. 11 ; Acts v. 31,
xiii. 23), is "the Saviour of the world"
(St. John iv. 42 ; iii. 17 ; 1 St. John iv. 14),
"the Saviour of all men" (1 Tim. iv. 10;
St. Luke ix. 56; St. John xu. 47), who
" came into the world to save sinners " (1
Tim. i. 15 ; St. Luke v. 32 ; Rom. v. 8 ;
1 St. John iii. 5), " the Lord and Saviour "
(2 St. Pet. ii. 20; iii. 2), "the captain of
their salvation " (Heb. ii. 10). And He is
revealed as the only way to salvation thus
predicted (Isa. xxxv, 8 ; xlix. 6 ; li. 5 ;
lix. 16 ; Ixiii. 1 ; Joel n. 32 ; St. Matt. i. 21 ;
Acts iv. 12; Heb. ix. 8), — so by Himself
declared (St. Matt. xviu. 11 ; St. Luke xix.
9), — and by those speaking through the in
spiration of the Holy Spirit (St. Luke i. 69,
with 67; ii. 30, with 26, 27; Acts u. 21 ;
Eph. ii. 18).
He was sent by God for this purpose
(St. John iii. 17 ; Acts v. 31, xui. 23 '; 1
St. John iv. 14), and is declared to be " the
author of eternal salvation unto all them
that obey him " (Heb. v. 9 ; Isa. li. 6, 8),—
that " confess " Him (Rom. x. 9), " believe
on " Him (Rom. x. 9 ; Eph. ii. 8 ; Acts xvi.
31 ; x. 43), and " call on the name of the
Lord" (Acts ii. 21),— "to the Jews first"
(Rom. i. 16 ; Isa. xiv. 17 ; xlvi. 13 ; lxii. 1,
11; Jer. xxxiii. 15, 16; Zech. ix. 9; St.
Luke i. 69, 77 ; Acts xi. 19 ; xv. 11 ; xiii.
23,46), "and also to the Greek" (Rom. i.
16),— the Gentiles (Isa. xiv. 22; xlix. 6;
li. 5 ; Iii. 10 ; St. Luke hi. 6 ; Acts xxviii.

416

JESUS

?8 ; Rom. iii. 29 ; x. 12 ; xv. 16 ; Gal. iii.
28 ; Col. Hi. 11).
To " that blessed hope " we now look
(Tit. ii. 13), through " the righteousness of
God and our Saviour" (2 St. Pet. i. 1),—
" our Saviour Jesus Christ " (2 Tim. i. 10 ;
Tit. i. 4 ; iii. 6). Our salvation has been
effected by the sacrifice of Himself; "in
Him have we redemption — the forgiveness
of sins ; " not purchased " with corruptible
things," but with His own " precious blood "
(Eph. i. 7 ; 1 St. Pet. i. 18, 19), for " He gave
Himself a ransom for all" (l Tim. ii. 6).
And thus having made " peace through the
blood of His cross," He has " reconciled both "
— Jews and Gentiles — "unto God in one
body " (Col. i. 20 ; Eph. ii. 16) (See Bowing
at the Name of Jesus). Joshua, the successor
of Moses, is caUed Jesus in the authorised
translation of the New Testament, Acts vii.
54, and Heb. iv. 8. Both names are the
same in the LXX. and the Greek Testament.
JESUS, NAME OF. A minor holy-day,
observed in our Calendar on August 7. This
was held in the early English Church on the
Fsast of the Circumcision : in the Roman
Church it is observed on the second Sunday
after Epiphany. There is no account of
the origin of this festival. — E. Daniel, P. B.
p. 68. [H.]
JEWS. The general name given to the
descendants of Abraham, though in strict
ness it originally belonged only to the tribes
of Judah and Benjamin, with the Levites
settled among them, who constituted the
kingdom of Judah. For the early history
of the Jews we need only refer to the Old
Testament. At the time of our Lord's com
ing in the flesh, Herod, called " the Great,"
was king of the Jews, but he and his suc
cessors were really only lieutenants of the
Roman emperor, and Palestine was a Roman
province. Under this bondage the people
chafed, and Ihey were aroused to frequent
insurrections by the rapacity of the Roman
governors in the time of Herod Agrippa. It
was probably on account of this state of
things that so many Jews left their country
and settled elsewhere. There were numbers
of them in Egypt, and in the towns of Asia.
From the Acts of the Apostles we learn that
there were Jews settled in every town to
which St. Paul went ; a letter of PhUo to
Agrippa speaks of the numerous settlements
of the ¦ Jews in various countries ; and
Cicero (Pro Flacco) mentions a wealthy
community of them in Italy (Conybeare and
Howson). But the destruction of Jerusalem,
a.d. 70, caused the great dispersion of the
Jews, and from that time they were scat
tered amongst many nations, amassing
wealth by their commercial industry and
business habits, but subject to great perse
cutions. The emperors alternately pro-

JEWS
tected and persecuted them ; and this was
their fate throughout the early and middle
ages. Charles the Great, for instance, en
couraged them; they were allowed to fill
municipal offices ; and this continued under
succeeding reigns. But Philip Augustus
confiscated all their property, and expelled;
them from his dominions a.d. 1182. They
were afterwards readmitted, but only to
undergo the same treatment from Charles
VII. a.d. 1394. Similar acts of oppression
took place in other countries, notably in
Spain, from whence 500,000 Jews were
expelled, shortly after the expulsion of the
Moors. They were expeUed from England
by Edward I. 1290, and did not return till
1660. There were in most countries re
strictions laid upon the Jews, but in later
times these have been generally removed,
except in Russia ; where, however, there are
more than 1,000,000 Jews. In England
Jews were admitted to the elective fran
chise in 1832; and made eligible to all
municipal offices in 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c.
59); their places of worship were placed
on the same footing as those of Romanists
and Dissenters in 1855 ; and in 1858 they
were admitted to Parliament. There are
altogether some 8,000,000 Jews, of whom
42,000 are in England, with about seventy
synagogues. It is estimated that every
year 1200 to 1500 Jews leave the synagogfi^
for the Church of Christ (Official Ilea ""'
Book of the Church of England, 1886).
II. The creed of the Jews
thirteen articles : — 1. There is one God,
Creator of aU things, aU-perfect, all-sufficient.
2. That be is an uncompounded, invisible
essence. 3. That he is immaterial. 4. Ab
solutely eternal. 5. Alone to be worshipped,
without any mediators or intercessors. 6.
That there have been, and may be, prophets.
7. That Moses was the greatest prophet.
8. That every syllable of the law was given
to Moses by inspiration ; and that the tra
ditionary expositions of- the precepts were
entirely a Divine revelation given to Moses.
9. That the law is immutable. 10. That
God knows and governs all our actions.
11. That he rewards the observance, and
punishes the violation, * of his laws. 12.
That the Messiah wiU appear, but that his
coming is delayed. 13. That God will raise
the dead, and judge all mankind.
There have from early times been three
sects of Jews. The greatest and first of these
is that of the Rabbanim, who, besides the-
Scriptures, receive the Talmud. The second
is the Karaites, who receive only the Scrip
tures ; and the third is that of the Cuthim,
of which there are very few, who admit
only the Pentateuch, or books of Moses.—
Broughton, Biblio.: Diet. Christ. AnU
Milman's History of Jews.

JOB •
JOB. One of the'- books in the sacred
canon, the first of the poetical books of the
Old Testament, and probably the most
ancient work that exists in any form. There
have been many differences of opinion upon
almost all imaginable questions concerning
this book, the date, the scene, the author,
whether it is to be accounted a narrative of
real events, or a Divine allegory, being
warmly debated by different critics. (Smith's
Diet, of Bible, s. v.) That Job is a real
person seems however to be determined by
the mention of him with Noah and Daniel
(of whose proper personal existence and
history there can be no doubt) in the four
teenth chapter of Ezekiel. The author
ship is quite uncertain (See the Speaker's
Commentary). JOHN, ST., BAPTIST'S DAY. I. This
festival, in commemoration of St. John the
Baptist's birth, is observed in our Calendar
on June 24 ; in that of the Greek Church
on January 7. The festival is mentioned
frequently by St. Augustine, who comments
upon the peculiarity of observing St. John's
birthday, rather than his martyrdom (Horn.
287, &c).
II. The minor festival observed in the
Calendar on August 29 commemorates the
beheading of the Baptist (St. Matt, xiv.) ;
and was celebrated in the Western Church
before the time of Gregory the Great, a.d.
590. Many curious customs were connected
with this day. In Ireland, and in the north
of England, bonfires were lighted on the eve.
At Magdalen College, Oxford, an open air
pulpit was used on this day, and at Win
chester College, in 1407, the pulpit was
surrounded with boughs and green candles,
as a memorial of the preacher in the wilder
ness. In France wheels were rolled in
aUusion to the sun's decUnation, bones of
animals were burned, and torches carried in
allusion to St. John v. 35. St. John is
represented clad in skins, carrying a pennon
with the words Ecce Agnus Dei. — Mabillon,
de Lit. Gall. ; Walcott, Sac. Archeol. p. 333 ;
Blunt's P. B. i. [53] ; E. Daniel, P. B. [H.]
JOHN, ST., THE EVANGELIST'S
DAY ; commemorated on Dec. 27. St.
John and St. James (the Great) were the
sons of Zebedee of Galilee, and Salome,
who is supposed to have been the sister of
the Virgin Mary. St. John was especially
favoured by our Lord. Among the first
called, sharing indeed with St.. Andrew the
title of TrparoKhnTos, he was chosen with
his brother and St. Peter to accompany the
Lord on particular occasions (St. Matt. xxvi.
37 ; xvii. 1 ; St. Mark v. 37 ; ix. 2 ; xiv. 33 ;
St. Luke viii. 51; ix. 20. His brother
James and he were surnamed by our Lord
the Sons of Thunder, for their pecuUar zeal
and fervency for His honour.

JOHN'S, ST.

417

St. John exercised his ministry in Asia
Minor, and having excited enemies through
preaching the doctrines of Christ, was
carried prisoner from Ephesus to Rome, in
the year 92. Subsequently to this he was
banished to the isle of Patmos, where he
wrote his Revelation. He was afterwards
recalled from his exile by Nero the emperor,
and then returned to Ephesus. His three
Epistles were written with reference to some
prevailing heresies of the times; and the
scope of his Gospel, which was his last work,
shows that the apostle had in view the
same deniers of the Divinity of the Saviour.
He survived till the reign of Trajan, and
died at the age of nearly 100 years.
JOHN'S, ST., GENERAL EPISTLES.
Three canonical books of the New Testa
ment, being letters written by St. John the
Evangelist (See the last article).
The First Epistle of St. John has always
been received by the Church as genuine
(Polycarp. Ep. ad Philip, c. vii. ; Irenasus,
adv. Her. iii. 18 ; Clemens Alex. Strom, ii. ;
St. Cyprian, Ep. xxviii. ; Origen, H E. vi.
25, &c). Though there is neither inscription
nor direction, it appears, by the beginning of
chap, ii., to be a Catholic or General Epistle,
addressed not to one, but many Christians.
It is probable he wrote it towards the end
of his life, because he mentions the opinion
which then prevailed, that the day of judg
ment was at hand, and Antichrist ready to
appear. He insists upon the advantages of
faith in Christ ; he exhorts those to whom
he writes not to suffer themselves to be
seduced by false teachers ; and recommends
to them good works, the love of God and
our neighbour, purity, and other Christian
virtues. This Epistle, for matter and style,
is much Uke the Gospel written by the same
apostle. The two other Epistles which carry his
name, have not always been so generally
received. On the contrary, some of the
ancients were of opinion that they were
written by another John, called the Elder, a
disciple of the apostle's, mentioned by
Papias (Euseb. H. E. iii. 25). However,
Iremeus quotes the second under the name
of John, the disciple of our Lord (Adv.
Her. i. 16). In truth, the spirit, the senti
ments, and style of these two Epistles are
not only like, but often the same as the
First Epistle ; which plainly bespeaks one
and the same author.
The Second Epistle of St. John is directed
to- the elect Lady (Kvpla) ; by which some
understand a person of that name; others,
only some lady of dignity and distinction ;.
and others, an elect or chosen Church, me
taphorically styled Lady. Whoever she may
have been, the apostle congratulates her, be
cause her chUdren led a Christian life. He»
2 E

418

JOHN'S, ST., GOSPEL

cautions her likewise to beware of impos
tors, who denied that Christ was come in
the flesh.
The Third Epistle of St. John is directed
to Gaius, or Caius. Whoever he may have
been (for this is controverted), the apostle
declares to him the joy he conceived when
he heard of his piety and charity.
It is probable St. John wrote his Epistles,
as well as his Gospel, from Ephesus, after
his return from the isle of Patmos. — Smith's
Diet of Bible.
JOHN'S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical
book of the New Testament, being a re
cital of the life, actions, doctrine, death,
&c, of our Saviour Jesus Christ, written
by St. John the apostle and evangelist.
It has always been considered the latest
of the Gospels (Euseb. iii. 6, and vi. 14,
quoting Clemens Alex.) (See the pre
ceding article).
According to tradition St. John wrote his
Gospel at Ephesus, after his return from the
isle of Patmos, at the desire of the Chris
tians and bishops of Asia (Iren. adv. Her.
ii. 22, iii. 1 ; Euseb. H. E. v. 8, &c. ; Hieron.
Pref at. in Matt.). St. Jerome says, he would
not undertake it, but on condition they should
appoint a public fast, to implore the assistance
of God ; and that, the fast being end ed, St.
John, fiUed with the Holy Ghost, broke out
into these words : " In the beginning was
the Word," &c. The ancients assign two
reasons for this undertaking. The first is,
because, in the other three Gospels, there
was wanting the history of the beginning of
Jesus Christ's preaching tUl the imprison
ment of John the Baptist ; which therefore
he applied himself particularly to relate.
The second reason was, in order to confound
the errors of the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and
other heretics, who denied the Divinity of
Jesus Christ. — Iren. ui. 12; Hieron. Cat.
Ser. Eccl. 9.
Some critics have thought that St.
John's Gospel ended at the 20th chapter
with these words, " Many other signs truly
did Jesus," &c, and that the foUowing
chapter was added, after the death of St.
John, by the Church of Ephesus (Lucke,
Comment. Johann i. pp. 197, 198. See
Wordsworth's Gk. Test. i. 287).
Clement of Alexandria calls this Gospel
" the spiritual Gospel " ; and St. Jerome says
of this evangelist, that he wrote of our
Saviour's Divinity in a very sublime man
ner, and with a happy temerity. Pagan phi
losophers have admired the subUmity of
St. John's Gospel. Thus, the Platonist
Amelius, having read the beginning of it,
and finding it conformable to the doctrine of
Plato, cried out, " 0 Jupiter ! this Barbarian
believes with Plato, that the word is the
beginning." Guerike (Einleitung, p. 310,

JOSHUA
quoted in Smith's Diet of Bible) gives a
list of the chief commentators who have
accepted or rejected the authenticity of St.
John's Gospel. The question is exhaustively
treated by Professor Westcott, Introduction
to St. John in Speaker's Commentary, where
he successively proves that the author must
have been (i.) a Jew, (n.) of Palestine, (hi)
an eye-witness, and (iv.) an Apostle; and
if an Apostle, then St. John. Dean Alford
arrives at the same conclusion (Proleg. c. v.) ;
see also Professor Salmon, Introduction to
New Test [Murray].
JOINING OF HANDS, THE. This is
peculiar to the English rite of marriage;
but was derived probably from Herman's
" Consultation." " The joining of hands,"
says Bishop Barry, "is from time imme
morial the pledge of covenant, and is here
an essential part of the marriage ceremony."
—P. B. 161 (See Matrimony). [H.]
JONAH. The most ancient of the pro
phetic books of the Old Testament, which
contains also a part of the history of the
prophet whose name it bears. Jonah is
supposed to have prophesied to the ten
tribes towards the close of Jehu's reign, or
in the beginning of Jehoahaz's reign; hut
the great subject of the book which bears
his name, is the prophecy which he was
commissioned to utter against Nineveh,
with his refusal to go, his punishment, his
second mission, and the repentance of the
Ninevites. The concealment of Jonah three
days in the belly of the great fish, is de
clared by our Blessed Lord himself to have
been a predictive sign of his own burial,
and of his resurrection on the third day ,
(Speaker's Commentary).
JOSHUA, THE BOOK OF. A ca
nonical book of the Old Testament. There
have been different opinions about the
authorship of the Book «of Joshua; the
title at the head of the book being supposed
by some not to denote its author, but the
subject matter of it, being the history of
the wars and transactions which happened
under the administration of Joshua. But
" all that part of the Book of Joshua which
relates his personal history seems to he
written with the unconscious vivid power
of an eyewitness" (Diet. Bib. i. 1144).
Joshua (whose name at first was Oshea) was
appointed by God to be the successor of
Moses, and to lead the Israelites in safety,
by subduing their enemies, into the promised
land; the history of which great event is
the subject of the Book of Joshua; which
may be divided into three parts. The first
is a history of the conquest of the land of
Canaan. The second, which begins at the
twelfth chapter, is a description of that
country, and the division of it among the
tribes. The third, comprised in the two

JUBE
last chapters, contains the ronewal of the
covenant he caused the Israelites to make,
and the death of their victorious leader and
governor. The whole comprehend a term
of seventeen, or, according to others, twenty-
seven years (Speaker's Commentary).
II. Joshua has always been considered an
especial type of our Lord (See Heb. iv. 8).
The opinions of the Christian Fathers on
this subject have been coUected by Bishop
Pearson in his exposition of the Creed.
(Art. ii. pp. 131 seq., Ed. 1859).
JUBE. A Rood loft, or gaUery of a
chancel screen, so called in France, and
formerly sometimes in England, from the
words, "Jube Domine benedicere," pro
nounced from it when a dean or abbot gave
the benediction. The Ambo also, from
which the Epistle and Gospel used to be
read, was sometimes so called, for the same
reason. JUBILATE DEO. Ps. c. ("O be joyful
in God "). One of the psalms appointed to
be used after the second lesson in the
morning service. It was formerly sung at
lauds and came before the lesson. It was
inserted in its present place in the Prayer
Book in the Second Book of King Edward
VI. The intention of the framers of the
Prayer Book seems to have been that this
psalm should only be used on those days
when the " Benedictus " came in the lesson
of the day, or for the Gospel on St. John
Baptist's Day. .
JUBILEE (Heb. bs\\ yobel: signify
ing a blast of a trumpet). I. The year of
Jubilee in the Jewish times was proclaimed
with trumpets, and was a year of universal
Uberty and freedom. It was to be celebrated
every fifty years (Lev. xxv. 9, &c. ; Josh. vi.
4, 13), but after the Babylonian captivity it
was not observed (See Smith's Diet, of
Bible). II. A Jubilee was instituted in the year
1300, by Boniface VIII., which was to be
observed every hundredth year, and was to
be a time of " indulgence " — that is to say,
aU censures, greater excommunications, sus
pensions, interdicts, or vows (except those
of religion, and with regard to pilgrimages
to Rome, Jerusalem, or ComposteUa), were
to be remitted, and absolution was to be
granted by all confessors, with the approval
of the ordinary. Clement VI., at Avignon,
reduced the period of the JubUee to every
fiftieth year. In 1389 Urban VI. enjoined
that it should be held every thirty-third
year. Sixty years later Nicholas V. renewed
the former observance of fifty years ; but
Paul II. reduced the term to twenty-five
years. Besides this, the popes, upon their
exaltation to the see of Rome, have frequently
celebrated a jubUee, as likewise upon other
extraordinary occasions. The ceremony

JUDICIAL COMMITTEE

419

observed at Rome, for the Jubilee, at every
twenty-five years' end, which they call the
holy year, is this: The pope goes to St.
Peter's church to open the holy gate (as
they call it), which is walled up, and only
opened upon this occasion; and knocking
three times at the said gate, with a golden
hammer, says these words, Aperite mihi
portas justitim, &c, " Open to me the gates
of righteousness : I will go into them and I
wiU praise the Lord " (Psalm cxviu. 19) ;
whereupon the masons fall to work to break
down the wall that stopped the gate ; which
done, the pope kneels down before it, whilst
the penitentiaries of St. Peter sprinkle him
with holy water, and then taking up the
cross, he begins to sing Te Deum, and
enters the church, followed by the clergy.
In the meanwhile, three cardinal legates are
sent to open the other three holy gates,
with the same ceremonies, which are in the
churches of St. John of Lateran, of St. Paul,
and St. Mary Major ; and the next morning
the pope gives his benediction to the people
in the Jubilee form. When the holy year is
expired, they shut up the holy gates again
on Christmas eve in this manner. The
pope, after he has blessed the stones and
mortar, lays the first stone, and leaves there
twelve boxes full of gold and silver medals.
— MUman, Lat. Christv. 62, 332, 345, 420,
431 ; Walcott's Sac. Archeol. 334. [H.]
JUDE, ST (See Simon and Jude, SS.).
JUDGES, THE BOOK OF. A canonical
book, of the authenticity of which there is
no doubt in the Church, though the author
is unknown : some ascribing it to Phinehas,
others to Ezra or Hezekiah, though most to
Samuel (See Smith's Diet, of Bible).
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE
PRIVY COUNCIL. This was estabUshed
by 3 & 4 W. IV. c. 41, for ecclesiastical and
admiralty and testamentary, appeals which
had been transferred, by the Act of the
previous year, to the Privy CouncU from
the delegates who used to be appointed pro
hac vice for every separate appeal under the
two Acts of 24 & 25 Henry VIII. (See
Delegates). Further alterations were made
in the Judicial Committee by the Clergy
Discipline Act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 69, which made
the three Privy CouncU bishops members of
the Committee for Appeals under that Act
but not others. But they were sometimes
invited as assessors in other cases, e.g. in the
Gorham one. In 1873 they were removed
from the Committee by an amendment
slipped into the Judicature Act (see Life of
Wilberforce, vol. iii.). By the Judicial Com
mittee Act, 1871, the Queen was authorised
to appoint four persons who had been judges
(if only for a day) to be members of the
Judicial Committee with salaries of £5000 a
year, but practically to fill up no vacancies
2 e 2

420

JURE DIVINO

among them. By the Appellate Jurisdiction
Act, 1876, which established three law lords
with life peerages, they are also to be mem
bers of the Judicial Committee, and in all
ecclesiastical appeals the bishops are required
to sit as assessors under rules which were to
be made, and which are in fact that they are
to be summoned in rotation, five at once, of
whom three must sit — even on mere legal
technicalities. Another Act was passed in
1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 3, and the result of
all the Acts is this for the present: The
Judicial Committee consists of all judges
and ex-judges of the Supreme Court, in
cluding of course the Lord Chancellor and
the Dean of Arches, if they are Privy
Councillors, and also three law lords and the
survivors of the four judges appointed under
the 1871 Act, and also three others who
may be appointed from time to time with
out salary under the first Judicial Committee
Act of 1833, who may be anybody,' and one
of whom was never even a practising barris
ter ; but another did more than any member
who ever sat to raise the reputation of the
Court, viz., Mr. Pemberton Leigh, afterwards
Lord Kingsdown, who refused the Great
Seal. [G.]
" JURE DIVINO." By Divine right ;
an expression frequently occurring in con
troversial writings, especially in relation to
the ministry of the Church.
It is evident, and generally confessed,
that the right to minister in holy things is
not in every man's power. If it were so,
the very idea of the ministry, as a dis
tinct class of men, empowered to act " in
Christ's stead," would be broken up, and
the Church would lose its character as a
society; for that implies the existence of
officers and of subordination. It is also
confessed that in the Christian Church men
are not born to the ministry, as they were
under the Jewish dispensation. Whence,
then, comes that authority with which the
ambassador of Christ is invested? Is it
human ? Can any body of men confer the
power to rule and minister in a society,
the full control of which is in the hands
of the eternal God? Most evidently not.
Human power, or a commission derived
from human resources, is as void and in
adequate in qualifying for the functions of
the ministry, as it would be in the attempt
to create a world, or to found a new rank
in the hierarchy of heaven. We are driven
then, at once, to the Divine institution as
the foundation of all legitimate power in
the Church.
The Head of the Church established a
ministry, with the right and ability to exe
cute all its appointed functions. It was
not intellectual eminence, or high station,
or influence, wealth, courage, or any other

JURISDICTION
human attribute, which brought into bein«
"the glorious company of the apostles;^
but it was the sovereign power alone of
Him " in whom dwelt all the fulness of the
Godhead bodily." And was this power
to be recalled on the demise of those who
were every day doomed to stripes, impri
sonments, perils, and death in a thousand
shapes? No; for either the Church for
the future must fail, the sacraments he
obliterated, the " watching for souls " be
abolished, or the continuation of the sacred
ministry must be demanded with all its
original spiritual functions. To the apos-'
ties, therefore, was given (jure divino), and
to them alone, the ability to perpetuate or
transmit the gift which the Redeemer had
bestow-ed. From them the prerogatives of
episcopacy (or apostolate) were communi
cated to younger men, including the trans-
missive or ordaining faculty. Under these,
the elders and deacons were put in trust
with a share of the original grant of minis-'
terial power, — a power they were them
selves incapable of delegating; and by an-
unbroken succession, in the line of bishops,
the Divine commission has reached these
latter days of the Church.
If then, as we have shown, Divine right
is the only foundation on which the minis
try can stand, there is no alternative left
to any one claiming office in the Church
of God, but to vindicate the legality of his
mission by miracle, or some other tangible
Divine verification, which no man can dis
pute; or else to bring forth such creden
tials as Timothy, Titus, and the ministers-
ordained by them had to show, viz. the
simple evidence of the fact that the apostles,
or their successors, had imparted to them,
the authority they claim to possess. This
every bishop, priest, and deacon, in the
Catholic Church, is prepared to do.
JURISDICTION. The power -and au
thority vested in a bishop, by virtue of the
apostolical commission, of governing and-
administering the laws of the Church
within the bounds of his diocese. The
same term is used to express the hounds
within which a bishop exercises his power,
i.e. his diocese.
In the Anglo-Saxon times, before the Nor
man Conquest, there was no distinction of
jurisdiction; but all matters, as weU spiri
tual as temporal, were determined in the
county court, caUed the Sheriff's Tourn,
where the bishop and earl (or in his ab
sence the sheriff) sat together; or elsein
the hundred court, which was held in like
manner before the lord of the hundred and.
ecclesiastical judge.
For the ecclesiastical officers took their
limits of jurisdiction from a like extent ofi
the civil powers. Most of the early English

JURISDICTION
bishoprics were conterminous with the
distinct kingdoms. The archdeaconries,
when first settled into local districts [which
however does not seem to have been ef
fected before the Norman Conquest], were
commonly fitted to the respective counties.
And rural deaneries were correspondent to
the pohtical tithings. Their spiritual courts
were held, with a like reference to the ad
ministration of civU justice. The synods
of each province and diocese were held at
the discretion of the metropoUtan and the
bishop, as great councils at the pleasure of
the prince. The visitations were first united
to the civil inquisitions in each county;
and afterwards, when the courts of the earl
and bishop were separated, yet still the
visitations were held Uke the sheriff's
towns, twice a year, and like them too
after Easter and Michaelmas, and still,
with nearer likeness, the greater of them
was at Easter. The rural chapters were
also held, like the inferior courts of the
hundred, every three weeks ; then, and like
them too, they were changed, into monthly,
and at last, into quarterly meetings ; and a
prime visitation was held commonly, like
the prime folcmote or sheriff's tourn, on the
calends of May.
And accordingly Sir Henry Spelman
observes, that the bishop and the earl sat
together in one court, and heard jointly
the causes of chm-ch and commonwealth ;
as they yet do in parliament. And as the
bishop had twice in the year two general
synods, wherein aU the clergy of his dio
cese of aU sorts were bound to resort for
matters concerning the Church; so also
there was twice in the year a general as
sembly of all the shire for matters con
cerning the commonwealth, wherein, with
out exception, aU kinds of estates were
required to be present, dukes, earls, barons,
and so downward of the laity ; and especi-
aUy the bishop of that diocese among the
clergy. For in those days the temporal
lords sat in synods with the bishops,
and the bishops in like manner in the
courts of the temporality, and were there
in not only necessary, but the principal
judges themselves. Thus by the laws
of King Canute, " the shyre-gemot (for so
the Saxons called this assembly of the
whole shire) shall be kept twice a year,
and oftener if need require, wherein the
bishop and the alderman of the shire shaU
be present, the one to teach the laws of
God, the other the laws of the land."
And among the laws of King Henry I., it
is ordained, "first, let the laws of true
Christianity (which we call the ecclesiasti
cal) be fuUy executed with due satisfaction ;
then let the pleas concerning the king be
dealt with; and, lastly, those between

JURISDICTION

421

party and party: and whomsoever the
Church synod shall find at variance, let
them either make accord between them in
love, or sequester them by their sentence
of excommunication." And the bishop
first gave a solemn charge to the people
touching ecclesiastical matters, . opening
unto them the rights and reverence of the
Church, and their duty therein towards
God and the king, according to the word
of God : then the alderman in like manner
related unto them the laws of the land, and
their duty towards God, the king, and com
monwealth, according to the rule and tenure
thereof. ¦
The separation of the ecclesiastical from
the temporal courts was made by William
the Conqueror : for upon the conquest made
by the' Normans, the pope took the oppor
tunity to usurp upon the liberties of the
crown of England ; for the Conqueror came
in with the pope's banner, and under it won
the battle. Whereupon the pope sent two
legates into England, with whom the Con
queror caUed a synod, deposed Stigand,
archbishop of Canterbury, because he had
not purchased his pall from Rome, and dis
placed many bishops and abbots to make
room for bis Normans. This admission of
the pope's legates first led the way to his
usurped, jurisdiction in England; yet no
decrees passed or were put in execution,
touching matters ecclesiastical, without the
royal assent; nor would the king submit
himseR in point of fealty to the pope, as
appears by his epistle to Gregory VII.
Yet in his next successor's time, namely,
in the time of King WUUam Rufus, the
pope, by Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury,
attempted to draw appeals to Rome, but
did not prevail. Upon this occasion it was,
that the king said to Anselm, that none
of his bishops ought to be subject to the
pope, but the pope himself ought to be
subject to the emperor ; and that the king
of England had the same absolute liberty in
his dominions, as the emperor had in the
empire. Yet in the time of the next king,
King Henry I., the pope usurped the pa
tronage and donation of bishoprics, and of
all other benefices ecclesiastical. At this
time Anselm told the king that the in
vestiture of bishops was not his right,
because Pope Urban II. had lately made
a decree, that no recipient of an ecclesiastical
benefice should take any oath of fealty for
the same to a layman. And after this, at
a synod held at London, in the year 1107,
a decree was made to which the king
assented, that from thenceforth no person
should be invested by any lay -hand in a
bishopric by the giving of a ring and pastoral
staff. Upon which the pope granted that the
archbishop of Canterbury for the time being

422

JUSTIFICATION

should be for ever legatus natus : and An
selm for the honour of his see obtained,
that the archbishop of Canterbury should
in all general councils sit at the pope's fpot,
as alterius orbis papa, or pope of this part
of the world. Yet after Anselm's death,
this same king gave the archbishopric of
Canterbury to Ralph, bishop of London,
and invested him with the ring and pas
toral staff; and this because the succeeding
popes had broken Pope Urban's promise,
touching the not sending of legates into
England unless the king should require it.
And in the time of the next king, King
Stephen, the pope gained appeals to the
court of Rome ; for in a synod at London,
convened by Henry, bishop of Winchester,
the pope's legate, it was decreed that ap
peals should, be made from provincial coun
cils to the pope : before which time appeals
to Rome were not in use. Thus did the
pope usurp three main points of jurisdiction,
upon three several kings -after the. Conquest
(for of King WUliam Rufus he could gain
nothing), viz. upon the Conqueror, the
sending of the legates or commissioners to
hear and determine ecclesiastical causes ;
upon Henry I., the donation and investiture
of bishoprics and other benefices ; and upon
King Stephen, the appeals to the court of
Rome. And in the time of King Henry
IL, the pope claimed exemption for clerks
from the secular power. And finally, in the
time of King John, he took the crown from
off the king's head, and compelled him to ac
cept his kingdom from the pope's donation.
Nevertheless all this was not obtained with
out violent struggle and opposition : and
this caused the statutes of provisors to be
made, in the reigns of King Edward I. and
King Richard II. The limits of eccle
siastical jurisdiction were finally settled by
the statute of 24 Henry VIII. c. 12. Juris
diction is also applied to the power vested
in certain dignitaries, as dean, chancellor,
&c, in some cathedrals ; and in many, when
each individual prebendary had a peculiar
jurisdiction (See Report of the Commission
on Ecclesiastical Courts, 1883, but more
especially the Historical Appendix by
Bishop Stubbs ; also Supremacy).
JUSTIFICATION (See Faith and
Sanctification). Justification, in the lan
guage of Scripture, signifies our being ac
counted just or righteous in the sight of
God. A clear understanding of the difference
between the Church of England and the
Church of Rome upon this subject is most
important, since the difference between the
two Churches on this point causes an essen
tial and vital difference through the whole
system of their theology. The definition
of the Church of England is set forth in

JUSTIFICATION
her Articles and Homilies : and it is there
propounded in a manner so perspicuous, as
to preclude, it might weU be thought, all
possibUity of misapprehension.
As contained in the eleventh and twelfth
and thirteenth Articles, the definition runs:
in terms following :
" We are accounted righteous before God,
only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ by faith ; and not for our own
works or deservings. Wherefore, that we are
justified by faith only is a most wholesome
doctrine, and very full of comfort : as more
largely is expressed in the HomUy of Justifi
cation. " Albeit that good works, which are the
fruits of faith and foUow after justification,
cannot put away our sins, and endure the
severity of God's judgment ; yet are they
pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ,
and do spring out necessarily of a true and
lively faith; insomuch that by them a
lively faith may be as evidently known as
a tree is discerned by the fruit.
" Works done before the grace of Christ,
and the inspiration of His Spirit, are not
pleasant to God, forasmuch as they spring
not of faith in Jesus Christ, neither do they
make men meet to receive grace, or (as the
school-authors say) deserve grace of con
gruity: yea rather, for that they are not
done as God hath willed and commanded
them to be done, we doubt not but they
have the nature of sin."
The honuly referred to in the eleventh
Article, under the title of Tlie Homily of
Justification, is styled, in the first Book of
Homilies itself, " A sermon of the salvation
of mankind, by only Christ our Saviour,
from sin and death everlasting : " and this
homUy is described as more largely ex
pressing the doctrine of justification than
the necessary brevity of an article ad
mitted. The doctrine of the Church of Rome must
be taken from the Council of Trent. The
exposition of the Tridentine Fathers, as
sembled in their sixth session, runs through
sixteen chapters ; and so extreme is its ver-
boseness, and so perplexing is its incessant
alternation, that we might be somewhat
puzzled to form a distinct idea of their
views in respect to justification, if the last
of those chapters had not given us, in the
shape of an article or summary, the result
of their prohx theologising.
Omitting, then, the discussion upon which
their definition is buUt, we will proceed
immediately to the definition itself.
" Since Jesus Christ, as the head into the
members and as the vine into the branches,
perpetually causes his virtue to flow into the
justified ; which virtue always precedes and
accompanies and follows their good works*

JUSTIFICATION
and without which they would in nowise be
grateful to God and meritorious ; we must
believe, that nothing more is wanting to the
justified themselves, which need prevent us
from thinking, both that they can satisfy
the Divine law according to the state of
this Ufe, by those works which are per
formed in God; and that, in their own
time, provided they depart in grace, they
may truly merit the attainment of eternal
life. " Thus, neither our own proper righteous
ness is so determined to be our own, as if it
were from ourselves ; nor is the righteous
ness of God either unknown or rejected.
For that which is called our righteousness,
because, through it being inherent in us, we
are justified ; that same is the righteousness
of God, because it is infused into us by God
through the merit of Christ.
"Far, however, be it from a Christian
man, that he should either trust or glory in
himself and not in the Lord ; whose good
ness to all men is so great, that, what are
truly his gifts, he wiUeth to be estimated as
their merits."
This article or summary removes aU
possihUity of misapprehension. Through
it, the Church of Rome determines that we
are justified, not by any imputation to us of
righteousness, or by any imputation to us of
faith in the place of righteousness (though
each of these imputations is insisted upon
by St. Paul), but by our own inherent
righteousness. On this, the Roman system, Hooker
remarks : " When they are required, to show,
whatthe righteousness is whereby a Christian
man is justified, they answer, that it is a
Divine spiritual quality : which quaUty,
received into the soul, doth first make it to
be one of them who are born of God ; and,
secondly, endue it with power to bring forth
such works as they do that are born of him :
even as the soul of man, being joined to his
body, doth first make him to be of the num
ber of reasonable creatures; and, secondly,
enable him to perform the natural functions
which are proper to his kind : that it maketh
the soul amiable and gracious in the sight
of God, in regard whereof it is termed
Grace; that it purgeth, purifieth, and
washeth out, aU the stains and poUutions
of sins ; that, by it, through the merit of
Christ, we are delivered, as from sin, so from
eternal death and condemnation, the reward
of sin. This grace they wiU have to be
applied by infusion ; to the end that, as the
body is warm by the heat which is in the
body, so the soul might be made righteous
by inherent grace : which grace they make
capable of increase; as the body may be
more and more wami, so the soul more and
more justified according as grace should be

JUSTIFICATION

423

augmented; the augmentation whereof is
merited by good works, as good works are
made meritorious by it. Wherefore, the
first receipt of grace, in their divinity, is
the first justification : the increase thereof,
the second justification. As grace may be
increased by the merit of good works, so it
may be diminished by the demerit of sins
venial ; it may be lost by mortal sin. Inas
much, therefore, as it is needful, in the one
case to repair, in the other to recover, the
loss which is made, the infusion of grace
hath her sundry after-meals ; for the which
cause they make many ways to apply the
infusion of grace. It is applied to infants
through baptism, without either faith or
works ; and, in them, really it taketh away
original sin, and the punishment due unto
it : it is appUed to infidels and wicked men
in the first justification, through baptism,
without works, yet not without faith : and
it taketh away sins both actual and original
together, with all whatsoever punishment,
eternal or temporal, thereby deserved. Unto
such as have attained the first justification,
that is to say, the first receipt of grace, it is
appUed further by good works to the in
crease of former 'grace : which is the second
justification. If they work more and more,
grace doth more increase : and they are more
and more justified. To such as diminish it
by venial sins, it is appUed by holy water,
Ave Marias, crossings, papal salutations, and
such Uke: which serve for reparations of
grace decayed. To such as have lost it
through mortal sin, it is applied by the
sacrament (as they term it) of penance:
which sacrament hath force to confer grace
anew ; yet in such sort, that, being conferred;
it hath not altogether so much power as at
the first. For it only cleanseth out the
stain or guilt or sin committed ; and
changeth the punishment eternal into a
temporal satisfactory punishment — here, if
time do serve, if not, hereafter, to be en
dured; except it be lightened by masses,
works of charity, pUgrimages, fasts, and such
like ; or else shortened by pardon for term, or
by plenary pardon quite removed and taken
away. This is the mystery of the man of
sin. This maze the Church of Rome doth
cause her followers to tread, when they ask
her the way to justification. Whether they
speak of the first or second justification,
they make ' the essence of a Divine quaUty
inherent,' they make it ' righteousness which
is in us.' If it be in us, then it is ours : as
our souls are ours, though we have them
from God, and can hold them no longer than
pleaseth him ; for, if he withdraw the breath
of our nostrils, we fall to dust. But the
righteousness, wherein we must be found, if
we wiU be justified, is 'not our own.'
Therefore we cannot be justified by any

424

JUSTIFICATION

inherent quality. The Church of Rome, in
teaching justification by inherent grace,
doth pervert the truth of Christ : and, by
the hands of the apostles, we have received
otherwise than she teacheth. Now, con
cerning the righteousness of sanctification,
we deny it not to be inherent : we grant,
that, unless we work, we have it not : only
we distinguish it, as a thing different in
nature from the righteousness of justification.
By the one, we are interested in the right of
inheriting: by the other, we are brought to
the actual possession of eternal bliss. And
so the end of both is ' everlasting Ufe ' "
(Serm. ii. 5, 6).
The difference between the two systems
may be pointed out in a few words. The
Roman Church teaches that a man is jus
tified by an inherent righteousness, which
though originally a gift of God, as are his soul
and his bodily members, is nevertheless,
Uke his soul, his own.
The AngUcan Church, on the contrary,
in common with all the other Churches of
the Reformation, teaches: "that man is
justified by an extrinsic righteousness,
which is not his own, but the righteous
ness of Christ; the faith which instru-
mentally lays hold of it and appropriates
it, and which itself is the gift of God, be
ing forensically imputed to him of God,
instead of a righteousness which he him
self possesses not ; so that he is justified
through faith, though not on account of
faith ; the sole particular, on account qf
which he is justified, being the merit and
perfect righteousness of our Lord and only
Saviour Jesus Christ."
Whichever scheme of doctrine may be
preferred as most agreeable to Scripture
and to antiquity, it is clear, that the two
statements here given are at least incapable
of misapprehension. Right or wrong, the
two schemes stand flatly and diametrically
opposed to each other. The Roman Church
asserts : the Anglican Church denies.
Conversely, the Roman Church denies : the
Anglican Church asserts. The Roman
Church asserts the doctrine of justification
by an infused and personal inherent
righteousness : the Anglican Church strenu
ously denies that doctrine ; admitting,
indeed, that the inherent righteousness of
sanctification is always consequentially
present with the really justified; but re
fusing to it any, even the least, share in
" the procurement of justification." The
Roman Church denies, that the ungodly is
justified through faith alone, nothing else
being required to obtain the grace of justi
fication: the Anglican Church asserts,
that the ungodly is justified through faith
alone without works, nothing save faith
being required to obtain the grace of jus-

JUSTIFICATION
tification, inasmuch as the office of works
is not the procurement of our justification
and inasmuch as it is a contradictory hys-
teron-proteron to say that works which
"follow after" justification, and are its
" effect," can yet " procure " it and be its
" cause." It has been customary to speak of the
doctrine of forensic justification as if it
were a Calvinistic doctrine. That Calvin
held it is not to be denied, but all history
bears witness that it is not a. peculiarity of
the Calvinistic system.
Calvin was born in 1509, and he was yet
a schoolboy, or a plurahst in the Romish
Church (as he became in his twelfth year),
when Luther was using this doctrine, as
the doctrine by which to lay low the whole
fabric of Romish superstition.
Again, it was the doctrine of our English
reformers, as most clearly stated in our
Articles and HomUies; and Archbishop
Laurence has triumphantly established the
historical fact, that our reformers were not
Calvinists. If we wish for a clear statement of the
doctrine of forensic justification, we may
indeed refer to Bishop Andrewes; and the
theology of Andrewes had certainly no
affinity to that of Calvin. Let the reader
peruse with attention the foUowing passage
from his sermon on justification.
" In the Scripture, then, there is a double
righteousness set down, both in the Old
and in the New Testament.
" In the Old, and in the very first place
that righteousness is named in the Bible:
'Abraham believed, and it was accounted
unto him for righteousness.' A righteous
ness accounted. And again, in the very
next line, it is mentioned, ' Abraham will
teach his house to do righteousness.' A
righteousness done. In the New likewise.
The former, in one chapter, even the fourth
to the Romans, no fewer than eleven times,
Reputatum est illi ad fustitiam. A re
puted righteousness. The latter in St.
John : ' My beloved, let no man deceive
you, he that doeth righteousness is
righteous.' A righteousness done. Which
is nothing else but our just dealing, upright
carriage, honest conversation. Of these,
the latter the phUosophers themselves con
ceived and acknowledged; the other is
proper to Christians only, and altogether
unknown in phUosophy. The one is a
quality of the party ; the other, an act of
the judge declaring or pronouncing righteous.
The one ours by influence or infusion, the
other by account or imputation. That
both these there are, there is no question.
The question is, whether of these the
prophet here principally meaneth in this
Name ? This shall we best inform our-

JUSTIFICATION
selves of by looking back to the verse
before, and without so looking back we
shah never do it to purpose. There the
prophet setteth one before us, in his royal
judicial power, in the person of a king, and
of a king set down to execute judgment ;
and this he teUeth us, before he thinks
meet to teU us his name. Before this king,
thus set down in his throne, there to do
judgment, the righteousness that wUl stand
against the law, our conscience, Satan, sin,
the gates of heU, and the power of dark
ness; and so stand that we may be
delivered by it from death, despair, and
damnation ; and entitled by it to life, sal
vation, and happiness eternal; that is
righteousness indeed, that is it we seek for,
If we may find it. And that is not this
latter, but the former only; and therefore
that is the true interpretation of Jehovah
justitia nostra, Look but how St. Augus
tine and the rest of the Fathers, when they
have occasion to mention that place in the
Proverbs, Cum Rex Justus sederit in solio,
quis potest dicere, Mundum est cor meum ? —
look how they interpret it then, and it will
give us Ught to understand this name ; and
we shall see, that no man wUl serve then,
but this name. Nor this name neither,
but with this interpretation of it. And
that the Holy Ghost would have it ever thus
understood, and us ever to represent before
our eyes this King thus sitting in his
judgment-seat when we speak of this
righteousness, it is plain two ways. 1. By
way of position. For the tenor of the
Scripture touching our justification all
along runneth in judicial terms, to admonish
us still what he set before us. The usual
joining of justice and judgment continually
all along the Scriptures, show it is a judicial
justice we are to set before us. The terms
of, 1. A judge : ' It is the Lord that
judgeth me.' 2. A prison : Kept and shut
up under Moses. 3. A bar : ' We must all
appear before the bar.' 4. A proclamation :
'Who wUl lay anything to the prisoner's
eharge ? ' 5. An accuser : ' The accuser of
our brethren.' 6. A witness : ' Our con
science bearing witness.' 7. An indictment
npon these : ' Cursed be he that, continueth
not in all the words of this law to do
them ; ' and again, ' He that breaketh one is
guilty of aU.' A conviction that all may
be vtcoSikoi, 'guilty' or culpable 'before
God.' Yea, the very delivering of our sins
under the name of 'debts;' of the law
under the name of a ' hand-writing ; ' the
very terms of 'an advocate,' of 'a surety
made under the law;' of a pardon, or
' being justified from those things which, by
the law we could not : ' — aU these, wherein
for the most part this is stUl expressed,
what speak they but that the sense of this

KEYS

425

name cannot be rightly understood, nor
what manner of righteousness is in question,
except we still have before our eyes this
same coram rege justo judicium faciente." —
Bishop Andrewes' Sermon on Justification
¦in Christ's Name. See also Barrow's Ser
mon on Justification ; Waterland on Justi
fication ; Heurtley on Justification ; Stanley
Faber on Justification.

K.
KATHARINE, ST., VIRGIN AND
MARTYR (of Alexandria) : commemorated
in our Calendar on Nov. 25. Very 'little is
known of this saint, but there are many
legends connected with Rer. According to
tradition she was of royal famUy, and gifted
with great ability ; so that she confuted
many of the heathen phUosophers, in the
early part of the 4th century, and converted
them. They, confessing Christ, it is said,
were burnt: she, a beautiful woman, was
subjected to the solicitations of the emperor
Maximus. Refusing to Usten to him, she
was condemned, and put to death by torture
on^a spiked wheel. She was regarded as
the patroness of secular learning, and is
represented crowned, with the martyr's
palm, or a book, or sword in her hand, and
the spiked wheel by her side. [H.]
KEYS, POWER OF THE. The au
thority existing in the Christian priesthood
of administering the discipline of the Church,
and communicating or withholding its privi
leges. It is so called from the declaration
of Christ to St. Peter (Matt. xvi. 19),
" And I will give unto thee the keys of the
kingdom of heaven; and whatsoever thou
shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in
heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on
earth, shaU be loosed in heaven." The
power here promised was afterwards con
ferred on St. Peter and the other apostles,
when the Saviour breathed on them and
said, " Receive ye the Holy Ghost. Whose
soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto
them ; and whose soever sins ye retain, they
are retained" (Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18;
John xx. 23). "Our Lord and Saviour,"
says Hooker, " giveth His Apostles regiment
in general over God's Church. For they
that have the keys of the Kingdom of
Heaven, are thereby signified to be stewards
of the house of God, under Whom they
guide, command, judge, and correct His
family. Their office herein consisteth of
sundry functions, some belonging to doctrine,
some to discipline, all contained in the name
of 'Keys'" (.Ecc. Pol. vi. 4).

426

KEYS

Bishop Jeremy Taylor expresses, with
great clearness, the primitive doctrine on
this subject : " The same promise of binding
and loosing (which certainly was all that
the keys were given for) was made after
wards to all the apostles (Matt, xvui.), and
the power of remitting and retaining, which
in reason, and according to the style of the
Church, is the same thing in other words,
was actually given to all the apostles ; and
unless that was the performing the first and
second promise, we find it not recorded in
Scripture how or when, or whether yet or
no, the promise be performed." And again :
" If the keys were only given and so pro
mised to St. Peter, that the Church hath
not the keys, then the Church can neither
bind nor loose, remit nor retain, which God
forbid: if any man should endeavour to
answer this argument, I leave him and St.
Austin to contest it."
The apostles knew nothing of any different
power conveyed to one of their number
beyond what was common to him with the
rest, as we may reasonably conclude, since
there is no record of any authority exercised
on the one side, or of obedience rendered
on the other. The proposed distinction is,
indeed, utterly untenable, and the whole
testimony of antiquity is against it ; yet
it is maintained by some of the chief
Roman commentators (See Pope; Papal
Supremacy). Maldonatus, for instance,
who is one of the best known and most
popular, m his exposition of this place,
declares the keys to have been given to
Peter, that is, the power of binding and
loosing, of opening and shutting, in subordi
nation to Christ alone, while the rest of the
apostles received only an inferior jurisdiction.
For this interpretation he advances no proof
at all, except the mention of the keys in the
address to Peter, and the omission in what
was spoken to the rest, which he pronounces
an irrefragable argument ; and on the founda
tion of this alleged separate gift to Peter he
builds the right of jurisdiction for his suc
cessors (assuming that he was bishop of
Rome), extending to the supreme decision of
spiritual causes on earth, and the regulating
the condition of souls in purgatory. Cor
nelius Van den Steen, or a Lapide, as he is
usually called, seems to have foUowed the
interpretation of Maldonat, and says, that
by the keys is signified the power of order
and jurisdiction granted to St. Peter over
the whole Church ; and that Christ explains
his meaning in the words which follow. He
falls into the fallacy of representing the term
" rock " as conveying the notion of govern
ment ; and then, as if this were an unques
tionably accurate representation, he goes on
to blend figures which have nothing in
common, and assumes that in this way the

KEYS
supreme power of the .pope is adequately
proved. Like his predecessor, he vindicates
the most unlimited exercise of it, whether in
enforcing obedience, or in granting dispensa
tions, in enacting ecclesiastical laws, pro
nouncing excommunications and other cen
sures, delivering decisions on questions of
faith, with other acts which faU under the
head of binding, or those of an opposite
character, which belong to the power of
loosing. In order to dispose of the difficult
fact that Christ is recorded to have given
the same power of binding and loosing to
others as well, he affirms that Peter was first
singled out, to signify that the rest of the
apostles were committed to his care as his
subjects, and that he was empowered to
control, limit, or take away their jurisdictions
as he should see fit ; though it is clear both
that the apostles exercised, in point of fact,
the highest Church discipline, and that there
is not a word which implies their having
done so by delegation. He very character
istically confirms his exposition by a synodi
cal letter, which the great Roman annalist
had given up as spurious some years before.
Both these writers were theologians of the
highest repute, the one professor at Paris,
the other at Louvain. They may be fairly
taken to express the judgment of the party
at present dominant in the Roman Church.'
Nothing can be more extravagant than their
interpretations, or more feebly supported hy
proofs; yet they are indispensable to the
position of the ^tramontanes. This extreme
doctrine, revived by the Jesuits, for it was
invented a century earlier, has no pretence
of confirmation from any of the primitive
expositors of Scripture. They declare, with
one voice, that the keys were given to the
Church in the person of Peter. In the
words of Ambrose, " what is said to Peter,
is said to the apostles." Cyprian and Origen,
Jerome and Basil, are of one mind on this
point. The statement of Augustine, repeated
in a multitude of places, is as clear as possible
that the Church received the power of the
keys, and not an individual apostle. _ The
Fathers were not writing with any view to
the present controversy ; and many of their
expressions, taken separately, would give a
very untrue representation of their meaning,
by making them maintain opinions which,
in their time, had not been even suggested.
Thus Cyprian, in his treatise on the unity
of the Church, applies the disputed texts to
Peter ; but then he speaks of him as the
type of unity, the representative of a great
principle ; and to guard his meaning against
perversion, he states, in the plainest terms,
that the rest of the apostles were what
Peter waB, and had equal participation of
honour and authority. So the Fathers
continuaUy speak of him as figuring the

KEYS
oneness of the Church universal. They
exalt his chair, but they are careful to
explain that they are speaking, not of an
individual bishop possessing supreme autho
rity, which was the farthest from their
thoughts, but of that one undivided episco
pacy, to use Cyprian's well-known words, of
which every bishop possesses a portion.
Dupin affirms that the Fathers are una
nimous in assigning ecclesiastical power,
either to the Church generaUy, or to the
apostles, and, after them, to bishops ; that
there is not one to be found who holds it
to have been given to Peter and his suc
cessors alone ; and that they have guarded
against any wrong inference which might
be drawn from the promise given to Peter,
by showing that he was regarded as the
representative of the Church. He fur
nishes some authorities on this subject, not
only from the early Fathers, but from
popes, great bishops of the Roman Church,
scholastic, writers, and universities; and
he adds, that the number of passages
which might be adduced is infinite. The
same writer states strongly the importance
of the question : for if, as he says, the
power of the keys belongs to the pope
alone, there can be no doubt that he has
authority over the whole Church ; since,
upon this hypothesis, neither the Church
nor its prelates can have any other power
than such as they derive from him.
In the Council of Paris, held in the
eighth century, under the emperors Louis
and Lothaire, the bishops expressly claimed
this power of binding and loosing, without
any reference to the successor of St. Peter.
The Council of Constance, in the fourth ses
sion, declared, in the strongest language,
that the Church has its jurisdiction imme
diately from Christ ; and this judgment
was embodied in acts of fhe highest sig-
nificancy and importance. The Council
of Basle, in its first session, passed a de
cree in exactly the same spirit, and almost
in the veTy same words. iEneas Sylvius,
the historian of the council, and afterwards
Pius IL, expressly vindicates the text in
question from the interpretation which
favonrs the pontifical authority. So Car
dinal de Cusa, writing at the same period,
claims for the other apostles the very same
power of binding and loosing which was
conveyed to Peter by the words of Christ.
And John Gerson refers to this very place,
in maintaining the superiority of a council
to a pope. Even in the Council of Trent,
we find the Cardinal of Lorraine speaking
to the same effect ; and though he may be
worthless as a theologian, he is valuable
as a witness. He aUeged various passages,
from Augustme and others, in proof that
bishops derive their jurisdiction immedi-

KING'S EVIL

427

ately from God. And, indeed, the whole
argument of the French and Spanish pre
lates in favour of the divine right of epi
scopacy was based on the very interpretation
of our Lord's words which the Jesuit school
condemns. The canonists bear the same testimony.
Thus Van Espen, and there are few higher
authorities, delivers it as the doctrine of
the Fathers on this subject, that, while
Christ spoke to Peter in the singular, he
made conveyance of the powers in question
to all the apostles (De Censur. Eccl. c. 2 :
Opp. torn. iv. ed. Colon, 1777). Duaren
speaks to the same effect. He affirms that
the power of binding and loosing was given
to the Church, and not to an individual.
Some even of the Roman commentators
give a similar interpretation. Thus Nicho
las de Lyra says that, as the confession of
Peter was the confession of the rest, so the
power given to him was bestowed on all.
D'Espence and many others give the same
exposition. II. In the Ordinal of the Church of
England, the bishop presiding at the ordi
nation with the other priests present, lays
his hands on the several candidates, and
says, " Receive the Holy Ghost for the
office and work of a Priest . . . Whose sins
thou dost forgive they are forgiven," &c.
This formula is thus explained by Whitgift.
" The bishop by speaking these words doth
not take upon him to give the Holy Ghost,
no more than he doth to remit sins when
he pronounceth remission of sins; but by
speaking these words of Christ, he doth
shew the principal duty of a minister, and
assureth him of the assistance of God's
Holy Spirit, if he labour in the same ac
cordingly." Bishop WUson also states the position of
the Church of England with regard to the
power of the Keys. "Our Church," he
says, "ascribeth not the power of remis
sion of sins to any but to God only. She
holds that faith and repentance are the
necessary conditions of receiving this bless
ing. And she asserts, what is most true,
that Christ's ministers have a special com
mission whUe other believers have not
authoritatively to declare His absolution,
for the comfort of the penitents, and which
absolution, if duly dispensed, will have a
real effect from the promise of Christ."
KINDRED (See Affinity; Consan
guinity). KING'S EVIL. A term formerly de
noting the disease properly caUed " scrofula,"
because the power to cure it was for many
centuries attributed to the kings of Eng
land, and was, from the time of Edward the
Confessor, held to be exercised as a part of
the religion attached to the person of the

42S

KING'S EVIL

king. The cure, too, was always accom
panied by a religious service.
The kings of France also claimed the
gift of healing (but upon no other occa
sions than at their coronation), -and the
ceremony was used at the coronation of
Charles X. at Rheims. George I. made
no pretensions to this gift, and it has never
been claimed by his successors. Probably
the latest known case of the ceremony was
that of Dr. Johnson, who was " touched" by
Queen Anne when a child.
In January, 1683, a proclamation was
issued by the privy council, and was ordered
to be published in every parish in the
kingdom, enjoining that the time for pre
senting persons for the " public heaUngs "
should be from the feast of All Saints, till
a week before Christmas ; and after Christ
mas until the first day of March, and then
to cease tUl Passion week.
The office for the ceremony was called
" The Ceremonies," or " Prayers for the
Healing." The Latin form was used in
the time of Henry VII., and was reprinted
by his Majesty's command by Henry Hills,
printer to the king, in 1686. The EngUsh
forms were essentially the same, with some
modifications. These occur in the Common
Prayer Books of the reigns of Charles I.,
Charles IL, James IL, and Anne (and, as
it appears from Mr. Stephens's own state
ment, in that of George I., in 1715). They
all vary; and a new one appears to have
been drawn up for each sovereign, so late
as 1719 (See Pegge's Curialia Miscellanea,
161 ; taken from a folio Prayer Book, 1710.
Also Kennet's Register, 731, and Sparrow's
Articles, 165, printed in 1684, which latter
form seems to have been used in the reign
of Charles I.). In Mr. Stephens's editions
of the Common Prayer Book, from which
the foregoing article has been abridged, the
Latin form is given (i. 997), and the
English form in 1715 (1002).
According to the rubrics in this office,
the chaplain repeated the words, " super
asgros manus imponent, et bene habebunt,"
as long as the king was handling the sick
person. And afterwards the last clause of
the second Gospel, "Erat lux vera," &c,
was repeated as long as the king was cross
ing the sore with an angel noble ; which
angel was afterwards given to the sick
person to be worn by him. If he lost the
coin he would have to be " touched " again.
—Maskell, Mon. Rit. Ang. Ecc. iii. 388.
It seems that in some of Queen Anne's
Prayer Books (not in 1715, as stated by
Mr. Stephens,) the form was altered, by the
omission of the second Gospel, and the ad
dition of certain prayers. — L'Estrange's
Alliance of the Divine Offices, 1699.
There seems to be little doubt that, by

KINGS
the mere force of imagination, a cure was
not unfrequently occasioned.
KINGS, BOOKS OF. Two canoni- '
cal books of the Old Testament ; so called
because they contain the history of the
kings of Israel and Judah, from the he-
ginning of the reign of Solomon down- to
the Babylonish captivity, for the space of
near 600 years; taking into the account
the two preceding Books of Samuel. In
the Greek Bibles, as well as in the Latin,
the two Books of Samuel are called the
First and Second Books of Kings ; so that in
these copies of the Bible , there are four
Books of Kings. Anciently these four
were but two in the Hebrew Bibles, the
first whereof was called Samuel, and the
second Kings, or Kingdoms: but at pre
sent, in the Hebrew copies, the first of
these books is styled the First and Second
Book of Samuel; and the other, the First
and Second Book of Kings, as in our English
version of the Bible.
It is probable that the two Books of
Kings were composed by Ezra, who ex
tracted them out of the public records
which were kept of what passed in that
nation. KING'S BOOK. A revised edition of
the " Bishop's Book," which bore the title
of " A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition
for any Christian Man " (See Articles).
KINGS, PRAYER FOR. I. St. Paul
enjoins that such prayers should be offered
(1 Tim. ii.). And at a very early date
prayers for the ruling sovereign were intro
duced into the Liturgy. The Fathers, fol
lowing the apostoUc injunction, frequently
refer to the duty of Christians in this
respect (Tertul. ad Scapulam, c. ii. ; St.
Cyril, Catech. v., &c). The Uturgies of St.
BasU and St. Chrysostom contain prayers
for the king, and such prayers are to be
found in all the various forms of the offices
of the Chm-ch, both in the East and West
(See Diet. Christ Ant. u. 902). In the
Sacramentary of Gregory there is a " Missa
pro Rege," and in the daUy hour-offices,
prayer was offered for kings.
II. At the Council of Clovesho (a.d. 747)
the clergy were desired not to neglect to
pray for kings, and for the safety of the
Christian Church (Haddan and Stubbs,
Cone. ui. 367). In the ecclesiastical laws
of King Ethelred, a.d 1012, express di
rections are given that a certain prayer
should be said daUy for the king and his
people. The Salisbury Missal contains an
exhortation to this effect, and prayersfor the
king and queen (Maskell, Anc. Lit. p. 184).
The prayer for the king (or queen), as it
stands in our Prayer Book, seems to have
been taken from two book s of private prayer :
(i.) "Psalmes or prayers taken out of

KIRK.
Holye Scripture " (1545-1548); (ii.) Prayers,
or meditations . . . collected out of holy
works by the gracious Princess Katherine,
queen of England, France, and Ireland, Anno
Dmi. 1547." It was printed in the Prymer
of 1553 as the fourth coUect. In Queen
Elizabeth's reign (1559) it was placed in its
present shape, before the Prayer of St.
Chrysostom, at the end of the Litany ; and
was finally settled, as we now have it, in
1661. The collects for the sovereign in our
communion office appear to have been com
posed in 1549; but probably they were
based on ancient forms, of which there were
a great number. [H.]
KIRK OF SCOTLAND (See Pres
byterians). The Kirk of Scotland ac
knowledges as its founder the celebrated
John Knox, a disciple of Calvin. From
its foundation, it adopted the doctrine and
ecclesiastical government of the Church
of Geneva. In 1581, King James, with
his whole family and. the whole nation,
subscribed a confession of faith, with
a solemn league and covenant, obliging
themselves to maintain and defend the
Protestant religion and Presbyterian go
vernment. The title of this confession
is, "A General Confession of the true
Christian Faith and ReUgion, according to
God's Word, and Acts of our Parliament,
subscribed by the King's Majestie and his
Household, with sundrie others. To the
glory of God, and good example of all men.
At Edinburgh, the 28th day of Januarie.
The year of our Lord 1581. And in the
14th year of his Majestie's reign" (See
Confessions of Faith).
KISS OF PEACE. This form of salu
tation, as a token of Christian affection,
appears to have been an apostoUc custom
(Rom. xvi. 16 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 20 ; 2 Cor. xni.
12 ; 1 Thess. v. 26 ; 1 St. Pet. v. 14). The
Fathers also frequently refer to this mode
of salutation. Thus Origen speaks of the
kiss " which ought to be holy " (in Rom.
xvi. 16) ; TertuRian caUs it the " seal of
prayer" (De Orat. c. 18); and Augustme
says of those about to communicate in
the Church, that " they demonstrated their
inward peace by the outward kiss" (De
Amicit. vi.). But care had to be taken,
and Clement of Alexandria speaks of the
" shameless use which was made of the kiss
. . . occasioning evU reports" (Pedagog.
iii. 11). The ApostoUc Constitutions order
that the men shall only kiss the men ; the
women the women (vhi. 2) ; and this rule
was enjoined by many councUs and canons
(Labbe, Gone. i. 1500), This salutation
was used especially (1) at Holy Communion,
(2) at Baptism, (3) at Ordination. — Bing
ham, i. 12 ; iv. 6 ; xu. 4 ; xv. 1, 3 ; Diet.
Christ Ant. 904. [H.]

KORAH

428-

KNEELERS (Genuflectentes). The third
class of penitents in the early Church.
They were allowed to stay in the church,
and join in certam prayers particularly made
for them, while they were kneeling upon
their knees. — Bingham, xviii. 1.
KNEELING. The ordinary posture in
prayer, confession, and devotion. The
example of kneeling in prayer is set by our
Lord, and was the practice of many saints-
mentioned in the Old and New Testaments
(Ex. xx. 5 ; Ps. xcv. 6 ; 1 Kings viii. 54 ;
Ezra ix. 5-15; Dan. vi. 10; Acts vii. 60;
ix. 40 ; xx. 36, &c. ; St. Luke xxii. 41, &c).
The custom amongst the early Christians
was so common that prayer itself was often
called kKio-is yovdrav, and Eusebius relates-
of St. James, bishop of Jerusalem, that " he-
was wont to pray assiduously on his knees
(Kelpevos inl rois yovacri), making inter
cession for the sins of the people, till his
knees were grown hard and callous as
those of camels (Euseb. i. ii. c. 23). But
in the primitive times kneeUng at prayers
on the Lord's day was prohibited. "We
count it unlawful," says TertulUan, "to
worship kneeling (de geniculis adorare) on
the Lord's day ; and we rejoice in the same
immunity from the day of the Pasch till
Pentecost" (De Coron. Nul. c. 3). And
this custom was made a rule by the Council
of Nice (can. 20); but kneeling at other
times was strictly observed. And in fact it
does not appear that the rule of not kneeling
at those particular times was widely ob
served. St. Augustine says that he does
not know (ignoro) about the standing to
pray on the Lord's days (Ep. 119, ad
Januar. c. 17) ; and the rule was certainly
not observed in the Syrian churches (See
Standing). In the Western Church kneeling has
been always the posture prescribed for acts
of confession, of prayer, of reception of a
blessing, or gift from God; the direction-
being sometimes emphasized by the words,
" meekly kneeling upon your knees," as in
the case of our communion office, to pre
clude the idea that a sitting or bending
posture may be used as a substitute.
The Church of England has always set
great store by the retention of this posture
of reverence, especially at the reception of
the Holy Eucharist. — Bingham, xiii. 8;.
Wheatly, 311 ; E. Daniel, 327. [H]
KNELL. A bell tolled at funerals.
KORAH, SONGS OR PSALMS OF
THE SONS OF. The "sons of Koran'*-
formed one of the three choirs of the temple,
all Levites. They are sometimes called
Korhites, or Kohathites, being descended
from Kohath, the second son of Levi;
Kohath's grandson being Korah. Heman,
was the director of this choir in the time of

430

KYRIE ELEISON

King David : but it seems not to have sur
vived the captivity, as the sons of Asaph are
alone named by Nehemiah. Twelve psalms
are inscribed Psalms or Songs of the Sons of
Korah; and are supposed to have been
specially performed by that choir, or com
posed by some of its members. They are
the forty-second to the forty-ninth, eighty-
fourth, eighty-fifth, eighty-seventh, and
eighty-eighth. — Smith's Diet, of Bible, s. v.
Korahite. KYRIE ELEISON. Kvpie iXina-ov :
Lord, have mercy. A form of supplication
frequently used in the services of the Church.
It is found in aU the ancient liturgies, being
repeated sometimes before, sometimes after
certain prayers. It was customary to say it
three times, as it was addressed to the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. For this
reason, in the Western Church, the second
invocation was changed to " Christe Eleison,"
but this was never used in the Eastern
Church (Martene, de Ant Eccl. Rit i.,
iv. 3). The form of supplication was in
early times known by the name of the
lesser Litany; and to this probably SS.
Cyprian, Chrysostom, Augustine, and others
refer when they speak of Utanies. The
Ambrosian Rite recites the Kyrie three
times after the " Gloria in Excelsis," the
Gospel, and the end of the Mass ; but in the
11th century it was sung nine times. In
the Salisbury Portiforium, as in the other
" Uses " of the English Church, it was un
translated. It was threefold before the
Lord's Prayer at Lauds, though ninefold at
Prime. In the first Prayer Book of Edward
VI., following the Sarum Use, the collect
for Purity in the Communion office was
foUowed by the Introit, and then came the
, Kyrie nine times. Sometimes the Kyrie was
expanded in a sort of chant, the first three
Unes beginning with " Kyrie," and ending
with " Eleison " — as for example :
" Kyrie, Rex genitor, ingenite, vera essentia, Eleison,
Kyrie, luminis fons, rerumque conditor, Eleison.
Kyrie, qui nos tua? imagiuis sigaasti specie, Eleison."
The next three lines beginning " Christe,''
and ending "Eleison"; and the last three
beginning " Kyrie," referring to the special
work of the Holy Spirit, and ending as before
with "Eleison." In our Prayer Book the
Greek words are translated, and generally
precede the Lord's Prayer, but not when
that prayer is used in the eucharistic office.
For " it is to the prayer what the Gloria
Patri is to the praise of the whole office ; a
prayer setting forth the tone, and fixing the
object of all the rest, and being addressed
to the Holy Trinity." — Bingham, xiii. 1 ;
Neale's Prim. Lit. p. 88 ; Freeman's Princ.
Div. Serv. i. 363; Maskell, Anc. Liturg.
p. 23 ; Diet. Christ. Ant. s. v. Litany. [H.]
KYRIE, "0 Lord" (in Church music),

LAITY
the vocative of the Greek word signifying
Lord, with which word all the musical
masses in the Church of Rome commenoe
that is, the above-mentioned Kyrie Eleison,
In the Church of England it is generally
applied to the responses between the com
mandments in our Prayer Book.

L.
LABARUM. The celebrated imperial
standard used by Constantine the Great. .
It was known in the Roman army before
being the ordinary standard of the cavalry,
but that of Constantine differed in its
symbols and decorations. The dream or
vision in which Constantine, the night before
the last battle against Maxentius, saw the
celestial sign of God ; the sacred monogram
of the name of Christ; with the legend
(ypdq>r)v), " By this conquer," is minutely de
scribed by Eusebius (de Vita Const, lib. i. c.
28-31) ; who also gives an account of the
Labarum itself. Near the extremity of the
shaft of a lance, sheathed in plates of gold,
was affixed, in a horizontal position, a small
rod, so as to form the exact figure of a cross.
From this transverse little bar hung drooping
a small purple veil of the finest texture, in
terwoven with golden threads, and starred
with brilliant jewels. Above this rose the
sacred monogram of Jesus Christ encircled
with a golden crown. Under this banner
were the victories of Constantine gained.
It was carried near the emperor, and de
fended specially by the flower of his army.
The etymology of the word is utterly un
known. — Gibbon, Dec. and FaU, cxx. ; Canon
Venables in Diet Christ Ant. [H.]
LAITY, LAYMAN. The people (Xadt)
as distinguished from the clergy. This
distinction was derived from the Jewish
Church, and adopted into the Christian by
the Apostles themselves. As the offices of
the priests and Levites among the Jews
were distinct from those of the people, so it
was among Christians from the first founda
tion of the Church. Wherever any number
of converts were made, as soon as they were
capable of being formed into a Church, a
bishop or a presbyter, with a deacon, was
ordained to minister to them, but the laity,
too, says Clement of Rome, had their duties
to perform " 6 Xa'Ubs avOpanos tols Xa'fcois
¦Kpoardypaa-iv diberai" (ad Corinth, i. 40).
Other names to distinguish the laity from the
clergy were used, as BiarriKoi, seculars;
ISiarai; but the most common was laici
(Xaucoi), which continually occurs in the
writings of Origen, Cyprian, Tertullian and
others of the third century.

LAMBERT, ST.
Every true Christian Church is a body of
men associated for religious purposes, and
composed of two distinct classes, — the clergy
and the laity : the clergy especially and
divinely set apart for sacred offices; the
laity exercising the duties and receiving the
privileges of religion, in the midst of tem
poral occupations and secular affairs. But
the clergy are thus set apart, not for their
own benefit only, but for the benefit of the
Church in general, of their lay brethren
among the rest ; and the laity also are bound
to employ their temporal opportunities not
for themselves exclusively, but for the
Church in general, and for their clerical
brethren among the rest. The clergy alone
no more constitute the Church, either in a
spiritual, in an ecclesiastical, or in a political
sense, than do the laity alone; and the
Church has ¦ no existence, no duties, no
rights, except as it is composed of both
clergy and laity. It is because they forget
this that we continuaUy hear persons speak
ing of the Church as if it were only an
hierarchy, and of " going into the Church,"
instead of Holy Orders. The real truth
is, that the Church's privilege and authority
belong to the whole body, whoever may
be their immediate recipients and executors ;
and whoever maintains them, whether he
be lay or clerical, maintains his own rights
and his own patrimony (See Lay Baptism ;
Lay Priesthood).
LAMBERT, ST.: Bishop and Martyr;
commemorated on September 17. He was
born at Maestricht, and brought up under
Theodardus, bishop of that place. On his
preceptor's martyrdom he was chosen bishop,
but on the death of Chilperic in 673 he was
driven from his see. He was restored by
Pipin. There are two accounts of his
martyrdom, (1) that he was slain by the re
lative of some sacrilegious robbers whom his
friends had killed; (2) that Pipin himself
caused him to be murdered in consequence
of his boldly rebuking the licentiousness of
that prince. — Diet. Christ. Biog. s.v. [H.]
LAMBETH ARTICLES. Certain articles
so called because they were drawn up at
Lambeth, in the year 1595, by the then
archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of
London. It appears that towards the close of Queen
Elizabeth's reign, the errors of Calvinism
had spread among the clergy of the Chm-ch
of England. These errors were opposed by
some of the most learned divines of Cam
bridge. But the opponents of Calvinism
were denounced as persons addicted to
Popery ; and the heads of houses ventured
to censure one divine because he denied
some points of Calvinistic doctrine, and
spoke disrespectfully of Calvin, Peter Martyr,
and others. Archbishop Whitgift, and

LAMBETH ARTICLES

431

some other bishops, were inclined to take
part with the heads of houses at Cambridge,
and, adhering to the popular side, to con
demn the orthodox divines. They met to
gether at Lambeth Palace, and there Arch
bishop Whitgift, Dr. Vaughan, elect of
Bangor, Dr. Fletcher, elect of London, Dr.
Tyndall, dean of Ely, and the Calvinistic
divines from Cambridge, digested under the
nine foUowing heads what are called the
Lambeth Articles.
" 1. God hath from eternity predestinated
certain persons to life, and hath reprobated
certain persons unto death. 2. The moving
or efficient cause of predestination unto life
is not the foresight of faith, or of persever
ance, or of good works, or of anything that
is in the persons predestinated ; but the
alone will of God's good pleasure. 3. The
predestinate are a predetermined and certain
number, which can neither be lessened nor
increased. 4. Such as are not predestinated to
salvation shall inevitably be condemned on
account of their sins. 5. The true, lively,
and justifying faith, and the spirit of God
justifying, is not extinguished, doth not
utterly fail, doth not vanish away in the
elect, either finally or totally. 6. A true
believer, that is, one who is endued with
justifying faith, is certified by the fuU as
surance of faith that his sins are forgiven,
and that he shall be everlastingly saved by
Christ. 7. Saving grace is not allowed, is
not imparted, is not granted to all men, by
which they may be saved if they will. 8.
No man is able to come to Christ, unless it
be given him, and unless the Father draw
him; and all men are not drawn by the
Father, that they may come to his Son.
9. It is not in the will or power of every man
to be saved."
These articles, asserting the most offensive
of the Calvinistic positions, were not ac
cepted by the Church, and consequently
were of no authority, although they were
employed at the time to silence those by-
authority against whom argument could not
prevail. The prelates who drew them up
acted without authority, for they were not
assembled in a synod. A synod is an
assembly of bishops and presbyters duly
convened. In this instance there was no con
vention. The meeting was a mere private
conference ; and the decision was of no more
weight than the charge of a bishop deUvered
without a consultation with his clergy, which
is only the expression of a private opinion.
There can be no greater proof of the absence of
Calvinism from the Thirty-nine Articles
than the fact, that the very persons who
were condemning the orthodox for innova
tion, were compelled to invent new articles
before they could make our Church Calvin
istic. The conduct of the archbishop gave

432

LAMBETH DEGREES

much offence to many pious persons, and
especially to the queen ; and this attempt
to introduce Calvinism into our Church
entirely failed.
LAMBETH DEGREES. The popular
designation given to degrees conferred by
the archbishop of Canterbury, who has the
power of giving degrees in any of the
faculties. This is supposed to be a relic of
legatine or papal authority (See Hood).
LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH.
A canonical book of the Old Testament
(See Jeremiah). It is a kind of funeral
elegy on the death of the good king Josiah.
St. Jerome imagines that the prophet la
ments the loss of Josiah, as the beginning
of those calamities which followed : accord
ingly he prophetically bewails the miserable
state of the Jews, and the destruction of
Jerusalem ; though some are of opinion the
Lamentations were composed after tbe taking
of Jerusalem. The first four chapters are
in acrostic verse, and abecedary ; every verse
or couplet beginning with one of the letters
of the Hebrew alphabet, in their alphabetical
order. There is a preface to the Lamentations
of Jeremiah, in the Greek, and in the Vulgar
Latin, which is not in the Hebrew, nor in
the Chaldee Paraphrase, nor in the Syriac
(See Speaker's Commentary ; Wordsworth's
Old Testament).
LAMMAS DAY : observed in the Calen
dar of the Church of England on Aug. 1.
It is called in the Roman Church the Festi
val of St. Peter " ad vincula " — in the fetters.
In the Greek Church the Festival of St.
Peter's chains or fetters, commemorating the
imprisonment of the Apostle, and his de
liverance, is held on Jan. 16, but neither of
these dates represent the actual time of the
event, as it took place shortly before Easter
(Acts xii. 4). Probably the date in each
case has reference to the dedication of a
church in memory of the event (Diet. Christ.
Ant. s.v. Peter). The story is that Eudoxia,
the wife of Theodosius, having obtained at
Jerusalem the chains which St. Peter wore,
sent them to tbe bishop of Rome, who placed
them in a church built in honour of the
Apostle ; and Theodosius decreed that Aug. 1,
which had been celebrated in memory of
Augustus Caesar, should from that time be
observed in honour of St. Peter. From this
came the fanciful derivation of the word
" Lammas." As the injunction had been
given to St. Peter, " Feed my lambs," it
was supposed that this was Lambmass day.
In the fifteenth century this apparently
was accepted, as in the " Promptorium
parvulorum " the definition is given :
" Lammesse : festum agnorum, vel festum ad
vincula S1 Petri." But the true definition is
" Llaf-masse," contracted in the chronicle to
" Llam-masse " ; that is, the loaf mass. In

- LANTERN
the Sarum Manual it is called " Benedictio
novorum fructuum." It was an early custom
to offer on this day an oblation of loaves as
the first fruits of the new corn. [H.]
LAMPADARY. An officer in the an
cient Church of Constantinople; so called
because it was his business to see that the
lamps of the church were lighted, and to
carry a taper before the emperor, the em
press, and the patriarch, when they went to
church, or in procession.
LANTERN. The central tower of a
cross church, when it is open over the cross,
This seems always to have been the ver
nacular term for such a tower. Thus,
William de Chambre says of Bishop Skir-
law, " Magnam partem campanilis, vulgo
lantern, ministerii Eboracensis consfruait." '
The principal lanterned towers now in
England are of the following heights from
the floor, and in every case the lantern
includes only one story above the general
roofs, whether its windows are high of
low. The towers of York, Winchester,
and Peterborough have only one such
story altogether. The York lantern is
187 ft. high; Durham, 153 (to the bell-
floor) ; Peterborough, 138 ; Canterbury, 136 ;
Winchester, 135 ; Boston (not a central
tower), 133 ; Norwich, 120 ; St. Alban's, 103.
A few parish churches have genuine lanterns
of considerable height, such as Doncaster
and Ludlow, and others have a lower kind
of lantern produced by means of small win
dows in the spandrils of the tower arches
below the roof ridges, as at Hereford, Hedon,
and St. Paul's, Burton. In some churches
the bell-ringing has been spoilt in recent
times by architects taking away the belfry
or ringing floor in order to throw the win
dows into the church as a lantern. Hereford
and Ludlow are very bad cases of that kind,
the ringers being sent up into a dark hole
just under the bells, where proper ringing is
impossible. At Pershore, Sir G. Scott inJ
geniously made the belfry floor a kind of
square island set diagonally so that light
comes down the empty corners. At How-
den and Merton College chapel, it is done
the reverse way by making only a ringing
gallery, which is rather dangerous. It is the
same at Durham, and always has been ; but
probably no ringing peal was intended when
the gaUery was built.
The term lantern is also applied to a
narrower structure than the tower, set on
the top of it, or of a dome. At Ely (West)
and Boston, the lanterns were probably
made for lighthouses or landmarks for the
fens, and at Peterborough too, where an
ugly wooden octagon was added in Perpen
dicular times, and remained till this century,
when it was removed, and Dean Kipling's
turrets added soon after. The history of

LAPSE
that tower is both curious and lamentable.
The original was a great Norman tower,
51 ft. square, of " tres historie " (a funny
bit of English-Latin). In the 14th century
it was threatening to fall, as many of the
Norman towers did. They took down the
two upper stories, and began building a
Decorated one over the old Norman arches
and lantern story something Uke Norwich,
of which sufficient remains were found
lately to have enabled it to be restored.
Then they found it would not bear even
j that, and so they pulled down their own
work, and began again lower down, and
made new pointed great arches E. and W.,
leaving the Norman ones N. and S., and
built the low Decorated story on them,
which loots as if it had been squeezed down
into the roofs. In 1883 it was found that
the whole tower was in danger, and that it
was necessary to rebuild it from the founda
tions. A great majority of the committee
of subscribers concurred with the architect in
wishing to restore the Norman work in con
tinuation of the piers and the two Norman
arches, at least as high as the open lantern
would have been, and then to rebuild the
Decorated story above it. But a majority
of the chapter, against the dean, stopped it,
and were backed by Archbishop Benson, to
whom they had appealed. And though the
committee were masters of the funds, they
had not the spirit to stop the supplies, and so
the church is spoilt for ever by a modern
copy of an accidental mongrel tower, solely
due to the bad state of the building in the
14th century, instead of doing exactly what
the Decorated, builders tried to do, but were
obliged to give up for that reason. [G.]
LAPSE. When a patron neglects to
present a clergyman to a benefice in his
gift within six months after its vacancy,
the benefice lapses to the bishop ; and if he
does not collate within six months, it lapses
to the archbishop; and if he neglects to
collate within six months, it lapses to the
Crown, against which no lapse runs.
If the bishop is himself patron, or if he is
also an archbishop, he has not two periods
of six months, but only one. If he any
way vacates the see before taking advantage
of a lapse, the presentation goes to the
guardian of the spiritualities, who is gene
rally the metropolitan, but not for either
Durham or Salisbury, it seems. When a
vacancy of a benefice occurs by the act of
the bishop, he must give notice to the
patron, and lapse only runs from that. In
case of a death, the better opinion seems to
be that the patron himself must take notice
of it. Some books say also, of a resignation ;
but that can hardly be so unless the parson
has given him express notice ; for resigna
tion is to the bishop, who need not accept it,

LATERAN COUNCILS

433

and the vacancy certainly does not occur till
he does. Where the presentee of a lay
patron is refused, the bishop must give the
patron notice, and cannot take advantage of
iapse unless he does; but the time runs
from the vacancy. But if an ecclesiastical
patron presents a clerk whom the bishop
refuses for good cause, he loses the presenta
tion altogether. But probably tbat only holds
when the patron is officially ecclesiastic, not
accidentally. A quare impedit, and proba
bly all other litigation about the right to
present, prevents a lapse till the suit is
decided, at any rate if the bishop is made a
party to it. And an injunction has been
granted to him not to fill up a living in an
ordinary Chancery suit about the title
(Greenslade v. Dare, 17 Beav. 502). Some
times the bishop gives an undertaking not
to avail himself of a lapse, which has the
same effect as an injunction, and probably
also prevents time from running in favour
of the Crown or the metropolitan in such
cases, as the bishop's delay is not negligence.
The lapse of honorary or non-residentiary
canonries or any unendowed dignity or
office to the Crown is barred by the Act 13
_ 14 Vict. c. 98, so that a bishop may keep
them vacant as long as he pleases, as they
are of no value. [G.]
LAPSED, LAPSE Those persons were
so caUed, who in time of persecution denied-
the faith of Christ, but again, on perse
cution ceasing, sought reconciliation and
Church communion (See Persecutions).
The discipline with which such persons
were visited included a long absence from
the Holy Eucharist, which however was not
denied them in case of extreme illness.
And the maternal solicitude of the Church
for her sons was so great, that when dan
gerous sickness was prevalent, or when-
another persecution seemed to impend, it
somewhat relaxed the rule. This is espe
cially shown in the conduct and writings
of St. Cyprian ; in whose times the case of
the lapsed was brought before the Church,
by circumstances, more fully, and was also
more clearly determined, than it had been
before. One of his most celebrated tracts
refers especially to their case (De Lapsis).
Different circumstances gave to different
individuals of the lapsed the names of Sa-
crificati, Thurificati, and Libellatici (See
these words). The Traditores were not
held wholly free from the crime of the
lapsed (See Traditors). Those who ab
solutely and for ever fell away were classed
by the Church as heathens, and had of
course no ecclesiastical position, however
low. LAST SUPPER, THE (See Lord's
Supper). ,
LATERAN COUNCILS. I. The Late-
2 F

434

LATIN

ran council in chief was [held in the church
of St. John of the Lateran in a.d. 649. There
were five sessions, and 105 bishops attended,
almost all ItaUans. The deliberations were
purely doctrinal and anti-MonotheUte. The
emperor Constans had issued an edict called
the " Typus," which was intended to put at
rest the commotions which had taken place
with regard to the one will, and the one
operation of will in Christ (See Monothe
lites). But Pope Martin was a man who
sought to gain a reputation by metaphy
sical wrangling, and the good intention of
the emperor was frustrated by this council,
which condemned the "Typus." — Mansi,
x. 789-^1188; Harduin's Cone. torn. ui.
823 seq. s
II. Other councils under the name " La
teran " are as foUows : —
Lateran (I.) in the year 1123. It was
convened by Pope Calixtus IL, who pre
sided in person. More than 300 bishops were
present. It ratified former Canons forbid
ding simony and marriage of the clergy, and
confirmed the " Concordat " of Worms, which
settled the strife about " Investiture " (See
Investiture). Lateran (II.) in 1139, composed of
nearly 1000 bishops, under the presidency of
Pope Innocent II. It decided on the due elec
tion of this pope, and condemned the errors
of Peter de Bruys and Arnold of Brescia.
Lateran (III.) in 1179. At this coun
cU, with Pope Alexander III. at their head,
302 bishops condemned what they were
pleased to call the " errors and impieties "
of the Waldenses and Albigenses.
Lateran (IV.) in 1215, composed of 412
bishops, under Innocent III., had for its
objects the recovery of the Holy Land,
reformation of abuses, and the extirpation
of heresy.
Lateran ( V.) in 1512, convened by Pope
JuUus IL, to oppose another held by nine
cardinals of high rank the year before at
Pisa, with a view to bridle his wUd ani
mosity, turbulence, and contumacy. It
declared that councU schismatic, abolished
the Pragmatic Sanction (see Pragmatic
Sanction), and strengthened the power of
the Roman See.
LATIN PRAYER BOOK, THE. The
first Latin version was made in 1551 by Aless,
a Presbyterian. It was not a faithful trans
lation, and Bucer was by it much misled
(See Aless). This book was revised in
Queen Elizabeth's reign by Haddon ; but
the translation differs considerably from the
English Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth.
By the Act of Uniformity (14 Car. II.) the
use of the Prayer Book in Latin was allowed
to the Universities, and " coUeges of West
minster, Winchester, and Eton," and the
convocations of the clergy of either province.

LATITUDINARIANS
The translation was carried out by Arch
bishop Dolben, Bishops Earle and Pearson
and Dr. Durel, under the supervision of
Archbishop Sancroft, and it was published
in 1670. This version is printed among
Bagster's Polyglot Prayer Books, but the
original book is very scarce (Marshall on
the Latin Prayer Book of Charles IL, 1882 ;
see Prayer Book ; Oblations). A complete
Latin version of the Prayer Book was pub
lished by Canons Bright and P. G. Medd, in
1865. [H.]
LATIN FORM, used at meeting of Con
vocation. This consists of the Litany, a
special supplication for the clergy, a prayer
for Parliament, and the collects for these
days — SS. Simon and Jude, Good Friday
(the 2nd), St. Peter, and 5th Sunday after
Trinity, before the prayer of St Chrysostom.
This form was first printed in 1700.
LATITUDINARIANS. Certain divines
so called from the latitude of their principles.
The term is chiefly applied to some divines
of the seventeenth century, who were attached
to the English establishment, as such, but
regarded episcopacy, and forms of public
worship, as among the things indifferent,
and would not exclude from their com
munion those who differed from them in
those particulars. The chief leaders of
the Latitudinarians were ChUlingworth and
Hales. The latter was at first a Calvinist,
but after attending the synod of Dort
changed his ideas, and went to a very
opposite extreme.
" Why may I not go," asks Hales, " if
occasion require, to Arian churches, so there
be no Arianism expressed in their liturgy?"
and he expresses a wish that there should
be a universal liturgy, comprehending all
ideas— then schism would vanish. But he
did not realise that the life of schism consists
in opposition. The first Latitudinarians took
the system of Episcopius for their model,
and endeavoured to reduce the fundamental
doctrines of the Church to a few points.
Their object was to show the contending
parties that they should not oppose each
other with such animosity, as the matters of
their debates were of an indifferent nature
with respect to salvation. More, Cudworth,
Gale, Whichcot, John Smith, and Tillotson,
were very eminent men in this school ; and
in later years there has been a large party in
the Church, going by the name of " Broad
Church," who hold the same opinions, and
are in fact the same as the Latitudinarians.
Professor Maurice observes that " this school
is more properly Cartesian than Platonic,
being far more busy about the soul than
about its objects, and therefore in their
ethical system sUding into the Aristotelian
doctrine respecting the distinction between
the absolute and the practical; and teaching

LATRIA
how to fonn habits, rather than trust in prin
ciples." — Encyclop. Metrop. pp. 58-61, 246
note; Stubbs' Mosheim, iii. 379 and 620;
Life of John Hales, and of Chillingworth,
by Peter des Maizeux, London, 1719 and
1725 ; Burnet's Hist, of his own times, vol.
i.bk. ii. [H.]
LATRIA. The worship and service due
to God, and to Him alone. " This," says St.
Augustine, " is the worship which is due to
the Divinity, or, to speak more accurately,
to the Deity ; and to express this worship
in a single word, as there does not occur
to me any Latin term sufficiently exact, I
shall avail myself of a Greek word. Aa-rpt ia,
¦whenever it occurs in the Scripture, is
rendered by the word 'service.' But that
service which is due to men, as servants to
their masters (Eph. vi. 5) is usually de
signated by another word in Greek (bovKeia),
whereas the service which is paid to God
.alone by worship, is always, or almost
always, called Xarpda in the usage of those
who wrote from the divine oracles" (De
Civ. Dei, x. i.). Roman theologians have
made a further distinction : latria is as above
¦defined ; hypodulia (imobovkela), the honour
due to the human nature of Christ, and to
the Blessed Virgin ; dulia (SouXei'a), the
honour due to the saints (Thomas Aqui
nas, Summa Theol. iii. 9, xxv. 2 : Secunda
sec, quajst. ciii., art. iii.). [H.]
LATTER-DAY SAINTS (See Mor-
monists). LAUDS : the service which followed next
after the nocturn, in the old service books.
It is thus explained in the " Mirrour."
" By matyns that are sayde in the nyghte ys
understanded the olde lawe, that was all in
fygures of darcknesse. And by laudes that ar
•sayd in the morow tyde, ys understonded the
newe lawe that ys in lyghte of grace. Also
matines betoken the heuynes that was in tyme
of our lordes passyon. And the laudes be
token the joy of his resurreccyon " (Fol. lxv.).
The lauds are now, in the Church of
England, merged in the matins. [H.]
LAURA. A name given to a collection
of Uttle monastic cells detached from each
other but in close proximity, and generally
clustered round a church as a common
centre. These loosely connected societies
were the germs out of which more organised
monastic communities were developed, and
form a kind of link between them, and. the
hermitages of solitary ascetics. The most
celebrated Lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical
history were in Egypt and Palestine ; as the
Laura of St. Pachomius, St. Euthymius,
St. Saba, the Laura of the Towers, &c.
The most ancient monasteries in Ireland
were Lauras. The origin of the word is
very uncertain.
LAURENCE, ST.: Deacon and Martyr.

LAVIPEDIUM

435

It is supposed that he was of Spanish birth ;
but nothing certain is known about his early
life. He was ordained deacon by Sixtus IL,
and appointed chief of the seven deacons of
Rome, and Treasurer. In the eighth perse
cution both the bishop and his archdeacon
suffered martyrdom, a.d. 258, the latter being
slowly broiled to death on a gridiron. To
his dying intercession Prudentius ascribes
the final conversion of Rome. He is named
in the earliest Roman Calendar, a.d. 354;
and his name has always been in the canon
of the Roman Mass. He is commemorated
in our Calendar on August. 10. [H.]
LAV ABO (Lit. I will wash). The cere
mony of washing the hands of the priests at
the celebration of the Eucharist. This is not
done, St. Cyril says, so much for the pur
pose of cleanliness, as for the symbol, to
which David's words refer, " I wiU wash my
hands in innocency, 0 Lord, and so will I
go to Thine Altar" (Catecli. Myst. v. 2).
In the Roman lite, the washing of hands
occurs after the oblation of the unconsecrated
elements, before the most solemn part of the
office. [H]
LAVACRUM. A name for the cistern
or vessel for containing the water for baptism
(See Font).
LAVER OF REGENERATION. A
term adopted from Titus iii. 5, the washing
(Xovrpov) or laver of regeneration. It is used
in the certification of baptism, in the office
of the ministration of private baptism of
chUdren. The word " laver " is derived from
the Latin "lavacrum," which means a
vessel used for ablution.
LAVIPEDIUM. The ceremonial washing
of the feet. I. In imitation of our Saviour's
washing His disciples' feet, persons of highest
rank, sovereigns, cardinals, bishops, used to
wash the feet of the poor. The day was
almost always Maundy-Thursday, the Thurs
day in Holy Week, on which day our Lord
performed the act. The custom is Still
kept up by the Pope of Rome. In England,
not to mention earlier sovereigns, we read
of Queen Elizabeth performing the office at
Greenwich in 1572, when she washed the
feet of thirty-nine poor people, the number
corresponding to her own age. James II.
was the last English sovereign who con
formed to the custom ; but the almoner and
his assistants in dispensing the Royal Bounty
on Maundy-Thursday, are still girt with
towels (See Maundy).
II. In primitive times it was sometimes
customary to wash the feet before baptism.
" Many, however," says St. Augustine, " have
not accepted this as a custom, lest it should
be thought to belong to the ordinance of
baptism " (Epist. lib. v., cxviii. ad Januar.).
It was formally forbidden at the council of
Eliberis, a.d. 305. [H.]
2 f 2

436

LAY BAPTISM

LAY BAPTISM (See Baptism). Baptism
administered by persons not in Holy Orders.
I. In the early Church there would seem to
have been different rules at different places
or in different dioceses. Tertullian says that
laymen have the power to baptize, but it
should only be exercised in emergencies (De
Bapt. xvii.). As the clergy — the priests and
deacons — do not take on themselves>the office
of the episcopate, so should laymen not take
on themselves the work of the clergy, except
when there is necessity. On the other hand,
Hilary says, "neither do clerks or laymen
baptize " (Hilar. Dine. Comm. in Ep. ad
Eph. iv. 11). So also the compiler of the
Clementine Constitutions prohibits, laymen
from performing sacerdotal functions, men
tioning among them baptism (iii. 10). A
controversy on the matter took place between
St. Cyprian and Stephen bishop of Rome
(a.d. 255), but in this there was another
point at issue. St. Cyprian denied the
validity of baptism by schismatic priests,
and, consequently of laymen in communion
with them. St. Stephen affirmed that the
only essentials for valid baptism were, (1) the
right matter (water) ; (2) the true form (in
the name of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost) ; and that thus there was
valid, baptism even among schismatics.
" There were three views," says Dr. Pusey,
"in the early Church: first, that of the
early African Church, and of Asia Minor,
which rejected all baptisms out of the
jhurch, schismatical as well as heretical;
second, that of the Greek Church generally,
stated fully by St. Basil, which accepted
schismatical, but rejected heretical baptism ;
third, that first mentioned by Stephen,
bishop of Rome, who accepted all baptism,
even of -heretics, which had been given in
the name of the Trinity." (Note in trans, of
Tertull. p. 281.) St. Augustine writes very
fully on this subject. The chief point is
that the minister of baptism is not of the
essence of the sacrament, but that in all
cases Christ is the baptizer ; thus sanctioning
lay baptism (In Joan. Evangel. Tract v.,
vi. ; De Baptism, ii. 7, 53, &c). [H]
II. Anomalous as it may seem that one
of the sacraments can be validly administered
by a layman, and contrary as it looks to the
words of the rubric which directs baptism to
be performed by the " minister of the parish,
or in his absence any other lawful minister
who can be procured," it is certain that lay
baptism was considered valid from very early
ages of the Church, even though it might be
irregular and the performer of it censurable,
except perhaps in cases of absolute necessity ;
which probably were the cause of it being
first accepted, even when performed by mid-
wives. And it is now settled law of the
Church of England : Escott v. Mastin (Ecc.

LAY-COMMUNION
Judgments of P. C. p. 5.), in which the Dean
of Arches and tbe Judicial Committee both
so decided, as Sir J. NichoU had before in
Kempe v. Wickes, 3 Phil. 276. In those
judgments may be found a full history of
the recognition of lay baptism in all ages,
though with occasional dissents and remon
strances which never prevailed. Oddly
enough, it was the Puritans who tried in -the
latter part of Elizabeth's reign to get bap
tizing by midwives prohibited.
The ground on which the rubric of 1662,
which first introduced the words above
quoted, was held not to prohibit lay baptism,
was one familiar to lawyers, that a repeal of
any previously existing law must be express
to be effectual ; i.e. the two enactments must
be incapable of standing together. A direc
tion that the proper minister shall baptize is
not inconsistent with the previous law that
other persons might do it in case of necessity,
It was therefore held that a clergyman can
not refuse to bury a person (whom he is
otherwise bound to bury) on the ground that
he is ' unbaptized,' as the Burial rubric says,
if he had been baptized by anybody with
water and the proper words, ' in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost.' Of course a dissenting minister is
no better or worse for that purpose than
any other layman or a midwife. It was re
marked in the P. C. judgment that Arch
bishop Seeker and Bishop Butler had only
had lay baptism. [G.]
LAY-BROTHERS, are the servants of a
convent. A lay-brother wears a different habit from
that of the " religious " : he never enters into
the choir, nor is present at the chapters.
He is not in any orders, nor makes any vow,
except of constancy and obedience. He is em
ployed in the temporal concerns of the con
vent, and has the care of the kitchen, gate, &c.
The institution of lay-brothers began in
the eleventh century. The persons on
whom this title and office were conferred
were too ignorant to become clerks, and
therefore applied themselves wholly to
bodily work, in which they expressed that
zeal for religion, which could not exert itself
in spiritual exercises.
In the nunneries there are also lay-sisters,
who are retained in the convents for the ser
vice of the nuns, in like manner as the lay-
brothers are for that of the monks.
LAY-CLERKS. Clerici Laici. Singing
men so called in the statutes of the Cathe
drals, founded or remodeled by King Henry
VIII. In general, their number was com
mensurate with that of the minor canons.
Lay-Vicars are sometimes incorrectly so
styled. LAY-COMMUNION. The term in the
first place implies merely the participation of

LAY-ELDERS
the laity in the Holy Eucharist ; but with re
gard to a clergyman it had in early times a
very different significance. A clergyman
being reduced to lay-communion, meant that
he was totally degraded, and deprived of his
orders — that is, the power and authority of
his clerical office and function. A sentence
to this effect was pronounced upon clerks
who had been convicted of heinous offences ;
and was very seldom remitted. The earliest
use of the expression is in the Council of
Elvira, a.d. 305, but it was afterwards
very frequently adopted. — Bingham, ii., xvii.
2,5. [H.]
LAY- ELDERS. After Calvin had settled
the presbyterian form of government at Ge
neva, and that model was followed elsewhere,
laymen were admitted into a share or part of
the administration of the Church, under the
denomination of lay-elders.
LAY-HELPERS: LAY-READERS.
I. In early times there were many offices
held and duties performed by lay persons
in the Church (See Laity). There would
appear to have been in the first centuries of
the Christian asra two divisions. The first
comprised the chief men in the place or diocese
where the Church was settled. They were
the optimates, the magistrates, or the elders,
and they were consulted by the bishops in
matters relating to the management of the
Church, especially with regard to financial
affairs. St. Augustine calls them " Seniores
nobilissimi" (Cone. 2 in Ps. xxxvi.); and they
are also referred to in a council of Carthage,
a.d. 403, as " magistratus vel seniores loco
rum." The second consisted of those who
were called " seniores ecclesiastici," and who
were entrusted with the care of tbe things
of the church, such as the vessels, or orna
ments, and also had certain duties given
them with regard to instruction, bringing
the people to the worship of God, render
ing assistance at baptisms, maintaining order
amongst those who came to church, visit
ing the sick, distributing alms, &c. , Such
persons were included under the " Minor
Orders," and had an especial licence and
benediction from the bishop ; but their work
was layman's work, and the actual ordination
was not required. This is the office, and
system of work which in late years endea
vours have been made to revive.
II. In the mediaeval times the monks and
friars were the great lay-readers, and helpers
(see Monks ; Friars). When English monas
teries were dissolved, there was no iTganiza-
tion to take their place, and lay help became
confined to the churchwardens, vestrymen,
and sometimes sidesmen (see Sidesmen),
and was only nominal. At the end of the
17th and in the 18th century, successful
endeavours were made to stimulate the in
terest of laymen in church work by societies

LAYMEN

437

(see Societies), but these rather gathered and
dispensed funds, than encouraged personal
service. In 1857 the Committee of the Lower
House of the Province of Canterbury pre
sented an elaborate report on lay co-opera
tion, expressing the unanimous opinion that
the well-being of the Church greatly depends,
under Almighty God, on the mutual good
will, and cordial co-operation of its members,
clergy and laity. Since then the help of
the laity has been greatly sought in diocesan
conferences, where the test methods of em
ploying the spiritual gifts of the laity in di
rect ministerial work as lay readers, &c, have
been repeatedly discussed. In several dio
ceses associations of lay-helpers have been
formed, which have certain rules, and meet
annuaUy. In 1882 the Bishop of Peter
borough, in the Upper House of Convocation,
called the attention of the House to this mat
ter, urging the bishops to consider the rela
tion in which the order of lay-readers stood
with regard to other orders in the Church ;
and a joint Committee of both Houses was
appointed, which gave its report in 1884.
According to the resolution a reader must be
a communicant, and must satisfy the bishop
as to his fitness, &c. He must sign a decla
ration of acceptance of the doctrine of the
Church of England. He must hold the li
cence of the bishop, who shall admit him to
the office by the deUvery of a copy of the
New Testament. He may perform services
in unconsecrated places, and generaUy act
under the incumbent in visiting the sick,
and other duties (Official Year-book, 1886,
p. 111). [H]
LAYMEN, as contrasted with clergymen
or " clerks in orders," are all persons who have
not had episcopal ordination, which is trace
able up to the Apostles. The mere fact of
any sect choosing to call its chief ministers
" bishops," or even " angels," goes for nothing.
But lawyers are in the habit of calling all
persons laymen who have not been " called "
or admitted as lawyers ; and so may every
learned profession among themselves desig
nate as laici those who are either popularly
called amateurs or altogether outsiders to
that profession, not professing to have any
special knowledge of it.
LAYMEN, HOUSE OF. A body of lay
communicants of the Church of England,
the members of which are appointed by the
lay members of the several diocesan con
ferences, or nominated by the archbishop,
to confer with the members of the Con
vocation of the Province of Canterbuiy.
Ten members are appointed for the diocese
of London, six for the dioceses of Winchester,
Rochester, Lichfield and Worcester, and four
for each of the remaining dioceses. The
nominations by the archbishop are limited
to ten. At the first meeting of this House

438

LAYLNG

LEAGUE

in 1886 the archbishop gave the following
address to the members : —
It is especially in regard to our most
serviceable organizations, and to those legis
lative needs which have necessarily increased
in proportion to the activity of the Church's
vital and spiritual energies, that the desire
for lay counsel has been manifested. This
desire has gathered strength for many years
past from the experience of that counsel as
it has been afforded in tbe diocesan and
various other conferences. The Convocation
of Canterbury has now, after much careful
discussion, requested the bishops in each
diocese of the province to call upon the lay
members of their several conferences, who
are themselves all elected by the laity of
the parishes, to elect a House of Laymen in
fulfilment of the long-cherished hope. This
House is therefore a body purely representa
tive of the laity, and its realization at this
day, with simpler, freer, larger aims than
those of faction or political party, is full of
strong and happy promise. The moral effect
of its discussions mpst from the first be
great ; and we cannot doubt that if its con
clusions are arrived at by patient debate in
fully attended meetings, the moral effect
will in due time take material and practical
form. At the same time the ancient and
uctual constitution of Convocation undergoes
no shade of alteration by reason of the
existence of this House. This House will
confer, according to its rules, with the mem
bers of Convocation at times and places to
be appointed ; will deliberate on subjects
submitted to it as well as originated within
itself and will communicate to us its con
clusions. But in all this there is no altera
tion in the character, position, or duties of
Convocation. Considering the constitutional
basis on which Convocation has rested
through centuries of our national life, it is
obvious- that, unless its unchanged character
were expressly secured, or if it were attempt
ed without legislative sanction to make this
House into a portion of Convocation, Convo
cation itself might unawares cease to exist
(Official Year-book of the Church of England
1886, p. 299. Eccles. Gazette, March 15,
1886). [H.]
LAYING ON OF HANDS (See Im
position of Hands).
LEAGUE, SOLEMN LEAGUE AND
COVENANT (See Confessions of Faith
and Covenant). This was a compact estab
lished in 1643, to form a bond of union
between the Scottish and English Presby
terians. Those who took it pledged them
selves, without respect of persons, to en
deavour the " extirpation of Popery and
Prelacy, (i.e. church government by arch
bishops, bishops, their chancellors and
commissaries, deans, deans and chapters,

archdeacons, and all other ecclesiastical
officers depending on that hierarchy,) su
perstition, heresy, schism, profaneness, and
whatever shall be found contrary to sound
doctrine and the power of godliness." It
was approved by the parliament and assem
bly of divines at Westminster, and ratified
by the General Assembly of the Scottish
Kirk, in 1645. In 1650, Charles IL, under
compulsion and hypocritically, declared his
approbation of it. The league was ratified
by parliament in 1651, and subscription
required of every member. At the Resto
ration it was voted illegal by parliament. '
The following is the document which is
still bound up with the Westminster Con
fession, as one of the formularies of the
Scottish Establishment, though the minis
ters are no longer obliged to sign it : —
The solemn League and Covenant for
Reformation and Defence of Religion, the
Honour and Happiness of the King, and
the Peace and Safety of the Three King
doms of Scotland, England, and Ireland ;
agreed upon by Commissioners from the
Parliament and Assembly of Divines in
England, with Commissioners of the Con
vention of Estates, and General Assembly
in Scotland ; approved by the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and
by both Houses of Parliament and Assem
bly of Divines in England, and taken and
subscribed by them, Anno 1643; and
thereafter, by the said authority, taken
and subscribed by all Ranks in Scotland
and England the same Year ; and ratified
by Act of the Parliament of Scotland,
Anno 1644: And again renewed in
Scotland, with an Acknowledgment of
Sins, and Engagement to Duties, by all
Ranks, Anno 1648, and by Parliament
1649 ; and taken and subscribed by King
Charles II. at Spey, June 23, 1650 ; and
at Scoon, January 1, 1651.
We Noblemen, Barons, Knights, Gentle
men, Citizens, Burgesses, Ministers of the
Gospel and Commons of all sorts, in the
kingdoms of Scotland, England, and Ireland,
by the providence of GOD, living under one
King, and being of one reformed religion,
having before our eyes the glory of GOD,
and the advancement of the kingdom of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the honour
and happiness of the King's Majesty and his
posterity, and the true publick liberty,
safety, and peace of the kingdoms, wherein
every one's private condition is included:
And calling to mind the treacherous and
bloody plots, conspiracies, attempts, and
practices of the enemies of GOD, against the-
true religion and professors thereof in all
places, especially in these three kingdoms,
ever since the reformation of religion ; and

LEAGUE
how much their rage, power, and presump
tion are of late, and at this time, increased
and exercised, whereof the deplorable state
of the church and kingdom of Ireland, the
distressed estate of the church and kingdom
of England, and the dangerous estate of the
church and Kingdom of Scotland, are present
and public testimonies ; we have now at
last (after other means of suppUcation,
remonstrance, protestation, and sufferings),
for the preservation of ourselves and our
religion from utter ruin and destruction,
according to the commendable practice of
these kingdoms in former times, and the
example of GOD'S people in other nations,
after mature deliberation, resolved and deter
mined to enter into a mutual and solemn
League and Covenant, wherein we all sub
scribe, and each one of us for himself, with
our hands lifted up to the most High GOD,
do swear,
I. That we shall sincerely, really, and
constantly, through the grace of GOD, en
deavour, in our several places and callings,
the preservation of the reformed religion in
the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship,
discipline, and government, against our com
mon enemies ; the reformation of religion in
the kingdoms of England, and Ireland, in
doctrine, worship, discipline, and government,
according to the word of GOD, and the
example of the best reformed Churches ; and
shall endeavour to bring the Churches of
God in the three kingdoms to the nearest
conjunction and uniformity in religion, con
fession of faith, form of church-government,
directory for worship and catechising ; that
we, and our posterity after us, may. as
brethren, live in faith and love, and the Lord
may dehght to dwell in the midst of us.
II. That we shall in Uke manner, without
respect of persons, endeavour the extirpation
of Popery, Prelacy (that is, church-govern
ment by Archbishops, Bishops, their Chan-
ceUors, and Commissaries, Deans, Deans and
Chapters, Archdeacons, and all other ecclesi
astical Officers depending on that hierarchy),
superstition, heresy, schism, profaneness, and
whatsoever shall be found to be contrary to
sound doctrine and the power of godliness,
lest we partake in other men's sins, and
thereby be in danger to receive of their
plagues ; and that the Lord may be one, and
his name one, in the three kingdoms.
III. We shall, with the same sincerity,
reality, and constancy, in our several voca
tions, endeavour, with our estates and lives,
mutually to preserve the rights and privileges
of the Parliaments, and the liberties of the
kingdoms ; and to preserve and defend the
King's Majesty's person and authority, in
the preservation and defence of the true
reUgion, and liberties of the kingdoms; that
the world may bear witness with our con-

LEAGUE

439

science of our loyalty, and that we have no
thoughts or intentions to diminish his
Majesty's just power and greatness.
IV. We shall also, with all faithfulness,
endeavour the discovery of all such as have
been or shall be incendiaries, malignants,
or evil instruments, by hindering the refor
mation of religion, dividing the King from
his people, or one of the kingdoms from
another, or making any faction or parties
amongst the people, contrary to this League
and Covenant ; that they may be brought to
public trial, and receive condign punishment,
as the degree of their offences shall require
or deserve, or the supreme judicatories of
both kingdoms respectively, or others having
power from them for that effect, shall judge
convenient. V. And whereas the happiness of a blessed
peace between these kingdoms, denied in
former times to our progenitors, is, by the
good providence of GOD, granted unto us,
and hath been lately concluded and settled
by both Parhaments ; we shall each one of
us, according to our place and interest,
endeavour that they may remain conjoined
in a firm peace and union to all posterity ;
and that justice may be done upon the wilful
opposers thereof, in manner expressed in the
precedent article.
VI. We shaU also, according to our places
and callings, in this common cause of
religion, liberty, and peace of the kingdoms,
assist and defend all those that enter into
this League and Covenant, in the maintaining
and pursuing thereof; and shall not suffer
ourselves directly or indirectly, by whatso
ever combination, persuasion, or terror, to be
divided and withdrawn from this blessed
union and conjunction, whether to make
defection to the contrary part, or to give
ourselves to a detestable indifferency or
neutrality in this cause which so much con
cerneth the glory of GOD, the good of the
kingdom, and honour of the King ; but
shall, all the days of our lives, zealously and
constantly continue therein against all oppo
sition, and promote the same, according to
our power, against all lets and impediments
whatsoever ; and, what we are not able our
selves to suppress or overcome, we shall
reveal and make known, that it may be
timely prevented or removed : AU which we
shall do as in the sight of God.
And, because these kingdoms are guilty
of many sins and provocations against GOD,
and his Son Jesus Chkist, as is too manifest
by our present distresses and dangers, the
fruits thereof ; we profess and declare before
GOD and the world, our unfeigned desire to
be humbled for our own sins, and for the
sins of these kingdoms : especially, that we
have not as we ought valued the inestimable
benefit of the gospel; that we have not

440

LECTERN

-laboured for the purity and power thereof;
and that we have not endeavoured to receive
Christ in our hearts, nor to walk worthy of
him in our lives ; which are the causes of
other sins and transgressions so much
abounding amongst us: and our true and
unfeigned purpose, desire, and endeavour for
ourselves, and all others under our power
and charge, both in publick and in private,
in all duties we owe to GOD and man, to
amend our lives, and each one to go before
another in the example of a real reformation ;
that the Lord may turn away his wrath
and heavy indignation, and establish these
churches and kingdoms in truth and peace.
And this Covenant we make in the presence
of ALMIGHTY GOD, the Searcher of all
hearts, with a true intention to perform the
same, as we shall answer at that great day,
when the secrets of all hearts shall be dis
closed ; most humbly beseeching the Lord
.to strengthen us by the Holt Spirit for
this end, and to bless our desires and pro
ceedings with such success as may be deliver
ance and safety to his people, and encourage
ment to other Christian Churches, groaning
under, or in danger of, the yoke of anti
christian tyranny, to join in the same or like
association and covenant, to the glory of
GOD, the enlargement of the kingdom of
Jesus Christ, and the peace and tranquillity
of Christian kingdoms and commonwealths.
LECTERN, LECT URN. The reading
desk in the choir of ancient churches and
chapels. The earliest examples remaining
are of wood, many of them beautifully
carved. At a later period it was commonly
of brass, often formed of the figure of an
eagle with out-spread wings (See Reading
Desk and Eagle).
The lectern in English cathedrals gene
rally stands in the midst of the choir facing
westwards. They were formerly more com
mon in collegiate churches and chapels than
now, as ancient ground-plans and engravings
show. In many places the fine old eagles or
carved desks were thrown into a corner and
neglected, but where possible they have been
restored. When the capitular members read the
lessons they olten did so from the stalls.
The regularity of this custom may be
doubted ; its impropriety is evident. It
appears from Dugd. Mon. viii. 1257, ed.
1830, that in Lichfield cathedral, all,
whether canons or vicars, anciently read
the collects and lessons, not from their own
stalls, but from the proper place : the dean
alone being permitted to read from his staU.
In many cathedrals now, as at Exeter, the
dean, or the canon, reads the lesson from the
proper place — the lectern.
LECTIONARY. An arrangement of lec
tions or readings from the Scriptures. I. In

LECTIONARY
the Jewish Church portions of the Pentateuch
were read every Sabbath day. For political
reasons the Pentateuch was prohibited by
Antibchus Epiphanes, B.C. 163, and the
books of the prophets were substituted for
it. Later on the Pentateuch was resumed,
but the prophetical books were also read;
and that it was the custom to read both the
law and the prophets is clear from two
passages in the New Testament — St. Luke
iv. 17, Acts xv. 21. The primitive Church
adopted this practice. Justin Martyr (a.d.
1 40) speaks of reading the writings of the
prophets as well as of the Apostles in
Divine Service (Apol. 2), and the author of
the Apostolic Constitutions mentions four
lessons as being read. There was then
probably no fixed lectionary, but appropriate
passages were chosen. Although the an
tiquity of the Lectionary of St. Jerome is
doubted (see Comes), yet it appears certain
that some fixed portions of the Scripture
were allotted to different seasons in early
times. Thus St. Chrysostom mentions the
Acts of the Apostles as being publicly read
between Easter and Whitsunday ; and he
also tells us that' the book of Genesis was
always read in Lent (Horn. 24 in Bom.
3 de David et Saul). St. Augustine says
that there were lessons appropriated to
certam seasons, so that none other might
be read in their place (Expos, in 1 Joan, in
Prefat), and he gives instances. St. Am
brose, St.. Cyril, and others also incidentally
refer to 'the fact. So that it may well he
concluded that though there is extant no
Lectionary of greater antiquity than the 8th
century (if we except the Comes), yet still
the principle of selected lessons for the
seasons according to rule was observed years
before, and probably dates from the time
immediately after the Apostles. On the
Great Lectionaries, or Synaxaria, i.e. tables
of ecclesiastical lessons throughout the year;
the Syriac Lectionaries or the Coptic Lec
tionary, it is not within the scope of this
article to dwell, nor on the " Menologies,"
or calendar of saints' days (For these see
Diet Christ. Ant. ii. 954).
II. In the early English Church seven or
even nine lessons were read at nocturns and
matins. These were necessarily short, and
indeed were not always out of the Scrip
tures ; the writings of the Fathers, and lives
of the saints being used. That this arrange
ment was not satisfactory, may be seen
from the Preface to the Prayer Book " con
cerning the service of the Church." One
great reform was effected in the Roman
Lectionary by Cardinal Quignonez in 1536.
Apocryphal legends were struck out, together
with the anthems by which the lessons had
been previously interrupted. But the most
important change in the Church of England

LECTURERS
was when, in 1542, it was ordered that the
lessons should be read in the vernacular
tongue. Great care was taken with regard
to the re-arrangement of the Lectionary, the
general rule being that the 1st lesson for
morning and evening service should be from
the Old Testament, the 2nd lesson from the
New. The Old Testament was to be read
through once a year, the New Testament
twice, with the exception of the book of the
Revelations of St. John. The new Lection
ary was put forth in 1871, and became
obligatory on Jan. 1, 1879. It differs from
¦the old Lectionary in the following ways :
1. The week-day lessons have been shortened,
and are no longer coincident with the di
vision of the Bible into chapters, which is
often unsatisfactory. 2. The New Testa
ment is read through thrice in the year in
stead of twice. 3. The second lessons in
the morning on ordinary days are no longer
taken exclusively from the Gospels and the
Acts of the Apostles, nor the second lessons
in the evening from the Epistles ; but the
lessons are so arranged that when the
Gospels are read in the morning, the Epistles
are read in the evening, and vice versa.
,4. The lessons for festivals and holy-days
have in some cases been changed for passages
more appropriate to the occasion. 5. Alter
native first lessons are provided for even
song on Sundays, when even-song is said at
two different times ; and when alternative
second lessons are not provided " the Second
Lesson at the second time may, at the dis
cretion of the minister, be any chapter from
the four Gospels." 6. Certain portions of
the books of Chronicles, of Ezekiel, and of
the Apocalypse, are ordered to be read, and
a great deal of the Apocrypha is omitted ;
the lessons from the latter being chiefly
taken from " Wisdom " and " Ecclesiasticus."
7. The first lessons on holy-days, which
were generally taken from the Apocrypha, are
now chiefly taken from the canonical books.
However these changes may be regarded, it
is certain that "the lectionary of the
Church of England provides, with greater
care than has been shown by any other
Christian body, for the complete and or
derly reading of Holy Scripture in Divine
Service."— Bishop Barry's P. B. ; Bingham,
xiv., iii. 23 ; Diet Christ Ant. s.v. ; Evan
Daniel's P. B. 113; Interleaved P. B. (See
Lessons). [H.]
LECTURERS. These were persons
whose office it was to read Lectures before
the University. The name is given also to
those who, receiving either a settled stipend
or voluntary contributions from the inhabi
tants of a parish, were accustomed to give
a lecture there under licence from the
bishop of the diocese. This lecture was
.in reality a sermon delivered at such a time

LECTURERS

441

as should not interfere with the incumbent's
ministrations. The lecturers came origin
ally from the monasteries, but the custom
of delivering these lectures continued after
the dissolution of the monasteries. In
Queen Elizabeth's time Dr. Alvey was
Master of the Temple, Mr. T. Travers
was evening lecturer there, and of them it
was commonly said, " The forenoon's Ser
mons speak Canterbury, and the afternoon's
Geneva." The lecturers as a rule followed
Mr. Travers' example, and some directions
were issued to restrain them. In 1622 Arch
bishop Abbot directed that no lecturer
should preach upon Sundays and holy-days
in the afternoon but upon some part of the
Catechism, or some text taken out of the
Creed, Lord's Prayer, or Ten Command
ments. Four years later the number of the
lecturers was largely increased by twelve
persons being legally empowered to pur
chase impropriations (q.v.), with the pro
ceeds of which they were allowed to provide
parishes, where the clergy were not quali
fied to preach, with lecturers to preach
instead of the clergy. The trust was a
dangerous expedient, and was soon abused,
"for," says Heylin, " these Lecturers having
no dependence upon the Bishops, nor taking
the oath of canonical obedience to them,
nor subscribing to the doctrines and estab
lished ceremonies, made it their work to
please those patrons, on whose arbitrary
maintenance they were planted, and conse
quently to carry on the Puritan interest
which their patron drove at." Moreover in
the case of many of the lecturers their
orders were doubtful, sometimes only the
so called orders of Geneva.
That they caused great divisions in
parishes appears from a contemporary
writer, John Selden, "Lecturers do in a
parish what the friars did heretofore, get
away not only the affections but the bounty
that should be bestowed upon the minister."
He further adds, " Lecturers get a great deal
of money." The difficulties thus occasioned
were such that, in 1633, Archbishop Laud
procured a bill, exhibited in the Court of
Exchequer by the Attorney-General, against
the twelve persons who purchased the
impropriations, charging them with mis
applying their trust by appointing lecturers
where none were needed, and by appointing
persons to lectureships who did not con
form to the Church of England. On these
charges being proven the Court condemned
the proceedings of the twelve persons, pro
nounced the gifts illegal, and confiscated
the money to the king's use.
In some of the dioceses the lecturers
retained their posts and occasioned consider
able difficulties, sometimes evading the law
by calling themselves chaplains (q.v.) to

442

LECTURES

some great house, sometimes founding " a
running lecture," i.e. going from parish to
parish preaching when and as they liked.
Many of the bishops used great efforts to
check these disorders. In 1637 Archbishop
Laud obtained instructions from King
Charles I. to forbid the preaching of any
lecturer who refused to say the office from
the C ommon Prayer in surplice and hood
before he delivered his lecture. Archbishop
Laud likewise ordered that the lecture
should be given in the morning that the
practice of afternoon catechizing should not
be hindered. Controlled by these regula
tions the lecturers either conformed, or
returned to the trades to which for the most
part they had been bred, or else betook them
selves to Holland. There they and their
foUowers having lost the principle of unity
split into sects and into congregations, until,
finding the country too narrow for them,
they went to New England, where they esta
blished a discipline far harsher and more
searching than even their utmost complaints
had depicted the discipline of Laud or Wren.
In 1 641-9, a portion.' of the confiscated reve
nues of the bishops and clergy was em
ployed in providing lecturers for the parishes
from which, on one pretext or another, the
incumbent had been ejected. At first these
were clergy who had submitted to the
parliament, though these were very few, or
Presbyterian ministers, officers of the army,
and tradesmen of various sorts ; as years
went on and the appetite for novelty and
excitement increased, Independents, " fifth
monarchy men," ranters, any one who
claimed to have " a gift," would occupy the
pulpit and deliver a lecture. During the
critical period between the Restoration (May
29, 1660) and the passing of the Act of Uni
formity (1662) the lecturers strove to retain
the posts they had acquired, but the provi
sions of the Act which required Episcopal
Ordination, the regular use of the Prayer
Book, an unfeigned assent and consent to
all therein contained, the renunciation of the
Covenant, a declaration of the unlawfulness
of taking up arms against the king, from
all who claimed to minister in the Church
of England, compelled most of them to leave
the parsonage houses. Some still continued
irregular ministrations, but the title of
lecturers seems to have been dropped in
connexion with them. There are lecture
ships now in connexion with some of the
cathedrals, and with some parishes which are
relics of the old system : these are generaUy
afternoon preachers. There are also lecture
ships founded by private individuals. The
foundation of a lecture gives no legal right
to preach it without the permission of the
incumbent of the church, who has sometimes
refused it. [L. P.]

LEGATE
.LECTURES (See Bampton, Boyle, Don*
nellan, Hulsean, Moyer, scaAWarburton).
LEGATE (Lat. lego, legatus). A person
sent or deputed by another to act in his stead.
A legate is an ambassador, but the term has
become confined to those who are deputed
by the pope. Of these there are three kinds.
1. Legati a latere, cardinals sent from
the side or immediate presence, and invested
with most of the functions of the Roman
pontiff himself. They can absolve the ex
communicated, call synods, grant dispensa
tions in cases reserved to the pope, fill up
vacant dignities or benefices, and hear
ordinary appeals. Otho and Othohon, sent
into England by Gregory IX. and Clement.
IV. in the reign of Henry III., were of this
order. The legatine constitutions, or ec
clesiastical laws enacted in national synods
convened by these cardinals, may be seen
in Johnson's collections. Cardinal Wolsey
was also a legate a latere, and the bulls of
Leo X. and Adrian VI., investing him with
that high function, are printed by Rymer,.
from which we learn that he was empowered
to visit the monasteries and the whole
clergy of England, as well as to dispense
with the laws of the Church for a year.
Cardinal Pole was also legatus a latere.
2. Legati nati are such as hold the
legatine commission ex officio, by virtue'of
office, and till the latter part of the tenth
century they were the legates usually em
ployed by the papal power. Before the
Reformation, the archbishop of Canterbury
was the legatus natus of England. It is a
relic of the legatine authority which en
ables the primate of all England to confer
degrees independently of the universities;
and "special licenses" for marriage ¦ in any
place or time of day, in both provinces; and
dispensations for holding pluralities within.
the limits fixed by Acts of Parliament
3. Legati missi, legates given, or special le
gates, hold authority from the pope by special
commission, and are, pro tempore, superior
to the other two orders. They began to he-
employed after the tenth century. They
held councils, promulgated canons, deposed
bishops, and issued interdicts at their dis
cretion. Simple deacons are frequently
invested with this office, which at once places
them above bishops. — Van Espen, pars i.
tit. xxi.
It may be added, that the functions of a
legate do not commence till he is forty miles
distant from Rome. The first legate sent
into England was John, precentor of St.
Paul's, and abbot of the monastery of
St. Martin. He was deputed byAgatho.
bishop of Rome, to Theodore, archbishop of
Canterbury, in 679. The first legate ra
Ireland was Gille, or GiUebert, bishop of
Limerick early in the twelfth century.

LEGEND
The Roman chants were introduced by him
into Britain.
It was one of the ecclesiastical privileges
of England, from the Norman Conquest,
that no foreign legate should be obtruded
upon the English, unless the king should
desire it, upon some extraordinary emer
gency, as when a case was too difficult for
the English prelates to determine. Hence,
in the reign of Henry II. , when Cardinal
Vivian, who was sent legate into Scotland,
Ireland, and Norway, arrived in England
on his journey thither, the king sent the
bishops of Winchester and Ely to ask him
by whose authority he ventured into the
kingdom without his leave : nor was he
suffered to proceed till he had given an oath
not to stretch his commission beyond the
royal pleasure in any particular.
LEGEND, LEGENDA. In the first
instance the word implied whatever was
appointed to be read during public worship
(See Lectionary). It soon became the
practice, beside the Scriptures, to read the
acts of the martyrs and confessors on the
days on which they were individually com
memorated, and collections were made of
accounts of the martyrs, from the time of
Clement of Rome. St. Cyprian (Ep. 37
ad Clerum) and Eusebius (Hist v. 4) and
others refer to these " Acts of the Saints
and Martyrs ;" and in St. Augustine's time
the practice was general of reading them in
the church. The third Council of Carthage
(Can. 47) orders "ut prefer scripturas cano
nicas nihil in ecclesia legatur," and a list is
given of the Canonical Scriptures (which
includes Tobit and Judith), but it is added
" liceat legi passiones martyrum, cum anni-
versarii dies eorum celebrantur " (See Diet .
Christ. -Antiq. ii. 971). Hence the lives of
saints and martyrs came to be called legends,
because chapters were to be read out of them
at matins, and in the refectories of the re
ligious houses. Many martyrologies exist.
These were ancient collections of accounts
of saints and martyrs (see Martyrology),
but in the middle ages a vast number
of legends of most extraordinary and ex
travagant character were added. In the
Roman Church many of these were appointed
to be read on saints' days ; which are as
numerous as the days in the year. How
ever, there have been considerable reforma
tions made in this matter, several legends
having been from time to time retrenched,
insomuch that the service of the Church of
Rome is much freer from these than formerly.
The compilers of the first Prayer Book of
Edward VI. did away with the reading of
any martyrologies or such-like in Divine
Service, for they said by the " planting in
of uncertain stories, legends," &c, the Bible
was not properly and duly read.

LENT

443-

II. Beside these written legends, there
are others which may be called traditionary;
by which we mean those idle stories which
are delivered by word of mouth, and with
which every traveller is entertained in his
passage through countries, in which the-
Church of Rome is predominant. It is
unnecessary to give instances.
III. The inscriptions cast round bells, be
yond Ihe name of the founder and the date,
are called legends. [H.]
LEGION, THUNDERING. In the wars
of the Romans, under the emperor Marcus
Antoninus, with the Marcomanni, the
Roman troops being surrounded by the
enemy, and in great distress from intense-
thirst,- in the midst of a burning desert, a.
legion of Christians, who served in the
army, imploring the merciful interposition
of Christ, suddenly a storm with thunder
and lightning came on, which refreshed the
fainting Romans with its seasonable rain,.
while the lightning -fell among the enemy,
and destroyed many of them. The Chris
tian legion to whose prayers this miraculous
interposition was granted, was (according to
the common account) thenceforth called The,-
Thundering Legion.
LEIRE (Probably a corruption of the
old French lieure, for livre, a book). A
Service Book. " Two great leires, garnished
with stones, and two lesser leires, garnished,
with stones and pearls," are mentioned;
among the furniture of the communion
table of the Royal Chapel, 1565, in Leland's.
Collectania, vol. ii. pp. 691, 692, 1770.
LENT. Anglo-Sax. lencten, spring:
Dutch, lente ; akin to German ienz. In
the East called the Fast ; it is the Greek
Teo-o-apaKoo-rr), the Latin quadragesima (40'
days) corrupted in French to careme.
I. The holy seasons appointed by the
Church will generally be found to date their
rise from some circumstance in the life of
our Lord, some event in Scripture history,
or a desire to prepare for a fitting partici
pation in the great Festivals. The origin of
the season of Lent is not so obvious, though
Tertullian, SS. Epiphanius, Augustine,.
Jerome, and others claim for it apostolical
authority, in conformity with the fasts of
Moses, Elias, and our Lord. It is most
probable that the Christian Lent originated
from a regard to those words of the
Redeemer, " the days will come when the
bridegroom shall be taken away from them,.
and then shall they fast in those days."'
We learn from the history of the Church
that the primitive Christians considered
that in this passage Christ has alluded to
the institution of a particular season of
fasting and prayer in his future Church.
Accordingly they, in the first instance,,
began this solemn period on the afternoon.

444

LENT

of the day on which they commemorated
the crucifixion, and continued it until the
morning of that of the resurrection. The
whole interval would thus be only about forty
hours. Irenams, referring to the differences
of opinion with regard to the celebration of
Easter, says that it is " not about the day
alone, but the manner of fasting: for some
think they are to fast one day, some two,
some more ; some measure their day as
forty hours of the day and night " (Iren. ap.
Eus. H. E. v. c. 24). But by degrees this
institution suffered a considerable change,
•different however at different times and
places. From the forty hours, or the two
days, originally observed, it was extended
to other additional days, but with great
variety in their number, according to the
judgment of the various Churches. Some
fasted three days in the week before Easter,
.some four and others six. A little after,
some extended the fast to three weeks, and
others to six, and other churches appointed
certain portions of seven weeks in succession.
Thus Sozomen speaks of a fast of six weeks'
duration (H. E. vii. 19): and Socrates
.says : — " The Romans fast three weeks
before Easter, the Sabbath and Lord's day
excepted. All Greece and the Alexandrians
fast six weeks. Others begin their fast
seven weeks before Easter ; only fasting,
however, fifteen days by intervals ; but
they also call this the quadragesimal fast "
(H. E. v. 22). The result of all this was
the eventual fixing of the time at forty
days commencing on the Wednesday in
the seventh week before Easter, and
excluding the intermediate Sundays. Ori
gen (Hoiu. x. in Levit.) speaks of a fast
of forty days before Easter, and in the
4th century that period seems to have
been commonly observed. Gregory the Great,
however, speaks of the fast as of thirty-
six days' duration, i.e. of six weeks, deducting
the six Sundays (Horn, in Evang. i. 16, 5).
In the East the Sabbath or Saturday was
also deducted, and as seven weeks were
there observed, the actual days of fasting
would be the same — thirty-six days. It
would seem that although Gregory has been
credited with the establishment of the
Lenten observance from the " Caput Jejunii "
or Ash Wednesday, he really only counted
from the Sunday, making about forty days,
i.e. thirty-six. The four additional days
were added afterwards (Martene, de Ant.
Eccles. Rit. iii. 58), not, as appears from
Amalarius, till the 9th century. In the
11th century Ash Wednesday was taken as
the first day in Lent, thus adding four days
to make up the forty ; but even now the rite
of Milan commences Lent on the Sunday
following. Lent was first commanded to be
observed in this country by Ercombert,

LENT
seventh kug of Kent (a.d. 640-690), a,nd
strict rules were laid down with regard to
eating meat &c. during the season. From
those early times to the present day Lent
has always been observed from the first day,
Ash Wednesday, to Easter. The Sundays
are excluded, because the Lord's day is
always held as a festival, and never as a
fast. These six Sundays are, therefore,
called Sundays in Lent, not Sundays of
Lent. They are in the midst of it, but do
not form part of it. On them we continue,
without interruption, to celebrate our
Saviour's resurrection.
II. The principal days of Lent are, the
first day, Holy Week, and particularly the
Thursday and Friday in that week. The
first day of Lent was formerly called the
head of the fast (" Caput Jejunii "), and also
by the name which the Church retains—
Ash Wednesday. In the Church of England
there is a solemn service appointed for Ash
Wednesday, under the title of a " Commina
tion, or denouncing of God's Anger and
Judgments against Sinners." (See Ash Wed
nesday.) This was designed to occupy, as
far as could be, the place of the ancient
penitential discipline, as is sufficiently de
clared in the beginning of the office in the
EngUsh Prayer Book. The last week of
Lent, called Holy Week, has always been
considered as its most solemn season. It is
so styled from the increase of devotional
exercises among believers. It is also called
the Great Week, from the important trans
actions which are then commemorated ; and
generally now it is called Passion Week,
though Passion Sunday is the 5th Sunday
in Lent (See Holy Week, Passion Sunday).
The Thursday in Holy Week is that day on
which we celebrate the institution of the
Lord's supper. The Epistle for the day
has been selected by the Church with a
view to this fact. On the following day we
commemorate the sufferings, and particularly
the death, of our Saviour Christ. And,
from the mighty and blessed effects of these,
in the redemption of man, the day is appro
priately called Good Friday. As this day
has been kept holy by the Church from the
earliest times, so has it also been made a
time of the strictest devotion and humilia
tion (See Good Friday).
III. The general design of this institu
tion is thus set forth by St. Chrysostom :
" Why do we fast these forty days ? Many
heretofore were used to come to the com
munion indevoutly, and inconsiderately, es
pecially at this time, when Christ first gave
it to his disciples.- Therefore our fore
fathers, considering the mischiefs arising
from such careless approaches, meeting to
gether, appointed forty days for fasting and
prayer, aud hearing of sermons, and for

LENT
holy assemblies ; that all men in these days
being carefully purified by prayer and alms-
deeds, and fasting, and watching, and tears,
and confession of sins, and other the like
exercises, might come, according to their
capacity, with a pure conscience, to the
holy table" (Horn, in Vet. Test, "in eos
qui Pascha jejunent ").
But if we inquire more particularly into
the reasons of instituting the Lent fast,
we shall find them to be these following :
First, the apostles' sorrow for the loss of
their Master. For this reason, the early
Christians observed these two days in which
our Saviour lay in the grave, with the great
est strictness. Secondly, the declension of
Christian piety from its first and primitive
fervour. Thirdly, that tlie catechumens
might prepare themselves for baptism, and
the penitents for absolution, Easter being
one of the settled times of baptizing the
catechumens, and absolving the penitents.
And lastly, that all may fit and prepare
themselves, as much as in them lies, for a
proper participation in the glorious feast of
Blaster. This solemn season of fasting was uni-
versaUy observed by all Christians, though
with a great liberty, and a just allowance
for men's infirmities ; and this was in a
great measure left to their own discretion.
If men were in health, and able to bear
it, the rule and custom was for them to
observe it. On the other hand, bodily in
firmity and weakness were always admitted
as a just apology for their non-observance
of it.
IV. The manner of observing Lent, among
those who were piously disposed to observe
it, was to abstain from all food till evening.
Whence it is natural to conclude, that the
pretence of keeping Lent only by a change
of diet from flesh to fish, is not a real fast,
but' an innovation utterly unknown to the
ancients, whose Lent fast was a strict and
rigorous abstinence from all food till the
evening. Their refreshment was only a
supper, and then it was indifferent whether
it was flesh, or any other food, provided it
was used with sobriety and moderation.
But there was no general rule about this
matter (See Fasting).
V. Lent was thought the proper season for
exercising more abundantly all sorts of
charity. Thus what persons spared from their
own bodies, by abridging them of a meal,
was usually given to the poor. They like
wise employed their vacant hours in visit
ing the sick and poor, in entertaining
strangers, and reconciling differences. The
imperial laws forbade all prosecution of men
in criminal actions, which might bring them
to corporal punishment and torture, during
this whole season. Lent was a time of

LESSONS

445

more than ordinary strictness and devotion,
and therefore, in many of the great churches,
they had religious assemblies for prayer and
preaching every day. They had also fre
quent communions at this time, at least on
every Sabbath and Lord's day. All public
games and stage-plays were prohibited at
this season ; as also the celebration of all
festivals, birthdays, and marriages, as un
suitable to the present occasion. The Church
of England lays down no laws, but the
principle which actuated men of old is the
same now as then (J. Taylor, vol. xiv. pp.
31, seq. : Bingham, bk. xxi. c. 1 : J. Daille de
Jejuniis et Quadra, lib. iv. : Blunt's Diet.
Theol. : Diet Christ. Ant., s. v.).
The Christians of the Greek Church
observe four Lents. The first commences
on the fifteenth of November, or forty days
before Christmas. The second is our Lent,
which immediately precedes Easter. The
third begins the week after Whit-Sunday,
and continues till the festival of St. Peter
and St. Paul. The number of days there
fore comprised in the Lent is not settled and
determined, but they are more or less, accord
ing as Whit-Sunday falls sooner or later.
Their fourth Lent commences the first of
August, and lasts no longer than till the
fifteenth. These Lents are observed with
great strictness and austerity. On Saturdays-
and Sundays they indulge themselves in
drinking wine and using oil, which are pro
hibited on other days. [H.]
LEONARD, ST. ; Deacon and Confessor :
commemorated in the English Calendar Nov.
6. He was a nobleman in the Court of Clovis,
but being converted by St. Remigius,
he embraced the religious life, and retired,
after spending some time in a monastery
near Orleans, to a desert place on the right
bank of the Sarthe, where he built a ceU.
The place is still known by the name St.
Leonard - des - Bois (Leonardus -de - Boscis).
There people flocked to him, and eventually
a monastery was built on the spot over which
he presided. He took a great interest in
prisoners ; and Clovis is said to have allowed
him to release such as he deemed worthy.
Hence he became the patron of prisoners,
and is represented as a deacon or a Benedic
tine Abbot, with chains in his hands, or a
chained prisoner near. He died about a.d.
570.— Diet Christ. Biog. vol. iii. 686. [H.]
LESSONS, I. among ecclesiastical writers,
are portions of tbe Holy Scriptures read
in churches in Divine service. In the
ancient Church, reading the Scriptures was
one part of the service of the catechumens,
at which all persons were allowed to be
present in order to obtain instruction.
The lessons in the unreformed offices were
in general very short. Nine lessons were
appointed to be read at matins on Sundays,.

446

LESSONS

and three on every week-day, besides a
chapter, or capitular, at each of the six daily
iservices. But of the nine Sunday lessons,
only three were from Scripture, the six others
being extracts from homilies or martyrolo
gies. At matins only was there anything like
a continuous lesson read. The capitula or
lectioner verses at the other services were
each nothing more than one verse (very
rarely two short verses) from Scripture, and
these were seldom varied. As to the matin
lessons, they did not on an average consist of
more than three verses each : for though the
three lessons were generally in sequence; the
¦sense was interrupted by the interposition
between each lesson of a reponsory, versicles,
and the Gloria Patri, so that edification was
thereby effectually hindered, as is remarked
in the Preface to our Common Prayer,
'" Concerning the Service of the Church."
II. The old Table of Lessons which had
lasted from the first Prayer Book of 1549
till 1872 was materially altered then, both in
the Common and the Proper Lessons for
.Sundays and holy days (See Lectionary).
The rubrics attached to it settled one
question differently from what yet seems
to be known to many clergymen, that it is
¦optional to read the Sunday lesson or the
Proper lesson for a holy day when they
concur, except for Advent, Easter, Whit-
Sunday and Trinity, when the Sunday
lessons must be read. The Ordinary, i.e.
the Bishop in this case, may authorize any
other lessons on special occasions, and proper
psalms also.
It has always been the understood law and
practice for laymen to read the lessons in
•church when desired by the incumbent or
the proper authority, as in college chapels
where old usages have been most preserved,
and the lessons were always read by
scholars or Bible clerks, or on great days
by the Master or Fellows. That alone,
according to well-known legal principles, is
_ interpretation of the law, unless plainly
contrary to its wbrds. Even in the more
important matter of the validity, though
not the propriety, of Lay Baptism (q.v.)
old usage was held to prevail against the
-apparently plain meaning of the rubric,
which only recognises " ministers " as autho
rized to baptize. But in the case of the
lessons there is a still more decisive reason
for the lawfulness of lay reading, viz. that
the old rubric of" the minister thatreadeth"
was changed in 1662 into " he that readeth."
Though some persons have doubted it, it is
no more really doubtful than the lawfulness
of laymen chanting the psalms, and conse
quently of one reading the alternate verses,
and the congregation the others, where they
are not chanted. But it is part of the com
mon law of the church, that laymen may

LETTERS
not read the prayers, or even the Epistle
and Gospel, which are expressly ordered to
be read by ministers ; and of course they
may not preach. The idea that bishops can
license them to do these ¦ things in church
has no legal foundation whatever; and for
reading or preaching anywhere else no
licence is wanted, or means anything except
the personal approval of the bishop. As a
surplice is the officiating dress, and not
merely clerical, and is worn by the scholars
who lead the lessons in coUege chapels on
" non-surplice days," at any rate at Cam
bridge, as well as by choristers generally
wherever things are done decently and in
order, it seems that lay readers of the
lessons ought to wear a surplice, and they
often do. It is said that Sir Thomas More
used to do so. [G.]
LETTERS COMMENDATORY. Letters
of Commendation. Persons going from one
place to another, whether on a religions
mission, or on business, would naturally
require some testimonial as to their ability
and honesty. St. Paul writing to the
Corinthians says, " Need we, as some others,
epistles of commendation to you, or of
commendation from you?" (2 Cor. iii. 1)
implying that in ordinary cases such would
be required. ApoUos, when he went into
Achaia, took letters to the disciples there
(Acts xviii. 27). The practice of giving
letters became universal in the Church, and
wherever the missioner or the traveller
went, if he had such letters of commendation
with him, he found help from his fellow
Christians. Tertullian calls it the "con-
tesseratio hospitalitatis " (De Prescript.
Her. c. 20). Such letters were considered
necessary, at all events with regard to those
in holy orders. "Let no strange bishop,
presbyter or deacon," it is enjoined in the
so-called Apostolical Canons, "be received
without letters commendatory " (c. 33). In
the synod held at Antioch in a.d. 341 it was
ordered that " no foreigner should be received
without ' pacific ' letters ; " and a distinction
was made between these and other commen
datory letters ; "Let not country presbyters
send canonical letters, or at all events to
neighbouring bishops only " (c. 7, 8). So
also in the Council of Chalcedon it was
decreed that those who were necessitous
should travel with "pacific" ecclesiastical
letters only (irrurrokals elpqviKais) ; for
letters commendatory were only for sus
pected persons (bid to ras o-uorarwtaj
iirwroXas Trpoo-r)Keiv rois oZci povois ev
vwokrjtyei napix^oSai Trpoo-dVoir, c. Xl.).
There seem to have been three grades of
letters commendatory, — those called "p-
cific," which were more or less begging
letters; those commending the holder to
the favour of another bishop (p-varanmi,

LETTERS
commendatitia, or commendatoria), and
those beseeching admission for the bearer
to the full communion (KoivaviKal) (Cyril
Alex. Act. Ephes. p. 282).
At the present day in the Church of
England if a clergyman goes from one
diocese to another, he must have a testi
monial signed by three beneficed clergymen,
and countersigned by the bishop of his
previous diocese, before he can be admitted
into any cure. Thus the old rule of letters
of commendation is carried out. [H.]
LETTERS DIMISSORY (imo-roXal
airoXvrucai. Literas formates). Letters given
by a bishop to one of his clerks removing
to another diocese ; or to a layman of his
diocese desiring to be ordained elsewhere.
Bishops were forbidden to ordain any one
from another diocese without letters dimis
sory from the bishop of that diocese in
many councils (Nicam. i. 16; Sardic. 16, 19;
Carthage i. c. 5 ; Trullo, &c). In England,
by a constitution of Archbishop Reynolds,
"Persons of religion shaU not be ordained
by any but their own bishop, without letters
dimissory of the said bishop; or in his
absence of his Vicar- General." By Canon
34 : " No person shall henceforth admit any
person into sacred orders which is not of
his own diocese, except he be either of one
•of the universities of this realm, or except
he shall bring letters dimissory from the
bishop of whose diocese he is." By Canon
35, a bishop or suffragan offending in this
respect is to be suspended ; and those who
shall be promoted to holy orders by other
than then- own bishop shall be suspended
from the exercise of such order till they
obtain a dispensation. When a bishop is
-"in parts remote," he who is especially
constituted Vicar-General has power to grant
letters dimissory (Lindwood, 26, 32; Gibson,
142 seq. ; Diet Christ Ant. 558). [H]
LETTERS OF ORERS (See Orders).
The bishop's certificate of his having ordained
a clergyman, either priest or deacon. Church
wardens may demand a sight of the letters
of orders of any one offering to assist in the
church of which they are the guardians.
Care should be taken by every incumbeut
when engaging a curate to see that he has
his letters of orders. From want of precau
tion on this point fraudulent persons have
at times obtruded themselves into the work
of the ministry, and though afterwards they
have been detected, and punished by the
law, yet serious difficulties have resulted
therefrom, as with regard to the vaUdity of
the ministerial offices which they have
illegally performed.
LEVITICUS, a canonical book of Scrip
ture, being the third book of the Pentateuch
of Moses; thus called because it contains
principally the laws and regulations relating

LIBERTINES

447

to the priests, the Levites, and sacrifices ;
for which reason the Hebrews call it the
priest's law, because it includes many
ordinances concerning sacrifices. The Jews
term it likewise Vajicra, because in Hebrew-
it begins with this word, which signifies,
" and lie called."
LIBELLATICI. A designation of one
kind of the lapsed from Christianity in times
of persecution. They are first mentioned
in the Decian persecution, and the origin of
the name seems to have been this. It is
probable that the emperor had decreed that
every one who was accused or suspected of
being a Christian, should be permitted to
purge himself before a magistrate, on which
occasion a libellus or certificate was given
him, that he had never been a Christian, or
that he had abjured the name of Christ.
Some Christians, who were not so abandoned
as to forsake the true faith utterly, were
yet weak and dishonest enough to procure
those libelli, or certificates, by fraudulent
compromise with the magistrate : thus
avoiding, as they might hope, the sin of
apostasy, and at the same time escaping the
sufferings and penalties of convicted Chris
tians. Also those men often procured
letters from the martyrs — that is to say,
persons already under sentence of death for
their reUgion, or at least such as had endured
some suffering, and were in prison, and
uncertain with regard to their fate — to
commend them to the consideration and
kindness of Christians, and urging that
they should be received as brethren worthy
of then- communion. The influence of such
letters from men who, as martyrs, were
almost idolised was very great, and many
bishops and presbyters were ready to admit
offenders who produced such letters. Against
this levity Cyprian, of Carthage, opposed
himseR. He pointed out that these letters
were given with no discrimination; that
they did not definitely describe the persons,
but merely said, " Receive A.B. ' cum suis '
with his friends." Sometimes a martyr
before his death commissioned a friend to
give letters in his name to all appUcants,
and some presbyters obeyed these letters
without consulting the bishop, and so
subverted ecclesiastical order. Cyprian,
who afterwards was himself a martyr, gained
his point. From his epistles we gain an
insight into the whole controversy (Ep. 10,
14, 15, 22, 27, 34, 40, &c. ; Mosheim, de Rebus
Christ, pp. 490 seq. ; Diet Christ. Ant 981).
LIBERTINES. A sect of Christian
heretics, who called themselves "Spirit
uals." The sect was originated by Anthony
Pockes, Gerhard Ruff, Quintin, and others
in Flanders about 1525 ; from thence they
passed into France, and were encouraged by
Margaret the Queen of Navarre, and other

448

LIGHTS

patrons or sections of the Reformed Church.
They maintained that whatsoever was done
by men, was done by the Spirit of God ; and
from thence concluded there was no sin, but
to those that thought it so, because all came
from God : they added, that to live without
any doubt or scruple, was to return to the
state of innocency, and allowed their fol
lowers to call themselves either Catholics or
Lutherans, according as the company they
lighted amongst, were. — Calvin's Tractatus
Theologici, pp. 599, seq. " Instructio adversus
fanaticam sectam Libertinorum qui se
Spirituales vocant."
LIGHTS, Ceremonial use of. Although,
according to the Jewish ritual, lamps were
continually kept burning in the temple, and
minute directions were given in the law in
respect of all details with regard to the oil,
the candlesticks, &c. (Ex. xxv. 31 ; xxxvii.
17 ; Lev. xxiv. 1, &c), yet there is no
evidence that lights were used in a sym
bolical sense, or in the ceremonial of wor
ship, in the apostolic times. It was, of
course, impossible in the days when the
Christian offices had to be performed in
secret, on account of persecution, to have
services with "blazing lights." But the
Eastern mind seems to have hankered
after the outward symbols, and Tertullian
speaks in terms of reprobation of the idea of
exposing useless candles at noonday (Apol.
xlvi.). Gregory Nazianzen also objects to
lights so used. " Let not," he says, " our
dwellings blaze with visible light, which is
the custom of the Greek holy-moon, and
exalt the present season (Easter) with un
becoming rites, but with purity of soul, and
with lamps that enlighten the whole body
of tbe church ; that is to say, with divine
contemplations and thoughts" (Orat. v.
sec. 35), though he also speaks' of a lighted
taper placed in hands of the baptized (Orat.
xl. de Bapt.). In the 4th century, however,
artificial light was used in the churches
during the daytime as a symbol. Tbe first
step was the burning of lights in honour of
martyrs, of which we have notice in the
Council of Eliberis in Spain (a.d. 305), in
which it was decreed that candles should
not be lighted in a cemetery during the day ;
the reason probably being that the practice
would excite the feelings of the heathens
against the Christians (Cone. Elib. c. 34).
The practice, however, was continued, and
Vigilantius, himself a Spaniard, inveighed
against it. To him, Jerome made answer,
and his answer shows another step with
regard to the use of lights. " Throughout
the churches of the East,", he says, " when
the Gospel is read, candles are lighted,
although the sun be shining— not for the
purpose of driving away darkness, but as au
outward sign of gladness ; that, under the

LIGHTS
type of an artificial illumination, that Light
may be symbolized of which we read in the
Psalter, "Thy word, 0 Lord, is a lantern
unto my feet, and a light unto mine eyes"
(Jerome, Ep. adv. Vigilant, iii.). Paulinus
bishop of Nola (a.d. 351-431), upheld the
practice in his Poemata, of which the
following is an example : —
""Nocte dieque micant. Sic non splendore diei
Fulget : et ipsa dies coelesti illustris honore
Plus micat iunumeris lucem geminata lucerais.''
— (Paulin. Bab. iii., St. Felicis.)
From this time lights were universally
used, chiefly in connection with the Sac
raments, and the reading of the Gospel, (i.)
Baptismal lights were probably the earliest
used ; tapers were placed in the hands of
the baptized, if adults ; and in the case of
infants, in the hands of the sponsors.
Sometimes the lights were multiplied, as in
the case of the baptism of Theodosius the
younger, a.d. 401, when "senators and men-
of quality," &c, carried lamps, "so that one
would have thought that the stars had
appeared upon earth " (Marcus Gazensis
ap. Baron., torn. v. p. 131). In the
Sacramentaries of Gelasius and Gregory,
directions are given with regard to the
holding of tapers by the readers, at each
" horn of the altar." At the font the
bishop, when he blessed the water, held .one
of the tapers in it, as part of the rite
(Murat. Liturg. Rom. Vet. torn. ii. col. 143).
(ii.) Gospel lights are mentioned by St. '
Jerome (ut supra), and Isidore (a.d. 595)
says that the acolytes of the Greeks are
called " ceroferarii " by the Latins, because
they carry the tapers when the Gospel is
read or the Eucharist is offered (Etymolog.
vi.). They are mentioned by many mediae
val writers, and it has been conjectured that
tire custom was derived from the Jews, who
had a lamp burning continually before the
book of the law in their synagogues (Le
Brun, i. 70). (iii.) Festival lights were used
around the tombs of martyrs (Greg. Diol.
lib. iii. c. 24), and especially on the anni
versary of their deaths, (iv.) The Feast of
the Purification was observed with many
lights, so that it was called Candlemas
(See Candlemas). " Every one," says Alcuin ¦
in the eighth century, "bears on that
occasion a taper when he goes into church"
(in Hypapanti, sec. 2), and the practice is
noticed by St. Bernard in the 12th century
(See Mansi, ii. 52). (v.) Funeral lights-
tapers being carried in procession are men
tioned by St. Jerome (Ep. xxvii.), St.
Chrysostom (Horn, in Heb. iv.), Theodoret
(v. 36), and others. In modern times
candles are burned round the body of an
illustrious man "lying in state," even in
such cases as that of Victor Hugo, who was
not a churchman, (vi.) The Paschal light

LIGHTS
was in the first instance a candle or lamp
lighted during the celebration of the Eu
charist. It was kept burning for a certain
time, and in early writers forms for the
benediction of the candle or lamp are found
(See Diet. Christ. Ant. p. 994). In the
Roman churches a lamp is always kept
burning when tbe Sacrament is reserved.
(vii.) Eucharistic lights were very generally
used, but it is impossible to say when the
custom commenced. There were two can
dles lighted above the altar, to symbolize
the Light of the world — Christ, God and
Man. To this, frequent references are
made in ancient writers. In England we
have the injunction of King Edgar, " Let
there be always lights burning when Mass
is singing" (Thorpe's Laws and Inst. ii.
253). After the Conquest Osmond, in his
consuetudinary, ordered the treasurer of the
cathedral to provide four candles on all
Sundays — two of which were to be placed
"insuper altari." So also by the Council
of Oxford (a.d. 1222) it was ordered that
two candles, "duo ad minus una cum 1am-
pade," should be burning at the altar at the
•celebration (Wilkins's Concil. i. 595), and
a constitution of Archbishop Reynolds (a.d.
1322) enjoins " let two candles, or one at
the least, be lighted at the Mass " (Wilkins's
Condi. 1, 714 ; see also Lindewood, 236).
At the Reformation superstitious ceremonies
with regard to lights were swept away, the
¦clergy receiving orders that "no torches,
nor candles, tapers or images of wax were
to be set before any image or picture, but
only two Ughts upon the high altar, before
the Sacrament, which, for the signification
¦that Christ is the very true light of the
world, they shall suffer to remain still"
(CardweU, Docum. Ann. i. 7). Queen
Elizabeth, though opposed to superstition,
yet had a crucifix, and " two candlesticks,
and two tapers burning on the altar" of
her chapel. And though objections were
made both by the archbishop of Canterbury
and Bishop Cox, •still it would appear that
vthese were rather directed to the use of the
•crucifix-; and nothing is said of the ille
gality of candles. For their use on the holy
table, we have the continuous sanction of
cathedrals, royal chapels, and colleges, down
to the time of the Rebellion ; and it could
be, and has been, shown that the replacing
these articles of ecclesiastical furniture at
the Restoration occasionally took place.
Bishop Cosin, for instance, speaking of the
manner in which the communion (not ought
to be, but) " is celebrated in our churches,"
¦says it "is after this manner : first of all, it
is enjoined, that the table or altar should be
-spread over with a clean linen cloth or other
•decent covering; upon which the Holy
Bible, the Common. Prayer Book, the plate

LITANY

449

and chalice, are to be placed ; two wax
candles are to be set upon it." It is
difficult to believe that, had this been un
lawful the practice should have been so
largely sanctioned by the heads of the
Church, especially by those who revised the
Prayer Book. But generally at the Resto
ration they were not revived, though it was
not till very recent times that the question
of their utility as symbols has been agitated.
It was not'our reformers who removed them
from the altar ; we have already shown that
they deliberately commanded their use : it
was the Puritans, who took their origin in
the days of Queen Elizabeth, from the re
fugees in Holland and Geneva during the
persecutions of the bloody Queen Mary.
There they learned a less Scriptural ritual,
which, working on the saturnine dispositions
of some, led eventually to the greatest ex
tremes of fanaticism, impiety, and crime.
In the Hierurgia Anglicana there are a
great many detailed proofs adduced of the
use of lights and candlesticks on the holy
table in the English Church, from the Re
formation downwards. The authorities are
aU given.
In the opinion of many ritualists, there
fore, the custom of the Church is with those
who use, and not with those who omit the
use of, lights, although custom is an argu
ment brought strongly against them. And
here also we may note that many commen
tators on the Prayer Book, whose judgment
we would look to with respect, agree in
declaring that it is the law and the custom
of the Church of England to retain the two
lights on the altar.
On the other hand it is to be remembered
that the injunctions of 1549 forbad any light
" upon the Lord's board at any time." And
though these had not the authority of Parlia
ment, the Privy Council has pronounced
against the legaUty of lighted candles (but
not candlesticks) at or just above the Table
when not bona fide required for light, in
Sumner (Bp.) v. Wix, 3 Ad. & Ecc. 58 ; Mar
tin v. Mackonochie, 2 P. C. 365 ; and Hebbert
v. Purchas, reversing a decision of Sir R.
Phillimore.— Strype, Annals Ref. 1559, p.
175 ; 1560, p. 200, fol. ed.; Cardwell's Doc.
Ann. xv; ; ii. sec. 3 ; Wheatly on Common
Prayer ; Nicholls on Common Prayer, Add.
Notes, p. 34 ; Proctor, p. 201 ; Maskell, Mon.
Rit i. 27 ; Diet Christ. Ant 993 ; Blunt's
Diet Theol. 414; Walcot's Sac. Arch. s.v.
Candles. [H.]
LITANY (Airaveia, litania, and tet
ania). Supplication or prayer ; called in
Latin also rogation, "Litania qua? Latine
rogatio dicitur, inde et Rogationes" (Ordo
Romanus). I. Tbe word, derived from \lo-a-opai, or
XiVojaai, was used by the ancient Greek
2 «

450

LITANY

writers to express earnest supplications,
especially to the gods in times of adverse
fortune ; and in the same sense " Litany "
is used in the Christian Church for " a sup
plication and common intercession to God,
when his wrath Ues upon us." Such a kind
of supplication was the fifty-first Psalm,
which begins with " Have mercy upon me,"
&c, and may be called David's Litany ;
such was that Litany of God's appointing
(Joel ii. 17), where, in a general assembly,
the priests were to say with tears, " Spare
thy people, 0 Lord," &c. ; and such was
that Litany of our Saviour (St. Luke xxii.
42), which kneeling he often repeated with
strong crying and tears (Heb. v. 7).
St. Paul reckons up " supplications " among
the kinds of Christian offices, which he
enjoins shall be daily used (1 Tim ii. 1) ;
which supplications are generally understood
to be Litanies for the removal of some great
evil. As for the form in which they are
now made, namely in short requests by the
ministers, to which the people all answer,
St. Chrysostom says it is derived from the
primitive age. In the apostoUc constitu
tions, portions of which were probably
written in the 2nd century, and others not
later than the 4th century, a form of suppli
cation is found resembling closely in struc
ture the Litanies with which we are familiar.
This was the form of the Christians' prayers
in Tertullian's time, on the days of their
appointment, Wednesdays and Fridays, by
which he tells us they obtained relief from
drought. Both the Western and Eastern
Church have ever since retained this way of
praying. Thus in St. Cyprian's time Chris
tians requested God for deliverance from
enemies, for obtaining rain, and for removing
or moderating his judgments ; and St.
Ambrose has left a form of Litany, which
bears his name, agreeing in many things
with our Litany. For when miraculous
gifts ceased, men began to write down many
of these primitive forms, which were the
original of our modern office. The " Kyrie
Eleison " was the earliest and simplest form
of Litany, and it was customary to repeat it
very frequently, sometimes as often as 300
times (Mabillon, Comm. in Ord. Rom. i. 2).
Mamertus, bishop of Vienne (a.d. 467),
composed a Litany to be used in consequence
of the great earthquakes which had terrified
the city. On the eve of the Easter festival,
while Holy Communion was being celebrated,
a terrific shock was felt, the people rushed
out of church, and the bishop was left alone
on his knees before the altar. Then he
resolved to devote the three days before
Ascension to rogations or litanies, depre
cating the divine anger. In a short time
Rogation days were appointed to be ob
served all through the Western Church (See

LITANY
Rogation Days). Soon after, Sidonius,
bishop of Clermont in Auvergne, upon the
Gothic invasion, made use of the same-
office; and in the year 511, the Council
of Orleans enjoined that Litanies should
be used at one certain time of the year,
in public procession. Csesarius, of Aries
(a.d. 501-542), speaks of the Rogation
days as " regularly observed by the Church-
throughout the world." In the next cen
tury, Gregory the Great, on the occasion
of a fatal pestilence at Rome, out of all
the Litanies extant, composed that famous-
sevenfold Litany, called Litania Septiformis,
from the fact that the people were ordered
to go in procession in seven distinct classes ;
which has been a pattern to all Western!
Churches ever since ; and ours comes nearer
to it than that in the present Roman missal,
wherein later popes had put in the invo
cation of saints, which our reformers have
justly expunged. This Litany of Gregory
was solemnized on St. Mark's day, and is-
hence sometimes called the Great Litany
of St. Mark (Mansi, xii. 400). By the
way we may note, that the use of Litanies-
in procession about the fields, came up only
in the time of Theodosius in the East, and
in the days of Mamertus of Vienne, and
Honoratus of Marseilles, in the year 460, in
the West ; and it was later councils which
enjoined the use of them in Rogation Week;
but the forms of earnest supplication were-
far more ancient and truly primitive.
II. It is not known whether Litanies were-
used in the early British Church ; but Bede-
tells us that St. Augustine with his followers,
when they first caught sight of Canterbury,
formed themselves into processions, and
chanted the Litany of St. Gregory mentioned)
above : " We beseech thee, O Lord, in all
thy mercy, that thy wrath and thine anger
may be removed from this city, and from
thy holy house, for we have sinned.
Alleluia." The Litany of St. Mark was also
adopted in England at the Council of
Cloveshoe, a.d. 747. From an early date
in England, Ascension Week was called
Gangweca, and Rogation days Gang-dsegasr
meaning "going" or procession days (See-
Gang-days). In the eighth century invo
cations of saints began to appear in the ,
Litanies. The Litany of the English Church.
had a long series in the following century,
one given by Muratori naming as many as
two hundred and two saints. In 1544 the
Committee of Convocation which had been
appointed two years before, consisting of
Thaxton Bp. of Salisbury, Goodrich Bp. of
Ely, and six clergy from the Lower House,
issued " the Litany in EngUsh." There had
been an English Litany "in many of the-
primers for more than a century and a half;
two are transcribed by Mr. Maskell from.

LITANY
MSS. in the Bodleian (Mon. Rit. Eccl. Any.
iii. 227, 233); but that of 1544 differed in
the omission of the names of the saints, and
in some additions from Hermann's Consul
tation. It retained three invocations " to
St. Mary, Mother of God," "to Angels and
Archangels," "to all Saints in the blessed
company of heaven," to " pray for us."
These were struck out in 1549, when also
the Litany was ordered to be used on
Wednesdays and Fridays before the Com
munion. At first it was evidently intended
to be used as a separate office. In 1552 it
was ordered also for Sundays, probably
because the mass of the people would not
otherwise hear it. In 1662 it was ordered
" to be said or sung after morning prayer,"
but the new Act of Uniformity (a.d. 1872)
allows it to be used as a separate service in
the morning or evening. An injunction by
Edward VI., repeated by Elizabeth, orders
the Litany to be said in the midst of the
church, for which reason a faldstool was
generally used (See Faldstool).
The Litany of our Church is not quite
the same with any other, but differs very
little from those of the Lutherans in Ger
many and Denmark. It is longer than
the Greek, but. shorter than the Roman,
which is half filled up with the names Of
saints invoked ; whereas we invoke, first, the
three Persons of the holy Trinity, separately
and jointly; then, in a more particular
manner, our Redeemer and Mediator, "to
whom all power is given in heaven and
earth" (St. Matt, xxviii. 18). The Litany
is usually divided into the Invocations, the
Deprecations, the Obsecrations, the Inter
cessions, the Versicles and Prayers. [H.]
In some choirs the Litany is sung by
two ministers, sometimes by a priest or
deacon, with a lay vicar, at other times by
laymen, at the faldstool in the centre of the
choir. The singing by two laymen seems
to have arisen from a misconstruction of
the ancient rules, which directed it to be
sung by two of the choir : but the choir in
cluded priests and deacons, and clergy in
orders, though of the second form. This is
clear from the 15th canon, which directs the
Litany to-be said at the appointed times by
|' the parsons, vicars, ministers, or curates,
in all cathedral, collegiate, parish churches
and chapels." Though at first sight the
word "vicars" may seem to include lay
vicars, its position between parsons (or
rectors) and ministers or curates, proves that
it does not : and does not make it lawful
for laymen to take the clerical parts of the
Litany, though of course they may say or
sing the responses. If the statutes of a few
cathedrals appear to allow it they cannot
prevaU against the general law. It is true
that the rubric is sUent as to who shall

LITURGY

451

say the Litany; but it is equally silent
about all the collects, which nobody has
ever imagined that lay vicars may say.
And it is the common law of the Church
that prayers may only be read by priests or
deacons, bearing in mind that the word
"priest" is often used in the rubrics as
manifestly meaning only minister. If not,
a great deal of the service could not be
performed at all by curates, who are only
deacons. It has been decided that deacons
may perform the marriage service, as they
constantly do, though only priests are
mentioned (See Lord Lyndhurst in R. v.
Millis in H. L. 1843). [G.]
As to the latter part of the Litany, the
rubric added at the last review is confir
matory of the ancient practice of the Church,
which assigned the performance of this part
to the priest, or superior minister. This is
observed in many choirs. And at Oxford
and Cambridge, on those days when the
Litany is performed before the university,
the vice-chanceUor, if in orders, reads. the
Lord's Prayer, and the remaining part.
LITER_ FORMATS (See Letters
Commendatory). LITURGIUM (Gr.). The name of a
book, in the Greek Church, containing the
three liturgies of St. Basil, St. Chrysostom,
and that of the Presanctified, said to be
composed by Pope Gregory, called Dialogus.
In celebrating these three liturgies, the
Greeks observe the following order. The
liturgy of St. Basil, as appears by the intro
duction, is sung over ten times in the year ;
namely, on the eve of Christinas day, on the
feast of St. Basil, on the eve of the feast of
Lights, on the Sundays of Lent, excepting
Palm Sunday, on the Festival of the Virgin,
and on the Great Sabbath. The liturgy
of the Presanctified is repeated every day
in Lent, the forementioned days excepted.
The rest of the year is appropriated to the
liturgy of St. Chrysostom (See Liturgy).
LITURGY. This term, adopted into
Christian Greek to denote any sacred office or
function, became specifically applied to what
we caU the Church service, and still more
especially to the great Eucharistic service,
and to the forms into which these acts of wor
ship were cast. The Eastern church now
uses it, with such descriptive appellations as
" divine " or " mystical," for the Eucharistic
service, which the Latin church prefers to
call missa. Among ourselves " liturgy " is
popularly used for the ordinary prescribed
service, although accurate writers on the
subject restrict it to the service of Holy
Communion. The history of liturgic forms
in the wider sense goes back to the Lord's.
Prayer and the forms of baptism and of the
Eucharistic institution, and to such germs of
hymnody or profession . of faith as may be
"2 a 2

452

LITURGY

LITURGY

discerned in some passages of the apostolic
epistles. The recently discovered portion of
St. Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians con
tains specimens of intercessory prayer used
in Church service. There was doubtless
great freedom as to the language of Eucha
ristic worship, e.g. in the period represented
by Justin Martyr : and yet the extant liturgic
documents of a later age, belonging to
different regions of ancient Christendom,
exhibit such an agreement in general order
and sequence as may reasonably be traced
back to apostolic or sub-apostolic sanction.
¦ An outUne would then exist, which various
Churches would fill in at discretion : and
hence grew up the five types or families of
liturgies, three Eastern — the West-Syrian,
the East-Syrian, the Alexandrian ; and two
Western — the Hispano-GaUic and. the Ro
man. A brief reference may be made to
indications of liturgic worship which are
found in the remains of antiquity. The
famous letter of Pliny the younger says that
the Christians used to sing alternately a
hymn to Christ as God : Irenasus mentions
a Catholic form of thanksgiving; a some
what later author speaks of hymns used by
the brethren. Tertullian refers to the rites
of baptism, the Amen at the Eucharist, the
. topics of prayer for the emperor : some " acts ' '
of martyrdom allude to the mode of com
municating: Origen quotes short prayers
usual in the church : Dionysius mentions
the Amen of the communicant : Cyprian
refers to the Sursum corda, and FirmUian, of
Ccesarea in Cappadocia, to the Eucharistic
invocation, apparently to the recitation of
the Eucharistic institution, and to the baptis
mal renunciations: Gregory Thaumaturgus,
. of Neoc«sarea,was believed to have appointed
certain forms of prayer : the mode of
Eucharistic administration at Rome is at
tested by Pope Cornelius. In the fourth
century Arnobius describes the intercessory
forms in use : Constantine " recited prescribed
prayers " : Cyril of Jerusalem, in his cate
chetical lectures, describes the baptismal
and Eucharistic services of his own church :
St. Athanasius alludes to bidding prayers,
,and to the usual response : Julian the apos
tate, according to Gregory of Nazianzus,
endeavoured to imitate for heathen use the
: Christian forms of responsive prayer, of
"initiation," of "consecration." St. Hilary
compiled a book of sacramental offices. A
bishop banished under Valens recited, be
fore leaving his church, what is called
" the evening service ; " and the Council of
Laodicea prescribed the same "liturgy of
prayers" for 3 p.m. and for the evening.
St. Basil mentions hymns, and heads of
bidding prayer, and the then varying forms
of the ordinary doxology : and Gregory of
Nazianzus says that he composed forms of

prayer,- out of which the liturgy called hy
his name was probably developed. Epi
phanius gives samples of prayer for bishops :
and Mr. Hammond has " arranged in then-
proper liturgical order the most characteristic
of those passages " of St. Chrysostom which
refer to the rites then . in use at Antioch
or Constantinople, — remarking at the same
time that we have no good evidence for the
statement that he himself composed a liturgy.
St. Augustine simUarly illustrates the liturgic
use of the Church of Africa : e.g. he mentions
the Sursum corda, tbe deacon's bidding
prayer, and a brief prayer for the persever
ance of the faithful, &c. African councils
ordered that prayer at the altar should be
addressed to the Father, and that no bishop
should prescribe any prayers for his own
church's use which had not been carefully
examined and approved in synod. This
was a judicious restriction of the "jus
liturgicum," or the right of the diocesan over
the worship of his church, which ill-informed
prelates might have abused. The most
solemn part of the liturgy, beginning with
tbe Sursum corda and including the conse
cration, is technically called the " anaphora "
and the " canon."
The existing liturgies called by the names
of St. James, St. Mark, and St. Clement,
have, it need not be said, no , right to
authorship so venerable. The "liturgy of
St. James," in the Greek and Syriac forms,
represents the ancient rite of West Syria iu
a certain stage of its development, the name
of St. James indicating its connexion with
Jerusalem. A large part of the Greek form
agrees so well with the Syriac, that both
must so far be traced to a period earlier than
the severance of the Syrian Christians from
the orthodox in the middle of the fifth
century : much of it, again, reminds us of
Cyril's description of the service of the
fourth. On the other hand, a good deal is
clearly of later date, as is the case with other
great Eastern liturgies. The "liturgy of
St. Mark " is a form of the Alexandrian rite
modified under the influence of Constanti
nople : the Alexandrian characteristics are
thought to be better preserved in the Coptic
service called after St. Cyril. The " liturgy
of St. Clement," found in the " Apostolical
Constitutions," is considered by some to be
"the prototype of the West Syrian family,"
and "accurately to represent the general
mode " of Eucharistic celebration prior to the
fourth century : others assign to it a later date
and an inferior value. The present liturgy
of St. Basil is regarded as a " derivative from
" St. James," and that of St. Chrysostom
and the Armenian are similarly called off
shoots of St. Basil. Of the East-Syrian
liturgies, now used only by the Nestorian
Christians, the oldest is that called after

LITURGY
Adasus and Maris, who are named among
the evangelizers of that region. " To this
family also," says Mr. Hammond, " belonged
the original Uturgy of the Christians of St.
Thomas on the Malabar coast of India."
He uses the name " Hispano-GaUican " for
the family which some call Ephesine and
connect with St. John ; there being a
marked affinity between the Gallican litur
gies and the Mozarabic or old Spanish, and
between these together and the Eastern
types. In fact, the "Hispano-GaUican family"
stands between the Eastern and the Roman.
That the church of Lyons was a daughter of
the church of Ephesus is one of those facts
in church history which iUustrate the subject
of liturgiology. The Gallican " use " had
great variety and flexibility. The " missals "
called Gothic, Gallic, and Frankish, are
supposed to represent the ancient rites of
Southern, Central, and North- Western Gaul.
To these may be added a sacramentary or
missal discovered by Mabillon at Bobbio, and
some other liturgic fragments. The Moz
arabic rite, stiU allowed to exist in a very
few Spanish churches, is elaborate and richly
poetical. In South Britain, before the
mission of St. Augustine of Canterbury, the
rites used were doubtless akin to the Galli
can ; while the Irish used both the Roman
and the Gallican or Gallico- British liturgies.
The Roman Liturgy, sometimes called after
St. Peter, is thought to have in fact super
seded a Greek liturgy used in the earlier
Roman Church. " The canon," as we know
it, must have existed before Leo the Great,
probably before Innocent I., who mentions
two features of the rite of his own time :
but it was not completed until the days of
Gregory the Great. Before Gregory's time,
Gelasius I. had composed some Eucharistic
prayers and prefaces, and added them to
earlier compositions: his work was revised
and condensed by Gregory, who also placed
the Lord's Prayer just after the canon,
instead of after the " fraction." The Roman
rite, as thus settled, was doubtless intro
duced by Augustine into the EngUsh Church,
probably with but scanty use of Gregory's
permission to adopt at discretion either
Roman or non-Roman observances. The
Ambrosian rite is substantiaUy akin to the
Roman : " its coincidences with the GaUican
are few and unimportant."
In the pre-Reformation period the English
Church had several " uses " or missals, the
chief being that of Sarum, compiled by
Osmund, bishop of Sarum (a.d. 1078). But
the canon was the same in them aU. The
diversities of use in Ireland appear to have
been removed by the synod of Kells (a.d.
1192) when the Roman rites were estab
lished," and the use of Sarum was generally
adopted. ' [W. B.]

LOLLARDS

453

LITURGY OF THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND (See Prayer Book).
LOGOS (See Word, The).
LOLLARDS. The derivation of this
word is not clear. Some have imagined
it to be derived from "lolium," darnel or
tares ; but this was probably an invention
of the monks, who would naturally regard
the Lollards as weeds, and indeed they are
referred to as such in the Bulls of Gregory
XI. (a.d. 1377). There was a certain
Walter Lolhardus, who was burned for
heresy at Cologne a.d. 1332, but it is a
question whether his name was a real one,
or merely a surname or epithet applied to
him. It would seem most probable that
the word was derived from the German
" lollen," to sing softly, so that Walter's
epithet implied merely that he went about
singing in undertone his ideas, and in fact
was only one Of those who, assisting at
funerals and other offices, used their position
to work, as they thought, reforms. In
England the term " LoUards " is connected
with Wiclif, who was supposed to be then-
leader (See Wiclifites). These Lollards,
in 1395, having affixed libels against the
clergy in the most public places in the
p capital, had prepared an inflammatory peti
tion to be presented to the House of Com
mons. "This instrument," says Lingard,
" is a strange compound of fanaticism and
foUy" (Hist, of Eng. iv. 233). But there
is no doubt that the LoUards struck a blow
against the evil doings of the celibate clergy,
and their immoral lives, and also against
transubstantiation, and other superstitious
errors. The Lollards in England went into
extravagant extremes, but with regard to
these Wiclif could not be caUed their leader.
He may justly be accounted one of the
greatest men that our country has produced.
He is one of the very few who have left
the impress of their minds, not only on their
own age, but on all time. He it was, who
first, in the middle ages, gave to faith its
subjective character. His first grand position
was taken on the ground of faith — we are
not to accept as truth what we do not
believe. He then asserted, that we cannot
beUeve what we cannot prove, or what has
not been proved to others on whose judg
ment and veracity we rely, and who are
ready to produce their proofs, on demand.
His next step was, to maintain that the
only proof by which we can establish a
disputed proposition in revealed religion
must be deduced from the Bible. The
Bible only is the infaUible Word of God.
What the Church cannot read therein, or
prove thereby, no man can be caUed upon to
believe. Therefore the Bible must be trans
lated, and he translated it (See Bible).
Here was his principle. In the apphcation

454

LOMBARDICKS

of it however he fell into many and great
errors, and in many of his opinions he seems
to have been fluctuating and inconsistent.
The Lollards, who were called his foUowers,
magnified his errors, and the trouble which
Wiclif had to endure arose less from his own
actions or teaching, than from the political
strife into which his foUowers brought him.
When Wiclif was tried before Archbishop
Courtenay at Blackfriars a.d. 1377-82, twenty-
four charges were brought against him. Of
these, article 4. was that a bishop or priest,
if he be in mortal sin, does not ordain, con
secrate, nor baptize : art. 5. that if a man
be contrite all exterior confession is useless to
him : art. 6. that there is no foundation in
the Gospel for Christ's ordaining the Mass
(but probably Wichf intended the idea of
Holy Communion in its place) : art. 14. that
it is contrary to Holy Scripture that ecclesias
tical men should have temporal possessions :
art. 18 : that tithes are pure alms, and that
the parishioners are able to detain them
because of the wickedness of their curates,
and bestow them on others at their pleasure.
Other articles were directed against the
abuses of the times (Wilkins, Concil. iii.
157). Wiclif himself had one object in
view, the reformation of abuses ; though as
a reformer, as is generaUy the case, he went
into extremes. The Lollards, however, after
his death, which took place in 1384, became
a turbulent political faction, and measures
were frequently taken against them. The
most prominent trial for Lollardism was that
of Sir John Oldcastle, commonly called Lord
Cobham, who at first escaped, but afterwards,
leading a revolutionary party, was condemned
and burnt to death. He seems to have
been a fanatic with regard to reUgion, but
LoUardism at that time was of a political
rather than a religious character. . That
some of the bishops were inclined to ;deal
leniently with Lollardism is evidenced by
the instance of LoUard Towers attached to
some episcopal palaces ; which seems to
imply that the bishops did not wish to hand
over the Lollards to the civil power, but
imprisoned them in their domain, at their
own expense. — Milner's Hist, qf Church,
cent. xiv. ch. iii. ; Holinshed, Hen. V.j Ant.
Wood's Antiq. Oxon. vol. i. p. 183 seq. ;
Middleton's Biog. Evan. vol. i. p. 1 seq. ;
Wilkins, ut sup. ; Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. ;
Hook's Archbishops, iii. 76 : iv. 511. [H.]
LOMBARDICKS. Flat tombstones,
generally of granite or alabaster, coffin
shaped, with a slightly raised cross in the
centre, and a legend running round it.
LORD, OUR LORD. The Lord Jesus
Christ is such to us, as He is,
1. Our Saviour.
I will place salvation in Zion (Isa. xlvi.
13). Behold thy salvation cometh (Isa,

LORD
lxii. 11). I speak in righteousness, mighty
to save (Isa. Ixiii. 1). Thou shalt call his
name Jesus, for he shall save his people
from their sins (St. Matt. i. 21). The Father
sent the Son to be the Saviour of the world
(1 St. John iv. 14). To be a Prince and
a Saviour (Acts v. 31). The author of
eternal salvation (Heb. v. 9). God our.
Saviour (Tit. ii. 10). The great God, and
even our Saviour Jesus Christ (Tit, ii,
13). God hath not appointed us to wrath;
but to obtain salvation by our Lord
Christ Jesus (1 Thess. v. 9). That tho
world through him might be saved (St. John
iii. 17). This is a faithful saying, Sec, that
Jesus Christ came into the world to save
sinners (1 Tim. i. 15). Neither is there
salvation in any other ; for there is none
other name under heaven given among
men, whereby we must be saved (Acts
iv. 12. i. See also St. Matt. i. 21 ; xviii 11 ;
St.Lukeii.il; St. John iii. 17; iv.42; xii.
47 ; Acts xv. 11 ; Rom. v. 9 ; x. 9 ; Eph.
v.23; Phil. iii. 20; 1 Thess. i. 10; Heb. ii.
3 ; vii. 25 ; Tit., iii. 5, 6).
2. Our Sacrifice for sin.
The SpiiR>— testified beforehand the
sufferings of. Christ (1 St. Pet. i. 11). Be
hold the Lamb, of God, which taketh away
(beareth) the sin of the world (St. John i.
29). The Lamb slain from the foundation
of the , world (Rev. xiii. 8). Christ oui
passover is. sacrificed (slain) for us (1 Cor.
v. 7). Christ died for our sins according
to the Scriptures (1 Cor. xv. 3). His own
self bare our sins in his own body on the
tree (1 St. Pet. ii. 24). And hath given him
self for us, an offering and a sacrifice to
God (Eph. v. 2). An offering for sin
(Isa. liii. 10). Once offered to bear the sins
of many (Heb. ix. 28). Thus it behoved
Christ to suffer (St. Luke xxiv. 46). The
just for the unjust, that he might bring us
to God (1 St. Pet. iii. 18). Hereby perceive
we the love of God, because he laid down
his life for us (1 St. John iii. 16. See also
Isa. liii. 6 — 12 ; Dan. ix. 26 ; St. Luke xxiv.
26 ; St. John iii. 14, 15 ; xv. 13 ; Acts iii.
18; xxvi. 23; Rom. iv. 25; 2 Cor. v. 21;
Heb. ix. 26 ; x. 5 ; 1 St. John i. 7 ; ii. 2).
3. Our Redeemer.
I know that my Redeemer liveth, and
that he shall stand at the latter day upon
the earth (Job xix. 25). The redeemer
shall Come to Zion (Isa. lix. 20). Christ
hath redeemed us from the curse of the law,
being made a curse for us (Gal. iii. 13).
Redeemed with the precious blood of Christ
(1 St.Pet. i. 18, 19). Having obtained eternal
redemption for us (Heb. ix. 32. See also
Job xxxiii. 23, 24; St. Matt. xxvi. 28; Rom.
iii. 24; 1 Cor. i. 30 ; Eph. i. 7; Rev. v. 9).
4. Our Mediator.
There is one Mediator between God and

LORD
man, the man Christ Jesus (1 Tim. ii. 5).
He is the Mediator of a new — a better
—covenant (Heb. viii., 6; xii. 24). The
Mediator of the New Testament (Heb. ix.
¦15). No man cometh to the Father but
by me (St. John xiv. 6. See also Job ix. 2 ;
St. John xvi. 23 ; Heb. vii. 25 ; xi. 9 ; 1 St.
Pet. ii. 5).
¦ 5. Our Advocate.
We have an advocate with the Father,
Jesus Christ the righteous (1 St. John ii. 1.
See also Heb. ix. 24).
6. Our Intercessor.
He saw that there was no man, and
wondered that there was no Intercessor ;
therefore his arm brought salvation (Isa.
!iix. 16). He made intercession for the
transgressors (Isa. liii. 12). He ever liveth
to make intercession for them (Heb. vu.
25. See also Rom. viii. 34).
7. Our Propitiation.
He is the propitiation for our sins : and
not for ours only, but also for the sins of
the whole world (1 St. John u. 2). Whom
God hath set forth to be a propitiation,
through faith in his blood (Rom. iii. 25).
8. Our Ransom.
- He is gracious unto him, and saith,
Deliver him from going down to the pit, I
have found a ransom' (Job xxxin. 24).
The Son of man came — to give his life a
ransom for many (St. Matt. xx. 28). A
ransom for all to be testified in due time
<1 Tim. ii. 6).
9. Our Righteousness.
Their righteousness is of me, saith the
Lord (Isa. liv. 17). 27»e righteousness of
God which is in faith by Jesus Christ to
all (Rom. iii. 22). The Lord our right
eousness (Jer. xxiii. 6. See also Isa. lxi.
10 ; Dan. ix. 24 ; 1 St. John U. 1, 29).
10. Our Wisdom.
Christ Jesus, who of God is made unto
us wisdom (1 Cor. i. 17, 30. See also Isa.
ix. 6 ; Eph. i. 17 ; iii. 4).
11. Our Sanctification.
Jesus also, that he might sanctify tlie
_oeople with his own blood, suffered with
out the gate (Heb. xiii. 12). We are
sanctified through the offering of the body
of Jesus Christ (Heb. x. 10. See also
Mai. iii. 3 ; St. Matt. hi. 12 ; St. John xvii.
19 ; 1 Cor. i. 2 ; vi. 11 ; Eph. v. 25, 26 ;
Heb. x. 14; 1 St. John i. 7).
(Of him are ye in Christ Jesus, who of
¦God is made unto us wisdom, and right
eousness, and sanctification, 1 Cor. i. 30).
12. Our Lord and our God. "
St. John xx. 28.
II. As He is,
1. The Messiah.
Messiah the prince (Dan. ix. 25, 26). We
Rave found the Messias, which is, being inter-

LORD

455

preted, the Christ (the anointed) (St. John
i. 41). Anointed — to preach good tidings
unto the meek (Isa. lxi. 1). To preach
the gospel to the poor, &c. (St. Luke iv. 18).
2. The Head of the Church.
Christ is the Head of the Church (Eph.
v. 23). God — gave him to be the liead
over all. things to tlie Church, which is his
body (Eph. i. 22, 23. See also Ps. cxvui.
22; St. Matt. ii. 6; xxi. 42; St. John x.
14 ; Acts iv. 11 ; Rom. xii. 5 ; 1 Cor. vi.
15 ; xii. 27 ; Eph. ii. 20 ; iv. 12—15 ; v.
29 ; Col. i. 18, 24 ; Heb. iii. 1 ; xiii. 20 ; 1
St. Pet. ii. 6, 25).
3. The Power of God.
Unto them which are called — Christ the
power of God (1 Cor. i. 24). Declared to
be the Son of God with power (Rom. i. 4).
The brightness of his glory, and the express
image of his person, and upholding all
things by the word of his power (Heb. i.
3). For in him dwelleth all the fullness of
the Godhead bodily (Col. ii. 9. See also
St. Matt. ix. 6 ; xi. 27 ; xxviii. 18 ; St. Luke
iv. 32 ; Acts xx. 32 ; Eph. i. 20, 21 ; Col. ii.
10 ; 2 Tim. i. 12 ; 1 St. Pet. iii. 22 ; Rev. xi.
15). 4. The Truth.
Iam the truth (St. John xiv. 6). Grace
and truth came by Jesus Christ, — the only
begotten of the Father, full of grace and
truth (St. John i. 17, 14). Tlie Amen, the
faithful and true witness (Rev. iii. 14.
See also Isa. xlu. 3 ; St. John viii. 14, 32 ;
xviii. 37; 2 Cor. xi. 10; Eph. iv. 21; I
St. John v. 20 ; Rev. xix. 11 ; xxii. 6).
5. The King of kings, and Lord of lords.
Rev. xvii. 14 ; xix. 16. And see also
Ps. Ixxxix. 27; Dan. vii. 14, 27; Zech.
xiv. 9 ; 1 Tim. vi. 15 ; Rev. i. 5 ; xi. 15.
6. The Lord of Glory.
1 Cor. ii. 8 ; St. Jas. ii. 1.
7. The Lord of All.
Jesus Christ, he is Lord of all (Acts
x. 36). To this end Christ both died, and
rose, and revived, that he might be Lord
both of the dead and living (Rom. xiv.
9). And that every tongue should confess
that Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil. ii. 11.
See also Josh. v. 14 ; MicaV v. 2 ; St. John
xiii. 13 ; xvi. 15 ; Acts ii. 36 ; Rom. x. 12 ;
1 Cor. viii. 6 ; xii. 5 ; xv. 47 ; 2 Thess. i. 7;
2 Tim. iv. 8 ; Col. iii. 24 ; Heb. i. 2 ; ii. 8 ;
xiii. 20 ; Rev. i. 8 ; v. 5).
III. Through Him we have,
1. Grace (St. John i. 16 ; Acts xv. 11 ;
Rom. i. 5; iii. 24; v. 2, 15—21; xvi. 20,
and similar passages. 1 Cor. i. 4 ; xv. 10 ;
2 Cor. viii. 9 ; xii. 9 ; Eph. i. 7 ; ii. 7 ; iv.
7 ; vi. 24 ; 1 Tim. i. 2, 14; 2 Tim. i. 9; 2
St. Pet. iii. 18).
2. Power (1 Cor. i. 18 ; 2 Cor. xii. 9 ;
Eph. vi. 8 ; Phil. iv. 13 ; Col. i. 29 ; 1 Tim.

456

LORD

i. 12; 2 Tim. i. 9, 12; Heb. ii. 14, 18;
xiii. 21).
3. Faith (St. Matt. ix. 2 ; St. John vi. 45
Acts xxvi. 18 ; iii. 16 ; Rom. iii. 22, 25
v. 2; 1 Cor. iii. 5; Gal. ii. 20; iii. 22
Eph. ii. 8 ; Phil. i. 29 ; iii. 9 ; Col. ii. 5, 7
1 Tim. iii. 13 ; iv. 6 ; 1 St. Pet. ii. 6 ; 1 St.
John v. 14).
4. Forgiveness of sins (Zech. xiii. 1 ; St.
Matt. ix. 6 ; St. Luke xxiv. 47 ; St. John i.
29 ; Acts ii. 38 ; v. 31 ; x. 43 ; xui. 38 ; Rom.
viii. 1 ; 2 Cor. ii. 10 ; Eph. i. 7 ; iv. 32 ;
Heb. ix. 26 ; 1 St. John ii. 12 ; Rev. i. 5).
5. Justification (Isa. liii. 11 ; Acts xiii.
39 ; Rom. iii. 24, 26 ; iv. 25 ; v. 1, 9, 16,
18; viii. 1; x. 4; 1 Cor. vi. 11; Gal. ii.
16, 21 ; iii. 8, 11, 24; Phil. iii. 9; Tit. iii.
7)- 6. Patience (Ps. xxxvii. 7, with 2 Thess.
iii. 5 ; 1 Thess. i. 3 ; 2 Thess. i. 4; 2 Tim.
ii. 24 ; Heb. vi. 12 ; x. 36 ; xii. 1 ; St. James
v. 7, 8; Rev. i. 9; ii. 2, 3, 19 ; iii. 10; xiv.
12). 7. Light (Isa. xlix. 6 ; St. Luke ii. 32 ;
St. John i. 9 ; iii. 19 ; viii. 12 ; ix. 5 ; xii. 35,
36, 46 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4, 6 ; Eph. v. 14 ; 1 St. John
ii. 8 ; Rev. xxi. 23).
8. Life (St. John i. 4 ; iii. 36 ; v. 21, 24 ;
vi. 27, 33, 40 ; x. 10, 28 ; xi. 25 ; xiv. 6 ;
xx. 31 ; Acts iii. 15 ; Rom. v. 15 — 21 ; vi.
8, 11, 23; viii. 2; xiv. 9; 1 Cor. xv. 22;
2 Cor. iv. 10; Phil. i. 21; Col. iii. 4; 1
Thess. v. 10 ; 2 Tim. i. 1, 10; 1 St. John i.
1 ; ii. 25 ; iv. 9 ; v. 11, 12, 20 ; St. Jude,
ver. 21).
9. Peace (Isa. ix. 6 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 25 ;
Zech. ix. 10 ; St. Luke i. 79 ; ii. 14 ; xix. 38 ;
St. John xiv. 27 ; xvi. 33 ; Acts x. 36 ; Rom.
i. 7, and the similar passages, and v. 1 ; x.
15; Eph. ii. 14—17; vi. 15; Phil. iv. 7;
Col. i. 20 ; 1 St. Pet. v. 14).
10. Blessing (Gal. iii. 14 ; Eph. i. 3 ; 2
Tim. iv. 22).
11. All we need (Ps. xxiii. 1 ; St. John
xv. 7, 16 ; 1 Cor. viii. 6 ; Phil. iv. 19).
12. Joy and consolation (St. Luke ii. 25 ;
St. John xvi. 20 ; Rom. v. 11 ; xv. 13 ; 2 Cor.
i. 5; Phil. ii. 1; iii. 1; iv. 4; 2 Thess. ii.
16). 13. Victory (Rom. viii. 37; 1 Cor. xv.
57 ; 2 Cor. ii. 14 ; 1 St. John iv. 4 ; v. 4, 5 ;
Rev. xii. 11).
14. The kingdom of heaven (St. Luke
xxii. 28, 29 ; St. John xiv. 3 ; Eph. ii. 6 ;
v. 5 ; 1 Thess. iv. 17 ; 2 Tim. ii. 12 ; iv. 8;
2 St. Pet. i. 11 ; Rev. iii. 21 ; xxi. 22).
IV. Through Him we are,
1. Reconciled to God (Dan. ix. 24; St.
John xi. 52 ; Rom. v. 1, 10 ; xi. 15 ; 2 Cor.
v. 18, 19 ; Eph. i. 10 ; u. 13, 16 ; iii. 6 ;
Col. i. 20, 21; Heb. ii. 17; 1 St. John iv.
.10). 2. Made sons of God (Isa. lvi. 5 ; St. Luke

LORD
xii. 32 ; St. John i. 12 ; Gal. iii. 26 ; iv. 5—7 ?
Eph. i. 5 ; 1 St. John Ui. 1).
V. Through Him we must,
1. Offer thanks (Rom. i. 8; vii. 25-,
Eph. i. 6; v. 20; Col. iii. 17; 1 Thess. v'
18 ; Heb. xiii. 15 ; 1 St. Pet. ii. 5).
2. Give glory to God (St. John xiv. 13 ;
Rom. xvi. 27 ; 2 Cor. vui. 23 ; Eph. iii. 21 •
1 St. Pet. iv. 11).
3. Be accepted (Eph. i. 6).
VI. In Him we must,
1. Have faith (Isa. xxviii. 16 ; St. John
i. 12 ; iii. 16 ; vi. 29, 47 ; xx. 31 ; Acts xvi.
31 ; xviii. 8 ; xx. 21 ; xxiv. 24 ; Rom. ix.
33 ; x. 9 ; Gal. ii. 16 ; Eph. ii. 8; Phil. i.
29 ; 2 Tim. i. 13 ; 1 St. John ii. 22 ; iii. 23 ;
v. 1, 10).
2. Hope (Acts xxviii. 20; 1 Cor. xv.
19; Col. i. 27; 1 Tim. i. 1).
3. Trust (2 Cor. i. 20; iii. 4; xi. 10;
Eph. i. 12).
4. Die (Rom. vii. 4; viii. 10, 36; 1 Cor.
iv. 9 ; ix. 15 ; xv. 31 ; 2 Cor. i. 5 ; iv. 10;
1 ; vi. 9 ; Phil. ii. 30).
2. Become new creatures (2 Cor. iv. 16 ;
v. 17 ; Gal. vi. 15).
6. Have our conversation (St. John xv.
16, 22 ; Rom. vi. 4 ; viii. 9 ; xiii. 14; 1 Cor.
iii. 23; 2 Cor. iv. 10; xiii. 5; Gal. i. 10;
ii. 17 ; v. 24 ; Eph. iii. 19 ; iv. 15 ; vi. 6 ;„
Phil. i. 10, 11, 27 ; ii. 5, 21 ; iii. 18 ; Col,
i. 10 ; ii. 6 ; iii. 1, 16 ; 1 Thess. ii. 11, 12;
iv. 1 ; 2 Tim. ii. 1—3, 19 ; Tit. ii. 10; Heb.
ix. 14 ; 1 St. Pet. iii. 16 ; Rev. vii. 14).
VII. In His name,
1. We are exhorted (1 Cor. i. 10; iii.
1 ; v. 4; 1 Thess. iv. 1, 2; 1 Tim. v. 21;.
vi. 13 ; 2 Tim. iv. 1).
2. We must speak (Rom. ix. 1, 2 ; 2 Cor.
ii. 17 ; xii. 19 ; 1 Tim. ii. 7).
3. We must ask (St. Matt, xviii. 19, 20;
St. John xiv. 13 ; xv. 7 ; xvi. 23, 24 ; 2 Cor.
xii. 8, 9 ; 1 St. John v. 14, 15).
VIII. We must,
1. Acknowledge His power (Isa. Ixiii.
1—6 ; St. John v. 23 : Rom. xiv. 11 ; Phil, ik
10, 11 ; Rev. v. 13).
2. Confess His name (St. Matt. x. 32;,
St. Luke xii. 8, 9 ; Acts viii. 37 ; Phil. ii. 11 ;
1 St. John iv. 15 ; 2 St, John, ver. 7 ; Rev..
ii. 13; iii. 8).
3. And in His name do all things (Eph.
vi. 7 ; Col. iii. 17, 23).
IX. In Him we are united.
Rom. viii. 17, 39 ; xii. 5 ; xvi. 7, 9 — IS?
1 Cor. i. 13 ; iii. 1 ; vi. 15; vii. 22; x. 17;.
xii. 13, 20, 27; 2 Cor. xii. 2; Gal. i. 22;
iii. 27, 28 ; Eph. i. 10, 22, 23 ; ii. 14, 16,.
21 ; iii. 6 ; iv. 12, 16, 20, 25 ; v. 30; Col.

LORD'S DAY
i. 18, 24; 1 Thess. iv. 16; Heb. iii. 14;
1 St. John i. 3 ; v. 20.
X. For Him we must suffer.
St. Matt. v. 11, 12 ; xvi. 24 ; Acts xiv. 22 ;
Rom. v. 3 ; viii. 17 ; 1 Cor. iv. 9 ; 2 Cor.
i. 5; iv. 10; vi. 10; vii. 4; xii. 10; Gal.
ii. 20; Phil. i. 12; iii. 8; Col. i. 24; 1
Thess. iii. 3; 2 Tim. ii. 11, 12; iii. 12;
Heb. x. 34 ; xi. 26 ; xiii. 13 ; St. James i. 2 ;
1 St. Pet. i. 6 ; ii. 21 ; iv. 13, 14, 16 ; Rev. i.
9 ; ii. 3.
XI. He judgeth all things.
St. John v. 22 ; Acts xvii. 31 ; Rom. ii. 16 ;
xiv. 10 ; 1 Cor. iv. 5 ; 2 Cor. v. 10 ; 2 Tim.
iv. 1 ; 1 St. Pet. iv. 5 ; St. Jude, ver. 14, 15 ;
Rev. xx. 12.
LORD'S DAY (See also Sunday). The
first day of the week is so designated in
the Christian Church; — it is the KvpiaKq
fipipa of St. John and Ignatius (see Schleu-
sner in voc.) ; — and as Friday is appointed
as the weekly fast, in commemoration of
our Lord's crucifixion, so is Sunday the
weekly feast, in commemoration of His
resurrection. God has commanded us to dedicate at
least a seventh portion of our time to him.
We read in Genesis (ii. 3), that God blessed
the seventh day and sanctified it. Here we
are told that the seventh day, or as we shall
presently show, one day in seven, was not
only blessed, but sanctified by God. Now,
by sanctifying a thing or person, we under
stand their being separated or set apart for
a religious purpose. When therefore the
Almighty is said to sanctify a portion of
time, it cannot be in reference to himself, to
whom all days, times, and seasons are alike
— equally pure, equally holy, — but in re
ference to man ; and the sanctifying a day
must, consequently, imply a command to
man to keep it holy. That one day in seven
was from the beginning dedicated to the
service of the Almighty, will receive con
firmation by reference to the chapter which
immediately foUows that from which the
quotation just made is taken. For there we
are told that Cain and his brother Abel made
a sacrifice, — not, " in the process of time "
merely, — but, as it is given in the margin
of our Bibles, " at the end of the days."
The latter reading we prefer, because, while
the former conveys but an indistinct idea to
the mind, the latter is confirmed by one of
the oldest versions of Scripture, namely, the
Septuagint. But if to this expression,—" at
the end of the days," we attach any meanino-
at all, it must surely signify at the end of
the six days of labour, that is, on the
seventh day, previously sanctified by the
Almighty. When, in addition to this, we
take into consideration the evU character of

LORD'S DAY

457?

Cain, it seems less probable that he should
have come voluntarily forward, with a
grateful heart, to worship his Maker, than.
that he carelessly complied with a custom
to which he had been habituated from his
childhood : he came to sacrifice, as some
come now to Church, after each interval of
six days, from habit rather than piety.
A passage in the book of Job may also
be taken as corroborating evidence of tbe
early observance of the Sabbath. Job is
generally supposed to have lived before the
time of Moses ; and in the Book of Job we
find mention made of " the day on which
the sons of God came to] present themselves
unto the Lord," which we may fairly con
clude aUudes to the Sabbath. It is remark
able, also, that we find some traces of this-
institution among the heathen, for two of
their oldest poets, Homer and Hesiod, speak
of the seventh as being a sacred day. It is
probable that in the same manner in which
they obtained the notion of a Deity, namely,,
by tradition from father to son of a revelation
made to Adam and Noah, they arrived at a
knowledge which gradually died away, of
this sacredness of the seventh day.
But when we remember that this rule
was given to Adam, and was, in conse-,
quence, binding, not upon a chosen few, but
upon all his descendants, it does not appear
likely that any one particular day was de
signated, but merely that a general rule was
laid down that one day in seven should be
dedicated to direct offices of religious duties ;
for it would have been impossible for men,,
scattered, as they were soon to be, over all
the face of the earth, to observe, all of them,.
the same day, since the beginning of every
day, and of course of the seventh, must have
been eighteen hours later in some parts of
the world than in Eden or Palestine, or
wherever we suppose the Sabbath to have-
been first established. A law for a single
nation may be particular ; a law for all man
kind must be general : the principle must
be laid down and enforced; the particulars
must depend upon circumstances. Besides,
although it is easy to demonstrate that the
Israelites ought to have set apart for their
reUgious duties one day in seven, previously
to the ceremonial institution of the Sabbath.
on Mount Sinai, yet it is equally clear that
they did not keep the same day before the
dehvery of the law, as they did afterwards.
For although in the 16th chapter of Exodus,
previously to the delivery of the law, the
Sabbath is spoken of as an institution well
known to the Israelites, yet as to the particular
day on which it was kept there is no mention
made. It was not till afterwards that
one certain particular day was appointed
(namely, that on which they came out of
Egypt); for the two-fold purpose, that as.

458

LORD'S DAY

men they might commemorate the creation,
and os Israelites celebrate their deliverance.
Now we may reasonably infer that they
would not have set out from Egypt on the
Sabbath day, and that consequently their
..Sabbath was not observed. at the same time
¦before, as it was after, its re-institution on
Mount Sinai (cf. Exod. xx. 10 ; Deut. v. 15).
¦ That we, then, together with every human
.•being, are bound to dedicate one day in seven
tto religious duties, is evident, because the
-commandment was given, not to Moses, but
to Adam ; not to the Israelites, but to aU the
¦descendants of Eve. But the observance of
that one particular day sanctified to the Jews,
.not only to celebrate the universal love of
God in the creation of the world, but his
¦special loving-kindness to their individual
aiation, is not any longer obligatory upon us,
because it formed part of the ceremonial law.
It remains, therefore, now to inquire on what
authority it is that we observe the first day
of the week in preference to any other, or, in
other words, by whom the festival of the
Lord's day was instituted.
That we in the present age, keep the first
day of the week as a holy-day dedicated to
*he service of our Maker and Redeemer is
oertain ; the question is, whether this custom
•dates from primitive times, or is of mediaeval
date. Now, that the gospel does not expressly
'-command the religious observance of the first
_y in the week must be conceded. The
apostles and Jewish Christians do not appear
to have neglected the Jewish Sabbath. As
long as the temple continued standing, they
kept the last day of the week as a fast ; the
¦first, as a festival. That the apostles did
keep the first day of the week as a festival, is
•quite clear. St. Paul, we are told, preached
at .Troas, " on the first day of the week."
When all the disciples had, as they were in
the habit of doing, ".come together to break
bread," that is, to receive the Holy Eucharist,
which ought always to form a part of the
public service, he gave orders also to the
•Corinthians to make a collection for the saints
.at Jerusalem, when, according to their
custom, they assembled together on the first
•day of the week, which day is expressly
called by St. John the Lord's day (Rev. i.
10). But if the testimony of man is great,
rthe testimony of God is greater. Their obser
vance of this festival was sanctioned by our
Lord Himself, by His repeated appearance
among His apostles on that day ; after His
resurrection it is sanctioned by the Holy
Ghost, by the miraculous effusion of the
.Spirit upon the apostles when they were
together on the day of Pentecost, which
must, that year, have fallen upon the first
day of the week. Now, take these facts of
; Scripture (and others may be found) and

LORD'S PRAYER
compare them with the universal tradition of
the Church, and surely we must agree with
one of the most celebrated divines who have.
appeared in modern times, when speaking of J
the most important doctrine of our religion,
that of the Trinity, " if what appears.^ro-
bably to be taught in Scripture . appears
certainly to have been taught in the primi
tive and Catholic Church, such probability,
so strengthened, carries with it the force of
demonstration." In examining such writers as lived in the
age of the apostles, or those immediately!
succeeding, we find them alluding to the
fact (and their testimony is confirmed by
contemporary and heathen historians, e.g.
Pliny, lib. x. Ep. 97), that Christians were
always accustomed to meet on the first.day ,(
of the week for the performance of their
religious exercises. If we examine them
more minutely, we find that, as the Jewish
Sabbath was fixed to a certain day, on
account of their deliverance from Pharaoh,
so the Christians kept this festival in grate
ful acknowledgment of the mercies of the
Redeemer, who, as on this day, accomplished
the victory over the grave, by xising from
the dead. If we attend them yet further, ¦
we find those who, too honest to deceive,
Uved too near the apostolic age to be deceived,
asserting that this festival was instituted by
the apostles ; and if by the apostles, who
acted under the immediate direction and
influence of the Holy Ghost, then of course
we may conclude that the institution was
Divine.— Ignat. Ep. ad Magnes. n. 9; Justin
Mart. Apol. i. 67 : ii. 99 ; Tertull. Apol. c.
16 ; de Cor. Mil. 3; &c. ; Clem. Alex. Strom.
7; Jeremy Taylor, vol. xii. p. 423; Dr.
Hessey's Bampton Lectures, where a different
view is taken of the institution of the
Sabbath ; Art. in Smith's Diet, of Bible
(See Sunday).
LORD'S PRAYER. The prayer which
our blessed Lord Himself has taught us. It
is to be used as a model for all our devotions,
our blessed Lord saying (St. Matt. vi. 9),
"After this manner pray ye;" and it is to
be used in express words whenever we pray,
our Lord commanding us (St. Luke xi. 2),
"When ye pray, say, Our Father," &c.
Therefore the Church of Christ hath used
from the first to begin and end her services
with the Lord's Prayer. This being the
foundation upon which aU other prayers
should be built, therefore, as Tertullian says,
we begin with it, that so, the right founda
tion being laid, we may justly proceed to
our ensuing requests. And ' as it is the
perfection cf all prayer, therefore, says
St. Augustine, we conclude our prayers
with it. Let no man, therefore, quan-el
with the Church's frequent use of the
Lord's Praver, for the Catholic' Church ever

LORD'S PRAYER
did the same. Besides, as St. Cyprian
observes, if we would hope to have our
prayers accepted of the Father only for His
Son's sake, why should we not hope to have
them most speedily accepted when they are
offered up in His Son's own words ?
It is objected by some persons in the
present day (for the objection was unknown
to the primitive Church), that our Saviour
did not give this as an express form of
prayer, but only as a pattern, or direction.
In support of this they quote the passage,
St. Matt. vi. 9, &c, in which it is introduced,
"After this manner pray ye ;" not laying so
much stress on the similar passage, St. Luke
xi. 2, &c, where our Saviour expressly
says, " When ye pray, say." On this it
may be remarked, that where there are two
texts on any particular doctrine, or practice,
the one worded ambiguously, as in that of
St. Matthew, " After this manner," &c. (or
as the translation would more properly be,
" Pray thus," and the ambiguity would then
almost vanish), and the other clearly ex
pressed ; as in that of St. Luke, " When ye
pray, say," it is a settled and a natural rule
of interpretation, that the doubtful words
should be explained by those which are
clear. Now he who uses these very words
as a form, acts in evident obedience to both
the letter and the spirit of the one precept,
and yet not in contradiction to the other.
But he who rejects this as a form, though
he may act in obedience to the spirit of the
one, certainly acts in disobedience to the
letter, if not to the spirit of the other,
" When ye pray, say," &c.
Had not our Lord given this as a settled
fonn of prayer, He would have been very
likely to have dilated somewhat on the
various subjects it embraces — of adoration,
prayer, and praise : and perhaps have intro
duced illustrations according to His cus
tom ; and would not improbably have said,
" When ye pray, address yourselves in the
first place to God who is your heavenly
Father, but forget not His sovereignty, and
ask Him to give you," &c. But instead of
this He dictates, in both cases, a few compre
hensive sentences, convenient for all persons,
and under all circumstances, and of which
Tertullian thus exclaims, " In this compen
dium of few words, how many declarations
of prophets, evangelists, and apostles are
contained ! How many discourses, parables,
examples, precepts of our Lord ! How
many duties towards God are briefly ex
pressed ! Honour to the Father, faith, pro
fession in His name, offering of obedience in
His will, expression of hope in His kingdom ;
petition for the necessaries of life in the
bread, confession of sins in the supplication,
soUcitation against temptations in the asking
of protection. What wonder! God alone

LORD'S PRAYER

459

could teach how He chose to be prayed to."
St. Cyprian says, that " it is so copious in
spiritual virtue, that there is nothing omitted
in all our prayers and petitions which is not
comprehended in this epitome of heavenly
doctrine." It is necessary to be understood that the
transactions mentioned by St. Matthew and
St. Luke were not one and the same, but
occurred at different times, and on different
occasions. Our Lord first introduced this
form of prayer uncalled for, in the sermon
on the mount, at the commencement of his
commission, comprehending a doxology, or
concluding tribute of glory and praise. But
he gave it for the second time, after an
interval of about two years and a half, as is
clear from the various events that occurred,
and that are enumerated in the chapters
(St. Luke vii. — xi.) which form the greater
part of the acts of His ministry.
It is not impossible that the disciples
themselves did, on the first occasion, regard
it as conveying a general idea only in what
terms God should be addressed, and there
fore not having used it as a common prayer,
the circumstance of our Lord's " praying in
a certain place " induced one of His disciples,
" when He ceased," to say, " Lord, teach us
to pray, as John also taught his disciples ;"
alluding to a well known custom of the
Hebrew masters, which it thus appears St.
John had adopted, of teaching their scholars
a particular form of words in their addresses
to God, varying, no doubt, according to
their particular sentiments. Our Lord's
disciples here, therefore, ask of Him a pre
cise form, and that- form He gives them in
compliance with their wishes, not only for
their use, but for the use of all who should
embrace the profession of Christianity —
" When ye pray, say," &c.
It is supposed by some, and there seems
much reason for the idea, that the disciple
who thus asked was a new convert, and not
present at the delivery of the sermon on
the mount, and that our Lord repeated
the form which He had then before given.
Indeed, if that which was first given had
not been considered as a settled form, or a
groundwork for it, it would appear extra
ordinary that it should be repeated in so
nearly the same words, and precisely in the
same order of sentences. Grotius remarks
on this subject, that so averse was our Lord,
the Lord of the Church (tam longe abfuit
ipse Dominus ecciesie), to unnecessary inno
vation, and an affectation of novelty, that
He " who had not the Spirit by measure,"
but " in whom were all the hidden treasures
of wisdom and knowledge," selected the
words and phrases in a great degree from
forms of prayer then well known among the
Jews ; as in His doctrines He also made use

460

LORD'S PRAYER

of proverbs and sayings well understood in
that age.
The difference between the form given in
the sermon on the mount on that second
occasion is, that to the latter the doxology
is not affixed, which many indeed suppose
to be an interpolation ; leaving this perhaps
to be added according to the occasion
and to the zeal of the worshipper. It
cannot be imagined that either the disciples
of our Lord, or of St. John, had hitherto
neglected the duty of prayer, or that they
performed it in an uncertain or disorderly
manner, as they had set forms and hours of
prayer, which all the devout Jews observed ;
it seems therefore obvious that a particular
form is alluded to in the case of both, and
the request to our Lord was made in
pursuance of His encouraging direction,
"Ask, and ye shall have," and was gratified
by Him in compliance with the reasonable
and well-known existing custom.
Our blessed Lord appears afterwards to
refer to the custom now adopted by His
disciples, and the well-known forms used,
when he says, "And when ye stand praying,
forgive, if ye have aught against any : that
your Father also which is in heaven may
forgive you your trespasses " (St. Mark xi.
25); thus pointedly referring to two of its
principal features, couched too in the same
words. The Apostle St. Peter seems to
make the same allusion when he says, " If
ye call on the Father," &c. (1 St. Pet. i. 17).
Some have argued that this prayer is to
be considered as temporary only, and not of
perpetual obligation, because we do not in
it ask in the name of Christ, according to
His direction; but a transaction may be
opposed to this, recorded in the Acts of the
Apostles (iv. 24), in which it is seen, unless
the apostles and disciples had so quickly
forgotten the direction of their Lord, that
prayers may be considered as offered up in
the name of Christ, though addressed to
God ; for there the disciples, on the libera
tion of Peter and John by the Jewish
council, lift up their voice and say, " Lord,
thou art God, which hast made heaven and
earth, and the sea, and all that in them is;"
and they mention Christ as His holy child
Jesus. In our addresses to God, our
heavenly Father, we cannot forget Him
through whom we have access as to a father,
being "joint-heirs with him."
Another objection is made, that it does
not appear in Scripture that the apostles
used this prayer; but to this it may be
remarked, that neither does it appear they
used any other form, and yet some form of
words must have been generally known and
used by them, or how could " they lift up
their voice with one accord " (Acts iv. 24 ;
i. 14).

LORD'S PRAYER
Bishop Jeremy Taylor (Apology for set-
forms of Liturgy, § 86) justly says, "That
the apostles did use the prayer their Lord
taught them, I think need not much to he-
questioned ; they could have no other end
of their desire; and it had been a strange-
boldness to ask for a form which they in
tended not to use, or a strange levity not to-
do what they intended."
Bingham observes (Book xiii. ch. 7) that-
if there were no other argument to prove
the lawfulness of set forms of prayer in the
judgment of the ancients, the opinion which
they had of the Lord's Prayer, and their'
practice pursuant to this opinion, would
sufficiently do it ; and he remarks that they
unequivocaUy looked upon it as a settled
form : for Tertullian says expressly that
" our Lord prescribed a new form of prayer
for the new disciples of the New Testament,
and that though John had taught his dis
ciples a form, yet that he did this only as
a forerunner of Christ, so that when Christ
was increased ('he must increase, but I
must decrease '), then the work of the ser
vant passed over to the Lord. Thus the
prayer of John is lost, while that of our
Lord remains, that earthly things may give
way to heavenly."
In similar terms speaks Irenaaus (who,-
had himself heard Polycarp, the disciple of ':
St. John,) Origen, Tertullian, St. CypriSn,
St. CyrU, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, and
St. Augustme. The last says expressly
(de Verb. Apostol. & Epist. 89 ad Hilarium),
that as the Church always used this prayer,
she did it at the commandment of Christ.'
" He said to His disciples — He said to His
apostles and to us, pray thus." St. Chrysos
tom refers continually to the Lord's Prayer,
as in common use among them hy the ex
press commandment of Christ, and observes,
" that the Father well knows the words and
meaning of His Son." St. Cyprian, de Orat.
Domin., says, " Let the Father recognise in '
your prayers the words of the Son ;" and he
considers it as a pecuUar instance of mercy,
"that He who made us taught us how
to pray ; that whilst we speak unto the
Father in that prayer and address which
the Son taught us, we may the more easily
be heard." He adds, " Since we have an
Advocate with the Father for our sins, we
should, whenever we pray for pardon, allege
unto God the very words which our Advo
cate has taught us. We have His promise,
that whatever we shaU ask in His name we
shall receive : and must we not more readily
obtain our desires, when we not only use Bis
name in asking, but in His very words,
present ora- request unto God. Our Advo
cate in heaven has taught us to say this
prayer upon earth, that between His inter
cession and our supplications the most-

LORD'S PRAYER
.perfect harmony may subsist." Hooker (Bk.
v. ch. 35) observes, that " should men speak
with the tongues of angels, yet words so
pleasing to the ears of God, as those which
the Son of God Himself has composed, it
were not possible for man to frame."
There was, indeed, hardly any office in
• the primitive Church in which the celebra
tion of this prayer did- not make a solemn
-part; so that at length it was called the
. Oratio quotidiana, the daily, the common
prayer; the Oratio legitima, the establish
ed prayer, or the prayer of the Christian
law ; the " epitome of the gospel : " and St.
Augustine even terms it, "the daily bap
tism," and a " daily purification," " for,"
says he, " we are absolved once by baptism,
but by this prayer daily." When in suc
ceeding ages some of the clergy in Spain
occasionally omitted it in the daily service,
they were censured by a council, as " proud
contemners of the Lord's injunction ; and
it was enacted, that every clergyman omit
ting it either in private or public prayer
should be degraded from the dignity of his
office." It is worthy of remark, that the
heathen writer Lucian, nearly contempo-
.rary with the apostles, makes a Christian,
In one of his dialogues, speak of the prayer
which began, " Our Father."
The early Fathers were even of opinion,
that the making use of this prayer was of
vast efficacy to incline God to pardon sins
of infirmity, especially those committed
through want of fervour and sufficient at
tention in our other prayers. " As for our
daily and slight sins," says St. Augustine,
" without which no one can live, the daily
prayer will be accepted by God for pardon
of them ;" and the fourth Council of Toledo
.enjoins it for this among other reasons.
This doctrine the Papists afterwards per
verted, by their distinction of sins into
venial and mortal, and by the pure opus
operatum of repeating the Lord's Prayer.
Of this abuse there is happily no shadow in
the present service of our Church, our re
formers having wholly rejected and abol
ished the technical repetition of it (the
Paternoster) with chaplets and rosaries, to
which truly " vain repetitions " the Church
of Rome had annexed indulgences.
In conclusion, in whatever else the various
liturgies differ, they all agree in the constant
and frequent use of this prayer. Dr. Featly
says, "the reformed Churches generally
conclude their prayers before sermon with
the Lord's Prayer, partly in opposition to
the Papists, who close up their devotions
with an Ave Maria, partly to supply all the
defects and imperfections of their own."
And Bingham pointedly declares, " I dare
undertake to prove, that for 1500 years
together, none ever disliked the use of- the

LORD'S PRAYER

461

Lord's Prayer, but only the Pelagians;
and they did not wholly reject the use
of it neither, nor dislike it because it was
a form, but for another reason, because
it contradicted one of their principal tenets,
which was, that some men were so perfect
in this world, that they needed not to pray
to God for the forgiveness of their own sins,
but only for those of others."
II. The Lord's Prayer is to be said ivith an
audible voice.— It was an ancient custom
for the priest to say some parts of the li
turgy internally (secreto, iv iavra, of
pvariKas), in an unintelligible whisper ; and
in some instances the people joined in this
manner, as was the case with respect to
the Lord's Prayer and the Creed. This
unreasonable practice was put an end to
at the Reformation, and the Lord's Prayer
in particular was directed to be said " with
an audible voice," "with a loud voice;"
probably that the people might sooner
learn this most essential prayer ; a prac
tice from which the ignorant may even now
find benefit.
The people are to repeat it with the priest.
— When the Lord's Prayer was directed
to be said with an audible voice, it was
in the Romish Church, said by the priest
alone ; but in the Greek and ancient Gal
lican Churches, by the priest and people
together — a custom which the Church of
England has adopted in preference to the
Roman. Until the review of 1661, the min
ister began the prayer, and went through it
alone to the conclusion of the last petition,
" but deliver us from evil," which the
people said ; in order, as Bishop Sparrow
remarks, that they might not be inter
rupted from bearing a part in so divine a
prayer. In a rubric in the Communion
Service, near the conclusion, the manner in
which the Lord's Prayer should be used is
clearly laid down. " Then shall the priest
say the Lord's Prayer, the people repeat
ing after him every petition."
In the English Prayer Book the Lord's
Prayer occurs twice in the daily offices,
once in the Litany, and twice in the office for
Holy Communion.
In none of the successive editions of the
Prayer Book till the last review, was there
any direction for the people prefixed to
the first occurrence of the Lord's Prayer.
In King Edward's First Book at its se
cond recurrence, after the Creed, the latter
clause, " but deliver us from evil," was in
serted. This was altered in the Second
Book of King Edward; and the direction,
"Then the minister, clerks and people,"
&c, inserted, as we have it now. In the
Litany, the two last clauses were marked
as verse and response, till the last review.
In the Communion no direction was given

462

LORD'S PRAYER

LORD'S SUPPER

for the people; — at its second occuiTence,
the verse and response were marked, as in
the Litany : but in the Second Book, the
people were directed to repeat after him
every petition, as now. The Scotch Prayer
Book (temp. K. Chas. I.) first inserted the
doxology, at each occurrence of the prayer
in Morning and Evening Service, and at its
last in the Communion. At the last review
the doxology was inserted at its first occur
rence in the Morning and Evening Prayer,
and at the end of the Communion ; and the
versicular arrangement in the Litany was
altered. The notation of the verse and
response, with their proper cadences, is re
tained in the old choral manuals.
Wheatly remarks that "the doxology
was appointed by the last review to be used
in this place, partly, he supposes, because
many copies of St. Matthew have it, and
the Greek Fathers expound it ; and partly
because the office here is a matter of praise,
it being used immediately after the absolu
tion." And again, in the Post Communion,
"the doxology is here annexed, because all
these devotions are designed for an act of
praise, for the benefits received in the Holy
Sacrament." And in the Churching of
Women, " the doxology was added to the
Lord's Prayer at the last review, by reason
of its being an office of thanksgiving" (See
Doxology). In the Romish service, except in the
Mass, the priest speaks the words, "Et ne
nos," &c, " Lead us not into temptation,"
in a peculiar tone of voice, by which the
people are apprized of its being the time for
them to answer, " But deliver us from evil."
This also is a custom at the end of every
prayer, that the people may know when to
say " Amen." In the Mosarabic liturgy the
priest says the prayer by himself, and the
people answer " Amen " to each petition.
The catechumens and the energumens, or
those possessed with evil spirits, were not
suffered in the primitive Church to join in
the tremendous cry sent up by the people,
but only bowed their heads in token of
assent. It may be observed that the several
paragraphs of the Lord's Prayer are made
to begin, in our Church Prayer Book, with
a capital letter, in order, most probably, to
mark accurately the places where the people
should take up their parts ; and this method
is adopted in the confession in the daily
service, in the creeds, the Gloria in Excelsis,
in the Communion Service, and in the
confession and deprecation in the Com
mination Service on Ash Wednesday.
But it must likewise be observed, that
this method does not seem to be so closely
followed in the Cambridge as in the Oxford
books, the former combining the fourth and

fifth paragraphs, the seventh and eighth,
and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth in
the Lord's Prayer ; and yet in these copies
the word " and " is retained before " the
power," &c, but dropped in the latter.
To make this matter clear, however, we
subjoin the prayer as printed and pointed in
the sealed books, at the beginning of Morn
ing and Evening Prayer.
Our Father, which art in Heaven, Hal
lowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come.
Thy will be done in Earth, As it is in
Heaven, Give us this day our daily bread.
And!forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive
them, that trespass against us. And lead ns
not into temptation; But deliver us from
evil : For thine is the Kingdom, the Power.
And the Glory, For ever and ever. Amen.
Here and before the Power is, in all the
collated copies of sealed books, crossed out
with a pen, both in the Morning and Even
ing Prayer.
In the Post Communion Service, there is
some difference of punctuation and of type :
e.g. Our Father which art in heaven ; Hal
lowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come.
Thy will be done in earth, As it is in
heaven. Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive
them that trespass against us. And lead us
not into temptation : But deliver us from
evil. For thine is the kingdom, The power
and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen.
Here and was never inserted before The
povier. In the revised version of the New Testa
ment the last paragraph before the doxology
is changed into "deliver us from the evil
one." And the doxology is only given in
the margin. See Canon Cook's pamphlet
entitled " Deliver us from Evil," defending:
the old translation and the doxology.
LORD'S SUPPER. A name for the
sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. I. The
name occurs in 1 Cor. xi. 20 ; hut ia
that passage it is generaUy supposed by
commentators, that reference is made to the-
love-feast, kept ¦ in imitation of our Lord's
last supper, which was previous to the
original Eucharist. It seems probable that
the whole rite, agape or love-feast, and
Holy Communion, was called the "Lord's
Supper." This may be gathered from Igna
tius' epistle to Smyrna (c. 8), and from
Tertullian (Apol. 59), and from other fathers.
That the two were combined under the one
term " Lord's Supper," is also evident from
a canon of the Council of Carthage (a.d.
397), by which it is decreed that the
" sacrament of the Altar shall be celebrated
only by men fasting except on that one
day (i.e. Thursday before Easter) on which
the Lord's Supper is celebrated." St. Augus
tine uses the term "Casna Domini" &

LORD'S TABLE
association both with the love-feast, or agape,
and the Eucharist (Letter cxviii.). "This
much," says Dr. Waterland, summing up
the matter, " is certain, that in the apostoli
cal times the love-feast and the Eucharist,
though distinct, went together, and were
nearly allied to each other, and were
both of them celebrated at one meeting.
Afterwards when the agapas were done
away with, the especial service of the
Eucharist often retained the name of the
' Lord's Supper ' " (See Agape).
II. The term Cama Domini is used in
the Confession of Augsburg, and was adopted
by Calvin, probably as a safe word to be
used instead of " Mass " (Instit. iv. 22). The
first Act of Parliament in the reign of
Edward VI. (a.d. 1547) speaks of the sacra
ment as " commonly called the Sacrament
of the Altar, and in Scripture the Supper,
and Table of the Lord, the communion and
partaking of the Body and Blood of Christ."
In the Prayer Book of 1549 the title of
the office is " The Supper of the Lord, and
the Holy Communion, commonly called the
Mass '.' : in 1552 it was " The order for the
administration of the Lord's Supper, or Holy
Communion (See Eucharist; Holy Com
munion). [H.]
LORD'S TABLE. One of the names
given to the altar in Christian Churches.
The term implies the idea of communion in
the Holy rite — a table provided by God in
the wUderness at which all may meet to
gether and. be fed (Ps. lxxviii. 19). Thus
.Bishop Andrewes says, " it is fitly called a
table, the Eucharist being considered as a
sacrament." The " Holy Table," or " Com
munion Table," is the legal term in our
Church, as was decided in the case Faulkner
v. Lichfield (1 Robertson, 184), and also in
Parker v. Leach (L. R. 1 P. C. 312) (See
Altar: Mensa). [H.]
LOUD VOICE. A term in our Uturgy
which may be considered technical ; as not
merely meaning audible (though this ex
pression is also used), but as being a contra
distinction to the secretb of the unreformed
service, and the mystic voice (pvariKws) of
the Greek Church : certain prayers and part
of the service having been repeated in an
inaudible whisper (See Lord's Prayer).
LOVE-FEASTS. (See Agape.) Feasts
held in the apostolic age before the cele
bration of the Eucharist, and discontinued on
account of the abuse of them.
LOVE, THE FAMILY OF. A sect of
enthusiasts, which arose in Holland, and
being propagated across the Channel, ap
peared in England about the year 1580.
These sectaries pretended to a more than
ordinary sanctity, which gained upon the
affections of the common people. They
affirmed, that none were of the number of

LUCIFERIANS

403?

the elect, but such as were admitted into
their family, and that aU the rest were
reprobate, and consigned over to eternal
damnation. They held, likewise, that it
was lawful for them to swear to an untruth
before a magistrate, for their own con
venience, or before any person, who was
not of their society. In order to propagate
their opinions, they dispersed books, trans
lated out of Dutch into English, entitled,
The Gospel of the Kingdom. Documental
Sentences. The Prophecy qf the Spirit qf
Love. The Publishing of Peace upon EarthT
dec. These Familists could by no means be
prevailed upon to discover their author;
nevertheless it was afterwards found to be-
Henry Nicholas of Lej rden, who pretended
that he partook of the Divinity of God, and
God of his humanity. Queen Elizabeth-
issued a proclamation against these sectaries,
and ordered their books to be publicly-
burnt. LOW SUNDAY: the Sunday after
Easter. In the Sacramentary of Gregory,
all the days between Easter and its octave-
have "in Albis" added to them. The
Sunday, however, was called "Dominica
octavas Paschaa." It was also called (in the
Ambrosian Missal) " Dominica in albis de-
positis," because on this day the newly-
baptized on . Easter eve laid aside their
white robes or chrisoms; and hence the-
Sunday was called, for short, " Dominica in
albis." The English name " Low Sunday "'
may have its origin from the contrast
between the joyous services of Easter, and
the return to the ordinary Sunday service.
But it would seem more probable that
"Low" is a corruption of "Laudes"; for
the first words of the sequence for the day
were "Laudes Salvatori voce modulemur
supplici." It would therefore very naturally
be called the "Laudes" Sunday; and,.
corrupted, " Low Sunday." [H]
LUCIAN: Priest and Martyr: commemo
rated in our Calendar Jan. 8. He was sent
by Fabian, bishop of Rome, on a mission to
Gaul with SS. Denys and Quentin. He is
said to have become bishop of Beauvais, and
to have suffered martyrdom in 290. [H.]
LUCIFERIANS, in ecclesiastical an
tiquity, is the name of those Christians-
who followed Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari,
the capital of Sardinia.
Lucifer lived in the fourth century, and.
was famous for his extraordinary virtues
and abilities. He was one of those banished
by Constantius for their defence of Atha
nasius, and staunch opposition to the Arians.
In his banishment he wrote several books
or pamphlets, two " pro sancto Athanasio,"'
and several very violent ones against Con
stantius. He was recalled from his exUe

464

LUCY

¦by the emperor Julian, in 361, when,
coming to Antioch, where the Church was
extremely divided between the followers of
Euzoius the Arian, and of Meletius and
Eustathius, orthodox bishops, he, to put an
end to the schism, ordained Paulinus bishop,
whom neither of the orthodox parties ap
proved. Eusebius of Vercelli, whom the
Council of Alexandria had sent to heal the
divisions, extremely disapproved this ordina
tion ; whereupon Lucifer, who would have
nothing to do with conciliation, broke off
•communion with him and the other prelates,
and retired to Sardinia, where, it would
seem, he continued to occupy his see. How
far he and his followers were schismatic is
uncertain. They did not apparently hold
¦erroneous doctrines (the account in St.
Aug. de Heres. c. 81, being very doubtful),
but had scruples of conscience as to the
restoration of communion to such as had
been Arians through ignorance or weakness.
Though St. Augustine speaks of Lucifer
as " fallen into the darkness of schism "
(Ep. 185), St. Jerome describes him as
"beatus pastor" (Adv. Lucif. sec. 20).
Lucifer died a.d. 371. — Newman's Fleury,
xvui. 20 ; Diet Christ Biog. [H]
LUCY : Virgin and Martyr : commemo
rated on December 13. She suffered martyr
dom in the Diocletian persecution, being
tortured to death by fire and red-hot pincers,
and she is represented as bearing a dish on
which are two eyeballs and two pincers.
Though she was regarded as patroness
against eye-diseases, there is no mention in
the early legends of the loss of her eyes;
the idea probably arising from her name
Lucia — lux — light. — Bed. Mart. ; E. Daniel's
P. B ; Diet Christ. Biog. [H.]
LUKE, ST., THE EVANGELIST'S
DAY. A festival of the Christian Church,
observed on the 18th of October.
St. Luke is supposed to have been born
at Antioch, and to have been a physician
and a painter ; but the latter seems very
doubtful (Eusebius, Hist. ui. 4 ; Niceph. ii.
43); It is not agreed whether he was, by
birth, a Jew, or a heathen. Epiphanius
(cont. Her. li. 11), who makes him" to be
one of the seventy disciples, and consequently
a Jew, thinks he was one of those who left
Jesus Christ upon hearing these words,
," He who eateth not my flesh, and drinketh
not my blood, is not worthy of me ; " but
that he returned to the faith upon hearing
St. Paul's sermons at Antioch. Some
authors, suppose he was Cleopas' companion,
¦and went with him to Emmaus, when
Jesus Christ joined them.
St. Luke accompanied St. Paul in his
several journeys; but at what time they
first came together is uncertain. Some
¦think he met St. Paul at Antioch, and from

LUTHERANS
that time never forsook him. Others believe
they met at Troas, because St. Luke him
self says, " immediately we endeavoured to
go into Macedonia, from Troas."
Some think he survived St. Paul many
years, and that he died at eighty-four years
of age : but where, authors are not agreed.
Achaia, Thebes in Bceotia, Elea in the
Peloponnesus, Ephesus, and Bithynia, are
severally named as the place of his death.
Nor are authors better agreed as to. the
manner of it. Some believe he suffered
martyrdom ; and the modern Greeks affirm
he was crucified on an olive-tree. Others,
on the contrary, and among them many of
the moderns, think he died a natural death.
LUKE'S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical
book of the New Testament. Some think
it was properly St. Paul's Gospel, and that
when St. Paul speaks of his Gospel, he
means what is called St. Luke's Gospel.
Irenaaus says only, that St. Luke digested
into writing what St. Paul preached to the
Gentiles ; and others assert that St. Luke
wrote with the assistance of St. Paul. —
Iren. cont. Her. iii. 1 ; Euseb. E. Hist.
vi. 25 ; Tertull. cont. Marc. iv. 5.
This evangelist addresses his Gospel, and
the Acts of the Apostles, to one Theophilus,
of whom we have no knowledge ; many of
the ancients have taken this name, in an
appellative sense, for any one who loves God
(See Alford's Gk. Test proleg. c. iv.).
LUTHERANS. Those Christians who
follow the opinions of Martin Luther.
I. In the beginning of the 16th century,
the state of tho Church was such that it was
evident that reformation could not long be
delayed. The immoralities of Pope Alex
ander II. ; the indifference of Julius IL; the
infidelity, scarcely disguised, of Leo X.;
together with the corruption which tainted
all orders from the prelates to the lower
clergy, had brought the professors of religion
into the lowest repute : whUe amongst all,
clergy and laity, the state of morals was
something terrible, and the revival of
learning assimilating itself to the revival of
heathendom. The last abuse which precipi
tated the reformation on the continent, was
the granting indulgences (see Indulgences),
by Pope Leo X., to those who contributed
towards the finishing St. Peter's church at
Rome. It is said, the pope at first gave the
princess Cibo, his sister, that branch of the
revenue of indulgences which were collected
in Saxony; that afterwards these indul
gences were farmed out to those who would
give most for them ; and that these pur
chasers, to make the most of their bargain,
pitched upon such preachers, receivers, and
collectors of indulgences, as they thought
proper for their purpose, who managed their
business in a scandalous manner. The pope

LUTHERANS
had sent these indulgences to Prince Albert,
archbishop of Mainz and brother to the
Elector of Brandenburg, to pubUsh them in
Germany. This prelate put his commission
into the hands of John Tetzel, a Dominican,
and an inquisitor, who employed several of
his own order to preach up and recommend
these indulgences to the people. These
Dominicans managed the matter so well,
that the people eagerly bought up all the
indulgences. And the farmers, finding
money come in very plentifully, spent it
publicly in a luxurious and libertine manner.
John Staupitz, vicar-general of the
Augustines in Germany, was the first who
took occasion to declare against these
abuses; for which purpose he made use of
Martin Luther, the most learned of all the
Augustines. He was a native of Eisleben,
a town of the county of Mansfeld, in
Saxony; and he taught divinity at the
university of Wittemberg. This learned
Augustine mounted the pulpit, and de
claimed vehemently against the abuse of
indulgences. Nor did he stop here ; he
fixed ninety-five propositions upon the
church doors of Wittemberg, not as dog
matical points which he himself held, but
in order to be considered and examined in
a public conference. John Tetzel, the
Dominican, immediately published 106
propositions against them, at Frankfort
upon the Oder ; and, by virtue of tbe office
of inquisitor, ordered those of Luther to be
burnt; whose adherents, to revenge the
affront offered to Luther, publicly burnt
those of Tetzel at Wittemberg. Thus war
was declared between the Dominicans and
Augustines, and soon after between the
Roman Catholics and the Lutheran party,
which from that time began to appear openly
against the Western Church.
In the year 1518, Eckius, professor of
divinity at Ingolstadt, and Silvester Prierius,
a Dominican, and master of the sacred
palace, wrote against Luther's Theses, who
answered them in a tract, which he sent to
the pope and the bishop of Brandenburg, his
diocesan, offering to submit to the Holy See
in the points contested. But Prierius hav
ing published a discourse full of extravagant
amplifications of the pope's power, Luther
took occasion from thence to make the papal
authority appear odious to the Germans. In
the meantime, the process against Luther
going on at Rome, the pope summoned him
to appear there within sixty days : but, at
the instance of the duke of Saxony, his
Holiness consented that the cause should be
examined in Germany, and delegated his
legate, Cardinal Cajetan, to try it. This
cardinal gave Luther a peremptory order to
recant, and not to appear any more before
him unless he complied ; upon which Luther,

LUTHERANS

465

in the night-time, posted up an appeal
to the pope, and retired to Wittemberg.
Afterwards, fearing he should be condemned
at Rome, he published a protestation in
form of law, and appealed to a general
council. In the beginning of the next year, 1519,
the emperor MaximUian dying, and the
Elector of Saxony, who protected Luther,
being vicar of the empire during the inter
regnum, that reformer's interest and cha
racter were greatly raised, and he was
generally looked upon as a man sent from
God to correct the abuses which had crept
into the Roman Church. In June, the same
year, there was a famous conference between
Luther, Eckius, and Carolostadius, at Leip-
sic; in which they agreed to refer them
selves to the universities of Erfurt and Paris.
The points debated upon were, free-will,
purgatory, indulgences, penance, and the
pope's supremacy.
In 1520, Luther sent his book De Li-
bertate Christiana to the pope ; in which
he grounds justification upon faith alone,
without the assistance of good works ; and
asserts, that Christian liberty rescues us
from the bondage of human traditions, and
particularly the slavery of papal impositions.
Afterwards, in a remonstrance written in
High Dutch, he proceeded to deny the
authority of the Church of Rome.
In June the same year, the pope resolved
to apply the last remedies which the Church
makes use of against her enemies, and
began with condemning in writing forty-one
propositions extracted from Luther's writ
ings, giving him sixty days to recant : but
Luther refusing to comply, the pope declared
him excommunicated, and sent the bull by
Eckius to the Elector of Saxony and the
university of Wittemberg, who agreed to
defer the publication of it. In the mean
time Luther wrote against the bull with
great warmth and freedom, and appealed
once more from the pope to a general
council. Besides which, he caused a large
bonfire to be made without the walls of
Wittemberg, and threw into it with his own
hands the pope's bull, together with the
decretals, extravagants, and Clementines.
This example was followed by his disciples
in several other towns.
The emperor Charles V. declared against
Luther, and ordered his books to be burnt.
Upon the opening of the Diet of Worms,
in 1521, Luther, with the emperor's per
mission, appeared there, and made a speech
in defence of himself and his opinions.
But, when the diet found that he would
neither stand to the decisions of councils
nor the decrees of popes, the emperor gave
him twenty days to retire to a place of
security, and, a month after pubUshed his
2 H

466

LUTHERANS

imperial edict, by which Luther was put
under the ban of the empire, as an heretic
and schismatic. But the duke of Saxony
gave private orders to convey Luther to
the castle of Wartburg, where he was con
cealed three-quarters of a year. He worked
hard in this retirement, which he called his
Isle of Patmos, and kept up the spirit of his
party by writing new books ; among which
were his " Tracts " against auricular con
fession, private masses, monastic vows, and
the celibacy of the clergy. About this time
the nniversity of Paris, to which he had
appealed, condemned a hundred proposi
tions extracted out of his books ; and King
Henry VIII. of England wrote against him
in defence of the seven sacraments. Luther
replied both to the Sorbonne and to the king
of England, but in a very rude and un
mannerly way.
Soon after he broke out of his retirement,
and was so hardy as to publish a bull
against the pope's bull In cena Domini,
calling it the Bull and Reformation of Doctor
Luther. About this time he published part
of his translation of the Bible, in which he
departed from the Vulgate, so long author
ised and received by the Church.
- The Elector of Saxony, who all along
favoured and protected Luther, now gave
him leave to reform the Churches of Wir-
temberg as he thought fit. The reformer
proposed likewise a regulation concerning
the patrimony of the Church ; which was,
that the bishops, abbots, and monks should
be expeUed, and all the lands and revenues
of the bishoprics, abbeys, and monasteries,
should escheat to the respective princes ;
and that all the convents of Mendicant
friars should be turned into public schools
or hospitals. This project pleased the
princes and magistrates, who began to
rehsh Luther's doctrine extremely ; inso
much that, at the Diet of Wiirtemberg in
1523, when Pope Adrian VI. insisted upon
the bull of Leo X. and the Edict of Worms
against Luther, he could not prevail with
the princes to put them in execution, but
was answered, that a general council ought
to be called, and that there ought to be a
reformation of the ecclesiastics, and espe
cially of the Court of Rome. This year,
Luther had the satisfaction to see a league
contracted between Gustavus, king of
Sweden, and Frederick, king of Denmark,
- who both agreed to establish Lutheranism
in their dominions. And now Luther's
persuasion, which, from the Upper Saxony,
had spread itself into the northern provinces,
began to be perfectly settled in the duchies
of Lunenburg, Brunswics, Mecklenburg, and
Pomerania; and in the archbishoprics of
Magdeburg and Bremen ; and in the towns
of Hamburg, Wismar, Rostock; and all

LUTHERANS
along the Baltic, as far as Livonia and
Prussia. About this time Luther left off the habit
of a monk, and dressed himself like a doctor
refusing to be saluted with the title of
reverend father. Erasmus having written a
book concerning free-wiU (De Libero Ar
bitrio), Luther answered it in another, en
titled De Servo Arbitrio. In 1525, Thomas
Munzer and Nicholas Store, taking their
leaveVff Luther, put themselves at the head
of the Anabaptists and Fanatics. About this
time Luther married a nun, called Catharine
Boren, exhorting all the ecclesiastics and
monks to follow his example. In 1526,
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, turned Luthe
ran, who gave great life and spirit to that
party. In March, 1529, the Diet of Spire de
creed that the Catholics should not have
the liberty to change their religion; that
the Lutherans should be tolerated till the
meeting of a council, but not allowed to
molest the Catholics ; and that the preach
ers should deliver nothing in their sermons
contrary to the received doctrines of the
Church. The Lutheran princes entered &
solemn protestation against this decree,
from whence came the name of Protestants,
taken up first by the Lutherans, and after
wards received among the Calvinists.
The beginning of October, this year, was
held at Marburg the conference between
Luther and Zwinglius, in relation to the
Eucharist ; the latter affirming that there is
nothing more than- bread and wine in the
Lord's supper, which elements are the figure
and representation of Christ's body and
blood ; and Luther asserting that His body
and blood are really present, but under the
substance of bread and wine, and that only
in the act of receiving the sacrament ; after
which he did not acknowledge the continu
ance of this presence. This conference
broke up without coming to any accommo
dation. In 1530, the Lutherans or Protestants
drew up a Confession of Faith, which they
presented to the Diet of Augsburg (See
Augsburg, Confession of).
The year after, the Protestant princes
made the famous league of Smalcalde, which
obliged the emperor to grant the Lutherans
a toleration, till the differences in religion
were settled by a council, which he engaged
himself to caU in six months.
The Lutheran party gaining strength
every day, and having refused the bull for
convening a council at Mantua, the emperor
summoned a general diet at Ratisbon, where
a scheme of religion for reconciling the two
parties was examined : but, after they had
examined and disputed for a month together,
the divines could agree upon no more than

LUTHERANS
¦five or six articles, concerning justification,
free-will, original sin, baptism, good -Works,
and episcopacy ; for, when they came to
¦other points, and especially the Eucharist,
the Lutherans would by no means yield to
the other party. The diet ended with a
decree of the emperor, strictly forbidding
the Lutherans to tamper with any person to
make them quit their old religion, and at
the same time suspending all the edicts
'published against them.
Martin Luther lived to see the opening of
ithe famous Council of Trent, for accommo
dating the differences in reUgion; which
put him upon acting with more vigour and
warmth against the Church of Rome, as
-foreseeing that his opinions would be con-
¦demned there. In short, he left no stone
unturned to engage the Protestant princes to
act against the council ; which measures he
continued to pursue until his death, which
happened in February, 1546.
Maurice, the Elector of Saxony, having
taken the field against the emperor, and
.¦concluded a peace with him at Passau, in
.1552, it was stipulated that the exercise of
Lutheranism, as stated by the Confession
¦of Augsburg, should be tolerated all over
the empire ; which toleration was to last
for ever, in case the differences in religion
-could not be accommodated within six
months. And thus Lutheranism was per
fectly settled in Germany.
The electors and kings of Prussia have
from time to time endeavoured to bring
about a union between Lutheranism and
-Calvinism. In 1817 the King of Prussia
formed out of both communities in his
-dominions one " Evangelical Christian
¦Church"; the names Protestant and Re
formed being abolished. In 1822 a new
Liturgy was drawn up, and accepted by
most of the congregations. Those who did
not accept, or old Lutherans, as they were
¦called, were for some time persecuted, and
many fled to America. They are now, how-
¦ever, recognised by law.
The Lutherans have been generally
-divided into the moderate and the rigid.
The moderate Lutherans are those who sub
mitted to the Interim, published by the
emperor Charles V. Melanchthon was the
head of this party (See Interim).
The rigid Lutherans are those who would
not endure any alteration in any of Luther's
•opinions. The head of this party was
Matthias Flacius, famous for writing the
Centuries of Magdeburg, in which he had
three other Lutheran ministers for his
: assistants. To these are added another division,
called Luthero-Zwinglians, because they held
some of Luther's tenets and some of
Zwinglius', yielding something to each side,

LUTHERANS

467

to prevent the ill consequence of disunion
in the Reformation.
The old Lutherans retain the use of the
altar for the celebration of the Holy Com
munion, some of the ancient vestments, and
they likewise make use of lighted tapers in
their churches, of incense, and a crucifix on
the altar, of the sign of the cross, and of
images, &c. Several of their doctors ac
knowledge that such materials add a lustre
and majesty to Divine worship, and fix at
the same time the attention of the people.
The Lutherans retained the observance of
several solemn festivals after their reforma
tion. They keep three solemn days of
festivity at Christmas. In some Lutheran
countries, the people go to church on the
night of the nativity of our Blessed Saviour
with lighted candles or wax tapers in their
hands; and the faithful, who meet in the
church, spend the whole night there in
singing and saying' their prayers by the
light of them. Sometimes they burn such
a large quantity of incense, that the smoke
of it ascends like a whirlwind, and their
devotees may properly enough be said to
be wrapped up in it. It is customary,
likewise, in Germany, to give entertain
ments at such times to friends and rela
tions, and to send presents to each other,
especially to the young people, whom they
amuse with romantic stories, telling them
that our Blessed Saviour descends from
heaven on the night of His nativity, and
brings with Him all kinds of playthings.
They have three holidays at Easter, and
three at Whitsuntide, as well as those
before mentioned at Christmas. The other
festivals observed by the Lutherans are,
New Year's Day, or the Circumcision, a
festival not near so ancient as the three
above mentioned ; the festival of the Three
Kings, or, otherwise, the Epiphany ; the
Purification of the Blessed Virgin, or Candle
mas ; and Lady Day, or the Annunciation.
There is no pubUc work nor service devoted
to the Blessed Virgin, nor [are there any
processions, or other ceremonies, which are
observed by the Roman CathoUcs on the
two latter festivals. The festival of the
Sacred Trinity is solemnized on the Sunday
after Whitsunday ; that of St John Baptist,
on the 24th of June ; and that of the Visi
tation of tbe Blessed Virgin, on the 2nd of
July, as it is by the Roman Catholics. The
festival of St. Michael the Archangel, or
rather the ceremonies observed by the
Lutherans on that day, are the remains
only of an ancient custom, which has been
preserved amongst them, although some
what extraordinary, as the members of
then- communion retain no manner of vene
ration for angels. Burnet's Hist. Reform-: i.
60, &c. ; Loescher's Hist. Mot inter
2 h 2

468

LYCH-GATE

Lutheranos et Reformatos, pt. i. c. ii. ;
Waddington's Hist of Reformation; Tul-
lock's Luther (1883).
LYCH-GATE, or CORPSE -GATE.
From leich, " a dead body " — (hence Leitch-
field). A gate at the entrance of the church
yard, where the body is placed before
burial. These are of frequent occurrence in
ancient churchyards.
LYCHNOSCOPE. A narrow window
near the ground, very frequently found at
the south-west end of a chancel, not in
frequently at the north-west, and sometimes,
though seldom, in other parts of the church.
The theory that lychnoscopes were confes
sionals is erroneous. There is no authority
whatever for supposing that a confessional
ever formed a structural part of a church
in this or any other country. There can be
no doubt that lychnoscopes were made to
allow a view of the high altar, or some
other altar at the time of the Elevation of
the Host ; not unfrequently to enable the
sacristan to ring the bell at the right moment.
Slits or loopholes in the lower part of a
church waU were sometimes for ventilation ;
sometimes for lepers to take part in the
service from outside. — Mr. Lowe in Transac-
¦ tions of the Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire,
and other Architectural Societies, vol. i.

M.
MACCABEES. Two books in the Apo
crypha, which relate the exploits of Judas
Maccabeus and his brethren. The first
book, which is a valuable and authentic
history, contains the history of the Jews
from the beginning of the reign of Antiochus
Epiphanes to the death of Simon, a period
of about thirty-four years. The second
book contains the history of about fifteen
years, a.m. 3828 to 3843, from the commis
sion of Heliodorus to pUlage the temple, to
the victory of Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor.
These two books are accounted canonical
by the Roman CathoUcs. There are besides
two other books, called the third and fourth
books of Maccabees, of very little authority,
and which were never admitted into the
Canon by any Church. In the early
Christian Church the Maccabees were con
sidered martyrs, and a festival was some
times held in their honour. Several sermons
of the Fathers preached on this day are
extant. — Greg. Nazian. Orat 2, de Maccab. ;
St. Chrys. Horn. 44, 49, 50; Aug. Horn.
109, 110 (See Apocrypha, edited by Dr.
WTace, 1886).
MACEDONIANS. So caUed from Mace-

MAGNIFICAT
donius, a bishop of Constantinople a,d,
343, and also Pnewmatomachi (irvevpn, uayL-
o-dai), "adversaries of the Spirit," from their
distinctive error. A sect of heretics who
denied the faith with regard to the Holy
Spirit; some denying His Divinity, others
denying His Personality also. Macedonia
at first a violent partisan of the Arian faction*
was deposed from his see a.d. 360, and it
was probably during his retirement that he-
preached his heresy. His party became pro
minent after his deposition, when Athanasius
wrote against them. Several bishops joined
him ; but they do not appear to have been
agreed about any positive doctrine concern
ing the nature of the Holy Ghost. Some
held, as Macedonius himself did, that He
was a creature ; others, that though not
created, He is not God; others, that the
Spirit was created by the Son, and minis
tered to Him. The heresy was condemned in
several synods, as that of Alexandria under
Athanasius, a.d. 362 ; that at Illyricumfive1
years later, and at Rome in the same year;
and at Constantinople in the great council,
a.d. 381, when the expressions " The Lord,
the Lffegiver," &c, with the exception of
the words "and the Son," were adopted
from a work of Epiphanius, and approved,
but whether they were then formally
inserted in the Creed is doubtful (See
Creed, Nicene). — Tillemont, ix. 494-6;
Hefele, u. 10; Soz. Ecc. H. iv. 27, andvi.
22; Soc. ii. 45; Athan. Synod. Ep. ad
Antioch.; Theod. H. E. v. 11; Robertson,
Ch. Hist. i. 274. [H]
MACHUTUS, Bishop ; commemorated,
in our Calendar on November 15. Born in
Wales, the unsettled state of the country
compelled him to flee into Brittany, where
he led an ascetic life. He was made bishop
of Aleth in Brittany about a.d. 541 ; anil'
thither he returned to die, having for a
time previous to his death been driven by
persecution into Aquitaine. He was also-
called Maclovius, from whence the name St.
Malo, to which the see of Aleth was trans
ferred, is derived. [H.]
MAGDEBURG CENTURIES (See
Centuries). MAGNIFICAT. The song of the Blessed
Virgin Mary, which is appointed to be said
or sung in English after the first lesson at
Evening Prayer.
This hymn was used in the services of the
Church at a very early period. In a.d. 507
it is found in the office of Lauds in the rule
of St. Cajsarius of Aries (Mabillon, de Cursw
Gallic, p. 407), but it was afterwards
generally used at vespers, in which service
it has had its place for at least 800 years in
the English Church. There are English
versions of it of as early a date as the 14th
century (MS. Harleian, 2343, fol. 2, in

MALACHI
the Brit. Mus., also in the Bodleian. Mas
kell, Mon. Rit iii. 245). In the P. B. of
1552, the Cantate Domino was inserted as
an alternative to' the Magnificat, which was
distasteful to the extreme Reformers (See
Cantate). MALACHI, PROPHECY OF. A canon
ical book of the Old Testament. Malachi
lived about 300 B.C., and is the last of the
lesser prophets. His death is placed in the
Roman Martyrology on Jan. 14. He is
called by Tertullian, Origen, and most of
the Fathers, an " angel," because of his re
puted angelical mildness. — Speaker's Com
mentary. MALO, ST. (See Machutus).
MANASSES, PRAYER OF. An Apo
cryphal book of the Old Testament. It is
considered spurious even by the Church of
Rome, and cannot be traced to a higher
source than the Vulgate version.
MANICH„ANS. Christian heretics,
who took their name from Manes, or
Manichams, as the Europeans wrote his
name — Mani according to the Orientals.
His history is obscure. According to the
accounts given by the Greeks (from whom,
however, the Oriental writers differ consider
ably), "one Terebinthus, disciple to Scy-
thianus, a magician, finding that in Persia,
whither he was forced to retire out of
Palestine, the priests and learned men of
the country did strongly oppose his errors
and designs, retired into a widow's house,
where (it is said) he was killed, either by
angels or by demons, as he was engaged in
incantations. This woman, being heireSs
to the money and books of Terebinthus,
bought a slave named Cubricus, whom she
afterwards adopted, and caused to be in
structed in all the sciences of Persia. This
man, after the woman's death, changed his
name, to obliterate the memory of his first
condition, and assumed that of Manes. He
pretended to be the apostle of Christ, and
that he was the Comforter our Saviour
promised to send. He promised Sapor, the
king of Persia, that he would cure his son ;
whereupon the father sent away all the
physicians, and the patient died soon after :
whereupon Manes was imprisoned. He
made his escape, and in exile surrounded
himself with devoted followers. His
preaching penetrated the Roman empire of
Valerian and Gallienus. Sapor's son Hor-
misdas recalled him, but Magian jealousy
was against him. In the reign of Vasanes,
successor of Hormisdas, he was induced to
dispute with the Magi, and being adjudged
the loser, was flayed alive."— Acta Archelai
cum Manete, m. 53, p. 97; Epiphan. adv.
Her. 46 (See Diet Christ. Biog. v. 3).
Manes held that there were two principles,
the one good — Ormuzd — from whence pro-

MANICH_ANS

469

ceeded the good soul of man, and the other
bad — Ahriman— from whence proceeded the
evil soul, and likewise the body with all
corporeal creatures. He taught his disciples
to profess a great severity of life, notwith
standing which they were able to wallow
in all impurity, and he forbade to give alms
to any that were not of his own sect. He
attributed the motions of concupiscence to
the evil soul ; he gave out that the souls of
his followers went through the elements to
the moon, and afterwards to the sun, to be
purified, and then to God, in whom they
did rejoin; and those of other men, he
alleged, went to heU, to be sent into other
bodies. He alleged, that Christ had His
residence in the sun ; the Holy Ghost in the
air ; wisdom in the moon ; and the Father
in the abyss of light : he denied the resur
rection, and condemned marriage ; he held
Pythagoras's transmigration of souls ; that
Christ had no real body ; that He was neither
dead nor risen, and that He was the Serpent
that tempted Eve. He forbade the use of
eggs, cheese, milk, and wine, as creatures
proceeding from a bad principle ; he used a
form of baptism different from that of the
Church (Aug. de Her. 46). He taught that
magistrates were not to be obeyed, and con
demned the most lawful wars. It is next to
impossible to recount all the impious and
fantastic tenets of this heresiarch, which
caused Leo the Great to say of him, that "the
devil reigned in all other heresies, but he had
built a fortress and raised his throne in that
of the Maniehaeans, who embraced all the
errors and impieties that the spirit of man
was capable of; for whatever profanation was
in Paganism, carnal bUndness in Judaism,
unlawful curiosity in magic, or sacrilegious
in other heresies, did all centre in that of the
Manichasans." The Manichasans were divided into two
classes — the elect, and the hearers. From
the former were selected twelve masters
with a principal, called the successor of
Manes. Under these there were seventy-
two bishops, with presbyters and deacons,
all taken from the elect, though the elect,
or perfect, included many of the laity. It
appears that no distinction of sanctity
existed between the elect. The bishops and
priests were merely ministerial, and the lay
members were on a perfect equality in eccle
siastical matters. It was- perh aps on account
of this tendency to a democratical form of
Church government that so many embraced
Manichaeism, and when in after ages the
heresy was revived, it was not so much on
account of the absurd doctrines promulgated
by the early Maniehaeans, as from the
system of equality which they held. Valen-
tinian I., and his coadjutor Gratian, tolerant
as he was, excepted these heretics from an

470

MANIPLE

amnesty given to all others. The edicts of
Theodosius decreed death to the elect, out
lawry to the hearers ; and the second
Valentinian and Honorius confirmed the
severe enactments. Yet they renewed their
opinions in Africa, Gaul, and Rome, where a
councU was held against them. Manichajism
continued to exist in the middle ages, among
the sects called Cathari, Paterini, or Albi
genses. — Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien, L 724 ;
Rose's Neander, ii. 140 ; Lardner's Cred.
Gos. Hist. pt. ii. vol. iii. ; Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, vol. i. 198-203.
MANIPLE, or MANUPLE (Manipulus,
sometimes called Fanon, or Phanon, and
Sudarium). OriginaUy a narrow strip of
linen as wide as a stole, and about two and
a half feet long, suspended from the left
arm of the priest, and used as a kind of
sudarium for wiping the hands (manus), and
for other cleanly purposes. Gradually it
received embellishments ; it was bordered by
a fringe, and decorated with needlework, , In
the eleventh century it was given to the
sub-deacons as the badge of their order. It
is distinguished from the epigonaton by
being worn on the left side. The maniple
is not retained among the ecclesiastical
vestments of the Church of England.
MANSE (Mansus, Mansio). The man-
sus was originally a piece of land of twelve
acres (Ducange), and the mansus ecclesias
came to mean the land with which- the
Church was endowed, or the "glebe. iThen
the- house upon it had the title, and: in
England the manse was the ancient ¦ name
(as appears from old records) for an eccle
siastical residence, whether parochial or col
legiate. A Frankish mansus was the al
lotment sufficient to maintain a famUy
(Palgrave, Ang. Can. Com. u. 448). In
Scotland it was peculiarly appropriated to
parsonage houses ; and now designates the
residences of the ministers of the Pres
byterian estabUshment. It was anciently
applied also to the prebendal houses there
(See M'TJre's- History of Glasgow).
MANSIONARIES. - Officers who had a
certain charge in the Church, either with
regard to the fabric or the service. Ma
billon calls them " mansionarii seu custodes
ecclesiarum." — Comm. Prsev. p. xxvii. ; Diet
Christ. Ant.
MANUDUCTOR (Lat), in the ancient
Christian Church, was an officer, who, from
the middle of the choir, where he was
placed, gave the signal to the choristers to
sing, marked the measure, beat the time,
and regulated the music. He was so called
because he led or guided the choir by the
motions and gesture of the hand.
The Greeks caUed the same kind of
officer Mesochoros, because he was seated
in the middle of the choir.

MARCIONITES
MARANATHA : a Greek equivalent for
the Aramaic words XJIK ]_\15, "our Lord
cometh," a word added to Anathema by St.
Paul to strengthen the preceding excom
munication (See Anathema). It is referred.
to by St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome, and
others ; but does not seem to have been part
of the usual form of excommunication. — -
Diet of Bible, s. v. ; Bingham, xvi., ii. [H.]
MARCELLIANS. FoUowers of Mar-
ceUus, bishop of Ancyra, in Galatia, against
whom the charge, according to Sozomen,,
was, that he held the Son of God to have
His beginning from His birth of the Virgin*
(H. E. u. 33). This idea apparently first
came out in a book by Marcellus against
the Arians (Hilary, Frag. Hist. ii. 22, col.
1300, Ed. Bened.), and indeed Athanasius.
for some time upheld the orthodoxy of the
bishop of Ancyra ; but at length he had to
suspend him from communion, and he was
condemned at Constantinople. He taught
that the Son had no real personality, but
was merely the external manifestation of
the Father (irpoqbopiKos Xoyos); and that
it was only as man that He was called the
Son of God. His peculiar opinions are
drawn out by Cardinal Newman from Eu
sebius (Select Treat, of St. Ativan, p. 503),
and seem to be a sort of mixture of the
errors of SabelUus and Paul of Samosata
(See Sabellians).
MARCIONITES. Heretics of the se
cond century ; so caUed from Marcion. He
was born at Sinope, in Paphlagonia or
Helenopontus, on the coast of the Pontus-
Euxinus, or Black Sea, and for that reason
is sometimes called Ponticus. He studiecb
the Stoic philosophy in his younger years,
and was a lover of solitude and poverty. He
was said to have been guilty of uncleanness.
with a virgin, and was, by his father, who
was a bishop, expeRed the Church. This;
however only rests upon the authority of Epi
phanius ; and TertulUan speaks of Marcion
as pure and continent (De Prescript.
Her. 30). Probably by the "Virgin" of
Epiphanius is figured the virgin Church,
which was corrupted by his errors. After
this he went to Rome, where, being not ad
mitted into Church communion, he in*
spite embraced Cerdon's heresy, and be
came the author of new heresies, about a.d.
134. He held with Cerdon the doctrine of
two gods, the one good, the other bad ; the
latter, he said, was the author of the world,
and of the law; but the good, was the
author of the gospel, and redeemer of the
world. He said that Christ was sent on
purpose to abolish the law, as being bad.
Origen affirms, that he supposed there was
a God of the Jews, a God of the Chris
tians, and a God of the Gentiles. Tertul
lian wrote against him, and brought forward

MARGARET, ST.
the rest bf his opinions, as that he denied
the resurrection of the body, condemned
marriage'; a married man who offered him
self as a disciple being received as a cate
chumen, but not admitted to baptism till
he had separated from his wife (Tert. adv.
Marc. i. 29 : iv. 10). The baptism of
married persons was only allowed . in
articulo mmtis. The women commonly
administered the sacraments. Rhodon, a
Greek author, quoted by Eusebius, says,
the disciples of this heresiarch added many
other errors to his tenets. Constantine the
Great published an edict against the
Marcionites and the other heretics in 366 ;
and Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, converted
10,000 of them in 420 (For full account
see Diet. Christ. Biog. iii. 816).
MARGARET, ST., V. and M., of An
tioch ; commemorated in our Calendar on
July 20. Nothing is known of this saint,
¦but there is a tradition that she suffered
martyrdom at Antioch in Pisidia about a.d.
278. In the Greek Church she is called St.
Marina, and commemorated on the 17th of
July. Her legend is one of those pronounced
by Pope Gelasius in 494 as apocryphal. [H.]
MARIOLATRY. The worship of the
Virgin Mary, or rendering to the Blessed
Virgin that service (Latreia, which see)
which belongs only to God. This did not
take place in the early ages of the Church;
" God alone," wrote Justin Martyr, " ought
Christians to worship" (tov Qebv povov bei
irpao-Kvveiv. Apol. ii.) ; and similar expres
sions are used frequently by the Fathers.
Praying to the Virgin was first in
troduced in the fourth century, and was
regarded as a heresy by the Catholic
Church. It commenced in Arabia,- about
the year 373, and seems to have given
rise to the opposite heresy, that of the
Antidicomarians, who spoke irreverently
of the Blessed Virgin. We learn that the
simple and misguided persons, who adopted
this new worship, made offerings of cakes
to the Virgin, from which they were called
CoUyridians (a word which signified the
nature of the offering). There is no evi
dence that they separated from the Church
or its worship, or refused to worship God,
or regarded the Virgin as equal with God.
They, however, offered external worship to
the Virgin, and were, therefore, regarded
as heretics. In the following century, a
reaction against the Nestorian refusal of
the title Theotokos (Mother of God) to the
Blessed Virgin, tended greatly to pave tho
way for the Mariolatry of later times (See
Nestorians ; Mother of God). It is not
denied that both in the Greek and Roman
Church the Virgin is directly addressed in
prayer. She seems to be more regarded
than God ; or, at all events, to be considered

MARK, ST.

471

as the complement of the Trinity. — Pusey's
Eirenicon, ii. 167 (See Hook's Church and
her Ordinances, vol. ii, p. 189).
MARK, ST., THE EVANGELIST'S
DAY. A festival of the Christian Church,
observed on the 25th of AprU.
St. Mark is generally identified with the
John surnamed Mark, to the house of whose
mother Mary. St. Peter repaired after his
deliverance from prison (Acts xii. 12). He
was nephew to St. Barnabas, and started
with him and St. Paul on their first mission
ary journey, but left them at Perga, and was
therefore rejected by St. Paul on the second
journey. But it is clear from Col. iv. 10,
Philem. 24, and 2 Tim. iv. 11, that he
regained St. Paul's confidence, and was sent
for to. minister to him in his last imprison
ment. He is called by St. Peter (1 St. Pet.
v. 13)," my son," and early tradition makes
him the constant companion of St. Peter, and
describes him as having written his gospel
under the guidance, if not at the dictation,
of that apostle. He is said to have been
sent by ,St. Peter into Egypt, fixing his
chief residence at Alexandria, but carrying
also the gospel into the less civUized parts
of Africa. According to tradition not very
trustworthy, he suffered martyrdom one
Easter late in the first century, at the
time the solemnities of Serapis were cele
brated, when the idolatrous people, being
excited to vindicate the honour of their
deity, broke in upon St. Mark, whUe he
was performing Divine service, and, binding
him with cords, dragged him through the
streets, and thrust him into prison, where
in the night he had the comfort of a
Divine vision. Next day, the enraged mul
titude used him in the same manner, till,
his spirits failing, he expired under their
hands. Some add, that they burnt his body,.
and that the Christians decently interred
his bones and ashes near the place where he
used to preach.
MARK'S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical
book of the New Testament (See the pre
ceding article).
This evangelist wrote his gospel at Rome,
whither he accompanied St. Peter in the
year of Christ 44. Tertullian, and others,
pretend that St. Mark was no more than
an amanuensis to St. Peter, who dictated
this Gospel to him. Others affirm that he
wrote it after St. Peter's death. On the
authenticity of the last twelve verses in this
gospel, see Appendix.
MARK, ST., LITURGY OF ; called also
the Liturgy of Alexandria. This was
anciently used in Greek, but is also extant
in Coptic, in modified forms which go by
the names of St. Cyril, St. Basil, and St.
Gregory " the Theologian " (Nazianzen), and
which are used to the present day by the

472

MARONITES

Christians of Egypt. The Greek liturgy of
St. Mark in full exists only in one MS. of
about the tenth century (Renaudot, i. 45.
Asseman, Lod. Liturg. vu.), but by a chain
of evidence, and by comparison with the
other forms, it can be traced back to the
earUest ages. We can ascertain with con
siderable certainty the words and expressions
of the Alexandrian liturgy before the CouncU
of Chalcedon, a.d. 451 : and its substance
and order to a far more remote period. In
fact there is nothing unreasonable in sup
posing that, in its main substance, it was as
old as the apostoUc age ; and derived from
the instruction of St. Mark (Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. i. 105). The " Anaphora " of the
Liturgy of St. Mark is almost identical with
that of the English office, " Lift we up our
hearts," " We lift them up unto the Lord,"
&c. " Let us give thanks unto the Lord."
" It is meet and right." " It is verUy meet
and right," &c. [H.]
MARONITES. Certain Eastern Chris
tians, so called, who inhabit the slopes of
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in Syria. The
name is derived probably from the Monastery
of St. Maro, where they at first assembled,
under a leader who took the name Maro or
Marum, and assumed the title of Patriarch
of Antioch. The monastery had been
founded in the fifth century by Maro the
Anchorite, but the sect which assumed the
name did not arise tUl the beginning of the
eighth century, when a certain number of
persons separated themselves from the or
thodox church, and adopted Monothelite
teaching (See Monothelites). Though there
were other Monothelite bishops, this was
the only distinct sect which arose from that
heresy. In a.d. 1182 they entered into the
Roman communion 40,000 in number ; but
when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was
destroyed they ceased for two centuries to
have any intercourse with Western Christen
dom. They were re-united at the Council
of Florence, a.d. 1445. The Maronites have
their patriarch, archbishops, bishops, and
about 150 inferior clergy. They keep Lent
according to the ancient rigour, eating but
one meal a day, and that after mass, which
is said at four o'clock in the afternoon.
Their priests are distinguished by a blue
scarf, which they wear about their caps.
Married men may become priests, but none
may marry after they are in orders. They
wear no surpUces, observe particular fasts
and feasts, and differ in many other things
from the Church of Rome.
The patriarch of the Maronites is a monk
of St. Anthony, claims the title of Patriarch
of Antioch, and is always called Peter. He
has about nine bishops under him, and
resides at Edem Canobin, a monastery built
on a rock. They read their service both in

MARRIAGE \
the vulgar language and in Latin, and,
whUe they perform it, turn their heads
sometimes on one side, and sometimes on
the other, pronouncing the word Im or
Eynam softly, which signifies yes or ^es
verily, by which they express their assent
to what they read. They have so great a
veneration for their bishops, that they often
prostrate themselves before them. — LeQuieiBj
Oriens. Christ, iii. 10; Neale's Eastern
Church, Introd. i. 153.
MARRIAGE (See also Divorce). (Pr.
mariage: from Low Latin maritagium,
maritus). The union between man and
woman for life. It was instituted by
God (Gen. i. 28, ii. 18, 24), and amongst
the different nations of the world there has
almost universally been some rehgious way
of entering into it, as a testimony of its
divine institution (Wheatly, p. 402). It
was so in the early Christian Church.
Marriage being spoken of as typical of the
union between Christ and His Church
(Eph. v. 31), shows with what regard it
was observed, and the early Fathers were
very earnest in bringing it before the
people as a religious and not a mere natural
contract. Ignatius, early in the second
century, says: "It becomes those that
marry and are given in marriage to take
upon them this yoke with the consent or
direction of the bishop, that their marriage
may be according to the will of God, and
not their own lusts" (Ep. ad Polycarp).
TertulUan, a little later, says: "How can
we find words to describe the happiness of
that marriage which the Church brings
about, and the oblation confirms, and the
benediction seals, and the angels announce,
and the Father ratifies" (Ad Ux. ii. 8).
St. Ambrose, also, speaks of the benediction
(Ep. 70), and St. Augustine says that the
bishops used to give women in marriage,
thereby implying the blessing, but they
could not give them to heathens (Ep. 234;
see also Possid. Vit. Aug. c. 27). A good
deal of laxity took place on account of the
marriages between Christians and heathens,
the questions with regard to affinity, and
second marriages. But about a.d. 780 Charles
the Great enacted a law that no marriage
should be celebrated but by blessing with
sacerdotal prayers and oblations — so that
the necessity of sacerdotal benediction was
established by law. In our country similar
enactments were made. A law of King
Edward (a.d. 946) orders that " the priest
shall be at the marriage, and shaU celebrate
the union according to custom, with God's
blessing, and with solemnity" (For Mar
riage service see Matrimony). [H.]
MARRIAGE, LAW OF. The only
definition of marriage that can be main
tained in this country is " The legal union

MARRIAGE
of one man and one woman, professedly
for life, and with no power for either or
both of them to dissolve it." The Judge of
the Divorce Court has held that a professedly
polygamous union in a country which
aUows it is not a marriage in English law.
How it is to be made is a subordinate
question, and the law thereon has varied
from time to time, and has often had
to he settled by judicial decisions as well
as altered by legislation. The last great
case upon it was Reg. v. Millis, in 1843-4,
when a majority of the Irish Judges, and
the English ones unanimously, came to
an important conclusion, which neverthe
less only stood by an equal division in
the House of Lords. The decision itself
has ceased to be of so much consequence
by reason of later legislation, but the
judgments of Tindal, L.C.J., for all the
judges who were not peers, and of Lord
Cottenham, and above all, the luminous
exposition of Lord Lyndhurst, contain such
a history of the EngUsh law of marriage
as never had been or will be -written
again. Lord Abinger's, who concurred,
was only short. Backed by such a
vast preponderance of authority we may
venture to add that the reasoning of the
three dissentients, Lords Brougham, Camp
bell and Denman, is plainly wrong on some
points and was avowedly hasty. Lynd
hurst and Cottenham's judgments were
postponed till the following session. Camp
bell's Scotch prepossessions made him sin
gularly inaccurate sometimes in speaking
and writing about English marriage law.
All these judgments were printed as Par
liamentary papers, and the case is reported
in 10 Clark and Finnelly, and is well worth
reading stiU.
The main decision of aU the Courts, to
which all the rest of their investigation led
up, was that the performance of some
recognised marriage ceremony by a priest
(which word was said to include a deacon
since the Reformation Statutes, and even a
Roman priest) had always been essential in
England to the making of a complete mar
riage, carrying all the civil rights of dower
to the wife and the husband's power over
her personalty and the legitimacy of chUdren,
until the Act of 1836, authorising civil
marriages before Registrars. For some un
certain period long before the great Marriage
Act of 1753 it seemed to be held that the
marriage by a priest must also be in church;
but that (if it ever really was law) had long
ceased to be so. The exceptions which had
been assumed to exist for Jews and Quakers
need not be now considered, and the legality
of that for Quakers seemed doubtful until
later Acts, and was once decided against.
The aforesaid Marriage Act, 26 Geo. II. c. 33,

MARRIAGE

473

was aimed at clandestine' marriages (which
some writers wrongly confounded with
marriages without a priest), and absolutely
required performance in a church after
banns or licence, and between 8 and 12 a.m.,
and made all others null and void, and the
clergyman who knowingly celebrated them,
liable to fourteen years' transportation, and
no less ; all which is followed by 4 Geo. IV.
c. 76. By an Act of 1886 the time is
extended to 3 p.m. and the clergy are
exempted from the penalties of the 62nd
Canon in respect thereof which had been
overridden by several other Acts of Parlia
ment before. But it rather strangely did
not expressly require a priest; and Lord
Stowell thought, and some of the Lords
in the above case followed him, that a false
priest would not vitiate a marriage if the
parties married were innocent; but that
has never yet been actually decided. The
false priest himself is certainly liable to that
penalty, and one was convicted and sentenced
not long ago.
' In order to arrive at the main conclusion
in that case of Reg. v. Millis, the judges and
the Lords had to wade through and classify
as far as possible a quagmire of complica
tions and contradictions that had accu
mulated under encroachments of the Canon
Law from Rome, which had naturally in
vaded the ecclesiastical Courts in matters
within their exclusive jurisdiction and in
volving no conflict with the common law
Courts ; which would never have allowed
one wife and one set of children to bo
lawful for some purposes, and another set
for others in this country, though the eccle
siastical Courts administered the personal
estate of dead people, but not the real, until
tbe transfer of all that jurisdiction to the new
Probate Court in 1857, which became the
Divorce Court at the same time by another
Act. The advocates of reviving Canon law
and lawyers (who can never define what
they mean) will probably be surprised to
learn that it was that, and not the common
law of England, which ordained that a priest
was not necessary tp make a valid marriage,
which could not be dissolved; and so it
remained in the Roman Church until the
Council of Trent.
Solemnization of the marriage by a priest
in church would however be ordered by
the ecclesiastical Court upon a proved mar
riage contract per verba de presenti, such as
" I take thee for my wife," though not de
futuro, such as, " I promise to marry you,"
unless it was foUowed by consummation.
But that was far from being the only com-
pUcation. Dropping then mere promises
inconsummated, if A and B contracted to
marry, and if before solemnization in church,
A went and married C in facie ecciesie,

474

MARRIAGE

which were his lawful wife and chUdren? That
question nobody could answer until another
suit had been instituted; and again that
would depend on whether A and C were
both alive stiU. If they were not, the C
marriage stood irrevocable: if they were,
the Court would dissolve the C marriage,
and pronounce it null and void ab initio,
though it had been only voidable ; and that,
whether any order had been previously
made to celebrate the B marriage or not.
If B was meanwhile dead, it was no use
ordering her to be married in church, and
therefore probably C remained A's wife.
But whether she did or not, and whatever
else happened, the children of B born
before she had been married by a priest
were illegitimate by the law of England;
and if B outlived A, but had not been so
married, she could not recover dower. An
attempt was made by the bishops in 1235
to introduce another piece of Canon law :
and the Statute of Merton, 20 Hen. III.,
c. 9, is, " And all the bishops instanted the
lords that they would consent that such
as were born before matrimony should be
legitimate . . . forasmuch as the Church
accepteth such for legitimate ; and all the
barons answered with one voice that they
would not change the laws of the realm."
It is curious that that law of the Roman
Church still prevails in Presbyterian Scot
land, and that is why no minister need
be present to make a valid marriage there.
Lord Campbell, in R. v. Millis, referred to
another famous decision (unnamed) in the
House of Lords, that a family of illegitimate
children was once made legitimate by a
man declaring their mother to be his
wife before his servants, and then going
into the next room and shooting himself.
As some persons desire to see that premium
impudicitie of the Canon law introduced
here, we may give this purely civil reason
against it, that it would enable an unmarried
man to spite his real heir by adopting any
boy with a living mother just before his
death, when men sometimes do very queer
things as it is. It is also a manifest tempta
tion to postpone marriage and live in con
cubinage. This monstrous state of things continued
until 1753, except that it was stopped for a
few years by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38, which
was itself afterwards repealed as to its re
peal of those " precontracts," as they were
called. It is not necessary to follow up all
the consequences of that contradiction of
the common and the ecclesiastical law, under
which nobody could be sure which of two
wives a man might finally discover to be his
real one, until either he or one of them was
dead, or whether his children by the second
marriage, if duly performed, were to be

MARRIAGE
legitimate or not. Nor is -it necessary to
explain here how far the Irish law was
affected by the Marriage Act of 1753 and
others, so as to cause the difficulty in Beg.
v. Millis, as all such law is obsolete now.
That Act against clandestine marriages,
and especially such as used to be performed
by clergymen in the Fleet prison and other
such places, and that one of 4 Geo. IV. c.
76, which was substituted for it, have been,
already noticed under Banns; for which.
licences, either ordinary from the bishops or
their chancellors, or special from the Arch
bishop of Canterbury only under 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 21, " as the Pope had done before,"
were an authorised substitute. And as;
Ucences by their very nature are not
intended to give public notice of a mar
riage, mistakes in them are not regarded
so strictly as in banns, where a materially
wrong name (but not residence) is fatal,
notwithstanding the strong desire of the
Courts to uphold marriages, even where the
parties, or one of them, are punishable for
making them. It is impossible to give here
a complete account of all the legal distinc
tions that have been made.
A licence cannot be granted for the
marriage of a minor without the consent of
a parent or legal guardian or the Court of
Chancery, and when that cannot con
veniently be got, they must be married by
banns, and often are, which a parent may
forbid : which contravenes the 62nd Canon,
requiring the parents' express consent; Only
a special licence can authorise marriage in
a house or outside the legal hours, and they
are never given without special reasons
being at least alleged for inability to marry
properly, and some reference to known
persons. Of late too, Archbishop Tait
wisely refused them for what may be
called evening marriages, which were apt
to degenerate into inappropriate festivities:
There is an extra stamp duty which makes
them cost about £35. An ordinary licence
requires the residence of one party in the
parish of the church where they are to be-
married for at least fifteen days, and one of
them has to swear before the surrogate who
grants it that there is no legal impediment ;
and a false oath therein is perjury, but does
not avoid the marriage, unless the impedi
ment itself does, as if they are within the
prohibited degrees (See Affinity). The same
is the case with licences from a Registrar.
Also the party making a false declaration
or oath is liable to forfeit all interest in
any property coming through the marriage.
Acts have stiU to be passed continually
to legalise all marriages that have been-
performed in some church in which it has
been found or thought that they were not
lawful; and if not, all the performers of

MARRIAGE
them have been liable to transportation.
Such has been the slovenly way of
legislating on this subject at every period
of our history from Henry VIII. down
wards. The Act caUed Lord Blandford's,
19&20 Vict. c. 104, which makes all places
in whose churches marriages may lawfully
be performed, new parishes for all ecclesi
astical purposes as soon as the vicars are
entitled to all the fees, has incidentaUy
deprived people living there of the right to be
stiU married in the old parish church, as
was decided in Fuller v. Alford in 1882,
and it has given great dissatisfaction — not
much compensated by the decision that
they retain the right to vote for church
wardens of the old parish.
The Act of 1880, which makes Greenwich
mean time the only lawful time in Great
Britain, has rendered the favourite device of
putting back the church clocks for un-
punctual brides fatal to their marriage, aud
the clergyman liable to transportation if he
performs it late ; but the service need only
begin before the prescribed time, now 3
p.m. It is singular too that none of
these Draconian penalties are aimed at any
irregularities in the civU marriages before
registrars under the Marriage Act of 1836,
6 & 7 W. IV. c. 85, which (as usual) has
been amended by sundry others, especially
7 W. IV. c. 22, and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 72.
It was doubtful for a time whether a
clergyman could lawfully perform the
marriage service in church for people who
desired it after a civil marriage, and one
was actuaUy indicted by some malicious
person for so doing. But a strong judge
defeated it by deciding that he had done
simply nothing, except read the church
service in his own church, and had not
married the people at aU,as they were married
already. Since then an Act was passed
expressly allowing it in 1856 (19 & 20 Vict.
c. 119, s. 12), on production of the registrar's
certificate; but the clergyman is not to
register the marriage, as it is registered
already, and all the registers now go to the
General Registration Office. Clergymen
who are asked to marry persons coming
with a proper licence, or whose banns have
been duly published in that church, are
not bound to go beyond that and inquire
whether they have been married in a
popish or dissenting chapel or a registrar's
office beforehand. By the first section of
the 1836 Act a registrar can give a certificate
of notice equivalent to banns or a licence
for marriage in church, though that was
contrary to the 62nd Canon. It was agreed
to by the bishops in Parliament. It should be
remembered that licences and banns only
hold good for three months. Clergymen of
experience say they find the best way of

MARTYR

475,

receiving the fees for marriage is that
directed by the rubric. They, or the clerk,.
tell the man beforehand that he is to lay
the prescribed fee with tbe ring on the
book according to the rubric, or if more
convenient, on a plate to avoid the risk of
rolling it off. There are many complicated
questions about the effect of marriages.
abroad, which cannot be discussed here. A
man may easily find himself to have one
lawful wife abroad and another here. [G.]
MARTIN, ST.: Bishop and Confessor:.
commemorated in our Calendar, Nov. 11.
He was born in the early part of the fourtk
century at Sabaria, a town- of Pannonia,.
the modern Stain, in Hungary. He was,
the son of a Roman tribune, and himself a.
soldier, though from all accounts from a
very early age desirous to adopt a life of
religion, and he had been received as a
catechumen at the age of fifteen. When
his legion was quartered at Amiens the
weU-known incident took place of his
cutting his cloak in two portions with his^
sword, in order that he might give half to a
naked beggar, covering himself as best he
might with the other half. That night the
Blessed Lord appeared to him in a vision,
clad in the half cloak, and seemed to say to
the crowd of angels around Him, " Martin,
stiU a catechumen, has clothed me with this-
cloak." He was immediately baptized, and
shortly afterwards left the army. Martin.
became thepupU and great friend of HUary
of Poictiers, and with him combated the
prevalent errors of Arianism. He was*
bishop of Tours from a.d. 371-397, during
which time he was very zealous, destroying
the heathen temples, throwing down their
altars, breaking up their images, &c. In
397 he died at Cande, on Nov. 11. — Robert
son's Ch. Hist, ii., v. ; Diet. Christ. Biog. iii..
839. [H.]
MARTIN, ST., TRANSLATION OF.
In 482, Perpetuus, bishop of Tours, trans
lated the remains of St. Martin to a splendid
basilica near Tours. This event is celebrated.
on July 4. [H.]-
MARTINMAS. The festival of St.
Martin, on Nov. 11 (See Martin, St).
MARTYR (pdprvp, a witness). One-
who bears testimony to Christ. The word.
was sometimes used in the very early-
Christian authors as equivalent to teacher
or prophet (Eus. H. E. v. xviii. 7), but it
was almost universaUy confined to those-
" who sealed their testimony to Jesus and
His doctrine with their blood" (Rose's;
Parkhurst, s. v.). The suffering of martyrs-
was an especial cause of the propagation.
of the Gospel, and so it became a saying,.
" Semen ecclesiaj est sanguis Christianorum "'
— " the blood of Christians is the seed of the*
Church" (Tertull. Apol. c. 49).

476

MARTYRDOM

MARTYROLOGY

The Christian Church, from the time of
St. Stephen, the first martyr, has abounded
with martyrs, and history is filled with
surprising accounts of their singular con
stancy aud fortitude under the most cruel
torments. The primitive Christians were
falsely accused by their enemies of paying a
sort of Divine worship to martrys. Of this
we have an instance in the answer of the
Church of Smyrna to the suggestion of the
Jews, who, at the martyrdom of Polycarp,
desired the heathen judge not to suffer the
Christians to carry off his body, lest they
should leave their crucified Master, and
worship him in His stead. To which they
answered, " We can neither forsake Christ,
nor worship any other : for we worship Him
ns the Son of God, but love the martyrs
as the disciples and followers of the Lord,
for the great affection they have shown to
their King and Master." A like answer was
given at the martyrdom of Fructuosus, in
Spain ; for when the judge asked Eulogius,
bis deacon, whether he would not worship
Fructuosus, as thinking that, though he
refused to worship heathen idols, he might
yet be inclined to worship a Christian
martyr, Eulogius replied, " I do not worship
Fructuosus, but Him whom Fructuosus
worships." In answer to those Manichasans who
accused the Church of worshipping martyrs,
St. Augustine denies that martyrs were ever
Ronoured with worship (Xarpeta) which is
due to God only : they were honoured as
loly men (Contra Faust, lib. xx. c. 21).
And St. Jerome answers VigUantius in the
:same strain (Contra. Vigil. 7, 8). The
¦Church loves to dwell on the memory of
those who have yielded up even their lives
in a faithful attachment to their Redeemer,
.and who, from the midst of the fires, could
rejoice in God, and trust in His grace. In
that beautiful hymn, the Te Deum, their
memory is celebrated in the words, "The
noble," or (according to the original) "white-
robed army of martyrs, praise thee." And
¦well may they be counted "an army,"
whether we consider their numbers or their
¦valour ; and a " noble, or white-robed army,"
because, as true soldiers of Christ, these
Rave fought against sin with their lives in
their hands, and were " slain for the word
.of God," and "white robes were given to
each one of them " (Rev. vi. 9). [H.]
MARTYRDOM. The death of a martyr.
The same name is sometimes given to a
church erected over the spot where a martyr
lino miftprpn
MARTYRS, FESTIVAL OF ALL
'{See All Saints).
MARTYROLOGY. A catalogue or list
•of martyrs, including the history of their
lives and sufferings for the sake of religion.

Days of commemoration of martyrs were
very early held, as may be seen in a passage
in the letter of the Church at Smyrna to
the Church of Philomelium, on the occasion
of the martyrdom of St. Polycarp (circ.
168). " So we, having taken his hones . . .
out of the fire, laid them to rest in a suitable
place. There, as far as possible, assembling
with exultation and joy, we shall by God's
permission keep the birthday of his martyr
dom, both for the" memory of those who
have already fought the fight, and for the
training and preparation of those that are to
come " (c. xvui. ap. Euseb. iv. 15). Such
days of commemoration and edification are
frequently mentioned by the Fathers, and
according to the usual style, the day of his
martyrdom was called the martyr's birthday
(TertuU. de Cor. Mil. cap. 3) ; for, as St.
Chrysostom says, the death of a martyr is
not properly a death, but an endless life
(Horn. 3 de Rom. Mart). The solemnities
were at first celebrated at the graves of the
martyrs, and afterwards in churches which
were built over the graves, and often called
Martyries (paprvpia). In early times we
read that there were often lists of martyrs ;
and Churches had distinct festivals of their
own particular martyrs, Ibtai iraviryvpeis
paprvpav : to which TertuUian also refers,
" habeo tuos census, tuos fastos." — Soz. S.
E. v. c. 3; Tertull. de Cor. Mil. c. 13;
Cypr. Ep. xxxvii., al. 12.
At these commemorations or birthdays,
the deeds and sufferings of the martyr were
recounted or read ; and that this soon be
came an established custom is evident from
the third CouncU of Carthage allowing the
" passiones martyrum " to be read as well
as the canonical Scriptures (Can. 47); and
St. Augustine, Gelasius, and others, often
mention the reading of such histories in the
African and Roman churches. The col
lections of the "passiones martyrum," or
Martyrologies, were doubtless very numer
ous, and varied in the different churches;
but there were one or two into which the
smaller ones were absorbed. Such was the
Syrian Martyrology, of which a copy is
extant, written a.d. 412. It was discovered
by Dr. Wright, and a copy published by
him in the Journal of Sacred Literature,
vol. viii. p. 45 ; London, 1866 (See Diet.
Christ. Ant. ii. 1134). Also the Hierony-
mian Martyrology, mentioned by Gregory the
Great, which probably contained the ancient
Martyrologies of Eusebius and Jerome, the
lesser Roman Martyrology, and the Martyr
ology of Bede in the eighth century, one in
prose, the other in verse. The last three
are the sources of almost all Western
Martyrologies and Calendars, as may be seen
upon comparison.
Floras, deacon of Lyons, in the ninth

MARTYROLOGY
century, enlarged Bede's " Martyrology," and
put it almost in the condition it is in at
present. Valdelbertus, a monk of the
diocese of Treves, in the same century,
wrote a Martyrology in verse, extracted
from Bede and Floras, which is given in
Dacherius's Spicilegium. About the same
time, Rabanus Maurus, archbishop of
Mainz, drew up a Martyrology, published
by Canisius, in his Antique Lectiones.
After these, Ado, archbishop of Vienne,
compiled a new Martyrology, while he was
traveUing in Italy, where, in a journey from
Rome to Ravenna a.d. 857, he saw a
manuscript of an ancient Martyrology,
which had been brought thither from
Aquileia. This was the lesser Roman
Martyrology referred to above.
In the year 870, Usuardus, a monk of St.
Germain des Pres, drew up a much larger
and more correct Martyrology than those
above mentioned. This work was weU
received, and soon began to be made use of
in the offices of the Western Church. About
the beginning of the next century, Notkerus,
a monk of Switzerland, drew up another
Martyrology from Ado's materials. This
Martyrology, published by Canisius, had not
the same success with that of Usuardus.
The churches and monasteries, which used
this last, made a great many additions and
alterations in it. This gave rise to a vast
number of different Martyrologies during
the six following centuries.
At last, it seemed necessary to rectify the
errors and defects of the old Martyrologies,
and to compUe new ones. Augustinus
Belinus, of Padua, began this reform in the
fifteenth century. After him, Francis
MaraU or Maurolycus, abbot of Messina, in
SicUy, drew up a Martyrology, in which he
has entirely changed Usuardus's text. John
Vander Meulen, known by the name of
Molanus, a doctor of Louvain, restored it,
with alterations and very learned notes.
About the same time, Galesinus, apostolic
protonotary, drew up a Martyrology, and
dedicated it to Gregory XIII. ; but this was
not approved at Rome. Baronius' "Mar
tyrology," written some time after, with
notes, was better received, being approved
by Pope Sixtus Quintus, and has since
passed for the modern Martyrology of the
Roman Church. It has been several times
corrected, and was translated into French
by the Abbot Chatlain, canon of Notre-
Dame at Paris, with notes, in the year
1709. An EngUsh Martyrology, called the
"Golden Legend," was in use in the six
teenth century. It is full of imaginary and
worse than useless stories, and was with
other Martyrologies suppressed at the Re
formation. — Cave, Hist. Lit. ii. Dis. n. ;

MASS

477-

Bingham, xx. 6 ; Migne, Patrol, xciv. 799 ;
De Rossi, Roma Sotteran. ; Blunt's Diet
Doct ; Diet Christ Ant. [H.]
MARY (See Virgin Mary ; Mariolatry).
MASORAH— rnDO. A term in Jewish
theology, signifying tradition. It includes
notes of all the variations of words, letters, and
points which occur in the Hebrew Scriptures ;
an enumeration of all the letters, &c. ; in
short, the minutest points of verbal criticism,
and pretends to an immaculate accuracy. The
authors of it are unknown. Some attribute
it to Moses ; others to Ezra ; others to the
Masorites of Tiberias. The probability is,
according to Bishop Walton, that the Masorah
was begun about the time of the Maccabees,
and was continued for many ages. It did
not meet with universal approval among
the Jews, of whom some regretted the con
sequent cessation of oral traditions. See
Bishop Walton's Prolegomena to his Poly-
glott Bible.
MASORITES. A society of learned
Jews, who had a school or coUege at
Tiberias. They paid great attention to the
critical study of the Hebrew Scriptures ;
and to them by many able scholars, as
Walton, CapeUus, &c, is attributed tbe in
vention of the vowel points now used for the
guidance of the pronunciation in reading
Hebrew. MASS. I. There have been many opinions
with regard to the origin of this word. It
has been connected with the Hebrew HDD
missah, an oblation, also with the old English
messe, a feast ; ItaUan messa, French mes, a
course of dishes, Spanish mesa, fare. But
there would seem Uttle doubt that it was a cor
ruption of " missa," which originaUy meant
the dismissal of the congregation. Cardinal
Bona says that the word is derived from the
"Ite missa est," equivalent to "let us
depart in peace," which was caUed out by
the deacon at the end of the service. It is of
great antiquity, occurring in a letter of St.
Ambrose to his sister : " Ego mansi in
munere, missam facere ccepi, dum offero,
raptum cognovi " (Ep. xxxiu.). It implied
in the first place any service — the reading
of lessons, or offering of collects — but gene
rally the dismission after the service ; for
missa and the later Latin missio are equiva
lent. It was not for some time that the
word missa became associated solely with
the office of the holy Eucharist, for the
missa eatechumenorum was the first part of
Divine service to which all orders of men
were admitted. Thus it was ordered by the
fourth Council of Carthage "ut episcopus
nullum prohibeat ingredi ecclesiam, et audire
verbum Dei, sive Gentilum, sive haereticum,
&c, usque ad missam eatechumenorum"
(Can. 84). The daily offices were also

478

MASS

sometimes called "missa?" (Cone. Agathens.
c. 30, a.d. 506). But the missa fidelium, a
term which was not used for the first nine
centuries, referred only to the celebration of
the Eucharist. As the word missa had
become identical with " service " in the case
•of the catechumens, it would naturally
when joined with "fidelium" refer to the
highest service to which the former could
not be admitted. But other explanations
have been given, as, " Tunc demum a diacono
•dicitur. He, missa est, id est, ite cum pace
in domos vestras, quia transmissa est pro
vobis oratio ad Dominum; et per angelos,
¦qui nuntii dicuntur, allata est in Divina;
conspectum Majestatis" (Expos. Miss, ex
vetust. Cod. in Hittorp. 587). The term
missa sacramentorum is often used, but not
earlier than the eleventh century. (Bona,
Rer. Lit. ii., viii.). Bona also mentions " Holy
Communion" as an ancient name for the
missa (On the differences between the
Roman, the Milanese, the Gallican, and the
Mbzarabic Missa;, see Diet Christ. Ant. ii.
1196). II. As on the Continent, so in. England
there were different forms of the Liturgy,
but the most widely used was that revised
by Osmund, bishop of Salisbury — the St.
Gregory of England — in 1085. Other "uses"
remained (see Use), but that of Sarum was
most generally used ; of which there were
several editions ; that in 1541 being adopted
by the Convocation as the Breviary for that
time. In it, as in the others, the " Canon of
the Mass " was introduced by the apostolic
versicles, the proper preface, and the Ter-
sanctus ; after this there was a long prayer,
interspersed with many ceremonies, but
substantially equivalent to the " Prayer for
the Church Militant," the "Consecration
Prayer," and the 1st "Thanksgiving Prayer"
of our office. The Prayer of Consecration
was not immediately followed by the Par
ticipation, as in our Liturgy ; first came the
Lord's Prayer, preceded by a short preface,
and followed by a prayer for deliverance
from all evil : then the "Agnus Dei" sung
thrice : then the commixture of the sacred
elements by placing a portion of the wafer
into the chalice : then the kiss of peace,
private prayers by the celebrant, and the
prayer of humble access : then the Com
munion. The service ended with a thanks
giving prayer, and a post-Communion coUect;
but afterwards there were certain ceremonies
such as the ablution of the sacred vessels,
&c. The title of the office in the P. B. of
1549 was, " The Supper of the Lord, and
the Holy Communion, commonly called the
Mass." The latter name, however, dropped
out of use after the introduction of the
vernacular into Divine Service (See Missa
Sicca; Presanctified). [H.]

MASTER
MASS, SACRIFICE OF (See' Sacrifice).
MASTER. The designation of some of
the heads of colleges at Oxford, and of all
at Cambridge with the exception of two, the
Provost of King's and the President of
Queen's. The .heads of some ancient hos
pitals, as Sherburn, are so called. It is
recognised by the 42nd and 43rd Canons,
&c, as one of the names of governors of
cathedral and collegiate churches.
MASTER OF ARTS. The highest de
gree in arts, signifying one who is com
petent to teach, answering to that of Doctor
in other faculties; conferred in all univer
sities, though in a few modern instances
superseded by that of Doctor of PhUosophy.
In England, the Masters of Arts form the
privileged body of the ancient universities
there; and there are many offices in the
Church to which none are eUgihle but those
who have at least taken that degree. By
Canon 128, surrogates must be M.A. at
least ; and by Canon 74, Masters of Arts
being beneficed, are enjoined to wear hoods or
tippets of sUk or sarcenet, and square caps.
MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES.
An officer in many foreign cathedrals,
whose business it is to see that all the cere
monies, vestments, &c, peculiar to each
season and festival, are observed in the
choir. MASTER OF THE FACULTIES. The
principal officer of the Court of Faculties.
The office is now combined with that of
Dean of Arches, by the PubUc Worship Act,
1874. MASTER OF THE SENTENCES. The
name commonly given to the celebrated
Peter Lombard, bishop of Paris, one of the
founders of scholastic divinity; so called
from his great work of the Sentences,
divided into four books, Ulustrative of doc
trines of the Churches, in sentences, or
passages taken from the Fathers. — Dupin.
MASTER OF THE SONG. A name for
the instructor of the choristers, or choir
master. MASTER OF THE TEMPLE. The
principal minister in the Temple Church, in
London, styled also the Custos and Rector ;
who, since the time of Henry VIII., has
been appointed by royal letters patent,
without institution or induction. This is a
post of great eminence, and has been held
by many able divines, as Hooker, Bishop
Sherlock, &c. The salary from the Crown
is only about £30 ; the rest of it, and also
the Master's house, are provided by the two
societies of the Temple. The preachers of
Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn are appointed
by the Benchers. Those of Lincoln's Rrn
have included four archbishops, ten bishops,
and two celebrated deans, Dr. Donne and
Cyril Jackson. [G.]

MASTERS
MASTERS OF THE SCHOOLS. Three
Masters of Arts, in the university of Oxford,
annually elected, who preside over certain
exercises of under-graduates. Before the
ancient disputations and determinations were
abolished, their office was much more onerous
than at present.
MATINS, or MATTINS. The ancient
name for early morning prayers, which were
said at some time after midnight. " Ante
auroram vel ex ortu auroras." — Dugdale,
Monast. Any. vi. 679.
The hours of prayer in the Church of
England, before the Reformation, were seven
in number, viz. matins, the first or prime,
the third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers
and compline. The office of matins, or
morning prayer, according to the Church of
England, is a judicious abridgment of her
ancient services for matins, lauds, and
prime. The office of matins, or morning prayer,
according to the EngUsh ritual, may be
divided into three principal parts. First,
the introduction, which extends from the
beginning of the office to the end of the
Lord's Prayer; secondly, the psalmody
and reading, which extends to the end of
the Apostles' Creed; and, thirdly, the
prayers and collects, which occupy the re
mainder of the service. — Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. i. 213.
MATRIMONY (Matrimonium). The
nuptial state. According to the law of
England marriage may be regarded merely
as a civil contract ; and so far as the effects
of the law are concerned, those who con
tract marriage by a merely civU ceremony
undergo no disabUities, and are regarded, to
ail intents and purposes, as man and wife.
But from the earliest ages in the Church
marriage has ever been solemnized with
religious rites, as may be seen from the
writings of the Fathers, and the decrees of
•councUs (See Marriage). And indeed it
has been regarded as a sacrament in the
Church of Rome, which bases her teaching
upon the words of St. Paul (Eph. v. 32),
" this is a great mystery," which is rendered
In the Vulgate " Sacramentum hoc magnum
est." The Church of England plainly
declares the high religious significance of
the rite of matrimony: it is "instituted of
God ; " it signifies " the mystical union
betwixt Christ and His Church ; " it is to be
taken in hand " in the fear of God ; " and
¦" so many as are coupled together otherwise
than God's word doth aUow, are not joined
together by God."
II. (i.) In ancient times the betrothal and
the rite of matrimony were distinct, the
former taking place often years before the
latter (See Betrothal). The service for
matrimony itseR consisted of three parts :

MATTHEW, ST.

479

1) prayers, (2) the sacerdotal benediction,
3) the oblation of the Holy Eucharist.
There were several minor ceremonies such
as veiling the bride, crowning the bridal
hair with garlands, &c, some of which are
condemned by St. Chrysostom (Horn, in
1 Cor.). The present English form of
solemnization of matrimony is taken in
substance from the old office in the Sarum
Manual, omitting the formal benediction of
the ring, and the special form of the nuptial
mass immediately following the service.
Some of the hortatory parts are taken
from Hermann's Consultatio. There has
been no change in the service since 1549,
except the omission of the " tokens of
sponsage, as gold and silver," presented
with the ling; and the alteration of the
rubric with regard to the Holy Communion.
This at the Reformation ran — " The new
married persons, the same day as their
marriage, must receive the Holy Com
munion." In 1661, to satisfy the Puritans,
it was changed to " it is convenient," &c.
In this the Church of England is not pe
culiar, for in the Eastern Chm-ch the newly-
married couple are not obliged to receive the
sacrament of the Eucharist immediately at
the time of marriage (Goar, Rit. Grec. Off.
Cor. Nupt p. 385). The possible celebra
tion of Holy Communion, the fact that the
benediction is pronounced, and the ancient
custom of the Church, would imply that
the service should properly be performed by
a priest, though that is not the law (See
Deacon ; Marriage).
(ii.) On account of the accompanying
festivity marriage was early prohibited in
Lent, in the eleventh century. It was also
forbidden between Advent and the octave
of Epiphany ; between Septuagesima and
the octave of Easter ; during fourteen days
before the feast of St. John Baptist ; during
the Ember weeks, and on all vigils. An
attempt was made in 1561 to restore some
of these restrictions, but it was not success
ful. (Ui.) Notice with regard to an intended
marriage was always required beforehand
by the Church. The earliest allusion to this
in England is in the eleventh canon of the
Synod of Westminster (a.d. 1200), which
requires banns to be thrice published (See
Banns). [H.]
MATTHEW, ST., THE EVANGE
LIST'S DAY. A festival of the Christian
Church, observed on the 21st of September.
St. Matthew, the son of Alphasus, was
also called Levi. He was of Jewish ori
gin, as both his names discover, and pro
bably a GalUean. Before his call to the
apostolate, he was a pubUcan or toll-
gatherer to the Romans; an office of bad
repute among the Jews, on account of the

480

MATTHEW'S, ST.

covetousness and exactions of those who
managed it.
St. Matthew continued with the rest of
the apostles till after our Lord's ascension.
According to tradition, for the first eight
years afterwards he preached in Judsea.
Then he betook himself to propagating the
Gospel among the Gentiles, and chose
Ethiopia as the scene of his apostolical
ministry: where it is said he suffered
martyrdom, but by what kind of death is
altogether uncertain.
MATTHEW'S, ST., GOSPEL. A ca
nonical book of the New Testament (See
the preceding article).
According to Papias (quoted by Eusebius,
iii. 39), Irena^us (ui. 1), Origen (ap. Euseb.
vi. 25), Eusebius (iii. 24), Jerome, de Vit.
lllustr., and others, St. Matthew wrote his
Gospel in Hebrew, Syro-Chaldaic, or
Aramaaan, which was afterwards translated
into Greek, but by whom is not stated, and
the accuracy of this tradition is far from
being clearly established (See Professor
Westcott, Introd. to Study of the Gospels,
and Professor Salmon, Introd. to New Tes
tament). MATTHIAS', ST., DAY : observed on
Feb. 24. St. Matthias was probably one of
the seventy disciples (Clem. Alex. Strom.
i. 4 ; Euseb. i. 1, c. 12), and a constant at
tendant on our Saviour during His ministry.
For this reason he was one of the two chosen
to fill up the place of Judas the traitor, the
other being Joseph called Barsabas, " and
the lot fell upon Matthias." There is
nothing known of his subsequent labours ;
according to the Greek menologies he planted
the faith about Cappadocia, and received
there the crown of martyrdom.
The observance of this festival was for
a time attended with some confusion. The
Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth directs that
in leap-years an additional day shall be
added between Feb. 23 and 24 : hence St.
Matthias' Day in leap-years was observed
on Feb. 25. On the review of the Liturgy
it was thought more proper to add a 29th
day to February ; so that the festival would
naturally always keep to the 24th. Never
theless mistakes were constantly made (es
pecially by the almanack makers) till Arch
bishop Sancroft in 1683 issued an injunction
that St. Matthias' Day was always to be
observed on Feb. 24.
MAUNDY THURSDAY (Dies Man
dati). The Thursday in Holy Week, on
which day our Lord gave His new Com
mandment (St. John xiii. 38) and the
sacrament of the Holy Eucharist was in
stituted : it was therefore called also Dies
Cene Domini, Dies NataUs Eucharistice,
Dies NataUs Calicis, Dies mysteriorum, Sec.
I. There were several ceremonials connected

MEANS OF GRACE
with it in the early and mediseval Church.
Penance was on this day relaxed, as St.
Ambrose says, " dies erat quo Dominus sese
pro nobis tradidit, quo in ecclesia pasnitenti-
alia relaxantur " (Ep. 33). And sermons
were especially addressed to penitents (Mar
tene, Eccl. Bit 1, 6), hence it was also-
called dies indulgentie ; the Eucharist was
celebrated in the evening, in particular
commomoration of its first institution (Aug.
Ep. cxviii. ad Januar.), but this was after
wards discontinued, and prohibited (Cone.
Trull. Can. 29) ; the catechumens had to-
repeat their creed either on the Thursday or
on the Saturday (Martene, i. 116, lib. i.
c. i. ; Con. Laod. c. 46) ; the sacred oil was
consecrated for use during the year (see
Chrism), for which there are collects, and
a missa chrismalis in the Gregorian and
Gelasian sacramentaries, and for which
services with very solemn ritual were ap
pointed (Muratori, Lit. Rom. Vet. i. 554;
ii. 991) ; the altars were bared, and washed
with wine and water ; and the feet of the
choir were washed by the clergy, in imi
tation of the action of our Lord. The latter
ceremony was enlarged upon, and sovereigns,
bishops and nobles, used to wash the feet
of certain poor, — as the pope does at the
present day on Maundy Thursday.
II. In the Sarum Missal the rubric runs:
" Post prandium conveniant clerici ad eccle
siam, ad altaria abluenda ; et ad mandatum
faciendum ; et ad completorium dicendum."
While the mandatum, pedilavium, or feet-
washing took place, the antiphon was sung,
" Mandatum novum do vobis : " from the
first word of which our Maundy or Mandie
(Bp. Cosin) is derived, not, as has been
supposed, from "maunds" or baskets of
gifts, which were made at this time (See
Bp. Sparrow's Rationale on the ' Common
Prayers, p. .135). In the Hierurgia An-
glicana (p. 282) an account is given
of the ceremonial of washing the feet
of the poor by Queen EUzabeth. James
II. is said to have been the last of our
sovereigns who performed it. It is still the
custom on Maundy Thursday for the Lord
High Almoner to distribute royal gifts of
money, woollen and linen cloths, shoes and
stockings, to certain poor in the Royal
Chapel at Whitehall, with a solemn service.
A vestige of the old ceremony is retained in
this service, the Almoner and his assistant
being girded with long linen towels during
the distribution (For the service on this
occasion see Blunt's Annot P. B. i. 99).
MEANS OF GRACE (See Ordinance
an d Sacraments). The sacraments and other
ordinances of the Church ' through which
grace is conveyed to souls prepared by faith
and penitence to receive it. The expression
is used once in the Prayer Book, in the

MEDIATOR
" General Thanksgiving " — " for the means of
grace, and for the hope of glory."
MEDIATOR (See Jesus, Lord, Christ,
Messiah). A person who intervenes between
two parties at variance. Thus our Blessed
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ is the Me
diator between God and man.
This appears from 1 Tim. ii. 5, " For
there is one God, and one Mediator between
God and men, the man Christ Jesus."
When we call Him a Mediator, we caU Him
so, not only as He is our Redeemer, but also as
He is our Intercessor. " For, if any man sin,
we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus
Christ, the righteous" (1 St. John ii. 1).
It is to be remembered however, that by a
mediator here the Church means, not barely
an intercessor or transactor of business be
tween two parties, in which sense Moses
was a mediator between God and the
Israelites with respect to the ceremonial
law, or St. John Baptist as between the
Old and New Testament (Greg. Naz. Orat.
xxxiv.), or Christian priests as merely in-
ternuncii, or media of communication, in
which sense the word is often used by the
Fathers, and which is given to them in the
Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 25 ; Bingham, ii.
xix. 16) ; but such a Mediator, Intercessor,
and Transactor, as can plead the merit of His
own blood, offered up in man's stead, to
reconcile an offended God to sinful man.
In this sense Christ is the mediator between
God and man, being both God and man.
And He is represented, both in the Old and
New Testament, as the only Redeemer of
mankind, as the only sacrifice for the sins
of the whole world, and the only Mediator
between God aud man. — Suicer, s. v. peo-trqs.
MELCHITES. The name which is
given to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other
Christians of the Levant ; who, though not
Greeks, follow the doctrines and ceremonies
of the Greek Church, and submit to the
decisions of the CouncU of Chalcedon. The
term Melchites is borrowed from the Hebrew
or Aramaic word ^7D, Melee, which signifies
to reign. So that Melchites is as much as
to say Royalists, and is a term of reproach,
given to the orthodox by the Eutychians, or
Jacobites, on account of their implicit sub
mission to the edicts of the emperors, for
the publication and reception of the above-
mentioned council.
The Melchites, excepting some few points
of little or no importance, which relate only
to their ceremonies and ecclesiastical dis
cipline, are in every respect professed Greeks.
They have translations, in the Arabic
language, of the Greek rituals ; but their
versions are for the most part very incorrect.
In general, the Christians of the Levant are
so far from being just and correct in their

MELETIANS

481

translations of the Greek authors, that they
imagine they have a right to make them
speak according to their own sentiments.
This is evident in the Arabic canons of the
Council of Nice, in which the Melchites find
sufficient arguments to justify their notions
against those of the Jacobites; and the
Jacobites, on the other hand, by the very
same canons, vindicate their tenets against
those of the Melchites.
The Melchites are governed by a parti
cular patriarch, who resides at Damascus,
and assumes the title of Patriarch of
Antioch. The great difficulty they meet
with in finding such ministers as can read
Greek, is said to be the true reason why
they celebrate mass in the Arabic lan
guage : and even those who are acquainted
with the Greek tongue, yet read the Epistle
and Gospel in Arabic.
The monks among the Melchites follow
the rule of St. Basil, the common rule of
all the Greek monks. They have four fine
convents, distant about a day's journey from
Damascus. They never go out of the
cloister. — Stubbs' Soames' Mosheim, i. 429 ;
iii. 567.
MELETIANS. There were in the 4th
century two schisms called Meletian.
I. The Meletians of Egypt had their
name from Meletius, a bishop of Lycopolis,
the second of the Egyptian sees in dignity.
It has been most commonly supposed that
Meletius sacrificed to the heathen gods in a
persecution about the year 301, or perhaps
in the -last general persecution a few years
later. But there seems to be reason for
supposing that the occasion of his schism
was of an opposite kind — that he objected
to the lenity with which Peter, bishop of
Alexandria, treated those who had lapsed
in the persecution ; and this explanation
agrees better with the character of the sect,
who rejected all from their communion, who
in time of persecution fell from Christ,
though they afterwards repented. Meletius
proceeded to ordain bishops, and at one
time had nearly thirty of these in his
communion. He was prohibited for ever to
ordain by the Council of Nice, but his fol
lowers were admitted to communion with
out re-ordination. He submitted to this at
first, but afterwards resumed his practice of
schismatical ordinations. The Arians at
tempted to draw the Meletians into a con
nexion with them, on the ground of their
common enmity to the orthodox bishops of
Alexandria; and thus the schismatics,
whose original difference with the Church
had been limited to questions of discipline,
became infected with heresy..
II. The Meletians of Antioch were so
called from Meletius, who in 360 was
appointed to the bishopric of that city.
2 i

482

MEMORI„

Although he owed his appointment to the
Arians, he soon showed that he was ortho
dox; whereupon he was deposed and
banished. He afterwards recovered his see,
but the adherents of Eustathius, who had
been deposed by the Arians many years
before, refused to communicate with him ;
and Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, by ordaining
Paulinus in opposition to him, contributed
to exasperate the differences of the ortho
dox. The schism of Antioch was not finally
healed until the year 415. — Stubbs' Soames'
Mosheim, i. 276, ;>00 ; Stephens' St. Chry
sostom, pp. 19-31.
MEMORI_ COMMUNES. Collects of
which there are several pages in the Salisbury
Missal, which correspond to "Prayers and
Thanksgivings on several occasions." The
four intercessory prayers now used in the
morning and evening service immediately
after the Anthem seem to have been origi
nally considered as belonging to this class.
The original ideas, though not the ipsissima
verba of these four prayers, and several of
those called " Occasional," are to be found
in the Memorie Communes. — Blunt's Annot
P. B.i. 26. [H.]
MEMORIAL COLLECT. When two
holy days coincide the coUect of the lesser
one is used after that of the greater, by way
of commemoration — hence called the me
morial collect. [H.]
MEN_A,orMENAIA(Tafi77wua). The
name which the Greeks give to the twelve
volumes of their Church Service. These
volumes answer to the twelve months in the
year, each volume taking in a month. In
this book are contained the offices for the
saints of every day, methodicaUy digested.
From the Menaion is drawn the Meno-
logium (Menology), or Greek calendar, in
which the lives of the saints in short, or
their names only, are cited. The Menaion,
therefore, of the Greek answers to the
Breviary of the Latins, and the Menology
to the Martyrology (See Breviary and Mar
tyrology). — Neale's Eastern Church, 829.
MENDICANTS, or BEGGING FRIARS.
There are several orders of monks or friars,
in Popish countries, who, having no income
or revenues, are supported by the charitable
contributions of others. These, from their
manner of life, are called Mendicants.
This sort of friars began in the thirteenth
century, when Dominic de Guzman, with
nine more of his companions, founded the
order of Preaching Friars, called from
their founder Dominicans. The other three
Mendicant orders are, the Franciscans,
Augustines, and Carmelites.
The friars did much good and effected
many reforms. They were, indeed, the chief
missionaries of the age. But with their
success and prosperity came corruption.

MENNONITES
They set altar against altar, and delighted
in turning the parish priest into ridicule.
They gave great disturbance to the secular
clergy, by pretending to a right of taking
confessions and granting absolution, with
out asking leave of the parochial priests,
or even the bishops themselves. Pope
Innocent IV. restrained this licence, and
prohibited the Mendicants from confess
ing the faithful without leave of the cure.,
Alexander IV. restored this privilege to
them. And Martin IV., to accommodate
the dispute, granted them a permission to
receive confessions, upon condition that the
penitents who applied to them should con
fess once a year to their proper pastor.
However, this expedient falling short of full
satisfaction, Boniface VIII. ordered that the
superiors of religious houses should make
application to the bishops for their permis
sion to such friars as should be commissioned
by their respective abbots to administer the
sacrament of penance. But hy Alexander V.
they were invested with authority to receive
confession, and to give absolution in every
parish in every part of the world. They
were, of course, everywhere the advocates of
the pope, and enemies to the independence-
of the Church of England. It was by his
fearless attack with regard to the Mendicant
Friars that WicUf rose into fame and popu
larity at Oxford. — Milman's Lat. Christ, v.
461, 488 ; Hook's Archbishops, iii. 48.
MENGRELIANS. Christians of the
Greek religion, converted by CyriUus and
Methodius. They baptize not their children
tiU the eighth year, and enter not into the
Church (the men especially) till the sixtieth
(others say the fortieth) year, but he-
Divine service standing without the temple.
MENNONITES. A sect of Anabaptists
in Holland, so denominated from one
Mennon Simonis of Frisia, who lived in the-
sixteenth century. The Protestants, as
well as the Romanists, confuted them.
Mennon was not the first of the Anabaptists ;
but having rejected the enthusiasms and
revelations of the first Anabaptists and
their opinions concerning the new kingdom
of Jesus Christ, he set up other tenets,
which his followers hold to this time. They
beUeve that the New Testament is the only
rule of our faith ; that the terms Person and
Trinity are not to be used in speaking of
the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; that the
first men were not created just ; that there
is no original sin ; that Jesus Christ had not
His flesh from the substance of His mother
Mary, but from the essence of His Father;
that it is not lawful for Christians to swear,
or exercise any office of magistracy, nor use
the sword to punish evil-doers, nor to
wage war upon any terms ; that a Christian
may attain to the height of perfection in

MENOLOGY
this life ; that the ministers of the gospel
ought not to receive any salary ; that
children are not to be baptized; that the
souls of men after death rest in an unknown
place. In the meantime these Mennonites broke
into several divisions, for very inconsiderable
reasons; many among them embraced the
opinions of the Socinians, or rather of the
Arians, touching the Deity of Christ ; and
they were all for moderation in religion, not
thinking that they might lawfully debar
from their assembUes any man leading a
pious life, and that owned the Scriptures for
the Word of God. These were called
Galenites, and borrowed their name from a
physician of Amsterdam, called Galen.
Some of them in Holland are caUed Col-
legiates, because they meet privately, and
every one in their assembly has the liberty
to speak, to expound the Scriptures, to
pray, and to sing: they that are truly
, Collegiates are Trinitarians : they never
receive the communion in their college, but
they meet twice a year, from all parts of
Holland, at Rhinsburg, a village about two
leagues from Leyden; there they receive
the sacrament. The first that sits at
table may distribute it to the rest ; and all
sects are admitted, even the Roman Catho
lics, if they would come (See Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, Ui. 136, 146, 148, 152).
MENOLOGY (pnvoXoyiov). A book
corresponding with the Latin Martyrology.
Fragments of menologia of the eighth or
ninth century are published at the end of
Scholz' Greek Test, 1830. In modern usage
the word has sometimes been confounded
with the Menajon. — Goar. Not 29 in Laud.
Off. (See Martyrology ; Meneon). [H]
MENSA. The slab of stone or wood used
as the surface of the Altar or Lord's Table.
Stone has been decided iUegal, both for the
mensa and the table (see Altar), " though
as neither the stone table nor the wooden
one is ever seen when it is used, being
always covered; nor is a wooden one in
fact ever moved, or wanted to be moved,
any more than a stone one ; and as stone or
marble tables . . . had long been used in
churches ... it is pretty evident that the
sudden outcry against stone tables had a
good deal more to do with Odium Theo-
logium than with religion." — Lectures on
Gliurch Building, Sir E. Beckett, p. 247,
1856. [H.]
MESSALIANS, or MASSALIANS. So
caUed from a Chaldee word, which signifies
to pray, as does the Greek evxopxu, from
which these sectaries had also the name of
Euchites, because they prayed continually,
and held nothing nec'essary to salvation
but prayer : they rejected preaching and the
sacraments: they held that the supreme

METHODISTS

483

God was visible : and that Satan was to be
worshipped that he might do no hurt : they
pretended to cast out devils; and rejected
almsgiving. This heresy prevailed under
Valentinian and Valens, about a.d. 370.
MESSIAH, fWD; equivalent toxpioros,
the Anointed (see Christ, Jesus, and Lord).
It is the title given by way of eminence to
our Blessed Saviour, and it alludes to
the authority He possesses to assume the
characters of Prophet, Priest, and King, and
so of the Saviour of the world.
Christ the Messiah was promised by God
(Gen. iii. 15 ; xxi. 12), and foretold by the
prophets (Gen. xlix. 10 ; 1 Sam. ii. 10 and
35 ; Ps. ii. 2 ; xiv. 7 ; Micah v. 2, with St.
John vii. 42 ; Mai. iii. 1), as the " redeemer "
of Israel (Job xix. 25 ; Isa. lix. 20 ; St. Luke
xxiv. 21), and "the desire of all nations"
(Haggai ii. 7). He who was born in the days
of Herod, of a pure virgin, and called "Jesus,"
according to prophecy (St. Luke i. 31), is
that "Messiah," "the Christ " (St. John i.
41 ; Acts ii. 36), as He declares himself to be
(St. John x. 24, 25), whose coming was then
expected (St. Matt. ii. 1, 2 ; St. John iv. 25,
29, 42). Who was " anointed," not with any
material and typifying " oil," as were those
who preceded Him — His types — but with
" the Spirit of God " (St. Matt. Ui. 16 ; St.
John i. 32, 33), " the Spirit of the Lord," as
promised (Isa. xi. 2 ; xiii. 1 ; St. Matt. xii. 18),
a spiritual unction — "the oil of gladness,
above his fellows" (Ps. xiv. 7); and thus
was He consecrated to the three offices,
divided in others, being the great Prophet
predicted (Deut. xviii. 15, 18), and acknow
ledged (St. John vi. 14 ; vu. 40), the eternal
High Priest (Ps. ex. 4 ; Heb. viii. 1 ; x. 12,
14), and universal King (Gen. xlix. 10 ;
Num. xxiv. 17; Ps. ii. 6; Dan. vii. 14;
Zech. xiv. 9 ; St. Matt. xxv. 34 ; Rev. xi. 15).
And this Spirit He received as the head
(Heb. i. 9), and conveys to the members of
His body (2 Cor. i. 21 ; 1 St. John ii. 20).
MESSIANIC. A term invented by
modern critics, to signify those Psalms or
other portions of Scripture which specially
relate to or personify the Messiah.
METHODISTS, POPISH. Polemical
doctors, who arose in France about the
middle of the seventeenth century, in oppo
sition to the Huguenots, or French Protes
tants. METHODISTS, Origin of word. The
Greek word Midobixos was applied to any
one who practised any profession, but was
principaUy appUed to the profession of
medicine, and to the doctor who treated
his patients on scientific principles. It first
came into use in modern times in France at
the beginning of the 17th century, when
it was used to designate a school of theo
logians, the most illustrious of whom was
2 i 2

484 METHODISTS
Bossuet. The New Methodists, whose
principal doctrine was the " great point of
justification," were a prominent sect some
ten years before John Wesley's birth. The
name of Methodists was given to Wesley
and the society which early looked upon
him and his brother as their leaders, first
of all in derision by the undergraduates of
his day, but became ultimately the popular
name of his followers ; and in the year
1746, was fully accepted by him and his
society. John Wesley. — -This remarkable man,
the son of the Rev. Samuel Wesley, Rector
of Epworth in Lincolnshire, was born in
1703, and died in 1791. He was educated
at the Charterhouse and at Christ Church.
We find nothing worthy of record with
regard to his undergraduate life at Oxford.
In 1725 he took deacon's orders, and in the
following year he obtained a fellowship at
Lincoln CoUege. He now appears to have
been much influenced by reading Law's
" Serious Call," and " Christian Perfection."
He left Oxford and took a curacy in Lincoln
shire. Thence he returned to Oxford and
joined what was caUed the " Godly Club,"
a society of young men who agreed together
to receive the Holy Communion once a
week, and fast on two days out of seven,
and who occupied themselves in visiting the
prisons and the sick. In the year 1735
Wesley was sent out as a minister to
Oeorgia by the S. P. G. ; but his work was
unsuccessful, and after three years' sojourn
iji that colony he returned to Oxford. On
his voyage out he had been in company
with some German Moravians, by whose
example and conduct he had been much
influenced. On his return to London he
joined their Society, and soon afterwards
paid a visit to their headquarters at
Herrnhut, in Germany. The influence of
the young Moravian emigrant, Peter Bohler,
was at this time of service to John and
Charles Wesley in their spiritual develop
ment ; but this converse with the Mora
vians also greatly tended to lessen the hold
of the Church system upon John Wesley,
and paved the way to his establishment of a
community to some extent independent of
it. The year 1739 found Wesley preaching
at Clifton, whence he issued his famous
manifesto. " I look upon all the world
as my parish, thus far I mean that in
whatever part of it I am I judge it meet
right and my bounden duty to declare unto
nU that are willing the glad tidings of salva
tion." This declaration was followed in the
same year by the building of a Meeting
House at Bristol without the bishop's
consent or that of the clergyman of the
parish, and by the fitting up of a large shed
in Windmill Street, Finsbury Square, for

METHODISTS
the same purpose. This was the first direct
step towards a separation from the Church,
and shows the different ways in which
Wesley acted, and allowed those subject to
his authority to act. He exacted, the
strictest obedience from his own subordinates,
but seems only himself to have obeyed the
bishops as far , as suited his purposes,
" How far," he asks in 1744, " is it our duty
to obey the bishops ? " His reply is, " in all
things indifferent, and on this ground we
should obey the canons as far as we can
with a safe conscience." Again, when asked
later on, on what authority he preached
and held his meetings,. he replied, "by the
authority of Jesus Christ conveyed to me
by the now Archbishop of Canterbury
when he laid hands upon me and said,
' Take thou authority to preach the Word
of God. ' " But Wesley omitted the rest of
the sentence . . . . " where thou shalt be
lawfully appointed thereunto," another
instance of the way in which he disregarded
authority when it clashed with his inclina
tions. A time of persecution now set in
for awhile which found vent in constant
annoyances, and even serious hostility.
Seven of the lay preachers were impressed
by the press-gangs of the period, and sent
away to foreign service ; and in 1768,; six
students were expeUed from St. Edmund's
Hall for the only reason that they sympa- ,
thised with Wesley. His followers, more
over, were in some instances driven away
from the parish churches, as at Epworth
and Scarborough, by unkind treatment and
open insult. By the year 1744, Methodism
had become a fact in English history, and
the first conference of clergy was held in
London. This conference was attended
by John and Charles Wesley and four
clerical friends, and the total number of
members in the London Societies was esti
mated at two thousand. Next foUowed the
new development of the system to which it
owes an especial character — the appointment
of lay preachers. A young layman named
Maxfield first took upon himself to preach,
unauthorised by Wesley, in the chapel at
Moorfields. Wesley, after much consider
ation, permitted the innovation ; and before
his death this order numbered no less than
five hundred members. The Methodists
were withdrawn from the Church more
rapidly by this innovation than by anything
else ; for by seeing laymen perpetually in
their pulpits, they soon became accustomed
to the absence of ordained clergy. And
when the few clergy who assisted the
Wesleys at first, died or ceased to work,
the teaching went on under the lay-
preachers. We may consider that this
peculiarity of Methodism has given it its
permanence. But although Wesley per-

METHODISTS
mitted this scheme, there is abundant
evidence that it was an innovation which
was thrust upon him, and of which he
never heartily approved. 'Ihe lay preacher
entered the ranks about the age of twenty,
after a careful examination of his spiritual
state and mental fitness. Wesley gave the
lay preachers such instruction as he could
on the rare opportunities on which he met
them, and although self-taught, many of
these preachers became fair teachers. Their
work was veiy hard at first, and they had
long distances to travel in all weathers.
They were expected also to be in the
Meeting House at five a.m. Their pay was
scarcely sufficient to supply their wants,
and they were not allowed to supple
ment it, except by the sale of books
and tracts. It is recorded of one John
Jane, who died of a fever brought on by
over-walking, and died " without a struggle
and with a smile upon his face," that
after the funeral expenses had been paid, a
balance of ls. 4d. remained for his represen
tatives, and Wesley is reported to have
said on hearing of this, that it was enough
for any unmarried preacher of the Gospel
to have. But as the wealth of the Metho
dists increased, so also did the comfort and
the salaries of the preachers, and their sons
were educated free of expense at Kingswood
School. Much of Wesley's time was spent
in travelling in Ireland, Wales, and Scot
land. In Ireland he met with success from
the first, and but little persecution except
on one occasion at Cork, where in, 1749,
the famous presentment by the grand jury
was returned, finding that Charles Wesley
and his friends " were persons of ill repute
and vagabonds." A large building called
the New Chapel was buUt near the site of
the old cannon foundry which had been
fitted up as a chapel by Wesley in Moor-
fields, nearly forty years before, in 1777, and
in a house attached to it Wesley lived when
in the metropolis, until his death in 1791.
In 1784 Wesley was hurried into one of the
most, perhaps the most, indefensible act of
his life. In 1760 a few Methodists had
landed in America, and help had been sent
to them in 1768, but the mission was broken
up by the American war. When the war
came to an end, the idea was ever present
to Wesley's mind how to make provision
for supplying the reUgious necessities of that
great country. The English bishops were
applied to, but there were legal and poUtical
difficulties in their way, and no English
bishop could be induced to ordain for
America. " We are in great need of help,"
wrote Francis Asbury. And one morning
in Bristol, Wesley went through a form
of consecration and ordination, by which
Dr. Coke considered himself raised to the

METHODISTS

4SS-

status of a bishop, and Whatcoat and Vasey
to the position of priests. The former was
to superintend the missions in America and
the others to preach and administer the Sa
craments. Wesley, in his letter to America,
was careful to omit the word "bishop,"
using only the word " superintendent."
And he was deeply grieved when he heard
that Coke and Asbury, the latter of whom
had received no kind of ordination at this
period, but whom Coke had taken upon
himself " to set apart," had assumed the
title of bishops. This unwise step on
Wesley's part was the cause of much sorrow
to many of his friends. A. Knox wrote that
Wesley was " the dupe of his own weakness
and other men's arts," and C. Wesley from
that time ceased to take any part in the
affairs of the Society.
During the later years of his life Wesley's
foUowing increased very rapidly. In 1780
there were in England only 52,000 enrolled
Methodists. In 1790 there were 194,000,
and during the same period the number of
lay preachers doubled. It is clear that
Wesley never intended to separate from
the Church. In 1751, " railing against the
Church," as a very grave offence, was
brought home to two preachers, and Wesley
expressed his determination of putting
down a sin which he describes "as the
spirit of Ham if not of Korah." In 1763
the " Larger Minutes " are fuU of warning
against a growing tendency of separation
from the Church. In 1766, one of searching
questions for probationers was, " Do you con
stantly attend Church and the Sacraments ?"
"I advise aU our friends to keep to the
Church," he wrote in 1778. In 1785 he
declared at a meeting of the Society at
Bristol that " he had no more thought, of
separating from the Church than he had
forty years before." Just before his death
he prayed for the Church and the king.
But scarcely was he dead ere his followers
began to prepare for the separation he had
repeatedly denounced. It was proposed to
divide the kingdom into four Methodist
bishoprics, and these words were added,
" We must have ordination among us at all
events." In 1836 a, regular system of
ordination was established, and a conference
commissioned the preachers to administer
the Sacraments.
Chief Divisions : —
I. Wesleyans under Wesley's deed of
settlement.
II. Kilhamites or New Connexion
separated, 1797.
III. Primitive Methodists, 1810.
IV. Bryanites, or Bible Christians, 1815,
V. Wesleyan Methodist Association,
1834.
VI. Wesleyan Methodist Reformers, 1849.

486

METHODISTS

METHODISTS

(The two last have lately coalesced under
the title of The United Methodist Free
Church.) VII. Free Methodists, 1871.
VIII. The Calvinistic Methodists form two
or three more sects, but they are
for the most part followers of
Whitefield.
Numbers. — The Methodist Recorder Sep
tember, 1885, gives the foUowing as the
exact number of some of these sects as
reported at the various conferences of the
year : — Wesleyans, 413,263, increase 2,797 ;
Primitives, 192,389, increase 1,281 ; Metho
dist Free Churches, 76,385, increase 544;
New Connexion, 29,327, decrease 60 ; Bible
Christians, 26,359, increase 314 ; Wesleyans
(Ireland), 24,971, increase 105. Total num
ber, 762,594, increase 5,041.
Taking the growth of the population at
so low a rate as 1 per cent., it would appear
from this that Methodism has fallen con
siderably into arrear.
Organisation. — The classes were the
very first of the arrangements introduced
by Mr. Wesley. They consist in general of
from twelve to thirty persons; each class
having its appointed leader, an experienced
Christian layman nominated by the super
intendent of a circuit, and appointed by a
leaders' meeting. His duty is to meet his
class once a week, converse with each class
member, hear from him a statement of his
spiritual condition, and give appropriate
counsel. Every member of a class, except
in cases of extreme poverty, is expected to
contribute towards the funds of the Society.
Out of the proceeds of this contribution,
assisted by, other funds, the stipends of the
ministers are paid. The system of class-
meetings is justly considered the very Ufe of
.Methodism. The bands, which are, or more
properly were, subdivisions of the classes,
consist of smaU bodies of from five to ten
persons. All members of the Society are not
obliged to belong to one of these bands ;
but it was Wesley's intention that all
should so associate themselves for prayer
and mutual help. The design of the band,
he writes, is to obey that command of God,
"Confess your faults one to another and
pray one for another that ye may be
healed." The chief rules are : —
(1) To meet once a week.
(2) To come punctuaUy.
(3) To begin with singing or prayer.
(4) To speak each of us in order freely
and plainly the true state of our souls with
the faults we have committed in thought,
word and deed, and the temptations we
have felt since our last meeting.
(5) To desire some person amongst us to
speak his own state first and then to ' ask
the rest in order as many and as searching

questions as may be concerning their sins
and temptations. Wesley held these bands
to be of the greatest importance for the
spiritual welfare of his followers. The nature
of the confessions made at them required that
the sexes should be separated ; and the bands
were arranged of persons as much as possible
of the same age, so that their confessions
might be quite unrestrained. We can
hardly wonder that these meetings fell off
very considerably after Wesley's influence
was removed, and that they are now almost,
if not entirely, extinct.
Circuits. — The classes are organised into
societies which include the chapels in some
market town and the villages for some
miles around, it. The public worship of
these societies is conducted in each, circuit
by two descriptions of preachers, one
clerical, the other lay. The clerics are
separated entirely to the work of the
ministry — are members of, or in connexion
with, or received as probationers by, the
Conference — and are supported by funds
raised for that purpose in the classes and
congregations. From one to four of these,
caUed "itinerant pireachers," are appointed
annually for not exceeding three years in
immediate succession to the same circuit.
Their ministry is not • confined to any par
ticular chapel in the circuit, but they act
interchangeably from place to place, seldom
preaching in fhe same place more than one
Suuday without a change, which is effected
according to a plan generally re-made every
quarter. The "Minutes of Conference,"
1885, give the number of ministerial leaders
as 1,214, and of accredited local preachers as
14,721. The lay, or "local" preachers, as
they are denominated, follow secular callings,
like other of their feUow subjects, and preach
on the Sabbaths at the places appointed. for
them in the above-mentioned plan ; as great
an interval being observed between their
appointments to the same place as can be
conveniently arranged.
The pubUc services of Methodists present
a, combination of the forms of the Church
of England with the usual practice of
Dissenting Churches. In the larger chapels,-
the Church Liturgy is used with certain
alterations and omissions ; and the sacrament
is administered according to the Church of
England rubric, but more frequently after
the altered and shortened form drawn up
for the American Methodists in 1784. The
chief alterations in this form are the substi
tution of "elder "for "priest "—the omis
sion of the Nicene Creed and of the second
prayer after the second Lord's Prayer— the
permission to use extempore prayer after the
" Gloria in Excelsis "—the turning of the
Absolution and the Blessing into prayers.
Independently of Sabbath worship, love

METHODISTS
feasts are occasionally celebrated; and a
midnight meeting, on the last day of each
year, is in many places held as a solemn
" watch night."
At present there are about 594 circuits in
Great Britain. Besides preaching in the
various chapels in their respective circuits,
the lay itinerant preachers administer the sa
craments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper.
One or other of them, according to an
arrangement amongst themselves, meets
every class in his circuit once in every
quarter, is supposed personaUy to converse
with every member, and to distribute to all
such as have throughout the past three
months walked orderly a ticket, which au
thenticates their membership. One of the
ministers in every circuit is called the
" superintendent," whose duties, in addition
to his ordinary labours as a travelling
preacher, are, to see that the Methodist
discipline is properly maintained, — to admit
candidates into membership (subject to a
veto by a leaders' meeting), — and to expel
from the society any member whom a
leaders' meeting shaU pronounce guUty of
any particular offence. Appeal, however,
lies from his decision to a district meeting,
and ultimately to the Conference. There is
also a " circuit steward," whose duty is to
receive from the society stewards the con
tributions of class members, and to super
intend their application for the purposes of
the circuit.
Districts. — The circuits are again organ
ised into districts of which there are thirty-
three in England and Wales, each containing
some eighteen circuits. They were arranged
by the Conference after Wesley's death,
and are used principally for gathering
ministers together. Each district has its
chairman- and secretary, and acts as a kind
of local committee of the general Conference.
It has power to suspend preachers, authorise
the building of chapels, and deal with
questions of finance.
The Conference, the highest Wesleyan
court, as settled by Wesley consisted ex
clusively of ministers, but of late years
representative laymen have been elected to
attend the Conference. It derives its au
thority from a deed of declaration, executed
by Mr. Wesley in 1784, by which it was
provided that, after the decease of himself
and his brother Charles, 100 persons, named
in the deed, "being preachers and ex
pounders of God's holy word, under the care
and in connexion with the said John Wes
ley," should exercise the authority which
Wesley himself possessed, to appoint preach
ers to the various chapels. Vacancies in the
Legal Hundred were to be filled up by the
remainder at an annual Conference. In
pursuance of this deed, a Conference of 100

METHODISTS

487

ministers meets yearly in July, with the
addition of the representatives selected by
the district meetings, and such other minis
ters as are appointed or permitted to attend
by the district committees and the above-
mentioned lay representatives. The custom
is, for the whole body to share in the pro
ceedings and to vote ; but all the decisions
thus arrived at must be sanctioned by the
Legal Hundred, ere they can have binding
force. The Conference must sit for at least
five days, but not beyond three weeks. Its
principal transactions are, to examine the
moral and ministerial character of every
preacher — to receive candidates on trial — to
admit ministers into the Connexion — and to
appoint ministers to particular circuits or
stations. Independently of its functions
under this deed poll, the Conference ex
ercises a general superintendence over the
various institutions of the body ; including
the appointment of various committees, as,
(1) The Committee of Privileges for guard
ing the interests of the Wesleyan Con
nexion; (2) The Committee for the man
agement of Missions ; (3) The Committee
for the management of Schools for edu
cating the children of Wesleyan ministers ;
(4) The General Book - Committee (for
superintending the pubhcation and sale of
Wesleyan works) ; (5) The Chapel BuUding
Committee (without whose previous consent
in writing no chapel, whether large or
small, is to be erected, purchased, or en
larged) ; (6) The Chapel Relief Committee ;
(7) The Contingent Fund Committee; (8)
The Committee of the Auxiliary Fund for
worn-out ministers and ministers' widows;
and the committees for the various schools,
theological institutions, &c.
The Conference has also assumed to it
self the power of making new laws for the
government of the Connexion; provided
that, if any circuit meeting disapprove such
law, it is not to be enforced in that circuit
for the space of one year. Any circuit has
the power of memorializing Conference on
behalf of any change considered desirable,
provided the June quarterly meeting should
so determine.
The doctrines held by the Wesleyans are
substantially accordant with the Articles of
the EstabUshed Church, interpreted in their
Arminian sense. In this they foUow Mr.
Wesley rather than Arminius ; for although
the writings of the latter are received with
high respect, the first four volumes of
Wesley's Sermons, and his Notes on the
New Testament' (which they hold to be
"neither Calvinistic on the one hand nor
Pelagian on the other ") are referred to as
the standard of their orthodoxy. The con
tinued influence of their founder is mani
fested by the general adherence of the body

488 METHODISTS
to his opinions on the subject of attainment
of Christian perfection in the present life —
on the possibility of final ruin after the
reception of Divine grace- — and on the ex
perience by every convert of a clear assur
ance of his acceptance with God through
faith in Jesus Christ.
Finances op the Society.
The amounts raised by this Society for
their various societies and institutions can
only be approximately arrived at. The
Wesleyans raised, in 1884-5, £146,308 for
their foreign missions, while their Home
Missionary income for the same period was
nearly £38,000. £21,944 were expended
on the education of ministers' children at
the connexional schools; £310,000 were
contributed in Great Britain for chapel
building; and £12,250 for the training of
candidates for the ministry.
"The "Minutes of Conference" for 1885
contain the foUowing statistics of the schools
of this persuasion : — ¦
Dat Schools (844).
Total number of scholars . . . 178,056
Average attendance .... 132,855
School pence ....... £100,698
Government grant . . . . 110,334
Subscriptions*, &c  23,545
Total Income .... 234,578
Spent on teaching staff . . . 185,974
Other expenditure  50,718
£236,692
Sunday Schools.
Number of schools  6,659
Total annual cost  £74,259
Officers and teachers .... 125,502
„ in society or on irial . . 102,388
Number of scholars  862,279
,, under 7 years of age . . 204,912
„ above 15 „ . . 188,112
„ in society or on trial . . 105,123
Training Colleges, 1885 : —
(1) Westminster male students in train
ing, 116.
(2) Southlands female students in train
ing, 109. Minutes of Conference, 1885.
GENERAL VIEW.

ti

-3

«i

*3

i i



.3 a

H

.S

H

?'S

S3

a
0

.a

8

W a

I. In Great Britain .

413,163

30,861

1,589

70

288

Ii. In Ireland audi
Irish Missions . J

24,971

862

173

19

44

III. In Foreign Jtfis-i
sions ... .1

29,133

4,213

203

106

7

IV. French Conference
1,703
94
28
2
4
V. South African Con-1
ference . . .j
22,816
S,S36
102
55
12
VI. West Indian Con-i
ferences . . . j
43,317
1,807
67
18
270
Totals. .. .
535,103
46,673
2,162
355
Minutes of Conference, 1885.
METHODISTS
THE METHODIST NEW CONNEXION.
For some time after Mr. Wesley's death
in 1791, considerable, agitation was raised
throughout the numerous societies which had
rapidly sprung up in every part of England.
The more immediate subjects of dispute had
reference to (1) " the right of the people
to hold their public reUgious worship at such
hours as were most convenient, without being
restricted to hours intervening between ser
vices in the Established Church ;" and (2)
" the right of the people to receive the ordi
nances of Baptism and the Lord's supper from
the hands of their own ministers, and in their
own places of worship ;" but the. principal
and fundamental question in dispute con
cerned the right of the laity to participate in
the spiritual and secular government of the
body. Wesley himself had, in his life-time,
always exercised an absolute authority;
and after his decease the travelling preach
ers claimed the same extent of power. A
vigorous opposition was, however, soon
originated, which continued during several
years ; the Conference attempting various
unsuccessful measures for restoring har
mony. A "Plan of Pacification" was
adopted by the Conference in 1795, and
was received with general satisfaction so
far as the ordinances were concerned; but
the question of lay influence remained un
touched tiU 1797, when the Conference
conceded that the leaders' meetings should
have the right to exercise an absolute veto
upon the admission of new members to the
Society, and that no member should be ex
pelled for immorality, "until such immo-
1 ality had been proved at a leaders' meeting."
Foremost amongst many who remained
unsatisfied by these concessions' was Alex
ander Kilham, who, singularly enough, was
born at Epworth in Lincolnshire, the birth
place of the Wesleys. Mr. Kilham, first
acquiring prominence as an assertor of the
right of Methodists to meet for worship in
church hours, and to receive the sacraments
from their own ministers, was gradually led
to take an active part in advocacy of the
principle of lay participation in the govern
ment of the Connexion.
In doctrines, and in all the essential and
distinctive features of Wesleyan Methodism,
l here is no divergence between the New
Connexion and the parent body: the Ar
minian tenets are as firmly held; and ihe
outline of ecclesiastical machinery — com
prising classes, circuits, districts, and the
Conference — is in both the same. The
grand distinction rests upon the different
degrees of power allowed in each com
munion to the laity. It has been shown
that, in the " Original Connexion," all au
thority is virtually vested in the preachers :
METHODISTS
they alone compose the Conference — their
influence is paramount in the inferior courts
— and even when, as in financial matters,
laymen are appointed to committees, such
appointments are entirely in the hands of
Conference. The "New Connexion," on
the contrary, admits, in all its courts, the
principle of lay participation in Church
government : candidates for membership
must be admitted by the voice of the exist
ing members, not by the minister alone ;
offending members cannot be expelled but
with the concurrence of a leaders' meeting ;
officers of the body, whether leaders, min
isters, or stewards, are elected by the Church
and ministers conjointly ; and in district
meetings and the annual Conference lay
delegates (as many in number as the min
isters) are present, freely chosen by the
members of the Churches.
The progress of the New Connexion since
its origin has been as foUows, in the aggre
gate, comprising England, Ireland, and the
Colonies :
Year. Members.
1797  5,000
1803  5,280
1813  8,067
1823  10,794
1833  14,784
1840  21,836
1846  20,002
1853  21,384
1870  22,633
1885  29,327
This Society, in the year 1884-5, raised
for chapel fund £976 ; for missions £5,831 ;
for home missions £951. It numbers a con
siderable following out of England.
PRIMITIVE METHODISTS.
About the commencement of the present
century certain among the Wesleyans (and
conspicuously Hugh Bourne and William
Clowes) began to put in practice a revival
of those modes of operation which had by
that time been abandoned by the then con
solidated body. The Conference of 1807
affirmed a resolution adverse to such unpre-
scribed expedients ; and the consequence of
this disapprobation was the birth of the
Primitive Methodist Connexion. In 1808
Bourne was expeUed from the Methodist
Body by the Burslem Quarterly Meeting, and
in 1810 this expulsion was foUowed by that
of Clowes. These two local preachers at
once began to form a new sect, and were
joined by sixteen congregations and twenty-
eight preachers, in Lancashire and York
shire. The organisation, the nucleus of
which was thus formed, has become the
most dangerous rival of the parent Society,
and numbers more members than aU its other

METHODISTS 489
offshoots put together. The first class was
formed iu 1810 at Standley in Staffordshire.
The Society then numbered ten members.
Since that date it has rapidly increased, as
the foUowing table will show : — ¦
Year. Members.
1810  10
1811  200
1820  7,842
1830  35,733
1840  73,990
1850  104,762
1853  108,926
1870 ...... 150,109
1885  192,389
In 1870 their chapels were reckoned as
6,397, their travelling preachers as 961, and
their local preachers as 14,332. At this
period they counted only 41 day schools,
but 271,802 Sunday scholars with 47,379
teachers. But these numbers have advanced
since that date in proportion to the increase
in the number of members. The " Camp
Meetings," with which the names of the
founders of this Connexion, and their
American assistant, Lawrence Dow, were
so inseparably connected, bad even in 1853
become infrequent, as the people were con
sidered to be accessible to other agencies.
BIBLE CHMSTIANS.
The " Bible Christians" (sometimes caUed
Bryanites) are included here among the
Methodist communities, more from a refer
ence to their sentiments and polity than to
their origin. The body, indeed, was not
the result of a secession from the Methodist
Connexion, but was rather the origination
of a new community, which, as it grew,
adopted the essential principles of Meth
odism. The founder of the body was Mr. WUUam
0' Bryan, a Wesleyan local preacher in
Cornwall, who, in 1815, separated from the
Wesleyans, and began himself to form
societies upon the Methodist plan. In a
very few years considerable advance was
made, and throughout Devonshire and
Cornwall many societies were established ;
so that in 1819 there were nearly thirty
itinerant preachers. In that year the first
Conference was held, when the Connexion
was divided into twelve circuits. Mr.
O'Bryan withdrew from the body in 1829.
In doctrinal profession there is no distinction
between " Bible Christians," and the various
bodies of Arminian Methodists. The forms
of pubhc worship too are of the same simple
character ; but in the administration of the
Lords Supper " it is usual to receive the
elements in a sitting posture, as it is believed
that that practice is more conformable to

490

METHODISTS

the posture of body in which it was at first
received by Christ's Apostles than kneeling, ;
but persons are at liberty to kneel, if it be
more suitable to their views and feehngs to
-do so." They aUow women to preach, and
their preachers form the smaller portion of
their governing body. The Bryanites are
specially a West Country sect, their principal
following being in Cornwall, Devonshire,
Somersetshire, and Wales. They have also
LsmaU offshoots in Canada and AustraUa.
This Society numbered 13,862 members in
1852, 18,466 in 1870, and their Minutes of
-Conference for 1885 return their numbers
as 26,359. UNITED METHODIST FREE CHUECH.
This body is composed of the union of
-the Wesleyan Methodist Reformers, the
Protestant Methodist Society formed in 1828,
and the Wesleyan Methodist Association.
WESLEYAN METHODIST REFORMERS.
In 1849, another of the constantly re
curring agitations with respect to ministerial
authority in matters of Church discipline
arose, and stiU continues. Some parties
having circulated through the Connexion
certain anonymous pamphlets called " Fly
Sheets," in which some points of Methodist
procedure were attacked in a manner offen
sive to the Conference, that body, with a
view to ascertain the secret authors (sus
pected to be ministers), adopted the ex
pedient of tendering to every minister in
the Connexion a " Declaration," reprobating
the obnoxious circulars, and repudiating all
connexion with the authorship. Several
ministers refused submission to this test, as
being an unfair attempt to make the offend
ing parties criminate themselves, and par
taking of the nature of an Inquisition. The
•Conference, however, held that such a
method of examination was both ScripturaUy
proper, and accordant with the usages of
Methodism ; and the ministers persisting in
their opposition were expelled. This strin
gent measure caused a great sensation
through the various societies, and meetings
were convened to sympathise with the
excluded ministers. The Conference, how-
over, steadily pursued its policy — con
sidered aU such meetings violations of
Wesleyan order — and, acting through the
superintendent ministers in all the circuits,
punished by expulsion every member who
attended them. In consequence of this
proceeding, the important question was
again, and with increased anxiety, debated,
— whether the admission and excision of
Church members is exclusively the duty
of the minister, or whether, in the exercise
of such momentous discipline, the other

METHODISTS
members of the Church have not a right to
share. This great body of excommunicated Meth
odists soon became settled into a distinct sect
and reported itself as possessing 339 chapels
with an attendance of some 35,000 persons
at their services. In the year 1857 the
Methodist Association and Reformers united
together under the title of " The United
Methodist Free Churches." This important
body numbered, in 1870, 62,898 members of
classes with 5786 on trial, and 5000 else
where than in England. Its Minutes of
Conference for 1885 return 76,385 as the
total number of members at the present
time. CALVINISTIC METHODISTS.
George Whitefield, born in 1714, the son
of an innkeeper at Gloucester, was admitted
as a servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford,
in 1732. Being then the subject of re
ligious impressions, to which the evil cha
racter of his early youth lent force and
poignancy, he naturally was attracted to
those meetings for reUgious exercises which
the brothers Wesley had a year or two be
fore originated. After a long period of
mental anguish, and the practice, for some
time, of physical austerities, he ultimately
found relief and comfort; and, resolving
to devote himself to the labours of the
ministry, was admitted into holy orders by
the bishop of Gloucester. Preaching in
various churches previous to his embark
ation for Georgia, whither he had deter
mined to follow Mr. Wesley, his uncommon
force of oratory was at once discerned, and
scenes of extraordinary popular commotion
were displayed wherever he appeared. In
1737 he left for Georgia, just as Wesley
had returned. He ministered with much
success among the settlers for three months,
and then came back to England, for the
purpose of procuring aid towards the
foundation of an orphan house for the
colony. The same 'astonishing sensation
was created by his preaching as before ; the
churches overflowed with eager auditors,
and crowds would sometimes stand outside.
Perceiving that no edifice was large enough
to hold the numbers who desired and
pressed to hear him, he began to entertain
the thought of preaching in the open air ;
and when, on visiting Bristol shortly after,
all the pulpits were denied to him, he
carried his idea into practice, and com
menced his great experiment by preaching
to the coUiers at Kingswood. His first
audience numbered about 200 ; the second,
2000 ; tbe third, 4000 ; and so from ten
to fourteen and to twenty thousand. Such
success encouraged similar attempts in
London ; and accordingly, when the church-

METHODISTS
wardens of Islington forbade his entrance
into the pulpit, which the vicar had offered
him, he preached in the churchyard ; and,
deriving more and more encouragement
from his success, he made Moorfields and
Kennington Common the scenes of his im
passioned eloquence, and there controlled,
persuaded, and subdued assemblages of
thirty and forty thousand of the rudest
auditors. He again set out for Georgia,
but in 1740, being suspended by the Epi
scopal Commissary in Georgia for ecclesias
tical irregularities, he returned to England
in March, 1741. The rest of his life was
spent in a restless and roving manner, partly
in England, and partly in America. He
made thirteen voyages across the Atlantic,
and seldom remained but a few days to
gether in any place which he visited.
Whilst in America in 1740, he received
information respecting Wesley's preaching
of Arminian doctrines from John Cennick,
one of the Methodist lay-preachers, who
entreated him to return home and oppose
the " heresy " of their leader. Up to this
period, Wesley and Whitefield had harmo
niously laboured in conjunction; but the
•difference of sentiment which now arose
between them on the doctrine of election
proving, after some discussion, to be quite
irreconcilable, they thenceforth each pur
sued a different path, -Mr. Wesley stead-
Uy and skilfuUy constructing the elaborate
machinery of Wesleyan Methodism, and
Whitefield following his plan of field itiner
ancy with a constant and amazing popular
ity, but making no endeavour to originate a
sect. He died in New England in 1769, at
the age of 55.
His followers, however, and those of
other eminent evangelicals who sympathised
with his proceedings, gradually settled into
separate religious bodies, principally under
two distinctive appellations ; one, the
" Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion,"
and the other, the " Welsh Calvinistic
Methodists." These, in fact, are now the
only sections which survive as individual
communities ; for most of Whitefield's con
gregations, not adopting any connexional
bond, but existing as independent churches,
gradually became absorbed into the Con
gregational Body.
WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS.
The great revival of religion commenced
in England by Wesley and Whitefield had
been preceded by a similar event in Wales.
The principal agent of its introduction there
was Howel Harris, a gentleman of Trevecca
in Brecknockshire, who, with a view to
holy orders, had begun to study at Oxford,
but, offended at the immorality there pre-

METHODISTS

491

valent, had quitted college, and returned to
Wales. He shortly afterwards began a
missionary labour in that country, going
from house to house, and preaching in the
open air. In 1739 he had established about
300 "secret societies," similar to those
which Wesley was, about the same time,
though without communication, forming in
England. The growth of the movement, both in
North and South Wales, was extremely
rapid ; but the process of formation into a
separate body was more gradual and slow.
At first, as several of the most conspicuous
labourers were clergymen of the Established
Church, the sacraments were administered
exclusively by them; but, as converts
multiplied, the number of evangelical clergy
men was found inadequate to the occasion :
and many members were obliged to seek
communion with the various dissenting
bodies ; till, at last, in 1811, twelve of the
Methodist preachers were ordained at a con
siderable Conference, and from that time forth
the sacraments were regularly administered
by them in their own chapels, and the body
assumed distinctly the appearance of a
separate Connexion.
The doctrines of the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodists may be inferred from the appel
lation of the body, and be said to be sub
stantially accordant with the Articles of the
Established Church, interpreted according
to their Calvinistic sense.
In 1858 the number of cbapels belonging
to this body was reported to be 828 and the
number of its members to be about 58,577.
In 1870 their sect numbered about 60,000,
and they possessed some 200 ministers and
250 lay preachers. They have two training
colleges for their ministers at Bala and
Trevecca. METHODISTS, AMERICAN.
In the year 1738 Whitefield began to
preach in America, and in this country he
spent more then one-third of his Ufe. But
he organised no separate sect, leaving his
converts to the care of the various denomi
nations to which they happened to belong.
The first Methodist congregation was
formed by some emigrants from Ireland, who
in 1768 erected the first Methodist chapel
in America, in John St., New York. Wesley
sent out teachers to this community, but they
all returned home on the outbreak of the
war of Independence. The sect nevertheless
continued to prosper, and at the end of the
war in 1783, they numbered 14,000 mem
bers and some 43 ministers. In 1784, the
sect so formed was reconstituted by Wesley,
who sent out Dr. Coke and Mr. Asbury
(who had been a missionary in America ten
years before) to act as "superintendents,"

492

METROPOLITAN

but really with the authority of bishops. He
enjoined upon them the use of his abridged
Book of Common Prayer (which however
was speedily thrown aside), and arranged for
them twenty-five articles of religion as their
' standard of doctrine. This body, thus re
organised, took the title of the " Methodist
Episcopal Church"and has ever since retained
the constitution given to it by Wesley.
Its general organisation is the same as that
of the English Methodists, but its ministers
are respectively denominated bishops, eld
ers, and deacons. In the Nonhern States,
in 1870, this body of Methodists num
bered some 800,000 members, and 11,000
preachers, and in the Southern States before
the war " more than half a million with
about 6,000 preachers." We can scarcely
estimate the strength of this body in
America at the present moment at less
than one and a half mUlions.
METHODIST REFORMED AMERICAN CHUECH.
This sect separated in 1814 from the Me
thodist Episcopal Church. They renounced
the Episcopal system, and re-formed them
selves as closely as possible after the
original Methodist plan. In 1843 this
body was strengthened by a further secession
from the parent sect, but their numbers are
not large.
THE AFRICAN EPISCOPAL METHODISTS AND
THE ZION WESLEY METHODISTS
Are offshoots of black seceders from the
original Methodist Society in the North.
They hold the same doctrines as the parent
society, but have separated on account of the
contemptuous treatment they received at
the hands of their white brethren, and the
Zion Methodists bad a further quarrel with
the Conference of the orginal sect with
regard to their chapels and salaries.
THE METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH.
A secession of 3820 now includes as
well certain seceders of 1830 who styled
themselves the " Methodist Society." They
both seceded on small questions of organ
isation. They number together more than
100,000 members.
Minutes of Conference ; Wesley's works ;
Urlin's Life of Wesley ; Diet of Sects ;
Hockin's John Wesley and Modern Westey-
anism, Sec. [F. H]
METROPOLITAN. The presiding bi
shop of a province, so called because in
primitive times his see was commonly fixed
in the civil metropolis.
In the earliest period bishops were all
equal to and independent of each other,
the apostles during their lifetime exercising
supervision over all Churches. Some writers

MICHAEL, ST.
(e.g. Archbishop Ussher, "Original of Bi
shops and Metropolitans ") have thought
that the apostles themselves established an
order of metropolitans superior to the- or
dinary bishops, but there does not seem to-
be sufficient evidence for this view. It is,
however, nearly certam that the metro
political office arose in the age succeeding
that of the apostles.. Its origin was doubt
less due to the practice of holding pro
vincial synods, which some one must con
vene and preside over, and also to the
necessity of having some person by whom
vacant sees could be administered, and to
whom disputes could be referred. Ac
cordingly we find in the so-caUed Apostolic
Canons a direction (Can. Apost. xxxiii.) that
the bishops of each nation (exdorou iSvovs)
should recognise one as their head. It was-
natural that this one should be the bishop
of the civil metropolis, since he was most
accessible to all people in the province. In
a contention between the bishops of Aries
and Vienne for metropolitical rights the
Council of Turin (a.d. 397) ordered that
"the one who could prove his city to be
the metropolis should have the honour of
the primacy over the whole province" (Cone.
Taurin. can. ii.). But the authority of me
tropolitans existed long before this. It pro
bably arose during the second century, and
is referred to by the famous Council of
Nicaja (a.d. 325) as an "ancient custom"
(Cone. Nic. can. vi.). In Africa alone the
primacy did not belong to the bishop of
the civil metropolis, but to the senior bishop
of the province. In England the two
Metropolitan Sees are Canterbury and York,
the former as having been the first founded
after the landing of St. Augustine, and the
latter partly because it was the first planted
in Northumbria, and partly because it had
been marked out for the northern metro
polis in the original scheme of Gregory the
Great (See Bede, H. E. i. 29).
The chief privileges of metropolitans were,
the consecration of their suffragan bishops,
the decision of controversies, and hearing of
appeals, the summoning of provincial synods.1
and presiding in the same, the visitation
and correction of offending Churches, and
the administration of vacant sees. In tho
exercise of these powers, however, the metro
politan was not to act arbitrarily, but to
consult his provincial synod, and generally to
decide " according to the majority of votes '
(See Patriarch and Archbishop). [H.]
MICHAEL, ST., AND ALL ANGELS:
a festival observed on September 29 ; in tho
Eastern Church on November 8. It was
also sometimes kept on May 8, but the
present day is that given in the Comes of
Jerome and the Sacramentary of Gregory.
St. Michael is described in the Old Testa-

MID-LENT SUNDAY
ment as the guardian angel of the Jews;
in the New Testament he is the great
archangel, the type of the warrior angel,
fighting for God and His Church, against
the power of the devil. Beyond this there
is nothing but a mass of legend, and con
jecture (l)an. x. 13, 21 : xii. 1 ; Jude 9 ;
Rev. xii. 7). See Angels.
MID-LENT SUNDAY : the fourth Sun
day in Lent. It was anciently known as
Dominica Refeetionis, or Refreshment Sun
day, probably from the subject of the Gospel
— the feeding the five thousand in the wil
derness. Others attribute the name to the
fact that on this Sunday above others in
Lent, certain festivities have sometimes
been allowed, as at the Mi-Careme in
France, and the benediction of the Golden
Hose by the Pope at Rome. It was an old
practice in England to feast on rich cakes
and spiced ale on this day ; and it was also
a custom to visit the mother church of the
diocese, and to make offerings at the high
altar, whence it was called " Mothering Sun
day." Presents also were in many places
made by chUdren to their parents, which
often took the form of what were caUed
"Mothering Cakes."— Brand's^4«<.: Wheatly,
222; E.Daniel, P. B. [H.]
MID WIVES, BAPTISM BY. Such per
sons were constantly licensed to baptize
down to recent times (Burn, Ecc. Law,
art. Midwives).
MILITANT (From Lat. militans, " fight
ing "). A term appUed to the Church on
earth, as engaged in a warfare with the world,
sin, and the devil ; in distinction from the
Church triumphant in heaven. It is used
in the prefatory sentence of the prayer
after the Offertory in our Communion Ser
vice, and was first inserted in the Second
Book of King Edward VI.
MILLENARIANS and MILLENNIUM
(Mille — annus). A name which is given
to those who believe that Christ will reign
personally for a thousand years upon earth.
They were also caUed ChUiasts, from the
Greek xiXtot.
I. The doctrine of the Millennium is said
to be of Jewish origin (but see Dr. Walch,
Hist, der Ketzereien, ii. p. 143), and passed
from Judaism into Christianity. Papias,
the pupil of St. John, had the reputation of
being the author of Christian Millenarianism
(Euseb. iii. 39) ; and the prophecies of the
Old Testament, as Is. xxvi. 19, Ezek. xxxvii.
12, Dan. vii. 27, as well as the passage in
Revelations (xx. 1-7), were received in
their literal meaning by such as Irena;us,
Tertullian, Cyprian, and others (Iren.
adv. Her. v. 34 ; Tertull. adv. Marc. iii.
Sec. ; Cyp. de Exhort. Mart, ad fin.). But
there came in sensual ideas with regard to
(he millennium, and the Chiliasts might be

MILLEKARIANS

493

divided into two classes, the gross and the
refined. While the latter expected at the mil
lennium the highest spiritual delights, the
pleasures of sense not being indeed excluded,
the former looked for the free indulgence
of all sensual delights, and extreme lusts.
Caius, a teacher at Rome, seems to have
been the first to combat these pernicious
ideas, and cerlainly the influence and
teaching of Origen were exercised against
them (De Principiis, ii. 11). Later on,
St. Augustine, among others, wrote against
the " carnal beatitude " expected by Millen
arians (De Civ. xx. 7). From time to time
fantastic ideas appeared, founded on this
doctrine : an agitation in the tenth century
was caused by the notion that the 1000
years were to be dated from the birth of
Christ. Writers were frequently to be found
upholding the Chiliastic or Millenarian
theory ; but it was greatly brought into
discredit by the fanaticism of the Ana
baptists (See Anabaptists).
In England Millenarian doctrine, among
other places, appears in Edward VI.'s Cate
chism : " We long and pray that it may at
length come to pass and be fulfilled, that
Christ may reign with His saints according
to God's promise ; that He may live and be
Lord in the world." &c. (Randolph, Ench.
Tlieol. i. 34). The believers in the millen
nium do not form a separate sect.
II. The Millenarian, as far as can be
gathered from different authors, such as
Petersen (a.d. 1691), who is the most
voluminous, expects the following events,
and as far as he can infer their connexion,
in the following order ; though that is not,
in every instance, a point of paramount
importance, or absolute certainty, oh which
room for the possibility of a different suc
cession of particulars may not be allowed to
exist. 1. The Gospel will be preached over all
the world, and all nations will be converted.
2. A second advent of Jesus Christ in person,
before His coming to judgment at the end
of the world. 3. A conversion of the Jews
to Christianity, collectively, and as a nation.
4. A resurrection of part of the dead, such
as is called, by way of distinction, "the
resurrection of the just." 5. The restitution
of the kingdom to Israel, including the
appearance and manifestation of the Messiah
to the Jews, in the character of a temporal
monarch. 6. A conformation of this king
dom to a state or condition of society of
which Christ will be the head, and faithful
beUevers, both Jews aud GentUes, will be
the members. 7. A distribution of rewards
and dignities in it, proportioned to the re
spective merits or good deserts of the re
ceivers. 8. A resulting state of things,
which though transacted upon earth, and

494

MINIMS

adapted to the nature and conditions of a
human society as such, leaves nothing to
be desired for its perfection and happiness.
This is what is meant by the doctrine
of the MiUennium in general : the fact of a
return of Jesus Christ in person before the
end of the world ; of a first or particular
resurrection of the dead ; of a reign of
Christ, with all saints, on the earth ; and all
this before the present state of things is at
an end, and before time and sense, whose
proper period of being is commensurate with
the duration of the present state of things,
have given place to spirit and eternity in
heaven. — Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien, ii.
136 seq. ; Dollinger, Hist, by Cox, i. 194;
Wordsworth, Gk. Test, in Rev. xx. 6;
Blunt's Diet Theol, s. v. [H.]
MINIMS. A religious order in the Church
of Rome, whose founder was St. Francis de
Paula, so called from the place in Calabria,
where he was born in 1416.
He composed his rule in 1493, and it was
approved by Pope Alexander VI., at the re
commendation of the king of France. This
pontiff changed the name of Hermits of St.
Francis, which these monks bore, into that
of Minims (the Least), because they caUed
themselves in humility Minimi Fratres
Eremite, and gave them all the privileges
of the religious mendicant or begging friars.
In 1507, the founder of this order died,
at the age of ninety-one years, and was
canonized by Pope Leo X., in 1519. His
body was preserved in the church of the
convent of Plessis, until the Huguenots, in
1562, dragged it out of its tomb, and burnt
it with the wood of a crucifix belonging to
the church. His bones, however, were
saved out of the fire by some zealous
Catholics who mixed with the Calvinist
soldiers, and were distributed afterwards
among several churches.
This order is divided into thirty-one
provinces, of which twelve, before the
suppression of the monastic orders, were in
Italy, eleven in France and Flanders, seven
in Spain, and one in Germany. The
" Minims " have passed even into the Indies,
where there are some convents which do not
compose provinces, but depend immediately
on the general.
What more particularly distinguishes
these monks from all others, is the observa
tion of what they call the quadragesimal
life, that is, a total abstinence from flesh,
and everything which has its origin from
flesh, as eggs, butter, cheese, excepting in
case of great sickness. By this means they
make the year one continued Lent fast.
Their habit is coarse black woollen stuff,
with a woollen girdle of the same colour,
tied in five knots. They are not permitted
to quit their habit and girdle night nor day.

MINISTER
Formerly they went barefooted, but for these
last hundred years they have been allowed
the use of shoes.
MINISTER (Lat. minister). One who
acts for another; an agent. In this sense
all who perform any service for God are His
ministers, whether they are clerics or lay
men acting as assistants, or officiants at the
Holy Eucharist or other services. The
term was appUed generaUy to the clergy
about the time of the great Rebellion, and it
has been common ever since to talk of the
" minister " of such and such a parish or
church ; but the expression is a misleading
one, for the clergy are the ministers or
agents not of men, but of God, to dispense
His word and sacraments to His people.
The word at one time seems to have been
considered equivalent to "priest," as it is
ordered " no bishop shall make a person
deacon and minister both upon one day"
(Can. 32) ; but afterwards it came to be
applied to clergymen irrespective of their
order, and even to dissenting preachers.
Puritans at the Savoy Conference wanted to
substitute " minister " for " priest " through
out the Prayer Book. To this the Commis
sioners replied, " Since some parts of the
Liturgy may be performed by a deacon,
others by none under the order of a priest
(viz. absolution, consecration), it is fit that
some such word as priest should be used for
those offices, and not minister, which signifies
at large every one that ministers in that holy
office, of whatsoever order he be" (See
Absolution). The word, therefore, may he
taken generaUy to imply an assistant,
whether presbyteral or diaconal, in Divine
service. Thus in the statutes of the cathe
drals of the new foundation, the minor
canons and other members of the choir are
caUed ministers. These represent the dea
cons, readers, chanters, &c, of the ancient
Church. In the Prayer Book the word minister is
prefixed, in the order both for Morning and
Evening Prayer, to those parts of the service
only where there is exhortation, or in which
the people audibly join, as in the Apostles'
Creed, or which are said kneeling, such as the
General Confession, Lord's Prayer, and Lesser
Litany. Minister also occurs in one of the
rubrics respecting the reading of the lessons,
which the custom of the Church, both
Eastern and Western, has always permitted
to the inferior ministers, and to mere lay
men. The word priest is prefixed to the
Absolution, and to all those prayers which
the clergyman performs standing ; such as
the versicles before the psalms, beginning at
the Gloria Patri, and those before the
collects. To the collects themselves no
direction is prefixed. There are a few
exceptions which may be accounted for.

MINOR CANONS
Altogether the conclusion must be that the
rubrics alone, apart from long usage, arc
insufficient to determine the question, and
that the distinction between the terms
"priest" and "minister" has not been
consistently maintained. [H.]
MINOR CANONS (See Canons).
MINOR HOLY-DAYS — MINOR
SAINTS' DAYS. Before the Reformation
great inconvenience was found to arise from
the number of holy-days in the Calendar on
which there was cessation from work. In
the reign of King Henry VIII., some changes
were made by the "abrogation of certain
holy-days;" and in the Prayer Book of
1549 the principal names only which had
been contained in the Calendar of the
Salisbury Use were inserted. In 1661 the
names of SS. Bede, Alban, and Enurchus
were added. It is curious that SS. Aidan
and Cuthbert, our national saints, and St.
Patrick, are left out of the number of minor
saints (See Calendar). [H.]
MINORS, MARRIAGE OF. Canon 62
forbids such marriages, without consent
of the parents or governors of the parties.
But stat. 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, s. 8, enacts that
no clergyman shall be punishable for cele-,
brating the marriage of minors without
consent of the parents or guardians, unless
he has had notice of their dissent. If such
notice is openly declared, or caused to be
declared, at the time of the publication of
the banns, such publication becomes abso
lutely void. When a licence is brought to
the clergyman (however wrongfully ob
tained) he is not legally responsible. [H.]
M1NORESS. A nun under the rule of
St. Clare.
MINSTER. An old word, always or gene
rally used for some cathedral and collegiate
churches, especially York, Lincoln, Ripon,
Beverley, Southwell, and occasionally Peter
borough, where the precincts are called
Minster Yard. Wimbome Minster and
Westminster have become the names of
places. The name is always said to come
from monasterium, which could not well be
turned into monster. Perhaps " minister "
helped it into " minster." [G.]
MIRACLES. The credibility of the
miracles of the New Testament is the
primary theological question of this age,
among those who are not simple atheists, or
believers that the laws of nature were self-
existent ab eterno : which means that all
the atoms of matter were from the begin
ning, and all resolved how they would
behave in all possible circumstances, and
have always kept their resolution (See
Sir E. Beckett's Origin of the Laws of
Nature). The hypothesis of a Creator of
" Persistent Force " only, and of self-existing
matter, is practically the same, and con-

MIRACLES

495

fesses itself unable to account for any
change into the variety of forces that exist,
by calling such changes " unfathomable
mysteries" (See Ed. Rev. of Spencer's
First Principles, Jan. 1884). Many theists
also disbelieve miracles, including some
who, in some sense of their own, call them
selves Christians. We can only give a very _
short summary here of the chief arguments
on this great question which has occupied
many volumes and some of the greatest
writers. Whatever attempts may be made to
evade the conclusion, no definition of
miracles can be logically maintained except
that they are, and throughout the Bible
are avowed to be, interruptions of the other
wise invariable action of the laws of nature
by the same power that made them. The-
unbelieving philosophers, such as Professor
Huxley in his life of Hume (see Review of
it by Sir E. Beckett, S. P. C. K.), who try to
reduce them to mere " wonders " or " prodi
gies," because "miracnlum means something-
wonderful," oddly forget that the New
Testament was not written in Latin, and
that " miracles " are the received translation
of o-ij/xtia, bvvdpeis, and repara, of which
the last is hardly ever used alone, and they
are all invariably used for "signs" of
"divine power," as the two former words-
import. If the so-called miracles were not
such signs, they were nothing except con
juring impostures, or the stories of them
simply lies. For there can be no doubt that
they were asserted by those who did them
or commanded or invoked them, to be such
signs, and that the belief of those who saw
them gradually converted all the civilized
and progressive nations of the world to
Christianity. We must logically agree
with unbelievers that nothing is to be
gained by ingenious changes of language
about the " laws of nature," the " course of
nature," and the like, to make the inter
ferences appear less. No change of phrases
can get over the fact, that it was plainly
an interference with the laws of nature,
both as to matter and force, if a human
body ever walked on the water, and finally
disappeared into the clouds — a man who
had been killed publicly by those who
understood the business, and buried, rose
again on the third day after it, and took a
long walk into the country — if six pots of
water were turned into the best wine by a
word — if 5000 and 4000 people were fed in
the wilderness by a few loaves and small
fishes, which a lad had brought with him —
if multitudes of people were suddenly
cured of all manner of diseases and defects
by the mere word of a man, whether human
or divine — if prophecies by that same
person of the exact and unlikely method of

496

MIRACLES

his death, as he had not offended the
Romans, and of his resurrection, and of
the destruction of that great city where he
lived, were fulfilled — and other things
which every man of common sense knows
to be impossible from natural causes (See
Belcher on Our LoroVs Miracles of Healing,
and Trench on the Miracles). Ingenious
and well-meant attempts to get over all
this by saying that these things may
possibly have been within the range of
some wider but unknown laws of nature,
like what mathematicians call "conjugate
points," really belonging to some curve
though quite outside of it, are incapable
of convincing any unwilling hearer, though
they may look plausible to willing ones.
And they are worse, because if they were
so, the miracles were, after aU, not signs
of any divine power, and Christ and the
apostles knew it, if they themselves were
what they professed to be; so that either
way they were gross deceivers if the miracles
were not divine interferences over-riding
the laws of nature for the time, though
the laws remained unaltered.
Another preliminary admission must be
made, or rather, in truth, a fundamental
assertion for Chiistianity, which may be
summed up in one sentence of Dr. Salmon's
Non-miraculous Christianity, which he
well says "is as much a contradiction in
terms as a quadrangular circle." For Christi
anity was not only established by miracles, as
its author said, but is ipso facto the beUef in
the three great miracles, of Christ's birth with
out a human father, His resurrection, and His
ascension. If these were not what the New
Testament records, there is no such religion
as Christianity, but only one more system
of moral philosophy, of which different
people have a right to accept just as much
as they happen to be convinced of by or
dinary argument, if it cannot be proved to
be divine, which it certainly cannot without
miracles to connect it with the only supreme
power over the universe and the laws of
nature. A favourite saying of modern
infidels is true enough in a proper sense, viz.
" that Christianity was first believed on the
.strength of miracle*, and now miracles on
the strength of Christianity," which is in
tended by them to look like reasoning in a
circle, and therefore no reasoning at all. But
this, like most of their sayings of that kind,
is a mere verbal fallacy or trick. It really
means that after nineteen centuries of trans
mitted belief.in the three miraculous facts
of which Christianity consists, which were
originally proved by a multitude of other
miracles besides, we need not set to work over
again to prove them individually. When
any proposition or fact has been proved once
an the only way it admits of, it is proved

MIRACLES
for ever. The miracles were proved once i i
for all to the conviction of those who saw > •
them ; for they were not even denied by i
those whom they did not convert. Attri- ; ;
buting them to Beelzebub was an admission :
that they were supernatural events, and not ; ;
mere fictions or tricks. The Jews did not ;
seek to kill both Jesus and Lazarus because \ \
Lazarus was not raised from the dead, but - ¦
because he was: at any rate they could
invent no other explanation, though for . .
other reasons most of them would not
believe Jesus to be the Son of God. Even
if no records of the individual miracles from
the hands of contemporary writers survived,
it would be perfectly good reasoning to hold
that they are now sufficiently proved by the
notorious fact that Christianity was esta
blished by them; and that is one answer
to the infidel saying that we now believe
the miracles on the strength of Christianity
— which but for them could never have
existed. But besides that, the records of
contemporary writers do survive, on which
evidential books have been written which
never will be obsolete, and never have, been
rationally answered ; for neither sneering
nor a, priori dicta about impossibilities are
any answers at all. If the existence of
Christianity, and its general acceptance by
all the civilised nations of the world, can be
rationally accounted for without the mira
cles having been real, let it be : but it
never has been yet ; nor has any theory for
it been invented which a dozen people worth
naming have concurred in adopting. And
that is absolutely decisive. Christianity is
the phenomenon now to be accounted for.
The truth of the miracles does account for
it completely ; and if nothing else does, the
question is decided in favour of them both,
on the strictest scientific principles, unless
miracles can be somehow demonstrated to
be impossible. All the pretended proofs of
that amount to nothing more than that
they are improbable, and indeed impossible
without supernatural interference. But that
of itself can never be proved to be im
possible. AU-the pretended proofs of it are
mere verbal trickery, of first using the word
Nature in the common sense, and then in a
new and artificial one, for everything that is,
in heaven or earth. It is no answer toall this
to say that many false religions exist and
claim some supernatural origin, and some of
them profess to have had miracles at some
time. Some that have existed are utterly
dead already. Not one of them even professes
to be founded on miracles, beyond mere as
sertions of revelations, of which nothing fit
to be called evidence, and much less proof,
was ever given. Many are transparent non
sense which no rational person thinks worth
refuting. There is no religion in the world

MIRACLES
except Christianity and Judaism, as far as
it goes in the same direction, with any
kind of demonstration of its origin or
authority. The alleged miracles of Popery,
even if they were true, would not prove the
truth of the special doctrines of Rome.
Transubstantiation would indeed be a
miracle every time it takes place if it could
he proved ; but unfortunately the very same
evidence of our senses which proved all the
miracles of Christ and the apostles, goes
just the other way against transubstantiation.
Every absurd story about the Virgin Mary
might conceivably be true, and yet would
not the least prove that she has the power or
influence over her Son in heaven which she
never had on earth, or that she was born
I without sin, as the last Pope decreed. No
miracleRas ever proved either that purgatory
exists, or that Roman priests have keys of
it if it does, or that any or all the saints in
heaven have. Nor has any miracle ever
gone an inch towards proving the supremacy
of the Pope or the Roman Church, or that
he is any more infaUible than our primates.
So it is really not worth while to scrutinise
the Popish miracles in detail. They have
the two fundamental defects of proving
nothing that they ought to prove, and of
being themselves unproved by any evidence
that wUl stand examination, . besides so
many of them being transparent, frauds and
absurdities as to put them all, out. of court or
beyond the necessity of refutation. It is
sometimes said that there is as much need
of miracles now as ever to convince un
believers; and that as they do not come
now that they are so much needed, it is an
additional reason for believing that they
never did really, and that our present ex
perience is conclusive as to all the past.
But this also is illogical. There is not the
same need of them now as there was when
Christianity had to be established by them.
It is established, and the miracles of Christ
did the work He said they would. They
did not convince all who saw them then,
and He never said they would, but always
assumed or said that there would be many
unbelievers, until the end comes. " If they
hear not Moses and the prophets, neither
will they be persuaded, though one rose
from the dead," is true now that One has
risen from the dead. And as the circum
stances of the world are different now,
since Christianity exists, there is no reason
for saying that our present experience of
the absence of miracles proves anything
at aU as to the time when Christianity had
to be established by them.
Occasional instances of fulfilled predic
tions by what is caUed second-sight, or some
other occult means, which no one takes for
divine revelations, although they cannot

MIRACLES

497

all be refuted or explained, prove nothing
against the fulfilled prophecies of Scripture
which are on a much larger scale ; and such
prophecies were miracles if they turned out
true. Nor has there ever been anything
analogous to that combination of prediction
and miracle, or even of things which would
not be miraculous without the prediction of
them, which is characteristic of the great
majority of the Bible miracles. Multitudes
of people in all ages have died suddenly —
been swallowed up by earthquakes — become
blind — been cured of diseases, though not of
death ; but never anywhere else have those
events followed the declarations of men
that they were going to happen immedi
ately. It is too often forgotten that the
"doers" of miracles did nothing except
command or predict or invoke them ; which
puts them out of the range of conjuring, if
any such conjuring were possible.
What then do the modern refusals to
consider the evidence for the Christian
miracles aU come to? They all resolve
themselves into two : one, the repetition in
various terms of Hume's often-exposed
paradox that it is more probable that the
original witnesses lied than that the universal
experience against miracles was broken
during one short period of the world, with
a few former occasional exceptions, as of
the O. T. That proposition has been
amended and enlarged by Mr. Huxley in
bis Uttle book on Hume, and Hume's con
ditions for an admissible proof of miracles
adopted and insisted on. For answers to that
revised version of Hume's theory we must
refer to the above-mentioned Review
of Hume and Huxley on Miracles, which
shows how it involves the common fallacy
of using such words as " nature " and
"experience" in double senses, by which
any proposition that you like can be
apparently proved. The other and more
fashionable objection just now is that
science has proved the laws of nature to be
inviolably uniform, and the sum of all
the forces in the universe, and of all the
matter therein, to be constant, so that such
miracles cannot possibly have happened.
But science has proved nothing of the kind.
No scientific Christian has any doubt, nor
had Newton or Faraday, or any other
Christian philosopher, that the laws of
nature are uniform and inviolable by any
power except that which made them ; and
also that He never does so (as far as we
can tell) without some special motive of
sufficient importance. In other words,
science has only proved that there is
nothing miraculous except miracles ; that
all experience is against them except that
experience which included them, and which
is just as much entitled to consideration as
2 K

498

MIRACLES

all the other experience, on the strictest
scientific principles. A theory which per
sists in ignoring proved facts is " condemned
already,'' and would not be listened to in
any other case. The laws of nature, in
cluding that of the conservation of force
of which infidels make so much, are not
necessaiy truths like those of arithmetic
and geometry, the violation of which is not
only improbable but inconceivable by our
minds, or is absolute nonsense. They are
only statements of the results of aU known
ordinary experiences, or scientific knowledge
of causes and effects in all ordinary circum
stances. The moment the Creator of the
laws of nature had a sufficient reason of His
own to act against a law of nature, the
circumstances ceased to be ordinary, though
we have (now) no such experience. What
the infidels have to do as mere phUosophers,
and have never done, is to frame a theory
which explains all the phenomena, of the
existence of Christianity and its records of
the apparently miraculous facts, by some
thing better than the slovenly and un-
philosophical assertion that they refuse to
consider at aR one whole class of phamomena
which no reasonable man can doubt hap
pened somehow, whether supernatural or
not. If they can prove aU those records to
be false, consistently with the existence of
Christianity, let them. But saying that
they must be false merely because they are
unique, is saying nothing, and would be
laughed at in any other matter as contrary
to the first principles of scientific reasoning.
It has been shown too, and strangely
enough, by Babbage, who never passed
for a believer in Christianity or miracles,
that even as a piece of mathematical
reasoning, Hume's paradox was wrong ; for
that the concurrence of a very moderate
number of witnesses of average veracity as
to an event within their own knowledge is
mathematically sufficient to prove the most
unlikely thing that can be imagined, short
of mathematical impossibility. On the
whole therefore we defy these deniers of
miracles to refute the following conclu
sions: — first, that any attempt to throw
over miracles and yet keep the religion
which is founded on them, is like pretend
ing to discover "a quadrangular circle;"
secondly, that science or the knowledge
of natural causes and effects has nothing
to say to supernatural ones, and that
events plainly contrary to the laws of
nature must be due to a supernatural cause
or power: thirdly, if the miracles them
selves tended to prove supernatural power
in the principal doer of them, and super
natural support or inspiration of those who
followed Him and said that they did them |
in His name, or in proof of His doctrine, the I

MISSAL
case is complete, unless the whole story of
the New Testament can be evidentially
proved to have been a mass of forgeries.
And even Huxley admits that there is no
phenomenon of which some amount of
evidence would not convince him ; only he
would not admit it to be supernatural:
which is perfectly right if he could frame a
rational theory for explaining it consistently
with nature, which neither he nor any
body else has ever done with the Christian
miracles. The multitude of theories for trying
to explain their history away, and the trans
parent absurdity of most of them, are alone
conclusive against such theories. This
of course is only a very short summary
of the principal arguments for miracles,
and we must refer to the well-known
works of Paley, Lardner, Butler, Mansel,
Salmon, Mozley, and other eminent
writers, both as to the actual evidence for the
Christian miracles, and for answers to the
infidel attempts to prove their impossibility
on what are caUed a priori grounds. [G.l
MIRACLE-PLAYS (See Moralities).
MISCHNA, or MISHNA. The tradi
tional exposition of the law. Various
derivations have been given, but the most
probable is that which refers to the word
" Sheni," "second" — the Mishna or oral
law being second to the written law. It is
believed by the Jews to be the tradition
deUvered, unwritten, to Moses by God ; and
preserved only by the doctors of the syn
agogue till the time of Rabbi Judas the
Holy, who committed it to writing about
a.d. 180. It is in fact the canon and
civil law of the Jews ; treating of tithes,
festivals, matrimonial laws, mercantile laws,
idolatry, oaths, sacrifices, and purifications.
The heads of the synagogue, who are said to
have preserved the Mishna, were thought
to have had the privilege of hearing the
Bath-Gol, or oracular voice of God (See
Bath-Col). The Mishna contains the
text ; and the Gemara, which is the second
part of the Talmud, contains the commen
taries ; so that the Gemara is, as it were, a
glossary to the Mishna.
MISERERE. The seat of a staU, so
contrived as to turn up and down, according
as it is wanted as a high support in long
standing, or as an ordinary seat. Misereres
are almost always carved, and often very
richly ; more often too than any other part
of the wood-work, with grotesques.
MISSA (See Mass).
MISSA SICCA (Lit. Dry Mass). A term
used in the Roman Church to imply the or
dinary part of the office without the canon,
there being neither consecration nor commu
nion. — Durandus, Ration, iv., i. 23. [H.]
MISSAL (See Mass). The office book
of the Western Church, containing the

MISSION
whole Liturgy, the final " Ordinary " and
" Canon " of the Mass, with the changeable
Introits, CoUects, Epistles, Gospels, &c.
In the ancient Church, the several parts of
Divine service were arranged in distinct
books. Thus the Collects and the inva
riable portion of the Communion Office
formed the book caUed the Sacramentary.
The lessons from the Old and New Testa
ments constituted the Lectionary, and the
Gospels made another volume, with the
title of Evangelistarium. The Antiphonary
consisted of anthems, &c, designed for
chanting. About the eleventh or twelfth century it
was found convenient, generaUy, to unite
these books, and the volume obtained the
name of the Complete or Plenary Missal, or
Book of Missa;. Of this description were
almost all the liturgical books of the
Western Churches, and the arrangement is
still preserved in our own. There was
considerable variation in the Missals of
different Churches, those of the Anglican
branch being known by the names of the
Sarum Use, Hereford Use, Lincoln Use,
York Use, Bangor Use, &c. Our Prayer
Book may be said to be founded on the
Sarum Use (See Prayer Book). The
Roman Missal was not used by Romanists
in this country till a.d. 1740, when the
Jesuits would not permit any other to be
used ; before that the Sarum Use continued
to be followed, and in forsaking this,
Romanists in England surrendered the last
link of connexion with the Old National
Church. For the editions of the Sarum
Missal see Maskell, Mon. Rit. i. lxix. lxxxii.
(1882) ; Dayman's edition of the Sarum
Missals. James II.'s Sarum Missal is pre
served in Worcester Cathedral Library. —
Palmer's Orig. Liturg. i. iii. 308 ,- Krazer,
de Liturg. sec. ii. c. 2-6 ; Blunt, Diet. Doct.
Theol. [H.]
MISSION. Lit., a sending : hence a
-commission to preach the gospel. Thus our
blessed Lord gave His apostles and their
successors the bishops their mission, when
He said, " Go ye into all the world, and
preach the gospel to every creature."
It certainly is essential that the true
ministers of God should be able to prove
that they have not only the power, but the
right of performing sacred offices. There
is an evident difference between these
things, as may be seen by the following
cases. If a regularly ordained priest should
celebrate the Eucharist in the church of
another, contrary to the wiU of that person
and of the bishop, he would have the
power of consecrating the Eucharist, and it
- actually would be consecrated ; but he would
not have the rigid of consecrating; or, in
other words, he would not have mission for

MISSIONARY

499

that act. If a bishop should enter the
diocese of another bishop, and, contrary to
his wUl, ordain one of his deacons to the
priesthood, the intruding bishop would have
the power, but not the right, of ordain
ing ; he would have no mission for such an
act. In fact, mission fails in all schismatical,
heretical, and uncanonical acts, because
God cannot have given any man a right
to act in opposition to those laws which He
himseR has enacted, or to those which the
apostles and their successors have insti
tuted, for the orderly and peaceable regu
lation of the Church : He " is not the author
of confusion, but of peace, as in all the
churches of the saints" (1 Cor. xiv. 33);
and yet, were He to commission His minis
ters to exercise their offices in whatever
places and circumstances they pleased, con
fusion and division without end must be
the inevitable result. All ordinations and
consecrations in England not in accordance
with the law are invalid, except so far as
they may be allowed afterwards under
various Acts of Parliament. (See Law of
Church in the Colonies and Scotland.)
Mission can only be given for acts in
accordance with the Divine and ecclesias
tical laws, the latter of which derive their
authority from the former ; and it is con
ferred by valid ordination. It would be
easy to prove this in several ways ; but it
is enough at present to say, that no other
method can be pointed out by which mis
sion is given. Should the ordination be
valid, and yet uncanonical, mission does
not take effect until the suspension imposed
by the canons on the person ordained is in
some lawful manner removed.
The English bishops and clergy alone
properly have mission in England. — Palmer's
Orig. Liturg. ii. 246.
MISSIONS (See Church in Colonies,
Societies, Church).
MISSIONS, PAROCHIAL. In many
dioceses there are organisations for promo
tion of missions to places where there seems
special need of arousing people to more
spirituality of Ufe. They are intended to
supplement the parochial system, with the
aid of specially appointed ministers. A
great number of missions have been held
lately, and especiaUy must be mentioned
the great mission in London, 1884-5. A
Ust of missions and of missionaries is given
in the Official Year Book of the Church of
England, 1886, p. 78 seq. [H.]
MISSIONARY. A clergyman, whether
bishop, priest, or deacon, deputed or sent
out by ecclesiastical authority, to preach
the gospel, and exercise his other func
tions, in places where the Church has
hitherto been unknown, or is in the in
fancy of its establishment.
2 k 2

500

MITRE

MITRE (pirpa). The Episcopal coro
net. I. Originally the word meant first a
girdle, and secondly a head-dress, and is
mentioned by heathen writers as worn by
women as well as men (Virg. JEn. ix.
616; Eurip. Bacch. 833). It is derived
probably from the same root as plros, a
fhread, and would primarily signify any
thing to be bound on the person. The LXX.
gives pirpa and also Kibdpts, for the cap worn
by the high priest mentioned in Exodus and
elsewhere (Exod. xxviii., xxix. ; Lev.
.vni. 9, &c). But it is impossible to say
anything positive with regard to official
head-dresses worn by clerics in the early
Church, if indeed there were any. It has
been asserted that St. John, and also St.
James, wore mitres, and indeed Polycrates,
quoted by Eusebius, in the one case, and
Epiphanius in the other, speaks of these
apostles wearing ornaments on their heads
(Polyc. ap. Euseb. H. E. lib. 5, c. 24;
Jerom. de Vit. Must c. 45 ; Epiphan. Heres.
29, m. 4). But the word used is wirdXov,
and this means merely the ornament or
golden plate which they would be entitled
to wear as being of the family of Aaron ;
and this reason is also given by Valesius in
speaking of St. Mark. " B. Marcum juxta
ritum carnalis sacrificii, pontificalis apicis
petalum gestasse . . . syngrapha; decla
rant ; ex quo manifesto datur intelligi, de
stirpe eum Levitica, imo pontificis Aaron
sacra successionis originem natuisse."
Gregory Nazianzen speaks of the " Kibapis,''
and Latin writers used the word " infula "
to denote some kind of head-dress (Greg.
Naz. Orat. x. 4; Ducange, s. v. infula).
Some assert that the word " corona," or the
fact that the bishops were sometimes
addressed " per coronam " implies the use
of the episcopal mitre (Spondanus, Epit
Baron, an 58, n. 54 ; Hefele's essay, Inful.
Mitra, Sec). But the above names may
have been given to any head-dress, and
not especially to those episcopal or even
ecclesiastical. Cardinal Bona draws a dis
tinction between the mitre properly so
called, and some other ornament of the
head worn from primitive ages (Rer. Lit. i.,
exxiv); but there is no mention, Menard
says, of the mitre in the ancient pontificals,
nor in therituaUsts before the tenth century,
neither by Alcuin nor Amalarius (Notes to
the Sacramentary of Gregory, 557). There
is, then, no proof of the mitre being in use
in the first ten centuries of the Christian
era ; in fact, there is no trustworthy evidence
of its use till a.d. 1049, when Leo IX. placed
on the head of Eberhard, archbishop of
Treves, the Roman mitre. — Patrol, cxliii.
595. II. The first mitres were very low and
simple, being not more than from three to

MIXED CHALICE
six inches in elevation, and they thus con
tinued till the end of the thirteenth cen
tury. In the fourteenth century they
gradually increased in height to a foot or
more, and became more superbly enriched;
their contours also presented a degree of
convexity by which they were distinguished
from the old mitres. During the middle
ages there were three kinds of mitres in use
among the English bishops : one covered
with gems and precious stones, and with
gold or silver plates ; the second made of
white damask studded with small pearls,
and ornamented with gold threads; the
third, called simplex, made of damasked
silk or white linen (Cserimoniale Episc. 1,
cxvii.). The two horns of the mitre are
generally taken to be an aUusion to the
cloven tongues as of -fire, which rested on
each of the apostles on the day of Pentecost.
But Innocent III. gives them another
signification. " Mitra pontificis scientiam
utriusque testamenti significat ; nam duo
cornua duo sunt testamenta," &c. (Lib. i.,
c. xliv.).Mitres, although worn in some of the
Lutheran Churches (as in Sweden), have
till lately fallen into desuetude in England,
even at coronations. They were worn
however at tbe coronations of Edward VI.
and Queen Elizabeth. See Hierurgk
Anglicana, p. 81, seq.; in which work,
however, at p. 89, there is an assertion of
Dr. Milner's, which is incorrect, viz. that
they were worn at the coronation of
George III.; and this mistake is followed
by Walcott. In the detailed accounts of
that ceremony (see e.g. the Annual Register
for 1761) the bishops are described as carry
ing their square caps, and putting them on
when the lay peers assumed their coronets.
This disuse of the mitre seems only to date
from the eighteenth century. Mitres .'and
staves of silver gilt were carried at the
funerals of Juxon, Duppa, Frewen, Cosin,
Wren, Trelawny, and Lindsay (1724);
mitres only at the burials of Monk and
Feme. The mitres of Trelawny and Mews
are preserved in Winchester Cathedral.—
Bingham, ii., ix. 5 ; Martene, de Rit. i. c. 4;
Marriott, Vest. Christ. y_). 187-220; Maskell,
Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. ii. 290 ; Walcott, Sac
Arch. p. 383. [H.]
MIXED CHALICE. There is no doubt .
that from the very earliest times it was
customary to mix water with the wine at
the Holy Eucharist, and that it continued
to be so, except in the Armenian Church,
for 1500 years. It was generally the
custom among the Jews to mix water
with the wine in the Paschal cup (Mai-
monides, lib. de Solemn. Pasch. c. 7) : and
there seems to be little doubt that the cup
our Lord Himself blessed contained a

MODUS DECIMANDI
similar mixture (Johnson's Unbl. Sacrif.
pt. ii. c. 1, vol. ii. pp. 84, 203). By the
Fathers, constant reference is made to the
practice, from Justin Martyr (who was slain
in 165, at 75 years of age) downwards.
Effftra npoo-qbipcTai ra irpoeo-raTi ratv
dbeX<p£>v apros Kal irorqpiov vbaros Kal
xpdparos (Justin M. Apol. i.) : so also
St. Irenams (lib. v. c. 2), Clemens Alex.
(Psed. lib. ii. c. 2), St. Cyprian in many
places, St. Cyril, and many others. Where
heresy came in, it was with regard to using
water without wine, not wine without water
(see Aquarii). The Armenians were the
first who prohibited the mixture of water
with the wine. This was condemned in the
Council of TruUo, a.d. 691. In all the in
ventories that are found of church articles,
vessels for containing water as well as for
wine have been mentioned. The mixture
is intended to symbolize the union of the
human with the Divine nature in the In
carnation; and also to commemorate Him
Who for us did shed out of His side both
water and blood. Cranmer said that it also
signified "the union of Christ's strength
with the weakness of His people." " It
must be confessed," says Wheatly, " that
the mixture has in all ages been the general
practice, and for that reason was enjoined to
be continued in our Church by the first
Reformers ; and though in the next Review
the order for it was omitted, yet the practice
of it was continued in the King's Chapel
, all the time that Bishop Andrewes was Dean
of it ; who also, in a form that he drew up
for the consecration of a church, &c, ex
pressly directs and orders it to be used."
Ancient and Catholic though it is, it has
not been considered absolutely essential to
the consecration. Bona writes that although
it is the opinion of some that the mixture is
necessary, " certa est theologorum sententia,
omissa aqua, validam esse consecrationem,
quamvis omittens graviter peccet." It
is impossible to see how any person,
unless actuated by the " odium thec-
logicum," can object to a custom plainly
primitive, and simple, and symbolically in
structive — Bingham, vni., vi. 22 ; Wheatly,
p. 284 ; Bona, Rer. Lit. ii, c. 9 ; Neale and
Littledale's Anc. Lit. p. 120; Palmer's
Orig. Lit. ii. 77.
Nevertheless the mixed chalice has been
decided several times by the wisdom of the
Privy Council to be illegal in the Church of
England (See Cup). [H.]
MODUS DECIMANDI. This is when
lands, or a yearly pension, or some money
or other thing, is given to a parson in lieu
of his tithes. It has become obsolete
through the Tithe Commutation Acts.
MONARCHIANS (pdvos, Apxn). Here
tics in the second century who denied

MONASTERIES

501

the distinction of Persons in the Divine
Nature. This was one of those evils which
arose from the endeavour to combine tho
Egyptian and the Grecian philosophy with
the Christian religion. The doctrines of the
Trinity, and the Twofold Nature of our
Lord, would naturally be the first which
these philosophers would endeavour to
explain, so that they could be compre
hended by reason. Praxeas, against whom
Tertullian wrote, but under great personal
prejudice, was the leader of these, teaching
that " the whole Father of all things joined
Himself to the Human nature of Christ : "
but he did not erect a distinct Church.
Theodotus (who went by the name of
o orKvrevs, the tanner), a Byzantine of low
extraction, but great learning, founded the
sect which went by this name. He was the
first who asserted Christ to be mere man.
—Euseb. H. E. v. 28; Stubbs' Mosheim,
i. 152. [H.]
MONASTERIES. Convents or houses
built for those who profess the monastic
life, whether abbeys, priories, or nunneries
(For the origin of monasteries, see Abbey
and Monk).
In their first institution, and in their
subsequent uses, there can be no doubt that
monasteries were amongst the most remark
able instances of Christian munificence, and
they certainly were in the dark ages among
the beneficial adaptations of the talents of
Christians to pious and charitable ends.
They were schools of education and learning,
where the children of the great received
their education; and they were hospitals
for the poor : they afforded also a retirement
for the worn-out servants of the rich and
noble ; they protected the calmer spirits,
who, in an age of universal warfare, shrank
from conflict, and desired to lead a contem
plative life. But the evils which grew out of
those societies seem in time to have counter
balanced the good. Being often , exempted
from the authority of the bishop, they
became hotbeds of ecclesiastical insubordi
nation; and were little else but parties of
privileged sectaries within the Church. The
temptations arising out of a state of celibacy,
too often in the first instance enforced by
improper means, and always bound upon
the members of these societies by a religious
vow, were the occasion of great scandal.
And the enormous wealth with which some
of them were endowed, brought with it a
greater degree of pride, and ostentation, and
luxury, than was becoming in Christians ;
and still more in those who had vowed a
life of religion and asceticism.
The dissolution of houses of this kind
began so early as the year 1312, when the
Templars were suppressed; and in 1323,
their lands, churches, advowsons, and liber-

502

MONASTERIES

ties, here in England, were given by 17
Edward II. stat.iii. to the prior and brethren
of the hospital of St. John of Jerusalem.
In the years 1390, 1437, 1441, 1459, 1497,
1505, 1508, and 1515, several other houses
were dissolved, and their revenues settled
on different colleges in Oxford and Cam
bridge. Soon after the last period, Cardinal
Wolsey, by licence of the king and pope,
obtained a dissolution of above thirty re
ligious houses for founding and endowing
his colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. About
the same time a bull was granted by the
same pope to Cardinal Wolsey to suppress
monasteries, where there were not above six
monks, to the value of eight thousand ducats
a year, for endowing Windsor and King's
College in Cambridge ; and two other bulls
were granted to Cardinals Wolsey and Cam-
peius, where there were less than twelve
monks, to annex them to the greater
monasteries ; and another bull to the same
cardinals to inquire about abbeys to be
suppressed in order to be made cathedrals.
Although nothing appears to have been
done in consequence of these bulls, the
motive which induced Wolsey and many
others to suppress these houses, was the
desire of promoting learning; and Arch
bishop Cranmer engaged in such suppression
with a view of carrying on the Reformation.
There were other causes that concurred to
bring on their ruin. Many of the monks
were loose and vicious ; they were generaUy
thought to be in their hearts attached to
the pope's supremacy; their revenues were
not employed according to the intent of the
donors ; many cheats in wonder-working
images, feigned miracles, and counterfeit
relics, had been discovered, which brought
the monks into disgrace ; the Observant friars
had opposed the king's divorce from Queen
Catharine ; and these circumstances operated,
in concurrence with the king's want of a
supply, and the people's desire to save their
money, to forward a motion in Parliament,
that, in OTder to support the king's state, and
supply his wants, all the religious houses
which were not able to spend abov6 £200 a
year, might be conferred upon the Crown ; and
an Act was passed for that purpose, 27 Henry
VIII. c. 28. By this Act about 380 houses
were dissolved, and a revenue of £30,000 or
£32,000 a year came to the Crown ; besides
about £200,000 in plate and jewels. The
suppression of these houses occasioned dis
content, and at length an open rebellion :
when this was appeased, the king resolved
to suppress the rest of the monasteries, and
appointed a new visitation, which caused
the greater abbeys to be surrendered apace ;
and it was enacted by 31 Henry VIII. c. 13,
that all monasteries which had been surren
dered since the 4th of February, in the

MONASTERIES
twenty-seventh year of his Majesty's reign,
and which thereafter should be surrendered,
should be vested in the king. The Knights
of St. John of Jerusalem were also sup*
pressed by the 32nd Henry VIII. c. 24.
The suppression of these greater houses by
these two Acts produced a revenue to the
king of above £100,000 a year, besides a
large sum in plate and jewels. , The last Act
of dissolution in this king's reign was the
Act of 37 Henry VIII. c. 4, for dissolving
colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c, which
Act was further enforced by 1 Edward VI.
c. 14. By this Act were suppressed 90
colleges, 110 hospitals, and 2374 chantries
and free chapels.
Whatever were the offences of the race of
men then inhabiting them, this destruction
of the monasteries was nothing less than
sacrilege, and can on no ground be justified.
They were the property of the Church ; and
if, while the Church cast off divers errors in
doctrine which she had too long endured,
she had been permitted to purge these in
stitutions of some practical errors, and of
certain flagrant vices, they might have been
exceedingly serviceable to the cause of re
ligion. Cranmer felt this very forcibly, and
begged earnestly of Henry VIII. that he
would save some of the monasteries for holy
and religious uses ; but in vain. Ridley also
was equally anxious for their preservation.
It is a mistake to suppose that the monas
teries were erected and endowed by Papists.
Many of them were endowed before most of
the errors of the Papists were thought of:
and the founders of abbeys afterwards built
and endowed them, not as Papists, but as
churchmen ; and when the Church became
pure, she did not lose any portion of her
right to such endowments as were always
made in supposition of her purity (See
Num. xviii. 32; Lev. xxv. 23, 24; Ezek.
xlvni. 14).
Although much of the confiscated pro
perty was profligately squandered and con
sumed by the Russells, the Cavendishes, &c,
still, out of the receipts, Henry VIII. founded
six new bishoprics, viz. those of Westminster
(which was changed by Queen Elizabeth
into a deanery, with twelve prebends and a
school), Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester,
Bristol, and Oxford. And in eight other
sees he founded deaneries and chapters, by
converting the priors and monks into deans
and prebendaries, viz. Canterbury, Win
chester, Durham, Worcester, Rochester,
Norwich, Ely, and Carlisle. He founded
also the house of Christ Church in Oxford,
refounded Trinity College in Cambridge on %<
grander scale, and completed King's CoUege.
He likewise founded professorships of
divinity, law, physic, and of the Hebrew
and Geeek tongues in both , the said uni-

MONASTERY
versifies. He gave the house of Greyfriars
and St. Bartholomew's Hospital to the city
of London, and a perpetual pension to
the poor Knights of Windsor, and laid out
great sums in building and fortifying many
ports in the Channel. It is observable
that the dissolution of these houses was an
act, not of the Church, but of the State, prior
to any reformation of doctrine or ritual, by a
king and parliament of the Roman CathoUc
communion in all points except the king's
supremacy ; to which the pope himself, by
his bulls and licences, had led the way. —
Burnet's Hist. Reform, i. 367 seq. ; Hallam's
Mid. Ages, iii. 292 ; Wright's Suppres.
Monast. ; Hook's Archbishops, ii. 20 : iii.
43, 205 : vi. 69, 76, 114 : vii. 37.
Of the monasteries which had been
attached to cathedrals before the Reforma
tion, the heads were called Priors (which
answered to dean), never Abbots ; as the
bishop was considered as virtually the abbot.
The Bishop of Ely actuaUy occupied, as he
still does, the abbot's place in the choir (i.e.
the stall usually assigned to the dean), as
the bishop has done since the Reformation
at Carlisle, though in the latter place he had
a throne also. Christ Church monastery in
Dublin, which had always been a cathedral
chapter, was also secularized at the Re
formation. MONASTERY. In architectural arrange
ment, monastic establishments, whether
abbeys,, priories, or other convents, followed
nearly the same plan.
The great enclosure (varying, of course,
in extent with the wealth and importance
of the monastery), and generally with a
stream running beside it, was surrounded
by a wall, the principal entrance being
through a gateway to the west or north
west. This gateway was a considerable
building, and often contained a chapel, with
its altar, besides the necessary accommo
dation for the porter. The almery, or place
where alms were distributed, stood not far
within the great gate, and generally a little
to the right hand : there, too, was often a
chapel with its altar. Proceeding onwards
the west entrance of the church appeared.
The church itseR was always, where it re
ceived its due development, in the form of a
Latin cross ; a cross, i.e. of which the tran
septs are short in proportion to the nave.
Moreover, in Norman churches, the eastern
limb never approached the nave or western
limb in length. Whether or no the reason of
this preference of the Latin cross is found in
the domestic arrangements of the monastic
buildings, it was certainly best adapted to
it ; for the nave of the church with one of
the transepts formed the whole of one side
and part of another side of a quadrangle ;
and any other than a long nave would have

MONASTERY

503

involved a small quadrangle, while a long
transept would leave too little of another
side, or none at all, for other buildings.
How the internal arrangements were affected
by this adaptation of the nave to external
requirements, we have seen under the head
Cathedral, to which also we refer for the
general description of the conventual
church. Southward of the church, and parallel
with the south transept, was carried the
western range of the monastic offices ; but it
will be more convenient to examine their
arrangement within the court. We enter
then by a door near the west end of the
church, and passing through a vaulted
passage, find ourselves in the cloister court,
of which the nave of the church forms the
northern side, the transept part of the
eastern side and other buildings, in the
order to be presently described, complete
the quadrangle. The cloisters themselves
extended around the whole of the quad
rangle, serving, among other purposes, as a
covered way from every part of the convent
to every other part. They were furnished,
perhaps always, with lavatories, on the
decoration and construction of which much
cost was expended; and sometimes also
with desks and closets of wainscot, which
served the purpose of a scriptorium.
Commencing the circuit of the cloisters
at the north-west corner, and turning
southward, we have the Chapter House, for
meetings of the members, then the dormi
tory, or dorter, the use of which is sufficiently
indicated by its name. This occupied the
whole of the western side of the quadrangle,
and had sometimes a groined passage beneath
its whole length, called the ambulatory, a
noble example of which, in perfect pre
servation, remains at Fountains, of which
a plan is given on next page.
The south side of the quadrangle Contained
the refectory, with its correlative, the coquina
or kitchen, which was sometimes at its side,
and sometimes behind it. The refectory
was furnished with a pulpit, for the reading
of some portion of Scripture during meals.
On this side of the quadrangle may also be
found, in general, the locutorium, or parlour,
the latter word being, at least in etymology,
the full equivalent of the former. The
abbots lodge commonly commenced at the
south-east corner of the quadrangle ; but,
instead of conforming itself to its general
direction, rather extended eastward, with its
own chapel, hall, parlour, kitchen, and other
offices, in a Une paraUel with the choir oi-
eastern limb of the church. Turning north
wards, still continuing within the cloisters,
we come first to an open passage leading
outwards, then to the chapter-house, or its
vestibule ; then, after another open passage,

A. Choir.
B. Chapel of the Nine Altera.
C. Chapter Mouse.
D. Base Court.
E Frater Hone e.
F. Refectory.
6. Great Cloister.
H. Infirmary,
XI. Homes for entertaining Strangers

Ground Flan before the Kscavationa
begun in 1848 .
Farts afterwards uncovered .
Foundations still buried . •

GROUND PLAN OF FOUNTAINS ABBEY.

MONITION
to the south transept of the church. Imme
diately before us is an entrance into the
church, and another occurs at the end of
the west cloister.
The parts of the establishment especially
connected with sewerage were built over or
close to the stream; and we may remark
that, both in drainage and in the supply of
water, great aud laudable care was always
taken. The stream also turned the abbey mill,
at a small distance from the monastery.
Other offices, such as stables, brew-houses,
bake-houses, and the like, in the larger
estabUshments, usuaUy occupied another
court; and in the smaller, were connected
with the chief buildings in the only quad
rangle. It is needless to say that, in so
general an account, we cannot enumerate
exceptional cases. It may, however, be
necessary to say, that the greatest difference
of all, that of placing the quadrangle at the
north instead of the south side of the
church, is not unknown ; it is so at Canter
bury and at Lincoln, for instance.
The subject may be followed out in the
several plans of monasteries scattered among
our topoaraphical works, and in a paper
read by Mr. Bloxam before the Bedfordshire
Architectural Society, and published in their
Report for 1850, and Mackenzie Walcott's
Conventual Arrangement, and his Minsters
and Abbeys.
MONITION. An order from an eccle
siastical court to do or abstain from doing
something. Monitions are of two kinds :
one is a monition only, as to a lay rector to
repair his chancel, or to either a clergyman
or layman to remove ornaments which he
has introduced illegally, or to stop making
alterations not authorised by a faculty, and
if necessary, to restore the former condition
of the church. The other is the monition
which it has for ages been the practice to
append to a " definitive sentence " condemn
ing a clergyman for illegal practices, not to
do so any more. In one of the many
phases of the Mackonochie case L. C. J.
Cockburn and one other judge held that the
Dean of Arches had no jurisdiction to punish
for disobeying such a monition, but both
the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords
held that he had, without instituting a
fresh suit ab initio. Monitions may be en
forced either by suspension or by "signifying"
for contempt in the case of a layman, which
means imprisonment. Nor is the old juris
diction of the ecclesiastical courts taken away
to monish laymen against living in adultery
or incest, which- a late dean of arches said
might be followed by excommunication,
which again may be imprisonment for six
months (See Excommunication). [Gr.]
MONKS. The word monk, being derived

MONKS

505

from the Greek povos, solus, signifies, the
same as a solitary, or one who lives se
questered from the company and con
versation of the rest of the world, and is
usually applied to those who dedicate them
selves wholly to the service of religion, in
some monastery (as it is called) or religious
house, and under the direction of some
particular statutes, or rule. Those of the
female sex who devote themselves in like
manner to a religious life, are called nuns
(See Nuns).
There is some difference in the sentiments
of learned men concerning the origin and
rise of the monastic life. But the most
probable account of this matter seems to be
as follows :
Till the year 250, there were no monks,
but only ascetics, in the Church (See
Ascetics). ' In the Decian persecution, which was
about the middle of the third century,
many persons in Egypt, to avoid the fury
of the storm, fled to the neighbouring
deserts and mountains, where they not only
found a safe retreat, but also more time and
liberty to exercise themselves in acts of
piety and Divine contemplations ; which
sort of life became so agreeable to them,
that when the persecution was over, they
refused to return to their habitations again,
choosing rather to continue in those cottages
and cells which they had made for them
selves in the wilderness.
The first and most noted of these soli
taries were Paul and Anthony, two famous
Egyptians, whom therefore St. Jerome calls
the fathers of the Christian hermits. Some
indeed carry up the original of the monastic
life as high as St. I John Baptist and Elias.
But learned men generaUy reckon Paul the
Thebaaan, and Anthony, as the first pro
moters of this way of living among the
Christians. As yet there were no bodies or commu
nities of men embracing this life, nor any
monasteries built, but only a few single
persons scattered here and there in the
deserts of Egypt, till Pachomius, in the
peaceable reign of Constantine, procured
some monasteries to be built in Thebais in
Egypt, from whence the custom of living in
societies was followed by degrees in other
parts of the world, and in succeeding ages.
Macarius peopled the Egyptian desert of
Scetis with monks. Hilarion, a disciple of
Anthony's, was the first monk in Palestine
or Syria. Not long after, Eustathius,
bishop of Sebaste, brought monachism into
Armenia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. But
St. Basil is generally considered as the great
father and patriarch of the Eastern monks.
It was be who reduced the monastic life to
a fixed state of uniformity, who united the

506

MONKS

Anchorets and Coenobites, and obliged them
to engage themselves by solemn vows. It
was St. Basil who prescribed rules for the
government and direction of the monasteries,
to which rules most of the disciples of
Anthony, Pachomius, and Macarius, and
the other ancient fathers of the deserts,
submitted. And to this day, all the Greeks,
Nestorians, Melchites, Georgians, Min-
grelians, and Armenians, follow the rule of
St. Basil.
The monastic profession made no less
progress in the West. Athanasius, bishop
of Alexandria, retiring to Rome, about the
year 339, with several priests, and two
Egyptian monks, made known to several
pious persons the life of Anthony, who then
lived in the desert of Thebais ; upon which
many were desirous to embrace so holy a
profession. To this effect several monas
teries were built at Rome, and this example
was soon followed all over Italy. Benedict
of Nursia appeared in that country in the
early part of the sixth century, and pub
lished his rule, which was universaUy
received throughout the West ; for which
reason that saint was styled the patriarch of
the Western monks, as St. Basil was of the
Eastern. France owes the institution of the mon
astic Ufe to St. Martin, bishop of Tours,
in the fourth century ; who built the mon
asteries of Luguge and Marmoutier. The
Council of Saragossa, in Spain, a.d. 380,
which condemns the practice of priests,
who affected to wear the monastical habits,
is a proof that there were monks in that
kingdom in the fourth century, before St.
Donatus went thither out of Africa, with
seventy disciples, and founded the monastery
of Sirbita.
Augustine, being sent into England by
Gregory the Great, in the year 596, to
preach the faith, at the same time intro
duced the monastic state into this kingdom.
It made so great a progress here, that,
within the space of 200 years, there were
thirty kings and queens who preferred the
religious habit to their crowns, and founded
stately monasteries, where they ended their
days in retirement and solitude.
The monastic profession was also carried
into Ireland by St. Patrick, who is looked
upon as the apostle of that island.
The monastic life soon made very great
progress all over the Christian world.
Rufinus, who travelled through the East in
373, assures us there were almost as many
monks in the deserts as inhabitants in the
cities. From the wilderness (contrary to
its original institution) it made its way
into the towns and cities, where it multi
plied greatly : for the same author informs
us, that, in the single city of Oxirinca,

MONKS
there were more monasteries than private
houses, and above 30,000 monks.
The ancient monks were not, like the
modern, distinguished into orders, and de
nominated from tho founders of them ; but
they had their names from the places where
they inhabited, as the monks of Scetis,
Tdbennesus, Nitria, Canopus in Egypt, &c,
or else were distinguished by their different
ways of living. Of these the most re
markable were :
1. The anchorets, so called from their
retiring from society, and Uving in private
cells in the wUderness (See Anchorets).
2. The Coenobites, so denominated from
their living together in common (See
Coenobites). AU monks were, originaUy, no more than
laymen : nor could they well be otherwise,
being confined by their own rules to some
desert or wUderness where there could be
no room for the exercise of the clerical
functions. Accordingly St. Jerome tells
us, the office of a monk is, not to teach, but
to mourn. The Council of Chalcedon ex
pressly distinguishes the monks from the
clergy, and reckons them with the laymen.
Gratian himself, who is most interested for
the moderns, owns it to be plain from eccle
siastical history, that to the time of Pope
Siricius and Zosimus, the monks were only
monks, and not clerics.
In some cases, however, the clerical and
monastic life were capable of being con
joined; as, first, when a monastery hap
pened to be at so great a distance from its
proper church, that the monks could not
ordinarUy resort thither for Divine service,
which was the case of the monasteries in
Egypt and other parts of the East. In
this case, some one or more of the monks
were ordained for the performance of Di
vine offices among them. Another case, in
which the clerical and monastic life were
imited, was, when monks were taken out of
monasteries by the bishops, and ordained
for the service of the Church. This was
allowed, and encouraged, when once mon
asteries were become schools of learning
and pious education. In this case they
usually continued their ancient austerities ;
and upon this account the Greeks styled
them iepopovaxol, clergy-monks. Thirdly,
it happened sometimes that a bishop and
all his clergy embraced the monastic life
by a voluntary renunciation of property,
and enjoyed all things in common. Euse
bius Vercellensis was the first who brought
in this way of Uving, and St. Augustin
Uved thus among the clergy of. Hippo.
And so far as this was an imitation of
ccenobitic life, and having all things in
common, it might be caUed a monastic as
well as a clerical life.

MONKS
The Coenobites, or such monks as lived in
communities, were chiefly regarded by the
Church, and were therefore, during the first
six centuries under the Empire, subjected to
certain laws and rules of government, of
which we shall here give a short account.
1. All men were not allowed to turn
monks at pleasure, because such an in
discriminate permission would have been
detrimental both to the Church and State.
Upon this account the civil law forbade
any of those officers called curiales to
become monks, unless they parted with
their estates to others, who might serve
their country in their stead. For the
same reason servants were not to be ad
mitted into any monastery without their
masters' leave. Indeed, Justinian after
wards abrogated this law by an edict of
his own, which first set servants at liberty
from their masters, under pretence of be
taking themselves to a monastic life. The
same precautions were observed in regard
to married persons and children. The
former were not to embrace the monastic
life, unless with the mutual consent of both
parties. This precaution was afterwards
broken through by Justinian; but the
Church never approved of this innovation.
As to children, the Council of Gangra
decreed that if any such, under pretence of
religion, forsook their parents, they should
be anathematized. But Justinian enervated
the force of this law likewise, forbidding
parents to hinder their children from be
coming monks or clerks. And as children
were not to turn monks without consent
of their parents, so neither could parents
oblige their children to embrace a monastic
life against their own consent. But the
fourth Council of Toledo, a.d. 633, set aside
this precaution, and decreed that, whether
the devotion of their parents, or their own
profession, made them monks, both should
be equally binding, and there should be no
permission to return to a secular life again,
as was before allowable, when a parent
offered a child before he was capable of
giving his own consent.
2. The manner of admission to the monastic
life was usually by some change of habit
or dress, not to signify any religious mys
tery, but only to express their gravity and
contempt of the world. Long hair was
always thought an indecency in men, and
savouring of secular vanity ; and therefore
they polled every monk at his admission, to
distinguish him from seculars ; but they
never shaved any, for fear they should look
too like the priests of Ms. This, there
fore, was the ancient tonsure, in opposition
to both these extremes. As to their habit
and clothing, the rule was the same : they
were to be decent and grave, as became their

MONKS

50T

profession. The monks of Tabennesus, in
Thebais, seem to have been the only monks
in those early days who were confined to
any particular habit. St. Jerome, who often
speaks of the habit of the monks, intimates
that it differed from others only in this, that
it was a cheaper, coarter, and meaner
raiment, expressing their humility and con
tempt of the world, without any singularity
or affectation. The father is very severe
against the practice of some who appeared
in chains or sackcloth. And Cassian blames-
others who carried wooden crosses con-
tinuaUy about their necks, which was only
proper to excite the laughter of the spec
tators. In short, tho Western monks used
only a common habit, the philosophic
pallium, as many other Christians did.
And Salvian seems to give an exact de
scription of the habit and tonsure of the
monks, when, reflecting on the Africans for
their treatment of them, he says, "they
uould scarce ever see a man with short hair,
a pale face, and habited in a pallium, with
out reviling, and bestowing some reproachful
language on him."
We read of no solemn vow, or profession,
required at their admission: but they
underwent a triennial probation, during
which time they were inured to the exer
cises of the monastic life. If, after that
time was expired, they chose to continue
the same exercises, they were then admitted
without any further ceremony into the com
munity. This was the method prescribed
by Pachomius, the father of the monks of
Tabennesus, from which all others took
their model.
Nor was there, as yet, any solemn vow of,
poverty required ; though it was customary
for men voluntarily to renounce the world by
disposing of their estates to charitable uses,
before they entered into a community, where
they were to enjoy all things in common.
Nor did they, after renouncing their own
estates, seek to enrich themselves, or tbeir
monasteries, by begging, or accepting, the
estates of others. The Western monks did,
not always adhere to this rule, as appears
from some imperial laws made to restrain
their avarice. But the monks of Egypt
were generally just in their pretensions, and
would accept of no donations but for the use
of the poor. Some, indeed, did not wholly
renounce all property, but kept their estates
in their own hands, the whole yearly
revenue of which they distributed in chari
table uses.
As the monasteries had no standing
revenues, all the monks were obliged to
exercise themselves in bodily labour to.
maintain themselves, without being burden-.
some to others. They had no idle mendi
cants among them : they looked upon a

508

MONKS

monk that did not work as no better than
a covetous defrauder. Sozomen tells us
((lib. vi. c. 28) that Serapion presided over
a monastery of ten thousand monks, near
Arsino'e in Egypt, who all laboured with
their own hands, by which means they
not only maintained themselves, but had
enough to relieve the poor.
The monasteries were commonly divided
into several parts, and proper officers ap
pointed over each of them. Every ten
monks were subject to one, who was called
the decanus, or dean, from his presiding
over ten ; and every hundred had another
officer called centenarius, from his presiding
over a hundred. Above these were the
patres, or fathers of the monasteries, called
likewise abbates, abbots, from the Greek
afiBas, which signifies father; and hegu-
meni (rryoipevoi) presidents ; and archi
mandrites, from mandra, a sheep-fold. The
business of the deans was to exact every
man's daily task, and bring it to the ceco-
nomus, or steward, who gave a monthly
account thereof to the father, or abbot
(See Abbot).
To their bodily exercises they joined
others that were spiritual. The first of
(these was a perpetual repentance. Upon
iwhich account the life of a monk is often
styled the life of a mourner (St. Jerome,
Ep. Uii. ad Ripar.). And in allusion to this,
the isle of Canopus, near Alexandria, for
merly a place of great lewdness, was, upon
the translation and settlement of the monks
•of Tabennesus there, called Insule Metanoee,
the Isle of Repentance.
The next spiritual exercise was extra
ordinary fasting. The Egyptian monks
kept every day a fast till three in the
.afternoon, excepting Saturdays, Sundays,
and the fifty days of Pentecost. Some
exercised themselves with very great aus
terities, fasting two, three, four, or five days
together ; but this practice was not generally
approved. Men did not think such ex
cessive abstinence of any use, but rather a
¦dis-service to religion. Pachomius's rule,
which was said to be given him by an
angel, permitted every man to eat, drink,
and labour, according to his bodily strength.
So that fasting was a discretionary thing,
and matter of choice, not of compulsion.
Their fastings were accompanied with
extraordinary and frequent returns of de
votion. The monks of Palestine, Meso
potamia, and other parts of the East, had
six or seven canonical hours of prayer.
Besides which they had their constant
vigils or nocturnal meetings. The monks
•of Egypt met only twice a day for public
-devotion ; but, in their private cells, whilst
they were at work, they were always re
peating psalms and other parts of Scrip-

MONKS
ture, and intermixing prayers with their
bodily labour. St. Jerome's description of
their devotion is very lively (Ep. xxii. ad
Eustath. c. 15). " When they are assembled
together (says that father), at nine o'clock
psalms are sung, and the Scriptures read :
then, prayers being' ended, they all sit
down, and the father- begins a discourse
to them, which they hear with the pro-
foundest silence and veneration. His words
make a deep impression on them ; their eyes
overflow with tears, and the speaker's com
mendation is the weeping of his hearers.
Yet no one's grief expresses itself in an
indecent strain. But when he comes to
speak of the kingdom of heaven, of future
happiness, and the glory of the world to
come, then one may observe each of them,
with a gentle sigh, and eyes lifted up to
heaven, say within himself, 'Oh that I had
the wings of a dove, for then would I flee
away, and be at rest ! '" In some places,
they had the Scriptures read during their
meals at table. This custom was first re
sorted to in the monasteries of Cappadocia,
to prevent idle discourses and contentions.
But in Egypt they had no occasion for this
remedy; for they were taught to eat their
meat in silence. Palladius (Hist. Lausi. c.
Iii.) mentions one instance more of their
devotion, which was only occasional ; namely,
their psalmody at the reception of any
brethren, or the conducting them with sing
ing of psalms to their habitation.
The laws did not allow monks to interest
themselves in any public affairs, either
ecclesiastical or civil ; and those who were
called to any employment in the Church
were obliged to quit their monastery there
upon. Nor were they permitted to en
croach upon the duties, or rights and pri
vileges, of the secular clergy.
By the laws of their first institution, in
all parts of the East, their habitation was
not to be in cities, or places of public con
course, but in deserts and private retire
ments, as their very name implied. The
famous monk Anthony used to say, " That
the wilderness was as natural to a mouk,
as water to a fish; and therefore a monk
in a city was quite out of his element, like
a fish upon dry land." Theodosius enacted,
that all who made profession of the monastic
life should be obliged by the civU magistrate
to betake themselves to the wilderness, as
their proper habitation. Baronius, by mis
take, reckons this law a punishment, and
next to a persecution of the monks. Jus
tinian made laws to the same purpose,
forbidding the Eastern monks to appear
in cities ; but, if they had any business
of concern to be transacted there, they
might do it by their Apocrisarii or Re-
sponsales, that is, their proctors or syndics,

MONOGRAM
which every monastery was allowed for that
purpose. But this rule admitted of some excep
tions. As, first, in times of common danger
to the faith. Thus Anthony came to Alex
andria, at the request of Athanasius, to
confute the Arian heresy. Sometimes they
thought it necessary to come and intercede
with the emperors and judges for con
demned criminals. Thus the monks in the
neighbourhood of Antioch forsook their
cells, to intercede with the emperor Theo
dosius, who was highly displeased with
that city for demolishing the imperial
statues. Afterwards, indeed, this practice
'grew into an abuse, and the monks were
not contented to petition, but would some
times come in great bodies or troops, and
deliver criminals by force. To repress which
tumultuous way of proceeding, Arcadius
published a law, forbidding any such at
tempts under very severe penalties.
As the monks of the ancient Church
were under no solemn vow or profession,
they were at liberty to betake themselves
to a secular life again. Julian himself was
once in the monastic habit. The same is
observed of Constans, the son of that Con
stantine, who, in the reign of Honorius,
usurped the empire in Britain. The rule
of Pachomius, by which the Egyptian monks
were governed, has no mention of any vow
at their entrance, nor any punishment for
such as deserted their station afterwards.
In process oi time, it was thought proper
to inflict some punishment on such as re
turned to a secular life. The civil law
excludes deserters from the privilege of
ordination. Justinian added another punish
ment ; which was, that if they were pos
sessed of any substance, it should be all
forfeited to the monastery which they had
deserted. The censures of the Church were
likewise inflicted on deserting monks in
tbe fifth century.— Bingham, book vii. c.
iii. ; Robertson, Ch. Hist vol. i. (For the
different orders of monks in Western
Christendom after the sixth centuiy, see
under their several names, Benedictines,
Carthusians, Cistercians, Sec.
MONOGRAM, THE SACRED. The
name of our Lord in short. The original
form was the X intersected by the P, the
two first letters of xpurros. Later on the
X was turned into the Egyptian T, the P
being still kept on the top ; and this was
called the Taw-cross. Afterwards the letter
P began to be disused, and the X was
retained only in the form of a Latin or
Greek cross. The letters A and O, the
Beginning and the Ending (Rev. i. 8) are
ofttn displayed with the cross, or used by
themselves. To this monogram St. Clement
of Alexandria and Tertullian allude. Later

MONOTHELITES

509

monograms were the I. H. C. and I. H. S.,
being the first three letters of the Holy
Name. (See Diet Christ. Ant.) [H]
MONOPHYSITES. (From povos, only,
and <bva-is, nature.) A general name given
to all those sectaries in the Levant who-
only own one nature in our blessed Saviour,
and who maintain that the Divine andi
human nature of Jesus Christ were so united
as to form only one nature, yet without any
change, confusion, or mixture of the two-
natures. Eutyches was the originator of
the heresy that ascribed but one nature to
Christ, and after him Dioscorus, patriarch
of Alexandria, was its chief supporter. He
was deposed by the Council of Chalcedon,.
a.d. 451, and Proterius, arch-priest of Alex
andria, was chosen bis successor. But a
number of the Alexandrians held to Dios
corus, though their opinions were modified,,
and from this time they assumed or received
the name of Monophysites. They afterwards.
split into other sects, and did much mischief
in the Churches of Syria and Egypt. In
later ages they were called Jacobites. (Se&.
Eutychians ; Jacobites. — Stubbs' Soames
Mosheim, i. 377, 378) ; n, 545, 546 ; Blunt,.
Theol. Diet s. v. [H.]
MONOTHELITES. Christian heretics
in the seventh century, so called from the
Greek words povos (only) and BiXnpa (will),
because they maintained, that, though
there were two natures in Jesus Christ,
the human and the Divine, there was but
one will, which was the Divine.
The author of this sect was Theodore,.
bishop of Pharan in Arabia, in 626, who-
first started the question, and maintained
that the manhood in Christ was so united
to the Word, that, though it had its facul
ties, it did not act by itself, but the whole
act was to be ascribed to the Word, which
gave it the motion. Thus, he said, it was
the manhood of Christ that suffered hunger,
thirst, and pain; but the hunger, thirst,
and pain were to be ascribed to the Word.
In short, the Word was the sole author
and mover of all the operations and wiUs-
in Christ.
He was followed by Sergius, patriarch of
Constantinople, and many others ; and the
emperor Heraclius embraced the party so
much the more willingly, as he thought it-
a means of reconciling some other heretics-
to the Church.
Pope Martin I. called a council at Rome
in 649, upon the question about the two
operations and two wills. In this councU,
which was held in the church of St. John
of the Lateran, and thence called the
Lateran Council, and at which were present
105 Italian bishops, the doctrine of the
Monothelites was generally condemned.
The emperor Constans, who looked upon

510

MONTANISTS

this condemnation as a kind of rebelUon,
caused Pope Martin to be violently carried
away from Rome, and, after most cruel
usage, banished him to Chersona.
But the heresy was finally condemned in
the sixth general council, held at Constanti
nople, under Constantine Pogonatus, in, the
year 680.— Cave, Hist. Lit. 1605 ; Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 464, 467 (See Church,
Greek Orthodox).
MONTANISTS. Christian heretics, so
called from their leader, Montanus, a Phry
gian by birth, whence they are sometimes
styled Phrygians and Cataphrygians. He
ibegan to teach publicly according to Epi
phanius in a.d. 156; but according to
Eusebius, 172. — Epiphan. Her. U. 33 ;
Euseb. v. 3.
Montanus pretended to inspiration, and
gave out that the Holy Ghost had in
structed him in several points which had
not been revealed to the apostles. Priscilla
and MaximiUa, two enthusiastic women of
Phrygia, presently became his disciples, and
in a short time he had a great number of
followers. It is easy to account for the popu
larity of Montanus. He had prophecies and
supernatural converse for the credulous, and
rigid austerities for the severe. It was the
last that fascinated Tertullian and made
him a Montanist. The bishops of Asia, being
assembled together, condemned the doc
trines of Montanus, and excommunicated
those who dispersed them. Afterwards,
they wrote, an account of what had passed
to the Western Churches, where the pre
tended prophecies of Montanus and his
followers were likewise condemned.
The Montanists, finding themselves ex
posed to the censure of the whole Church,
formed a schism, and set up a distinct
society, under the direction of those who
called themselves prophets. Montanus, in
¦conjunction with Priscilla and MaximiUa,
was at the head of the sect.
These sectaries made no alteration in the
creed. They only held that the Holy
Spirit made Montanus His organ for de
livering a more perfect form of discipline
than that which was delivered by the
apostles. They refused communion for
ever to those who were guilty of notorious
crimes, and believed that the bishops had
no authority to reconcUe them. They held
it unlawful to fly in time of persecution.
They condemned second marriages, allowed
the dissolution of marriage, and observed
three Lents. Nothing is heard of the
Montanists after the 6th century. — Stubbs'
Soames' Mosheim, i. 153 ; Diet. Christ. Biog.
s. v. Montanus.
MONUMENT. The memorial placed
over the body of a Christian, after his
burial in consecrated ground.

MONUMENT
The earliest monuments in England
which have come down to us are, perhaps,
not older than the Norman Conquest ; and
the most ancient is the simplest form. A
stone coffin is covered with a single stone
slab, which is also the only recipient of
whatever device may be designed to com
memorate the tenant of the narrow dwel
ling over which it closes. So early as the
middle of the ninth century (840), Kenneth
king of Scotland, made an ordinance that
such coffins should be adorned with the
sign of the cross, in token of sanctity, on
which no one was on any account to tread ¦
and, perhaps, there were none but purely
religious emblems employed for some genera
tions after this time. The sign of the cross
stiU continued for centuries the most usual
ornament of tombs, but by-and-by it be
came associated with others which were
most of them intended to designate the pro
fession of him whose dust they honoured.
Hence we have the crosier and mitre, with
perhaps a chalice and paten, upon the tomb
of an ecclesiastic, of an abbot, or a bishop ;
the knight has a sword, and his shield at
first plain, but afterwards charged with his
arms on his tomb. Sometimes an approach
to religious allegory is discovered on monu
ments even of these very early ages, such
as, for instance, the cross or crosier stuck
into the mouth of a serpent or cockatrice,
indicating the victory of the cross and of
the Church over the devil. These, and the
like devices, occurring before any attempt
at the human figure was made, are in a low
relief, or intended outline.
By-and-by the human figure was added,
recumbent, and arrayed in the dress of the
individual commemorated^ and this figure
soon rose from low relief to an effigy in full
proportions. The knight and the ecclesi
astic are now discovered so perfectly attired
according to their order and degree, that
the antiquary gathers his knowledge of
costume from these venerable remains.
Some affecting lessons of mortaUty are now
forcibly inculcated by circumstances intro
duced into the sepulchre ; for instance, the
figure of the deceased appears nearly reduced
to a skeleton, and laid in a shroud ; a few
instances occur in which the corpse thus
represented is below a representation of the
living person. Another interesting intima
tion of the character of the deceased appears
in the crossed legs of those who had vowed
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; and the
lion is frequently found, as well as the
serpent, at the feet of the recumbent figure,
perhaps in aUusion to the words of the
psalmist, " Thou shalt tread upon the lion
and adder : the young lion and the dragon
shalt thou trample under thy feet."
All this time the tomb has been gradu-

MONUMENT
ally increasing in height and in general
splendour, the sides are adorned with
figures in several compartments, which
run into niches or panels, according to the
advance of architectural design, and at last
they are surmounted with an arch, low at
first and little decorated, but afterwards
very elaborately wrought into a rich ca
nopy. Religious allegories become more
complex on the sides of the tomb, and we
have instances of some which have since
been borrowed by artists of name, and
perhaps accounted new by many; for in
stance, it is not rare to see a, representation
of the soul of the dying conveyed to heaven
by angels, whUe the corpse lies upon the
litter, and this was a design chosen for the
cenotaph of the Princess Charlotte. The
relatives of the deceased are sometimes re
presented by many small statues in the
niches ; or armorial bearings are introduced,
sparing at first, and often, as on the tomb of
Lionel! Lord Wells, in Methley church,
supported on the breasts of angels. Angels
also frequently support the head of the re
cumbent figure, and. at the feet are some
times one or more priests with an open book
in their hands. The space in the wall
behind the ' tomb and beneath the canopy
allows of allegorical devices, sometimes in
fresco, sometimes in mosaic. But what
most demands attention are the recumbent
figures themselves, generally with both
hands raised in the attitude of prayer; or, if
they be bishops, with the right hand as if
giving a blessing. The effigies of the man
and his wife appear always on the same
tomb, lying side by side, and in the same
pious attitude ; a frequently recurring sight,
which inspired the lines of Piers Plowman : —
" Itnofffjtsi in ther comsance dau for the nanus,
Wk tt scmtU segntts psacrro opon rttht,
anU labels Waits Bforrjugftt Irgcn bo her
sines.
And surely there is a beauty and pro
priety in that character of monuments for
Christian men in Christian churches, which
could suggest the words,
" Wk it semto segntes psacreti njtott trtlje,"
far greater than we recognise in the vain
glorious boastings of success in secular pur
suits, perhaps even in sinful undertakings,
which now cumber church walls. It is a
hoUer thought to remember what was sacred
in the Christian man ; who, imperfect as he
may have been, was yet, as he was a Chris
tian, in some sense a saint, and to embody it
in some pious attitude upon his tomb, than
to forget everything that is Christian, and
to celebrate only the secular or the vicious.
Gorgeous as some of these tombs are, they
¦did not satisfy the splendour of that age,
and the canopy sweUs into an actual chapel,

MORALITIES

511

sometimes in the body of the larger church,
as that of William of Wykeham, in Win
chester, and those of Cardinal Beaufort, and
Bishops Waynflete and Fox, in the same
cathedral. Sometimes the chapel is a
building complete in itself, as that of the
Beauchamps, at St. Mary's church, 'Warwick,
and that of Henry VII. at Westminster.
MONUMENTS cannot legally be put
in any church, nor strictly in a churchyard,
without a faculty, but that is generally
waived as to churchyards. When once up
they are held to belong to the heir-at-law of
the person, and not to his personal repre
sentatives even though they have paid for
them. But the heirs cannot be compelled
to keep them in repair, nor is anybody else
bound to do so. If not kept in repair by
them they can probably be dealt with by
churchwardens as obstructions and rubbish
if they have become ruinous ; and they can
certainly be removed in restorations of a
church under a faculty, if no legal owner of
them has opposed it. They were often put
in such a reckless way in former times, with
out caring how much they interfered with
the proper use of the church, that it is often
necessary to remove them into other places
either inside or outside of the church, and
faculties provide for so doing. The fashion
of putting up wooden hatchments of coats of
arms of dead people in churches was illegal,
and is happily extinct, and most of them
are burnt by this time. There was also a
curious fancy for putting up a hatchment
of the royal arms somewhere in churches,
which have all likewise perished, or very
nearly so, under restorations. It has been
held that persons unlawfully removing
monuments are liable to an action by the
heir, and also to a monition in the ecclesi
astical court. And by 24 & 25 Vict. c. 97,
s. 39, whoever unlawfully and maliciously
destroys or injures any monument or other
memorial of tbe dead, or painted window,
&c, or other work of art in a church or church
yard, may be imprisoned with hard labour
for six months, and whipped if under six
teen years of age. [G.]
MORALITIES, MYSTERIES, and
MIRACLES. A kind of theatrical re
presentations, which were made by the
monks, friars, and other ecclesiastics of the
middle ages, the vehicle of instruction to
the people. Their general character was
the same, but the miracles may be distin
guished as those which represented the
miracles wrought by the holy confessors,
and the sufferings by which the persever
ance of the martyrs was manifested; of
which kind the first specified by name is
a scenic representation of the legend of
St. Catherine. The moralities were certain
allegorical representations of virtues or vices,

512

MORAVIANS

MORAVIANS

always so contrived as to make virtue seem
desirable, and vice ridiculous and deformed.
The mysteries were representations often
of great length, and requiring several days'
performance, of the Scripture narrative, or
of several parts of it, as, for instance, the
descent of Christ into hell. Of these mys
teries two complete series have lately been
published from ancient manuscripts, the
Townley Mysteries, performed, by the monks
of Woodchurch, near Wakefield, and the
different leading companies of that town ;
and the Coventry Mysteries, performed with
like help of the trades in Coventry, by the
Grey Friars of that ancient city. Both of
these collections begin with the creation,
and carry on the story in different pageants
or scenes until the judgment-day.
It will not be supposed that these plays
are free from the deformities of every other
kind of Uterature of the times to which they
are referred ; nor that the performance of
them was without a great deal more of the
coarseness of an unrefined age than would
be tolerated now ; neither need it be con
cealed that the theology therein embodied
was sometimes rather Popish than Catholic.
On the whole it may fairly be said, that
these miracles, mysteries, and moralities,
were wholesome for the times ; and that
though they afterwards degenerated into
actual abuses, yet that they are not to be
condemned without measure and without
mercy. Their history and character are interest
ing, not only as giving a fair picture of the
character of remote ages, but also because
they seem to be the original from which
arose stage plays and oratorios. The sacred
drama of our Lord's Passion, performed once
in ten years at Ammergau in Bavaria, is
the only survival of the mediaeval mystery
plays ; but a great improvement upon them.
As a specimen of these old moralities
see in Dodsley's collection of old plays —
God's Promises, by Bale, bishop of Ossory,
which dramatizes the leading events of the
Sacred history. It was printed in 1538.
MORAVIANS, or UNITED BRE
THREN. (1) These claim to derive their
origin from the Greek Church in the ninth
century, when, -by the instrumentality of
Methodius and CyriUus, two Greek monks,
the kings of Bulgaria and Moravia, being
converted to the faith, were, together with
their subjects, united in communion with
the Greek Church. Methodius was their
first bishop, and for their use Cyrillus trans
lated the Scriptures into the Sclavonian
language. Another sect, known as "Mo
ravian Brethren," was part of that more
moderate section of the Taborites which
appeared in Prague about a.d. 1450. After
various vicissitudes they were driven out of

Bohemia and Moravia, in 1627, and were
dispersed, the most part however settling in
Poland. They had nominally bishops, but
consecration in the first place had only been
obtained from a Waldensian bishop (see
Waldenses). The very name "bishop"
was afterwards changed into " senior," and
the sect subsided into an ordinary Presby
terian organization. (2) But there is no
real historical association between these two
sects and the modern Moravians, who started
de novo. One Christien David, a Romanist
of Moravia, driven from his native country,-
had taken shelter in Saxony. There he
came under the notice of Count Zinzendorf,
who gave him land in his estate at Berth-
oldsdorf, and encouraged him to found a
settlement there, which increased rapidly.
In 1727 some of the community forsook
their parish church, and held meetings in
a large hall; soon elders were appointed,
and the schism was complete. They called
themselves "United Brethren"; but were
also known as Herrnhutters, from the name
given to their settlement— Herrnhut, the
Watch of the Lord. Zinzendorf travelled
much about, establishing settlements, and
he visited England in 1737, where he
became acquainted with Charles Wesley:
but the influence of Moravianism or Method
ism was exercised through the intimacy
of John Wesley with some Moravians he
met on his voyage to Georgia (see Metho
dists). Since ZinzendorPs death in 1760,
the Moravians have not much increased:
numbering at present about 13,000 in
Europe, but six times that number in their
missions. The settlement at Herrnhut still
continues ; in England there are settlements
at Fulneck near Leeds, Fairfield near
Manchester, and Ockbrook near Derby.
The Moravians prefer Episcopacy : but
their first bishops, Nitschmann and Zinzen
dorf, were consecrated by Jablonsky, chap
lain to the King of Prussia, whose only
authority was that he was the "senior "of
the dispersed " brethren " of 1627. Zinzen
dorf asserted, and endeavoured to prove,
their claims to apostolic succession, in a
folio volume published in 1749, under title
"Acta Fratrum Unitatis in Anglia." (3)
The Moravians acknowledged no other
standard of truth than the Holy Scriptures,
though they in general profess to adhere
to the Augsburg Confession. They believe
implicitly in the doctrine of the Trinity; ¦
and in their prayers, hymns, and litanies
address the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
in the same manner as is done in other
Christian Churches ; yet they chiefly direct
their hearers to Jesus Christ, as the ap
pointed channel of the Deity, in whom God
is known and made manifest unto man.
They recommend love to him, as the con-

MORMONS
straining principle of the Christian's con
duct ; and their general manner is more by
beseeching men to be reconciled to God,
than by alarming them with the terrors of
the law, and the threatenings against the
impenitent. They avoid, as much as pos
sible, everything that would lead to contro
versy ; and though they strongly insist
upon salvation by grace alone through faith,
yet they will not enter into any explana
tion, or give any decided opinion, concern
ing particular election. They profess to
believe that the kingdom of Christ is not
confined to any party, community, or
Church; and they consider themselves,
though closely united in one body or visible
Church, as spiritually joined in the bond of
Christian love to all who are taught of God,
and belong to the universal Church of Christ,
however much they may differ in forms,
which they deem non-essentials.
See Crantz's History of the Brethren, La
Trohe's Trans. ; Spangenberg's Exposition
of Christian Doctrine; Ratio Discipline
Unit Fratrum, by Lorentz.
MORMONS : MORMONISTS. The
name of a sect founded in America by
Joseph Smith in 1830. The derivation of
the word, according to Smith, is mor, con
traction from more, and mon, Egyptian for
good. The Mormons call themselves also
"Latter Day Saints." Smith was an
ignorant lustful man, who however pre
tended angelic guidance, under which he
said that he discovered certain hidden gold
plates on which were written records from
the time of the dispersion at Babel. The
plates were not allowed to be inspected, but
from them Smith pretended to dictate the
" Book of Mormon," which was published in
1830. It was really a garbled version of
¦an extravagant romance written by one
Spalding, the MS. of which had fallen into
the hands of Rigdon, one of Smith's
partners. The first settlement of Latter
Hay Saints was at Manchester, New York ;
from whence they were driven in con
sequence of a swindling transaction by their
prophet. They settled in Illinois, and
called their town Nauvoo, the city of
beauty, where in 1844 Smith was, for .his
iniquities, shot by a Lynch mob. Brigham
Young was elected prophet, but the feeling
was strong against the Mormons, and the
whole community migrated westward to a
place in the valley of the great Salt Lake
in Upper California, to which the name
Utah was given. Hither a great number of
people flocked, and it is said that at least
50,000 English people belong to the com
munity. In 1852 the law authorising
polygamy was promulgated, though before
this the practice had been tacitly allowed
in consequence of an alleged " revelation "

MORTMAIN

513

to J. Smith in 1843. In 1871 the United
States prosecuted the Mormon leaders for
bigamy, but for some technical reason,
without result. Brigham Young died in
1879. At present it would seem doubtful
whether the community at Utah will
continue to exist. The members talk of
removing, and the Republicans in the
United States desire to " put down the
Saints." The faith and doctrine of the Mormons
is based on very gross materialism. The
Supreme Deity is material, and by con
stant development has attained omnipo
tence. There are three persons in the
Godhead, each separate and distinct from
the others, equal in knowledge, Sec: God
has a wife, and family, consisting of count
less Gods of different dignity and power.
But it is not necessary here to give the
details of a religion, in which simple faith,
gross materiaUsm, fantastic and blasphemous
theories, and the greatest sensuality are
combined. — Burton's City of the Saints;
Mormonism, by W. J. Conybeare ; Edin.
Rev. No. 202 ; Blunt's Diet, of Sects. [H.]
MORTAL SIN (See Deadly Sin).
MORTIFICATION. Any severe pen
ance observed on a religious account. The
mortification of sin in believers is a duty
enjoined in the sacred Scriptures (Rom.
viii. 13 ; Col. iii. 5). It consists in
breaking the league with sin ; declaration
of open hostility against it; and strong
resistance to it (Eph. vi. 10, &c. ; Gal. v.
24 ; Rom. viii. 13).
MORTMAIN (Morte Main, i.e. dead
hand). Possession of lands and tenements.
in hands that cannot ahenate. Originally
applied to conveyances of land to ecclesiasti
cal bodies. That is to say where lands were
given to some spiritual person or corpora
tion and to their successors ; and because
by that means the services and other
profits due for the same were extinct,
therefore it was called a gift in mortua
manu. The first statute against mortmain was
that of Magna Carta (9 Hen. III. c. 36),
which declares, " that if any one shall give
lands to a religious house, the grant shall
be void, and the land forfeited to the lord
of the fee." The next was the 7 Edw. I.
stat. ii., commonly called the statute " De
Religiosis," which restrained people, at tho
time of their death or otherwise, from
giving or making over any lands or rents
to churches or religious houses, without the
king's leave first obtained. This is called
the Statute of Mortmain ; but being evaded,
the 13 of Edw. I. was passed, and after
wards by the 15 Rich. II. c. 5, it was
declared, " that it was within the compass
of the statute of Edward I. to convert any
2 L

514

MORTMAIN

land into a churchyard, though it be done
with the consent or connivance of the
ter-tenant, and confirmed by the pope's
bull." This last statute extended only to bodies
corporate, and, therefore, by the 23 Hen.
VIII. c. 10, 'it is enacted, "that if any
grants of lands or other hereditaments
should be made in trust to the use of any
churches, chapels, churchwardens, guilds,
fraternities, &c, to have perpetual obits,
or a continual service of a priest for ever,
or for sixty or eighty years, or to such
like uses or intents, all such uses, intents,
and purposes shall be void; they being
no corporations, but erected either of de
votion, or else by the common consent of
tbe people; and all collateral assurances
made for defeating this statute shall be
void, and the said statute shall be ex
pounded most beneficiaUy for the destruc
tion of such uses as aforesaid."
Though the prohibition by the Statute
of Mortmain in Magna Carta was ab
solute, yet a royal charter of licence (18
Edw. III. stat. iii. c. 3) afforded relaxation
of the restraint, and by the 17 Car. II.
c. 3, the following relief was granted : — ¦
"Every owner of any impropriations,
tithes, or portion of tithes, in any parish
or chapelry, may give and annex the same,
or any part thereof, unto the parsonage
or vicarage of the said parish church or
chapel where the same do lie or arise ; or
settle the same in trust for the benefit of
the said parsonage or vicarage, or of the
curate and curates there successively,
where the parsonage is impropriate and no
vicar endowed, without any licence of mort
main. " And if the settled maintenance of any
parsonage, vicarages, churches, and chapels
united, or of any other parsonage or
vicarage with cure, shall not amount to the
full sum of £100 a year clear and above
all charges and reprises, it shall be lawful
for the parson, vicar, and incumbent of the
same, and his successors, to take and
purchase to him and his successors lands
and tenements, rents, tithes, or other here
ditaments, without any licence of mort
main." This dispensing power was carried
so high in the reign of King James IL, that
by the 1 Wm. III. sess. ii. c. 2, it was en
acted, that no dispensation, by "non
obstante," to any statute shall be allowed.
By the 7 & 8 Wm. III. c. 37, and 2 & 3
Anne, c. 11, certain relaxations were again
made ; but by the 9 Geo. II. c. 36, further
restraints were imposed, which render it
impossible for the Church of England to
augment poor livings, under the provisions
of 17 Car. II. c. 3, already recited (But see
Church Building Acts).

MORTUARY
By 12 & 13 Vict. c. 49, s. 4, grants of
land for Sites of schools, not exceeding five
acres, made by owners or tenants in tail
are valid, although the grantor die within
twelve months.
MORTUARY (Mortuarium),' in the
English Ecclesiastical law, is a gift left by
a man at his death to his parish church,
in recompense of personal tithes omitted to
be paid in his life-time ; > or, it is. that
beast, or other cattle, which after the
death of the owner, by the custom of the
place, is due to the parson or vicar, in lieu
of tithes or offerings forgot, or not well and
truly paid by him that is dead.
Selden tells us, it was usual anciently to
bring the mortuary along with the corpse,
when it came to be buried, and to offer it to
the Church as a satisfaction for the
supposed negligence and omission the
deceased had been guUty of in not paying
his personal tithes ; and from thence it was
called a " corse present."
A mortuary is not properly due to an
ecclesiastical incumbent from any but those
of his own parish ; but by custom! in some-
places, they are paid to the incumbents of
other parishes, when corpses are carried -
through them. The bishops of Bangor,
Llandaff, St. David's, &c, had formerly
mortuaries of priests, abolished by 12 Anne, .,'
stat. ii. c. 6. And it was customary, ia
the diocese of Chester, for the bishop to
have a mortuary, on the death of every
priest dying within the archdeaconry of
Chester, of his best beast, saddle and
bridle, and best gown or cloak, hat, and
upper garment under the gown. By 28
Geo. II. c. 6, mortuaries in the diocese of
Chester were abolished, and the rectory of
Waverton attached to the see in lieu,
thereof. By the 21 Hen. VIII. c. 6,
mortuaries were commuted into money
payments, which were regulated as follows :
— " No parson, vicar, curate, parish priest,
or other, shall for any person dying or
dead, and being at the time of his death of
the value in moveable goods of ten marks,
or more, clearly above his debts paid, and
under the sum of £30, take for a mortuary
above 3s. 4d. in the whole. And for a
person dying or dead, being at the time of
his death of the value of £30 or above,
clearly above his debts paid, in moveable
goods, and under the value of £40, there-
shall no more be taken or demanded for a
mortuary, than 6s. 8d. in the whole. And
for any person dying or dead, having at the
time of his death of the value in moveable
goods of £40 or above, to any sum what
soever it be clearly above his debts^ paid,
there shall be no more taken, paid,' or
demanded for a mortuary, than 10s. in the
whole. The Welsh bishoprics and the dio-

MOTETT
cese of Chester were excepted from the
operation of this statute, and therefore
subsequent Acts were passed with respect to
them. MOTETT, in Church music, a short
piece of music highly elaborated, of which
the subject is taken from the psalms or
hymns of the Church. The derivation is
from the Italian Mottetto, a little word or
sentence ; originally signifying a short epi
gram in verse; and afterwards applied as
now defined, as the words of the Motett
properly consist of a short sentence from
Holy Scripture.
MOTHER OF GOD (See Mariolatry ;
Virgin Mary ; Nestorians). " The Virgin
Mary," says Pearson, " is frequently styled
the Mother of Jesus in the language of the
evangelists, and by Elizabeth particularly,
the Mother of our Lord, as also, by the
general consent of the Church, because He
which was born of her was God, the
Deipara; which, being a compound title,
begun in the Greek Church, was resolved
into its parts by the Latins, and so the
Virgin was plainly named the Mother of
God." The term was first brought prominently
forward at the Council of Ephesus (a.d.
431), the third of those four general councils,
the decisions of which are authoritative in
the Church of England ; and it was adopted
as a formula against the Nestorians. The
Nestorian controversy originated thus. In
the year 428, Nestorius was bishop of
Constantinople, and he had brought with
him from Antioch, where he had before
resided, a priest named Anastasius, his
chaplain and friend ; this person, preaching
one day in the Church of Constantinople,
said, "Let no one call Mary mother of
God, for she was a woman, and it is im
possible that God should be born of a
human creature." These words gave great
offence to many both of the clergy and
laity; for they had always been taught,
says the historian Socrates, to acknowledge
Jesus Christ as God, and not to sever Him
in any way from the Divinity. Nestorius,
however, declared his assent to what
Anastasius had said, and became, from his
high position in the Church, the heresiarch.
When the heresy had spread into Egypt,
it was refuted by St. Cyril, bishop of
Alexandria, in a pastoral letter, which he
published for the direction of his people.
"I wonder," he says, "how a question
can be raised, as to whether the Holy
Virgin should be called Mother of God;
for if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is
not the Holy Virgin, His mother, the
mother of God ? This is the faith we have
been taught by the Apostles." He next
proves that He who was born of the Virgin I

MOTHER OF GOD

515

Mary is God in His own nature, since the
Nicene Creed says that the only begotten
Son of God, of the same substance with the
Father, Himself came down from Heaven
and was incarnate ; and then he proceeds,
" You will say, perhaps, is the Virgin, then,
mother of the Divinity ? We answer, it is
certain that the Word is eternal, and of the
substance of the Father. Now, in the order
of nature, mothers, who have no part in tho
creation of the soul, are still called mothers of
the whole man, and not of the body only ;
for surely it would be a hypercritical refine
ment to say, Elizabeth is mother of the
body of John, and not of his soul. In the
same way, therefore, we express ourselves
in regard to the birth of Emmanuel, since
the Word, having taken flesh upon Him, is
called Son of Man." In a letter to
Nestorius himself he enters into a fuller
explanation : " We must admit in the same
Christ two generations : first, the eternal,
by which He proceeds from His Father;
second, the temporal, by which He is born
of His mother. When we say that He
suffered and rose again, we do not say that
God tbe Word suffered in His own nature,
for the Divinity is impassible ; but because
the body which was appropriated to Him
suffered, so also we say that He suffered Him
self. So too we say He died. The Divine
Word is in His own nature immortal. He
is life itself ; but because ; His own true
body suffered death; we say that He Himself
died for us. In the same way, when His
flesh is raised from the dead, we attribute
resurrection to Him. We do not say that
we adore the man along with the Word,
lest the phrase ' along with ' should suggest
the idea of non-identity ; but we adore Him
as one and the same person, because the
body assumed by the Word is in no degree
external or separated from the Word." " It
is in this sense," he says afterwards, " that
the Fathers have ventured to call the Holy
Virgin mother of God, not that the nature
of the Word, or His Divinity, did receive
beginning of His existence from the Holy
Virgin, but because in her was formed and
animated a reasonable soul and a sacred
body, to which the Word united Himself in
hypostasis, which is the reason of its being
said, ' He was born according to the flesh ' "
(De recta Fide, c. 56, 5, &c. ; Greg. Naz.
et CyrU in Damasc. de Fide Orthod. iii. 6).
Besides letters to Nestorius, St. Cyril
wrote twelve anathemas, which were
adopted by the third general council at
Ephesus. With these anathemas several
passages out of St. Cyprian, St. BasU,
Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, and many
others, were read in the council: and
from them they gathered, and therefore
pronounced, that according to the Scriptures,
2 h 2

516

MOTHER CHURCH.

as interpreted by the Catholic Church, Christ,
though He have two natures, yet He is but
one person, and by consequence that the
Virgin Mary might properly be called
eeoroKos, because the same person who was
born of her is truly God as well as man :
which being once determined by an
universal council to be the true sense and
meaning of the Scriptures in this point,
hath been acknowledged by the universal
Church ever since, till this time. — Harduin,
iii. 194.
The. same was repeated in nearly similar
words at the Council of Chalcedon a.d. 451.
The term is not used frequently by Anglican
divines, probably because of the extreme
into which the Roman Church has fallen
with regard to the worship of the Virgin.
The title however of Ocotokos, Deipara, or
Mother of God, was originaUy adopted not
so much with a view of paying honour to
the Blessed Virgin, as to her Divine Son.
—Soc. H. E. vii. 32 ; Hooker, .Ecc. Pol. v.
52 ; Hook's Church and her Ordinances, ii.
189 ; Wilberforce, Doct. Incarn. cvi. p. 188.
MOTHER CHURCH (Ecclesia matrix).
In tbe first place the term implied a Church
immediately planted by the Apostles, from
which other Churches were afterwards de
rived and propagated. It is thus used by
Tertullian (De Prescript, c. 21), and in this
sense Jerusalem is called the mother of all
the churches in the world (Epist. Syn. ad
Damasc. ap. Tlieodor. v. 9), and Aries the
mother church of Gaul, because it was
supposed to have been planted by Trophi
mus, first bishop of that place. (2) At other
times the mother church denoted the me
tropolis, or the principal church of a single
province, the word matrix being used some
times for the primate's see (Cod. Afric. Can.
119, al. 120). (3) But most commonly it is
used to signify a cathedral, or bishop's
church; that which requires his care and
residence, as being (or representing if the
see had been translated) the original church
and continuing to be the principal church in
his diocese. It is thus used in several canons,
as different from the other churches in the
diocese. These are the same as we now call
parish churches ; but they used very fre
quently to be called " ecclesias dicecesanas,"
diooesan churches (Suicer, s.v. pdrpi_}; Ponti-
fic. Vit. Marcelli). It was an old custom in
England for persons to make offerings at
the mother or cathedral church on Mid-
Lent Sunday; hence that day was called
Mothering Sunday (See Mid-Lent).—
Brand's Antiq. ; Bingham, viii. i. 12. [H.]
MOULDING. An ornamental form
given to angles and edges of masonry or
woodwork, and carried uniformly along a
considerable extent. The use of mouldings
must commence with the earliest attempts

MOURNERS
at ornament in masonry or carpentry. The
Saxon mouldings, so far as we can collect
from existing specimens, were extremely
rude and simple ; but with the Norman
mouldings the case is precisely the reverse,'
so far, at least, as simplicity is concerned :
for though the mouldings themselves may
be resolved into a very few forms and com
binations, they were often either treated as
if themselves broken and united together at
various angles, as in the case of the chevron
and embattled mouldings ; or they were
themselves decorated with forms not of their
own nature, as the medallion, beak head,
and other like mouldings, which are, how
ever, strictly speaking, rather decorations
of mouldings, than themselves mouldings.
It would far exceed our limits to describe
the several mouldings of the succeeding
styles. We must be content with saying,
in general, that in the Early English they
reached their greatest complexity and depth,
and that they gradually became less nume
rous, and shallower, to the Perpendicular;
the happy mean being reached in this, as '
in almost everything else, in the Geometrical.
The particular mouldings, which may he
said to be distinctive of a style, are chiefly
the ogee, in several of its forms, of the
Decorated ; the scroll of the Decorated, ¦
with the later Geometric ; the wide and
shallow casement or hollow of the Perpen
dicular. The hollows, in the Early English,
usually separate single mouldings, in the
Decorated groups of mouldings. The earlier
mouldings, as Norman and Early English,
generally occupy the planes of the wall and
of the soffit; the later, especially Perpen
dicular, the chamfer plane only. To be at
all appreciated, the subject of mouldings
must be studied in the Oxford Glossary, or
in Paley 's Manual of Gothic Mouldings; '-'
and to be mastered, it must be pursued,
pencU in hand, in our ancient ecclesiastical
edifices. [G.]
MOURNERS; MOURNING. I. The
first order of penitents, or candidates of
penance, in the early ages of the Church
were called flentes or mourners. They lay
prostrate at the church porch, and begged
the prayers of the faithful as they went in.
After a time their petition was granted, and
they were admitted among the audientes or
hearers. — Tertul. de Pen. c. 9 ; St. Basil,
can. 22, &c. (See Penitents).
II. (1) From the earliest days of the
Church, Christians always discouraged any
violent and extravagant signs of grief, as it
behoved them not "to be sorry as men
without hope." Hence it was enjoined that
psalms should be sung on the occasion of the
death of a believer (Apost Const. vi.30),for
which St. Chrysostom gives the reason,
"What mean our hymns? "he asks; "do

MOVEABLE
we not give thanks to God that He hath
crowned him that is departed, that He hath
delivered him from trouble ? " (Horn. 4 in
Hebr.). And the same Father frequently
dissuades men not from moderate but from
excessive grief, as inconsistent with the
psalmody (Horn. 29 de Dorm.). When
Lady Paula died, St. Jerome says, there was
"no howling or lamenting, as used to be
among the men of this world," but singing
of psalms (Hier. Epit Paule, Ep. 27).
Yet some of the pagan practices crept in, for
St. Chrysostom, in another place, speaks
against mourners beating themselves and
lamenting; and he also refers with strong
disapprobation to the abuse of hiring women
to act as mourners, and make hideous lamen
tations (Horn. 32 in Matt, 4 in Hebr., 6
in 1 Thess.). (2) It was customary to have
certain days of mourning, called the noven-
diale, being the third, seventh, and ninth
after the death, to which others were added.
Christian reasons for these days are given
in the Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 42), but
St. Augustine speaks against the custom as
of heathen origin (Quest. 172 in Gen.).
Reference, however, is made to it by many
later writers, and at the present day it is
often the custom to observe in some special
way the anniversary of the death (Bing
ham, xxiii. 3). (3) Food and drink were
sometimes supplied to the mourners, inso
much that scandal was caused (Aug. de
Mor. Eccl. c. 34). This was frequently
condemned, as by the Council of Aries, the
Canons of _Rric, in 957, and by Archbishop
Thoresby in 1367. There are still, however,
vestiges of this practice, as in the baked
meats and burial dinner not yet extinct in
England. (4) Wearing a dark or "lugu
brious " habit as sign of mourning, was not
encouraged, though not forbidden, by the
early Christians. St. Cyprian, indeed,
thought no mourning at all ought to be
shown (de Mortal, p. 164); St. Jerome
commends a rich man for only wearing the
mourning habit for forty days, after having
lost his wife and two daughters (Hieron.
Ep. 34, ad Julian.). Such mourning (the
clothes themselves taking the name from
custom) and other " trappings of woe," have
always been more or less used. But the
burial " mutes," in long black cloaks, the
hearse with its plumes of black horse-hair,
&c, of the last generation are passing away,
and practices taking their place more in har
mony with Christian faith and hope. rH.l
MOVEABLE AND IMMOVEABLE
FEASTS. The feasts kept in the Christian
Church are called moveable and immoveable,
according as they faU always on the same
day in the calendar in each year, as the
sajpts' days ; or depend on other circum
stances, as Easter, and the feasts calculated

MOZARABIC LITURGY

51T

from Easter. The Book of Common Prayer
contains several tables for calculating Easter,
and the following rules to know when the
moveable feasts and holy-days begin :
" Easter day, on which the rest depend,
is always the first Sunday after the full
moon which happens upon, or next after,
the twenty-first day of March; and if the
full moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter
Day is the Sunday after.
"Advent Sunday is always the nearest
Sunday to the feast of St. Andrew, Nov. 30,.
whether before or after.
Septuagestma 1 /Nine j
Sexagesima I &,_,,. i„ J Eight I Weeks before
Quinquagesima f bunday is jSeven [Easter.
Quadragesima J (Six J

Eogation SuDday
Ascension Day
Vv hit-Sunday
Trinity Sunday

(Five "Weeks
Forty Days
Seven Weeks
Eight Weeks

After Easter.

Another moveable feast is Corpus Christi,
the Thursday after Trinity Sunday, which
consequently does not appear in the calen
dar, or many almanacks.
MOYER'S LECTURE. A lecture es
tablished by Lady Moyer. The following
is an extract from the will of the Lady
Moyer, or, as she is therein styled, " Dame
Rebecca Moyer, late of the parish of St.
Andrew, Holborn, in the county of Middle
sex, widow."
"My now dwelling-house in Bedford
Row, or Jockey Field, I give to my dear
child Eliza Moyer, that out of it may be
paid twenty guineas a year to an able
minister of God's word, to preach eight
sermons every year on the Trinity and
Divinity of our ever-blessed Saviour, begin
ning with the first Thursday in November,
and to the first Thursday in the seven
sequel months, in St. Paul's, if permitted
there, or, if not, elsewhere, according to the
discretion of my executrix, who will not
think it any encumbrance to her house. I
am sure it will bring a blessing on it, if
that work be well and carefully carried on,
which in this profligate age is so neglected.
If my said daughter should leave no children
alive at her death, or they should die before
they come to age, then I give my said house
to my niece, Lydia Moyer, now wife to
Peter Hartop, Esq., and to her heirs after
her, she always providing for that sermon,
as I have begun twenty guineas every year."
The lectures have ceased, as there is no
compulsory obligation in the will to per
petuate the lecture, the probability is that
the property fell into other hands. Dr.
Morell, about 1775, was the last lecturer.
MOZARABIC LITURGY. The ancient
liturgy of Spain. The word is derived from
Estarab, to A rabize ; participle Moztarab or
Mozatab, one who has adopted the Arab
mode of life : hence the name Mozarabic

518

MOZECTA.

signified those Christians who were mixed
with, or lived in the midst of, Arabs, or
Moors. Mr. Palmer considers that this
liturgy was derived at a very early age from
that of Gaul, which it much, resembles. It
was abolished in 1060 in Arragon, but was
not for some time afterwards relinquished
in Navarre, , Castile and Leon.' - In 1074,
Sancho III. of Navarre introduced the
Roman order, to the regret of the people.
Cardinal Ximenes, at the beginning of the
16th century, founded a college and chapel
ip Toledo for the celebration of this rite :
the only place perhaps in Spain where it is
2M-eserved'.-"Palmer's Origin. Liturg. i. 166.
MOZECTA, MUZECTA, MOZZETTA.
An ecclesiastical vestment or short cape
like the bishop's colobrium or tunicle, worn
by the canons in certain cathedrals of Sicily.
— Peiri Sicilia Sacra.
MULLION, more correctly Monial. The
upright bars dividing a traceried window
into lights.
MUSIC, CHURCH. Whether we study
the forms of worship adopted by ancient
Pagan nations, or confine our attention to
those of the Israelites of old, we shall per
ceive that in every case music formed an
important integral part of them. This is
not the place to discuss the music so em
ployed by heathen nations ; it will suffice
to refer' those who are curious in such
matters to the admirable article on the
word "Musica" -by the late Professor
Donkin, in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Antiquities," or to the His
tories of Music by Dr. Burney and Sir
J. Hawkins, or to Wilkinson's "Ancient
Egyptians," where all that is known on the
subject is fully set forth. Neither will it
be necessary to say much on the music
of the Jewish people as recorded . in the
Bible, for in truth very little is oertainly
known about it. Dr. Stainer has collected
all that can be gathered concerning the
musical instruments of the Bible in a very
excellent little treatise of his on that
subject ; while some useful remarks are to
be found on the musical rendering of the
Psalms in the Temple in Dr. Jebb's learned
work, "A Literal Translation of the Psalms,"
also in Smith's f- Dictionary of the Bible."
All that need be said in this place on those
subjects is that the musical system and
scales of the various nations differed then
as much as they do still in the countries of
the East. Some had scales consisting of
smaller intervals than we now recognise,
while others adopted the pentatonic scale.
No universal agreement existed then on
these elementary points/ and consequently
what was music to one nation was mere
jargon to another. Such1 was unquestion
ably the condition of the- art. of music at

MUSIC
the time' of our Lord, and for some centuries
afterwards in Europe. It is probable there
fore that when .the Christian Church was
founded, the disciples of .different nation
alities praised . God each after .their own
fashion, the converts from Judaism, singing
Christian .hymns to Jewish melodies, while
the Greeks and Romans adapted to sacred
words, the tunes which had previously
adorned the ritual of the old, heathen
temples. Traces of this variety of system
stUl e&ist in the Church-music of Greece,
and of Asiatic Christians. In Western
Christendom, however, it was not long be
fore attempts were made to bring all this con
fusion into some sort of order and uniformity,
though it took centuries to bring so gigantic , ,
an undertaking to anything like perfection.
The earliest reformer of the music of the
Church was St. Ambrose (bom in 340, con
secrated bishop of Milan in 374, and died
in 397). He regulated the chanting, of the
Psalms according to the system of the tetra-
chords, and adopted Greek melodies also for
the Hymns of the Church. From what is
related of his system by Odo of Cluny and
others, it appears certain that the Ambrosian
music retained a good deal of the chromatic
and even enharmonic ornamentation which
was peculiar to Greek music, involving a
multitude of turns and grace-notes, and the
use of. small intervals, more or less at variance
with the solemnity proper to ecclesiastical
art. Moreover, it does not appear that the
musical reforms inaugurated by St. Ambrose
ever extended far beyond the limits of his
own diocese of Milan ; so that however i i i
great the improvements introduced by him
may have been, they cannot have exercised
any very wide or abiding influence pn the
Christian Church at large. That they jwere
great improvements, however, is amply
vouched for by the testimony of St. Augus
tine, who refers to the effects produced on
him by the music of the., Church at the
time of his conversion to the faith by the p ]
preaching of St. Ambrose, and whb was him
self the author of a treatise on music which
is still extant. _ St. Ambrose is credited with
the composition of the great hymn, "Te
Deum Laudamus." But whether the music
is truly attributable to him as well as the
words, has never been certainly ascertained.
St. Gregory the Great, who was born jn
542, was chosen Pope in 590, and died in
604, carried out a very complete reformation
and reorganisation of the music of the
Church, the good effects of which were felt
throughout Western Christendom. Very
little is known about the melodies select
ed or composed by St. Gregory in his
famous Antiphonary. The so-caUed Gre
gorian melodies were for the most part
composed at a subsequent period ; but there

MUSIC
are two facts the truth of which is un
doubted — First, that he systematised the
tonality of the Plainsong of the Church,
by adopting that arrangement of the ancient
Greek tetrachords which produces eight
scales or modes, of which the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
and 7th are named Authentic, and the
others are derived- from them and named
Plagal. The four Authentic modes were
named Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Mixo-
lydian, while the Plagal modes, being four
notes lower in pitch than the corresponding
Authentic modes, were named Hypodorian,
Hypophrygian, Hypolydiau, and Hypomixo-
lydian. These scales . or modes may be
represented in modern garb as follows : —
1. Dorian . . . . 3, c, f, g, a, b, c, d.
2. Hypodorian . a, b, c, 3, e, f, g, a.
S. Phrygian  e, f, g, a, b, c, d, e.
4. Hypophrygian . b, c, d, e, f, g, a, b.
5. Lydian  f, g, a, b, c, d, e, f.
6. Hypolydian . . c, d, c, t, g, a, b, c.
1. Mixolydian , . . . . |, a, b, c, d, e, f, g.
s. Hypomixolydian . dt e, f, g, a, b, c, d.
Every ecclesiastical melody used in the
Western Church before the sixteenth cen
tury was composed in some one of these
scales or modes. Secondly, St. Gregory sim
plified the Church music by getting rid of
Oriental ornaments and subdivisions of in
tervals which had been imported into the
Ambrosian system. Indeed it is probable
that in the original Gregorian Antiphonary
every note was of equal value, whatever
syllable it was set to. But if so, this anti-
prosodiacal method was soon modified so
as to suit the length and accent of the
syUables. By tlie zeal and authority with
which, the musical system of St. Gregory
was propagated, it soon became the general
usage of every branch of the Western
Church, albeit in certain countries some
discrepancies long continued to exist, It
must here be borne in mind that there
was in all this no question of Harmony.
Although certain rude forms of Harmony
were no , doubt practised by the northern
nations of Europe in the days of St. Gregory,
yet they were entirely unknown to him and
his contemporaries. Hence the difficulty
which must ever be found in adopting
harmonies to most of the Gregorian melodies.
In fact it cannot be done without not only
being guilty of gross anachronism, but also
destroying in a great measure the distinctive
characteristics of the various ancient scales
or modes. Another noticeable feature in
these old melodies is the entire absence of
metrical symmetry, or rhythm, save what
belongs to the words to which they are set.
As time went on, two musical systems were
growing up side by side. There was the
Church music, unrhythmical and purely
melodic, and there was secular music,,

MUSIC

519

necessarily rhythmical when employed for
dances or marches, and often rudely har
monised, especially in the northern parts
of Europe. Gradually an amalgamation
took place of these contrariant systems,
much to the advantage of the art. The
earlier attempts of monastic theorists to
introduce harmony were most crude. The
long consecutions of fifths, fourths, and
octaves, which were practised before the
latter half of the fourteenth century, would
be utterly intolerable to a modern ear ; but
after this period the harmony of the Church
by degrees became more like what we are
wont to call by that name in these days.
For examples of early attempts at harmony,
the reader is referred to the admirable
publications of De Coussemaker. The two
men who did most to advance the know
ledge and practice of music during this
period, were Guido d' Arezzo (about 990 to
1040), by bis admirable method of training
singers ; and Franco of Cologne (about 1020
to 1090), the inventor of a system of
musical notation whereby the different
lengths of notes were distinguished, who
may therefore be called the father of
mensurable music. By the invention of
mensurable music the way was opened to
the introduction of Descant, which soon was
developed into double counterpoint, canon,
and fugue. But at length harmonised
hymns of a strictly metrical kind were in
troduced, at first by the unreformed, but
afterwards by the reformed Churches, and
became after the spread of the Reformation
the prevalent music of the Protestants.
These also owed their origin in a great
measure to the invention of mensurable
music, aud in their turn exercised a vast
influence on ecclesiastical art.
We see, then, that at the time of the
Reformation in England there were two
kinds of Church music. One, strictly
ecclesiastical in character, founded on the Gre
gorian scales and melodies, and in a contra
puntal and complicated style of composition.
The other plain and simple, metrical in struc
ture, derived mainly from the sacred songs of
the Lollards at home and the Protestants
abroad. When the Liturgy was translated
into English, the liturgical music had to be
adapted to the change. And this was no
easy task. But it was accomplished by the
combined skill of such men as Marbecke,
Tye, TalUs, Byrd, and Morley. By the
end of Queen Elizabeth's reign the Church
of England was furnished with as fine a
repertory of chants, services, and anthems
as Could be found in any Christian country
in the world. But that was not enough,
for the puritanical section of the Church
disliked- the cathedral style of music, , and
clamoured for leave to sing metrical Psalms

520

MUSIC

and Hymns. This was granted by an In
junction of Queen Elizabeth, whereby it
was aUowed to sing metrical Psalms and
hym ns before and after any Church ser
vice. In 1562, for the first tune, a metrical
rendering of the whole Psalter with musical
notes was printed, and tacked on to the
Book of Common Prayer. Its title was as
foUows: "The whole Booke of Psalmes
collected into EngUsh Metre by T. Stern-
hold, J. Hopkins, and others, conferred with
the Ebrue, with apt notes to sing them
withal. Imprinted by John Day." In this
pubUcation only the melody was printed,
but in 157 9 William Damon added four-part
harmonies to the tunes; of which another
edition appeared in 1591. But it was not
tUl 1594 that a really adequate setting of
the metrical Psalms in harmony was bt ought
out. This excellent work was published by
T. Est, and tbe composers engaged in har
monising it were John Dowland, E. Blanks,
E. Hooper, J. Farmer, R. Allison, G. Kirbye,
W. Cobbold, E. Johnson, and G. Farnaby.
In fact these were some of the best com
posers of anthems, services, part-songs and
madrigals then alive. They put the melody
in the tenor part, according to the prevalent
custom at that period,- while the other parts
sung accompanying harmonies.
Not to mention some other publications
of Psalm-tunes of less importance, we must
next refer to an admirable collection brought
out in 1621 and 1633 by Thomas Eavens-
croft, Mus. Bac, which contains many tunes,
still in use, of the very best kind, and ex
cellently harmonised by the best musicians
of the period. It would be impossible, in
such an article as the present, to describe
the many collections of tunes which were
subsequently brought out. But it may
suffice to mention the books of Wither,
Playford, and the version by Brady and
Tate, as samples.
Before the Reformation, England could
scarcely have been said to possess a
national style of Church music at all.
Ecclesiastical compositions were then all set
to Latin words, and based upon Gregorian
melodies, which formed the "Cantus
firmus," round which counterpoints or
descants were built. Such, as we have
already seen, was the case throughout
Western Christendom, and a wonderful uni
formity of style consequently prevailed.
The very few specimens of English sacred
music which have come down to us from
those early times are very like the composi
tions of the old Flemish school, of which
the celebrated Jusquin des Prds was the
chief. But the English Church composers
were decidedly inferior to their continental
contemporaries, both in conception and in
workmanship. But the Reformation had

MUSIC
begun to exercise no inconsiderable influence
on tbe arts, aud especially on music, even
at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
The increasing prevalence of metrical
Psalmody tended to introduce an apprecia
tion of rhythm and symmetry in music
which did not exist before, and thus a great
deal of crudeness of accent and want
of metrical balance was happily, though
graduaUy, got rid of. The translation of
the services of the Church into the ver
nacular also exercised no smaU influence
in nationalising, as it were, the style of our
ecclesiastical music. It was not long after
this that the immortal Palestrina saved the
figurate music of the Roman Church from
extinction, which was threatened by the
CouncU of Trent, in consequence of the
abuses which had crept into it through
the contrapuntal extravagancies and secu- '
larities of the Flemish composers and their
ItaUan disciples. Palestrina composed four
Masses in which true sublimity was so art
fully combiued with contrapuntal ingenuity,
and freshness of invention with strict
adherence to ancient precedents, that his
music was accepted by the Council, and the
doom of sacred art was averted. Palestrina
became the originator and propagator of a
new and excellent school of vocal music
both sacred and madrigalesque, which for
many years formed the model followed by
subsequent masters. There can be no doubt
that English art was vastly improved by
the influence of this new Roman school,
and thus it came to pass that during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, both in Cathedral
music and in the composition of secular
madrigals, England could successfully vie
with aU the other nations of the world.
The names of Tye, Marbecke, Tallis, and
Byrd deserve to be written in golden letters,
as having done for English sacred art what
Palestrina did for that of Rome ; and it is
at this point that the history of our Cathe
dral music properly begins. The earliest
document, to which reference can be made,
which exhibits a setting of any portion of
the service in English to music, is the
Litany of 1544, said (with every proba
bility) to have been adapted by Archbishop
Cranmer himself. The next document is
the " Prayer-book Noted " by Marbecke in
1549. Both these are unisonal notations.
Probably the earliest harmonised Litany is
that, to be found in John Day's services,
published in 1560, and afterwards in 1565.
We must also mention the services set by
Caustun, Heath, and others, to be found
also in Day's book. This brings us down
to the famous Thomas Tallis, who may be
regarded as the Father of English Cathedral
music. It was he who first harmonised the
Responses and Preces of Morning and Evening

MUSIC
Prayer. English Cathedral music by that
time had assumed pretty nearly the form
which it stUl maintains. It will be well,
therefore, to describe that form before pro
ceeding to other branches of our subject. It
will be the most convenient plan to divide
English Choral service music into four distinct
divisions. Each of these is made use of in
its proper place. It is this variety of kind
which renders a fuUy choral rendering of the
service so valuable an aid to devotion as all
find it to be who have accustomed them
selves to its use. Of these four divisions,
the first and simplest consists of the plain
monotone, and of the unrhythmical versicle
and response. Here we have true recitative
of the best kind. It has also the merit of
extreme antiquity, being an English adapta
tion of the traditional inflexions of the
Western Church in mediasval times. It is
partly sung by the officiating minister, and
partly by the choir and congregation. Their
portion is usually, though by no means
necessarily, harmonised. But, in any case,
it is desirable that the general congregation
should sing only the Plainsong or melody,
leaving the harmonies to be supplied by the
choir. On festival occasions, the organ is
used to accompany the responses, and then
Tallis's incomparable harmonies should al
ways be employed. On other occasions it
is usual to adopt other and simpler har
monies, and these vary in different dioceses.
None, however, should be tolerated which
do not retain the old Plainsong in its
integrity, either in tbe soprano or in the
tenor part. The portions of the services
in which this kind of music is employed
are the Preces, Versicles, and Responses at
Morning and Evening Prayer ; the Litany ;
and the Sursum Corda in the office for
Holy Communion ; to which may be added,
occasionally, such Versicles and Responses
as occur in the Marriage and Funeral
services and similar offices. The next
division is the Psalm-chant. This so far
agrees with the first division as to have
an unrhythmical element; but it differs
from it in all else. English chants are of
two kinds, single and double. A single
chant is sung to a single verse of the
Psalms or Canticles, and repeated without
alteration for every succeeding verse. A
double chant takes in two verses. But
only a certain number of the Psalms are
really suitable for a double chant, because
it often happeps that a new sentence or
sentiment begins at one of the even verses,
which would necessarily have to be sung to
the latter half of a double chant, so that
the beginning of the sentence would not
correspond to that of the music ; moreover,
if a Psalm or Canticle has an odd number
of verses, the only way to adapt a double

MUSIC

521

chant to it is to repeat the latter part of the
chant for the concluding verse, which is
truly a most clumsy and inartistic con
trivance. Single chants are, obviously, free
from this awkwardness, and can be sung to-
any Psalm or Canticle without interfering
with the sense of the words. Every single
chant consists of seven bars of music, and
is divided into two portions by a double
bar. These portions are of unequal length,
consisting respectively of three or four bars.
The double bar corresponds with the colon
placed in the middle of every verse in tbe
Prayer-book Psalter. The first note in each
portion is either a semibreve, or (more-
rarely) a dotted minim followed by a
crotchet. On these initial notes is recited
so much of the words of the verse as cannot
be assigned to the remaining bars. Accord
ingly, these "reciting notes," as they are
called, are of indeterminate length, and are
always supposed to have a pause over them.
The words so recited should be uttered
distinctly and deliberately, minding all the
necessary stops and accents, after the
ordinary fashion of good reading. The last
two bars of the former and the last three
bars of the latter portion of the chant
should be sung in strict time, and at such a
pace, that the syllables may follow each other,
on an average, at about the same speed as
in the unrhythmical or recitative bars.
It is usual to divide a choir into two
bands, one on the south and the other on
the north side of the chancel. These bands,
or semichoruses, are severally named " De
cani " and " Cantoris," after the Dean and
Precentor of a cathedral. It is customary
to chant the verses of the Psalms alternately,
or antiphonally, the two bands answering
one another verse by verse, and all uniting-
for the Gloria Patri.
In some modern choirs an attempt is occa
sionally made to adapt the old Gregorian
Psalm-chants to our English Psalter. Some
times they are sung in unison, with free organ
accompaniment; sometimes tbey are har
monised vocally. The objection to the
former plan is that it opens the door to
very incorrect and licentious harmonisations-
on the part of inexperienced organists. The
objection to the latter plan is that it over
throws the chief advantages claimed for the
use of these obsolete melodies, viz. easiness
of execution, and conformity to primitive
practice. The objections to both alike are
that, in the first place, the Gregorian scales
in which these old tunes are written are-
for the most part very ill adapted to-
harmony ; in the next place, that to har
monise them at all involves a gross ana
chronism ; and in the last place, that they
are very unsuited to the genius and accent
of the English language.

522

MUSIC

We come now to speak of the third
division of Choral music for the Church.
This has only one feature in common with
the English Psalm-chant, and that is its
;antiphonal arrangement. It is a kind of
music, employed mostly in cathedrals and
college chapels, for the Canticles and Hymns
of the Prayer Book, i.e. the Te Deum,
Benedictus, JubUate, Magnificat, Cantate
Domino, Nunc Dimittis, and Deus Misere-
;atur ; and also for the Kyrie, Nicene Creed,
Sanctus, and Gloria in Excelsis, in the
Office for the Holy Communion. Such
compositions, are technically called " Cathe
dral Service?." A service, in this restricted
sense, means a series of elaborate settings
of the above Canticles and Hymns, generally
In the same key throughout. Hence we
speak of Rogers' Service in D, or Gibbons'
in F, and so forth. These settings are
often of value as music, and very edifying
to musicians, and to all who are accustomed
to their use, but they are by no means
congregational in character; it is therefore
perhaps undesirable to adopt them in or
dinary parish churches, except on rare and
festal occasions. ¦ But in all cathedral and
¦collegiate churches, and perhaps in the
principal churches of our largest towns,
they are assuredly most appropriate. In
ordinary churches it is customary and
-desirable to sing the Canticles to Psalm-
-chants, and the Eucharistic Hymns either
in monotone or to some easy unisonal
•setting such as that of old Marbecke, whose
music, for the Nicene Creed especially, is
sublime. ' Some of the finest efforts of our
best English composers have been the
¦elaboration of Cathedral services. In the
best of these, the music is of a more or less
descriptive kind, .and there is also ample
scope for examples of counterpoint and
fugue, not to mention various artistic effects
produced by the alternated or combined
use of the organ and the voices, or by the
introduction of passages sung in unison, or
by short portions assigned to single voices,
or to duets, trios, or quartettes, commonly
¦called " verses " ; by all which means great
variety, contrast, and expression may be
secured. The fourth division of choral music in
church, which is the Anthem, is (artistically
speaking) the highest of all. It differs from
the rest mainly in that it is not intended to
be congregational. It should be regarded
rather as a kind of vocal interlude or choral
voluntary, adapted to rest the mind of the
listening worshipper, and thus prepare it
for fresh acts of devotion. Anthems are
set to any suitable words of Holy ¦Scripture,
or the Book of Common Prayer. They
may be meditative, jubilant, or penitential
in character ; they may be sung entirely in

MYSTERY
chorus, in which case they are called " Full
Anthems," or they may contain certain
portions to be sung as duos, trios, or
quartettes, in which case they are desig
nated "Verse Anthems," or. they may be
written for one single voice with organ
accompaniment, with perhaps a few bars of
chorus to conclude, -in which ¦ case they are
termed " Solo Anthems." When anthems
are used in ordinary churches full anthems
are most advantageously adopted. In well-
endowed choirs, including good soloists,
verse and solo anthems are also admissible
and suitable, provided they do not lead to
personal display. In most small parish
churches, however, it is customary to .sub
stitute for the anthem a metrical hymn.
It will not be out of place here to give a
list of .the chief composers of Church music
in England, with their dates : —
Born about Died
Christopher Tye, Mus. Doc. . . 1520 . . 1580
John Marbecke  1523 . . 1585
Thomas Tallis .'  1529 . . 1585
William Byrd "  1539 . . 1623
John Bull, Mus. Doc. ...... 15C;l . . 1628
Thomas Morley, Mus. Bac. . . . 156S . . 1604 ;
Orlando Gibbons. Mus. Bac. . . . 1583 . . 1625
William Child, Mus. Doc. . . . 1605 . . 1696
Benjamin Kogers, Mus. Doc. . . . 1614 . . 1691
Eobert Creyghton, D.D  1639 . . 1736
Henry Aldrich, D.D  164V . . 1710
JohnBlow.Mus.Doc  1648 . . 1708
Henry Purcell  1658 . . 1695 .
Jeremiah Clark  1668 . . 1707
William Croft, Mus. Doc. . . . 1677 . . 1727 ¦
Maurice Greene, Mus. Doc. . . . 1698 . . 1755 .
William Boyce, Mus. Doc. . . . 1710 . . 177S
Samuel Arnold, Mus. Doc. . . . 1739 . . 1802
Samuel Wesley  1766 j . 1837 ¦
Thomas Attvyood  1767 . . 1838
William Crotch, Mus. Doc. . . . 17,75 . . 1847
Sir John Goss, Mus. Doc. . . . 1800 . . 1880
Samuel Sebastian Wesley, Mus. Doc. 181,0: . . 1876
Sir G. A. Macfarren, M.A., Mus. Doc. 1813 . . 
Henry Smart . : ¦  1813 , . 1879
Sir Herbert S. Oakeley, M.A., Musi
Doc  1830 . . 
John Stainer, M.A., Mus. Doc. . . 1840 . . 
Sir Arthur S. Sullivan, Mus. Doc. . 1842 . . 
[F.A.G.O.]
To this Ust must be added last, though
not least, the name of Sir Frederic A. Gore
Ouseley, Mus. Doc, M.A., LL.D., Professor
of Music in the University of Oxford.
MUSIC TABLE. A sort of Lectern,
with three sides, round which the choir
were placed, in the middle of Bishop Au-
drewe's chapel ; as appears by the plan given
in Canterbury's Doom, 1646.
MYNCHERY. A nunnery. A corrup
tion of ministere, or minster.
MYSTERIES (See Moralities). "
MYSTERY (From pieiv to oto>o, to
shut the mouth : hence pvorqpiov, mystery)-
Something secret, hidden from human com
prehension, or revealed only in part. • The
term is applied both to doctrines and facts.
By the usage of the Church it also denotes
that inscrutable union ! in the sacraments of
the inward and spiritual grace with the

MYSTIC
outward and visible sign. Hence in' the
early Church the sacraments were denomi
nated " mysteries," and the term derived a
still greater force, from the secrecy , which
was observed in the administration of those
ordinances. More especially, however, was
the Holy Communion thus designated, as we
learn from the ancient Fathers, who speak
repeatedly of the " sacred " and " tremendous
mysteries," in allusion to this sacrament.
With this application, the term appears in
our own Communion Office, where Christ
is said to have "instituted and ordained
holy mysteries, as pledges of His love, and
for a continual remembrance of His death."
We are also exhorted so to prepare ourselves,
that we may be " meet partakers of those
holy mysteries ; " and after their reception,
thanks are rendered to God, that He has
.vouchsafed to " feed us who have duly
received these holy mysteries, with the
spiritual , food of the most precious body
and blood of His. Son, our Saviour, Jesus
Christ." i ,
MYSTIC. Sacredly obscure.
MYSTIC RECITATION. Several parts
of the Greek Uturgy are ordered to be said
pvo-riKas, that is, in a low voice, or whisper,
like the secreto of the Roman offices. — Jebb.
MYSTICAL.; Having a hidden, alle
gorical, : or secret meaning. In the bap
tismal offices we read, " Sanctify this water
to the mystical washing awayj of sin : " from
which it would be absurd to infer that the
mere physical application of water can
a-emove sin ; and yet, on the other hand,
the fact that the remission of sin is associated
with baptism, rests on Scriptural authority.
There is, therefore, a secret operation of
God's grace in cleansing the soul linked to
the sacramental application of water to the
body; and the concurrence or co-existence
of these the Church regards as a " mystical
washing away of sin."
Again : in the Communion Office, the
faithful . recipients are said to be " very
[true] members incorporate of the mystical
body of Christ." Now, liow the Church can
constitute "the body) of Christ," will appear
to any one an inscrutable rnystery, if he
will but divest himself of the familiarity of
the terms. As to the fact, it is indisputable ;
but the manner is beyond our full compre
hension, partaking in some measure of the
nature "of allegory, and being strictly mystical.
It is worth while to add, that the Church
does not recognise the notion of an invisible
Church, as constituting this "mystical
body," composed of those only who shall
be finally saved ; for she goes on to pray
for the assistance of God's grace, " that we
may continue in that holy fellowship," &c,
a petition somewhat irrelevant if such an
¦hypothesis be adopted.

MYSTICS

523

MYSTICS. A party which arose towards
the close of the third century, distinguished
by their professing pure, sublime, and per
fect devotion. They excuse their fanatical
ecstasies by alleging the passage of St Paul,
" The Spirit prays in us with sighs and
groans which cannot be uttered." They
contend that, if the Spirit prays within us,
we must resign. ourselves to its motions, and
be guided and swayed through its impulse
by remaining in a state of mere inaction.
The principles proceeded from the known
doctrine of the Platonic school, which was
also adopted by Origen and his disciples,
that the Divine nature was diffused through
all human souls ; or that the faculty of
reason, from which proceed the health and
vigour of the mind, was an emanation from
God into tbe human soul, and comprehended
in it the principles and elements of all truth,
human and divine. They denied that men
could, by labour or study, excite this celestial
flame in their breasts; and therefore they
disapproved highly of the attempts of those
who, by definitions, .abstract theorems, aud
profound speculations, endeavoured to form
distinct notions of truth, and! to. discover its
hidden nature. On the contrary, they main
tained that silence,, tranquillity, repose, and
solitude, accompanied with such acts as
might tend to extenuate and exhaust the
body; were^ the means by which the hidden
and internal word was excited to produce
its latent virtues, and to instruct them in
the knowledge of Divine things. For thus
they reasoned : Those who behold with a
noble contempt all human affairs ; who turn
away their eyes from terrestrial vanities,
and shut all the avenues of the outward
senses against the contagious influences of
a material world, must necessarily return to
God when the spirit is thus disengaged from
the impediments that prevented that happy
union ; and in this blessed frame they not
only enjoy inexpressible raptures from their
communion with the Supreme Being, but are
also invested with the inestimable privilege
of contemplating truth undisguised and un-
corrupted in its native purity, while others
behold it in a vitiated and delusive form.
The number of the Mystics increased in
the fourth century, under the, influence of
the Grecian fanatic, who gavejiimself out
for Dionysius the Areopagite, disciple of
St. Paul, "and probably lived about this
period ; and by pretending to higher degrees
of perfection than other Christians, and
practising greater austerity, their cause
gained ground, especially in the Eastern
provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of
the pretended works of Dionysius was sent
by Balbus to Louis the Meek, in the year
824, which kindled the holy flame of mysti
cism in the Western provinces, andJUlad.

524

N. ok M.

the Latins with the most enthusiastic admi
ration of this new religion. In the twelfth
century, these Mystics took the lead in their
method of expounding the Scriptures. In
the thirteenth century they were the most
formidable antagonists of the Schoolmen ;
und, towards the close of the fourteenth,
many of them resided and propagated their
tenets in almost every part of Europe.
Among the Mystics of that time we may
notice the Dominican John Tauler, of Stras-
burg, a.d. 1361, to whom may be attributed
the paternity of mysticism, in its modern
form ; Henry Suso of Ulm, a.d. 1365 ; and
especially John Ruysbroeck, called Doctor
Ecstaticus, a.d. 1381, who of all the Mystics
was the most dreamy and enthusiastic.
Among Protestants there have been and are
many Mystics, but they have not formed a
sect. — Gieseler ; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 157 ;
ii. 212 ; iii. 92.

N.
N. on M. Letters in the place of the
name of the child in the Catechism : in the
office of Baptism " N " only occurs. Pro
bably these letters stood for Nomen vel
Nomina — N. vel NN., the latter being after
wards corrupted by the. printers int o M. [H.]
NAG'S HEAD FABLE. This was a
false and absurd invention of the Romanists,
to invalidate ,the orders of the Church of
England, by pretending that Abp. Parker
had never been duly consecrated a bishop.
Even if he was not, it would not invalidate
the consecrations in which he took part
afterwards, inasmuch as he was always only
one of several consecrators, according to the
practice of the Church in all ages, which so
precludes the possibility of any failure in
the succession, as transmission by a single
bishop has been always held sufficient,
though more concur ex abundanti. The
Popish story was that Parker was conse
crated at the Nag's Head Tavern in
Oheapside by only one bishop, of several
who were present, who laid the Bible on
Dr. Parker's head, and then pronounced the
words, "Take thou authority," &c. It is
further objected, that three of the four
bishops then present were only bishops
elect, and had no sees ; aud that the other
was a suffragan.
The story further is, that the queen issued
forth her warrant, directed to the Bishop of
Llandaff; to Dr. Scory, elect of Hereford;
Dr. Barlow, elect of Chichester ; Dr. Cover-
dale, elect of Exeter ; and Dr. Hodgkins, suf
fragan of Bedford; and that all these persons
met at the Nag's Head Tavern, where it
had been usual for the Dean of the Arches and

NAME
the civilians to refresh themselves, after any
confirmation of a bishop ; and thereone Neale,
who was Bonner's chaplain, peeped through
a hole in the door, and saw all the other
bishops very importunate with Llandaff, who
had been dissuaded by Bonner to assist in
this consecration, which he obstinately re-
fusins, Dr. Scory bid the rest to kneel, and
he laid the Bible on each of their shoulders . •
or heads and pronounced these words, " Take
thou authority," &c, and so they stood up
all bishops. This story was certainly in
vented after the queen's reign ; for if it had
been true, it is so remarkable that some of
the writers of that time would undoubtedly
have taken notice of it. No sooner was it
put forth than a living witness of Parker's
consecration came forward to contradict it,
in a sermon at Paul's Cross, March 17, 1560
(Le Bas' Jewel, 91). Moreover Bishop Burnet
has discovered the falsity of the story from
an original manuscript of the consecration
of this very archbishop, which was done in
the chapel at Lambeth, on Sunday, the 17th
of December, in the first year of the queen's
reign, where Dr. Parker came a little after
five in the morning in a scarlet gown and
hood, attended by tbe said four bishops', who
had been duly consecrated ; and there, after
prayers, Dr. Scory preached ; and then the
other bishops presented the archbishop to
him, and the mandate for his consecration
being read by a doctor of the civil law, and
he having taken the oaths of supremacy, and
some prayers being said, according to the
form of consecration then lately published,
all the four bishops laid their hands on the
archbishop's head, and said, "Receive the
Holy Ghost," &c. And this was done in the
presence of several other clergy. — Lingard,
Hist, of England, vol. vii., note G; Burnet's
Hist, of Reform, ii. 808 ; Hook's Archbishops,
ix. 250, where Dr. Lingard's refutation of
the fable, addressed to the Birmingham R- 0.
Magazine, 1834, is given in extenso. [H,]
NAHUM, THE PROPHECY OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament.
Nahum is the seventh of the twelve lesser
prophets; a native of Elkoshai, a little
village of Galilee, the ruins of which were
stiU to be seen in the time of St. Jerome,
The particular circumstances of this pro
phet's life are unknown.
Authors are divided as to the time when
Nahum prophesied, some fixing it to the
name of Ahaz, others to that of Manasseh,
and others to tbe times of the captivity.
St. Jerome places it in the reign of Hezekiah,
after the war of Sennacherib in Egypt,
which the prophet speaks of as a thing
passed (See Speaker's Comm.; Milman's
Hist, of Jews, i. 369).
NAME. I. The Name of the Lord was
known to the Jews under four forms,-{l)BL,

NAME
the strong one, ?K, a word which in poetic
language frequently stands without any
adjunct, sometimes with the article 7&$n (Ps.
xviii. 31, &c. ; Job viii. 3), and sometimes
with the suffix of the first person yK, " my
God!" (Ps. xviii. 3: xxii. 11, &c.). But
in prose the word is scarcely ever applied to
God without some adjunct or attribute, as
(2) EL SHADDAI, ^W *?$, God Almighty
(Gen. xvii. 1 ; Ex. vi. 2, 3, &c), sometimes
without the^N, EL, (Job v. 17 ; Ruth i. 20,
Sec); (3) JEHOVAH, the self-existent
(translated in the LXX as Kvpios) ; (4)
JEHOVAH SABAOTH, the Lord of Hosts
(See Jehovah, Sabaoth). In the name of the
Lord the prophets were commissioned to
preach, the priests to bless ; therefore to
prophesy in the name of the Lord implied
direct communication with Him, and su
preme authority for the words spoken
(Deut. xviii. 22). Our Blessed Lord uses
the same form of expression in reference to
His own mission ; speaking of the works
that He did "in His Father's Name"
(St. John x. 25). And then having taught
the disciples that- "I and My Father are
one," He told them that they should do
mighty works " in My Name " (St. Mark
xvi. 18) ; with full faith in which promise
St. Peter said to the lame man at the gate
of the temple, " In the name of Jesus Christ,
rise up and walk" (Acts iii. 6). In the
Christian Church the formula is extended,
and the Apostles and their successors re
ceive their commission in the name of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.
These words are used only in the most
solemn offices, as at Baptism, Absolution of
the Sick, Ordering of Deacons and Priests,
and Consecration of Bishops.
II. The Christian name is given us in
baptism. As it is given as a badge that we
belong to Christ, we cannot more properly
take it upon us than when we are enlisted
under His banner. We bring one name
into the world with us which we derive from
our parents, and which serves to remind us
of our original guilt, and that we are born in
sin : but this new name is given us at our
baptism, to remind us of our new births
when being washed in the laver of regene
ration, we are thereby cleansed from our
natural impurities, and become in a man
ner new creatures, and solemnly dedicate
ourselves to God. It was the custom until
1552, according to ancient practice, for the
bishop to confirm the chUdren by name;
and sometimes the baptismal name was then
altered. In such a case, according to Lord
Coke, the name of the confirmation would
stand good. — Case of Sir Francis Gardie,
Coke's Inst. i. iii. ; Johnson's Canon, ii.

NATIVITY

525

277; Wheatly, 334; Annot P. B. ii. 258
(See Christian Name). [H.]
NANTES, EDICT OF. An edict of
toleration, promulgated by Henry IV. of
France in 1598, which restored the Pro-'
testants to all the favours which had been
granted them in former reigns, and gave
them the liberty of serving God according
to their conscience, and a full participation
in all civil rights and privileges. This
edict was, at the instigation of the Jesuits,
revoked by Louis XIV. in the year 1685.
NARTHEX (Gr. and Lat). This name
is given by ancient writers to the vestibule
of a church. There was the exterior or
outward, and the interior or inward, Narthex.
The exterior narthex, which we may call
the ante-temple, consisted of the whole
circumference of the outward courts, in
cluding the vestibulum or porch, and the
atrium or area before the church. Of a
narthex in this large sense, tbe church of
St. Ambrogio at Milan supplies a very fine

The interior narthex, or ante-temple
within the church (the only part properly
so called), was the first section or division
of the fabric, after entering into the
church, and was peculiarly allotted to the
women, and used for the offices of ro
gations, supplications, and night-watches.
Here likewise they placed the corpses whilst
the funeral rites were being performed.
This lower part of the church was the
place of the Energumens and the Audi-
entes ; and hither Jews, heathens, heretics,
and schismatics were sometimes allowed to
come, in hopes of their conversion by hearing
the Scriptures read and sermons preached.
Dr. Beveridge and others seem to place
here the font or baptistery, as in our mo
dern churches. But it is certain that, for
many ages, the baptistery was a distinct
place from the body of the chcurh, and
reckoned among the Exedre, or buildings
adjoining to the church. This part of the
church was called Nartliex, because being
long, but narrow, and running across the
front of the church, it was supposed to
resemble a. ferula, that is, a rod or staff;
for any oblong figure was by the Greeks
called vdp0r)£, Narthex. Another derivation
connects the word with vipBev. If so, it is
rather of the nature of what is called a
Slype in several cathedrals, which is gene
rally connected with the south transept.
NATIONAL COVENANT (See Con
fessions of Faith).
NATIONAL SOCIETY (See Societies,
Church). NATIVITY OF OUR LORD (See
Christmas Day).
NATIVITY OF ST. JOHN THE BAP
TIST (See John, St., Baptist's Day):

¦52G

NATIVITY

NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIR
GIN : commemorated Sept. 8. The insti
tution of this festival has been ascribed
to Pope Servius a.d. 695. Concerning
the Blessed Virgin's parentage nothing
is said beyond that she was of the house
and lineage of David. Tradition gives
Joachim and Anne as her father and mother
(See Anne, St.). [H.]
NAVE. That part of the church which
extends from the west end to the transept
or choir. The derivation of this word has
been a matter of dispute. Some derive it
from vdos, a temple; others from navis
(vavs), a ship, since the nave resembles
the hull of a ship turned upside down ; and
refer both this term and vdos also to the
ancient Phoenicians, whose original temples
were said to be their vessels thus reversed.
At all events it is remarkable that both the
old French nef, the Italian and Spanish nave,
and the Latin navis, all signify a ship as
well as the nave of a church.
The internal length of the nave in a cross
church is properly measured from the face
of the west wall near the window to the
eastern face of the western wall of the tower,
which corresponds with the internal west
face of the transepts if they have no western
aisles. The external length of a nave is
fairly reckoned from the west face of the
west buttresses to the outside of the tower.
The enormous porches of Peterborough, be
ing as high as the nave itself, must be
reckoned in the external length, and make
it about 260 feet, which is only exceeded by
Winchester, about 275, and St. Alban's, which
is a little over 300, and the longest Gothic
nave in the world. The west GaUlee at Ely
can hardly be reckoned as part of the nave,
being low and really only a porch, and the
length would not come up to St. Alban's if
it were. For the internal lengths, see " Book
on Building." No foreign naves, except St.
Peter's and, St. Paul's at Eome, Bologna and
Milan, approach those of our long cathedrals.
But many of them exceed ours both in
height and width considerably, having often
five aisles, i.e. two on each side of the middle
or nave proper. Chichester is our only five-
aisled cathedral nave, but a few churches
have them, such as St. Michael's Coven
try, and Kendal. Boston and Yarmouth
churches, though 79 and 110 feet wide,
have only three divisions, and they have a
bad effect. Yarmouth is the widest in the
kingdom, and after that York Minster,
where everything is on the largest scale, and
so it does not look too wide. The height of
our cathedral naves is generally very nearly
the same as the entire width, and twice the
height of the aisles, of which the width is
generally haU that of the middle. West
minster alone is much higher than its

NAZARENES
widtb, and three times its middle width,
while all the others are from two to two
and a half at the most. [Gr.]
NAVICULA; ship, or ark. A vessel
formed "like the keel of a boat," out of
which the frankincense was poured in
Bishop Andrewes' chapel, and Queen'Eliza-
beth's chapel.— Canterbury's. Doom; 1646.
See Hierurgia Anglicana, pp. 4, 5, and 9.
NAVY, ROYAL, Church work in. Of
60,000 seamen and marines, 75 per cent.
belong to the Church of England. For these
there are 100 chaplains, the head of whom
is called the Chaplain of the Fleet, who is
responsible for the selection of the clergy,
and for all spiritual supervision, except, of
course, unless he is also a bishop, ordination
and confirmation. The latter is claimed from
and performed by the several, bishops in
the diocese where the candidates happen to
be. Of the chaplains, haR serve in sea-going
ships, and of the rest some are in harbour
establishments abroad. On board every
ship in commission, whether carrying a
chaplain or not, the Admiralty instructions,
direct that Divine service shall take place
daily ; the service is laid down in the
authorized Watch BUI, and the church
pennant is hoisted at the' peak during its
continuance. The week-day prayers con
sist of selections from the Liturgy, includ-
the prayers to be used at sea. On Sundays
there is regular church in the forenoon,
attended by all hands that have no " con
scientious scruples." If there is no chaplain
the captam conducts the service. — Official
Year Book of the Church of England, 1883—
1886. [H.]
NAZARENES. I. A name originally
given by the Jews to all Christians in
general, because Jesus Christ was of the
city of Nazareth (Acts xxiv. 5). II. After
wards the name was applied to a sect of
heretics, who affected to assume it rather
than that of Christians. Their reUgion was
a strange jumble of Judaism and Chris
tianity : for they were Jews by birth, were
circumcised, kept the Sabbath, and other
observances of the Mosaical law; and at
the same time received the New Testament
as well as the Old, acknowledged Jesus
Christ to be the Messiah, and practised the
Christian baptism (De Her. fab. ii. 2).
Theodoret, indeed, pretends they honoured
Jesus Christ only as a just and good man ;
and he places the beginning of their heresy
about the time of Domitian. St. Augustine
makes them tbe successors of those whose
obstinacy in the like opinions was con
demned by the apostolical Council of Jeru
salem (August, de Her. ix. : Contra Faust.
xix. 4 : Ep. ad Hieron. lxxxii.).
The Nazarenes (as well as the Ebionites)
were descended from those Christians, who

NECROLOGY
left Jerusalem a little before the siege, and
retired to the country about Jordan, called
Perea; whence they are sometimes called
Peratics. There were some of them remain
ing in the time of St. Augustine. They
dwelt about Pella in Decapolis, near the
river Jordan, and at Berea, a city of Lower
Syria. They perfectly understood the
Hebrew or Aramaic tongue, in which they
read the books of the Old Testament.
These heretics, keeping the mean between
the Jews and the Christians, pretended to
be friends alike to both : nevertheless, the
Christians treated them as heretics, and the
Jews detested them more than the other
Christians, because they acknowledged Jesus
Christ to be the Messiah. Epiphanius
(Heres. xxix.) says, they cursed and 'ana
thematized them three times a day in their
synagogues. — Burton's Sect. Eccl. Hist. 350 ;
Lardner's Credibility, Sec, ii. 363.
NECROLOGY. A book in which, after
the diptychs fell into disuse, in cathedral
and coUegiate churches and minsters, the
names of the departed connected with them
were entered. Probably the name was read
out once a year on the anniversary of death,:
hence Bede speaks of the "year book."
The Benedictines adopted necrologies at
the beginning of the sixth century. — Wal-
cott's Sac. Arch. 396 ; Diet of Christ. Ant.
1382. [H.j
NEHEMIAH, THE BOOK OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament. Ne
hemiah was born at Babylon during the
captivity, and succeeded Ezra in the go
vernment of Judah and Jerusalem ; whither
he came with a commission from Artaxerxes
Ldngimanus, authorizing him to repair and
fortify the city in the same manner as it
was before its destruction by the Baby
lonians. He died at Jerusalem, having
governed the people of Judah for about
thirty years. — Smith's Diet of Bible.
NEOLOGIANS. German Rationalists
are so designated ; from vios, new, and Xoyos,
doctrine. They are distinguished from
mere deists and pantheists by admitting
the principal facts of the Bible, though they
attempt to explain away what is miraculous,
while they treat the Scriptures with no
more of reverence than they would show to
any other ancient book, and regard our
Lord Himself as they would regard any good
and wise philosopher (See Rationalism).
NEOPHYTE (vedqWros— newly planted).
I. A person newly baptized ; that is, newly
engrafted on Christ. The neophytes wore
white robes in token of their being cleansed
from sin, and the Sunday after Easter was
one of the days on which they put off those
garments, and hence it was called Dominica
in Albis. St Augustine thus explains the
custom : " PaschaUs solemnitas hodierna fes-

NICOLAITANS

527'

tivitate concluditur, et ideo hodie neophy-
torum habitus commutatur; ita tamen, ut
candor, qui de habitu deponitur, semper in
corde teneatur " (Horn. Ixxxvi.). II. A clerk
or novice promoted to a bishopric without
proceeding through the inferior orders. This
was frequently forbidden (1 Tim. iii. 6 ;.
Apost. Can. 80 ; Cone. Laod. c. 3, &c). [H.jt
NESTORIANS (See Mother of God).
The followers of Nestorius, bishop of Con
stantinople, who lived in the fifth century..
They believed that in Christ there were not-
only two natures, but two persons ; of which
the one was Divine, even the Eternal Word,
and the other, which was human, was the
man Jesus ; that these two persons had only
one aspect ; that the union between the Son
of God and the Son of man was formed in
the moment of the Virgin's conception, and
was never to be dissolved ; that it was not,
however, an union of nature or of person,
but only of will and affection ; that Christ
was therefore to be carefully distinguished
from God, who dwelt in Him as in His
temple ; and that Mary was to be called the
mother of Christ — xPl0"r0T°K0S —and not
the mother of God — deoroKos.
This heresy was condem>v^~~"-the fourth,
general council, that of Ephesus, d. 431 ;
in which all are anathematized who refuse-
to call the Virgin Mary the' mother of God
(See Badger's Nestorians and their Rituals)..
NEW STYLE. In 1752 an Act "for
regulatingthe commencement of the year,and
correcting the Calendar " was passed. From
this the present tables of the Prayer Book
were printed, not from the Sealed Books.
They are incorrect for finding Easter before-
1753. The year was made to begin with
January 1 instead of March 25, as in the
"Old Style." The "New Style" was first
introduced by Gregory XIII. in 1582, but
not adopted in England till 24 George II.
(See Calendar). [H.]
NEW TESTAMENT (See Testament).
NEW YEAR'S DAY. The 1st of Jan
uary was not originally connected with the
opening of the Christian year: indeed, it
was not " New Year's Day " till the year
1752 (See New Style). On this day, being
the eighth day after Christmas, is the festi
val of the ',' Circumcision of Christ " (See
Circumcision). [H.]
NEWEL. The central column round.
which the steps of a circular staircase wind.
It is a part of each step. A large circular
staircase like that in St. Paul's has no
newel. They are sometimes designed with
considerable taste, and carefully executed.
NICENE CREED (See Creed).
N1COLAITANS. Heretics who arose in
the Christian Chm-ch during the time of the
apostles, as appears from Rev. ii. 6, 15.
Some of the ancient fathers affirm that

528

NICOLAS, ST.

Nicolas, one of the seven first deacons, was
the founder of this sect; and that his
followers led lives of unrestrained indul
gence (Iren. cont. Heres. i. 26). Clement
of Alexandria, however, asserts that there is
no reason for thinking Nicolas to have
been given to immoralities' (Strom, iii. 4).
That there was asect of this name is certain,
but from whom or what that name is de
rived, or whether they taught the same doc
trines with the Gnostics is a matter of ques
tion (cf. Tertull, de prescript c. 46 ; Euseb.
H. E. iii. 29 ; Theod. Her. fab. iii. c. 1).
NICOLAS, ST. : Bishop and Confessor :
commemorated Dec. 6. He was a native of
Patera, in Asia Minor ; bishop of Myra in
Lycia ; died a.d. 342. His remains were re
moved from Myra to Bari on the Adriatic by
some merchants in 1087, for fear they should
be desecrated by the Mohammedans. Hence
St. Nicolas has been accounted the patron
of merchants and seafaring men. He is also
the patron saint of Russia. [H.]
NICOMEDE, ST. Supposed to have
been a disciple and fellow-labourer of St.
Peter. Refusing to sacrifice to idols in the
Diocletian persecution, he was beaten to
death with whips loaded with lead, or, ac
cording to another tradition, with a spiked
club. The day of his martyrdom is com
memorated in the Gregorian Sacramentary
on September 15. In our Calendar it is
June 1. [H.]
NIPTER (v'mTeiv: Latin, pediluvium).
The ceremony of washing feet. This is
performed by the Greek Christians on Thurs
day in Holy week in imitation of our
Saviour, who on that day washed His dis
ciples' feet with His own hands (See
Maundy- Tliursday).
In the monasteries, the abbot represents
¦our Saviour, and twelve of tbe monks the
twelve apostles. AmoDg these the steward
and porter have always a place ; the former
acts the part of St. Peter, and imitates his
refusal to let Jesus wash his feet ; the latter
personates the traitor Judas, and is loaded
with scoffs and derision. The office used on
this occasion is extant in the Euchologium.
NOCTURNS (Nocturnse horse, nocturnae
vigilia;). Services held during the night.
Anciently the night was divided, in re
ligious houses, into three parts, at each of
which certain psalms were said ; lauds fol
lowing at dawn. All the psalms were thus
appointed to be sung weekly. But there
was great neglect. To this reference is
made in the preface of the Prayer Book of
1549, "notwithstanding that the ancient
Fathers have divided the Psalms into seven
portions, whereof every one was called a
nocturn ; now of late time a few of them have
been said, and the rest utterly omitted." [H.]
NOETIANS. Christian heretics in the

NONCONFORMISTS
third century, followers of Noetus, a phi
losopher of Ephesus, who affirmed that
there was but one person in the Godhead,
and that the Word and the Holy Spirit
were but external denominations given to
God in consequence of different operations :
that as creator he is called Father ; as in
carnate, Son ; and as descending upon the
apostles, the Holy Ghost (Hippol. contr.
Her. ix. 5; Epiphan. Her. Ivii.) (See
Patripassians) .
NOMINALISTS. At the restoration of the
study of logic in the eleventh century, many
disputes took place, trivial in their origin,
but important on account of the colour
which they gave to religious controversy,
concerning the objects of logic. Agreeing
that the essential object of logic was the
discussion of universals,- as distinguished
from particular or individual things, two
parties were formed on the question whether
universals are words and names only, or
things and real essences. Those who de
clared them to be only names and words,
and who of course, therefore, determined that
logic was only conversant with words, were
caUed Nominalists, and basing their philo
sophy on that of Aristotle, were principally
supported by the talent and authority of
Roscellinus. Those who held that universals
were real existences, and so that logic was
conversant with things and realities, were
called Realists. They supported their hypo
thesis on the authority of Plato. Johannes
Scotus Erigena, in the ninth century, had
taught this doctrine, but without leaving
behind him any school of avowed followers.
The controversy with the Nominalists was
commenced in the eleventh century, and in
the thirteenth the greater part of the school
men were Realists.
NOMINATION. There is or was such
a thing occasionally as nomination of a clerk
to another person who has to present him
to the bishop, but it is probably obsolete.
In such cases the nominator was the real
patron, for the presenter was bound to present
the nominee unless he objected on the ground
of immorality, according to the books, which
had to be tried by a jury. If the nominator
did not act for six months, and the presenter
then presented before the bishop had collated
under the lapse, the bishop was too late and
had to accept the presentee.
NONCONFORMISTS (See Dissenters,
Methodists). Till the reign of Elizabeth
there was no community separated from the
Church of England. For though the Lol
lards were numerous, and laws against them
were passed from the time of Henry IV. to
Henry VIII., notably the bloody law of the
former king, still they were a party in the
Church. Nonconformity began with the
refugees from Geneva and Frankfort, who

NONES
about 1566 founded their own congrega
tions and discarded the use of the Prayer
Book. Various Acts of Parliament tell of
the increase of the Nonconformists, and
the desire on the part of the State to pre
vent the mischiefs of disunion. 1 Eliz. c.
2, sec. 14, ordered that all persons should
attend church, and absentees were to be
fined 12 pence. Twenty-three years later
the fine was increased to £20 a month;
and by 29 Eliz. c. 6, sec. 4, 6, on default of
this payment, the queen might, by process
out of the Exchequer, seize all the goods,
and two parts of the lands of the offender.
By 35 Eliz. c. 1, those not present at Divine
service for a month, and those who per
suaded people to attend conventicles, were
to he committed to prison without trial, till
they conformed; failing this they were to
abjure and depart the realm; and if still
disobedient they were to be declared guilty
of felony without benefit of clergy. This
Act, though intended to continue in force
only till the end of the next session of par
liament, was continued by the two succeed
ing parliaments, and the penalties were not
repealed till 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18, sec. 4.
22 Car. II. c. 1 — the conventicle Act — de
clared Elizabeth's Act to be in force, and
regulated the fines ; and the next year (1665)
the " Five MUe Act " was passed, which
enacted that those in orders, or pretended
orders, unless they made declaration of assent
to the Book of Common Prayer, and sub
scribed the oath of the illegality of taking
arms against the king, should not come,
except in passing upon the road, within
five miles of any city, or town corporate.
In 1670 another "Conventicle Act" was
passed; and the "Test Act " (1672) enacted
that all persons holding office under the
Crown should receive the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper within three months after
admittance. The idea had been that the
State ought to train its subjects in Chris
tian truth and reUgious practice; but ex
perience taught that this was impossible,
and that men would not have their opi
nions, if not their consciences, regulated by
Act of Parliament. Hence was passed the
Toleration Act of 1688, followed by others
in the same direction (See Toleration, Act
of). [H.]
NONES. I. A term employed in the
Roman Calendar, inserted in many of the old
editions of the Prayer Book. The Nones
were the fifth day of each month, excepting
in March, May, July, and October, when the
Nones fell on the seventh day. They were
so called from their being the ninth day in
each month before the Ides. II. The name
of the service held in mediasval times at 3
o'clock in the afternoon — the ninth hour. —
Blunt's An. P. Book; Stephens' Book of

NORMAN

529

Common Prayer, notes on the Calendar,
p. 270.
NONJURORS. Those conscientious men
who refused to renounce their oath of alle
giance to King James IL, and to transfer it
to the Prince of Orange. The nonjuring
bishops were Sancroft (Canterbury), Turner
(Ely), Lake (Chichester), Ken (Bath and
Wells), White (Peterborough), Thomas
(Worcester), Lloyd (Norwich), Frampton
(Gloucester), Cartwright (Chester). Besides
these, four hundred clergy were deprived for
refusing to renounce their oath. Of the
bishops, Thomas, Cartwright and Lake died
before deprivation; and when there came
a question as to whether other bishops
should be consecrated for the nonjuring
congregations, Ken and Frampton took no
part. Sancroft died before the consecration,
so there were three nonjuring bishops to per
form the office — Lloyd, White and Turner,
and they consecrated Hickes and Wagstaffe
suffragans of Thetford and Ipswich in 1693.
In 1713, Hickes, whose commission as suf
fragan had been dissolved by the death of
his diocesan, in a most irregular manner got
two Scotch bishops to consecrate with him
three other bishops ; and other unautho
rized and irregular consecrations foUowed.
Thus that which at first may have been a
rightful separation from the Church of Eng
land degenerated after a time into a schism.
The Ust of nonjurors is filled with names
of men eminent for their devotional theo
logy. — Lathbury's History of the Nonjurors,
1840. [H.] •
NORMAN. The highest development
of Romanesque architecture in England,
which succeeded the so-caUed Saxon (a ruder
form of Romanesque) at the Conquest, and
admitted the pointed arch which marks the
Transition, about 1 145. It must be observed,
however, that many buildings, generally
called Norman, and which agree with the
Norman style in all essential particulars ex
cept in the accident of their being built
before 1066, must, architecturally, be classed
with this style. The earliest dated example
of this style in England is probably the
portion of the refectory and the substructure
of the dormitory of Westminster Abbey,
usually attributed to the time of Edward
the Confessor. Part of the dormitory of
Canterbury Cathedral, the central tower and
transepts of St. Alban's Abbey, the tower
on the north side of Rochester Cathedral,
the west front of Malling Abbey, and the
keep of the Tower of London, date from
1066-1087. The Norman is so absolutely
distinguished from all Gothic orders by the
round arch, that it is needless to enter into
its minor peculiarities beyond saying that
the imitation of vegetable and animal forms
had not come in, but some Norman carving
2 M

530

NORTH SIDE

contains very intricate artificial patterns.
The great defect of Norman building was
the badness of its mortar, which has caused
the ruin of a vast quantity of beautiful work,
and especially of towers (See Buttress, Ca
pital, Cathedral, Mouldings, Pier, Pillar).
NORTH SIDE. According to the rubric
the minister at the Holy Communion is to
stand " at the north side of the Table." With
regard to this position there has been much
controversy. It seems advisable therefore
to give the reasons why some consider by
the " north side " that part of the table which
is on the left hand of the celebrant, facing
eastwards, and others, the north end of the
Table. I. (1) There is no doubt that the ordinary
primitive custom, both in prayer and worship,
was that the minister faced the east (see
East), and no deviation took place from the
ancient practice till the altar was directed
to be placed " table wise."
(2) The altar was considered as having
three divisions — the dexter side, the middle,
and tbe sinister side. This is clear from
the rubric in the Sarum Missal. " Sciendum
est autem quod quicquid a sacerdote dicitur
ante epistolam in dextro cornu altaris ex-
pleatur  csetera omnia in medio altaris
expleantur, nisi forte diaconus defuerit. Tunc
enim in sinistro cornu altaris legatur evan-
gelium." This cornu altaris in the Roman
Missal is called latus altaris, and the latus
altaris is the whole of the right or left, north
or south portion or side of the altar, at
which the priest stands, but always facing
east. (3) In the first Prayer Book of Edward
VI. the direction was that the priest " should
stand humbly afore the midst of the altar " ;
which was probably intended to prevent the
celebrant moving about more than necessary.
He only had to turn to the people at the
times appointed.
(4) In 1552 the term north side was re
inserted from the Sarum Missal. Bucer,
whose advice was largely taken with regard
to the revision of the Prayer Book, gained
his knowledge of the book, as he was an
indifferent English scholar, from a Latin
translation made by Aless (see Aless). In
this the old word was used, and therefore
the cornu or latus was intended. And
Bucer found no fault with it. The altar,
however, was ordered to be placed " in the
fashion of a table, and to be placed in such
part of the quire or chancel as should be
most meet, so that the ministers and com
municants should be separated from the rest
of the people " (Burnet, Hist Reform, ii.
327). The effect of this was that the min
ister stood in the same place with regard to
the table, but he would naturally be facing
the south.

NORTH SIDE
(5) When the irreverence consequent on
the novel position of the table came to be
realized, it was replaced altarwise at the
east end of the church. The controversy
then arose hotly as to whether the celebrant
should also return to the old position — at
the cornu, latus, or side of the holy table
or altar. This was carried on with vigour,
especially by Dr. Peter Heylin on the one
side, and Archbishop Williams on the other,
in the 17th century.
(6) The rubric in the Scotch Liturgy is
ambiguous ; the phrase " north side, or north
end " being introduced. This may be taken
to imply that the "north end" and "north
side" are equivalent terms (See 2nd part
of this article). But it may equally be un
derstood as giving a latitude to the minister
to stand in either position ; and this, con
sidering the circumstances under which the
Scotch Prayer Book was compiled, and the
controversy between the Puritans and Ra
tionalists, as Laud calls them (i.e. admirers
of Durand's Rationale), which was going
on, seems the more probable (See Laud's
Works, iii. 347).
(7) The rubric in our present Prayer
Book is similar to that of 1552. As the
words "north side" are used, it would
seem to have been the intention of the
Revisers that the minister should stand
in the old position with regard to the
altar, i.e. at the north cornu or latus^:
translated side.
(8) In the order of the service at the
coronation of Queen Victoria (June 28th,
1838), which is similar to that used at all
previous consecrations since the Reforma
tion, the Queen's chair was " set for her on
the south side of the altar." On the north
side " sits the archbishop in a purple velvet
chair" : "on the south side east of the
Queen's chair stand the dean, Sec." "On
the right hand of the Queen stands the
Bishop of Durham, and beyond him on the
same side the lords that carried the swords :
on her left hand the Bishop of Bath and
Wells, and the great Lord Chamberlain."
These directions show that the Queen could
not have been at the south end of the altar.
But an eye-witness also states the fact : " I
was present," writes Mr. G. T. 0. Bridge-
man (Guardian, Jan. 20th, 1875), "at the
coronation of Queen Victoria; and I can
vouch for the fact that her seat at that part
of the service was actually before tbe south
part of the west side of the holy table ; and,
indeed, from the context, the direction could
not possibly be interpreted to mean the
south end. If, then, custom from time im
memorial has recognised this interpretation
of the south side, it is difficult to see how
a similar interpretation of the north side
can be justly excluded" (Coronation Ser-

NORTH SIDE
vice according to the Use of the' Church of
England, by J. F. Russell, B.C.L., F.S.A.,
1875 ; Maskell, Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. ii. lxx.,
&c). [H.]
II. On the other hand, in the opinion of
some, and according to certain legal deci
sions, " end " and " side " are the same.
One of the most contested points in
• he ritualistic lawsuits was the question
whether the priest is at liberty to say the
prayer of consecration facing eastwards, i.e.
to what is always called the east end of the
church, whether it stands cardinally or not.
At St. Peter's, Rome, the so-called east end
is at the west ; and " orientation " seems
to be very little regarded in Italy. In the
same way, the " north side of the table " is
universally taken and has been decided to
mean that side of it which is north relatively
to that which is or is called east. The
verbal dispute whether " side " can mean
what is otherwise called "end" has been
put aside by decisions in conformity with
ordinary definitions in dictionaries, and also
with the very decisive phrase in the Scotch
liturgy, which was framed from ours, " the
north side or end of the table ; " which was
probably used also to cover both positions
of the table itself, whether a long side faces
north or east. A side of a parallelogram
is not less a side because it is not the
widest. And unquestionably it is not a
corner, as some clergymen seem to imagine.
And as the rubric positively directs the min
ister to begin the service " standing at the
north side of the table," no ingenuity can
get over that whatever doubt there may
be as to the consecration prayer. Standing
anywhere else but at the north side, until
the consecration prayer at any rate, is an
absolute defiance of the plainest written
law and decisions of the Supreme Court.
Every conceivable argument about the
lawful position at consecration has been
thrashed out over and over again in the
various lawsuits and books, and it is useless
to say more than that in the Purchas case
(3 P. C. 634) the Judicial Committee unani
mously decided (the defendant not appear
ing either by himself or counsel) that as soon
as the priest has finished " ordering the bread
and wine " on the table according to the
rubric before the consecration prayer, he
must return to the north side — if he had left
it, which he need not do unless he likes,
because there only can he break the bread
in the sight of the people ; and that because
"standing before the table" only means
standing anywhere at the table. But in the
Ridsdale case (2 Prob. Div. 304) a later Ju
dicial Committee, which was notoriously
divided on some points, held that he may
stand before the table in the sense of any
where round it, east, west, north, or south,

NORTH SIDE

531

all through the prayer, provided he takes care
to break the bread and take the cup (but he
must not " elevate " it, as the Papists do) in
the sight of the people : not a very easy feat
to perform with his back to them ; and it is
remarkable that in the only case since
decided, it was held that the priest had not
successfully performed it, and he was con
demned accordingly. That Committee added
that if they were bound to decide which side
the priest ought to stand at in consecrating,
they should say the north, for that manifest
reason. Whichever side the makers of the
present Prayer Book really meant — and
every side but south has had its advocates,
for the east side was undoubtedly used in
early times — -nobody can believe that they
meant it to be optional ; and therefore that
decision is the most certain of all possible
ones to be wrong, in the sense of being
contrary to the original intention. How-
over, such is the law now, viz. : the position
is optional during consecration if the priest
can perform the feat aforesaid, but the north
side is imperative until then, and therefore
also, we presume, during the short remainder
of the service which is clearly not covered
by this consecration rubric.
It should be mentioned that a still earlier
decision in the Mackonochie case (2 P. C.
365) was generally misunderstood (and by no
means unnaturally, from an obscurity in its
language which Lord Cairns confessed to in
the Ridsdale case) to have actually ordered
standing before, in the sense of " west of," the
table, which, he said, was quite contrary to
the intention of the Court. It was foreseen
by some people, and it is strange that, it was
not by him — or, that he would not attend
to it when it was pointed out to him — that
ordinary persons would be sure to misun
derstand it, as many did who had not the
least wish to move from their old north side
habits. It is no less strange that he should
have thought it worth while (for he avowed
his opinion early in a speech) to vary the
unanimous Purchas judgment of the same
court and two previous Chancellors, for such
a hair-splitting reason as he gave for it,
while admitting that the proper place (if
not the only legal one) was that which the
Purchas judgment had affirmed. In the
same way the unlucky and unnecessary
introduction of the word "dresses" before
(church) " decorations " in the Liddell v.
Westerton judgment, which had nothing to
do with dresses or vestments, led to some
years of clerical misapprehension of the law
about them. There seems to have been in
all times a fatality of ambiguity in the
rubrics and statutes and judgments upon
these matters, either from carelessness or
something worse. See Dean Howson's Be
fore the Table. [G.]
2 m 2

532

NOTES

NOTES OF THE CHURCH. The
necessity of devising some general notes
of the Church, and of not entering at
once on controversial debates concerning
all points of doctrine and discipline, was
early perceived by Christian theologians.
Tertullian (Prescr. xiii. xx.) appeals, in
refutation of the heresies of his age, to the
antiquity of the Church derived from the
apostles, and its priority to all heretical
communities ; Irenasus (Contr. Her. 1, 2, 3)
to the unity of the Church's doctrines, and
the succession of her bishops from the
apostles ; St. Augustine (De V. Bel. 8 : de
Unit Eccl. 6, 17) to oecumenical consent,
and the name " Catholic ; " St. Jerome,
to the continued duration of the Church
from the apostles, and the very appella
tion of the Christian name. In mod
ern times, Bellarmine the Romanist (De
Notis Eccl. iv. 1-3) added several other
notes, making 15 in all, such as, — agree
ment with the primitive Church in doc
trine ; union of members among themselves
and with their head; sanctity of doctrine
and of founders ; continuance of miracles
and prophecy ; confession of adversaries ;
the unhappy end of those who are opposed
to the Church, and the temporal felicity
conferred on it. Jeremy Taylor, however,
refutes these, proving them not to be truly
"Notes of the Church "(vol. x. p. 357,Heber's
ed.). Luther (De Eccl. Notis, vii. 147, ed.
1550) assigned as notes of the true Church,
the true and uncorrupted preaching of the
gospel; administration of baptism, of the
Eucharist, and of tbe keys ; a legitimate
ministry, public service in a known tongue,
and tribulations internally and externally.
Calvin (Inst iv. i. 10) reckons only
truth of doctrine, and right administration
of the sacraments, and seems to reject suc
cession. The learned theologians of the
Church of England adopt a different view
in some respects. Dr. Field (Of the Ch. ii.
i. 2-5) admits the following notes of the
Church : truth of doctrine ; use of sacra
ments and means instituted by Christ;
union under lawful ministers; antiquity
without change of doctrine ; lawful suc
cession, i.e. with true doctrine ; and uni
versality in the successive sense, i.e. the
prevalence of the Church successively in all
nations. Bishop Taylor admits, as notes of
the Church, antiquity, duration, succession
of bishops, union of members among them
selves and with Christ, sanctity of doc
trine, &c. (Dissuasive from Popery, pt. ii.).
The attributes affirmed of the Church in
the Nicene Creed (as enlarged at Con
stantinople in a.d. 381) may be taken as
" Notes of the Church — One, Holy, Catholic,
and Apostolic." — Palmer, treatise on the
Cliurch, i. 17-21.

NOVATIANS
NOVATIANS. A Christian sect which
sprang up in the third century, called after
Novatian, their founder. This man, a
priest of Rome, opposed the elevation of
Cornelius to the Episcopate of tbe Roman
Church, either, as some assert, because he
aimed at that dignity himself, or, as is
more likely, because he thought that
Cornelius had displayed too great a lenity
towards those who had lapsed during the-
Decian persecution. Novatian was a maD
of unsocial and stern habits (Cornel. Epist
in Euseb. H. E. vi. 43), and it was not till
Novatus of Carthage joined him, that the
schism really took place (Cypr. Ep. 49).
Novatian was consecrated by three Italian
bishops from a distance, who were by
some means induced to perform the rite,
but of whom two were deposed, and the
other on repentance admitted only to lay
communion (Euseb. H. E. vi. 43 : Cypr.
Ep. xlix.-lv.). The Novatians maintained
that those who had lapsed ought indeed to
be exhorted to repentance, but never to be
absolved by the Church, reserving then-
absolution to God alone, who had the
power and authority to remit sins. Hence
they came to deny, in general, that the
Church had the power of remittihg mortal
sins, upon the offender's repentance. And
they even went so far as to deny that
apostates could ever hope for pardon even '
from God himself: a doctrine which so
terrified some of those who had lapsed and
repented, that, in despair, they quite ab
jured Christianity, and returned to Pa
ganism. They also asserted the unlawfulness
of second marriages; against which they
were as severe as against apostates ; denying
communion for ever to such persons as-
married a second time after baptism, and
treating widows who married again as'
adulteresses. They rebaptized those they
gained over to their sect. This, however,,
was the practice in the African Church.
(Tertul. de Baptismo, 15 : de Presc. 12, &c).
In baptising, they used the received forms
of the Church, and had the same belief
concerning the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost, in Whose name tbey baptized. St.
Cyprian rejected their baptism, as he did
that of all heretics (Ep. 70) ; but it was
admitted by the eighth canon of the Coun
cil of Nice. The Novatians took the name-
of Cathari, that is, the Pure, or Puritans ;
and like the Pharisees among the Jews,
they would not suffer other men to come
near them, lest their purity should be-
defiled thereby (Socr. H. E. vii. 25).
The schism which Novatian had formed
in the Roman Church was not confined to-
Rome, nor to Italy, nor even to the West.
It made its way into the East, and subsisted
a long time at Alexandria, in several prov-

NOVICES
inces of Asia, at Constantinople, in Scythia,
and in Africa. The Novatians abounded
particularly in Phrygia and Paphlagonia.
Constantine seems to have favoured them a
little by a law of the year 326 ; which
preserves to them their churches and
burying-places, provided they never be
longed to the Catholic Church (Cod.
Theodos. lib. xvi., tit. 5, 1. 2). The Nova
tians, or Cathari, were also treated gently
by the Councils of Nicsea (Can. viii.),
Laodicea, a.d. 367 (Can. vii.), and Con
stantinople, a.d. 381 (Can. vii.), for they
were not regarded as heretical on the great
doctrines of the faith. They had to give in
a written renunciation of their errors, and
were then to be received. The Novatian
sect was reduced to a very inconsiderable
party about the end of the fifth century
(Gieseler, c. iv. sec. 69; Walch, Hist, der
Ketzereien, ii. p. 226 seq. ; Bingham, iv. 7).
NOVICES, in countries where Monachism
prevails, are those persons who are candi
dates, or probationers, for a reUgious life.
The time of their probation is called the
Noviciate ; after which, if their behaviour is
approved, they are professed, that is, ad
mitted into the order, and allowed to make
the vows, wear the habit, &c.
I. The period and severity of the pro
bation varied at different times. Gregory
the Great, finding that there had been laxity
in this respect, ordered that two years at
least should be required (Ep. x. 24). But
the usual time seems to have been one year,
during which the novice underwent severe
training. He was placed under a senior
monk, or "master"; was not allowed to
stir out of his chamber without leave ; had
hard menial labours to perform; had to
rest his head bent forward as a token of
humility (Reg. Bened. Comment, c. 7) ; and
from " lauds " to " prime," when the monks
had retired to their cells, he had to stay up
in his dormitory learning psalms (Hospin.
Hist Monach. iii. c. 23). If under these
circumstances the novice wished to change
his determination, he could do so. At the
end of two, and of eight months, and again
at the end of the year, the rule was read to
him bidding him go back to the world if he
wished it. In the earliest times, indeed,
there was no vow of perpetuity, and if a
novice, after making his profession, turned
back to the world, he would forfeit what
he had brought to the monastery, but be
allowed to depart, and "make his peace with
God " (St. Chrysost. adv. Vituperatores Vite
Monast. lib. iii.; Justin. Novell, v.). But
afterwards, if a novice did at the last moment
retract, he might go, but under such sentence
of penance for his levity of purpose as made
it hard for him.
II. The novices were generally lodged

NUNS

533

in a dormitory at the end of the monks'
cloister. The Cistercians usually placed
them apart, under their master, at the west
side of the cloister ; and this was the case
at Winchester. In the old Cathedral of
Canterbury indeed their school was in the
north tower of the nave ; but in Benedictine
monasteries they studied in the western alley
of the great cloister. — Hospinian, de Orig.
Monach.; Bingham, vii. c. 3; Mabillon,
Pref. iv. vii. 150 ; Bellarmine, de Monach.
lib. 2, c. 6; Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 402;
Diet of Christ. Ant. 1405 seq. [H.1
NUMBERS, THE BOOK OF. A can
onical book of the Old Testament. It is the
fourth book of the Pentateuch, and receives
its name from the numbering of the families
of Israel by Moses and Aaron (See Penta
teuch : Smith's Diet, qf Bible).
NUNS (Sax. nunne ; Fr. nonne). Wo
men who devote themselves to a religious
life. The word is probably derived from
nonna, a term implying filial reverence
as given, in the first place, to a mother,
grandmother, or aged nurse. The males
among the "religious" were called nonni
in early times (Hieron. Ep. '22, ad Eu-
stochium). Another derivation given by
Hospinian is from vovis, an Egypto-Greek
word used sometimes by PaUadius (Hosp. de
Monach. lib. i. c. 1).
1. These were women in the ancient
Christian Church, who made public and
open profession of religion as virgins, before
the monastic life or name was known.
These are frequently mentioned by the early
Fathers, such as Ignatius, Tertullian, and
Cyprian ; and they are sometimes called
ecclesiastical virgins to distinguish them
from such as embraced the monastic life,
when monasteries multiplied; and also
canonice from their being registered in the
Canon, or books of the Church (Soz. H. E.
lib. 8, c. 23 : Socrat. 1, 17). But they did
not live in communities, nor were they
bound by- vows (Cypr. Ep. 4, 62 : 62 ad
Pompon.). The empress Helena shewed
great interest in these devoted women, and
often entertained them and waited on them
at her own table (Socrat. H. E. i. 17).
II. In the 4th century we read of " sacred
virgins" living with their parents, while
mention is also made of communities. The
third Council of Carthage, a.d. 397, orders
that if any of these virgins ("sacrse vir-
gines " ) should be deprived of their parents,
they should be placed (commendentur) in a
monastery of virgins, or with other women
(Can. 33). St. Chrysostom mentions associ
ations of virgins (ca?tus virginum) in
Egypt (Horn, in Matt. c. 8) ; St. Ambrose
in Alexandria, and the East generally (De
Virg. 7 : de Virgin. 10) ; and references are
made to them, among other early writers, by

534

NUNS

St. Augustine (De Mor. Eccl. c. 31) and St.
Jerome, who complained that parents were
ready to get rid of ill-favoured daughters
in this way (Ep. ad Demetriad.). At the
end of the 4th century there were said to
have been 40,000 " religious " women in
Egypt. III. With regard to the age of admission,
rules were various. St. Ambrose says that
it should not depend upon years, but upon
maturity of character (De Virg. 7). Sixteen
or seventeen years of age was by some con
sidered sufficient, and this was the age
which St. Basil allowed (Ep. ad Amphiloch.
c. 18). But opinions varied ; and while at
the third Council of Carthage (Can. 4) vir
gins might be consecrated at the age of
twenty-five, at the Council of Saragossa,
held about the same date, the veil was
forbidden before the age of forty (Can. 8). As
time went on the greater age seems to
have been considered necessary, and forty
years was the age assigned by the Coun
cil of Agde, about 100 years after those
of Carthage and Saragossa (Can. 19, a.d.
506). There was a difference made, how
ever, between professing, and taking the
veil, and this may account for the discre
pancy. Gregory the Great pronounced that
nuns might not take the veil before sixty
years of age, but the profession might be
made earlier (Ep. iv. 11). The Emperor
Charles the Great, in a.d. 789 and 805, fixed
the time for profession according to the old
councils, at twenty-five (Capital, c. 46: c.
14). IV. The rule of perpetual virginity does
not seem to have been at first an obligatory
one. It is clear from St. Cyprian that in his
time the virgins were under no obligation of
any formal vow (Bp. Fell, on St. Cyprian, 4).
" If they are unwilling to persevere," he
says, " or are unable, let them marry." " Si
perseverare nolunt, vel non possunt : melius
est nubant quam in ignem delictis suis
cadant " (Ep. lxii. al. 4, ad Pompon.). But
in the following ages marriages of nuns
were regarded with great disapprobation,
and censures of the Church were inflicted on
them. St. Augustine wrote against such
marriages, which he considered 'as very
culpable, though not invalid (De Bono
Viduitat. 8, 9, 10). St. Jerome spoke more
sternly on the subject (Ep. ad Demetriad.),
and St. Basil considered the marriage of
" one who is already the spouse of Christ " as
adultery (Ep. ad Amphiloch. c. 18). Many
of the councils regarded the marriage of a
nun as a matter of immorality, and ordered
penance before forgiveness. Thus the
Council of Chalcedon (a.d. 451), whUe pre
scribing penance according to the discretion
of the bishop, recommended the erring
sister to mercy (0. 16). Other councils,

NUNS
however, were not" so lenient, and Gregory
the Great spoke in the strongest terms of
the marriage of a nun, characterizing it as a
great wickedness (Ep. iv. 24); It is to be
observed however that he dealt not only
with the marriage, but the chastity of the
professed (Ep. iv. 9). The Imperial laws
decreed that if any virgin was veiled before
the age of forty, either by the violence or
hatred of her parents (which was a case
which often happened), she was at liberty to
marry (Cod. Theod. Nov. viii. ix.). It was
not till the Benedictine rule had been es
tablished in Europe, that the vow of vir
ginity was considered irrevocable.
V. The consecration of virgins bad
some things peculiar in it. It was usually
performed publicly in the church by the
bishop, the usual times for the ceremony
being Epiphany, Easter, and the festivals
of the Apostles (Gelasius, Ep. ix. ad Episc,
Lucan. c. 12). The virgin made a public
profession of her resolution, and then the
bishop put upon her the accustomed habit
of sacred - virgins. One part of this habit
was a -veil, called the sacrum velamen,
which was: a sign of belonging to Christ
alone (Athan. Exhort, ad Spons. Dei);
another was a kind of mitre, or coronet,
worn on the head. In some places the
custom of shaving professed virgins pre
vailed ; as it did in the monasteries of Syria
and Egypt in St. Jerome's time: but the
Council of Gangra strongly condemned this
practice, accounting that a woman's hair
was given her by God as a mark of subjec
tion. And the custom was to gather up and
tie the tresses,: as a distinction between this
and the worldly marriage, when the tresses
would be loosened and flowing. ¦ Theodosius
the Great added a civil sanction to the
ecclesiastical decree against cutting off the
hair, whence it appears that the tonsure of
virgins was anciently no allowed custom of
the Church, however it came to prevail in
the contrary practice of later ages (Cod.
Tlieod. xvi. ii. 27).
An ancient Gallican form at the " veiling "
of a nun is given by MabiUon (De Liturg.
Gall. 3, p. 311). An English "Order of
Consecration of Nuns " may be found in Mas-
kell's " Monumenta"of the Anglican Church,
of which he says, " very much of this office
can be traced to the highest antiquity in
the English Church : many of the prayers
are in the earliest pontifical extant, that of
Archbishop Egbert, a contemporary of the-
Venerable Bede " (vol. iii. p. 334). The in
terior government of a nunnery is entrusted
to an abbess or superior, but the spiritual
rule is in the hands of the bishop. The
various orders of nuns were founded on
modifications of the three great rules of St.
Basil, St. Benedict, and St. Augustine.

NUNC DIMITTIS
VI. The earliest regulation of convents
in England was made at the Council of
Cloveshoo, a.d. 747, when irregular visits of
laymen, relaxation of discipline, and the use
of gay apparel was forbidden. In a.d. 877,
by tbe dispensation of the king or bishop a
nun might leave tbe convent and marry ;
nevertheless in a.d. 785 it had been declared
adulterous to marry a nun, and in 943 such
marriage was branded as incest. This dis
crepancy may be accounted for by the fact
that there were two classes of nuns, the
"mynchen" (povdxai) and "nonnse," of
whom the former observed a stricter dis
cipline. Frequent rules were laid down with
regard to their dress, as at the Council of
Osney, a.d. 1222 (Can. 32). The Be'guine
nuns were founded by St. Begga (a.d. 698)
under the Augustine rule ; the Benedictine
nuns, founded by St. Scholastica in 530, had
a bouse at Wilton in 773; the Franciscans,
or Minoresses, founded 1212, came to Eng
land in 1293, and were first established in
the "Minories," London; the "poor Clares,"
founded in 1225 by St. Clara of Assisi, were
another branch ; the Bridgetines were estab
lished at Sion, Middlesex, in 1415. Nunnery
churches of the Benedictines, amongst other
places, remain at Jesus College, Cambridge,
Romsey, and St. Helens, Bishopsgate, and
a smaller one at, Minster, Isle of Sheppey,
where the parishioners occupied one aisle,
divided from the rest of the church. — Bing
ham's Ant. vii. 4 : ii. 22 ; Broughton, Biblio.
vol. ii. ; Wilkins' Concil. i. 585 : ii. 51, Sec. ;
Hook's Archbishops, i. 227 : ii. 751 : iii. 347 ;
Walcott's Sacr. Arch. ; Diet. Christ. Ant. ;
Blunt's Die*, s. v. "Nuns." [H]
NUNC DIMITTIS. The first words in
Latin of the Song of Simeon, " Lord, now
lettest thou thy servant depart in peace "
(St. Luke ii. 29), appointed as one of the
hymns to be used after the second lesson
at evensong. It was used in the church
services in the most ancient times. It is
found in the Apostolical Constitutions, and
at the present day this hymn is repeated
at evening prayer in the patriarchate of
Constantinople. The hymn occurs in the
Latin office for compline, from which, and
from the vesper service, our office of Evening
Prayer was compiled.
NUNCIO. An ambassador from the pope
to some prince or state; or a person who
attends on the pope's behalf at a congress,
or at an assembly of several ambassadors.
A nuncio, in fact, is the pope's ambassador,
as the internuncio is his envoy extraordinary.
A nuncio has a jurisdiction, and may delegate
judges in all the states where he resides,
except in France, where he has no authority
beyond that of a simple ambassador. Some
times a nuncio is invested with the fimctions
of a legatus natus (See Legate).

OATH

535

0 SAPIENTIA. "0 Wisdom"— the
opening words of the first of seven short
antiphons formerly sung between Decem
ber 16 and Christmas Eve. Each is founded
on some title of our Lord derived from Holy
Scripture. The other antiphons respectively
began : (2) 0 Adonai, (3) 0 Radix Jesu, (4)
0 Clavis David, (5) 0 Oriens Splendor, (6)
0 Rex Gentium, (7) 0 Emmanuel. They
were vulgarly called "the O's."
OATH (Sax. ath). I. At Coronations. From
very early times in Christian States, the
Sovereign, when consecrated and crowned,
took an oath to uphold religion and main
tain the integrity of the kingdom. The
Anglo-Saxon oath of King Ethelred is still
preserved (Cotton MS. B. xiij. : it is printed
in Hickes' Instit Anglo-Saxonice), and to
that of St. Edward reference in subsequent
coronations is made. The oath was given
to Edward III. to rule " par le glorious roy
Seint Edward vestre predecessour" ; to Henry
VIII. that he would " kepe the spiritual laws
and libertees graunted to the clergy and people
your noble predecessor and Kyng, Seint
Edward." At James II.'s coronation similar
words were used (Rolls, iii. 417; New
Rymer,ii. 33, &c; Maskell, Mon. Rit. ii. 113,
&c). The coronation oath taken by Queen
Victoria dates from 1 WiU. & Mary ; slightly
changed by 6 Anne, c. 8, and 40 Geo. III.
c. 67, by which the "settlement of the
United Church of England and Ireland,"
was substituted for the " settlement of the
realm ." The archbishop asked the question,
"Will you to the utmost of your Power
maintain the laws of God, the true profession
of the Gospel and the Protestant Reformed
Religion established by Law? And will
you maintain and preserve inviolably the
settlement of the United Church of England
and Ireland, and the Doctrine, Worship, and
Government thereof, as by Law established
within England and Ireland, and the Terri
tories thereunto belonging ? And will you
preserve unto the Bishops and Clergy of
England and Ireland, and to the churches
there committed to their charge, all such
Rights and Privileges, as by Law do, or shall
appertain to Them, or any of Them? " After
this, laying her right hand on the Holy
Gospel, she said, "The things which I have
here before promised, I will perform and
keep. So help me God." She kissed the
book, and signed the oath (Coronation
Service, Sec, edited by J. F. Russell, 1875).
II. Oath of the Queen's supremacy, &c. :
ministered to those to be ordained priests or
deacons, or consecrated bishops (See Supre-

536

OBADIAH

OBLATIONS

macy). By the Clergy Subscription Act,
1865, 28 & 29 Vict. c. cxxiii, oaths are' not
to be administered during -the services of
ordination, and a new form of subscription
was enacted, and afterwards the canons
were altered accordingly.
III. At the consecration of a bishop an
oath of obedience from the bishop elect to the
archbishop is ministered, in the words " I,
N, chosen Bishop of the Church and See of
N, do profess and promise all due reverence
and obedience to the Archbishop, and to the
Metropolitical Church of N, and to their
successors : So help me God, through Jesus
Christ." This is taken from the Sarum Pontifical,
and occurs with slight variations in the
Winton and Bangor Pontificals. In. the
Roman Pontifical, the oath of obedience is
here made to the Pope (Catal. i. 178).
IV. " As we confess that vain and rash
swearing is forbidden Christian men by our
Lord Jesus Christ, and James his apostle,
so we judge that the Christian religion doth
not prohibit, but that a man may swear
when the magistrate requireth, in a cause
of faith and charity, so it be done according
to the prophet's teaching, in justice, judg
ment, and truth." — Article xxxix. The first
oath mentioned in the Holy Scriptures is
that of Abraham, Gen. xiv. 22, 23. [H]
OBADIAH, THE PROPHECY OF. A
canonical book of the Old Testament. The
time when this prophecy was delivered is
wholly uncertain. The Hebrews believe
that this prophet was the same with the
governor of Ahab's house, mentioned in the
First Book of Kings, who hid and fed the
hundred prophets, whom Jezebel would
have destroyed. Some say he was that
Obadiah whom Josiah made overseer of the
works of the temple. But most writers
make him contemporary with Hosea, Amos,
and Joel (See Speaker's Commentary).
OBIIT, or OBIT. An office performed at
funerals, when tbe corpse was in the church
before it was buried; it afterwards came to
be performed on the anniversary of the death
of a benefactor. Thus, in many of our
colleges, the obiit or anniversary of the death
of tbe founder is piously observed (See
Commemoration). The obiit Sundays (once
a quarter) at St. George's at Windsor, were
celebrated formerly with great magnificence,
and are to a certain degree still. In Ken-
net's Register, p. 765 (as quoted in the
Hierurgia Anglicana, p. 211), there is the
following notice : " 1662, Sept. 10.— This
day was published the service that is per
formed in the King's Free Chapel of St.
George, in the castle of Windsor, upon Obit
Sunday in the morning (that is, the Sunday
before every quarter day), and at the offer
ing up of the achievements of the deceased

Knights of the Garter. The offices for
"Obiits" are given in Blunt's Annotated
Prayer Book, il. 302.
OBJECTIVE : belonging to, or contained
in the object. A term much used in scho
lastic theology. " Certainty is distinguished
into objective and subjective; objective is
when the proposition is certainly true of
itself; subjective is when we are certain of
the truth of it " ( Watts). Applying the
terms, for example to worship, objective
worship is the adoration of God without re
ference to the person adoring ; subjective wor
ship is that offered for the advantage of the
subject, that is to say, the person offering it. —
Hamilton's Reid's Works, notes in fin. [H.]
OBLATIONS (oblationes, munera,
TTpoo-qbopdi, bapa). Offerings to God. I. In
the wider sense of the word by oblations is
meant anything offered to God and His
Church, whether in lands or goods. With
out referring to the gifts or alms which were
customary among the Jews (see Alms) it is
only necessary to point out what St. Paul
says on the subject, when writing to the
Corinthians and Galatians, and through
them to the Christian communities generally. '
He urges that all should yield something to
God for the saints every Lord's day (1 Cor.
xvi. 2 ; Gal. ii. 10). From a passage in Ter-
tuUian (Apol. c 39) it would seem that the
weekly offering was considered too frequent,
and a monthly collection was what was re
commended. But probably he refers to
charitable coUections as distinct from the
ecclesiastical offerings, which were weekly
(Dodgson's Trans.). The oblations were
certainly to be voluntary " nemo compellitur,
sed sponte offert." Justin Martyr (Apol. i. 69)
speaks of all giving as they were disposed:
the fund being deposited with the president,
or perhaps bishop (npoeoras), who was
the curator of aU in need. St. Cyprian
speaks of the necessity of offering something
for the poor (de Oper. et Eleemos.), and St,
Augustine says that "a man of ability"
(idoneus) ought " to be ashamed of another
man's oblations ; " and therefore he exhorts
everyone to bring their own oblations to be
consecrated at the altar, though they would
not be offered on the altar (Bingham, Ant.
xv. ii.). It was always the custom for com
municants to offer something at receiving
the Sacrament, as weU for holy uses, as for
the relief of the poor, or other good, pur
poses. In the first ages of the Church,
those deposita pietatis, which are mentioned
by the early writers, were all voluntary
oblations, and. they were received in lieu of
tithes ; for the Christians at that time lived
chiefly in cities, and gave out of their com
mon stock, both to maintain the church, and
those who served at the altar.
But when their numbers increased, and

OBLATIONS
they were spread abroad in the countries,
then a more fixed maintenance was necessary
for the clergy ; but still oblations were made
by the people, of which, if offered in the
mother church, the bishop sometimes had
half, and the other was divided amongst the
clergy ; but if offered in a parish church, the
bishop had a third part, and no more. But
there was no rule with regard to this, and
indeed the division in that way was after
wards reprobated (Du Pin, cent. 9, p. 113).
These oblations, which at first were volun
tary, became afterwards, by a continual
payment, due by custom.
It is true there are canons which require
eveiy one who approaches the altar to make
¦some oblation to it, as a thing convenient to
be done. And it is probable that, in obedience
to the canons, it became customary for every
man who made a wiU (before the Reforma
tion) to devise something to the high altar
of the church where he Uved, and some
thing likewise to the mother church or
cathedral; and those who were to be buried
in the (church usually gave something to
wards its reparations.
But at the great festivals aU people were
expected to offer something, not only as
convenient, but as a duty ; but the propor
tion was left to the discretion of the giver.
The bounty of the Christians in early ages
was so great, that men would buUd churches
on their own lands, but often, it may be
supposed, with the purpose that they might
have an equal share of those oblations with
the clergy.
And this might be the occasion that
the emperors Constantine and Valentinian
made laws to prohibit such excessive gifts,
which in those days were kept in store
houses built for that very purpose.
But in succeeding ages there was little
occasion for such laws, for the zeal of the
people was so much abated, that, instead of
those repositories, the clergy had little chests
to contain those gifts, till at last they
dwindled into so small a portion, that now, as
a quaint writer observes, they can scarce be
felt in the parson's pocket.
II. The word oblations may be Ulustrated
from the coronation service of Queen Victoria.
Her "first oblation" was a paU or altar-
cloth of gold, and an ingot of gold : the next
a sword : and afterwards at the offertory
were two "oblations"; the first being bread
¦and wine for the Communion, which were
" by the archbishop received from the queen
¦(who was kneeling), and reverently placed
upon the altar, and decently covered with a
fine linen cloth : " with a prayer, " Bless, 0
Lord, we beseech Thee, these Thy gifts, and
¦sanctify them unto their holy use," Sec.
" Then the queen, kneeling as before, makes
• her second oblation, a purse of gold;" and

OBLATIONS

537

then follows a prayer to God "to receive
these oblations " (Maskell's Mon. Rit. ii. ;
Russell's Coronation Service).
III. It was in the primitive times, and up
to 1552, required that bread and wine,
mixed with water, should form part of the
people's oblations (Iren. adv. Her. iv. 18,
&c. ; Apost Can. 3), and these only were
offered on the altar, or in the sanctuary.
" It is not lawful," says an early canon,
" for anything to be offered in the sanctuary,
but bread and wine and water" (Cone.
Garth. A.D. 397; Cone. Hard. iii. 397).
And this rule was observed afterwards (Ordo
Rom. ii. 6). As long as the customary
oblations of the people contained the " bread,
and wine and water," the eucbaristic elements
were selected from them, the wine always
being mixed with water — to KtKpapivov
norhpuov (Iren. v. c. 2 : Just. Mart. Apol. 1)
— and the bread, that commonly used (see
Mixed Chalice, Water). Bona conjectures that
when the people discontinued offering bread,
it became the duty of the clergy to provide
the bread for the Eucharist, and they used
unleavened bread (Rer. Lit. i. xxiii. n. 11).
At the present time, in the English Church,
the bread and wine are ordered to be pro
vided by the churchwardens, without any re
ference to the oblations of the people. [H.]
IV. The word "oblation" occurs only
once in the Prayer Book — i.e. in the prayer
for the Church Militant. In the first Prayer
Book of Edward VI., 1549, the priest was
ordered in this place to set the bread and
wine upon the altar. The words " and ob
lations" were inserted in 1662, when also
it was directed that the priest " shall then
place upon the table so much bread and
wine, as he shall think sufficient." In the
Prayer Books of 1552 and 1559 there was
no direction for putting either the alms or
the elements on the table ; and the Church
Militant prayer and the whole service was
sUent about oblations, and the rubric be
fore it directed " the churchwardens to
collect the devotions of the people." Nor
was there anything materially different in the
(unauthorized) Prayer Book put forth by
James I. in 1604. In 1661 the rubric was
changed to duecting " the alms and other de
votions of the people " to be collected during
the offertory sentences, and to be laid on the
Table ; and then again, as in 1549 substan
tially, the priest was directed at that point
to " place the bread and wine on the table "
also. And then the word " oblations" was
added after " alms," with the rubrical note,
" if there be no alms or oblations," &c. Bishop
Patrick argued from this last alteration only
that by " oblations " are to be understood the
elements (see Elements). It is also argued
that " alms and oblations " in the prayer and
its rubrical note evidently relate to the " alms

53S

OBLATIONS

and other devotions of the people" in the
offertory rubric. It is remarkable that Laud's
Scotch Prayer Book of 1637 did contain the
words, which he did not venture to intro
duce into the EngUsh one, " The Presbyter
shall then offer up and place the bread and
wine upon the Lord's table." From these
facts readers must draw their own conclu
sions whether " oblations " in the Church
Militant prayer mean any special devotions
of the people, or the elements which are
not offered by the people, but provided by
the churchwardens in obedience to the
law. The Latin Prayer Book which was pre
pared by royal authority soon after the
authorised one of 1662, for use in the
universities and other churches where the
Latin service might be used under the Act
of Uniformity, is decisive on this point, and
the more so because it was done by what
may be called a succession of High Church
men and under the influence of Archbishop
Sancroft, a nonjuror. They were Earle,
Bishop of SaUsbury (omitting their previous
dignities), Pearson, Bishop of Chester, Arch
bishop Dolben, and Dr. Durel, Dean of
Windsor, who finished it for publication in
1670. An account of that book was pub
lished in 1882 by the Rev. C. Marshall,
containing a good deal of other history of
the rubrics on this point, too long to use
here. Seven editions of it appear to have been
issued before 1704, but they are very scarce,
even in great libraries, and some of those
few copies somehow want the Catechism,
which accordingly Marshall reprinted. Sun
dry other versions were afterwards made,
without authority ; and Bagster's, in his
Polyglot series, in 1821, seems to have been
compiled from all of them ; and so was
another, by J. W. Parker (Oxford) in 1848.
Canons Bright and Medd made a new one,
somewhat different from all tbe old ones in
some important points, in 1867. The Latin
version of the rubric for Oblations before
the Church Militant prayer has oblationes
in pios usus, for tbe English "other devo
tions of the people," which is decisive as to
the meaning of oblations therein. And it
is clear from sundry other facts in the his
tory, including Laud's Scotch Prayer Book
of 1637, which directs the oblations to be
brought in the bason, that the idea of
oblations meaning or including the Ele
ments was entertained by nobody at that
time, or till long afterwards. Moreover,
in Elizabeth's Latin Prayer Book, and in
James I.'s (which is valuable as an in
terpretation, both before and after 1662), the
rubric at the end of the service gives
"deeimas, oblationes, ceteraque debita," as
the equivalent for "ecclesiastical duties;"
and the whole history shows that "alms"

OCCASIONAL PRAYERS
meant gifts expressly for the poor, and
" oblations " gifts in pios usus generaUy,
and particularly for the clergy.
This Latin version, addmg in pios usus
as an explanation of the meaning of obla
tions, also proves the lawfulness of usin«
the offertory for some special object and not
merely as alms for the poor"; and it is
evident that the object must be declared
beforehand by the minister, or else written
down by each donor, which would be im
practicable. This version is the more valu
able as a contemporanea expositio of the
meaning of " oblations," because it was for
the special use of the clergy in their Convoca
tions and the Universities, who could judge of
its accuracy better than anybody else. None
of tbe later ones have had that value. [G.]
OBSECRATIONS. Prayers for deliverance
from sin and its consequences, based upon
the successive steps in the work of Redemp
tion, from the Incarnation to the Ascension
and the Bestowal of the Holy Ghost. They
imply that each act in our Blessed Lord's
life has a special saving virtue of its own.
The Litany is usually divided into invo
cations, deprecations, obsecrations, interces
sions, versicles and prayers. The obsecra
tions begin at the eleventh petition of our
Litany. The expressions used must appeal
to every heart, yet John Knox caUed these
" a certain conjuring of God," and branded
them as Popish ! [H.]
OBSEQUIES (Lat. obsequium, com
plaisance, from obsequi, to follow; also
called exequies). Funeral rites and solem
nities. Donatus thus explains the word:
"Quia mortuus praribat, casteri seque-
bantur in funere." Durandus gives this
more remote explanation : " Quia celebran-
tur, dum mortui extra vivos sepeliundi fer-
untur; vel quia extia horas canonicas
speciales, et singulares habent observantias "
(lib. 7, c. 35). The simpler explanation is
that apparently accepted by MUton :
" Him I'll solemnly attend
With silent obsequy, and funeral train."
(See Burial). [H.]
OCCASIONAL PRAYERS. These were
appended to the morning and evening prayer
in 1661, but some of the prayers had been
in use at an earlier date. The prayers for
rain, and for fair weather, were inserted in
the Prayer Book of 1549 at the end of the
Communion service. In the Prayer Book
of 1552 these, with four other "occasional"
prayers, were placed at the end of the Litany,
before the prayer of St. Chrysostom. These
were two for " Time of Dearth ; " one " In
time of War," and one " In time of Plague
or Sickness." It is interesting to note with
regard to the addition of this latter prayer,
that there was an epidemic of sweating sick
ness, and dearth, in 1551 (Strype, Mem.

OCTAVE
Eccl. vi. bk. ii. c. iv.). Thanksgivings cor
responding to these were added in 1604, the
other additions, both of prayers and thanks
givings, were made in 1661. They are
generally original compositions, but based
on ancient models. The collect, for instance,
for " Fine Weather " is an expansion of one
in the Gregorian Sacramentary. The
prayer that "may be said after any of
the former" is also taken from the Gre
gorian Sacramentary. It was in the Salis
bury Use, and in all the Prymers of the
English Church. The medieval form was
— " Preie we. Orisoun. Deus cui proprium.
God to whom it is propre to be merciful
and to spare evermore, undirfonge (i.e. un
dertake) oure preieris: and the meroifnl-
nesse of Thi . pitie asoile hem, that the
chayne of trespas bindith. Bi Crist oure
Lord. So be it."— Maskell, Mon. Rit ii. 107 ;
Palmer, Orig. Liturg. i. p. 306. [H.]
OCTAVE. The octave is the eighth day
after any principal festival of the Church.
In ancient times it was customary to ob
serve these days with much devotion, in
cluding the whole period also from the
festival to the octave. It was thought
that the subject and occasion of these high
festivals called for their being lengthened
out in this manner ; and the period of eight
days was chosen because the Jews celebrated
their greater feasts, some for seven days, and
the Feast of Tabernacles for eight days.
Such Jewish institutions being only types
and shadows, the Christians thought it fit
not to have their commemorations of shorter
duration. In our Prayer Book we retain the obser
vance of the octaves of Christmas, Easter,
Ascension, and Whitsunday, by using, for
seven days after each of these festivals, an
appropriate "Preface," in the Communion
Service, if that sacrament is administered
on any of these days. The preface for Whit
sunday is, however, only to be used for six
days after, because the seventh (or octave
of Whitsunday) would be Trinity Sunday,
which has a preface of its own.
The first two days of the octaves of Easter
and Whitsunday have special services, and
in some cathedrals and churches are observed
with nearly the same solemnity as the festival
itself. It appears by the Pietas Londinensis,
published in 1714, that in the church of St.
Dunstan in the West, the Holy Communion
was administered on every day during the
octaves of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun
tide. But this was not an exceptional case.
At the present time the octaves of the. great
festivals are frequently observed, and also
those of the particular dedication of the
churches. There is, however, no rule with
regard to such observances ; it is left to the
discretion of the ministers.

OFFERTORY

538"

ffiCUMENICAL (ohovpeviKos). I. The
word was applied by the Romans to im
ply all the people contained in the empire.
In the Septuagint and in the New Testa
ment it is used for the whole inhabited
earth. The councils at which the bishops
from all parts of the world attended are
called "oecumenical," and those acknow
ledged under this title are the Councils (1)
of Niczea, a.d. 325 ; (2) of Constantinople,
a.d. 381 ; (3) of Ephesus, a.d. 431; (4) of
Chalcedon, a.d. 451 ; (5 and 6) the 2nd and
3rd of Constantinople, a.d. 553 and 680 ;
and (7) the 2nd of Nicasa, a.d. 787 (See
Councils). II. To the patriarch of Con
stantinople the title of oecumenical or uni
versal patriarch was at one time given
(Just. Novel. 7, 16, 42). [H.]
OFFERING DAYS. The four general
offering days were Christmas Day, Easter
Day, Whitsunday, and the feast of the
dedication of the parish church. By an Act
passed in 1536 Midsummer and Michaelmas
were substituted for the two latter days.
The offerings were for the curate. This
custom is now rarely observed, but it used
to be the case that the king and queen in
their chapel royal, or wherever they were at
church on those days, never omitted it, buii
arose from their seat and went in solemn
manner to present their offering upon their
knees at God's altar. And then was read
by the priest or bishop attending, the sen
tence here prescribed, 1 Cor. ix. 13.
OFFERTORY. That part of the com
munion service in which the offerings are
made. The custom of making an offering
at the communion is certainly apostolical,
as appears from 1 Cor. xvi. 2 : "On the first
day of the week let every one lay by him,
in store as God hath prospered him." Which
custom continued down to the following
ages, as appears from different passages in
Justin Martyr, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St.
Ambrose, St. Chrysostom, and other ancient
writers (See Elements, Oblations). In the
Prayer Book of 1549 the people are directed
to come and offer unto the poor men's box,
and to make their accustomed offerings to
the curate. In 1552 the rubric was, " then
shall the churchwardens, or some other by
them appointed, gather the devotion of the
people, and put the same into the poor
men's box: and upon the offering days
appointed (see Offering Days) every man.
and woman shall pay to the curate the due
and accustomed offerings." The present
rubric was added in 1661. It is a modifi
cation of one proposed by Bishop Cosin,
which ran, "after the Divine service ended,.
the money shall be divided, one half to the
priest [to provide the books of divinity
(erased)], the other half to be employed to
some pious or charitable use for the decent

540

OFFICE

OLD CATHOLICS

furnishing of the church, or the relief of the
poor at the discretion of the priest and
churchwardens, or other officers of the place
that are for that purpose appointed " (Mas
kell, Anc. Lit. 53 seq. ; Blunt's Parish
Priest, p. 332 ; Annot P. B. ii. 199).
II. OFFERTORY, Service of. (Cantus
offertorii ; antiphona ad offertorium ; offer-
enda). A service of song while the oblations
were collected andreceived. This is of ancient
date. St. Augustine speaks of the singing
of hymns at the oblation, both before the
¦collection and when the offerings were being
distributed to the people, and he says that
this custom sprang up at Carthage (Retract.
11). The word offertorium seems to have
been first used by Isidore a.d. 595, when
he says, "Offertoria quse in sacrificiorum
honore canuntur " (De Off. i. 161). There
were no doubt different usages in different
churches. At Milan, where music was much
-cultivated, the offertoria, or offerenda were
very solemnly sung (Martene, de Ant. Ecc.
Rit. i. iv. xii. ord. 3). The second " Ordo
Romanus," a.d. 800, prescribes that the
" offertorium " should be sung with verses
(Mus. Hal. ii. 46, 47). The offertory sung
during the offering is frequently referred to
in later works (Murat. Liturg. Rom. Vit.
ii. 1). Before the Reformation a short
anthem, called the offertorium, was sung at
the time of collection, with a prayer follow
ing. In the "Uses" of Sarum and York
the rubric is " deinde dicitur offertorium " ;
in that of Hereford, " Sacerdos — canat cum
suis ministris offertorium" (Miss. Ebor.
fol. 73 : Sarum, 72). The sentences at the
offertory are set to varied melodies in Mar-
beck's book, according to the licence given
in King Edward VI. 's First Book, either to
sing or to say them. This licence is with
drawn by the rubric as it now stands, so
altered in King Edward's Second Book, since
the saying of the sentences by the priest is
expressly enjoined (Palmer, Orig. Lit. ii.
74). In many churches now, however, after
the priest has acted according to the rubric
and said one or two sentences, the choir
sing others — a practice which has not yet
been declared illegal. [H.]
Some persons think that there is a dis
tinction between the money given at the
offertory when there is a communion, and
when there is not, and that it must be all
given to the poor when there is one, but
not when there is not. The rubric recog
nises no such distinction, but the " other
devotions of the people" are distinguished
from mere alms in the Church MUitant
prayer, and surely allow any application of
them which is announced beforehand by
tihe minister, as well as any indicated by
the givers. [G.]
OFFICE, from officium ; contracted

horn opificium, i.e. opi, crude form of opes,
wealth, also aid and help, and facere, to do,
and so implies service done— an act of
duty or worship.
OFFICES. Services offered before God.
In the primitive times there were daily
offices, as may be gathered from many of
the earliest Christian writers, though no
account has come to us which tells exactly
of what they consisted. They were prob
ably in number seven, in accordance with
the Psalmist's maxim, " Seven times a day
do I praise Thee " (Ps. cxix. 164), and this
was certainly the rule in the 4th century.
In the mediaeval times these offices became
very complex, and the Reformers condensed
them into Morning and Evening Service —
Matins or Evensong (See Hours). But all
religious services are offices. [H.]
OFFICIAL. The official is the person to
whom cognisance of causes is committed by
such as have an ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
In early times bishops availed themselves of
assistants, and St. Basil and Gregory were
so employed. About the end of the 13th
century, bishops frequently used vicars-
general and officials. The Official Principal
is the assistant of the bishop in matters of
civil or criminal nature, and aids him in
points of law, and to defend tbe rights of
the church. The official of an archdeacon
stands in like relation to him as the chan-
ceUor does to the bishop.
OGEE (Ogive, French). An inflected
curve; in mathematical language a curve
of contrary flexure, or one formed of two
segments ending opposite ways. This
curve occurs chiefly in mouldings, and is
principally characteristic of the later styles;
but it occurs in other styles also, and has
several variations according to its place and
date. The word is used in French as a
generic term for pointed architecture.
OIL. A great many superstitions arose
in early times with regard to oil. (1) The
"oil of the martyrs" or "holy oil" was
considered of great efficacy in curing dis
eases, and strengthening the weak. This
was supposed to flow from the relics of
saints and martyrs, from their tombs, from
their icons, and from the lamps which burnt
before their shrines (See Diet of Christian
Antiquities, ii. 1453). (2) OU was used in
the case of catechumens, who were once or
oftener anointed; the oil being caUed "hal
lowed," or " exorcised" ; at baptisms and in
the case of the sick (see Church, Baptism,
Extreme Unction). But the frequent use
of oil was altogether discarded at the Re
formation, except at coronations, in conse
quence of the superstitious ideas thereto
attached. [H.]
OLD CATHOLICS. This term originated
in Germany, and it expresses the beUef that

OLD CATHOLICS
the Catholic faith, as handed down from the
primitive times, may be held without forcing
upon believers ideas engendered in modern
times, such as the infallibility of the pope, and
other doctrines which have not any ancient
sanction. Several writers of late years have
dealt with this subject, but, it need hardly be
said, with obstinate opposition on the part of
the Roman Church. In 1863 a conference, at
which about a hundred divines attended, was
held at Munich, under the presidency of Dr.
Dollinger. The object was to form a bond
of union between the Catholic divines of Ger
many, and to illustrate the real harmony
between religious and scientific truth. The
president's address (Die Vergangenheit und
Gegenwart der kath. Theologie) contained
an excellent sketch of the growth of Catholic
Theology from the Alexandrine school of the
second century, down to the present day;
a full summary of it was given in the Home
and Foreign Review for January 1864. It
was far too liberal for Rome, and shortly
afterwards a Papal Brief was sent to the
Archbishop of Munich, denouncing the
' spirit of the German theology, and asserting
the supremacy of the Roman congregations.
After this came the Syllabus, which was the
work of the Jesuits, who for some years have
been supreme at Rome, and had prepared a
definition of the Catholic faith, which would
dispose of all controversies by the infallible
arbitrament of Rome (Stimmen aus Maria
Loach, Freiburg 1868-70).
The Archbishop of Munich thereupon
summoned the Theological Faculty and
called upon them for their adhesion to the
Vatican decrees. This they refused ; and
DoUinger wrote his "Erklarung," in which
he re-asserted his rejection of the dogma of
papal infallibility, as contrary to Scripture,
tradition, and the early councils. He was
formally excommunicated as Dr. Friedrich
had been before : but the movement excited
the intensest interest; and in accordance
with the custom of Rome, excommunications
were poured forth wholesale : the last sacra
ments were refused to those who had signed
an address of sympathy with Dr. Dollinger,
and the parish priests were forbidden to
marry any who held the obnoxious views.
The Government, though appealed to, acted
throughout in a weak and indecisive manner.
The next step was the "Old Catholic
Congress " which met at Munich, Sept. 22,
1871. Deputies attended from eveiy part
of Germany, and there were representatives
from other European nations, and from
America. The doctrinal basis and scope of
the movement was here definitely laid down.
The members protested against being thrust
out of Church communion, because of their
ideas which were those of the primitive
Christians; they declared the censures of

OLD CATHOLICS

541

the Church of Rome to be objectless and
arbitrary, and ultra vires : they shewed that
Pius IX. had gone against the confession of
faith contained in the Tridentine Creed;
they rejected the Infallibility of the Pope, as
given in the Vatican decrees ; they declared
that a council like the Vatican Council of
Rome could have no oecumenical authority ;
that the decrees of late councils must at all
events be shown to be not contrary to the
ancient councils ; they looked to a reunion
with the Oriental and Russian Churches, as
there was no real ground for separation ; and
they hoped for a gradual understanding with
the Protestant Episcopal Churches. All
these, and other points with regard to
clerical discipline, were unanimously ac
cepted. There was, however, a general
desire that no schism should take place.
All desired to be members of that Catholic
Church, in which the Romanists are only
equally members, and have no right to
dictate terms to others. In many places
this Ibroad and liberal spirit has been re
cognised. In Austria no difficulty is made
about giving the Sacrament to the " Old
Catholics," and separate congregations have
not been formed. Dr. Schulte, who presided
at the first and the second congress, was on
intimate terms with the Cardinal Archbishop
of Prague. But the idea was always the
same, namely,, a reform of the CathoUe
Church, in her head, and its members.
Many pamphlets and books were written by
such men as Dr. Michaud, Professor Hilgers,
Reusth, Langen and Knoodt, who were
excommunicated by the Archbishop of
Cologne ; and above all, Dr. Dollinger, who
delivered at Munich, 1872, some remarkable
lectures on the " Reunion of the Churches."
The clergy as a rule were in favour of the
" Old Catholic movement," but they were
held back from expressing their opinions
because they are under the power of their
bishops, and to go against what they decree
would imply deprivation and ruin, in the
present state of the law. But the move
ment has, nevertheless, gathered strength,
and in 1872, at the Congress held at Cologne,
the Archbishop of Utrecht was present, and
several other bishops. From England the
Bishops of Lincoln and Ely (Wordsworth
and Browne) were there, from America the
Bishop of Maryland. Letters of sympathy
were also received from the Eastern Arch
bishops, the Bishop of Lichfield (Selwyn),
and many distinguished English clergymen
and laymen, who were unable to attend.
Schulte was the president, and in his address
defined then: standpoint as the " Catholic
one." " Those," he said, " who do not hold
to the ground of positive belief in Christian
ity, as contained in the Scriptures, and the
truly CEcumenical Councils, we cannot regard

542

OPHITES

as Catholics, nor can they have any active
participation in our work." "Catholic
Unity," amidst general applause, was in
sisted on by the Archbishop of Utrecht
(Dr. Loos). The result of this congress was
a great feeling in favour of the propositions
then brought forward. In Switzerland,
Reinkens and Michelis did a great work.
Reinkens has since been appointed Mission
ary Bishop for the Old Catholics of Germany.
He was consecrated at Rotterdam, 1873,
according to the Roman rite, but without
any recognition of the Pope's supremacy.
This movement is one which must appeal
fo all who have Catholic unity at their
hearts, and those who do not recognise the
power of the Vatican dogmas may have some
grounds for the hope that through this endea
vour may be furthered the Union of Christ
endom (Lectures on Reunion of the Churches,
Dollinger ; Erkldrung an den Erzbischof von
Munclien, by DoUinger ; Die papstlichen
Dekrete, by Reinkens, 1871 ; Das Vatican-
Dogma, by Langen, Bonn, 1871 ; Lord
Acton's Sendschreiben an einen deutschen
Bischof Nordlingen, 1870 ; Home and Fo
reign Review, 1864 ; British Revieiv, 1870 ;
Theological Review, 1872 ; Blunt's Diet.
of Sects, 394). [H.j
OPHITES (from ocpis, a serpent); also
called Serpentinians. A ridiculous sect of
heretics, who had for their leader a man
called Euphrates. They entertained al
most the same fantastic opinions that were
held by the other Egyptian Gnostics (See
Gnostics). But besides these, they main
tained the following particular tenet (whence
they received the name of Ophites) : " That
the Serpent by which our first parents were
deceived, was either Christ himself, or
Sophia [Wisdom], concealed under the
form of that animal ; " and in consequence
of this opinion they are said to have
nourished a certain number of serpents,
which they looked upon as sacred, and to
which they offered a sort of worship, a
subordinate kind of divine honours. Origen
gives some account of them, but calls them
an " obscure sect " (contr. Cels. iii. 13 : vi.
24, 28, 33). There is some curious infor
mation about the Ophites in the lately dis
covered work of Hippolytus (Hippol. Refut.
v. 6) ; Rose's Neander, ii. 101.
OPTION. An archbishop had the choice
or option of any one dignity or benefice in
the gift of every bishop consecrated or con
firmed by him, which ho might confer as
he pleased. This was styled his option.
The privilege has been relinquished by
English archbishops since 1845, in conse
quence of a construction put on some words
in the Cathedral Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 113,
sect. 42). " That it shall not be lawful for
any spiritual person to sell or assign any

ORATORIO
patronage or presentation belonging to him
by virtue of any dignity or spiritual office
held by him."
An archbishop's options during the life
of the bishops who had given them were
his personal property, and went to his ex
ecutors, and were once sold by auction.
OPUS OPERATUM. An expression fre
quently occurring in discussions respecting
the efficacy of the sacraments, &c, import
ing a necessary spiritual effect flowing from
tbe outward administration (from the thing
done), irrespective of the moral qualities of
the recipient. This doctrine is alleged as
one of the corruptions of the Church of
Rome, and, if earned out, would obviously
equalize, in a great measure, the benefits
received by the worthy and the unworthy
who approach the altar, and would justify
the administration of baptism to the heathen,
&c, not only on consent, but by the appU-
cation of physical force.
In a certain sense it is unquestionably
true that all the appointed means of grace
have an effect ex opere operato, inasmuch as
the act itself, though inefficacious in its
own nature, is an institution of God, and
consecrated by Him as an instrument not to
be made void at the caprice of man. Thus,
the preaching of the gospel is inevitably a
savour of life or of death. The administra
tion of baptism is invariably an admission
into the Church. But that the use of an
appointed ordinance goes beyond this, and
results in all cases in a moral effect on the
individual, and in the insuring of higher
portions of Divine grace, ex necessitate, is
contrary to the views of the Church, the
doctrine of Scripture, and the preservation
of man's free agency.
ORARIUM (See Stole).
ORATORIO. A musical composition
consisting of several parts, of which the
subject is always sacred, and intended to be
performed in a church. The origin of this
kind of spiritual and musical composition,
which has now become much developed, is
found in the plan of Filippo Neri, in the
early part of the sixteenth century, to arrest
the attention of those to whom he preached,
by procuring the execution of pieces of
sacred music of more than common interest
before and after his sermon. This custom,
which commenced in the congregation of
the Oratory (whence the name Oratorio),
was imitated by all the societies of the same
foundation, and soon became so popular that
the best masters, both in composition and in
execution, were found to take a part in it.
The performance in the time of Filippo Neri
himself was scarcely more than a cantata,
and afterwards in some places degenerated
into a musical drama, accompanied with
action and scenic representation, so as to

ORATORY
present much of the character of a musical
mystery (See Moralities). But it was
also the forerunner of the modern oratorio —
the sublime compositions of Bach and
Handel, and those who have followed in
their steps. In England the first oratorio
produced was Handel's "Esther," which
was composed (the words being abridged
from Racine's tragedy) for the Duke of
Chandos's chapel at Cannons, and there
performed in 1720 ; but that which has ever
been the most esteemed is the " Messiah,"
which was at first rejected in London, and
brought out at Dublin. In the present age
¦of music oratorios are performed frequently
in some cathedrals and other churches, St.
Paul's Cathedral having set a good example.
Those most frequently chosen are Bach's
Passion music, Handel's " Messiah," Men
delssohn's " EUjah," and " St. Paul," &c.
ORATORY (Oratorium). A name given
by Christians to certain places of religious
worship. In ecclesiastical antiquity, the term
houses of prayer, or oratories, is frequently
given to churches in general, of which
there are innumerable instances in ancient
Christian writers (Euseb. lib. x. c. 3, &c. ;
Soc. H. E. i. 18 ; Soz. ii. 5). But generally
the name oratory seems confined to private
chapels, or places of worship set up for the
convenience of monasteries (St Aug. Epist.
211, sec. 7) or- of private families. In the
latter case they depended on the parochial
churches, and differed from them in this,
that they were only places of prayer, but
not for celebrating the communion; or, if
that were at any time allowed to private
families, yet, at least, upon great and solemn
festivals, they were to resort for communion
to the parish churches. — Broughton, Biblio.
ii. s. v. Diet. Christ. Ant. 1464.
ORATORY, PRIESTS OF THE. There
are two congregations of monks, one in Italy,
the other in France, which are called by
this name.
I. The priests of the oratory in Italy had
for their founder Philip Neri, a native of
Florence, who, in the year 1548, founded at
Rome the Confraternity of the Holy Trinity,
which originally consisted of but fifteen
poor persons, who assembled in the church
of St. Saviour in campo, every first Sunday
in the month, to practise the exercises of
piety prescribed by the holy founder. The
pope gave leave to assemble in the church
of St. Girolamo della Carita, from the Ora
torio or chapel in which church they derived
their name. Their numbers very soon in
creased, and in 1574 the Florentines at
Eome, with the permission of Pope Gregory
XIII., buUt a very spacious oratory, in
which Neri continued his religious assemblies.
The pope likewise gave him the parochial

ORATORY, PRIESTS OF THE 543
church of Vallicella, and, the same year,
approved the constitutions he had drawn
up for the government of his congregation,
of which St. Philip bimself was the first
general. This new institute soon made a great
progress, and divers other establishments
were made on the same model; particu
larly at Naples, Milan, Fermo, and Pa
lermo. The founder having resigned the
office of general, he was succeeded therein
by Baronius, who was afterwards promoted
to the dignity of a cardinal. Neri died the
25th of May, 1595, and was canonized in
1622 by Pope Gregory XV. After his
death, this congregation made a further pro
gress in Italy, and has produced several
cardinals and eminent writers, as Baronius,
Odoric Bainaldi, and others.
II. The priests of the Oratory in France
were established upon the model of those in
Italy, and owe their rise to Peter de Berulle,
a native of Champagne, who resolved upon
this foundation, in order to restore the mon
astic system, and to revive the splendour of
the ecclesiastical state, which was greatly
sunk through the miseries of the civil wars,
the increase of heresies, and a general corrup
tion of manners, and debasement of morals.
To this end he assembled a community of
ecclesiastics, in 1611, in the suburb of St.
James, where is at present the famous mon
astery of Val-de-Grace ; the intention being
really to oppose the Jesuits. They obtained
the king's letters patent for their estabUsh
ment ; and, in 1613, Pope Paul V. approved
this congregation under the title of the
Oratory of Jesus. Berulle was a friend of
Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. He
solicited the dispensation for her marriage at
Rome, and accompanied her to England.
The English schism, as he caUed it, he at
tributed to the unconciUatory spirit with
which Henry VIII. was met at Rome. He
had made a vow in early Ufe to accept no
ecclesiastical dignity, but Urban VIII. dis
pensed with his vow, and made him a
cardinal. Richeheu was jealous of his in
fluence, and as he died suddenly in 1629
there were suspicions that his death was
attributable to the minister's agency, but of
this there was not the smallest evidence.
After his death the priests of the Oratory
made great progress in France and other
countries. This order had eleven houses in
the Low Countries, one at Liege, two in the
county of Avignon, and one in Savoy, be
sides fifty-eight in France. The first house,
which was, as it were, the mother of aU the
rest, was that of the Street St. Honore, at
Paris, where the general resided. The priests
of this congregation were not, properly speak
ing, monks, being obUged to no vows, and
their institute being purely ecclesiastical or

544-

ORDEAL

sacerdotal. They are called Fathers of the
Oratory, because they have no churches
in which the sacraments are administered,
but only chapels or oratories, in which they
read prayers, and preach. The Oratorians
have now an establishment in England.
ORDEAL (Sax. ordal, or ordel; Ger.
urtheil; D. oordeel. The last syllable " deal "
isto distribute or distinguish, and the prefix
"or" means "without," thus signifying a
dealing out, separation or discrimination,
hence "a decision." An appeal to the
judgment of Almighty God, in criminal
cases, when the iunocence or guUt of the
accused rested on insufficient evidence.
Among the Saxons, if any person was
charged with theft, adultery, murder, treason,
perjury, &c, in these cases, if the person
neither pleaded guilty, nor could be con
victed by legal evidence, it was either in
the prosecutor's or judge's power to put
him upon the ordeal ; and provided he
passed through this test unhurt, he was
discharged : otherwise he was put into the
hands of justice, to be punished as the law
directed, in case he had been cast by
the ordinary forms of prosecution. For
we are to observe, that this trial by ordeal
was not designed for the punishment of
those in whose cases the ordinary forms
had miscarried; the intention of it was
rather to clear the truth, where it could
not be otherwise discovered, and make way
for the execution of tbe law.
Among the tests were (1) throwing the ac
cused into water ; causing him (2) to thrust
his arm into boUing water, (3) to carry a red
hot iron, (4) to walk blindfold and barefoot
amongst red hot ploughshares, (5) to eat
corsned, or consecrated bread, which would
choke the guilty. To these the Normans
added trial by wager of battle (See Battle).
Dunstan was subjected to the ordeal of cold
water ; Queen Emma to that of fire. But
the tidal by ordeal was never really sanctioned
by the Church (Hook's Archbishops, i. 352) ;
and common as it had been in England, and
other parts of Christendom, being indeed
directly encouraged by Charles the Great,
it fell several times under the censure of
the Church and State : thus Louis, and
Lothair his successor, emperors of Germany,
positively forbade the ordeal by cold water.
The trial likewise by scalding water, and
burning iron, was condemned by Pope
Stephen V. It is probable they might think
it a rash way of proceeding, and a tempting
of God; and that it was unreasonable to
put innocence upon supernatural proof, and
pronounce a man guilty, unless he had a
miracle to acquit him. The first public dis
countenance of it from the State which we
meet with in England, was in tbe third year
of King Henry III. Most of the judges in

ORDERS
their circuits received ah order from the
king and council not to put any person
upon the trial by ordeal. And though we
meet with no express law afterwards to this
purpose, yet this method of trial, standing
condemned by the canons, languished by
degrees, and at last died out (Spehnan's
Gloss. 439 ; Stephen's Blackstone, iv. 475 ;
Lingard, ii. 290; Hallam, Mid. Aqes, iii'
294). '
ORDER. I. The service in the Prayer
Book for morning and evening is styled the
" Order for Morning Prayer." The word in
tbe sense here intended means simply rec-u-
lation, and so is equivalent to " prescribed
form," being derived from the Latin ordo.
In this sense it is also used with regard to
the administration of the Holy Communion
— the " Order of Communion " having been
authorised in 1547 by Convocation and
ParUament, and issued under a Proclama
tion of the Crown on March 8, 1547-8.
The "order" began with the exhortation
which was reproduced in the Prayer Book
of 1549, and is identical with that in our
present Prayer. Book, except that the last
paragraph is omitted. The word "order"
is in our Prayer Book only used, beside the
above, in connexion with the offices for
Confirmation, Visitation of the Sick, and
Burial of the Dead; but, of course, every
authorised service is an " order." [H.]
II. The rules or laws of a monastic in
stitution; and afterwards, in a secondaiy
sense, the several monastics living under
the same rule or order. Thus the Order qf
Cluny signifies literally the new rule of
discipline prescribed by Odo to the Bene
dictines already assembled in the monastery
of Cluny; but secondarily, and in the
more popular sense, the great body of
monastic institutions, wherever established,
which voluntarily subjected themselves to
the same rule.
ORDERS, HOLY (See Bishop, Clergy,
Deacon, Ordinal, Ordination, Presbyter,
Priest). " It is evident unto aU men dili
gently reading the Holy Scriptures and an
cient authors, that from the apostles' time
there have been these orders of ministers
in Christ's Church; bishops, priests, and
deacons. Which offices were evermore had
in such reverent estimation, that no man
might presume to execute any of them ex
cept he were first called, tried, examined,
and known to have such qualities as are
requisite for the same : and also by public
prayer, with imposition of hands, were ap
proved and admitted thereunto by lawful
authority. And therefore, to the intent
that these orders might be continued
and reverently used and esteemed, in
the Church of England no man shall
be accounted or taken to be a bishop,

ORDERS
priest, or deacon of the Church of Eng
land or suffered to execute any of the
said functions, except he be called, tried,
examined, and admitted there unto, accord
ing to the form hereafter following, or
hath had formerly episcopal consecration
or ordination." — Preface to the English
Ordinal. As it is here said, in the ancient Church
these three orders of ministry, as estab
lished by- Christ and His apostles, univer
sally prevailed. But, besides the bishops,
priests, and deacons, there were, in most
of the Churches, other ecclesiastical per
sons of inferior rank, who were allowed to
take part in the ministrations of religion.
These constituted what are called the in
ferior orders, and in some of the ancient
canons they have the name of " clergy."
There is this great difference between
the three holy orders and the others, that
the former are everywhere mentioned as
those degrees of men whose ministrations
were known and distinguished, and with
out which no Church was looked upon as
complete ; but to show that the inferior
orders were never thought to be necessary
in the same degree, let it be considered
that different Churches, or the same Church
in different ages, had more or fewer of the
inferior orders. In some were only readers ;
in others subdeacons, exorcists, and acolyths.
The Apostolic Canons mention only sub-
deacons, readers, and singers. The Laodi
cean enumerates these, and also exorcists
and ostiaries. But while there was no
standing rule respecting these merely ec
clesiastical orders, the three essential grades
of the ministry were found in all parts of
the Church.
In the Church of England, the following
are the regulations respecting admission
to Holy Orders observed in the various
dioceses, as given in Hodgson's- " Instruc
tions." Persons desirous of being admitted as
candidates for deacon's orders, are recom
mended to make a written application to
the bishop,* six months before the time of
ordination, stating their age, coUege, aca
demical degree, and the usual place of their
residence ; together with the names of any
persons of respectability to whom they are
best known, and to whom the bishop may
apply, if he thinks fit, for further informa
tion concerning them.
The following six papers are to be sent
by a candidate for deacon's orders, to the
bishop in whose diocese the curacy which
is to serve as a title is situate, three weeks
before tbe day of ordination, or at such other
time as the bishop shaU appoint; and in
* As the practice may not be alike in every diocese,
application should be made by a candidate to the bishop's
secretary for instructions.

ORDERS

545

due time he will be informed by the bishop's
secretary when and where to attend for
examination. 1. Letters testimonial from his college;
and in case the candidate shall have quitted
college, he must also present letters testi
monial for the period elapsed since he quitted
college, in the following form, signed by
three bene Seed clergymen, and countersigned
by the bishop of the diocese in which their
benefices are respectively situate, if they are
not beneficed in the diocese of the bishop to
whom the candidate applies for ordination.
2. Form of letters testimonial for orders.
" To the "Right Reverend  , by Di
vine permission Lord Bishop of 
[the bishop in whose diocese the curacy
conferring the title is situate].
Whereas our beloved in Christ, A. B.,
bachelor of arts (or other degree), of 
coUege, in the university of  , hath de
clared to us his intention of offering him-
seR as a candidate for the sacred office of a
deacon, and for that end hath requested
of us letters testimonial of his good life and
conversation; we therefore, whose names
are hereunto subscribed, do testify that the
said A. B. hath been personally known to
us for the space off  last past ; that we
have had opportunities of observing his
conduct ; that during the whole of that time
we verily believe that he lived piously,
soberly, and honestly ; nor have we at any
time heard anything to the contrary there
of ; nor hath he at any time, as far as we
know or believe, held, written, or taught
anything contrary to the doctrine or discip
line of the Church of England ; and, more
over, we believe him, in our consciences to
be, as to his moral conduct, a person
worthy to be admitted to the sacred order
of deacons.
In witness whereof we have hereunto
subscribed our names this  day of
 , in the year of our Lord 18 — .
{C. D. rector of  .
E. F. vicar of  .
G. H. rector of  ."
[ Counter-signature.] 3. Form of notice or "Si quis," and of
the certificate'of the same having been
published in the church of the parish
where the candidate usuaUy resides, to
be presented by the candidate if he
shall have quitted college.
"Notice is hereby given, that A. B.,
* It is to be observed that the proper address to an
archbishop is, "To the Most Reverend  ,by Divine
Providence Lord Archbishop of  ; " and the style
"Grace" is to be used instead of "Lordship." The
proper address to any other Bishop is, " To the Right
Reverend  , by Divine Providence  ."
t For three years, or such shorter period as may
have elapsed since the date of the College testimonial.
J It is recommended that the party giving the title be
not one of the subscribers. 2 N

546

ORDERS

bachelor of arts (or other degree), of 
college, Oxford [or Cambridge], and now
resident in this parish, intends to offer
himself a candidate for the holy office of
a deacon, at the ensuing ordination of the
Lord Bishop of  ; * and if any person
knows any just cause or impediment for
which he ought not to be admitted into
holy orders, he is now to declare the same,
or to signify the same forthwith to the
Lord Bishop of  .
We do hereby certify, that the above
notice was publicly read by the under
signed C. D., in the parish church of  ,
in the county of  , during the time of
Divine service on Sunday the  day of
 last [or instant], and no impediment
was aUeged.
Witness our hands this  day of
 , in the year of our Lord 18 — .
C. D. officiating minister. ,
E. F. churchwarden."
4. Certificate from the divinity professor
in the university, that the candidate has
duly attended his lectures. Also a certificate
from any other professor whose lectures the
candidate may have been directed by the
bishop to attend.
5. Certificate of the candidate's baptism,
from the register book of the parish where
he was baptized, duly signed by the offici
ating minister, to show that he has com
pleted his age of twenty-three years ; and
in case he shall have attained that age, but
cannot produce a certificate of his baptism,
then his father or mother, or other compe
tent person, must make a declaration before
a justice of the peace, of the actual time of
his birth : and here it may be necessary to
remark, that by an Act of the 44 Geo. III. c.
43, intituled " An Act to enforce the due
observance of the canons and rubric re
specting the ages of persons to be admitted
into the sacred order of deacon and priest,"
it is enacted, that thenceforth no person
shall be admitted a deacon before he shaU
have attained the age of three and twenty
years complete; and that no person shall
be admitted a priest before he shall have
attained the age of four and twenty years
complete: and that if a person shall be
admitted a deacon before he shall have
attained the age of twenty-three years
complete, or a priest before he shall have
attained the age of twenty-four years com
plete, such admission shall be void in law ;
and the person so admitted shall be in
capable of holding any ecclesiastical prefer
ment. 6. The form of a nomination to serve as
a title for orders, if the incumbent is
non-resident.
* The bishop in whose diocese the curacy conferring
the title is situate.

ORDERS
To the Right Reverend  , Lord
Bishop of  .
These are to certify your lordship that
I, C. D., rector [or vicar, &c] of  , in
the county of  , and your lordship's
diocese of  , do hereby nominate A. B.,
bachelor of arts (or other degree), of 
college, in the university of  , to
perform the office of curate in my church
of  aforesaid ; and do promise to allow
him the yearly stipend of  pounds, to-
be paid by equal quarterly payments [as
to amount qf stipend, see title "Stipends
payable to Curates"], with the surplice
fees, amounting on an average to  •
pounds per annum (if they are intended to
be allowed), and the use of the glebe-house,
garden, and offices, which he is to occupy
(if that be the fact ; if not, state the reason,
and name where and what distance'' from
tlie church the curate purposes to reside) :
and I do hereby state to your lordship, that
the said A. B. does not intend to serve as
curate in any other parish, nor to officiate
in any other church or chapel (if such be tlie
fact, otherwise state the real fact); that
the net annual value of my said benefice,
estimated according to the Act of Parlia
ment 1 & 2 Victoria, c. 106, sects. 8 and
10, is  pounds, and the population
thereof, according to the latest returns of
population made under the authority of
parliament, is  . That there' is only
one church belonging to my said benefice
(if there be another church or chapel, state
the fact) ; and that I was admitted to the
said benefice on the  day of  18 — .\
"And I do hereby promise and engage
with your lordship and the said A. B. that
I wiU continue to employ the said A. B.,
in the office of curate in my said church,
until he shall be otherwise provided of
some ecclesiastical preferment, unless, for
any fault by him committed, he shall be
lawfully removed from the same ; and I
hereby solemnly declare that I do not
fraudulently give this certificate to entitle
the said A. B. to receive holy orders, but
with a real intention to employ him in my
said church, according to what is before
expressed." Witness my hand this  day of  ,
in the year of our Lord 18 — .
[Signature and address of] C. D.
Declaration [to be written at the foot qf the
Nomination].
"We the before-named C. D. and A. B.
do declare to the said Lord Bishop of  >
as follows ; namely, I, the said C. P-, do
* See 16th sect, of 1 & 2 Victoria, c. 106.
t The concluding part of the nomination, withm in
verted commas, is not to be used, except in the nomina
tion to serve as a title for orders.

ORDERS
declare that I bond fide intend to pay, and
I, the said A. B., do declare that I bond fide
intend to receive, tbe whole actual stipend
mentioned in the foregoing nomination and
statement, without any abatement in respect
of rent or consideration for the use of the
glebe-house, garden, and offices thereby
agreed to be assigned, and without any
other deduction or reservation whatsoever.
Witness our hands this  day of  ,
18—. [Signatures of] C. D.
A. B."
6. (a) The form of nomination to serve
as a title for orders, if the incumbent
is resident.
The same form as No. 6, so far as
" quarterly payments ; " then proceed as
follows : — And I do hereby state to your
lordship, that the said A. B. intends to re
side in the said parish, in a house [describe
its situation, so as clearly to identify it],
distant from my church  mile [if A. B.
does not intend to reside in the parish, then
state at what place he intends to reside, and
its distance from the said church] ; that the
said A. B. does not intend to serve, as curate,
any other parish, nor to officiate in any
other church or chapel (if such be the fact,
otherwise state the real fact) ; and I do
hereby promise and engage with your lord
ship, and so on [in the same form as No. 6,
to the end].
Witness my hand this  day of  ,
18—. [Signature and address of] C. D."
The declaration to be written at the foot
of the nomination is to be in the same
form as No. 6, so far as the word " state
ment," after which proceed as follows : —
" Without any deduction or reservation
whatsoever. Witness our hands this  day of  ,
18—. [Signatures of] C. D.
A. B."
Instructions as to Priest's orders."
The foUowing papers are to be sent by a
candidate for priest's orders to the bishop,
three weeks before the day of ordination,
or at such other time as the bishop shaU
appoint, and in due time he will be in
formed by the bishop's secretary when and
where to attend for examination.
Where a candidate appUes for priest's
orders to the same bishop who ordained
him deacon, the papers 1 and 2 only are
required. 1. Letters testimonial of his sound doc
trine, good life, and behaviour, for the
* It is not usnal to confer priest's orders till the
candidate has been a deacon one whole year.

ORDERS

547

time elapsed since he was ordained deacon,
signed by three beneficed clergymen, and
countersigned by the bishop of the diocese
in which their benefices are respectively
situate, if not beneficed in the diocese of
the bishop to whom the candidate appUes
for ordination (See Form of Testimonial
in Instructions as to Deacon's Orders,
No. 2).
2. Notice or " Si quis," and certificate
of the publication thereof (See Form
thereof, in the Instructions as to Deacon's
Orders, No. 3).
In case the candidate was ordained deacon
by the bishop of another diocese, he must
produce not only the papers, Nos. 1 and 2,
but also the following papers, Nos. 3, 4,
and 5.
As it is not common for a deacon to be
ordained priest by any other than the bishop
who admitted him to deacon's orders, a
candidate applying to the bishop of another
diocese must, in the first instance, state to
him the particular circumstances which
occasion the application, the curacy which
he served, and for what period.
3. Letters of deacon's orders.
4. A certificate of baptism.
5. Nomination, if not already licensed.
The same subscriptions and oaths are
made and taken by candidates for priest's
orders, as by candidates for deacon's orders.
With respect to foreign Protestants, Pal
mer observes : " We are not bound to con
demn Presbyterian orders in every case : for
instance, the appointment of ministers by
the Protestants in Germany during the
Reformation was most probably invalid ;
and yet, considering their difficulties, the
fact of their appeal to a general council,
their expectation of reunion with the Church,
and therefore the impossibility of estab
lishing a rival hierarchy, I think we are not
bound to condemn their appointments of
ministers, as many learned and orthodox
writers have done, who, however, seem not
to have observed the peculiarities of their
position, and to have supposed that they
were at once definitively separated from the
Roman churches. Certam differences of
opinion then, in reference to the question of
Presby terian ordinations, may exist without
any material inconvenience.
• "That ordinations by mere presbyters
are (however excusable under circumstances
of great difficulty), in fact, unauthorized
and invalid, is the more usual sentiment of
theologians, and is most accordant with
Scripture, and with the practice of the
CathoUc Church in general, and of our
Churches in particular, which do not recog
nise any such ordinations." — Hist of the
Church, u. 412. See Hooker, Ui. p. 286.
Ed. Keble. 2 n 2

54?

ORDERS

The only legal questions upon this subject
are as to the authority which any particular
ordination gives to the ordinee to perform
any clerical duty in the Church of England
when duly licensed by a bishop, and that has
been more or less settled by sundry Acts of
Parliament, which alone can determine it,
through the courts, when it is doubtful or
disputed. These have been mostly dealt
with already under Colonial Church and
Church in Scotland. It is singular that it
has never been judiciaUy decided, though it
was said by Lord Lyndhurst in J?, v. Millis
(see Marriage) to be generally accepted,
that the ambiguous phrase in the Act of
Uniformity of 1662, "unless he hath for
merly had episcopal ordination," recognises
ordinees of the Roman Churph, though no
Roman bishop has any authority from the
State to ordain here ; and Sir Matthew
Hale says in his tract on the Royal Supre
macy : " The determination of the exercise
of the power of ordination as to time, place,
person, and manner of performance is de
rived from the Crown, though the power of
ordination is not, but from Christ." The
ambiguity in the Act of Uniformity is
whether the words " hath had." were meant
to apply to aU future ordinees or only to
those of that time, and there is room for a
good deal of argument both ways. Probably
the decision would be in conformity with
Lord Lyndhurst's statement, though it did
not profess to be even a legal dictum of his
own, and much less a legal decision, for it
was not at all necessary for the decision of
that case. But even then, the Colonial
Clergy Act, 1874, includes a fortiori, Roman
ordinees, and prevents them from performing
any services in our church without the
written permission of the archbishop of the
province, and from holding any living or
curacy without permission also of the bishop,
independently of his general right to ex
amine them as to orthodoxy even if pre
sented by another patron. That applies to
every person ordained by any but the bishop
of an EngUsh diocese or his deputy. And
therefore it is unnecessary to pursue the
inquiry as to what other professedly "epi
scopal ordinations" would be recognised
under the Act of Uniformity. There is no
doubt that unauthorised ordinations by
persons who have themselves been pro
fessedly consecrated as bishops without any
lawful authority by those who may have
been lawful bishops, though not acting
lawfully therein, would he treated as not
" having had episcopal ordination," and the
performers of any such ceremony in England,
if clergymen, are guilty of an ecclesiastical
offence. Nor would the so-called ordinations
of any sect which chooses to call some of its
officers " bishops " be recognised as " epi-

ORDINAL
scop'al ordination " under the Acts of Parlia
ment which require it. [G.]
ORDERS, MINOR. There were five
classes of persons who had a certain office in
the Church in early times, but were not or
dained to the higher ministry. These were
(I) sub-deacons, (2) acolyths, (3) exorcists,
(4) readers, and (5) porters, or door-keepers.
Cornelius, bishop of Rome about a.d. 250;
said, according to Eusebius, that there were
at Rome in his time forty-six priests, seven
deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two
acolyths, and fifty-two porters, exorcists and
readers (Ap. Euseb. H. E. Ub. vi. c. xliii. ;
ed. Migne, torn. ii. p. 621). Roman ritualists,
such as BeUarmine, assert that these minor
orders were of apostolical origin, and they
were as such upheld in the Council of Trent
(Cone. Trid. sess. 23, c. 2 ; Bellarm. de
Clericis, lib. 1, c. 11). But Bona and others
make a distinction between the sub-deacons
and the other four classes, stating that the
latter cannot be called of apostolic institu
tion, but that with regard to the former — /
the sub-deacons — this institution must be
referred to Christ, or at least to His apostles
(Bona, Rer. Liturg. lib. 1. c. 25, n. 17). The
duties of those in inferior or minor orders, as
they were called, are laid down in the fourth
Council of Carthage, a.d. 398. It would
seem that the churchwardens, sidesmen,
vergers, beU-rmgers, and parish clerks of .our
times hold very much the same position as
those officers in "Minor Orders" of old.
And the lay-readers, with commission from
the bishop, resemble the sub-deacons (See
Acolyths, Exorcists, Lay- Readers). [H.]
ORDERS OF MONKS. The several
orders of monks are distinguished in this
manner by their habits. The White Friars
are canons regular of the order of St.
Augustine. Grey Friars are Cistercian
monks, who changed their black habit into
a grey one. The Black Friars are Bene
dictines. ORDINAL. I. The existence from the
earliest ages of the Church of a constituted
order, or orders of the ministry, is an historic
fact (See Apostolic Succession). And it is
no less certain that while the choice of
ministers belonged to the whole hody of the
Church, the solemn ordination of such as
have been chosen, has always belonged to
the apostles, and their successors in the
ministry, by an authority tracing itself up
to Christ Himself, and not derived directly
from the congregation. That there was or
dination in the times of the apostles is clear
from Scriptural authority (Acts vi. 6:
xiv. 23 : xiii. 3 ; 1 Tim. v. 22, &c). And
from the earliest times, forms of service for
this solemn ordination and mission were
observed in the Church. It is impossible to
doubt that St. Ignatius (ad Magnes. c. vi. &

ORDINAL
vii.), St. Irenseus (Her. 1, iii. c. iii.), Clement
of Alexandria (Strom. 1, vi. c. xiii.), Ter
tullian (de Bapt. c xvii.), and many others,
referred to such ordination services. The
earliest form, no doubt, was perfectly simple.
There was the imposition of hands with
prayer and benediction, and solemn mission
in the name of Jesus Christ (Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. ii. p. 304). This gradually developed
into greater fulness and elaborateness in
ceremonial, both in the East and West, but
the essential parts remained the same. There
are some very early forms of this office ex
tant (see Mabillon, Mus. Ital. vol. ii. 85),
but the Greek, the Coptic, the Jacobite, the
Maronite, and the Nestorian ordinals agree
in substance, only with independent varie
ties. In the West the office for ordination
is to be found, with slight variations, in
the Sacramentaries of Leo I., Gelasius and
Gregory. II. From these old sources the Ordinal of
the Church of England was compiled. The
"Pontifical" of Egbert, which has been
published by the Surtees Society, had great
influence; but the most common "use"
afterwards was that of Salisbury which
has been printed by Maskell in his
Monumenta Ritualia,. This seems to have
heen the groundwork of our Ordinal, with
many alterations, especiaUy in the hortatory
portions, and ritual observances. In 1548-9
a committee consisting of the Primate of
England (Cranmer) and other prelates, to
gether with " other men of this realm, learned
in God's law," was appointed to revise the
Ordinal, and, according to Burnet, a great
many of the bishops took part in this re
vision. By an Act of Parliament, Jan. 31,
1550, the king was empowered to appoint
six prelates, and six other learned men to
prepare the book, which was brought to the
Council on Feb. 28 in the same year, signed
by eleven of the commissioners, Heath,
bishop of Worcester, only refusing to sub
scribe. The form of the oath of supremacy
was objected to by some, for it ran — " so
help me God, all Saints, and the Holy
Evangelists." On Hooper's suggestion, all
mention of swearing by the saints was struck
out by the king's own hand, on July 20,
and Hooper, when he afterwards accepted
the bishopric of Gloucester, took the oath as
amended (Orig. Lett, cclxiii. : an account
of this is given by Hooper in a letter to
Bullinger, Orig. Lett, xxxix.). The book was
called the "Form and Manner of making
and consecrating of Archbishops, Bishops,
Priests, and Deacons." The Act added " and
other Ministers of the Church ; " but the com
missioners omitted all mention of minor orders
(see Orders, Minor). This form is reprinted
in " Liturgies and Documents of the reign of
Edw. VI." (Parker Son. : see Soames' Hist.

ORDINAL

54S

Reform. Edw. VI. p. 521). By 2 & 3 Ed
ward VI. c. 11, it was enacted that all books
heretofore used for the service of the Church,
other than such as shall be set forth by the
king's majesty, shall be clearly abolished
(s. 1). And by 5 & 6 Edward VI. c. 1, it
is thus enacted : The king, with the assent
of the lords and commons in parliament, has
annexed the Book of Common Prayer to this
present statute, adding also a form and
manner of making and consecrating of arch
bishops, bishops, priests, and deacons, to be of
like force and authority as the Book of Com
mon Prayer. And, by Art. 36 : " The book
of consecration of archbishops and bishops,
and ordering of priests and deacons, lately
set forth in the time of Edward VI., and
confirmed at the same time by authority of
parliament, doth contain all things necessary
to such consecration and ordering ; neither
hath it anything that of itself is superstitious
and ungodly. And therefore whosoever are
consecrated or ordered according to the rites
of that book, since the second year of the
forenamed King Edward unto this time, or
hereafter shall be consecrated or ordered
according to the same rites, we declare aU
such to be rightly ordered, and lawfully con
secrated and ordered." The 8th Canon
follows the direction : " Whosoever shall
affirm or teach, that the fonn and manner
of making and consecrating bishops, priests,
and deacons, containeth anything that is re
pugnant to the word of God ; or that they who
are made bishops, priests, and deacons, in that
form, are not lawfully made, nor ought to
be accounted either by themselves or others
to be truly either bishops, priests, or deacons,
until they have some other calling to those
Divine offices, let him be excommunicated,
ipso facto, not to be restored until he repent
and publicly revoke such his wicked errors."
The Ordinal has passed through three
phases, at and since the Reformation, which
may be thus concisely stated. (1) In 1549
Cranmer and other bishops were appointed
to revise the old form. (2) In 1552 a
further revision took place, when the der
livery of the paten and chalice to the
priests, and of the pastoral staff to the
bishops, was omitted ; and also the direction
that the candidates for priests' or deacons'
orders, should appear in ecclesiastical
habits. No other considerable change was
made. (3) In 1662 the Ordinal was care-
fuUy revised, and some changes of no great
importance, but generally tending to greater
solemnity, were introduced. [H.]
III. The form in which orders are con
ferred in our Church is this : " The bishop,
with the priests present, shall lay their hands
severally upon the head of every one that
receiveth the order of priesthood ; the re
ceivers humbly kneeling, and the bishop

550

ORDINAL

saying, 'Receive the Holy Ghost for the
office and work of a priest, in the Church
of God, now committed unto thee by the
imposition of our hands. Whose sins thou
dost forgive, they are forgiven ; and whose
sins thou dost retain, they are retained.
And be thou a faithful dispenser of the word
of God, and of his holy sacraments : in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost.' " In the office for the order
ing of deacons, the bishop alone lays on his
hands, but does not use the words, " Receive
the Holy Ghost," &c, or grant authority to
forgive or retain sins. In the office for the
consecration of bishops, the form is thus :
" Then the archbishop and bishops present
shall lay their hands upon the head of the
elected bishop, kneeling before them on his
knees, the archbishop saying, ' Receive the
Holy Ghost for the office and work of a
bishop in the Church of God, now com
mitted unto thee by the laying on of our
hands, in the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
And remember that thou stir up the grace of
God which is given thee by the imposition of
our hands, for God hath not given us the
spirit of fear, but of power, and love, and
soberness.' "
Several Protestant dissenting communi
ties have taken it upon themselves to lay
on hands when a person is elected to the
dissenting ministry ; but none, that we are
aware of, have ever assumed the solemn
office of thus conferring the grace of God
by the imposition of human hands, which
would clearly be blasphemous, except there
existed a commission from God to do so,
which commission, without the apostolical
succession, cannot be proved, unless by
miracle. This form has given great offence
to many conscientious ultra-Protestants.
Attempts are sometimes made to explain
the words away; but such explanations
have been seldom found satisfactory, except
to those whose interest it is to be satisfied.
It is evident that they are to be understood
simply, clearly, unequivocally, to express
that the grace of God is given by the im
position of the bishop's hands ; and that if
we speak of this as superstitious or ungodly,
we are, as may be seen from the 36th Article
and the 8th Canon, under the anathema of
our Church. On the other hand, the com
fort is indescribably great to those who be
lieve that grace ministerial is thus conveyed
in attending the ministry of the Church ;
the efficacy of the ministrations of whose
ministers depends not on the merit or talent
of the individual, but on the grace of God,
of which he is the authorised, though un
worthy, dispenser. — CardweU, Doc. Ann.
xx., &c. ; Burnet, Hist. Ref. pt. ii. b. i. ;
Soames, Hist. Ref. p. 521 ; Collier, Ecc. Hist.

ORDINATION
pt. ii. b. iv. ; Heylin, Hist. Ref. 4 Ed. VI.
sec. Il ; Strype's Mem. of Cranmer, c. xi. ;
Bishop Barry's P. B. p. 263, a; Hook's
Archbishops, Cranmer.
ORDINANCES OF THE CHURCH.
Rites ordained by God to be means of grace,
such as, 1. Baptism (St. Matt, xxviii. 19) ;
2. The Lord's supper (St. Matt. xxvi. 26 ; 1
Cor. xi. 24, &c.) ; 3. Preaching and reading
the word (St. Mark xvi. 15 ; Rom. x. 15) ; 4.
Hearing the gospel (St. Mark iv. 24 ; Rom.
x. 17) ; 5. Public and. Private prayer (1 Cor.
xiv. 15, 19 ; St. Matt. vi. 6 ; Ps. v. 1, 7); 6.
Singing of psalms (Col. iii. 16 ; Eph. v. 19) ;
7. Fasting (St. Matt. ix. 15 ; Joel ii. 12) ;
8. Solemn thanksgiving (Ps. ix. 14; 1
Thess. v. 18) (See Rites).
ORDINARY. The person who has
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, as of course and
of common right, in opposition to persons
who are extraordinarily appointed. In
some Acts of Parliament we find the bishop
called ordinary, and so he is taken at the
common law, as having ordinary jurisdic
tion in causes ecclesiastical; at the same
time, in a more general acceptation, the
word Ordinary signifies any judge autho
rised to take cognizance of causes in his
own proper right. Thus Lyndwood states
that ordinaries are those " quibus competit
jurisdictio ordinaria de jure privilegii, vel
consuetudine " (Prov. 1. tit. ii.).
ORDINATION. I. The apostles ap
pointed bishops, priests, and deacons to be
the standing guides and governors of the
Church ; and because there should be a suc
cession of them continued in aU ages, for
the peace and preservation of those churches
which they had planted, therefore it is ne
cessary that there should be a power lodged
somewhere, to set apart some distinct orders
of men to those public offices, and this is
called ordination. Many dissenting sects
hold it necessary that there should be such
a power, but they dispute where it is.
Some affirm that a man ought not to take
upon him the ministry without a lawful
call, which is very true. They likewise
agree that ordination ought to be con
tinued, and they define it to be a solemn
setting apart of some person to a church
office ; but they say it is only to be done
by preaching presbyters, and that those
who are not set apart themselves for the
work of the ministry, have no power to
join in setting apart others for that pur
pose ; and this form of ordination was pro
posed to the parliament, in the year 1643,
by an assembly of those persons, in order to
be ratified. There is another sort of peo
ple who hold that where there are no such
preaching presbyters, in such case, other
persons, sufficiently qualified and approved
for their gifts and graces by other minis-

ORGAN
ters, being chosen by the people, and set
apart for the ministry, by prayer and fasting
in the congregation, may exercise that office,
so that some place the power of ordination
in simple presbyters, and others in the peo
ple. There are others who maintain that
ordination is not to be justified by Scrip
ture, and that the word itself signifies a
lifting up of hands, and is used in Scrip
ture for giving a vote, which in all popular
assemblies is customary even at this day :
from whence they infer that the Christian
churches were at first democratical, that
is, the whole congregation chose their pas
tor ; and that by virtue of such choice he
did not pretend to any peculiar jurisdic
tion distinct from others, but he was only
approved by the congregation for his parts,
and appointed to instruct the people, to
visit the sick, and to perform all other
offices of a minister, and at other times
he followed his trade ; and that the Chris
tians in those days had no notion how a
pastor could pretend to any succession to
qualify him for the ministry, for that the
pretence of dispensing divine things by
a mere human constitution was such an
absurdity that it could not be reconciled to
reason. This and many more such calumnies
were cast on ordination, and the bishops
themselves were called ordination-mongers ;
but it was by those who alleged that the
purity of the Christian religion, and the
good and orderly government of the world,
had been much better provided for without
any clergy. But it has been already shewn
from Scripture, from antiquity, and from
the concurrent testimony of the Fathers,
that the bishops had, and ought to have, the
power of ordination (See Apostolical Suc
cession, Ordinal, Orders).
II. As to the times of ordination, by the
31st canon of the Church of England it is
ordained : " Forasmuch as the ancient
Fathers of the Church, led by the example
of the apostles, appointed prayers and fasts
to be used at the solemn ordaining of minis
ters, and to that purpose allotted certain
times, in which only sacred orders might be
given and conferred, we, foUowing their
holy and religious example, do constitute
and decree, that no deacons or ministers be
made or ordained, but only on Sundays
immediately following jejunia quatuor tem
porum, commonly called Ember Weeks,
appointed in ancient time for prayer and
fasting (purposely for this cause at the
first institution), and so continued at this
day in the Church of England " (See
Ember Days).
ORGAN. (Lat. organum : Gk. Spyavov).
The word in the widest sense means properly
an instrument of any kind by which some

ORGAN

551

process is carried on ; but for church pur
poses it implies an instrument of music,
constructed so as to combine the effects of
many different instruments in one, which
the Church for centuries past has consecrated
to her own special use.
The first organs were hydraulic ; but
what part water played in producing sounds
is difficult to make clear. Vitruvius (de
Architectura, bk. x. chap, xi., in Hopkins
and Rimbault, pp. 6-8) has left us a long
description of such an organ ; but his
account is cumbrous and unintelligible.
This much, however, is certain, that the
hydraulic organ was provided with pipes
and a wind-chest, and registered like the
wind-organ. This kind of organ was in
vented by Ctesibins of Alexandria about
200 years B.C., and continued in use as
late as a.d. 850. It was never used in the
Greek Church. Bellarmine states, though
on doubtful authority, that in 660 Pope
Vitalian introduced it into the church service
at Rome. Mr. Rimbault says that it was
introduced into the English service by
Theodore and Adrian, emissaries of Vitalian ;
and from a passage in the writings of
Adhelm, bishop of Sherborne, who died in
709, it appears that the external case was
gilt (auratis capsis), and that the pipes were
numerous (maxima millenis organa flabris).
In 757, the Eastern Emperor Constantine
Copronymus sent an organ to Pepin, which
was placed in a church at Compeigne (see
Hamel, Manuel des Facteurs des Orgues).
In 811, ambassadors from Constantinople
brought two organs to Charlemagne; but
the use of the instrument did not become
common till the middle of the ninth century,
when a Venetian priest introduced what is
supposed to be an hydraulic organ. About
the same time Louis le Debonaire gave an
organ to the cathedral at Aix la Chapelle.
A century later, Wulstan relates that
Elphege, bishop of Winchester, gave an
organ to the cathedral with 400 pipes, 40
keys, and (if his meaning is clear) 26
pairs of bellows, played by two organists.
In the tenth century, Dunstan, archbishop
of Canterbury, gave an organ to Malmesbury,
described by WilUam of Malmesbury as
having copper pipes. At the same time an
organ was given to Ramsey Church with
copper pipes, emitting a sweet melody and
far-resounding peal. In the twelfth century
an organ is mentioned in the abbey of
Fecamp; and Gervas the monk, describing
Canterbury Cathedral as he knew it before
the fire in 1172, says that it had arches
" to carry organs."
These instances are sufficient to shew that
organs were in use for ecclesiastical purposes
at a very early date. A mediaBval phrase
which has strangely led many writers astray

552

ORGAN

is a " pair of organs." The commonest in
terpretation is that it must have meant an
organ with two rows of keys. But such an
organ was always described as a double
organ. The true account is that a "pair
of organs" meant simply an organ with
several pipes. Pepys, describing his visit
to Hackney Church, speaks of " a fair pair of
organs" and then refers in the singular
number to " it," fully bearing out this ex
planation of the term. Jonson, Hey wood,
and other of the older poets, always use the
term pair in the sense of an aggregate, and
as synonymous with set: thus we have a
"pair of chessmen," "pair of beads," "pair
of cards." When speaking of a flight of
stairs, we often say a "pair of stairs."
Down to the fourteenth century the keys
were played with the whole fist, just as
carillons are played; but about that time
the monks set about improving the clumsy
clavier. They made neater keys, increased
their number both upwards and downwards
to the extent of nearly three octaves, and so
reduced their fall and breadth that they
no longer required to be struck down by tbe
fist, but were capable of being pressed down
by the fingers, as in tbe modern organs.
Towards the end of the same century the
pedal was invented. Here again erroneous
notions have long prevailed, as this invention
is commonly ascribed to a German named
Bernhard who was organist to the Doge of
Venice in 1470 ; but from certain documents
relating to a church at Beeskow, near Frank
fort on the Oder, it is beyond question that
the pedal existed as early as 1418.
Many of the early organ-builders were
ecclesiastics, and the art flourished at first
in Germany. But it is certain that by the
beginning of the sixteenth century there
were several builders of repute in England.
Their labours were, however, hindered by
the puritanical spirit, which, growing up in
the reign of Elizabeth, found a violent outlet
in the decree of the House of Lords, dated
June 4th, 1644, and doomed aU existing
organs to destruction. The general intro
duction of organs into London parish churches
did not take place till after the Restora
tion. Their use appears never to have been
very general, even in cathedrals, in Ireland ;
and in Scotland it is supposed that they
were not introduced till the fifteenth cen
tury. The Neo-Catholic revival, or High Church
movement as it is sometimes styled,' and the
remarkable development of English musical
taste during the last quarter of a century,
have combined to produce a great amelio
ration in the conduct of the musical part of
our church services. This has caused a
demand for a number of organs both large
and small throughout the land. Most

ORGANIST
cathedral organs have been rebuilt or re
placed by more modern instruments within
the last twenty years, and there is scarcely
a parish church in which an organ has not
replaced the barrel organ or strident har
monium or the " band " which in old days
used to perform in the gallery. The part
which the organ plays in our English Church
music is unique. On the continent it is used
by the Roman Catholics only on feast days
and their eves, and then commonly on the
support of an orchestra ; in Lutheran
churches it merely accompanies the chorales
and plays the voluntary. EngUsh Church
composers make large demands on the instru
ment, and in fact there are some churches
where the organ is rarely silent during
service. There should be a mean, however,
between allowing the service to be dead and
cold, and giving the organ undue prominence,
and thus producing a restless feeling in the
worshipper. As to tbe best position for the organ in a
church, nothing definite can be laid down.
The most usual position assigned to the
organ in continental churches for the last
three centuries, has been the west end,
probably for the same reason that the end
of a concert-room is the best place for ao
orchestra; namely, because the tone could
travel in several directions, and could be
dispersed throughout the building. This
position, however, does not suit an English
cathedral, as the choir would then be
separated from the organ by such a vast
gap in space that co-operation between the
two would be practically impossible. Con
sequently many organ builders have built
their cathedral organs on the choir-screen.
This necessitated a heavy screen and has often
been condemned, but many persons stiU con
sider it the most effective place, though it
spoils the architecture of a cathedral. So at
a later stage, the organ was pushed eastward
once more at the east end of an aisle or a
chancel chapel, or again in cathedrals where
the transepts are nearer the east than the
west end, in one or both transepts. It is to
be regretted that the space required for the
organ is generally doled out by the archi
tect without previous consultation with the
organ-builder; and this is why many an in
strument is either not large enough for the
church it is required to fill with sound, or
else owing to its cramped position cannot
do itself justice (See Rimbault and Hop
kins' exhaustive treatise on the Organ,
published by Robert Cocks & Co., London,
1870). [W. H. D.]
ORGANIST. An official who plays upon
the organ. The more ancient names for the
person who held this office were master of
the song school, clerk of the chapel, and
in the 13th century at Hereford clerk of

ORIGENISTS
the organs. He ranked as a vicar-choral, and
usually was also master of the choristers.
At Durham a monk played at nocturns and
matins, and the master of the song school
at high mass and vespers. In most cathe
drals and choral foundations the organist
combines the duty of training the choir
with that of playing the organ ; but he is
not generally a member of the coUegiate
body. ORIGENISTS. Heretics in the fourth
century, so called because they pretended
to draw their opinions from the writings of
the famous Origen, a priest of Alexandria.
Origen himself was pupil and successor to
St. Clement in the school of Alexandria.
He was an ascetic of extreme type, but a
man of untiring energy and work (Euseb.
H. E. vi. 3, 26). He complains that his
ideas were perverted (Horn. xxv. in Luc.).
And there is no doubt that his works were
corrupted by heretics at a very early period,
and wrested to their particular ideas.
The Origenists made their first appear
ance in Italy in 397. Rufinus of Aquileia,
a priest of Alexandria, had studied the works
of Origen with so much application, that he
adopted that writer's supposed Platonic
notions for Catholic truths. Full of these
ideas, he went to Jerusalem, where Origen
had a great many partisans. There he
made his court to Melania, a Roman lady,
who had embraced Origen's opinions.
Afterwards he came to Rome with this
lady, who was greatly esteemed in that
city. Here he set out with an outward
show of simplicity, and pretended, after
the example of Origen, an universal con
tempt of all worldly things. This made
him looked upon as one who- Uved up to
the highest Christian perfection. Rufinus
took advantage of this prejudice in his
favour to propagate bis opinions, in which
the credit of Melania was of great use to
him. And now he began to have a great
number of followers, and to form a con
siderable sect. But another Roman lady,
named Marcella, having acquainted Pope
Anastasius, that Rufinus and Melania were
spreading very dangerous opinions in
Rome, under the veil of piety, the holy
father examined into the fact, and forbade
them to teach any more. Rufinus and
Melania submitted to the prohibition ;
Melania returned to Jerusalem, and Ru
finus to AquUeia. However, the opinions
they had broached continued to be main
tained and defended by many learned
men, who were therefore distinguished by
the name of Origenists.
The errors ascribed to the Origenists are
in number nine, and are as follows : —
1. The souls of men were holy intelli
gences, who enjoyed the presence of God ;

ORIGINAL SIN

553

but being tired with the Divine contempla
tion, they degenerated ; and as their first
fervour was greatly abated, the Greeks
therefore caUed the soul vovs, from the word
voa-iiv, which signifies to slacken or grow
cold. Our Saviour's soul was united to the
Word, before his conception, and before He
was born of the Holy Virgin.
3. The body of our Saviour Jesus Christ
was first formed entire in the Virgin's
womb ; and afterwards His soul, which long
before had been united to the Word, came
and was joined to it.
4. The Word of God has been successively
united with all the angelical natures ; in
somuch that it has been a cherub, seraph,
and all the celestial virtues, one after an
other. 5. After the resurrection, the bodies of
men will be of a spherical figure, and not of
their present erect stature.
6. The heavens, sun, moon, and stars,
are animated bodies, and have an intelli
gent soul.
7. In future ages, our Saviour Jesus
Christ will be crucified for the salvation of
the devUs, as he has already been for that
of men.
8. The power of God is not infinite, and
was so exhausted in the creation of things,
that he has no more left.
9. The punishment of the devils, and of
the damned, will continue only for a certain
limited time.
These nine errors are distinctly recited
by the second Council of Constantinople at
the end of a letter of the emperor Justinian
against Origen. The recital of them is im
mediately followed by an anathema against
Origen, and all who maintained his opi
nions : in which it is remarkable that the
council excommunicated Origen near three
hundred years after his death.
The heresy of the Origenists spread
widely in Egypt, and especially among the
monks. Several eminent bishops opposed
them, particularly TheophUus, bishop of
Alexandria, who, in the year 399, assembled
a councU in that city, in which the monks
inhabiting the mountain of Nitria, were
condemned as Origenists.
Avitus, a Spanish priest, revived the
errors of the Origenists in Spain, about the
year 415 : and probably it was against the
foUowers of this Avitus that the Council of
Toledo was held in 633. — Huet's Origeniana,
i. iii. 10; Walch, Hist. Eccles. N. T. p.
1042 seq.
ORIGINAL SIN. The term is derived
from a passage in St. Augustine : " Nas-
cuntur non proprii, sed originaliter, pecca
tores " (De Civit lib. 16, c. 18). Our article-
(ix.) thus explains it :

554

ORIGINAL SIN

" Original sin standeth not in the foUow
ing of Adam (as the Pelagians do vainly
talk) ; but it is the fault and corruption of
the nature of every man that naturaUy is
engendered of the offspring of Adam;
whereby man is very far gone from original
righteousness, and is of his own nature in
clined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always
.contrary to the spirit; and therefore in
every person born into this world, it de-
.serveth God's wrath and damnation. And
this infection of nature doth remain, yea, in
them that are regenerated ; whereby the lust
of the flesh, called in the Greek phronema
sarkos, which some do expound the wisdom,
some sensuality, some the affection, some
the desire of the flesh, is not subject to the
law of God. And although there is no con
demnation for them that beUeve, and are
baptized" [renatis, i.e. born again, is the
word used in the Latin copy], "yet the
apostle doth confess, that concupiscence and
lust hath of itself the nature of sin." This
article was intended to oppose the notion of
the School divines, who maintained that the
infection of our nature is not a mental, but
a mere corporeal taint ; that the body alone
receives and transmits the contagion, while
the soul proceeds, in all cases, immaculate
from the hands of the Creator. Original
sin they directly opposed to original right
eousness, and this they considered, not as
something connatural with man, but as a
superinduced habit, or adventitious orna
ment, the removal of which could not prove
detrimental to the native powers of the
mind. Thus the School divines maintained,
in opposition to our Articles, that the lapse
of Adam conveys to us solely imputed guilt,
the corporeal infection which they admitted,
not being sin itself, but the subject matter ;
not peccatum, but fomes peccati. The Lu
therans taught that original sin is a corrup
tion of our nature in a general sense, the de
pravation of the mental faculties and the
¦corporeal appetites. The Calvinists main
tain that lust and concupiscence are truly
and properly sin.
The Scriptures teach us that the sin of
Adam not only made him Uable to death,
but that it also changed the upright nature
in which he was originally formed, into one
that was prone to wickedness ; and that
this liability to death, and propensity to sin,
were entaUed from him upon the whole race
of mankind : " By one man sin entered into
the world, and death by sin ; and so death
passed upon all men, for that all have sinned "
•(Rom. v. 12). It is not necessary to quote
the many passages in Holy Scripture bear
ing upon the sinfulness of our nature, such
as " the heart is deceitful above all things,
and desperately wicked " (Jer. xvii. 9), &c.
It is called " the sin that dwelleth in us "

ORNAMENTS
(Rom. vii. 17) ; " the body of sin " (vi. 6) ;
" the law of sin and death " (viii. 2) ;
" lust " (vii. 7) ; " the sin which so easily
besets us" (Heb. xii. 1); "the flesh"
(Gal. v. 16) ; " the old man " (Eph. iv. 22).;
"the likeness of Adam" (Gen. v. 3). The
subject is exhaustively treated by Bishop
Jeremy Taylor (Works, vol. ix., Heber's ed),
ORNAMENTS OF THE CHURCH.
The earliest legislation on this subject is
the statute, commonly called by its initial
words Circumpecte agatis, of 13 Ed. I. st. 4.
" The king to his judges sendeth greeting.
Use yourselves circumspectly in aU matters
relating to the bishops of [Norwich] when
they do punish for that the church is not
conveniently decked: in which case the
spiritual judge shall have power to take
knowledge notwithstanding the king's pro
hibition." All the modern law on this sub
ject depends on the much-discussed orna
ments rubric at the beginning of the Prayer
Book, which includes also the ornaments of
the clergy, and that has been sufficiently dealt
with already under the Advertisements of
Queen Elizabeth, as they are commonly called.
There is not nor ever was any rubrical or
statutable definition of ornaments of tht-
church, as there was of the clergy. They
have to be gathered from what is prescribed
or omitted in various parts of the Prayer
Book, and by the history of what was in use
by authority of Parliament in the second
year of Edward VI. For the Advertisements
did not affect them, as it has been several
times decided that they did affect the vest
ments, by virtue of the Act of Uniformity
of 1 Eliz. The rubric inserted by somebody
in the Prayer Book of EUzabeth was an
iUegal and partial copy of a clause in that
Act. There was no " sealed book " of that
Prayer Book.
Lawful ornaments of the church may be
defined with sufficient accuracy to mean all
things therein which are either necessary or
convenient for use or for lawful decoration.
What is lawful of course depends upon
the law, and a judicial decision if any
question is raised about it. Of course also
a thing which is plainly ornamental in it
self may be unlawful. And the word has
legally a still wider meaning apart from the
question whether the thing is ornamental
in the common sense or not. Thus all ser
vice books are legally ornaments, though
hardly decorations.
The Privy Council decided that " things
used in the performance of the services and
rites of the church are ornaments " in Liddell
v. Westerton (Ecc. Judgments of P.C); and
that there is a clear distinction between the
presence of things inert and unused, and the
active use of them in the service ; and that
such things as organs, cushions, and the like,

ORTHODOXY
and a credence table or shelf from which the
elements are taken to put on the table at the
prescribed time, are lawful because useful
or necessary, or implied or referred to by any
rubric or canon. No limitation was put on
church ornaments, as was on vestments, by
the Advertisements, which the Privy Council
has twice decided to have been the " taking
order by authority of the queen " as provided
for by her Act of Uniformity (but see Adver
tisements). Crosses have been decided to
be lawful when they are bond fide archi
tectural ornaments of the church, but not
as appendages to the communion table
whether fixed or loose (see Crosses), but
crucifixes to be entirely illegal, except as
part of a group of statuary (see Crucifix).
Altar cloths for the communion service
must be of plain linen without lace and
fringes, which are only copied from Roman
use; and the silk cloths for other times
are te be subject to the approval of the
ordinary, according to canon 82. Super-
altars, baldachinos (see them), banners or
crosses carried in procession, flowers on the
table, the use of incense, steps round the
table, or any which make it look like an
altar (which would not apply to a single
step all along in front of it), lighted candles
on the table when not wanted for Ught,
chancel-gates and close screens, have all
been condemned as illegal; and on other
grounds, stone altars instead of wooden
tables, mixing water with the wine, and
wafers instead of bread, though people seem
to be at liberty to cut the bread into rounds
instead of squares if they choose ; but it
must be common bread. And the Privy
Council repudiated the theory of Sir R.
Phillimore, Dean of Arches, that the rubrics
and canons are to be understood as only
prescribing the minimum of ornaments or
ceremonies, but allowing the maximum
which is not expressly forbidden.
A second communion table in an aisle
has also been condemned as unauthorised
by any rubric or canon. But where quite
different parts of the church are bona fide
used for large and small congregations, or for
cathedral and parochial services, two tables
would no doubt be allowed. In one cathedral
and perhaps more, there are three in distant
places, separated by stone screens, which
make three distinct churches. On the other
hand, some have been put up in aisles of
small churches, with no pretence of either
necessity or utility, but in obvious imitation
of popish use (See Monuments, Painted
Windows, Commandments). [G.]
ORTHODOXY ('OpBos and 8ow'<a).
Literally " upright thinking," and so sound
ness of doctrine.
Of course the question here to be decided
is, What is soundness of doctrine ? If two

OUTWARD

555

men take Scripture for their guide, and pro
fessing to have no other guide, come to
opposite conclusions, it is quite clear that
neither has a right to decide that the other
is not orthodox. On this principle it is as
uncharitable and illogical for the Trinitarian
to call the Socinian not orthodox, as it is
for the Socinian to predicate the same of the
Trinitarian. But if we interpret Scripture
by the sense of the Church, as declared in
the general councils of the first five centuries,
in primitive creeds and liturgies, and by
the concurrent testimony of early writers,
then we may consistently call those ortho
dox who hold the doctrines which she
deduces from Scripture, and those heterodox
who do not hold those doctrines. So that
orthodoxy means soundness of doctrine, the
doctrine being proved to be sound by refer-!
euce to the consentient testimony of Scrip
ture and the Church.
ORTLIBENSES. A sect, or branch, of
the ancient Vaudois or Waldenses, after
wards known as the Brethren of the Free
Spirit. They appear to have been disciples of
Amalric, of Bema, and Ortlieb of Strasburg,
early in the 13th century. The Ortlibenses
denied there was a Trinity before the na
tivity of Jesus Christ, who, according to
them, was not till that time the Son of God.
To these two persons of the Godhead they
added a third, during the preaching of Jesus
Christ ; namely, St. Peter, whom they ac
knowledged to be the Holy Ghost. They
held the eternity of the world ; but had no
notion of the resurrection of the body, or the
immortality of the soul. Notwithstanding
which, they maintained (perhaps by way of
irony) that there would be a final judgment,
at which time the pope and the emperor
would become proselytes to their sect.
They denied the death and resurrection
of Jesus Christ. His cross, they pretended,
was penance, like their own abstemious way
of life : this, they said, was the cross our
Saviour bore. They ascribed all the virtue
of baptism to the merit of him who admin
istered it. They were of opinion that Jews
might be saved without baptism, provided
they embraced their sect. They boldly
asserted that they themselves were the only
true mystical body, that is to say, the
Church of Christ. — Reiner, Bibl. Max. xxv.
266 ; Gieseler, Compend. Eccl. Hist. iii.
67, Clark's ed.
OUR LADY. The old English designa
tion of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The term
is retained in our own Table of Lessons,
OUTWARD AND VISIBLE SIGN.
Part of the definition of the word Sacrament.
It is attributed to Peter Lombard, called
the " Master of the Sentences," in the 12th
century (See Sacrament).

556

PACIFICATION

P.
" PACIFICATION, EDICTS OF, were
decrees or edicts, granted by the kings of
France to the Protestants, for appeasing the
troubles occasioned by their' persecution.
The first edict of pacification was granted
by Charles IX., in January, 1562, per
mitting the free exercise of the reformed
religion near aU the cities and towns of the
realm. On March 19, 1563, the same king
granted a second edict of pacification at
Amboise ; and another, called the edict of
Lonjumeau, ordering the execution of that
of Amboise, was published March 27, 1558,
after a treaty of peace. Nevertheless, in
August, 1572, Charles authorised the Bar
tholomew massacre, and at the same time
issued a declaration, forbidding the exercise
of the Protestant religion. Henry III. also
published edicts of pacification, but was
violently opposed by the Guise faction,
which established the famous league for
defence of the Catholic religion, and in 1585
obtained an edict revoking all former con
cessions to the Protestants, and ordering
them to depart the kingdom in six months,
or turn Papists. This edict was followed
by more to the same purpose. Henry IV.
had similar difficulties in the way of pacifi
cation, but in 1598 he published a new edict
at Nantes, granting the Protestants the free
exercise of their religion, and making them
eligible for all civil and military employ
ments. This edict of Nantes was confirmed
by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV.
in 1652. But his letter, in 1685, abolished
it entirely, since which time the Protestants
ceased to be tolerated in France till the
Revolution. — Broughton, Biblio. vol. ii. p.
109 ; Jervis, Hist, of Church of France.
PACIFIC—. A name given in early times
to the Litanies, as they contained supplica
tions for peace. — Neale's East. Ch., Int.
p. 360.
PACIFIC^! EPISTOL_ (See Letters
Dimissory). P_DO-BAPTISM (From nals, a child,
and BairrLCeiv, to baptize). The baptism of
children (See Baptism of Infants).
PAINTED GLASS WINDOWS (See
Windows). PALL or PALLIUM. The word pal
lium properly signifies a cloak thrown over
the shoulders. It was worn by the Romans
as a mark of distinction : " Consularis homo
soccos habuit et pallium '' (Cic. Rab. Post.
10). Afterwards it came to denote a sort
of cape or tippet, and hence the ecclesias
tical designation in the Western Church.
The antiquity of the use of the pall as

PALL}
an ecclesiastical vestment, and its original
shape, is obscure. An old writer says :
" Quando et quomodo usus illius ornamenti
incseperit sat obscurum est, sive Gra-cam.
sive Latinam ecclesiam spectemus" (Van
Espin, Jus Eccles. torn. i. p. 169). But
whoever considers the ancient figures of it
which are found in manuscripts, &c, will
see that it was originally only a stole wound
round the neck, with the ends hanging
down behind and before. In the East the
pall is called omophorion, and has been
used, at least, since the time of Chrysostom.
It is used by all the Eastern bishops, above
the phenolion or vestment, during the Eu
charist; and, as used by them, resembles
the ancient pall much more nearly than
that worn by the Western metropolitans. —
Palmer, Orig. Liturg. u. 317.
The pall is described as consisting of
a strip of woollen cloth worn across the
shoulders, to which are appended two other
strips of the same material, one of them
falling over the breast, and the other hang
ing down the back, each marked with a red
or purple cross, and the whole tacked on to
the rest of the dress by three golden pins
(See Innocent III.'s description: De Miss.
Myst. i. c. 63). Originally it was worn
by tbe emperors, and might not be adopted
by any one else without special consent.
This consent was occasionally given, as a
mark of favour, to philosophers and men of
learning ; and in process of time the honour
was conferred upon eminent churchmen by
the emperors, especially upon the patriarchs,
including the bishop of Rome. Shortly
before the time of Gregory the Great, the
popes of Rome were permitted to grant the
pallium to prelates of the Western Church,
but only with the imperial sanction. It
was not then the mark of the metropolitan
dignity, for it was conferred also on suffragan
bishops ; nor was it an emblem of authority,
nor a token of dependence upon the Roman,
see — it was simply a mark of favour. The
metropolitans indeed of France wore a
pallium, but not the Roman— it was caUed
the Gallican pallium (De Marca. Ub. vi.
c. 7, 31). And our earlier archbishops sought
it as an honour, they did not receive it as a
pledge of servitude. But by a canon passed
in the Council of Lateran a.d. 1215, and
afterwards transcribed into the decretals, it
was enacted that the pall should be regarded
as a mark of the fulness of the apostolic
power, and an oath of allegiance to the pope
was to be taken. Since then, in the Roman
Church, the pope alone always wears the
pallium, and wherever he officiates, to
signify his assumed authority over all other
particular churches. Archbishops and
patriarchs receive it from him, and cannot
wear it, except in their own churches, and

PALL
•only on certain great festivals when they
celebrate the mass. Archbishop Cranmer
refused to wear the pallium, regarding it as
a badge of Rome; yet in 1545 (after the
breach with Rome) he gave a pall to Hold-
gate, archbishop of York (Hook's Arch
bishops, i. 28 : viii. 326. See MaskeU's Mon.
Rit. ii., cxlvi.).
The pall is stiU retained as an heraldic
ensign, in the arms of the archbishops of
Canterbury, Armagh, and Dublin, and for
merly of the archbishop of York also. [H.]
PALL (From Lat. Palla, a garment,
and then a curtain or covering). The word
is frequently used to denote the altar cloth ;
thus Optatus speaks of washing the "pallas "
(lib. vi. p. 98) ; and another early writer
speaks with natural horror of a vandal who
had taken the " palls of tbe altar," to make
garments for himself (Victor, de Persec.
Vandal, lib. i. p. 593). The pall did not
only mean the linen cloth, but also cover
ings of richer material. Ladies sometimes
gave up their rich silks to provide coverings,
or palls, for the altar (Palladius, Hist.
Lausiac. c. 119). And Constantine, among
other splendid gifts, gave a royal pall for the
altar in his church at Jerusalem (Theodor.
lib. i. c. 31). In more modern times the
frontal or antependium was much decorated.
In 1630, at Worcester Cathedral, the upper
and lower fronts, and the pall, or middle
covering, are mentioned ; and there is one
with the acts of the saints of the fifteenth
century embroidered on it at Steeple Aston,
Oxon. (Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 420). At
the coronation service the sovereign makes
an oblation of a pall, or altar cloth of gold
(See Oblation).
The word pall also is used for the cloth
which, according to custom, is placed over
and covers the coffin before burial. It has
generally been made of black material, but
it was not always so. In 1386 Lord
Neville's coffin had a russet pall ensigned
with a red cross. A pall is preserved by
the Clothiers' Company at Worcester, made
of two copes of the early part of the reign of
Henry VII. As the hope of the resurrection
to life eternal divests the funeral of the idea
of sombreness, it is now frequently the
custom to cover the coffin with a violet or
purple pall, with a cross of white or gold
upon it. [H.]
PALM SUNDAY. The Sunday next
before Easter, so called from palm branches
being strewed on the road by the multitude,
when our Saviour made his triumphal entry
into Jerusalem.
This, the first day of Holy Week, was
in very early times called the Sunday of
Palms. In the Sacramentary of Gregory it
has its place as " Dominica in ramis palma
rum," but it was probably observed under

PALM SUNDAY

557

that name, or the equivalent in Greek, long
before. The Bd'imv ioprq, the feast of palms,
is mentioned in the life of Euthymius, a.d.
470 ; and St. Chrysostom speaks of the
shaking of palms (o-eiew rd Bd'ia) as a
custom of the day. But it is doubtful when
the benediction of the palms, with the
" procession of palms," was first observed.
It does not seem to be of ancient date, for
it is not mentioned in the early sacra-
mentaries (Liturg. Rom. Vet. Muratori, i.
546 : ii. 51. See also Ordo Rom. in Mus.
Ital. ii. 18, 30). But in later or medieval
times the blessing of the palms, and dis
tributing them to the people, was attended
with great ceremony. The palms were laid
upon the altar, and the priest pronounced
over them an exorcism and a blessing, with
prayers, and then they were carried in
procession round the church (Goar, 745 ;
Euchologion, 744).
In the lectionary of St. Jerome, and by
other writers, this Sunday is called Indul
gence Sunday; which has sometimes been
explained by the custom practised by the
Christian emperors of freeing prisoners and
closing the courts of law during Holy Week.
But from the words in the proper preface for
the day in the Gregorian Sacramentary,
"per quem (i.e. Jesum) nobis indulgentia
largitur," we may refer the term rather to
the " indulgence " or forbearing love of our
Lord in going forward of His own will on
this day to meet His sufferings. It is also
called " Great Sunday," as the week is the
" great week " ; " Hosanna Sunday," in East
ern and Southern Europe ; " Olive Sunday,"
in Italy ; " Branch Sunday " (Dominica bron-
charii), in Spain and Portugal ; " Sallow
Sunday," in Russia ; " Flower Sunday," or
" Willow Sunday," in parts of England and
Wales. And many ancient customs are still
observed, as at Malmesbury, where people
go in procession carrying catkins of the
willow to St. Martin's hill on this day.
Bede, in speaking of the custom of carrying
palms, says : " Ramos debent fideles portare,
id est bona opera" (Tom. vii. p. 369).
But in later times many ceremonies tending
to superstition were added to the ancient
simple rite, and in the Prayer Book of 1549
the Benediction of the Palms was set aside,
and the Epistle and Gospel were altered ac
cordingly. The collect for the day, which
is translated with slight variations from
that in the Sarum Use, puts us in mind of
the tender love of God towards mankind in
sending His Son, not only to take upon Him
our flesh, but to suffer in it the death of the
cross for our sins ; to the intent " that all
mankind should follow the example of His
great humility ; " and thence teaches us to
pray, "that we may both foUow the example
of His patience, and also be made partakers

558

PANTHEISM

of His resurrection." The Epistle for the
day presents us to this purpose with the
highest and best pattern for our imitation,
even the Son of God, who hath done and
suffered all these great things for us.
This Gospel, with the others that follow
on each day of this holy week, give
the account of the death and passion
of our Blessed Saviour, together with the
many circumstances that went before and
came after it. — Fuller's Church Hist. p.
222 ; Walcott's Sac. Arch. ; Brand's Antiq.
p. 236; Diet Christ. Ant; Annot. P. B.
i. 96. [H.]
PANTHEISM (Tldv, all; Oeos, God).
A subtle kind of atheism, which identifies
the Deity with the universe, and so denies
the existence and sovereignty of any God
over the universe. It is to be feared that
much of the mere natural religion of the
present day partakes of the character of
Pantheism. It has been shown, and no at
tempt has been made to refute it, that all
theories of " automatic cosmogony " or self-
existing laws of nature resolve themselves
necessarily into Pantheism, or that of every
atom of the universe being its own God, and
having at some time or other adopted an
infinite number of resolutions how it would
always behave in all possible circumstances,
and has always adhered to such resolutions,
and always will. (See Sir E. Beckett's
Origin of the Laws of Nature (S.P.C.K.),
and the Edinburgh Review of Spencer's
First Principles, January, 1884). [G.]
PAPA (Jldnnas, Greek). A name origi
nally given to the bishops of the Christian
Church, though now it has become in the
West the pretended prerogative and sole
privilege of the pope, or bishop of Rome.
The word signifies no more than father.
Tertullian (De Pudicitia, c 13), speak
ing indefinitely of any Christian bishop
who absolves penitents, gives him the name
oi Benedictus Papa. It has been asserted
that he refers especially to the bishop of
Rome, but even if this were the case, others
do not. Heracias, bishop of Alexandria,
is caUed pope or papa (Euseb. lib. 7, c. 7).
St Jerome gives the title of Papa to Atha
nasius, Epiphanius, Paulinus, and St. Au
gustine, to whom he generally inscribes
his epistles Beatissimo Pape Augustino
(Hieron. Ep. 61, ad Pammach. : Ep. 17, 18,
25, 30, ad Aug.). So also St. Cyprian is ad
dressed as Beatissimus and Gloriosissimus
papa (Ep. 30, Cler. Rom. ad Cypr., Sec).
The Greek Christians have continued to
give the name Papa to their priests. And
there is, in all Oriental cathedrals, and at
Messina in Sicily (where Oriental customs
are largely retained), there was formerly an
ecclesiastical dignitary styled Protopapa,
who, besides a urisdwtion over several

PARABLE '
churches, had a particular respect paid him
by the cathedral. For, upon Whitsunday,
the prebendaries went in procession to the
Protopapa's chm-ch (caUed the Catholic),
and attended him to the cathedral, where he
sang solemn Vespers, according to the
Greek ritual, and was afterwards conducted
back to his own church with the same
pompous respect. The Vespers, and the
Epistle and Gospel, at Pentecost, are stiU
sung by Greek' priests. — Pirri, Sicilia Sacra.
Diet. Christ. Ant. s. v. Pope.
PAPISTS (See Popery ; Romanists).
PARABLE (tyjto : TrapaBoXr, : parabola :
literaUy " a comparison," from irapaB&XXeiv,
to place side by side and so more generaUy
an illustration). Defined by St. Jerome,
" Sermonem utilem, sub idonea figura ex-
pressum, et in recessu continentem spiritu-
alem aliquam admonitionem" (in St. Mark
iv.) : many other ancient definitions are
given in Suicer's Thes. s. v. wapaBoXr); by
bishop Lowth, " a continued narrative of a
fictitious event applied by way of simile to
the illustration of some important truth."
But with regard to this definition, it must
be observed that the event was not neces
sarily fictitious. Teaching by parable was
a favourite means of instruction amongst
the Eastern sages, but it was expected to
be done with skill ; and nothing was more
insupportable than to hear a fool utter
parable : " The legs of the lame are not
equal ; so is a parable in the mouth of fools "
(Prov. xxvi. 7.). It is to be distinguished
from the fable, the aUegory, the myth, and
the proverb (see Trench on Parables, p. 3) ;
but the word is used with great latitude in
the Old Testament. Sometimes it is applied
to short proverbs (I Sam. x. 12 : xxiv. 13) ;
sometimes to prophetic utterances (Numbers
xxiii.-iv.): it sometimes signifies a mere
discourse : as Job's parable, which occupies
many chapters of the book of Job (xxvi-
xxxi. inclusive). The same title is applied
by its inspired composer to the seventy-
eighth Psalm (ver. 2), which is historical,
not deeply mystical, like the forty-ninth.
It is generally appUed, as in the New
Testament, to a figurative discourse, or a
story with a typical meaning. Our Saviour
in the Gospel seldom speaks to the people-
but in parables : thereby verifying the
prophecy of Isaiah (vi. 9), that the people
should see without knowing, and hear with
out understanding, in the midst of instruc
tion. Some parables in the New Testament
are supposed to be true histories. In others
our Saviour seems to aUude to some points
of history in those times ; as that describing
a king who went into a far country to
receive a kingdom. This may hint at the
history of Archelaus, who, after the death

PARABOLANI
ol his father, Herod the Great, went to
pme, to receive from Augustus the con
firmation of his father's will, by which he
had the kingdom of Judaea left to him
(Archbishop Trench on Parables, Introd. :
Dean Plumptre in Smith's Diet of Bible, ii.
703). The word 7rapa/3oXr) only occurs twice
in the New Testament elsewhere than in
the Gospels, namely, in Hebrews ix. 9, and
xi. 19, where it seems to imply rather a
type than a parable in the usual acceptation
of the word, and in both cases is translated
"figure." [H.]
PARABOLANI. In the ancient Chris
tian Church were certain officers, deputed
to attend upon the sick, and to take care of
them all the time of their weakness. In
the great plague at Alexandria, the care of
the sick was undertaken by the brethren
generally, as a Christian duty (Euseb.
H. E. vii. 22) ; but afterwards the order of
the Parabolani was formed, and the members
were incorporated into a society, to the
number of 500 or 600, elected by the bishop
of the place, and under his direction. But
that this was not an order peculiar to the
Church of Alexandria is very evident, be
cause there is mention made of Parabolani
at Ephesus at the time of the council held
there (a.d. 449).
They were probably called Parabolani
from their undertaking a most dangerous
and hazardous office (irapdfioXov tpyov), in
attending the sick, especially in infectious
and pestilential diseases. The Greeks used
to call those irapdBdXoi, who hired them
selves out to fight with wUd beasts in the
amphitheatre ; for the word napaBdXXeiv
signifies exposing a man's life to danger
(Socr. H. E. vii. 22 : Niceph. H. E. xiv. 3).
In this sense, the Christians were often
called Parabolani by the heathens, because
they were so ready to expose their lives to
martyrdom. And, upon the like account,
the name Parabolani was given to the
officers we are speaking of. They were
considered " clerici," but of very subordinate
capacity, and were chosen from the poorer
classes (Baron, an. 416, t. 4, p. 401).
They seem to have been restless spirits, and
ready to engage in any quarrel that should
happen in Church or State, as they appear
to have done in the dispute between Cyril
the bishop and Orestes the governor of
Alexandria. And again they appear as a
body of violent partisans at the "Latro-
cinium," or " Robber CouncU," of Ephesus,
where six hundred of them acted as the tools
of Barsumas, the Eutychian, whose conduct
can only be designated as brutal (Labbe,
iv. 251). Wherefore the emperor Theodo
sius put them under the inspection of the
Praafectus Augustalis,'and strictly prohibited I
them to appear at any public shows, or in I

PARADISE

5591

the common councU of the city, or in the
courts of judicature, unless any of them had
a cause of his own, or appeared as syndic
for the whole body (Cod. Inst lib. i. tit. 3,
de Episc. Leg. 18). Which shows that the
civil government always looked upon the
Parabolani as a formidable body of men, and
kept a watchful eye over them, that while
they were serving the Church, they might
not do any disservice to the State. — Diet
Christ Ant. ii. 1551 ; Bingham, iii. 9.
PARACLETE. A comforter and advo
cate ; a title applied to God the Holy Ghost
(St. John xv. 26). See Holy Ghost, and
Advocate. PARACLETICE (irapaKXnriKT) : BtfXlov
TrapaKXnTiKov). Among the Greek Chris
tians, a book of anthems, or hymns ; so called,
because they chiefly tend to comfort the
sinner, or because they are partly invocatory,
consisting of pious addresses to God and
the saints.
The hymns or anthems in this book are
not appropriated to particular days, but
contain something proper to be recited
every day, in the mass, vespers, matins, and
other offices. The Ferial office is arranged
not according to seasons, but tones (t/xot),
which are eight in number. These tones
begin with the week after Easter week, and
foUow in regular sequence, spreading there
fore over eight weeks, when they begin
again. Each tone has its Troparia, or short
hymns, and the paracletice gives the proper
hymn for the offices of the day. Allatius
finds fault with this book, alleging that
there are many things in it disrespectful to
the Virgin Mary ; that it affirms that John
the Baptist, after his death, preached Christ
in hell ; and that Christ Himself, when He
descended into hell, freed all mankind from
the punishment of that place and the power
of the devil (Leo. Allat. de Libris Eccles.
Grec. p. 283).
PARADISE (irapdbeio-os, a park ; de
rived from a Persian word ; see Xenophon,
Cyr. 1, 3, 12). I. A word used in the LXX.
for Garden of Eden, or DeUght (Gen. ii. 8,
10: iii. 1-3); and employed figuratively
by Jewish writers to designate the place of
rest for the souls of the faithful departed
(Joseph, xviii. 1). As such the word is
used by St. Luke in relating the promise
given by our Blessed Lord to the penitent
thief on the Cross (xxiii. 43). Where the
paradise is, the distinction between it and
Hades, and what the condition and know
ledge of those admitted therein, has been
the subject of many hypotheses, which can
only be caUed speculative, as there is no
revelation with regard to it, and it does not
come within our scope. But reference may
be made to Tertullian (de Idol. c. 13 ; Apol.
o. 47), Justin Martyr (Respons. ad Ortho-

560

PARAPET

dox.), Clement of Alexandria (Frag. sec.
51), St. Jerome (Ep. ad. Joh. Hieros.), St.
Basil) (Serm. de Paradiso), and other early
writers, to, shew that with the word was
connected the idea of a place of rest and
bliss for the saved souls in the intermediate
state, there to remain till the general resur
rection (See Bishop Bull, Serm. " On the
Middle State," vol. i. p. 49 ; Bp. Horsley,
Serm. xx. ; Routh, R. S. 1, 10 ; ep. 15, 55,
66). II. The porch, or narthex of a church,
was sometimes called the " paradise " (See
Narthex). There those were assembled, who
were waiting to be admitted into the
number of the faithful in full communion.
In Italy, the word paradise became softened
paradiso; hence " parvise," or " parvis,"
the western porch (See Parvise). In many
English cathedrals the space enclosed by
the cloisters, which was the cathedral bury
ing ground, is called the " paradise." Such
burialsare now for sanitary reasons forbidden,
except with leave from the Home Secretary.
But the name remains. [H.]
PARAPET. A low waU protecting the
gutter in the roof of churches or other
buUdings. Early parapets are universally
plain, but with the Decorated style they
begin to be panelled, and sometimes pierced
with various patterns, and in the perpen
dicular tbey are very frequently crenel
lated, which is a weak and bad form. [G.]
PARAPHRASE (Chaldaic). It is com
monly believed that the first translation of
the holy Bible was in Chaldee, and that
the ignorance of the Jews in the Hebrew
tongue, after the Babylonish captivity, was
the occasion of that version, called the Tar-
gum, or Chaldee paraphrase, which was
neither done by one author, nor at tbe same
time, nor made upon all the books of the Old
Testament. The first upon the Pentateuch
was done by Onkelos, a proselyte, who
lived about the time of our Saviour, if we
believe tbe Hebrew authors ; the second
upon the Pentateuch is attributed to Jona
than, the son of Uzziel, who is not the same
with the Theodotion, which in Greek has
the same signification as Jonathan in He
brew ; that is, the gift of God. The third
upon the same book is called the Targum
Hierosolymitanum, or the Jerusalem para
phrase ; the author of which is not certainly
known, nor the time when it was composed.
Schikard believes it to bear the same date
as the Targum of Jerusalem, which was
written about 300 years after the last de
struction of the temple, burnt in the seven
tieth year after our Lord's incarnation.
There are, besides these, three paraphrases
upon the books of Moses ; another upon the
Psalms, Job, and Proverbs ; there is also one
upon the Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes, and Esther, but the author is not

PARDONS
known ; and we have a Chaldee paraphrase
upon Joshua, Judges, Kings, and the Pro
phets, by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, wpo,
according to the Jews, had before written
the paraphrase upon the Pentateuch.
Several learned men believe that all which
the rabbins say concerning the Chaldee para
phrase is fabulous, and that the oldest of aU
the translations is that of the Septuagint : it
is also added that they are later than St.
Jerome, who, having great acquaintance
with the most learned rabbins, and having
written so much upon that subject, could
not fail of speaking of the Chaldee para
phrases, if there had been any such in his
time. The Jews affirm they were composed
in the time of the prophets, and they have
them in so great veneration, that they are
obliged to read in their synagogue a section
of Onkelos' paraphrase, when they have read
a Hebrew text in the Bible.
PARCLOSE. Screens separating cha
pels, especiaUy those at the east end of the
aisles, from the body of the church, are
called parcloses.
PARDONS (See Indulgences). In the
Romish Church, pardons or indulgences are
releasement from the temporary or purga-
tional punishment of sin ; the power of grant
ing which is supposed to be lodged in the
pope, to be dispensed by him to the bishops
and. inferior clergy, for the benefit of peni
tents throughout the Church. In the theory
of pardons, the point is assumed, that holy
men may accomplish more than is strictly
required of them by the Divine law ; that
there is a meritorious value in this over
plus; that such value is transferable, and
that it is deposited in the spiritual treasury
of the Church, subject to the disposal of
the pope, to be, on certain conditions, ap
plied to the benefit of those whose defi
ciencies stand in need of such a compensa
tion. A distinction is then drawn between
the temporary and the eternal punishment
of sin ; the former of which not only em
braces penances, and all satisfactions for
sin in the present life, but also the pains of
purgatory in the next. These are supposed
to be within the control and jurisdiction of
the Church ; and in the case of any in
dividual may be ameliorated or terminated
by the imputation of so much of the over
abundant merits of the saints, Sec, as may
be necessary to balance the deficiencies of
the sufferer.
The privilege of selling pardons, was fre
quently granted by the pope to monastic
bodies in every part of the Church; and
the scandals and disorders consequent upon
this, was one of the first moving causes of
the Reformation. Against those pernicious
errors, the Church of England protests in her
twenty-second Article : " The Romish doc-

PARISH
trine concerning purgatory, pardon s, worsh i p-
ping, and adoration, as well of images as of
relics, and also of invocation of saints, is a
fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded
upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather
repugnant to the word of God."
It is not necessary to quote the words
of Bellarmine, Johannes de Turrecremata,
Roffensis, Laymanus, Gregorius de Valentia,
and other Roman ritualists, on this subject ;
the idea running throughout being that
Christ and His Saints have accumulated so
vast a treasure of good works, that it may be
used for the benefit of others at the discre
tion of the pope.
Thus Leo X., in his decretal, ann. 1518,
says, " The pope of Rome may, for reasonable
causes, grant to the same saints of Christ who,
charity uniting them, are members of Christ,
whether they be in this life or in purga
tory, pardons out of the superabuudancy of
the merits of Christ and the. saints ; and
that be used, for the living as well as
for tbe dead, by his apostolic power of grant
ing pardons, to dispense or distribute the
treasure of the merits of Christ and the
saints, to confer the indulgence itself, after
the manner of an absolution, or transfer it
after the manner of a suffrage." So that, as
Durandus says, " Tbe Church can communi
cate from this treasure to any one, or several,
for their sins, in part or in whole, according
as it pleases the Church to communicate
more or less from the treasure." It is
almost needless to add that the theory
finds no support in the writings of the early
Fathers. PARISH. A parish is that circuit of
ground which is committed to the charge
of one parson or vicar, or other minister
having cure of souls therein. A reputed
parish is where there is a parochial chapel,
with all parochial rites entirely independ
ent of the mother-church, as to sacraments,
marriages, burials, repairs, &c. (See Cha
pel). The word parish is from the Greek word
jrapoiKia](paroikia), which signifies sojourn
ing, or living as a stranger or settler as dis
tinguished from a native ; for so it is used
among the classical Greek writers. The
Septuagint translate the Hebrew word "13
(Ger), peregrinus, by irdpoiKos (Gen. xv. 13,
&c), and the word "1-13D (Magor), peregrin-
atio, by irapoiKia (Ps. cxix. 54).
The primitive Christians received a great
part of their' customs, and also their phrase
ology from the Jews; who, when they
travelled abroad, and many of them were
settled in any town, either built them a
synagogue, or else procured a large room,
where they performed their public worship ;
and all that were strangers in that place
met there at the times of public devotion.

PARISH

561

This brotherhood of Jews, which was mixed
with the inhabitants of the place, they called
the wapoiKia, or the society of the sojourn
ers. At the beginning of Christianity, the
Christians were in the same condition with
the Jews, they being themselves either
Jews, or Jewish proselytes, or living in a
retired condition, sequestered from the
world, and little mixing with affairs. Upon
which account St. Peter addresses them
q>s irapoUovs, Sec, as strangers and pilgrims
(1 St. Pet. U. 11). This number of strangers
in the heathen cities was called the irapoiKia,
over which there was set, by apostolical
authority, a bishop, a irpoco-ras, a cazan
(an inspector), or a rhosh cohel (a head of
the congregation) ; all which names denoted
the episcopal authority, and which in little
time centred in, the one most usual name,
of iirio-Koiros, or bishop, as is plainly seen by
the Ignatian epistles. So that the iirlp-Koiros
and irapoiKia became relative terms ; he that
had, the superintendency of the congrega
tion, whether one or more, was called the,
bishop, and the congregation under his
care was caUed the irapoiKia. Hence, in the
most early time , of the Greek Church, the
word irapoiKia was used to signify, what we
now call a diocese ; and thus, in the aposto
lic canons, a bishop that leaves his diocese
(irapoiKiav) for another is to be reduced to
lay-communion. Hence it is said, "The
bishop of the diocese (irapoiKias) of
Alexandria departed this life." And again,
" the glory of the diocese (irapoiKias) of
Caisarea." The Latins took up the same
way of expression, from the Greek, denoting
a diocese by the word parochia, which mode
of expression lasted till after the time of
Charles the Great.
But it is to be observed, that when the
word parochia signified a diocese, the word
diocesis signified a parish. So in the
Council of Agatha, presbyter dum diocesin
tenet, " whilst the prosbyter is in possession
of bis living." And in the third Council of
Orleans, diocesis is the same with basilica,
a parish church. But in the seventh or
eighth century, when parish churches began
frequently to be founded in villages, the old
names shifted, and diocesis was used to
denote the extent of the bishop's jurisdic
tion ; and parochia, the place where the
presbyter's care was limited.
That the word irapoiKia was not exclusively
applied to a parish, and that a bishop's
diocese was not anciently confined to a
single parish, as it has been asserted by the
advocates for Presbyterianism, see Maurice's
" Defence of Diocesan Episcopacy," and
Scater's " Original Draught of tbe Primitive
Church." See also Suicer, Thes. ; s. v.
irapoiKia. Many parish churches were founded in
2 o

562

PARISH

great towns and villages in Italy, Spain,
and Gaul during the fourth, fifth, and sixth
centuries under the cathedral church of the
bishop. The time when parishes were
formed in England cannot be fixed with
certainty. The diocese existed before the
parish, and originaUy the bishops sent out
their clergy (who lived with them) to preach
in different parts of the diocese as occasion
required; but as the number of converts
increased this method became inadequate,
and a resident clergy was found expedient
to serve the churches which had been built
and endowed by lords of manors, and other
owners of property. Thus parishes were
formed. As the diocese was commonly
coextensive with one or more kingdoms, or
tribal divisions, so a parish was generally
conterminous with a manor, a township, or
group of townships (see Stubbs' Constit
Hist. i. ch. viii.). And this accounts for
the great variation in the extent and shape of
different parishes. There was at first no
appropriation of ecclesiastical dues to any
particular church; but every man was at
liberty to contribute his tithes to whatever
priest or church he pleased, provided only
that he paid them to some ; or if he made no
special appointment or appropriation, they
were handed over to the bishop for distribu
tion among the clergy, the poor, and for other
pious purposes. The traditional founder of
parishes in England is Archbishop Theodore,
a.d. 669, but it is certain that they existed
before his time, although he probably de
veloped and organized the system (See
Parochial System). [W. R. W. S.]
In 1520, according to a book made out
by Cardinal Wolsey, the number of parish
churches is reckoned 9407, but Chamberlain
makes them 9913. Camden reckons 9284.
The number of charity briefs issued was
according to an account in Burn's " Eccle
siastical Law," 10,489 (See Briefs). Arch
deacon Plymley, in his charge to the clergy
of Salop, 1793, says that, from the " Liber
Regis," there were in England and Wales
5098 rectories, 3687 vicarages, and 2970
churches, neither rectorial nor vicarial; in
all 11,755 churches in the 10,000 parishes.
It is scarcely necessary to add, that both
churches and parishes have much increased
since that period.
[Although parishes were altered in old
times by royal authority, it has long been
the law that it requires either a general
or special Act of Parliament. Accordingly
many special Acts were passed, among which
may be noticed the singular one of Anne,
carving the rectory of St. James out of
the vicarage of St. Martin-in-the-Fields.
General Acts for the purpose of dividing
and consolidating parishes by commissioners,
who are all now merged in the Ecclesiastical

PAROCHIAL SYSTEM
Commissioners, began with 58 G. III. c. 45,
followed by c. 134 of the next year, and 3 & 4
Vic. o. 60, 6 &7, Vic. c. 37(caUed Peel's Act),
19 & 20 Vict. c. 104 (Lord Blandford's Act),
under which every ecclesiastical district be
comes a new parish as soon as the incumbent
of the church, becomes entitled to the ' sur
plice fees' on his own account, and thereupon
the inhabitants lose aU ecclesiastical rights
in the old parish. Fuller v. Alford (Q. B. D.
418). The Acts of this kind have become so
numerous and complicated that it is im
possible to explain them here ; and unneces
sary, as no action can be taken under them
without the consent of the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners confirmed by the Privy
Council. It must be borne in mind too,
that they do not affect any civil rights, or
the election of churchwardens, from which
result some yet unsettled legal questions
as to parochial civil matters and the powers
and duties of churchwardens as overseers of
the poor when they are so.] [G.]
PARLIAMENT, PRAYER FOR. This
was probably composed by Laud when he
was bishop of St David's. It appears first in
" A forme of Common Prayer .... to be read
every Wednesday during the present visita
tion. Set forth by his Majestie's Authority.
Reprinted at London by Bonham Morton,
and John Bill, Printers to the King's most
exceUent Majestie. Anno 1625." It also
appears in at least two forms of Prayer,
which were issued by Laud, after he became
archbishop of Canterbury, and during the
rule of the " Long Parliament." It was in
serted in a Fast-day Service for the 12th of
June, 1661, and afterwards in its present
place. The word " dominions " was substi
tuted for " kingdoms " by an Order of Coun
cil of January 1, 1801, probably because the
former being a more comprehensive word, it
would embrace the colonies, and be more
suitable than " kingdoms " to an empire so
extended, and of so mixed a character as
that of the English sovereigns. — Blunt's
P. B. i. 64. [H.]
PAROCHIAL SYSTEM, THE. The
" Parochial System " is a subject of so much
importance, that it seems to justify a
careful inquiry into its origin and meaning,
as it has hitherto been understood in Eng
land, in order that we may know what we
should lose, if unhappily it should ever
cease to exist in this country. For the
earlier use of the word, see Parish.
The idea of a " parish," in the later use
of the word, grew out of the organization of
the Roman Empire. Sometimes the district
surrounding a great city was governed by
the magistrates of that city; and sometimes
independent communities, having their own
rulers and their own territories, were formed
in rural districts. Here, then, was a fore-

PAROCHIAL SYSTEM
shadowing of the mode of government of
the Christian Church. And so it came to
pass that as Christianity advanced and pre
vailed in the world, the Ecclesiastical
divisions followed the Civil divisions of the
Roman Empire.
In this country, as elsewhere, the Church
was at first a mere collection of missions,
unconnected and independent. Separate
parishes grew up slowly ; and they were
not infrequently created in this maimer;
namely, that the landed proprietor in any
district having himself embraced Christi
anity, would buUd a church and endow it,
perhaps with a grant of land, perhaps with
the tithes of his estate. In this latter case,
the estate and the parish would be co
extensive, the lord of the manor becoming
the patron of the church built upon his
manor. This often explains the variety in
the sizes of different parishes, and the fact
of portions of parishes being sometimes in
cluded in other parishes.
In the seventh century, the century in
which there flourished Paulinus and Aidan,
and Wilfrid and Chad, and Theodore and
Cuthbert, the parochial system received a
great impulse. Christianity gradually as
sumed a more settled character in this
island. It began to lay hold of the Saxon
race. The mission of Augustine had been
fruitful amongst the Jutes of Kent, and that
of Birinus in Wessex ; and now the mis
sionaries from the North added great
strength to the cause. Chad's labours seem
to have been purely missionary, although he
must have had, besides his little establish
ment at Lichfield, oratories and smaller
mission churches in the districts which
he visited. But Christianity was gaining
ground everywhere. Paulinus buUds a
church at Lincoln; having first converted
the governor of that city and his whole
family to the faith of Christ. Bede tells us
that he built this church of stone and of
beautiful workmanship. " Ecclesiam operis
¦egregii de lapide fecit." The church soon
fell, probably through violence, in those
troublous times ; but portions of it were still
standing in Bede's time. Oswald becomes
king of Northumbria a.d. 634; and he
applies to the Scottish Church for a bishop
who might spread the Christian faith among
the English people ; and they sent him the
eminent and saintly Aidan, who received
as his see the island of Lindisfarn. The
bishop preached the gospel to the people in
his own tongue ; and King Oswald inter
preted his words to them. So Christianity
spread. " Churches were built," says Bede,
" in several places ; and money and lands
were given to build monasteries." Bede
mentions incidentally, as examples of the
gradual growth and development of the

PAROCHIAL SYSTEM

563

Church, the fact that John, bishop of York,
was invited by a Saxon earl named Puch
to consecrate a church which he had built
for his dependents ; and presently afterwards
we find this same bishop consecrating
another church built on another estate by
its owner, Earl Addi. Thus the parochial
system grew and was strengthened. It
received no doubt a powerful impulse under
the energetic rule of Archbishop Theodore,
a.d. 669. He has, indeed, been regarded as
the traditional founder of the " parochial
system" in this country ; but it would be
more correct to say that he developed and
extended what was already in the germ.
His comprehensive idea was that of the
" pastoral system," worked by an educated
and devoted body of clergy, thoroughly
supervised by a sufficient number of /bishops,
with sees of manageable dimensions ; and
the whole regulated by an annual Synod.
And it is to him above others that we are
indebted for having carried out this idea.
Bishops were planted everywhere, with
parochial clergy under them, and endow
ments provided for their support.
Of these endowments we find " tithes "
mentioned at an early period in the history
of our Church. It is said that Augustine
recommended them on his arrival at the
close of the sixth century. At all events,
they became an important element of
strength to the " parochial system " by the
end of the seventh century. If it be asked
why " tithes " were not at once generaUy
adopted in the Christian Church for the .
support of the priesthood, it should be re
membered that, as long as Judaism lasted,
tithes were paid to the Jewish priests and
Levites, by Divine appointment; and so,
during the interval between the passing
away of Judaism and the establishment of
Christianity, extraordinary and exceptional
means, such as "community of goods,"
were adopted for the maintenance of the
clergy and the poor of the infant Christian
Church. To this it must be added that the
general institution of tithes would imply
the adoption of Christianity by a whole
state or kingdom, as well as the protection
of the Church by the civU power. This
explains why in the first dawn of Christi
anity we find no evidence of the general
adoption of tithes as an endowment for the
Church. On the other hand, there is no evidence
of any Divine direction that " tithes " were
to cease under the Christian covenant. On
the contrary, they are frequently mentioned
with approval as embodying a great princi
ple, and recommending a great duty, name
ly, that of consecrating ' a Uberal portion of
our substance to God and His service. Ori-
- gen in the third century mentions tithes as
2 o 2

564

PAROCHIAL SYSTEM

PARSON

" a portion of our income dedicated to God,
which ought to be exceeded by Christians."
The Apostolical Constitutions in the fourth
century refer to tithes, as given " in accord
ance with the command of God ; " and St.
Jerome speaks of tithes as a part of "the
rudimentary teaching of the Jews ; " and as
indicating " tho least that Christians ought
to give, in proportion to their means." St.
Augustine also warns those who till the
earth " not to defraud the Church in the
matter of tithes."
It wUl be seen from what has already
been stated, that " tithes " in this country
are, in their origin1 and purpose, freewill
offerings, the voluntary contributions of
their original owners to the service of God ;
not national property, in the sense in which
some would regard them; but property
dedicated for ever by Christian proprietors
for sacred purposes. They existed long
before Acts of ParUament, although they
are now protected and regulated by Statute
Law. Tithes were legalized in Mercia after
the synod of Cechyth in a.d. 787 (see
Haddon and Stubbs, Cone. iii. 636), and
became general throughout England. Thus,
for more than 1,000 years, the payment of
tithes, originally instituted by God Himself,
and of which St. Jerome says, that it was to
be understood to continue in its full force
in the Christian Church, has been recognised
by tbe laws of the Church and Realm of
England, as of moral and perpetual obliga
tion (See Tithes).
Now the tithe of land for the support of
Christ's ministers throughout a whole com
munity or kingdom implies the acceptance
of Christianity by that whole community.
And it is here that we recognise the value
of the union of Church and State in a well-
ordered Christian commonwealth. We also
see how closely what we call the " parochial
system " is bound up with our institutions
in Church and State. For thus the whole
country is mapped out into parishes, each pa
rish having its own recognised spiritual in
structor, whose income in the great majority
of cases, especially those of the more ancient
endowments, comes directly out of the pro
duce of the land. The endowments of the
Church are' therefore not the property of the
State, as some suppose, but the produce of
the free gifts of former ages to God and His
Church, those gifts being now regulated and
protected by the Law. Thus, in theory at
least, every inhabitant of this country has
a spiritual pastor provided for him, at whose
hands he may claim the ministrations of
religion. In thousands of parishes through
out the land the humanising, , civilising
effects of this system are manifest in the
presence of men of culture and refinement
(sometimes the only men of education near

at hand), who by their high character and1
Christian example save many a district from
lapsing into paganism. But the vast in
crease and irregular distribution of our
population have in many districts almost
swamped the " parochial system ; " and one
of the most important social and moral
problems of the day is how to meet these'
difficulties, and by a wise extension of the
parochial system, in itseff so excellent, to
make it once more coextensive with our
needs and requirements. Experience has
taught us that our large and. overgrown
parishes are often best administered, at
least for a time, by a staff of clergy working
from one centre and under one head, until
circumstances point out when and where
new and independent districts may best be
formed. Meanwhile mission-rooms and
school-rooms, and mission-chapels and
chapels of ease, wiU be rising up, and the
help of earnest and devout Christian laymen
will be gladly, welcomed for visiting the
people, and addressing them, and conducting
services for them, under the direction of the
incumbent, in unconsecrated buUdings. .
The advantages of the parochial system
cannot easily be overrated. It places the
parish priest in charge, not merely of a
congregation, but of a territorial district,
with all its inhabitants — all those at least
who choose to accept his ministrations — so
that, in theory, there is not a single indi
vidual who has not a claim to the spiritual
help of some duly authorised clergyman.
The constant and systematic visitation of
the people by their clergyman is implied in
the " parochial system." And since it is
no part of the system of our reformed
branch of the Church Catholic that her
members should come periodicaUy to their
pastor for private confession and absolu
tion, there is all the more reason why. he
should visit them as their friend and
spiritual adviser, as to the things which
concern their salvation. Such is the advan
tage of the "parochial system," rightly
administered. [E. B.]
PAROCHIAL MISSIONS. Great success
has attended this method of furthering paro
chial work. The Parochial Mission Society
alone have held upwards of 1,500 missions, :
and in many dioceses Societies -of " Mission
Preachers " have been formed for this work.
PARSON (Persona ecciesie). One that
has full possession of all tbe rectorial rights
of a parochial church. He is called parson,
psrsona, because by his person the Church,
which is an invisible body, is in his parish
represented. He sustains in the eye of the
law the person of the Church, in any action
touching the same. There are four requisites
as necessary to becoming a parson. (1)
HolyOrdei-3; (2) Presentation; (3) Insti-

PARSONAGE
tution; (4) Induction (q.v.). After these
ceremonies the clerk becomes "parson
imparsonee," or "persona impersonate, " ;
and " he has then only to read himself in " ;
that is, to say divine service and read the
39 articles, and publicly declare his assent
to the same. The freehold of the parsonage-
house, glebe, and church is in the parson,
except in the case of a lay rector, who holds
the freehold of the chancel. The tithes and
dues are payable to him. The repairs of the
church and churchyard fall upon the parish
ioners ; those of the chancel on the parson,
unless there is a lay rector, who is liable
for, the repair of the chancel, but is not a
" persona." A vicar is not, properly speak
ing, parson, though often popularly called so.
The word persona is, however, applied in
ancient documents . to others besides paro
chial incumbents, that . is to ecclesiastical
officers who had a personal responsibility for
the services and duties proper to their
churches (See Persona). — Stephen's Black-
atone, vol. iii. p. 19 seq. [EL]
PARSONAGE. The parson's residence.
It is applied both to rectories and to vicar
ages, aud indeed to the official residences
of all incumbents of parishes, parochial
districts, or chapelries. The power to give
and to devise land for parsonages has been
dealt with by the legislature in the same
gradual and inconclusive way as church
building. The only obstacle to unlimited
giving of land for such purposes by persons
seised in fee was the Mortmain Act, which
required troublesome formalities. 43 G.
111. c. 108 authorised gifts or devises of
land up to five acres for both churches and
parsonages, but only by absolute owners.
51 G. III. and 58 G. III. enabled tenants for
life to sell for those purposes, but the money
had to be resettled with the 'estate. But by
28 & 29 Vic. c. 69 (1865) tenants for life may
give an acre for a parsonage (but not a
church!) without resettling the value.
Then by 36 & 37 Vic. c. 50, sites for any
place of worship and residences up to one
acre may be given by a tenant for life and
the next heir or his guardian, even if the
tenant for life himself as has been decided ;
which is extended to corporations by 45 Vic.
c. 21 : which looks as if the Act of 1865
was forgotten by the drawer of that of 1875 ;
or else it is difficult to guess why the 1865
Act was not simply extended to churches,
or why either of them need limit the gift of
a parsonage and its appurtenances to one
acre, if it may be given at all by a tenant for
life. But simplicity seems unattainable in
all kinds of ecclesiastical legislation now. [G.]
PARVISE. A chamber over a church
porch, as at Drontheim, Paisley, Christ
Church (Hants), Hereford, &c. The parvise
was most likely always a kind of domus

PASCHAL EPISTLES

565

inelusa for some officer of the church, as
for instance, the sacristan; and from the
frequent occurrence of an altar in the east
window, we may presume that it was some
times a temporary lodging for a priest.
The word is used in France to signify also
the open space round cathedrals or other
churches ; like paradise, of which parvise
is probably a contraction (See Paradise). .
PASCH (irdo-xa) : the festival of Easter.
The name is derived from the Aramaic
form of the Hebrew for Passover (riDg);
and was retained in the Latin. Though
in the Church of England the name Easter
has entirely superseded the "pasch" (see
Easter), the latter was once familiar, and is
stiU to be found in the " paste eggs " (pasch,
or pasque), which in the north of England
are at Easter presented to children or friends.
Eggs were considered symbolical of the
resurrection, as may be gathered from the
prayer in the form of benediction of eggs
made for the use of England, Ireland, and
Scotland,- by Pope Paul V. These eggs are
hard-boiled, and gilt, or tinged with colour.
"Ovum paschale, croceum seu luteum"
(Cole's Lat. Diet). The custom of giving
and receiving pasch eggs is ¦ very widely
observed, in Russia (Brand's Antiq. App,
310). [fl.]
PASCHAL. Pertaining to the Passover.
The lamb offered in this Jewish festival
being a prominent type of Christ, the
terms paschal and pascbal lamb are often
used in application to the Redeemer. An
example occurs in the proper preface for
Easter Day, in the Communion Office, thus :
"Thy Son Jesus Christ our Lord, for he
is the very Paschal Lamb, which was offered
for us, and hath taken away the sin of the
world," Sec
PASCHAL EPISTLES, and PASCHAL
CONTROVERSY. 1. The former were
letters written by patriarchs and metro
politans to their suffragan bishops to give
notice to them of the time of keeping Easter,
as that time varied. St. Ambrose thus
sent instructions to his province of Milan
(Ep. 83, adEpisc.per Mylian), and in various
councils the metropohtans were enjoined to
take heed to the matter (Cone. Garth. 3;
can. 1 Se 11 ; Cone. Bracar. 2, can. 9 ; Cone.
Tolet. 4, can. 5). Leo says that the care
of making the calculation for the Pasch (or
Easter) was committed, at the Council of
Niua?a, especially to the bishop of Alexandria
(Leo, Ep. 72, al. 70, ad Marcian. Imper.).
This, however, was probably because the
school of Alexandria was well known for
its superiority in mathematical science, and
not that the bishop of Alexandria as such,
had any authority over other churches (Diet
Christ. Ant. ii. 1562). It was the custom on
the Feast of the Epiphany to announce the

566

PASSALORYNCHITES

exact day of the month on which the Pasch
or Easter should be held. II. Into the
controversies which took place as to the day
on which the Easter festival should take
place, it is impossible to enter here ; they
are detailed in the " Dictionary of Christian
Antiquities " (i. 592 ; see also Easter ; and
Quartodecimans). The quartodeciman or
Jewish method, which was advocated by
Polycarp, aimed at its observance on the
actual anniversary of the resurrection of our
Lord — the third day after the 14th day of the
month Nisan. Anicetus, on the other hand,
held that it should always be observed on
the Lord's day. This difference was settled
by mutual toleration ; but the question
remained open tiU the Council of Aries (a.d.
314) and the Council of Nicsea (a.d. 325),
when it was ruled that it should be a Lord's
day. It is a mistake to suppose that the
Britons, as is sometimes asserted, were
quartodecimans. We have the authority
of the Emperor Constantine himself for
saying that the Britons as well as other
nations observed Easter as the Council of
Nicasa directed (Euseb. de Vit. Constant.
iii. 19).
The Celtic Church, or the British and
Irish Christians, adhered to the old Alex
andrian reckoning adopted at the Council of
Nicaja but afterwards discarded by the
Church in Italy for one made by Dionysius
Exiguus, a.d. 527, which was thought more
accurate. The disciples of the Celtic school
were confirmed in their obstinacy by the
haughty behaviour of the Italian priests.
The peculiar tonsure became the badge of
party in either case (Hook's Archbishops,
1, 13). A council was held on the subject
in 664, at Streaneshalch (Whitby), King
Oswy baving found that some were fasting
in Lent, while he was indulging in Easter
festivities, from which time the Roman
order was confirmed in Britain. The uni
form observance of Easter was enjoined by
Theodorus (c. 671) (See Easter; Golden
Number). [H.]
PASSALORYNCHITES, or PATTA-
LORYNCHIANS (ndo-o-aXos, a gag, and
piyxos, a muzzle). Certain heretics, the
followers of Montanus, who made profes
sion of never speaking, and for that pur
pose always held their fingers upon their
mouths, grounding it upon certain words
of the 140th Psalm. They began to ap
pear in the second age; and St. Jerome
testifies, that even in his time he found
some of them in Galatia, as he travelled to
Ancyra. PASSION SUNDAY. From very early
times this name has been given to the
Sunday but one before Good Friday, because
on that day our Lord began to speak openly
to His disciples of His coming sufferings

PASSION WEEK
and bitter death. It was called Dominiac
Passionis, and an Anglo-Saxon homily for
the fifth Sunday in Lent commences by
stating that from that day until Easter,
the time is designated Christ s Passiontide
(Alfric's Homilies, ii. 224 : quoted in Diet.
Christ. Ant ii. 1564). In the north of
England this is called " Carting Sunday,"
and parched peas are eaten under the name
of carlings. It is mentioned in an old
rhyme which enumerates the Sundays in
Lent and Easter-day :
" Tid, Mid, Misere
Carling, Palm, and Paste-egg day."
The collect is taken from the Sacramentary
of Gregory. It is a prayer of God's people
that he would (1) govern, and (2) preserve
them both in body and soul. The Latin
original connects the "government" with
the body, and the " preservation" with the
soul : " Ut te largiente regatur in corpore,
et te servante custodiatur in mente." The
epistle refers to our Lord's passion (Heb.
ix. 11-15) ; the gospel to the rejection of
Him by "His own," which leads up to,
and prepares us for, His final rejection. — E.
Daniel's P. B.; Blunt's House. Theol. p.
222; Annot. P. B. ; Diet Christ. Ant. [H.]
PASSING BELL, or Soul Bell. A bell
tolled when a soul is passing out of this life.
It was originally intended to call all within
its sound to prayer. " Art thou working in
the field, or grinding at the mill ? Remem
ber, then, when thou hearest the sound of
the beU for one departing, that thou put up
thy prayers for him " (Bourne's Art. Vulg).
Durandus (circ. a.d. 1190) says : " When
any one is dying, a bell must be tolled that
the people may offer their prayers. Let this
be done twice for a woman, thrice fora man . .
and at the conclusion a peal on all the beUs.
A bell too must be rung while we are con
ducting the corpse to church, and during
the bringing it out of the church to the
grave " (Durand. Rational, pp. 13, 21). In
some places still there is the custom of toU-
ing three times three, distinctly, for a man,
three times two for a woman, and three for
a child. But the original intention of the
" passing bell " is not carried out. A bell
called " the passing bell " is tolled, but it is
to inform the people that a death has taken
place (Brand's Antiq: p. 18). By the sixth
canon, however, it is enjoined, " When any
is passing out of this life, a bell shall be
tolled, and the minister shall not then slack
to do his last duty. And after the party's
death (if so it fall out) there shall be rung
no more but one short peal, and one other
before the burial, and one other after the
burial." [H.]
PASSION WEEK. - The week following
Palm Sunday, i.e. the week in which the
Passion took place. The name has sometimes

PASSIVE OBEDIENCE
been given to the previous week, on the
ground that the fifth Sunday in Lent
is called Passion Sunday (q.v.) ; but in
England it has commonly been given to
the last week in Lent, also called the
"Holy Week" (See Holy Week; Lent;
Maundy-Thursday; Good Friday; Easter
Eve). PASSIVE OBEDIENCE. The doctrine
of passive obedience is that it is never lawful
for the people, under any provocation or
pretext whatever, to resist their kings and
sovereigns. It is opposed to the doctrine of
active obedience held by those who deem it
lawful in certain cases for the people to
oppose their rulers and kings. — Stubbs'
Mosheim, iii. 382. [H.]
PASSOVER (Heb. nD? , nD?n Jn : Gk.
ro irdo-xa ; a leap cr passage). The Passover
was a solemn festival of the Jews, instituted
in commemoration of their coming out of
Egypt, because the night before their de
parture the destroying angel, that slew the
first-born of the Egyptians, passed over the
houses of the Hebrews without entering
them, because they were marked with the
blood of the lamb, which for this reason was
called the paschal lamb. For full account,
see Smith's Diet of Bible.
PASTOR. Literally, a shepherd ; figur
atively, the bishop of a diocese, or the
priest of a parish, whose people are, like
wise, figuratively called their flock. It is
employed in this sense in one of the prayers
for the Ember Week, and in the Ordination
services. PASTORAL STAFF (See Crosier). A
staff with a head like a shepherd's crook,
which is carried before, or borne by the bishop.
It is mentioned in one of the rubrics of King
Edward VI.'s First Prayer Book, which is
still the law of the Church, according to the
present rubric as to the " ornaments of the
Church," except so far as, according to
recent decisions of the Privy Council, it was
modified by the Advertisements of Queen
Elizabeth (See Advertisements). The old
rubric prescribes that the bishop shall in his
public ministrations, besides his proper
vestments, have "his pastoral staff in his
hand, or else borne or holden by his chap
lain." And this is not expressly repealed
by the Advertisements. The staff of an
abbot was carried with the crook turned
inwards, implying that he had the super
vision of his house within ; but the bishop's
Staff was borne with the crook facing out
wards, to denote his jurisdiction over his
diocese. The bishop, also, carried his staff in
his left hand, the abbot in his right (Mas
kell, Mon. Rit u. cl.). Many specimens
of pastoral staffs are preserved, as that of
Wykeham at New College ; of Fox at Corpus
Christi College; of Laud at St. John's

PATRIARCH

567

College ; of Smith at York ; of Mews and
Trelawney at Winchester. In the British
Museum there is the head of a staff with
Limoges enamel of the 13th century ; and
another of about the same date from Peter
borough; also Lyndwood's wooden staff,
with delicate foliage, of the 15th century ;
and a bronze staff with a silver head which
was used by Archbishop Finnen of Leinster,
who died in 1108. The use of the pastoral
staff has of late years been revived, and in
several dioceses, as Salisbury, Oxford, Chi
chester, Rochester, Bath and Wells, Sec,
presentations of such, beautifully wrought,
have been made to the different sees. — Wal-
cott's Sac. Arch. p. 430. [H.]
PATEN. The plate on which the sacred
bread in the Eucharist is laid. The original
word signifies a wide open dish. It occurs
in the rubric of our Communion Office, at
consecration, " here the priest is to take
the paten into his hands."
PATERINI. The Italian name for the
Paulicians or Manichasan heretics who mi
grated from Bulgaria to Italy in the eleventh.
century ; and in process of time it became
the common appellation of all heretics. The
name was also given by way of reproach
by married priests to such friends of the
pontiffs as disapproved of the marriage of
clergymen. The Paterini were among the
sects condemned by the Lateran Council
a.d. 1179.— Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. 33 ; Har-
duim's Cone. vii. 163. [H.]
PATRIARCH. A name originaUy given
to all bishops, but afterwards restricted to
the presiding bishops of the great imperial
dioceses, and still later to the five greatest
of these, viz., Rome, Constantinople, Alex
andria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. A Pa
triarch possessed authority over the me
tropolitans in his diocese resembling that
exercised by the latter over the suffragan
bishops of their provinces. The date at
which patriarchal authority was established
cannot be exactly determined. Many
Romanist writers ascribe its estabUshment
to the apostles, but this is almost certainly
wrong. Some think that there were pa
triarchs before the Council of Nicsea, and
that the famous sixth canon of that Council
implicitly recognised them. Others infer
from an expression of the historian Socrates
(lib. v. cap. 8) that patriarchates were es
tablished by the Council of Constantinople
(a.d. 381). This, indeed, seems more pro
bable inasmuch as in this, as in other ar
rangements, the Church followed the exist
ing divisions of the empire. Constantine
had made some alterations in. provincial
government, dividing the whole empire
into thirteen imperial dioceses, over each
of which, comprising several provinces, a
prefect was placed (Gibbon, cap. xvii. vol.

568

PATRIARCH

iii. p. 49, 12 vol. ed.). The Church then
made the bishop of the chief city of these
dioceses the primate or patriarch of the dio
cese. The privileges of patriarchs were the
consecration of the metropolitans in their
dioceses, the convocation of diocesan synods,
appellate and visitatorial jurisdiction over
metropolitans, and others of less importance.
But these privileges were not the same in
all cases. The patriarch of Alexandria, for
instance, had the right of consecrating all
the bishops, suffragan as well as metropoli
tan, within his patriarchate. This peculiar
. privilege was probably due to the fact that
the bishop of Alexandria was at one time
the only metropolitan, as well as the only
patriarch in his diocese, and that when
metropolitans were set up in subordination
to him he retained some of his metropo
litical as well as patriarchal privileges.
None of these great prelates had of right
any supremacy over the rest, except the
patriarch of Constantinople, who assumed
jurisdiction over the Asian, Pontic, and
Thracian dioceses, an assumption which,
whatever may have been its ground, was
legalized by the Council of Chalcedon (can.
xxviii.). This fact by itself is fatal to the
claims of the pope to universal supremacy
as patriarch of the west, an office, which in
fact never existed, and which, if.it had ex
isted, would by no means have given the
¦bishop of Rome the extravagant authority
which he claims. There were, in point of
fact, besides Rome, four patriarchates in
Western Europe, viz., Milan for the dioceses
of Italy, Lyons for that of Gaul, Toledo
for Spain, and York for Britain. The patri
archal authority of the bishop of Rome
extended only over the imperial diocese of
that name — and it is doubtful whether this
comprised the territory for 100 miles round
the city, or included the ten southern pro
vinces of Italy. In process of time, how
ever, a certain primacy (though not supre
macy) was allowed to the greater patriarchs.
Precedence next to Rome was given to Con
stantinople by the second General Council
(a.d. 381), on the express ground that it
was " new Rome" (Cone. Constant can. iii.),
and this canon was ratified, and patriarchal
authority was given, by the Council of
Chalcedon (can. xxviii.). The Quiniseltine
Council, also called the Council in Trullo,
which met a.d. 691, and is the great au
thority for the discipline of the Eastern
Church, assigned the next places to Alex
andria, Antioch, and Jerusalem (Cone.
Trull, can. xxxvi.). It is now usual to
confine the title of patriarch to the holders
of these five great sees. — Du Pin, De An
tiqua Ecclesiae Disciplina, Dissert, i. ; Bing-
ham, Antiquities, book ii. caps. xvi. and xvii.,
and book ix. cap. i. ; Ussner, Original of

PATRON
Bishops and Metropolitans (Works, vol.
vii.), &c. [H.]
PATRIMON Y. A name anciently given
to church estates, or revenues. Thus we
find mentioned, in the letters of St. Gregory,
not only the patrimony of the Roman
Church, but those likewise of the Churches
of Rimini, Milan, and Ravenna. This
name, therefore, does not peculiarly signify
any sovereign dominion or jurisdiction be
longing to the Roman Church, or the pope.
Churches, in cities whose inhabitants were
but of modern subsistence, had no estates
left to them out of their own district : but
those in imperial cities, such as Rome,
Ravenna, and Milan, where senators, and
persons of the first rank, inhabited, were
endowed with estates in divers parts of the
world. St. Gregory mentions the patri
mony of the Church of Ravenna in Sicily,
and another of the Church of Milan in that
kingdom. The Roman Church had patri
monies in France, Africa, SicUy, ia the
Cottian Alps, and in many other countries.
The same St. Gregory had a lawsuit with
the bishop of Ravenna for the patrimonies
of the two Churches, which afterwards ended
by agreement.
PATRIPASSIANS (a patre passo).
A denomination that arose in the second
century. They are mentioned by Tertullian
(Adv. Praxeas, c. i.) and St. Cyprian, his
pupil (Ep. 73). Praxeas, a man of genius
and learning, denied any real distinction be
tween the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and
maintained that the Father, sole Creator
of all things, had united to Himself the
human nature of Christ. Hence his followers
were called Monarchians, because of their
denying a plurality of persons in the Deity ;
and also Patripassians, because they believed
that the Father was so intimately united
with the man Christ, His Son, that He
suffered with Him the anguish of an afflicted
life, and the torments of an ignominious
death. It. does not appear that this sect
formed to itseR any separate place of
worship, or removed from the ordinary
assemblies of Christians. This heresy
was continued by Noetus, Satellius, and
Priscillianus, and mingled with all their
several heresies. — Pearson on the Creed, sec.
158, note.
PATRON. The person who has the
right to present to a benefice. The great
est part of the benefices in England are
presentative ; the thanes or lords, who
built and endowed churches, having first
agreed with the bishops that they should
have the privilege of presenting fit clerks
to serve and receive the profits of the
churches founded by them ; which right is
continued to their posterity, and those who
have purchased of them. See the 14 & 15

PATRON SAINTS
Vic. c. 97, for a new legislative right of
patronage to builders and endowers of new
churches, and church building. The patron
age of new churches, or of old ones when
sold, may be vested in five trustees. Mu
nicipal corporations were compelled to sell
all their livings, and many were bought by
Simeon's trustees. Some old trusts consist
of a much larger number : e.g. the vicarage
of Leeds and some of tbe churches there are
in patronage of twenty-five trustees.
PATRON SAINTS. I. In the very
earliest ages of Christianity patron saints, or
saints supposed to regard particularly cer
tain places or professions, do not seem to
have been recognised. But after a time it
became, naturally enough, a common cus
tom to connect a saint or martyr with the
place in which he lived or suffered, or with
the profession he had followed; which, in
nocent in itself, afterwards led to supersti
tious invocation of saints, and adoration of
relics. As early as the time of St. Ambrose
(a.d. 386) it was supposed that the bodies
of Gervasius and Protasius, saints buried
at MUan, had the effect of healing demoniacs
who were brought near to their remains;
wherefore Ambrose said, " we had patrons,
and did not know it " (Epist. xxii. 11 ; see
¦also his Expos, in Eo. S. Luc. x. 12).
Paulinus of Nola wrote in his metrical
manner on the subject, and doubtless ex
tended the usage of invoking the aid of
patron saints (see Carm. ii. in S. Fel. 26).
St. Augilstine even speaks of commending
the dead to the saints near whom they were
buried (De Cura pro Mort iv. sec. 6). Hence
arose the custom of dedicating a church to
some saint or martyr of the place ; or, if
such could not be done, of dedicating it to
some other saint, in hope of his intercession.
Thus Theolinda, . about a.d. 600, built a
church near Milan in honour of St. John
Baptist, that he might be an intercessor for
her husband and children (Mabillon, Mus.
Ital. i. 210). It was considered in the
middle ages a very important thing to have
some relics of the saint to whom the church
was dedicated, as they would be a protec
tion. " Ita suis meritis jam tecta sacrata tuetur,
Ut procul effugiat hostis ab asde sacra."
— Alcuin, Carm. 35.
II. (i.) In the middle ages persons diseased
had their " patrons," or saints who could
miraculously cure. Thus St. Roche was
supposed to cure pestilence; St. Apolonia,
toothache ; St. Otilia, bleared eyes ; St.
Wolfgang, the gout ; St. Titus, madness ;
St. Blaise, the quinsy, or any affection of
the throat.
(ii.) The patron saints (defensores) of
professions and trades were so esteemed
because (1) they had been followers of that

PATRONAGE

569

calling — as SS. Peter and Andrew are pa
trons of fishermen and fishmongers; St.
Joseph, of carpenters; St. Crispin, of boot
makers : (2) from some incident in their life,
or in legends, as St. Sebastian, of archers ;
St. Dunstan, of goldsmiths ; SS. Hubert
and Eustace, of huntsmen ; St. Cecilia, of
musicians. (iii.) Of countries and of cities there
were always patron saints. " Merry Eng
land " claims St. George and St. Mary ;
Scotland, St. Andrew ; Ireland, St. Patrick ;
Wales, St. David; France, SS. Mary,
Michael, and Denis ; Germany, SS. Martin,
Boniface, aud St. George; Austria, SS.
Colman and Leopold ; Italy, St. Anthony ;
Russia, SS. Nicholas, Andrew, &c. ; Spain,
SS. James and Edward ; Portugal, St.
Sebastian. A full list can be found in
Walcott's' Sacred. Archeology, p. 433.
Many cities bear the name of their patron
saint, as St. Alban's, St. Asaph, St. David's ;
and some have curious contractions in the
title — as Boston, for St. Botolph's town;
Malmesbury, for Maidulph's burh; Kirkcud
bright, for St. Cuthbert's Church. [EL]
PATRONAGE (See Advowson; Collec
tion ; Donative ; Benefice ; Presentation).
The patron of a living is the person or
corporation who has the right of nominating
the incumbent subject to his being accepted
as idoneus by the bishop of the diocese,
within the legal limits of his discretion.
When the bishop of the diocese (for it
may be another bishop) is himself the
patron, the process is called collation : other
wise the patron " presents" and the bishop
"institutes" (See Benefice; Institution;
Advowson). All patronage of livings arose from the
foundation and endowment of churches by
the proprietors of land ; and the present
patrons represent them, through whatever
changes may have taken place. Many ad
vowsons are, and many more were, " appen
dant," i.e. went with the manor by convey
ance thereof without any special mention
of the advowson. More however got sepa
rated, and these were called " in gross." It is
the fashion now to talk of patronage as a
"trust." Whether it may or not be so
called morally, there is certainly no legal
authority for so treating it, and it is a mere
metaphorical expression which cannot logi-
caUy be made the basis of any argument,
though it is too common to do so. The
founder of a church buUt it and endowed it
with tithes (see Tithes), and the church was
adopted into the ecclesiastical system of the
kingdom subject to the one condition that
the incumbent was to be idoneus in the
judgment of the bishop, and to act according
to the laws of the realm, and not to have
obtained the appointment by what the law

570

PATRONAGE

defines as simony (q.v.). In more modern
times the founders of churches, having very
seldom any tithes to endow them with
(though impropriators have sometimes),
endow them with money, or get the endow
ment from somebody else, and settle the
patronage by agreement in any of the ways
authorised by law. But in all those ways
there is never anything like a trust for the
parishioners. Even if the founder chooses
to give, or to let the patronage go to trustees,
under some of the Church-building Acts,
they are not trustees for the parish, any
more than if the advowson went to trustees
of a wUl or a marriage settlement, but are
absolute owners, only they cannot sell it.
In a few cases patronage has been very
unwisely given to a parish collectively, and
it has generally produced the worst results.
But still that was given voluntarily by the
founder or some of his successors.
It is ridiculous to talk of the Crown or
the bishops or deans and chapters being
trustees for the parishes of livings in their
gift ; and if they are not, a fortiori private
owners representing the original founder
are not ; and therefore it is mere tyranny
and spoliation to deprive them of the
right, which they reserved when they or
their predecessors founded the church, to
give it to any person who is not found by
the proper ecclesiastical authority unfit to
have it. It may be that the proper ecclesi
astical authorities have, either by negligence
or the fear of litigation, got into the way of
not testing the fitness of presentees as much
as they ought, and there is no doubt that
some of the legal decisions have been such
as might well frighten bishops from reject
ing presentees whom they know to be unfit.
On the other hand, the difficulty in the way
of giving them more discretion is, that people
fear it would sometimes be exercised indis
creetly, or in accordance with theological
prejudices. But the practical question is
whether they are not more likely to be
discreet in such a matter than any body
that could be substituted for them, and who
would necessarily be whoUy irresponsible,
and might act entirely according to the
prejudices of the majority, and might easily
go on rejecting every presentee except one
on whom they had fixed their own choice —
perhaps a popular curate, whom neither
a bishop nor any single wise patron would
think fit to appoint. Sooner or later any
such " council of patronage " as church-
reformers want is certain to end in being
elected by a gradually more and more
popular constituency, until it would end in
our " priests being made " by, if not of, " the
lowest of the people," and frequently the
worst and the most likely to destroy the
church. Already it is demanded that dis-

PAULICIANS
senters should be electors, and they are
quite certain to become so if any such
scheme is enacted ; for nobody will listen to
any kind of test nowadays. [G.]
PAUL, ST., THE CONVERSION OP.
A festival of the Christian Church, observed
on the twenty-fifth of January.
The Church commemorates St. Paul by his
Conversion, because, wonderful in itself, and
a miraculous effect of the powerful grace of
God, it was of the highest importance to the
Church of Christ : for, while the other Apostles
had their particular provinces, he had the
care of all the Churches, and was especially
called the Apostle of the Gentiles. Although
the collect is in St. Gregory's Sacramentary,
there is no trace of a festival commemorating
St. Paul's conversion tiR the 12th century.
But it is supposed that the martyrdom of
SS. Peter and Paul, which according to
tradition took place on the same day, was
commemorated on Feb. 22, the day which
was afterwards called Cathedra Petri (q.v.).
In the Roman calendar the double comme
moration is observed on June 29.
PAULIANISTS. Followers of Paul of
Samosata, who was bishop of Antioch A.n.
260. He was charged with holding loose
opinions with regard to morality, and of
himself conforming to those opinions (Eu
seb. H. E. vii. 33 ; Theod. Her. fab. ii. 8).
But he further propagated heretical ideas
with regard to tbe Trinity, deriving his
ideas from Artemon, or Artemas, who denied
the divinity of the Second and Third Persons
in the Trinity ; and asserted, with regard to
Christ, that after His birth, as mere man, a
certain portion of the Divine nature was
imparted to Him. Paul was the predecessor
of Arius in this heresy, and his ideas seem
to have been much the same. The learned
reasoning which Paul and his followers
brought to bear on the question is given by
Eusebius, who ends : " their errors are derived
from the abuse of the arts and sciences of
the infidels, and they corrupt the simplicity
of the gospel by the refinements of human
reason" (H. E. v. 28). This heresy was
condemned at two Councils at Antioch, and
at the Council of Nicasa, and was particu
larly mentioned in the CouncU of Ephesus
(a.d. 431) in the terms : " Concerning the
Incarnation of the Word of God, the Son of
the Father, a definition of the bishops as-
tembled in Nicasa, and a declaration of that
synod against Paul of Samosata" suffices
(Valerius, Not. on Euseb. H. E. vii. 30, p.
318). The Pauliani are also mentioned in
the Code of Theodosius and Valentinian, in
which heretical conventicles are forbidden.—
Cod. Theod. xvi. v. 65; L&\>he,Act.Conc. Eph.
vol. iii: Routh, Reliq. iii. 300, and note
320 ; Gibbon's Roman Empire, c. xvi.
PAULICIANS. Heretics in the seventh

PAX
century, disciples of Constantine, a native
of Armenia, and an upholder of the errors
of Manes (See Manicheans). But as tho
name of Maniehaeans was become odious to
all nations, he gave those of his sect the title
of Paulicians, on pretence that they foUowed
only the doctrine of St. Paul. Another
derivation of the name is however given,
viz., from Paul, an Armenian who propa
gated the heresy in Cappadocia (Photius,
Cont. Manich. lib. i.). The Paulicians held
the chief errors of Manes, though they
rejected the more odious parts of his teach
ing. They denied the grace of baptism ; and
another of their maxims was, not to give
alms to the poor, that they might not
contribute to the support of creatures who
were the work of the bad god.
The sect of the Paulicians did not spread
much tUl the age of the emperor Nice
phorus, who began to reign in 801. The
protection of this prince drew great num
bers to their party. But the empress
Theodora, regent during the minority of her
son Michael, published an edict, obliging
them to follow the Catholic faith, or to depart
out of the empire. Many of them chose
rather to suffer death than to obey; and
several, who lay concealed, afterwards took
up arms against the emperor Basil, the
Macedonian. — P. Siculus, Hist Manich. p.
43 ; Gibbon, cliv. ; Robertson, Ch. Hist.
ii., part i., ch. 8.
PAX (Osculatorium). A small tablet
of sUver, or some fit material, often very
elaborately ornamented, by means of which
the kiss of peace was, in the mediaeval
Church, circulated through the congregation.
It was introduced when the primitive kiss of
peace, which used to circulate throughout
the Christian assemblies, was discontinued
on account of some appearance of scandal
which had grown out of it. In the place
of this, a small tablet of silver or ivory, or
some appropriate material, having first
received the kiss of the priest, was pre
sented by him to the deacon, and by him
again to the people, by all of whom it was
kissed in order; thus receiving and trans
mitting from each to all the symbol of
Christian love and unity, without any pos
sibility of offence. Its introduction is
attributed to the Franciscans (Bona, Rer.
Lit. ii. c. xvi). In England it is men
tioned at York in 1250, and in the Institu
tions of Peckham in 1280. It is called the
"asser ad pacem" in a Council of Oxford,
1287 ; the " paxillum " of St. Paul's, 1298 ;
the " tabula pacis " in the Council of Merton,
1300. There is a "pax" of silver gilt at
New CoUege, of the date of Henry IV. ; and
Chicheley gave one of glass to All Souls'
College. At Durham the embossed cover of
the book of the gospels and epistles served

PEACE

571

as the pax. At Doncaster in 1548 the-
clerk took the pax without the church door,.
and said to the people, " This is a token of
joyful peace betwixt God and man's con
science. Christ alone is the Peacemaker."'
But it was omitted at the Reformation as a
useless ceremony. — Hierurgia Anglicana ;¦
Scudamore's Notil. Eucharist, p. 438 ; Wal-
cott's Sac. Arch. p. 437. [H.]
PAX VOBISCUM. In English, " Peace
be with you." A form; of salutation fre
quently made use of in the offices of the-
ancient Christian Church.
I. It was usual for the bishop to salute-
the people, in this form, at his first entrance
into the church. This is often mentioned
by St. Chrysostom, who derives it from
apostolical practice (Horn. 36 in 1 Cor. ;
Horn. 3 in Colos.).
II. The reader began the reading of the
lessons with this form. St. Augustine
blames the Donatists for using the formula
when they were separated from the peace
of the Churches (Ep. 165), and other
Fathers refer to the custom (Bingham, xiv.
3). The third Council of Carthage (can. 4)
took away this privilege from the readers,
and gave it to the deacons, or other superior
ministers of the Church.
III. In many places, the sermon was
introduced with this form of salutation, and
often ended with it (Constit. Apost. 8, c. 5 ;
St. Chrys. Horn. 52).
IV. It was always used at the consecra
tion of the Eucharist ; and
V. At the dismissal of the congregation.
And, whenever it was said by the officiating-
minister, the people always answered, Ancl
with thy spirit
St. Chrysostom lays open the original
intent and design of this practice. For he
says, it was an ancient custom in the apos
tles' days, when the rulers of the Church
had the gift of inspiration, for the people-
to say to the preacher, Peace be with thy
spirit; acknowledging thereby that they
were under the guidance and direction of
the Spirit of God (St. Chrys. Horn. 3 in
Colos.). In our own liturgy we use an equivalent
salutation, namely, Tlie Lord be with you ;
to which the people answer (as the primi
tive Christians did), And with thy spirit
It occurs but twice in our Prayer Book, i.e.
after the Creed at Morning and Evening
Prayer. In the First Book of King Edward
it followed the versicles, immediately pre
ceding the collect for the day : besides
being used more than once in other offices.
PEACE, COLLECTS FOR. The differ
ence between the collect used in the Morning,
and that in the Evening Service in the
Prayer Book, is that the former relates-
chiefly to outward peace — the latter to-

572

PECULIAR

inward peace. Both collects are in the
Sacramentary of Gelasius (a.d. 492), and
have probably been used in the Church of
England for more than 1200 years. The
morning collect is translated from one which
was used at Lauds in the ancient service, and
was also the Post Communion prayer of a
special Eucharistic office on the subject of
peace (Missal. Sar. Com. ; Missa pro pace ;
Post Communio, fol. ccxli.). The evening
.collect was used in the .prymer of the 14th
¦century, " Prei we. For the pees. Deus a
quo. God of whom ben hooli desires, Sec"
This prayer was also used at Lauds, at
Vespers, and in the Litanies in the ancient
services ; and was the collect of the same
Missa pro pace, of which the Morning col
lect was the " first communion." — Maskell,
Mon. Rit. Ecc. Ang. iii. 38 ; Blunt's Annot
P. B. i, 24, 38. [H]
PECULIAR. Thosd parishes and places
are called peculiars, which are exempted
from the jurisdiction of the proper ordinary
¦of the diocese where they lie. These exempt
jurisdictions are so called, not because they
are under no ordinary, but because they are
not under the ordinary of the diocese, but
have one of their own. They are a rem
nant of popery. The pope, before the Re
formation, by a usurped authority, in defi
ance of the canons of the Church, exempted
them from the jurisdiction of the bishop of
the diocese. At the Reformation, by an over
sight, they were not restored to the jurisdic
tion of the diocese, but remained under the
sovereign, or under such other person as
by custom or purchase had obtained the
right of superintendence.
The Act 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, which
constituted the ecclesiastical commission,
•empowered the commissioners "to propose
that those parishes, churches, or chapelries
which are subject to any peculiar juris
diction, other than the jurisdiction of the
bishop of the diocese in which the same are
locally situate, shall be only subject to the
jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese
within which such parishes, churches, or
chapelries are locally situate" (Sect. 10). In
¦consequence of recommendations by the
commissioners, jjeculiars have been abolished
everywhere, unless Westminster Abbey and
the chapels of the Inns of Court are to be
reckoned so. They are certainly not subject
to the bishop of London. [G.]
PELAGIANS. Heretics who first ap
peared about the latter end of the fourth,
or beginning of the fifth, century.
Pelagius, author of this sect, was a Bri
ton, being born in Wales. His name, in the
British language, was Morgan, which signifies
sea-born ; from whence he had his name
Pelagius from 7reXayor, the sea. St. Jerome,
, with the jealousy which has often been

PELAGIANS
displayed by continentals against natives of
this country, speaks disparagingly of Pela
gius. He describes him as " Scotorum pul-
tibus prsegravatus " (Over heavy with -the
porridge of the Scots), (Hier. in Prxfat.
lib. 3, in Jeremias). He was doubtless a
burly, broad-shouldered man, but the charge
of voluptuousness is not supported on any
other grounds (Paulus Orosius in Apolog.
c. 27; Baronius, Ant. v. p. 305). He is
said to have been a monk by profession ; but
probably he was so only in the sense in which
those were so called who led stricter lives
than others within their own houses. Some
of our ancient historians assert that he
was abbot of Bangor (Ussher, Eccles. Brit.
Ant. c. viii. ix.). But this is not likely,
because theBritish monasterieswere probably
of a later date. St. Augustine gives him
the character of a very pious man, and a
Christian of no vulgar rank. According to
the same Father he travelled to Rome, where
he associated himself with persons of the
greatest learning and distinction. Here he
instructed several young persons, particularly
Ccelestius and Julianus ; as also Tunasius
and Jacobus, who afterwards renounced
his doctrine, and applied themselves to St.
Augustine. During this time he wrote his
" Commentaries on St. Paul's Epistles," and
his Letters to Melania and Demetrias (Aug.
de Peceat Mer. Rem. iii.; Ep. 186, &c).
Pelagius, being charged with heresy, left
Rome, and went into Africa, where he
was present at the famous conference held
at Carthage, between the Catholics and
Donatists. From Carthage he travelled into
Egypt, and at last went to Jerusalem, where
he settled. He was accused before the Coun
cil of Diospolis in Palestine, where he re
canted his opinions ; but relapsing, and dis
covering the insincerity of his recantation, he
was afterwards condemned by several coun
cils in Africa, and by a synod at Antioch.
Pelagius died somewhere in the East, but
where is uncertain. His principal tenets, as
we find them charged upon his disciple Casles-
tius by the Church of Carthage, were these :
I. That Adam was by nature mortal,
and, whether he bad sinned or not, would
certainly have died.
II. That the consequences of Adam's sin
were confined to his person, and the rest of
mankind received no disadvantage thereby.
III. That tho law qualified men for the
kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon
equal promises with the gospel.
IV. That, before the coming of our
Saviour, some men lived without sin.
V. That new-born infants are in the
same condition with Adam before his fall.
VI. That the general resurrection of the
dead does not follow in virtue of our Saviour's
resurrection.

PELAGIANS
VII. That a man may keep the com
mands of God without difficulty, and pre
serve himself in a perfect state of inno
cence. VIII. That rich men cannot enter into the
kingdom of heaven, unless they part with all
then- estate.
IX. That the grace of God is not
granted for the performance of every moral
act ; the liberty of the will, and information
in points of duty, being sufficient for this
purpose. X. That the grace of God is given in pro
portion to our merits.
XI. That none can be called the sons of
God, but those who are perfectly free from
sin. XII. That our'victory over temptation is
not gained by God's assistance, but by the
liberty of the wUl.
As we get our information from Pelagius'
adversaries ; and as he used certain words,
e.g. " grace," with a different meaning to the
Augustinian meaning, there is considerable
difficulty in arriving at what Pelagius really
taught. But the chief points seem to be :
1. The denial of original sin. 2. The denial
of the necessity of grace. 3. The assertion
of complete free will, and therefore the
possibility of a sinless man.
The third General Council (of Ephesus)
(a.d. 431) thus disposes of this heresy:
" The holy Synod gives it in charge that all
who fall away, and either publicly or
privately adhere to the opinions of Nestorius
and Cielestius (the disciple of Pelagius) be
deposed" (Can. 1, 4).
The heresy of Pelagius, notwithstanding
its condemnation, made its way into Britain,
where its author was bom ; being conveyed
thither by one Agricola, the son of Severia-
nus, a Pelagian bishop of Gaul. The ortho
dox party were very diligent in opposing its
progress, and for that purpose requested the
Gallican bishops to send over some persons
of eminence to manage the contest. It is
important to observe this, as Romanists of
course claim that the bishops were sent
by the bishop or pope of Rome (Baronius,
Annates, vol. v. pp. 351-532). But it was
not so, as they started on their mission
before any communication could have been
held with Rome (Constant, de Vita German.
i. c. 19 ; Bede, Eccl. Hist i. c. 19). Those
chosen for this purpose were Germanus,
bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of
Troyes ; who, arriving in Britain, held a
famous conference with the Pelagians at
St. Alban's, in which the latter were put to
silence, and the people gave sentence, by
their acclamations, for Germanus and Lupus.
The Pelagian error respecting original sin is
noticed in our ninth Article. This heresy
is treated by St. Augustine in many of

PENANCE

57S

his books, as Enchiridion, lib. i. : contra
duas Epistolas Pelegianorum ad Bonifa-
cium, lib. iv. : Epistola ad Valerium, Paul-
inum, Optatum, Celestinum, Sec, &c. See
also Bede, u. s. ; Ussher's Britan. Eccles. Ant*
cc. viii.-xi. ; Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien,
iv. 735 ; TUlemont's Memoires, cclix.-
cclxxxvi. ; Newman's Fleury, H. E. xxiii.
1, seq. ; Stubbs' Mosheim, vol. i. 379, 382.
PENANCE (Pcenitentia). As repen
tance is the principle and inward feeling of
sorrow for sin, which we are determined to
forsake, so penance is the outward profession
of that sorrow-.
I. Penance, in the Christian Church, is
an imitation of the discipline of the Jewish
synagogue ; or, rather, it is a continuation
of the same institution. Excommunication
in the Christian Church is essentially the
same as expulsion from the synagogue of the
Jews; and the penances of the offender,
required for his restoration to his former
condition, were not materially different in
the Jewish and Christian Churches. The
principal point of distinction consisted in
this, that the sentence of excommunication
affected the civil relations of the offender
under the Jewish economy; but in the
Christian Church it affected only his rela
tions to that body. Neither the spirit of
the primitive institutions of the Church,
nor its situation, nor constitution in the first
three centuries, was at all compatible with
the intermingling or confounding of civil and
religious privileges or penalties.
The act of excommunication was, at first,
an exclusion of the offender from the Lord's
supper, and from the agape. The term
itself implies separation from the communion.
The practice was derived from the injunction
of the apostle, 1 Cor. v. 11, " With such an
one no not to eat." From the context, and
from 1 Cor. x. 16-18 : xi. 20-34, it clearly
appears that the apostle refers, not to com
mon meals, and the ordinary intercourse of
life, but to these reUgious festivals.
Examples of penitence or repentance occur
in the Old Testament; neither are there-
wanting instances, not merely of individuals,
but of a whole city or people, performing-
certain acts of penance, — fasiing, mourning,
&c. (Nehem. ix. : Jonah iii.). But these
acts of humiliation were essentially different,
in their relations to individuals, from Chris
tian penance.
We have, however, in the New Testament,
an instance of the excommunication of an
offending member, who had married his
stepmother, and of his restoration to the
fellowship of the Church by penance, agree
ably to the authority of St. Paul, 1 Cor.
v. 1-8. This sentence of exclusion from the
Church was pronounced by the assembled
body, and in the name of the Lord Jesus

574

PENANCE .

Christ. By this sentence, the offender was
separated from the people of the Lord, with
whom he bad been joined by baptism, and
was reduced to his former condition as a
heathen man, subject to the power of Sa
tan, and of evil spirits. This is, perhaps,
the true import of " deUvering such an one
up to Satan." It appears from 2 Cor. ii.
1-11, that the Church had not restored the
offender to the privileges of communion,
when they received the second epistle, but
were willing to do so ; and that the apostle,
after hearing of the punishment and penance,
very gladly authorised the measure. This
punishment by excommunication is referred
to again by St. Paul : " if any man love not
the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema."
1 Cor. xvi. 22 (See Anathema). The
¦offender was to be excluded from communion
and fellowship with the faithful ; so that he
should no longer be considered as one of
their body.
It is important to remark, that, in the
primitive Church, penance related only to
such as had been excluded from the com
munion of the Church. Its immediate object
was, not the forgiveness of the offender by
the Lord God, but his reconciliation with the
Church. It could, therefore, relate only to
open and scandalous offences. " De occultis
non judicat ecclesia" — the Church takes no
cognizance of secret sins — was an ancient
maxim of the Church. The early Fathers
say expressly, that the Church offers pardon
only for offences committed against her.
The forgiveness of all sin she refers to God
himself. " Omnia autem," says Cyprian (Ep.
55), " remisimus Deo omnipotenti, in cujus
potestate sunt omnia reservata." Such are
the concurring sentiments of most of the
¦early writers on this subject. It was re
served for a later age to confound these im
portant distinctions, and to arrogate to the
Church the prerogative of forgiving sins.
The readmission of penitents into the
Church was the subject of frequent contro
versy with the early Fathers, and ancient
religious sects. Some contended that those
-who had once been excluded from the Church
for their crimes ought never again to be
received to her fellowship and communion.
But the Church generally was disposed to
¦exercise a more charitable and forgiving
spirit. There were, however, very severe
forms of penance ordained for offenders.
Thus Tertullian says that public penance
obliges the sinner to change his dress and
his manner of living, and to lie in sackcloth
and ashes. " De ipso quoque habitu atque
victu mandat, sacco et cineri, incubare, cor
pus sordibus obscurare " (De Pcenit c. 9 ;
also, to the same effect, Ambrose, ad Virg.
lapsam; Cypr. de lapsis; Euseb. lib. v.
c. 28). And no sinner was absolved till he

PENANCE
had performed his regular penance, and had
carefully gone through the several stages of
discipline (Bingham, bk. xix. c. 2). It
is to this that reference is made in the com
mination service : " there was a godly
discipline in the Primitive Church that such
persons as stood convicted of notorious sin
were put to open penance," &c. (See Com
mination). II. In the law of England penance was an
ecclesiastical punishment or penalty, used
in the discipline of the Church of England,
by which an offender was obUged to give a
public satisfaction to the Church for scandal
done by his evil example. For small offences
and scandals, a public satisfaction or pen
ance was required to be made before the
minister, churchwardens, and some of the
parishioners, as the ecclesiastical judge should
think fit to decree. These penances might
be moderated at the discretion of the judge,
or commuted for money to be devoted to
pious uses. In the case of incest or
incontinency the offender was sometimes
enjoined to do public penance in the ca
thedral, the parish church, or tbe market
place, bare-legged, bare-headed, and in a
white sheet, and to make open confession of
his crime in a form of words prescribed by
the judge. The two latest instances pf
public penance in England occurred at Bristol
in 1812, and at Ditton in 1849. This sort
of punishment, however, being contrary to
the spirit of the age, and the profligate being
found to make parties to abet the offender,
it has fallen into desuetude, though not
abolished by legislation. [H.]
III. The Council of Trent (sess. 14, can. 1)
decreed, that every one is accursed who
shall affirm that penance is not truly and pro
perly a sacrament instituted by Christ in
the universal Church, for reconciling those
Christians to the Divine majesty who have
fallen into sin after baptism; and this
sacrament, it is declared, consists of two
parts — the matter and the form : the matter
is the act of the penitent, including contri
tion, confession, and satisfaction; the form
of it is the act of absolution on the part of
the priest (See Absolution). Accordingly
every man is enjoined to confess his sins
once a year, at least, to a priest, which con
fession is to be secret. This secret or auricu
lar confession was first decreed and estab
lished in the fourth Council of Lateran, under
Innocent III., in 1215 (cap. 21). As for
the penances imposed on the penitent by
way of satisfaction, they have been com
monly the repetition of certain forms of
devotion, as Paternosters or Ave-Marias,
the payment of stipulated sums, pUgrim-
ages, fasts, or various species of corporeal
discipline. But the most formidable pen
ance, in the estimation of many who have

PENITENTIAL
belonged to the Roman communion, has
been the temporary pains of purgatory.
But, under all the penalties which are in
flicted or threatened in the Romish Church,
it has provided relief by its indulgences, and
by its prayers or masses for the dead,
performed professedly for relieving and
rescuing the souls that are detained in pur
gatory (See Indulgences; Pardons; Ex
communication). The reader need scarcely be reminded
how entirely opposed all this is to the
doctrine of the Church of England. The
Church of Rome affirms " penance " to be
a "sacrament," instituted by Christ him
self, and secret "confession" to be one of
its constituent parts, instituted by the
Divine law; and she anathematizes those
who contradict her: — the Church of Eng
land denies "penance" to be a sacrament
of the gospel; affirms it to have "grown
of the corrupt following of the apostles ; "
and " not to have " the proper " nature of a
sacrament," as " not having any visible sign
or ceremony ordained of God ; " and of
course denies the sacramental character of
" confession." This latter point has already
been considered (see Auricular Confession).
It has only to be further observed, in the
first place, that as the Church of England in
her Commination Service, speaks of the
ancient ordinance of open penance as " a
discipline" the restoration of which is
"much to be wished," she hereby recog
nises the ancient systems essentially dif
ferent from that of Rome : namely, a public
expression of sorrow and repentance, to
satisfy the congregation, scandalized . by
the offence; not as a private purchase of
indemnity to the individual : and, in the
next place, when she uses the word penance,
in the second exhortation in the same
service, " Seeking to bring forth worthy
fruits of penance," she but quotes the
words of St. John the Baptist (St. Luke
iii. 8), and thus identifies penance with re
pentance, perdvoia, that is, change of mind
or heart. So that the outward penance is
the mere outward symbol of the inward
repentance. PENITENTIAL (Pcenitentiale : liber
posnitentialis : pcenitentiales Codices, Li-
belli, Sec). A collection of canons which
appointed the time and manner of penance
to be regularly imposed for every sin, and
forms of prayer that were to be used for the
receiving of those who entered into penance,
and reconciling penitents by solemn absolu
tion. The use of the penitential is described
by Morinus: " Interrogate confitente, con
fessor statim promebat librum suum poeni-
tentialem, qua?sito que in eo delicto, locum
¦ei ostendebat, ut videret ipse agnosceret-
que, legitimam sibi imponi pcenitentiam "

PENITENTIARIES

575

(Ducange, Gloss.). But its chief intention
was that penance should be imposed accord
ing to its regulations, and not at the discre
tion of the individual confessor.
With regard to the early history of these
penitentials, little is known, but it is pro
bable that each bishop with his presbytery
administered the discipline of his diocese on
certain fixed principles derived from the
primitive ideas of penance. It would then
be naturaUy tbe case that the rules of those
bishops who gained a high reputation from
strength of character, or wisdom, should be
accepted by others. Thus the epistles of
Basil, and his brother Gregory of Nyssa, on
penance, were received as of high, almost
canonical authority. The Council of Clove-
sho, a.d. 747 (can. 6), forbids any man to
be ordained priest who has not his peniten
tial (WUkins, Cone. i. 95). The best
known are the Anglo-Saxon penitentials of
tbe seventh and eighth centuries. That
which is called the " Pcenitentiale Theodori "
appears not to have been Archbishop Theo
dore's composition, but taken from some
earlier works, as Dr. Wasserschleben has
shown from original research on the conti
nent. Doctor Stubbs (Bishop of Chester)
and the late Rev. A. W. Haddan discovered
a copy of the work in MS. (320), in the
library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
in which reference is made to " quibusdam
codicibus," indicating that the original MS.
has not been discovered. — Haddan and
Stubbs, iii. 1731.
There is also a penitential of Bede, and
of Egbert, called also " scrift-bok," which
has been published (Thorpe's Anc Laws
and Inst. ; Wilkins, Cone. i. 113). In the
British Museum among the royal MSS. is a
" Liber Pcenitentialis " of the early part of
the 14th century. This is said to have
been compiled by Bartholomew, bishop of
Exeter a.d. 1162. See Diet Christ. Ant. ;
Maskell, Mon. Rit. i., cxviii. [H]
PENITENTIAL PSALMS (See
Psalms). PENITENTIARIES, in the ancient
Christian Church, were certain presbyters,
or priests, appointed in every church, to
receive the private confessions of the people ;
not in prejudice to the public discipline, nor
with a power of granting absolution before
any penance was performed, but to facilitate
the exercise of public discipline, by ac
quainting men what sins the laws of the
Church required to be expiated by public
penance, and by directing them in the per
formance of it ; and only to appoint private
penance for such private crimes as were not
proper to be publicly censured, either for
fear of doing harm to the penitent himself,
or giving scandal to the Church (Socrat.
H. E. v. 19 ; Soz. H. E. vii. 16).

576

PENITENTS

The office of penitentiary priests was
abrogated by Nectarius, bishop of Con
stantinople, In the reign of Theodosius,
on account of a certain scandal that had
arisen in the Church. The bishop, perceiv
ing the danger and the difficulty of carrying
it on without offence, by the advice of
Eudajmon, took away the penitentiary's
office, leaving everyone to bis own conscience;
this being the only way to free the Church
from reproach.
Nectarius's example was followed by all
the bishops of the East, who took away
their penitentiaries and discountenanced
secret confessions. Baronius objects to the
authenticity of this proceeding on Nec
tarius's part, that it rests on the authority
of Sozomen, Socrates, and Eudasmon, who
were Novatians (Baron, torn. i. c. 26). But
this is only an assertion, and Socrates
disapproved of Nectarius's action. Bellar
mine gives up this point, but asserts that
public confession, not private, was taken
away (Bellarm. de Pcenit. lib. iii. c. 14),
which point, however, he does not prove.
The office continued in use in the Western
Churches, and chiefly at Rome. A digni
tary in many of the foreign cathedrals is so
called. — Hooker's Ecc. Pol. vi., iv. 9.
PENITENTS. I. Those who, having
fallen into sin, submitted to the rules of
discipline, and performed penance until
their readmission into the Church (See
Penance). The duration of their penance
varied at different periods, and according to
the heinousness of the offence. By the Apo
stolic Constitutions, the offenders when they
professed their repentance were to be
separated some determinate time — as two,
three, five, or seven weeks — and afterwards
received again (Bk. ii. 16). In Africa the
term does not seem to have exceeded one or
two years ; and St. Cyprian at one time
certainly admitted the " lapsi " after a much
shorter penance (Epp. 57, 59). But later
councils imposed a much longer term — five
to twenty years. There were four classes
of penitents: the mourners (flentes); the
hearers (audientes); the knee.lers (sub-
strati) ; and the co-standers (consistentes).
The duties required of penitents consisted
essentially in the following particulars : —
1. Penitents of the first three classes
were required to kneel in worship, whilst
the faithful were permitted to stand.
2. All were required to make known
their penitential sorrow by an open and
public confession of their sin. This con
fession was to be made, not before the
bishop or the priesthood, but in the pre
sence of the whole Church, with sighs, and
tears, and lamentations. These expressions
of grief they were to renew and continue
so long as they remained in the first or

PENITENTS
lowest class of penitents, entreating at the
same time, in their behalf, the prayers and
intercessions of the faithful. Some idea of
the nature of these demonstrations of peni
tence may be formed from a record of them:
contained in the works of Cyprian.. A1-:
most all the canons lay much stress upon
the sighs and tears accompanying these
effusions. 3. Throughout the whole term of pen
ance, all expressions of joy were to he re
strained, and all ornaments of dress to be
laid aside. The penitents were required,
literally, to wear sackcloth, and to cover
their heads with ashes. Nor were these
acts of humiliation restricted to Ash Wed
nesday merely, but then especially they
were required.
4. The men were required to cut short
their hair, and to shave their beards, in
token of sorrow. The women were to
appear with dishevelled hair, and wearing a
peculiar kind of veil.
5. During the whole term of penance,.
bathing, feasting, and sensual gratifications,
allowable at other times, were prohibited..
In the spirit of these regulations, marriage
was also forbidden.
6. Besides these restrictions and rules of
a negative character, there were certain
positive requirements with which the peni
tents were expected to comply.
They were obliged to be present, and to
perform their part, at every religious as
sembly, whether public or private ;' a regu
lation which neither believers nor catechu
mens were required to observe.
They were expected to abound in deeds
of charity and benevolence, particularly in
almsgiving to the poor.
Especially were they to perform the du
ties of the parabolani, in giving attendance
upon the sick, and in taking care of. them.
These offices of kindness they were ex
pected particularly to bestow upon such as
were affected with contagious diseases.
It was also their duty to assist at the
burial of the dead. The regulations last
mentioned are supposed to have been pecu
liar to the Church of Africa.
These duties and regulations collectively
were sometimes included under the general
term i^opoXoyip-is, confession. By this was
understood- not only words, but works;
both, in connexion, being the appropriate
means of manifesting sorrow for sin, and the
purpose of amendment.
II. There are, in the Roman Church,
several fraternities (as they are called) of
penitents, distinguished by the different
shape and colour of their habits. These are
secular societies, who have their rules, sta
tutes, and churches ; and make public pro
cessions under their particular cross or

PENTATEUCH
banner. Of these there are more than a
hundred ; the most considerable of which
are: —
1. White Penitents. These are of dif
ferent sorts at Rome. The most ancient is
that of Gonfalon, instituted in 1264, in the
church of St. Mary Major : in imitation of
which four others were established in the
church of Ara-Cceli ; the first under the
title of the Nativity of our Lord; the
second under the invocation of the Holy
Virgin; the third under the protection of
the Holy Innocents ; and the fourth under
the patronage of St. Helena. The brethren
of this fraternity, every year, give portions
to a certain number of young girls, in order
to their being married. Their habit is a
kind of white sackcloth, and on tho shoul
der is a circle, in the middle of which is a
red and white cross.
2. Black Penitents. The most consider
able of these are the Brethren of Mercy, or
St. John Baptist. This fraternity was in
stituted in 1488, by some Florentines, in
order, to assist criminals at the time of their
death and during their imprisonment. On
the day of execution, they walk in proces
sion before them, singing the seven Peniten
tial Psalms, and the Litanies; and, after
they are dead, they take them down from
the gibbet, and bury them. Their habit
is black sackcloth. There are others whose
business is to bury such persons as are found
dead in the streets. They wear a death's
head on one side of their habit.
3. Blue Penitents. \ All these are
4. Grey Penitents. I remarkable only
5. Red Penitents. > for the different
"6. Green Penitents. j colours of their
7. Violet Penitents. ' habits.
PENTATEUCH (r, irevrdrevxos [BLBXos] :
the Rabbinical title is rninn Win TVffmy.
the five books of Moses. It is a matter of
question whether the division of the work
into five parts was original, or, as is more pro
bable, made by the Greek translators. Also
whether the whole was written by Moses.
With regard to the latter, the following are
the conclusions arrived at by Dean Perowne
(Diet of Bible) : — (i.) The book of Genesis
depends on documents earlier than the time
of Moses, though it was probably brought to
nearly its present shape by Moses, or one of
the elders who acted under him. (ii.) Exo
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, are
the work of Moses, with the exception,
perhaps, of some legal sections, and the con
cluding part of Deuteronomy, (iii.) The
whole work did not finally assume its pre
sent shape till its revision was undertaken by
Ezra, after the return from the Babylonish
captivity. The Samaritan Pentateuch, discovered
and brought to England in the 17th cen-

PERPENDICULAR

577

tury, by the instrumentality of Archbishop
Ussher and others, is the Hebrew Pentateuch
written in the ancient Hebrew letters. It
is supposed by many critics to be the actua*
text of the Scriptures used by the Samari
tans, when at their petition, Shalmaneser,
king of Assyria, appointed one of the Jewish
priests to dwell at Bethel and teach them
how they should fear the Lord (2 Kings
xvii. 28). The copy of the Scriptures then
said to be brought by this priest, contained
the canon of Scripture, as it then existed ;
and the Samaritans never recognised any
other. By several critics the text is sup
posed more correct than the Hebrew; and
as an element of biblical criticism it is in
valuable. See the article on the Pentateuch
in Aids to Faith, by Canon Rawlinson.
PENTECOST (From nei/rr/Koo-rr/, the
fiftieth). A solemn festival of the Jews, so
called because it was celebrated fifty days
after the feast of the Passover (Lev. xxiii.
15, 16). It corresponds with the Christian
Whitsuntide, which is sometimes called by
the same name (See Whitsuntide).
_ PENTECOSTALS. These were obla
tions made by the parishioners to their
priest at the feast of Pentecost, which are
sometimes called Whitsun-farthings ; but
they were not at first offered to their
priests, but to their mother-church ; and
this may be the reason that the deans and
prebendaries in some cathedrals are entitled
to receive these oblations, and in some
places the bishop and archdeacons, as at
PERAMBULATIONS (See Bounds,
Beating of; Gang Days ; Rogation Days).
_ PERNOCTATIONS. Watching all
night, — long a custom with the more pious
Christians, especially before the greater
Tpq-f-lTT-Q 1 c
PERPENDICULAR. The last style of
pure Gothic architecture, which succeeded
the Decorated about 1380. It is most
readily distinguished by its upright win
dow tracery (see Tracery); but the four-
centred arch (see Arch) is a more important
feature, though by no means invariably
found in this style. Its general char
acteristics are the prevalence of vertical
lines carried up and down as far as pos
sible ; the disappearance of the triforium in
cathedrals, and of curved patterns in the
window tracery, except .the repetition of a
few arches; the absence or smallness of
carved or even moulded caps to pillars, the
arches often rising from them, without
any " oversailing " or projection ; and above
all a general monotony and repetition of
exactly simUar detaUs. High roofs were
often degraded into nearly fiat ones in
Perpendicular times, and the clearstories
became higher and more filled with painted
2r

578

PERPETUA

glass. The one great addition to previous
construction was the beautiful fan tracery
roofs, which every one who has seen under
stands the look of, and no explanation
would suffice. The great examples of it are
King's College Chapel, 289 feet long and
48 wide, Bath Abbey and Redcliffe Church,
and the eastern aisle behind the apse of
Peterborough. St. George's, Windsor, and
Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster are
later and baser forms, encumbered with
" pendants " which are all false construction.
That was the last phase of architecture that
could be called Gothic, or a genuine arc
uated style at all, and it died out in the
reign of Henry VIII. There are many fine
Perpendicular towers however, and one very
grand spired tower, that of Louth. St.
Michael's, Coventry, is higher, but much
too narrow, and yet is going to be rebuilt
so, as the tower of Manchester Cathedral
was about twenty years ago, and now they
repent of it (See Capitals, Pillar, Moulding,
Vaulting). [G.]
PERPETUA. Martyr. A Carthaginian
matron of good family who suffered in the
persecution by Severus about a.d. 203 in
Africa. She was, with Felicitas and three
companions, condemned to the punishment
of the wild beasts, that is to say, placed in
the arena to be worried to death. She was
tossed by a wild cow, and afterwards slowly
butchered by a timorous executioner. The
" Acts of St. Perpetua " are supposed to have
been partly written by herself, and com
pleted by TertuUian. She is commemorated
on March 7. — Diet. Christ. Biog. [H.]
PERPETUAL CURATE. The incum
bent of a church, chapel, or district, which
is within the boundaries of a rectory or
vicarage ; so called in distinction to a curate
assistant, whose office expires with the in
cumbency of the person who employs him,
or at any time by the concurrence of the
incumbent and the bishop. They have
almost ceased to exist by the Act 31 & 32
Vict. c. 117, which made them aU into
vicars, when their churches were authorised
for holding marriages.
PERPETUALS. Twenty ministers of
the choir at Lyons, so called from being
bound to perpetual service there. This
office resembles that of the vicars choral in
our cathedrals.
PERSECUTION. I. In the first three
centuries of the Christian era, the believers
were subjected to terrible persecutions.
These began in the earliest times. The
Sanhedrim countenanced the martyrdom of
St. Stephen, and "haled men and women
to prison " (Acts viii. 3). Herod, seeing it
pleased the Jews, persecuted the Christians,
and " killed James the brother of John
with the sword" (Acts xii. 2). Per-

PERSECUTION
secution of a more general and authorised1
kind began about the time when St. Peter
wrote his second epistle, and St. Paul his
second epistle to Timothy (2 St. Pet. i. 24 ;
2 Tim. i. 8 : ii. 9 : iv. 6-8). In these
epistles prophetic reference is made to their
coming martyrdoms, which took place about
a.d. 67 ; and from that time till a.d. 324
the blood of Christians "flowed like water."
Tacitus gives an account of the sufferings of
the Christians under Nero, who charged
them with the conflagration of Rome, of
which he himself was the author. The
Christians were supposed to be haters of
mankind; so "their sufferings were ag
gravated by insult and mockery. Some-
were disguised in the skins of wild beasts1
and worried to death by dogs ; others were
wrapped in tarred shirts, and set on fire that
they might iUuminate, as Ughts, the em
peror's garden in the night." Tacitus
confesses that this inhuman conduct made.
the sufferers pitied, as " they were sacrificed!
not for the public good, but to gratify the
cruelty of the man" (Annals, xv. 24).
Juvenal also refers to the sufferings of the
Christians (Sat. i. 155) :
Qui stantes ardent et fixo gutture fumant.
And Seneca speaks of the torments in
flicted, mentioning " a stake thrust through
the body and coming out at the mouth (im
palement), and the limbs torn by chariots
pulling diverse ways . . . and whatever
else cruelty has invented" (Sen. Ep. 14).
The persecutions of the Christians by
the Romans have been accounted ten in
number. But the ancient history of the
Church does not support precisely this
number ; for if we reckon only the general
and more severe persecutions, there were
fewer: if the provincial and more limited*
persecutions, there were more than ten.
The principal were those under Nero, a.d.
64-68 (martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul,
exile of St. John) ; under Domitian, 95, 96 ;
under Trajan, 104-117 (martyrdom of St.
Ignatius) ; under Hadrian, 125-138 ; under
M. Aurelius (the favourite philosophical
emperor of the modem infidels), 161-180
(martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and the martyrs
of Lyons) ; under Severus, 200-211 (mar
tyrdom of St. Perpetua, and many in Africa) ;
under Maximinus (partial), 235-237 ; under
Decius, 250-253 ; under Valerian, 257-260
(martyrdom of St. Cyprian) ; under Dio
cletian and Galerius, in which the English
protomartyr, Alban, feU, 303-313.— Gibbon,
Decl. and Fall, c. xvi. ; Stubbs' Mosheim,
cent. 1 ; Bishop Steere's Account of the
Persecutions, Sec. ; Blunt's History of First'
Three Centuries. [H.]
II. The persecutions by Papal Rome after
the first symptoms of the Reformation en-

PERSEVERANCE
ormously exceeded in magnitude those of
Pagan Rome. They were generally carried
on by the help of the State, all over Europe,
except in Russia, which supports the Greek
Church, and not without persecution. The
Marian persecution in England did more to
establish the Reformation as soon as she and
Cardinal Pole were dead (on the same day)
than would ever have been done without it
(See Reformation). The Roman Church
has never revoked its declarations that
heresy ought to be put down by force. The
Inquisition was its most formidable instru
ment, but was never estabUshed here or in
France, as it was in many other countries.
But persecution prevailed in France with
out it. That acted without the direct aid
of the State. Sundry histories of it have
been written by Leinborch and others.
III. It cannot be denied that persecution
up to death for religious opinion lasted
more or less after the Reformation, especially
under Henry VIII. But in the time of
EUzabeth popery was so mixed up with
rebellion and plots against her fostered by
the pope, that what was in one sense perse
cution was reaUy defence of the existing
dynasty. Popish persecution was resumed
under James II. , and the proceedings of the
papists then and afterwards in Ireland led
to severe penal laws against them. The
puritans also persecuted their opponents in
property if not in person ; and the continued
robbery of the Church in France by the
present government and parliament of that
country, and the murders of several succes
sive archbishops by the mob shows that
Christianity may again have to endure per
secution from unbelievers ; and so do some
of their proceedings and attempts to pre
vent religious education here. [G.]
PERSEVERANCE, FINAL. According
to the Calvinistic system, the elect receive
the grace of perseverance, so that when
grace has once been received, they cannot
finally fall from it. This foUows from
their view of election. But, according to
the Catholic view of grace and of election,
men may fall, and fall finally, from the
grace they have once received (See the
article on Election, of which this may be
considered a continuation). Since the
Reformed Church of England (with the
primitive and Catholic) regards election as
an admission into the pale of the visible
Church Catholic, not a necessary and in
fallible admission into eternal glory, she
obviously could not teach the doctrine of
the assured final perseverance of every
individual among the elect; but, annexing
a totally different sense to the word elect
itself from that which is jointly advocated
by Calvin and by Arminius, she consis
tently pronounces that the elect, as she

PERSEVERANCE

579

understands the term, may finally fall
away, and thence may everlastingly perish.
To this moral possibility of final apostasy
the Anglican Church, as was felt by the
Calvinistic party in the conference at
Hampton Court, alludes, though she does
not specifically there define the matter, in
her sixteenth Article.
" After we have received the Holy Ghost,
we [may depart from grace given, and fall
into sin ; and by the grace of God we may
arise again, and amend our lives."
Here it seems to be not obscurely inti
mated, that the elect, even after they have
received the Holy Ghost, may so depart
from grace given, and may so fall into sin,
that they either may, or may not, be re
stored by the influential grace of God.
Such, accordingly, was doubtless per
ceived to be the case by the Calvinistic
party ; for otherwise it is impossible to
account for their proposed alteration of the
article, which would have made it speak
the language of assured personal final per
severance. They moved King James, that, to the
original words of the article, " after we have
received the Holy Ghost, we may depart
from grace given, and fall into sin," might
be subjoined the following explanatory
addition, " yet neither totally nor finally."
Had this addition been made, the seven
teenth Article would doubtless have taught
the doctrine of the final perseverance of all
the elect. The wish to make it do so
imported a consciousness that the reformed
AngUcan Church held no such doctrine.
Nor was this consciousness ill-founded.
The homily on " FaUing from God," as we
might anticipate from its very title, dis
tinctly asserts, in both its parts, the moral
possibility, in the elect, of finally departing
from grace given, and of thus perishing
everlastingly. The doctrine of the possibuity of the
elect finally falling away, says Fabei in his
work on "Election," from grace to per
dition; a doctrine which, in truth, is
nothing more than the inevitable and ne
cessary result of that ideality of election,
which, from primitive antiquity, has been
adopted by the Anglican Church, is very
distinctly and very affectingly propounded
also in her admirable and sublime burial
service. " Spare us, Lord most holy, 0 God most
mighty, 0 holy and mercRul Saviour, thou
most worthy Judge eternal, suffer us not,
at our last hour, for any pains of death, to
fall from thee."
The prayer before us is couched in the
plural form, and the persons who are
directed concurrently with the officiating
minister to use it, are those identical per-
2 P 2 '

580

PERSON

sons who, Raving been chosen in the course
of Divine providence, and brought by bap
tism into the pale of the visible Church,
have thence been declared to be the elect
people of God.
Consequently those who, in the judgment
of the Church of England, are the elect
people of God, are nevertheless directed to
pray, that the Lord would not suffer them,
at their last hour, for any pains of death, to
fall from Him.
Hence, as the English Church under
stands the term elect, it is possible, from
the very necessity of such a prayer, that
those who are elect may not only for a
season fall away from God and be afterward
renewed by repentance, but may even fall
away from Him totally and finaUy.
PERSON (See trinity). The word
" person " as applied to our Blessed Lord is
used by St. Paul, 2 Cor. u. 10, and iv. 6.
Here the Greek word is irpoo-airov. In
the Epistle to the Hebrews, in the author
ised version, the word " person " is applied
to God the Father, but here the Greek word
is virocrraa-is, which has quite a different
meaning. In the apostolic times such dis
tinctions were not dwelt upon, and the
personality in the Trinity does not seem to
have been questioned. But afterwards there
were many controversies on this subject,
and there was much misunderstanding be
cause of the confusion between the Greek
and Latin terms. It was necessary, because
of the heresies which arose with regard to
the Trinity, to make definite statements of
the Christian doctrine. Tertullian had
written "videmus duplicem statum non
confusum sed conjunctum in una persona
Deum et Hominem Jesum " (Adv. Praxem,
xxviii.). But the Monarchians denied that
there was one Person of the Father, another
of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost;
admitting the Unity, they denied the
Trinity. The Sabellians maintained that
God was one Person, and that the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost are one and the same
Person ; thus, in the language of the Atha
nasian Creed, "confounding the Persons"
(See Sabellians; Monarchians). These
heresies were repudiated at the Council of
Nicsea, and afterwards in the Athanasian
Creed— "The Catholic faith is this, That
we worship One God in Trinity, and Trinity
in Unity ; neither confounding the Persons,
nor dividing the substance. For there is
one Person of the Father, another of the
Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But
fhe Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost, is all one : the glory
equal, the majesty co-eternal."
It is important to observe that many later
controversies rest on a misconception of
terms. " Persona," in Latin, bore the same

PESHITO
relation to " substantia " as virooraa-is to
ovo-ia; but iiroa-raa-is, in the sense of
person, was the exact equivalent for, the
very different theological idea of "sub
stantia" in Latin. From this arose the
confusion of ideas with regard to the word.
Hilary coined the term "essentia," to
convey the meaning of ova-la, of which
St. Augustine says, " Novo quidem nomine,
quo usi non sunt veteres Latini auctores,
sed jam nostris temporibus usitato, ne deesset
etiam nostrse linguas quod Gra?ci appellant
' ovcriav ' " (Civ. D. xii. ii.).
The Latin Church understanding "sub
stance " by the term hypostasis, as used
by the Greek Church, and denying three
substances, would not readily use that term,
but adopted the word "Person" (Persona)
to characterize the three distinct subsisten-
cies in the one Divine essence. And hence
has arisen a charge (the word hypostasis
being used for Person in the Greek copies
of the Creed) that the Nicene and Athana
sian Creeds are in opposition to each other;
the former asserting that the Son "is of one
substance with the Father," whUe, according
to the latter, there is one substance of the
Father, another of the Son, &c. But as the
word is rightly translated in our version
"Person," from the original Latin, the
objection, which is still repeated (the passage
being quoted as if it were one " substance " —
not one " Person — of the Father," &c), is
persevered in under a mistake, if it be not
a wiRul misrepresentation. — Waterland;
Bishop Bull, Def. Fid. Nic. Works, v. 311
seq. ; Mansell, Limits of Religious Thought,
56; Blunt's Dici. Theol.
PERSONA (See Parson). A term ap
pUed in ancient cathedral and collegiate
statutes to those who held particular offices,
not necessarily of dignity, or of jurisdiction,
but involving personal responsibility, and
strict residence. In England, at Salisbury
and other cathedrals of the old foundation,
the dignitaries, as the dean, precentor, chan
cellor, and treasurer, <fec, were called
Persone Principales, or Privilegiate, as
having each a peculiar office, connected with
the service of the church. At St. Paul's
the four archdeacons were included in this
title, though somewhat incorrectly. — Dug
dale's St. Pauls, p. 235. By the Hereford
Statutes the bishop, dean, precentor, trea
surer and chancellor are " persona? in digni
tatibus constituta?." In other places, as at
York and Beverley, the chantry priests
were caUed persona?. In foreign churches
the inferior cathedral clergy are called
" personate." PESHITO (simple), the Aramaean version
of the Scriptures, assigned almost uni
versally to the most remote Christian anti
quity. There is no doubt that the so-called

PETER-PENCE
Syro-Chaldaic — that is, the Arama?an — was
the vernacular language of the Jews of
Palestine in the time of our Lord, however
much it may have been superseded by Greek
in the common business of life. It was in
this dialect, the "Hebrew" of the New Testa
ment, that the Gospel of St. Matthew was
originally written, according to the unani
mous testimony of the Fathers (but see ar
ticle on St. Matthew's Gospel). The Peshito
comprises all the canonical books of the
Old Testament, but not the Apocrypha,
which exist in a separate version as used by
Ephrem Syrus. Gregory Bar Hebraeus, one
of the most learned of Syrian writers, relates
that the New Testament Peshito "was
made in the time of Thaddeus and Abgarus,
king of Edessa," when the Apostle went
to preach in Mesopotamia, and this state
ment he repeats several times. He assumes
the apostolic origin of the New Testament
Peshito as certain; for while he gives
three hypotheses as to the date of the
Old Testament version, he speaks of this as
a known and acknowledged fact (Card.
Wiseman, Hor. Syr. 131, 236). The version
exists at present in two distinct classes of
manuscripts. Some are written in the
ancient Syriac letters, and others of Indian
origin in the Nestorian character. These
present variations from the common text,
but they coincide as far as the canon is
concerned. Both omit the second and third
Epistles of St. John, the second Epistle of St.
Peter, the Epistle of St. Jude and the Apoca
lypse, but include all the other books as com-
monlyreceivedwithoutanyaddition. — Canon
of the New Test, Westcott, p. 204, &c. [H]
PETER-PENCE was an annual tribute.
of lone penny, paid at Rome out of every
family, at the feast of St. Peter. This, Ina,
the Saxon king, when he went in pilgrimage
to Rome, about the year 740, gave to tbe
pope, partly as alms, and partly by way of
recompense for a house erected in Rome for
English pUgrims. It continued to be gen
erally paid, not as a due, but as a benefaction
until the time of King Henry VIII., when
it was enacted, that henceforth no person
shall pay any pensions, Peter-pence, or
other impositions, to the use of the bishop
and see of Rome.
PETER'S, ST., DAY. A festival of the
Christian Church, observed on the twenty-
ninth of June.
St. Peter, who by trade was a fisherman,
was born at Bethsaida, a town situated upon
the banks of the sea of Galilee. He was
originally called Simon, or Simeon, to which
our Saviour, after his call, added the name
of Cephas (SD'S), an Aramaic word, of
which the equivalent in Greek is Uirpos
(Petrus, Rock). Our Lord probably intended
by this appellation to denote the con-

PETER'S, ST., DAY

581

stancy and firmness of his faith, and his
activity in working for the substantiation of
the Church'. It is evident that the other
disciples looked to him as a leader under
Christ, and the self-confidence which he
displayed was punished by his fall into the
sin of denying our Lord. After that lapse,
over which he wept bitterly, he lived a Ufe
of penitence ; but he was always a leading
spirit, and by some early writers he is called
the mouth of the apostles, because he was
the first and forwardest, on all occasions, to
profess his zeal and attachment to our
Saviour. But it does not appear that our
Saviour gave any personal prerogative to St.
Peter, as universal pastor and head of the
Church ; . and much less to any bishops
claiming to be his successors. He is placed
first among the apostles, because he, with
St. Andrew, his brother, was first called.
If he is styled " a rock," all the apostles
are equally styled " foundations " ; and the
" power of the keys " is promised to the rest
of the apostles as well as to St. Peter.
St. Peter's first mission, after our Saviour's
ascension, was to those Christians whom
Philip the deacon had converted in Samaria;
where he conferred on them the gift of the
Holy Ghost, and severely rebuked Simon
Magus for imagining that the gift of God
could be purchased with money. Some
time after, he had a special vision from
heaven, by which the Divine goodness re
moved those prejudices of his education
which the Jews had entertained against the
Gentiles. In the dispute between the
Jewish and Gentile converts, he declared
God's acceptance of the GentUes, and that
the yoke of the Jewish rites ought not to be
laid upon them. Yet afterwards he dis
sembled his Christian liberty, and thereby
confirmed the judaizing Christians in their
ei-rors ; for which he was rebuked by St.
Paul (Gal. U. 11).
St. Peter afterwards preached at Antioch,
of which place it is said he was the first
bishop (Origen, Horn. vi. in Luc.). He is also
claimed as the first bishop of Rome. That
he consecrated bishops for those places is
most probable, but it may be considered as
a settled point that he did not visit Rome
before the last year of his life. Into the
controversies with regard to St. Peter's work
it is not possible here to enter ; but a full
account may be found in the Dictionary of
the Bible (p. 803).
According to tradition St. Peter suffered
martyrdom about the year of Christ 69, under
the emperor Nero, whom he had provoked by
his success against Simon Magus, and by his
reducing many dissolute women to a sober
and virtuous life ; and it was probably in that
persecution when the emperor burnt Rome,
and charged the Christians with the guilt

582

PEW

and punishment of it. He was crucified
with his head downwards. It is said, his
body was embaRned by MarceUinus the
presbyter, and buried in the Vatican, near
the Triumphal way, where there was a
church erected to his memory, now the
famous cathedral of St. Peter's at Rome.
PEW. The word is derived from the
Latin podium, Greek iroblov, UteraUy afoot-
stool ; whence it came to mean a balcony,
gaUery, or any space enclosed with a railing
to lean upon. Pews are or were tUl lately
generaUy understood to mean enclosed seats
or boxes, of which certain persons claim to be
either owners or lessees. Theycanonlybesoin
new churches buUt under 58 Geo. III. c. 45,
and some of the Acts which aUow pews or
seats to be sold or let, or in old churches by
prescription or long usage accompanied by
repairing whenever they have needed it.
A single instance of repairing by the parish,
except under special agreement, is generaRy
fatal to a claim of prescription. But the
word " pew " is often used also of a whole
bench or seat as a piece of construction,
though not enclosed by a door or claimed
by any owner or lessee. In old parish
churches there can be no lawful letting of
seats or pews, except where there is owner
ship by prescription, or a faculty ; but a
faculty only gives the right to a man and
his heirs living in the parish to sit there, and
does not affect the actual ownership, which is
in the parson in trust for the parish, or the
owner of the faculty. A pew in the body
of the church (and a fortiori in a separate
aisle or chapel) may be prescribed for as
appurtenant to a house even out of the
parish. — Lousley v. Hayward, lY.Sc J. 583.
By the various Church-bmlding Acts from
one fifth to one haU of the seats must
generally be left free, and all the rest maybe
treated in almost any way that is agreed on
beforehand, or allotted to subscribers to the
buUding, or left, or afterwards surrendered
to be dealt with by the churchwardens and
the ordinary as in old churches. It is
impossible to refer to aU the Acts here, or
aU their separate provisions. But it has
oecome necessary to explain that the word
"free" in those Acts is always used in con
tradistinction to "rented," and never in
the sense of "free and unassignable from
time to time by churchwardens," with
an appeal to the Ordinary.
The square pews which were in fashion
during the two last centuries and the early
part of this are so fast disappearing, that it
is just worthwhile to describe them as they
often were. They presented aU degrees of
luxury and discomfort, from a mere square
box with seats aU round in which people's
feet met, up to a small drawing room with
the walls lined and cushioned, and some-

PHILD?, ST.
times a small stove in the middle, anu^S '
private door from the churchyard. They
frequently had curtains aU round, besides
high partitions, and it was perfectly easy to
play at cards in sUence, or to eat luncheon,
and a fortiori to read any book you pleased.
It is immaterial to inquire, and perhaps
impossible to ascertain, how this system
grew up, except by mere usurpation and
acquiescence. They had evidently begun
by the time of Bishop Wren of Hereford
and afterwards of Ely, temp. Car. I., for
it seems that in some visitation articles
at Hereford he inquired, "Are there any
privy closets or close pews in your church?
Are any so lofty that they hinder the pro
spect of this church so that they which be
in them are hidden from the congregation?"
which also proves that they were then
usurpations which ought to be put down,
as they now have been almost universaUy,
except where they are of the nature of private
chapels or aisles. The notion of some
rectors, lay and clerical, that the seats in
the chancel and the disposition of them
belongs to them, and not to the church
wardens, subject to the ordinary, is un
founded, beyond that the rector, and pro
bably his family, are entitled to the chief
pew there. Disturbance of a pew, i.e. of
the right of sitting there if prescription j
is claimed, is triable at common law and not
in the ecclesiastical court. [G.]
The earliest pew for the use of the con
gregation remaining, whose age is determined
by the appearance of a date, is in the north
aisle of Geddington St. Mary, Northampton
shire, and has the following inscription :
Churchwardens, WilUam Thorn,
John Wilkie,
Minister, Thomas Jones, 1602.
Another pew exists in the same church
dated 1604.
PHILIP, ST., AND ST. JAMES'S DAY.
A festival of the Christian Church, observed
on the first day of May..
I. St. PhiUp was a native of Bethsaida,
in GaUlee, and probably a fisherman, the
general trade of that place. He had the
honour of being first caUed to be a disciple
of our Blessed Saviour. It was to Philip
our Saviour proposed that question, what
they should do to procure so much bread as
would feed the vast multitude that followed
him? It was to him the Gentile proselytes
addressed themselves, when desirous to see
Jesus. And it was with PhiUp our Lord
had that discourse concerning HunseRbefore
the last supper.
The Upper Asia fell to this apostle's lot,
where he took great pains in planting the
gospel, and by his preaching and miracles
made many converts. In the latter end of

PHILIP, ST.
ibis life, he came to Hierapolis in Phrygia,
a city very much addicted to idolatry, and
particularly to the worship of a serpent or
•dragon of prodigious bigness. St. Philip, so
the legend goes,by his prayers, procured the
death, or, at least, the disappearing, of this
monster, and convinced its worshippers of
the absurdity of paying Divine honours to
such odious creatures. But the magistrates,
enraged at Philip's success, imprisoned him
and ordered him to be severely scourged, and
then put to death ; which, some say, was
by crucifixion ; others, by hanging him up
against a pillar.
St. Philip is generally reckoned among
the married, apostles ; and it is said he
had three daughters, two whereof persevered
in their virginity, and died at Hierapolis;
the third, having led a very spiritual life,
•died at Ephesus (Euseb. v. 24). But pro
bably there is some confusion in this be
tween St. Philip tbe apostle, and Philip the
evangelist (Acts xxi. 9). He left behind him
no writings. The gospel, under his name,
was forged by the Gnostics, to countenance
their bad principles, and worse practices.
II. St. James the Less is styled, in
Scripture, our Lord's brother; and by
¦Josephus, eminently skilful in matters of
genealogy, expressly called the brother of
•Jesus Christ (Ant. xx. 9) : by which the an
cient Fathers understand thatho was Joseph's
son by a former wife. He was surnamed the
Less, to distinguish him from the other St.
•James ; and that either from the stature of
his body, or tho difference of his age. But
he acquired a more honourable appellation
from the piety and virtue of his life ; which
was that of St. James the Just, by which
Re is still known.
After our Saviour's ascension, St. James
¦was chosen bishop of Jerusalem. St. Paul,
after his conversion, addressed himself to
this apostle, by whom he was honoured
"with the right hand of fellowship. It was
to St. James St. Peter sent the news of his
¦miraculous deliverance out of prison. As
bishop of Jerusalem he presided over the
•Synod of Jerusalem, in the great contro
versy concerning the Jewish rites and cere-
monios (Acts xv.). Ho was of a meek and
humble disposition. His temporance was
admirable; for hewhollyabstainedfromflesh,
and drank neither wine nor strong drink, nor
ever used the bath. Prayer was his constant
businoss and delight, and by his daily de
votions his knees were become as hard and
brawny ns those of a camel.
St. Paul having escaped the malice of the
Jows by appealing to Cassar, they resolved
to revenge it upon St. James, who was
accused before their council of transgressing
.the Law, and blaspheming against God.
The scribes and Pharisees ondeavoured, by

PHOTINIANS

583

flattering speeches, to engage him, at tho
confluence of the paschal solemnity, to
undeceive the people concerning Jesus
Christ; and, that he might be the better
heard, they carried him with them to the
top of the temple. There they addressed
him in these words : " Tell us, 0 just man,
what are we to believe concerning Jesus
Christ, who was crucified ? " He answered
with a loud voice : " He sits in heaven on
the right hand of the Majesty on high, and
will come again in the clouds of heaven."
Enraged at this reply, they threw him
down from the place where he stood ; and
being very much bruised, though not killed,
he recovered strength enough to get upon
his knees, and pray for his murderers, who
loaded him with a shower of stones, till one
with a fuller's club beat out his brains.
Euseb. ii. 23 ; and see Eouth, Rei. Sacr.
p. 208.
III. In the Lectionary of St. Jerome and
the Sacramentary of Gregory, the names of
these two apostles are associated together ;
but in the Eastern Church St. Philip's day
is November 14 ; and St. James's October
23. In the calendar of the Venerable Bede
St. Philip alono is mentioned for the 1st of
May; and in some early calendar of the
English Church, June 22 is dedicated to
St. James. The names of the two apostles
however have been generally connected.
Parallel instances are those of SS. Simon
and Jude, SS Peter and Paul, SS. Barnabas
and Bartholomew. [H.]
PHOTINIANS: heretics of the 4thr cen
tury who followed the teaching of Photinus,
bishop of Sirmium a.d. 343 ; and pupil of
Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra (Hieron. de Vir.
III. iii. 107). Some writers assert that this
heresy was a reproduction of that of Ebion
(see Ebionites) : others that it resembled
Sabellianism ; others still that Photinus
followed the doctrines of Paul of Samosata
(See Pearson on Creed, ii. 119, note). The
teaching of Photinus, however, differed from
these, and went beyond them. (1) With
regard to the Trinity he taught that " the
Holy Scriptures indeed speak of the Father
and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost ; but
we are to understand by them only one
Person, who in Scripture is called the
Father. What the Scriptures call the Word
of God, is by no means a substance or a
person. Still less is it a person begotten by
the Father, and therefore called the Son. For
with God there can be no generation ; and of
course He can have no Son. Neither is the
Word that person who made the world ; but
the Word is properly the Understanding of
God, which comprehends the designs of God
in all His external operations, and is there
fore called God. The Holy Spirit is also
not a person, but an attribute of God. (2)

584

PICARDS

Hence followed erroneous ideas of the person
of Christ. Christ was a mere man with no
previous existence, and began to be when He
was born of the Virgin Mary. Yet He
received the special influences of Divine
Power, whereby He wrought miracles. This
is the indwelUng of the Word. On account
of His gifts and virtue, God took Him into the
place of a Son " (Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien
iii. 9 seq.). Marcellus and Photinus were
condemned at several councUs, their teach
ing being as obnoxious to the Arians as to
the orthodox (Soc. H. E. i. 36; Soz. ii. 33).
At the General CouncU of Constantinople,
a.d. 381, the Photinians were named after
the SabeUians in the general condemnation
of heresies; and by the second Council of
Aries, a.d. 451, it was ordered that these
heretics (called Photinians or Paulianists)
should be rebaptized before reception into
the Church (2 Cone. Arelat c. xvi.). [H.]
PICARDS : brethren of the free spirit, as
they called themselves. The name is a
Bohemian form of Beghards. The Germans
also frequently pronounced the word Beg-
hard, Pychard. — Menkenius, Script. Germ.
vol. ii. p. 1521 (See Beghards).
PIE (irivag). (1) A wooden table on
which the directions for service were in
early days written. (2) The pica, ordinate,
or directorium sacerdotum. It was both a
table of dnily services, and a summary of the
rubrics of the mass. In the Ubrary of York
Minster there is a volume containing the
" Pie " only. The instructions are given in a
very confused manner, and Maskell observes
that it was not possible for the same service
to occur on the same Sunday of the year
twice running. It is, perhaps, from the
confused appearance which a page of pica,
or pie presents, that printers came to
call any portion of type which is in utter
disorder through accident or otherwise, by
the name of "pie." The confusion in the
" pie," or order for services, was one of the
difficulties which our Reformers had to
grapple with, in framing the Prayer Book
(See Preface to the Prayer Book, " Concern
ing the Service of the Church "). The
"pica" type of later days took its name
from the large letters in which the pica,
or pie, of Anglican Portiforia was printed.
— Walcott, Sac. Arch. p. 445 ; Perry in
Blunt's Annot P. B. i. [16]. [H.]
PIER. The solid masses of masonry
between arched openings, as in bridges,
and between windows and doors. This
name is so often given to the pillars in
Gothic architecture, that it would be pe
dantic entirely to disuse it in that sense ;
but it ought in strictness to be confined
at least to those waU-like square pillars
which are found in Norman architecture ;
as, for instance, in the oldest parts of St.

PILLAR
Alban's, where the piers are made of bricks
with rubble inside and plastered all over;
and alternately with proper pillars in Dur
ham Cathedral, or in the nave of Norwich
(See Pillar).
PIETISTS : a name given to, or assumed
by, certain Germans, the foUowers of Philip
Jacob Spener (a.d. 1635-1705). Spener
was a man of ability, and was a popular
preacher at Strasburg, and afterwards at
Frankfort. He then was appointed Court
preacher at Dresden, and in 1691 was
made Provost or Dean of St. Nicolas Church
at Berlin. At Frankfort he instituted
societies which he named " Colleges of
Piety," hence the name of his school. The
theory was that there should be no dog
matic teaching at all in the Theological
schools ; that morals and not doctrine should
form the staple of all teaching; and that
only those persons should be admitted into
the Ltitheran ministry whose lives were
examples of living piety. Spener's disciples,
as is usual, far outran the more measured
zeal of their master ; and their false notions,
amounting sometimes to principles of
mutiny and sedition, gave rise to a long and
bitter controversy in Germany.
The executive at length interfered, im
posed severe penal laws, and finally proscribed
the open exercise of pietism. — Diet of Sects.
PILGRIMAGE: A journey to some
place deemed sacred and venerable as as
sociated with the memory of Christ, or any
of the saints, generally for the sake of
adoring relics. Pilgrimages began to be
made in the fourth century, but they were
most in vogue after the end of the eleventh
century, when every one was for visiting
places of devotion, not excepting kings and
princes ; and even bishops made no difficulty
of being absent from their churches on the
same account.
The PUgrim's road from London to Can
terbury is still pointed out along nearly its
entire extent.
PILLAR. The isolated support of an
arch, including base, shaft, and capital, in
Gothic architecture. There were great
variations in the fonns of piUars during
the progress of ecclesiastical architecture.
The Norman pillar is often a square pier
like mass, sometimes relieved by attached
semi-pillars, or by three-quarter shafts in
retiring angles ; or it is a cylindrical shaft,
often fluted, or cut in zigzags or other
diaper patterns. The early English pUlar fre
quently consists of a central bearing shaft,
surrounded by smaller detached shafts ;
either set almost close to the central shaft, .
sometimes even within hollows, as at York,
so as to lose the effect of their separateness,
or at a considerable distance from the central
shaft, as at Chichester and Ely.

PINNACLE
The Geometrical pillar seldom retains the
detached shaft. Its section when small is
perhaps more usually a quatrefoil than any
other single form ; but there are countless
varieties, the mouldings always of course
following 'the style to which they belong.
The later Decorated pillar is equaUy various
in section ; where it is moulded, the ogee
usually forms part of it, but in small
and plain examples it is very frequently a
simple octagon. In the Perpendicular the
pillar follows the general poverty of the
style, but it is also distinguished by the
base being stilted ; by the outer mouldings
being continuous, and the inner order only
being carried by an attached shaft with a
capital, and, sometimes it is narrower from
east to west than from north to south. The
exceptions, however, to all these rules are
so numerous, that they could only be re
presented by many illustrations.
Norman pUlars were generaUy of very
bad construction, with only rubble inside,
very often made with mortar which has
turned into dust. Indeed that went on
more or less through the other styles, but
not so much as in the Norman, in which
the piers or piUars were much the thickest.
That was the cause of a great many Norman
towers falling. They had however one merit
which was very Uttle continued into the
later styles : the north and south faces of
their piers did not project beyond the general
faces of all the nave pillars, and therefore
did not contract the space under the tower,
as nearly all the later ones did. The restored
church of St. Bartholomew Smithfield affords
a very good example of that. Occasionally
the lower parts of E.E. tower piers stood
back, and the upper part was corbelled over.
Rivaulx Abbey is a beautiful specimen of this.
ConstructiOnally it is quite safe, because the
external angles of the tower piers are much
more important than the inner. [G.]
PINNACLE. A small spire-like ter
mination to a buttress, or to any decorative
shaft rising above the (parapet. In but
tresses, especially flying buttresses, the
pinnacles are of great use in resisting the
outward pressure by their weight. They
do not occur in Norman architecture ; the
earliest example being at Caen and Rochester
Cathedral. The pinnacle at the temple at Jerusalem
was probably the gallery, or parapet, or
wall on the top of the buttresses, which
surrounded the roof of the temple, properly
so called. Josephus tells us that the roof
of the temple was defended by pretty taU
golden spikes, to hinder birds from alight-
- ing thereon. It was not on the roof of the
temple that Jesus Christ was placed, but
on the wall that surrounded the roof. —
Calmet's Diet of the Bible, ed. Taylor

PLURALITY

585.

PISCINA. Originally signified a fish
pond ; and in a secondary sense, any vessel
for holding or receiving water. The font
was sometimes called a piscina (Optatus, lib.
iii.). But the general use of the word is
applied to a basin or stoup at the south side
of the altar, with a drain from it, at which
the sacred vessels were cleansed. The
piscina is often the only remaining indication
of the place where an altar has been. Some
churches have double piscinas.
PISCIS, PISCICULI, and VESICA
PISCIS. The fish is an hieroglyphic of
Jesus Christ, very common in the remains
of Christian art, both primitive and me
diaeval. The origin of it is as follows : —
From the name and title of our Blessed
Lord, 'irjaovs Xpioros 6eov 'Yios 2a)vr)p,
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour,
the early Christians, taking the first letter
of each word, formed the name 'IXGYS,
Piscis, a fish. From this name of our
blessed Lord, Christians also came to be
called Pisciculi, fishes, with reference to
their regeneration in the waters of baptism,
consecrated to that effect by our Blessed
Lord, the mystical 'IX6YS. Thus Ter
tullian, speaking of Christians, says, " for
we, after our Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ, our 'IX9Y2, are also fishes, and
born in the water; nor are we otherwise
saved but by remaining in the water."
The Vesica Piscis, which is the figure of
an oval, pointed at either end, and which
is much used as the form of the seals of
religious houses, and to enclose figures of
Jesus Christ, or of the saints, also has its.
rise from this name of our Blessed Lord ;
though some say that the mystical Vesica
Piscis has no reference, except in its name,
to a fish, but represents the almond, the
symbol of virginity and self-production.
Clement of Alexandria in writing of the
ornaments which a Christian may consis
tently wear, mentions the fish as a proper
device for a ring, and says that it may
serve to remind the Christian of the origin
of his spiritual life.
PLACEBO. The office of the dead, so
called from the first word in the Antiphon.
The title is given to the office in some of
the Prymers ; but in those of 1538, 1543,
and the King's Prymer it is called the Dirge
(See Dirge). [H.]
PLAGAL. The name given to the four
modes or scales added by St. Gregory to
the Ambrosian chants. The latter were
called " Authentic " (See Gregorian Chant
Music). [H.]
PLANETA (See Chasuble).
PLENARTY (from the word plenusr
" full "), signifying that a church is full, or
provided with an incumbent.
PLURALITY. The principal Act now

586

PLURALITY

governing the law of pluralities, or the
number of preferments that may be held
together is 1 & 2 Vic. c. 106, which super
seded all the previously existing law on the
subject, and has been modified by 13 & 14
Vic. c. 98, and practically also by 3 & 4 Vic.
c. 113, s. 34, which requires archdeacons who
are also canons residentiary to reside eight
months at their cathedrals — exactly where
the archidiaconal functions are not per
formed. By these two Acts together nobody
<who holds more than one benefice or canonry
may take or hold any other; and no one
•can hold canonries in two cathedrals, even
though one be honorary, whether that was
really intended or not. But an archdeacon
may hold two benefices including a canonry,
provided one of them is in the same diocese
as his archdeaconry ; a perfectly absurd pro
vision ; and so is the requiring him to reside
¦longer at his cathedral than any other canon,
"unless he is engaged in performing archi
diaconal functions " which are undefined. An
¦archdeaconry is also strangely defined to be a
¦ cathedral preferment, which it is not. Aud
¦* ' benefice " means anything with cure of souls,
except an "assistant" (i.e. not perpetual)
¦curacy. By what is called the Pluralities Act
Amendment Act, 1885, which contains one
section (14) about pluralities and fourteen
others about something else, a man may hold
two livings of which the churches are within
four miles of the nearest road, and the annual
value of one of which does not exceed £200.
The other may be of any value ; and the
limit of population also of the previous Act
of 1837 seems to be aboUshed. This was
passed on account of the increasing difficulty
•of filling up small livings. For the contents
of the rest of the Act, see Curates. A dis
pensation for holding two livings must still
be got from the Archbishop of Canterbury,
with an appeal to the Privy Council if he
refuses. No deduction from the value is
¦allowed for curates, taxes, rates, or repairs
>in reckoning the value.
By sec. 11 of the Act of 1837 any one who
accepts what would be a plurality contrary to
the Act may state to the bishop before
institution which of any two previous prefer
ments he will vacate, and it will be vacated
accordingly ; and if he does not, institution
<to the new one vacates all his previous prefer
ment. Consequently in ordinary cases, in
stitution to a new living vacates an old one
ipso facto without any formal resignation.
By the second of the above Acts deans and
canons can no longer hold the headship of
colleges, and deans vacate a living in six
months unless it is under the value of £500
a year, and within the city ; and that has
been decided to be the gross value, as above.
By 4 & 5 Vic. c. 39, an honorary, or
¦non-residentiary canonry unendowed beyond

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN
£20 a year, does not prevent the hold
ing of two benefices, but does apparently
prevent the holding of any other honorary
canonry, probably per incuriam. And by
13 & 14 Vic. c. 98, s. 11, they do not lapse to
the Crown either by being left vacant or
by promotion of the canon to a bishopric
(See Canonry and Residentiary).
The absurd provision of s. 32, that an
archdeaconry, which are all of very little
value, except the few that are attached to
canonries by Act of Parliament, may not be
accepted together with any other two pre
ferments unless it is in the same diocese
with one of them, has been noticed under
Archdeacon. A curious question has arisen
thereon about the acceptance of an arch-
deacon-canonry in St. Paul's by the incum
bent of a living out of the diocese of London.
Two diocesan chancellors separately gave
opinions that it did not vacate the living, on
the ground that 3 & 4 Vic. c. 113, after
creating the 4th canonry (residentiary) in
St. Paul's and Lincoln (s. 17), said that it
may be conferred (only) on one of the
archdeacons (s. 33). It may be doubtful
whether the archdeacon-canon can after
wards take a living out of the diocese ; but
disabilities have to be construed strictly, and
the opinion was that the later Act overrides
the earlier, and contains no provision that
conferring the canonry in the only way the
bishop can by the Act vacates anything.
Moreover, the Plurality Act could not be
foUowed if it did; for that says that all
previous preferment is to become vacant if
the man does not elect which he will vacate
before institution. But the archdeaconry
cannot be vacated, because the later Act says
that it and the stall shall go together. [G.]
PLUVIALE. Another name for the
cope : so called because it was originally a
cloak, a defence from the rain (See Cope).
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A sect
which originated about the year 1830. The
principal founder was a clergyman in Ireland,
who had before been a barrister, by name
Darby ; and sometimes, therefore, the mem
bers of the sect were called "Darbyites."
Darby having given up his ministrations as
a clergyman in Ireland, established a small
community in Dublin, which took the name
of "Separatists." He afterwards came to
England, and went about preaching inde
pendence in religion in different places. As
it was at Plymouth he gained the greatest
number of adherents, the name of "Ply
mouth Brethren " has been given to the sect.
The "brethren," however, reject the term
" sect," and assert that, while other Chris
tians are identified with some particular
section of the Church of God, they are not
identified with any. They see no reason
why the Church (consisting of all true be-

PCENULA
iievers) which is really the Church should
not be also visibly united, having as its only
bond to fellowship and barrier of exclusion
the reception or rejection of those vital truths
by which the Christian is distinguished from
the believer. But at the same time, in
common with other sects, they believe that
true Christianity can only be found among
themselves. Their chief peculiarity is that
they reject a separate ministry, and consider
the idea of ordained ministers as contrary to
the teaching of Scripture. The ordinances,
consequently, of the Church, such as the
Lord's Supper, as they call it, which may
be called rather a weekly love feast, in which
bread and wine are passed round from one
to another, need no special person or minister
to administer or preside. They assert that
they are " the assembly of God," not meet
ing together by human will, but " gathered
to Jesus by the Holy Ghost." For further
account of this sect see Dennett's Plymouth
Brethren, their Rise, &c, and more especially
History and Teaching of the Plymouth
Brethren, by Rev. J. S. Teulon, Prebendary
of Chichester, published by S. P. C. K. [H.]
PCENULA (See Chasuble).
POLITY, ECCLESIASTICAL. By this
is meant the constitution and government
of the Christian Church, considered as a
society. Scarce anything in religion (says a
learned author) has been more mistaken
than the nature and extent of that power
which our Blessed Saviour established in
His Church. Some have not only excluded
the civil magistrates of Christian states
from having any concernment in the ex
ercise of this power, and exempted all
persons invested with it from the civil
¦courts of justice, but have raised their
supreme governor of the Church to a
supremacy, even in civil affairs, over the
chief magistrate; insomuch that he has
pretended, "on some occasions, to absolve
subjects from their aUegience to their
lawful princes; and others have run so
far into contrary mistakes, as either to
derive all spiritual power wholly from the
civU magistrate, or to allow the exercise
thereof to all Christians without distinc
tion. The first of these opinions manifestly
tends to create divisions in the State, and
to excite subjects to rebel against their
civil governors : the latter do plainly strike
at the foundation of all ecclesiastical power ;
and wherever they are put in practice, not
only the external order and discipline, but
even the sacraments of the Church must be
destroyed, and its whole constitution be
quite dissolved.
The nature of ecclesiastical polity will
be best understood by looking back to the
•constitution of the ancient Christian

POLITY

587

Church. The Church as a society con
sisted of several orders. Eusebius reckons
three : viz., the 'Hyovpevoi, Hio-roi, and
Karqxovpevoi, i.e. rulers, believers, and
catechumens. Origen reckons five orders :
but then he divides the clergy into three
orders, to make up the number. Both
these accounts, when compared together,
came to the same thing. Under the 'H-yov-
pevoi, or rulers, are comprehended the
clergy, bishops, priests, and deacons ;
under the Ilio-rot, or believers, the baptized
laity; and under the KcrniYou/ievot, or
catechumens, the candidates for baptism.
The believers were perfect Christians; the
catechumens imperfect. The former, having
received baptism, were allowed to partake
of the Eucharist ; to join in all the prayers
of the Church ; and to hear discourses upon
the most profound mysteries of religion ;
more particularly the use of the Lord's
Prayer was the sole prerogative of the
believers, whence it was called Eixv iriorav,
the prayer of believers. From all these
privileges the catechumens were excluded
(See Catechumens).
The distinction between the laity and the
clergy may be deduced from the very be
ginnings of the Christian Church ; notwith
standing that Rigaltius, Salmasius, and
Selden pretend there was originally no
distinction, but that it is a novelty, and
owing to the ambition of the clergy of the
third century, in which Cyprian and Ter
tullian lived (See Clergy).
The clergy of the Christian Church con
sisted of several orders, both superior and
inferior. The superior orders of the clergy
were, 1. The Bishops ; 2. The Presbyters ;
3. The Deacons. It has been pretended that
the bishops and presbyters were the same ;
and this opinion has given rise to the sect of
the Presbyterians. But it is clearly proved
against them, from ecclesiastical antiquity,
that bishops and presbyters were distinct
orders of the clergy (See Bishops, Deacons,
Presbyters, and Presbyterians).
Among the bishops there was a sub
ordination, they being distinguished into,
1. Primates and Metropolitans ; 2. Patriarchs
and Archbishops ; 3. Diocesan Bishops ; 4.
Chorepiscopi or Suffragan Bishops (See
the articles Archbishops, Chorepiscopi, Dio
cese, Patriarchs, and Primates). The Pres
byters were the second order of the superior
clergy, and besides being the bishop's assist
ants in his cathedral church, had the care
of the smaller districts, or parishes, of which
each diocese consisted (See Parishes and
Presbyters). The deacons were the third
order of the superior clergy, and were assist
ants to the bishops and presbyters, in the
administration of the Eucharist, and other
parts of Divine service. There were like-

588

POLYGLOTT BIBLES

wise deaconesses, or female deacons, who
were employed in the service of the women.
Out of the order of deacons was chosen the
archdeacon, who presided over the deacons
and all the inferior officers of the Church
(See the articles Archdeacons, Deacons, and
Deaconesses). The inferior orders of the clergy were,
1. The Sub-deacons ; 2. The Acolyths ; 3.
The Exorcists; 4. The Readers; 5. The
Door-keepers; 6. The Singers; 7. The
Copiatas, or Fossarii ; 8. The Parabolani ;
9. The Catechists; 10. The Syndics; 11.
The Stewards (See each under their re
spective articles).
We retain only the general distinction of
bishops, presbyters or priests, and deacons.
Among the first we retain the distinction of
archbishops (with the title likewise of pri
mates) and bishops, having no patriarchs or
chorepiscopi. And as to the inferior orders
of the clergy, as acolyths, &c, they are all
extinct in the Church of England. The
Romish Church has retained most of them.
No society can subsist without laws,
and penalties annexed to the breach of
them, so the unity and worship of the
Christian Church were secured by laws
both ecclesiastical and civil. The eccle
siastical laws were, either rules and orders
made by each bishop for the better regu
lation of his particular diocese ; or laws
made, in provincial synods, for the govern
ment of all the dioceses of a province ; or,
lastly, laws respecting tbe whole Christian
Church, made in general councils, or as
semblies of bishops from all parts of the
Christian world (See Synods). The civil
laws of the Church were those decrees and
edicts, made from time to time by the em
perors or the State, either restraining the
power of the Church, or ratifying canons
made by the clergy in some of the preceding
ways, or otherwise making laws for the
Church. The breach of these laws was se
verely punished both by the Church and
State. The ecclesiastical censures, respecting
offenders among the clergy, were, chiefly,
suspension from the office, and deprivation
of the rights and privileges of the order.
Those respecting the laity consisted chiefly
in excommunication, or rejection from the
communion of the Church, and penance
both public and private, q.v.
POLYGLOTT BIBLES, are such Bibles,
or editions of the Holy Scriptures, as are
printed in various languages, at least three,
the texts of which are ranged in opposite
columns. Some of these Polyglott editions
contain the whole Bible, others but a part
of it. The principal Polyglotts that have
yet appeared are these following : —
1. The Bible of Francis Ximenes, car
dinal of the order of St. Francis. It was

POLYGLOTT BIBLES
printed in 1514-17, in four languages-
Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin. From
having been printed at Alcala, in Spain,,
anciently Complutum, this is called the
Complutensian Polyglott. It cost Cardinal
Ximenes 50,000 ducats.
2. The Psalter of Justiniani, bishop of
Nebbio, of tbe order of St. Dominic. It
appeared in 1516, in five languages; He
brew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and Arabic.
3. The Psalter, by John Potken, provost
of the Collegiate Church of St. George, at
Cologne, published in 1518, in four hn-.
guages — Hebrew, Greek, Chaldee, and
Latin. 4. The Pentateuch, published by the
Jews, at Constantinople, in 1546, in He
brew, Chaldee, PersiaD, and Arabic; with
the commentaries of Solomon Jarchi.
5. The Pentateuch, by the same Jews, in
the same city, in 1547, in four languages —
Hebrew, Chaldee, the vulgar Greek, and
Spanish. 6. An imperfect Polyglott, containing
only fragments of the book of Genesis and
of the Psalms ; the Proverbs, the prophets
Micah and Joel, with part of Isaiah, Ze-
chariah, and Malachi ; published by John
Draconitis, of Carlostad, in Franconia, in
1563-5, in five languages — Hebrew, ChaU
dee, Greek, Latin, and German.
7. Christopher Plantin's Polyglott Bible,
published by order of Philip II., king of
Spain, Antwerp, in 1569, 1572. It is in
eight volumes, -Land in Hebrew, Chaldee,
Greek and Latin ; with the Syriac version
of the New Testament. This is called the
Antwerp Polyglott.
8. Vatablus's Polyglott Bible, being the
Old Testament in Hebrew and Greek, with
two Latin versions, one of St. Jerome, the
other of Sanctus Pagninus; and Vata
blus's notes. The editorship is attributed
to R. Stephens, by Bishop Walton. Dihdin
ascribes it to Bertramus, Hebrew professor at
Geneva. It appeared at Heidelberg in 1586.
9. A Bible in four languages, Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and German, published hy
David Wolder, a Lutheran minister, at
Hamburg, in 1596.
10. The Polyglotts of Elias Hutter, a
German. The first, printed at Nurem
berg, in 1599, contains the Pentateuch,
Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, in six lan
guages; viz. the Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek,
Latin, Luther's German, and Sclavonian;
or French, Italian, or Saxon; the copies
varying according to the nations they were
designed for.
This author published the Psalter and
New Testament, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
and German. But his chief work is the
New Testament in twelve languages, viz.
Syriac, Greek, Hebrew, ItaUan, Spanish,

POLYGLOTT PRAYER BOOK
French, Latin, German, Bohemian, English,
Danish, and Polish. This was printed at
Nuremberg in 1599.
11. M. le Jay's Bible, in seven languages,
printed at Paris in 1645. The languages
¦are, the Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee, Greek,
Syriac, Latin, and Arabic.
12. Walton's Polyglott, published in
England, in 1657 ; in nine languages, viz.
.the Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Samaritan,
Syrian, Arabic, _thiopic, Persic, and Latin ;
though no one book is printed in so many.
This was the most complete and perfect
Polyglott ever published. It consists of
five volumes, with prolegomena, by Walton,
which are in themselves a treasure of biblical
•criticism, some treatises in the first volume,
several new Oriental versions in the fourth
And fifth, and a very large collection of
various readings in the sixth.
13. Reineccius', or the Leipsic Polyglott,
printed at Leipsic, 1753, in 3 vols., in Latin,
" German, Hebrew, and Greek : a cheap and
commodious edition.
14. Bagster's Polyglott, London, 1821,
4to and 8vo, in five languages, Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, English, Syriac. They are
also printed separately as small books.
POLYGLOTT PRAYER BOOK. The
English Prayer Book was published in 1819
by Bagster in eight languages, English,
French, Italian, German, Spanish, ancient
and modern Greek, and Latin.
PONTIFICAL. A book containing
offices and other rites used by a bishop, at
consecration of churches, &c, some of which
could only be performed by a bishop, and
none except by those to whom special licence
and commission were given. "Liber minis-
terialis" seems to have been commonly
used for Pontifical in England in the ninth
and tenth centuries (Wilkins, Cone. i.
169). Copies of Pontificals are very scarce.
Some English Pontificals are kept in libraries
abroad, the most famous being that of
Egbert, archbishop of York, in the Paris
Library (Maskell, i. exxxu.). In England
at the present time the Pontifical is not
by authority published separately from the
Liturgy, so that it is never called by that
name; though the offices of confirmation
and ordination, in fact, compose the English
Pontifical. For the consecration of churches
and churchyards we have no office appointed
by sufficient authority (See Consecration
of Churches).
PONTIFICALIA. Properly the ensigns
of a pontiff's or bishop's office; but the term
is loosely used for any ecclesiastical dress.
It is so used in the account of Bishop
Andrewes' consecration of St. Mary's, South
ampton, in Sparrow's collection : " Epi
scopus capellam statim ingressus induit se
pontificalibus."

POPE

580

POOR MAN'S BOX. Till the last re
view of the Prayer Book it was directed
that the collection at the offertory should
be put into the Poor Man's . Box : a term
which (in imitation of the Scotch liturgy)
was altered in the last review to a decent
basin. It is clear, however, from many
documents, that basins of gold and silver,
and other material, were used, in the Church
of England ever since the Reformation. In
Ireland the Poor Man's Box, or poor-box, as
it is generally called, is still in general use.
It is an oval box, half covered, of copper or
wood, with a long handle. The Poor Man's
Box does not seem to be the same as the
Alms' Chest, prescribed by the 84th canon.
So Wheatly observes: "Not, I presume,
into that fixed in the church, but into a
little box which the churchwardens, or
some other proper persons, carried about
with them in their hands, as is still the
custom at the Temple Church in London."
POPE, THE. The sovereign pontiff, or
supreme head, of the Romish Church. The
appellation of pope (Papa) was anciently
given to aU Christian bishops; but, about
the latter end of the eleventh century, in
the pontificate of Gregory VII., it was
usurped by the Bishop of Rome, whose
peculiar title it has ever since continued.
The manner of the election of a pope is
as follows: nine or ten days after the
funeral of a deceased pope, the cardinals
enter the conclave, which is generally held
in the Vatican, in a long gallery, where
cells of board are erected, covered with
purple cloth, one for each cardinal.
The election is made by scrutiny, access,
or adoration. The first is when each car
dinal writes the name of him whom he
votes for in a scroll of five pages. On the
first is written by one of his servants that
the cardinal may not be discovered by his
hand, " Ego eligo in summum pontificem
reverendum Dominum meum cardinalem
 ." On this fold two others are doubled
down and sealed with a private seal. On
the fourth the cardinal writes his own name,
and covers it with the fifth folding. Then,
sitting in order on benches in the chapel,
with their scrolls in their hands, they go
up to the altar by turns, and, after a short
prayer on their knees, throw the scroll into
a chalice upon the table, the first cardinal
bishop sitting on the right hand, and the
first cardinal deacon on the left. The
cardinals being returned to their places,
the cardinal bishop turns out the scrolls
into a plate, which he holds in his left
hand, and gives them one by one to the
cardinal deacon, who reads them with an
audible voice, while the cardinals note
down how many voices each person has ;
and then the master of the ceremonies

590

POPE

burns the scrolls in a chafing-dish, that it
may not be known for whom any one gives
his voice. If two-thirds of the number
present agree, the election is made, and
he on whom the two-thirds fall is declared
pope. When the choice is made by access, the
cardinals rise from their places, and, ap
proaching him whom they would have
elected, say, Ego accedo ad reverendissi
mum Dominum. The choice by adoration
is much after the same manner, only the
cardinal approaches him whom he would
have chosen with the profoundest rever
ence. But both the one and the other
must be confirmed by the scrutiny.
There has been another way of choosing
a pope, namely, by compromise; that is,
when the differences have risen so high
that they could not be adjusted in the
conclave, they have referred the choice to
three or five, giving them leave to elect
any one, provided it were determined
within the time that a candle lighted by
common consent should last. Sometimes
they have had recourse to what is called
inspiration ; that is, the first cardinal rises
up in chapel, and, after an exhortation to
make choice of a capable person, imme
diately, as if inspired, names one himself:
to which, if two-thirds of the cardinals pre
sent agree, he is reckoned legally chosen.
When one of the cardinals is chosen pope,
the master of the ceremonies comes to his
cell, to acquaint him with the news of his
promotion. Whereupon he is conducted to
the chapel, and clad in the pontifical habit,
and there receives the adoration, or the
respects paid by the cardinals to the popes.
Then, all the gates of the conclave being
opened, the new pope shows himself to the
people, and blesses them, the first cardinal
deacon proclaiming aloud these words :
Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum ; Papam
habemus. Reverendissimus Dominus Carin-
alis  electus est in summum Pontificem,
et eligit sibi nomen — — -. After this he is
carried to St. Peter's church, and placed
upon the altar of the holy apostles, where
the cardinals come a second time to the
adoration. Some days after is performed
the ceremony of his coronation, before the
door of St. Peter's church, where is erected
a throne, upon which the new pope ascends,
has -his mitre taken off, and a crown put
upon his head, in the presence of the peo
ple. Afterwards is a grand cavalcade from
St. Peter's church to St. John Lateran,
where the archbishop of that church pre
sents the new pope with two keys, one of
gold the other of silver.
It is probable that, in the first ages of the
Church, the Roman clergy elected the pope;
and some think the people had a share in

POPE
the election. Afterwards, Odoacer, king ol
the Heruli, and Theodoric, king of the Goths
in Italy, would suffer no election of a pope
to be made without their consent. But this
was abolished in 502, under Pope Sym
machus. The succeeding princes, however,
reserved to themselves a right to confirm
the newly elected pope, who, without this
confirmation, could not take possession of
the pontificate. The tenth century saw
several popes elected and deposed at the
fancy of the Roman nobility and Italian
princes. But, since the election of Celestine
IL, in 1443, the cardinals have retained the
power of election, independent of the Roman
people, or of any sovereign prince whatever.
It is a general maxim, in the choice of
a pope, to elect an Italian ; which is done,
not only because they choose rather to
bestow this dignity on a native of Italy
than on a foreigner, but also because the
security and preservation of the papal
chair depends, in a great measure, on the
balance which is to be kept between France
and Spain : but this is not to be expected
from a French or Spanish pope, who would
quickly turn the scale, and, by granting
too great privileges to his countrymen, en
deavour to exclude others from the papal
chair. It is also a sort of maxim to choose
a pope who is pretty far advanced in years,
that there may be the quicker succession,
and that it may not be in the power of a,
pope, during a long reign, to alter their
customs, or, by making his famUy too
powerful, to entail, as it were, the papal
chair upon his- house. They also take care
that he be not too near akin to the deceased
pope, that the vacant church benefices may
not be engrossed by one family. It often
happens that one is chosen pope of whom
nobody thought before ; and this comes to
pass when the cardinals are tired out by so
many intrigues, and are glad to get out of
the conclave. For a long time there was a
traditionary belief that no pope would reign
twenty-five years, but Pius VI. reigned from
1775 to 1800, and Pius IX. from 1846 to
1878. Many of the popes have made it their
business to enrich their families out of the
Church revenues, of which there are very
remarkable instances. For it is related that
Sixtus V., during a reign of five years, he-
stowed upon his family above three mUlions
of ducats. The house of the Barbarini, at
the death of Urban VIII., was possessed of
227 offices and Church benefices, whereby .
they amassed thirty millions of scudi.
The first pope who assumed a new
name on his election was Octavian, who
took the title of John XII., November a.d.
965. " The civil government seems to have
been conducted in that" (i.e. the name)

POPE
"of Octavian, the church was administered
under that of John XH." — Milman, Hist.
Lat. Christ, ii. 387.
When a pope is elected, they put on him
a cassock of white wool, shoes of red cloth,
on which is embroidered a gold cross, a
mantle of red velvet, the rochet, the white
linen albe, and a stole set with pearls. At
home his habit is a white silk cassock,
rochet, and scarlet mantle. In winter his
Holiness wears a fur cap ; in summer, a
satin one. When he celebrates mass, the
colour of his habit varies according to the
solemnity of the festival. At Whitsuntide,
and all festivals of the martyrs, he officiates
in red; at Easter, and all festivals of
virgins, in white; in Lent, Advent, and
eves of fasting days, in violet ; and on
Easter-eve, and at aU masses for the dead,
in black. All these colours are typical :
the red expresses the cloven tongue, and the
blood of the martyrs; the white, the joy
caused by our Saviour's resurrection, and
the chastity of virgins ; the violet, the pale
aspect of those who fast ; and the black,
grief and mourning.
The Pope has two seals ; one is called
" the fisherman's ring," and is the impression
of St. Peter holding a line with a bait to it
in the water. It is used for those briefs
that are sealed with red wax. The other
seal is used for the bulls which are sealed
with lead, and bears the figures of St. Peter
and St. Paul, with a cross on one side, and a
bust, with the name of the reigning pope,
on the other. Upon the decease of a pope,
these seals are defaced and broken by the
cardinal Camerlengo, in the presence of three
cardinals. When the pope goes in procession to St.
Peter's, the cross is carried before him on
the end of a pike about ten palms long.
"Many reasons," says F. Bonani, "au
thorise this custom. It is a monument of
the sufferings of Jesus Christ, and of the
pope's adherence to the Saviour of the
world. It is the true mark of the pontifical
dignity, and represents the authority of the
Church, as the Roman fasces did that of the
consuls." At the same time two grooms
bear two fans on each side of his Holiness's
chair, to drive away the flies. This (ac
cording to the above-cited author) re
presents the seraphim covering the face of
God with their wings.
The custom of kissing the pope's feet is
very ancient ; to justify which practice, it
is alleged, that the pope's slipper has the
figure of the cross upon the upper leather ;
so that it is not the pope's foot, but the
cross of Christ, which is thus saluted.
There were at different times between a.d.
250 and 1438, antipopes, or pretenders to
the bishopric of Rome. According to Gedde's

POPERY

591.

list there were twenty-four (Miscell. Tracts,
vol. iii. t. 4, Lond. 1706), but other writers
assert that there were more. There were
two classes of antipopes — (i.) those elected.
during the lifetime of a pope canonically in
possession; (ii.) those whose own election
was itself invalid. Very often the dispute
was the occasion of much bloodshed (See
Gibbon, iii. 255: v. 144: vii. 128: viii.
251, &c). In 1870 a decree of the Vatican
Council declared the pope infallible. In.
the same year the pope lost his temporal
possessions and power, which were taken by
the King of Italy.
II. There are but few instances of the-
papal power in England before the Norman
conquest. But the pope, having favoured and
supported WiUiam I. in his invasion of this
kingdom, made that a handle for enlarging
his encroachments, and, in that king's reign
began to send legates hither. Afterwards
he prevailed with King Hemy I. to part
with the right of nominating to bishoprics ;.
and, in the reign of King Stephen, he
gained the prerogative of appeals. In the
reign of Henry II. he exempted all clerks
from the secular power. This king, at first,.
strenuously opposed his innovation; but,.
after the death of Becket, who, for having.
violently opposed the king, was slain by
some of the royal adherents, the pope got
such an advantage over the king, that he
was never able to execute the laws he had
made. Not long after this, by a general ex
communication of the king and his people,.
for several years, King John was reduced
to such straits, that he surrendered his
kingdoms to the pope, to receive them
again, and hold them of him under a rent
of a thousand marks. In the following
reign of Henry III., partly from the profits
of our best Church benefices, and partly
from the taxes imposed by the pope, there
went yearly out of the kingdom to Rome
£70,000 sterling. But in the reign of
Edward I., it was declared by the Par
liament, that the pope's taking upon him to-
dispose of English benefices to foreigners,
was an encroachment not to be endured j.
and this was followed by the statute of
Provisors against popish bulls, and against
disturbing any patron, in presenting to a
benefice, which was afterwards enacted in
Ireland also.
But the pope's power received a mortal-
blow in England, by the reformation in
religion, begun in the reign of Henry VIII. ;
since which time, to maintain the pope's
authority here, by writing, preaching, &c,
was, till lately, made a premunire upon the
first conviction, and high treason upon the
second (See Church of Rome ; Supremacy ^
Papal).—- Ranke's Hist, of Popes.
POPERY (See Church of Rome; Council

592

POPERY

of Trent ; Romanism). By this term is
meant the peculiar system of doctrine, by
adopting which the Church of Rome has
departed from the primitive simplicity of
the Catholic Church, by requiring aU who
communicate with her to believe, as ne
cessary to salvation, certain mediasval ideas,
such as . — 1. That the holy images are to be
honoured and revered ; 2. That the Virgin
Mary and other saints are to be prayed to ;
3. That, after consecration in the Lord's
Supper, the bread is no longer bread, and
the wine no longer wine ; 4. That the
clergyman should be excommunicated who,
in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, gives
the cup to the people ; 5. That they are ac
cursed who say that the clergy may marry ;
6. That there is a purgatory — that is, a
place where souls which had died in re
pentance are purified by suffering ; 7. That
the Church of Rome is the mother and
mistress of all Churches ; 8. That obedience
is due from all Churches to the bishop of
Rome; 9. That they are accursed who
deny that there are seven sacraments.
From those doctrines, contrary to Scrip-
•ture and the primitive Church, have resulted
sundry evU practices. From the veneration
of images has sprung the actual worship of
them. The invocation of the Blessed Vir
gin, and of other saints, has given rise to the
greatest superstition and profaneness. The
bread in the Eucharist has been worshipped
as though itself were the eternal God. From
the doctrine of purgatory has sprung that of
indulgences, and the practice of persons
paying sums of money to the Roman bishops
and clergy, to release the souls of their
friends from the fabulous fire of purgatory
{See Indulgences).
Dates may be given to show that all the
peculiar doctrines and practices of the Ro
manists are of mediseval or modern origin.
Attrition, as distinguished from con
trition, was first pronounced to be sufficient ;
the priest's right intention was first pro
nounced to be indispensable to the valid
participation of the sacraments ; and judicial
absolution was first publicly authorised ; all
by the Council of Trent, a.d. 1551.
Auricular confession was first enjoined
by Innocent III., at the fourth Council of
Lateran, a.d. 1215.
Compulsory celibacy of the clergy was
first enjoined publicly at the first Council
of Lateran, a.d. 1123.
Communion in one kind only was first
authoritatively sanctioned by the Council of
Constance, a.d. 1414.
Use of images and relics in religious
worship was first publicly affirmed and
sanctioned in the second Council of Nice,
a.d. 787.
Invocation of saints was first taught with

PORCH
authority by the fourth Council of Con-1
stantinople, a.d. 754.
Papal infallibility was utterly unknown
to the third Council of Constantinople.
a.d. 680, and never formally asserted till
1870. Papal supremacy was first publicly as
serted by the fourth Council of Lateran,
a.d. 1215.
Prayers in a foreign tongue, first deliber
ately sanctioned, by the CouncU of Trent,
were expressly forbidden by the fourth
Council of Lateran, a.d. 1215.
Purgatory and indulgences were first set
forth by the CouncU of Florence, a.d. 1438.
The Roman number of the sacraments
was first taught by the Council of Trent,
a.d. 1545.
Transubstantiation was first pubUcly in
sisted on by the fourth Council of Lateran,
a.d. 1215.
Tlie immaculate conception of the Virgin
Mary was first declared in 1868.
POPPY HEAD. The ornamental finial
of a stall end. In design the poppy heads
are extremely various ; but they are almost
universaUy made to assume the outline of
the fleur-de-Us, to which not only foliage,
but figures, faces, and whole groups are
made to conform themselves.
PORCH. Every one knows what the
porch or porches of a church are, better
than by any explanation. They differ
widely in size ; and though there are a few
considerable Norman porches, as at South-
weU, they acquired greater importance in
the later styles. The largest and grandest
porches are nearly all northern ones. In
cathedrals that might arise from the cloisters
being generally on the south side of the
nave. The beautiful porch of the Angel
Choir of Lincoln, however, is south; and
there the cloisters are north, as at Gloucester
aud Chester. Probably, also, the desire of
protection from the north wind caused
many of the deepest porches to be on that
side. Not a few of the great cathedrals
have no porch on either side of the nave.
The finest north ones are at Salisbury,
Worcester, Wells, Hereford, and Beverley ;
and many large parish churches have
them. At Canterbury alone the porch
comes out of the south-west tower.
Generally they are one or more bays from
the west. They often have chambers,
called " parvises," over them, even in parish
churches. We have very few projecting
porches from our west fronts or transept
fronts. The Galilee of Ely is the largest
western one,'' unless the magnificent three
E.E. arches at the west of the Norman nave
of Peterborough are regardedas a triple porch.
Next to them come the triple west porches
of St. Alban's, and the somewhat simUar

POSITIVISTS
ones of the north transept of Westminster
Abbey. The French cathedrals generally
beat ours considerably in triple porches on
all their fronts, which was facilitated by
their great height. [G.]
POSITIVISTS. Those who assert that
nothing is to be accepted as truth, except
that which can be positively proved to
human reason without room for doubt.
Though this theory may be traced in previous
works, especially in the school of Voltaire,
and the Encyclopaedists, it is to Auguste
Comte that we must refer the definite
explanation — if it can be so called — of this
school of thought. He, when only twenty
years of age, wrote an exposition of the Poli
tique Positive of the Saint-Simonian Society;
and when Simon died, in 1825, he proceeded
to formulate his own ideas into a system.
The strain, on his mind was such that he
became insane, and for a time was under
restraint; but in 1832 he had recovered
sufficiently to be appointed professor of
mathematics at the Polytechnic School at
Paris. He did not lead a moral life, and
quarrelled with the other professors, and died
in September, 1857. Comte's theory of Posi
tivism has been caUed "the religion of
humanity," and his disciples assert that it is
the only system which can be reconciled
with high intellectual development. But it
consists only of negations with regard to
Christianity, and indeed all religion except
the worship of Humanity, the " Ego " ; every
person being to himself the ' 'Etre Supreme "
of his religion. A revelation from God is
of course discarded ; prayer is not necessary,
but, as a substitute, " effusion " or " reverie "
is advised : the idea of " Resurrection " is
bit .;ght down to " living in the remembrance
of i survivors." This naturally leads to
Materialism and Fatalism, as is shown by
Lecky (Hist, of Rationalism, ii. 408, n.).
The Agnostics of the present day are really
Positivists holding the ideas of Comte
with some variations of their own. The
, professed Positivists in England are under
stood to be very few, while Agnostics of
various kinds are numerous. The etymology
of the term (from d and yvaa-is) merely
implies, that they say " we know not " to
all propositions of religion. The bishop of
Derry (Dr. Alexander), in a sermon preached
before the University of Oxford, spoke of
the term Agnostic as one sounding better
in Greek than its equivalent in Latin,
" ignoramus " (See Comte's Cours de Phil.
Pos. ; Lewis' Exposition of Princ. of Pos.
Phil.). [H.]
POST1LS. A name anciently given to
sermons or homUies. The name sprang
from the fact that these were usually de
livered immediately after reading of the
Gospel (quasi post ilia, sc. EvangeUa).

PR_MUNIRE

593

Also, in printed expositions of Scripture,
from the text being first exhibited, and post
ilia (after the words of the text) the ex
plication of the writer.
POSTURES OF DEVOTION (See
Kneeling ; Genuflexion).
PRAEMUNIRE, in law, is either taken
for a form of writ, or for the offence whereon
the writ of Praemunire is granted. It origin
ated in the resolution to restrain the exorbi
tant power claimed and exercised in England
by the pope. The name is derived from the
words of the writ : — " Rex vice-comiti, &c.
Praemunire facias prafatum A. B. quod tunc
sit coram nobis," &c. The first statute of
Praemunire was enacted in 1353 (27 Edw.
III. c. 1). In this the grievance was stated,
that " diverse of the people had been drawn
out of the realm to answer to things whereof
that cognizance pertaineth to the King's
Court ; and also that the judgments given in
the said Court are impeached in another
Court to prejudice and dis-inherison of our
lord the king, and of all the people of the
said realm, and to the destruction and
undoing of the common law of the said
realm at all times used." Those who trans
gressed, and appealed to the tribunal of
Rome, were subjected to very heavy penal
ties ; their property was forfeited, and they
were to be imprisoned. By the statute 12
Ric. II. c. 15, all liegemen of the king
accepting of a Uving by any foreign pro
vision are put out of the king's protection,
and the benefice made void. .Next year it
was enacted " that any person bringing over
any citation or excommunication from be
yond sea, shall be imprisoned, and forfeit
his goods," &c. (13 Ric. II. st. 2, cc. 2, 3).
But the statute which goes by the name of
the " Statute of Praemunire," and which is
generally referred to by all subsequent sta
tutes, is that of 16 Ric. II. c. 5, which forbids,
under heavy penalties, any translations,
processes, excommunications, bulls, Sec,
which touch the king — against him, his
crown and realm — being brought into or
observed in the kingdom. The pope, how
ever, still endeavoured to exercise this
power; and so, by 2 Hen. IV. c. 3, it was
enacted that all persons who accepted any
provision from the pope to be exempt from
canonical obedience to their proper ordinary,
were to be subjected to the penalties of
Prasmunire. The popes afterwards, and
especially Martin V., endeavoured to get
this Statute of Praemunire — illud execrabile
statutum, as the latter caUed it — repealed, but
in vain (See Wilkins' Concil. Magn. Brit.
vol. iii.). Originally, therefore, the penalties
of praemunire were kept within the bounds
of their original institution — that of check
ing the power of the pope ; but they have
since been applied to other matters, one of
2q

594

PRAGMATIC SANCTION

which need only be mentioned here. The
statute of 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20 enacts, that
if the dean and chapter refuse to elect the
person nominated by the king to a vacant
bishopric, or if any archbishop or bishop
refuse to confirm or consecrate him, they
shall incur the penalties of the statutes of
the Praemunire mentioned above. — Stephen's
Blackstone, iv. ,251. seq. ; Milman's Hist.
Lat. Christ, v. 484 : vi. ,79 ; Hook's Arch
bishop's, iv. 147, 189 : vi. 393.
PRAGMATIC SANCTION (irpdypa,
business). An edict or decree of the sove
reign upon weighty matters or business.
Referring to the expression historically,
the earliest Pragmatic Sanction on record is
that drawn up by Louis IX., king of France,
in 1268, against the encroachments of the
Church and Court of Rome. It limited the
interference of the Court of Rome in the
elections of the bishops and clergy, and
directly denied its right of ecclesiastical
taxation. It was superseded in 1438 by
the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII.,
which was drawn up at Bourges. This
having re-asserted the rights and privileges
claimed for the Gallican Church under
Louis IX., it accorded with the Council of
Basle, at that time sitting, in maintaining
that a general council is independent of the
pope, and in asserting that all papal bulls
should be null and void unless tbey received
the consent of the king. It withheld also
the payment of annates (See Annates).
Pope Pius II. succeeded in obtaining the
abrogation of this sanction for a time. But
the Parliament of Paris refused to approve
the conduct of Louis XI. in setting it aside,
and he was compelled to restore it to its
original influential position. It accordingly
remained in full force up to the year 1517,
when it was supplanted by the concordat
of Bologna, which was agreed upon between
Francis I. and Pope Julius II. Although by
the concordat privileges were given and re
ceived on both sides, yet the real advantages
were on the side of Rome ; which advantages
it has ever since been her constant aim to
improve. — Sismondi, viii. 104 ; Hallam,
Middle Ages, ii. 214, 225 ; Milman's Lat.
Christ iv. 440 : vi. 117, 216.
PRAISE. A reverent acknowledgment
of the perfections of God, and of the bless
ings flowing from them to mankind, usually
expressed in hymns of gratitude and thanks
giving, and especially in the reception of
the holy Eucharist — that "sacrifice of praise,
and subUmest token of our joy " (See Eu
charist). PRAXEANISTS (See Patripassians).
PRAYER. A word of the same family
as Ar. "ill?, barak, to bless; and preach:
Lat. precor, Fr. prier. It is allied, per
haps, with Sax. pr.egnan, Ger. fragen.

PRAYER BOOK
The offering-up of our desires to God for
things agreeable to His will, in the name of
Christ, by the aid of His Spirit, with con
fession of our sins, and thankful acknow
ledgment of His mercies. The necessity of
prayer is so universally acknowledged hy all
who profess and call themselves Christians,
and so clearly enjoined in Scripture, that to
insist upon this duty — this sacred and
pleasant exercise to the renewed in heart-
is unnecessary. Prayer is either private or
public, and it implies faith in the particular
providence of God. The general providence'
of God acts through what are called the
laws of nature. By His particular providence
God interferes with those laws, and He hath
promised to interfere in behalf of those who
pray in the name of Jesus. As we are to
shape our labours by ascertaining, through
the circumstances under which we are pro
videntially placed, what is the will of God
with reference to ourselves; as, for example,
the husbandman, the professional man, the
prince, all labour for different things placed
within their reach, and do not labour for
that which God evidently does not design
for them ; so we are to regulate our prayers,
and we may take it as a general rule, that
we may pray for that for which we may
lawfully labour, and for that only. And
when we pray for what is requisite and
necessary for the body or the soul, we are at
the same time to exert ourselves. Prayer
without exertion is a mockery of God, as
exertion without prayer is presumption.
The general providence of God requires that
we should exert ourselves, the particular
providence of God that we should pray.
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. It wai
decided by Sir Herbert Jenner, in BreeksJv.
Woolfrey, 1838 (Ecc. Judgments, 350), that
an epitaph, " Pray for the soul of J. W.,"on
a tombstone in a churchyard was not un
lawful ; although prayers for the dead were
dropped out of the Prayer Book between the
first and second books of Edward VI., and
never restored. He held that there is no
positive prohibition of them in the 22nd
Article against Purgatory, or in any Canon,
though the Homilies certainly disapproved
of them ; and therefore, that the Court could
not interfere with an epitaph of that kind.
The using of such a prayer in church would
of course be unlawful, as only those of the
Prayer Book, or the Bible, by the Acts of
Uniformity can lawfully be used there (see
PubUc Worship). The text from 2 Mac. xii.
46, was hardly relied on, inasmuch as the
6th Article says that " the Church doth not
apply the books of the Apocrypha to establish
any doctrine." [G.]
PRAYER BOOK, THE. The Book of
Common Prayer and Administration of the
Sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies

PRAYER BOOK
according to the use of the Church of
¦England, together with the Psalter or
•Psalms of David, pointed as they are to be
sung or said in churches ; and the form and
manner of making, ordaining, and conse
crating of bishops, priests, and deacons
{See also Liturgy).
The Prayer Book now in use in the
Church in England and, translated into other
tongues, in many other countries, can only
be duly understood by a careful study of
its history. It is a compound work, partly
translated from service books and forms
traceable to apostolic times, partly taken
from Holy Scripture, and partly consist
ing, though in a less degree, of original
matter. Until the second year of Edward
VI.'s reign the Church Services were aU in
Latin, the language of the Western Church
and that in which every important docu
ment was couched. It was " a tongue not
understanded of the people," but yet tbey
were not so completely in the dark as is
commonly supposed. Translations of the
Lord's Prayer and the Creeds are of early
date. " Horn books " in English existed for
•the poor, and, for those who could purchase a
book, there were " Prymers," containing the
greater part of the Psalms, the Canticles,
the Creed, Lord's Prayer, Litany, and many
prayers and anthems in the 14th century
(See Horn Books ; Prymer).
The Latin service books were — the Bre
viary, containing the daily services for the
Hours ; the Missal, containing the office for
Holy Communion with the Epistles and
Gospels ; the Manual, containing the offices
for Baptism, Visitation of the Sick, Marriage,
Burial of the Dead ; the Pontifical, contain
ing the Ordination and Consecration services ;
the order of Coronation existed in a
separate book ( " Liber Regalis, seu Ordo
Consecrandi Regem solum, seu 0. C. Regi-
nam cum Rege, seu 0. C. Reginam solam.
Rubrica de Regiis exequiis," date, circa
1380). The outward form of the coronation
of a sovereign remained essentiaUy unaltered
in England from the time of Ethehed to
that of George IV. In the reign of Henry
VIII. some small changes were made in the
Latin office books, such as the erasure of
certain collects for the Pope, of the office
of Thomas a Becket, and of some other
saints, whose days by the king's injunc
tion were no more to be observed. But
these changes were so few that no new
office books were required. A committee
of convocation was appointed in 1542, con
sisting of the bishops of Salisbury (Shaxton)
and Ely (Goodrich) and six clergy of the
lower house, to examine the service books
preparatory to a thorough revision.
During this examination it became evi
dent that the adoption of the English

PRAYER BOOK

595

tongue instead of the Latin would be a
necessity. The change, however, was a
more gradual one than is often supposed.
The Litany had been for many generations
used in English, and was therefore perfectly
familiar when authorised for public use in'
1544 (See Litany). In 1547, the first year
of Edward VI., " an order of Communion "
drawn up by Archbishop Cranmer, approved
by convocation, and ratified by parliament,
was issued by proclamation from the Crown.
It provided, in addition to and expressly
without variation from the ancient Salisbury
Mass, a form of communion in both kinds for
the laity, consisting of the " Dearly Beloved
in the Lord, ye that mind," replacing an
exhortation referring to communion in one
kind, "Ye that do truly," confession,
absolution, comfortable words, and prayer
of " Humble access ; " then the first sentence
of the sentences of administration now
used, and the ' blessing. This addition to
the Salisbury Mass was employed when any
of the laity wished to communicate. A
new and enlarged committee of convocation
then sat, taking as the basis of their work
the labours of the past committee in the
same field. Their names were : —
1. Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Can
terbury. 2. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely.
3. Henry Holbech, bishop of Lincoln.
4. George Day, bishop of Chichester.
5. John Skip, bishop of Hereford.
6. Thomas Thirlby, bishop of Westmin
ster. 7. Nicholas Ridley, bishop of Rochester,
and afterwards of London.
8. Dr. WiUiam May, dean of St. Paul's.
9. Dr. John Taylor, dean, afterwards
bishop, of Lincoln.
10. Dr. Simon Haynes, dean of Exeter,
and master of Queen's College, Cambridge.
11. Dr. John Redmayne, prebendary of
Westminster, and master of Trinity College,
Cambridge. 12. Dr. Richard Cox, dean of Christ
Church, Oxford, afterwards bishop of Ely.
Of their method of work no record has
come down to us, nor is it possible to assign
to any of the writers a specific portion.
Their task included the restoration of the due
and thorough reading of the Holy Scriptures,
which had by the introduction of foreign
matter, as stories, and legends, become so
broken that when any book of the Bible was
begun, after three or four chapters were
read out, the rest were unread.
This was remedied by a calendar of lessons,
which, with the exception of the moveable
feasts, had no proper lessons, but continued
in an unbroken course.
The omissions from the book of the short
passages formerly used as lessons rendered
2 q 2

596

PRAYER BOOK

it possible to combine in one volume the
office of Holy Communion, the daily, and the
occasional services. A further step towards
rendering the service more simple was taken
when it was arranged that in the daily
service only the Psalms and lessons should
vary daUy, and the first collect weekly.
The eight services belonging to the eight
hours of prayer, which had very generally
come to be repeated in immediate succession
to each other, involving constant repetition
of prayers and versicles, were recast into the
two services of mattins and evensong.
The book, which bore the same title as the
present one, except that it ends at the words
"Church of England," contained —
1. The Preface, identical with "Con
cerning the Service of the Church" in
the present book, except that it does not
mention a further reference to the arch
bishop, and that with respect to mattins and
evensong the direction is, " Neither that
any man shall be bound to the saying of
them, but such as from time to time in
cathedral and collegiate churches, parish
churches and chapels to the same annexed,
shall serve the congregation." Nor is there
any direction for tolling the bell.
2. The table and calendar of the Psalms
and Lessons.
3. The order for mattins and evensong
beginning with the Lord's Prayer, and end
ing with the third collect without the alter
native Psalms. (Pss. c, xcviii., and lxvii.).
Included under the sarqe heading is the
Athanasian Creed ordered at Christmas,
Epiphany, Ascension, Pentecost, and Trinity
Sunday. 4. The Introits, i.e. a special psalm for
each Sunday and Festival, the collects,
epistles and gospels used at Holy Commu
nion, including one for St. Mary Magdalene's
Day, and without mention of the 6 th Sunday
after Easter, certain proper psalms and
lessons. 5. The supper of the Lord, commonly
called the Mass (see Liturgy), with the
direction to the priest to wear a white albe,
plain, with a vestment or cope, and the
assistant priests albes with tunicles. The
service opens with the collect for Purity,
followed by the Introit Psalm, the Kyrie,
Gloria in Excelsis, prayer for the King,
collect, epistle and gospel, two exhortations
to be used in the priest's discretion, offertory
sentences, "Lift up your hearts," Proper
Prefaces, Church Militant, Prayer down to
" other adversity " when it passes into a com
memoration of the saints, and prayer for the
faithful departed, the prayer of Consecration
containing the Invocation of the Holy Ghost.
Then another prayer from which our present
first post-communion coUect is taken, the
Lord's Prayer, a versicle and response, Con-

PRAYER BOOK
fession, absolution, the comfortable words,
prayer of humble access, the administration
(with the first half only of our present form),
" Agnus Dei," certain sentences of Holy
Scripture, a versicle and response, collect
(" Almighty and everliving God)," and the
blessing. The occasional collects, and
those for rain and for fair weather, are printed
at the end.
6. The Litany, containing a prayer for a
" deUverance from the tyranny of the bishop
of Rome and his detestable enormities."
7. Administration of Public Baptism, of
which the special difference from the present
office was the exorcism of the unclean spirit
in the church porch, the introduction of the
child into the church, the putting on a
white garment caUed the Chrism after bap
tism, and the subsequent anointing on the
forehead with oil.
8. Private Baptism is substantiaUy the
same with the present office, except for the
solemn putting on of the Chrism. In this
office also is included one for the benediction
of the water in the font whenever changed.
9. Confirmation (including the catechism
to the end of the " I desire my Lord God'%
unction with the sign of the cross at the
laying on of hands, and the use of the
Christian name.
10. Office of Matrimony, differing in few
points from the present office.
11. Visitation of the Sick, opening with
Psalm cxliii., containing a solemn anointing,
and closing with Ps. xiU.
12. The Communion of the Sick, contain
ing the direction to the priest to reserve the
previous " open communion " in church, so
much of the Sacrament of the Body and
Blood, as shall serve the sick person, and so
many as shaU communicate with him (if
there be any) to recite the Confession, Abso
lution, and the Comfortable Words, then to
administer the reserved Sacrament, and end
the service with the collect, " Almighty and
everliving God." Provision is also made for
a communion " afore noon " in the sick man's
house, differing in few particulars from the
present order, except in a provision for the
reservation of the Sacrament for other sick,
and for unction if desired.
13. The order for the Burial of the Dead,
differing somewhat in the order of the pray
ers from the present office, and containing a
special commendation of the soul to God, the
body to the ground — a prayer for the souls
of aU the elect, Psalms cxvi., cxxxix., cxlvi.
— a prayer for the forgiveness of the sins of
the departed soul, and that he may " receive
this body again to glory, then made pure
and incorruptible."
For the Holy Communion at a burial, the
service opens with Psalm xUi., the coUect
(" 0 merciful God, the Father of our Lord

PRAYER BOOK
Jesus Christ"), Epistle, 1 Thess. iv., Gospel,
St. John vi. 37-41.
14. The order for the Purification of
Women, where the rubric directs her to
kneel " nigh unto the quire door," and the
¦Psalm is the cxxi., and the direction to
her is to " offer her chrism."
15. The first day of Lent, commonly
called Ash- Wednesday, is the same service
with that called Commination in the present
Prayer Book, except for a few verbal differ
ences and the absence of the Blessing.
"Of Ceremonies, Why some be abolished
and some retained," comes at the end of the
book instead of in its present place, and
also some " Notes " (1) as to the use of a sur
plice at " mattins and evensong, baptizing,
and burying," by the minister, the wearing of
such hoods as pertain to their degree. (2)
The bishop's vestments in celebrating the
Holy Communion to be beside his rochette,
a surplice or albe, and a cope or vestment,
and also his pastoral staff in his hand, or else
borne by his chaplain. (3) Gestures of
private devotion, which may be used or left.
((4) The permission to use at Christmas,
Easter, Ascension, Whitsunday, and feast
of Trinity a portion of Holy Scripture to be
hereinafter certainly limited and appointed
instead of the Litany. (5) A discretion
to the curate to omit for a sermon or great
cause the Litany, Gloria in Excelsis, Creed,
homily, and exhortation to communion.
The book has been described in some de
tail because of the great importance attach
ing to this, the first Book of Common Prayer
in England. Before 1549 a diversity of
Uses had prevailed. The " Uses " of Sarum,
York, Hereford, Bangor, and Lincoln were
all extant, of which the Use of Sarum is the
best known, and the one which most influ
enced the Prayer Book. By the first Prayer
Book these were condensed and combined
in one, the rough translations already written
polished, and the whole put into the best
and clearest EngUsh of the time. With
the single exception of the reference in the
Litany to the Bishop of Rome, the Book
soars far above all controversy, and shows a
remarkable regard for Holy Scripture, and
for the preservation of all that belonged to
genuine Church tradition. That an enor
mous accretion was removed is intimated in
the preface to this book, and the treatise
" Of Ceremonies," and the highly complex
system which was the cause that " to turn
the book only was so hard and intricate a
matter, that many times there was more
business to find out what should be read
than to read it when it was found out," was
reduced to a more simple one.
The exclusive use of this book was en
acted by the first Act of Uniformity of 2 & 3
Edw. VI. ; a subsequent Act, 3 & 4 Edw.

PRAYER BOOK

597

VI., called in all other books soever hereto
fore used in the service of the Church,
whether in English or Latin, saving the
primers set forth by King Henry VIII., if
the prayers to Saints be blotted out. Seven
editions of the Book of Common Prayer
were printed, differing very slightly, and it
came into use at Whitsuntide, June 9, 1549.
During the same year the Ordinal was pub
lished as a separate book (See Ordination).
Contemporary evidence shows that the
book was accepted with satisfaction by the
majority of the clergy and laity. The
foreign reformers were less satisfied, and as
three of them, Fagius, Bucer, and Peter
Martyr, had professorships, the two former
at Cambridge, the latter at Oxford, their
influence was greater than it would otherwise
have been. Calvin also busied himself
much in the matter, and aroused so strong a
wish for change in the king's mind that he
threatened to change the book on his own
authority. The book was, apparently for
peace sake, submitted to a revision by the
bishops. The principal changes made were
the addition of the sentences, exhortation,
confession and absolution at mattins and
evensong ; the removal of the introits from
the Communion office, and the insertion of
the Commandments instead; the omission
of the Invocation of the Holy Ghost in the
Prayer of Consecration, and other changes
made the bringing that office to its present
form, with the exception of the words of
Administration, which now began "Take
and eat," " Drinl? this," omitting the first
part of the present sentences entirely. The
rest of the changes consisted, as Collier
says, in "discharging several rites and
parts of the service retained in the former
book." The office of Baptism was altered
to its present form. The sign of the cross
and use of oil omitted from the Confir
mation service, and the prayer " Defend, 0
Lord," took their place. Prayers, for the
departed were omitted from the Communion
service, and from that for the Burial of the
Dead, which also lost its special introit,
Epistle and Gospel, and the provision for a
funeral celebration of Holy Communion.
The unction of the sick was also omitted.
Some changes were made in the rubrics,
substituting " table " for altar, " north side "
for " afore the altar," and forbidding the use
of albe, vestment, or cope.
These alterations were, by the second Act
of Uniformity, 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 1, said to
be made " as well for the more plain and
manifest explanation thereof " (" the use and
exercise of common service in the church ")
" as for the more perfection of the said order
of common service." This Act also includes
the Ordinal as " of like force, authority and
value," with the Prayer Book. This book

598

PRAYER BOOK

was published in 1552, to come into use on
All Saints' Day in that year. The rubric
known as the " Declaration on kneeling "
formed no part of the book when confirmed by
the Act of Parliament, but was printed six
months later, and inserted in a separate leaf
in the copies already circulated. It would
seem from the wording of the Act that the
revisers considered their alterations to be
matters of small moment, aud were hardly
aware how considerable a change they had
made, — a change the more to be regretted,
as it proved to be needless. TRe second
Prayer Book came into use November 1,
1552. King Edward died July 6, 1553,
and his successor, Queen Mary, repealed the
A cts qf Uniformity and abolished the Prayer
Book in the October of the same year.
She called in Henry VII.'s erased books,
and enacted that the service should stand
as it most commonly did in the last year of
Henry VIII. In 1558 Queen Elizabeth
came to the throne, and for more than a
month no change in the service was made,
except that elevation of the Host was for
bidden, but on December 27, by royal pro
clamation all preaching or teaching was for
bidden other than the Gospels and Epistles
of the day, and the Ten Commandments in
the vulgar tongue, and also any service but
that actually in use, or the Litany and the
Lord's Prayer and Creed in English. In
the pause thus obtained the question was
discussed by a committee of divines which
of the two service books should be restored
to use. They finally made choice of the
second book, with certain alterations, the
most important of which were: 1. A table
of proper lessons for Sundays ; 2. The
"accustomed place," or chancel, instead of
" in such place as the people may best
hear," was appointed for the celebration of
Divine Service; 3. The ornaments of the
church and ministers were to be restored
as under the 2nd year of King Edward VI. ;
until other order should be taken in the
manner provided by the Act (see Adver
tisements) ; 4. The clause in the Litany pray
ing for deliverance from the Bishop of Rome
to be omitted; 5. The present form of ad
ministration of the Consecrated Elements
was substituted for that of the second
book, thus combining the forms of both
books ; 6. The declaration on kneeling was
wholly omitted.
In this form the book was annexed to a
third Act of Uniformity, 1 Eliz. c. 2, in 1559,
and came into use on June 24 of the same
year. There is this remarkable about it, that
the Romanists aU accepted it, and attended
the church services therein provided for the
ten first years of Elizabeth's reign. Pope
Pius IV. allowed that both the Bible and
Prayer Book as used in England were au-

PRAYER BOOK
thentic, and not repugnant to truth, and he
offered to allow the service book unaltered if
Elizabeth would receive it from him, by his
allowance, which she however refused. His-
successor, Pius V., excommunicated .her in
1570. In 1563 the Bible and Prayer Book
were translated into Welsh. Elizabeth's
Prayer Book was never submitted to the
Convocations, in which the Marian bishops.
and clergy then predominated.
Except a revision of the Calendar, no
further changes were made during this reign,
but the use of the book was very far from
being uniform, either as to ritual or the use
of the prayers. Those who had been in exile
during Mary's reigu were many of them in
favour of a bare church, of extemporary
prayers, and of sermons as the chief feature
of worship. The tradition of reverent wor
ship, to which the original compilers of the
first book had trusted so much, became dim
in the minds of the people, and the Puritan
party were persistent in their attacks. In
1604, a conference was held at Hampton
Court before James I., to hear the Puritan
objections to the Prayer Book ; he broke up
the meeting on the third day, and gave
directions himself to the archbishop of Can
terbury (Whitgift) and other high commis
sioners to review the book. It appears to be
very^questionable whether the proviso in 1
Eliz. c. 2, under which he acted, gave him
any such power, but alterations were made.
" Or remission of sins " was added to the
title of the Absolution, the prayer for the
Royal family placed at the end of the Litany,
some minor alterations made in the rubrics,
" Lawful minister " being inserted in the
rubric for Private Baptism; certain of the
" Thanksgivings on special occasions " were
added, also the part of the Catechism relat
ing to the Sacraments, and some small
changes made in the Calendar. The irregu
larities in the use of the book and tbe
ornaments of the church and ministers
continued throughout this reign as well as
the next, and were winked at by some of
the bishops, though the Visitation articles
of others prove both their own diligence and
the great necessity that existed for it. On
January 3, 1645, the parliament passed, with
out the sanction of Charles I., an ordinance
repealing the Acts of Uniformity and for-t
bidding the use of the Prayer Book in any
place of worship in England or Wales;
On August 23 of the same year (St. Bar
tholomew's Eve) the private use of it was
also forbidden, and all copies required to be- ¦
given up. by the same authority.
During fifteen years the service of the
Church could only be said under heavy
penalties, generally rigidly enforced, but it
was never entirely discontinued, though
used with the greatest precautions for se-

PRAYER BOOK
crecy. At the Restoration of Charles II. , in
1660, copies of the Prayer Book were hastily
reprinted, without even the needful changes
in the names of the Royal family, and the
use of the book revived more rapidly than
might have been expected, one of the first
instances being the burial of Dr. Hammond
with the proper burial service on April 26 of
that year. In the Chapel Royal at White-
haU, when the Court was settled there, the
Prayer Book -was at once restored. By
letters patent, King Charles called a confer
ence of " Learned Divines of both persua
sions " to " review the Liturgy of the Church
of England." They were as follows : —
On the Church side.
Principals.
1. Dr. Frewen, archbishop of York. 2.
Dr. Sheldon, bishop of London, afterwards
archbishop of Canterbury. 3. Dr. Cosin,
bishop of Durham. 4. Dr. Warner, bishop
of Rochester. 5. Dr. King, bishop- of Chi
chester. 6. Dr. Henchman, bishop of Salis
bury, afterwards of London. 7. Dr. Morley,
bishop of Worcester, afterwards of Winches
ter. 8. Dr. Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln.
9. Dr. Laney, bishop of Peterborough, after
wards of Lincoln and Ely. 10. Dr. Walton,
bishop of Chester. 11. Dr. Stern, bishop of
Carlisle, afterwards archbishop of York. 12.
Dr. Gauden, bishop of Exeter, afterwards of
Worcester. Coadjutors.
1. Dr." John Earle, dean of Westminster,
afterwards bishop of Worcester. 2. Dr. Peter
Heylyn, prebendary of Westminster. 3. Dr.
John Hackett, archdeacon of Bedford, after
wards bishop of Lichfield. 4. Dr. John
Barwick, successively dean of Durham and
St. Paul's. 5. Dr. Peter Gunning, succes
sively master of Corpus and St. John's,
Cambridge, afterwards bishop of Chichester.
6. Dr. John Pearson, successively master of
Jesus and Trinity College, Cambridge, after
wards bishop of Chester. 7. Dr. Pierce. 8.
Dr. Anthony Sparrow, archdeacon of Sud
bury, afterwards bishop of Norwich. 9.
Mr. Hubert Thomdike, prebendary of West
minster. On the Presbyterian side.
Principals.
1. Dr. Reynolds, afterwards bishop of
Norwich., 2. Dr. Tuckney, Master of St.
John's, Cambridge. 3. Dr. Conant, Regius
Professor of Divinity, Oxford. '4. Dr.
Spurstow. 5. Dr. Wallis, Savilian Professor
of Astronomy, Oxford. 6. Dr. Manton. 7.
Dr, Calamy. 8. Mr. Baxter. 9. Mr. Jack
son. 10. Mr. Case. 11. Mr. Clark. 12.
Mr. Newcomen.

PRAYER BOOK

Coadjutors.

599'

1. Dr. Horton. 2. Dr. Jacomb. 3. Mr.
Bates. 4. Mr. Rawlinson. 5. Mr. Cooper.
6. Dr. Lightfoot. 7. Dr. Collings. 8. Dr.
Woodbridge. 9. Mr. Drake.
They met at the Master's lodgings at the
Savoy, in the Strand, from April 15, 1661,
to July 24 of the same year. Their dis
cussions were prolonged to but little pur
pose. Many of the "exceptions" taken
were frivolous, though urged with great
bitterness, and the Conference had little
result, except it were that of showing the
impossibility of combining Presbyterian doc
trines with those expressed by the Prayer
Book. A committee of the Upper House
of Convocation of Canterbury was appointed,
consisting of : —
Matthew Wren, bishop of Ely.
Robert Skinner, bishop of Oxford.
John Warner, bishop of Rochester.
Humphrey Henchman, bishop of Salis
bury. George Morley, bishop of Worcester.
Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln.
William Nicholson, bishop of Gloucester.
John Cosin, bishop of Durham.
The co-operation of the York Lower
House of Convocation, as well as that of
Canterbury, was secured, and the work
began. The Committee met at Ely House
in Holborn, with Sancroft (afterwards arch
bishop of Canterbury) as their secretary.
All of them were men of known learning
and piety. Cosin and Wren were great litur
gical scholars, Wren having speciaUy studied
the Uturgies of the Eastern Church. Cosin
had prepared a folio Prayer Book of 1619
with notes and emendations. Sanderson
had made careful notes. Wren had also
prepared during his imprisonment in the
Tower a revision of the Book of 1639,
" observing that never could there have been
an opportunity so offenceless on the Church's
part for amending the Book of Common
Prayer as now, when it hath been so long
disused that not one of five hundred is so
perfect in it as to observe alterations." His
" Rules of reforming " were 1. to use only
words such as be commonly understood,
2. to remove repetitions — such as "van
quish and overcome," — 3. to set right what
ever is not very perfect and right be it
never so small, 4. to correct every 'error of
language, — as the use of which for who. Ho
noted'to the ornaments rubric" Who knows
how the chancels were in those times past
so many having been demolished and many
disused?" "But what is now fit to be
ordered herein, and to preserve those that
are still in use, it should be put down in
express words, without these uncertainties

600

PRAYER BOOK

which breed nothing but debate and scorn."
His note on the prayer for the Church mili
tant is remarkable, strongly pressing for the
restoration of that end of the prayer (after
" other adversity ") which has been men
tioned above — " of all rights it should be
added again."
The chief additions made to the book at
this date are the prayer of St. Chrysostom
at morning and evening prayer, the collects
for Ember days, for Parliament (it may
be here observed that " most religious and
gracious " are alike formal epithets, the first
referring to the title " defender of the faith "
and to the Consecration of the sovereign),
" For all sorts and conditions of men "
(where " profess and call themselves " shows
a trace of Puritan influence), and the
General Thanksgiving. Some of the collects
were altered, and that for the Sixth Sunday
after Epiphany added. The Epistles and
Gospels were taken from the new translation
of the Bible, the canticles, psalms, offertory
sentences, and comfortable words remaining
unaltered. The office for Baptism of Those
of Riper Years was added, as " having become
necessary by the growth of Anabaptism, and
may always serve for baptizing natives in
our plantations and others converted to the
faith." It is interesting to note this slight
rekindling of the missionary spirit. The
forms of prayer to be used at sea were also
added at this time, and are supposed to have
been compiled by Bishop Sanderson. The
use of the Prayer Book survived in the
navy after it had been abolished on land,
and though the Parliament had endeavoured
to put "a supply of prayer" in its place.
The order for the Burial of the Dead, besides
the necessary change of phrase — committing
" the body to the deep," has " looking for
the resurrection," instead of "in sure and
certain hope." The declaration on kneeling
with the change of " Corporal Presence," for
"real and essential" was replaced. These
were the chief additions and alterations made
in the book, and the principle which guided
those who laboured in the work is best seen
by studying the preface printed at the begin
ning of every copy of the Prayer Book. The
revision was completed by December 20,
1661, and the MS. of the revised volume with
the great seal attached was itself attached to
the fourth Act of Uniformity, 14 Car. 2, c. 4.
Great care was taken in the printing,and any
unauthorised copy strictly forbidden. It
was ordered to come into use in every
parish church, chapelry, cathedral church,
college or hall, on the Feast of St. Bartholo
mew (August 24), 1662. The resistance to
the use of the Prayer Book of some of the
ministers, who had intruded themselves
into cures of souls, caused a large number,
though far less than is commonly said, to

PRAYER BOOK
be ejected from tbe places they had taken
for themselves. Even if they were the 2000
commonly aUeged by Dissenters, they were a
very small proportion of the intruders only
seventeen years before. Probably the Church
suffered yet more from those who remained
and conformed, than from those who were
ejected. The traditional knowledge and
strong bond of custom to which the com
pilers of the first book and their successors
had largely trusted, was, by many years of
maimed obedience and fifteen of neglect,
almost effaced and undone, and an ignorant
irreverence had taken its place.
There have been no alterations in the
Prayer Book since 1662, excepting two
revisions of the Calendar, one in 1751,
making the year begin on January 1, and
correcting the table to find Easter, and
dropping eleven days in 1752 ; and another
in 1871, when the present Lectionary was
introduced. The Shortened Services Act (35 & 36
Vict. c. 35) does not alter in any respect
the Prayer Book itself, though it permits
under special conditions the omission of
parts of mattins and evensong,
The special services for November 5, for
January 30, for May 29, were all appoint
ed by Royal orders, which were revoked in
1859 ; and the Acts for the observance of
those days were repealed by 22 Vict. c. 2.
The service for the Accession was enjoined
by a canon of 1640. It was disused in Charles
IL's reign, but revived by James IL, and after
disuse in William III.'s reign, and some re
vision, was used again from Queen Anne's
reign until now. In some old copies of the
Prayer Book are to be found a Form of prayer
in commemoration of the fire of London,
September 2, 1666, which was revised in
1676 and used in St. Paul's tiU 1859.
The office used at " the Healing " (touch
ing for the king's evil) is also in some
copies of the Prayer Book, especially in
those of Queen Anne's reign ; but none of
these services, nor the Thirty-nine Articles,
nor the Table of Degrees, nor either of the
"Metrical Versions" of the Psalms, are
integral parts of the Book of Common
Prayer. The Ordinal (see Ordinal) was
finally incorporated with the book by the
last Act of Uniformity. CompUed, like the
rest of the book, from many ancient sources,
it underwent historically the same vicissi
tudes, and was the subject of vehement
attack, as holding the very key of the
position. [L. P.]
PRAYER BOOK OF THE CHURCH
OF SCOTLAND. This was first proposed
by James I., who endeavoured abruptly to
introduce the English Office Book, with but
little success. Spottiswode, archbishop of
St. Andrew's, prepared a draft of a liturgy

PRAYER BOOK
whicb. he sent to King James and which
was revised by Young, dean of Windsor.
In 1629 the project was again considered,
and in 1633 the work was begun. The
persons chiefly concerned in it were Max
well, bishop of Ross, and Wedderburn,
bishop of Dunblane ; and in England, Wren,
then bishop of Norwich, and Archbishop
Laud. The introduction of the book in
1637 was unwisely managed by those con
cerned in it, and Laud says they "went
not the right way by a general assembly
and other legal courses of that kingdom."
Probably, however introduced, it would have
produced a storm, for, being based more
upon the first Prayer Book of Edward VI.
(see above) than upon that of Elizabeth, it
was highly uncongenial to the Presbyterians.
Its fate, Uke that of the Church, was even
more adverse than in England; but when
in 1689 the Scottish Convention expelled
the bishops and resolved to abolish Epi
scopacy, the persecuted Church revised her
Service Book and reintroduced it, as it now
exists. The principal variations from the
English book are : — In the office of Holy
Communion which retains the Invocation
in the Consecration prayer, a more express
commemoration of the saints and faithful
departed, and generally foUows the lines
of the " first Prayer Book ; " in Holy Bap
tism a special blessing of the water ; in
Confirmation the signing of the cross by
the bishop on the forehead of each person
confirmed. The Preface to the Ordinal
contains a strong assertion of the continuity
of the Scotch orders, and of the necessity
of Episcopal ordination. But the latest
Scotch canons allow the use also of the
English Consecration prayer in the Commu
nion. [L. P.]
PRAYER BOOK OF THE CHURCH
IN AMERICA. The Church in America,
as she received her first bishop from. Scot
land, so also based her communion office upon
that of the Scotch Prayer Book. In other
respects her offices follow with few variations
the English Book. Of these the most im
portant are the omission of the Athanasian
Creed, and of the Absolution in the Visitation
of the Sick, the addition of offices for Visita
tion of prisoners, of Harvest Thanksgiving, of
Consecration of a Church or Chapel, of Insti
tution of Ministers, and a Hymnal, all
incorporated with the Book of Common
Prayer. The three Prefaces of the English
Book are replaced by one deprecating any
intention to depart from the Church in
England "in any essential point of doctrine,
discipline, or worship" (See American
Prayer Book). [L. P.]
PRAYER BOOK IN IRELAND. The
first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. (see above)
was used in Christ Church Cathedral,

PREACHING

C01

Dublin, Easter Day (April 6), 1549, and
was printed for Ireland in 1551, but little
effort was made to promote its use.
In 1559,an Act of Queen Elizabeth ordered
the use of the second Book of Edward VI.,
with a permission to use it in Latin, because
in most places of the realm no English min
ister could be found, and there were great
difficulties in printing it in Irish and " few in
the whole realm can read Irish letters."
Thus the services remained in their old con
dition of being understood (when used in
Latin) by the minister, and not as a rule,
either in Latin or in English, by tbe common
people. Efforts were made by some of the
Irish bishops to improve matters in King
Charles's reign, but in 1649 the ordinance
of the Parliament abolished the bishops, and
forbade the use of the Prayer Book. In
1665 the Irish Convocation, having " dili
gently considered " the revised Prayer Book,
recommended its adoption, and it was ap
pended to an Act of Uniformity in 1666.
The Irish book contained as additions (1)
a Service of Thanksgiving for yearly use of
October 23, for the " Discovery of the Con
spiracy to blow up Dublin Castle and mur
der all Protestants in 1641 ; " (2) a " Prayer
for the Lord Lieutenant;" (3) a form of
" Visitation of Prisoners ; " (4) a form of
" Consecration or dedication of Churches and
Chapels ; " (5) a short office for " Expiation,
and Illustration of a Church desecrated or
prophan'd." After Jan. 1, 1871, the Church
of Ireland ceased to be an established Church,
and it was arranged that it should be gov
erned by a representative body, or synod, of
elected clergy and laity. In 187 7 the synod
revised the Book of Common Prayer, mak
ing certain alterations and additions, for
which see article on Church of Ireland.
PRAYER BOOK, LATIN (See Latin
Prayer Book ; Oblations).
PREACHING (See Extempore Preach
ing). Proclaiming or publicly setting forth
the truths of religion. Hence the reading
of Scripture to the congregation is one
branch of preaching, and is so denominated
in Acts xv. 21, "Moses of old time hath
in every city them that preach him, be
ing read in the synagogues every sabbath
day." The term is, however, now gene
rally restricted to the delivering of sermons,
lectures, &c. When the preaching of our
Blessed Lord, or His apostles, is referred to
by ancient writers, the word used is clay-
yeXlfeo-Qai (St. Luke iv. 18 : ix. 2 ; 1 Cor.
i. 17 ; Gal. i. 11, &c.) ; but afterwards,
when the Gospels were written down, and
ordered to be read in the churches, the ex
position or exhortation was called Kqpvypa,
or bibao-KaXia, and in Latin doctrina
and instructio ; and sermons were opiXlai,
Xdyot, tractatus or sermones (See Sermons).

602

PREACHING

The ordinance of preaching has always
been held in the highest honour. Justin
Martyr speaks of the president at the
service (irpoeo-ras, which probably means
the bishop) admonishing through words
(bid Xoyov), and exhorting all to the
imitation of the noble deeds, of which they
had heard in the lessons from Holy Writ
(Apol. i. c. 67). Gregory Nazianzen refers
to it as the principal thing that pertains
to the ministers of the Gospel — irpiirov
twv virvper£v (Orat i.). Only tbe bishops,
apparently, preached in the earliest times ;
and this rule was long observed in the
African Churches. To this duty of the
episcopal office St. Cyril of Alexandria
refers (Epist. ad Monach. in Cone. Ephes.),
as well as St. Ambrose, and other early
writers (See Bingham, xiv. 4). At the
CouncU of Laodicea, a.d. 366, the same rule
is referred to (c. 19), " irepl rov btiv Ibia
irparov pera ras opiXias t&v iiria-Koirav,"
Sec. ; but this may be regarded as relating
only to the solemn service at the admission
of Catechumens. Still, that the idea long
remained is evident from a canon in the
Council in Trullo, a.d. 691, when the
bishop's duty of preaching constantly, and
especially on the Lord's day, is mentioned
(Labbe's Concil. iv. 1151). St. Augustine
speaks of preaching as the proper office of a
bishop (De Offic. i. c. 1) ; but, at the same
time, he was the first presbyter in Africa
who preached in the presence of the bishop
(Possid. Vit. August 5). St. Chrysostom,
commenting on St. Paul's words — " Abishop
must be apt to teach," refers to this as an
especial duty on his part (Horn. x. in 1
Tim. iii.). Though it was thus considered
as a special function of the bishop to preach,
addresses might be given by presbyters.
Thus, in the so-called Apostolic Constitutions,
a canon runs : " Let the presbyters, but not
all, exhort the people; and last of aU the
bishop, who is like unto the governor of the
ship " (U. 57). It would appear from the
early writers that in different churches
there were different rules regarding the
preaching of presbyters. The subject wiU
be found fully considered in Professor
Cheetham's article on preaching in the
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.
Deacons were not at first aUowed to
preach (Bingham, ii. 20). When the words
Kzjpvo-o-eiv, Ktjpvypa, or preco are applied to
them, they imply simply the giving out of
notices, or calling the people to prayer.
But even with regard to this, and to lay
men's preaching, there appears sometimes
to have been a relaxation of the rule. Origen,
when a layman, was requested by Alexander,
bishop of Jerusalem, to preach before him
(Euseb. Hist. lib. vi. c. 19); and other
instances may be given. But the rule was

PREACHING
against lay-preaching, even by monks.
Women were apparently inclined some
times to assert " their rights " with regard
to preaching. As to the ApostoUc rule in
this case, we have only to refer to 1 Cor.
xiv. 34 ; 1 Tim. ii. 11 ; but amongst
heretical sects, women were wont to hold
forth, as appears from Tertullian : " Ipsoe
mulieres haereficae quam procaces, quae au-
deant dicere " (De Prescript, c. 41) ; and
prohibitions were issued against their preach
ing (Const. Apost. Ui. 9 ; 4 Cone. Carth. c.
99, &c).
II. In England the duty of preaching!
was early enjoined. Probably after St.
Augustine's time for some years the bishops
only preached. But at the Council of
Clovesho, a.d. 747, every priest was ordered
carefully and diligently to perform this duty
(c. 9). Restrictions with regard to preaching
similar to those mentioned above are pointed
out by the canonist Lyndwood : "Nota quod
non omnis qui vult praedicare, debet ad hoc
admitti. Nam mere laicus nee publice nee
private potest praedicare, nee etiam muler
.... loquendo de clericis habes scire, quod
papa ubique potest praedicare ; episcopi vero
ubique possunt praedicare nisi per dicecesanes
prohibeantur expresse, juxta Ulud Marc.
Euntes in mundum universum predicate,
quod dictum fuit apostoUs, in quorum loco
succedunt episcopi. Auctoritatem tamen
prasdicandi alUs dare non possunt, nisi in pro
priis dioecesibus. Inferiores vero praelati, sive
curati, subditis sibi commissis praedicare
possunt, etiam si fuerint diaconi tantum,"
&c. (Lyndwood, lib. 3, tit. 4 : Ub. 5, tit. 5 ;
Maskell, Mon. Rit. u. exxvii.). After the
Reformation, as certain persons were wont
to assert their right of preaching without
any authority, rules and restrictions were
given for the ministers in the Church of
England; such as is contained in Article
xxiii., which need not be quoted, as it is to
be found in the Prayer Book. [H.]
By canon 36, "No person shall be re
ceived into the ministry, nor admitted to any
ecclesiastical living, nor suffered to preach,
to catechise, or to be a lecturer or reader
of divinity in either university, or in any
cathedral, or coUegiate church, city, or
market town, parish church, chapel, or any
other place within this realm, except he
be Ucensed either by the archbishop or by
the bishop of the diocese where he is to be
placed, under their hands and seals, or by
one of the two universities under their
seal likewise; and except he shaU first
subscribe to the three articles concerning
the king's supremacy, the Book of Com
mon Prayer, and the Thirty-nine Articles
(see Orders): and if any bishop shall
license any person without such subscrip
tion, he shall be suspended from giving

PREACHING
licences to preach for the space of twelve
months." And by the 31 Elizabeth, c. 6, "If any
person shaU receive or take any money,
fee, reward, or any other profit, directly
or indirectly, or any promise thereof, either
to himself or to any of his friends (all or
dinary and lawfully fees only excepted), to
procure any licence to preach, he shall
forfeit £40."
After the preacher shall be licensed,
then it is ordained as follows :
Canon 45. "Every beneficed man, al
lowed to be a preacher, and residing on
his benefice, having no lawful impediment,
shall, in his own cure, or in some other
church or chapel (where he may conveni
ently) near adjoining, where ho preacher
is, preach one sermon every Sunday of the
year; wherein he shall soberly and sin
cerely divide the word of truth, to the
glory of God, and to the best edification
of the people."
Canon 47. "Every beneficed man, li
censed by the laws of this realm (upon
urgent occasions of other service) not to
reside upon his benefice, shall cause his
cure to be supplied by a cm-ate that is a
sufficient and licensed preacher, if the
worth of the benefice will bear it. But
whosoever hath two benefices shall main
tain a preacher licensed, in the benefice
where he doth not reside, except he preach
himself at both of them usually."
Canon 50. " Neither the minister, church
wardens, nor any other officers of the
Church, shall suffer .any man to preach
within their churches or chapels, but such
as by showing their licence to preach shall
appear unto them to be sufficiently author
ized thereunto, as is aforesaid."
Canon 51. " The deans, presidents and
residentiaries of any cathedral or collegi
ate church shall suffer no stranger to
preach unto the people in their churches,
except they be allowed by the archbishop
of the province, or by the bishop of the
same diocese, or by either of the universities;
and if any in his seimon shall publish any
doctrine either strange or disagreeing from
the word of God, or from any of the Thirty-
nine Articles, or from the Book of Common
Prayer, the dean or residents shall by their
letters, subscribed with some of their hands
that heard him, so soon as may be, give
notice of tbe same to the bishop of the
diocese, that he may determine the matter,
and take such order therein as he shall
think convenient."
Canon 52. " That the bishop may under
stand (if occasion so require) what sermons
are made in every church of his diocese, and
who presume to preach without licence, the
churchwardens and sidesmen shall see that

PREBEND

603.

the names of aU preachers which come to
their church from any other place be noted
in a book, which they shall have ready for
that purpose, wherein every preacher shall
inscribe his name, the day when he
preached, and the name of the bishop of
whom he had licence to preach."
Canon 53. " If any preacher shall in the
pulpit particularly, or namely of purpose,
impugn or confute any doctrine delivered
by any other preacher in the same church,
or in any church near adjoining, before he
hath acquainted the bishop of the diocese
therewith, and received order from him
what to do in that case, because upon such
public dissenting and contradicting there
may grow much offence and disquietness-
unto the people, the churchwardens or party
aggrieved shaU forthwith signify the same-
to the said bishop, and not suffer the said
preacher any more to occupy that place
which he hath once abused, except he faith
fully promise to forbear all such matter of
contention in the church, until the bishop
hath taken further order therein; who
shaU with aU convenient speed so proceed
therein, that public satisfaction may be
made in the congregation where the offence
was given. Provided, that if either of the
parties offending do appeal, he shall not be
suffered to preach pendente lite."
Canon 55. " Before all sermons, lectures,
and homUies, the preachers and ministers
shall move the people to join with them in
prayer, in this form, or to this effect, as.
briefly as conveniently they may : Ye shall
pray for Christ's Holy Catholic Church," &c.
(See Bidding Prayer).
The Preface to the Ordinal, which is-
ratified by Act of Parliament though tho-
Canons are not, is still more decisive : " No
man shall be accounted a bishop, priest, or
deacon in the Church of England, or suffered.
to execute any of the said functions" (of
which preaching is expressly one) " except
he be . . . admitted thereunto according to-
the form hereafter foUowing, or hath had
formerly episcopal ordination." In the face
of all this, and Lyndwood's early statement of
the law, it is difficult to understand how
a few bishops and other people can have
imagined that a Ucence from a bishop to a
layman to preach is worth anything, being
unnecessary for preaching anywhere but
in church, and invalid and unlawful for
preaching in church. [G.]
PREBEND (Lat. Prebenda). The stipend
which is received by a prebendary, from
the revenues of the cathedral or collegiate
church with which he is connected. It
denoted originally any stipend or reward,
given out of the ecclesiastical revenues, to a
person who had by his labours procured
benefit to the Church; and the gratuity

€04

PREBENDARY

which was given either to a proctor or ad
vocate, or any other person of the Uke kind.
When the cathedral churches became weU
¦endowed, they left off receiving the income
of their lands into one common bank, and
¦dividing it among the members, but par
celled out the lands into several shares,
appropriating them for the maintenance of
each single clergyman who resided about the
cathedral, calling it Prebenda, or Corpus
Prebende, the Corps of tlie Prebend. Hence
arose the difference between a prebend and
a canonry. A canonry was a right which a
person had in a church, to be deemed a
member thereof, to have assigned to him a
staU therein, and to give a vote in the chap
ter ; but a prebend was a piece of property
attached to a particular stall. The num
ber of prebends in the several cathedral
churches was increased by the benefactions
of respective founders; oftentimes out of
the revenues of the rural clergy, and often
times by exonerating the lands of prebends
from paying tithes to the ministers of the
parishes where they lay (See Canons).
There is now at any rate no real differ
ence. The residentiaries are canons by Act
of ParUament, and the non-residentiaries
have no estates individually or collectively.
But in a few old cathedrals the non-re-
sidentiaries are still called prebendaries;
though by s. 1 of the 3 & 4 Vic. 113,
aU the members of chapter, except the
dean, arc to be styled canons. But the' Act
was so altered in its progress that there are
various inconsistencies in it.
PREBENDARY. A clergyman attached
to a cathedral or collegiate church, who
formerly enjoyed a prebend in consideration
of his officiating at stated times in the
church. By the Act of 1840 most of the
prebendal stalls have been deprived of their
endowments, but the holders of them are
still called prebendaries (See -Dean and
Chapter). In Scotland, there were estabUshed by the
respective founders in the coUeges of St.
Salvador, at St. Andrew's, and King's
College, Aberdeen, certain " Prebendaries,
or perpetual chaplains, to sing and serve in
the choir" of the chapel. These were, in
fact, the same as chaplains in the choral
colleges of England.
PRECENTOR. The leader of a choir.
There is no mention of this office before the
4th century ; then it appears that in many
churches one singer, the precentor or pro-
¦nuntiator, recited the first half of a verse
and the people took up the rest (Diet.
'Christ. Antiq. p. 1691). Afterwards the
office was considered very important, and
the holder invested with great dignity. The
precentor in almost all cathedrals of old
-foundation in England, and very generally

PREDESTINATION
on the continent, was the first dignitary
in the chapter after the dean. In some
few instances the archdeacons preceded
him. He superintended the choral service,
and the choristers; and in Paris the pre
centor of Notre-Dame had the supervision
of the lesser schools in the city, as the
chancellor had of the greater. In all the
new foundations, the precentor is a minor
canon. In most ancient cathedrals the pre
centor had for his badge of office a sUver staff
or baculus. In choral coUeges the precentor
is a chaplain. At Llandaff and St. David's,
tiU very lately, the precentor was presby teral
head of the chapter. At York he need not
be a residentiary ; but the canonry of Drif
field was annexed to the office.
PRECEPTORIES were manors or estates
of the Knights Templars, on which they
erected churches for religious service, and
convenient houses for habitation, and placed
some of their fraternity under the govern
ment of one of those more eminent Templars,
who had been by the grand master created
"preceptores templi," to take care of the
lands and rents in that place and neighbour
hood : these preceptories were only cells to the
Temple, or principal houses of the knights,
in London. Preceptor was the title of the
head of some old hospitals.
PRECES. The Latin word for prayers ;
but it is often appUed in a technical sense
to the shorter sentences, as versicles and
suffrages which are said in the way of verse
and response. The longer prayers were
called " orationes," and were in fact equiva
lent to our collects. The distinction is
given by St. Cyprian, who speaks of the
" preces "as a Utany (Ep. 62, ad Januar).
In the English service the term is Umited to
those versicles (with the Gloria Patri) im
mediately preceding the Psalms, beginning
" 0 Lord, open thou our Ups," and those
after the Creed. These anciently formed a
regular part of the harmonized services for
cathedral choirs, which were set to music by
an earlier musician (See Responses, Versi
cles, and Service).
PREDESTINATION (See Election:
see also Calvinism and Arminianism). Of
predestination and election our 17th Article
thus speaks : " Predestination to life is the
everlasting purpose of God, whereby (before
the foundations of the world were laid) he
hath constantly decreed by his counsel se
cret to us, to deliver from curse and dam
nation those whom he hath chosen in Christ
out of mankind, and to bring them by
Christ to everlasting salvation, as vessels
made to honour. Wherefore they which be
endued with so excellent a benefit of God,
be called according to God's purpose, by his
Spirit working in due season ; they through
grace obey the caUing; they be justified

PREDESTINATION
freely ; they be made sons of God by adop
tion ; they be made like the image of his
only-begotten Son Jesus Christ ; they walk
religiously in good works; and at length,
by God's mercy, they attain to everlasting
felicity. As the godly consideration of
predestination and our election in Christ is
fuU of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable
comfort to godly persons, and such as feel
in themselves the working of the Spirit of
Christ, mortifying the works of the flesh
and their earthly members, and drawing
up their mind to high and heavenly: things,
as well because it doth greatly establish
and confirm their faith of eternal salvation
to be enjoyed through Christ, as because
it doth fervently kindle their love towards
God: so, for curious and carnal persons
lacking the Spirit of Christ, to have con-
tinuaUy before their eyes the sentence of
God's predestination, is a most dangerous
downfaU, whereby the devil doth thrust
them either into desperation, or into
wretchedness of most unclean living, no
less perilous than desperation. Further
more, we must receive God's promises in
such wise, as they be generally set forth
to us in Holy Scripture : and, in our doings,
that will of God is to be foUowed, which we
have expressly declared unto us in the
Word of God."
Such is the barrier which the Church
places between this solemn subject and
irreverent inquiries; but the Scripture
doctrine of predestination may be further
stated without any forgetfulness of the
spirit here inculcated. We are told indeed
by the Church, that " the godly considera
tion of predestination and our election in
Christ is full of sweet and unspeakable
comfort to godly^ persons" (Art. xvii.);
and it is certain that it can be full neither
of profit nor of comfort, unless we meditate
upon it. And if it be among the things
" hard to be understood" (2 St. Pet. iii. 16),
this is no reason why we should not try to
understand it, and, by understanding, cease
to be "unlearned and unstable," and so
take care that it shall not be wrested to our
destruction. In the first chapter to the Ephesians, we
find that there are certain persons whom
God hath chosen in Christ, before the
foundation of the world; having predesti
nated them unto the adoption of children of
Jesus Christ to Himself, not on account of
their good works, but according to the good
pleasure of His wiU (Eph. i. 4, 5). Again,
in another Epistle, we are told that God
hath "called us with a holy calling, not
according to our works, but according to His
own purpose and grace, which was given us
in Christ Jesus before the world began"
(2 Tim. i. 9). These are persons whose

PREDESTINATION

605^

names are said to have been written in
heaven, in the book of life, called the
Lamb's book of life (Rev. xx. 15 : xxi. 27),
because the first among God's elect is He
who, being God as well as man, is the Lamb
of God, slain from the foundation of the
world (Rev. xiii. 8) as a propitiation for
sins (1 St. John ii. 2 ; iv. 10). Thus, then,
we see that there are persons who in the
words of St. Paul, are " vessels which God-
hath afore prepared unto" Glory " (Rom. ix.
22-24). And now comes the question, Wlio are
those who are thus predestinated to the
glories of the new heaven, the new earth,
the new Jerusalem, which is to come down
from above ? (Rev. xxi. 2). - Let St. Paul
give the answer : " Whom He did predes
tinate, them He also called " (Rom. viii. 30) :•
called by the circumstances under which He
providentially placed them either by the
appearance, in the first ages, of an apostle-
or an evangelist ; or, as is the case with us,
by the fact of our being born in a Christian
land : " and whom He called, them He also
justified ; " receiving them, for Christ's sake,
as His own children in holy baptism, He-
justified, or, for the same Saviour's sake,,
counted as holy, those who as yet were not
actually so : " and whom He justified, them
He also glorified." He glorified them by
regenerating them, and making them tem
ples of the Holy Ghost (1 Cor. vi. 11, 19) ;
than which what greater glory can pertain
to the sons of men ?
The foregoing passage furnishes us with
a description of Christians, of baptized
persons ; and consequently to Christians we
are to refer those other passages which re
late to God's predestination : them God hath
predestinated to glory. And as such, as-
God's elect people, predestinated not merely
to means of grace, for this were clearly in
adequate, but to glory in the kingdom of
glory, the inspired writers were wont to-
address the multitude of the baptized.
Thus the apostle addresses the Church of
the Thessalonians, good and bad com
mingled, as " knowing " their " election of
God" (1 Thess. i. 4). Thus St. Peter
speaks of " the strangers scattered through
out Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and
Bithynia," as " elect according to the fore
knowledge of God the Father " (1 St. Pet. i.
1) ; and he speaks of them afterwards as " a
chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy
nation, a peculiar people ; " and the writer
of the Epistle to the Hebrews addresses
the Hebrews, meaning those who had made
profession of the Christian faith, as, " holy
brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling."
Such, then, is our blessing, our privUege,
our high hope as Christians. In the temple
of the first Jerusalem there was a variety of

•606

PREDESTINATION

chambers or mansions, employed for differ
ent purposes, though all relating directly
or indirectly to the services of the sanctuary.
In the new Jerusalem, which will itself be
the temple of the universe, there will in like
manner be " many mansions " or chambers :
but if so, those mansions or chambers in the
earthly Jerusalem having been intended for
a variety of different offices, we may con
clude that offices of different characters will
exist in the new Jerusalem. It is very
possible that we are not only each of us
predestined to heaven, but predestined also
each to our own particular place in heaven,
that our very mansion is fixed. We know
that God has predestinated particular per
sons to particular offices here on earth, long
before their birth: as, for example, in the
case of Jeremiah, God saith, " Before I
formed thee in the belly, I knew thee ; and
before thou earnest forth of the womb,. I
sanctified thee, and ordained thee a prophet
unto the nations." And so with respect also
to St. Paul, we are told that it " pleased God
to separate him from his mother's womb,
that he might preach Christ among the hea
then " (Gal. i. 15, 16). Nay, we find that
this is reaUy to be the case with respect to
the next world, in some cases at least ; for
example, when the Son of man shall sit on
the throne of His glory, the apostles shall sit
on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes
of Israel (St. Matt. xix. 28) : a particular office
is allotted to them ; to a particular office
they are predestinated. When the mother
of Zebedee's children prayed that her
children might sit, the one on the right hand,
and the other on the left, in our Lord's king
dom of glory, our Lord said, " to sit on my
right hand and on my left, is not mine to
give " (St. Matt. xx. 23). No. These places
are designed for certain persons who are pre
paring, or shall be prepared, to fill the same.
This is already fixed in the counsels of God.
These places, therefore, are not mine to give,
They are afready given. Your place is also
designated : prepare for it by doing your
duty. We know that some of the saints
are predestinated to a mysterious office, the
nature of which we cannot understand, but
they will judge angels (1 Cor.,vi. 2, 3).
And at the last day shall the King say unto
them that are on his right hand, " Come,
ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom
prepared for you from the foundation of the
world " (St. Matt. xxv. 34).
But this predestination to glory is, like
our election, conditional. We shall not
only be saved, but we shall occupy a predes
tined post of glory, if we escape condem
nation at the day of judgment ; not other
wise. The omission of all reference to the
day of judgment is the vice of the Calvin
istic system. The man, condemned at the

PREFACES
day of judgment, will find an addition to
his pangs, by knowing the glory to which
he had been predestined, had he not per
verted his ways. But if our sins are then
found blotted out by the blood of the Lamb,
we know that a certain place in heaven is
designed for us, for which we are shaped
and prepared by the circumstances under
which we are placed while on earth (See
Bishop Pearson's 23 and 24 Lectiones " de
Predestinatione" in Archdeacon Churton's
edition of his minor Works ; also Sermon 26
on Human Responsibility in J. H. New
man's Parochial Sermons).
PRE-EXISTENCE OF CHRIST, OUR
LORD (See Generation). His existence
before He was born of the Virgin Mary,
and even before the creation of the world
by Him. The fact is stated thus by Bishop
Bull in his " Defence of the Nicene Creed " :
All the catholic doctors of the first three
centuries taught that Jesus Christ, He who
was afterwards so called, existed before He
became man, or before He was born, accord
ing to the flesh, of the Blessed Virgin, in
another nature, far more excellent than the
human nature; that He appeared to holy
men, giving them an earnest, as it were, of
His incarnation ; that He always presided
over, and provided for, the Church, which
in time to come He would redeem with His
own blood; and of consequence that, from
the beginning, the whole order or thread of
the Divine dispensation, as Tertullian speaks,
ran through Him : further yet, that He was
with the Father before the foundations of
the world, and that by Him all things were
made. PREFACE, THE. That part in the
office for Holy Communion recited by the
priest, beginning with : " It is very meet,
right, and our bounden duty," &c. In the
ancient Liturgies, the preface is merely the
introduction to the Eucharistica in the
Holy Communion office (the evxapioria of
St. Paul, 1 Cor. xiv. 16), which was a long
thanksgiving to God for His mercies ; from
which probably the whole service took its
name. Justin Martyr speaks of this as the
evxapioria iirl woXi, or the thanksgiving
for the manifold mercies of God, the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost (Apol. 1, c. 86). The
thanksgiving, which ^itself is a preface to
the consecration, formed a large portion of
every primitive Uturgy, and in the course
of it, or at the end, the whole body of the
people sung the hymn Tersanctus, or Holy,
Holy, Holy, Sec— Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii.
120; Diet Christ. Ant 1693; D. Evan's
P. B. [H]
PREFACES, PROPER. About the be
ginning of the 5th century various thanks
givings, or prefaces, as they then began to
be called, were written and used in the

PREFACES
Western Churches. The Sacramentaries of
Leo, Gelasius, and Gregory contain a proper
preface for nearly every Sunday and Festival
in the year, as does also the Mozarabic
Missal, and the Gallican liturgies (Muratori,
Liturgia Romana; MabUlon, de Liturgia
¦Gall. ; Neale and Forbes' Gallican Liturgies,
Miss. 5, p. 12). The introduction of these
prefaces by individual bishops in different
churches seems to have been frequent, and
was reprobated, the African Church order
ing that no new prayers or prefaces (praefa-
tiones) should be used which had not been
approved by general authority ( Cone. Milevit
c. 12, a.d. 416). The number of the pro
per prefaces was reduced about the end of
the twelfth century to ten, and at the
period when our Liturgy was revised proper
prefaces for only a few occasions were
admitted. They mark out in the great
festivals the chief acts of the manifestation
of the God-head in humanity — the Incarna
tion, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the
descent of the Holy Ghost ; and these sum
up all in the adoration of the God-head.
The days for which these prefaces are pro
vided are, Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and
¦seven days after each of these festivals ; also
Whitsunday, and six days after; together
with Trinity Sunday. Beside these five
proper prefaces, the Sarum Missal had one
for Epiphany and seven days after, one for
Ash Wednesday and ferial days in Lent,
¦one for festivals of apostles or evangelists,
and one for the festivals of the Blessed
Virgin. The Trinity preface was used on
all the Sundays after Trinity, and at every
wedding celebration. With regard to our
proper prefaces, that for the Nativity is
derived from a coUect in the Sacramentary
of Gelasius for the day before; that for
Easter occurs in the same Sacramentary, is
found in the monuments of the early
English Church, and so in all the English
liturgies anterior to the Reformation ; the
preface for Ascension is Gregorian, and has
been used by the English Church for above
1200 years ; that for Pentecost is entirely
remodelled, but based on an ancient Gallican
form ; and that for Trinity is taken from
the Sacramentary of Gelasius (Sacramentar.
48 Gelasii ; Murat. Lit. Rom. i. 494 ; Sacra
ment. Greg. Menard, p. 75 ; Murat. u. 67,
85 : Mabillon, de Lit. Gall. p. 269 ; Miss.
Sar. fol. lxxiv. lxxv.). In 1549 the prefa
tory part of the Anthem, " Therefore with
angels, and archangels," &c, was divided
from the Hymn " Holy, Holy, Holy," Sec,
itself, and the direction was given that the
"Clerks should sing" the latter; in this
following the ancient custom which gave
the hymn itself to the people. The rubric
was afterwards changed. One rubric says
here shall follow " Therefore with angels,"

PREFACES

607

Sec, and another " After each of which
prefaces shall immediately be sung or said :
Therefore with angels," &c. That it was
the custom for the people or choir to join in
at the words " Holy, Holy, Holy," is beyond
question; and the musical services at the
time of the Reformation show this ; Tallis,
Marbecke, and other composers of that time
having arranged, not the whole anthem, but
the hymn only to music. Palmer remarks
that " the repetition by the people of the
portion of the Preface, beginning 'Therefore
with angels,' never was the custom of the
primitive Church, and could not have been
intended by those who revised our liturgy,
nor is it warranted by the nature of the
Preface itself. It has perhaps," he adds,
" arisen from the custom of printing the
latter part of the Preface in connexion with
the hymn Tersanctus, and from the in
distinctness of the rubric, which, in fact,
gives no special direction for tbe people to
join in repeating the hymn Tersanctus."
—Palmer's Orig. Liturg. ii. 122, 129 (See
Tersanctus). "The choral communion services, and
the one of Durham, all agree in beginning
the hymn at the words, " Holy, Holy, Holy,"
&c. The rubric merely says, " After each
of which Prefaces shall immediately be sung
or said ; " it does not say by whom. The
direction is as indeterminate as that of the
Litany, which, like the passage in question,
is sung distributively between minister and
people in sequence." — Jebb's Choral Service,
p. 505 ; see also Wheatly, vi. sec. xviii. ;
Procter, 347 ; Bp. Barry, 144, a. [H.]
PREFACES TO THE BOOK OF COM
MON PRAYER. These are three in num
ber (i.) That which stands first and is
styled "The Preface " is chronologically the
latest, having been composed at the last
review, a.d. 1661, by Dr. Sanderson, bishop
of Lincoln. Its main purport is to exhibit
the principles upon which the Prayer Book
had been already revised from time to time,
and to explain the causes and effects of the
final revision then just completed, (ii.) The
second, entitled " Concerning the Service of
the Church," was the Preface from 1549 to
1661. It is supposed to have been written
by Cranmer, and is based in a great measure
upon the Preface to the Reformed Breviary
of Cardinal Quinonez published by autho
rity of Pope Clement VII. in 1535. It
treats mainly of the great importance of the
daily reading of the Scriptures, and saying or
singing the Psalms in the service of the
Church, and of the ways in which the
original intention of the Church in this
respect had been defeated, (iii.) A third,
entitled " Of Ceremonies," &c, is also at
tributed to Cranmer, and was placed at the
end of the Prayer Book of 1549 and followed

608

PREMONSTRATENSES

by certain rubrics and remarks. These
were dropped in 1552, and the treatise on
ceremonies was the first after the Preface.
Its object is to defend the principles on
which the Reformers had remodelled the
ceremon ial of the Church. Some ceremonies
were good and to be retained ; some origi-
, nally good had become abused and were to
be modified; others intrinsically bad were
to be abolished. [H.]
PRELATE (prelatus, from pref 'ero ; one
placed above another). An ecclesiastic
having jurisdiction over other ecclesiastics.
The title, though applicable to bishops, is
not confined to their order. Before the
Reformation abbots were styled prelates.
Archdeacons are prelates in this sense of the
word (See Episcopacy ; Bishop).
PRELECTOR. A Lecturer. In the
cathedral of Hereford, one of the preben
daries is elected to the office of Prelector,
,to hold it till he succeeds to a residentiary
canonry, for which he is statutably con
sidered to have a claim to be a candidate.
His duty is to preach on Tuesdays, or else
on any holiday which may occur during the
week for a considerable portion of the year.
PREMONSTRATENSES (Lat). In
French, Premontres. A religious order,
founded by Norbert, bom about a.d. 1080,
and descended from a noble family in the
diocese of Cologne. He was educated suit
ably to" his quality, and lived for some time
at the emperor Henry the Fifth's court.
At about thirty years of age he was ordained
deacon and priest ; and, soon after, entering
upon a very strict and mortified way of
living, he resigned his church preferments,
and distributed a large patrimonial estate
to the poor. Then' he embraced the rule of
St. Augustine, and retiring with thirteen
companions to a place called Premonstratum,
or Premontre, a secluded and marshy valley
in the forest of Coney, he there began his
order, about the year 1119. This ground,
with the chapel of St. John Baptist, was
given to Norbert by the bishop of Laon,
with' the approbation of Louis le Gros, king
of France, who gave the Premonstratenses a
charter of privileges. The place was sup
posed by some to have been caUed Premon
stratum, because the Blessed Virgin herself
foreshowed (praemonstravit) this place for
the principal house of the order in a vision
and at the same time commanded them to
wear a white habit, but the name seems to
have existed before the foundation of the
monastery, and the ' legend was probably
invented to account for it.
The canons of this order were, at first, so
poor that they had nothing they could caU
their own but one poor ass, which served
them to carry wood, which they cut down
every morning and sent to Laon, where it

PRESANCTIFIED
was sold to purchase bread. But in a short
time they received so many donations, and
built so many monasteries, that, thirty
years after the foundation of this order, they
had above one hundred abbeys in France
and Germany.
The popes and kings of France have
granted . many privileges, and been very
liberal, to the Premonstratenses. Besides
a great number of saints, who have been
canonized, this order has had several per
sons of distinguished birth, who have been
contented with the humble condition of lay-
brothers: as, Guy, earl of Brienne; Godfrey,
earl of Namur, Sec It has likewise given'
the Church a great number of archbishops
and bishops. The founder was canonized
by Gregory XIII. in 1582.
The order of Premonstratenses increased so
greatly, that it had monasteries in aU parts
of Christendom, amounting to 1000 abbeys,
300 provostships, a vast number of priories,
and 500 nunneries. These were divided
into 30 cyrcaries or provinces. But this
number of houses is greatly diminished;
for, of 65 abbeys it had in Italy, there is
not one remaining at present ; not to
mention the loss of all their monasteries in
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, England, Scot
land, and Ireland.
These religious, vulgarly called White
Canons, came first into England in the 12th
century, where their first monastery, called
New House, was built in Lincolnshire, a.d.
1143, by Peter de Golsa or Goulsa, and de
dicated to St. Mary and St. Martialis, but
the Abbey of Welbeck in Nottinghamshire,-
founded in 1153, became the chief house of
the Order. In the reign of Edward I., when
that king granted his protection to the mon
asteries, the Premonstratenses had twenty-
seven houses in this kingdom. — Stubbs'
Mosheim, vol. ii. p. 122.
PREROGATIVE COURT. The Pre
rogative Court of the archbishops of Canter
bury and Armagh was that court wherein aU
testaments were proved, and all administra
tions granted, when a party dying within ,
the province had bona notabilia in some
other diocese than where he dies ; and was so-
caUed from having a prerogative throughout
the whole province for the said purposes
(See Canons 92, 93, &c). But all that was
abolished by the new Probate Act in 1857.
PRESANCTIFIED. It was an early
custom to abstain from celebration of Holy
Communion on Good Friday. A portion of
the bread consecrated on the previous day, .
Maundy-Thursday, was reserved for the
communion on the Friday, and the wine used
was unconsecrated. This was called the
Mass of the Presanctified (Missa Presancti-
ficatorum). The idea evidently was that
the Eucharist is a feast, and therefore not

PRESBYTER
to be celebrated in its entirety on a fast day.
The Council of Laodicea (Can. 49) states
that bread ought not to be offered during
Lent, except on the Sabbath, and the Lord's
day. The Council in TruUo, a.d. 692, orders
the use of the rite of the Presanctified every
day in Lent, except on Saturday, the Lord's
day, and the feast of the Annunciation (Can.
52). On this rite there has been much con
troversy between ritualists of the Eastern and
Western Church, into which it is not ne
cessary here to enter except to state that in
the Eastern Church this service is observed
all Lent long, except Saturdays and Sundays,
and the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin,
which, being festivals, are exempt from
fasting; the Greeks being of opinion that
the whole Communion service is not to be
celebrated on fasting days. Upon this
account they charge the Latin Church with
breach of the canons, because they celebrate
the Eucharist in Lent as they do the rest of
the year, Good Friday excepted. That day
the liturgy of the Presanctified is offered in
the Latin Church ; the priest then conse
crating neither bread nor wine, but making
use of the bread which was consecrated the
day before, and communicating only under
one kind ; for the wine he receives is only
for oblation, being unconsecrated. The
Greeks do the same thing, from whence we
may conclude that they communicate only
in one kind during Lent, the wine that
they then receive being not consecrated.
In the Church of England there is no such
rite as that of the "presanctified," and the
appointment of a special epistle and gospel
for Good Friday would seem to indicate
that a Celebration on that day was intended.
Bishop Andrewes, in his sermons on the
Passion, speaks in such a way that there is
no doubt that Celebrations on Good Friday
in his time were usual. At all events the
Church of England has declared decisively
against the uncatholic idea of communion
by the priest alone. — Bona, Rer. Liturg.
1, 15, 5 ; Leo Allatius, de Eccl. Occ. et Or.
Perpetua Consensione ad fin. ; Neale's Hist.
of East. Church, pt. i. c. vii. ; Blunt's P. B. i.
p. 101. [H.]
PRESBYTER (See Bishop, Deacon,
Priest, Orders, Clergy). The name 7rpeo--
Bvrepos (elder) is a word borrowed from the
Greek translation of the Old Testament,
which commonly signifies a ruler or go
vernor, being, as St. Jerome observes, a name
of office, not a mere indication of a man's
age; for elders were chosen, not for their
age, but for their merits and wisdom. So
that, as a senator among the Romans, and
an alderman in our own language, signifies
a person of a certain order and station with
out any regard to age, as the etymology of
the term would indicate ; in like manner a

PRESBYTER

609

presbyter or elder in the Christian Church
is one who is ordained to a certain office, and
authorised by his quality, not his age, to
discharge the several duties of that office and
station in which he is placed. In this large
and extensive sense, bishops were sometimes
called presbyters in the New Testament, for
the apostles themselves did not refuse that
title. On the other hand, it is clear that
presbyters were sometimes called bishops, in
the general sense of overseers or rulers (see
Acts xx. 17 & 28, Philipp. i. 1), while bishops
who were properly such were distinguished
by other titles, as that of chief priests,
apostles, Sec. Bingham shows, however,
that those who maintained the identity of
the names did not thence infer identity of
offices, but always esteemed bishops and
presbyters to be distinct officers (Antiq.
bk. ii. c. 3).
We do not know the exact period at which
the apostles first ordained presbyters. We
do not read of their existence before a.d.
43, when the disciples at Antioch sent their
collections to the presbyters of Judaea.
About a.d. 56, St. Paul sent for "the
presbyters of the church" of Ephesus (Acts
xx. 17) ; and we afterwards read of bishops
or presbyters at Philippi (Philipp. i. 1) ; and
the directions to Timothy (1 Tim. ii. and
v.), and Titus (Tit. i. 5), for their ordina
tion in every city ; the exhortation of St.
Peter to " the presbyters ; " and of St. James
(v. 14), "is any one sick among you, let
him send for the presbyters of the church ; "
suffice to prove the general ordination of
presbyters by the apostles.
The office of presbyters, like that of
bishops, consisted in "feeding the Church
of God," and overseeing it ; exhorting and
convincing the gainsayers by sound doctrine.
Being invested with the power of teaching,
they also possessed authority in controversies.
The Church of Antioch sent to Jerusalem to
consult the apostles and "presbyters" on
the question of circumcision (Acts xv.); and
we find afterwards that heretics were some
times condemned by the judgment of pres
byters, as well as by bishops in councUs.
They possessed in their degree the power of
remitting or retaining sins by absolution,
and by spiritual censures. They must,
even at the beginning, have had the power
of baptizing and celebrating the Eucharist,
of performing other rites, and offering up
public prayers in the absence of the apostles,
or by their permission ; and the institution
of bishops in every Church by the apostles
only restrained the ordinary exercise of
these powers. We know in particular from
St. James, that presbyters had authority, to
visit the sick and offer prayers, anointing
them with oU for the recovery of their
health. From the time of the apostles, the
2b

610

PRESBYTERIANS

office of public teaching in the Church, and
of administering the sacraments, was always
performed by the bishop or presbyter, unless
in cases of great necessity. The power of
ipiritual jurisdiction in each Church, of
regulating its affairs generally, and especiaUy
its discipline, was shared by the bishop with
the presbyters, who also instructed and ad
monished the people in private. The pres
byters sat on seats or thrones at the east end
of the church, and the bishop on a higher
throne in the midst of them. In some
churches they laid their hands with the
bishops on the head of those who were or
dained presbyters, and in others administered
confirmation. The wealth and temporal power of
bishops during the middle ages may have
induced some of the ignorant to suppose
that presbyters were exceedingly inferior to
bishops; but the Catholic Church, which
sees with the eye of faith, as she acknow
ledges the same sacred dignity of the priest
hood in every bishop, whether oppressed
with extreme poverty, or whether invested
with princely dignity and wealth, also views
the greatness and the sanctity of the office
of presbyter as little inferior to those even of
the chief pastors who succeeded the apostles ;
and the Church has never flourished more,
nor has the episcopate ever been held in
truer reverence, than under the guidance of
those apostolical prelates who, like St.
Cyprian, resolved to do nothing without the
consent of the clergy, and who have sedu
lously avoided even the appearance of
"being lords over God's heritage." The
spirit of a genuine Christianity wiU lead the
presbyters to reverence and obey the
bishops as their fathers; and wiU induce
bishops to esteem the presbyters as fellow-
workers together with them, and brethren
in Jesus Christ. — Bingham, ii. 3 : viii. 6 :
xii. 2 ; Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii. p. 246 ;
Walcott's Ordinal, lvi.
The word presbyter was substituted for
priest in the Scotch liturgy, compUed by
Laud in the reign of King Charles I., in
1637 ; which never came into use.
PRESBYTERIANS. A Protestant sect,
which maintains that there is no order in
the Church superior to presbyters, and on
that account has separated from the Catholic
Church. It was founded by Calvin, who
established the system at Geneva, a.d.
1541 . In a modified form it was introduced
into Scotland, under the influence of John
Knox, in 1560. The Geneva form was
brought in by Andrew Melville in 1592;
and this sect is now established by law in
Scotland, where there nevertheless exists a
national branch of the Catholic Church,
under canonical bishops (See Church in
Scotland).

PRESBYTERIANS
The following statement is taken from
the Registrar's return :
" The Scottish Kirk adopts the Confession,
Catechism, and Directory prepared by the
Westminster Assembly as its standards of
belief and worship. Its discipline is ad
ministered by a series of four courts or
assemblies, (l) The Kirk Session is the
lowest court, and is composed of . the
minister of a parish and a variable number
of lay elders, appointed from time to time
by the session itself. (2) The Presbytery
consists of representatives from a certain
number of contiguous parishes, associated
together in one district. The representa- '
tives are the ministers of all such parishes
and one lay elder from each. This assembly
has the power of ordaining ministers and
licensing probationers to preach, before then-
ordination : it also investigates charges re
specting the conduct of members, approves
of new communicants, and pronounces ex
communication against offenders. An ap
peal, however, lies to the next superior
court; viz. (3) The Provincial Synod;
which comprises several presbyteries, and is
constituted by the ministers and elders by
whom these presbyteries themselves were
last composed. (4) The General Assembly
is the highest court, and is composed of
representatives (ministers and elders) from
the presbyteries, royal burghs, and universi- .
ties of Scotland, to the number (at present)
of 363 ; of which number rather more thau
two-fifths are laymen.
"The National Church of Scotland has •
three presbyteries in England ; that of
London, containing five congregations, —
that of Liverpool and Mancliester, contain
ing three congregations, — and that of the
North of England, containing eight con
gregations. "Various considerable secessions have
from time to time occurred in Scotland
from the National Church, of bodies which,
while holding Presbyterian sentiments, dis
sent from the particular mode in which
they are developed by the Established Kirk,
especially protesting against the mode in
which Church patronage is administered
and against the undue interference of the
civil power. The principal of these seced
ing bodies are, — the ' United Presbyterian
Church,' and the ' Free Church of Scotland : '
the former being an amalgamation (effected
in 1847) of the ' Secession Church ' (which
separated in 1732) with the ' Relief Synod '
(which seceded in 1752); and the latter
having been constituted in 1843.
" The ' United Presbyterian Church' has _
five presbyteries in England, containing <
seventy-six congregations ; of which, how
ever, fourteen are locally in Scotland,
leaving the number locally in England 62.

PRESBYTERIUM
" The ' Free Church of Scotland ' has no
ramifications, under that name, in England ;
but various Presbyterian congregations
which accord in all respects with that
community, and which, before the disrup
tion of 1843, were in union with the Estab
lished Kirk, compose a separate Presby
terian body under the appellation of the
* Presbyterian Church in England,' having,
in this portion of Great Britain, seven
presbyteries and eighty-three congrega
tions." PRESBYTERIUM, or PRESBYTERY.
The space in collegiate and large churches
. between the easternmost stalls of the choir
and the altar. As the word implies, it was
.the place assigned for the bishop and pres
byters, and none else wero admitted to it. —
Ducange, s. v.
PRESENCE (See Real Presence).
PRESENTATION (see Patron and
Benefice) is the offering of a clerk to the
bishop by a patron of the benefice. It
differs from nomination in this, that while
presentation signifies the offering a clerk
to the bishop for institution, nomination
signifies offering a clerk to the patron in
order that he may be presented.
PRIEST (See Orders, Ordinations,
JPresbyter, Sacrifice, and Absolution). The
word "priest" is evidently derived from
¦"presbyter." Our ancestors, the Saxons,
first used preoster : whence, by further
contraction, came preste and priest. The
High and Low Dutch have priester ; the
French, prester [now contracted into pre-
tre] ; the Italian prete ; but the Spaniard
¦only speaks full, presbytero.
The English word priest, although de
rived from presbyter, an elder, corresponds
more closely in meaning with the Greek
and Latin words Upevs, sacerdos, which are
•derived from words that signify holy : and
so the word priest signifies him whose charge
-and function is about holy things; aud
therefore seems to be a most proper name
for him who is set apart to the holy public
..service and worship of God, especially
when he is in the actual ministration of
holy things. If it is objected that, ac
cording to the usual acceptation of the
word, it signifies him that offers up a sa
crifice, and therefore cannot be allowed to
. a minister of the gospel, who has no sa
crifice to offer, it is answered, that the
ministers of the gospel have sacrifices to
offer (1 St. Pet. ii. 5) ; " Ye are built up a
. spiritual house, an holy priesthood, to offer
up spiritual sacrifices" of prayer, praises,
thanksgiving, &c. In respect of these, the
ministers of the gospel may safely, in a
metaphorical sense, be called priests ; and
in a more eminent manner than other Chris-
.tians, because they are taken from among

PRIEST

Cll

men to offer up these spiritual sacrifices for
others. But besides these spiritual sacri
fices mentioned, the ministers of the gospel
have another sacrifice to offer, viz. the ',' un
bloody sacrifice," as it was anciently called,
the commemorative sacrifice of the blood of
Christ, which does as really and truly show
forth the death of Christ, as those sacrifices
under the law did ; and in respect of this
sacrifice of the Eucharist, the ancients have
usually called those that offer it up, priests.
— Fludyer's Comm.
That it might not be doubted by whom
the form of absolution may be pronounced,
the rubric expressly informs us that it is
the priest who officiates. By priest, in
Church language, is understood a person
who is advanced in the ecclesiastical orders
to the dignity of a presbyter ; and no
person, in any age of the Church, who was
under this degree, did ever pretend, as
of right, to pronounce absolution. The
penitentiaries, in the ancient and more
modern ages of the Church, were always of
this degree. It was adopted into an axiom
in the canon law, " ejus est absolvere cujus
est ligare." No one could pronounce ab
solution but he who had power to excom
municate. In the body of that law, absolu
tions of aU kinds are reserved either to
presbyters or bishops ; and in our provincial
constitutions it is strictly enjoined, "de
poenitentia praxipimus quod diaconi pceni-
tentias dare non presumant," unless the
priest be away when a man is dying. —
Lyndwood. Our Church, in the last review
of the liturgy, has chosen to put in the
word priest instead of minister (which was
in King Edward VI.'s Second Book, and in
Queen Elizabeth's), to the end that no one
might pretend to pronounce this but one in
priest's orders ; being sensible that some
bold innovations have been made herein, by
reason of some persons misunderstanding or
misapplying the word minister. But the
first compilers of the Common Prayer under
stood the same by minister as we do now
by priest, that being the general acceptation
of the word at that time. The compilers of
the Second Book of Edward VI. (in which
the Confession and Absolution were first
inserted) put into the rubric, " to be pro
nounced by the minister " (or priest) " alone,"
to avoid the imputation which the Papists
had charged some of the reformed with, for
permitting absolution to be pronounced by
persons not of this order. For in the pro
vincial Council of Sens, a.d. 1528, which
was before that of Trent, and twenty years
before the compiling our Common Prayer,
we find the Prostestants found fault with for
affirming, that laics and women among them
might pronounce special absolution ; which
indeed was Luther's opinion, but only so (as
2r>2 •'

612

PRIEST

Chemnitius explains it) that in case of ex
treme necessity they might use it; which
doctrine he had from the Papists themselves.
— NichoUs, Comm. of Common Prayer:
note to Evening Service. It is more prob
able that the "alone" meant without the
congregation, who had been saying the
Confession. But the universal practice is
sufficient to establish the other interpreta
tion now.
In the diocese of Alexandria, the privilege
of giving absolution to great criminals and
' scandalous offenders was reserved to the
' patriarch ; as appears in the case of Lam-
ponianus, an excommunicated presbyter.
"He expressed his repentance with tears,"
said Theophilus the patriarch, "and the
people interceded for him, yet I refused to
absolve him ; only assuring this, that if he
should be in manifest danger of death, any
presbyter should receive him into com
munion by my order." And in general, in
the primitive Church, tbe granting absolu
tion to reconcUe penitents, was the bishop's
sole prerogative, and rarely committed to
presbyters ; but never to deacons, except in
cases of extreme necessity, when neither
bishop nor presbyter was at hand. — Bing
ham, ii. 17 ; Tillem. Mem. xii. 546.
The privUege was also allowed in times
of persecution, to martyrs and confessors in
prison ; but then they always signified what
they had done to the bishop (See Cave's
Prim. Cliurch).
At the last review of the Common Prayer
Book, a.d. 1661, the Presbyterian divines
requested that " as the word minister, and
not priest or curate, is used in the Ab
solution, and in divers other places, it may
throughout the whole book be so used,
instead of those two words." To which the
Episcopalian commissioners replied, that
" it is not reasonable the word minister
should be only used in the liturgy. For
since some parts of the liturgy, may be
performed by a deacon, and others, such as
absolution and consecration, by none under
the order of a priest, it is fit that some such
word as priest should be used for those
offices, and not minister, which signifies at
large every one that ministers in that holy
office, of what order soever he be." Ac
cordingly the word "priest," in its exclusive
sense, and in contradistinction to the word
deacon, was inserted, and the sense of the
Church of England on this subject, ascer
tained through the objection made by the
Presbyterian divines, was adopted and rati
fied by the act of parliament.
In the primitive Church, the deacons
were ranked among the " sacred orders ; "
and though their office has not always been
so accurately denned as that of the pres
byters, or priests, yet in the Church of

PRIMATE
England they are to most purposes con
sidered as an inferior degree of " the priest
hood." Their duties are laid down in the
office of " the Form and Manner of making
Deacons ; " and, " for the resolution of all
doubts," the preface to the Book of Com
mon Prayer has wisely directed, that " the
parties that so doubt, or diversely take
anything, shall always resort to the bishop
of the diocese, who by his discretion shall
take order for the quieting and appeasing of
the same ; so that the same order he not
contrary to anything contained in this
book." PRIEST'S INTENTION (See Inten
tion). PRIMATE (See Archbishop; Metro
politan; Patriarch). In the Christian hier
archy, or scheme of Church government,
Primates are such bishops of a province as
preside over the rest.
I. Some derive the original of primates or
metropolitans from apostolical constitution.
But it may be doubted whether the apostles
made any such general settlement in every
province ; and the records of the original of
most churches being lost, it can never be
proved that they did. It is most probable
that this order of bishops commenced not
long after the apostolic age, when sects and
schisms began to break in apace, and con
troversies multiplying between particular
bishops, it was found necessary to pitch
upon one in every province, to whom the
decision of cases might be referred, and hy
whom all common and public affairs might
be dfrected. Or, it might take its rise from
that common respect and deference which
was usually paid by the rest of the bishops
to the bishop of the metropolis, or capital!
city, of each province : which, advancing
into a custom, was afterwards settled by a
canon of the Council of Nice. — Cone. Nic.
c. 6. The offices and privileges of primates or
metropolitans were as follows. (1) They
were to regulate the elections of all their
provincial bishops, and either ordain or
authorise the ordination of them: and no
election or ordination of bishops was valid
without their approbation. Nor was this
power at all infringed by setting up the
patriarchs above them. For, though the
metropoUtans were to be ordained by the
patriarchs, yet still the right of ordaining-
their own suffragans was preserved to them.
It is to be observed, that this power was not
arbitrary : for the primates had no negative
voice in the matter, but were to be deter
mined and concluded by the major part of a
provincial synod. — Cone. Nic. c. 6; Cone.
Laod. c 12 ; Cone. Chalced. c. 16.
(2) They had to preside over the provincial
bishops, and, if any controversies arose

PRIMATE
among them, to interpose their authority to
«nd and decide them: also to hear the
accusations of others, who complained of
injury done to them by their own bishops,
from whom there was always liberty of
appeal to the metropolitan. But still there
lay an appeal from the metropolitan to a
provincial synod, of which he was only the
president or moderator. — Cone. Milev. c. 21;
Cone. Carth. 3, can. 7 ; Cod. Just. lib. i. 4,
0,29. (8) It was their duty to call provincial
synods, and preside in them. To this end
their circular letters, called Synodie and
Tractor ie were a legal summons, which no
bishop of the province might disobey under
pain of suspension, or other canonical cen
sure, at the discretion of the metropolitan
and council. — Cone. Nic. c. 3 ; Cone. An
tioch. c. 20, &c.
(4) It belonged to the primates to publish
and disperse such imperial laws and canons,
as were made either by the emperors or the
councils, for tbe common good of the Church.
This gave them a right to visit, and inquire
into neglects, abuses, and disorders, com
mitted by any bishop throughout the whole
province. — Justin. Novel. 6, 42 ; Cone. An
tioch. c. 9.
(5) Bishops, when they travelled into
foreign countries on extraordinary occasions,
¦used to consult the primate, aud take his
Formate, or letters of commendation. This
was particularly required of the African
bishops by the third Council of Carthage. —
Cone. Carth. 3, c. 28.
(6) Primates were to take care of all
vacant sees within their province, by ad
ministering the affairs of the Church, secur
ing the revenues of the bishopric, and
procuring a speedy election of a new. bishop.
-t-Conc. Carth. 5, c. 8.
(7) It belonged to the metropolitans
yearly to review the calculation of the time
of Easter, and give notice to their suffragans
of it. St. Ambrose did this for the province
of MUan, and the bishop of Carthage for
that of Africa. — Ambrose, Ep. 83; Cone
Carth. 3. c. 1. The care of composing the
oycle was, indeed, by the Nicene Fathers
particularly committed to the bishop of
Alexandria. But due care not being always
taken in this matter, the metropolitan in
every province was concerned to settle the
time, and acquaint the whole province with
it. II. The primate of Alexandria was the
greatest metropolitan in tbe world, both for
the absoluteness of his power, and the
¦extent of his jurisdiction. For he was not
metropolitan of a single province, but of all
the provinces of Egypt, Libya, and Penta-
-polis, in which there were at least six
large provinces, out of which above an

PRIME

613

hundred bishops were called to a provincial
synod. Besides an actual primacy of power, there
was likewise a primacy of honour ; that is,
some bishops had the name and title of
primates, but not the jurisdiction. Of these
there were three sorts. (1) The senior
bishops in each province, next to the metro
politan. These primates had no power
above others, except when the metropolitans
were some way disabled, or disqualified for
discharging their office, by irregularity or
suspension. In this case, their power de
volved on the senior bishop of the pro
vince. (2) Another sort of honorary primates
were the titular metropolitans, or bishops of
such cities as had the name and title of
metropolis bestowed on them by some
emperor, without the privileges, which were
still continued to the ancient metropolis of
the province. Of this sort were the cities
of Chalcedon and Nice.
(3) Some bishops were honoured with
the title of primates, in regard to the
eminency of their see, being some mother-
church, or particularly honoured by ancient
prescription. This was the case of the
bishop of Jerusalem, in consideration of its
being the mother-church of the Christian
world. — Cone. Nic. can. 7 ; Bingham, ii. c. 16.
III. The division of England into two
provinces, Canterbury and York, occasioned
the introduction of primacies among us.
Canterbury, which was the original metro
polis, gives to its bishop the title of Primate
of all England ; York, only that of Primate
of England. Accordingly, the former has
some jurisdiction over all England, which
the latter has only in his own province.
(See Archbishop.)
The archbishop of Armagh is primate
of all Ireland ; of Dublin, that of Ireland.
Until the suppression of some of the Irish
sees in 1833, the archbishop of Cashel
was primate of Munster ; of Tuam, primate
of Connaught. The archbishop of St. An
drew's was primate of Scotland. Now a
Primus is elected by the other bishops on a
vacancy. The archbishop of Reims is
primate of France; of Rouen, primate of
Normandy ; of Lyons, primate of Gaul ; of
Toledo, primate of Spain, &c.
PRIME (Lat. primus ) : the first hour
of the day, i.e. 6 a.m. Amongst many
early writers Tertullian speaks of the opening
and close of each day as the chief times of
prayer, though between them the 3rd, 6th,
and 9th, or " Apostolic hours," are to be ob
served (De Orat ix. 26). St. Cyprian also
says, "besides the hours of ancient time
observed. . . in the morning, we must pray "
(De Orat. Dom. xxii.); and the so-called
Apostolic Constitutions lay down the rule :

614

PRIMER

"Offer prayers — in the morning giving
thanks that the Lord has sent you light,
that He has brought you past the night,
and brought on the day" (viii. 34). Of
what the office for prime consisted in the
primitive times no account has been handed
down. The first authoritative form is that
of St. Benedict (a.d. 530) ; but there can be
no doubt that he grounded his service on
older forms (See Freeman's Prin. Div.
Serv. i. 65, 106). [H.]
PRIMER (See Prymer).
PRIMICERIUS, defined by Suicer as " qui
in prima ceril haeres scriptus," one who is
designated as the principal heir ; that is to
say, the head of an ecclesiastical corporation.
Ducange defines the officer as "primus in
ceram relatus," i.e. the first on the wax
tablet or roll (s. v.). Hence it came to
signify one who presided over any particular
department ; the chief notary, for instance,
was called irpippiKrjpios vorapiav : and so the
chief reader, the chief chanter, &c, in great
churches. Gregory the Great thus uses the
word, directing the property of a vacant see
to be entrusted for safe keeping to the
deacon and the primicerius of the notaries
(Epist iii. 22). It is the title of a dignitary
in several Italian cathedrals, and is sup
posed to answer to our chancellor ; a name
not used in Italy as that of a cathedral
officer. In 1226 the precentor of York was
addressed as primicerius by Honorius HI.
(Walcott, Sac. Arch. p. 470). The pre
centor of Aberdeen cathedral was anciently
called Primicerius, as Kennedy states in his
Annals of Aberdeen.
PRIMITIVE CHURCH (See Tradi
tion). The Church as it existed in the ages
immediately after its first establishment.
From its near connexion with the apostles
and other inspired men, the primitive
Church enjoyed many advantages, of which,
at later periods, it was deprived. To the
earliest ages we naturally look for illustra
tions of obscurities in the New Testament,
for evidence and testimony of matter of
fact, for sound interpretations of doctrine,
for proofs of the efficacy of the gospel, and
for examples of undaunted Christian hero
ism. Hence the value we are accustomed
to attach to the writings which have come
down to us from the first three centuries
after Christ ; and this value is considerably
enhanced by the fervour, the beauty, and
the surpassing eloquence which adorned the
Church in that early day, and in the ages
following. We may give an instance in
the case of infant baptism, which one sect
of Christians of the present day deny to be
requisite. The primitive Church held
quite a different view. In the Holy Scrip
tures we read of whole households being
baptized, which is indirect testimony as to

PRIORY
the baptizing of infants. Our Lord's own
words with regard to little children being
brought to Him, is a strong testimony to
the reception of infants in the Church ; and
this was realized in tbe primitive Church.
Justin Martyr (a.d. 148) writes that in his
time there were many who had been made
disciples of Christ from their infancy; and
Irenaeus (a.d. 170) speaks clearly of "infants
and little children " being born anew to God
in Holy Baptism (adv. Heres. ii. 22, al. 38).'
St. Cyprian (a.d. 250) also wrote an epistle
to the effect that no infant was too young to
be baptized (Ep. lxiv.) ; and St. Augustine is
explicit about this matter (Aug. Serrh. 174,
176, &c). On such matters we refer to the
usages of the primitive Church, and these
were familiarly known to the Reformers of
the Church of England ; and, having taken
the primitive Church as their model, and as
the best witness of Catholic principles and
usages, they transfused its spirit, not only'
into the liturgy, but into the whole frame
work and superstructure of that venerable
fabric they aimed to restore. How well
they succeeded is evidenced in that fear
less appeal which Catholics ever make, first
to the Apostolic Church, then to those who.
drew their principles from it along with-
their infant breath, and flourished and died
in an age when inspiration itself was
scarcely extinct. That Church has nothing
to dread which can lay its standards on the
altar of antiquity, and return them to her
bosom, signed with the glorious testimony
of a Polycarp, an Ignatius, a Clement, and/
a " noble army of martyrs ; " nothing has
she to dread but the possibility of de
clension, and unfaithfulness to her sacred
trust. PRIOR (See Monk). The head or
superior of a convent of monks where there
was no abbot. Where there was one the
prior was the next person after the abbot.
PRIORY (See Monastery). A house
occupied by a society of monks or nuns;.
the chief of whom was termed a prior or
prioress ; and of these there were two sorts r
first, where the prior was chosen by tho
convent, and governed as independently
as any abbot in his abbey ; such were the
cathedral priors, and most of those of the
Augustine order. Secondly, where the
priory was a cell subordinate to some great
abbey, and the prior was placed or dis
placed at the will of the abbot. But
there was a considerable difference in the
regulation of these cells; for some were
altogether subject to their respective ab
bots, who sent what officers and monks
they pleased, and took their revenues into
the, common stock of the abbeys; whilst
others consisted of a stated number of
monks, under a prior sent to them- from-

PRISCA, ST.
the superior abbey, and those priories
paid a pension yearly, as an acknowledg
ment of their subjection, but acted in
other matters as independent bodies, and
had the rest of their revenues for their own
use. The priories or cells were always of
the same order as the abbeys on which
they depended, though sometimes their
inmates were of a different sex ; it being
usual, after the Norman Conquest, for the
great abbeys to build nunneries on some
of their manors, which should be subject
to their visitation.
Alien priories were ceUs or smaU re
ligious houses in our country, dependent
on large foreign monasteries. They were
established by Archbishop Robert a.d.
1051. When manors or tithes were given
to distant religious houses, the monks, either
to increase the authority of their own order,
or perhaps rather to have faithful stewards
of their revenues, built convenient houses
for the reception of small fraternities of their
body, who were deputed to reside at and
govern those cells (See Hook's Arch
bishops, i. 498 : iv. 488: vi. 62).
PRISCA, ST. Commemorated in, our
Calendar on January 13. The legend is that
she was thrown to the lions in the amphithea-
tre,but that they did not harm her, crouching
down at her feet. She was then beheaded,
and an eagle hovered over her lifeless form,
till she was laid in her grave. She is
therefore represented in ancient pictures
with a sword in her hand, a lion crouching at
her feet, and an eagle hovering above her
head. [H.]
PRISCILLIANISTS. Certain heretics
whose founder was PriscilUan, a Spaniard
of noble extraction, very wealthy, and
endued with much wit, learning, and elo
quence. Mark, an Egyptian .heretic, hav
ing sown the errors of Gnosticism in Gaul,
went into Spain, where carnal pleasure,
which was the principal article of his doc
trine, procured him quickly a great many
disciples, the chief whereof was PriscilUan,
who covered his vanity under the appear
ance of a profound humihty. He taught,
besides the abominations of the Gnostics,
that the soul was of the same substance
with God, and that, descending to the
earth, through seven heavens, and certain
other degrees of principality, it fell into,
the hands of the evU one, who put it into
the body, which he made to consist of
twelve parts, over each of which presided
a celestial sign. He condemned the eat
ing of the flesh of animals, and marriage
as an unlawful copulation, and separated
women from their husbands without their
consent ; and, according to his doctrine,
man's will was subject to the power of tho
stars. He confounded the holy persons in

PRIVATE BAPTISM

615

the Trinity, like Sabellius, ordered his
followers to fast on Sundays and Christmas
Day, because he believed Christ had not
taken true flesh upon Him. Lying, a most
abominable vice, and so contrary to the
God of truth, was a thing tolerated amongst
his followers. There was a volume com
posed by them called Libra, because that in
the twelve questions in it, as in twelve
ounces, their whole doctrine was explained.
PriscilUan broached his heresy in the fourth
century. He was put to death, with some
of his followers, at Treves, in 385, by
order of the usurper Maximus, contrary to
the earnest instance of St. Martin, bishop
of Tours. This was the first instance of
the infliction of death for heresy, and at the
time excited universal horror among Chris
tians. St. Ambrose refused to communi
cate with the bishops who had taken part
in it, and a synod at Turin excommunicated
them. — Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 314 ; Newman's
Fleury, bk. xviii. 29, note.
PRIVATE BAPTISM. In the ancient
manuals of the Church of England, the
rubrics simply ordered that in cases of ex
treme danger the words " in the Name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost " should be used, with aspersion of
the water. Other prayers were not en
joined. By a canon of iElfric (a.d. 957),
children, if sick, were to be brought to the
priest, who was to baptize them from what
district soever they were brought. The
Council of Winchester (1071) and the Con
stitutions of Othobon (1268) order that an
infant, if in danger, shall be baptized on the
day of its birth. The vessel used in private
baptism was by Langton's Constitutions
(a.d. 1223) to be carried to the church, and
not be used for any common purpose. Ac
cording to Edmund's Constitutions (1236)
it was to be large enough to allow of im
mersion, and might afterwards be deputed
" to the use of the church," which Lynd
wood explains "for washing the church
linen." The water that had been used was
to be thrown into the fire, or carried to the
church, and placed in the font.
In the Prayer Book of 1549 the person
baptizing was directed to " call upon God
for His grace ; and say the Lord's Prayer, if
the time suffice." In 1661 Bishop Cosin
suggested an addition, namely, that after
calling upon God, and the recital of the
Lord's Prayer, " so many of the collects
appointed to be said before in the form of
Public Baptism, as the time and exigence
will suffer," shall be used. As the rubric
now stands it is evident that the service is
left to the discretion of the minister, so long
as he uses the words of our Lord, together
with the pouring of water in the name of
the Trinity. — Hook's Archbishops, i. 443 ;

616

PRIVY COUNCIL

Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 472 (See Baptism,
Lay Baptism). [IL]
PRIVY COUNCIL JUDGMENTS
(See Delegates). A collection of the eccle
siastical judgments of the Privy Council, with
a preface by Archbishop Tait, was published
by Brodrick and Fremantle in 1865. [H.]
PROCESSION OF THE HOLY
GHOST. As the Father is eternal, with
out beginning, so is the Son without begin
ning, the only begotten, God of God, Light
of light, being very God of very God : in
like manner the Holy Ghost, without be-
gining, has proceeded from the Father and
the Son. This is one of the mysteries which
must be always incomprehensible, from our
inability to comprehend an eternity a parte
ante. In all discussions relating to these
subjects, we may quote to the objector the
wise words of Gregory Nazianzen : " Do you
tell me how the Father is unbegotten, and
I will then attempt to tell you how the
Son is begotten and the Spirit proceeds."
We will first give the doctrine as stated
in the Articles and Creed, and then give
from Dr. Hey the history of the controversy
which has long subsisted between the East
ern and the Western Church.
Of the Holy Ghost the fifth article says,
"The Holy Ghost, proceeding from the
Father and the Son, is of one substance,
majesty, and glory, with the Father and the
Son, very and eternal God."
The same doctrine is declared in the
Nicene and Athanasian Creeds.
In the Nicene Creed :
" I believe in the Holy Ghost, who pro-
ceedeth from the Father and the Son."
In the Athanasian Creed :
" The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of
the Son, neither made nor created nor be
gotten, but proceeding."
In the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries,
various disputes took place with the fol
lowers of Macedonius with respect to the
nature and procession of the Holy Ghost.
It may be particularly mentioned," with a
view to what followed, that so soon as the
years 430 and 431, in the Councils of Alex
andria and Ephesus, it was declared that
the Holy Ghost proceedeth from the Son as
well as from the Father. In order to termi
nate these disputes, the Church in general
made a sort of settlement or determination
what should be accounted Catholic doctrine ;
and, to avoid further adjustings of formu
laries, agreed that nothing should from that
time be added to those then under consider
ation. It is probable that, at that time, the
question whether the Holy Ghost should be
spoken of as proceeding from the Father
and the Son (Filioque is the famous word)
did not occur to men's minds. Filioque
was not in the creeds, though it was not

PROCESSION
new. The students in the Western Church
seem ere long to have contracted an opinion,
that it was proper for them to profess in a
creed, that the Holy Ghost proceedeth from
the Son ; they, therefore, inserted (or, one
might say, restored) Filioque at the Council
of Toledo (a.d. 589) ; and the Eastern
Church thought as little of complaining as
the Western of offending. Afterwards, how
ever, contentions for worldly grandeur pro
duced contentions about theological truth.
Rome and Constantinople were rivals, not
only for imperial but for spiritual pre
eminence. The patriarch of Constantinople
styled himself Episcopus GScumenicus.
Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, was
more lowly in the title he assumed ; he was
" servus servorum " scilicet Dei ; but in his
pretensions to authority he was equally am
bitious. The patriarch was at the head of
the Eastern Church, the pope of the West
ern. This rivalship made the Churches
seek occasions for blaming each other, and
thus the insertion of Filioque came to be
complained of as a breach of faith. It was
defended by tbe Western Church, because
the word contained right doctrine : this was
enough to make the Eastern Church dispute
the doctrine : they did so, and the dispute
still subsists, and still causes a separation
between the Eastern and Western Churches.-
One pope (Leo III., a.d. 809) did once, for
the sake of peace, order Filioque to be put
out of the creed, at the same time ratifying
the doctrine which it comprehends ; but he
could only prevail in those churches which
were under his immediate sanction, and that
only for a time. The obstinate resistance
of the Greek or Eastern Church to the in
sertion of Filioque is the more likely to be
owing to some worldly consideration, as
several of the Greek Fathers have the doc
trine in their works clearly expressed.
Among the most important passages of Holy
Scripture bearing on the subject may be
mentioned Rom. viii. 9 ; 1 St. Pet. i. 11 ;
Gal. iv. 6 ; St. John xv. 26 (See Holy
Ghost; Filioque; Creed).
PROCESSION (procedere): a going
forth, used in the first instance generally for
going to any meeting, and then especially
for going to a religious service. In the
latter sense Tertullian uses it, speaking
of a modest " going to church " (processio)
and an united congregation (De Present.
Her. 43). Public processions seem to have
been in vogue in the time of St. Basil, and
of St. Ambrose, the latter speaking of
psalms being sung by the priests as they
went to the celebration of a feast (Bas.
Epist 207, ad Neoc. : Ambr. Epist ; 40, ad
Theodos.). But the most celebrated were
those begun at Constantinople by St. Chry
sostom. The Arians^ of that city being

PROCESSION
forced to hold their meetings without the
town, went thither night and morning, sing
ing anthems. Chrysostom, to prevent their
perverting the Catholics, set up counter-
processions, in which the clergy and people
marched by night, singing prayers and
hymns, and carrying crosses and flambeaux
{Sozom. E. H. viii. 8 ; Stephens' Life of Si.
John Chrysostom, p. 236). It was forbidden
that processions should be celebrated with
out the clergy (Justin. Novell. 123). From
this period, the custom of processions was
introduced among the Greeks, and after
wards among the Latins; but they have
subsisted longer, and been more frequently
used, in the Western than in the Eastern
Church. On special occasions they were
carried out with great pomp and solemnity,
as in the case of laying the first stone of a
church, or at the dedication of a church
(Justin. Novell. 67). There were in the
early and middle ages processions before the
service, before the reading of the gospel,
after the reading of the gospel, and at the
end of the service (Ordo Romanus, i. 8 :
in Mus. Ital. ii. 8: i. 21: ii. 15, &c).
But there was of course much variation in
different places. The usual order in cathe
drals was first the verger, then the cross-
bearer, attended on either side by acolyths
carrying candlesticks and lighted tapers;
then the thurifers, or censer-bearers, the
chanters, or priest vicars in copes, the sub
deacon, deacon and celebrant, the choir
boys and lay vicars, or clerks of the second
grade, the praecentor, the subchanter (pre-
chantre), the succentor of vicars (sous-
chantre), and last the bishop with his staff
borne before him. Processions were made
with litanies and prayers (see Litany ; Roga
tion Days), (i.) for the prosperity of the
sovereign ; (ii.) the welfare of the nation ;
(iii). pureness of air, and relief from disease;
(iv.) the increase of the fruits of the earth.
Arrangements were made for particular
processions in cathedrals and abbeys. At
Canterbury there Were two parallel lines, and
at Fountains, Lincoln, Chichester, and York
two rows of circular processional stones
placed at proper intervals, to shew where
the procession was to be arranged. On Ash-
Wednesday, Palm Sunday, and Easter-day
there were special processions. At Durham
" upon Sancte Mark's daie, after Easter, the
prior with the monncks had a solemne pro
cession, and went to the Bowe church with
their procession" (Rites of the Church of
Durham, p. 87). Similar customs on
certain days are mentioned by different
county historians ; as for instance, at Kin-
nersley, and Wellington, where on Easter
Monday the parishioners, joining hand in
hand, surrounded the church, and touched
it together — which was called "clipping

PROCESSIONALE

617

the church.'' At Wolverhampton the prac
tice of walking in procession on rogation
days, the children bearing poles dressed
with flowers, and the clergy chanting the
Benedicite, only ceased in 1765, and in
sundry other places has not ceased yet,
except as to the chanting. Superstitious
usages sprang up in connexion with pro
cessions, such as carrying about relics or
the consecrated elements for tho people to
adore (see Article xxv.), which still are
observed in foreign countries. — Bingham,
xiii. ; Maskell, Mon. Rit. i. exxvi. : ii.
322; Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 475; Diet.
Christ. Ant 1716. [H.]
PROCESSIONAL CROSSES : used pro
bably as early as the 4th century. They
are mentioned by Durand in the Life of St.
Porphyry, and by Baronius under the year
401. The empress Eudoxia supplied the
church with silver crosses which were
carried before the people (Soc. H E. vi. c.
8 ; Soz. viii. c. 8). By the laws of Justi
nian it was expressly provided that such
crosses should not be kept in any place but
the church, and that only those persons
properly appointed should carry them
(Justin. Novell. 123). In England orders
were given with regard to their use at the
Council of Clovesho in 747. The custom
appears to have been to carry a cross of
wood painted red in Lent, of crystal or
beryl at other times. At Durham the chief
cross was of gold with a silver staff, and
that used on ordinary days of crystal. At
Chichester the aumbry, or closet, for tbe
crosses still remains. No doubt many pro
cessional crosses were destroyed or got rid of
at the dissolution of the monasteries, in the
course of the Reformation, and during the
Rebellion. What was probably the pro
cessional cross of the Cistercian Abbey of
Old Cleeve, Somerset, was found in a farm
house in 1878. It is of brass with a
very small figure of our Lord upon it;
and it had been evidently richly jewelled.
It is of a well-known type ; there are three
or four of them at South Kensington,
and one at least at the British Museum.
They are typical English work of about
the middle of the 15th century, such as
doubtless every parish church possessed.
They are interesting because of the rarity
of English pre-Reformation ecclesiastical
ornaments. " In processions," said Cran
mer, " we follow the cross of our Saviour,
professing ourselves, as true Christian people,
ready to bear our cross with Christ,
willingly to suffer all troubles and afflictions
laid upon us for the love and cause of our
Saviour, as He suffered for us." — Palmer's
Orig. Liturg. i. 265 ; Walcott's Sac. Arch.
476 ; Diet Christ. Ant [H.]
PROCESSIONALE : a book containino-

618

PROCTOR

offices and directions for litanies and pro
cessions (Ducange, Gloss.). It was a well-
known book, and we find it often in the
old inventories (see for account Maskell,
Mon. Rit. i. cxxiii.), [H.]
PROCTOR (Lat., Procurator). I. Proc
tors are officers estabUshed to represent, in
judicial proceedings, the parties who em
power them (by warrant under their hands,
called a proxy) to appear for them to ex
plain their rights, to manage their cause,
and to demand judgment (See Ducange,
Gloss). The holding of the office of " pro
curator " by the clergy was much discouraged
in the early times. St. Augustine wrote
against it (De Op. Monarch, c. 15), and
St. Jerome asks how the clergy, who are
supposed to have renounced all care for
their temporal possessions, can undertake to
be procurators and dispensers of the estates
of others (Ep. ad Nepot. c. 16). Several
councils also prohibited the clergy from
taking part in secular matters, .as the first
council of Carthage, a.d. 348 (cc. 8, 9) ; the
third of the same place which prohibited any
clergy from being " procuratores," or being
entangled in any secular affairs (c. 15) ;
the Council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451 (c. 3),
which laid down the same rule, with the
exception, however, of any business imposed
upon the clergy by law, or given to them
by the bishop, or on behalf of widows and
orphans. Later councils, however, allowed
the clergy to act as proctors or advocates in
certain cases. In England, from the Con
quest till the 15th century the great majority
of lawyers or proctors in all the courts of
justice were in holy orders (Hook's Arch
bishops, v. 173).
II. The representatives of the clergy in
convocation are also called proctors. Deans
and archdeacons are " ex officio " members ;
besides them two proctors are appointed
from each diocese by the votes of the clergy
(See Official Year-book of the Church of
England, 1886, p. 288 : Convocation).
III. The same name is given to university
officers, whose business is to guard the
morals and preserve the quiet of the uni
versity at Oxford and Cambridge ; to pre
sent candidates in arts and music for their
degrees ; and (formerly in a more special
manner than at present) to superintend
their public exercises. The latter is now
the prominent practice of the proctors in
the University of Dublin : the senior proc
tor presiding at the Master's exercises, the
junior at the Bachelors'. They are two in
number, and chosen annuaUy by the several
colleges in cycle.
IV. Procurators were officers in some of
the ancient universities of Europe, as in
Paris; they were then four in number,
elected annually, each by one of the four

PROFESSOR
n dtions into which the students were divided i
and the rector, the deans of divinity, law,
medicine, and the four proctors, formed the
standing council of the university : some
what analogous to the caput at Cambridge.
The deans were the proctors of their
respective faculties. Anciently the Uni
versity of Oxford was divided into two
" nations," as they might be called, each of,
which was represented by a proctor. [H.]
PROCURATION. A pecuniary sum or
composition by an incumbent to an ordin
ary or other ecclesiastical judge, to commute
for the provision, or entertainment,- which
he was formerly expected to provide for
such ordinary at the time of visitation. (See
Synodal.) PROFESSION OF FAITH (I.) made
at baptism. The minister asks, "Dost
thou believe in God the Father," &c, re
hearsing the articles of belief; and the
answer is required, " All this I stedfastly
believe." Though the Creed was not com
mitted to writing in his time, Tertullian
refers to the profession (de Coron. iii.), and
the profession of Palmatius, who was baptized
about a.d. 220, is extant : — " Credis, in toto
corde, in Deum Patrem Omnipotentem, Fac-
torem omnium visibilium et invisibilium?
Respondit Palmatius. Credo. Et in Jesum
Christum Filium ejus ? et ait. Credo," and so
ontill"et carnisresurrectionem? Exclamavit
cumlacrymis Palmatius : Credo " (Heurtley's
Harmonia Symbolica, p. 106). St. Cyril
says that this profession of faith was made
towards the East (Catecli. Lect. xix. 9). In
the Gelasian Sacramentary, in the Salisbury
Use, and the first English book, there were
three several questions on the Creed ; which
were put together in the Prayer Book of 1552
(Blunt's Annot P. B. ii. 222 ; Mozley, On
Baptism). II. In the Office for the Visitation of the
Sick, a profession of faith is asked from the
sick person. In the ancient English office
many questions were asked. Mr. Maskell
gives a form of examination from a MS.
(No. 117, fol. 123&) in the library of St.
John's College, Oxford, and with this may
be compared others, for instance Harleian
MS. 211, 237 (Mon. Bit. Eccl. Ang. iii.
414). The form prescribed in the Church
of England is simple, being based solely on
the Creed.
PROFESSOR. I. One who makes open
declaration of his feeUngs or opinions ; par
ticularly, one who makes a public avowal
of his belief in the Scriptures and his faith
in Christ, and thus unites himself to the
visible Church.
II. One that publicly teaches any science
or branch of learning in an university, college
or seminary under a royal charter, whose
business is to read lectures or to instruct

PROPHECY
students in a particular branch of learning ;
as a professor of Theology, or Mathematics,
&c. [H.]
PROPER LESSONS (See Lessons; Lec
tionary). In the Prayer Book of 1549, when
the revised system of daily and proper
lessons was established, there were no proper
lessons assigned for ordinary Sundays, the
books of Holy Scripture being read continu
ously as on week-days. At the restoration
of the use of the Prayer Book in 1559 the
Tables of Proper Lessons were introduced,
and they were altered into their present form
in 1870. All the changes in 1661 were
written in the margin of Bishop Cosin's
Durham Prayer Book. [H.]
PROPER PSALMS. The use of these
is of great antiquity. St. Augustine says
that Ps. xxii. was always read on Good
Friday in the African Church. There were,
however, no proper psalms assigned for
Good Friday or Ash- Wednesday in the
Prayer Book of 1549, but only for the four
great festivals. The others were added in
1661. [H]
PROPHECY (irpocpvTeico) : UteraUy a
speaking for God. The declaration of a
divine message ; and so secondarily the power
of foretelling (see Scripture, Inspiration of;
Miracles). As the divine message often re
lated to future events, the word came to be
commonly used as equivalent to prediction,
but this meaning is not necessarily involved
in the word itself (1 Tim. i. 18 : iv. 14). The
lesson which is now ordinarily designated
the " Epistle," was in early times often
called the "Apostle" or the "Prophecy,"
because the words were taken either from
the Apostolic writings, or the prophets
(Tertull. de Prescr. Her. c. 36 ; Menard.
Sacram. Gregorii, p. 2 ; Lit. Chrysos. Goar,
p. 68). The lections from the prophetical
writings read and sung by the deacon
and choir on Easter Eve, which was a relic
of Scriptural instruction given to catechu
mens on the day in the early Church,
were caUed "prophecies." — Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. U. 42. [H.]
PROPHESYINGS. ReUgious exercises of
certain of the clergy in the reign of Queen
EUzabeth, instituted for the purpose of
promoting knowledge and piety. The
ministers of a particular division at a set
time met together in some church of a
market or other large town, and there each
in order explained, according totheir abilities
or ideas, some portion of Scripture aUotted
to them before. This done, a moderator
made his observations on what head been
said, and determined the true sense of the
place, a certain space of time being fixed for
despatching the whole. Whatever may be
thought of the proceeding itself, it was ill
adapted for the time. Controversial subjects

PROPITIATION

619-

were continually introduced, disputations
on various matters took place, the authority
of the Church, the lawfulness of Episcopacy
was caUed in question, and division was
protracted. The queen desired the arch
bishop, Parker, to suppress the meetings,
which he endeavoured to do. But they
continued, and Grindal afterwards refused
to suppress them, as he thought the evils
might be corrected, and tbe abuses guarded
against. He besought the queen to refer
" all these ecclesiastical matters which touch
religion, or the doctrine and discipline of the
Church, unto the bishops and divines of
your realm, according to the example of all
godly Christian emperors and princes of all
ages." Prophesyings were forbidden by the
72nd canon of 1603 (See Hook's Arch
bishops, ix. 411 : x. 94). [H.]
PROPHET (irpocpypi) : strictly one who
speaks for another, especially in heathen
writers ; one who speaks for a God, and
interprets His will to man whether it relates
to the present or the future (Pind. N. 1, 91 ;
iEsch. Eum. 19, &c). In this sense it is.
used in the Scriptures, the " schools of the
prophets " being places where persons were
trained in the interpretation of the law of
God ; and in the same way St. Paul uses it.
(Eph. iv. 11).
Our idea of a seer, or one who foreteUs
future events, is a secondary meaning of the
word. The original idea is rather that
of a forthtellei than a foreteller. We-
have in the Old Testament the writings
of sixteen prophets ; that is, of four
greater prophets, and twelve lesser pro
phets. The four greater prophets are,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The
Jews do not place Daniel among the pro
phets, because (they say) he lived in the
splendour of temporal dignities, and a kind
of Ufe different from other prophets. The
twelve lesser prophets are, Hosea, Joel,
Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum,,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
and Malachi. [H.]
PROPITIATION (See Covenant of
Redemption, Sacrifice, Atonement, Satis
faction, Jesus). Propitiation is originaUy
a Latin word, and signifies the appeasing of
the wrath of God, or doing something
whereby He may be rendered propitious,
kind, or merciful, to us, notwithstanding
that we have provoked Him to anger by any
sin or offence committed against Him. The
Greek word IXao-pos is plainly used by the
LXX. for the Hebrew riNtan (Ezek. xliv. 27),
and as a propitiatory sacrifice, referring to our
Blessed Lord, it is used by St. John (1 St.
John ii. 2 : iv. 10). The word evidently
implies a sacrifice or offering made to God
for the sins of men, which He is pleased
to accept as a sufficient atonement and

_0

PROPROCTORS

satisfaction for the dishonour and injm-y
that was done Him by them, so as not to
require the punishments which were due,
but to forgive them all, and to become again
as kind and propitious to the persons that
offended Him as if He had never been of
fended by them. This offering is Christ
Himself, Who is " the propitiation for our
sins." PROPROCTORS. Two assistants of
the proctors in the universities nominated
by tbem.
PROSA. In singing the Alleluia after
the Epistle, a custom which is said by
Gregory the Great to have been introduced
by Damasus (Greg. Mag. Epist ad Johan.
Syracus. lib. x. Epist. 12), it became a
common use to prolong the last syllable
upon a number of notes. Words in rhyth
mical prose were afterwards arranged to
these notes, and later metrical hymns, and
these were called prose. In the eighth
century, Notker, abbot of St. Gall, in
Switzerland, composed several of these
prose, otherwise called sequentie, which
were sung after the Gradual (Bona, Rer.
Liturg. lib. ii. c. 6). Pope Nicolas I. first
authorised their use. They soon became
very numerous, and often very ridiculous,
and were retrenched by the Council of
Cologne in 1536, and of Reims in 1564.
The " Veni Creator Spiritus," appointed by
Pope Innocent for Whitsuntide ; " Lauda
Sion Salvatorem,'. written either by Bona-
ventura or St. T. Aquinas ; " Dies Ir®, dies
3.11a ; " and the "Stabat Mater," said to be
.the composition of Innocent III., are the
ibest known prosae. The pros® were used
an England before the Reformation (Miss.
&r. fol. 11, 12, &c), but in consequence of
erroneous ideas contained in most of them,
they were altogether omitted by the revisers
of our Liturgy. — Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii.
49 ; Burney's Hist. Music ; Diet Christ.
Antiq. [H.]
¦ PROSTRATION (See Genuflexion).
PROTESTANT. The designation of
Protestant is used in England as a general
term to denote all who protest against
Popery. Such, however, was neither the
original acceptation of the word, nor is it
the sense in which it is still applied on the
Continent. It was originally given to those
who protested against a certain decree
issued by the emperor Charles V. and the
Diet of Spires in 1529.— Stubbs' Mosheim,
iii. 126.
On the Continent it is applied as a term
to distinguish the Lutheran communions.
'The Lutherans are called Protestants ; the
Calvinists, the Reformed. The use of the
word among ourselves in a sense different
from that adopted by our neighbours
abroad, has sometimes led to curious mis-

PROTESTANT
takes. The late Mr. Canning, for instance,
in his zeal to support the Romanists, and
not being sufficiently well instructed in
the principles of the Church of England,
assumed it as if it were an indisputable
fact, that, being Protestants, we must hold
the doctrine of consubstantiation. Having
consulted, probably, some foreign history
of Protestantism, he found that one of the
tenets which distinguishes the " Protestant,"
i.e. the Lutheran, from the "Reformed,"
i.e. the Calvinist, is that the former main
tains, the latter denies, the dogma of con-
substantiation. It is evident that in our application of the
word it is a mere term of negation. If a
man says that he is a Protestant, he only
tells us that he is not a Romanist ; at the
same time he may be — what is worse — a
Socinian, or even an infidel, for these are all
united under the common principle of pro
testing against Popery. But the word is
universally understood to mean a Christian
of some kind. The appellation is not
given to us, as far as the writer knows,
in any of our formularies, and has chiefly
been employed in political warfare as a
watchword to rally in one band all who,
whatever may be their religious differences,
are prepared to act politically against the
aggressions of the Romanists. In this
respect it was particularly useful at the
time of the Revolution; and, as politics
intrude themselves into all the considera
tions of an Englishman, either directly or
indirectly, the term is endeared to a power
ful and influential party in the State. But
on the very ground that it thus keeps out
of view distinguishing and vital principles,
and unites in apparent agreement those
who essentially differ, many of our divines
object to the use of the word. They con
tend, with good reason, that it is quite
absurd to speak of tbe Protestant religion,
since a religion must, of course, be dis
tinguished, not by what it renounces, but
by what it professes : they apprehend that
it has occasioned a kind of sceptical habit
of inquiring, not how much we ought to
believe, but how much we may refuse to
believe; of looking at what is negative
instead of what is positive in our religion ;
of fearing to inquire after the truth, lest it
should lead to something which is held by
the Papists in common with ourselves, and
which, therefore, as some persons seem to
argue, no sound Protestant can hold ; for
getting that on this principle we ought to
renounce the liturgy, the sacraments, the
doctrine of the Trinity, the Divinity and
atonement of Christ — nay, the very Bible
itself. It is on these grounds that some
writers have scrupled to use the word ; but
although it is certainly .absurd to speak of

PROTHESIS
the Protestant religion, i.e. a negative re
ligion, yet there is no absurdity in speaking
of the Church of England or of the Church
of America as a Protestant Church; the
word Church conveys a positive idea, and
there can be no reason why we should not
have also a negative appellation. If we admit
that the Church of Rome is a true, though, as
we think, a corrupt Church, it is well to have
a term by which we may always declare
that, while we hold in common with her all
that she has which is Catholic, scriptural,
and pure, we protest for ever against her
multiplied corruptions. Besides, the word,
whether correctly or not, is in general use,
and is in a certain sense applicable to the
Church of England. It is surely therefore
better to retain it, only with this under
standing, that, when we call ourselves
Protestants, we mean no more to profess
that we hold communion with all parties
who are so styled, than the Church of Eng
land, when, in her creeds and formularies,
she designates herself, not as the Protestant,
but as the Catholic Church of this country,
intends to hold communion with those
Catholic Churches abroad which have in
fused into their system the principles of the
Council of Trent. Protestant is our nega
tive, Catholic our definitive name. We teU
the Papist that, with respect to him, we
are Protestant ; we tell the Protestant"
Dissenter that, with respect to him, we are
Catholic ; and we may be called Protestant
or Protesting Catholics, or, as some of our
writers describe us, Anglo-Catholics (See
Hook's Archbishops, vi. 27 : ix. 61, 265,
note). PROTHESIS. The place in a church
on which the elements in the Eucharist
are placed, previously to their being laid
as an oblation on the altar. Called also
credence (q. v.). The word prothesis (irpo8ia-is)
is derived from the temple service, in which
the placing of the shewbread was called
f) irpodems tS>v aprav, and the bread itself,
oi apToi ttjs irpodio-eas, i.e. the loaves set
in order before the Lord. The prothesis or
credence table is placed at the north or left
side of the altar as one faces it (which is
sometimes called the " right " side, being
at the priest's right hand), and on it the
priest arranges and prepares what is ne
cessary for the service of the altar (Suicer,
Tliesaurus, p. 842). That this was its
position in the early times, most writers
agree, though some hold a different opinion,
as Renaudot (Lit. Orient i. 188, Paris ed.).
Perhaps it differed in different churches.
On this see Bingham, Antiq. viii., vi. 22 ;
Beveridge, Annot in Can. Cone. Nic. ; Diet
Christ. Antiq. 1740.
PROTHONOTARY : lit. the first of the
notaries or scribes. This hybrid word had

PROVERBS

621

a different signification in the Greek Church
from what it had in the Latin. The officer
is mentioned by Socrates as irpwroo-rd-rnv
Tov Bao~iXiKuv iiiroypatpiav (H. E. vii. 23).
Afterwards his office was enlarged. He
became very important : was empowered
to have an inspection over the professors of
the law, into purchases, wills, and the
liberty given to slaves : read the gospel on
Palm Sunday : took precedence of the five
great dignitaries of the Greek Church
(Exocatacoeli), ranking thus next to the
patriarch (Goar, Euchol. 132, 270, 276,
277). In the Latin Church those were for
merly called prothonotaries who had the
especial charge of writing the acts of the
martyrs, and the circumstances of their
deaths. It was applied by Hadrian, a.d.
772, to the chancellor of the emperor, and
afterwards became the word used to denote
the Papal officers. — Hard. Cone. iii. 2017 :
viii. 492.
PROTOPAPAS ; i.e. archpriest : the head
of a cathedralin the Eastern Church, answer
ing to our dean.
PROVERBS, THE. A canonical book
of the Old Testament, containing tbe Pro
verbs, or wise sayings, of Solomon, the son
of David, king of Israel.
This collection is but a part of the pro
verbs of that prince: for we are told that
"he spake three thousand proverbs, and
his songs were a thousand and five." His
name is prefixed to the whole work. In
the twenty-fifth chapter it is observed, that
the following proverbs belonged to him,
but that they were collected by persons
appointed by Hezekiah for that purpose.
The thirtieth chapter is entitled, "The
words of Agur, the son of Jakeh." The
last chapter is inscribed, " The words of
king Lemuel." From these different titles
it is concluded that the first twenty-four
chapters are the genuine work of Solo
mon ; that the five next are a collection of
several of his proverbs, made by order of
King Hezekiah; and that the two last
chapters were added, and belong to different,
though unknown, authors.
The Jews are of opinion that Solomon
wrote the Canticles in his youth, the Pro
verbs in his manhood, and the Ecclesiastes
in the hitter end of his life. The Hebrews
called this book WD, MisblS, taken from
the first word ; the Greeks style it ILapaBoXai,
and the Latins, Proverbia; which may
properly be rendered sentences or maxims.
They contain rules for the conduct of all
conditions of life ; for kings, courtiers,
masters, servants, fathers, mothers, children,
&c. The Greek version of this book is often
very different from the Hebrew, and adds a
great many verses that are not found in the
original. In the ancient Latin editions

«22

PROVIDENCE

several verses are added, which have been
left out since the time of St. Jerome (See
Speaker's Commentary ; Smith's Diet, of
Bible). PROVIDENCE. The superintendence
which God exercises over creation. In the
very notion of a Creator this power is implied.
The work of a creature may continue after
its author's death : because the work of a
creature does not depend upon him who was
the author of it, but upon some pre-existing
things which were not created by him, but
merely combined, and upon the laws of
nature, which are all laws of motion which
require constant maintenance. A house
survives the architect and builder, because
the pre-existing things, the stones for in
stance, and the mortar, remain in combi
nation. But the works of God are not only
combinations ; they are creations ; things
formed out of nothing. Even if we can
believe matter to be self-existent, its pro
perties or qualities all represent forces of
some kind, which require perpetual main
tenance, and therefore, Providence (See Sir
E. Beckett's Origin of Laws of Nature).
PROVINCE. The limits of an arch
bishop's jurisdiction, as the diocese is the
limits of the jurisdiction of a bishop : and
so provincial constitutions, provincial courts,
provincial synods, provincial canons, are the
canons, synods, courts, and constitutions,
which have authority within the rule of a
single archbishop (See Archbishop ; Bishop).
PROVISIONS. An oppressive invention
of the bishops of Rome, whereby the right
•of patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was
arbitrarily suspended by the pope, that he
might present his own creatures, and make
provision in the Church of England for
foreign ecclesiastics. This usurpation of
the pope occasioned much discontent in the
Church of England ; and at one time the
¦evil had become so intolerable, that it
occasioned frightful disturbances. The pope
.(Gregory IX.) had granted a provision on
the patronage of one Sir Robert Thwinge, a
YorksMre knight, who resented it so highly
as to associate with himself some eighty
others, who had received the like treatment,
by whom the persons of foreign ecclesiastics
were seized, and even the pope's envoys
murdered. The king, Henry III., set him
self to restore peace; and Thwinge, betaking
himself to Rome, was reconciled to the pope,
and recovered his right of patronage; and
the pope conceded that there should be in
future no provisions, except in benefices in
the patronage of ecclesiastical persons or
bodies. These he had usually found more
defenceless, and therefore over them he still
exercised his usurped authority. Papal
- provisions to English sees were very com
mon during the reigns of Edward I. and II.

PRYMER
In 1351, in the reign of Edward III., the
Statute of Provisors was passed, which
enacted that all persons receiving papal
provisions should be liable to imprisonment ;
and it was re-enacted in 1390. But it was
constantly evaded by a coUusion between
the kings and the popes ; and the practice
of provision was not extinguished till the
reign of Henry VII.
PROVOST. The designation of heads of
some colleges in our universities and of Eton.
It was also the title given to the heads of
several collegiate churches in England, sup
pressed at the Reformation, and was their
usual designation in Scotland, except in
cathedrals. In some foreign cathedrals the
head of the chapter is the provost, though
there is a dean besides ; and in others the dean
is head, the provost subordinate. The latter
was formerly the case in five out of the six
of the cathedrals in the province of Tuam :
the name is stiR retained in some ; in others
it has been exchanged for that of precentor.
Archdeacon Cotton, in his Fasti Ecciesie
Hibernie (part ii. 114), says that the title
answered to that of chancellor. This
observation seems strengthened by the fact
that the dignity of chancellor did not an
ciently exist in the province of Tuam.
MaiUane, in his Dictionnaire de Droit
Canonique, says that the provost had the
care of the temporals, the dean of the spiri
tuals ; that deans were established to take
care of the discipline of the church, and, in
many chapters, became in the course of time
the first in rank. In Holland and else
where, before the Reformation, the provost
was sometimes a kind of archdeacon.
PRYMER, or PRIMER (Latin, Pri-
marius) : a brief manual of devotion, and
elementary religious instruction. The
earlier Prymers contained (probably) merely
the Creed, Lord's Prayer, and Ten Com
mandments; the later ones were much
fuller. Vernacular Prymers exist which
were written as far back as the 14th century.
They contained the hours, the dirge, "the
seven and the fifteen psalms, the litany,
commendations, and other prayers. Mr.
Maskell gives an account of a Prymer which
was in his possession (now in the British
Museum) of tlie date 1410. Cambridge has
two of these early English Prymers, one in
the University library, of about the date of
1430, the other in the library of Emmanuel
College. In the Bodleian Library at Oxford
there are four— Douce, 246 and 275, Bodley,
85, and Bawlinson, 699 ; the two first being
of about date 1430, the last not earlier than
1460. The next Prymer seems to have been
that called the " Goodly Prymer," which
was issued in 1535.
This was an improved edition of the
former ones, and contains, among a great

PSALMODY
many other things, an exposition of the
Ten Commandments, and the Creed, and
the Offices for the Seven Hours, mainly
taken from the old offices ; but the invoca
tion of saints is omitted. In 1537 was
¦published the Institution of a Christian
Man, a still further advance. In 1539 ap
peared a Prymer by Hilsey, a Dominican
friar, afterwards bishop of Rochester, the
subject, though not the form, being much
the same as in the first-mentioned Prymer.
It contains an order for "bidding of the
beads " which is the basis of our " bidding
prayer " (q. v.). The Epistles and Gospels
•were to a certain extent re-arranged, and*
this alteration was followed by the Re
formers. In 1545 King Henry VIII.'s
Prymer appeared. The services for the
Hours in this formed the basis for all
future Prymers, and were much the same as
in Queen Elizabeth's of 1559. In Edward
VI.'s reign appeared, in 1547, a reprint of
Henry VIII.'s Prymer; in 1549, 1551,
1552, improved editions, with omissions
•of the superstitious invocations of the
Virgin Mary. Queen Elizabeth's first
Prymer, 1559, was a reprint of King Ed
ward's of 1551, or rather, 1552. The next,
in 1566, was altered a good deal from the
former. A second edition was published in
1575. All these had the services of the
Hours, besides litanies, and other prayers.
Some the catechism, some the penitential
psalms, &c. A Latin Form of Prayer,
like the Prymer, was published by autho
rity in 1560, and Preces Private, a dis
tinct, though similar publication, in 1564,
The last Prpmer which appeared (though
¦ not under that name) was Dr. (afterwards
Bp.) Cosin's " Collection of Private Devo
tions : in the practice of the ancient Church,
¦called the Hours of Prayer ; as they were
after this manner published by authority of
• Queen Elizabeth, 1560," &c. This was
published in 1627 by command of King
¦Charles I. (See Mr. Clay's edition of
Private Prayer, Sec, during the reign of
Elizabeth, edited for the Parker Society;
' Dr. ' Burton's Three Primers • Maskell's
Mon. Rit iii. xl. ; Annot. P. B. i. xxv. ;
E. Daniel, p. 16). [H]
PSALMODY. The art or act of singing
psalms. Psalmody was always esteemed a
considerable part of devotion, and is
mentioned by many early writers. The
disciples sang a hymn or psalm after the
last supper (St. Mark xiv. 26); and St.
Ignatius in his epistle to the Ephesians
plainly implies this custom on the part of
the early Christians. Justin Martyr, Origen
and others also refer to it ; and though the
word " hymns " is used, yet Tertullian speaks
¦of them as from Holy Scripture (Apol. 39),
evidently implying the Psalms ; though

PSALMS

623

hymns, according to our sense of the word,
were also used (See Hymns). After the
first three centuries the mention of psalmody
in the public service is frequent: and in
one council none other than passages from
Scripture were permitted (Cone. Brae. 1,
c. 12). It was usually performed standing
(St. Aug. Serm. iii. in Ps. xxxvi.); and,
generally in a sort of plain song, with slight
inflexions of the voice, which later became
more florid and elaborate.— Bingham, xiv.
1,14. St. Basil speaks of it thus : — " After the
confession the people rise from prayer, and
proceed to psalmody, dividing themselves
into two parts, and singing by turns
(Ep. 63). To this method of psalmody St.
Augustine refers when he speaks of the
introduction of singing " secundum morem
orientalium partium " (Conf. lib. ix. c. 7).
The practice of dividing the choir into two
sides, singing alternate verses, was introduced
into the Western Church at Milan by St.
Ambrose (See Ambrosian Rite). For the
three methods of singing the Psalms, see
Chant In the Gallican Church the history
of psalmody is given by Mabillon (de Cursu
Gallicano disquisitio), but what influence
the Gallican psalmody had in England it
is impossible to state. In a MS. in the
Cotton Library, Germanus and Lupus are
said to have brought the Gallican Cursus
(which would include psalmody) into the
British Churches (Collier, Eccl. Hist. i.
cent. v. p. 112). The use of the Gloria Patri
at the end of each, psalm was the rule in the
Gallican Church, as at present in the Angli
can. St. Augustine would probably intro
duce the Roman cursus ; and Bede speaks of
psalmody being much improved by John
the " archicantor " of St. Peter's, who was
sent here by Pope Agatho (Hist iv. 18) ;
but beyond this, little is known till later
times (See Music ; Chant). [H.]
PSALMS. Tlie Book of Hymns. Our
word Psalm is the translation of two very
different Hebrew words. The first DvrjPI
Tehillem, properly means praises, and is the
title of the book. The other, "liPtO,
Mizmor, means a poem, but is onlv found
in the headings of certain Psalms. Psalm is
derived from a Greek verb, tydXXa, which
means to play or sing to an instrument,
being very appropriate to these sacred songs,
which we know from Holy Scripture were
sung to harps, andothermusical instruments.
The Book of Psalms is a collection of hymns
or sacred songs in praise of God.'and consists
of poems of various kinds. They are the
production of different persons, but are
generally called "the Psalms of David,"
because a great part of them was composed
by him, and David himself is distinguished
by the name of the Psalmist. We cannot

624

PSALTER

now ascertain all the psalms written by
David, but their number probably exceeds
seventy. They are divided into (1) those
of the first period of his life (vii. xi. xii. xiii.
xvi. (?) xvii. xxii. xxiii. (?) xxxiv. xxxv.
Iii. liv. lvi. Ivii. lix. ; (2) those of the
2nd period, between his accession to the
throne and his great sin (viii. ix. x. xv. to
xxi. inclusive, xxiii. xxiv. xxvi. xxix. xxxvi.
Ixiii. Ix. lxviii. ci. c. viii. ex.) ; (3) those of
the 3rd period, from David's fall to his flight
(v. vi. xxxii. xxxviii. to xii. li. Iv. Ix. lxix.) ;
(4) those written probably at the time of
his flight or before his restoration (iii. iv.
xxvii. xxviii. xxxi. lxi. Ixiii. lxix. lxx. ,
cxliii.) ; (5) those belonging to the last period
of his reign. And much less are we able
to discover with any certainty the authors of
the other psalms, or the occasion upon which
they were composed ; a few of them were
written after the return from the Babylonian
captivity. And the ninetieth psalm, as its
title in the original in our Bible translation
shows, is attributed to Moses. The theory
that many, or even most of them were
written in the Maccabean age, upheld by
Olshausen and other commentators, is re
futed in the Speaker's Commentary (vol. iv.
p. 158). There is no subject upon which
learned men are so much at variance as the
authorship of the Psalms, and the meaning
of their titles. It is clear, however, that
they may be divided into the following
classes : Psalms of David ; Psalms or Songs
of the Sons of Korah ; Psalms of Asaph ,-
Songs of Degrees ; and again into Peni
tential Psalms, Hallelujah Psalms, and
Historical Psalms. [H.]
The whole collection of psalms, usually
divided into five books, is eminently pro
phetical of the MESSIAH. The first book
begins with the 1st and ends with the 41st
psalm, and the Hebrew word Le-David (of
or concerning David, or by David) occurs
before almost every psalm. The 2nd book
begins with the 42nd psalm, the 3rd with
the 73rd psalm, the 4th with the 90th
psalm, and is continued to the 106th. The
5th and last book opens with the 107th.
The seven penitential psalms are, 6, 32, 38,
51, 102, 130, 143. These are appointed to
be read in our Church on Ash- Wednesday.
For many ages they bad been used in the
Western churches in token of special humi
liation (See Alphabetical or Acrostical
Psalms, and Songs of Degrees ; Korah,
Psalms of; Asaph, Psalms of; and
Hallelujah). — Hengstenberg on the Psalms ;
Dean Perowne; Smith's Diet, of Bible;
Speaker's Commentary.
PSALTER. I. The word Psalter is often
used by ancient writers for the Book of
Psalms, considered as a separate book of
Holy Scripture. It afterwards assumed a

PSALTER
more technical meaning, as the book in
which the Psalms are arranged for the
service of the. Church. The Roman Psalter,
for instance, does not follow the course of
the Psalms as in Scripture; they are ar
ranged for the different services, in the
several accompaniments, as antiphons, &c.
In our Psalter, the notice of the divisions
for the days of the month, and the pointing
in the middle of each verse, are a part of
the Psalter, though not of the Psalms; and
some part of the Psalms unsuitable for reci
tation are omitted, as the titles, the words
Selah, Higgaion, Sec, and the Hallelujahs
with which many Psalms begin or end, or
both. The division of the Psalms into daily
portions, as given in our Prayer Books, has
been done with a view to convenience.
Something like this has long prevaUed in
the Church, but without its regularity and
system. Thus in Egypt at first, in some
places, they read 60 Psalms ; in others, 50 ;
and afterwards they all agreed to recite 12
only. Columbanus, in his rule, appointed
the number of Psalms to vary according to
tbe seasons of the year, and the length of
the nights; so that sometimes 75 were
sung. In the monasteries of Armenia they
repeat 99 Psalms to the present day. In
the Greek Church, the Psalms are divided
into cathismata, or portions, so that the
whole book is read through in a fortnight.
In the Western Church the plan which
prevailed from the 6th century down to the
Reformation provided for the Recitation of
the whole of the Psalms every week ; but
this arrangement was perpetually broken
into on the numerous festivals, and hence
many of the Psalms were never had at all.
That this existed in England may be seen
from the preface to the Prayer Book of 1549,
" now of later time a few of them have been
daily said, the rest omitted ; and it is the
case in the Church of Rome to this day.
Under the present arrangement the Psalms
are divided into 60 portions, two of which
are appointed for each day of the month.
Selections are also set forth by the Ameri
can Church, which may be used instead of
the regularly appointed portions.
II. The Psalter, properly speaking, is a
separate book from that of Common Prayer ;
though bound up in the same volume, and
equally subscribed to by all the clergy.
The title-page of the Prayer Book announces
the Book of Common Prayer, &c, &c,
together with the Psalter, &c. The Prayer
Book and the Psalter were not included in the
title-page till the last review. It is remark
able that the same causes have had the
same effects in influencing the translation
of the Psalter both in the Latin and the
English Church. In the former, the old
Italic translation, so called by St. Augustine

PSALTER
(De Doct. Christ, ii. 15), had become so
familiar to the people that St. Jerome's
translation from the Hebrew was never
adopted; but the old version, corrected
considerably by St. Jerome, was used. St.
Jerome left three versions ; which have been
caUed the Roman, the GaUican, and the
Hebrew. The Roman was merely the old
Italic version corrected (by request of St.
Damasus when St. Jerome was at Rome,
a.d. 383) ; this was used in the churches of
the city of Rome down to the 16th century,
and is stUl used in the church of the Vatican
and in St. Mark's, Venice. The Gallican
version was in the course of time adopted
by the whole Western Church, though it
was long before it superseded the "Old
Italic" version. It was translated from
Origen's edition of the LXX., by St. Jerome,
a.d. 389 ; was introduced into Germany and
Gaul either by Gregory of Tours, in the 6th
century ; or St. Boniface (the English apostle
of Germany) in the 8th. From France it
was brought over to England, where, how
ever, it did not supersede the older Italic
version till the revision of the offices by St.
Osmond, in the 12th century. Translations
into English were made, especiaUy in the
case of the fifty-two Psalms of the Prymer
(See Prymer). Wiclif prefixed to his
translation of the New Testament, the Old
Testament translated from the old Latin
version (See Bible). This was the basis
of other translations, and the present version
of the Prayer Book Psalter is that of Tyndal
and Coverdale, which was revised by Arch
bishop Cranmer and called the " Translation
of the Great English Bible, set forth and
used in the time of King Henry VIII., and
Edward VI." (See Preface to the Psalter in
the Prayer Book). This has ever since been
used; its smooth and melodious cadences
being better suited for musical purposes
than the more correct, but harsher au
thorized version. In the "Preface to the
Psalter" the words occur "followeth the
division of the Hebrews." There have been
three distinct arrangements of the Psalms:
the Hebrew foUowed in our Prayer Book:
the Greek in which Pss. ix. and x., cxiv.,
and cxv. are joined, and Pss. cxvi. and
cxlvii. are each divided into two, followed
in the GaUican version of St. Jerome ; and
the Syriac version, in which Pss. cxiv. and
cxv. are joined, and Ps. cxlvii. is divided.
In both the latter Psalters an apocryphal
psalm is included, which is rejected by
us. The Psalms are pointed as they are to be
said or sung in churches; by which is
meant the colon in the middle of each
verse, indicating the pause to be made, not
¦only in the chant, but also in the recitation,
as the words clearly imply; a direction

PUBLIC WORSHIP

625

commonly neglected by readers, to the
great prejudice of distinct enunciation.
The custom of repeating the Psalms
alternately, or verse by verse, between
the minister and the people, is probably
designed to supply the place of the ancient
antiphon, or the responsive chanting of the
psalms by two distinct choirs. This latter
practice is still retained in the cathedrals of
England, and is more primitive than the
alternate reading now prevailing in parish
churches. — Wheatly, 128; Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. i. 207: Introd. to Psalter; Blunt,
Annot. P. B. ; E. Daniel's P. B. For the
history of ancient Psalters see Dr. Swainson'S
article in Diet. Christ. Ant. ' [H.]
PUBLIC WORSHIP. The laws now in
force may be stated as follows : —
Article 20. " The Church hath power to
decree rites and ceremonies" that are not
" contrary to God's word." But that power
has long ceased in the Church of England,
except by Act of Parliament (See below as
to Act of Uniformity).
Article 34. "It is not necessary that
traditions and ceremonies be in all places
one or utterly like; for at all times they
have been divers, and may be changed
according to the diversity of countries,
times, and men's manners ; so that nothing
be ordained against God's word. Whoso
ever through his private judgment wil
lingly and purposely doth openly break the
traditions and ceremonies of the Church,
which be not repugnant to the word of God,
and be ordained and approved by common
authority, ought to be rebuked openly
(that others may fear to do the like), as he
that offends against the common order of
the Church, and hurts the authority of the
magistrate, and wounds the consciences of
weak brethren. Every particular or national
Church hath authority to ordain, change,
and abolish the ceremonies or rites of the
Church, ordained only by man's authority ;
so that aU things be done to edifying."
Canon 14. " The common Prayer shall be
said or sung distinctly and reverently, upon
such days as are appointed to be kept holy
by the Book of Common Prayer, and their
eves, and at convenient and usual times of
those days, and in such places of every
church as the bishop of the diocese or
ecclesiastical ordinary of the place shall
think meet for the largeness or straitness of
the same, so as the people may be most
edified. All ministers likewise shaU observe
the orders, rites, and ceremonies prescribed
in the Book of Common Prayer, as well in
reading the Holy Scriptures and saying of
prayers, as in administration of the sacra
ments, without either diminishing in regard
of preaching, or in any other respect" or
adding anything in the matter or form
2 s

626

PUBLIC WORSHIP

thereof." , This is included in the Act of
Uniformity. Canon 18. " No man shall cover his head
in the church or chapel in the time of
Divine service, except he have some in
firmity; in which case let him wear a night
cap, or coif. All manner of persons then
present shaU reverently kneel upon their
knees, when the general confession, Litany,
or other prayers are read ; and shall stand
up at the saying of the Belief, according to
the rules in that behalf prescribed in the
Book of Common Prayer. And likewise
when in time of Divine service the Lord
Jesus shall be mentioned, due and lowly
reverence shaU be done by all persons
present, as it hath been accustomed : testi
fying by these outward ceremonies and
gestures their inward .humility, Christian
resolution, and due acknowledgment that
the Lord Jesus Christ, the true eternal Son
of God, is the only Saviour of the world, in
whom alone all the mercies, graces, and
promises of God to mankind, for this life
and the life to come, are fully and wholly
comprised. And none, either man, woman,
or child, of what calling soever, shall be
otherwise at such times busied in the church
than in quiet attendance to hear, mark, and
understand that which is read, preached, or
ministered; saying in their due places
audibly with the minister the Confession,
the Lord's Prayer, and the Creed, and
making such other answers to the public
prayers as are appointed in the Book of
Common Prayer : neither shall they disturb
the service or sermon, by walking, or talk
ing, or any other way ; nor depart out of
the church during the time of Divine service
or sermon, without some urgent or reason
able cause.
And by the preface to the Book of Com
mon Prayer : " All priests and deacons are
to say daily the Morning and Evening
Prayer, either privately or openly, not being
let by sickness, or some other urgent cause.
And the curate that ministereth in every
parish church or chapel, being at home, and
not being otherwise reasonably hindered,
shaU say tbe same in the parish church or
chapel where he ministereth ; and shall
cause a bell to Re tolled thereunto, a con
venient time before he begin, that the
people may come to hear God's word, and to
pray with him."
By the 2 & 3 Edward VI. c. 1, and 1
Elizabeth, c. 2, which are kept alive in the
present Act of Uniformity, and applied to
the Prayer Book of 1662, it is enacted as
follows : " If any parson, vicar, or other
whatsoever minister, that ought or should
sing or say Common Prayer mentioned in
the same book, or minister the sacraments,
refuses to use the said Common Prayers, or

PUBLIC WORSHIP
to minister the sacraments in such cathedral
or parish church, or other places, as he
should use to minister the same in such
order and form as may be mentioned
and set forth in the said book ; or shall,
wilfully or obstinately standing in the
same, use any other rite, ceremony, order,
form, or manner of celebrating the Lord's
supper, openly or privily, or matins, even
song, administration of the sacraments,
or other open prayer, than is mentioned
and set forth in the said book; or shall
preach, declare, or speak anything in the
derogation or depraving the said book, or
anything therein contained, or of any part
thereof; and shaU be thereof lawfully
convicted, according to the laws of this
realm, by verdict of twelve men, or by his
own confession, or by the notorious evidence
of the fact, he shall forfeit to the king, for
his first offence, the profit of such one of
his spiritual benefices or promotions as it
shall please the king to appoint, coming
or arising in one whole year after his
conviction, and also be imprisoned for sis
months ; and for his second offence be im
prisoned for a year, and be deprived, ipso
facto, of all his spiritual promotions, and the
patron shall present to the same as if he
were dead ; and for the third offence shall
be imprisoned during life." But by sec.
7 of 2 & 3 Edw. VI. any psalm or prayer
out of the Bible may be read, though it
is not in the Prayer Book.
The new form of subscription established
by the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865,
and adopted by a new canon (36) soon after, .
is: "I do solemnly make the foUowing
declaration: I assent to the Thirty-nine
Articles of Religion, and to the Book of
Common Prayer. I believe the doctrine of the
Church of England as therein set forth to he
agreeable to the word of God ; and in public
prayer and administration of the Sacrament
I will use the form in the said book pre
scribed and none other, except so far as shall,
be ordered by lawful authority." This is caUed
the Declaratkm of Assent, and is to be made
and signed at every ordination, and institu
tion, and appointment to a curacy, together
with taking the oath of allegiance and supre
macy prescribed by the Act (now of 1868),
c. 72 (See Reading in; Supremacy). And as
to public worship it only repeats the injunc
tion of the Acts of Uniformity (for they are
consolidated by the last of them (14 Car. II.
c. 4)) that all ministers ... be bound to say and
use the [Prayer Book as established] in such
order as is mentioned in the said book . . .
and none other or otherwise. And as the
Shortened Services Act, called the Act of
Uniformity Amendment Act, 1872, does not
authorise any additional prayers, it is quite
plain that none except those in the Prayer-

PUBLIC WORSHIP ACT
Book (or Bible, which are allowed both by
that and the Act of Uniformity) can lawfully
be used, and that any such are contrary to the
Acts of Parliament, the Canons, and the
solemn promise of every clergyman at bis
ordinations. That Act however for the
first time authorised hymns as distinct from
anthems. Not even the Old or New Versions
of the Psalms had ever been statutably
authorised before. It is not lawful however
to interject hymns anywhere, so as to inter
rupt parts of the service which are contin
uous in the Prayer Book. A varied form
of service, but still no new prayers, may be
allowed by the bishop at a third service on
Sundays and holy days. Subject to these
limitations, the conduct of public worship
undoubtedly lies with the incumbent of the
church, both as to music and other things.
Neither churchwardens nor organists have
a right to interfere or to act contrary to the
orders of the incumbent so long as they
are not unlawful, and an organist would be
at once condemned by the ecclesiastical court
who did so, as churchwardens have been for
interfering. Their only right is to complain
to the ordinary. [G.]
PUBLIC WORSHIP REGULATION
ACT, 1874, has been probably the greatest
failure and series of blunders ever enacted,
even in ecclesiastical legislation, which in
modern times has been proUfic of them. Its
professed origin was the recommendation of
what was called the Ritual Commission of
1869, the same which made the new Lec
tionary (see Lessons), that "measures should
be taken to restrain ritual excesses ; " and a
further though unavowed reason for it was
the frequent reversals of the then Dean of
Arches by the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council. The bill as brought in by
the two archbishops was essentially differ
ent from the Act which it was turned into
by " amendments " in the House of Lords,
which were chiefly, but not all, due to the
then Lord Chancellor Cairns. The first
thing that it did was practically to supersede
the two existing provincial judges by a
single new one, who was to exercise aU the
old jurisdiction and some new, and was to
be appointed from time to time by the two
archbishops jointly, with the approval of
the Crown, and by the Crown alone, if they
did not appoint within six months — an en
tire usurpation, and less' necessary than ever
when they both had to concur; for they
would hardly concur in making a bad ap
pointment. And to that piece of usurpation
a great deal of the clerical opposition to the
Act has been due, whether justly or not.
The objection to requiring both archbishops
to concur in appointing a single judge can
hardly be stated so as to have a rational
appearance ; but that is quite different from

PUBLIC WORSHIP ACT

627

the usurpation of both appointments by the
Prime Minister if he chooses. It is incon
ceivable how such a thing was allowed to
pass without a word of objection from the bi
shops. From the evidence before the Commis
sion on Ecclesiastical Courts in 1882, there
seems reason to doubt whether even the two
primates were aware of it (see p. 263, Ev.).
Although the Act was intended to simplify
proceedings in the ecclesiastical courts, it
somehow became overloaded with absurd
technicalities which have become constant
pitfalls for mistakes and costs and failures ;
and worst of all, no effective action can take
place under it against a clergyman who
chooses to resist and to defy imprisonment,
in less than three years, for deprivation is not
incurred for disobedience till that time.
Only one such deprivation has accordingly
taken place, and probably the Act is alto
gether obsolete already except as to the de
struction (as many of the clergy insist) of
the ecclesiastical character of the provincial
judge by that usurpation of the Crown. At
the same time it is only fair to say that
ever since the Reformation the whole of
the supreme or final tribunal, however it
was constituted from time to time, has
been appointed by the Crown, for 300 years
without any limitation whatever, and since
1833 with the limitations imposed by the
Act for the Judicial Committee, and nobody
ever thought of objecting to it until the
Judicial Committee decided the Gorham
case (see Delegates and Judicial Committee),
when some clergymen suddenly discovered
that it was no longer an ecclesiastical court,
though nobody had ever denied the unlimited
Delegates to be one.
Another wonderful feature, or rather two,
of the P. W. R. Act, are, that although pro
ceedings may still be taken under the old
law to remove unlawful structures in a
chm-ch at any time, and proceedings for de
privation may be instituted by anybody,
with the bishop's consent since 1840, yet
if they are taken under this Act they
can only be by three parishioners or the.
bishop or archdeacon, and the judge can
only remove illegal structures less than five
years old, and (as said just now) cannot de
prive at once, but only go on issuing moni
tions and suspensions to be disregarded or
defied for three years. The sooner such a
heap of legislative nonsense is repealed and
turned into something rational, the better,
except for those who want to keep ecclesiasti
cal law ridiculous. The much-disputed epi
scopal veto on clerical prosecutions was im
ported into this Act from anothermodernone,
the Clergy Discipline Act of 1840. Nobody
seems yet to have remarked that the legal
effect of it is, that any bishop may order or
sanction all over his diocese the grossestviola-
2 s 2

628

PUBLIC WORSHIP ACT

tions of the law either in the way of omission
or commission : may issue an entirely new
service book, with an intimation that clergy
men who wish for his approval had better
use it : may authorise them to wear gowns
or even red coats instead of surplices in " all
their ministrations," and in short to do any
thing which is only a clerical offence. The
one thing that the bishop could not override
the law in is the one thing which one bishop
declared in convocation that he meant to do,
and was for a short time upheld by a bare
majority of bishops, viz. to authorise lay
men to conduct the service in church. That
is not a clerical offence, and the layman
could be restrained by monition at the suit
of any parishioner. A Dean of Arches once
monished a layman from performing a
funeral in a church-yard, under the common
law of the church — of course before the
Burials Act of 1880. On the other hand, it
is a delusion to suppose that a layman needs
any licence to perform all the service in any
unconsecrated building, or that a bishop's
licence to him has any legal effect whatever.
And it is another common delusion, that
buildings are licensed. They are not ; but
by long usage and unwritten law somewhat
anomalous (as Sir J. Nicholl said), bishops
may licence either incumbents, or other
specified clergymen with their consent, to
perform service in specified unconsecrated
buildings, such as the proprietary chapels in
London, and may withdraw such licenses at
will, and then the Court will prohibit them,
as clergymen have been censured and sus
pended for officiating in dissenting chapels
in England. But though laymen cannot be
prevented from officiating in what are called
school chapels, and a licence to them has
no legal meaning, bishops can and some
times do refuse a licence to any clergyman
to officiate there also, as that produces con
fusion in the minds of the people, except
perhaps occasionally to prevent the service
from failing. Probably the only consecrated
place where both laymen and clergymen can
lawfully officiate is the " private chapel " of
great houses, but those are not open to the
public, and are recognised by Canon 71.
It is astonishing that incumbents should
still be allowed the legal power to prohibit
other clergymen from officiating, even by
direction of the bishop, in any building in
their parish open to the public, or to more
than 20 people besides the family of the
house, except in the chapels of colleges and
some other public institutions, under a recent
Act. So that a bad incumbent may de
stroy the Church of England over many
square miles, and there is absolutely no
remedy if he is not bad enough to deprive,
or if the bishop chooses to veto a prosecution
of him, The Act 18 & 19 Vic. c. 86, appears

PURGATORY
at first sight to enable an incumbent to dis
pense with a licence for himself or his curate
to officiate, in a school chapel for instance,
but it does not : it only relieves them from
certain penalties originally enacted against
unlicensed dissenting chapels. They no
longer require any licence (See State
Prayers). [G.]
PULPIT (Lat. pulpitum, a stage: Fr.
pulpitre). Sermons were originally deliv
ered from the steps of the altar, which
was sometimes called the Pulpitum, a term
derived from the ancient theatres. The
ambones, or pulpits of the primitive Church,
were used originally for reading the lessons
only. In later times pulpits, or elevated
desks, were erected sometimes in the choir,
but generally in the nave, for the purpose
of sermons. In our Church a decent and
comely pulpit is ordered in every Church,
from which the preacher addresses his flock,
to be set in a convenient place by the
direction of the ordinary (See Canon 83).
PURGATORY. A supposed state or
place in which souls after death are by
punishment purged from their sins before
they can go to heaven. That the doctrine
of Purgatory is of pagan origin is shown by
many heathen authors, as for instance in
the well-known passage in Virgil's Mneid,
" Ergo exercentur poenis, veterumque mal-
orum SuppUcia expendunt," Sec (Mn. vi.
739) ; and Plato inculcated it in the
Ph®drus, from whence the Neo-Platonists
took their ideas.
The teaching of our Lord and His Apos
tles was simply that the spirits of good men
on leaving the body are received into paradise
or the care of God, and, that those of the
wicked go to hell, or at any rate into some
kind of penal state, waiting for the final
judgment. 2 St. Pet. ii. 9, KoXa£opivovs
(See R. V. and Speaker's Commentary). But
when the Neo-Platonic ideas gained ground
in the Church, certain of the Christians
were disposed to agree with the Platonists
— that souls of men without baseness or
grossness, after death, are borne aloft;
the others sent to realms below until every
stain should be purged away. For Origen,
the Platonic ideas had great attraction,
and with regard to this matter, he held that
all evil-doers, even devils, were to be eventu
ally purified by the penal processes they
are undergoing, and thus the final restitution
of all things is to be the complete triumph
of a purgatorial system over aU the deflections
of God's rational creatures from His own
inherent holiness (See Soames' Bampton
Lectures, pp. 314-339). But this is not the
mediaeval idea of purgatory, though perhaps
a seed which brought forth some fruit in
that direction. It is important to observe
what was the general feeling of the Church

PURGATORY
on this matter in the early times. It is not
to be doubted that prayers were offered for
the dead, "that God would shew them
mercy, and hasten the resurrection, and give
a blessed sentence in the great day." But
they prayed for apostles, holy saints, revered
martyrs, and such as would not, according
to the later notion, be in purgatory. They
prayed that all might pass the purgation at
the last day, looking to certain passages in the
apostolic epistles, as St. Peter, Ep. ii., iii. 10,
and St. Paul, 1 Cor. iii. 11-15— "saved, yet
so as by fire." The opinions of the Fathers —
for it must be remembered that they were
only opinions, and not made a doctrine of
the Church by a general council — may be
thus considered. (1) The purgation by
fire. "We must all," says St. Ambrose,
" pass through the fire, whether it is John
the Evangelist, whom Jesus loved, or others
... of his death some have doubted; of
his passing through the fire, none can doubt."
In the same way SS. Basil, Hilary, Jerome
and Lactantius, wrote affirming " that men,
Christ only excepted, shall be burned with
the fire of the world's conflagration at the
day of judgment." (2) The theory which
was heid by Justin Martyr, Tertullian,
Victorinus Martyr, Prudentius, St. Chryso
stom, and others, was that before the day of
judgment the souls of men are kept in secret
receptacles, reserved unto the sentence of the
great day ; and that before then no man
receives according to his work done in this
life (Sixt. Semens, liv., vi. ; Bibl. Sanct
Annot 345). The Fathers did not intend
these ideas to be a matter of faith, but they
put them before their hearers as what might
be, though there could be no certainty on
the matter. But the whole of the primi
tive opinion seems to be opposed to the
idea of purgatory, which is no Catholic
doctrine, but was invented in later times
to get rid of the difficulty of explaining
the intermediate state, and in the corrupt
ages of the Church, to gain a power by the
priests over the people, by the assumption
that masses might by them be offered, to
alleviate the pains of souls in purgatory.
It is now constantly the custom in Romanist
communities to pay a certain sum that
masses may be offered for the benefit of the
souls of those who are supposed to be in
purgatory. The Greek Church does not go with the
Latin Church on this point, and does not
define anything dogmatically en the state of
departed souls (King's Rites and Ceremonies
of Greek Church in Russia, p. 171). "The
doctrine of the Fathers," says Palmer, " and
of the early Church, of the present Greek
or orthodox Church, and of the other sepa
rated Eastern Churches, is this, that speak
ing generally, and upon the whole, the state

PURIFICATION

629

of the faithful departed, is a state of light, and
rest, and peace, and refreshment, of happi
ness far greater than any belonging to this life,
yet inferior to that which shall be enjoyed after
the resurrection, and final judgment. The
doctrine of the Latins, on the other hand, is
this, that the state of the faithful departed,
and of others, is a state of penal torment,
differing from that of hell only in the
certainty of future deliverance " (Palmer,
Diss, on Ortho. Comm. p. 124).
According to the Romanists the departed
have to make an atonement themselves, in
the purgatorial state, for the sins they have
committed when in this life ; but the primi
tive idea, still held by our Church, and the
Eastern Church, is that after death no
purgatorial work can be done by those
departed, but that the prayers of the faithful
will benefit them in the intermediate state
(Williams' Orthodox, and Non-jur. p. 57).
The Roman doctrine is thus expounded
by the CouncU of Trent :— " If any one
say, that, after the grace of justification
received, the fault is so pardoned to every
penitent sinner, and the guilt of temporal
punishment is so blotted out, that there
remains no guilt of temporal punishment to
be done away in this world, or that which
is to come in purgatory, before the passage
can be opened into heaven, let him be
accursed." And elsewhere it is asserted
"There is a purgatory, and that the souls
detained there are helped by the suffrages
of the faithful, but principally by the
sacrifices of the acceptable altar. So that,
as BeUarmine says, -Purgatory' is a certain
place, in which, as in a prison, the souls are
purged after this life, which were not
fully purged in this life, to wit, that so they
may be able to enter into heaven, where no
unclean thing enters in." So according to
the Tridentine catechism souls are said to
be cruciate in purgatory; but the primi
tive doctrine was that they were detente in
an intermediate state, in which souls are
prepared and matured for the final judg
ment. [H.]
PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN
MARY. This holy-day is kept in memory
of the presentation of Christ in the temple,
and is observed in the Church of England
on the second of February. It was a precept
of the Mosaic law, that every first-born son
should be holy unto the Lord, to attend the
service of the temple or tabernacle, or else
to be redeemed with an offering of money,
or sacrifice. The mother, also, was obliged
to separate herself forty days from the con
gregation, after the birth of a male, and
eighty after that of a female ; and then was
to present a lamb, if in good circumstances,
or a couple of pigeons, if she was poor. All
this was exactly performed after the birth

630

PURITANS

of our Saviour, who came to fulfil all
righteousness ; and was willing, in all par
ticulars of his life, that a just obedience
should be paid to the public ordinances of
religion. The offering of two pigeons made
in this case is an undesigned coincidence
attesting the poverty of His parents. This
feast is of considerable antiquity, the
original name (stUl used in the Eastern
Church) being Hypapante (inrairavrfj), i.e.
the meeting of our Lord with Simeon and
Anna in the Temple. This corresponds more
with the first of our alternative titles — " The
Presentation of our Lord in the Temple."
It was probably instituted in tbe time of
Justinian c. a.d. 541 (Niceph. lib. xvii. c.
28 : Baronius Martyr : Fleury, liv. xxxiu.).
Gregory of Nazianzus speaks indeed of
the feast of lights (Naz. 40, de Bapt), but
he is apparently referring to the Epiphany
(Bingham, xx. iv. 7). The sermons of St.
Cyril of Alexandria and Gregory Nyssen
(c. a.d. 370), in which mention is made of
this festival, are considered spurious. Dr.
Neale however is of opinion that it was only
transferred by Justinian from Feb. 14, on
which it had been previously held, to Feb.
2 (Holy East. Ch. vol. ii. p. 771). The
popular name of this festival is Candlemas
Day, because of an ancient custom of walk
ing in procession with tapers singing hymns
(See Candlemas). It is observed as one of
the scarlet days in the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge. [H.]
PURITANS. The designation of Puri
tans was given to a party in the Church of
England in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, who maintained that the EngUsh
Church was stUl disfigured by remnants of
Popery, and who were anxious to introduce
into the English ecclesiastical system the
severer forms of worship and doctrine which
prevaUed among the Reformed Churches
abroad. The name of Puritans was first
given to this party about a.d. 1564 in de
rision of their reiterated assertion that their
sole desire was " pure " doctrine and a
" pure " ecclesiastical system ; but, although
the Puritans only crystallised into a distinct
party in the sixteenth century, the spirit of
Puritanism may be discerned two centuries
earlier in the protests made by Wiclif and
the Lollards against the corruption of the
Roman Church, and in their attack upon
the doctrines of indulgences, pardons, abso
lutions, pilgrimages, worship of images and
saints. The order of " simple priests," or
ganised by Wiclif, in their long russet gowns,
diffused their master's doctrines with won
derful rapidity. This religious revival was
stamped out in blood ; but the spirit that
inspired it appeared again in the Puritans of
the 16th century, who may be defined in a
general way as consisting of all who thought

PURITANS
the Reformation had not been carried far
enough, and wished to extend it on Calvin
istic lines, being content with nothing short
of the destruction of episcopacy, and the
discarding a " book of prayers." The latter
was an early cause of rupture. In 1567
Grindal, then bishop of London, had to
complain of a party who had separated from
the Church, and rejected the Book of Com
mon Prayer. The chief objection then was
the use of wafer cakes in the Church of
England. Grindal reminded the Puritans
that those same wafer-cakes were used in
their ideal congregation at Geneva (Strype's
Grindal, p. 107 : Hook's Archbishops, x. 71).
But though the arm of the law was exercised
against them, and several Puritans were
committed to prison (though very soon dis
charged), the wave of Puritanism was ad
vancing. During the reign of Elizabeth the
Puritans were firmly and successfuUy re-.
sisted ; and when James succeeded Elizabeth
each party hoped to attach him to their
views. The Roman Church thought that
he would seize the opportunity of avenging
the woes of his mother. The Puritans
relied on the care with which he had been
brought up in the doctrines of the Reforma
tion. The Episcopal party alone were
doubtful. On his progress into England
the famous Millenary petition (so called
from an exaggeration of the number of
signatures attached to it) was presented to
him by the Puritan party, and their hopes
were raised to the highest pitch. But the
answer James sent to the deputation of the
English Church which was sent to offer
their congratulations reassured Churchmen
as he promised to maintain the Church as
Queen Elizabeth had done. In January
1604, 'the famous Hampton Court confer
ence met under the presidency of the king
himself, to discuss the points at issue be
tween the Church and the Puritan body
(See Hampton Court Conference).
The Puritans, conscious of the weakness
of their cause and the ability of their
opponents, do not appear to have presented
their case in any detail. And the king, who
did not conceal his animus against the
Puritans, at the end of the third day
declared the objections of the Puritans
unreasonable and the answer of the bishops
satisfactory. He told the Puritans that
" they wished to strip Christ again, and bid
them away with their snivelling." "I
peppered them soundly," he said to the
bishops, " as ye have done the Papists."
But Puritanical ideas waxed stronger
during this reign, though Bancroft, a man
of firmness and ability upheld to the
best of his power, the authority of the
Church. His famous sermon on the divinely
constituted authority of the Church, at Paul's

PURITANS
Cross on Feb. 9, 1589, did much to stay the
wave of Puritan thought in the Church, and
to lay the foundations of a revival of tbe
Reformation on moderate and historical
grounds. This was followed up by Savaria in his
¦" Treatise on the Various Degrees of Mini
sters," &c. ; it is the fundamental position of
Hooker's " Ecclesiastical Polity ;" and it was
supported by the elaborate arguments of
Bishop Bilson in his " Perpetual Government
of Christ's Church," published in 1594, which
was followed in the same year by Bancroft's
able exposure of the Presbyterian platform
and of the " Holy Discipline " in his
" Dangerous Positions." Thus the tide cf
so-caUed Puritanism was checked for the
whUe, and what was stUl more important, a
school of young clergy was trained up who
were able to maintain the principles of the
Reformation, and who handed on their trust
to the great Caroline divines who so ably
maintained the struggle of their own day
and conquered in it. But Abbott, who suc
ceeded Bancroft in the primacy, was a Cal-
vinist, and in reality was opposed to the
Episcopacy. The mistaken jud gment which
ruined Charles I. gave the Puritans the as
cendency, which they exercised as soon as
they could: The "Long Parliament" in
1643 did what the Puritans wished ; for tbe
estates of bishops were confiscated in 1646,
and the use of the Book of Common Prayer
was abolished. The Restoration was in
great measure due to the hatred of the Puri
tans which the nation had acquired after a
few years of sufficient experience, and they
fell accordingly. Twelve of their represen
tatives were allowed to discuss the proposed
alterations of the Prayer Book, with the same
number of bishops in 1661, at the Savoy
Conference (See Savoy Conference) ; and
it seems that the word " retained " was in
troduced into the " Ornaments Rubric," in
consequence of their objection that the rubric
as it stood in James I.'s Prayer Book (of
1604) unratified by Parliament "appeared
to bring back the vestment" of the first
Edwardian Prayer Book, which had, it was
supposed, been abolished by the Elizabethan
Advertisements of 1569 (q.v.), under her Act
•of Uniformity. The 1662 Act of Uniformity
did not retaliate on the Puritans, who had
ejected bishops and clergy without mercy,
not twenty years before ; but allowed all
holders of benefices to keep them if they
•conformed, and could get ordained by bishops
" before next Bartholomew's day," and the
xesult was, that only 2000 out of many
times that number seceded. The modern
Dissenters think they can never say too
much about that, taking care always to
forget that all those and many more of the
Puritan incumbents were mere intruders,

QUAKERS

631

and usurpers of the places and property of
the clergy. After the Restoration we hear
no more of the Puritans by that name, and
they are now represented by the multitude
of sects of Protestant dissenters, who seem
to have above 200 designations, according to
pubUshed statistics. — Green's Short History;
Neal's Hist, of Puritans ; Hook's Arch
bishops, vi. 153 : x. 71, &c. ; Fuller's Church
Hist iii. 490, &c.'; Wldtaker's Almanack,
1886 (See Reformation; Methodists; Prayer
Book). [F.H.]
PYX (Gk. irv£ls, a box, generally of box^
wood : Lat. pyxis). The box in which the
Host is reserved after consecration. It was
first used to hold the consecrated bread that
was kept for the viaticum. " Super Altare
nihil ponetur nisi  pyxis cum
Corpora Domini ad viaticum pro infirmis "
(Leo IV. c. a.d. 850; Labbe and Mansi,
Cone). The pyx is mentioned in the
Council of York, 1179, and enjoined by
Pope Innocent III. in 1215, to be over or
near an altar. Bishop Bleys of Worcester,
c. 1220, ordered two pyxes, one of rich
material for the Host, and the other, decent
and honest, for the oblates. The arch
bishop of Canterbury in 1322 required the
pyx to be made of silver or ivory. Some
times the pyx was of the shape of a dove ;
but there are only two notices of such in
England — one in an inventory of Salisbury,
the other in Matthew Paris. There are fine
examples of cup-shaped pyxes at New and
Corpus Christi Colleges, and in the Bodleian,
Oxford.— Walcott's Sac. Arch. 489. It is
worth mentioning that the same term is
used for the box of specimens of new coinage
issued from time to time, when the trial of
the pyx takes place before the Lord Chan
cellor with some of the Goldsmiths' Company
as his assessors. [H.]

Q
T QUADRAGESIMA. The Latin name
for Lent It was formerly given to the
first Sunday in Lent, from the fact of its
being forty days before Easter, in round
numbers. QUAKERS. A society which originated
with George Fox, about a.d. 1648; it is
also called the Society of Friends.
I. History. — The name is supposed to have
been given to them first by Gervase Bennet,
a justice of the peace in Derbyshire, before
whom Fox had to appear for brawling.
Fox warned the magistrate that he would
soon "quake for fear"; and when he was
called in derision a " Quaker," he replied
that there would be " Quakers in England
when justices were forgotten." But the

632

QUAKERS

idea of persons' bodies trembling and
quaking before they were inspired to speak
on, religious subjects was very common
among the Puritans. James Naylor, in his
Power and Glory of the Lord shining out
of the North, quotes many passages of
Scripture to this effect, and comes to the
conclusion that " saints ought to be
Quakers." This Naylor was a mad fanatic,
and allowed himself to be called " the
Everlasting Son, the Prince of Peace." To
such extremes he went that he was re
pudiated by Fox and his friends. Yet to
him Baxter attributes tbe origin of the sect,
and does ¦ not even mention Fox (Baxter's
Life and Times, i. 76). Fox was an
illiterate man, the son of a Leicestershire
weaver, himself a cobbler. He wandered
about the country, haranguing all who
would listen to him, forcing his way into
churches, and interrupting the services by
his wild denunciations. For this he was
imprisoned several times ; and his followers,
who went still further, subjected themselves
to much persecution, even at the hands of
the Puritans. Between 1651-1657 more
than 1900 were imprisoned ; in the
latter year there were 140 in durance. At
the Restoration the Quakers were released,
but they soon laid themselves open to the
law. An Act was passed in 1662 against
them for refusing to take lawful oaths ; and
this was followed by another prohibiting
their assembling for public worship, under a
penalty of £5, and for the third offence
transportation (14 Car. II. 1). Many
persons were transported to Barbadoes and
Jamaica, and sold as slaves to the colonists
for different periods of time. It is to
William Penn, a man of culture and
.education, that the Quakers owe that
character of sobriety and simplicity which
has ever since been accorded to them.
With him were associated Keith and
Barclay ; and from that time there were no
more disturbances and brawlings on the part
of the Quakers ; and if they were persecuted,
it was partly in common with other sects,
and partly because they persistently refused
to take oaths, or to show any of the usual
marks of respect to those in high office or
dignity. In America the Quakers, who appeared
there first in 1656, were treated with
great severity, chiefly at the instigation of
the Puritans of New England — the Pilgrim
Fathers. According to an Act of the
General Court of Boston, they were to be
whipped, imprisoned, exiled ; and if they
returned, to be put to death. But a harbour
of refuge was found for them. Penn, having
received a large grant of land in payment
for certain money he had lent to the Crown,
on the West of the Delaware, sailed there

QUAKERS
with a large body of colonists in 1682, and
founded the city of Philadelphia, which
became the head of a state called after him
(though contrary to his wishes), Penn
sylvania. So wisely did he manage matters
that there was no conflict with the Indians,
as was the case in every other instance of
the founding a colony. Penn drew up an
excellent code of laws for his state, allowing
full toleration, but requiring that all officials
should be believers in Jesus, and of moral
character. The society has always flourished
better in America than in England, where
the numbers have greatly decreased. In
1876 it was stated at the yearly meetings
that there was at last some advance ; and
since then there has been considerable
energy displayed, especially with regard to
the establishment of what are called " misr
sion meetings," for those who are un
connected with the body. But, neverthe
less, the numbers have decreased; and
according to the last annual statistical
report (June 10, 1886), there are only
15,000 members, less than half the total
recorded at the beginning of the century.
Small communities are to be found in
France, Germany, Norway, and Australia.
II. Discipline. — The whole community of
Friends is modelled somewhat on the
Presbyterian system. Three gradations of
meetings or synods — monthly, quarterly,
and yearly — administer the affan-s of the
Society, including in their supervision
matters both of spiritual discipline and
secular polity. The annual meeting is held
in London on the Wednesday after the
third Sunday in May, and remains sitting
many days. It comprehends the quarterly
meetings of Great Britain, by all of which
representatives are appointed and reports
addressed to the yearly meeting. Repre
sentatives also attend from a yearly meeting
for Ireland held in Dublin. It likewise
issues annual epistles of advice and caution,
appoints committees, and acts as a court ot
ultimate appeal from quarterly and monthly
meetings. A similar series of meetings, under regu
lations framed by the men's yearly meeting,
and contained in the Book of Discipline, is
held by the female members, whose prc*-
ceedings are, however, mainly limited to
mutual edification.
Connected with the yearly meeting is a
meeting for sufferings, composed of ministers,
elders, and members chosen by the quarterly
meetings. Its original object was to prevail
upon the Government to grant relief from
the many injuries to which the early
Friends were constantly exposed. It has
gradually had the sphere of its operations
extended, and is now a standing committee
representing the yearly meeting during its-

QUAKERS
recess, and attending generally to all such
matters as affect the welfare of the body.
There are also meetings of preachers and
elders for the purpose of mutual consultation
and advice, and the preservation of a pure
and orthodox ministry.
In case of disputes among Friends, they
are not to appeal to the ordinary courts of
law, but to submit the matter to the arbi
tration of two or more of their fellow-
members. If either party refuses to obey
the award, the Monthly Meeting to which
he belongs may proceed to expel him from
the Society.
From the period of the Revolution of
1688 the Friends have received the benefits
of the Toleration Act. By the statutes of
7 & 8 Wm. III. c. 34, and 3 & 4 Wm. IV.
c. 49, their solemn affirmations are accepted
in Ueu of oaths ; and the abrogation of the
Test Act renders them eligible for public
offices. In 1858 it was agreed that mixed
marriages should be permitted, and many
of the old peculiarities in speech and
costume (e.g. the use of the pronouns
" thou " and " thee " instead of " you " ; the
scuttle-shaped bonnet, and broad-brimmed
hat) were abandoned.
III. Doctrine. — The chief points have
been stated by Robert Barclay, one of the
most learned of their persuasion, in his
Apology for Quakers.
Every one who leads a moral life, and
from the sincerity of his heart complies
with the duties of natural reUgion, must
be deemed an essentially good Christian.
An historical faith and belief of some ex
traordinary facts, which the Christians own
for truths, are the only real difference be
tween a virtuous Pagan and a good Chris
tian, and this faith is not necessary to sal
vation. In his second proposition he affirms,
that the light within, or the Divine inward
revelation, is, like common principles, seff-
evident ; and therefore it is not to be sub
jected either to the examination of the out
ward testimony of the Scriptures, or of the
natural reason of man. In his third pro
position he asserts, that the Scriptures are
not the principal ground of all truth, nor
the primary rule of faith and manners, they
being only a secondary rule and subordinate
to the Spirit ; by the inward testimony of
which Spirit, we do alone know them : so
that, by this reasoning, the authority of the
Scriptures must depend upon the inward
testimony of the Spirit. He affirms further,
that the depraved seed of original sin is not
imputed to infants before actual transgres
sion (Prop. 4). Those who have the gift
of the Ught within, are sufficiently ordained
to preach the Gospel, though without any
commission from churches, or any assist-.

QUAKERS

633

ances from human learning ; whereas those
who want the authority of this Divine gift,
how well qualified soever in other respects,
are to be looked upon as deceivers, and not
true ministers of the Gospel (Prop. 10).
All acceptable worship must be undertaken
and performed by the immediate moving of
the Holy Spirit, which is neither limited to
places, times, nor persons ; and therefore
all outward significations of Divine worship,
unmoved by secret inspiration, which man
sets about in his own- wUl, and can both
begin and end at his pleasure, all acts of
worship thus misquaUfied, consisting either
in prayers, praises, or preaching, prescribed,
premeditated, or extempore, are no better
than superstitious, will-worship and ab
ominable idolatry in the sight of God
(Prop. 11). The dominion of conscience
belongs only to God ; therefore it is not
lawful for civU magistrates to punish their
subjects, either in fortune, liberty, or per
son, upon the score of difference in worship
or opinions : provided always that no man,
under pretence of conscience, does any
injury to his neighbour, relating either to
life or estate. Women may preach with as-
much authority as men, and be ministers of
the Church; for in Christ there is no
distinction of male and female, and the
prophet Joel has foretold that women
should have the gift of prophecy as well as-
men. The Quakers always held that outward
baptism is not an ordinance of Christ, or at
least not to be observed as a perpetual law.
Whoever pretends that Christ's order is to
be understood of water-baptism adds to the
text, which does not mention water. The
baptism enjoined by Christ is a baptism of
spirit, not of water. The water-baptism.
was St. John's, and has been abolished.
St. Paul says he was not sent to baptize,
but to preach. WTater-baptism was used
by the apostles only as a toleration for the-
weakness of the Jews, but it can do no.
good to the soul. Baptism by inspersion is
nowhere mentioned in Scripture. Water-
baptism, and the spiritual baptism, are
two entirely different baptisms. The in
ward baptism alone is the true baptism of
Christ. Children ought not to be baptized, since
they are not capable of taking any engage
ment upon themselves, or of making a
profession of faith, or of answering to God
according to the testimony of a good con
science. Taking or receiving the Eucharist is not
a perpetual obUgation; it was instituted
heretofore only for those who were newly-
converted to the Christian religion, or for
weak Christians in the beginning of their
Christianity. The Quakers are charged;

«34

QUARE IMPEDIT

with other errors of a very bad complexion
drawn especially from the writings of those
who were first of their persuasion,; but
these tenets the modern Quakers seem to
disown, and appear very willing to explain
and reconcile their authors to a more ortho
dox meaning — the truth is, they now far
differ from what they were originally, not
only in principle, but even their external
demureness and rigidity seem to be abated.
A large proportion of their Society consists
¦of remarkably intellectual, and well-educated
persons. — Stubbs' Mosheim, iii. 433-446;
•Jewell's Hist of Quakers ; Neal, Hist. Pur.
vol. iv. ; Gough's Hist. Quakers ; Registrar-
General's Report, 1854, Sec [H.]
QUARE IMPEDIT, is a common law
writ which lies where one has an advowson
and the parson dies, and another presents a
•clerk, or disturbs the rightful patron in his
right to present. It may be brought against
both the bishop and the alleged disturber of
the patronage, and the bishop then appears
only formally, unless he claims the patron
age himself. If he does, on the ground of
unfitness of the presentee, he must show
the cause specifically, so as to enable the
Court to judge of it. Thus, it seems by
modern decisions, though not by old ones,
that it will not do merely to allege want of
learning; for a bishop might capriciously
Insist on knowledge of Hebrew, or some
other unusual and unnecessary learning.
But no Court has yet said that it wUl try
the degree of knowledge, as of Latin or of
Scripture, which a presentee has ; and Lord
Ellenborough said very strongly in Povah's
Case (15 East, 17) that he would not. It is
said that if the cause of refusal be spiritual,
the Court shall write to the Metropolitan to
certify thereof; but if the cause be tem
poral (as in any question of title to the
presentation), tbe temporal Court shaU de
cide, and issue may be joined thereon and
tried by a jury. — 2 Inst. 631 ; 5 Co. 58 ; and
see Bishop of Exeter v. Marshall, L. R.
1 H. L. 17 ; and Willis v. Bishop of Oxford,
2 P. Div. 192, on a duplex querela in the
¦Court of Arches.
QUARE INCUMBRAVIT, is a writ
which lies where two are in plea for the
advowson of a church, and the bishop ad
mits the clerk of one of them within the
.six months ; then the other shaU have this
writ against the bishop.
QUARE NON ADMISIT, is a writ
which lies where a man has recovered an
advowson, and sends his clerk to the bishop
to be admitted, and the bishop will not re-
¦ceive him.
QUARREL (from W. cwarel, a javelin)
and QUARRY (Fr. carre), a diamond-
shaped pane of glass, from the shape of a
javelin head.

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY
QUATRODECIMANI, or PASCHITES.
A name given, in the second century, to the
Asiatic Christians, who would celebrate the
feast of Easter- on the third day after the
Jewish Passover, the fourteenth day of the
month Nisan, on what day of the week
soever it happened. The Eastern or Asiatic
rule was professedly based upon the au
thority of, SS. John and Philip; the
Western, i.e. holding the feast on the first
Lord's Day after the 14th of Nisan, upon
that of SS. Peter and Paul (Soc. H. E.
v. 22 ; Euseb. v. 23). St. Polycarp had a
conference with Anicetus, bishop of Rome,
in A.i>. 158, on this subject, but they came
to no agreement. But though he remained
firm in upholding the Eastern or Quatro-
deciman practice, in a spirit of Christian
charity, St. Polycarp consecrated the. Holy
Eucharist in Anicetus's Church on the
Western Easter (Euseb. H. E. v. 24). But
the controversy soon became embittered, and
40 years later, Victor, bishop of Rome, ex
communicated all Christians who did not
conform to the Western custom. His con
duct, however, was not approved by other
Churches; and Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons,
wrote to expostulate with him. The Coun
cil of Aries (a.d. 314) directed that Easter
should everywhere be celebrated on the
same day; that of Nicaea, that the day
should always be the Lord's Day. The
Church of Alexandria was to determine year
by year which Sunday was to be observed.
The British Church was not Quatrodeciman,
but followed a different method of calcu
lating Easter from that which was adopted
in 587 by the Roman Church. St. Augus
tine, of course, followed the latter, and this
was one of the reasons why the remnant of
the old British Church would not submit to
him (See Hook's Archbishops, i. 14). [H.]
QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY. This in
stitution is well known by name, and for
its general functions, of improving small
livings by meeting private benefactions to
them, lending money for building on mort
gages to be paid off by thirty equal pay
ments ; and now for dilapidations and for
insuring parsonages, under the DUapidation
Acts of 1870 and 1871 (See Dilapida
tions). But very little is known, or easily
discoverable, of the full amount of its work
and of the extent which it has reached
through good management from very small
beginnings. The mere Acts of Parliament
and charters of the corporation which may
be found in law books, give no such in
formation; and the annual reports quoted
by Parliament contain too much of detaUed
accounts and too little in the way of
historical summary, to be easily inteUigible ;
and the report of a parliamentary committee
on it in 1868 is equally deficient in that

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY
respect. The late Christopher Hodgson,
who was the secretary and principal officer
of the corporation for nearly half a century,
published an Account of Queen Anne's
Bounty in 1848, with a supplement in 1864,
which should be read by those who wish to
understand its history up to that time. We
can only give a very short summary of it ;
and for business purposes the clergy or
persons wishing to augment livings will, of
course, communicate with the Secretary of
the office in Dean's Yard, Westminster.
It originated with the papal usurpation
in King John's time, of the first fruits and
tenths of all benefices. They were trans
ferred to the Crown by one of the early
Reformation Acts, 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3, who,
of course, kept or them, rather charged them
with grants to courtiers, as he did the
spoils of the abbeys. Bishop Burnet, in his
History of his own Time, relates that he
had persuaded Mary II. to give them back
to the Church, but the design was stopped
by her death, and again by that of WUUam
III., who had consented. It was proposed
to Parliament by Queen Anne; and the
Act 2 & 3 Anne, c. 11, was passed, enabling
her to found the corporation, and make
rules for it by Royal Charter or Letters
Patent, which has been done from time to
time. The charters are given in Mr.
Hodgson's book. The first fruits and tenths
were then and still are levied on the old
valuation in the king's books, of Henry
VIII., except that those on the incomes of
the bishops and the " suspended " canonries
have been adjusted since they passed into
the hands of the Ecclesiastical Commission.
The total amount is, and always has been,
about £14,000 a year, levied on about 4,500
benefices; all those under £50 in value
having been discharged by 5 & 6 Anne, c. 24.
The incumbrances above mentioned made
that small income still smaller at first, but
they were gradually got rid of. Moreover,
ParUament granted £100,000 for eleven
years from 1809. From this comparatively
small origin it has now reached the capital
amount of 4£ mUlions, and an annual
income of about £167,000 ; and, according to
the appendix to the report of 1868, poor
benefices had been up to that time aug
mented by no less than £5,790,935 through
the agency of Queen Anne's Bounty, and
the benefactions it has obtained, which were
stated to have then amounted to £2,144,180.
The later accounts do not show how much
more they have reached, but they seem
generally to exceed £25,000 a year; and
the annual amount paid to the clergy, apart
from loans for building, seems to be about
£167,000. Both the late and present treasurers attri
bute these great results to the principles on

QUESTMEN

635

which the fund has always been managed,
viz. — (1) according to the charter making
all its grants out of the primary fund by
way of gift, and not by annuities ; and (2)
by requiring benefactions to meet their
gifts, which several of the bishops said
there has never been any difficulty in
getting hitherto, especially as Queen Anne's
Bounty never makes grants to benefices over
£200 a year in value, and no single grant
exceeds £200, but they may be repeated. It
acts as a trustee for any benefactions of either
real or personal property of any kind which
benefactors may wish to give to livings of
any value, for which they sometimes do not
know how to make such gifts. It also aids
clergymen to buy small pieces of land near
their own, or to annex them to the living
where they have bought them privately and
cannot afford to give them. It should be
mentioned that, by 43 Geo. HI. c. 107, gifts
of land to Queen Anne's Bounty by either
deed or wUl for the augmentation of benefices
are exempted from the Mortmain Acts, which
is a very important and well-known provi
sion. And by several Acts arrangements for
transferring patronage to benefactors are
authorised. It is incidentally stated in the
report of the committee of 1868 that the
average duration of incumbencies appears
to be about twenty-one years. That com
mittee, after inquiring carefully into the
proportion of the working expenses of
Queen Anne's Bounty compared with that
of the Ecclesiastical Commission, both from
the treasurer and several bishops who were
active members of both bodies, reported
against their amalgamation, which had
been suggested ; and partly, but not entirely,
on the ground that the working percentage
of Queen Anne's Bounty is very much
smaller than that of the Ecclesiastical Com
mission, though no doubt the work of the
latter, involving management of large estates,
is of a more costly kind. StUl the difference
seems very great, on any mode of reckoning,
and the success of the management of Queen
Anne's Bounty is the best answer to any
theoretical proposals to remove it. [G. ]
QUEEN'S MAJESTY, PRAYER FOR.
This is first found in two little volumes of
"Private Prayers," published in 1547. It
was inserted in the Prymer in 1553, and,
somewhat altered and shortened, in the
Prayer Book of 1559, when it was used in
the Litany before the prayer of St. Chry
sostom. In 1661 it was placed in its
present position in Morning and Evening
Service. Tbe Collects for the King (or
Queen) in the Holy Communion Service
were both composed in 1549. [H.]
QUERISTER, or QUIRISTER. The
same as Chorister, which see.
QUESTMEN. Persons appointed to

636

QUIETISTS

help the churchwardens. In the ancient
episcopal synods, tbe bishops were wont to
summon divers men out of each parish to
give information of the disorders of the
clergy and people, and these in process of
time became standing officers, called synod's
men, sidesmen, or questmen. The whole
of the office of these persons seems by cus
tom to have devolved on the churchwardens
(See Churchwardens).
QUIETISTS. A Christian . sect, that
took its origin in the seventeenth century
from Michael Molinos, a Spanish priest,
who endeavoured to establish new doctrines
in Italy ; the chief of which was, that men
ought to annihilate themselves, in order to
be united to God, and remain afterwards in
quietness of mind, without being troubled
for what should happen to the body ; and
therefore his followers took the name of
Quietists, from the word quies, rest. By
that principle he pretended that no real act
was either meritorious or criminal,- because
the soul and its faculties, being annihilated,
had no part therein ; and so this doctrine
led people to transgress all laws, sacred and
civil. The doctrine of Molinos in 1687 was
by the inquisitors and pope declared false
and pernicious, and his book burnt. He
himself was imprisoned after he had re
canted, and died in 1692. It is supposed
there long remained many of this sect.
Their doctrine also crept over the Alps into
France ; the " Maxims of the Saints ex
plained," written by Fenelon, archbishop
of Cambray, having some tendency that
way, and having been therefore condemned
by the pope in 1699. — Stubbs' Mosheim, iii.
288 QUINQUAGESIMA. The Sunday be
fore Lent, so called because it is the fiftieth
day before Easter, reckoned in the whole
numbers. QU1NQUARTICULAR CONTRO
VERSY. The controversy between the
Arminians and the Calvinists on the Five
Points (See Five Points).
QUIRE (See Choir).
QUOD PERMITTAT, is a writ granted
to the successor of a parson, for the recovery
of pasture, by the statute of the 13 Edw. I.
c. 24.

R.
RAILS, ALTAR, were introduced by
Bishop Andrewes, who calls them "wain
scot bannisters," and Archbishop Laud, to
protect the altar from profanation. "At
Taplow," wrote Laud to the King, " there
happened a very ill accident by reason of
not having the Communion-table railed in,

RATIONALISM
that it might be kept from profanations;
For in the sermon-time a dog came to the
table and took the loaf of bread prepared for
the Holy Sacrament." — Hook's Archbishops,
xi. 244 (See Altar Rails). [H.]
RANTERS. An Antinomian denomina
tion which arose about the year 1645. They
set up the light of nature under the name
of Christ in men, and practised all sorts of
lewdness and profanity. With regard to
the , Church, Scripture, ministry, &c, their
sentiments were the same as the Familists
(FuUer's Ch. Hist. iii. 211, ed. 1837). - The
sect thus instituted is now extinct, and the
name is given to the "Primitive Metho
dists," as a branch of the Methodists are ,
denominated. RATES (See Church Rates).
RATIONALISM. Inasmuch as every
body professes and ,believes himself to be
rational, and not to have any views about
religion but what are founded on good
reasons, it is evident that " rationalist " is a
mere conventional epithet, originally as
sumed by persons who pretended to be more
reasonable than others. And as they were
infidels or atheists in various degrees, the
same epithet came to be applied to infidels
and atheists in general, though they are of
course considered most irrational by be
lievers in God and in any form of Christianity.
It is therefore useless to inquire whether
any particular anti-christian writer or school
called themselves or their system of philoso
phy rationalistic, or were called so by others
at the time. And a history of rationalism
(in this usual sense) is necessarily a history
of those who have argued against what is
always meant by the word religion by all
mankind, except a few cunning writers
who first say that they mean sonrething
else by it and then always slide back into
the common use as soon as it suits them :
which is a very common trick of modern
rationalistic controversy. It would require
much more space than we can give to it to
attempt even an abstract of the many
rationalistic systems which have been in
vented from the days of the Gnostics till
the present time. A full account of them
all up to 1862 was given in the Bampton.
Lectures of Canon A. S. (not F. W.) Farrar
in that year. About the same time appeared
the once famous Essays and Reviews, of
which several were more or less opposed to
Christianity. They gave rise to two volumes;
one of directly controversial Answers, and
another less directly controversial and of
more permanent value, called Aids to Faith ;
and also to the great undertaking called the.
Speaker's Commentary on the Bible, by
many eminent theologians, edited by Canon
F. 0. Cook, preacher of Lincoln's Inn. Ex
cept for the litigation which declared the

RATIONALISM
lawfulness of publishing doubts about the
eternity of punishment, probably no theo
logical or anti-theological book of such
celebrity for the time has more completely
passed into oblivion than Essays and Re
views. Much the same may be said of the
still more pronounced anti-christian work
pubUshed anonymously in 1872, in two
volumes, with the title of Supernatural
Religion, of which several editions were
•quickly sold, as it made a , vast parade of
unusual learning, and such books necessarily
take some time to expose thoroughly. Very
little more was heard of it after the exposure
of its false pretences of learning, and its bad
reasoning, by Bishop Lightfoot in some
articles in the Contemporary Review, and
by the Rev. M. F. Sadler's Lost Gospel;
both of which answers left it hardly possible
to believe even in the honesty of the author
of Supernatural Religion. Probably the
most voluminous, and in a sense, successful
rationalistic author of the present day is Mr.
Herbert Spencer, whose works were said
to have reached fifteen volumes in the
Edinburgh Review of his First Principles
in January, 1884, to which we referred in
the article on Miracles. It is hardly
necessary to mention the names of the
more genuine physical philosophers, such as
Darwin, Huxley, and Tyndall, whose ra
tionalistic or materialistic theories may be
severed from their physical discoveries and
philosophy, which would be eqnaUy good
whether the prime cause of all things is a
creator or nothing at aU ; while Spencer's
philosophy has discovered nothing and ex
plained nothing, nor increased the stock of
human knowledge at all; and with a greater
pretence cf founding a, complete cosmogony
than any since Lucretius's ingenious non
sense (as everybody now knows it to be) ends
by pronouncing the origin of every separate
force or law of nature, of which the number
is infinite, "an unfathomable mystery,"
spontaneously generated out of what he is
pleased to call Persistent Force, which
made itself. Such rationalism as that will
soon have had its day, like its predecessors,
in spite of any number of volumes and
admirers who profess to understand them,
and call Spencer a much greater philosopher
than Newton.
The short life that has been enjoyed by
every rationalistic system from the beginning
.of the literary opposition to Christianity (as
distinguished from heathen persecution)
until now, is a phenomenon almost as
striking as the primary and continuous one
of Christianity itself, which they all in
succession seek to explain away or to account
for, by first one thing and then another,
different from the simple explanation that
it is true, i.e. that the Miracles which

RATIONALISM

637

founded it are true. Some rationalistic
schools or systems of course have flourished
rather longer than others ; but not one has
reached either the position or the duration
of a second-rate dissenting sect, and much
less that of the two or three most popular
ones. Some of them have compensated for
any mischief they have done by evoking
Christian "apologies" or defences of
Christianity which are, without exaggeration,
called immortal, although even such works
as those of Paley and Butler require supple
menting from time to time to meet new
physical discoveries, and new rationalistic
arguments. At present it is probably right
to treat Renan as the leading foreign an
tagonist of Christianity, while a few years
ago it was Strauss, and some other Germans,
whom we do not name, because if we began
naming it would be difficult to know where
to stop, and names alone would be of little
use. The emptiness of Renan's reasoning,
and its inconsistency with his own ad
missions, are well shown in a small tract on
The Authenticity of the Gospels, by Dr.
Wace, one of a series of what are called
Present Day Tracts, of which one sentence
is enough to quote here : " Renan practically
confesses that every objection (to St. John's
Gospel) is insufficient, except one ; and that
is, that in his opinion the discourses of our
Lord, as recorded there, are pretentious
tirades, heavy, badly written, making but
little appeal to the moral sense," which Dr.
Wace truly says may well be left to the
judgment of any fair reader. Renan's only
material objection to the other gospels is
that they record miracles, of which he says
" there is no experimental trace," whatever
that means. If it means that there has
been no subsequent experience of miracles,
it is only Hume's paradox over again in new
words (see Miracles). But no events that
were ever recorded in the world have left
such large experimental traces as the
Christian miracles ; for the whole state of
the world, except among mere savages, has
been affected, and in all the progressive
nations transformed, by them, or if Renan
likes, by the records of them, and the general
belief in them. Nothing can be more
ridiculous, or a more glaring contradiction
of history, than to say that a phenomenon
which has affected the whole world more
and more for nineteen centuries, and is
daily fulfilling the prophecies that it would
do so, is not the consequence of the only
cause that was ever known for it, either
when it began or since, or to talk of that
cause having left no experimental traces.
Christianity is as much the consequence of
the Christian miracles, however they were
done, as the position of the planets is of
gravity, and some unknown initial force

638

RATIONALISM

acting across it, whatever may be the ex
planation of gravity itself.
It is singular also that no rationalistic
system of even moral philosophy has ever
been able to gain a permanent footing since
that of the New Testament came into the
world — if any did before, except the Mosaic.
Mr. Spencer has amused himself by con
structing one which he calls the Data of
Ethics, as a benevolent substitute for ex
piring Christianity. The morals of it are
generally good enough, being much like
those which he found ready-made in the
New Testament, and the consequent opinions
of the civilized world, with the new names
which he likes to give to everything. But
it would puzzle a much greater philosopher
than him to convince common people who
see their advantage in doing wrong, that
they had better do right, without any
prospect of another world.
It has been the fashion with some infidels
to set up the persecuting emperor Marcus
Aurelius as » moral philosopher equal to
Christ, because he wrote a book of excellent
moral platitudes, which never influenced
any human being. Some other modern
rationalistic philosophers however, both
male and female, have propounded moral
doctrines of a very different kind, and much
more likely to be followed by tbe common
run of mankind if Christianity were really
in the dying condition which Mr. Spencer
and his associates always assume. Others
have gone so far as- to say that the morality
of the New Testament is inferior to some
system of their own, and profess to prove it
by the immoralities and cruelties and sins
of too many Christians, and. especially by
the religious persecutions sanctioned by the
greatest Christian Church for ages, which
have not so very long gone out of fashion,
if they have yet, except from impotence.
But such reasoning is absurd, unless they
can show that the sins which they denounce
are recommended and not denounced by the
New Testament ; and of course they cannot,
and never even try. Another of their
absurdities is that of calling Christianity
" selfish," because it promises a future life of
happiness as the reward of virtue and faith
in this. That again is a mere piece of
verbal trickery; for the only selfishness
which there is any pretence for calling
wrong is that which sacrifices other people's
good to your own, and no infidel has
attempted to make out that the faith or
practice of Christianity ever does that.
It is another fundamental rationalistic
paradox, or plausible piece of bad reasoning,
to talk of reason as opposed to faith, as if they
had reason and we had faith only. Faith only
means belief in something ; and to be good
for anything it must be founded on good

READER
reasoning. Belief that the world was made
by a Creator is no more faith without reason
than belief that the world made itself out
of self-existing atoms uniformly diffused
through space, by forces which sprang from
" Persistent Force " in some " unfathomably
mysterious" way, or that such atoms had.
in themselves " self-contained energy," and
the " promise and potency of life," to use the
phrases of some other eminent rationalists.
It is evidently a great deal less so, because
the moment a man assigns an unfathomable
mystery as an explanation of some physical
process, of which also there is no proof
whatever, he at once ipso facto abandons
reason and substitutes faith — in himself or
his dicta. Faith in revelation only means
the belief that the events recorded in the
New Testament took place, for which
abundant reasons have been given in many
books. The contrary belief is nothing by
itself, without some demonstrable alterna
tive, now that Christianity exists almost
universally. It is no less absurd than for
a man to say he does not believe in some
law of nature which cannot be absolutely
proved to his sight. The phenomena are
here, and no rationalistic arguing can get
rid of them now. A priori arguments
against them are worth nothing without
some alternative sufficient cause of the phe
nomena. A mere negative unbelief in the
obvious explanation of them is utterly
unreasonable by itself, and involves an im
possibility. It must be accompanied by
some kind of positive and defensible belief
in some other explanation of the history
of the world, and of the invention by the
New Testament writers of such a character
as that of Jesus Christ ; and if that alterna
tive belief or theory cannot be proved with
at least as much probability as the common
simple one that the New Testament is true,
it is as good for nothing as the dictum
that the world made itself by unfathomable
mysteries and automatic conversions of per
sistent force in no particular direction into
an infinity of particular forces, and of homo
geneous self-existing matter, and dividing
itself into all sorts of unhomogeneous ele-;
ments, each with characteristics of its own
(See Positivists). [G.]
READER. The office of reader was one
of the five inferior orders in the Church.
It is said that readers were first appointed
in the Chm-ch about the third century.
They are mentioned by TertuUian (de Prx-
scrip. c. 41) and by St. Cyprian (Ep. 33, al.
88), who speaks of one Aurelius whom he
had ordained a reader for his singular merits.
In the Greek Church they were said to have
been ordained by the imposition of hands :
but whether this was the practice of all the
Greek Churches has been much questioned.

READER
In the Latin Church it was certainly other
wise. The Council of Carthage speaks of
no other ceremony but the bishop's putting
the Bible into his hands in the presence of
the people, with these words, "Take this
book and be thou a reader of the word of
God, which office if thou shalt faithfully
and profitably perform, thou shalt have part
with those that minister in the word of
God." And, in Cyprian's time, they seem
not to have had so much as this ceremony
of delivermg the Bible to them, but were
made readers by the bishop's commission
and deputation only to such a station in
the Church. — Bingham, bk. iii. c. v.
Upon the Reformation here, they were
required to subscribe to the following in
junctions : — " Imprimis, — I shaU not preach
or interpret, but only read that which is
appointed by public authority : — I shall not
minister the sacraments or otber public rites
of the Church, but bury the dead, and
purify women after their child-birth : — I
shaU keep the register book according to
the injunctions: — I shall use sobriety in
apparel, and especiaUy in the church at
common prayer: — I shall move men to
quiet and concord, and not give them cause
of offence : — I shall bring in to my ordinary,
testimony of my behaviour, from the honest
of the parish where I dwell, within one half
year next following : — I shaU give place
upon convenient warning so thought by the
ordinary, if any learned minister shall be
placed there at the suit of the patron of the
parish : — I shall claim no more of the fruits
sequestered of such cure where I shall serve,
but as it shaU be thought meet to the
wisdom of the ordinary : — I shaU daily at
the least read one chapter of the Old Testa
ment, and one other of the New, with good
advisement, to the increase of my know
ledge : — I shall not appoint in my room, by
reason of my absence or sickness, any other
man ; but shaU leave it to the suit of the
parish to the ordinary, for assigning some
other able man: — I shall not read but in
poorer parishes destitute of incumbents,
except in the time of sickness, or for other
good considerations to be allowed by the
ordinary : — I shaU not openly intermeddle
with any artificer's occupations, as covet
ously to seek a gain thereby, having in
ecclesiastical Uving the sum of twenty
nobles or above by the year."
This was resolved to be put to all readers
and deacons by the respective bishops, and
is signed by both the archbishops, together
with the bishops of London, Winchester, Ely,
Sarum, Carlisle, Chester, Exeter, Bath and
Wells, and Gloucester. — Strype's Annals.
In churches or chapels where there is only
a very smaU endowment, and no clergyman
wUl take upon him the charge or cure

READING IN

639

thereof, it was at one time usual to admit
readers, to the end that Divine service in
such places might not altogether be neg
lected (Burn's Eccl. Law, Tit. " Readers ").
But the lawfulness of such admission has
never been aUowed, and it has long since
been obsolete.
Lay Readers are now in several dioceses
admitted and licensed by the bishop to
conduct services for the poor in school and
mission rooms, and give lay assistance in
parochial work. — Official Year Book, 1885,
p. 603 ; 1886, p. Ill : see Lay Readers.
READING DESK. The reading desk,
or reading pew, was ordered by the eighty-
second canon to be placed in every church
not already provided with one. The reading:
desk is only once recognised in our Prayer
Book, and that in the rubric prefixed to the
Commination, and is there caUed a reading
pew ; and it is remarkable that the term
was first introduced there at the last re
vision of the Prayer Book, in 1661 ; it is
not found in any edition printed before that
time. In the Advertisements of 1565 it
was directed " that the Common Prayer be
said or sung decently and distinctly, in such
place as the ordinary shall think meet for
the largeness and straightness of the church
and choir, so that the people may be
edified" (Cardw. Docum. Ann:- i. 291).
Bishop Sparrow teUs us that, previously to
the time of CromweU, the reading pew had
one desk for the Bible, looking towards the
people to the body of the church; another
for the Prayer Book, looking towards the
east, or upper end of the chancel. Reading
desks now generaUy face north or south,
and in many churches there are both ; in
some large cross churches it faces N.W. or
S.W., against one of the tower piers, and
some are double, for two ministers. In
Griff en v. Dighton, C. J. Erie decided (on
appeal in 1864) that the chancel is the
place appointed for the clergyman and for
those who assist him in the performance of
Divine service, and consequently that he
has a right to sit there.
READING IN. The ceremony of read
ing in, which is required of every incumbent
on entering upon his cure, is now ordered
as follows, under the Clerical Subscription
Act, 1865 (c. 122, s. 7). Every person
instituted to any benefice with cure of souls
shall, on the first Sunday on which he
officiates in the church, or such other
Sunday as the ordinary appoints, openly
read before the congregation the Thirty-nine
Articles, and immediately after make the
Declaration of Assent in the Act; so that
the whole runs thus : " I assent to the Thirty-
nine Articles of Religion which I have now
read before you, and to the Book of Common
Prayer, and of the ordering of bishops,

640

REAL PRESENCE

priests, and deacons. I believe the doctrine
of the Church of England as therein set
forth to be agreeable to the Word of God ;
and in public prayer and administration of
the Sacraments I will use the form in the
said book prescribed and no other, except so
far as may be ordered by lawful authority ? "
A memorandum to that effect is signed by
the churchwardens or other inhabitants,
and sent to the bishop, though that is not
actually ordered by this Act. If the
clergyman wilfully fails to read in ac
cordingly, "he shall absolutely forfeit the
benefice." Curates are also required by the
Act, s. 8, to sign the declaration of assent
on the first Sunday they officiate — and no
other — but not to read the Articles.
REAL PRESENCE. In dealing with
this difficult subject it is necessary to
distinguish the different senses in which
this expression has been used.
I. It has sometimes been employed as
equivalent to the term Corporal Presence;
i.e. to assert the presence in the Holy
Sacrament of the Lord's Supper of the Body
and Blood of Christ in a corporeal or ma
terially substantive manner. This definition
of the mode of the Presence of the Lord,
whether taken to imply the Transubstantia
tion of the elements, or to express the
modified view described as Consubstantiation,
the Church of England has rejected. This
kind of Presence has sometimes been de
nominated Real, both by those who hold,
and by those who reject, the definition.
Hence in the Reformation controversies the
word was sometimes repudiated, when the
intention was to repudiate only this applica
tion of it. Thus the twenty-eighth Article
of 1552 condemned the doctrine of "the
real and bodily presence (as they term it)
of Christ's Flesh and Blood in the Sacrament
of the Lord's Supper."
The Corporal Presence thus understood,
to which some would improperly confine
the application of the word Real, has been
further described as the " Corporal presence
of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood." This
expression occurs in the declaration ap
pended to our Communion Service; where
it is further said that " the natural Body
and Blood of our Saviour Christ are in
heaven and not here." The word " natural "
thus applied to our Lord's Body now in
heaven (with no reference, clearly, to the
distinction made by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xv.)
must be understood to express the fact that
our Lord Jesus Christ, Who when He was
on earth, possessed a human Body dis
tinguishing Him from other men, has still
in heaven a human, but glorified,- Body
individualising Him as man. The virtue of
His humanity, and so His humanity itself,
is partaken of by us ; yet " the Man Christ

REAL PRESENCE
Jesus" (1 Tim. ii.) has distinctly, and of
His own individuality, a Body which is not
on earth but in heaven. The consecrated
Bread and Wine are not to be adored as
having been transmuted into the " natural,"
but now glorified, Flesh and Blood of Christ
(See Hooker, E. P., bk. v. c. 55 ; Bp. Harold
Browne, On the Articles, p. 107, n. 2, and
p. 707, 11 ed.).
II. It is plain, however, that the phrase
" the Real Presence " may more properly
be applied to express such a presence, in
fact, of that which is spoken of as accords
with its true nature and properties. To
confine the phrase to what is known as the
Corporal Presence is to imply that no other
Presence is in fact conceivable. And this is
to bring in a particular theory concerning
the nature of the heavenly Food received in
the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper which
the Church of England has refused to adopt.
But to those who believe that " with the
natural bread in the Sacrament there is
present the Spiritual Bread which is Christ's
Body," there is no difficulty in confessing
this presence to be real. Difficulty can
exist only when that which is spiritual is
conceived to be incapable of any proper
presence with us at aU. But as the thought
of the presence of God with men, of the Lord
Jesus Christ in the assemblies of the Church,
of the holy angels, is everywhere familiar to
the Christian mind, so too the mind can
conceive the real presence of Spiritual Food,
if only it be conceded that such Food is then
taken and received in the Sacrament of the
Lord's Supper.
The Church, as represented by her best
writers, declines to localise this Presence or
to define the connection of it with the
consecrated Bread and Wine. She prefers
to emphasize the fact that the soul of the
devout communicant is " the receptacle of
Christ's presence." Not indeed "to be
sought for," as Hooker says, "in the
Sacrament, but in the worthy receiver of
the Sacrament," it is still no mere creation
of the devout feelings of the soul. The
spiritual and heavenly Food received is the
res sacramenti, "an external reality" (to
use Dr. Mozley's phrase), "coming to us
from without ourselves, and having existence
independently of our own thought " (as
writes Bishop Moberley), but communicat
ing its effectual power only to the devout
recipient. Thus the use of the phrase we are
considering, in the English Church, may
be regarded as a protest against the Zuing-
lian doctrine of a mere abstract influence
upon the minds of communicants. The
Real Presence is the presence of the
spiritual Food according to Its own nature
and the properties of its existence. To

REALISTS
assert a real spiritual Presence is to hold
that the Body and Blood of Christ "are
verily and indeed taken and received by
the faithful in the Lord's Supper ; " " that
in the Supper of the Lord there is no vain
ceremony, no base sign, no untrue figure of
a thing absent." " It teaches," to use the
words of Bishop Browne (Articles, p. 678),
" that Christ is really received by faithful
communicants in the Lord's Supper out
that there is no gross or carnal, but only a
spiritual and heavenly presence, there ; not
the less real, however, for being spiritual.
It teaches, therefore, that the Bread "and
Wine are received naturaUy ; but the Body
and Blood of Christ are received spiritually,
' the result of which doctrine is this : it is
bread, and it is Christ's Body. It is bread
in substance, Christ in Sacrament; and
Christ is as really given to all that are truly
disposed, as the symbols are : each as they
can; Christ as Christ can be given; the
bread and wine as they can; and to the
same real purposes to which they were
designed : and Christ does as really nourish
aud sanctify the soul as the elements the
body ' (Jer. Taylor, On the Real Presence,
sect. i. 4)." [J. G.H.]
REALISTS. The Realists, who foUowed
the doctrine of Aristotle with respect to
universal ideas, were so called in opposition
to the Nominalists (see Nominalists), who
embraced the hypothesis of Zeno and the
Stoics upon that perplexed aud intricate
subject. Aristotle held, against Plato, that,
previous to, and independent of, matter,
there were no universal ideas or essences;
and that the ideas, or exemplars, which the
latter supposed to have existed in the
Divine mind, and to have been the models
of all created things, had been eternally
impressed upon matter, and were coeval
with, and inherent in, their objects. Zeno
and his followers, departing both from the
Platonic and Aristotelian systems, main
tained that these pretended universals had
neither form nor essence, and were no more
than mere terms and nominal representations
of their particular objects. The doctrine
of Aristotle prevaUed until the eleventh
century, when Roscelinus embraced the
Stoical system, and founded the sect of the
Nominalists, whose sentiments were propa
gated with great success by the famous
Abelard. These two sects differed con
siderably among themselves, and explained,
or rather obscured, their respective tenets
in a variety of ways. — Stubbs' Mosheim,
vol. ii. 19, 107.
RECANTATION (See Abjuration).
RECTOR (From regere; as a priest is
said to rule his people). A term applied to
several persons whose offices are very
different, as, 1. The rector of a parish is a

REFORMATION

641

clergyman who has the charge and care
of a parish, and possesses all the tithes, Sec.
When a layman has the great tithes he is
called the "lay rector." A rector in 1250
was required to maintain the chancel with
its windows and walls (See Parson ; Vicar).
2. The same name is also given to the head
in some of our coUeges, as Exeter and
Lincoln colleges, Oxford, and also to the
head-master of large schools. 3. Rector is
also used in several convents for the superior
officer who governs the house. The Jesuits
gave this name to the superiors of such of
their houses as were either seminaries or
colleges. RECUSANT, from recusare, to " refuse."
A Recusant, in general, signifies any person,
whether Papist or other, who refuses to
go to church and to worship God after the
manner of the Church of England : a Popish
Recusant is a Papist who so refuses. The
provisions against Popish recusants were of
the most rigorous and oppressive character,
and were repealed by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 102 ;
and 9 & 10 Vict. c. 59.— Stephens' Com
ment iii. 55.
REDEEMER, THE (Redimere, to buy
back). A title of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ. " The Redeemer shaU come
to Sion" (Isa. lix. 20). "Christ hath
redeemed us from the curse of the law,
being made a curse for us " (Gal. iii. 13).
"Redeemed with the precious blood of
Christ" (1 St. Pet. i. 18, 19). "Having ob
tained eternal redemption for us " (Heb. ix.
12). See also Job. xxxiii. 23, 24; St. Matt.
xxvi. 28; Rom. iii. 24; 1 Cor. i. 30; Eph.
i. 7 ; Rev. v. 9.
REDEMPTION denotes our rescue from
sin and death, -by the obedience and
sacrifice of Christ, who on this account is
called the "Redeemer" (Isa. lix. 20; Job
xix. 25) (See Covenant of Redemption).
REFORMATION. The great movement
in the Western Church in the sixteenth
century, the object of which was to remove
the errors and superstitions which had crept
into the Chm-ch during the Middle Ages,
and to "reform" her on the basis of
primitive simplicity. The scandalous
practices connected with the sale of in
dulgences set a spark to the train that
had graduaUy been prepared, and on the.
continent the flame spread rapidly (See
Luther). The danger was, and it was not
avoided, of over zeal on the part of the
Reformers. In England, it must be re
membered, the Reformation of our Church
did not consist of one revolutionary act;
but that it was a series of events extending
over at least a century and a half, which
was capable of being at one time retarded
at another resumed, according to circum
stances, and which was in some measure

642

REFORMATION

dependent upon the ascendency or depression
of rival factions (Hook's Archbishops, vi.
41; ix. 32). The Church of England
always maintained her independence, and
was never under the supremacy of the
Church of Rome. In fact, her history from
the time of Theodore to the Reformation
shows one continual endeavour on the part
of the Church of Rome to get her under the
supremacy of the pope, and a determination
on her part to maintain her freedom. Now
tbe separation was to be made more com
plete. It began in the reign of King Henry
VIII., and was established in that of Queen
Elizabeth, and confirmed in 1661.
King Henry VIII. was at first a great
favourer of the see of Rome. No one dis
covered more zeal for it than he did in the
beginning of his reign. He even wrote a
book against Luther, entitled, "Of the
Seven Sacraments ; " and this gained bim
the new title of " Defender of the Faith,"
which Pope Leo X. bestowed upon him by
a bull, and which his successors have pre
served ever since their separation from the
Church of Rome. But this zeal for the
see of Rome was greatly cooled when that
court refused to grant him the satisfaction
he expected with regard to his intended
divorce from Queen Catherine. This was
clearly his first motive for separating from
that Church.
Cranmer, whom the king had raised to
the see of Canterbury, in compliance with
Henry's desire, dissolved his marriage by
a sentence pronounced May 23, 1533, with
out waiting for the sentence of the court
of Rome. This step made way for another.
For the parliament passed an Act, that
for the future no person should appeal to
the court of Rome, in any case whatever ;
but that they should all be judged within
the realm by the prelates : that neither
first fruits, annates, nor St. Peter's pence
should any more be paid ; nor palls or
buRs for bishoprics be any longer fetched
from Rome ; and that whoever infringed
this statute should be severely punished.
Clement VII. threatened Henry with ex
communication, in case he refused to
acknowledge his fault, by restoring things
to their former state, and taking back
his queen. However, Francis I., Icing of
France, interposed, and, in the interview
which he had with the pope at Marseilles,
he prevailed with him to suspend the
excommunication tiU such time as he
had employed his endeavours to make
Henry return to the obedience of the holy
see. To this purpose he sent John de
Bellay, bishop of Paris, to King Henry, who
gave him some hopes of his submission,
provided the pope would delay the excom
munication. Clement, though he could not

REFORMATION
refuse so just a request, yet limited the
delay to so short a time that, before Henry
could come to any determinate resolution,
the time was lapsed, and, no news coming
from England, excommunication was pro
nounced at Rome, and set up in all the
usual places.
The effects of this excommunication were
very fatal to the see of Rome. The pope,
who began to repent of his over-hasty pro
ceedings, found it impossible to appease
King Henry. For that monarch now threw
off all restraint, and openly separated from
the see of Rome. The parliament declared
him supreme head of the Church of England,
and granted him the annates and first fruits,
the tenths of the revenues of all benefices,
and the power of nominating to all bishoprics.
The parliament also passed another Act, to
deprive all persons charged with treason
of the privilege of sanctuary. And thus
ended the pope's power in England, a.d.,
1543. The king met with Uttle or no opposition,
in the prosecution of his designs, from the
laity, who had the utmost aversion and
contempt for the clergy, and were extremely
scandalized at the vicious and debauched
lives of the monks. But these latter
preached with great vehemence against
these innovations, and the priests prevailed
with the peasants in the North of England
to rise. However, the mutineers accepted
of a general pardon, laid down their arms,
and took them up again'; but being de
feated, and most of then: leaders executed,
they were obliged to submit. John Fisher,
bishop of Rochester, who had been the
king's tutor, and the learned Sir Thomas
More, lord chancellor, were beheaded for
refusing to acknowledge the king's supre
macy. King Henry himseff, though he
abrogated the authority of the see of Rome
in England, constantly adhered to the
doctrines and principles of that Church,
and caused some Protestants to be burned.
The ruin of the papal authority brought
on a reformation in the doctrine, worship,
and discipline of the Church of England.
All the monasteries were dissolved, and the
monks set adrift, and several of the. abbots
and priors bung. The Bible was printed
in English, and set up by public authority
in all the churches ; and the ceremonies of
the Church were greatly altered. But King
Henry, dying in 1547, left the Reformation
imperfect, and, as it were, in its infancy.
In the succeeding reign, Seymour, Duke
of Somerset, regent and protector during the
minority of Edward VI., endeavoured to
forward the Reformation, in which the-
parliament supported him with aU their
power. For he abolished private masses,
restored the cup to the laity, took away the-

REFORMATION
images out of the churches, and caused the
Book of Common Prayer to be revised and
corrected. But the fraudulent proceedings
of the nobiUty, together with a great laxity
of morals spreading among the people, gave
the enemies of the Reformation a great
handle against them. Their insatiable
scrambling after the goods and wealth that
had been dedicated with good design,
without applying any part of it to the
promotion of the Gospel, the instruction of
the youth, and the relief of the poor, made
aU people conclude it was for robbery, and
not for reformation, that their zeal made
them so active (Burnet, iii. 216). Somer
set himself had received from Henry VIII.
three religious houses, and one of his first
acts as Protector was to endow himself with
five or six more (Hook's Archbishops, vii.
221). In this reign the Reformation was
solemnly confirmed by the legislature, and
had the sanction of an Act of both houses
of parliament. So many alterations occa
sioned great disorders in the kingdom. The
common people, having now not so easy an
opportunity of getting a livelihood, because
of the great number of monks, who, being
driven out of the suppressed monasteries,
were obliged to work ; this fomented the
discontent, insomuch that several counties
of England took up arms. But the rebels,
after having been defeated in several en
gagements, accepted of the general pardon
that was offered them.
The Reformation met with a great inter
ruption during the reign of Queen Mary, who,
being a bigoted Roman Catholic, began her
reign with setting at liberty the papists, re
storing the popish prelates to their sees, and
allowing a general liberty of conscience tUl
the sitting of the parliament, in which an
Act was passed, prohibiting the exercise of
any other religion but the Roman Catholic.
Having strengthened herself by a marriage
with Philip IL, king of Spain, she called a
new parliament, in which PhiUp and herself
presided. Cardinal Pole made a fine speech
in it, after which both houses suppressed
the reformed religion, and restored the
Church to the same state it was in before
the divorce of King Henry VIII. At the
same time the above-mentioned cardinal
reconciled the nation to the Church of
Rome, after having absolved it from all
ecclesiastical censures. Great numbers,
however, still adhered to the profession of
the reformed reUgion, whom Queen Mary
punished with great severity, and burnt
some hundreds of them, among whom were
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and four
other bishops.
' " The generality of men," says Professor
Brewer, " are too much misled by Foxe in
forming anything like a fair and just

REGALE

643

estimate of the reigns of King Edward
and his successor. No king ever lived in
this nation, except perhaps Henry VIII.,
whose reign was more disastrous to the
cause of true religion, and consequently to
tbe Church, than was the reign of Edward
VI. As Bishop Burnet states, men were
fast falling away from the truth altogether,
or turning back to their ancient professions
and opinions. It was the fires that were
lighted in Smithfield which brought men
again, if not to soberer feelings, yet at least
to greater caution. Persecution, while it
purged the Reformation to a great extent of
those who had supported it merely because
it allowed a greater laxity than Romanism,
threw a halo round those who suffered, a
feeling of pity and respect for them, and of
veneration for those opinions for which they
suffered, which a milder policy had never
produced. Without any such intention,
Queen Mary did far more for the Refor
mation than either of her immediate pre
decessors" (Brewer, Notes on Fuller,
bk. viii. p. 150). Hence the way was
prepared, at the accession of Elizabeth, for
proceeding with reforms which, at the same
time, were kept in check by the judicious
care of the heads of the Church. [H.]
REFRESHMENT SUNDAY (See Mid-
Lent Sunday).
REFUGE (See Sanctuary).
REFUGE, Cities of. In the Levitical
law six cities were appointed by the com
mand of God as cities of refuge for those
who might by accident, and without malice,
unhappily slay another. There they were
to dwell tiU the death of the high priest ;
and if caught before they came thither, or
afterwards away from the city, they might
be slain by the avenger of blood (Exod.
xx. 13 ; Numb. xxxv. 11, &c).
REGALE. The claim on the part of the
sovereign of a country to enjoy the incomes
of vacant bishoprics, and to present to all
ecclesiastical preferments except the ordi
nary parochial cures.
Some of the French writers assert that
aR the kings of France of the first race, and
some of the second, have had the entire
disposal of bishoprics throughout their do
minions. This right, they say, was given
to the kings of France by way of recom
pense for their protecting the orthodox faith ;
and that this privilege was granted by the
first Council of Orleans to Clovis, the first
Christian king of the Franks, after he had
defeated Alaric, an Arian prince. Other
authors affirm that this privilege is not
founded upon grant, but comes from the right
of patronage, which the king has over all the
churches in his kingdom, from his feudal
right over the temporalities of benefices, and
from his right of protection of ecclesiastics
2 t 2

644

REGENERATE

and the goods of the Church. But however
the kings of France have desisted from the
right of patronage over. all the benefices of
the kingdom, they still retain the right of
appropriating to themselves the revenues of
vacant bishoprics ; and this is what they
call the Regale.
This right takes place aU over the king
dom, though some archbishoprics and bishop
rics have pretended to an exemption from
it. The abbeys were formerly subject there
to, but have been discharged.
REGENERATE, REGENERATION
(See Conversion, Renovation). Every bap
tized child is called regenerate. There have
been some very unreasonable exceptions
taken against this expression ; as if aU
persons who are baptized were truly con
verted, whereas several of them prove after
wards very wicked. But this objection is
grounded upon a modern notion of the word
"regeneration," which neither the ancient
Fathers of the Church nor the compilers of
our liturgy knew anything of.
Our Lord, according to the gospel of St.
Matthew, used this word, when He told His
disciples " that ye which have followed Me,
in the regeneration (iv rfj iraXiyyeveo-tq)
when the Son of Man shall sit in the throne
of His glory, ye shall also sit upon twelve
thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel "
(St. Matt. xix. 28). St. Paul uses the word
when he speaks of " the washing of re
generation" (bid Xovrpov iraXiyycveo-ias),
and "renewing of the Holy Ghost" (Tit.
iii. 5). St. Peter uses an equivalent
term twice ; " according to His abundant
mercy [God] hath begotten us again"
(dvayycvvr]o-as), and " being begotten again
(dvayeyevvijpevos), not of corruptible seed,
but of incorruptible, by the Word of God,
which liveth and abideth for ever " (1 St.
Pet. i. 3, 23). The idea of a spiritual be
getting, without mention of it as a second
begetting, is found in St. John i. 13 : iii. 9 :
iv. 7, &c. : and 1 Cor. iv. 15 ; Phil. 10.
Wheresoever the term is used it seems to
be an implication of the adoption of the
person into the Church of Christ, and is
distinctly associated with the use of water,
and the work of the Holy Ghost. The
words of our Lord convey this idea, " Except
one be begotten from above (idv pf] tis
yevvr\6rj ava>8ev) — of the water and of the
Spirit (idv pr) tis yevvqBfi e{ vbaros Kal
irveipaTos) — he cannot enter into the king
dom of God" (St. John. iii. 3, 5). In
the language of the Fathers regeneration
signifies the participation of the sacrament
of baptism. The Greek writers have a
variety of words to express regeneration ;
not only by dvayivvnms, which is an exact
translation of it, but dvaKaivicrpos, " renova
tion ; " dvaviao-is, " renewing ; " dvdoracris,

REGENERATE
" resurrection ;" p^rairoino-is, the "refitting ;"
iraXiyyeveo-la, the being "born again;"
iraXivroKia, the " begetting again ; " all which
expressions are used of baptism, and seldom
or never of the rise after a lapse. The
language of the Latin Fathers is the same.
The Latin translator of Irenaeus expresses
the Greek dvayivvno-is by " regeneration ; "
"baptism which is a regeneration unto
God ; " and likewise calls the dvayeyevvJjphoi
the baptized, " regenerati " the " regenerate."
St. Ambrose, speaking of baptism, says:
" By baptism we are renewed, by which also
we are born again." St. Augustine, besides
many other passages, within the compass of
a few lines, has several expressions all to
this purpose. He calls baptism " the
spiritual regeneration ; " he says the baptized '
person " is born again, because he is re
generated ; " and lastly he calls baptism
" the sacrament of regeneration." And in
another place he puts forward a question
whether the baptism of the schismatical
Donatists does confer regeneration or not,
but never doubted whether that of the
Catholics did so. The returning to God
after a state of sin was expressed differently.
The Greek writers use the word peTapiXem,
perdvoia, Sec, Sec, the Latins, pcenitentia,
conversio. The language of the schools is'
exactly that of the Latin Fathers on this
point ; they make the effect of baptism to
be a "regeneration," or a " generation to a
spiritual life ; " but the turning to God after
a course of sin they call either " penitence,"
or " conversion to God." The most eminent
divines of the Reformation use these words
in the ancient sense. Peter Martyr uses
" regeneration " for baptism, and calls the
turning to God after a state of sin the
" conversion and change of a man." Calvin,
where he designs to speak with exactness,
uses "regeneration" for the baptismal re
novation, as in his catechism ; though some
times he uses it to signify conversion, but
this is but seldom ; he generally, with the
ancient Latin writers, expressed this by
"conversion." When the Quinquarticular
controversy arose, and long treatises were
written about the methods of converting
grace, the divines who managed them being
wUling sometimes to vary their expressions
to make these discourses (dry enough in
themselves) thereby something more plea
sant, began to use " regeneration " as a
synonymous word with " conversion." But
in the Synod of Dort itself, though in some
of the particular declarations of the divines
of the several countries " regeneration " and
' ' conversion " are used reciprocally, yet in the
synodical resolutions the word " conversion"
is always used. In the sermons and books
written about the beginning of the civil war,
" regeneration " for " repentance " or "con-

REGENERATE
version" became a very fashionable word,
and it was often oddly expressed as re
generation-work. Bishop Bethell states that
although in a few rare cases the term " re
generation " was used in olden times for the
idea of a transition from a state of sin to a
state of hoUness, yet the general and only
usual sense of the word is that of such a
transition m and by the act of baptism.
"In those few passages of the ancient
Christian writers where it bears another
signification, it is used apparently in a
figurative manner, to express such a change
as seemed to bear some analogy in magnitude
and importance to the change effected in
baptism " (Bethell, On Regeneration, p. 7.
And see Mozley, On Regeneration).
The importance of holding this doctrine,
besides its being scripttirally true, must be
at once apparent to those who reflect that
the whole moral education of a Christian
people is altered, if instead of teaching
them, as we ought to do, that God has
given them a gift which they may use to
their own salvation, but for losing which
they wiU be awfully punished, — if instead
of this we tell them to wait and to expect
the gift of grace, before receiving which
they cannot please God. The orthodox
would preach to all baptized persons, tell
ing them that they may and can serve
God if they will : the heterodox would
address baptized persons as heathens, and
warn them that, until they have an effec
tual calling, they can do nothing. It is
easy to trace much of the evU which dis
graces the religion of the present day to
the prevalence of the latter notion.
At the Savoy Commission, 1661, the fol
lowing are among the answers of the bishops
to the objections of ministers.
"Receive remission of sins by spiritual
regeneration." Most proper, for baptism
is our spiritual regeneration (St. John iii. 5),
" Unless a man be born again of water and
the Spirit," &c. And by this is received
remission of sins (Acts ii. 38), " Repent, and
be baptized every one of you for the re
mission of sins." So the Creed : " one bap
tism for the remission of sins."
Seeing that God's sacraments have their
effects, where the receiver doth not " ponere
obicem,!' put any bar against them (which
children cannot do); we may say in faith
of every child that is baptized, that it is
regenerated by God's Holy Spirit ; and
the denial of it tends to Anabaptism, and
the contempt of this holy sacrament, as
nothing worthy, nor material whether it
be administered to children or no.
[The form of Confirmation] supposes,
and that truly, that all children were at
their baptism regenerate by water and the
Holy Ghost, and had given unto them

REGISTER

645

forgiveness of all their sins ; and it is
charitably presumed, that notwithstanding
the frailties and slips of their childhood,
they have not totally lost what was in
baptism conferred upon them. — Cardwell's
Hist of Conferences, pp. 356, 358.
REGISTER. The keeping of a church
book for registering the age of those that
should be bom and christened in the par
ish began in the thirtieth year of Henry
VIII. By Canon 70. " In every parish church
and chapel within this realm shall be pro
vided one parchment book at the charge
of the parish, wherein shall be written the
day and year of every christening, wed
ding, and burial, which have been in the
parish since the time that the law was
first made in that behalf, so far as the
ancient books thereof can be procured,
but especially since the beginning of the
reign of the late queen. And for the safe
keeping of the said book, the church
wardens, at the charge of the parish, shall
provide one sure coffer and three locks
and keys ; whereof one to remain with the
minister, and the other two with the
churchwardens severally ; so that neither
the minister without the two church
wardens, nor the churchwardens without
the minister, shall at any time take that
book out of the said coffer. And hence
forth upon every sabbath day immediately
after morning or evening prayer, the
minister and the churchwardens shall take
the said parchment book out of the said
coffer, and the minister in the presence of
the churchwardens shall write and record
in the said book the names of all persons
christened, together with the names and
surnames of their parents, and also the
names of all persons married and buried
in that parish in the week before, and the
day and year of every such christening,
marriage, and burial ; and that done, they
shall lay up the book in the coffer as
before. And the minister and church
wardens, unto every page of that book,
when it shall be filled with such inscrip
tions, shall subscribe their names. And
the churchwardens shall once every year,
within one month after the five and
twentieth day of March, transmit unto the
bishop of the diocese, or his chancellor, a
true copy of the names of all persons
christened, married, or buried in their
parish in the year before (ended the said
five and twentieth day of March), and the
certain days and months in which every
christening, marriage, and burial was had,
to be subscribed to with the hands of the
said minister and churchwardens, to the
end the same may faithfully be' preserved
in the registry of the said bishop ; which

616

REGISTER

certificate shall be received without fee.
And if the minister and churchwardens
shall be negligent in performance of any
thing herein contained, it shall be lawful
for the bishop, or his chancellor, to con
vent them and proceed agninst every of
them, as contemners of this our constitu
tion." The Act 52 Geo. III. c. 146 (a.d. 1812)
directs that " registers of public and pri
vate baptisms, marriages, and burials,
solemnised according to the rites of the
United Church of England and Ireland,
. . . shall be made and kept by the rector,
vicar, curate, or officiating minister of every
parish (or of any chapelry) where the
ceremonies of baptism, marriage, and burial,
have been usually, and may according to
law be, performed for the time being, in
books of parchment, or of good and durable
paper, to be provided by his Majesty's
printer as occasion may require, at the
expense of the respective parishes or
chapelries ; whereon shall be printed, upon
each side of every leaf, the heads of in
formation herein required to be entered
in the registers" (agreeably to schedules
annexed to the Act). Such registers should
be kept in separate books, and every
minister shall enter the baptism, or burial,
as soon as possible, and shall sign the
same ; " and in no case, unless prevented
by sickness, or other unavoidable impedi
ment, later than within seven days after
the ceremony of any such baptism, or
burial, shall have taken place " (Sect. 3).
"Whenever the ceremony of baptism,
or burial, shall be performed in any other
place than the parish church, or church
yard of any parish (or the chapel, or
chapel-yard of any chapelry, providing its
own distinct registers), and such ceremony
shall be performed by any minister not
being the rector, vicar, minister, or curate,
of any such parish or chapelry, the minis
ter who shall perforin such ceremony of
baptism or burial shall, on the same, or
on the next day, transmit to the rector,
vicar, or other minister of such parish or
chapelry, or his curate, a certificate of such
baptism or burial in the form contained in
the schedule (D.) to this Act annexed, and
the rector, vicar, minister, or curate of such
parish or chapelry, shall thereupon enter
such baptism or burial according to such
certificate in the book kept persuant to
this Act for such purpose ; and shall add to
such entry the following words, ' According
to the certificate of the Reverend 
transmitted to me on the  day of
" I do hereby certify, that I did on the
¦  day of  baptize, according to the
rites of the Church qf England,  , son

REGISTER
[or "daughter'] of  and  , his
wife, by the name of  .
To the Rector [or, as the case may be,]
of  ."
" ' I do hereby certify, that on the 
day of  A. B. of  , aged  , was
buried in [stating the place of burial], and
that the ceremony of burial was performed
according to the rites of the Church of
England by me,  .
To tlie Rector [or, as the case may be,l
of  '" (Sect. 4).
Sect. 5 directs, that the new registers,
and also those previously existing, shaU he
kept by the minister of the parish, " in a
dry, well-painted, iron chest, to be provided
and repaired as occasion may require, at the
cost of the parish; which chest shall be
constantly kept locked in some dry, safe,
and secure place within the usual place of
residence of such minister, or in the parish
church or chapel."
Sect. 6 directs, that within two months
after the expiration cf every year, four
copies of the registers for the preceding
year shall be made on parchment by the
clergyman, " or by the churchwardens,
chapelwardens, clerk, or other person duly
appointed for the purpose, under, and by
the direction of, such rector, vicar, curate,
or other resident or officiating minister."
The copies are to be verified and signed hy
the clergyman in a prescribed form, and
his signature is to be attested by the
churchwardens or chapelwardens, or one
of them. These copies are to be sent by
post to the diocesan registrars (Sect. 7).
In case of the minister's neglecting to
verify the copies, the churchwardens shall
certify his default to the registrar, by
whom it shall be reported to tbe bishop
(Sect. 9). Any person convicted of falsi
fying a register, or allowing it to be falsi
fied, shall be subject to transportation for
fourteen years (Sect. 14).
Sect. 16 provides, that the Act shall not
affect the fees payable to any minister for
giving extracts of registers, &c.
The Act of 52 Geo. III. is stUl in force
as regards the registration of baptisms and
burials by clergymen. But as to marriages,
an alteration has been made by the Acts
6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 80, and 7 WUl. IV. and
1 Vic. c. 22. By the former of these Acts
the general civil registry was instituted.
Sect. 30 orders, that the Registrar-general
shall, at the expense of the parish or
chapelry, furnish the rector, vicar, or curate,
of every church or chapel in which marriages
may lawfully be solemnized, duplicate
register books and forms for certified copies
thereof. Sect. 31, that every clergyman,
immediately after every office of matrimony
solemnized by him, shall register in dupli-

REGIUM DONUM MONEY
cate the several particulars relating to that
marriage according to a new form, annexed
in a schedule to the Act. Sect. 33 (ex
plained by 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 22),
that the clergyman of every church or
chapel shall, in the months of April, July,
October, and January respectively, make
and deliver to the registrar of his district a
true copy, certified by him under his hand,
of all the entries of marriages in the register
book kept by him for the three months
preceding, to the last days of March, June,
September, and December respectively ; and
if there shaU have been no marriage since
the last certificate, shall certify the fact
under his hand ; and that one copy of each
duplicate register book shall, when filled,
be delivered to the superintendent-registrar
of the district. Sect. 27 of the Act of 1
Vict, provides, that for every entry in the
quarterly certified copies the clergyman
shall receive sixpence from the registrar,
which sum is to be repaid to the registrar
by the guardians or overseers of his dis
trict. By the Act of 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, sects.
42, 43, any person who shall refuse, or
without reasonable cause omit, to register
any marriage solemnized by him, of which
3ie ought to register, and every person
having the custody of any register book,
who shall carelessly lose or injure the same,
or carelessly allow the same to be injured
while in his keeping, shall forfeit a sum not
exceeding £50 for every such offence ; and
any person who shall wilfully destroy,
injure, or in any way falsifly any regis
ter book, or shall wilfully give any false
certificate or extract, shall be guilty of
felony. REGIUM DONUM MONEY. Money
allowed by government to the Dissenters.
The origin of it was in the year 1723. As
the Dissenters approved themselves strong
friends to the House of Brunswick, they
enjoyed favour ; and, being excluded from
all lucrative preferment in the Church, the
prime minister wished to reward them for
their loyalty, and, by a retaining fee, to
preserve them steadfast. A considerable
sum, therefore, was annually lodged with
the heads of the Presbyterians, Independ
ents, and Baptists, to be distributed among
the necessitous ministers of their congre
gations. But that has ceased.
REGULAR. In the continental churches
those persons are called regulars who pro
fess to follow a certain rule (regula) of life,
and observe the three vows of poverty,
chastity, and obedience ; in contradistinc
tion to the seculars, who live compara
tively in the world. The canons of the
non-monastic cathedrals were caUed se
culars.

RELICS

647

RELICS. In the Roman Church, the
remains of the bodies or clothes of saints
or martyrs, and the instruments by which
they were put to death, are devoutly pre
served, in honour of their memoiy ; kissed,
revered, and carried in procession. The
respect which was justly due to the mar
tyrs and teachers of the Christian faith, in
a few ages, increased almost to adoration :
and at length adoration was really paid
both to departed saints, and to relics of
holy men or holy things. The abuses of
the Church of Rome with respect to relics
are very great, and are justly censured in
our 22nd Article.
In the early ages of the gospel, when its
professors were exposed to every species
of danger and persecution, it was natural
for Christians to show every mark of re
spect, both to the bodies and to the
memory of those who had suffered death
in its cause. They collected their remains
and buried them, not only with decency,
but with all the solemnity and honour
which circumstances would allow "quibus
tanquam organis et vasis ad omnia bona
opera usus est Spiritus " (Aug. de Cura pro
Mart 5). It was also the custom for
Christians to hold their religious meetings
at the places where their martyrs were
buried, by which they seemed, as it were,
united with them ; and to display their
attachment to their departed brethren by
such rites as were dictated by the fervour
of their devout affection, and were con
sistent with the principles of their religion
(Ruinart, Acta Mart). It does not appear
that this boundary was ever transgressed
in the three first centuries, and MabiUon
owns that no relics were set on the altar
even to the tenth century (de Liturg.
Gall. lib. i. 9, n. 4). But in the fourth
century, when the pure and simple worship
of the gospel began to be debased by super
stitious practices, we find strong proofs of
an excessive love for everything which had
belonged to those who had distinguished
themselves by their exertions or their
sufferings for the truth of Christianity, and
especially for any part of their garments,
hair, or bones. Augustine in Africa, and
Vigilantius in Spain, complained loudly of
this culpable fondness for relics, which they
speak of as a new corruption, then first
appearing in the Christian world ; but the
warm disposition of Jerome led him to
stand forward in their defence with more
zeal than discretion. However, this learned
Father, even while he leans to the opinion
that miracles were sometimes wrought by
relics, explicitly disclaims all idea of
offering them worship. But, when super
stition has once made its way into the
minds of men, it graduaUy gains ground ;

648

RELIGIOUS

and it is difficult to set limits to it, par
ticularly when there is a set of persons,
respected for their piety, who are studious
to encourage it. Monks carried about
reUcs ; and with great ease, and no small
advantage to themselves, persuaded that
ignorant age of their value and importance.
Under their recommendation and patronage,
they were soon 'considered as the best pre
servatives against every possible evil of soul
and body; and when the worshipping of
images came to be established, the en
shrining of relics was a natural consequence
of that doctrine. This led the way to ab
solute worship of relics, which was now
preached by the clergy of the West and
of the East as a Christian duty. Every
one thought it necessary to possess the relic
of some saint dr martyr, as the effectual
means of securing his care and protection ;
and fraud and imposition did not fail to
furnish a supply proportionable to the
demand. The discovery of the catacombs
at Rome was an inexhaustible source of
relics; and thus the popes themselves
became directly interested in maintaining
this superstitious worship. The Council
of Trent authorised the adoration of reUcs ;
and they continue in high esteem among
the Papists of the present day. What has
been already said is amply sufficient to
point out the absurdity of worshipping relics.
It is a doctrine manifestly " grounded upon
no warranty of Scripture : " it is " a fond
thing," that is, foolish and trifling, in the
extreme ; directly contrary to the practice
of the primitive Christians, and utterly
irreconcilable with common sense. — Bing
ham, xxiii. 4 ; Tomline's El. Christ. Theol. ;
Diet. Christ. Ant. 1769.
RELIGIOUS. This was the term as a
substantive word given in our Church be
fore the Reformation to persons engaged by
solemn vows to the monastic life. It is
stiU used in this sense on the Continent,
and is affected now by those who are
members of sisterhoods, &c.
REMIGIUS, or REMI, ST. : Bishop of
Reims ; commemorated October 1st. He
was born about a.d. 439, and was made
bishop when only 22 years of age. He
converted Chlodwig (Clovis), king of the
Franks, and many of his nobles and fol
lowers. He was afterwards made primate
of the Frankish Church, and Reims has
ever since remained the metropolitan see of
France. [H.]
REMONSTRANTS (See Arminians).
This name was given to the Arminians
because in 1610 they presented a remon
strance to the States- General of Holland
and West Friesland, specifying their griev-
RENOVATION Regeneration is the

RENUNCIATION
work of the Spirit ; renovation is the joint
work of the Spirit and the man. Regenera
tion comes only once, in or through baptism.
Renovation exists before, in, and after
baptism, and may be often repeated. Re
generation, being a single act, can have no
parts, and is incapable of increase. Re
novation is, in its very nature, progressive.
Regeneration, though suspended as to its
effects and benefits, cannot be totally lost
in the present life. Renovation may be
often repeated and totally lost. Dr. Water-
land distinguishes between regeneration and
renovation thus : —
1. Grown persons coming to baptism
properly qualified, receive at once the grace
of regeneration ; but, however well prepared,
they are not regenerate without baptism.
Afterwards renovation grows more and more
within them by the indwelling of the
Spirit. 2. As to infants, their innocence and in
capacity are to them instead of repentance,
which they do not want, and of actual faith,
which they cannot have: and they are
capable of being born again, and adopted by
God, because they bring no obstacle. They
stipulate, and the Holy Spirit translates
them out of a state of nature into a state of
grace, favour, and acceptance. In their
case, regeneration precedes, and renovation
follows after, and they are the temple of
the Spirit till they defile themselves with
sin. 3. As to those who fall off after regenera
tion, their covenant state abides, but
without any saving effect, because without
present renovation: but this saving effect
may be repaired and recovered by repent
ance. 4. With respect to those who receive
baptism in a state of hypocrisy or impeni
tency, though this sacrament can only in
crease their condemnation, still pardon and
grace are conditionally made over to them,
and the saving virtue of regeneration, which
had been hitherto suspended, takes effect,
when they truly repent and unfeignedly
believe the gospel (See Regeneration).
RENUNCIATION. In holy baptism,
the persons baptized, or in the case of in
fants their sponsors in their name, are
asked, " Dost thou renounce the devil and
all his works, the vain pomp and glory of
the world, with all covetous desires of the
same, and the carnal desires of the flesh, so
that thou wilt not foUow nor be led by
them ? " And their answer is, " I renounce
them all." Tins renunciation is of very
great antiquity, so great indeed that its
beginning cannot be traced, nor any time
mentioned when it was not used; so that
it is probably of apostolic origin. — Bingham,
vii., ii.

REPAIRS OF CHURCHES
REPAIRS OF CHURCHES. Anciently
the bishops had the whole tithes of the
diocese ; a fourth part of which, in every
parish, was to be applied to the repairs of
the church ; but, upon a release of his
interest to tho rectors they were acquitted
of the repairs of the churches. And by the
canon law, the repair of the church belonged
to him who received this fourth part ; that
is, to the rector, and not to the parishioners.
But custom (that is, the common law)
transfers the burden of reparation, at least
of the nave of the church, upon the
parishioners ; and likewise sometimes of the
chancel, as particularly in the city of
London in many churches there. Generally
the rector is bound to repair the chancel.
Not because the freehold is in him, for so
is the freehold of the church if he is the
clerical rector or parson ; but by the custom
of England, which has allotted the repairs of
the chancel to the parson, and the repairs of
the church to the parishioners : yet so,
that if the custom has been for the parish,
or the estate of a particular person, to
repair the chancel, that custom shall be
good. But the rector has no more power to
make alterations in the chancel without a
faculty than the vicar or churchwardens
have in the body of the church.
While church-rates were enforceable, the
parishioners were bound to repair all except
the chancel, where that belonged to a rector ;
but all that law has now become imma
terial and obsolete. Nothing has been done
however to relieve rectors from their obliga
tion to repair chancels, which can be en
forced by the spiritual court. The arch
deacon may take proceedings against an im
propriator for repairs. Where there are
several impropriators, it is said not to be
necessary to make them all parties to a suit
to make them repair the chancel, but any
who receive great tithes may be prosecuted.
By Canon 86. "Every dean, dean and
chapter, archdeacon, and others which have
authority to hold ecclesiastical visitations
by composition, law, or prescription, shall
survey the churches of his or their juris
diction once in every three years, in his
own person, or cause the same to be done."
By the statute of Circumspecte agatis
(13 Edward I. st. iv.), " If prelates do pun
ish for that the church is uncovered, or not
conveniently decked, the spiritual judge
shall have power to take knowledge, not
withstanding the king's prohibition." But
this also is superseded by the abolition of
compulsory church-rates, and so is Canon
85. If the churchwardens or anybody else
wish to erect or add anything new in the
church, or to alter anything, as a new
gallery where there was none before, they

RESERVATION

649-

must have a faculty or licence of the ordi
nary (See Faculty).
REPENTANCE (Lat. re and pceniteo,
from poena, pain ; Gr. irolvr) ; see Penitence,
Penance). A sincere sorrow for all past
transgressions of God's laws, an unfeigned
disposition of mind to perform the will of
God better for the future, and an actual
avoiding and resisting of those temptations
to sin by which we have been overpowered.
REPROACHES (See Creeping to the
Cross). Hymns sung on Good Friday while
the people were prostrate before the cross.
The Reproaches are an expansion of Micah
vi. 3, 4 : "0 my people, what have I done
unto thee ? " &c. [H.]
REQUIEM. A musical mass for the
dead, so called from the words of the
Introit, " Requiem ®temam dona eis,
Domine." [H.]
REREDOS (Fr. Varriere dos ; called by
Bishop Andrewes the backpiece). A screen
behind an altar, of carved stone or metal
work, or drapery. It is not earlier than
the fourteenth century in its later form,
nor under any description previous to the
end of the eleventh or beginning of the
twelfth century. In large conventual
churches, where there is a space behind the
high altar, this was the universal termina
tion of the ritual presbytery ; and sometimes,
as at Winchester, Wells, St. Alban's, York,
and Durham, this screen was of great mag
nificence. In smaller churches, where the
reredos was not required, the altar being at
the extreme east, it is seldom found, though
an arcade, or other enrichment of the space
beneath and at the sides of the east
window, sometimes occurs, as at Hanwell,
Enstone, Solihull and St. Michael's, Oxford.
And occasionally the whole east wall is
highly decorated, as at All Souls, New, and
Magdalene Colleges, Oxford, and some
modem churches. In the Exeter reredos
case (Phillpotts v. Boyd), the question of
the lawfulness of images in a reredos was
settled (See Images). [H.]
RESERVATION OF THE EUCHA
RIST. In very early times this seems to
have been common, in fact it was un
avoidable, owing to the scattered and perse
cuted state of the members of the Church ;
hence Justin Martyr says that the eucharistic
elements (probably from one central altar)
were sent to the absent by the hands of the
deacons (Apol. i. 65) ; and Tertullian relates
that the priest gave them to pious persons
who partook of them daily in secret, for fear
of their enemies, when it was impossible
to hold religious assemblies (Ad Ux. ii. 5 ;
see also De Orat. 19). Several writers, as
St. Cyprian and Eusebius, speak of the
Eucharist being conveyed to the sick (see
Communion of the Sick, III.) ; and indeed

650

RESIDENCE

such reservation seems to have been, in
times of peace, intended only for the sick
{Bona, Rer. Liturg. ii. 17). The so-caUed
Apostolic Constitutions of the fourth
century order the residue of the elements
to be given to the clergy in the chm-ch.
By some councils it was ordered " Eucha-
ristiae gratiam si quis probatur acceptam
in ecclesia non sumpsisse, anathema sit"
(Cone. Cesar Aug. a.d. 381, c. iii. ; Tolet
i. a.d. 398, c. 14). The Council of Tours,
a.d. 566, under Pelagius, required the
Lord's body to be reserved, on the altar,
not in the aumbry, but only under the
cross. The practice of reservation was in
tended to serve three purposes : to quicken
the love of the faithful, to have the ele
ments ready for the communion, and to
furnish without delay the communion of
the sick. Innocent III., in the Lateran
Council, 1215 (c. xx.), ordered that the
Chrism and the Eucharist in all churches
should be reserved (conserventur) under
faithful guard and keep. In England the
Legatine Constitutions at York (a.d. 1195)
require the Host to be kept in a clean and
comely pyx, and renewed every Sunday.
In 1229 reservation was made for seven
days. Archbishop Reynolds, in 1322, re
newed the injunction. Orders of other
English councils and synods will be found
under Communion of the Sick. The first
Prayer Book of Edward VI. had a rubric
for the reservation "at open communion"
for the sick, which was repeated in 1559,
but omitted at the next revision. Our
Articles (xxv., xxviii.) show why the Re
formers deemed it necessary to disallow
reservation ; and there is no doubt that it
had given rise to much superstition. —
Palmer's Orig. Liturg. ii. 229; Maskell,
Mon. Rit. i. eclxxvii. ; Walcott's Sac. Arch.
500 ; Blunt's Annot P. B. 198, 290. [H]
RESIDENCE. The time during which
the clergy are to reside on their benefices,
including cathedral preferments, is now
entirely regulated by statutes, and so it is
unnecessary to repeat the provisions of the
ancient canon law, or " the Queen's ec
clesiastical law" as adopted therefrom, or
the canons relating thereto, or of statutes
which are now repealed or superseded. It
is historically interesting to mention that
this matter was dealt with by statute as
early as 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13, which, among
other things, released royal and peers' and
peeresses' chaplains from residence on their
benefices during service on their chaplaincies,
though it is aU now repealed, and settled
mainly by the same Act as pluralities, viz.
1 & 2 Vict. c. 106. By s. 32 every in
cumbent must reside on his benefice, and
in the house belonging thereto, for nine
months in the vear unless he is licensed by

RESIDENCE
the bishop to be absent longer, or to reside
out of the parsonage and out of the parish
in a house to be specified within three miles
of the church, or two miles if it be a
market town or borough. And by s. 43
the bishop may give a licence for entire
absence for the incumbent's own illness or
that of a wife or child for six months, renew
able only with consent of the archbishop,
or because no convenient house can be got
within the parish ; or finally (by s. 44), for
any other cause to be specified by the bishop
and sent to the archbishop. By s. 46 all
such licences continue only till the end of
the year after that in which they are granted,
or therefore for two years at the most ; but
they are renewable. And they are re
vocable. And in aR cases there is an appeal
to the archbishop when they are refused or
revoked. These and other clauses are as
usual loaded with technicalities of no use
and not worth copying, and are so long
that we can only give their substance and
general effect.
The penalties for non-residence of in
cumbents are by s. 32 : for absence beyond
the three months at any time or times during
the year and up to six, forfeiture of one third
of the annual value of the Uving : up to
eight months, half; and beyond eight
months, two thirds : and for the whole year,
three fourths. And the bishop is authorised
to send every January eighteen questions to
every incumbent, which he is to answer and
sign ; and eleven more to licensed non
resident incumbents respecting their curates.
But the bishop may proceed by monition
instead of suing for penalties (s. 54), and
sequester the living if he disobeys, and
apply the profits thereof to the augmentation
of the living or repairs of the parsonage or
chancel. He may also remit the penalties
if he thinks fit.
The widow of an incumbent or canon may
keep his house for two months (s. 36).
A dean who happens to have a living (of
which there can be very few now), pro
fessors in the two old universities, chaplains
of the Queen and royal family, of bishops,
and the House of Commons, diocesan
chancellors (if clergymen), archdeacons,
preachers of the Inns of Court and the
Rolls, the provost of Eton, warden of Win
chester, master of Charter House, principal
of King's College, London, and of St. David's
College, are all exempt from residence on
their livings while resident at or doing the
duties of those respective offices (s. 38).
And canons (major and minor) may reckon
their cathedral residence as part of their
residence, or any living, but only to the
extent of being absent five months in the
year ; which practically docks them of one,
as cathedral residences are nearly all for

RESIDENTIARY
three months, except that archdeacon-canons
are to reside eight months, but the per
formance of any archidiaconal duties is to
count as residence at the cathedral ; and if
so, what is the use of requiring an archdeacon
to reside longer than the other canons at a
cathedral where he has no special duties?
For archdeacons have nothing to do with
cathedrals, though somebody stuffed " arch
deaconries " into the Act of 1838 as " cathe
dral preferment." [G.]
RESIDENTIARY. The capitular mem
bers of cathedrals, who are bound to re
side a certain time at the cathedral church, to
perform the ordinary duties there, and to
attend more immediately to 'its concerns.
In England, all cathedrals of the old foun
dations had residentiaries , (canons residen
tiary, as they are called), and a much larger
number of prebendaries non-residentiary.
In the new cathedrals there were no non-
residentiary canons, and it was intended by
the authors of the great Cathedral Reform
Act of 1840 that there should be none any
where. But during its progress through
Parliament it was altered into merely
" suspending " the incomes of all non-resi-
dentiaries ; and the residentiaries were
reduced to four in nearly every cathedral,
and are appointed by the Crown or the
bishop in every case if they had been so
before ; whereas in several of the old ones,
Wells, Hereford, and Chichester, they were
elected, or rather, "caUed into residence,"
by the chapter themselves, and at York
by the dean. At Lincoln and St. Paul's a
new residentiary was added to make four
in the patronage of the bishop, but he must
appoint an archdeacon thereto. The non-
residentiaries however retain whatever an
cient rights they had. But the twenty-four
" honorary canons " who were invented at
the same time for the new cathedrals have
no rights of voting either for proctors or the
disposition of chapter patronage, or anything
else (See Cathedral). [G.]
RESIGNATION. I. A resignation is,
where a parson, vicar, or other beneficed
clergyman, voluntarily gives up and sur
renders his charge and preferment to those
from whom he received the same. — Deg.
p. i. c. 14.
II. That ordinary who hath the power
of institution, hath power also to accept of
a resignation made of the same church to
which he may institute ; and therefore the
respective bishop, or other person who,
either by patent under him, or by privilege
or prescription, hath the power of institu
tion, are the proper persons to whom a
resignation ought to be made. And yet a
resignation of a deanery in the king's gift
may be made to the king. And some hold,
that the resignation may well be made to the

RESIGNATION

651

king of a prebend that is no donative ; but
others, on the contrary, have held, that a
resignation of a prebend ought to be made
only to the ordinary of the diocese, and
not to the king as supreme ordinary ; be
cause the king is not bound to give notice
to the patron (as the ordinary is) of the
resignation ; nor can the king make a col
lation by himself without presenting to the
bishop, notwithstanding his supremacy. —
2 Roll's Abr. 358. Watson, c. 4.
But donatives are not resignable to the
ordinary; but to the patron, who hath
power to admit. — Gibson, 822. And if
there be two patrons of a donative and the
incumbent resign to one of them, it is good
for the whole. — Deg. p. i. c. 14.
III. Regularly resignation must be made
in person, and not by proxy. There is in
deed a writ in the register, entitled, litera
procuratoria ad resignandum, by which the
person constituted proctor was enabled to
do all things necessary to be done in order
to an exchange; and, of these things, re
signation was one. And Lyndwood sup-
poseth, that any resignation may be made
by proctor. But in practice there is no
way (as it seemeth) of resigning, but either
to do it by personal appearance before the
ordinary, or at least to do it elsewhere
before a public notary, by an instrument
directed immediately to the ordinary, and
attested by the said notary ; in order to be
presented to the ordinary, by such proper
hand as may pray his acceptance. In
which case the person presenting the in
strument to the ordinary doth not resign
nomine procuratorio, as proctors do ; but
only presents the resignation of the person
already made. — Gibson, 822 ; Deg. p. i.
c. 14; Watson, c. 4.
IV. A collateral condition may not be
annexed to the resignation, no more than
an ordinary may admit upon condition, or
a judgment be confessed upon condition,
which are judicial acts. — Watson, c. 4.
For the words of resignation have always
been pure, sponte, absolute, et simpliciter:
to exclude aU indirect bargains, not only
for money, but for other considerations.
And therefore, in Gayton's case, E. 24
Eliz., where the resignation was to the use
of two persons therein named, and further
limited with this condition, that if one of
the two was not admitted to the benefice
resigned within six months, the resignation
should be void and of none effect; such
resignation, by reason of the condition,
was declared to be absolutely void. — God.
277 ; Gibs. 281 ; 1 Still. 334.
But where the resignation is made for
the sake of exchange only, there it admits
of this condition, viz. if the exchange shall
take full effect, and not otherwise ; as ap-

652

RESIGNATION

pears by the form of resignation, which is
in the register. — Gibson, 821.
V. No resignation can be valid till ac
cepted by the proper ordinary ; that is, no
person appointed to a cure of souls can
quit that cure, or discharge himself of it,
but upon good motives, to be approved by
the superior who committed it to him ; for
it may be he would quit it for money, or
to live idly, or the like. And this is the
law temporal, as well as spiritual ; as ap
pears by that plain resolution which hath
been given, that all presentations made to
benefices resigned, before such acceptance,
are void. And there is no pretence to say,
that the ordinary is obliged to accept ;
since the law hath appointed no known
remedy if he will not accept, any more
than if he wUl not ordain. — Gibs. 822 ; 1
Still. 334.
Lyndwood makes a distinction in this
case between a cure of souls and a sine
cure. The resignation of a sinecure, he
thinks, is good immediately, without the
superior's consent; because none but he
that resigneth hath interest in that case.
But where there is a cure of souls it is
otherwise ; because not he only hath in
terest, but others also unto whom he is
bound to preach the word of God ; where
fore in this case it is necessary, that there
be the ratification of the bishop, or of such
other person as hath power by right or
custom to admit such resignation. — Gib
son, 823.
And in the case of Hesket and Grey,
H. 28 Geo. IL, where a general bond of
resignation was put in suit, and the de
fendant pleaded that he offered to resign,
but the ordinary would not accept the re
signation ; tbe Court of King's Bench were
unanimously of opinion, that the ordinary
is a judicial officer, and is intrusted with
a judicial power to accept or refuse a re
signation as he thinks proper; and judg
ment was given for the plaintiff.
VI. After acceptance of the resignation,
lapse shall not run but from the time of
notice given : it is true the church is void
immediately upon acceptance, and the pa
tron may present if he please; but as to
lapse, the general rule that is here laid
down is the unanimous doctrine of all the
books. Insomuch that if the bishop who
accepted the resignation dies before notice
given, the six months shall not commence
till notice is given, by the guardian of the
spiritualities, or by the succeeding bishop ;
with whom the act of resignation is pre
sumed to remain. — Gibson, 823.
VII. By the 31 Eliz. c. 6, s. 8. If any in
cumbent of any benefice with cure of souls
shall corruptly resign the same; or cor
ruptly take for or in respect of the resign-

RESIGNATION
mg the same, directly or indirectly, any
pension, sum of money, or other benefit
whatsoever, as well the giver as the taker
of any such pension, sum of money, or other
benefit corruptly, shall lose double the
value of the sum so given, taken, or had ;
half to the queen, and half to him that shall
sue for the same in any of her Majesty's
courts of record.
RESIGNATION BONDS. In conse
quence of the decision of the House of
Lords in the cases of Bishop of London v.
Fytche in 1780, against general resignation
bonds, to resign a living at the request of
the patron, and Fletcher v. Lord Sondes in
1826, against a bond to resign for a particu
lar person (3 Bing. 528), two Acts were
passed, one retrospective, 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c.
25, and the other prospective, 9 Geo. IV. c. 94,
under which bonds may be given to resign
in favour of any one person named therein,
or in favour of two not beyond a grand-
nephew of the patron, or one of several
patrons by either blood or marriage (not
including cousins), provided the patron is
not a mere trustee. The Act includes pre
bends by name, but as s. 6 excludes all
official and trustee patrons, it is difficult to
see what prebends it can apply to. These
bonds are generally put in books under
Simony, but have nothing to do with it,
inasmuch as any money consideration would
vitiate the whole transaction just as much
as if no bond were given. [G.]
RESIGNATION FOR PENSION. By
the Incumbents Resignation Act, 1871 (34
& 35 Vict. c. 44), an incumbent during seven
years may request the bishop to issue a
commission to five persons, of whom the
applicant may nominate one, to inquire
whether he ought to resign for any per
manent infirmity, and (with the usual heap
of trumpery technicalities) they may do so
and recommend that he shall receive a
pension from his successor not exceeding
one third of the annual value of the bene
fice : which however is not a third of what
ever the net receipts may be, but a fixed
sum which is to be first charged on the
living. Consequently almost the whole net
value in these recent times in many cases
goes to the ex-cumbent, and hardly any
thing to the in-cumbent. Besides which, it
is notorious that pensions are often awarded
by good-natured neighbours on the com
mission to persons who are in much less
need of them than their successors, and only
wanted an excuse for resigning. As some
clergymen fancy they are entitled to receive
the pension free from income-tax besides, it
is expedient to say here that they are not,
by the Income-tax Acts.
The Bishops Resignation Act, 1869, is to
much the same effect ; only application may

RESPOND
he made to the Crown by an archbishop at
the request of the bishop (unless found
lunatic), and in the case of an archbishop
by the archbishop himself, or two bishops,
that he is incapacitated by permanent
mental or bodily infirmity ; and thereupon
a coadjutor may be appointed, who is to
succeed on the death of his principal, and
the retired bishop is to have either a third
of the income or £2000 a year, whichever
is greatest, and the latter nearly always is,
and the Queen may also assign him his old
residence for life. AVhen Bishop Words
worth resigned in 1885, he would take no
pension. Coadjutor bishops existed in very
early times ; but not one has yet been ap
pointed under the Act (See Bingham's
Orig. Ecc). [G.J
RESPOND : RESPONSORY. Before
the Reformation a short anthem was so
called, which was sung after reading three
or four verses of a chapter ; after which the
chapter proceeded.
The responds were supposed to give the
keynote of the lection, but frequently the
sense was broken up rather than illustrated.
The aspect in fact which the lectionary part
of the office assumed was that of an elaborate
piece of music, interrupted at intervals by a
very brief recitation out of Holy Scripture
as a homily. — Freeman's Princ. Div. IVors.
i. 340-1 ; Palmer's Orig. Liturg. ii. 46 ;
for examples of responds see Proctor, P. B.
184. [H.]
RESPOND. A half pillar attached to a
wall, to support one side of an arch, of which
the other side rests on a pillar. It has its
name from responding or answering to a
pillar. RESPONSES. The answers made by
the choir and people after the versicles or
preces in the Litany after the command
ments, &c.
The Responses, or Responsals, as some
writers call them, may be said to be of four
kinds : 1. Those which consist of Amen
after the 'prayers. 2. Those which follow
the versicles or suffrages. 3. The short
prayers or anthems, interposed between
each commandment in the Communion
Service. 4. Those which are repetitions of
what the minister has said, as in tbe con
fession, some parts of the Litany, &c. And
with regard to those the usage is not
uniform ; for one sometimes hears each
sentence of the confession said by the
minister and then repeated by the people,
and sometimes both together. On the other
hand, the first four sentences of the Litany
are always sung by the choir distinct from
the minister, though he may sing them.
The Apostles' and Nicene creeds are always
said and sung continuously, and the minister
is scarcely heard at all in them.

RESURRECTION

653

The repeating the confession with the
minister instead of after him is no doubt an
irregularity. The two things are quite
distinct, as appears by the rubrics. Those
parts which are said with the minister are
the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles' creed and
Nicene creed. Those which are said after him
are the general confession, and (by analogy,
for precise rubrical directions are wanting)
that in the Communion Service, and the
prayer, " Turn Thou us," &c, in the com
mination. " Each clause of the confession is
marked by a capital letter commencing it . . .
and ought to be repeated in each instance
when the minister has paused " (Jebb, Chor.
Serv. p. 250). Bishop Cosin erased the
word " after " in this rubric, and substituted
" with " ; but the original word was care
fully restored, showing that a distinction
was intended. But as the saying after the
minister was on account of the incapability
of the people to read, and such a reason no
longer exists, the custom generally is to
repeat the confession continuously with the
minister. [H.]
RESPONSORIES (See Respond).
RESTORATION. The name generally
given to the return of the lawful king,
Charles IL, in 1660 ; and the restoration of
the ancient ecclesiastical polity, which was
re-established by the Act of Uniformity of
1662, called 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4, under
which the intruding and unordained Presby
terians and Independents who had got
possession of church livings instead of their
lawful incumbents, were turned out again if
they refused to conform. The Dissenters
always talk of that as an act of tyranny,
and expect us to forget that those who were
so expelled were usurpers by whom the
lawful owners had been turned out, and
that they were allowed to stay, if tbey
chose to be ordained, and conform to the
old Liturgy ; and that three times as many
clergy, besides all the bishops, had been
ejected by their own party. [G.]
RESURRECTION. There are many
passages in the Old Testament, which either
obscurely hint at the resurrection, or im
mediately refer to it (Job xix. 23-27;
Dan. xii. 2 ; Isa. xxv. 8 : xxvi. 19 ; Hosea
vi. 2: xiu. 14; Ezek. xxxvii. 1-14). It
follows indeed from the promise of a
redeemer. A redeemer was promised as
a blessing to Adam and the patriarchs ;
but when Adam and the first patriarchs
died, how was the coming of the Redeemer
to be a blessing to them? The answer-
is given by Job : " I know that my Re
deemer liveth, and that at the latter day
he shall stand upon the earth; whom I
shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall
behold;" i.e. by being raised from the
dead. The doctrine of the resurrection of

654

RESURRECTION

the dead is one of the great articles of the
Christian faith. We believe that Jesus
died and rose again ; we also believe, for so
we are taught in the New Testament, that
"them which sleep in Jesus will God
bring with him," that " Christ by, his rising
became the first fruits of, them that slept,"
that "the dead shall be raised incorrupt
ible," that " the grave and the sea shall give
up their dead," that at this resurrection
" the dead in Christ shall rise first," that
the Lord Jesus Christ will change "our
vile body, that it may be fashioned like
unto his glorious body, according to the
working whereby he is able to subdue all
things to himself" (1 Thess. iv. 14-16;
1 Cor. xv. 20-52; Rev. xx. 13; Phil.
iii. 21).
As Christ, the " first fruits of them that
slept " (1 Cor. xv. 20), arose from the dead,
so shall there be also a general resurrec
tion of the body ; for he " that raised up
Christ from the dead shall also quicken our
mortal bodies (Rom. viii. 11). A seem
ing difficulty, however, attends the latter
case, which does not the former. The body
of Christ did not " see corruption ; " but we
know that in our case, " after the skin
worms shall destroy the body itseff," and
that " yet in our flesh shaU we see God "
(Job xix. 26). We must remember, how
ever, that Job had no such clear revelation
of the nature of the resurrection as St.
Paul. 1 Cor. xv. 35 to the end is clearly
intended to refute the notion that the same
flesh or particles of it will form the future
spiritual body and the present natural one.
And therefore it has been prophesied that,
notwithstanding this destruction of the body,
yet in our " flesh " (that is, in the flesh of
our spiritual body) shall we " see God,"
and our " eyes shall behold him " (Job
xix. 26); that the "dead men shaU live,"
and with the " dead body, arise ; " for
"the earth shall cast out the dead" (Isa.
xxvi. 19), and that they that "sleep in
the dust of the earth shall awake, some
to everlasting life, and some to shame
and everlasting contempt" (Dan. xii. 2),
so shall it be accomplished : " there shaU
be a resurrection of the dead " (Acts xxiv.
15) ; " the hour is coming when the dead
— all that are in the grave — shall hear the
voice of the Son of God," and " shaU come
forth;" the "sea" and "death and hell"
(or the grave) " shall deliver up the dead
which are in them " (Rev. xx. 13).
This our Lord, who calls himself "the
Resurrection and the Life " (St. John xi. 25),
proved to the Sadducees from the Old
Testament; since He who was then the
God of their fathers " is not the God of
the dead, but of the living " (St. Matt. xxii.
32). St. Paul too confirms the doctrine

REVELATION
by most powerful reasoning ; declaring, that
if there be no resurrection of the dead,
then is " Christ not risen ; " and then is
their " faith " vain ; and he shows, in
answer to cavillers, that, as Christ is risen,
"the first-fruits," — so shall "all be made
alive, exemplifying the probability and the
manner of this by a familiar illustration
(1 Cor. xv. 12-23, 35-49).
It shall be too a resurrection of the
body, every one his own body as it " shall
please" God' to give him; although the
" natural body," " sown in corruption, —
in dishonour, — and in weakness," shall' he
"raised a spiritual body, — in incorruption,
in glory, and in power." The "earthly
house" shall have " a building of God" (2
Cor. v. 1) ; the " corruptible " shaU " put
on incorruption ; " and the " mortal, im
mortality." Those that do "not sleep"
shall "be changed," — "caught up in the
clouds to meet the Lord" (1 Thess. iv.
17). We believe in this article, as the great
truth it contains is for the glory of God's
eternal government, "the hand of the
Lord shall be known towards his servants,
and his indignation towards his enemies"
(Isa. Ixvi. 14); as it proves the value of
tbe " gospel," which has " brought hfe and
immortality to light" (2 Tim. i. 10); as it
consoles us under "afflictions," which are
" but for a moment : " since we know that
our " Redeemer liveth ; " and that we
"sorrow not," therefore, "as others which
have no hope " (1 Thess. iv. 13, with 14-
18) ; and excites us "to have always a con
science void of offence toward God and
toward men" (Acts. xxiv. 16; with 15);
since " it is a fearful thing to faU into the
bands of the living God! " (Heb. x. 31)—
of " him that is able to destroy both soul
and body in hell " (St. Matt. x. 28). There
fore should we be " always abounding in"
the work of the Lord ; forasmuch as we
know that our labour in the Lord is not
in vain " (1 Cor. xv. 58).
RETABLE. A shelf or ledge behind
the altar ; properly a part of the reredos.
On it are placed the candlesticks and cross.
It is sometimes called, but incorrectly, the
Super- Altar (See Super-Altar).
REVELATION. I. The Divine com
munication of the sacred truths of religion
(See Bible, Scripture).
II. The Apocalypse, or prophecy of St.
John, revealing future things. This is the
last book of Holy Scripture, and it con
tains the revelations made to St. John at
Patmos. It is quoted as an inspired book
by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of
Alexandria, TertuUian, and other Fathers
of the first three centuries. Its authen
ticity and genuineness were never disputed

REVERENCE
until a prejudice was excited against it by
the follies of certam Millenarians, who
thought to support their conclusions by its
authority. But the Church never doubted
of its being a portion of Scripture, or of its
Divine origin. Indeed, few books of the
New Testament have more complete evi
dence of canonical authority than the Book
of Revelation. It treats, 1. " Of the things
which were then " (i. 19), i.e. of the state
of the Church in the time of St. John ;
and, 2. " Of things which should be here
after," or of the history of the Church, its
propagation, corruption, reformation, and
triumph. The preponderance of evidence
is greatly in favour of its having been
written in the time of Domitian, after
the destruction of Jerusalem. Its interpre
tation has been the subject of too much
dispute to enter upon here. Even the
popish expositors admit that the city on
seven hills means Eome, at one time or
another. REVERENCE (Lat. reverentia, Fr.
reverer). Awe mingled with respect and
esteem. Whatever brings him near to God
is by the Christian regarded with reverence,
such as the Holy Scriptures, the rites and
ceremonies of the Church, the buildings
consecrated to His worship. Especial reve
rence was always paid at the reading of the
Gospel in the service of the Eucharist. In
the Eastern Church the book of the Gospels
is carried in procession to the altar, the rite
being caUed the " Little Entrance," as the
procession bearing the Elements to the
altar is called the " Great Entrance." In
England formerly lights were burned on
either side of the Gospeller, to signify that
the Gospel is from Him who is the Light of
the world. This was dropped at the Refor
mation, as not being a primitive usage ; but
the versicle, " Glory be to Thee, 0 Lord," is
m most churches sung after the announce
ment of the Gospel. It was printed in the
earlier Prayer Books, and is continued by
long custom. The people also stand at the
reading of the Gospel. Sozomen, the ec
clesiastical historian, says that there was
only one exception in his time to this
custom, namely, that of the bishop of
Alexandria. St. Chrysostom refers to it
(Horn. i. in Matt), and in Apostolical
Constitutions (ii. c. 57) the direction is
given, " When the Gospels are being read,
let all the priests and deacons, and all the
people, stand up in great quietness ; for it
is written, ' Be still and hearken, 0 Israel,'
and again, 'But do thou stand here and
listen.' " Hooker, writing on this custom,
says, " It showeth a reverend regard to
the Son of God above all other messengers,
although speaking as from God also. And
against all who derogate from the honour

RING

655

of Jesus Christ, such ceremonies are most
profitable" (Eccles. Pol. xxx. 3).
Archbishop Laud, at a time when reve
rence had dwindled to a minimum, was
accused of making reverence to the East
on entering or leaving a church, and in
certain ceremonies; but he denied that
reverence was paid to the fabric or the
altar, or any such thing, but to Him who
hath taken possession of His house, and in
Whose honour all is done. — Hook's Arch
bishops, xi. 195; Blunt's Annot. P. B.
ii. 169. [H.]
REVEREND. Venerable, deserving
reverence and respect. It is the title given
to ecclesiastics of the second and third
orders, the archbishops being styled most
reverend, and the bishops right reverend.
Deans are very reverend, and archdeacons
venerable. In foreign churches, where females
are ordained to offices in the Church, ab
besses and prioresses are called reverend
mothers. It was so in our own Church
before the Reformation, but since that
time the custom of consecrating females
to the service of God, except so far as all lay
persons are so consecrated at holy baptism
and at confirmation, has ceased. The more
zealous Protestants at the time of the
Reformation, and especiaUy during the
Great Rebellion, very strongly objected to
the title of reverend, as implying too much
to be given to a mere creature, and because
of God only it may be said with propriety,
" Holy and reverend is his name." But
dissenting preachers are in these days
ambitious of the title. The Privy Council!
decided in Keet v. Smith, 1 P. D. 73, that
an incumbent cannot refuse to allow a dis
senting preacher to be called "reverend"
on his gravestone, for that it is not strictly
a clerical title, as was clearly proved from
history. RICHARD, ST., bishop of Chichester,
was born at Wiche, in Worcestershire, in
the thirteenth century. He was at one
time Professor of Civil Law at Bologna.
In 1245 he was appointed by the arch
bishop (Boniface) to the see of Chichester
in opposition to Passelew, the king's nomi
nee. The king, however, afterwards gave
way, and St. Richard, residing at Chichester.
gained a great reputation for his piety and
saintliness. A path up to the cloister is
still caUed St. Richard's Walk. Lincoln's
Inn Chapel was dedicated to him. Com
memorated April 3. — Hook's Archbishops,
ni. 239 ; Stephens' Memorials of South
Saxon See, pp. 83-93. [H.]
RING, (1) in Holy Matrimony. Im
mediately after the mutual promises in the
office of Matrimony, the ceremony occurs of
placing a ring on the finger of the woman.
This is of great antiquity, and was pro-

656

RING

RITES

bably adopted by the early Christians from
the customs with which they were familiar,
as having been previously Jews or heathens
(Selden, Uxor. Hebr. lib. ii. c. 25). Ter
tullian speaks of the nuptial ring which the
husband had placed on the matron's finger
(Apol. c. 6 ; see also de Idol, c 16). St.
Ambrose also speaks of the Annulus as
amongst the rites of espousal (Ep. 34).
'J he object of this is stated in the prayer
following in our service, to be " a token and
pledge" of the vow and covenant just made
by the parties. Ritualists have supposed
that the ring was also a pledge or earnest of
that honourable maintenance and partici
pation in " wordly goods " which are pro
mised in that part of the office where the
ceremony takes place. It has also been
considered as a sign or seal of admittance
of the wife to " the nearest friendship and
highest trust " which it was in the husband's
power to give. It is probable that there is
weight in all these opinions, though the
former seems to be the prominent one in
the view of the Church.
Various analogies and figurative appli
cations have sprung from the ceremony of
the ring, some of which may be thus stated.
The matter of which this ring is made is
gold, to signify how noble and durable our
affection is ; the form is round, to imply
that our respect shall never have an end ;
the place of it is on the fourth finger of the
left hand, where the ancients thought was
=. vein which came directly from the heart,
and where it may be always in view (ac
cording to the old rubric, "quia in medio
est quaedam vena procedens usque ad cor ") ;
and, being a finger least used, where it may
be least subject to be worn out. But the
main end is to be a visible and lasting
token and remembrance of this covenant,
which must never be forgotten; and if in
ordinary bargains we have some lasting
thing delivered as an earnest or pledge and
memorial, much more is it needful here ;
and to scruple a thing so prudent and well
designed, so anciently and universally used,
does not deserve our serious consideration.
Indeed, although the ring in marriage used
to be regarded as a remnant of Popery by
ultra-Protestants, it is now universally
used. Even Bucer, a man who would bring
down any ceremonies to a minimum, ap
proved of this as " decent and proper "
(Bucer, Censur. p. 488).
" Besides the pledge of our truth," says
Dean Comber, " there is a visible pledge
also — namely, the ring, which being an
ciently the seal by which all orders were
signed, and all choice things secured, the
delivery of this was a sign that the party to
whom it was given was admitted into the
nearest friendship and the highest trust,

so as to be invested with our authority,
and allowed to manage our treasure and
other concerns (Gen. xii. 42), and hence it
came to be a token of love (St. Luke xv. 22),
and was used in matrimony, not only
among the Jews and Gentiles, but the
Christians also, who, in Clemens Alexan
drinus' time, gave their spouse a ring, to
declare her worthy of the government of the
family; and thus it hath been used ever
since " (The reference is to Clem. Pedagog.
iii. c. 11).
The ring, according to the form in the
Sarum Manual, was first placed on the
thumb at the next invocation of the First
Person of the Trinity, and on the next finger
at the name of the Second, on the next at the
name of the Third, and on the fourth finder
at the word Amen. — Bingham, bk. xxii.
c. iii. 5 ; Wheatly, p. 426 ; Blunt's Annot.
P. B. ii. 268 (See Betrothal, Accustomed
Duty). (2) In investitures. A ring was anciently
given to bishops on their consecration,
with these words, "Accipe annulum dis-
cretionis et honoris fidei signum; ut qu®
signanda, signes; et qu® aperienda sunt,
aperias; qu® Uganda sunt, liges; quae
solvenda sunt, solvas." It was worn on
different fingers, most frequently on the
middle finger of the right hand ; and was a
sign of the bridegroom's espousal of the
Church in her representative, the bishop
(See Maskell, Mon. Rit. ii. 280, 289).
Investiture with the ring and staff, which
signified a spiritual character and office, was
always claimed by the Church, though
sometimes unjustly usurped by temporal
princes. It was used also in creating
Doctors of Divinity.
Many episcopal rings are preserved, as,
for instance, Athelstan's in the British
Museum, Bishop Gardiner's at Winchester,
three at Chichester, one with a Gnostic gem
of the twelfth century ; two at York of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; two at
Hereford of the fifteenth century. — Wal
cott's Sac. Arch. 506. [H.]
RITES (Lat. ritus). Religious ob
servances prescribed by competent au
thority. Rites either directly appertain to
religion, or indirectly refer to it. The
former embrace the whole exterior of re
ligious worship ; the latter everything, ex
cept direct worship, that is accounted
religious and proper. This part of religious
history is very extensive, and can only he
briefly touched upon here.
In the Gospels and Epistles there are but
few rules laid down as to ritual matters.
In the Epistles there are some general rules
given, that must apply in a great many
cases ; such as, " Let all things be done to
edification, to order, and to peace" (Rom.

RITES
xiv. 19 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 40) : and in the
Epistles to Timothy and Titus many rules
are given in such general words as, " Lay
hands suddenly on no man," that, in order
to the guiding of particular cases by them,
many distinctions -and specialities were to
be interposed, to making them practicable
and useful. In matters that are merely
ritual, the state of mankind in different
cUmates and ages is apt to vary ; and the
same things, that in one scene of human
nature may look grave, and seem fit for any
society, may in another age look light, and
dissipate men's thoughts. It is also evident
that there is not a system of rules given in
the New Testament about all these; and
yet a due method in them is necessary, to
maintain the order and decency that become
Divine things. This seems to be a part of
the gospel " liberty," that it is not " a law
of ordinances " (Gal. ii. 4 : iv. 9 : v. 1) ;
these things being left to be varied ac
cording to the diversities of mankind (See
Article 34).
In the very early ages of the Christian
Church each bishop was at liberty to use
what indifferent rites he thought fit in
his own church, without being account
able for bis practice to any other. If
however they introduced anything that
might be destructive of the truth, they were
obnoxious to the censure of all other bishops ;
and every individual of the whole Catholic
coUege of bishops was authorised to oppose
them, from which arose general councUs.
Later on rites and ceremonies increased in
number and magnificence, and a new kind
of science arose, both in the East and West,
the object of which was to investigate and
explain the grounds and reasons of the
sacred rites ; and the professors thereof are
called Ritualists. From the time of Gregory
the Great, who prescribed a magnificent
mode of administering the Holy Eucharist,
called the Canon of the Mass, rites and
ceremonies multiplied, though it was some
time before the other Latin Churches could
be prevailed upon to adopt the Roman form.
In Gaul the old liturgy, with its rites,
continued tiU the reign of Charles the
Great. In Spain the Mozarabic was not
superseded by the Roman liturgy tiU the
thirteenth and foRowing centuries. In
England the Ancient Britons had one
Uturgy, and the Angu>Saxons received
another from St. Augustine, which, how
ever, was not precisely the Roman. At the
Reformation those rites which were deemed
by the Reformers as superfluous, or tending
to superstition, were abolished. " Some
were taken away, others were retained for
discipline and order" (See Ceremonies,
Liturgy, Prayer Book). — Bingham, ii., vi.
1; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 77-81. [H.]

RITUALISTS

657

RITUAL (Rituale). A book or manual
in which is given the order and forms to be
observed in the celebration of Divine service,
the administration of the sacraments, and,
in general, all matters connected with ex
ternal order, in the performance of sacred
offices. The English ritual resembles that of the
Eastern Church in the circumstance of
combining all the offices of the Church in
one volume. The Euchologium, or ritual
of the Greeks, now comprises the offices for
morning and evening prayer, the liturgy or
Eucharist, baptism, litany, orders, &c. The
Western Churches have more commonly
divided these offices into at least four parts,
entitled, the Breviary, the Missal or
liturgical book, the Ritual, and the Ponti
fical. The ritual and pontifical correspond
to that part of the English ritual which
begins with the Office of Baptism. The
ritual (termed in the English uses of Salis
bury and York, and elsewhere, manual,)
comprised all those occasional offices of the
Church which a presbyter could administer.
The pontifical contained those only which a
bishop could perform.
The Euchologium, or ritual of the Greek
Church, Ulustrated with notes by Goar, is
well known and easily accessible, and
furnishes abundant information with regard
to all the rites of the Catholic Church in
the East. The baptismal and some other
occasional offices of the Jacobites or Mon-
nophysites of Alexandria, Antioch, and
Armenia, and of the Nestorians, have been
pubUshed by Assemani in his " Codex
Lijturgicus." Many of the Oriental offices
for ordination, as well as all the Western,
are to be found in the learned treatise of
Morinus, " De Ordinationibus." The most
valuable collection of records relative to
the occasional offices of the Western
Churches has been published by Martene,
in his work, "De antiquis Ecclesi® Riti-
bus." This author, with indefatigable in
dustry, transcribed and edited a multitude
of ancient manuscripts, and collected what
ever had previously been published. So
that there is scarcely any branch of ritual
knowledge which he has not greatly eluci
dated. — Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii. 166.
RITUALISTS. 1. Those who investi
gate and explain the grounds and reasons of
the sacred rites : persons learned and skiUed
in ritual (See Rites.)
II. The name was also given to those
who, in a time when there was great care
lessness in carrying on the church services,
attempted to follow out with exactness the
rubrics of the Prayer Book. Subse
quent " ritualists " have gone beyond this,
and adopted rites and ceremonies not re
cognised though not prohibited in the Prayer
2 u

658

RITUALISTS

Book, and some of which can certainly
be traced to primitive times (see Lights ;
MixedChalice; Vestments). From these prac
tices much controversy and many lawsuits
have ensued (see Rubric). In Martin v.
Mackonochie, 1868, it was laid down by
the final Court of Appeal that lights on the
altar, the use of incense, and the mixing of
water with the wine at the Holy Com
munion were illegal. In Hebbert v. Purchas,
1871, the Judicial Committee again de
cided that the rites above mentioned
and the use of vestments were illegal.
As there were great dfficulties in the
way of a general enforcement of the law as
laid down in these judgments, it was
deemed necessary to bring forward the
" Public Worship Regulation Act " (q.v.) to
provide a more summary means of legal
procedure. In the face of most powerful
opposition, the Act passed, and came into
operation July 1, 1875. The chief provi
sions are — a representation may be made
by an archdeacon or churchwarden, or by
any three parishioners, or in the case of a
cathedral, by any three male inhabitants of
the diocese, who sign a declaration that they
are members of the Church of England, and
who for the previous year have had their
abode in the parish or diocese, if they are
of opinion (1) that any alteration in or
addition to the fabric of the church or
ornaments has been made without lawful
authority ; (2) if the incumbent has used,
or permitted to be used, any unlawful
ornament, or neglected to use any prescribed
ornament or vesture ; (3) if he has neglected
to observe the directions of the Prayer Book
or made (or permitted) any unlawful
addition to, alteration of, or omission from
the services, rites, and ceremonies thereby
ordered. The " representation " is to be
sent to the bishop, who (unless he is of
opinion that proceedings should not betaken
on the representation, in which case he must
state his reasons in writing) must, within
twenty-one days, send a copy of the re
presentation to the person complained of,
and require both parties to state in writing,
within twenty-one days, whether they are
willing to submit to his directions in the
matter without appeal. If they consent,
the bishop hears the case and pronounces
judgment. If not, the bishop sends the
representation to the archbishop, who
requires the judge specially appointed by
the Act to hear the matter. The evidence
is given viva voce in open court, and upon
oath. The judge pronounces judgment,
issues such monition, if any, and makes
such order as to costs as it may require.
An appeal lies to Her Majesty in council.
Obedience by an incumbent to a monition
or order of the judge can be enforced by an

ROCHET
order inhibiting the incumbent from per
forming any service of the church within
the diocese for a term not exceeding three
months ; and after that term the inhibition
must not be relaxed until the incumbent
shall undertake (in writing) to pay due
obedience. If the prohibition remains in
force for more than three years, the benefice
becomes void, and it is not lawful to present
the same incumbent to it again. The
bishop may during an inhibition, unless he
is satisfied that due provision is otherwise
made, provide for the service of the church,
and raise the requisite sum by sequestration
of the profits of the benefice.
Clifton and others v. Ridsdale, sometimes
called the Folkestone Ritual case, was the
first important case dealt with by the Act.
The charges were — (1) use of lighted candles
at celebration of Holy Communion; (2)
mixing water with the wine ; (3) use of
wafer bread; (4) the eastward position;
(5) kneeling during prayer of consecration ;
(6) singing the Agnus Dei directly after
the consecration; (7 and 8) forming pro
cessions with acolyths in red cassocks and
short surplices, banners, processional cross
before and during the communion, &c. ; (9)
use of vestments called "chasuble" and
" alb " ; (10) celebrating Holy Communion
with less than three receiving ; (11) erecting
a crucifix ; (12) having the " stations of the
cross " (q. v.). Judgment was given against
all these practices. On appeal the Judicial
Committee of P. C. decided that the eastward
position is not unlawful. In the case of the
Rev. Sidney Faithhorn Green, incumbent of
St. John, Miles Platting, an inhibition was
served on him after trial on account of
"Rlegal practices;" but he refused to ac
knowledge it, and continued to officiate.
After being warned he was committed to
prison, and remained in Lancaster gaol for
nineteen months. [H.]
ROCHET or ROCHETTE (in our Prayer
Book Rotchet). A linen garment worn by
bishops under the chimere. The word is
derived from the Anglo-Saxon roc by
Spelman, but by others (as Meursias and
Ferrarius) from the German roch. It was
the bishops' ordinary garment in public
during the middle ages. The rochette is
spoken of in the old "Ordo Romanus,"
under the title of linea ; and has, no doubt,
been very anciently used by bishops in the
Western Church. The word Rochette,
however, is not of any great antiquity, and
perhaps cannot be traced further back than
the thirteenth century (Gavanti, Thesaur.
torn. 1, p. 142). Gavanti thinks that the
linea worn by St. Cyprian was the same
as the rochette, in which Baronius agrees.
The chief difference between this garment
and the surplice was, that it was of finer

ROGATION DAYS
material, and that its sleeves were narrower
than those of tbe latter ; for we do not per
ceive in any of the ancient pictures of
English bishops those very wide and full
lawn sleeves which are now used, which
sleeves are now improperly attached to tho
chimere or black satin robe. It differs also
from the albe in reaching only to the knees.
Dr. Hody says, that in the reign of Henry
VIII., our bishops wore a scarlet garment
under the rochette ; and that, in the time
of Edward VI., they wore a scarlet chimere,
like the doctors' dress at Oxford, over the
rochette ; which, in the time of Queen
Elizabeth, was changed for the black satin
chimere used at present. — History of Con
vocations, p. 141 (See Chimere).
The chimere seems to resemble the gar
ment used by bishops during the middle
ages, and called mantelletum; which was
a sort of cope, with apertures for the
arms to pass through. — Ducange's Glossary,
s. v. ; Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii. 407.
In some foreign cathedrals, the canons wore
rochets, as well as other episcopal ornaments.
ROGATION DAYS (So called from
rogare, " to beseech "). They are three
days immediately before the festival of
Ascension. These litany or rogation days
were first instituted by Mamertus, bishop
of Vienne, in the fifth century. Mamertus
was not the originator of litanical suppli
cations, but was the first institutor of the
rogation fast, and the first who applied
the use of litanies on these days, accom
panied with public processions, which con
tinued till the ®ra of the Reformation
{Greg. Turon. Hist. lib. ii. 34). The
rogation days of Mamertus were before long
received in Gaul, and afterwards in Spain.
They were ordered to be observed in the
English Church by the Council of Clovesho,
a.d. 747. But though these three days
were set apart for litanies, they were also
celebrated when any particular circumstance
rendered it desirable (See Litany). It
was thought fit at the Reformation to
continue the observance of these days as
private fasts. There is no office, or order
of prayer, or even single collect, appointed
for the rogation days in the Prayer Book ;
but among the homilies there is one
designed for the improvement of these
days. The requisitions of the Church
are "abstinence" and " extraordinary acts
and exercises of devotion." Perambulations
were in many parishes observed in the
rogation days (See Bounds, Beating of;
Gang-days). ROMANISM. ROMANISTS : called
also Roman Catholics, and sometimes,
chiefly by themselves, "Catholics," but
the latter is not a distinctive title, as they
have no possible exclusive claim to it.

ROMANISM

659

Christians who follow the doctrine and
discipline of the Church of Rome. The
doctrine of that Church may be seen in
Pope Pius's Creed, and its discipline under
various articles relating to the Christians
(See Church of Rome, Popery, Baptism,
Eucharist, Sec. ; Bishops, Presbyters, Dea
cons, Sec).
The Toleration Act of 1688, by which
the Protestant Dissenters were relieved
from many of the disabilities that pre
viously attached to them, procured no
change in the position of the Roman
CathoUcs. They still remained subjected
to the penalties inflicted by the various
statutes which, since Elizabeth's accession,
had been passed for their discouragement.
These were exceedingly severe. Apart
from the punishments awarded for the
semi-political offence of denying, or re
fusing to admit, the sovereign's supremacy,
the Acts of Recusancy (1 Eliz. c. 2, and
23 Eliz. c. 1) exposed them to considerable
fines for non-attendance at the service of
the Established Church; and by other
statutes they were not permitted to estab
lish schools in England, nor to send their
children to be taught abroad — they were
excluded from aU civil and military offices,
from seats in either House of Parliament,
and from the practice of the law, — they
were not allowed, to vote at parliamentary
elections, — proselytes to Popery, and those
who were the means of their conversion,
were subjected to the penalties of treason,
— and, by various oaths and tests, as well
as by express provision, they were hindered
in the exercise of their religious worship,
and prevented from promulgating their
doctrines. Their condition had, in fact,
deteriorated in the reign of WiUiam III.
— some enactments of especial rigour being
sanctioned. Whether from the effect of these enact
ments, or from the natural progress of the
principles of Protestantism, it is certain
that at this time the number of professing
Roman Catholics in England, who, in the
reign of Elizabeth, were, according to Mr.
Butler, a majority, or, according to Mr.
Hallam, a third of the population, had
considerably declined. But the estimates
of both these writers were simply guesses,
and unsupported by historical evidence.
But there seems no doubt that only 189
of the Marian clergy seceded under Eliza
beth's Act of Uniformity, though fifteen
bishops did, refusing to acknowledge her
supremacy : exactly the same number as
were deprived by Mary, with the addition
that she burnt five of them. A report
presented to William, who was at great
pains to find out the proportion between
Churchmen, Dissenters, and Papists, with a
2 u 2

660

ROMANISM

view to reconciling the religious differences
in England, is as follows :

Conformists

Non-Con formist.*.

Papists.

Province of Canterbury
Province of York . .

2,123,362 353,892

93,15115,325

11,878 1,978

2,477,2542,477,254

108,476 108,476

1.3,85613,856

Total .

4,954,508

216,952

27,712

The estimate was taken on the adult
population, and an equal number put down
for children under sixteen years of age.
The total nearly agrees with the number at
which the population of England and Wales
was estimated at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, namely, six millions
(Dalrymple's Memoirs, app. to part ii. p.
14). Not much alteration in the position
of the Roman Catholics took place for
nearly a century after the Revolution. As
the temper of the times grew milder, many
of the penal laws were not enforced ; though,
while the throne remained exposed to the
pretensions of the Stuart family, the laws
themselves continued on the Statute Book :
indeed, some further measures were enacted
during the agitations consequent upon the
Rebellion of 1715. When, however, in
the person of George III., the Brunswick
dynasty was firmly settled on the throne,
a course of mitigating legislation was
commenced, which gradually relieved the
Roman Catholics from all restraints upon
their worship, and from nearly all the in
capacities attached to their religion. In
1778, the first remedial Act was passed,
repealing the provision in the 10th and
12th of William III., by which the Roman
Catholics were disabled from taking lands
by descent. The Gordon riots of 1780
rather aided than retarded the advance of
public sentiment towards additional relief;
and, in 1791, Mr. Pitt (having obtained
from the chief continental universities
unanimous opinions that the pope possessed
no civil authority in England, that he
cannot absolve the subjects of a sovereign
from their allegiance, and that the princi
ples of the Roman Catholic faith do not
excuse or justify a breach of faith with
heretics) procured the passing of another
bill, by which, upon taking a form of oath
prescribed, the Roman Catholics were se
cured against most of the penalties pro
nounced by former Acts. They were left,
however, still subjected to the Test and
Corporation Acts, by which they were ex
cluded from all civil and military offices,
were prohibited from sitting in either House
of Parliament, and were disabled from

ROMANISM
presenting to advowsons. The removal of
the chief of these remaining disabilities was
zealously urged upon the parliament for many
years successively. In 1813 an important
measure, framed with this intention, was
defeated in the Commons by a majority of
only four ; while, in 1821, a bill to the
same effect passed through the lower House,
but was rejected by the Peers. At length,
in 1828, the Test and Corporation Acts
were abrogated, and in 1829 the Roman
Catholic Emancipation Act (10 Geo. IV.
c. 7) bestowed on Roman Catholics sub
stantially the same amount of toleration
which was granted to the Protestant Dis
senters. England had been divided by Pope
Innocent XI. (probably in consequence of
the favourable attitude of James n.) into
four districts, with a vicar-apostolic to
each. But, as has been pointed out above,
Romanism for many years declined, though
the arrangement of Innocent remained. On
July 20, 1840, Pope Gregory XVI. re-
divided the four districts into eight, and
fourteen vicars-apostolic were appointed to
these between 1840 and 1850. • These
vicars-apostolic had been consecrated nomi
nally to dioceses "in partibus infidelium,"
and bore such titles as bishops of Samosata,
Ariopolis, Olena, &c. But under the in
stigation and management of Cardinal
Wiseman, Pope Pius IX. (Pio Nono), on
Sept. 29, 1850, divided England into thirteen
dioceses bearing English titles. These are
Westminster, Beverley, Birmingham, Clifton,
Hexham and Newcastle, Liverpool, Menevia
and Newport, Northampton, Nottingham,
Plymouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, and South
wark. Cardinal Wiseman was appointed
the titular archbishop of Westminster, and
was succeeded in 1865 by Henry Edward
Manning, formerly rector of Lavington,
Sussex, and archdeacon of Chichester.
Twenty years before, in 1845, Manning
had declaimed against the intrusion of an
uncanonical jurisdiction on the British
Churches, which, was clearly an act of
schism, and aggravated by every kind of
aggression. " It must never be forgotten,"
he said, "that the act of the bishop of
Rome, by which a most grievous and stub
born contest was begun in the English
Church, was taken not in the character of
Patriarch, but in the title of Supreme
Pontiff. The same Bull which made a rent
in every English diocese professed also to
depose the Queen of England. It was a
power to give away not sees only, but
thrones also ; and the effect of this has
been, as in the East, so in England, to
erect altar against altar, and succession
against succession. In the formation of
sects in diocesan churches, in the exclusive

ROOD LOFT
assumption of the name Catholics, in the
re-ordination of priests, and in restricting
the One Church to their own Communion,
there has been no such example of division
since the schism of Donatus" (Manning's
Unity of the Church, 364, 2nd ed.). This
division, or schism, as he called it, the
Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster now
heads. Including eleven coadjutor, or
auxiliary bishops, the number of Romanist
archbishops and bishops now holding nomi
nal office in the British Empire is 129.
The members in various parts of Great
Britain may be computed at about
2,600,000 ; in Ireland they numbered in
1881, 3,951,888. [Et.]
ROOD LOFT (Old Eng. rod: Sax.
roda ; a gallows or cross). A gallery
running along the top of the rood screen,
which in parish churches usually crossed
the chancel arch, on which the rood
(i.e. the figure of our Blessed Lord on
the cross) was placed, and on either side
the Blessed Virgin and St. John. In large
cross churches, the rood loft with its screen
was usually of stone, and sometimes con
tained a chapel and altar within it. These
more substantial rood lofts have in many
cases been converted into organ lofts.
ROOD SCREKN. A screen separating
the chancel from the nave, on which was
formerly the rood loft, or at least the rood.
ROOF. The following are the principal
terms which occur in the description of a
timber roof.
Beam. — A horizontal piece connecting
the principals of each truss, and stiffening
and tying them together. According to
its position, it is either a tie-beam, extend
ing from wall to wall ; a collar-beam, con
necting the principals near the ridge ; or a
hammer-beam, extending horizontally from
the wall (and sometimes again from the
principal rafters), but cut off before it
reaches the opposite side. It is only by its
combination with other timbers, as braces,
principal, and collar, that the hammer-
beam serves the purpose of a beam in
mechanical construction.
King-post — The middle post of each
truss, resting upon the beam, and rising to
the ridge. If there is no middle post, but
two dividing the whole width into three,
they ate called queen-posts.
Rafters. — Timbers rising from the wall,
and inclined towards each other till they
meet at the ridge. The principal rafters
are let into the beam at their lower end,
and into the king-post at their upper, and
together with beam, post, and braces, where
they occur, form the truss, which is the
whole complication of carpentry, bearing
the vertical weight of the roof, and deliver
ing it upon the wall.

ROSECRUCIANS

661

Purlin. — A longitudinal piece extending
from truss to truss, resting on the principal,
and bearing the common rafters.
Braces. — Curved pieces tenoned into the
main timbers in various places and direc
tions, and serving to stiffen and tie them
together. Wall-plate. — A longitudinal piece laid
on the top of the wall to receive the beams.
Wall-piece. — The upright piece connect
ing the braces beneath a hammer-beam
with the wall. This subject may be studied
in the valuable work of Mr. Brandon, " On
the Open Timber Roofs of the Middle
Ages." ROSARY (rosarium, Fr. rosa, kindred
with pdbov). 1. A chaplet. 2. A string
of beads used for numbering or counting
prayers. There are in the rosary five or
fifteen divisions, each containing ten small
beads, and one large one ; for each of the
small beads an Ave Maria, and for each of
the larger a Paternoster is repeated. The
use of rosaries (called tasbeh, " praise ") is
common among Indian Mohammedans ;
and in all probability they were common
among Hindoos and Buddhists long before
the Christian ®ra (Prof. Monier Williams,
quoted in Diet Christ. Ant. ii. p. 1819).
But the rosary in the Church of Rome is
of comparatively modern date, coming in
probably with the worship of the Virgin
Mary. . Some attribute its institution to
Dominic, and as such it is mentioned in a
bull of Pius V. ; but it was in use in the
year 1100; and, therefore, Dominic could
only make it more celebrated. Others
ascribe it to Paulus Libycus, others to St.
Benedict, others to Venerable Bede, but
this was probably only a play upon the
word bead, and others to Peter the Hermit. —
Jo. Mabillon, Pref. ad Acta Sanctor. Ord.
Bened. Secul. v. p. lviii. Sec. ; Stubbs'
Mosheim, i. p. 610.
ROSECRUCIANS. A sect of philoso
phers in the early part of the seventeenth
century, who combined much religious
error and mysticism with their philoso
phical notions of transmutations, and of
the chemical constitution of things. Their
name is derived from ros, " dew," which
tbey held to be the most powerful solvent
of gold ; and crux, the " cross," which in
the chemical style signifies light, because
the figure of the cross exhibits at the
same time the three letters in the word
lux. Now light, according to this sect,
and in their absurd jargon, is the men
struum of the red dragon, i.e. the sub
stance out of which gold is produced.
The Rosecrucians then were alchemists,
who sought for the philosopher's stone
by the intervention of dew and of light.
These absurdities were associated with

662

ROSECRUCIANS

others in their system which it would be
in vain to collect ; but the ruling principle
of their society seems to have been the
imposing mystery in which they wrapped
up everything which they knew, or pre
tended to know, as if the secrets of nature
were made known to them, for the very
purpose of being kept secret from all
others. At the head of the fanatics were Robert
Fludd, a native of England, and a man of
surprising genius; Jacob Boehme, a shoe
maker, who lived at Gorlitz; and Michael
Mayer. These leaders of the sect were followed
by John Baptist Helmont, and his son,
Francis Mercurius, Francis Christian Knorr,
of Rosenroth, Ruhlman, Nollius, Sperber,
and many others of various fame. An uni
formity of opinion, and a spirit of concord,
seemed scarcely possible in such a society
as this ; for as a great part of its doctrine
is derived from certain internal feelings and
flights of imagination, which can neither
be comprehended nor defined, and is sup
ported by testimonies of the external senses,
whose reports are illusory and changeable,
so it is remarkable that, among the more
eminent writers of this sect, there are
scarcely any two who adopt the same
tenets and sentiments. There are, never
theless, some common principles that are
generally embraced, and which serve as a
centre of union to the society. They
maintain that the dissolution of bodies,
by the power of fire, is the only way
through which men can arrive at true
wisdom, and come to discern the first
principle of things. They all acknowledge
a. certain analogy and harmony between
the powers of nature and the doctrines of
religion, and beUeve that the Deity governs
the kingdom of grace by the same laws
with which he rules the kingdom of
nature ; and hence it is that they employ
chemical denominations to express the
truths of religion. They all hold that
there is a sort of divine energy, or soul,
diffused through the frame of the universe,
which some call Arch®us, others Universal
Spirit, and which others mention under
different appellations. Tbey all talk in
the most obscure and superstitious manner
of what they call the signatures of things,
of the power of the stars over all corporeal
beings, and their particular influence over
the human race, of the efficacy of magic,
and the various species and classes of de
mons. In fine, they all agree in expressing
the most crude, incomprehensible notions
and ideas, in the strangest and most obscure
phraseology. — Renaudot, Conf. Pub. torn. iv.
p. 87 ; Arnold's Kircher- und Eetzer-His-
torie, pt. ii. bk. xvii. c. 18 ; Anth. Wood's

RURAL DEANS
Athene Oxoniens. vol. 1. p. 610; Stubbs'
Mosheim, iii. 216-218.
ROYAL FAMILY. The prayer for the
Royal Family was placed among the prayers
at the end of the Litany by James I. in
1604. In its present form it was adopted,
and ordered to be used in the Daily Service
in 1661. There is a letter in Bishop Cosin's
MSS. from Charles II. to the Archbishop of
York, dated November, 1661, desiring that
this collect should be read in all churches.
By the Act of Uniformity it is enacted that
"in all those prayers, litanies, and coUects
which do any way relate to the King, Queen,
or Royal Progeny, the. names be altered and
changed from time to time, and fitted to the
present occasion according to the direction of
lawful authority. In the margin of this
prayer there is a note in Cosin's book, " Such
only are to be named as the King shall
appoint."— Blunt's Annot. P. B. i. 27. [H.]
RUBRIC (Fr. rubrique; Lat., It., and
Sp. rubrica ; from Lat. rubere, to be red).
A direction printed in Service books, point
ing out how, when, and where all things
with regard to Divine seivice are to be
performed. This direction was formerly
written or printed in red ink, after the
example of the old Roman law-books, in
which the titles and remarks were so
written, hence the name. The rubrics are
now generally printed in italics ; and some
times in red. All the clergy pledge them
selves to obey the rubrics, but there is
sometimes a difficulty in the interpretation
thereof. The general rubric at the begin
ning of the Prayer Book — "And here it is
to be noted that such ornaments of the
church, and of the ministers thereof, at all
times of then- ministration, shall be retained,
and be in use, as were in this Ghurch
of England, by the authority of ParUa
ment, in the second year of the reign of
King Edward the Sixth" — has been the
subject of much controversy, and though
the Dean of Arches and the judicial Com
mittee of the Privy Council have decided
several times against the use of such orna
ments as were clearly used in 1549, but
were prohibited by the Advertisements of
Queen Elizabeth and the Canons, many
learned persons believe that those decisions
are contrary to the meaning of the rubric
of 1662 (See Advertisements, Ornaments,
Vestments). [H.]
RURAL DEANS. The office of rural
dean is an ancient office of the Church,
which is mentioned as early as the time of
Edward the Confessor, in one of whose
laws mention is made of the dean of the
bishop (Decanus episcopi in legg. Edw.
Conf. xxxi. See Ducange).
The proper authority and jurisdiction of
rural deans, perhaps, may be best under-

RURAL DEANS
stood from the oath of office which in some
dioceses was anciently administered to
them, which was this : " I, A. B., do
swear diligently and faithfully to execute
the office of dean rural within the deanery
of D. First, I wiU diligently and faithfully
execute, or cause to be executed, all such
processes as shall be directed unto me from
my Lord Bishop of C, or his officers or
ministers by his authority. Item, I will
give diligent attendance, by myself or my
deputy, at every consistory court, to be
holden by the said reverend father in God,
or his chancellor, as well to return such
processes as shall be by me or my deputy
executed; as also to receive others, then
unto me to be directed. Item, I will from
time to time, during my said office, dili
gently inquire, and true information give
unto the said reverend father in God, or his
chancellor, of all the names of all such
persons within the said deanery of D., as
shaU be openly and publicly noted and
defamed, or vehemently suspected of any
such crime or offence as is to be punished
or reformed by the authority of the said
court. Item, I will diligently inquire, and
true information give, of all such persons
and their names, as do administer any dead
man's goods, before they have proved the
will of the testator, or taken letters of
administration of the deceased intestates.
Item, I will be obedient to the right
reverend father in God, J., bishop of C,
and his chancellor, in all honest and lawful
commands ; neither will I attempt, do, or
procure to be clone or attempted, anything
that shall be prejudicial to his jurisdiction,
but will preserve and maintain the same
to the uttermost of my power" (God.
Append). From this it appears that besides their
duty concerning the execution of the
bishop's processes, the office of the rural
deans was to inspect the lives and manners
of the clergy and people within their
district, and to report the same to the
bishop ; to which end, that they might
have knowledge of the state and condition
of their respective deaneries, they had a
power to convene rural chapters (Gibson),
which chapters were made up of all the
instituted clergy, or their curates as proxies
of them, and the dean as president or pro
locutor. These were convened either upon
more frequent and ordinary occasions, or at
more solemn seasons for the greater and
more weighty affairs. Those of the former
sort were held at first every three weeks, in
imitation of the courts baron, which run
generally in this form, from three weeks to
three weeks ; but afterwards they were most
commonly held once a month, at the be
ginning of the month, and were for this

RURAL DEANS

663

reason called kalend®, or monthly meetings.
But their most solemn and principal chap
ters were assembled once a quarter, in
which there was to be a more full house,
and matters of greater import were to be
here alone transacted. All rectors and
vicars, or their capellani, were bound to
attend these chapters, and to bring infor
mation of all irregularities committed in
their respective parishes. If the deans
were by sickness or urgent business de
tained from there appearing and presiding
in such convocations, they had power to
constitute their subdeans or vicegerents.
The place of holding these chapters was at
first in any one church within tbe district
where the minister of the place was to
procure for — that is, to entertain, the dean
and his immediate officers. But because, in
parishes that were small and unfrequented,
there was no fit accommodation to be had
for so great a concourse of people, therefore,
in a council at London under Archbishop
Stratford, in the year 1342, it was ordained
that such chapters should not be held in
any obscure village, but in the larger or
more eminent parishes (Kennedy, Par.
Ant. 633).
The archdeacons were frequently present
at these chapters, and, in effect, took the
presidency out of the hands of the rural
deans. John of Athon, in Edward I.'s
reign, gives this account : —
" Rural chapters," he says, " at this day
are holden by the archdeacon's officials,
and sometimes by the rural deans." From
a constitution of Otho, ordering the arch
deacons to be present, we may date the
decay of rural chapters ; not only as it was
a discouragement to the rural dean, whose
peculiar care the holding of them had been ;
but also, as it was natural for tho arch
deacon and his official to draw the business
that had been usually transacted there, to
their own visitation, or, as it is styled in
a constitution of Archbishop Langton, to
their own chapter (Gibson).
The office of inspecting and reporting the
manners of the clergy and people rendered
the rural deans necessary attendants on the
episcopal synod or general visitation, which
was held for tbe same end of inspecting, in
order to reformation. In which synods (or
general visitation of the whole diocese by
the bishop) the rural deans were the
standing representatives of the rest of the
clergy, and were there to deliver information
of abuses committed within their know
ledge, and to propose and consult the best
methods of reformation. For the ancient
episcopal synods (which were commonly
held once a year) were composed of the
bishop as president, and the deans of
cathedrals or archpresbyters in the name of

661

RUTH

their collegiate body of presbyters or priests,
and the archdeacons or. deputies of the
inferior order of deacons, and the urban
and rural deans in the name of the parish
ministers within their division ; who were to
have their expenses allowed to them ac
cording to the time of their attendance, by
those whom they represented, as the 'prac
tice obtained for the representatives of the
people in the civil synods or parliament.
But this part of their duty, which related
to the information of scandals and offences,
in progress of time devolved upon the
churchwardens ; and their other office of
being convened to sit as members of pro
vincial and episcopal synods was transferred
to two proctors or representatives of the
parochial clergy in every diocese to assemble
in convocation, where the cathedral deans
and archdeacons still keep their ancient
right, whilst the rural deans have given
place to an election of two only for every
diocese, instead of one by-standing place for
every deanery (Kennedy).
At the Reformation, in the " Reformatio
Legum," it was proposed to invest rural
deans with certain legal powers, but nothing
was done in this respect. In the provincial
synod of convocation, held in London
April 3, 1571, it was ordained that " the
archdeacon, when he hath finished his
visitation, shall signify to the bishop what
clergymen he hath found in every deanery
so well endowed with learning and judge
ment as to be worthy to instruct the people
in sermons, and to rule and preside over
others ; out of these the bishop may choose
such as he will have to be rural deans "
(See Dansey's Hore Ruri-dtcine).
But the office was not much used till of
late years, when it has been revived. In
every diocese there are now rural deans
who hold chapters, generally once a quarter ;
at which are discussed matters sent to them
by the bishop, or subjects of general interest.
The rural deans are appointed by the bishop,
and the appointment seems to be revocable,
and to require renewing by a new bishop.
The plan of the clergy nominating their
own rural deans has lately been started by
the Bishop of London (Dr. Temple).
RUTH, THE BOOK OF. A canonical
book of the Old Testament.
This book is a kind of appendix to the
Book of Judges, and an introduction to the
Books of Samuel, and is therefore properly
placed between them. It has its title from
the person whose story is the principal theme
of the book. The Jews make but one book of
this and the Book of Judges, and probably
the same person was the author of both.
It was certainly written at a time when
the government by judges had ceased,
since the author of it begins with observing

SABBATARIANS
that the fact came to pass in the days
when the judges ruled: and he -ends his
book with a genealogy, which he carries
down to David. Probably it was com
posed in that king's time, before he was
advanced to the throne (See Speaker's
Commentary).

s.
SABAOTH (<raBad>8). The Greek fonn of
theHebrewword (niN2V) tsebdoth, signifying
hosts or armies. Jehovah Sabaoth is the
Lord of Hosts. "Holy, holy, holy, Lord
God of Sabaoth." It occurs only twice in
the English Bible, Rom. ix. 29 ; St. James
v. 4. Dr. Johnson, in the first edition of
his Dictionary, 1755, treated Sabaoth and
Sabbath as the same word, and other writ
ers have fallen into the same error. But
the words have really nothing in com
mon. [H.]
SABBATARIANS, are so called from
their keeping the seventh day of the week
as the sabbath; whilst Christians in ge
neral keep the first day of the week, or
Sunday, in memory of our Saviour'^
having risen that day from the dead. On
the continent they are generaUy, but im
properly, called Israelites. It is uncertain
when they first made their appearance, but
we learn from Fuller that there were Sabba
tarians in 1633. They object to the reasons
which are generally alleged for keeping the
first day ; and they insist that the change of
the sabbath from the seventh to the first day
of the week did not take place tUl the begin
ning of the fourth century, when it was
effected by the emperor Constantine, on his
conversion to Christianity. A summary of
their principles, as to this article of the
sabbath, by which they stand distinguished,
is contained in the three following propo
sitions: — 1. That God has required the
observance of the seventh, or last day of
every week, to be observed by mankind
universally for the weekly sabbath. 2.
That this command of God is perpetually
binding on man tiU time shall be no more.
3. That this sacred rest of the seventh
day sabbath is not changed by Divine
authority from the seventh and last to the
first day of the week ; or, that the Scrip
ture nowhere requires the observance of
any other day of the week for the weekly
sabbath, but the seventh day only, which
is still kept by tbe Jews, to whom the law
on this subject was given. These are much
more consistent in their rejection of all the
subsidiary helps of antiquity in interpret
ing the Scriptures, than those Protestants
who observe the first day of the week with

SABBATH
Judaical strictness, who also are called Sab-
•lifl.tfl.ri s ns
SABBATH (n3B?, from T\2^, to cease to
work). The day of rest. The sabbath
day, strictly speaking, is Saturday, the
observance of which is not considered ob-
Ugatory by Christians. But the term is
sometimes applied to the Lord's day, which
is regarded as a feast by the Church uni
versal (See Lord's Day). TH.]
SABELLIANS, were so called from Sabel
lius, a presbyter, or, according to others, a
bishop of Libya, who was the founder of tbe
sect. Sabellius flourished early in the third
century, and his doctrine seems to have
had many followers for a short time. Its
growth, however, was soon checked by the
opposition made to it by Dionysius, bishop
of Alexandria, and the sentence of con
demnation pronounced upon its author by
Pope Dionysius, in a council held at
Rome, a.d. 263.
Sabellius taught that there was but one
person in the Godhead; and, in con
firmation of this doctrine, he made use of
this comparison: as a man, though com
posed of body and soul, is but one person,
so God, though he is Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost, is but one person. Hence
the Sabellians reduced the three persons in
the Trinity to three characters or relations,
and maintained that the Word and Holy
Spirit are only virtues, emanations, or
functions of the Deity ; that he who is in
heaven is the Father of all things; that
he descended into the Virgin, became a child,
and was born of her as a son ; and that,
having accomplished the mystery of our
redemption, he diffused himself upon the
apostles in tongues of fire, and was then
denominated the Holy Ghost.
Between the system of Sabellianism and
what is termed the indwelling scheme,
there appears to be a considerable resem
blance, if it be not precisely the same, dif
ferently explained. The indwelling scheme
is chiefly founded on a false and unauthor
ised sense of that passage in the New Tes
tament, where the apostle, speaking of
Christ, says, " In Him dwelleth all the
fulness of the Godhead bodily." Dr.
Watts, towards the close of his life, adopted
the Sabellian heresy, and wrote several
pieces in its defence. His sentiments on
the Trinity appear to have been, that
" the Godhead, the Deity itself, person
ally distinguished as the Father, was
united to the man Christ Jesus, in con
sequence of which union or indwelling of
the Godhead he became properly God."
Mr. Palmer observes that Dr. Watts con
ceived this union to have subsisted before
the Saviour's appearance in the flesh, and
that the human soul of Christ existed with

SACRAMENT

665

tbe Father from before the foundation of
the world ; on which ground he maintains
the real descent of Christ from heaven to
earth, and the whole scene of his humilia
tion, which be thought incompatible with
tbe common opinion concerning him. —
Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 272 ; Newman's transl.
of Athanasius, Orat. iv. : contr. Arian. xiii.
SACRAMENT (See Baptism; Holy
Communion ; Eucharist). In classical
writers, observes Bishop Kaye, in his treatise
on Tertullian, the word sacramentum means
an oath or promise ratified by a sacred or
religious ceremony : thus, the oath taken
by the military was called sacramentum.
In strict conformity with this, its original
signification, it is used to express the pro
mise made by Christians in baptism. From
the oath the transition was easy to the
ceremony by which it was ratified. Thus
sacramentum came to signify any religious
ordinance, and in general to stand for that
which in Greek is expressed by the word
pvo-Ttjpiov (mystery), any emblematical no
tion of a sacred import, any external act
having an internal or secret meaning.
Among the Fathers the word is almost
always so used, and was not restricted to
any particular number (Tertull. adv. Prax.
xxviii. : de Anima, i. : de Bapt. i., xii. ; St.
Cyp. de Orat. Dom. ix., xxvii. ; but St.
Cyprian also uses the word in connexion
with Baptism and the Holy Eucharist,
Ep. lxx. : lxxii.). If the word is under
stood in this extended sense, it seems
clearly wrong to confine the title to only
seven rites or ordinances. The first who
did this was probably the celebrated
" Master of the Sentences," Peter Lombard,
who died a.d. 1164 (Lombard, Sentent
lib. iv. dist. ii.). Certain it is that the
number of seven sacraments was first
decreed by Eugenius in the fifteenth
century (Labbe, Concil. xiii. 534), that the
first provincial council which confirmed the
decree was one convened in the sixteenth
century, and that the first council, even
pretending to be general, that adopted it
with an anathema was the Council of
Trent (Sess. vii. can. iii.).
This is, in fact, the dispute of the
English Church on this point with Rome.
If the Romanists take the word sacrament
in its- enlarged sense, then they ought not
to confine it, as they do, to seven rites ;
if they take it in its strict sense, then
they ought to confine it to two, Baptism
and the Supper of the Lord. Taking the
word in its general sense, the Church of
England directs the clergy to speak to the
people of matrimony as a sacrament. " By
the like holy promise the sacrament of
matrimony knitteth man and wife in per
petual love," &c. (Homily on Swearing,

666

SACRAMENT

part i.). The Church of England in this
sense acknowledges other rites to be sacra
ments besides Baptism and the Eucharist
(See below, the extract from the Homily,
Of Common Prayer and Sacraments). This
is a very important distinction : " Let it be
clearly understood," says Bishop Jeremy
Taylor, " it is none of the doctrine of the
Church of England that there are two
sacraments only, but that of those rituals
commanded in Scripture, which ecclesiastical
use calls sacraments, by a word of art, two
only are generally necessary to salvation." —
Taylor's Dissuasive, p. 240. In like manner
Archbishop Seeker says, "As the word
sacrament is not a Scripture one, and hath
at different times been differently understood,
our catechism doth not require it to be said
absolutely that the sacraments are two only,
but two only necessary to salvation ; leaving
persons at liberty to comprehend more
things under the name if they please, pro
vided they insist not on the necessity of
them, and of dignifying them with this
title." — Seeker's Lectures, xxxv., Of Bap
tism. It will be seen that this is in ac
cordance with the answer in the catechism
to the question, How many sacraments has
Christ ordained in his Church ? the answer
being not simply two, but "two only as
generally necessary to salvation"
We have said that the distinction is im
portant, for it enables us to take high
ground on this doctrine. It is not by
depressing the other ordinances of the
Church which Cranmer and Taylor call
sacramentals, but by placing Baptism and
•the Eucharist in their proper place and
dignity, that we best defend, the English
Church ou this point. If, with the latitudi
narians, we depress the proper sacraments
and make Baptism a mere ceremony, and
the Eucharist only a more solemn form of
self-dedication or worship, our controversy
becomes a childish dispute about words.
Not so if we distinguish, with the Church
of England, Baptism and the Eucharist from
all other ordinances, because they are, what
the others are not, necessary for salvation to
all men, wherever they can be had. Other
ordinances may confer grace, but Baptism
and the Eucharist alone unite with Christ
himself. "By Baptism we receive Christ
Jesus, and from him the saving grace which
is proper to Baptism ; by the Eucharist we
receive him also imparting therein himself,
and that grace which the Eucharist properly
bestows." Again; Baptism and the Eucharist
are what none of the other ordinances are,
federal rites, the one for initiating, the other
for renewing the covenant of grace, instituted
for a reciprocal communion between God
and man, of blessings on the one part and
duty on the other ; they are not merely a

SACRAMENT
means to an end, but they are actually a
part of our moral and Christian holiness,
piety, and perfection ; " as much a part of
virtue," says Dr. Waterland, " as the perfor
mance of any moral duty is, as much as
feeding the hungry, clothing the naked," &c.
From what has been said it will be seen,
1. That, in the large acceptation of the
word sacrament, there are many more sa
craments than seven.
2. That, in the strict definition of the
word, there are only two, Baptism and the
Eucharist. But we may sum up the whole in the
words which the Church of England uses
in one of the homilies : " You shall hear
how many sacraments there be, that were
instituted by our Saviour Christ, and are to
be continued, and received of every Christian
in due time and order, and for such purpose
as our Saviour Christ wiUed them to be
received. And as for the number of them,
if they should be considered according to
the exact signification of a sacrament,
namely, for visible signs, expressly com
manded in the New Testament, whereunto
is annexed tlie promise of forgiveness of our
sins, and of our holiness, and joining in
Christ, there be but two, namely, Baptism
and the Supper of the Lord. For, although
absolution hath the promise of forgiveness of
sin, yet by the express word of the New
Testament it hath not this promise annexed
and tied to the visible sign, which is im
position of hands. For this visible. sign (I
mean laying on of hands) is not expressly
commanded in the New Testament to be
used in absolution, as the visible sign in
Baptism and the Lord's Supper are; and
therefore absolution is no such sacrament as
Baptism and the Communion are. And
though the ordering of ministers hath this
visible sign and promise, yet it lacks the
promise of remission of sin as all other
sacraments besides the two above named do.
Therefore neither it, nor any other sacra
ment else, be such sacraments as Baptism
and the Communion are. But in a general
acceptation, the name of a sacrament may
be attributed to anything whereby an holy
thing is signified. In which understanding
of the word, the ancient writers have given
this name, not only to the other five, com
monly of late years taken and used for
supplying the number of the seven sacra
ments, but also to divers and sundry other
ceremonies, as to oil, washing of feet, and
such like, not meaning thereby to repute
them as sacraments, in the same significa
tion that the two forenamed sacraments are.
And therefore St. Augustine, weighing the
true signification and exact meaning of the
word, writing to Januarius, and also in the
third book of Christian doctrine, affirmeth,

SACRAMENTALS
that the sacraments of the Christians, as
they are most excellent in signification, so
are they most few in number, and in both
places maketh mention expressly of two,
the sacrament of Baptism and the Supper
of the Lord. And although there are re
tained by order of the Church of England,
besides these two, certain other rites and
ceremonies about tho institution of minis
ters in the Church, matrimony, confirma
tion of children, by examining them of their
knowledge in the articles of the faith, and
joining thereto the prayers of the Church
for them, and likewise for the visitation of
the sick ; yet no man ought to take these
for sacraments in such signification and
meaning as the sacraments of Baptism and
the Lord's Supper are." — Homily of Common
Prayer and Sacraments.
The article (25) against the seven sacra
ments runs : —
" Sacraments ordained by Christ be not
only badges or tokens of Christian men's
professions, but rather they be certain sure
witnesses and effectual signs of grace and
God's good will towards us, by the which
he doth work invisibly in us, and doth not
only quicken, but also strengthen and con
firm, our faith in him.
" There are two sacraments ordained of
Christ our Lord in the gospel; that is to
say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord.
" Those five, commonly called sacraments,
that is to say, confirmation, penance, orders,
matrimony, and extreme unction, are not to
be counted for sacraments of the gospel,
being such as have grown, partly of the
corrupt following of the apostles, partly arc
states of life allowed in the Scriptures ; but
yet have not the like nature of sacraments
with Baptism and the Lord's Supper, for
that they have not any visible sign or
ceremony ordained of God.
" The sacraments were not ordained of
Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried
about, but that we should duly use them.
And in such only as worthily receive the
same they have a wholesome effect or opera
tion : but they that receive them unworthily
purchase to themselves damnation, as the
apostle St. Paul saith."
But though these, seven are called sacra
ments in the Eastern as well as the Roman
Church, they have never been considered of
equal importance. In the " Catechism of
the Council of Trent " it is said, " It is,
however, especially to be noticed that
although all the sacraments possess a divine
and admirable efficacy, yet all are not of
equal necessity and dignity, nor is the
significancy of aU one and the same — the
Eucharist is far superior to the rest in holi
ness," &c. — Catecli. Trident, ii., i. 22.
SACRAMENTALS (See Sacrament). A

SACRAMENTARY

COT

name conveniently given to those rites
which are of a sacramental character, — such
as confirmation and matrimony, — but are
not sacraments in the proper and strict
sense, as Baptism and the holy Eucharist. —
Durandus in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 2.
SACRAMENTARY, or Liber Sacra
mentorum. Though some writers have
laid down distinctions between the two
titles, yet it seems that they are really sy
nonymous, the latter being the more ancient
title. The book was so called (and also
sometimes Liber Mysteriorum) because it
contained those rites and prayers which
related immediately to the full completion
of the sacraments, and of the Eucharist
especially. For in these volumes were to-
be found the rites of administering the
sacrament of Baptism on the eves of Easter
and Pentecost, of marriage, of orders of
reconciling penitents, as well as of the Holy
Communion. As regarded tbe last, in the
Sacramentary were the collects, the secreta,
the prefaces, the canon, the prayer infra/
canonem, and last, communion : in short, all
those portions of the service which were not
in the other books. The greatest care and
reverence was anciently paid to the Sacra
mentary, as we may learn from a canon of
the Council of Reims, cited by Georgius-
(tom. 3, p. 156), "expleta missa, calix et
sacramentorum liber cum vestibus sacerdo-
talibus in mundo loco sub sera recondantur."
The origin of the Sacramentaries cannot
be assigned to any author later than an
apostle ; but they are usually referred to and
known as tbe Leonine, the Gelasian, and the
Gregorian, from Popes Leo (a.d. 444-461),
Gelasius (492-496), and Gregory (590-604).
Of the first only a fragment remains, but
it is supposed to be Leo's in a certain sense;
that is, to be a series of misse containing
much that he wrote, but also some passages-
which may be referred to his predecessors,
and some to his immediate successors, the
whole being put together under the pontifi
cate of Felix, commonly called the third,.
a.d. 483^492. Muratori says that though
we have nothing certain about the author,
yet we may retain the name of St. Leo the
Great (i. 37). Pameiius was the first editor
of any part of the Sacramentaries (the Gre
gorian) : after him, Thomasius ; but the
most complete edition is that of Muratori in
1748. The Eastern Churches have no Sacra
mentaries, because they do not employ
different prefaces and collects for different
days, but make use of several liturgies, each
of which is appropriated to a particular
season of the year. Very many of our col
lects are taken from these great Sacramen
taries (See Collects). — Maskell, Mon. Rit
Eccl. Any. i., lxii. ; Palmer's Orig. Liturg.
i. 308 ; Bright's Collects, 207, &c. [H.j

«68

SACRIFICE

SACRIFICE. From the beginning of the
world the servants of God were always
accustomed to offer sacrifice to Him, by
way of acknowledging His sovereignty, and
paying their homage to Him. In the law
of nature, and in the law of Moses, there
was a great variety of sacrifices : some bloody,
others unbloody; some were called Holo
causts, or whole burnt offerings ; others sin
offerings ; others offerings of thanksgiving ;
others peace offerings. All these sacrifices
of the law of nature and the law of Moses
were of themselves but weak and feeble
elements, and figures of the great sacrifice
of Jesus Christ, offered afterwards on the
altar of the Cross for the sins of the whole
world. It was to renew the memory of this
great sacrifice of the Cross and to apply the
fruits of it to our souls, that our Lord
instituted the Eucharist ; for as the ancient
sacrifices were required to represent the
sacrifice of the Cross, and to prefigure the
death of Christ, then to come ; so, in like
manner, a commemorative sacrifice was
required in the new law to be a standing
memorial of the sacrifice of the Cross, and to
represent the death of Christ already past.
Justin Martyr is the first we meet with
who speaks of the Eucharist under the name
of sacrifice or sacrifices (Dial, cum Tryp.
sec. 41 ; ibid. sec. 116). But he does it so
often, and so familiarly, that one cannot but
conceive that it had been in common use for
some time before ; and it is the more likely
to have been so, because oblation (which is
near akin to it) certainly was. He and all
the other Fathers believed that the eucha
ristic sacrifice was predicted and typically
represented by the offering of Melchisedec.
Iren®us, of the same [the second] century,
mentions the sacrifice of the Eucharist more
than once, either directly or indirectly
(lib. iv. c. 18). Tertullian, not many years
later, does the like (Ep. ad Scapulam, c. 2).
Cyprian also speaks of the sacrifice in the
Eucharist, understanding it in one particular
passage of the lay-oblation. This is not the
place to examine critically what the ancients
meant by ihe sacrifice or sacrifices of the
Eucharist. But, as oblation anciently was
understood sometimes of the lay-offering,
the same may be observed of sacrifice ; and
this is plain from St. Cyprian. Besides that
notion of sacrifice, there was another, and a
principal one, which was conceived to go
along with theveucharistical service, and that
was the notion of spiritual sacrifice, consist
ing of many particulars, and it was on the
account of one, or both, that the Eucharist
had the name of sacrifice for the two first
centuries. But by the middle of the third
century, if not sooner, it began to be called
a sacrifice, on account of the grand sacrifice
represented and commemorated in it; the

SACRIFICE
sign, as such, now adopting the name of the
thing signified. In short, the memorial at
length came to be called a sacrifice, as well
as an oblation : and it had a double claim
to be so called ; partly as it was in itself a
spiritual service or sacrifice, and partly as it
was a representation and commemoration of
the high tremendous sacrifice of Christ
God-Man. This last view of it, being of aU
the most awful and most endearing, came
by degrees to be the most prevailing accep
tation of the Christian sacrifice, as held forth
in the Eucharist. But those who styled the
Eucharist a sacrifice on that account- took
care, as often as need was, to explain it off
to a memorial of a sacrifice, rather than a
strict or proper sacrifice, in that precise
view. Cyprian is the .first who plainly and
directly styles the Eucharist a sacrifice in
the commemorative view, and as representing
the grand sacrifice. Not that there was
anything new in the doctrine, but there was
a new application of an old name, which
had at the first been brought in upon other
accounts. II. The Church of England has always
acknowledged such a sacrifice. The 31st
article is directed against the vulgar and
heretical doctrine of the reiteration of
Christ's sacrifice in the Eucharist. The
article was directed against the errors main
tained by such men as Soto, Hardinge, &c,
who, by rejecting the doctrine of a sacrifice
by way of commemoration and consecration,
and not literally identical with that on the
cross, and by their crude and objectionable
mode of expression, countenanced the vulgar
error, that the sacrifice of the Eucharist or
mass, was in every respect equal to that of
Christ on the cross ; and that it was in fact
either a reiteration or a continuation of that
sacrifice. The article was not against the
doctrine of the eucharistic sacrifice as ex
plained by Bossuet, Beron, and others, with
which we have no material fault to find.
Cranmer himself said that it might be called
a sacrifice (Works, by Jenkyns, vol. iii.
pp. 5, 161, 539, 551), and our theologians,
such as Bramhall, Beveridge, Patrick, Wil
son, bishops ; and Mason Field, Mede, John
son, &c, have always taught the doctrine
of the eucharistic altar, sacrifice, aud obla
tion, according to Scripture and apostolical
tradition; and tbe articles of the Church
of England recognise the clergy in their
various orders, as sacerdotes, ministers of
sacrifice. [H.]
HI. Many writers call the Eucharist an
unbloody sacrifice, because (1) it is a com
memoration and a representation to God, of
the sacrifice that Christ offered for us on the
cross ; in which we lay claim to that as to
our expiation, and feast upon it as our
peace-offering, according to that ancient

SACRIFICE
notion, that covenants were by a sacrifice,
and were concluded in a feast on the sacrifice.
The priest's action in offering our Christian
sacrifice may be described (a) as the earthly
counterpart of that which Christ continually
does in heaven : (B) as the commemoration
of that which once for all He did on Cal
vary. (2) There is an oblation of bread and
wine made in it, which being sanctified, are
consumed in an act of religion : to this
many passages in the writings of the Fathers
relate. (3) We then offer up " ourselves,
our spuls and bodies, to be a reasonable, holy
and lively sacrifice unto God." It is the
" pure offering " spoken of by Malachi, i. 11.
" Under this name of the Christian sacri
fice," says Joseph Mede, " first know, that
the ancient Church understood not, as many
suppose, the mere sacrament of the body
and blood of Christ, but the whole sacred
action or solemn service of the Church as
sembled, whereof this sacred mystery was
then a prime and principal part, and, as it
were, the pearl or jewel of this ring, no
public service of the Church being without
it. This observed and remembered, I define
the Christian sacrifice, ex mente antique
ecciesie, in this manner : An oblation of
thanksgiving and prayer to God the Father
through Jesus Christ, and His sacrifice com
memorated in the creatures of bread and
wioe, wherewith God had first been agnized.
So that this sacrifice, as you see, hath a
double object, or matter; first, praise and
prayer, which you may call sacrificium quod,
secondly, the commemoration of Christ's
sacrifice on the cross, which is sacrificium
quo, the sacrifice whereby the other is ac
cepted. For all the prayers, thanksgivings,
and devotions of a Christian are tendered up
unto God in the name of Jesus Christ cruci
fied. According whereunto we are wont to
conclude our prayers with " through Jesus
Christ our Lord." And this is the specifi
cation whereby the worship of a Christian
is distinguished from that of the Jew.
Now that which we, in all our prayers and
thanksgivings, do vocally, when we say per
lesum Christum Dominum nostrum, the
ancient Church, in her public and solemn
service, did visibly by representing Him,
according as He commanded, in the symbols
of His body and blood: for there He is com
memorated and received by us for the same
end for which He was given and suffered for
us ; that through Him we receiving forgive
ness of our sins, God our Father might
accept our service and hear our prayers we
make unto Him."
" What time then so fit and seasonable to
commend our devotions unto God, as when
tbe Lamb of God lies slain upon the holy
table, and we receive visibly, though mys
tically, those gracious pledges of His blessed

SACRIFICATI

669-

body and blood. This was that sacrifice
of the ancient Church, which the Fathers
so much ring in our ears. The sacrifice
of praise and prayer through Jesus Christ,
mystically represented in the creatures of
bread and wine."
" But yet there is one thing more my defi
nition intimates, when I say ' through the
sacrifice of Jesus Christ, commemnrated in
the creatures of bread and wine, wherewith
God had first been agnized.' The body and
blood of Christ were not made of common
bread and common wine, but of bread and
wine first sanctified by being offered and set
before God as a present, to agnize Him the
Lord and giver of all : according to that
Domini est terra et plenitudo ejus : and ' let
no man appear be 'ore the Lord empty/
Therefore, as this sacrifice consisted of two
parts, as I told you, of praise and prayer,
which in respect of the other, I caU sacri
ficium quod ; and of the commemoration of
Christ crucified, which I call sacrificium
quo ; so the symbols of bread and wine
traversed both, being first presented as
symbols of praise and thanksgiving to
agnize God the Lord of the creature in the
sacrificium quod ; then, by invocation of
the Holy Ghost, made the symbols of the
body and blood of Christ in the sacrificium
quo. So that the whole service throughout
consisted of a reasonable part and of a ma
terial part, as of a soul and a body ; of
which I shall speak more fully hereafter,
when I come to prove this, I have said, by
the testimonies of the ancients ... To
hold you, therefore, no longer in suspense,
a sacrifice, I think, should be defined
thus : an offering, whereby the offerer is
made partaker of his God's table, in token
of covenant and friendship with Him, &c. :
more explicately thus : an offering unto the
Divine Majesty, of that which is given for
the food of man ; that the offerer, partaking
thereof, might, as by way of pledge, be
certified of his acceptation into covenant,
and fellowship with his God, by eating and
drinking at His table. St. 'Augustine comes
toward this notion, when he defines a sacri
fice (though in a larger sense) opus quod
Deo nuncupamus, reddimus, et dedicamus,
hoc fine, ut sancta societate ipsi adhereamus ;
for to have society and fellowship with God,
what is it else but to be in league and
covenant with Him ? "
In a word, a sacrifice is oblatio fcederalis."
— Joseph Mede, Christ. Sacrif. c. 2, p. 356 ;
Hickes' Christ. Priest, c. 2, p. 49 ; Water-
land's Works ; Johnson's Unbloody Sacri
fice ; Palmer's Hist, of Church, ii. 463.
SACRIFICATI. Christians who, to
avoid condemnation before a heathen tri
bunal, offered sacrifice to an idol. When
such persons, after the persecution was over,

«70

SACRILEGE

returned to the profession of Christ, they
were obliged to undergo a very rigid penance
before they could be re-admitted into the
Church. It must be observed that Sacri-
ficati is their denomination as penitents,
•after their return to the faith. Those who
continued in idolatry were simply apostates
(See Libellatici and Thurificati). — Eusebius,
H. E. lib. vi. c. 44; Cyprian, Epistole;
Bingham, xvi. iv. 5.
SACRILEGE (saerilegium, from sacra
and lego). The act of violating sacred things,
or subjecting them to profanation ; or the
desecration of objects consecrated to God.
Thus the robbing of churches or of graves,
the abuse of sacred vessels and altars, by
¦employing them for unhallowed purposes,
not consuming the consecrated bread given
by the priest (qui acceptam a sacerdote
Eucharistiam non sumpserit), the plunder
ing and misappropriation of alms and dona
tions, &c, are acts of sacrilege which, in the
ancient Church, were punished with great
severity (Bingham, bk. xvi., vi. 23, seq.).
The law of sacrilege now depends on the
statute 24 & 25 Vict. c. 96, which enacts
that " if any person shall break and enter any
church, chapel, meeting-house, or other place
of divine worship, and commit any felony
therein, or being in church shall commit
any felony therein, shall be guilty of felony."
The punishment is penal servitude for life ;
or for not less than three years, or imprison
ment for any term not exceeding three years,
with or without hard labour.
SACRING BELL. A bell which is rung
at solemn times (sacra) in the service. The
custom has been attributed to Cardinal
•Grey, when legate in Germany, c. a.d.
1203 ; it was soon after that time to be
found in England ; and its use was con
firmed by Gregory IX. Becon (Early
Works. Parker Soc.) says that " while the
elements were blessed, the serving-boy or
parish clerk rang the little sacring bell."
Sacring bell-cotes remain in many churches,
and at Deddington the bell itself was found
in the wall. Other instances are Hawstead,
Long Compton, Claydon, Whichford, and
Brailes. [H.]
SACRISTAN: SACRIST. The person
to whose charge the sacred vestments, &c,
in a church, are committed ; now corrupted
to sexton (See Sexton). The sacristan is a
dignitary in some foreign cathedrals (idem
qui Thesaurarius), as was formerly the case
at Glasgow, and the Chapel Royal of Stirling,
in Scotland ; in both of which places there
were treasurers also. At York in 1230 the
sacristan was vice-custos or sub-treasurer.
In cathedrals of the new foundation (see
Cathedrals), the sacristan is a minor canon,
and has often the special cure of souls with
in the precincts. The sacrist was an inferior

SAINTS
officer, and as such is mentioned in the
Decretals of Gregory IX., and at Lyons,
1269. Bishop Storey in the fifteenth
century makes use of the word sacrist in an
inferior sense. In cathedrals of the old
foundation he was generally a vicar-choral. —
Durandus, Rational, lib. ii. c. 1 ; Walcott's
Sac. Arch. 522.
SACRISTY. The place used for robing
by the clergy and clerks, and in which
sacred vestments, &c, are kept, answering to
the modern vestry. There were generally
two ; one for the canons, the other for the
vicars-choral, the master of choir and assis
tants. See Diet Christ. Ant. s. v. Dia-
conicum. SAINTS (Sancti, ayioi ; see Communion
of Saints, Invocation of Saints). A person
either in the flesh or out of it, who is made
holy by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit.
The people of God have been so designated
both in the old and new dispensation (Deut.
xxxiii. ; Ps. 1. 5 ; Rom. i. 7 ; Eph. i. 1,
&c). This scriptural use of the word in the
New Testament did not imply necessarily
that they were more perfect in their lives
than other Christians, but that every bap
tized Christian as such was a saint, holy
(ayios), that is to say, separated from the
heathen, unless he had forfeited his pri
vilege through sin. In like manner the
Israelites were called a holy people mainly
because they were marked off from other
nations by God, and chosen by Him to be
recipients of a special revelation. Holiness
of living was not asserted as a fact, although
it is implied as the duty of all who are in
Scripture called "saints." But the word
afterwards became more restricted, and was
applied to those only who led exceptionally
holy lives, or were devoted to holy offices.
Then it was used especially to denote
martyrs, from the idea generally held at
that time that their martyrdom won for
them immediate access to heaven, without
going through the intermediate^state. In the
Creed we use the word in the widest sense,
as implying such persons as are called by a
holy calling and are not disobedient to it ;
such as are endued with a holy faith, and
purified thereby ; such as are sanctified by
the Holy Spirit of God, and by virtue thereof
do lead a holy life, perfecting holiness in the
fear of God (2 Cor. vii. 1). Such persons
are really and truly saints; and having
been holy in their lives they do not lose
their sanctity, but improve it at their
deaths ; nor can they lose the honour of
that appellation, while that which gives it
acquires perfection. Hence grows that
necessary distinction of the saints on earth
and the saints in heaven ; the first belonging
to the militant, the second to the triumphant
Church. Of the first David speaks ex-

SAINTS' DAYS
pressly : " Thou art my Lord ; my goodness
extendeth not to Thee, but to the saints
that are in the earth" (Ps. xvi. 2, 3). Of
these we read in the Acts of the Apostles ;
to these St. Paul directed his Epistles. Of
the second the Apostle makes that question :
"Do ye not know that the saints shall
judge the world? " (1 Cor. vi. 2). And all
those that are spoken of as saints then in
earth, if truly such, and departed so, are
now, and shall continue for ever, saints in
heaven. — Pearson on the Creed, Art. ix.
354; Bp. Lightfoot on Philippians, i. 1,
s.v. "ayioi"; Blunt's Diet Doct Theol.
¦672. [H.]
SAINTS' DAYS (See Feasts). Two
of the most ancient monuments of eccle
siastical history that we possess, except the
New Testament, are the accounts of the
martyrdom of Ignatius and Polycarp, both
disciples of St. John, written, at the time
of their suffering (a.d. 115-117), by the
Churches of Antioch and Smyrna, of which
they were bishops: and in those mention
is made of the intention of celebrating
yearly the festival of their birthdays, of
their entrance into a better life, for the
commemoration of their excellent graces,
and the incitement of others to imitate
them (Euseb. iv. 15). The anniversary of
a martyr's death was called his " natalitia,"
or birthday, and was generaUy marked by
the faithful meeting at the place of burial,
recounting the acts of the martyr, and
¦celebrating the Holy Communion (Tertul.
de Coron. 3 ; St. Greg. Nyss. Vit. St. Greg.
Thaumat Op. ii. 1007; Cypr. Ep. xxxiv.,
xxxvii., &c). Thus did they provide that the
" righteous should be in everlasting remem
brance " (Ps. cxii. 6), and observed the more
particular direction given to that intent in
the Epistle to the Hebrews, "Remember
them which have (had) the rule over you,
who have spoken unto you the word of
God; whose faith follow, considering the
end," the event, "of their conversation"
(Heb. xiii. 7). Each of the primitive
Churches honoured the more eminent of
their own martyrs, who had been usually
their teachers also, by anniversary assemblies
for preserving the reverence due to their
characters, and offering up thanks to God
for their examples.
But the increase of their numbers, and
the adoption of the sufferers of one Church
nto the liturgies of another, and the ad
mission of eminently good persons, who
had "not resisted unto blood" (Heb. xii.
4), and the frequent grants which in sub
sequent ages were made, of so high a dis
tinction, with little care of previous inquiry,
multiplied the returns of these solemnities
very improperly and inconveniently. Then,
besides, a still greater evil was, that praises

SALUTATION

671

and panegyrics too soon grew to be immode
rate, and afterwards impious. In the vehe
mence of national encomiums and exclama
tions, the saint was called upon as present,
until at length he was thought so; and
what at first was merely a bold and moving
figure of speech, became at length in good
earnest a prayer ; which requested of a dead
man, who was not able to hear it, not only
that he would intercede with God on behalf
of his fellow servants, but that he would
himself bestow such blessings upon them,
as no creature has in his power. Things
being found in this condition at the Re
formation, it was necessary both to abolish
these prayers to the saints, who were adored
already equally with the Deity, and to
limit the original sort of commemorations
to a moderate list of holy persons. Accord
ingly no day is appointed by our Church for
the celebration of any other than the princi
pal saints mentioned in the New Testament,
on which days there are special Collects,
Epistles, and Gospels, implying the celebra
tion of the Eucharist in accordance with the
ancient custom. There are none such for
the minor saints' days, or black-letter days
(See Black-Letter Days).
When a Sunday and a Saint's day coin
cide, the general custom is that the Saint's
day gives way to the Sunday. The men
tion of a Saint's day, however, falling on a
Sunday should be made a memory by the
addition of the Collect of the Saint's day,
and perhaps by taking the Collect, Epistle,
and Gospel of the Saint's day, unless the
Sunday be one of greater note, i.e. either
the first or fourth in Advent, the first or
last in Lent, Easter-day, or the first Sunday
after Whit-Sunday, Trinity, or the Sunday
next before Advent. In the concurrence of
a moveable, and immoveable Saint's day on
a week-day, the following must have pre
cedence: — Ash- Wednesday, the whole of
Passion Week, Monday and Tuesday in the
weeks of Easter, and Whitsuntide, and
Ascension Day. — Robertson, How to Con
form, p. 50; Proctor, p. 220; Blunt's
Parish Priest, p. 318 (See Lessons).
S ALUTATION, THE. A form of greet
ing to the people in the name of God, by
the minister. As the people respond, it is
also called the " mutual salutation." The
Greek form of salutation was "elprjvn
Tram Kal pera irveiparos a-ov." It was used
on five different occasions in Divine service :
(1) by the bishop on entering the church;
(2) by the reader before beginning the
lessons ; (3) before and after the sermon ;
(4) at the consecration in the Holy Eu
charist; (5) at the dismissal of the con
gregation. In our service, after reciting the Creed
with the people, the minister salutes the

672

SALUTATION

people with "The Lord be with you"
(Ruth ii. 4 ; Ps. cxxii. 8 ; 2 Thess. iii. 16),
and they return it with a like prayer,
"And with thy spirit" (2 Tim. iv. 22),
which words have been of early use in the
Christian liturgies (Cone. Vas. can. v.
a.d. 440), and is believed in the Eastern
Church to have been handed down from the
apostles ; indeed the phrase is in the very
words of St. Paul ; and St. John forbids us to
say to any heretic " God speed " (2 St. John,
ver. 10, 11). The office of the " salutation "
is to make a transition, in connexion with
the lesser Litany, from the service of praise
to that of supplication. And also to the
minister and people having confessed them
selves "brethren in the faith " by reciting
the Creed, and being about to pray for one
another, a note of difference is here struck.
The people are going to pray, which they
cannot do without God"s help, and therefore
the minister prays that " the Lord may be
with them," to assist them in the duty,
according to that gracious promise of our
Saviour, that when two or three are met to
pray, He will be with them (St. Matt, xviii.
20). And since the minister prays for all
tbe people, and is their mouth to God, they
desire he may, heartily and devoutly, offer
up these prayers in their behalf, saying,
" The Lord be with thy spirit." The same
salutation is used in the confirmation service
after the act of confirmation, and before tbe
Lord's prayer ; but here the lesser Litany is
not connected with it. It marks, however,
the distinction between the. two parts of the
service. In the order for the visitation of
the sick, the priest is ordered to use tho
salutation enjoined by our Lord or His
apostles, " Peace be lo this house " (St.
Luke x. 5).
In the Roman Church the angelical
salutation, as it is called, consists of the
angel's salutation, and that of Elizabeth.
It runs thus: Ave Maria, gratie plena:
Dominus tecum : benedicta tu in mulieribus,
et benedictus fructus ventris tui. Sancta
Maria, mater Dei, ora pro nobis peccatori-
bus, nunc et in hora mortis nostre. Amen.
The latter clause, Sancta Maria, mater
Dei, ora pro nobis peccatoribus, was added,
it is said, in the fifth century ; but the last
words, nunc et in hora mortis nostre, were
inserted by order of Pope Pius. V.
Urban II. ordered a bell to be tolled three
times a day to put the people in mind of
repeating this salutation, that God might
prosper the Christian arms in the recovery
of the Holy Land; which custom, having
continued about 134 years, fell at length
into neglect; till Gregory IX. revived it,
with the addition of a constant noon-bell.
The repeating of this salutation at the
beginning of the sermon was first enjoined

SAMUEL
by St. Dominic, or, as some suppose, by
Vincent Ferrerius (See Idolatry and Mari-
olatry). SALVATION (See Covenant of Redemp
tion). The word is used in Scripture ; 1. For
deliverance or victory over outward dangers
and enemies (Exod. xiv. 13 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 45).
2. For remission of sins, true faith, repen
tance, and obedience, and other saving graces
of the Spirit, which are the way to salvation
(St. Luke xix. 9). " This day is salvation
come to this house." 3. For eternal happi
ness hereafter, which is the object of our
hopes and desires. Thus it is said " to give
knowledge of salvation to his people"
(St. Luke i. 77). " Godly sorrow worketh
repentance unto salvation " (2 Cor. vii. 10).
And the gospel is called the "gospel of
salvation " (Eph. i. 13), because it brings
the good news that salvation is to be had ;
it offers salvation to lost sinners ; it shows
upon what terms it may be had, and the
way how to attain it ; it also fits for salva
tion, and at last brings to it. 4. For the
author of salvation (Ps. xxvii. 1). "The
Lord is my light and my salvation," He is
my counsellor in all my difficulties, and my
comforter and deliverer in all my distresses.
5. For the person who is the Saviour of
sinners (St. Luke ii. 30). " Mine eyes have
seen thy salvation," says Simeon ; I have
seen Him whom thou bast sent into the
world, to be the author and procurer of
salvation to lost sinners. 6. For the praise
and benediction that is given to God (Rev.
xix. 1). " Alleluia, salvation, and glory, and
honour, and power, unto the Lord our God."
The Hebrews but rarely made use of concrete
terms as they are called; but often of
abstracted. Thus, instead of saying, God
saves men, and protects them, they say,
that God is their salvation. Thus the word
of salvation, the joy of salvation, the rock
of salvation, the shield of salvation, the horn
of salvation, &c, is as much as to say, The
word that declares deliverance; the joys
that attend the escaping a great danger ; a
rock where any one takes refuge, and where
he may be in safety from his enemy ; a
buckler, that secures him from the arm of
the enemy; a horn or ray of light, of
happiness and salvation, &c. — Cruden's
Concordance.
SALISBURY USE (See Use).
SAMUEL, THE BOOKS OF. Two-
canonical books of the Old Testament, so
called because they are usually ascribed
to the prophet Samuel.
These two books are styled Reigns in
the Greek version, and in the vulgar
Latin, Kings; but in the Hebrew they
are styled the Books of Samuel. But,
since the first twenty-four chapters con
tain all that relates to the history of

SANCTE BELL
Samuel, and that the latter part of the
First Book, and all the Second, include the
relation of events that happened after the
death of that prophet, it has been supposed
that Samuel was author only of the first
twenty-four chapters, and that the pro
phets Gad and Nathan finished the work.
This is the opinion of the Talmudists,
founded upon the following text of the
Chronicles : " Now the acts of David, first
and last, behold they are written in the
book of Samuel the seer, and in the book
of Nathan the prophet, and in the book
of Gad the seer."
The Books of Samuel and the Books of
Kings are a continued history of the
reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah ;
for which reason, the Books of Samuel are
likewise styled the First and Second Books
of Kings; and the two Books of Kings
are also called the Third and Fourth Books
of Kings. The first book includes the space
of about 101 years, the second contains the
history of about forty years, being a full
account of the transactions of King David
(See Speaker's Commentary).
SANCTE BELL. A small bell which
was rung when the " Sanctus, Sanctus,
Sanctus Dominus, Deus Sabaoth " was said,
to prepare the people for the elevation of
the Host, at which the sacring bell was rung
{See Sacring Bell).
Mr. Todd, in his additions to Johnson's
Dictionary, quotes from Warton's History
of Kiddington, as foUows : " It was usu-
aUy placed where it might be heard far
thest, in a lantern at the springing of the
¦steeple, or in a turret at the angle of the
tower; and sometimes, for the conveni
ence of its being more readily and exactly
rung, within a pediment, or arcade, between
the church and the chancel ; the rope, in this
situation, falling down into the choir, not far
from the altar." So also we read in Walton's
Life of George Herbert ; " And some of the
meaner sort of his parish did so love and
reverence Mr. Herbert, that they would
let their plough rest when Mr. Herbert's
Saints' bell rung to prayers, that they
might also offer their devotions to God
with him; and would then return back to
their plough." The small bell at Canter
bury rung before service, is hung high
in the central tower, and seems to answer
to the ancient Saints' bell. Mr. Todd adds,
that "the little bell, which now rings im
mediately before the service begins, is
corruptly called, in many places, Saucebell,
or Sauncebell."
SANCTIFICATION (See Justifica
tion). The progressive conformity of the
heart and life to the will of God, or our
inherent righteousness, as distinguished
from the righteousness of justification. To

SANCTIFICATION

673

say that we detract from the necessity of
inherent righteousness, or what is called
the righteousness of sanctification, because
we exclude it from the office of justifica
tion, and thus demolish the whole fabric of
human merit, is about as reasonable as to
say, that because we receive food by the
mouth, and not by the ear or the eye, the
eye and the ear are unnecessary members
in the human frame, and that no other
bodily functions are requisite to the life of
man. The man will die if, by tetanus, he
is unable to open his mouth ; but he will
also die if, having received food into his
mouth, he is unable to digest it ; and yet
the digestion of food, and its mastication,
are processes entirely distinct, while the
food itself is a gift from without. It is
one thing to assert that a Christian must
have inherent righteousness, and another
to assert that his inherent righteousness is
the ground of his acceptance with a right
eous God.
We may refer to Hooker for a clear
exposition of the case : " Concerning the
righteousness of sanctification, we deny it
not to be inherent ; we grant that, unless
we work, we have it not; only we dis
tinguish it as a thing different in nature
from the righteousness of justification :
we are righteous the one way, by the faith
of Abraham ; the other way, except we
do the ivorks of Abraham, we are not right
eous. Of the one, St. Paul, ' To him
that worketh not, but believeth, faith is
counted for righteousness.' Of the other,
St John, ' He is righteous which worketh
righteousness.' Of the one, St. Paul doth
prove by Abraham's example, that we have
it of faith without works. Of the other,
St. James, by Abraham's example, that by
works we have it, and not only by faith.
" St. Paul doth plainly sever these' two
parts of Christian righteousness one from
the other. For in the sixth to the Romans
thus he writeth : Being freed from sin, and
made servants to God, ye have your fruit in
holiness, and the end everlasting life.
" ' Ye are made free from sin, and made
servants unto God ; this is the righteous
ness of justification.
" ' Ye have your fruit in holiness ; ' this
is the righteousness of sanctification.
"By the one we are interested in the
right of inheriting; by the other we are
brought to the actual possession of eternal
bliss, and so the end of both is everlasting
life " (Sermon on Justification, § 6).
In another passage of the same discourse
(§ 31) Hooker says : " It is a childish cavil
wherewith, in the matter of justification, our
adversaries do so greatly please themselves,
exclaiming, that we tread all Christian
virtues under our feet, and require nothing
2 x

674

SANCTIFICATION

in Christians but faith ; because we teach
that faith alone justifieth : whereas, by this
speech, we never meant to exclude either
' hope or charity from being always joined
as inseparable mates with faith in the man
that is justified; or works from being
added as necessary duties, required at the
hands of every justified man : but to show
that faith is the only hand which putteth
on Christ unto justification; and Christ
the only garment, which, being so put on,
covereth the shame of our defiled natures,
hideth the imperfection of our works, pre-
serveth us blameless in the sight of God,
before whom otherwise the weakness of
our faith were cause sufficient to make
us culpable, yea, to shut us from the king
dom of heaven, where nothing that is not
absolute can enter."
"It is not in question," says Bishop
Andrewes, "whether we have an inherent
righteousness or no, or whether God will
accept or reward it; but whether that
must be our righteousness coram rege
justo judicium faciente. Which is a point
very material, and in no wise to be for
gotten. For, without this, if we compare
ourselves with ourselves, what heretofore
we have been, or if we compare ourselves
with others, as did the Pharisee, we may
take a fancy, perhaps, and have some good
conceit of our inherent righteousness. Yea,
if we be to deal in schools by argument or
disputation, we may, peradventure, argue
for it, and make some show in the matter.
But let us once be brought and arraigned
coram rege justo sedente in solio, let us
set ourselves there, we shall then see that
all our former conceit shall vanish straight,
and righteousness in that sense (that is,
an inherent righteousness,) will not abide
the trial " (Sermons, vol. v. p. 116).
"The Homilies of our Church," as Dr.
Waterland, adopting their doctrine, observes,
" describe and limit the doctrine thus :
' Faith doth not shut out repentance, hope,
love, dread, and the fear of God, to be joined
with faith in every man that is justified :
but it shutteth them out from the office of
justifying ; ' that is to say, from the office
of accepting or receiving it ; for as to the
office of justifying in the active sense, that
belongs to God only, as the same homily
elsewhere declares. The doctrine is there
further explained thus : ' Because faith doth
directly send us to Christ for remission of
our sins, and that by faith given us of God,
we embrace the promise of God's mercy,
and of the remission of our sins (which
thing none other of our virtues or works
properly doth), therefore the Scripture useth
to say, that faith without works doth
justify '" (Waterlantfs Works, vol. vi. 27).
It is observed by Faber " that, in the

SANCTUARY
progress of a Christian man from his original
justification to his final salvation, these
several states or conditions of righteousness
successively appertain to him.
" First in order comes the forensic right
eousness of justification; a righteousness
reputatively his, through faith, and on ac
count of the perfect meritoriousness of Christ.
" Next in order comes the inherent right
eousness of sanctification ; a righteousness
infused into him by the Holy Spnit after
he has been justified.
" And last in order comes the complete-
righteousness of glorification; a righteous--
ness acquired by him, when this corruptible
puts on incorruption, and this mortal puts-
on immortality.
" The first righteousness, being the right-
ousness of Christ, is perfect, but not in
herent. " The second righteousness, being the
subsequently infused righteousness of a
justified Christian man, is inherent, but not
perfect. "The third righteousness, being the ac
quired righteousness of a departed Christian
man in his glorified state hereafter, is both
perfect and inherent " (Prim. Doct. just. c. 1,
p. 23).
SANCTIFY (See Sanctification). To-
make holy, to treat as holy, or to set apart
for holy services (Exod. xix. 10, 22, 23 :
xxx. 29 ; Deut. v. 13 : Isa. viii. 13 : xxix.
23 ; Eph. v. 26 ; 1 Thess. v. 23).
SANCTUS (See Tersanctus).
SANCTUARY. I. The holy of holies-
(Lev. iv. 6) ; the temple at large (2 Chron.
xx. 8) ; the one place of national worship
for the Israelites (Deut. xu. 5) ; also the
place within the " cancelU veniatis," or rails-
where the holy table stands in the Christian
church. This part was always deemed the
most sacred part of the church. To such
extremes, in their earnest desire for reverence,.
did men go, that persons desirous of com
municating were disallowed an entrance into
the sanctuary or altar part of the church,
but had to wait outside (Cone. Laodic. cc.
19, 44). St. Ambrose did not permit Theo
dosius the emperor himself to communicate
in this part, but obliged him to retire after-
he had made his oblation (Theodoret, Uh. v.
c. 18 ; Sozom. H. E. 7, c. 25). The custom,.
however, differed in different churches, and
it was usual, in most places, for men and
women to come up to the altar and com
municate there (Euseb. lib. 7, c. 9: 10,
c. 4); and the second Council of Tours,
a.d. 567, orders the sanctuary (sancta sanc
torum) to be open both to men and women
to pray and communicate in at the time of
the oblation. The reverence paid to the
sanctuary might have become excessive
before the Reformation, but there was no-

SANDEMANIANS
excess afterwards. In fact, a great deal of
irreverence crept in. The sanctuary was
disregarded altogether. The holy table
placed in the middle : of1 the church was
used for other purposes than that for which
it was originally designed. On it the church
wardens settled their accounts, and trans
acted parish business. It was the usual
receptacle for hats and cloaks, except when
it was cleared in order that the children
might learn their writing lesson upon it. It
was even used as a seat by those who found
it a convenient place for hearing the sermon
(Heylin's Cyprianus Anglic. Orig. p. 273).
Laud endeavoured to remedy this by re
placing the holy table in the sanctuary at
the east end, but it was brought against
him on his trial and cost him his life (See
Hook's Archbishops, xi. 245). The feelings
of Churchmen, however, have prevailed, and
at the present day the east end of the church,
in which the holy table is placed, is re
garded as the sanctuary, as in the ancient
times. [H.]
II. By sanctuary is also meant the privi
lege of criminals who have fled to certain
sacred places, to be exempt from arrest and
punishment, except ecclesiastical discipline,
so long as they remain therein. This cus
tom of sanctuary, which is now almost
everywhere done away with, for the abuse
to which it gave rise, was derived from the
Levitical law of refuge, by which, at God's
express appointment, six cities were made
cities of refuge for the involuntary man-
slayer: and the altar of burnt-offerings
was also a place of- refuge for persons who
had undesignedly committed smaller of
fences (Deut. xix. 11, 12 ; Joshua xx).
In this Divine law the object seems to have
been to mark God's hatred of sin, by show
ing that even accidental and unpremeditated
offences were forgiven only by an especial
exercise of His mercy. The corrupt custom
of sanctuary in the middle ages was ex
tended to the protection of those who
knowingly and wUlingly committed the
most heinous offences.— Pegge, On Asylum,
in Archeologia, vol. viii. p. 13 (See Asy
lum). SANDEMANIANS, or GLASSITES.
A dissenting community, which had its
origin in the preaching and deposition of
one John Glas, Presbyterian minister of the
parish of Tealing, near Dundee, in 1730.
His pupil, Robert Sandeman, brought his
doctrine into England, and also into America,
and from him the sect derives its name,
though in Scotland it is still designated after
its first founder. The Sandemanians are
not a numerous sect.
The prominent doctrine of the Sande
manians, on which they differ from most
other Churches, relates to the nature of

SATAN

675

justifying faith, which Sandeman main
tained to be " no more than a simple asseni
to the Divine testimony, passively received
by the understanding."
Sandemanians, also, obseivc certain pe
culiar practices, supposed by them to have
been prevalent amongst the primitive Chris
tians, such as weekly sacraments, love feasts,
mutual exhortation, washing each other's
feet, plurality of elders, the use of the lot,
&c. In fact, their object is to get as near
as possible to the primitive customs, though
they disregard one of the most important
and primitive of all — holy orders. Pro
fessor Faraday, the eminent chemist, acted
as one of their elders (See Wilson's Hist.
of the Dissenting Churches in London;
Ritchie's Religious Life in London).
SARUM (See Use).
SATAN. A Hebrew word \Q&, signify
ing an adversary, an enemy, an accuser. It
is often translated " adversary " in our trans
lation of the Bible, as also in the Septuagint
and Vulgate. For example (1 Sam. xxix.
4), the princes of the Philistines say to
Achish, " Send back David, lest in the
battle he be an adversary to us, and turn
his arm against us." The Lord stirred up
" adversaries " to Solomon in the persons of
Hadad and Rezon (1 Kings xi. 14, 23, &c).
Sometimes Satan is put for the Devii ; for
example, Satan presented himself among
the sons of God, and the Lord said unto
Satan, " Whence comest thou ? " (Job i.
6, 7, &c). And in Psalm cix. 6, it is said,
" Let Satan stand at his right hand ; " and
in Zech. iii. 1, 2, it is said, " Satan standing
at his right hand ; and the Lord said unto
Satan, ' The Lord rebuke thee, 0 Satan.' "
In the books of the New Testament, the
word Satan is taken both in the sense of an
adversary, and also for the Devil ; for ex
ample, Christ says to Peter (St. Matt. xvi.
23), " Get thee behind me, Satan : thou art an
offence unto me ; " that is, " Begone, 0 mine
adversary : you that withstand what I most
desire, and what I came into the world
to do." But most commonly Satan is taken
for the Devil (St. Matt. xii. 26 ; St. Mark
iii. 23). "If Satan cast out Satan, he is
divided against himself." And in the Reve
lation (xx. 2), " He laid hold on the dragon,
that old serpent, which is the Devil, and
Satan, and bound him a thousand years "
(See the article Devil).
SATAN, KINGDOM OF. The power
of Satan over the soul is represented as
exercised either directly, or by his instru
ments. His direct influence over the soul
is that of a powerful and evil nature on
those in whom lurks tho germ of the same
evil ; differing from the influence exercised
by a wicked man, in degree, rather than
in kind. Besides this direct influence,
2x2

676

SATISFACTION

Scripture also tells us that Satan is also
the leader of a host of evil spirits, who
share his evil work— the officers of his king
dom. Thus in the Gospel (St. Matt. xii.
26'; St. Mark iii. 23 ; and St. Luke xi. 18)
our Blessed Lord represents Satan to us as a
monarch, who has other subordinate devils
obedient to him. St. Paul says in the Acts
(xxvi. 18), that aU those who are not in
thei-eligion of Jesus Christ are under tbe
empire and power of Satan. St. John
(Rev. xx. 7) predicts that, after a thousand
years, Satan should be unbound, should come
forth from hell, and subdue the nations.
To be " delivered up to Satan " is to be ex
communicated or cut off from God's Church,
and so surrendered to the Devil for a season.
St. Paul delivered up to Satan Hy menaeus and
Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20), that they might
learn not to blaspheme. He also surren
dered up to him the incestuous person of
Corinth (1 Cor. v. 5), " for the destruction
of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved
in the day of the Lord Jesus " (See Diet
of Bible, s. v.).
SATISFACTION (See Atonement, Co
venant of Redemption, Jesus, Propitiation).
I. Anything which being done or suf
fered by an offending creature himself, or
by another person for him, shall secure
the favour of the Divine government, in
bestowing upon the offender pardon and
happiness, may be properly called a satis
faction or atonement made to God for him.
In saying this, it is not intended to assert
that it is in the power of any creature to
satisfy for his own sins, for this is impos
sible ; but only to show what we mean
when we speak of his doing it.
Such a sense of the word " satisfaction,"
though not in strict propriety of speech
amounting to the payment of a debt, is
agreeable to the use of the word in the
Roman law ; where it signifies to content a
person aggrieved, and is put for some valu
able consideration, substituted instead of
what is a proper payment, and consistent
with a remission of that debt or offence for
which such supposed satisfaction is made :
which is a circumstance to be carefully ob
served, in order to vindicate the doctrine
we are about to establish, and to maintain
the consistency between different parts of
the Christian scheme.
Christ has made satisfaction for the sins
of all those who repent of their sins, and
return to God in the way of sincere, though
imperfect obedience.
1. Although Christ was innocent, never
theless he endured very grievous sufferings,
both in body and mind (Isa. liii. 3; St.
Matt. xxvi. 38) ; and he did this sponta
neously (Heb. x. 7, 9). ,
, 2. It is expressly asserted in Scripture,

SATISFACTION
that these sufferings were brought upon
Christ for the sake of sinful men, in whose
stead he is also said to have suffered (Isa.
liii. 5, 6, 10; St. Matt. xx. 28; Rom. iii.
25: v. 6, 8; 2 Cor. v. 21; Gal. iii. 13;
Eph. v. 2 ; Heb. vii. 27 : ix. 26 : x. 12 ;
1 St. Pet. ii. 24 : iii. 18).
3. The offers of pardon and eternal sal
vation are made in Scripture to those that
repent and return to God, for the sake of
what Christ has done and suffered : in whom
they are therefore declared to be accepted by
God, and to whom they are hereupon taught
to ascribe the glorv of their salvation (St.
John iii. 14-17 ; Acts x. 35, 36, 43: ii. 38:
iii. 18, 19; Rom. iv. 25; Col. i. 20-22;
2 Cor. v. 18, 20 ; Eph. i. 5, 7 ; Heb. ii. 3 :
ix. 14 : x. 4, 10, 14 ; Rev. i. 5, 6 : v. 9, 10 :
vii. 13, 14).
4. It is evident that, according to the
gospel institution, pardon and life were to
be offered to all to whom the preaching of
the gospel came, without any exception
(St. Mark xvi. 15, 16 ; Acts xiii. 38, 39 ;
1 St. John ii. 1, 2 ; Isa. liii. 6 ; St. John
i. 29). 5.. It is plain, from the whole tenor of the
epistolary part of the New Testament, as
well as from some particular passages of it,
that there was a remainder of imperfection,
generally at least, to be found, even in the
best Christians ; notwithstanding which they
are encouraged to rejoice in the hope of sal
vation by Christ (PhiL iii. 13 ; Gal. v. 17 ;
St. James Ui. 2 ; 1 St. John i. 8, 10 : ii. 1, 2).
6. Whereas, so far as we can judge, the
remission of sin, without any satisfaction
at all, might have laid a foundation for
men's thinking lightly of the law of God,
it is certain that, by the obedience and
sufferings of Christ, a very great honour
is done to it ; and mercy communicated to
us as the purchase of His blood, comes in
so awful as well as so endearing a manner,
as may have the best tendency to engage
those who embrace the gospel to a life of
holy obedience.
II. The Roman idea of satisfaction Ues at
the bottom of much of the heresy of that
Church. It directly opposes the doctrine
of justification by faith only, and is closely
connected with the Roman notion of the
merits of good works. The following is the
eighth chapter of the Council of Trent upon
the subject.
" Lastly, as concerns satisfaction, which
of all the parts of repentance, as it has been
at all times recommended by our fathers to
the Christian people, so now, in our time,
is chiefly impugned, under the highest
pretence of piety, by those who teach a
form of godliness, but have denied the
power thereof; the holy synod declares that
it is altogether false, and contrary to the

SATISFACTION
word of God, to say that sin is never
remitted by the Lord, but the entire punish
ment is also pardoned. For, besides Divine
tradition, clear and illustrious examples are
found in the holy books, by which this
error is most plainly refuted. In truth,
even the principle of Divine justice seems
to demand that they who have sinned
through ignorance before baptism should be
received by him into grace, after a different
manner from those who, having been once
freed from the bondage of sin and Satan,
and having received the gift of the Holy
Ghost, have not been afraid knowingly to
violate the temple of God, and to grieve the
Holy Spirit: aud it becometh the Divine
mercy that our sins should not be so re
mitted without any satisfaction, lest we take
occasion to think lightly of our sins, and so,
injuring and insulting the Holy Spirit, we
fall into worse, treasuring up unto ourselves
wrath against the day of wrath. For, be
yond all doubt, these punishments of satis
faction recall the penitents very much from
sin, and restrain them, as it were, with a
bit, and make them more cautious and
watchful for the future. They cure also
the remains of sins, and by actions of oppo
site virtues, destroy vicious habits acquired
by evil living. Nor, in truth, was there
ever any way considered in the Church
more sure for the removal of the impending
punishment of God, than that men, with
real grief of mind, should accustom them
selves to these works of repentance. To
this may be added, that while we suffer by
making satisfaction for sins, we are made
like unto Christ Jesus, who made satisfaction
for our sins, from whom all our sufficiency
is derived ; and having hence, also, a most
sure covenant, that, if we suffer with him,
we shall be also glorified together. Nor, in
truth, is this satisfaction which we pay for
our sins in such sort ours, that it should not
be through Christ Jesus ; for we who of
ourselves can do nothing as of ourselves,
can do all things by the assistance of him
who comforteth us ; so that a man hath
not whereof he can boast; but all our
boasting is in Christ, in whom we live, in
whom we merit, in whom we make satis
faction ; doing worthy fruits of repentance,
\v hich have their virtue from him, by him
are offered to the Father, and through him
accepted of the Father. The priests of the
Lord therefore ought, according to the sug
gestions of the Spirit and their own prudence,
to enjoin wholesome and suitable satisfaction,
proportioned to the quality of the crimes,
and the means of the penitents : lest, haply,
they become partakers in other men's sins,
if they connive at sin, and deal too tender
ly with the penitents, enjoining trifling
works for the most grievous crimes. Let

SATISFACTION

677

them have also before their eyes, that the
satisfaction which they impose is not only
for a defence of the new life, and a remedy
for infirmity, but also a revenge and punish
ment for past sins : for the ancient Fathers
believe and teach that the keys of the
priests were given not only for loosing but
also for binding. Nor did they therefore
think that the sacrament of repentance is
the tribunal of anger and punishments ; just
as no Catholic has ever thought that, by
our satisfactions of this kind,. the force, of
the merit and satisfaction of our Lord Jesus
Christ was either obscured or, lessened in
any degree ; which, .while our innovators are
unwilliDg to understand, they teach that a
new. life is the best repentance, that they
may. destroy altogther the virtue and use
of satisfaction."
"This," says Perceval in his 'Romish
Schism,' "is a remarkable chapter. The
repeated expressions, -of reference to our
Blessed Lord, ' in whom we live, in whom
we merit, in whom we make satisfaction
when we perform worthy fruits of repent
ance, which from them have power, by him
are offered to the Father, and through
him are accepted of the Father,' plainly
show how keenly alive the Tridentine
Fathers were to the danger of men con
sidering their own penances as irrespective
of our Lord's death and mediation, against
which error they thus endeavour to guard.
But the other error of making God, or
God's ministers in His behalf, through
vengeance of past sins, and not merely for
the correction of the offence, insist upon
penal satisfactions from those who, with
true repentance, and with faith in Christ,
have forsaken their sins, as though the
vicarial punishment inflicted upon the Son
of God were not sufficient to satisfy the
Divine vengeance, is left, and must needs be
left, untouched. But how great injury this
does to the full, perfect, and sufficient
sacrifice of our Lord, and. how great in
jury also to the character of our heavenly
Father, there need no arguments to
prove. The passages cited by the pub
lishers of the Tridentine decrees (Gen.
iii. ; 2 Sam. xii. ; Num. xii. and xx.), being
all taken from the old dispensation, can
not be pressed, because the analogy of
God's dealings before and after the suffer
ings of our Lord will not altogether hold :
besides, they all relate to cases of open sin,
in which, for the edification of others, tem
poral punishment was inflicted, from which
no argument whatever can be adduced in
behalf of vindictive penalties for secret
sins, which have been repented of, con
fessed, and forsaken, with faith in Christ.
It would seem from certam expressions,
that they consider the practice of the vir-

678

SAVIOUR

tues most opposed to the sins committed
among the vindictive penalties for sin. A
strange and most unhappy light in which
to regard what the Scriptures would have
us consider our highest privileges and our
choicest happiness. That the practice of
the Church of Rome is in accordance with
this is placed beyond all doubt, when it is
known that the repeating a certain number
of prayers is often enjoined as a penance
or punishment for sin."
SAVIOUR (See Jesus). One who deli
vers from danger and misery ; as God does
by his providential care (Psalm cvi. 21 ;
Isa. xiv. 15, 21 : Ixiii. 8 ; Jer. xiv. 8 ; 1
Tim. iv. 10) ; and as does our Lord Jesus
Christ (St. Luke ii. 11 ; St. John iv. 42 ; Acts
v. 31 : xiii. 23 ; Eph. v. 23 ; Phil. iii. 20). He
saves from sin (St. Matt. i. 21) ; from the
thraldom of Satan (Heb. ii. 14 ; 1 St. John
iii. 8); from the world (Gal. i. 4); from
the sting of death (1 Cor. xv. 55, 57) ;
from the grave (1 Cor. xv. 22, 23 ; Phil.
iii. 20, 21); from hell (1 Thess. i. 10);
and brings to the enjoyment of eternal
bliss in heaven (St. Matt. xxv. 34 ; 1 St. Pet.
i. 3, 4; 2 St. Pet. i. 11). Christ is able to
save to the uttermost (Heb. vii. 25); and
He is willing to save all who come to Him
(St. Matt. xi. 28 ; St. John vi. 37).
SAVOY CONFERENCE. A confer
ence held at the Savoy, in London, in
1661, between the Catholic divines of the
Church of England and the Presbyterians.
The object was to ascertain what conces
sions with respect to the liturgy could con-
1 ciliate the Presbyterians, or Low Church
party of that day. The representatives of
that body demanded the discontinuance of
all responses and similar divisions in the
Litany ; an abolition of saints' days ; an in
troduction of extemporaneous prayer; a
change as to several of the Epistles and
Gospels, which, remaining in the old ver
sion, contained, as they said, various errors ;
the lengthening of the collects ; the rejection
of the Apocrypha; a removal from the
baptismal office of the word regenerated, as
applied to all baptized persons ; and a similar
rejection of the giving thanks for brethren
taken by God to Himself, as embracing all
alike who were interred, both these phrases
being held incompatible with the commi
nation. They would have the liturgy be
more particular, and the catechism more
explicit. They consented to give up tho
Assembly's Catechism for the Thirty-nine
Articles somewhat altered ; and they wound
up their expectations with the old re
quest, that the cross, ring, surplice, and
kneeling at the Eucharist should be left
indifferent. On the contrary, the Church Commis
sioners maintained that bishops already

SAVOY CONFERENCE
performed ordination with the assistance
of presbyters ; that it was expedient to
retain a certain number of holy-days for
the reasonable recreation of the labouring
classes; that the surplice was a decent
emblem of that purity which became the
ministers of God; that its high antiquity
was shown by St. Chrysostom in one of
his homilies; and that it received a sanc
tion from several passages in the Revela
tion (ch. iii. 4, 5). They affirmed that
Christ Himself kept the feast of dedica
tion, a festival of human appointment ;
that the sign of the cross bad been always
used " in immortali lavacro ; " that kneeling
was an ancient and decent usage, and that
.the high antiquity of liturgies in the Church
is indisputable. To the demand that the
answers of the people should be confined
to "Amen," they replied, that Dissenters
say more in their psalms and hymns; if
then in poetry, why not in prose? if in
tbe Psalms of Hopkins, why not in those of
David? and if in a Psalter, why not in a
Litany ? That Scripture contained aU which
is needful for salvation, they deemed no
more an objection to the Apocrypha than
to preaching. To read the Communion
Service at the communion table was main
tained to be an ancient custom, and "let
ancient customs be observed, unless reason
demands their abolition," was the golden
rule of the Council of Nice.
They could see no real advantage in
compromise and concession. What had
the former alternate preaching of regular
incumbents and puritanical lecturers ever
effected but the sowing of perpetual dis
sensions in every parish, the aspersion of
the characters and defeating of the use
fulness of regular pastors, and a distraction
of the people's minds with different winds
of doctrine, till they knew not what to be
lieve? In truth, it was certain that what
ever concessions might be made, so long as
the love of novelty, the pride of argumen
tation, the passion for holding forth, and
the zeal for proselytizing, continued to be
principles in the human heart, no conces
sion would ever abolish sects in religion;
while the Church of England, by departing
from her ancient practice, would only com
promise her dignity, and forfeit her title to
due reverence. Yet, since some fondly
conceived that all parties, tired of dissen
sion and disturbance, were now eager to
coalesce; and that to concede the minor
points of difference to the Presbyterian
ministers would afford them a plausible
excuse for maintaining harmony without
violating their principles; they would not
object to a revision of the liturgy, they
would even give up the ceremonies, if any
shadow of objection could be brought for-

SAVOY CONFERENCE
ward on the score of their sinfulness ' or
impropriety. Their antagonists, however,
refused to accept this challenge, since ad
mitting them to be neither sinful nor im
proper, they deemed it sufficient to show
that a positive obligation should not be
imposed with respect to things indifferent.
On this question, which was in fact the
point at issue, as the parties could come
¦to no agreement, the conference, like that
of Hampton Court in 1604, terminated in
mutual dissatisfaction (See Cardwell's His
tory qf the Conferences).
" The object aimed at by those who would
have lowered the terms of conformity, was,
an itself, inexpressibly inviting. It was
their hope to see the great body of pro
fessing Christians in England united in
¦one communion; so to annihilate that
schism, which, in the judgment of both
parties, had been the great blemish of the
English Church, from almost the earliest
stage of the Reformation. But, allowing
every merit to the intention, can we, at
this day, refuse the praise of deeper fore-
.sight to their opponents ; who argued, that
if some things were changed, in order to
please the party then applying, successive
parties might arise, making fresh demands
and inventing as good reasons for the se
cond and third concessions, as had been
urged for the first ? ... If such an ecclesi
astical modification as was wished for by
¦Judge Hale and his associates had been
adopted, general pacification could not,
even then, have been attained; and the
discovery of new grounds of dissent would
have made the prospect more and more
hopeless. In the mean time, the EngUsh
Church establishment would have parted
with some of its most distinguishing cha
racteristics ; those features, in particular,
which are derived from the ancient Church,
would have been, in a great measure, de
faced; and of course, the principle of ad
hering, on all doubtful points, to [the con
currence of Christian antiquity, could have
been insisted on no longer. Had the
Church of England thus deserted her an
cient ground, where, we cannot but ask,
should alteration have stopped? A prac
tice once originated is repeated without
difficulty. Can we, then, entertain a doubt,
that the successive endeavours vvhich have
been used, at one time, to new-modify the
forms of our worship ; at another, to abate
the strictness of our doctrinal creed ; would
have been as successful as, in our actual
circumstances, they have proved abortive ?
To nothing, under heaven, can we so rea
sonably ascribe the defeat of all such ef
forts, as to the dread of disturbing what
had remained so long substantially unal
tered. Had there been no room for this feel-

SAYING

079

ing, other considerations might not have
been available, against the apparent plausi
bility of what was asked, or the persever
ing ardour of the applicants. Had the
work of demolition once begun, its pro
gress would have been both certain and
illimitable; each successive change would
have been the precedent for another, yet
more substantial and vital." — Alexander
Knox, Pref. to 2nd Ed. of Burnet's Lives.
At this conference there were twelve Angli
can, and twelve Presbyterian divines. Of
the former the most famous were Sheldon,
bishop of London ; Cosin, bishop of Durham ;
Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln; Pearson,
afterwards bishop of Chester; Sparrow,
afterwards bishopj of Norwich ; and Dr.
Thorndike. On the other side were Baxter,
Reynolds, Lightfoot, Calamy, and Bates.
SAXON. The earliest development of
Romanesque, as applied to ecclesiastical
architecture in England, is so called. His
torically this style ought to extend from
the coming of St. Augustine to the Con
quest (1066) ; but the intercourse of England
with Normandy was so constant before that
time, that there can be no doubt we had
already much Norman architecture. It is
scarcely less to be doubted that many more
ante-Conquest buildings yet remain than
are usually accounted Saxon. The characters
most relied on to determine Saxoii work are
the long and short work, triangular headed
doors and windows, the splaying of the
windows externally as well as internally,
and the occurrence of baluster shafts in the
windows. These, however, are not constant
in well-authenticated Saxon buildings, nor
do they invariably indicate a Saxon date.
SAYING AND SINGING. The parts
of the service directed to be said or sung, or
sung or said, are, the Venite, the Psalms
(in the title-page of the Prayer Book), the
Te Deum (and by inference and analogy),
the Canticles ; the Apostles' Creed, the
Litany, the Athanasian Creed, the Easter
Anthem, the Nicene Creed, the Sanctus, the
Gloria in Excelsis, the psalm in the Matri
monial Service, the introductory sentences
and two anthems in the Burial Service, the
Communion Service, the Communion Service
in the Ordination of Deacons and Priests,
and the Veni Creator in the Ordination of
Priests and Bishops. These two phrases
have no difference in meaning, since the
Apostles' Creed is directed to be sung or
said, in the Morning Service ; to be said or
sung, in the Evening. It appears that the
ecclesiastical use of the word say is two
fold : (I) As a general term, including all
methods of recitation, with or without note,
or musical inflection. In this sense it is
used in our Prayer Book, when employed
alone. (2) As a more technical and re-

680

SAYING

stricted term, used in contradistinction to
singing; and yet not to singing in the
generaU sense, but in one or more of its
restricted senses.
For the word sing, as is well known, has
more than one ecclesiastical sense ; since it
includes, (1) all that is recited, in whatever
way, in a musical tone ; in which sense it is
used in the Prayer Book ; (2) that which
is chanted, like the Psalms, Athanasian
Creed, and Litany ; (3) that which is sung
anthemwise, like the Anthems, Canticles,
Hymns, and Nicene Creed. In these two
last senses it is contradistinguished from say
in the Prayer .Book.
The phrase sung or said is applied to those
parts of the service only, in which, when
said, the minister has a distinctive part,
whether (1) leading or preceding the peo
ple in each clause ; or (2) reciting alternate
verses with them ; or (3) reciting the pas
sage alone; but which, when sung, are
sung by the minister and people, or choir,
all together, without any distinctive part
being assigned to him. And it may be
added, these parts may be, and usually
are, sung to the organ. The phrase never
applies to those parts of the service which
are always to be repeated by the minister
alone in the versicle, and by the people in
the response.
The instance given above of the Com
munion Service in the Ordination of Priests
and Bishops, is the only direction to which
this rule does not appear exactly applicable.
But here, from the nature of the case, the
Communion Service is spoken of in a
general way; and we are, of course, re
ferred to its special rubrics in their proper
places. All that is meant is this, that the
service shall be performed chorally or not
chorally, according as circumstances may
allow or require.
The Apostles' Creed is the only instance
in which the permission or injunction of
the rubric to sing this part of the service
(that is, to sing it anthemwise, or to the
organ), has never been acted on. This
rubric was altered to its present form at the
last review ; as before it had merely been
directed to be said. The words " or sung "
seem to have been inserted in order to pre
serve the analogy between this creed and
the Nicene, which it resembles in its con
struction. With regard to the Litany, when said,
it is repeated alternately, as verse and
response, by the minister and people,
But the choral usage is, in some cathe
drals, not that the minister, or a priest, but
two chanters should sing together those
parts which the minister reads in a parish
church, and which in some old choral books
are here called versicles, as far as the Lord's

SCARF
Prayer exclusive. And this, not with the
common intonation and inflection used in
prayers and versicles (which have come
under the denomination of singing), but
with the modulation of a regular chant;
which in some parts of the Litany (the in
vocation e.g.) these two chanters sing
throughout ; while in others they form the
first part of the chant, the response of the
choir forming the second. This particular
service has often been set to artificial music,
both before and after the last review. No
notice of Minister (or Priest) and Answer
are prefixed to the former part of the
Litany ; while in the latter part, when
there are such notices, the suffrages are
always recited by one minister, and answered
by the choir or people (See Litany).
Now if in a choir the minister were to
read, or simply intone, the versicles of the
first part of the Litany, that service would
then not be sung, but said, according to the
meaning of the rubric, even though the
responses were chanted; the word singing
including the whole portion of the service
then specified, not a part only. And this
is probably the reason why the ancient
harmonized Litanies by various composers
are generally set to music in the former part
only ; the supplications, or latter part, being
customarily sung in choirs to the ordinary
chant. But the rubrics by no means interfere
with, and indeed do not allude to, the
chanting of prayers and responses imme-
morially used in choirs ; the singing which
the rubrics specify being a different thing
from choral or responsional recitation. The
responses were, and are still, frequently
sung to the organ. But singing (as used in
the Prayer Book) never has reference to a
mere response. In fact, the word answer is
an ecclesiastical term, which in choirs always
implies singing (in its common and general
sense), as reference to the older documents
on which our Prayer Book was based will
show. [H.]
SCARF (See Stole). A piece of silk or
other stuff which hangs from the neck, and
is worn over the rochet or surplice. It is
not mentioned in the rubric of the English
ritual, but is worn by our bishops and dig
nitaries of the Church, and by D.D.'s in the
University (see Canon 74). It is used from
long custom, and may be referred to the
ancient practice of the Church, according to
which presbyters and bishops wore a scarf
or stole in the administration of the sacra
ments, and on some other occasions. The
stole has been used from the most primitive
ages by the Christian clergy. It was
fastened on one shoulder of the deacon's alb,
and hung down before and behind. The
priest had it over both shoulders, and the

SCEPTICS
ends of it hung down in front. Thus simply
were the dresses of the priests and deacons
distinguished from each other in primitive
times. For some years scarfs were supposed
to belong to bishops' and peers' chaplains,
but for no good reason. They were wider
than the now common stole, and may pro
bably be identified with the " black tippet "
of the canons (See Tippet).
SCEPTICS (From the Greek word
o-Keirropai, to look about, to deliberate). This
word was applied to an ancient sect of
philosophers founded by Pyrrho, who denied
the real existence of all qualities in bodies
except those which are essential to primary
atoms, and referred everything else to the
perceptions of the mind produced by ex
ternal objects ; in other words, to appearance
and opinion. In modern times, the word is
applied to Deists, and those who deny any
revelation (See Rationalism).
SCHISM (Lat. schisma; Gk. o-xio-pa, from
o~xifav, to divide), in the ecclesiastical
sense of the word, is a breaking off from
communion with the Church, on account of
some disagreement in matters of faith or
discipline. We shall easily leam what the ancients
meant by the unity of the Church and
schism, if we consider the following par
ticulars : — 1. That there were different de
grees of unity and schism, according to the
proportion of which a man was said to be
more or less united to the Chm-ch, or divided
from it. 2. That they who retained faith
and baptism, and the common form of
Christian worship, were in those respects at
unity with the Church ; though, in other
respects, in which their schism consisted,
they might be divided from her. 3. That
to give a man the denomination of a true
¦Catholic Christian, absolutely speaking, it
was necessary that he should in all respects,
and in every kind of unity.be in perfect
and full communion with the Church ; but
to denominate a man a schismatic, it was
sufficient to break the unity of the Church
in any one respect ; though the malignity
of the schism was to be interpreted, more or
less, according to the degrees of separation
he made from her. Because the Church
could not ordinarily judge of men's hearts,
or of the motives that engaged them in
error and schism, therefore she was forced
to proceed by another rule, and judge of
their unity with her by their external com
munion and professions.
And as the Church made a distinction
between the degrees of schism, so did she
between the censures inflicted on schis
matics ; for these were proportioned to the
quality and heinousness of the offence.
Such as absented themselves from church
for a short time (which was reckoned the

SCHOOLS

681

lowest degree of separation) were punished
with a few weeks' suspension. Others, who
attended only some part of the service, and
voluntarily withdrew twhen the Eucharist
was to be administered ; these, as greater
criminals, were denied the privilege of
making any oblations, and excluded for
some time from all the other holy offices of
the Church. But the third sort of separatists,
who are most properly called schismatics,
being those who withdrew totally and uni
versally from the communion of the Church,
and endeavoured to justify the separation ;
against these the Church proceeded more
severely, using the highest censure, that of
excommunication, as against the professed
enemies and destroyers of her peace and
unity. Ecclesiastical history presents us with a
view of several considerable schisms, in
which whole bodies of men separated from
the communion of the Catholic Church.
Such were, in the fourth century, the schisms-
of the Donatists, and the many heretics that
sprang up in the Church, as the Arians,
Photinians, Apollinarians, &c, the schism
of the Church of Antioch, occasioned by
Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, in Sardinia ; in
the fifth century, the schism of the Church
of Rome, between Laurentius and Symma
chus ; in the ninth century, the separation
of the Greek Church from the Latin ; but,
particularly, the grand schism of tbe popes
of Rome and Avignon, in the fourteenth
century, which lasted till the end of the
Council of Pisa, 1409. — Bingham, bk. xvi.
c. 1, 17.
The deprecation in the Litany against
heresy and schism was added in 1661 after
the many schisms by which the Church was
rent during the period of the great Rebellion.
The spirit of party within the Church is
inchoate schism. It divides the interests of
a portion of the Church from those of tho
whole Church, and so tends to the breach of
outward unity. Schism may originate in
dissatisfaction with the teaching or with the
government of the Church. Its sin lies in
its disruption of the one body (Eph. iv.
4, 5). Its special dangers lie in wilful
abandonment of those means of grace of
which the Church is the divinely appointed
channel, and in the ever-increasing liability
to falling away further and further from
orthodox teaching and practice. Heresy
leads to schism, and schism, in its turn, has
a tendency to encourage heresy. Moreover
experience teaches us that schism begets-
schism. The child naturally manifests the
disloyal and unfilial spirit of the parent. —
E. Daniel's P. B. p. 172.
SCHOOLS. The word was anciently
of larger appUcation than at present, and
signified places of instruction not only for

£82

SCHOOLS

children, but for those of more advanced
age. It was applied generally to what are
now called universities. Thus Shakspeare,
in " Hamlet," speaks of being at school at
Wittenberg, that is, at the university. The
places in the universities where exercises
for degrees are performed, and lectures
a-ead, are still called schools, both in Eng
land, and at least in the older universities
of Europe : and academical degrees were
often called degrees of school.
By Canon 77. "No man shaU teach
either in public school or private house,
but such as shall be allowed by the bishop
of the diocese, or ordinary of the place,
under his hand and seal ; being found
meet, as well for his learning and dexterity
in teaching, as for sober and honest con
versation, and also for right understanding
of God's true religion ; and also except he
first- subscribe simply to the first and third
articles in the 36th canon, concerning the
king's supremacy, and the Thirty-Nine
Articles of Religion, and to the two first
clauses of the second article, concerning
the Book of Common Prayer, viz. that it
containeth nothing contrary to the word
of God, and may lawfully be used."
By Canon 78. " In what parish church
or chapel soever there is a curate, which
is a master of arts, or bachelor of arts, or
is otherwise well able to teach youth, and
will wUlingly so do, for the better increase
of his living, and training up of children
in principles of true religion, we wiU and
ordain that a licence to teach youth of the
parish where he serveth be granted to none
by the ordinary of that place, but only to
the said curate : provided always, that this
constitution shall not extend to any parish
or chapel in country towns, where there is
.a public school founded already ; in which
case we think it. not meet to allow any to
teach grammar, but only him that is
allowed for the said public school."
By Canon 79. " All schoolmasters shall
teach in English or Latin, as the children
are able to bear, the larger or shorter
catechism, heretofore by public authority
<set forth. And as often as any sermon
shall be upon holy and festival days, within
the parish where they teach,- they shall
bring their scholars to the church where
such sermons shall be made, and there see
them quietly and soberly behave them-
-selves, and shall examine them at times
convenient after their return, what they
¦have borne away of such sermons. Upon
other days, and at other times, they shall
train them up with such sentences of Holy
Scriptures, as shall be most expedient to
induce them to all godliness. And they
shall teach the grammar set forth by King
Henry VIII., and continued in the times of

SCHOOLS
King Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth of
noble memory, and none other. And if any
schoolmaster, being licenced, and having
subscribed as is aforesaid, shaU offend in
any of the premises, or either speak, write,
or teach against anything whereunto he
halh formerly subscribed, if upon admoni
tion by the ordinary he do not amend and
reform himself, let him be suspended from
teaching school any longer."
" The larger or shorter catechism." — The
shorter is that in the Book of Common
Prayer ; the larger was a catechism set
forth by King Edward VI., which he hy
his letters patents commanded to be taught
in all schools; which was examined, re
viewed, and corrected in the convocation
of 1562, and published with those improve
ments in 1570, to be a guide to the younger
clergy in the study of divinity, as contain
ing the sum and substance of our reformed
religion. — Gibson, 374.
" Shall bring their scholars to the church."
— E. 10 & 11 W. Betcliam, and Barnardis-
ton. The chief question was, whether a
schoolmaster might be prosecuted in the
ecclesiastical court for not bringing his
scholars to church, contrary to this canon.
And it was the opinion of the court that
the schoolmaster, being a layman, was not
bound by the canons.
" Grammar." — Compiled and set forth by
William Lily and others speciaUy ap
pointed by bis Majesty ; in the preface to
which book it is declared that, " as for the
diversity of grammars, it is well and pro
fitably taken away by the king's Majesty's
wisdom ; who foreseeing the inconvenience,
and favourably providing the remedy,
caused one kind of grammar by sundry
learned men to be diligently drawn, and so
to be set out only; everywhere to he
taught for tlie use of learners, and for
avoiding the hurt in changing of school
masters." The first elementary Day Schools for the
children of the poor in England were founded
by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge in 1698. A clergyman was
appointed by the Society to inspect. these
schools in 1700. Before twenty years had
passed Charity Schools had been established
in every great centre of population through
out the kingdom.
Sunday Schools originated in the classes
held for the instruction of the young by
St. Charles Borromeo, and were introduced
into England by Mr. Robert Raikes at
Gloucester in 1781, at the suggestion of the
Rev. Thomas Stock, Master of the Cathedral
School. The following succinct and lucid history
of public education for the poor in Eng
land during the greater part of the first half

SCHOOLS
of the present century was given by the
bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, in his
visitation charge of 1847 : —
" The system of mutual instruction was
first promulgated in this island by Dr.
Andrew Bell, exactly half a century from
the present time; and that invention,
when generally known, drew people's minds
to the subject of schools for the children of
the poor ; for it was thought, that a method
by which one person couid inspect the
instruction of great numbers would reduce
so materially the expense, as to render it no
longer hopeless to procure some education
for all the inhabitants of the country. In
the early years of the nineteenth century,
this became the subject of earnest disscusion
and controversy : and with good reason ;
for it seemed an obvious consequence, that
a machinery by which large numbers could
be instructed together, would place in the
hands of those who directed that instruction
a powerful moral engine to affect the minds
of the rising generation. The sectaries were
not slow in availing themselves of that
engine ; and as the religious differences of
dissenting parents were, by some, considered
a reason against their children using the
catechism of the Church, it was maintained
by them, that nothing should he taught in
those large seminaries except such truths
as all Christians, of every complexion and
denomination, could agree to accept. Many
faithful ministers of the Church felt that
they would not be justified before God or
man in abdicating one of their most
essential functions, that of watching the
instruction of their young parishioners, and
they recoiled from any proposal of com
promising Divine truths ; accordingly, they
were found strenuously to resist that scheme.
With the view of directing the education of
the poor in the principles of the National
Church, in the year 1812 was estabUshed
the National Society, an institution which
has ever since, by various methods, assisted
our schools — by contributions towards their
erection — by training teachers — by impart
ing advice and information — and by main
taining consistency and efficiency in an
extensive and rather complicated system.
It was, I believe, about thirty years ago
that this momentous subject acquired in
creased importance in the public eye, by the
reports of an Education Committee of the
House of Commons ; and it was then first
suggested, that an object of such vast
consequence as national education claimed
_ the direct assistance of the State, and that
nothing less than aid from the public purse
could ever compass the great object of uni
versal instruction. But it was not until the
year 1833, that the least assistance was
rendered by the government or parliament

SCHOOLS

683

towards that work. Schools had indeed
increased in number, and the public mind
had become more and more favourable to
the undertaking. But tbe countenance
then first given to popular education by
parliament, seems to have originated in
political considerations. The population of
the country had increased with surprising
rapidity ; and the vast numbers of poor
congregated in towns, particularly in the
manufacturing and mining districts, left far
behind them all the efforts of private bene
volence. At the same time, a fearful
increase was observed in the amount of
crime ; and an examination of the unhappy
inmates of prisons proved that a great
majority were destitute of every kind of
instruction : on the other hand, of the edu
cated part of the poorer classes, very few
were discovered in the criminal ranks.
Such considerations showed the extreme
danger of suffering masses of the people to
grow up in ignorance of moral and religious
duties, and weighed with parliament to
make a grant towards building school-rooms.
The amount was indeed trifling compared
with the demand, being only £20,000 for
England and Wales : but the like sum was
repeated for five successive years ; and,
niggardly as these grants have been generally
called, it would be ungrateful not to acknow
ledge that they did cause a great extent of
good throughout the country. The money
granted by the Treasury being proportioned
to the sums advanced by private subscrip
tions, was effectual in stimulating a large
amount of individual charity, and thus
called into being a multitude of schools
that could not otherwise have had exist
ence. The Treasury grants being conveyed
through the National Society to Church
schools, and through the British and Foreign
Society to Dissenting schools, to meet the
sums respectively subscribed, the result was,
that no less than five-sixths of the whole
were allotted to the former ; thereby giving
a signal proof of the greater zeal in the
cause of education which animated Church
men. " However, the experience of so many
years too plainly showed that the education,
if such it could be called, which was given
to the poor, was inadequate and unsatis
factory. The system of mutual instruction,
though to a certain extent useful when
judiciously directed, was found not to be
capable of those wonderful effects upon
which sanguine minds had calculated.
Besides, the early age at which children
were generally deprived of school instruction,
through the necessities or the cupidity of
their parents, perpetually disappointed the
hopes of their intellectual proficiency. But,
above aU, the inadequate qualification of the

684

SCHOOLS

masters and mistresses of National Schools
precluded all prospect of such an education
as might elevate the mind. The smallness
of their salaries, mainly depending upon
precarious subscriptions, almost excluded
persons of ability and energy from situations
in which those quaUties are peculiary re
quired. Frequently the instructors of the
rising generation were persons who had been
unsuccessful in their endeavours to obtain a
livelihood in other lines of life, who had
never turned their attention to the subject
of education, and were destitute of the
temper, discernment, and love of the pro
fession, which should be combined in a
good teacher ; and a few weeks' attendance
in the central school (when funds could be
found for that purpose) was seldom sufficient
to remedy previous inaptitude, or to confer
appropriate habits and address. Against
these difficulties, the clergy, feeling that
upon them the responsibility was cast, long
struggled with exemplary zeal and patience ;
a state of things which still continues.
Many are thecases where the whole pecuniary
support of a school, beyond tbe weekly
pence of the children, rests with the
minister ; and whatever is of any value in
the teaching, proceeds from himself, or the
members of his family.
"From observation of these and other
defects in our system, and from a deep
sense of the duty of a Christian nation to
bring up its people in Christian principles,
the National Society promulgated a new
and comprehensive plan, the object of which
was to establish, in every diocese, training
schools for teachers, to combine them with
seminaries for the children of the middle
classes (who had before been unaccountably
overlooked in our schemes of national edu
cation), and to give permanence to these
institutions by connecting them with the
cathedral establishments ; while it was
hoped, that aU Churchmen of influence and
education might be interested in the care
and promotion of the system, by the forma
tion of diocesan boards of education. This
important movement took place in the year
1838 ; and though the results, as far as it
has operated, have been beneficial to the
cause of education, yet it must be confessed
that the success of the scheme has not
equalled the anticipations of its benevolent
and enlightened projectors. The pecuniary
support which it has met with has not been
hitherto sufficient to carry into execution
the contemplated objects to the required
extent: the effect, however, has, on the
whole, been considerable : and the conviction
universally produced on the public mind
seems to be, that without an appropriate
education to be given to the teachers, qualify
ing them to conduct the moral culture of the

SCHOOLS
youthful mind, aU efforts at useful instruc
tion of the poor will be illusory ; and that
this is an object which must, at all risks.
and all costs, be kept in view. Nevertheless,.
no one can fail to see the difficulty which
the circumstances of this country cast in the
way of any training system : in particular,.
the acquirements of the pupils being of such
a nature as will qualify them for many
other employments better remunerated than
the mastership of a charity school, it is.
always to be feared that the best and ablest
proficients may be tempted to desert the
profession for which they have been edu
cated, to embark in one more lucrative and.
alluring. "In the following year the government
made an attempt to take into their own
hands the guidance of national education.
This was to have been effected by various-
steps, by the estabUshment of a model
school, and of a school for instructors (or
normal school, as it was termed) under the
authority and direction of a Committee of
the Privy Council, who were constituted a
board of education, with a great latitude of
discretion. The former rule of appropriat- .
ing grants of public money in a just pro
portion to voluntary donations was to be no
longer observed ; but a centraUzed system
of government inspection of schools and of
the course of instruction was announced. As
these measures were proposed by statesmen
who had always avowed themselves advo
cates and supporters of what is termed the
British and Foreign system, as they opened
a door to the introduction of a course of
education in which religion might have-
little or no share, and as they were joyfuUy
hailed by that party iu the country which
avowed hostility to the Church, there could:
be little doubt on the mind of anybody as
to their tendency. Though the operation
might have been gradual, yet no long time
would have passed before the Church was
deposed from one of its most important
functions, and that upon which its ulterior
usefulness among the poorer classes mainly
depends — the early instruction of their
youth. This must be regarded as the great
crisis of the education question, in which
the sentiments of all who had thought or
interested themselves in the matter found
expression. The government plan was
upheld by those who wished for schools in
which instruction might be confined, as in
those of France, to secular knowledge— as
well as by those who advocated the notion
of dividing religious instruction into general
and special, and wished to communicate the
former in schools, but to exclude the latter,
as bringing into collision conflicting opinions.
The prevailing judgment of the pubUc was
indicated by petitions to parliament, of which

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about 3000 were against the proposals, and
about 100 in their favour. The measure
was only carried in the House of Commons,
with aU the weight of ministerial influence,
by a majority of two, while in the Upper
House resolutions condemnatory of it were
voted by a majority of no less than 111 ;
and an address was carried up to the throne
by the whole House, praying her Majesty
not to enforce a system which interfered
with the province of the Established Church.
It rarely happens that upon any question
the preponderance of public opinion through
out all classes has been expressed so de
cidedly, and at the same time so deliberately.
Its first result was of a very remarkable
character. The distinguished and eloquent
statesman, the founder of the British and
Foreign School Society, who had signalized
the whole of his public life by a zealous
andenergetie advocacy of the comprehensive
system of education, was so convinced of
the hopelessness of overcoming the prevalent
feeling in favour of the Church as general
instructress, that he published a pamphlet,
to persuade those who had co-operated with
him for thirty years in that course to
acquiesce in the decision which public
•opinion, as well as parliament, had pro
nounced against them ; and urged, with his
usual force of argument, that they would
best show themselves the sincere and patri
otic advocates for the diffusion of knowledge,
by agreeing at once to a ' Church Education
Bill.' " It is gratifying to contemplate the
moderation with which the Church used
the triumph of opinion declared in her
favour, and the substantial proof which
she gave of the sincerity of her zeal for
intellectual improvement. The deplorable
ignorance in which multitudes were suffered
to grow up in the populous manufacturing
and mining districts, and the inadequacy of
any voluntary efforts in their favour, had
been used as the great argument for devolv-
, ing all care of them and their instruction
upon the State ; accordingly, a special fund
was immediately subscribed, and intrusted
to the National Society, for maintaining
schools in those populous districts, amount
ing to not less than £150,000, five times
the sum voted at the time by parliament
for the whole kingdom. A disposition was
likewise shown to meet, as far as possible,
the views of the government in regard to
schools whose erection had been aided by
parliamentary grants ; it being agreed that
they should be open to government inspec
tion, on condition that the inspectors of
Church schools were to be persons recom
mended by the archbishops of the respective
provinces. " During the last seven years .the system

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685

of inspection has been in progress, and, I
think, with singular benefit to the cause of
education. The examination of a number
of schools by able and intelligent observers
(and such qualifications the inspectors
eminently display) has thrown much light
upon a subject in which there must ever be
some practical difficulty. Through a com
parison of different cases, it becomes evident
what methods are most successful in practice ;
and it can be satisfactorily ascertained in
which instances failure is attributable to the
plan, and in which to the execution. The
inspectors' reports, comprising a mine of
valuable information, will be found in the
volumes of the Committee of Council, which
also communicate a variety of plans for
school-rooms and school-houses, directions
useful for building and conducting schools,
improvements introduced from time to
time, and a large body of economics con
ducive to the improvement of humble
education. Among all the truths which
have been established upon this interesting
subject, the most important is, that the
instructor should himself have received
early training, not merely that he imy be
qualified to conduct the mechanical process
of a school, but may have such acquaintance
With the tempers and characters of children,
and such skill in managing them, as
experience alone can confer. Above all, it
is necessary that he should himself be
thoroughly imbued with religious principles,
without which there is little chance of his
imparting that tone of Christian discipline
which should pervade the whole of his
intercourse with the scholars. That there
may not be wanting a supply of fit and able
persons to fill these stations, it is particularly
desirable that, whenever a boy is dis
tinguished in a national school for ability
and good disposition, he should be retained
beyond the usual age, both for his own
improvement and for the service of the
school : and if means can be found to con
stitute him a stipendiary monitor, the real
benefits of the monitorial system will bo
perceived, without the objections to which
it has been found liable. Such a pupil may
have further instruction after school hours,
and, if his manners and conduct correspond
with his ability, may become an apprentice
teacher ; he will then be qualified as a recip
ient of the higher instruction communicated
at a training establishment for schoolmasters,
or, as it is the fashion to call it, a normal
school." It will be advantageous to indicate some
what more in detail the various steps by
which State education had advanced.
In 1832 the sum of £20,000 was voted
for public education, and placed at the dis-
| posal of the Treasury, no separate education

686

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department having yet been constituted.
This money was applied exclusively in
aiding efforts for the erection of schools,
on the recommendation of either the Na
tional or the British and Foreign School
Society. This arrangement continued for
six years. It proved highly unsatisfactory,
there being no sufficient guarantee that the
money would be wisely expended.
In 1839 the annual vote was increased
to £30,000, and a special department was
created to superintend its expenditure. This
department was composed of a special Com
mittee of the Privy Council, aided by in
spectors and other officers. The first thing
which the department endeavoured to do
was to establish a training college for
teachers, in which religious instruction was
to be upon the combined system, i.e. it
was to be given by teachers of the various
religious communions to which the students
respectively belonged. This proposal was
so strongly opposed by the Church, that it
had to be speedily abandoned. It has
never been revived. The department now
resolved to confine its operations to subsi
dizing voluntary educational agencies, and
to the work of inspection. No grant was
henceforth to be made to any school not
under government inspection. Further
minutes required that in all State-aided
schools the Bible should be read, and a
" conscience clause " recognised.
In 1840 was formed what came to be
known as the concordat with the Church,
by which the sanction of the primate was
necessary for the appointment of an in
spector. This conciliated the Church, before
alarmed by the Normal School scheme ; but
it first roused the suspicions of the Noncon
formists, although a similar concession was
afterwards extended to them by giving a
power of veto to the British and Foreign
Society in the appointment of the inspectors
assigned to their schools (Craik's State and
Education, p. 22).
By 1843 the annual grant had risen to
£40,000. Grants were now made for the
first time towards the erection of teacher's
houses and training colleges, and towards
tbe provision of school furniture and appa
ratus. The publication of the annual reports of
the inspectors rendered a vast seivice to
education, by clearly indicating what were
the needs of the country, the defects of the
existing machinery, and the best ways in
which those defects might be remedied.
They showed in particular that no real
improvement could be effected until com
petent head-teachers could be found, and that
the monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster
was radically unsound. How was it possi
ble that children could satisfactorily teach

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children ? A better system was found tot
obtain in Holland, where promising pupils
were apprenticed as teachers at the age of
thirteen, and then sent to a training college.
The important minutes of 1846 had for
their chief object the improvement of the
training of teachers. " Before any annual
grant could be made, the inspector was to
report as to the fitness of the teacher for
the training of apprentices ; as to the equip
ment and organization of the school ; and as
to the probable continuance of the contribu
tion from local resources. Apprentices were
to be recommended by the managers of the
school, and must not be under thirteen years
of age. They were to be bound by inden
ture for five years, and at the end of each
year were to pass an examination of in
creasing difficulty. When these conditions
were fulfilled, the pupil-teacher was to
receive a stipend rising from £10 in the first
to £20 in the last year of his apprenticeship.
Further, the teacher under whose charge he
was placed was to receive a fixed annual
payment in return for his training.
This provided the first step in the supply
of trained teachers. But the new regulations
went further.. At the end of their appren
ticeship pupil-teachers were to be eligible
for what were called Queen's scholarships
of £20 or £25 a year at some training college
under inspection. They were to be selected
by competition ; and the training coUege
which received them was to be allowed £20
for each student of the first year, £25 for
each student of the second year, and £30 for
each student of the third year. By this
means not only were the best pupils from
the elementary schools encouraged to pro
ceed to a more complete course of training
in the practical work of teaching, but the
training colleges were to have grants of a
substantial amount, which would prevent
their having recourse to a less promising
class to recruit their ranks. . . It was further
provided that an augmentation grant should
be allowed to teachers who had been so
trained in proportion to the length of their
training. The lowest augmentation grant
was £15 ; the highest £30 " (Craik, pp.
36-7). The pupU- teacher system has obvious
disadvantages, but it is economical, and has;
on the whole, worked well. Its weakest
point is that the pupil-teacher is set to
teach when his own education is little in
advance of his pupils, and is not allowed
sufficient leisure for carrying on his own
studies. This defect has been to some
extent remedied in the schools of the Lon
don School Board by employing the pupilu
teachers only half the day in school, and
leaving them the other half for self-im
provement.

SCHOOLS
In 1853 Capitation grants were offered
towards the support of schools in country
districts and in small towns, with the object
of securing the employment of an efficient
and sufficient staff for such schools. In
1855 the same advantages were offered to
schools in urban districts. The introduc
tion of capitation grants marks a new
departure in the history of elementary
education in England. Hitherto the State
had merely assisted local efforts ; now it
largely superseded them.
In 1856 the various branches of our
educational system under State control were
united and placed under a distinct Educa
tion Department, at the head of which was
to be the Lord President of the Council
assisted by a member of the Privy Council,
who was to be called the Vice-President of
the Committee of Frivy Council on Edu
cation. For some years after this elementary edu
cation enjoyed immunity from any serious
departmental changes, and advanced with
enormous strides. In 1849 the number of
certificated teachers was only 681 ; by
1859 it had reached 6,878. The number of
pupil-teachers had increased during the
same decade from 3,580 to 15,224. The
capitation grants had risen from £22,801,
paid in 1854, to £247,691 in 1859.
The rapid growth of the education grants
and of the official machinery needed for
their administration led, in 1861, to the
passing of a revised Code, which was based
on the recommendations of the Duke of
Newcastle's Commission, appointed to in
quire into the state of popular education in
England in 1858.
These recommendations were — 1. that
grants for elementary education should be
based on an individual examination of the
children ; 2. that measures should be taken
for aiding districts that had not yet been
assisted by parliamentary grants; 3. that
the administration of the grants should
be simplified.
Under the provisions of the Revised Code,
the grants were divided into a capitation
payment and a payment on the results of
individual examination in reading, writing,
and arithmetic. Grants were no longer to
be made to teachers holding certificates of
merit, or to pupil-teachers, and managers
were to be left perfectly free to make their
own terms with their teachers.
The effects of the Revised Code were
most disastrous. The education given in
national schools was immediately and almost
universally restricted to reading, writing,
and arithmetic, the only subjects for which
government grants were made ; the curri
culum of the training colleges was cut
down; head-teachers, finding that the

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687

State had broken faith with them by the
withdrawal of their certificate allowances,
left their profession in great numbers ; and
the_ supply of pupil-teachers fell off so
rapidly that some of the training colleges
were threatened with extinction from lack
of students. Even the much-vaunted sys
tem of payment by results has proved a
questionable good, exposing teachers, as it
does, to the temptation to put a dangerous-
pressure on their pupils.
In 1867 endeavours were made to neu
tralise some of the mischievous effects of the
Revised Code by encouraging the teaching
of subjects beyond those specified in the six
standards, and by increasing the ratio of
pupil-teachers to scholars so as to supply a
larger number of candidates for admission
into the training colleges.
By 1869 the accommodation in schools-
under government inspection exceeded
2,000,000 places, and had nearly doubled
what it was in 1859. "About 1,300,000
children were educated in State-aided
schools ; and ,of the £1,600,000 which their
education annually cost, about one-third
was defrayed by fees, about one-third by
government grants, and about one-third by-
voluntary subscriptions. The real motive
power came from those who gave the volun
tary subscriptions. They amounted in all
to about 200,000 persons, upon whom the
main burden of national education lay ; and
undoubtedly they had achieved much. But
on the other hand they had left large gaps.
If there were 1,300,000 children at State-
aided schools, there were at least 1,000,000-
in schools which received no grant, were not
inspected, and against which there was a.
strong presumption that they were utterly
inefficient. The inspected schools, even had
they been filled to overflowing, could not
hold all these children in addition to their
own ; but besides this there were not far
from 2,000,000 more who ought to be, but
were not, at school at all" (Craik's State-
and Education, p. 85).
How to close schools that were not giving:
an efficient education, and provide schools
that voluntary agencies could not supply,
were the problems which now called for
solution. A. league called " The Education
League " was started at Birmingham which
advocated the establishment of free and un-
sectarian schools by means of local rates, and
the enforcement of the principle of compul- ,
sory attendance. To resist these revolu
tionary proposals, " The Education Union "¦
was formed, which advocated the meeting of
the educational needs of the country by
measures on the old lines.
The Education Act of 1870 was, to a
certain extent, a compromise between the
principles advocated by these bodies. Its

688

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SCHOOLS

avowed object was to supplement, not to
supplant, existingj voluntary schools, or, in
Mr. Forster's words, "to complete the
voluntary system and to fill up gaps." The
whole country was divided into school dis
tricts, and each district was required to have
a sufficient supply of accommodation for the
purposes of elementary education. No
school was to be recognised which did not
admit aU children without requiring atten
dance at religious instruction or religious
worship. An inquiry was instituted for
the purpose of ascertaining the school accom
modation in each district, and six months of
grace were allowed for voluntary agency
to supply any deficiency. If at the end of
this period the deficiency was not filled up a
School Board elected by the ratepayers was
to be at once formed. In London the estab
lishment of a School Board was insisted upon
at once. A School Board was to hold office
for periods of three years, and was to have
power to issue a precept calling upon the
rating authority to raise such a rate as might
be needed for the execution of the task de
volving on it. School Boards were also
enabled to obtain loans from the Public
Works Loan Commissioners on the security
of the school fund. All elementary schools
were to have a conscience clause which
allowed a parent to withdraw his child from
any religious instruction of which he might
disapprove, and required that the religious
instruction should be given either at the
beginning or the ending of a school ses
sion. School Boards were to be -left per
fectly free to give or not to give religious
instruction; but if such instruction were
given, no attempt was to be made to prose
lytize the children to any reUgious body,
and no formula or catechism, distinctive of
any religious body, was to be used in a
Board school. The Education Department
withdrew altogether from the examination of
children, pupil-teachers, and students in
training coUeges in reUgious knowledge.
The demand of the Education League for
universal free education was disregarded.
School Boards were to charge fees on a scale
approved by the Education Department, but
might remit the whole or part of them for
certain periods in cases of poverty, and in
exceptionally poor neighbourhoods might
establish free schools. They were also in
vested with power to pay the fees of poor
children attending voluntary schools — a
power which was never largely used, owing
to jealousy of the Church, and in 1876 was
transferred to the Guardians of the Poor.
To secure the regular attendance of children
at school, School Boards were empowered to
make bye-laws requiring children between
the ages of five and thirteen to attend school,
and laying down the conditions on which

children might be exempted from attendance.
The withdrawal of the Department from the
examination of elementary schools and train
ing colleges in religious knowledge compelled
the Church to make an independent pro
vision for this purpose. Paid inspectors in
religious knowledge were appointed in most
of the English and. Welsh dioceses, and the
National Society undertook the cost of the
examination in religious knowledge of can
didates for admission into the training col
leges of students resident in training col
leges, and of acting teachers. The adminis
tration of the National Society's grants for
these purposes is now entrusted to an exam
ining Board of six members, two of whom
are elected by the archbishops, two by the
Society, and two by the principals of the
training coUeges. The examiners chosen by
the Board are approved by the two arch
bishops. The period of grace aUowed by the Act
for voluntary agencies to overtake the edu
cational needs of the country was largely
used. More than 3000 applications for
building grants were lodged in 1870. To
meet this emergency the National Society
and the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge made very liberal grants, which
had the effect of preventing the establish
ment of School Boards in many places where
they would otherwise have been inevitable.
Since the passing of the. Act of 1870 the
former society has granted over £144,000
for building and enlarging schools.
By 1876 the accommodation in element
ary schools was sufficient for about 3,500,000,
of which more than 2,000,000 school places
belonged to the Church of England, 600,000
to British and other Nonconformist mana
gers, 200,000 to Roman Catholic managers,
and more than 550,000 to School Boards.
" The accommodation had been nearly
doubled between 1869 and 1876 ; more than
1,600,000 places had been added, and of
those about two-thirds were due to voluntary
agencies. These voluntary agencies had
received grants in aid for about one-third
of the schools they had built, the grants
defraying about one-fifth of the cost of the
aided schools. Towards those aided schools
these voluntary subscribers had contributed
nearly £1,300,000. The cost of the re
maining two-thirds of their schools they
had defrayed entirely out of their own
pockets, without any aid from the State,
and at an expense which it is impossible
to estimate accurately, but which must
certainly have raised the whole expenditure
from voluntary subscriptions in those few
years to something more than £3,000,000,
an item of no little moment when the
expediency of retaining or abolishing this
element of voluntary effort is under dis-

SCHOOLS
cussion. The cost of the rest of the new
schools, affording accommodation for con
siderably more thon 500,000 children, had
been defrayed by School Boards from the
loans for which they had received sanction.
These amounted to £7,700,000, and would,
when fully expended, provide for 621,000
chUdren" (Craik's State and Education,
p. 109). The contributions towards the
maintenance of voluntary schools in 1876
amounted to £750,000.
One thing was yet needed to complete
the Act of 1870, and that was to get to
school the children for whom accommodation
had been provided. In 1876 Lord Sandon
brought forward a bill for supplying this
defect, and the same year saw the bill
added to the Statute Book. The Act of
1876 stated that parents should be bound
to provide for their children's receiving
elementary education in reading, writing,
and arithmetic, under certain penalties,
and laid down a certain minimum of re
quirements below which no bye-laws were
to fall. It also provided that, with certain
exceptions, no chUd should be employed
under the age of ten, and that no child
between ten and fourteen years of age should
be employed without a certificate of pro
ficiency or of previous due attendance at
school. To extend compulsory attendance
in districts not under School Boards, the
Act provided that School Attendance Com
mittees should be appointed in such districts
with power to frame bye-laws and enforce
attendance at school.
The effect of this measure upon school-
attendance was soon visible. The average
attendance increased in the four years
(1876-80) by about 500,000.
In 1880 the framing of bye-laws, which
had hitherto been optional on the part of
School Boards, was made compulsory on
both School Boards and School Attendance
Committees. The bye-laws vary according
to the circumstances of the neighbourhoods
to which they apply, but, in some form or
other, compulsory attendance now prevaUs
all over the country.
By 1885 the school accommodation of the
country had risen to 5,061,000 places, of
which 2,515,000 belong to the Church of
England. The average attendance in
Church schools was 1,637,000, in Board
schools 1,029,000. The voluntary subscrip
tions towards the maintenance of Church
schools amounted to nearly £600,000. The
various religious denominations, taken to
gether, contributed nearly three-quarters of
a miUion towards the maintenance of their
schools. It is noteworthy that the School
Boards levied more than £800,000 the same
year to educate less than half of the number
of children in the voluntary schools.

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689

During the fourteen years ending 1883
the Church contributed for education in
schools connected with the Education De
partment £8,570,727, as against £2,066,695
from all the other religious bodies combined.
It has been estimated that the total sub
scriptions towards the mere building of
voluntary schools amounted by 1882 to
£12,000,000. An important part of the machinery of
elementary education is that which is em
ployed in the training of teachers. In
1835 a grant of £10,000 was made by
parliament towards the establishment of
normal schools for the training of teachers ;
but, owing to " the religious difficulty,"
this sum remained unappropriated for some
years. The department soon gave up all
hope of establishing a college of its own
that would satisfy the religious feelings of
the nation, and, at last, determined to con
fine its efforts in this direction to the sub
sidizing of coUeges founded by private
effort or by educational societies. It was
not till the Minutes of 1846, that annual
grants were systematically made to the
training colleges. By these Minutes, as we
have seen, thcpupil-teachersystem was estab
lished, and exhibitions were granted to pupil-
teachers on examination, to enable them
to enter the training colleges ; teachers
who passed the examinations prescribed
for students in training received allow
ances of money according to tbe certificate
of merit which they succeeded in obtaining.
In order that these certificates should re
present practical skill as well as attain
ments, it was decided in 1853 that they
should not be granted to students while in
training, but only to ex-students who had
successfully conducted an elementary school
for two years. The certificates were to be
annually endorsed by the government in
spector according to the teacher's merit,
and at the end of five years might be re
vised. In 1863, the year after the introduction
of the Revised Code, the grants to training
coUeges were placed on an entirely new
basis. They had hitherto been whoUy
prospective; henceforth they were to be
wholly retrospective. " Sums of £100 for
a master and £70 for a mistress, were taken
to represent the average cost of a two years'
training. These amounts were to be paid
to the Committee of Council on each teacher
trained ; but only if he or she obtained a
certificate after being at the college two
years, and worked in an elementary school
satisfactorily for a further period of two
years. It was at the same time made a
condition that the assistance in any one year
was not to exceed 75 per cent, of the cost of
the institution during the preceding year;
2 Y

690

SCHOOLMEN

neither was it to be more than a certain
proportion on the number of students in
residence at the time it was granted" (The
Schools for the People, p. 436). Since these
important alterations scarcely any change
has been made in the conditions on which
public grants of money are made to the
training colleges.
At the present time the training coUeges
of the country afford accommodation for
3,297 students. Of this accommodation
places for 2,244 students are provided in
training colleges belonging to the Church
of England. Up to 1884 the voluntary ex
penditure on the building and maintenance
of these colleges amounted to £647,134.
Second only in importance to elementary
education, is the education of the middle
classes. This has not yet received from
the Church of England the attention it
deserves, with the inevitable consequence
that it is drifting into other hands. Various
praiseworthy endeavours have been made to
establish Middle Class schools in connexion
with the Church of England, notably by
Canon Woodard, Canon Holland, and the
Church Schools Company.
Canon Woodard's scheme was put forth
in 1848, and aimed at the formation of a
society of men, who should be united in the
same way as the fellows of a college, and
should devote themselves to the work of
middle-class education. It is intended that
the society should have ultimately five
central colleges, each under a provost and
fellows, and that each of these colleges
should embrace a series of schools of different
grades. Two of these central colleges,
one at Lancing and one at Lichfield, are
already in existence. The religious teaching
is not restricted by a conscience clause.
Canon Holland's scheme was intended to
provide, by means of a limited liabUity
company, for the education of girls in accord
ance with the principles of the Church of
England. It has opened two schools in
London. The Church Schools Company was
founded in 1883 under the patronage of the
archbishops. Its object is to establish day
and boarding schools of various grades for
boys and girls above the class attending
elementary schools, and to provide, at a
moderate cost, a sound education in accord
ance with the principles of the Church of
England, the right of withdrawing a scholar
in the day schools from religious instruction
being reserved to the parent or guardian.
The Company has already started ten
schools, and gives promise of meeting a great
need in a very satisfactory way. [E. D.]
SCHOOLMEN. The title given to a
class of learned theologians who flourished
in the middle ages. They derive their

SCHOOLMEN
name from the schools attached to the
cathedrals or universities in which they
lectured. Some make Lanfranc (William
the Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury)
the first author of scholastic theology:
others, the famous Abelard; others, his
master Roscelinus; and others again his
pupil Peter Lombard. But the most dis
tinguished of the Schoolmen lived in the
next century. The scholastic theology was
the first attempt at forming a systematic
theology. Their first step towards a sys
tematic theology was to coUect the sen
tences of the Fathers ; the next step was to
harmonize them by reducing them to prin
ciples. This could only be done by the
application of phUosophy to divinity, for
philosophy unfolds the principles of rea
soning. The Schoolmen, therefore, had
recourse to the reigning philosophy, that
of Aristotle ; and Thomas Aquinas, in his
Secunda Secunde, i.e. the second part of
the second division of the " Sum of The
ology," has given the best and clearest
exposition of Aristotle's Ethics to be met
with out of Aristotle himself. The great;
error of the Schoolmen, which has, occa
sioned the ruin of their theology, was this,
that, instead of taking the Bible only for
their basis, they took the Church for their
first authority, and made the Bible only a
part of the Church's teaching.
The doctrine of the Schoolmen, of our
deserving grace of congruity, is censured in
our 13th Article.
The Schoolmen were :
1. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar,
born in Suabia. He was educated in the
University of Paris, and was Thomas Aqui-
nas's master. Pope Alexander IV. sent
for him to Rome, where he officiated as
master of the sacred palace; and Urban
IV. forced him to accept of the . bishopric
of Ratisbon. He died at Cologne in the
year 1280. Albert wrote a great number
of books ; and, in those days of ignorance,
was accused of magic, and of having a
brazen head, which gave him answers.
2. Bonaventure, surnamed the Seraphic
Doctor, bom at Bagnarea, a city of Tus
cany, in 1221. He entered into the order
of the Minims, in 1233, and foUowed his
studies in the University of Paris, where he
afterwards taught divinity, and took his
doctor's degree with St. Thomas Aquinas
in 1255. Next year he was elected general
of his order ; and Gregory X. made him a
cardinal in 1272. He assisted at the first
sessions of the General Council of Lyons,
held in 1279, and died before it was ended.
His works are very numerous, and equally
replete with piety and learning.
3. Thomas Aquinas, surnamed the An
gelical Doctor, was descended of the kings

SCHOOLMEN
of Sicily and Aragon, and was born in the
year 1224, in the castle of Aquin, which is
in the territory of Lahore in Italy. After
having been educated in the monastery of
Mount Cassino, he was sent to Naples,
where he studied Humanity and Philoso
phy. In 1244 he went to Cologne to
study under Albertus Magnus. From
thence he went to Paris, where he took his
doctor's degree in 1255. He returned into
Italy in 1263 ; and, after having taught
Scholastic Divinity in most of the uni
versities of that country, he settled at last
at Naples. In 1274, being sent for by
Gregory X., to assist in the Council of
Lyons, he fell sick on the road, and died
in the monastery of Fossanova, near Ter-
racina. Among the great number of his
works, which make seventeen volumes in
foho, his Summa is the most famous, being
a large collection of theological questions.
4. Scotus, or John Duns Scotus, sur
named the Subtile Doctor, was a Scotchman
by birth, and came to Paris about the
year 1300, where he took his degrees, and
taught in that city. He particularly taught
the immaculate conception of the Blessed
Virgin. From Paris he went to Bologna,
where he died soon after, in 1308. Ac
cording to the custom of the times, he wrote
many philosophical and theological works,
in which he prided himself upon maintain
ing opinions contrary to those of Thomas
Aquinas. This gave rise to the opposite
sects of the Scottists and Thomists.
5. William Ockham, surnamed the Sin
gular Doctor, was born in a village of that
name, in the county of Surrey, in England.
He was the head of the sect called the
Nominalists. He flourished in the Uni
versity of Paris in the beginning of the
fourteenth century, and wrote a book con
cerning the power of the Church and of the
State, to defend Philip the Fair against
Pope Boniface VIII. He was one of the
grand adversaries of Pope John XXII., who
¦excommunicated him for taking part with
the anti-pope Peter of Corbario. He ended
his days at Munich, the court of the Elec
tor of Bavaria, who had received him
kindly. 6. Raymond Lully, descended of an
illustrious family in Catalonia, was born in
the island of Majorca in 1236. He was
of the order of the Minims, and had ac
quired a great knowledge of the Oriental
languages. He invented a new method
of reasoning, but could not obtain leave
from Honorius IV. to teach it at Rome.
Then he resolved to execute the design he
had long formed of endeavouring the con
version of the Mohammedans. Having
gone to Tunis, he had a conference with
the Saracens, in which he ran the risk of

SCREEN

691

his life, and escaped only upon condition
he would go out of Africa. He came to
Naples, where he taught his method till
the year 1290. At Genoa he wrote several
books. From thence he went to Paris,
where he taught his art. After several
travels and adventures, he returned to Ma
jorca, from whence he went over into
Africa, where he was imprisoned by the
Saracens, and so ill-treated, that he died of
his wounds. He had found out the secret
of making a jargon proper to discourse of
everything, without learning anything in
particular, by ranging certain general terms
under different classes.
7. Durandus, surnamed the Most re
solving Doctor, was of St. Pom-pain, a
vUlage in the diocese of Clermont, in Au
vergne, and flourished in the LTniversity of
Paris from 1313 to 1318, in which year he
was named by the pope bishop of Puy,
from whence he was transferred to the
bishopric of Meaux, which he governed to
the time of his death.
8. To these may be added Giles, arch
bishop of Bourges, surnanied the Doctor
who had a good Foundation; Peter Aure-
olus, archbishop of Aix, styled the Eloquent
Doctor; Augustin Triumphus, of Ancona,
who wrote the Milleloquium of St. Augus
tin; Albert of Padua; Francis Mairon, of
Digne in Provence; Robert Holkot, an
English divine ; Thomas Bradwardine, an
Englishman, Archbishop of Canterbury
a.d. 1348, surnamed the Profound Doc
tor, author of a treatise de Causa Dei
against Pelagius ; and Gregory of Rimini,
author of two commentaries on the First
and Second Books of Sentences. — Cave's
Hist Lit. ; Haureau, De la Philosophie,
Scolastique, ii. ; Milman's Hist. Lat. Christ.
iv. 410 : vi. 261, 273, seq. ; Hook's Arch
bishops, ix. 46-54 ; Diet Nat. Biog. vi.
SCOTLAND (See Church in Scot
land). SCREEN (Fr. ecran). The word is
evidently derived from the root of Latin
cerno, Greek Kplva, to separate. Any
separation of one part of a church from
another, generally of light construction,
tabernacle work, open arcading, or wood
tracery. Some screens, however, are large
and deep structures, with only a wide door
in the middle, and carry, or used to carry,
cathedral organs on the top, as, for example,
at York Minster and St. Alban's, and musi
cians are now of opinion again that that is
the best place for an organ, though of course
it spoUs the view through the church, and
many had been moved in consequence into
aisles and other places. The screen, and
indeed both screens in nave and choir, at St.
Alban's, have two doors, with the ,old altar
spaces between them. The screens separat-
2 y 2

692

SCRIPTURE

ing side chapels from the chancel, nave, or
transept, are usuaUy called parcloses (See
Rood-Loft and Reredos). [H.]
SCRIPTURE (3ri3 : ypa<pr) : ypdppara :
Scriptura). The written word of God.
I. "The Lord said unto Moses, Write this
for a memorial in a book " (Ex. xvii. 14) ;
and the commandments are said to be the
writing of God. But the idea of the Scrip
ture as a whole is later, being first mentioned
in 2 Chron. xxx. 5, 18 (D-lflM, Kara rr)v
ypafyrpr, LXX.). Tho Hebrew word however
was afterwards changed, and the Mikia
(NlpD : Neh. viu. 8) became the equivalent
of the collective ypdqjai. The Mikra was
the collection of the books which had been
preserved during the Babylonish captivity,
and brought together by Ezra on the return.
Ezra divided the Bible into three parts : 1.
The Law, containing the Pentateuch, or
five books of Moses ; 2. The Prophets, con
taining thirteen books ; and 3. The Hagio
grapha, four books, making in the whole
twenty-two, the number of letters in the
Hebrew alphabet, but which the Jews now
make twenty-four.
The first (the Law) was divided into
fifty-four sections, for the several sabbaths
(with the intercalated month), and these
sections into verses. The division into
chapters, which were originaUy subdivided
by letters, not figures as now, is of late
date, and was done to facilitate the use of
concordances. In the New Testament both the singular
and plural of the Greek word are used ; the
former applying generally to some particular
passage from the Old Testament (e.g. St.
Mark xii. 10 ; St. John, viii. 38 ; Rom.
ix. 17, &c.) ; the latter to Scripture collec
tively. Sometimes simply at ypdqbat is used,
(St. Matt. xxi. 42; 1 Cor. xv. 3, &c),
or irda-ai al ypdtyai ; sometimes an epithet
is joined with it, as ayiai (Rom. i. 2), or
irpoqjnTiKai (Rom. xvi. 26). In the passage
in 2 Tim. iii. 15, -ra lepd ypdppara is
translated in our version, " the Holy Scrip
tures," no doubt rightly, though taken
by itself the word might include the
whole circle of Rabbinical instruction.
But in the veiy next verse is irdo-a
ypacpq deoirvevo-ros (Smith's Diet Bible,
1162). II. With regard to the authority of
Scripture, our article (VI.) runs — "Holy
Scripture containeth all things necessary to
salvation; so that whatsoever is not read
therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not
to be required of any man, that it should
be believed as an article of the faith, or be
thought requisite or necessary to salvation.
In the name of the Holy Scripture we do
understand those canonical books of the Old
and New Testament, of whose authority

SCRIPTURE
was never any doubt in the Church." The
list is then given.
" And the other Books (as Hierome saith)
the Church doth read for example of life,
and instruction of manners ; but yet doth
it not apply them to establish any doctrine."
Then follows the list of apocryphal books.
" All the books of the New Testament, as
they are commonly received, we do receive,
and account them canonical" (See Scrip
ture, Canon of).
Some books are cited in the Old Tes
tament which are now lost, unless the
same as others, under different names ; as,
1. "The Book of Jasher" (Josh. x. 13; 2
Sam. i. 18) ; 2. " The Book of the Wars
of the Lord" (Numb. xxi. 14); 3. " The
Book of Chronicles or Days," containing
the annals of the kingdoms of Israel and
Judah, frequently cited in the Books of
Kings and Chronicles ; 4. The remainder
of Solomon's "three thousand proverbs,"
and " a thousand and five songs," and the
whole of his writings on natural history,
" of trees," " of beasts, and of fowl, and of
creeping things, and of fishes" (1 Kings
iv. 32, 33) ; and 5. Probably the Lamenta
tions of Jeremiah on the death of Josiah,
as this subject seems not included in the
book now extant. Some think that the
first, the Book of Jasher, is the same as the
second ; others, the Books of Moses ; and
others think the first three are the same,
and were public records deposited in the
house of God. It is very probable that
the references to these books, from the
sense of them, were subsequent introduc
tions. For an account of the language, the
translations, &c, of Holy Scripture, see
Bible; Peshito. [H.]
SCRIPTURE, CANON OF. The original
meaning of Kavav, canon (connected with njj?,
Kavn, Kama, canna [channel], cane, cannon),
is a straight rod, as a ruler; and then-
comes the idea of keeping anything straight ;
and afterwards of testing straightness. In
its literal sense the word occurs in Job
xxxviii. 5, for a measuring line (lp, a-irapriov,
linea), and in Judith xiii-6, for the rod at
the head of a couch. In the New Testament
it is used in two passages of St. Paul's Epistles
(Gal. vi. 16; 2 Cor. x. 13-16), and there,
as in later Christian writers, the metaphori
cal use of the word is clearly shown. The
Rule, the Canon, is frequently spoken of,
but not necessarily the Canon of Scripture.
The Rule of the Church, the Rule of Truth,
the Rule of Faith— to these the appeal was
made by the early Fathers in their con
troversy with heretics, from the time of
Iren®us. In the "Clementine Homilies"'
the word is frequently used in this way,
and though it may not directly be appUed
to Holy Scripture, "yet Scripture would be

SCRIPTURE
included in the Rule of Faith (Clem. Horn.
ii. 15, 18 : Clem, ad Jac. 1). .
There can be no doubt that the Canon of
Scripture was fixed gradually. In. the first
age of the Christian Church the words of
the apostles and their immediate successors
were sufficient. These, together with the
Old Testament, were all that was required.
But soon a change took place, and when the
immediate disciples of the Apostles had
passed away, it was felt that their tra
ditional teaching had lost its direct authority.
Heretics arose who claimed to be possessed
of other traditionary rules derived in succes
sion from St. Peter or St. Paul (Clem. Alex.
Strom, vii. 17), and it was only possible to
try their authority by documents beyond
the reach of corruption. The appeal to the
written word of the Apostles became
natural and necessary. A fixed literature,
and a fixed canon or rule with regard to
the authorised Scriptures was essential.
Here, however, there was a difficulty.
Many books were received which were not
of apostolical authority. The Epistle of
Barnabas, for instance, was still read among
the " Apocryphal Scriptures " in the time of
Jerome, and other spurious epistles were
subjoined to the orthodox books, and were
used and quoted from by the early writers.
But though this may seem astonishing, we
may regard their use of those books in the
same way as the Church of England regards
the books of the Apocrypha of the Old Testa
ment. They are allowed to have an ecclesi
astical use, but not a canonical authority.
They are profitable for instruction — for ele
mentary teaching (oroi^ei'ioo-is- ela-ayayiKr)),
as it is said of the Shepherd of Hermas
(Euseb. H. E. iii. 31). It was in this spirit
that Apocrypha of the New Testament were
admitted, with reserve, in many Christian
Churches. Notwithstanding this, and other
difficulties from the close of the second
century, the history of the Canon is simple
and its proof clear. It is allowed even by
those who have reduced the genuine Apo
stolic works to the narrowest limits, that
from the time of Irenaeus the New Testa
ment was composed essentially of the same
books which we receive at present, and that
they were regarded with the same reverence
as is now shown to them. The history of
the formation of the Canon of the New Tes
tament may be divided into three periods :
(1) that extending to the time of Hegesippus,
a.d. 70-170; (2) to the persecution of
Diocletian, a.d. 170-303; (3) to the third
Council of Chalcedon, a.d. 303-397. Each
of these periods marks some real step in tbe
progress of the work. The first includes
the era of the separate circulation, and
gradual collection of the Sacred Writings:
the second completes the history of their

SCRIPTURE

693^

separation from the other ecclesiastical
literature: the third comprises the formal
ratification of the current belief by tho
authority of councils (Westcott's Canon
of the New Test. p. 6 seq. and Append. A,
and Dr. Salmon's Introduction to the New
'Testament, 2nd edition, which discusses those
apocryphal writings).
II. At the Council of Trent, fourth ses
sion, 1546, at which, besides cardinals, there
were present no more than four archbishops
and thirty-three bishops, of which number
all but eight were Italians, the books of the
Apocrypha were inserted in the canon.
Here we may quote the words of Bishop
Cosin :
"The question is," he says, "whether
ever any Chm-ch or ancient author, during
these first ages, can be showed to have pro
fessedly made such a catalogue of the true
and authentic books of Scripture, as the
Council of Trent hath lately addressed and
obtruded upon the world : which will never
be done. In the meanwhile they all
speak so perspicuously for our Church
Canon, that there can be no denial of their
agreement herein with us."
The Apostolical Constitutions, which
some writers erroneously assign to Clement,
bishop of Rome, but which were undoubtedly
written in the 4th century, do not admit in
the canon those books which we call apocry
phal. In the second century, we find that
Justin Martyr never cites them for Scripture.
Origen and Tertullian, in the third century,
agree in rejecting them. In the fourth, we
have a multitude of the greatest writers,
who are clearly against this point ; such as
Athanasius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Hilary,
Epiphanius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen,
Chrysostom, and Jerome ; besides the
Council of Nice at the beginning of the
century, and towards the close of it the
Council of Laodicea, whose canons were
incorporated among those of the universal
Church. The great Churches of Jerusalem
and Alexandria, of Antioch and Constanti
nople, pronounced on the same side; and
even in the Roman Church itself we have
the same testimony from Gregory I., as
well as of many others who are held to be
its chief authorities. Cardinal Caietan, who
died only a few years before the meeting of
the CouncU of Trent, following St. Jerome,
maintained the distinction between the
canonical and apocryphal books, and the
influence of his opinion was very consider
able, even at Trent. But the use of the
Apocrypha was well known to be indispen
sable to Roman theologians, and if it were
not admitted to form part of Scripture, no
Divine sanction could be pleaded for pur
gatory, the canonization of saints, or the
worship of images and relics. In this, as

094

SCRIPTURES

well as many other instances, the Roman
Church has not scrupled to violate primitive
tradition, in order to maintain its own
doctrines and practices. [H.]
SCRIPTURES, INSPIRATION OF
(See Bible; Revelation). " All Scripture,"
we are told, " is given by inspiration of
God," 2 Tim. iii. 16. (The other version of
that text, though adopted by the Revisers,
seems extremely improbable, as critics have
pointed out.) Tertullian, the first theologi
cal writer who employed the Latin language,
uses the word " inspiratio," to express the
Holy Ghost's agency in the composition of
Scripture. The Divine inspiration, or the
supernatural influence of God upon the
mind, to form it for intellectual improve
ment, may be, 1. An inspiration of super-
intendency, by which God preserves a writer
commissioned by him to communicate His
will, from error in those points which relate
to his commission. It does not follow that
the writer shall be preserved from error in
what relates to grammar, or natural philo
sophy ; but he is preserved from error in all
that God has commissioned him to reveal.
2. An inspiration of suggestion, which pre
cedes the former, and takes place when God
does, as it were, speak directly to the mind
of the inspired person, making such dis
coveries to it as it could not but by miracle
obtain. This has been done in various
ways, by immediate impression on the mind,
by dreams and visions represented to the
imagination ; at other times by sounds
formed in the air, or by visible appearances.
3. Verbal inspiration ; for which there is no
authority or assertion by the writers of
Scripture. And it is clearly contradicted
by slightly different versions of our Lord's
words being given by the evangelists, ex
actly as persons substantially accurate in
their recollections would do.
The New Testament was written by a
superintendent inspiration. The Apostles
were, according to Christ's promise, fur
nished with all necessary powers for the
discbarge of their office, by an extraordinary
effusion of the Holy Spirit upon them at
the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 4, &c); and
a second time (Acts iv. 31). We may assure
ourselves that they were hereby compe
tently furnished for all those services which
were of great importance for the spread and
edification of the Church, and of so great
difficulty as to need supernatural assistance.
Considering how uncertain a thing oral
tradition is, and how soon the most public
and notorious facts are corrupted by it, it
was impossible that the Christian religion
could be preserved in any tolerable degree
of purity, without a written account of the
facts and doctrines preached by the apostles ;
and yet, on the other hand, we can hardly

SCRIPTURES
suppose that God would suffer a doctrine
introduced in so extraordinary a manner to be
corrupted and lost. Many of the doctrines
which the apostles delivered in their writ
ings were so sublime and so new, that, as they
could not have been known at first other
wise than by an inspiration of suggestion, so
they would need an inspiration of superin-
tendency in delivering an accurate account
of them.There is no reason to doubt, from the
promise of Christ, that such parts of the
New Testament as were written by the
apostles and evangelists (for St. Mark wrote
his gospel instructed by St. Peter, and St.
Luke instructed by St. Paul) were written
by an inspiration of superintendency.
What they wrote cannot but be the Word
of Him who invested them with miraculous
powers (See Palmer's Hist, of Church, u. 6).
It is not to be thought that persons, so
eminent for humility, piety, humanity, and
other virtues, as the apostles were, would
have spoken of their writings as the words
and the commands of the Lord as the test
of truth and falsehood, and gloried so much
in being under the direction of the Spirit,
if they had not certainly known themselves
to be so in their writings, as weU as in
their preaching ; and the force of this
argument is greatly Ulustrated, by recollect
ing the extraordinary miraculous powers
with which they were honoured, while
making exhortations and pretensions of this
kind. The internal evidence all points to
the same.
There has been in the Christian Church,
from its earliest ages, a constant tradition,
that these books were written by the extra
ordinary assistance of the Spirit, which must
at least amountto superintendent inspiration.
With respect to the Old Testament, the
books we have inherited from the Jews were
always regarded by them as authentic and
inspired. And our Blessed Lord and His
apostles were so far from accusing the
Jews of superstition, in the regard which
they paid to the writings of the Old Testa
ment, or from charging the scribes and
Pharisees (whom Christ, on all proper
occasions, censured so freely) with having
introduced into the sacred volume mere
human compositions, that, on the contrary,
they not only recommend the diligent and
constant perusal of them, as of the greatest
importance to men's eternal happiness, but
speak of them as Divine oracles, and as
written by an extraordinary influence of
the Divine Spnit upon the minds of the
authors (Vide St. John v. 39: x. 35;
St. Mark xii. 24; St. Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10: v.
17, 38 : xxi. 42 : xxii. 29, 31, 43 : xxiv.
15 : xxvi. 54, 56 ; St. Luke i. 67, 69, 70 :
x. 26, 27 : xvi. 31 ; Acts iv. 25: xvii. 11 :

SEA
xviii. 24-28 ; Rom. iii. 2 : xv. 4 : xvi. 26 ;
Gal. iii. 8 ; 1 Tim. v. 17, 18 ; 2 Tim. iii.
14-17 ; St. James ii. 8 : iv. 5 ; 1 St. Pet.
i. 10-12; 2 St. Pet. i. 19-21). To this
list may be added many other places, — on
the whole, more than five hundred, — in
which the sacred writers of the New Testa
ment quote and argue from those of the Old,
in such a mauner as they would surely not
have done, if they had apprehended there
were room to allege that it contained at
least a mixture of what was spurious and of
no authority. — Lowth on Inspiration ;
TiUotson's Sermons ; Lee on Inspiration.
SEA, FORMS OF PRAYER TO BE
USED AT. These were added to the Prayer
Book in 1661, and were probably written or
compiled by Bishop Sanderson; but they
were committed for revision by convocation
to Stern, bishop of Carlisle. In the Preface
they are mentioned as one of the additions it
was thought expedient to make, but there
is nothing said of their origin. The Long
Parliament had previously published " A
Supply of Prayers for the ships that want
ministers to pray with them, agreeable to
the Directory established by Parliament"
(see Directory) ; but this was intended to
supersede the use of the Prayer Book, which
seems to have been retained on ships, or
else no prayer at all to have been offered.
The form was not designed for a complete
office, and by the rubric at the head of the
forms the ordinary daily service is directed
to be used, and the first of the " Articles of
War " runs, " Officers are to cause Public
Worship according to the Liturgy of the
Church of England to be solemnly per
formed in their ships, and to take care that
prayers and preaching by the chaplains be
performed diligently, and that the Lord's
Day be observed."— Wheatly's P. B. p. 517 ;
Procter, 432 ; Blunt's Annot P. B. 527. [H.]
SEAL, the, or sealing ; a title given to
confirmation in the Oriental Church, in
accordance with the expression frequently
used by St. Paul (Eph. i. 13, 14: iv. 30;
2 Cor. 1. 21).
SEALED BOOKS. By the Act 13 &
14 Car. II. (which ratified the last re
vision of the Prayer Book), c. 4, sect. 28,
it was enacted that the dean and chapter
of every cathedral and coUegiate church
should obtain under the great seal of Eng
land a true and perfect printed copy of the
above-mentioned Act and Prayer Book,
to be kept by them in safety for ever, and
to be produced in any court of record when
required; and that like copies should be
delivered into the respective courts of
Westminster, and the Tower of London:
which books so to be exemplified under
the great seal, were to be examined by
persons appointed by the king, and com-

SECULAR CLERGY 695
pared with the original book annexed to
the Act : these persons having power to
correct and amend in writing any error;
certifying the examination and collation
under their hands and seals : " which said
books, and every one of them, shall be
taken, adjudged, and expounded to be
good, and available in the law to all in
tents and purposes whatsoever, and shall
be accounted as good records as this book
itself heretofore annexed," &c.
Mr. Stephens, in his edition of the
Common Prayer Book, with notes, has
given a facsimile text of the original black-
letter Prayer Books, published after the
last Review, with all the corrections of
the commissioners carefully marked. The
sealed books which he collated for this
purpose, are those for the Chancery, Queen's
Bench, Common Pleas, Exchequer, St.
Paul's, Christ Church Oxford, Ely, and the
Tower of London. An engraving from a
photograph of the copy belonging to Durham
is given in the frontispiece of the 2nd vol.
of Blunt's Annot P. B.
SECONDARIES. A general name for
the inferior members of cathedrals, as
vicars choral, &c. : the clerici secunde
forme, that is, of the second or lower
range of stalls, called the has chceur in
France. The priest vicars and minor
canons were sometimes included in the
superior form. At Chichester the secondary
sang the daily Mass of Requiem in the
Lady-chapel. Some of the lay singers at
Exeter are so called. Sometimes the term
was applied to the assistant priest in course,
even though not of the second form. At
Hereford the second vicar who assists in
chanting the Litany is the " secondary."
SECRET OF THE MASS. A prayer
in the Canon of the Mass before the Preface,
since the tenth century, said " secretly " in a
low voice by the celebrant.
SECT (from seco, Lat., to cut ; being-
analogous to the word schism, derived from
the Greek o-xifa, which has the same
meaning). A religious community follow
ing some particular master, instead of ad
hering to the teaching of the Catholic
Church. Thus Calvinists are the sect fol
lowing Calvin ; Wesleyans the sect following
Wesley. We are to remember that we are
expressly forbidden in Scripture thus to call
any man master : one is our Master, Jesus
Christ, the righteous. There are about 270
sects in England, some rejoicing in very
strange names, as the " Hallelujah Band,"
"Recreative Religionists," &c. (See Wliit-
aker's Almanack, 1886).
SECULAR CLERGY. The clergy at
tached to monasteries are caUed Regulars,
as living under a "rule" (regula); the
other clergy are styled Seculars, as living

696

SEDILIA

more in the world (s®culum). In our
Church, before the Reformation, the number
of Regulars was very great ; but, since the
Reformation, we have only had Secular
clergy. The canons of such cathedrals as
were not monastic were called Secular.
SEDILIA. Seats near an altar, almost
universally on the south side, for the min
isters officiating at the holy Eucharist.
They are generally three in number, for
the celebrant; epistoler, and gospeller, but
vary from one to five.
SEE (Latin, sedes). The seat of epi
scopal dignity and jurisdiction, where the
bishop has his throne, or cathedra.
SELAH (i"6p). An untranslated He
brew word, recurring seventy-one times in
the Psalms, and three times in Habakkuk,
on the meaning of which there are many
opinions. The Rabbinical writers generally
adopt the interpretation of "for ever and
ever," or " continually " ; but this is purely
traditional and based on no etymology. It
is probably a direction to raise the voice, or
make some change in the instrumental
performance at certain passages, and is
merely a musical notation, connected how
ever, as all proper musical expressions must
be, with the sense. But with regard to the
different views of this hopeless question see
Smith's Diet Bib. [H.]
SEMI- ARIANS. The Arian sect was
divided into two principal parties ; the one
of which adhering more closely to the
opinion of their master, maintained that
the Son of God was unlike the Father,
'Avopoios, and of this party was Eunomius :
the other party refused to receive the word
consubstantial, yet acknowledged the Son
of God 'Opoioia-ios, of a like substance or
essence with the Father, and therefore were
called Semi-Arians, that is, half Arians;
this party made the majority in tbe Councils
of Rimini and Seleucia (See Arians). —
Newman's Hist, of Arians ; Stubbs' Mos
heim, i. 397.
SEMI-PELAGIANS, or MASSILI-
ENSES. A sect of heretics, who endea
voured to find a medium betwixt the Pela
gians and the orthodox ; they had their
origin about 430 in France (hence the name
Massiliens, from Massilia, now Marseilles).
Their principal favourers were Cassianus, a
disciple of Chrysostom ; Faustus, abbot
of Lirinum ; Vincentius, a Gallic writer,
whom St. Prosper answered, &c. Their
agreement with the Pelagians was in the
power of free-wUl, at least as to the be
ginning of faith and conversion, and to the
co-operation of God and man, grace and
nature, as to predestination, from fore
knowledge and universal grace, and the
possibility of the apostasy of the saints.
Some of them also would modify those

SEMINARIES
opinions, and maintained only the predes
tination of infants from a foreknowledge
of the life they would lead. The great
opposers of this heresy were St. Augustme,
Fulgentius, &c. The original of the pre-
destinarian heresy in this age is denied by
Jansenius and others, as well as Protestants,
and looked upon as a fiction of the Semi-
Pelagians. — Newman's Fleury, xxvi. 24;
Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 494.
SEMINARIES (from Lat. semen, seed).
Certain colleges, appointed for the instruc
tion and education of young persons, des
tined for the sacred ministry. The first
institution of such places is ascribed to
St. Augustine. And the Council of Trent
decrees that children exceeding twelve
years of age shall be brought up and in
structed in common, to qualify them for
the ecclesiastical state ; and. that there shall
be a seminary of such belonging to each
cathedral, under the direction of the bishop.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the
Roman Catholics projected the founding
English seminaries abroad, that from
thence they might be furnished with mis
sionaries to perpetuate and increase their
communion. Accordingly the college of
Douay was founded in 1569, at the ex
pense of Philip IL, king of Spain; and
Dr. William Allen, an Englishman, was
made head of it. In the year 1579, a col
lege was founded at Rome for the same
purpose, by Gregory XIII., who settled
4000 crowns per annum for the subsistence
of the society. The famous Robert Par
sons, an English Jesuit, was rector of this
coUege. King Philip founded another of
these nurseries at VaUadolid in the year
1589, and one at SeviUe in 1593. The
same prince founded St. Omers in Artois,
a.d. 1596. In the next century more
seminaries were established, at Madrid,
Louvain, Liege, and Ghent.
The two colleges of Douay and Rome
received such great encouragement, that
some hundreds of priests were sent off from
thence into England. As a still further
encouragement, Pope Pius V. sent his brief
to the students of these colleges, for under
taking the mission into England. And
that they might act without clashing, and
with the better harmony, he put them all
under the direction of Dr. Allen, afterwards
Cardinal. By a statute of Queen Elizabeth it is
made a pr®munire to contribute to the
maintenance' of a Popish seminary. And
by one of King James I., no persons are
to go, or be sent, to Popish seminaries, to
be instructed or educated, under divers
penalties and disabilities mentioned in the
statute. The houses of the society De Propaganda

SENTENCES
Fide, established for the preparing eccle
siastics for missionaries among infidels and
heretics, are also called seminaries. The
principal of these is that at Rome, called
the Apostolic CoUege or Seminary, or the
seminary De Propaganda Fide.
SENTENCES, THE. Passages of Scrip
ture read at the beginning of the service.
These with the exhortation, confession, and
absolution were added in 1552, the first
Prayer Book of Edward VI. beginning
with the Lord's Prayer. Nothing was
more common in the ancient offices of the
Western Churches than the use of verses
or small portions of Scripture in various
parts of the public service of the Church ;
and before compline a verse was read cer
tainly as early as a.d. 820, for it is men
tioned by Amalarius (De Ecc. Offic. lib. iv.
c. 8). The nocturnal office in the GaUican
Church also began with a lesson, and the
matins and noetums have for many ages
been accounted one office (Mabillon, Liturg.
Gall. p. 399). The sentences in the Holy
Communion office (see Comfortable Words)
are peculiar to the English Church. —
Palmer's Orig. Liturg. i. 210 : ii. 110. [IL]
SEPTUAGESIMA. The Sunday which
in round numbers is 70 days before Easter :
hence the name. There being exactly 50
days between the Sunday next before Lent
and Easter day inclusive, that Sunday is
termed Quinquagesima, i.e. the 50th. And
the two immediately preceding are called
from the next round numbers, Sexagesima
and Septuagesima, 60th and 70th. Septua-
gesima is really the 63rd day before Easter.
The observance of these days and the
weeks following, appears to be as ancient
as the time of Gregory the Great. Some
of the more devout Christians observed the
whole time from the first of these Sundays
to Easter, as a season of humiliation and
fasting, though the ordinary custom was
to commence fasting on Ash- Wednesday
(See Lent). The titles of these days are all
to be found in the Lectionary of St. Jerome
and in the Sacramentaries. The collect we
now use is from the Sacramentary of
Gregory. SEPTUAGINT (the LXX.: see Bible).
The Greek version of Scripture, which was
received both by the Jews and the primitive
Christians. The causes which produced it,
the number and names of the translators,
the times at which different portions were
translated, are all uncertain. The subject
wUl be found fully discussed in the article
by Professor Selwyn in Smith's Diet of
Bible. All that we can satisfactorily
say of the Septuagint is, that the Mosaic
books were translated into Greek about 285
years before Christ, to which the other
books were added from time to time, especi-

SEPULCHRE

697

ally when, on occasion of the prohibition by
Antiochus Epiphanes to read the law, the
prophets used to be read publicly in the
synagogues, and on tbe restoration of the
law became " a second lesson." It is gene
rally admitted that the work was completed
in the main parts prior to the middle of the
second century, before the birth of our
Saviour ; that it was used as a sort of
authorised version by the Jews of Alexan
dria, and by the Hellenistic Jews in general ;
and that as such it is expressly quoted
nearly eighty times in the writings of the
New Testament, being indirectly referred to
much more frequently. Dr. Lightfoot (not
the Bishop of Durham) says " the greatest
authority of this translation appeareth in
that the holy Greek of the New Testa
ment doth so much follow it. For as God
useth this translation as a harbinger to
to the fetching in of the Gentiles, so when
it was grown into authority by the time of
Christ's coming, it seemed good to His infi
nite wisdom to add to its authority Himself,
the better to forward the building of the
Church. And admirable it is to see with
what sweetness and harmony the New Tes
tament doth follow this translation some
times beside the Old, to show that He who
gave the Old can and may best expound it
in the New " ( Works, iv. 32). But not all
the quotations of the Old Testament in the
New Testament agree with the Septuagint ;
and so this argument must not be carried
too far. — See Owen on the Septuagint:
Hodius de Bib. Textibus Originalibus.
In the article above referred to it is stated,
" The version is not minutely accurate in de
tails " (many instances are given) ; " and it
may be laid down as a principle never to build
any argument on words or phrases of the Sep
tuagint without comparing them with the He
brew. The Greek may be right ; but very
often its variations are wrong." At the same
time the writer urges the study of the Sep
tuagint : " the student of Scripture can
scarcely read a chapter without some bene
fit, especially if he be a student of Hebrew,
and able even in a very humble way to com
pare the version with the original." [H.]
SEPTUM. The enclosure of the holy
table, made by the altar rails.
SEPULCHRE— often called the Easter
Sepulchre. A niche, generally at the north
side of the altar, used in the scenic represen
tations of our Saviour's burial and resurrec
tion, on Good Friday and Easter, before the
Reformation, and representing our Lord's
tomb, is called the Holy Sepulchre. It is
sometimes quite plain, sometimes gorgeously
adorned; the general subjects, where it is
much decorated, being the Roman soldiers
sleeping on the base, and angels censing at
the top. There is a remarkably fine series

698

SEQUENCE

of these in" the churches of Lincolnshire,
and in Lincoln cathedral, perhaps the most
beautiful in the kingdom. [H.]
SEQUENCE (See Prosa).
SEQUESTRATION. This is a separa
ting the thing in controversy from the
possession of both the contending parties.
When a living becomes void by the death
of an incumbent or otherwise, the ordinary
is to send out his sequestration, to have the
cure supplied, and to preserve the profits
(after the expenses deducted) for the use of
the successor. Sometimes a benefice is left
under sequestration for many years together,
namely, when it is of so small value that no
clergyman, fit to serve the cure, will be at
the charge of taking it by institution : in
this case, the sequestration is committed
sometimes to the curate only, sometimes to
the curate and churchwardens jointly.
Sometimes the profits of a living are se
questered for neglect of duty : but that kind
of sequestration most generally known and
understood, because applicable to civil affairs,
is upon the Queen's vwrit to the bishop [to
satisfy the debts of the incumbent.
This is where a judgment has been ob
tained in the law courts against a clergy
man ; and upon a. fieri facias directed to the
sheriff to levy the debt and damages, he
makes his return that the defendant is a clerk
beneficed, having no lay fee. Whereupon a
levari facias is directed to the bishop to levy
the same on his ecclesiastical goods, and by
virtue thereof the property of the benefice
shall be sequestered. In this case, the
bishop may name the sequestrators himself,
or may grant the sequestration to such per
sons as shall be named by the party who
obtained the writ.
There are several other circumstances
mentioned in books of ecclesiastical law,
under which sequestration may take place ;
but it may be stated generally that, for any
damages to which an incumbent may be
made liable by civil action, the property of
the benefice may also be made answerable
by the process of sequestration. But it
seems that the bishop is the party through
whom this confiscation for the benefit of the
creditor must take place. The sequestration
is his act, to which he is bound by the
Queen's writ ; and it has been held that a
bill filed in equity against sequestrators only
was insufficient for want of parties. The
bishop should be a party, for the sequestra
tor is accountable to him for what he re
ceives. — Stephen's Commentaries (Black
stone), vii. 4, 659.
SERAPHIM (OWE', 2€Pa<peip) denotes
an order of angels who surround the throne
of the Lord. The meaning of the word is
extremely doubtful (See Angels).
SERMONS (Latin sermones, from the

SERMONS
same root as serere, to sow or propagate ; Gk.
SpiXiai). Discourses delivered in public by
ministers appointed thereto for the purpose
of religious instruction, and usually grounded
upon some text or passage of Scripture.
I. In the ancient Church, immediately after
the reading of the psalms and lessons out of
the Scriptures, before the catechumens were
dismissed, followed the sermon, which the
bishop, or some other appointed by him,
made to the people. This, being done in
the presence of the catechumens, was there
fore reckoned a part of the Missa Cateehu-
menorum or ante-communion service. Such
discourses were commonly termed homilies,
from the Greek opiXiai, which signifies in
differently any discourse of instruction to
the people. Among the Latins they were
frequently called tractatus, and the preachers
tractatores. When the bishop was present he was al
ways the preacher, but in his absence a presby
ter, by his permission, was allowed to preach.
Sometimes several bishops and presbyters
gave sermons in succession, the bishop, or
if more than one was present, the chief bishop
speaking last (reXe vralos irdvrav 6 iirio-Koiros,
Apost Const ii. 57). But in the Roman
Church there seems to have been either great
laxity or a different rule, for Sozomen says
that there were no sermons delivered in that
Church during the 5th century (H. E. vii.
19). This statement however must be re
ceived with caution (see Bingham, xiv.
iv. 3), as sermons by Leo, bishop of Rome
a.d. 440, are extant, in one of which he
speaks of his duty in this respect — ut nostri
nihil desit officii, &c. (Serm. 3, de Epipha-
nia). II. The bishop generally delivered his
sermon or exhortation from the steps of the
altar ; presbyters preached from the pulpit
or ambon. The sermons were mostly de
livered sitting, a custom which exists at the
present day in some continental churches,
where the preacher, if a bishop, sits until he
comes to some important point in his dis
course, or is summing up, when he often
springs to his feet with action and energy.
But there was not, and never has been, any
general rule, and the preacher stood or sat
in the place where he could be best heard by
the people. The catechumens, and even
infidels, were allowed to hear the sermons.
It was only when the more solemn part of
the service was about to be commenced,
that these were dismissed (See Catechu
mens). III. According to the ancient practice of
the Church of England, the instructions of
the preacher may be divided into four parts :
(1) the announcement of feasts and holy-
days, and Holy Communion ; (2) the publi
cation of excommunications (now obsolete)

SERMONS
and other ecclesiastical acts (see Excommu
nication) ; (3) the prayer preparatory to the
sermon (see Bidding Prayer) ; and (4) the
exposition or homily itself. The latter, pro
bably from the inefficiency of the preachers,
became unpopular in the middle ages, and in
the thirteenth century preaching seems to
have been generally omitted (Palmer, Orig.
Liturg. ii. 65). In a.d. 1281, Peckham,
archbishop of Canterbury, in his Constitu
tions, " found it necessary to insist on four
sermons in the year, during the time of the
Communion Service. It does not appear that
any great alteration took place for some time
afterwards. Archbishop Arundell, in his
Constitutions, had to give a similar order.
In a book called the Liber Festivalis, pub
lished in the reign of Henry VIII., we find a
series of homiUes for all the holy-days of the
year, foUowed by the " quatuor sermones,"
as directed by Archbishop Peckham. They
are all in the English language, but they do
not appear to have been much used. After
the Reformation, sermons were preached at
most of the services, and, indeed, preaching
soon became elevated beyond its proper
sphere, and was considered by the Puritans
as an especial means of grace. Very lengthy
discourses were given; those of our own
divines, such as Bishop Andrewes, Laud,
J. Taylor, Bull, &c, were such as must
have taken over an hour, an hour and a
half, or even longer, in delivery. These
sermons are elaborate essays, and we should
imagine, not such as would gain the ear of
the people. This elaborate and formal style
of preaching existed till Wesley and White-
field caused a revolution ; and whatever
may be said of their tenets, it is certain
that from that time greater energy, if not
carefulness and thought, has been given by
ministers to their sermons.
IV. The frequency of sermons is a matter
of much consideration. A bishop of our
Church said that " if he preached twice in a
week, he prated once." Two sermons in
the week, according to his idea, was above
a minister's capability. Yet clergymen with
out curates can now be compelled by the
bishop to preach twice every Sunday ; but
there is no law as to the length or the
quality or the originality of their sermons.
And the bishop may even order a third
service and sermon if he thinks the church
too small for the parishioners. — 58 G. III.
c. 45, and 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106. On this
point we may give a note written by Dean
Hook, in the " Lives of the Archbishops of
Canterbury," which is very characteristic :
" The homilies are not read now, but the
principle of reading homilies is recommended
by the Spectator, when he advises the
younger clergy to read printed sermons
from the pulpit. This is not advisable

SERMONS

G99>

when there is ability to deliver extempore
or to write a sermon. But as the object of
preaching is to do good, it may be recom
mended when a pastor finds a sermon written
by another calculated to explain a truth
better than he could do it himself. When
we look at the House of Commons, and see,
out of five (or six) hundred, how many, as
a blessing to the country, are ' dumb dogs ' ;
when we read tbe foolish speeches that are
made, which would be unreadable unless-
they were ' cooked ' for publication by the
reporter ; when even of public men, who are
obliged to speak, the number is small who
are really eloquent, we ought not to expect
that among eighteen thousand clergy every
one should have the ability to compose and
deliver more than a hundred original sermons
in a year. It is remarkable, rather, that on
the average so many good sermons are
delivered. When printed sermons are used
by a preacher, he is using a homily, the
difference between the practice of the
sixteenth and nineteenth centuries being,.
that the choice of the homily is left to the-
preacher. One of the most eloquent assail
ants of preaching in a Liberal journal, when
called upon to address a public meeting,,
failed so miserably that he told the writer
'he should, as an honest man, cease to
ridicule the clergy ' " (Lives ef the Arch
bishops, vii. 212).
V. Charity Sermons. These were not-
known till the Revolution, before which
time the custom of making public collections,
at the church doors, or otherwise than ba
the offertory, was seldom, if ever, resorted
to. At that time the Dissenters commenced
the system of charity sermons. It was at
first regarded as an invasion of the Royal
prerogative; but when the authorities did
not interfere with tho new system, the
Church gradually followed the example,
until at length charity sermons have become
an institution, and in many places a burden
hard to bear (Archbishops, ix. 273).
The sermon in the Church of England is-
enjoined after the Nicene Creed, according-
to ancient custom ; but nowhere else ;
although it is mentioned as discretionary in.
the Marriage service, for which an exhor
tation, there given, may be substituted.
But evening sermons have been customary
time out of mind in most churches. The
sermon in Queen Elizabeth's time was-
preached at the Chapel Royal in the after
noon, in order that it might not interfere
with St. Paul's Cross sermon. By the Act
of Uniformity Amendment Act, 1872 (the-
short services Act), sermons may be preached
after the short service thereby authorised, or
preceded only by a collect or the Bidding-
Prayer and Lord's Prayer. Formerly they
could not except in certain places, such as.

700

SERVICE

the University churches. — Strype, Annals,
Pref. bk. i. ch. xxiii., Anno 1561 (See
Extemporary Preaching ; Preaching). [H.]
SERVICE. I. " The common prayers of
the Church, commonly called Divine service."
— Preface to the Book of Common Prayer.
AU Divine offices celebrated in the church
constitute part of the Divine service ; that
is, the outward worship which all God's
servants render him. II. The term is also
used in a technical sense peculiar to the
English Church, to signify those stated parts
of the Liturgy which are set to music, as
distinguished from those anthems the words
of which are not a matter of settled regula
tion. The term is now generally restricted
to the Te Deum, and other canticles in
morning and evening prayer; and all the
parts of the Communion Service appointed
to be sung, including also the responses to
the Commandments. The early Church
musicians, however, set the whole service
to music (and hence the term) ; that is,
the pieces (or versicles before the Psalms),
the Venite, one or more chants for the
Psalms, the Te Deum and canticles, the
versicles and responses after the Creed, the
Amens, the Litany, and the Communion
Office : also the Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis,
&c. The first perfect service, in the en
larged and proper sense, which exists in the
Church of England, is Tallis's, published in
Dr. Boyce's Cathedral Music, and since re
published and corrected by a second edition.
Services are as old as the Reformation, and
have ever constituted an integral part of
the choral system as observed in cathedral
churches and colleges. — Jebb, Clior. Serv.
20, 161.
SEVEN SACRAMENTS (See Sacra
ments). SEXAGESIMA. The Sunday but one
before Lent, so-called as being about sixty
days before Easter. It is really the fifty-
sixth day before the great festival (See
Septuagesima). SEXTON; from Sacristan. The sex
ton was originally regarded as the keeper
of the holy things devoted to Divine wor
ship: he is appointed by the minister or
churchwardens according to custom; and
his salary is according to the custom of
each parish, or is settled by the parish
vestry. In the case of Olive v. Ingram it
was held, that a woman is as capable of
being elected to this office as a man, and
that women may have a voice in the elec
tion. The duty of a sexton is to keep the
church and pews cleanly' swept and suf
ficiently aired; to make graves, and open
vaults for the burial of the dead; to pro
vide (under the churchwardens' direction)
candles, &c, for lighting the church ; bread
and wine, and other necessaries, for the

SHEWBREAD
communion, and also water for baptisms;
to attend the church during Divine ser
vice, in order to open the pew doors for
the parishioners, keep out dogs, and pre
vent disturbances, Sec. It has been held
that if a sexton be removed without suffi
cient cause, a mandamus will lie for his
restitution. But where it appeared that
the office was held only during pleasure,
and not for life, the court refused to inter
fere. The salary, however, generally de
pends on the annual vote of the parish
ioners. SHAFT. The portion of a pillar between
the base and the capital, whether a single
one or a large central one surrounded by
smaller shafts, as was common in fine Early
English pillars (See Pillar).
SHAKERS. A party of enthusiasts left
England for America in 1774, and settled
in the province of New York, where the
society soon increased, and received the
ludicrous denomination of Shakers, from the
practice of shaking and dancing. They
affected to consider themselves as forming
the only true Church, and their preachers
as possessed of the apostolic gift : the
wicked, they thought, would only be
punished for a time, except those who should
be so incorrigibly depraved as to fall from
their Church. They disowned Baptism and
the Eucharist, not as in themselves wrong,
but as unnecessary in the new dispensation,
which they declared was opening upon man
kind: and this was the Millennium, in
which, however, they expected that Christ
would appear personally only to His saints.
Their leader was Anna Leese, whom they
believed to be the woman mentioned in the
Apocalypse, as clothed with the sun, and
the moon under her feet, and upon her head
a crown of twelve stars. The successors
of this elect body have been, they say, as
perfect as she was, and have possessed, like
her, unreserved intercourse with angels and
departed spirits, and the power of impart
ing spiritual gifts (See Blunt's Diet Sects,
558). SHECHINAH (in Aramaic and Neo-
Hebrew H3,nB'). The glory of God, prse-
sentia Dei. It is not the cloud, or the pillar
of fire, or the glory displayed in the Taber
nacle and in the Temple. But it signifies
majesty of the Godhead, of which the burn
ing bush, the cloud of glory, the tongues of
fire, &c, were the external symbols. A dis
tinction must thus be made between the
Shechinah, or presence of the Spirit of God
in man, and the Shechinah glory, or the
manifestation of that presence (See Diet.
of Bible, 1241).— Blunt's Diet. Doct. Theol.
696. [H.]
SHEWBREAD. The name given to
those loaves of bread which the Hebrew

SHRINE
priests placed, every Sabbath day, upon
the golden table in the sanctuary. The
Hebrew literally signifies bread of faces
(D*3S DI"!?), these loaves being square, and
having, as it were, four faces, or four sides.
They are called shetvbread by the Greek
and Latin interpreters, because they were
exposed to public view before the ark. The
table on which they were placed was called
the table of shewbread (See Diet of Bible).
The shewbread consisted of twelve loaves,
according to the number of the tribes.
These were served up hot on the Sabbath
day, and at the same time the stale ones,
which had been exposed during the whole
week, were taken away. It was not lawful
for any one to eat of these loaves, but the
priests only. David, indeed, compelled by
urgent necessity, broke through this re
striction. This offering was accompanied
with salt and frankincense, which was burnt
upon the table at the time when they set
on fresh loaves.
Perhaps the offering of " oblations " may
be traced to this Jewish custom.
SHRINE (Sax. serin; Fr. ecrin ; Ger.
schrein, from Lat. scrinium, a wooden case
for keeping books, &c). The place where
something sacred, or a relic, is deposited.
Shrines were either moveable or fixed. The
former were on certain occasions carried
in religious processions about the church or
round the town, and were often made of the
most splendid and costly material, and
enriched with jewelry. Several are still in
existence ; one of the 12th century and
three of the 13th are in the British Museum ;
another of the 13th century in the Museum
of the Society of Antiquaries of London ;
another of a little earlier date, with plates
of enamelled copper, and engraved with the
rood, at Shipley, Sussex ; and St. Ethel-
bert's at Hereford ornamented with the
Acts of Becket. On the Continent they
are frequent, notably those at Aachen (Aix-
la-Chapelle), one of the 9th century, and
the " Notre Dame " of the 12th, the gift of
Barbarossa; and the shrine of the three
Kings (the Magi) in Cologne Cathedral,
probably the most sumptuous ever made,
the value of the jewels with which it is
ornamented being estimated at £240,000.
Fixed shrines were substantial erections,
generally the tombs of saints, as those of
Edward the Confessor in Westminster
Abbey, St. Thomas at Canterbury, St.
Richard's at Chichester, St. Edmund's at
Bury, St. Chad's at Lichfield, St. Paulinus
at Rochester, St. Osmund's at Salisbury,
&c. The word shrine is sometimes, but
erroneously, applied to the chapel in which
the real shrine is deposited (Archeol. i. 26 :
iv. 57 ; x. 469 ; Parker's Gloss. Arch. i. 426 ;
Walcott's Sac. Arch. 538). [H.]

SIDESMEN

701

SHRIVE (From Sax. scrifan, borrowed
from Latin scribere). (i.) To enjoin or
impose a penance ; (ii.) to hear a confession.
SHROVE TUESDAY. The day before
Ash- Wednesday, so called in the Church of
England from the old Saxon word scrifan
(see Shrive) ; it being our duty to confess
our sins to God on that day, in order to
receive the blessed sacrament of the Eucha
rist, and thereby qualify ourselves for a
more religious observance of the holy time
of Lent immediately ensuing. Before the
Reformation all people were obliged to
confess their sins one by one to their
parish priests, alter which they dined on
pancakes or fritters. The latter part of
the custom still remains, and this Tues
day is in many places called "Pancake
Tuesday." SICK, COMMUNION OF (See Com
munion of the Sick).
SICK, VISITATION OF. By Canon 76,
" When any person is dangerously sick in
any parish, the minister or citrate, having
knowledge thereof, shall resort unto him ot
her (if the disease be not known, or probably
suspected, to be infectious), to instruct and
comfort them in their distress, according to
the order of the communion book if he be
no preacher, or if he be a preacher, then as
he shall think most needful and convenient."
And by the rubric, before the office for the
Visitation of the Sick, " When any person
is sick; notice shall be given thereof to the
minister of the parish, who shall go to the
sick person's house, and use the office there
appointed. And the minister shall examine
the sick person whether he repent him truly
of his sins, and be in charity with all the
world, exhorting him to forgive, from the
bottom of his heart, all persons that have
offended him ; and if he hath offended any
other, to ask them forgiveness ; and where
he hath done injury or wrong to any man,
that he may make amends to the utmost of
his power. And if he hath not before dis
posed of his goods, let him then be ad
monished to make his will, and to declare
his debts what he oweth, and what is owing
to him, for the better discharge of his
conscience, and the quietness of his ex
ecutors. But men should often be put in
remembrance to take order for the settling of
their temporal estates while they are in
health. And the minister should not omit
earnestly to move such sick persons, as are
of ability, to be liberal to the poor " (See
Absolution, Communion of Sick, Visitation
of Sick).
SIDESMEN (Old English, sithesmen, or
sithcundmen). It was usual for bishops in
their visitations to summon some credible
persons out of every parish, whom they
examined on oath concerning the condition!

702

SIGNIFICAVIT

of the church, and other affairs relating to
it. Afterwards these persons became stand
ing officers in several places, especially in
great cities ; and when personal visitations
were a little disused, and when it became a
custom for the parishioners to repair the
body of the church, which began about the
fifteenth century, these officers were still
more necessary, and then they were called
Testes Synodales or Juratores Synodi ; some
called them synodsmen. and now they are
¦corruptly called sidesmen. They are chosen
¦every year, according to the custom of the
place, and their business is to assist the
churchwardens in inquiring into things
relating to the church, and making present
ment of such matters as are punishable by
the ecclesiastical laws. Hence they are also
called Questmen ; but now the whole office,
for the most part, is devolved upon the
churchwardens, though not universally (See
Churchwardens). SIGNIFICAVIT. The writ de excom
municato capiendo was called a significavit
from the word at the beginning of the writ :
Rex vicecomiti L. salutem. Significavit
<nobis venerabilis Pater, H. L. Episcopus,
-&C It is under this writ that imprisonment
for contumacy is obtained by all ecclesi
astical courts from the civil.
SIGN OF THE CROSS (See Cross).
SILVESTER, ST., BISHOP AND CON
FESSOR, commemorated on December 31.
He was made Bishop of Rome in 314, and
was summoned to attend the CouncU of
Aries in that year, and later the Council of
Nic®a, but was prevented by ill-health. He
was a man of great piety, and is said to have
been the author of several rites, ceremonies,
.and ornaments of the Roman Church, as of
matins, palls, mitres, &c. He died 335. [H.]
ST. SIMON AND ST. JUDE'S DAY.
A holy-day appointed by the Church for
the commemoration of these saints, ob
served in our Church on the 28th October.
St. Simon is surnamed the Cananite and
Zelotes, the latter term (^XwTr/r), peculiar
to St. Luke, being equivalent to the Aramaic
.(|K3j7) Cananite, preserved by SS. Matthew
and Mark. The Zealots were fanatics con
spicuous for their fierce advocacy of the
Mosaic ritual. Perhaps St. Simon, before
his call, was one of these, or else gained the
title from some fire or impetuosity in his
temper. He is not to be confounded with
Simon " the brother of Jesus " (Euseb. H. E.
iii. 11), nor with Symon, the second bishop
of Jerusalem, as sometimes stated.
St. Jude was likewise one of the twelve
apostles, and St. James's brother. He had
two surnames, viz. Thaddeus and Lebbeus,
but there is cousiderable difficulty about
the interpretation of these names. Jerome
translates the former " hearty," as from 3?,

SIMONY
cor. Thaddeus and Judas have been sup
posed to have the same derivation as from
min, to praise (Wordsworth, Greek Test.
St. Matt. x. 3; Speaker's Commentary,
ibid.). St. Simon is supposed to have been
crucified in Jud®a in the time of Domitian ;
St. Jude to have died a natural death at
Edessa (Nicephorus, H. E. ii. 40 ; Burton's
Lectures, i. 333). Other traditions affirm
that they both suffered death in Trajan's
reign (See Diet of Bible).
SIMONY. The corrupt presentation of
any one to an ecclesiastical benefice for
money, gift, or reward. It is so caUed
from the sin of Simon Magus, who thought
to have purchased the power of conferring
the gift of the Holy Ghost for money
(Acts viii. 19) ; though the purchasing holy
orders seemed to app'roach nearer to his
offence. It is by the canon law a very
grievous offence, and is so much the more
odious, because, as Sir Edward Coke ob
serves, it is ever accompanied with perjury,
for the presentee is sworn to have committed
no simony.
Canon 40, "to avoid the detestable sin
of simony," provides this declaration upon
oath, to be taken by every person on being
instituted to a benefice : " I do swear that
I have made no simoniacal payment, con
tract, or promise, directly or indirectly, by
myself, or by any other to my knowledge
or with my consent, to any person or per
sons whatsoever, for or concerning the pro
curing or obtaining of this ecclesiastical
place, preferment, office, or Uving, nor wUl
I at any time hereafter perform or satisfy-
any such kind of payment, contract, or
promise, made by any other without my
knowledge or consent: so help me God
through Jesus Christ."
By statute 31 Eliz. c. 6, for the avoiding
of simony and corruption, it is provided
that all presentations made for such con
sideration as is described in the above-
quoted canon shall be utterly void; and
any person or body poUtic or corporate,
presenting to a benefice for such consider
ation, shall forfeit two years' value or profits
of the benefice, and the person procuring
himself to be so presented shaU be for ever
disabled from holding that benefice ; and
any person who shall take any reward,
other than the usual fees for admitting or
inducting to a benefice, shall forfeit two
years' profits of such benefice; and the
admission or induction shaU be void, and
the patron may present again as if the
person so inducted or admitted were natu
rally dead. Any bargain for the benefit of
the patron, or any of the patrons, even a
covenant to marry a relative of the patron,
or to forbear a lawsuit, or tithes, is simony.
By statute 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 12, if any

SINGING
person for money or reward, or promise of
such, shall procure in his own name, or the
name of any other, the next presentation to
any living ecclesiastical, and shall be pre
sented thereupon, this is declared to be a
simoniacal contract, and the party is subject
to all the ecclesiastic penalties of simony.
Upon these statutes many questions have
arisen; the following points seem settled:
(1) That ' the sale of an advowson is not
simoniacal, unless connected with a corrupt
contract or design as to the next presenta
tion. (2) That to purchase a next presen
tation, the living being actually vacant, is
open simony (Baker v. Rogers, Cro. EUz.
788 ; Moor, 914, S.C.). (3) That for a
clerk to bargain for the next presentation,
the incumbent being sick and about to die,
and (by the statute of Queen Anne) to
purchase in his own name or another's the
next presentation, is simony ( Winchcombe
v. Bp. of Winchester, Rob. 165). (4) That,
on the other hand, a bargain by any other
person for the next presentation (even if
the incumbent is in extremis), if without
the privity of the particular clerk afterwards
presented, is not simony (Fox v. Bp. of
Chester, 6 Bingham, 1 ; 3 Bligh, N. S. 123,
S.C.). It is also considered law that if an
incumbent is presented to another living or
is otherwise certain to vacate one but is not
instituted, the prior Uving may be sold.
(5) That if a simoniacal contract be made
with the patron, the clerk presented not
being privy thereto, the presentation for
that turn shall devolve to the Crown ; but
the clerk, being innocent, does not otherwise
incur disabUity (Whish v. Hesse, 3 Hagg.
659 ; R. v. Bp. of Norwich, Cro. Jac. 385).
By Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 94, bonds of
resignation in certain cases are rendered
legally valid (See Resignation Bonds). —
Stephen's Comm. on Blackstone, iii. 76.
SINGING (See Music, Hymn, Saying).
SIN, DEADLY SIN, AND SIN
AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST (From
Anglo-Saxon syn, which meant a writ-
of error, thus, error of judgment. It is a
word of very wide signification, including,
'W~\, dpapria, forensic failure ; rUJC, 7rapa-
Bao-is, transgression of the boundary of right
and wrong ; and other expressions of evil,
especially "W, diroarao-ia, revolt). I. Our
sixteenth Article, headed "Of Sin after
Baptism," runs thus: "Not every deadly
sin willingly committed after baptism, is
sin against the Holy Ghost, and unpar
donable ; wherefore the grant of repent
ance is not to be denied to such as fall
into sin, after baptism. After we have
received the Holy Ghost we may depart
from grace given, and fall into sin, and by
the grace of God (we may) arise again,
and amend our lives; and therefore they

SIN

703

are to be condemned that say they can no
more sin as long as they live here, or deny
the place of forgiveness to such as truly
repent." This Article is levelled against the doc
trine of the Novatians, who held every sin
committed after baptism to be unpardon
able. This doctrine was revived by some
of the Anabaptists, or other enthusiasts,
who sprang up at the beginning of the
Reformation, and it is not improbable that
the compilers of the Articles had an eye
likewise upon their expressed views. For,
as the anti-Reformers were wont to impute
the wild doctrines of all the several sorts of
enthusiasts to all Protestants, so it was
thought here convenient to defend our
Church against the imputation of any such
opinion. By " deadly sin " in this Article we are
not to understand such sins as are called
"mortal" in the Church of Rome, in
opposition to others that are " venial " : as
if some sins, though offences against God,
and violations of His law, could be of their
own nature such slight things that they
deserved only temporal punishment, and
were to be expiated by some piece of
penance or devotion, or the communica
tion of the merits of others. The Scrip
ture nowhere teaches us to think so slightly
of the Majesty of God, or of His law.
There is a " curse " upon every one " that
continueth not in all things which are
written in the book of the law to do them "
(Gal. iii. 10); and the same curse must
have been on us all, if Christ had not
redeemed us from it: "the wages of sin
is death." And St. James asserts that
there is such a complication of aU the pre
cepts of the law of God, both with one
another, and with the authority of the
Lawgiver, that " he who offends in one
point is guilty of all " (St. James ii. 10, 11).
So since God. has in His word given us
such dreadful apprehensions of His wrath,
and of the guilt of sin, we dare not soften
these to a degree below the majesty of the
eternal God, and the dignity of His most
holy laws. But after all, we are far from
the conceit of the Stoics, who made aR
sins alike. We acknowledge that some
sins of ignorance and infirmity may consist
with a state of grace ; which is either quite
destroyed, or at least much eclipsed and
clouded, by other sins, that are more
heinous in their nature, and more deliber
ately gone about. It is in this sense that
the word "deadly sin" is to be understood
in the Article ; for though in the strictness
of justice every sin is " deadly," yet in the
dispensation of the gospel those sins only
are "deadly" that do deeply wound the
conscience, and that drive away grace. The

704

SIN

" seven deadly sins," according to dogmatic
theology, are Pride, Avarice, Lust, Envy,
Gluttony, Anger, Sloth.
II. With regard to the sin against the
Holy Ghost St. Jerome says, that " they
only are guilty, who, though in miracles
they see the very work of God, yet slander
them, and say that they are done by the
devil ; and ascribe to the operation of that
evil spirit, and not to the Divine power, all
those mighty signs and wonders which were
wrought for the confirmation of the gos
pel." In relation to all other sins, we are,
as Clement of Rome observes, " to fix our
eyes on the blood of Christ, which was
shed for our salvation, and hath obtained
the grace of repentance for the whole
world." III. Between mortal and venial sins, re
ferred to above as the especial teaching of
the Church of Rome, the distinction is that
mortal sin is that sin which is in its nature
gross, and is committed knowingly, wilfully,
deliberately ; and venial sin is that under
which head are classed all sins of ignorance
and negligence, and such as are considered
small in their nature.
It is difficult to distinguish, in some in
stances, between mortal sins and venial sins.
But they form two distinct classes of sin,
differing not merely in degree, but in genus
or kind.
Mortal sins render the transgressors
children of wrath and enemies of God ;
but it is in regard to venial sins that the
error or heresy is propounded. . It is stated
that in this mortal life even holy and jus
tified persons fall into daily venial sins,
which, nevertheless, do not in any way
affect or detract from their holy character,
" and which do not exclude the transgressor
from the grace of God."
It is here to be observed that we do not
deny that a distinction is to be made be
tween sins of greater or less enormity. But
the error of the Romanist is this — that
he makes the two classes of sin to differ
not only in enormity and degree, which
we admit to be the case, but also in their
nature and kind. No amount of venial
sins, according to Bellarmine, would ever
make a mortal sin.
We also make a distinction of sins : we
call some sins deadly, and others infirmi
ties ; we consider the commission of some
sins as not inconsistent with a state of
grace, whereas by others the Holy Spirit
may be grieved, done despite unto, and
quenched, so that the sinner shall be spi
ritually dead : he shall die a second death.
But here is the difference between us
and the Romanists : although we speak of
some sins as of less, and of others as of
greater enormity, we consider every sin to

SI QUIS
be in its nature mortal ; that by many
little sins a man may be damned, even as
a ship may be sunk by a weight of sand as
well as by a weight of lead ; and that they
are not damnable to us, only from the
constant intercession of Christ. Whereas
negUgences and ignorances, and sins of
lesser enormity, are by the Romanists not
regarded as sins at all, in the proper sense
of the word.
Hence we are for ever relying directly
upon Christ for pardon and for mercy, while
they rely upon their own merits. They
appeal to the justice of God ; we knowing
that by His justice we must be condemned,
confide in His mercy. They say that venial
sin ls not in itself mortal ; we regard all sin
as mortal in itself, but rejoice to know that
" if any man sin " (any man in a state of
justification, and, on that account, not
sinning habitually and wilfully) " we have
an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ
the righteous, and he is the propitiation
for our sins."
The doctrine of the Church of England
leads men to Christ, and nails them pros
trate to the foot of the cross ; whereas the
Romish doctrine, though taking men to
Christ in the first instance, soon removes
them from the only rock of salvation, and
induces them to rely upon an arm of flesh.
Our doctrine lays low in the dust aU human
pride, it annihilates every notion of human
merit, and exalts the Saviour as our all in
all; the Romish doctrine, establishing the
idea of human merit and supererogatory
works, drives some to despair, and inflames
others with spiritual pride, while it ter
minates in practical idolatry. Our doctrine
is primitive, catholic, and scriptural, as
well as Protestant, ever reminding us that
" there is one God, and one Mediator be
tween God and men, the man Christ Jesus ;"
while their doctrine is medi®val, scholastic,
heretical, and opposed to the truth as it is
in Jesus. — J. Grimm, Stud. u. Krit iii.
SI QUIS (See Orders, Ordination).
In the Church of England, before a person
is admitted to holy orders, a notice caUed
the " Si quis " (from the Latin of the words
if any person, occurring in the form) used
to be, but is no longer, published in the
church of the parish where the candidate
usually resides, in the following form :
" Notice is hereby given, that A. B., now
resident in this parish, intends to offer
himself a candidate for the holy office of a
deacon [or priest] at the ensuing ordination
of the Lord Bishop of  ; and if any
person knows any just cause or impedi
ment, for which he ought not to be ad
mitted into holy orders, he is now to de
clare the same, or to signify the same
forthwith to the bishop."

SISTERHOOD
In the case of a bishop, the Si quis is
affixed by an officer of the Arches on the
door of Bow Church, and he then also
makes three proclamations for opposers to
appear, &c. (See Confirmation of Bishops).
SISTERHOOD. A body of women in
the English branch of the CathoUc Church,
associated for the purpose of seeking a high
degree of spiritual perfection. The motive
of each member of the body is obedience to
a special call of God, calling her to glorify
Him by aiming at a specially high standard
of inner Ufe. No one can deny that God
may call a person now, as He called the
apostles, and again a select number of the
apostolic band, to a special intimacy with
Him. The outward life of a sisterhood is adjusted
with the view of promoting this high aim of
a perfect inner life. It is essentiaUy a life in
a community as contrasted with life (either
siDgle or married) in a natural family. And
the call to the inner life is taken to include
a call to this means of living that inner life.
It is conceived to represent for women the
call to the practical waiting upon the
promise that "every one that hath left
houses, or brethren or sisters, or father or
mother, or children or lands for My name's
sake, shall receive a hundred fold, and shall
inherit eternal life."
Such a call must be very sacred and
secret. Of its reaUty in each case where it
is professed, none but the individual herself
can judge. No man can pretend to know
what God hath spoken in the soul of another.
Undoubtedly mistakes are made, and a call
is imagined which has not been given, but
the failure of the life, in any case, to promote
perfection is not decisive against the reality
of the call.
The special name usually given to a
sister's call is " vocation." It has a some
what pedantic sound, and it probably
originated from the foreign associations
surrounding the sisterhood life when revived
in England.
A life which is to replace the ordinary
family life, and its discipline in forming the
saintly character, is necessary under special
discipline, and its outward features are
intended to exhibit the three principles of
celibacy, poverty, and obedience. These
three conditions of life are regarded as signal
helps to humility, and to mortification of
the natural man, and as being recommended
by the Word of God for that purpose.
They are technically called "counsels of per
fection," as being voluntary, not obligatory,
and contrasted with precepts of perfection,
such as almsgiving, prayer, and fasting.
At the same time it is not to be supposed
that those who, like Abraham, the friend of
God, or Moses, the meekest of men, are

SISTERHOOD

705

called to matrimony, riches, or command,
are thereby called away from perfection;
seeing that the very highest of all possible
perfections, that of being " perfect as our
heavenly Father is perfect," is expressly
proposed by our Lord as the hope and aim
of every Christian.
These leading principles of the outer life
of a sisterhood, celibacy, poverty, and obedi
ence, are adopted by members of some English
sisterhoods in some manner. That they
are professed by lifelong vows is generally
denied, and that on the highest authority,
but the denial is not always accepted.
They are carried out in detaU by a Rule
of Life, and compliance with this is essential,
as long as a woman remains a member of
the body.
The state of life governed by the rule is
technicaUy caUed the " religious " life, in
imitation of the medi®val phraseology of
the old convents. The term is unfortunate,
as it is technically inapplicable to any
communities except those having as an
essential element of their rule the life vows
which the English sisterhoods repudiate.
It is, moreover, likely to be misunderstood,
and to be regarded as implying a pharisaical
monopoly of religion.
The members of a sisterhood alone have
a right to the title of sisters. This exclusive
right is frequently infringed by other women,
who call themselves " sisters " merely
because they do some work like that done
by sisters. But the word denotes a state of
life, not the performance of certain work,
just as the word "deaconess" denotes an
order and office in the Church, not a state of
life, nor a special occupation (see art.
Deaconess). Another expression some
times applied to members of a sisterhood is
that of " Brides of Christ," and the outward
symbol of the married state, viz., the ring,
is generally assumed by them. This title,
given in Scripture only to the Church
collectively, was conceded to individual
women devoting themselves to the love of
God, by enthusiastic admirers of their
devotion, from a very early period. Their
use of it has been justified in modern times,
as expressing a theory that sisters speciaUy
represent that view of the whole Church
which the title expresses. It will not easily
be admitted that sisters alone have a right to
this privUege of representing the whole
Church in its highest relation to its head, to
the exclusion of the great company of
female saints who win their crowns by the
more arduous path of ordinary famUy life,
and to the absolute exclusion of all male
saints whatever.
It seems moreover to put forward in
unpleasant prominence a feminine ambition
of engrossing individual affection, and
2 z

706

SISTERHOOD

imperils the commimion and co-operation of
sisterhoods with those whom they regard as
" in the world," and not so attached to our
Lord. The gathering of women, professing such
exalted aims of inner Ufe, into communities,
dates from the 4th century. The aims
existed before, and were nobly pursued, so
that famUy Ufe is not incompatible with
entire devotion to the service of the Lord ;
but a rule of community life appears to be,
in most cases, almost indispensable as an
outward support to the inner life. During
many centuries the communities of women
multiplied in Christendom, and were a most
important and valuable part of the Church's
life. The history of the medi®val convents
is a literature in itseff. After their down-
faR in England during the convulsions of
the Reformation in the 16th century, the
idea lay dormant in the English Church
until the revival of Catholic principles in the
19th century. Then the sisterhood princi
ple also revived. The first modern English
sisterhood was the Society of the Holy
Trinity, founded at Devonport in 1847.
Then foRowed the Sisters of St. Mary the
Virgin, at Wantage, in 1849 ; the Sisters of
the Poor, at AR Saints, Margaret Street, in
1850 ; the Society of St. John Baptist, at
Clewer, in 1854 ; the Nursing Sisters of St.
Margaret, East Grinstead, in 1855 ; the sister
hood of St. Peter, at Kilburn, in 1861 ; and
many others since.
The EngRsh sisterhoods have not found
the rule of any one of the ancient orders of
nuns entirely adapted to their require
ments. They have tentatively worked out
provisional systems in their various com
munities, but cannot be said to have con
solidated as yet (1886) complete rules.
The chief points in the constitution of
sisterhoods have been stated as foUows : —
The sisters should have their voice in the
appointment of the Superior ; they should
hold their chapters to determine internal
matters of business ; they should manage
their own funds ; they should have a settled
rule, and should be governed according to
this rule, not by the mere personal will of
the Superior — the Superior herself acting
according to rule as well as the sisters.
Sisterhoods have thus a constitutional, not
an absolute, government. A supervision
should be vested in the bishops, and the
rule of a sisterhood should be sanctioned
and guarded by the bishop of the diocese.
To these may be added that they should be
protected against arbitrary action of the
bishop. An essential condition of healthy outer life
in a sisterhood is active work for God,
especially in penitentiaries, hospitals, in
teaching children, in caring for God's house.

SISTERHOOD
Like aU other members of Christ, for whom
He prayed before His passion, they must be
in the world, though not of tbe world.
They claim no exemption from work, hut
give themselves heartUy to it, with exceUent
results. The sisterhood wiU be no home of
peace and unselfishness without activity.
Nothing else redeems them from the charge
of selfishly leaving to others their share of
the cares of life in the flesh. Their good
work is not an end in itself, but rather is
the outcome of their love to God, and done
in the hope of being well pleasing to Him.
All English sisterhoods are working orders.
The cloistered life is woefuUy deficient in
the chief element of ChristUkeness — viz.,
the going about doing good.
Indeed the decadence of the conventual
system at the period of the Reformation was
principally owing to the growing deficiency
of this element in their outer life. St.
Augustine bears witness to the same
necessity of making work an invariable
factor of the monastic profession, notably
on the ground that persons, who come from
the lower ranks of society, are spirituaUy
injured by being raised into a grade viewed
with more general respect than that from
which they had sprung, unless this elevation
were counteracted by the burden of diligent
work. The praise of the world is more fatal
than its frowns.
The spiritual food of a sisterhood must
be abundant, and of the highest order.
Prayer, instruction, communion, and con
fession must be provided without stint.
One of the great difficulties of sisterhoods is
the obtaining chaplains competent to ad
minister their spiritual sustenance. The
protection which solemn vows afford to
female instability is unquestionable. But
they require to be very carefuUy guarded.
In no case should they be administered
except by the bishop of the diocese in
person, and that openly. They should
contain an express proviso for their possible
revocation by him or his successors. They
should be definite and thoroughly intelli
gible; terms, such as poverty and obedi
ence, which admit of vague interpretation,
should be explained, so that their limits are
distinct. Sisters have no office in the Church. They
are private institutions. Their discipUne
would probably be improved by the
synodical construction of a general rule of
sisterhood life, which should have canonical
force, and which might be supplemented,.
but not superseded, by the authority of the
bishop of the diocese, for individual sister
hoods. As a part of the general canonical
rule, they might receive official recognition
by receiving an ecclesiastical order.
The apostolic order of deaconess is ready to

SITTING
hand, and has the advantage of an antiquity
of 1800 years. [B. C]
SITTING. This posture is allowed in
our Church at the reading of the lessons
in the Morning and Evening Prayer, and
also of the first lesson or Epistle in the
Communion Service, but at no other time
except during the sermon. Even thus we
have somewhat relaxed the rule of the
primitive Church, in which the people
stood, even to hear sermons. Some ultra-
Protestant sects have irreverently used sit
ting as the posture of receiving the Lord's
supper, which ought to be accounted the
act of deepest devotion. Some Arians in
Poland have done this even for a worse
reason : i.e. to show that they do not be
lieve Christ to be God, but only their
fellow-creature. SLYPE. The name given to the passage
lying between the south transept and the
chapter-house in some of the oldest cathe
drals, as Winchester and St. Alban's ; and
occasionaUy to simUar passages in other
parts. At Gloucester there is one between
the cathedral and the deanery. [G.]
SOCIETIES, CHURCH. The Church it-
seff is the proper channel for the circula
tion of the Bible and Prayer Book, for the
establishment of missions, and the erection
of sanctuaries ; the Church acting under
her bishops, and by her representatives in
synod. In the times when not only convo
cations, but diocesan synods were suspended,
it was found necessary to estabUsh societies
to carry on the work. Now that convocation
is revived, and there are diocesan conferences
in almost every diocese, as they have no
practical means of acting, and no funds,
these societies or associations still exist, and
increase, for their necessity is very evident.
They collect funds and arrange detaUs,
which it would be impossible for com
mittees of convocation to undertake, unless
they were enabled by special subscription.
It must be observed that these are distinctly
Church societies, managed by and confined
exclusively to members of the Church of
England. The oldest is : —
I. The Society for Promoting Chris
tian Knowledge was founded in 1698,
chiefly by the energy of Dr. Thomas Bray,
who had been appointed in 1696 com
missary of the bishop of London (Dr.
Compton) for Maryland. Four laymen,
Lord GuUford, Sir H. Mackworth, Mr.
Justice Hook, and Colonel Colchester, to
gether with Dr. Bray, attended the first
meeting held on March 8, 1698. These
were soon afterwards joined by many others,
eminent for piety and zeal. Their objects
were (1) the education of the poor ; (2) the
care of the colonies ; (3) the printing and

SOCIETIES

707

circulating books of sound Christian doctrine.
These objects have always been kept before
the society. Schools have been established
and are supported in most parts of the
country. In 1884-5 assistance was given
to the amount of £1855 towards Sunday-
school buildings giving accommodation for
5,640 children. In consequence of the
Education Acts of 1870 and 1874, the
Society made a grant of £15,000 to obviate
the necessity of the estabUshment of the
merely secular system of the Board Schools
in 467 parishes. The Society built in 1880,
and supports, St. Katherine's Training Col
lege for 100 students, besides giving grants
to other training coUeges, and prizes to
students. The Society laboured as a Missionary
Society among the colonies tiU 1824, when
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
took that branch entirely off its hands. But
it still supports missionary work and gives
grants as far as its funds wiU allow. For
instance, in 1885 £500 was given to the
Tukudh Mission, for a native clergy ; £2000
to the Clergy Fund in Colombo ; £1000 to
wards the bishopric of St. John's, Kaffraria ;
£1000 towards the bishopric of Pretoria;
£500 to that of North Queensland, &c, &c.
Help has been given in sending out 14
missionaries, and grants made towards can
didates for orders, readers, &c.
The pubUcations of the Society are
very numerous, and during 1885 the sales
amounted to £81,685 ; 1605 separate grants
of books were made ; Bibles, prayer-books,
and hymn-books, &c, to the value of £2,400
have been given to churches, mission-rooms,
Sunday and day schools, and public in
stitutions [Official Year-book, 1886; Ad
dresses at the opening of the Societies' new
house, 1879 ,- Sewell's " Short Account "
(S.P. O.K.), 1885].
II. Society for Propagating the Gos
pel in Foreign Parts. — Dr. Bray on his
return from Maryland, whither he had gone
as commissary for the bishop of London (see
preceding ¦ section I.), immediately set to
work to form a distinct branch of the Society,
to which the care of the missionary work
should be committed. After much difficulty,
Dr. Bray and his friends, backed by the
powerful aid of Archbishop Tenison, Bishop
Compton and other bishops, and of the lower
house of the Convocation of Canterbury,
succeeded in procuring, on June 15, 1701, a
charter under the seal of WilUam IH. con
stituting ninety-six persons the first mem
bers of a corporate Society for the Propaga
tion of the Gospel in foreign parts. Work
at once commenced, and it consisted of
three great branches (1) the care and
instruction of our own people settled in the
colonies ; (2) the conversion of the Indian
2 z 2

708

SOCIETIES

natives ; (3) the conversion of the negro
slaves. The first missionaries, the Revs.
George Keith and Patrick Gordon, sailed
from England on April 24, 1702, and landed
at Boston on June 11. Since that time
great activity has been displayed on the
part of the Society, not only for the
spiritual welfare of our colonists, but for
spreading the gospel among the heathen.
On April 6, 1882, the old charter having
been found insufficient for the present
wants, Her Majesty was graciously pleased
to grant a supplemental charter, which will
simpUfy the Society's operations, and by
representation will give to all its members
a share in the administration of its affairs.
It is asserted by some that the S.P.G.
simply sends missionaries to our colonists
without regard to converting the heathen ;
the extent and character of the work as
given in the different reports from mission
aries is a sufficient answer to such an
error. III. The Church Missionary Society
was instituted April 12, 1799. Its object is
to promote the spread of the gospel among the
heathen ; and it has done great work side
by side with the elder sister Society. The
earliest mission of this Society was to West
Africa, a field of labour naturally chosen, as
Wilberforce and others of the founders of
the C.M.S. took so deep an interest in
suppressing the slave trade, and raising
the liberated slaves from their misery and
darkness. The first two missionaries went
out in 1804. They were Germans, the
reason assigned why EngUshmen had not
been obtained for the work being " that our
countrymen were not then alive to their
duty." Considering the readiness of English
men for any foreign enterprise, this seems
extraordinary, and probably there were
Other reasons. At aU events, many fol
lowed with varying success till 1818, when
a great spiritual uprousing took place the
effects of which on the African Church
have been permanent. The Native Church
in 1862 was recognised on an independent
basis, and undertook the support of its
own churches, clergy, &c. The Church
Missionary Society, like the elder sister
Society, sends missionaries to aU parts of
the world, and largely supports native
clergy and teachers. — [Report, 1886 ; Official
Year-book, 1886, p. 201.]
IV. The National Society was founded
in 1811. Its main object, as expressed in the
words of the charter, is to secure " that the
poorer members of the Church shall have
their children daily instructed in suitable
learning, and the principles of the Chris
tian religion according to the Established
Church." The Society has endeavoured to
carry out this object in two chief ways (1)

SOCIETIES
by multiplying the number of properly con
structed school buildings ; (2) by promoting
the most approved system of instruction by
the establishment of training institutions for
teachers ; also by supplying at a reduced
cost lesson books, apparatus, &c.,. and by
the occasional inspection of schools. Since
the passing of the Education Act, 1870,
followed by those of 1873, 1876, and 1880,
the Society has endeavoured to watch and
protect the interests of the Church under
the working of the new Acts, and to maintain
as far as possible the distinctive religious
character of Church schools. Chiefly by
the exertions of the National Society the
new code of 1882 was considerably modi
fied. V. Church Pastoral Aid Society :
founded in 1836 for the evangelization of the
home population by means of the parochial
organization of the Church of England.
In 1885 the grant made to poor parishes
and districts amounted to 761, of which
609 are for the clergy, 152 for lay agents.
VI. Society for Promoting the Employ
ment of Additional Curates : founded in
1837, principally through the exertions of
the Bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield), Mr.
Joshua Watson, and Mr. Benjamin Harri
son. According to the first report (1838),
" the object of this Society is to increase the
means of pastoral instruction, and super
intendence at present possessed by the
Church ; and, in order thereto, to provide
a fund for contributing to the maintenance
of additional clergymen in those parishes
within the several dioceses of England and
Wales where their services are most
required." Many missionaries are by this
Society sent to labour among the increasing
masses in our great towns ; 717 additional
clergy are by its means supported; and
the population benefited is estimated at
6,000,000. [H.]
VII. Church Defence Institution:
founded in 1859, chiefly by the exertions of
Mr. Henry Hoare. Its full title is the
" Church Institution, an Association of
Clergy and Laity for Defensive and General
Purposes," and the following were the first
two rules adopted by its promoters : —
1. That the objects of the Institution
shall be — to combine, as far as possible,
Churchmen of every shade of political and
religious opinion in the maintenance and
support of the Established Church, and its
rights and privileges in relation to the
State, — particularly as regards all questions
affecting its welfare likely to become the
subject of legislative action : and generally
to encourage the co-operation of clergy and
laity, in their several districts, for the pro
motion of measures conducive to the welfare
of the Church.

SOCIETIES
2. That no question touching Doctrine
shall be entertained at any meeting.
In 1871, after the disestablishment of
the Irish Church, the Institution, which
had hitherto been exclusively under lay
management, was reconstituted as "the
Church Defence Institution," the Arch
bishop of Canterbury accepted the office of
president, and the Archbishop of York with
nearly all the bishops joined the society
as vice-presidents. At the same time the
Rev. Dr. Alfred T. Lee was appointed
secretary, and from that time until his
death in 1883 contributed very largely to
the development and progress of the In
stitution. While the work of the com
mittee has been mainly directed to the
defence of the Church against assailants
from without, against those, that is, who
would deprive her, and through her, the
country, of the position, endowments, and
buUdings which she holds for the service of
Almighty God, every assistance has been
given to movements which have had for
their object the strengthening and increased
efficiency of the Church. Among such may
he speciaUy mentioned the increase of tbe
Episcopate. The Institution publishes a
monthly paper, The National Church, and
issues a large number of pamphlets and
leaflets on the Church and State question
for widespread distribution. The income
of the Institution for the year 1884 was
£4,570 14s. Sd. [H. G. D.]
There are many other societies, of a few
of which only mention can be made, as —
VIII. Society for Promoting Christianity
among the Jews : founded 1809.
IX. Incorporated Church Building
Society: founded 1818, incorporated by
Royal Charter, July 1826.
X. Colonial and. Continental Society :
sprung from the Newfoundland School
Society (1823), and the Colonial Church
Society (1835), which were amalgamated
(1851) ; and took present name 1861. Its
work is carried on in 28 colonial dioceses.
XI. Church Sunday School Institute
(1843). XII. Church Scripture Readers Associa
tion (1844).
XIII. Church of England Temperance
Society. XIV. Curates' Augmentation Fund.
XV. Church Penitentiary Association.
XVI. Missions to Seamen.
Besides these few mentioned, there are
a great number of Institutions, Funds,
Missions, Charitable Associations, &c,
many springing from the above, connected
with the Church of England. The Religious
Tract Society is conducted by a committee
composed of an equal number of Churchmen
and Nonconformists, and so is the Bible

SOFFIT

709"

Society — a very large one. A list of societies
is given in the Church of England Official
Year-book of 1886, and fuller accounts of
the history of some of them in that of
1883. Each society also publishes an
annual report. [H.]
SOCINIANS (See Unitarians). A sect
of heretics, so called from their founder,
Faustus Socinus, a native of Siena in Italy,
born in 1539. Their tenets are —
1. That the eternal Father was the one
only God; that the Word was no more
than an expression of the Godhead, and had
not existed from all eternity; and that
Jesus Christ was God, no otherwise than by
His superiority above all creatures, who
were put in subjection to Him by the
Father. 2. That Jesus Christ was not a me
diator between God and men, but sent into
the world to serve as a pattern of their con
duct : and that He ascended up to heaven
only, as it were, to take a journey thither.
3. That the punishment of hell will
last but for a certain time, after which both
body and soul will be destroyed. And,
4. That it is not lawful for princes to
make war. But many Socinians hold the
first two doctrines alone.
These four tenets were what Socinus de
fended with the greatest zeal: in other
matters, he was a Lutheran, or a Calvinist.
The truth is, he did but refine upon the
errors of all the Anti-Trinitarians who had
gone before him.
The Socinians spread extremely in Po
land, Lithuania, and Transylvania. Their
chief school was at Racow, and there all
their first books were pubUshed. Then-
sentiments are explained at large in their
catechism, printed several times, under the
title of Catechesis Ecclesiarum Polonicarum
unum Deum patrem, illiusque filium uni-
genitum, uno cum Sancto Spiritu, ex sacra
scriptura confitentium. They were exter
minated out of Poland in 1655 ; since which
time they have been chiefly sheltered in
Holland ; where, though their public meet
ings have been prohibited, they find means
to conceal themselves under the names of
Arminians and Anabaptists. — Stubbs' Mos
heim, iii. pp. 460, 462, 532; Bullinger's
Orig. Letters ; Parker's Soc. ii. p. 700.
SOFFIT (Fr. soffite, from Lat. sub-facere).
The under-surface of an arch. In the no
menclature of mouldings, the soffit-plane is
the plane at right angles with the face of
the wall, which is the direction of the soffit
in its simplest form.' Courses of mouldings
occupying the soffit-plane and the wall-
plane, to the exclusion of the chamfer-plane,
indicate Norman or Early EngUsh work. In
mathematics it is called the intrados, and
the top of the arch the extrados.

710

SOLEMN LEAGUE

SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVE
NANT (See Covenant).
SOLFIDIANS (Lat. Sola fides). Those
who rest on faith alone for salvation, with
out any connexion with works; or who
judge themselves to be Christ's because
they beUeve they are. — Bull, Harm. Apost.
Diss. Post. xvii. 5.
SOMPNOUR (Chaucer). A summoner ;
an officer employed to summon delinquents
to appear in ecclesiastical courts; now
called an apparitor.
SON OF GOD (See Jesus, Lord).
" The Son, which is the Word of the Father,
begotten from everlasting of the Father, the
very and eternal God, and of one substance
with the Father, took man's nature in the
womb of the Blessed Virgin, of her substance :
so that two whole and perfect natures, that is
to say, the Godhead and Manhood, were
joined together in one person, never to be
divided, whereof is one Christ, very God,
and very Man; Who truly suffered, was
crucified, dead and buried, to reconcUe His
Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only
for original guilt, but also for all actual sins
of men." — Article II. He is the true, proper,
and only Son of God ; begotten " from the
beginning ; " " before the foundation of the
world" (1 St. Pet. i. 20; 1 St. John i. 1) ;
as He " came down from heaven " (St. John
vi. 38), where He had " glory with the
Father," "before the world was" (St. John
xvii. 5) ; as He is himself called God, " one "
with the " Father" (St. John x. 30), being
of the same Divine essence communicated
to Him (St. Matt. xi. 27 ; St. John v. 26 :
xiii. 3 : xvi. 15 ; Rom. xiv. 9), and exer
cising a power above that of aU created
beings (Eph. i. 21 ; Heb. i. 2, 13 ; 1 St.
Pet. Ui. 22). By Him the world and "all
things were made " (St. John i. 3, 10 ; Col.
i. 16; Heb. i. 2, 10), "by Whom are all
things " (1 Cor. viii. 6), for "He is before
all things, and by Him all things consist "
(Col. i. 17). " All things are put in subjec
tion under His feet," and "nothing is left
that is not put under Him" (Heb. u. 8;
Ps. viii. 6 ; 1 Cor. xv. 27 ; Eph. i. 22). Of
the manner and nature of this generation
we are ignorant, and must not endeavour to
be wise above what is written. We find
our Lord declared by prophecy to be a " Son
begotten " (Ps. ii. 7), and acknowledged, by
inspiration, as "the only begotten Son"
(St. .John i. 14: iii. 16; 1 St. John iv. 9).
That He is " the image of the invisible God,
the first-born of (or before) every creature,
for by Him were aU things created " (Col. i.
15, 16) ; and Who thus " being in the form
of God," " the brightness of His glory, and
the express image of His person " (Heb. i.
3), was without " robbery equal to God "
(PhU. ii. 6). That He " is in the bosom

SORTES
of the Father ' (St. John i. 18), and is
" one " with Him (St. John x. 30). Many
similes were imagined by the ancients to
elucidate this : as the sun producing light
— a fountain its streams, &c; but these are
all mere figures of speech, and no real ex
planations of a mystery which we can only
speak of in the words revealed to us.
He was foretold in Scripture as " the Son
of God " (St. Luke i. 35), and acknowledged
on earth — by men inspired (St. Matt. xvi.
16 ; St. John i. 34 : xx. 31 ; Acts ix. 20) ;—
by devils (St. Matt. viii. 29 ; St. Mark Ui. 11 ;
St. Luke iv. 41) ; — and by the world (St.
Matt. xiv. 33 ; St. John i. 49 : xi. 27), as He
shall be in heaven (Rev. ii. 18). There
fore He addresses God as His " Father " (St.
Mark xiv. 36, &c), and claims to Himself
the title from men (St. John v. 18, 22-
25 : ix. 35 with 37,) though for this He was
accused, by the Jews, of blasphemy (St.
John x. 36 : xix. 7).
SONG (Sax. sing; Ger. sang). As
applied to sacred subjects, it is one of the
classes of vocal praise mentioned in Scrip
ture : according to the enumeration of the
apostle (Eph. v. 19), ijrdXpois, ko.1 vpvois,
Kal cp&ais rrvcvpaTiKais (Psalms, and hymns,
and spiritual songs, or odes). Wolfius, in
his note ,on Eph. v. 14, quotes an opinion
of Heumannus, in his Pcecile (ii. fib. iii.
frag. 390), that this verse of the apostle's,
" Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from
the dead, and Christ shaU give thee Ufe," is a
fragment of an ancient Christian hymn or
spiritual song : and remarks that there is a
netural rhythm in the original :
eyeipai 6 KaBeibav,
Kal dvda-Ta ex rStv veKpav,
Kal emqjava-ei a-oi 6 xptords.
Recent discoveries of early Christian
hymns in the Syriac may throw light on
this subject ; and here Dr. Burgess's trans
lation of the hymns of Ephrem Syrus
may be consulted with advantage. The
Evening Hymn of the first or second cen
tury, preserved by St. Basil, and given in
Routh's Reliquie Sacre, is an interesting
illustration of the ancient Christian songs.
The word song in the old Testament is
in the Hebrew Shir ~W. Many of the
Psalms are so denominated (See Smith's
Diet Bible). The word appears by com
parison of different passages of Seripture to
mean anything sung to instrumental music,
as these instruments are called in Scripture
instruments of Shir, i.e. accompanying
vocal music. See 2 Chron. v. 13 (See
Hymns). [H.]
SONGS OF DEGREES (See Degrees,
and Psalms).
SORTES. A method of divination
borrowed by some superstitious Christians

SOUTHCOTTIANS
from the heathen, and condemned by several
councils. The heathen, opening Homer, or
Virgil at hazard, took the first words they
found as indicating future events, and this
they called Sortes Homerice, or Sortes Virgi-
liane. The imitators of this custom used
the Bible in the same way, and called their
divinations Sortes Biblice (See Bath-Kol.).
SOUTHCOTTIANS. The deluded fol
lowers of one Johanna Southcot, a servant
girl at Exeter, who, towards the close of the
last century, gave herself out as the woman
in the wilderness, mentioned in the Apo
calypse, and declared that she held converse
with spirits, good and bad, and with the
Holy Ghost himself. She gave sealed papers,
which were called her "seals," to her fol
lowers, which were to protect them from all
evil of this life and the next. In 1814,
having fallen, from indulgence and want of
exercise, into a habit of body which gave her
the appearance of pregnancy, she announced
herself the mother of the approaching Shilob.
The influence she exercised was evidently
great, for being visited by Dr. Reece, a phy
sician of some eminence, she persuaded him
that she was indeed pregnant, though he was
convinced she was a virgin. She died, how
ever, and her body was opened, reveaUng the
real cause of her appearance ; but her death
and burial did not undeceive her followers,
though no resurrection of their leader has
yet taken place. — Reece's Correct Statement,
1815. SPANDRIL. The triangular portion of
wall between two arches, or an arch and the
adjoining wall ; or between the side of an
arch and the square panel in which it is set.
The latter is a remarkable feature in perpen
dicular doorways, being often richly orna
mented with figures, foliage, or heraldic
shields. SPIRE (Gk. oTreipa, anything wound,
twisted ; Lat. spira). A body that shoots
up to a point. In architecture, the high
pyramidal capping or roof of a tower. The
earliest spires still existing in England are
Early EngUsh ; and in this style, as well as
in the next, or Geometric, it is generally of
the form called a broach. In the Decorated,
the broach and the parapeted spire occur
indifferently ; in the Perpendicular, the lat
ter almost exclusively, though there is a
large portion of Leicestershire and North
amptonshire in which Perpendicular broaches
are not uncommon. Many of our loftiest
spires were formerly of timber covered with
lead : such was the spire of old St. Paul's
cathedral, the highest in the kingdom (527
feet) ; such is still the remarkable twisted
spire of Chesterfield. Several smaller spires
of this kind remain in the southern counties,
but the perishableness of the material has led
to the destruction of by far the greater num-

STALLS

711

ber of them. The spire of Salisbury cathe
dral is 404 feet high; St. Michael's, Co
ventry, 320 ; Norwich, 313 ; Louth, 294 ;
Chichester, 271. There are loftier spires on
the Continent, as Cologne, two of 510 feet ;
Strasburg, 463 ; Hamburg, 485 ; Vienna,
440 ; Reims and Amiens, 422 ; but our
proportions are on the whole much better
(See Church Architecture). [G.]
SPLAY. The slanting expansion inwards
of windows, for the wider diffusion of light.
This usually appears very great in Norman
windows, where the external aperture is
small; but the general rule both in that
and others is about 45° : never more open
than that, but sometimes less.
SPONSORS. In the administration of
baptism, these have from time immemorial
held a distinguished and important place.
Various titles have been given them indi
cative of the position they hold, and the
duties to which they are pledged. Thus
they are called sponsors, because in infant
baptism they respond or answer for the
baptized. They are sureties, in virtue of
the security given through them to the
Church, that the baptized shall be " vir
tuously brought up to lead a godly and a
Christian life." And from the spiritual
affinity here created, by which a responsi
bility almost parental is undertaken by the
sureties, in the future training of the bap
tized, the terms godfather and godmother
have taken their rise (See God-parents).
SQUINCH. Also absurdly called _ by
persons who like fine words, Pendentive;
which suggests an entirely wrong idea of it.
It is clearly related to squint, and means
almost any diagonal construction across a
corner, and chiefly a small arch thrown
across the angle of a square tower, to receive
one of the sides of an octagonal spire or
lantern. [G.]
SQUINT (See Hagioscope).
STALLS. In a cathedral or collegiate
church, and often in parish churches, cer
tain seats constructed for the clergy and
other members of the Church, and intended
for their exclusive use. These staUs are
placed in that portion of the building called
the choir, or the part in which Divine
service is usually performed.
In ancient times, aU members of the
cathedral, including lay clerks or vicars,
had their stalls : though the inferior mem
bers had not always fixed stalls appropri
ated to each individual. Unless when the
community was very small, there was an
upper and lower range of staUs, caUed the
prima et secunda forma (or gradus), the
upper appropriated to the canons or pre
bendaries (and sometimes the priest-vicars
or minor canons), the lower to the other
members. The designation of the re-

712

STANDING

spective dignitaries and canons were writ
ten on their stalls ; in some few instances,
thoSe of the minor canons or priest-vicars
also. They generally were , enclosed at the
back, and had highly decorated canopies
over them. The finest old ones remaining
are at Winchester and Norwich. At Can
terbury, Prior d'Estria's fine Decorated stone
screen, now glazed, takes the place of the
backs and canopies, but the stalls themselves
are destroyed. In many cathedrals they
have been well reproduced after destruc
tion. The same word is also used to signify the
preferment, which gives the person holding
it a seat, or stall, in a cathedral or collegiate
church. STANDING. The posture, from the
earliest times, at the reading of the gospel,
and during psalmody (Aug. Serm. 3, in Ps.
xxxvi.; see Gospel). It was the general
custom to stand in prayer on the Lord's
day, and the fifty days between Easter and
Pentecost. This may be traced as far back
as Iren®us, who derives it from apostolical
authority ; Tertullian and St. Cyprian both
speak of it, as also do later writers, such as
SS. Hilary, Jerome, Augustine, and Chry
sostom (Bingham, viii. xiii. 3). Sermons
also were in some places heard standing, as
appears from many passages in St. Augus
tine. Occasionally the Holy Eucharist was
received standing, and indeed this has been
claimed as the primitive custom ; " Stantes,
non ut hodie genibus flexis, accipiebant "
(Vales, in loc. ; see Bona, Rer. Liturg. lib. ii.
17). In the Church of England the rubrics
generally order, or custom allows, standing
in praise and song ; kneeling in prayer and
supplication ; sitting in listening. In
American churches the general thanks
giving is repeated by all the congregation
standing. [H.]
STATE PRAYERS. This name is given
to the special prayers issued by the Primate
of all England from time to time by royal
authority, and sometimes without it, to be
used in churches either on an appointed
feast or fast or for some considerable time ;
and also formerly on January 30, the exe
cution of Charles I. ; May 29, the restoration
of Charles II. and his escape from Cromwell's
soldiers in the oak ; November 5, Gun
powder Plot and the arrival of William
III. and the Sovereign's accession. These
were under no Acts of Parliament, but a
royal order for them was issued at the be
ginning of every reign. In 1859 another
order discontinued all but the Accession
service, as may be seen in Prayer Books,
and an Act was passed repealing the previous
Acts for observing the first three days as
holidays — quite different from the three
modern " bank holidays," under an Act of

STEPHEN'S, ST., DAY
very questionable benefit to working people,
as they generally both lose and spend from
one to three days' wages at each of them,
and many are forced to be idle who would
rather not. The Accession service has still
no statutable force, though it would doubt
less be held lawful under the common law
of the Church established by long usage.
It is not literally covered by the new rubric
of 1870, which gives absolute precedence to
the services of the four great Sunday feasts,
and leaves the conflict between other saints'
days with proper lessons and the usual
Sunday ones to " the discretion of the
minister." The ordinary has only power to
allow and not to order any alteration of the
regular lessons or psalms. There can be
no objection to reading the additional
prayers in that service, like any ordinary
"state prayers," whenever the Accession
day occurs on Sunday or any holyday. [G.]
STATIONS. The weekly fasts of Wed
nesday and Friday. I. Not long after
Justin Martyr's time, the Church observed
the custom of meeting solemnly for Divine
worship on Wednesdays and Fridays, which
days are commonly caUed the stationary
days, because they continued their assem
blies on those days to a great length, i.e. till
three o'clock in the afternoon : for which
reason they had also the name of semi-
jejunia, or half fasts, in opposition to the
Lent fasts, which were always held till
evening. — Bingham, bk. xiii. ix. 2. II.
Stations, in the Romish Church, denote
certam churches in which indulgences are
granted on certain days. The ceremony of
the clergy going out of the choir and singing
before the tomb of a martyr, or some " sta
tion " or object hallowed in their minds, has
also this name. III. In modern times the
word is used to imply devotions in front
of pictures or sculptures representing the
leading incidents of our Lord's Passion, and
placed at intervals in the church, and some
times in other places. These were greatly
promoted by Benedict XIV. (fifteenth cen
tury), and are, (1) the condemnation of our
Lord ; (2) bearing the cross ; (3) falling
under the cross ; (4) our Lord meeting the
Virgin ; (5) the Cy'renian bearing the cross;
(6) the Veronica wiping our Lord's face ;
(7) our Lord falling ; (8) consoles the
daughters of Jerusalem ; (9) falling again ;
(10) stripped; (11) crucified; (12) dies;
(13) taken down from the cross ; (14) laid
in the grave. These have been declared
Ulegal in the Church of England. [H.]
STEEPLE (Sax. stepel, stypel). The
tower of a church with all its appendages, if
any, as turret, octagon, and spire. It is often
incorrectly confounded with the spire.
STEPHEN'S, ST., DAY. A festival of
the Christian Church, observed on the 26th

STIPENDIARIES
of December, in honour of the proto-martyr,
St. Stephen.
STIPENDIARIES. Members of col
legiate choirs, who do not possess an inde
pendent estate, but are paid stipends.
STOLE, or ORARIUM (oroXn, i>pdpiov).
A tippet or narrow scarf. The Council of
Laodicea has two canons (22, 23) concern
ing the use of the orarium, which might be
used by presbyters and deacons but not by
the inferior orders. Other councils give
directions as to its use (Cone. Brae. i. c.
27 : iii. c. 3 ; Tolet. iv. 28, &c), and many
writers refer to it. The word " stole " did
not come in till later. The oroXn (lit. an
equipment) meant any dress, but in Latin
(stola) implied in the first instance the
dress of a Roman matron. How it came to
mean tbe vestment the word afterwards
was used for, is a matter of conjecture
(Durand. Rat. Div. Off. iii. 5 ; Marriott,
Vest. Christ, p. 215). It came to be a
narrow scarf with fringed extremities, that
crossed the breast to the girdle, and thence
descended in front on both sides as low as
the knees. The deacon wore it over the
left shoulder, and in the Latin Church
joined under the right arm, but in the
Greek Church with its two extremities, one
in front and the other hanging down his
back. The word dyios was sometimes thrice
embroidered on it instead of crosses. It is
one of the most ancient vestments used
by the Christian clergy, and in its mystical
signification represented the yoke of Christ.
Coloured stoles in the Church of England
have been pronounced by the Privy Council
to be iUegal, though black ones have not,
being supposed, perhaps, to represent the
"tippet of black" of thecanons, which Bishop
Grindal spoke of as stola ab utroque humero
pendula ad talos (See Tippet ; Vestments).
— Bingham, xiii. viii. 2 ; Palmer's Orig.
Liturg. ii. 316 ; Diet Christ. Antiq. ; Robert
son on the Liturgy. [H.]
STOUP (Sax. Stoppa). A basin to re
ceive holy water, often remaining in porches,
or in some other place near the entrance of
the church, and towards the right hand of a
person entering.
SUBCHANTER (See Succentor).
SUBDEACONS. An inferior order of
clergy in the early Christian Church, so
called from their being employed in sub
ordination to the deacons.
The first notice we have of this order in
any writers, is about the middle of the
third century, when Cyprian lived, who
speaks of subdeacons as settled in the
Church in his time. The author of tbe
" Constitutions '' refers them to an aposto
lical institution, and brings in St. Thomas
the apostle, giving directions to bishops for
their ordination. But in this he is singular,

SUCCENTOR

713

it being the general opinion that subdeacons
are merely of ecclesiastical institution.
Their office was to fit and prepare the
sacred vessels and utensils of the altar, and
deliver them to the deacons in the time of
Divine service ; but they were not allowed
to minister as deacons at the altar ; not even
so much as to come within the rails of it, to
set a paten or cup, or the oblations of the
people, thereon. Another of their offices was;
to attend the doors of the church during
the Communion Service. Besides which
offices in the church, they had another out of
the church, which was, to cany the bishop's
letters or messages to foreign Churches.
Their ordination was performed without im
position of hands ; and the ceremony con
sisted in their receiving an empty paten and
cup from the hands of the bishop, and an
ewer and towel from the archdeacon.
The office of subdeacon does not subsist
in tbe Church of England. It is, however,
mentioned in the statutes of Henry VIII.'s
foundations, and is considered to be identi
cal with Epistoler. The four subdeacons
at Hereford are lay clerks.
SUBDEAN. An officer in some cathe
drals, who assists the dean in maintaining
the discipline of the Church. In some cathe
drals of the old foundation he is a permanent
dignitary and canon residentiary ; in others
an ordinary canon ; at York a mere official,
though founded in 1228 ; in others, a minor
canon or vicar choral, and then his jurisdic
tion was merely over the inferior members
(See Vice Dean).
SUBINTRODUCT.E (See Aoapete).
SUBLAPSARIANS. Those who hold
that God permitted the first man to fall
into transgression without absolutely pre
determining his fall ; or that the decree of
predestination regards man as fallen, by
an abuse of that freedom which Adam had,
into a state in which all were to be left to
necessary and unavoidable ruin, who were
not exempted from it by predestination
(See Supralapsarians).
SUBSTANCE. In relation to the God
head, that which forms the Divine essence
or being — that in which the Divine attri
butes inhere. In tbe language of the
Church, and agreeably with holy writ,
Christ is said to be of the same substance
with the Father, being begotten, and there
fore partaking of the Divine essence; not
made, as was the opinion of some of tho
early heretics (See Homoousion, Person,
and Trinity).
SUCCENTOR. The precentor's deputy
in cathedral churches. Sometimes this
officer was a dignitary, as at York still, and
formerly at Glasgow, Aberdeen, Paris, &c. ;
and at York he is called Succentor Canoni-
corum, to distinguish him from the other

714

SUCCESSION

^subchanter, who is a vicar choral. In most
churches however the subchanter is a vicar
or minor canon, as at St. Paul's, Hereford,
Lichfield, St. Patrick's, Dublin, &c.
SUCCESSION, APOSTOLICAL, or
UNINTERRUPTED. The doctrine, or
a-ather the fact, of a regular and continued
transmission of ministerial authority in the
succession of bishops, from the apostles to any
isubsequent period (See Apostolic Succession).
SUFFRAGANS. The word properly
signifies all the provincial bishops who are
under a metropolitan, and they are called
his suffragans, because he has power to call
them to his provincial synods to give their
suffrages there.
The name is also used to denote a class
resembling the chorepiscopi, or country
bishops, of the ancient Church (See Chor-

In the very beginning of the Reforma
tion here, an Act passed, 26 Henry VIII.
c. 14, to restore this order of men under
the name of suffragan bishops. The pre
amble recites, that good laws had been
made for electing and consecrating arch
bishops and bishops, but no provision was
made for suffragans, which had been ac
customed here for the more speedy ad
ministration of the sacraments, and other
devout things, &c. ; therefore it was enacted
that the places following should be tbe sees
of bishops suffragans : Bedford, Berwick,
Bridgewater, Bristol, Cambridge, Colchester,
Dover, St. Germain, Guildford, Gloucester,
Grantham, Hull, Huntingdon, Isle of Wight,
Ipswich, Leicester, Marlborough, Moulton,
Nottingham, Penrith, Southampton, Shafts-
tiury, Shrewsbury, Taunton, Thetford. The
bishop of each diocese shall by petition
present two persons to the king, whereof he
shall allow one to be the suffragan, and
thereupon direct his mandate to the arch
bishop to consecrate him, which was to be
done after this manner : first it recites that
the bishop, having informed the king that
he wanted a suffragan, had therefore pre
sented two persons to him who were qualified
for that office, praying that the king would
nominate one of them ; thereupon he nomi
nated P. S., being one of the persons pre
sented, to be suffragan of the see of Ipswich,
requiring the archbishop to consecrate him.
The bishop thus consecrated was to have no
greater authority than what was limited to
him by commission from the bishop of the
diocese, and was to last no longer. This
Act was repealed by 1 & 2 Philip & Mary,
¦cap. 8; but revived by 1 Elizabeth, and
•during the reign of that sovereign we find
notices of suffragans at Dover and else
where. Bishop Gibson mentions Dr. Stean,
suffragan of Colchester about 1606, as among
the last of these suffragans.

SUNDAY
Suffragan bishops have been revived of
late. There are now suffragans, named
from various places in the Act of Henry
VIII., for the dioceses of Canterbury,
London, Lincoln, and St. Alban's. They
have no powers however, except such as are
given by commission from and during the
life and pleasure of the diocesan. And it
may happen that a new and able-bodied
bishop may have no use for the suffragan
who was appointed and commissioned to
assist his predecessor. They have no
salaries as such, but may also be incum
bents, canons or archdeacons. They are
quite different from coadjutor bishops, who
may be, but never have been, appointed
under the Bishops' Resignation Act, 1869,
and who have the right to succeed the
diocesan who ! has not resigned, but has
been duly certified to be incapacitated.
Suffragans have no such right, nor have
ever in fact been appointed to succeed any
diocesan. The only effect of the Act is
therefore to generate bishops who may be
commissioned as above, but no consent of
the Crown is requisite for commissioning ex-
colonial bishops here in just the same way,
which has in fact been done several times.
A bishop cannot lawfully be consecrated in
England without royal authority. [G.]
SUFFRAGE. A vote, token of assent
and approbation, or, as in pubUc worship,
the united voice and consent of the people
in the petitions offered.
The term is also used in the Prayer Book
to designate a short form of petition, as in
the Litany. Thus, in the Order for the
Consecration of Bishops, we read that in the
Litany as then used, after the words, " That
it may please thee to iUuminate all bishops,"
&c, tbe proper suffrage shall be, " That it
may please thee to bless this our brother
elected," &c. The versicles immediately
after the Creed, in Morning and Evening
Prayer, are also denominated suffrages, as in
the instance quoted by Johnson, " The
suffrages next after the Creed shall stand
thus. Common Prayer, Form qf Thanks
giving for May 29 " (See Versicle).
The Litany in " the Ordering of Deacons "
is headed tlie Litany and Suffrages. By
suffrages here seems to be meant the latter
part of the Litany, called the supplication
(See Wheatly in loc. and Supplications).
In some old choral books these are called
the second suffrages.
SUNDAY (See. Lord's Day). The
ancients retained the name Sunday, or Dies
Solis, in compliance with the ordinary forms
of speech ; the first day of the week being
so called by the Romans, because it was
dedicated to the worship of the sun. Thus
Justin Martyr, describing the worship of
the Christians, speaks of the day which is

SUPER- ALTAR
called that of the sun (Apol. i. 67). Ter
tullian also uses a similar term (Apol. xvi.,
ad Nation, i. 13).
Besides the most solemn parts of Christian
worship, which were always performed on
Sundays, this day was distinguished by a
peculiar reverence and respect expressed to
wards it in the observation of some special
laws and customs. The imperial (Christian)
laws forbad all proceedings at law on this
day, excepting such as were absolutely ne
cessary ; all secular and servile employments
also were superseded on this day, though
Constantine aUowed works of husbandry, as
earing and harvest, to be done on Sundays.
Sports or games of the lower sort might not
be foUowed on this day. There are two
famous laws of the two Emperors Theodosius
to this purpose, forbidding the exercises
of gladiators, stage-plays, and horse-races in
the circus, to be exhibited to the Christians.
And by the ecclesiastical laws diversions
of this kind were universally forbidden to
all Christians, on account of the extrava
gances and blasphemies that were committed
in them. But all such recreations and re
freshments as tended to preservation or con
veniency of the life of man were allowed on
the Lord's day. And therefore Sunday
was always a day of feasting, and it was
never allowable to fast thereon, not even in
Lent. In the Roman Breviary and other offices,
we meet with a distinction of Sundays into
those of the first and second class. Sundays
of the first class are, Palm Sunday, Easter
Day, Advent, Whitsunday, &c. Those of
the second class are the common Sundays
of the year. — Bingham, xx. ii. 2. In like
manner, by the Lectionary Act of 1870,
Advent, Easter, Trinity, and Whitsunday
are always to prevail over accidental holy-
days concurring therewith. For a complete
history of Sunday, and discussion of all the
questions connected with the observance of
it, see Archdeacon Hessey's Bampton Lec
tures, 1860. [H.]
SUPER-ALTAR. I. A small portable
slab, generally of costly material, formerly
used at certain times to consecrate upon,
being laid upon the mensa, or slab of stone
or wood forming the top of the Lord's Table
(See Mensa). It was probably in the first
place used when the altar itself was in a bad
condition, and was taken about, as it was
also called Altare viaticum, Altare portabile,
and Altare itinerarium. It is the super-
table of Cranmer.
II. It has been of late years taken to
mean a kind of step or shelf at the back
of a Communion Table ; which has been
decided to be illegal, whether actually upon
or very near the table. [H.]
SUPER-FRONTAL. I. Originally a de-

SUPEREROGATION

715

coration attached to the wall behind and
above the altar.
II. It now is taken to mean the decora
tive hanging which overlaps the frontal,
hanging over it for about six or eight inches.
SUPEREROGATION. The doctrine of
Supererogation was a perversion of that of
the communion of saints. It is this : — The
many members of one body being joined
together in one communion and fellow
ship, have sympathy in each other's joys
and sorrows, and the merit of good works
done by one member belongs, not to him,
but to the whole body. A certain amount
of good works must be offered up by the
Church before the Lord's second coming,
and the deficiencies of one may be made up
by the good works of another. It is easy to
see how this could be adopted as a means of
gaining power and authority. The many
saints who had been holy and blameless in
their lives, who had given up all for their
Lord, had fought and died for the Faith,
have done more than was required for
their own salvation. These constitute an
inexhaustible fund, on which the Pope has
the power of drawing at pleasure, for the
relief of the Church, by the application of
some portion of this superabundant merit,
to meet a deficiency in the spiritual worth
of any of its members. It was from this
that the idea of " indulgences " was taken,
which was the kindling spark to the Refor
mation. On this doctrine of the Church of Rome
our Church thus speaks in the fourteenth
Article: — "Voluntary works besides, over
and above God's commandments, which
they call works of supererogation, cannot be
taught without arrogancy and impiety ; for
by them men do declare that they do not
only render unto God as much as they are
bound to do, but that they do more for His
sake than of bounden duty is required ;
whereas Christ saith plainly, 'When ye
have done aU that are commanded to you,
say, We are unprofitable servants.' "
The works here mentioned are called in
the Romish Church likewise by the name
of " counsels," and " evangelical perfections."
They are defined by their writers to be
" good works, not commanded by Christ,
but recommended ; " rules which do not
oblige all men to follow them, under the
pain of sin; but yet are useful to carry them
on to a sublimer degree of perfection than is
necessary in order to their salvation. But
there are no such counsels of perfection in
the gospel, and the whole theory is subver
sive of that humUity which is the sign of a
true Christian, and leads him as a sinner to
Christ, confessing his sins, not as a saint
boasting his goodness. — Beveridge on Tliirty-
ninth Art. ; Bishop Harold Browne, ibid.

716

SUPPLICATIONS

SUPPLICATIONS (Lat. supplicatio ;
sub and plico). A humble entreaty. Thus
used in the prayer of St. Chrysostom, " our
common supplications."
In the Litany the petitions or supplica
tions begin with the words, " We sinners do
beseech Thee to hear us " (Blunt's Annot.
P. B. i. 53), but properly perhaps the suppli
cations are the two offered just before the
versicles and prayers, 33 and 34, one for
material blessings, and the other for spiritual
(E. Daniel's P. B. 163). According to
Wheatly, however, the part following the
Lord's Prayer is called the Supplications,
"which were first collected and put into
this form, when the barbarous nations first
began to overrun the empire about six
hundred years after Christ ; but, considering
the troubles of the Church militant, and the
many enemies it always hath in this world,
this part of the Litany is no less suitable
than the former at all times whatsoever." —
Wheatly (See Litany and Suffrage). In
many choirs, and at the universities, this
latter part of the Litany is performed by a
different minister from the former: in ap
parent compliance with the rubric, which
before the Lord's Prayer directs that the
Priest shall say it. And when the Litany
is sung to the organ, it is often the custom
to sing the responses in the supplications
without that accompaniment. [H.]
SUPBALAPSARIANS. A sect of Cal
vinists. The way in which they under
stood tbe Divine decrees has produced two
distinctions of Calvinists, viz. Sublapsarians
and Supralapsarians. The former term is
derived from two Latin words, sub, below or
after, and lapsus, the fall; and the latter
from supra, above, and lapsus. The Sub
lapsarians assert that God had only per
mitted the first man to fall into trans
gression, without absolutely predetermining
his fall ; their system of decrees concerning
election and reprobation being, as it were,
subsequent to that event. On tbe other
hand, the Supralapsarians maintained that
God had, from all eternity, decreed the
transgression of man. The Supralapsarian
and Sublapsarian schemes agree in asserting
the doctrine of predestination, but with this
difference — that the former supposes that
God intended to glorify His justice in the
condemnation of some, as well as His mercy
in the salvation of others ; and for that
purpose decreed that Adam should neces
sarily fall, and by that fall bring himself
and all his offspring into a state of ever
lasting condemnation. The latter scheme
supposes that the decree of predestination
regards man as fallen by an abuse of that
freedom which Adam had, into a state in
which all were to be left to necessary and
unavoidable ruin, who were not exempted

SUPREMACY
from it by predestination. — Stubbs' Mos
heim, iii. 354.
SUPREMACY OF THE CROWN means,
and always has meant, the ultimate juris
diction or coercive power (without which,
Sir Matthew Hale said, jurisdiction has no
meaning) of the Crown or the State in
Parliament and the courts of law, whether
the king's temporal law or "the king's
ecclesiastical law," over the clergy. The
king or the State has at one time or another
given to the ecclesiastical courts, and in
some cases to the bishops personally, what
ever coercive power they have, or ever had
legally. In old times the royal supremacy
had chiefly to be asserted, and was asserted
by continual Acts of Parliament, against
the Pope as a continual aggressor, and
occasionally against bishops and convoca
tions ; but as they were practically subject
to the Pope until the Reformation, and his
struggle for supremacy either lasted or was
feared till long afterwards — in fact, so long
as there was a Popish pretender to the
crown, the oaths of supremacy were main
tained in the original form of denying that
any foreign prince or potentate has any
authority here, which has now been dropped,
and a simple oath of allegiance estabUshed,
of which the final form, for the present, is
that given by the Promissory Oaths Act,
1868, altering the Clerical Subscription Act,
1865 : " I do swear that I will be faithful
and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty
Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors
according to law, so help me God." There
are slightly varied forms for the "judicial
and official oaths," and all others are abol
ished, and nobody is required to take any
except under the Clerical Subscription Act
and this Act. It is not worth while to go
through the various forms prescribed from
time to time previously.
Another fact is that the Church of England
has never had any means of speaking or
legislating for itself as a whole except
through Parliament, simply because it was
never considered as anything but the whole
nation. For a long time persons who
dissented from the national religious doc
trines were not " tolerated," as the saying
is; and for long after they were tolerated,
the national religion of the State was not
affected thereby, especially as they were
excluded from Parliament by tests. There
fore when it is called an anomaly or an
usurpation that the State should legislate
for the Church, it has only become so since
the legislature has ceased to be identical
with the Church. Clergymen were only
legislated out of tbe House of Commons in
1780, and the bishops have always been
an estate of the realm, as "the Lords
Spiritual." And as we are now considering

SUPREMACY
the matter historically, it is not so much
the case that the State, which can only
speak through Parliament, was supreme
over the Church, as that it was the Church
in Parliament, which was the only legis
lature that the Church as a whole ever had.
The two convocations never were its legis
lature. Indeed, the fact that tbey are not
national bodies, but provincial, would be
decisive on that, if it had not been decided
over and over again that they have no
jurisdiction except over the clergy, so far as
the whole Church, i.e. the State, has from
time to time allowed, and from time to time
enacted, overruling a multitude of canons.
Undoubtedly it is a great anomaly — but
much easier to confess than to cure — that
the only effective legislature of the Church
of England may now comprise any number
of persons who are hostile to it ; but that
has nothing to do with the legal history
of the Supremacy, and it certainly never
will be cured by constituting the clergy
the legislature of the Church, or giving
them any supremacy therein. Returning
to the history of it, which has been much
discussed of late, especially in and in
connexion with the report of the Commis
sion on Ecclesiastical Courts in 1883, we
are not aware that the separate report of
Lord Penzance, the Dean of Arches, on the
legal history of the Supremacy has been
questioned or contradicted by the much
more prolix one of two non-legal members
of the Commission. Without quoting the
whole of Lord Penzance's history, it is in
substance this : " Until the Conquest, what
ever ecclesiastical jurisdiction was exercised
through the medium of a court as distinct
from the personal power and control of the
bishops, was exercised in the temporal
courts of the country, the bishop sitting by
the side of the temporal judges " (which has
also been kept up in eveiy one of the four
Acts of Uniformity, though practicaUy dis
used). " This is stated by all historians of
repute. The existing ecclesiastical courts
first existed by and under a charter of
WilHam the Conqueror, which professes to
be iiiade communi concilio Of the bishops and
abbots et omnium principum regni mei . . .
It was the king therefore who created, as the
charter says, regni auctoritate, a separate
set of tribunals for the treatment of ecclesi
astical law and the practical exercise of
purely spiritual jurisdiction ... It appears
to me that what the sovereign, with the
advice of his council in Parliament, set up
and created, the sovereign, with the advice
of Parliament, may alter and amend. And
as a matter of fact and history, the sove
reign, with the advice of Parliament, has
never hesitated to do so . . . and by that
authority alone."

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717

Not a single instance could be found by
that Commission, or its witnesses, of any
convocation or other clerical body being-
consulted or allowed to interfere in any
legislation about ecclesiastical courts, though
they generally were about the Prayer Book
and Articles (See Clergy).
" There is no doubt that before the Con
quest the bishops did exercise authority
and control over both clergy and laity ; but
that was a judicial authority inherent in
the person of the bishop rather than the
court, and might be exercised in synod, in
visitation, in camera or in itinere. But the
erection of constituted courts with a coer
cive jurisdiction, to be enforced if need be
by the civil power, was a different matter.
It could only be done regia auctoritate
with the advice of Parliament. The older
law books are not silent on this subject ; "
and then he quotes several of the highest
authority to the same effect as his own
statements ; and proceeds, " I come there
fore to the conclusion that there is r.o
warrant to be found in the history of this
country for the proposition that there have
existed at any time since the Conquest, or
indeed before it, spiritual courts deriving
their original authority from the Church
independent of the sovereign or the state."
AU this has since received a remarkable
confirmation and extension from a MS.
treatise of Sir Matthew Hale's in Lincoln's
Inn Library, which was published in the
Record of 28th November, 1884. It is
much too long to copy here, and difficult to
do justice to by short extracts. Probably
no civil judge has ever combined such a
knowledge of law and divinity or ecclesio-
logy as that great Lord Chief Justice ; and
his treatise is enriched with a multitude
of references, showing that he was not
writing mere opinions or recollections of his
own. We must be content with giving
these principal conclusions, adding only one
other : —
" That the true foundation of most if
not all the power ecclesiastical was in the
civil magistrate.
"The consequence is that an Act of
Parliament may take away from the clergy,
or abridge or alter that jurisdiction ecclesi
astical (which he said they had gradually
usurped) and re-annex it to the Crown ;
because it was, even in its greatest height,
only a subordinate derivative power." He
then points out the effect of some of the
Reformation statutes, about which there
can be no doubt, but the treatise ends
abruptly. The Act 1 Eliz. c. 1, again restored the
royal supremacy after Mary, and estabUshed
the oath of supremacy acknowledging " the
Queen (s. 9) as supreme governor of this

718

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realm and all her dominions as well in all
spiritual or ecclesiastical things or Causes
as temporal, and that no foreign prince or
potentate shall use, enjoy or exercise any
jurisdiction," &c. It also authorised her to
create the High Commission Court for
ecclesiastical causes with coercive jurisdic
tion in itself, i.e. without " signifying con
tempts to the Queen in Chancery ; " which
was abolished by 16 Car. I. c. 11, and il
legally set up again by James II. and de
clared illegal by 1 W. &M. sess. 2, cap. 2.
In like manner the 37th Article, which
every incumbent has to read openly and
declare his assent to, and all clergy
men are bound by, says that " the Queen's
majesty hath the chief power in this
realm of England and other her domi
nions; unto whom the chief government
of all estates of this realm whether ec
clesiastical or civil in all causes doth
appertain . . . but that prerogative which we
see to have been given to all godly princes
in the Holy Scriptures by God himself is
that they should rule all estates and degrees
committed to their charge by God whether
ecclesiastical or temporal, and restrain with
the civil sword the stubborn and evil doers."
The 3rd and 26th canons are to the same
effect. The clergy do not promise obedience
to the canons as they do to the articles.
Yet it is material to notice the assent of the
Convocations by canon 3 to the proposition
that jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes had
been " restored to the Crown " by the Re
formation statutes, and specially the one
which made the supreme court to consist of
delegates appointed by the Crown from time
to time (See Delegates).
The only attempt that was ever openly
made by the clergy to deny or qualify the
royal supremacy over them was the tempo
rary and short-lived one, just a year before
their celebrated submission, viz. in May 1531,
when in granting money to Henry VIII.
they called him ecciesie et cleri Anglicani
supremum dominum, et, quantum per Christi
legem licet, etiam supremum caput; on
which it must be observed, 1. that the
qualification, whatever it was worth, was
only of the word " caput " and not of
" dominus ecciesie et cleri," which are very
different things ; 2. that it was of no con
sequence to the king whether such a
qualification was introduced or not in a mere
grant of money ; 3. that nothing of the
kind appears in the reaUy important
document, the Submission of the4 clergy
by the two convocations in May 1532,
by which they promised in verbo sacerdotii
to make no more canons without royal
authority and assent, and agreed that all the
existing ones should be revised by a royal
commission of which half the members

SUPREMACY
were to be laymen ; which they did to avoid
the prasmunire with which they were
threatened for having done so before; 4,
that the Act of Parliament, called the Act of
Submission, of the following year, recited
that the king was the supreme head of the
Church of England, and so is recognised hy
the clergy in their convocations, as he had.
been. Even if the above qualification had
been allowed, it had nothing to do with the
jurisdiction of any court, as the unqualified
" dominus ecciesie et cleri " had ; 5. the Act
contained other clauses besides those about
the canons, viz. those establishing the
delegates for ecclesiastical appeals, which
the convocations did not attempt to meddle
with, as they never did with any other
legislation of that kind. The Ecc. Rep.
p. xxx. adds that before the Act of Supre
macy in 1534, " the king had also exacted
from the clergy individuaUy," i. e. they
had all thought proper to give, " a recogni
tion of the supremacy in which the words
" so far as is aUowed by the law of Chris
tianity " were omitted, and then the Act en
acts it expressly, and its title is " An Act
concerning the King's Highness to be
supreme head of the Church of England, and
to have authority to reform and redress aU
errors, heresies, and abuses in the same."
That vague title of " supreme head " was
given up by Elizabeth in favour of " the
only supreme governor in all spiritual or
ecclesiastical things or causes as well as
temporal ; " and therefore the dispute about
the qualifying words of the convocation
subsidy in 1531 is really all about nothing;
for on one hand they were never agreed to
by the king, and the clergy were obliged to
abandon them collectively and individually
afterwards, and the title was later stUl given
up for a better by Elizabeth and her Parlia
ment, and would have meant whatever
anybody chose to mean by it, whereas the
other words " dominus " and " supreme
governor " are unmistakable on the question
of supremacy of the king's courts, and the
never-disputed right of ParUament to alter
them or set up new ones, which is an
entirely different thing from professing to
alter the doctrines of the Church. In this
respect all the sects are on the same footing
as the Church. They have all at some time
or other settled their own standards of faith,
by trust deeds or other documents ; and it
has been decided over and over again that if
one of their ministers preaches or acts
contrary to their standard of faith the
courts of law wiU eject him from his office
and chapel, if applied to ; and they might.
on the same day deprive one minister for
preaching Unitarianism in certain chapels,
and another minister for preaching against
it in others. And that would be the

SUPREMACY
condition of the clergy if the Church were
disestablished and the ecclesiastical courts
abolished. Practically now clerical and
dissenting complaints of that kind are heard
in the last resort by substantially the same
judges, and at any rate by the same class of
judges, as may be seen by reference to
Judicial Committee.
It may be observed too that, whether the
convocations in the time of Henry VIII.
were consulted or not (and they were not),
and assented or not either tacitly or other
wise to the establishment of the royal
delegates instead of the Pope as the final
court of appeal, the clergy cannot possibly
have been prejudiced by the limitation of
the delegates in 1833, who might up to
that time be packed for any given case, the
Crown being unrestricted in selecting them
pro hoc vice, to a fixed court of the highest
and most experienced judges. If the change
had been the other way the clergy might
well have complained that Parliament was
depriving them of known judges and of such
a court, and giving to some unknown Crown
official the power of summoning a packed
jury of anybody that he pleased. No
minister of the Crown now directs who
shall be summoned to sit on any case. For
a time it was otherwise, and that was very
reasonably objected to and stopped, and the
judges arrange it among themselves, every
one of them being at liberty to sit if he
likes. It was considered doubtful in the Ec
clesiastical Courts Commission how far the
bishops themselves had retained liberty to
sit in their own diocesan courts instead of
their official principals or chancellors. In
some dioceses there were records of the
bishops sitting themselves occasionally, but
in very few ; nor does it seem of much
consequence, because they were both equally
subject to appeal to the metropolitan court
in which no archbishop has ever sat as
judge. And the same power, viz. the
State, which gave the bishops their coercive
jurisdiction, originally took it away in all
the most important cases by the Clergy
Discipline Act of 1840 ; only giving them
instead a modified kind of jurisdiction with
assessors, which soon became practically
obsolete for reasons not necessary to explain
here. The usurpation by the Crown of the
power of approving, and therefore dis
approving, the appointment by the two
primates of their official principal or joint
Dean of Arches and judge of the Chancery
Court of York (who is not the chanceUor)
under the Public Worship Regulation Act,
was strangely allowed to pass without notice.
It appears doubtful whether it was perceived
by those whom it chiefly concerned, from

SUPREMACY

719<

some questions put in the Ecc. Courts Com
mission (see p. 263, Ev.). Nobody gave any
real objection to the archbishops being re
quired to appoint the same judge, and there-
are some obvious advantages in it; and if
they ever could not agree, which is unlikely,
it might be necessary for the Crown to act
as arbiter, but not to take their place ;
but certainly no more. It is by no means
impossible that the principal ecclesiastical
judge of all England may some day be a>
person whom it is an insult to the Church,
and to any Church or sect, to appoint-
Indeed there is absolutely nothing now to-
prevent an atheistical Prime Minister from
appointing an atheistic Dean of Arches,
and representative of both archbishops, if
he chooses to say he is a member of the-
Church of England, which nobody could
disprove ; for there is no test, and such a
man could still less be proved to belong to any
other Church or sect. Such is ecclesiastical
legislation nowadays, in an Act brought in
and carried ostentatiously by bishops and
strong Churchmen (See Ecclesiastical
Courts). [G]
SUPREMACY, PAPAL. The authority
claimed by the Bishop of Rome by virtue
of his supposed succession to the preroga
tives of St. Peter. This authority is of
three kinds, viz.: 1. the purely ecclesiastical,
whereby the Pope claims to be supreme-
governor of the Church ; 2. temporal domi
nion, whereby he claims to rule a portion
of Italy ; and 3. the universal sovereignty
which he claims over all the nations of the
world in civil as well as in ecclesiastical
affairs. This authority was gradually
claimed from the fifth century onwards,,
each claim that was admitted forming the
basis of a new and more extravagant one.
At last the supremacy was claimed in the
widest terms by Pope Boniface VIII. in the
famous Bull called "Unam Sanctam," issued
Nov. 18, 1302, in which the following pas
sages occur : "Therefore both the spiritual
and material sword are in the power of the
Church ; but the latter is to be exercised
on behalf of the former by the Church ; the
former by the hand of the priest, the latter
by that of kings and soldiers, but at the-
bidding and by the sufferance of the priest.
But as sword should be under sword, so
should the temporal authority be subordi
nated to the spiritual . . . Moreover we
declare, assert, define and pronounce that
it is altogether necessary to salvation that
every human creature should be subject to
the Roman Pontiff." This Bull is still part
of the law of the Church of Rome ; and in
the Creed of Pope Pius IV. (a.d. 1564), to
which every convert to Romanism has to
subscribe, the following sentence occurs : —
" I recognise the holy Catholic and Apostolic-

720

SUPREMACY

Roman Church as the mother and mistress
of aR Churches ; and I promise and vow
true obedience to the Roman Pontiff, the
successor of blessed Peter the prince of the
Apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ."
Before sketching the means by which
the vast fabric of Papal Supremacy was
built up, it will be well to examine shortly
the theory of the primacy of St. Peter,
upon which the whole claim rests. It is
worthy of note that this theory does not
appear in the earliest ages of the Church,
but was put forward when it was found that
history and reason were not on the side of
the Papal claims. It cannot be too clearly
understood that these claims are now rested
solely on the supposed fact of St. Peter's
supremacy, and that if that fact turns out
to be groundless the whole fabric must fall.
This theory involves three suppositions;
first, that supremacy over the Church was
committed to St. Peter ; secondly, that that
apostle was bishop of Rome; and thirdly,
that his powers, whatever they were, extend
to his successors in that see. Now of these
suppositions the first is extremely doubtful,
resting as it does upon two passages, viz.
St. Matthew xvi. 18, 19, and St. John xxi.
15-17. But in the first of these passages it
is by no means certain whether " the rock "
referred to is St. Peter, the expression
having been variously interpreted of the
whole body of the apostles and of our Lord
Himself. But even assuming "the rock"
to be St. Peter, the verse gives no hint of
supremacy. A more likely interpretation is
that the zeal of St. Peter was a foundation
on which the Church would be buUt — a
view fully borne out by subsequent events.
In the second passage, " Feed my sheep "
conveys no hint of such a supremacy as the
Pope claims, even taking into consideration
the fact that irotpaive carries with it a
sense of ruling which the English " feed "
does not. It is also said that the prominence
always given to St. Peter's name by the
sacred writers proves that he was considered
the leader of the apostles. It doubtless
does point to a primacy of honour or prece
dence, which may have been given to him
because he was the eldest, or for some other
reason. In so far as any one had the presi
dency of the Apostolic College, it was St.
James, the Lord's brother, not St. Peter,
who held that office. The second suppo
sition, that St. Peter was bishop of Rome, is
almost certainly false. His having held
such a position would have been inconsistent
with the position of St. Paul at Rome, and
with the omission of St. Peter's name from
the salutations in Rom. xvi. It is far more
likely that St. Peter was bishop of Antioch,
in which case, on the Romanist theory, the
patriarch of that city ought to be the

SUPREMACY
sovereign of the Church. But in point of
fact, it is not likely that local diocesan
episcopacy was established at all during the
Apostolic age. Since neither of the first
two suppositions which the Petrine claim
involves can be established, the third — that
St. Peter's powers extended to his sucpessors
— clearly falls to the ground. Nor is there
the smallest evidence in Scripture or else
where that any pre-eminence which may
have been allowed to St. Peter was intended
to extend beyond himself.
Though the theory of St. Peter's supre
macy has been for centuries the avowed
basis of the Papal claims, the power of the
Popes was really built on a very different
foundationi. The growth of that power —
one of the most interesting facts in human
history — will now be briefly traced, under
the three heads before referred to.
I. The ecclesiastical sovereignty of the
Pope is due to a variety of causes. Fore
most amongst these is the civil position of
Rome during the first three centuries of our
era. It was the regular practice of the
Church to establish metropolitan sees in the
civil metropolis of each district (see Metro
politan), and Rome was thus not only a
metropolitan, but the metropolitan see of
the world. A certain primacy of honour
was therefore accorded to its bishop, and
this was ratified by two, at least, of the
great General Councils (Cone. Constant.
can. iii. ; Cone. Chalced. can. xxviii.).
Another cause of the respect in which Rome
was held in primitive times was the un
swerving orthodoxy of her Church: while
the East was eaten up by Arianism and
every other form of heresy, Rome remained
firm in the orthodox faith. These two causes
combined to render the Roman Church, and
therefore the Roman bishop, an important
factor in early Christendom. But still there
was no authority conceded to the bishop of
Rome beyond that possessed by other pri
mates. The first step in the direction of
Papal Supremacy was taken by the Council
of Sardica (a.d. 347). The third, fourth,
and fifth canons of that council provide that
if any bishop, deposed by the judgment of
his comprovincial bishops, shall appeal to
Rome, the bishop of Rome may, if he thinks
fit, remit the cause for a new hearing, or
appoint delegates to hear it. Now it is to
be observed, first, that the canons of this
Council of Sardica are of doubtful authenti
city, and were never acknowledged in the
East; secondly, that the "placet" with
which canons usually conclude is wanting
to two of them ; and that, thirdly, assuming
their genuineness and authority, they in no
way sanction the extravagant pretensions of
the Pope. It afterwards suited the Pope to
claim these canons as canons of the great

SUPREMACY
Council of NicMa, and also greatly to ex-
1 aggerate the powers which they gave to him.
During the pontificate of Leo I. (P. 440-
455) the Emperor Valentinian III. confirmed
the appealed jurisdiction of the bishop of
Rome. The fall of the Western Empire (a.d. 476)
and the consequent nominal subjection of
Rome io Constantinople was another element
in the growth of the Pope's ecclesiastical
supremacy. He retained all the prestige
derived from the majesty of the Roman
name, while he was set free from the con
stant check afforded by imperial supervision
and control. During the fifth and sixth
centuries the Papal power was silently but
surely growing. It is to this period that
we must ascribe the foundation of three
great pillars of Papal authority — the
Decretals, the institution of Papal legates,
and the grant of the pallium to metro
politans. (i.) Papal decrees had their origin during
the pontificate of Siricius (a.d. 385-398).
The archbishop of Arragon had asked the
advice of Damasus, Siricius' immediate pre
decessor. Siricius, who sent the answer
after Damasus' death, referred to the
"Decreta" of Liberius (P. 352-356). The
same Pope sent decrees of his own to the
African Church, and somewhat later,
Innocent I. wrote a letter to the bishop of
Gubbio,in which he declared that all Western
Churches must follow the rule of Rome.
From this time onwards Papal decrees were
a recognised part of the law of Christendom.
There was air authorised collection of them
hy Dionysius, to which was added that of
the authentic councils, under the name of
Isidore of Seville. But after the lapse of
five centuries, during the pontificate of
Nicholas I. (P. 858-867) a new collection
made its appearance, purporting to consist
of the decrees of the twenty oldest Popes,
and the acts of several unauthentic councils.
This collection is now universally acknow
ledged to have been forged. Nicholas I. for
his own purposes admitted the genuineness
of the Decretals, which thenceforward were
a recognised part of the law of the Church.
These Decretals not only supplied precedents
for Papal action, but, by their very ex
istence, proclaimed the Pope the supreme
legislative, as well as administrative,
authority. They were ultimately codified
and promulgated anew by Gregory IX.
(P. 1227-1241) as the statute law of Chris
tendom. (ii.) Vicars apostolic were first appointed
by Pope Damasus (a.d. 380) when Illyria
was ceded to the jurisdiction of the West
ern Empire. Pope Leo I. sent legates to
the Council of Chalcedon (a.d. 451) who
took precedence of all other bishops. Until

SUPREMACY

721

the tenth century special legates called
legates " a latere " were sent only on great
occasions. The legatine commission was as a
rule entrusted to some great metropolitan
of the nation in which it was exercised ;
thus the archbishop of Canterbury was
perpetual legate in England and was thence
called " legatus natus." But after the
tenth century the legate " a latere " became
a more frequent visitor, and was generally
very unpopular, as he lived at the expense
of the bishops of the province, of whom he
took precedence, although he might be, and
not unfrequently was, only in deacon's
orders. It is clear that the legatine system,
in both its forms, was highly favourable to
the development of Papal power.
(iii.) One very great barrier to the advance
of Papal authority was the power wielded
by metropolitans (vid. Metropolitan). These
great prelates often offered an effectual re
sistance to Papal interference. In order to
rivet the Papal authority on the necks of
metropolitans, the Popes devised the plan
of granting the pallium to these prelates.
This was a vestment resembling a modern
stole, but hanging down both behind and
before. It was originally conferred by the
emperors on the patriarchs about the end of
the fourth century. About a.d. 500, Pope
Symmachus gave it to his legate Csesarius
of Aries. After this time, it was given
occasionally, as a matter of high favour, to
vicars apostolic. In a.d. 743 Pope Zacharias
conferred it on all the metropolitans of
Gaul. But they were obliged to solicit
earnestly for it, and, for a long time, it was
never conferred except upon those metro
politans who went to Rome to ask for it,
and promised to obey the Pope. Gregory
VII. forbad metropolitans to ordain until
they had received the pallium, and some of
his successors made it a means of raising
money. These three causes, all originating about
the fifth century, contributed to increase
the power of the Popes. This power was
also materially helped in later times by the
monastic system. That system had indeed
grown up independently of the Papacy;
but, as Milman says, "monasticism as
cended the Papal throne in the person of
Gregory the Great" (a.d. 590-604). In the
monastic orders the Popes saw an organ
ization which they might turn to their
own advantage. For a long time (until
about the twelfth century), monks, like
other clergy, were under the control of their
bishop. But about that time the Pope
exempted them from episcopal Supervision,
and made them subject to himself alone.
In the thirteenth century, the mendicant
orders arose, and formed a vast spiritual
police, independent of, and sometimes hostile
o a

722

SUPREMACY

to, the parochial clergy, and acknowledging
the Pope as its head.
II. The temporal power of the Pope
belongs rather to political than to ecclesi
astical history ; but as it has had a consider
able share in determining the Pope's ecclesi
astical position, it is not irrelevant briefly to
sketch its growth.
In the earliest ages the bishop of Rome
had no more temporal power than was pos
sessed by any other bishop. But after the
fall of the Western Empire, he was naturally
looked to as the defender of Italy against
the barbarian invaders. While nominally
subject to the Emperor at Constantinople —
whose authority was explicitly recognised
by more than one Pope — the real power
exercised by that monarch in Italy was
small. During the sixth century, the
conquests of Belisarius restored Italy to
Justinian, the Gothic monarchy was over
thrown, and an exarch ruled at Ravenna in
the name of the Eastern Emperor. He for
a short time ruled the whole of Italy, but
the conquest of the Lombards soon set
limits to his dominions, which were finally
restricted to the territory afterwards known
as the " Patrimony of St. Peter," and in
more modern times as the " States of the
Church." This exarchate continued for
two centuries, subject to the Emperor at
Constantinople : but tbe advancing power
of Mohammedanism rendered it increasingly
difficult for that prince to govern or defend his
distant dependency. Things were therefore
ripe for a separation, when the pretext was
supplied by the opposition offered by Leo
the Isaurian (Emp. 717-741) to the worship
of images. This caused Pope Gregory II.
(a.d. 715-731) to throw off for ever the yoke
of Constantinople. His policy was continued
by his successor, Gregory III. (a.d. 731-741),
and under these two Popes the Republic of
Rome was revived. This is the real date of
the foundation of the temporal power of the
Pope. The so-called "Donation of Con
stantine," by which the patrimony of St.
Peter was granted to the bishop of Rome,
is a forgery of later times.
The Popes, however, soon found that they
had exchanged a distant master for one at
their gates. The power of the Lombards was
a standing menace to their newly-founded
state. Under these circumstances they found
it necessary to invoke the aid of the Franks.
Charles Martel, the deliverer of Christendom
from the Saracens, was unable to help
Gregory III. But his son, Pepin, made
two expeditions into Italy, chastised the
Lombards, and secured Rome, at the request
of Pope Stephen III. (a.d. 753-757). Pope
Zacharias(A.D. 741-752) had already paid for
the material assistance of the Franks by his
decision in favour of the transference of the

SUPREMACY
kingly title from the feeble Childeric in.
to the famous founder of the Carlovingian
House. As Gibbon well observes, "The
mutual obligations of the Popes and the
Carlovingian famUy form the important link
of ancient and modern, of civil and ecclesi
astical history." Charlemagne, Pepin's still
more famous son, conquered the Lombards
in a.d. 774, and confirmed the donation of
his father to the Holy See. The title of
Patrician of Rome was conferred on Charle
magne, and for twenty-six years he governed
Italy. During this time the revolt from
the Eastern Empire was consummated.
But on Christmas Day, a.d. 800, when
Charlemagne was in Rome, he was suddenly
crowned as Emperor by Pope Leo III. In
the minds of all the actors this transaction
was more than the revival of the Western
Empire, which had been in abeyance for
more than four centuries. It was the
transference of the imperial power from
Constantinople to Rome, and from the
person of the Empress Irene to Charlemagne.
This transference was effected by Papal
authority, and it is easy to see the enormous
value of the transaction to the Pope. It
gave, colour to all his subsequent claims to
the disposal of the thrones of the world.
For more than four centuries and a half the
Holy Roman Empire was the greatest power
of the Western World. The election to
that empire was, indeed, from the time of
Otho I. (a.d. 963) vested in certain German
princes, but the authority of the Emperor
depended upon his coronation by the Pope.
This gave the Pope ample opportunity for
interfering in the affairs of Europe, and this
temporal power, in its turn, enabled him to
augment his ecclesiastical authority.
III. This brings us to the third sort of
supremacy claimed by the Pope, viz.,
supremacy over the princes of the world.
The idea of this supremacy was first
broached by Gelasius I. (a.d. 492), who,
two years before, had recognised the Em
peror Anastasius as his sovereign, and had
said that the ecclesiastical and civU powers
ought not to interfere with each other. A
similar acknowledgment was made a century
later by Gregory I. The deposition of
ChUderic III. by Zacharias has been men
tioned, but in it the Pope seems only to
have acted when requested to arbitrate.
The right to dispose of temporal sove
reignties was claimed by Nicholas II. (a.d.
1059), when he confirmed the Duke of
Sicily in his dominions, and received his
oath of fealty. A few years earlier (a.d.
1054) Leo IX. had asserted the indepen
dence of the Pope of any earthly power. It
is worth noticing that, just ninety years
before, Leo VIII., a creature of the Emperor
Otho I., had for ever vested the right of

SUPREMACY
approving the Pope in the Emperor. It is
for Romanists to decide which of these
Pontiffs was infallible. Gregory VII. claimed
the right of deposing the Emperor on his
own sole authority, a right which he himself
exercised in the famous case of Henry IV.
(a.d. 1075). From this time onwards these
depositions were not infrequent, among the
most celebrated instances being the deposi
tions of Otho IV. by Innocent III. (a.d.
1212), and of Frederick II. by Innocent IV.
(a.d. 1245).
This feudal supremacy was strengthened
by the Crusades, which, originating in really
heroic and religious feelings, soon de
generated into a mere engine of Papal
tyranny. They are responsible for the
beginning of the system of pardons and
indulgences. These were promised by Pope
Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (a.d.
1095). Innocent III. claimed the power of
remitting all sins. This pretended control
•of the keys of heaven was one of the chief
supports of the tyranny which the Popes for
centuries exercised over the minds of men.
Such was, in outline, the growth of the
Papal Supremacy. It would carry us far
beyond the limits of an article were we to
attempt to trace all its development. It is
enough to say that it grew steadily by
successive encroachments of the kind indi
cated, throughout the eighth and ninth
centuries. During the end of the ninth,
the tenth, and the first half of the eleventh
centuries (with the exception of a short
period of revival under the Othos, a.d. 963-
1008), it suffered an eclipse. But it rose
from its temporary obscurity into greater
power than ever from the middle of the
eleventh century, and from the pontificate
of Gregory VII. (1073-1085) for more than
two centuries, the Papacy was the dominant
influence in the Western world. The
zenith of Papal power extends from the
accession of Innocent III. (a.d. 1198) to
the death of Boniface VIII. (a.d. 1303).
With the fall of the latter Pontiff comes
the beginning of the end of Papal greatness.
The reason is to be found in the fact that
•during this period the idea of national
independence took the place of that of an
empire extending, in theory at least, over
the world. When the Popes hunted the
house of Hohenstaufen off the face of the
earth, they little thought that they were
cutting away the mainstay of their own
power. With the blameless Conradin (ob.
1268) the Holy Roman Empire, as a politi
cal power, not as a name, came virtually to
an end. The theory of the two lights-
spiritual and political- — illuminating the
world gave way to the fact of independent
nations administering their own civil and
ecclesiastical affairs. It was the resistance

SURPLICE

723

of Philip the Fair (a.d. 1285-1314) to Boni
face VIII. that first really shook the Papal
power to its centre. But it might have
survived even that shock had it not been
for the disastrous policy, initiated by Cle
ment V. (a.d. 1305-1314), of removing the
seat of the Papacy to Avignon. There it
remained, practically under the control of
the King of France, until Gregory XI.
(a.d. 1370-1378) returned to Rome. His
death was succeeded by the great schism of
the West, which lasted thirty-eight years,
during which there were always two Popes,
one at Avignon, the other at Rome. At
length the Council of Pisa (a.d. 1409)
declared both the claimants of the Papacy
improperly elected, and proceeded to elect a
new Pope, John XXIII. Thus, as neither
of the deposed prelates accepted the sen
tence, there were three Popes. The Council
of Constance (a.d. 1416) deposed John
XXIII., and put an end to the schism. By
electing a man of high character and ability
as Martin V., it for a time retrieved the
credit of the Papacy ; but it had proclaimed
to all the world that a Pope, even if canoni
cally elected, could be deposed by a council.
By this act the Western Church formally
repudiated the supremacy of the Pope, and
it only remained for a considerable part of
the Roman Church, a century and a half
later, to throw off his authority altogether.
[Authorities. The chief authority for the
history of the Popes to the Council of
Constance is Milman's Latin Christianity.
Barrow's Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy
is an exhaustive examination of the theo
logical part of the controversy. Much
useful information may also be gathered
from Hussey's Rise of the Papal Power;
Bryce's Holy Roman Empire; Hallam's
Middle Ages, chap, vii.; Gibbon's Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. xlix. ;
and Palmer's Treatise on the Church, Part
vii.] [B. R. V. M.]
SURCINGLE. The belt by which the
cassock is fastened round the waist.
SURETY (See Sponsors).
SURPLICE. A white linen garment,
worn by the Christian clergy and other
persons specially engaged in the celebra
tion of Divine services, and also, on certain
days, by members of colleges, whether
clerical or lay. It is, in Latin, super pelliceum,
a name which Cardinal Bona says was not
older than 600 years before his time (the
middle of the seventeenth century), and was
so called from the white garment which
was placed by ecclesiastics, super pelles,
over the garments of dressed skins worn by
the Northern nations. — Bona, Rer. Liturg. .
lib. i. c. xxiv. It may be called the uniform
of the Church in Divine service.
This habit seems to have been originally
3 a 2

724

SURPLICE

copied from the vestments of the Jewish
priests, who, by God's own appointment,
were to put on a white linen ephod at tbe
time of public service. And its antiquity
in the Christian Church may be seen from
Gregory Nazianzen, who advised the priests
to cultivate purity, because a little spot is
soon seen in a white garment ; but more ex
pressly from St. Jerome, who, reproving the
needless scruples of such as opposed the use
of it, says, " what offence can it be to God,
for a bishop or priest to proceed to the com
munion in a white garment ? "
It is by no means improbable that the
surplice was in very ancient times not
different from the albe (See Albe). In
fact, it only varies from that garment, even
now, in having wider sleeves. The inferior
clergy were accustomed to wear tho albe at
Divine service, as we find by the Council of
Narbonne, a.d. 589, which forbad them to
take it off until the liturgy was ended.
Probably in after ages it was thought
advisable to make a distinction between the
dresses Which the superior and inferior
orders of clergy wore at the liturgy ; and
then a difference was made in the sleeves. —
Palmer's Orig. Liturg. ii. 319.
The short surplice adopted in the Roman
Church is a corruption, as Cardinal Bona
confesses (Rer. Liturg. u. s.). He says that
Stephen of Tournay, who lived a.d. 1180,
shows that tbe surplice formerly reached to
the feet ; and so likewise " Honorius de
Vestibus Clericorum:" aud that in the
course of time it was shortened, as it appears
from the Council of Basle, sess. 21, which
commanded the clergy to have surplices
reaching below the middle of the leg. He
adds that they are now so much shortened
as scarcely to reach to the knee.
A fashion of wearing such short sur
plices, and even if not short, as scanty and
free from folds as possible, has lately come
into vogue among some of the clergy in
England. It is clearly contrary to the
ancient use in the Cburch of England, not
only since, but before the Reformation, as
is evident from old brasses, and from various
episcopal injunctions for a long and full
surplice, with long sleeves. The long
English surplice, reaching to the ground,
with flowing sleeves, is acknowledged even
by the Roman ritualists (vide Goar and Dr.
Rock) to be more primitive than the short
sleeveless garment of Rome (Jebb's Choral
Service, p. 219). By the 58th canon, " every
minister saying the public prayers or minis
tering the sacraments or other rites of the
Church shall wear a comely and decent
surphce with sleeves; and the matter, de
cency, and comeliness of the surplice shall
be decided by the bishop."
Wearing a gown instead of a surplice in

SURROGATE
the pulpit has become a nearly obsolete.
badge of what an article in the Quarterly
Review of Jan. 1881, on " The Ritualists and
the Law," called Low Church ritualism,
although it came to the conclusion that the,
Privy Council would probably hold that
there was no absolute prohibition of it in
any rubric or canon, having regard also to,
usage. But for that usage, without repeat
ing the arguments here, the case seems
legally clear in favour of the surplice, unless
it can be made out that preaching is not
covered by the words " in all times of their
ministration," which would be rather diffi
cult, especially as there is no provision in
the rubrics or canons for any other vestment
in preaching. 'The 74th canon has no refer
ence to " decency of apparel " in church.
However, the question is gradually settling
itself, and the gown-wearing ritualists are
fast dying out. In many country churches,
before all these recent changes, the gown
had never got into the pulpit. at aU; and
though its use was in one sense common, it
never had been general, nor ever seen at all
in cathedrals * or collegiate churches, which
are the natural dopositaries and constani
witnesses of ancient usage, while the practice
in parish churches depends on each new
incumbent (See Advertisements and Orna
ments). [G.]
SURPLICE DAYS. According to the
17th canon, "all masters and fellows of
colleges or halls, and all the scholars and
students in either of the universities, shall
in their churches and chapels, upon all
Sundays, holy-days, and their eves, at the
time of Divine seivice, wear surplices ac
cording to the order of the Church of
England ; and such as are graduates shall
agreeably wear with their surplices such
hoods as do severally appertain unto their
degrees." Saturday evening, it is to be
observed, as the eve of Sunday, has always
been considered as coming witbin this rule.
The colleges in the universities of Cam
bridge and DubUn construe this rule as
applying to all their members; those of
Oxford, Christ Church excepted, to the
foundation members only ; and at Cambridge
too noblemen do not wear surplices. By the
25th canon, the useof the surpUce is prescribed
daily to the deans, masters, heads of col
legiate churches, canons, and prebendaries.
SURROGATE (from Lat. sub, under,
and rogare, to ask for and so to elect or ap
point under). Surrogate is one who is
substituted or appointed in the room of
another. Thus the office of granting licences
for marriage in lieu of banns, being in
the bishop of the diocese by his chancellor,.
the inconvenience of a journey to the seat
of episcopal jurisdiction is obviated hy the
appointment of clergymen in the principal

SURSUM CORDA
towns of the diocese as surrogates, with the
power of granting such licences.
By the statute of the 26 Geo. II. c.
33, No surrogate, deputed by any ecclesi
astical judge, who hath power to grant
Ucences of marriage, shall grant any such
licence before he hath taken an oath before
the said judge, faithfully to execute his
office according to law, to the best of his
knowledge ; and hath given security by his
bond in the sum of £100 to the bishop of
the diocese, for the due and faithful execu
tion of his office. All ecclesiastical judges
may appoint surrogates to act for them in
cases of necessity (Ecc. Courts Rep. 1738).
" Letters of request cite the party to appear
before you (Dean of Arches) or your surro
gate." SURSUM CORDA (Lift up your
liearts). St. Cyprian, in the third century,
attests the use of the form " Lift up your
hearts," and its response, in the liturgy of
Africa (Cyp. de Orat Dom. p. 152. Oper.
ed. Fell). St. Augustine, at the beginning
of the fifth century, speaks of these words
as being used in all churches (de Rer. Relig.
c. 3). And accordingly we find them
placed at the beginning of the Anaphora, or
canon (or solemn prayers), in the liturgies
of Antioch and Cajsarea, Constantinople
and Rome, Africa, Gaul, and Spain. How
long these introductory sentences have been
used in England it would be in vain to
inquire : we have no reason, however, to
doubt that they are as old as Christianity
itself in these countries. The Gallican and
Italian Churches used them, and Christianity
with its liturgy probably came to the British
Isles from the former of those Churches.
We may be certain, at all events, that they
have heen used in the English liturgy ever
since the time of Augustine, archbishop of
Canterbury, in 595.
It appears that these sentences were pre
ceded by a salutation or benediction in the
ancient Uturgies. According to Theodoret,
the beginning of the mystical liturgy or
most solemn prayers, was that apostolic
benediction, " The grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ, and the love of God, and the fellow
ship of the Holy Ghost, be with you all."
The same was also alluded to by Chrysostom,
when he was a presbyter of the Church of
Antioch. We find that this benediction,
with the response of the people, " And with
thy spirit," has all along preserved its place
in the East ; for in the liturgies of Cassarea,
Constantinople, Antioch, and Jerusalem, it
is uniformly placed at the beginning of the
Anaphora, just before the form, " Lift up
your hearts." In Egypt, Africa, and Italy,
the apostolic benediction was not used at
this place, but instead of it the priest said,
" The Lord be with you," and the people

SWEDENBORGIANS 725
replied, " And with thy spirit." In Spain,
and probably Gaul, as now in England, there
was no salutation before the introductory
entences.

Priest. Lift up your
hearts. Answer. We lift them
up uuto the Lord.
Priest. Let us give
thanks unto our Lord God.
Answer. It is meet aud
right so tod-..

Sacerdas. Sursum corda.
Respons. Habemus ad
Dominum. Sacerdos. Gratias aga-
mus Domino Deo nostro.
Respons. Dignum et
justum est.

Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii. 111.
SUSANNAH, THE HISTORY OF. An
apocryphal book now struck out of our
Calendar of Lessons. It has generally been
esteemed a fable. Origen, however, wrote
expressly in defence of it. The Church of
Rome allows it to be of equal authority
with the Book of Daniel.
SUSPENSION. In the laws of the
Church we read of two sorts of suspen
sion ; one relating solely to the clergy, the
other extending also to the laity. That
which relates solely to the clergy is sus
pension from office and benefice jointly, or
from office or benefice singly ; and may be
called a temporary degradation, or depri
vation of both. And the penalty upon
a clergyman officiating after suspension,
if he shall persist therein after a reproof
from the bishop (by the ancient canon
law), that he shall be excommunicated all
manner of ways. The penalty now is signi
fication for contempt, which means imprison
ment. The other sort of suspension, which
extends also to the laity, is suspension ab
ingressu ecciesie, or from the hearing of
Divine service, and receiving the Holy
Communion ; which may therefore be called
a temporary excommunication.
SWEDENBORGIANS. This body of
Christians claims to possess an entirely new
dispensation of doctrinal truth, derived from
the theological writings of Emanuel Sweden-
borg ; and, as the name imports, they re
fuse to be numbered with the sects of which
the general body of Christendom is at
present composed.
Emanuel Baron Swedenborg was born
at Stockholm in 1688, and died in London
in 1772. He was a person of great intel
lectual attainments, a member of several
of the learned societies of Europe, and the
author of very voluminous philosophical
treatises. In 1745 he separated himself
from all secular pursuits, relinquished his
official labours in the Swedish State, and
commenced the career which led to a re
ligious movement. In that year, and thence
forth, he was favoured, he reports, with
continual communications from the spiri
tual world, being oftentimes admitted into
heaven itself, and there indulged with
splendid visions of angelic glory and felicity.

726

SWEDENBORGIANS

The power was given him to converse with
these celestial residents ; and from their
revelations, sometimes made directly to
himself and sometimes gathered by him
from the course of their deliberations, he
obtained the most important of his doc
trines. In a letter to a friend he asserts
that the Lord had opened his sight in the
year 1745, and given him to speak with
angels and spirits, and that he published
what was thus revealed to him concerning
heaven and heU, the state of man after
death, true Divine worship, and other things
of the highest importance, conducive to sal
vation and wisdom.
The general result of these communica
tions was to convince the baron that the
sacred writings have two senses — one their
natural, the other their spiritual, sense ; the
latter of which it was his high commission
to unfold. The natural sense is that which
is alone received by other Christian Churches
— the words of Scripture being understood
to have the same signification (and no other)
which they bear in ordinary human inter
course ; ' the spiritual sense is that which,
in the judgment of the New Chm-ch, is
concealed within the natural sense of these
same words, each word or phrase possessing
in addition to its ordinary meaning, an
interior significance corresponding with some
spiritual truth.
The principal tenets he deduced from
this interior meaning of the Holy Word,
and which his followers still maintain, are
these : That the last judgment has al
ready been accomplished (viz. in 1757) ;
that the former "heaven and earth" are
passed away; that the "New Jerusalem,"
mentioned in the Apocalypse, has already
descended, in the form of the " New
Church " ; and that, consequently, the se
cond advent of the Lord has even now
been reaUzed, in a spiritual sense, by the
exhibition of his power and glory in the
New Church thus established.
The usual doctrine of the Trinity is not
received; the belief of the New Church
being, "that the Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit are one in the person of our Lord
Jesus Christ, comparatively as soul, body,
and operative energy are one in every
individual man."
The New Church also rejects the doc-
' trine of justification by faith alone, and
the imputed righteousness of Christ : sal
vation cannot be obtained except by the
combination of good works with faith. " To
fear God, and to work righteousness, is to
have charity; and whoever has charity,
whatever his religious sentiments may be,
will be saved."
The resurrection will not be that of the
material body, but of a spiritual body (which

SYLLABUS
indeed St. Paul says expressly iu 1 Con
xv.). But (quite contrary to St. Paul)" this
will not immediately pass into a final state
of being, but be subjected to a kind of
purgatory, where those who are interiorly
good will receive truth corresponding with
their state of goodness, and thus be fitted
for heaven : while those who are interiorly
evil wUl reject aU truth, and thus be among
the lost.
The sacraments of baptism and the Lord's
supper are administered in the New Church.
The former is believed to be " a sign and a
medium, attended with a Divine influence of
introduction into the Lord's Church ; and it
means that the Lord wUl purify our minds
from wicked desires and bad thoughts, if
we are obedient to his Holy word." The ¦¦,$ '«
latter is believed to be " a sign and a me- ¦ -
dium, attended with a Divine influence, for
introducing the Lord's true children, as to
their spirits, into heaven ; and it means that
the Lord feeds their souls with His Divine
goodness and truth."
The mode of worship adopted by the
foUowers of Swedenborg resembles in its
general form that of most other Christian
bodies ; the distribution of subjects in their
liturgy, and the composition of their hymns
and prayers, being, of course, special ; but
no particular form is considered to he
binding on each society.
The general affairs of the New Church
(which is the name assumed by the Sweden-
borgian sect) are managed by a conference,
which meets yearly, composed of ministers
and laymen in conjunction ; the proportion
of the latter being determined by the size
of the respective congregations which they
represent : a society of from 12 to 50 mem
bers sending one representative, and socie
ties of from 50 to 100 members, and those
of upwards of 100 members sending each
two and three representatives respectively.
There is nothing, however, in Swedenborg's
writings to sanction any particular form of
Church government. — Registrar- General's
Report ; Hindtnarsh's New Christian Re

in England, as in Germany, a few clergy
men and many laymen, have adopted many
of Swedenborg's ideas, without separating
from the Church. The sect of the New
Church numbered in 1881 58 societies,
chiefly in London, Lancashire, and York
shire, with 4,098 registered members above
twenty year's of age. In Canada and the
United States they number 80 societies, and
about 5,000 members.
SYLLABUS. The name given to the
summary of (Protestant) errors anathe
matised by the Vatican Council in 1865,
and perhaps some others (See Council of
Trent). [G]

SYMBOL
SYMBOL, or SYMBOLUM. A title
anciently given to the Apostles' Creed,
and for which several reasons have been
assigned. Two of these have an appear
ance of probabUity, viz. that (1) which
derives it from Greek words (o-vp BoXov, from
aiv and BaXXa), signifying a throwing or
casting together, there being a tradition that
the apostles each contributed an article to
form the creed ; and (2) that this creed was
used in times of persecution as a watchword
or mark whereby Christians (like soldiers
in the army) were distinguished from all
others. This latter is the sense given in the
short catechism of Edward VI., 1552, where
we read, " M. Why is this abridgment of
the faith termed a symbol ? S. A symbol
is, as much as to say, a sign, mark, privy
token, or watchword, whereby the soldiers
of the same camp are known from their
enemies. For this reason the abridgment of
the faith, whereby the Christians are known
from them that are no Christians, is rightly
named a symbol." And there can be little
doubt that this is the true interpretation of
the term. The former explanation rests
upon a mere legend which was probably
invented to account for the name of the
creed. The term symbol, importing an emblem
or sensible representation, is also applied
in the holy Eucharist to the sacred elements,
which there set forth the body and blood of
Christ (See also Emblem).
SYMPHONY (o~vp<pa>via). A consonance
or harmony of sounds. In music technically,
a composition for an orchestra, consisting
of certain movements, generally four. But
the term in church music is often applied
to short introductory movements on the
organ, before anthems and other pieces ;
also to any portion performed by the in
strument without the voices, including
preludes, interludes, and postludes, i.e.
strains before, in the midst, and at the end
of psalmody, and other church music.
SYNOD. This is a meeting of ecclesi
astical persons for the purposes of religion,
and it comprehends the provincial synod or
convocation of every metropolitan, and the
diocesan of every bishop within their limits.
These are not of the same authority as
general councils, nor do their canons oblige
the whole Christian Church, nor indeed any
body in England at present (See Convoca
tions; Councils).
SYNODALS and SYNODATICUM, by
the name, have a plain relation to the
holding of synods; but there being no
reason why the clergy should pay for their
attending the bishop in synod, pursuant
to his own citation, nor any footsteps to
be found of such a payment by reason of
the holding of synods, the name is sup-

TABERNACLES

727

posed to have grown from this duty being
usually paid by the clergy when they
came to the synod. And this in all pro
bability is the same which was anciently
called cathedraticum, as paid by the pa
rochial clergy in honour to the episcopal
chair, and in token of subjection and obe
dience thereto. So it stands in the body
of the canon law, " No bishop shall de
mand anything of the churches but the
honour of the cathedraticum, that is, two
shillings "("at the most," saith the Gloss,
for sometimes less is given). And the
duty which we call synodals is generally
such a small payment, which payment was
reserved by the bishop upon settUng the
revenues of the respective churches on the
incumbents ; whereas formerly those reve
nues were paid to the bishop, who had a
right to part of them for his own use, and
a right to apply and distribute the rest to
such uses and in such proportions as the
laws of the Church directed. — Gibson.
Synodals are due of common right to
the bishop only, so that, if they be claimed
or demanded by the archdeacon, or dean
and chapter, or any other person or per
sons, it must be on the foot of composition
or prescription. — Id.
And if they be denied where due, they
are recoverable in the spiritual court.
And, in the time of Archbishop Whitgift,
they were declared upon a full hearing to be
spiritual profits, and as such to belong to the
keeper of the spiritual see vacant. — Id.
Constitutions made in the provincial or
diocesan synods were also sometimes called
synodals, and were in many cases required
to be published in tbe parish churches : in
this sense the word frequently occurs in
the ancient directories. — Gibb. Hist. Excheq.
E. 4 ; Hallam's Constit. Hist. iii. 236.

TABERNACLE (Heb. J3&f>», *?•_!&;
Gk. o-K-qvti; Lat. tabernaculum). Among
the Hebrews, a kind of buUding, in the form
of a tent, set up by the express command
of God, for the performance of reUgious
worship, sacrifices, &c. (Exod. xxvi., xxvU.).
TABERNACLES, FEAST OF. A
solemn festival of the Hebrews, observed
after harvest, on the fifteenth day of the
month Tisri, instituted to commemorate the
goodness of God, who protected the Israelites
in the wilderness, and made them dwell in
booths when they came out of Egypt (See
Diet Bible). The pyx, or box in which the
reserved host is placed on Romish altars, is
caUed in the Missal the Tabernacle.

728

TABLE

TABLE, HOLY (See Altar).
TALMUD (Signifying doctrine). A
collection of the doctrines of the religion
and morality of the Jews. The history of
the Talmud is the history of the people since
the days of Ezra to that of the final com
pletion of Gemara, at the close of the 5th
century of the Christian aira. It consists of
two parts : 1. The Misna, of which term
various derivations have been given, the
most probable being that supplied by the
Rabbinical lexicon, Shulchan Arnch, re
ferring the name to " Sheni," " second " ; the
Mishna or oral law nSjlQtfTI being second to
the written law nrDXTI, and which they
pretend was delivered to Moses on the
mount, and transmitted from him to the
members of the Sanhedrim. 2. The Gemara
(perfection, or completion), which is the
commentary. The history of this work is
as follows : —
" Judah the Holy," the first compiler, had
no sooner completed the Misna, but two
Rabbis, Chaia and Hoshaia, published extra
traditions ; a collection of which was made
under the title of Baraitha or Extravagantes,
and inserted with the Misna, in order to
compose one and the same body of law.
In this two considerable faults were
observed : one, that it was very confused,
the other (which rendered ¦ this body of
canon law almost useless), that it was too
short, and resolved but a small part of the
doubtful cases and questions that began to
be agitated among the Jews.
To remedy these inconveniences, Jo-
chanan, with the assistance of Rab and
Samuel, two disciples of " Judah the Holy,"
wrote a commentary. This is called the
Talmud of Jerusalem. The Jews are not
agreed about the time that this part of
the Gemara was made. Some believe it
was two hundred years after the destruction
. of Jerusalem ; others reckon but a hundred
and fifty ; and maintain that Rab and
Samuel, quitting Juda?a, went to Babylon, in
the two hundred and nineteenth year of
the Christian asra. However, these are
the heads of the second order of doctors,
called Gemarists, because they composed the
Gemara. There was also a defect in the Jerusalem
Talmud, for it contained the opinions of but
a small number of doctors. For this reason
the Gemarists, or commentators, began a new
explication of the traditions. Rabbi Asa,
¦ who kept a school at Sora, near Babylon,
where he taught forty years, produced a
commentary upon Judah's Misna. He did
not finish it ; but his sons and scholars put
Ihe last hand to it. This Is called the
Gemara, or Talmud, of Babylon, which is
preferred before that of Jerusalem. It is a
very large collection, containing the tradi-

TARGUM
tions, the canon law of the Jews, and all
the questions relating to the Law. But so
much comparatively modern matter has
been interpolated in it beyond doubt, that
the whole of it, as it now exists, is tainted
with modernism to an indefinite extent, so
that it is of no real authority and very little
evidential value as to ancient usages.
In these two Talmuds is contained the
whole of the Jewish religion as it is now
possessed by that people, who esteem it
equal with the law of God. Some Chris
tians set a great value upon it, whilst others
condemn it altogether, but a third party
observe a just medium between these opposite
opinions. Though the Talmud was received with
general applause by the Jews, yet there
started up a new order of doctors, who
shook its authority by their doubts. These
were called Sebarim, or opiniative doctors,
and were looked upon by the Jews as so
many sceptics, because they disputed with
out coming to a determination upon any
thing. [An interesting and learned account
of the Talmud may be read in the Remains
of the late Emanuel Deutsch.]
TARGUM (D-Unn, from Drn). So the
Jews call the Chaldee paraphrases, or exposi
tions, of the Old Testament in the Aramaic
language ; for the Jewish doctors, in order
to make the people understand the text of
the Holy Scripture (after the captivity),
which was read in Hebrew in their syna
gogues, were forced to explain the law
to them in a language they understood;
and this was the Aramaic, or that used in
Assyria. The Targums that are now remaining
were composed by different persons, upon
different parts of Scripture, and are in
number eight.
1. The Targum of Onkelos upon the five
books of Moses.
2. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel,
upon the Prophets, that is, upon .Joshua,
Judges, the two Books of Samuel, the two
Books of Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and the twelve Minor Prophets.
3. The Targum ascribed to Jonathan Ben
Uzziel, upon the Law.
4. The Jerusalem Targum, upon the Law.
5. The Targum on the five lesser books,
called the Megilloth, that is, Ruth, Esther,
Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, and the
Lamentations of Jeremiah.
6. The second Targum upon Esther.
7. The Targum of Joseph the Blind,
upon the Book of Job, the Psalms, and the
Proverbs. 8. The Targum upon the First and Se
cond Books of Chronicles.
Upon Ezra and Nehemiah, there is no
Targum, nor any upon Daniel in Chaldee.

TE DEUM LAUDAMUS
Indeed, a great part of Daniel and Ezra is
written originally in Chaldee ; and therefore
there was no need of a Chaldee paraphrase
upon them : but Nehemiah is written wholly
in the Hebrew tongue, and no doubt anciently
there were Chaldee paraphrases upon all the
Hebrew parts of those books, though they
are now lost. Upon Daniel there is a
Persian Targum, written seemingly in the
twelfth century.
For a full account of the Targum, see
Smith's Diet Bible, s. v. " Versions." Also
article in " Church Quarterly Review," April
1884.
TE DEUM LAUDAMUS ("We
praise Thee, 0 God," or " as God "). This
hymn of praise has been referred to several
different authors. Some have ascribed it
to Ambrose and Augustine (" Saynt Austyn
and Saynt Ambrose madefyrstthisHympne"
(Mirrour qf our Ladye, fol. lxii.) ; others to
Ambrose atone ; others, again, to Abondius,
Nicetius, bishop of Triers, or Hilary of
Poictiers. In truth, it seems that there is
no way of determining exactly who was the
author of this hymn. Archbishop Usher
found it ascribed to Nicetius, in a very an
cient Gallican Psalter, and the Benedictine
editors of the works of Hilary of Poictiers
cite a fragment of a manuscript epistle of
Abbo Floriacensis, in which. Hilary is un
hesitatingly spoken of as its author ; but
Abbo lived five or six centuries after that
prelate, and therefore such a tradition is
most doubtful. In the Alexandrine MS. of
the Scriptures (Brit. Museum) there is a
morning hymn with several verses from or
similar to the Te Deum. Some reasons ap
pear to justify the opinion that the Te Deum
was composed in the Gallican Church, from
which source we also derive tbe creed bearing
the name of Athanasius (See Creed). The
most ancient allusions to its existence are
found in the Rule of Ca?sarius, bishop of
Aries, c. a.d. 527, and in that of his suc
cessor Aurelian. It has been judged by
some from this, that the Te Deum may
have been composed by some member of the
celebrated monastery of Lerins, which was
not far from Aries ; or perhaps by Hilary of
Aries, to whom has been ascribed, but on no
good ground, the composition of the Athana
sian Creed in the fifth century (See Creed,
Athanasian). But its origin was earlier, and
the most likely conclusion to come to is,
that while in its present form it is a com
position of the fourth or fifth centuries, it
represents a stUl more ancient hymn, of
which traces are to be found in St. Cyprian
and the Alexandrine MS. — Diet Christ.
Ant. 1949; Blunt's Annot P. B. i. 10 ;
Herman Daniel, Thes. Hymnol. ii. 279 ;
Maskell's Mon. Rit. Eccl. Ang. iii. 14.
In the office of matins this hymn occupies

Templars

720

the same place as it always has done, namely,
after the reading of Scripture. The ancient
offices of the English Church gave this
hymn the title of the " Psalm Te Deum,"
or the " Song of Ambrose and Augustine,"
indifferently. As used in this place, it may
be considered as a responsory psalm, since it
foUows a lesson ; and here the practice of
the Church of England resembles that
directed by the Council of Laodicea, which
decreed that the psalms and lessons should
be read alternately.
In the Roman office it is only used on
Sundays and certain festivals ; but even on
these omitted at certain seasons of the year.
In the Church of England it is prescribed
for daily use, but the Benedicite may be
substituted for it. [H.]
TEMPERANCE (See Societies, Church).
TEMPLARS, TEMPLERS, or
KNIGHTS OF THE TEMPLE. A mili
tary religious order instituted at Jerusalem,
in the beginning of the twelfth century, for
the defence of the holy sepulchre, and the
protection of Christian pilgrims. They
were first called the Poor of the Holy City,
and afterwards Templars, because their first
dwelling, given them by Baldwin IL, King
of Jerusalem, was near the Temple. The
order was founded in 1118 by seven French
knights, of whom tbe chief was Hugh, sur
named des Payens ; and the principal articles
of their rule were, that they should attend -
all the holy offices by day and night ; or
that, when their military duties should
prevent this, they should supply it by a
certain number of Paternosters; that they
should abstain from flesh four days in the
week, and on Friday from eggs and milk ;
that each knight might have three horses
and one squire, and that they should neither
hunt nor hawk. In 1127, Hugh and some of
the brethren returned to Europe, and at the
Council of Troyes, 1128, held under a Papal
legate, the order was formally established
and received a code of statutes drawn up
under the direction of St. Bernard. After
this it rapidly increased, and after the fall
of Jerusalem in 1187, the Templars spread
themselves through Germany, and other
countries of Europe, to which they were
invited by the liberality of the Christians.
In every nation they had a particular
governor, called Master of the Temple, or of
the Militia of the Temple. Their grand
master had his residence at Paris. The
order of Templars flourished for nearly two
centuries, and acquired, by the valour of its
knights, immense riches, and an eminent
degree of military renown. But as their
prosperity increased, their virtue declined ;
and they became unpopular on account of
their arrogance. King Philip tbe Fair of
France, moved partly by cupidity, partly by

730

TEMPLE

jealousy, resolved on the suppression of the
order. The most monstrous and incredible
charges of vice and blasphemy were levelled
at them, but never thoroughly sifted. The
pope however (Clement V) aided the king
in his purpose, and the order was dissolved
not only in France but in other countries,
through papal influence, in 1312.
TEMPLE. I. In the Bible, this title
generally refers to that house of prayer
which Solomon built in Jerusalem, for the
honour and worship of God. The name of
temple is now properly used for any church
or place of worship set apart for the service
of Almighty God. Thus the services of the
Church are frequently introduced by the
words, "The Lord is in His holy temple;
let all the earth keep silence before Him."
Here, by the word "temple," aUusion is
made to the church in which we have met
together to offer our prayers and praises to
the Most High.
II. The church caUed the Temple Church
in London was built by the Knights-
Templars in 1185 ; and the circular vestibule
was built after the fashion of the church of
the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem : as also the
church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge,
and at Northampton and Little Maple-
stead. [H.]
TERRIER. By Canon 87, " the arch
bishops and all bishops within their several
dioceses shall procure (as much as in them
lies) a true note and terrier of all the glebes,
lands, meadows, gardens, orchards, houses,
stocks, implements, tenements, and portions
of tithes lying out of their parishes, which
belong to any parsonage, vicarage, or rural
prebend, to be taken by the view of honest
men in every parish, by the appointment of
the bishop, whereof the minister to be one ;
and to be laid up in the bishop's registry,
there to be for a perpetual memory thereof.
It may be convenient also to have a copy of
the same exempUfied, to be kept in the
church chest."
These terriers are of greater authority in
the ecclesiastical courts than they arc in the
temporal; for the ecclesiastical courts are
not allowed to be courts of record ; and yet
even in the temporal courts these terriers are
of some weight, when duly attested by the
registrar. Especially if they be signed, not only by
the parson and churchwardens, but also by
the substantial inhabitants ; but if they be
signed by the parson only, they can be no
evidence for him ; so neither (as it seemeth)
if they be signed only by the parson and
churchwardens, if the churchwardens are of
his nomination. But in aU cases they are
certainly strong evidence against the parson
(See Burn, Eccl. Law, under this head, for
the form of a terrier, which is given at great

TERSANCTUS
length. It is, however, merely an inventory
of the matters enumerated in the above-
quoted canon).
TERSANCTUS. The Latin title of the
hymn in the Uturgy, beginning "With
Angels and Archangels," Sec This is
probably the most ancient and universally
received of all Christian songs of praise. Its
position in the established liturgies has
always been (as in the Prayer Book) a little
antecedent to the prayer of consecration;
and the hymn itseff does not appear in any
other office than that of the Communion.
The antiquity of the Tersanctus, and its
prevalence in the liturgies of the Eastern
and Western Churches, naturaUy lead to
the conclusion that it was derived from the
apostolic age, if not from the apostles them
selves. It is remarked by Palmer, that no
liturgy can be traced to antiquity, in which
the people did not unite with the invisible
host of heaven in chanting these sublime
praises of the Most High God. From the
testimony of Chrysostom (St. Chrys., Horn.
xviii. in 2 Cor), and Cyril of Jerusalem
(Catecli. Myst. 5, n. 5), we find that the
seraphic hymn was used in the Uturgy of
Antioch and Jerusalem in the fourth century.
With it may be compared the orthodox and
Monophysite thanksgivings of the liturgy of
St. James (Renaudot, Liturg. Orient t. ii.
p. 31). The Apostolical Constitutions (viii.
c. 12) enable us to carry it back to the
third century in the East. It is also spoken
of by Gregory Nyssen, Cyril of Alexandria,
Origen, Hilary of Poictiers, Isidore, and
other Fathers, as having formed a part of
the liturgy. In the liturgy of Milan it has
been used from time immemorial, under the
name of Trisagion ; in Africa we learn from
Tertullian, that it was customarily used in
the second century (De Orat. c iii.). The
preface ends just before the words " Holy,
holy, holy : " and in this hymn, but not
before, the clerks and the people should
audibly join their voices with the priest. In
all the ancient liturgies, both of the East
and of the West, the saying of the Sanctus
is given to the choir and people. The cele
brant having recited the preface or intro
duction, the Triumphal Hymn, as the
liturgies of St. Basil and St. Chrysostom
call it, is taken up by the whole body of the
worshippers, who, as kings and priests unto
God, join in that solemn act of adoration of
the ever-blessed Trinity (Renaudot, Liturg.
Orient, i. 516 ; Goar, Rit. Grec. p. 166).
The joining in at " Therefore with angels,"
&c, as is the case in some English churches,
never was the custom of the primitive
Church, and could not have been intended
by those who revised our liturgy, nor is it
warranted by the nature of the preface
itself. Nevertheless it is implied by the

TESTAMENT
rubric as it at present stands. In the
Prayer Books of 1549 and 1552 the Sanctus
was printed in a separate paragraph, thus
marking the ancient custom (See Preface).
—Bingham, xv. iii. 10; Palmer's Orig.
Liturg. ii. 128; Blunt's Annot. P. B. ii.
183. [H.]
TESTAMENT, THE OLD AND NEW
(biadrjKri, testamentum. The Hebrew word
in the Old Testament which is generaUy
translated Smflr/foj in the LXX. is TV")3).
I. The title of the Old Testament is given
to those books which the Jewish Church
received as sacred and inspired, and which,
on this testimony, are accepted as such by
the Christian Church ; for " to the Jews were
committed the oracles of God " (Rom. iii. 2).
'H irdXaid AiadfjKq, " the old dispensation," is
used for the books of Moses containing that
dispensation by St. Paul (2 Cor. iii. 14);
and the sense, the old dispensation, occurs
Rom. ix. 4; Eph. ii. 10; Heb. ix. 15, 20:
viii. 7, 9 : ix. 5. Adopting one of the
meanings of biadrjKr/, a will or covenant, Ter
tullian uses the phrase Vetus Testamentum
(adv. Marc. iv. 1, 2), which has since become
the common expression ; and has been thus
explained : " A will first becomes valuable
after the death of the testator ; so after the
death of Christ, the mysteries of the Old
Testament being fulfilled became intelligible
and valuable " (Lactantius, Inst 14, 20).
According to the old classification the books
of the Old Testament were divided into the
Law, the Prophets, the " SacredWritings "
(See Hagiographa). Our Lord speaks of " the
Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms " ; the
Hagiographa or Sacred Writings being often
styled the " Psalms," as that book headed
the list. But in other places the Old
Testament was divided simply into the
" Law and the Prophets," as our Lord says
"Think not that I am come to destroy
the law, or, the prophets" (St. Matt. v. 17).
And this was the common division. Thus
St. Augustme says, " The Old contains the
Law and the Prophets, the New the Gospels
and the Apostolic Epistles. Although the
Old is prior in point of time, the New has
the precedence in intrinsic value ; for the
Old acts the part of herald to the New"
(De Civ. Dei, xx. 4).
II. As i) irdXaid bia8r\Kq was used as de
scriptive of the books of the Old Testament
by St. Paul, it was natural that q Kalvn
8ia0r)/o/ should be appUed to the new dis
pensation. In this sense, the new dis
pensation, the word occurs in St. Matt.
•xxvi. 28, and the parallel passages in St.
Matthew and St. Luke : in 1 Cor. xi. 25 ;
2 Cor. Ui. 6 ; Heb. vii. 22, Sec The books
of the New Testament collectively are
caUed r) Kaivq biadrjKv by Origen (de
Princip. iv. 1), as they are called Novum

TESTIMONIAL

731

Testamentum by Tertullian (adv. Marc.
iv. 1).
The title "New Dispensation" signifies
the book: which contains the terms of the
New Dispensation, upon which Godis pleased
to offer salvation to mankind, through the
mediation of Jesus Christ. But the word
Testament seems to have been preferred,
as implying that the Christian's redemption,
is sealed to Him as a son and heir of God ;.
and because the death of Christ as testa
tor is related at large and applied to our
benefit (See Canon of Scripture ; Bible ;.
Scripture). [H.]
TESTIMONIAL. A testimonial of good
conduct from his college or from three-
beneficed clergymen, required of every one
that seeks to be admitted into holy orders,,
is among the safeguards which the Church
has appointed for the purity of her ministry.
By canon 33 the bishop is forbidden to
admit any person into sacred orders, "except
he shall then exhibit letters testimonial of
his good life and conversation, under the
seal of some college in Cambridge or Oxford,,
where before he remained, or of three or
four grave ministers, together with the
subscription and testimony of other credible-
persons, who have known his life and
behaviour by the space of three years
next before." The Act of 13 Eliz. c. 12,
enacts that " None shall be made minister,
unless he first bring to the bishop of that
diocese, from men known to the bishop to
be of sound religion, a testimonial both of
his honest life, and of his professing the
doctrine expressed in the said articles."
The testimonial is directed to the bishop to
whom application is made for orders, and
is as follows :
" Whereas our well-beloved in Christ, A.
B., hath declared to us his intention of
offering himself as candidate for the sacred
office of [a deacon], and for that end hath
requested of us letters testimonial of his
learning and good behaviour ; we, therefore,
whose names are hereunto subscribed, do
testify that the said A. B., having been
previously known to us for the space of
[three] years last past, hath during that
time lived piously, soberly, and honestly,
and dUigently applied himself to his stu
dies ; nor hath he at any time, so far as we
know or beUeve, held, written, or taught
anything contrary to the doctrine or dis
cipline of the Church of England: and
moreover, we believe him in our con
sciences to be a person worthy to be
admitted to the sacred order of [deacons].
In witness whereof," &c.
It was decided in Marshall v. Bishop qf
Exeter, 3 H. L. 17, that the absence of
testimonials from one bishop to another is-
not sufficient ground for refusing institution

732

TEXT

to a living. The Act and Canon relate to
ordination only, and naturally do not require
a bishop's certificate, the candidate not yet
being under any bishop. The bishop may,
however, certify that the persons signing
the testimonial are known to him as persons
of credit in his diocese, as the ordaining
bishop might not know them.
TEXT. The letter of the sacred
Scriptures, more especially in the original
languages. In a more limited sense, the
word text is used for any short sentence
•out of the Scripture, quoted in proof of a
dogmatic position, — as an auctoritee, as it
was formerly called, — or taken as the
subject or motto of a discourse from the
pulpit. ' Thus Chaucer has —
" He needeth not to speken but of frame,
And let auctoritxs in Goddes name
To preening,- and to scole eke of clergie."
And so a sermon is called " Expositio
auctoritatis." The custom of taking a text for a sermon
is probably coeval with that of preaching
set discourses ; and it is needless to remark,
that the use of texts as authority in
doctrinal points is of the very essence of
true theology, and was ever the custom
even of those who, professing the name of
¦Christians, denied the truth of Christ.
Even the most abominable and shameless
heretics quoted Scripture for their worst
tenets. It is therefore necessary to be on
the guard against receiving everything for
which a text is quoted, remembering that
the "inspired writings are an inestimable
treasure to mankind, for so many sentences,
. so many truths. But then the true sense
of them must be known ; " which it often
only can be by comparing them with others,
as it is not the way of Scripture to intro
duce exceptions and qualifications like a
modern Act of Parliament, but to deliver
one truth strongly at one time, and a quali
fying one at another.
TENEBR_-. An ancient office of the
-Church of England, which was used on
Wednesday in Holy Week and the two suc
ceeding days. The ceremony from which it
derived its name consisted in the gradual
extinction of lights one by one until the
church was left in darkness. [H.]
THANKSGIVING. Giving of thanks
is an essential part of Divine worship, as
St. Paul expressly declares to St. Timothy
(1 Tim. ii. 1), and has ever formed a part
of the service both of Jews and Christians.
In our own Book of Common Prayer there are
many forms of thanksgiving, particular and
general : as the general thanksgiving (q. v.),
which was added (being compiled by Bishop
Reynolds) and appointed for daily use at the
last review ; the eucharistic hymn, always
used in the Holy Communion, sometimes

THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES
with an appropriate preface, and introduced
with the versicles,
" Let us give thanks unto our Lord God.
" It is meet and right so to do.
" It is very meet, right, and our boimden
duty, that we should at all times .and in all
places give thanks," &c. ; the thanksgiving
after communion, a conspicuous feature in all
primitive liturgies, but which had dropped
out of the mediaeval service, except in the
form of a private prayer of the celebrant:
that in our service is partly taken from
Hermann's Consultation, but greatly re
sembles the corresponding part of the liturgy
of St. James; the thanksgiving after bap
tism, to which, in the revision of 1661, the
Puritans objected, inasmuch as " we cannot
say in faith that every child that is baptized
is regenerated by God's Holy Spirit; at
least it is a disputable point": the bishops
replying, after quoting St. John iii. and
Acts iii. 3, that ¦' Baptism is our spiritual
regeneration," and " by it is received remis
sion of si'S " — " Seeing that God's sacraments
have their effects, where the receiver doth
not put any bar against them (which chil
dren cannot do) ; we may say in faith of
every child that it is regenerated by God's
Holy Spirit ; and the denial of it tends to'
Anabaptism, and the contempt of this Holy
Sacrament, as nothing worthy or material
whether it be administered to children or
no " (CardweU. Conf. p. 356, and Mozley
and Bethell on Baptismal Regeneration).
There are, besides, particular thanks
givings appointed for deliverance from
drought, rain, famine, war, tumult, and
pestilence; and there is an entire service
of thanksgiving for women after childbirth
(see Churching of Women), and certain
days on which we commemorate great
deliverances of our Church and nation,
are marked also with a solemn service of
thanksgiving (See Forms of Prayer).
THANKSGIVING, THE GENERAL.
So called (1) as it is for all persons, (2) to
distinguish it from the Special Thanks
givings. Though compiled ty Bishop Rey
nolds (see Tlianksgiving), the first portion of
it seems to be borrowed from an opening of
a thanksgiving composed by Queen Elizabeth
after one of her progresses, and which is
printed (from a copy in tbe State Paper
office) in the " Liturgies of Queen Eliza
beth " of the Parker Society (p. 667). But
it is most probable that there is some older
prayer, the original both of Queen Eliza
beth's and Bishop Reynolds'. — Annot P. B.
There is no authority for the congregation
saying it with the minister, as is commonly
the case in America. [H.]
THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES. Institu
tions founded for providing special instruc
tion and training for those who are preparing

THEOLOGY
for ordination. The first of these colleges
was that of St. Bees, founded in 1816, and
intended especially for those who had not
taken a University degree. In 1839 the
Chichester Theological CoUege was instituted,
and in the next year that of Wells. There
are now Colleges connected with the Cathe
drals of Lichfield, Salisbury, Gloucester,
Lincoln, Ely, and Truro, while others are
St. Aidau's College (chiefly for non-gra
duates), Cuddesdon; London College of
Divinity, Highbury; the Leeds Clergy
School ; Wycliffe Hall, Oxford ; and Ridley
Hall, Cambridge. The period of study is
generally one year for graduates, two for
non-graduates. The course of preparation
for Holy Orders is thorough and systematic,
and, where possible, pastoral visitation is
made an essential part of the system of
, training, the students being attached as lay
.'¦ helpers to the parochial clergy, and taking
part in such work as that of Sunday-schools,
night-schools, mission services, &c. — Official
Tear Book of the Church of England, 1883,
1886. [H.]
THEOLOGY (From e<ror, God, and
Xoyos, a discourse). A discourse concerning
God, it beim: the business of this science
to treat of the Deity. The heathens bad
their theologues or divines, as well as the
Christians ; and Eusebius and Augustine
distinguished the theology of the heathens
into three sorts : first, the fabulous and
poetical ; secondly, natural, which was
explained by philosophy and physics; the
third was political or civil, which last con
sisted chiefly in the solemn service of the
gods, and in the belief vvhich they had in
oracles and divinations, together with the
ceremonies wherewith their worship was
¦ performed. Divinity among the Christians is divided
into positive and scholastical ; the first
being founded upon fact and institution,
having the Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers
for its bottom and foundation, and, properly
speaking, this is true divinity ; the other,
called scholastical, is principally supported
by reason, which is made use of to show
that the Christian theology contains nothing
inconsistent with natural light ; and with
this view it is that Thomas Aquinas makes
use of the authority of philosophers, and
arguments from natural reason, because he
was engaged with philosophers, who at
tacked the Christian religion with argu
ments from those topics.
THEOPHORI (e<ros: and qbipa). See
Christophori. THIRTIETH OF JANUARY, Form of
prayer for. This day, the anniversary of the
execution of Charles I., was appointed to be
observed as a day of fasting and humilia
tion by 12 Car. II. cap. 30. The form

THOMAS, ST.

735

was drawn up by a committee of Convoca
tion, and enjoined by proclamation, May
1662. Its use, together with that of the
other State services except for the Accession,
was discontinued by Royal Warrant issued
Jan. 17, 1859. [H.]
THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES (See Ar
ticles). THOMAS'S, ST., DAY. A festival of
the Christian Church observed on the 21st
of December, in commemoration of St.
Thomas the apostle. St. Thomas is said to
have preached in Parthia, and to have been
buried at Edessa (Euseb. II. E. i. 13 : iii.
1 ; Socrat. H. E. i. 19 : iv. 18). St. Chry
sostom mentions his grave at Edessa as
being one of the four genuine tombs of
apostles, the others being those of SS..
Peter, Paul, and John (Horn, in Heb. 26).
Later traditions ascribe to him the founda
tion of the Christian Church in Malabar,
which goes by the name of " The Christians
of St. Thomas," but which is now usually
supposed to have been founded by a Nes
torian missionary of the name of Thomas.
St. Thomas's martyrdom (whether in Persia,
or India) is said to have been occasioned by
a lance. In the Greek Church he is com
memorated on Oct. 6, and by the Indians
on July 1. — Alban Butler's Lives of the
Saints ; Diet Bible, 1490. [H.J
THOMAS, ST., CHRISTIANS OF.
These Christians claim the apostle St.
Thomas as their founder, and still survivors
are known by the above title. The district
they occupy is part of Malabar, on the
western side of the southern extremity of
India. With regard to their very early
history nothing is known except from tra
dition ; but it is most interesting to observe
that in that remote past there was a little-
nest of Christians apart from the religions
around them. In the sixth century there
are certain evidences of their existence, for
Cosmas Indicopleustes, who at that time
visited India, speaks of a Church in Malabar,
" where the pepper grows," with a bishop
ordained and sent from Persia, and clergy
men and believers ( Topographia Christiana,
lib. iii. ; Patrol. Gr. Ixxxviii. 169 ; cf. lib.
xi. ib. 446). In the ninth century Sighelm
and ^Ethelstan were sent with alms to-
Rome by King Alfred, and went on to.
India "to St. Thomas and St. Bartholemew "
(Anglo-Sax. Chron. S. anno 883, p. 152,
ed. Thorpe; Will. Malmesbury, ii. 122).
There seems a probability at all events, as
we can get so far back, that this branch
may have been, in accordance with the
tradition, grafted by St. Thomas himself.
While there is no doubt that Thomas Cana,
to whom some ascribe the name, worked in
that part, his date is much disputed ; even
if he lived just before the sixth century, it.

734

THREE ESTATES

would seem improbable that such a settled
Church as Cosmas refers to should have
been so firmly established. Christianity
must have existed two centuries before his
time in Malabar, acording to his testimony
{See on the one side La Croze, Histoire du
Christ, des Indes, p. 46 ;, on the other
Assemani, Bibl. Or. vol. iii. p. 444). The
Christians of St. Thomas have peculiar ideas
with regard to rites, according very much
with those of the Nestorians. They allow
three sacraments — Baptism, Orders, and the
Holy Eucharist; they receive no images,
and do not much reverence the cross ; they
observe no age for orders, but make priests
even at the age of seven ; they observe the
times of Advent and Lent, and the festivals
of our Lord, and many saints' days. For
other detaUs see Howard's The Christians
¦of St Thomas and their Liturgies; Diet
Christ. Ant. 1957. [H.]
THREE ESTATES OF THE REALM.
The Lords Temporal, Commons, and Clergy.
By the Proclamation of Dec. 27, 1558, the use
of any public prayer, rite or ceremony other
than that by law received, was forbidden
untU " consultation may be had by Parlia
ment, by her Majesty, and her three estates
of this realm." It is not clear what " the
clergy " meant, since the Convocations were
certainly not consulted about Elizabeth's
Prayer Book. The general opinion is that
the Three Estates here mean the Lords
Temporal, the Lords Spiritual, aud the
House of Commons. [H.]
THRONE. The bishop's principal seat
in his cathedral. At St. Paul's the bishop
has two thrones ; that at the end of the
south stalls, its general situation in cathe
drals, probably representing the episcopal
throne, properly so called, which he as
sumed at the more solemn part of the ser
vice ; that more westerly his ordinary seat,
or stall. In old times the bishop of London
often occupied the stall usually assigned to
the dean, as is still the custom at Ely and
Carlisle from the bishop being, in old times,
the abbot as well. The bishop's throne in
the ancient basilicas and churches was at
the apex of the apsis, a semicircie behind
the altar. The marble chair of the arch
bishop at Canterbury, in which he is en
throned, formerly occupied a place behind
the alter ; a remnant of the old arrange
ment, as appears from Dart's Hist, and
Antiq. of Canterbury.
THURIFIC ATI. In times of persecution
Christians who were brought to be ex
amined before the heathen tribunal were
permitted to escape punishment by casting
frankincense on an altar dedicated to an
idol. This was of course an act of idolatry,
and amounted to open and unreserved
apostasy : some however there were who

TIPPET
were betrayed into this act by present fear,
rather than a real wish to deny Christ, and
who sought afterwards, by a rigid penance,
the peace of the Church. These were
called Thurificati (See Libellatici and
Sacrificati). TIARA. The name of the pope's triple
crown. The tiara and keys are the badges
of the papal dignity, the tiara of his civU
rank, and the keys of his jurisdiction ; for
as soon as the pope is dead, his arms are
represented with the tiara alone, without
the keys. The ancient tiara was a round
high cap. John XIII. first encompassed
it with a crown ; Boniface VIII. added a
second crown ; and Benedict XIII. a third.
TILES, ENCAUSTIC. The use of orna
mented tiies in churches is at least as old as
the Norman sera, and was never discontinued
till the fall of Gothic art. The teim en
caustic means that the colours are burnt in ;
which again means two different things,
viz. : (1) plain tiles each of one colour, but
set in patterns on the floor ; and (2) tUes of
one ground colour in which shallow cavities
are stamped while they are soft, and then
fluid clay of some other colour is poured in
and then they are baked or " fired " together ,-
and each tile shows coloured patterns ac
cordingly which do not wear out, besides
the larger arrangement of them on the
ground. The finer tiles of this kind are
often glazed, and look very beautiful until
the glazing wears off, which soon happens if
they are much walked over. Many of the
most expensive tile pavements of twenty or
thirty years ago have become quite shabby.
There was such a passion for them after
their revival in modern times, that Scott and
other architects used to pull up and destroy
or sell marble pavements to substitute tiles.
The most striking case of that kind was at
Exeter, the marble paving of which was
bought by Lord Dudley and laid down by
him in the nave of Worcester. Of course
not even -marble will retain its polish when
much walked upon, but it remains far
superior to any tiles when their glaze is
rubbed off. Marble and tiles do not mix
well together. Large and good flags look
better than tiles which have got shabby.
Tiles must be laid on concrete, or they will
not keep level; and flags should be for another
reason, viz. that if they are not, the damp
on the under side makes them split. This
is constantly seen in house passages. [G.]
TIPPET. In the 74th canon, in which
decency in apparel is enjoined to ministers,
it is appointed that " AU deans, masters of
colleges, archdeacons, and prebendaries, in
cathedral and collegiate churches (being
priests or deacons), doctors in divinity, law,
and physic, bachelors in divinity, masters of
arts and. bachelors of law, having any ecclesi-

TITHES
astical living, shall usually wear gowns
with standing collars and sleeves straight
at the hands, or wide sleeves, as is used at the
universities, with hoods or tippets of silk or
sarsenet, and square caps. And that all other
ministers admitted, or to be admitted, into
that function shall also usually wear the like
apparel as is aforesaid, except tippets only."
And in the 58th canon : " It shall be lawful
for such ministers as are not graduates to
wear upon their surplices, instead of hoods,
some decent tippet of black, so it be not
silk." It is supposed that the present black
scarf worn by the English clergy repre
sents three things: 1. the stole; 2. the
chaplain's scarf ; 3. the choir tippet. The
chaplain's scarf is a remnant of the ancient
badges, or liveries, worn by the members
of noblemen's households, their chaplains
included. The chou- tippet grew out of the
ancient almutium, or amice, that is, a ves
ture which covered the shoulders, and in
cluded the hood : the liripipium, or pendent
part of the hood, sometimes hanging singly
behind (as in our modern hoods), some
times in duplicate before, like the scarf. In
process of time the hood became separated
from this pendent part in front, and hence
the choir tippet. It is certain that the
tippet so caUed, often made of sables or furs,
was worn in the form of the scarf, by digni
taries of the Church and State for many ages
in England. The sca,rf has been called a
tippet immemorially in Ireland, and within
memory in many parts of England. The
law of the Church therefore seems to be
this, that all ecclesiastics (whether priests or
deacons) being prebendaries or of higher
rank in cathedral and collegiate churches,
and aU priests or deacons being Masters of
Arts or of higher degree, may wear either
hoods or tippets of silk : and all non-
graduate" ministers (whether priests or
deacons) may not wear hoods, but only
tippets not of silk. Whence the tippet is to
be worn by aU clergymen. The 58th canon
however is explicit as to the use of hoods by
graduates. By the constant usage of
cathedrals, and now almost everywhere,
both hood and scarf are worn by aU
graduates. — Tippets of the Canons Ecclesi
astic, by G. I. French, 1850 ; Jebb (Bp.),
Charge to the Clergy of Limerick; Jebb
(Dr.), Char. Serv. p. 215.
TITHES, in the religious .application of
the phrase, are a certain portion, or allot
ment, for the maintenance of the priesthood,
being the tenth part of the produce of land,
cattle, or other branches of wealth. It
is an income, or revenue, common both
to the Jewish and Christian priesthood.
The priests among the Jews had no share
allowed them in the division of the land,
that they might attend whoUy upon Divine

TITHES

735

service, and not have their thoughts diverted
by the business of tillage, or feeding cattle,
or any other secular employment. Their
maintenance arose chiefly from the first-
fruits, offerings and tithes.
The ancient Christians, it is generally
thought, held the Divine right of tithes, that
is, that the payment of tithes was not
merely a ceremonial or political command,
but of moral and perpetual obligation (see
Bp. Andrewes, De decimis ; Carleton, Divine
Right of Tithes, c. 4); though Bellarmine (de
Cler. i. c. 25), Selden (Hist of Tithes, c. 4),
and others place them upon another foot.
St. Jerome says expressly that the law
about tithes (to which he adds first-fruits)
was to be understood to continue in its full
force in the Christian Church (Hieron.
Com. in Mai. iii.). And both Origen and
St. Augustine confirm the same opinion
(Orig. Horn. ii. in Num. xviii. : Aug. Com.
in Ps. cxlvi.).
But why, then, were not tithes exacted
by the apostles at first, or by the fathers in
the ages immediately foUowing? For it is
generally agreed that tithes were not the ori
ginal maintenance of ministers under the
gospel. It is answered, first, that tithes
were paid to the priests and Levites, in the
time of Christ and His apostles; and the
synagogue must be buried before these
things could be orderly brought into use in
the Church. Secondly, in the times of the
New Testament, there was an extraordinary
maintenance, by a community of all things ;
which supplied the want of tithes. Thirdly,
paying tithes, as the circumstances of the
Church then stood, could not conveniently
be practised; for this requires that some
whole state or kingdom profess Christianity,
and the Church be under the protection of
the magistrates, which was not the case in
the apostolical times. Besides, the inhabi
tants of the country, from whom the tithes
of fruits must come, were the latest converts
to Christianity (Bingham, Ant. v., v. 2).
The common opinion is, that tithes began
first to be generally settled upon the Church
in the fourth century, when the magistrates
protected the Church, and the empire was
generally converted from heathenism.
Some think Constantine settled them by a
law upon the Church ; but there is no law
of that emperor's now extant that makes
express mention of any such thing. How
ever, it is certain tithes were paid to the
Church before the end of the fourth century,
as Selden has proved out of Cassian, Eugip-
pius, and others. The reader may see this
whole matter historically deduced, through
many centuries, by that author (See Hist, of
Tithes, c 5, seq.).
The custom of paying tithes, or offering a
tenth of what a man enjoys, is not so

736

TITHES

peculiar to the Jewish and Christian law,
tut that we find some traces of it even
among the heathens. Xenophon has pre
served an inscription upon a column near a
temple of Diana, whereby the people were
admonished to offer the tenth part of their
revenues every year to the goddess. And
Festus assures us the ancients gave tithe
of everything to their gods.
Before the promulgation of the law,
Abraham set the example of paying tithes,
in giving the tenth of the spoils to Mel-
chisedech, king of Salem, on his return from
his expedition against Chedorlaomer and
the four confederate kings. And Jacob
imitated the piety of his grandfather in this
respect, when he vowed to the Lord the
tithe of all the substance he might acquire
in Mesopotamia.
Tithes were not in very earlv days so
important an item of English Church en
dowment as is often supposed. It must be
remembered that until almost the close of
the Saxon period they were merely volun
tary offerings, which could be given or
withheld at pleasure ; and it was not until
much later (thirteenth- century) that any
effort was made by the clergy to enforce
their payment. The difficulty of collecting
and of disposing of offerings in kind which
were useless except for the price they would
command, and which, on the other hand,
could not safely be sent along roads infested
with banditti to a distant market, probably
conduced to lessen their importance in Saxon
times. The history of the growth of the
legal right to tithe in England is as follows :
" It is impossible to say when the duty
of setting apart a tenth of the increase of
each man's land and labour was first taught
in the Christian Church. Probably in the
Apostolic age. We may at any rate take
it as certain that, when the Gospel was
brought into England by St. Augustine,
this was one of the duties impressed by him
on his converts, and observed by them. As
Christianity spread over the land, exercising
an ever-increasing influence over the inhabi
tants, and requiring largely increased means
for the maintenance of its growing work,
the disposition to ask and the willingness
to give tithes, would naturally become more
marked. The Christian duty of tithe-paying
was not likely to be underrated or forgotten
by those for whose benefit the tithes were
given. We may be quite sure as much as
possible was made of the moral obligation
to pay, and of the evil results of non
payment. But the Church went no further
than this at first. While all were exhorted
to pay tithe, and the devout did so, those
who refused broke no canon of the Church,
and therefore incurred no ecclesiastical cen
sure. It was not until the eighth century

TITHES
that the Church of England began to demand
from her members what hitherto she had
been content to receive as a free-will offering
or not at all. The payment of tithes thus
became not only a Christian duty, but also
a matter of Church law. The Anglo-Saxon
kings to some extent — how far it is perhaps
impossible now to ascertain — lent themselves
to the new demand, and seem to have given
to some at least of the decrees of ecclesiastical
synods the force and authority of Royal
laws. What the direct result of these
attempts to invest the Church with a legal
right to tithes may have been is not known,
but apparently it was not very considerable.
The times were unsettled, and even the
frequency with which the laws were re
pealed, and as it were re-enacted, is a sig
nificant comment on the manner of their
reception. Selden, speaking of this 'fuU-
nesse of laws,' parenthetically remarks,
'Howsoever they were little obeyed'
(Review on ch. viii. p. 481). But we can
scarcely be wrong in assuming that these
civil and ecclesiastical laws, although they
may have had comparatively little weight
as laws, were yet influential in confirming
and extending the custom of tithe-paying,
which under the interested care of the
Church had for centuries been growing up.
" It is in this that their real importance
lies. The- fact that the Church, with the
awful powers she was supposed to possess
over the destinies of men, demanded the
consecration of a tenth to the service of
God, and the additional fact that the State
endorsed this demand, must have aoted
powerfully on men's minds, even although
disobedience was not visited with either
excommunication or outlawry. Without,
therefore, enquiring too nicely into the
precise import of any particular law, or the
actual practice at any particular period, we
may safely conclude that, under the pressure
of events, the custom of tithe-paying was,
notwithstanding many drawbacks, growing
and extending throughout the Saxon period.
The Conquest, as Mr. Brewer shows, gave a
great impetus to the tithe system.
" What was this custom ? It was the
dedication of a tenth of each man's increase
to ' God and Holy Church,' but not neces
sarily to any particular priest or parish.
Indeed, the custom of paying tithes began
to develope itself before there were any
parishes in the modern sense of the word.
At first the tithes and offerings were made
at the central church of tho diocese, and
were dispensed by the bishop. The dedica
tion was equally complete, whether the
tenth went to increase the episcopal fund,
to fill the coffers of some wealthy, convent
at a distance, or to pay for the' support of
the poor priest near at hand. Therefore,

TITHES
after parishes were formed, and payment of
tithe to the bishop had ceased to be practised,
although it was obviously the most natural
course to devote the tithes of the land in a
parish to the support of the parson of that
parish, it was not unusual, and practically
it was not discountenanced by the authori
ties, that a landowner should hand over the
whole or a defined part of his tithes to
some monastery or convent, in perpetuity.
This was called a consecration or appropri
ation. It could only be effected by an
actual deed of grant, or by a practice of
payment of such long continuance as to
create a title by prescription. In the
absence of any consecration, the duty to
pay tithes to the parson, and the right of
the parson to demand them, were assumed
without any special dedication.
" The ease and frequency of consecrations
and appropriations may perhaps account, to
some extent, for the apparent hesitation on
the part of the clergy in early times to use
the laws for the purpose of compeUing pay
ment of their tithes. So long as these
appropriations were aUowed, it was useless
to sue a man in respect of an obligation
which he could determine whenever he
chose. But as soon as appropriations were
stopped by ecclesiastical authority, so that
payment to the parson could not be evaded
by payment to somebody else, we find the
parson bringing his action or suit and en
forcing his demand. The nature of his
remedy varied in different circumstances.
If his title to the tithe was denied he had
to go to the Common Law Court, but if it
was merely a case of non-payment, or ' sub
traction of tithe,' the Ecclesiastical Court
was the proper tribunal. This, however, was
only a matter of arrangement by the State
to prevent collision between the two sets of
courts. The right had become a part of
the law of the land. This state of things
was not reached untU the beginning of the
thirteenth century, by which time the cus
tom of paying tithe had become so firmly
established and so generally observed as to be
indisputable, while the possibility of de
frauding the parish by bestowing the tithe
elsewhere was removed. The landowner
was not only bound to pay tithe, but he
was bound to pay it to the parson of his
own parish. Thus the parochial right to tithes
became estabUshed and settled as a common
right, or, as Coke caUs it, part of lex terre.
" The payment of tithes being once esta
blished as a matter of common right, it be
comes unimportant to enquire for any
specific dedication to the Church of the
tithe, arising from any particular law. Tithe
is due ' of right ' to the parson of a parish
from all land in that parish, unless there
can be proved an appropriation dating from

TITHES

737

the time when appropriations were valid.
But it remains none the less true that the
origin of tithes in England is to be found
not in any law but in the free-will offerings
of the people. The establishment of the
right to tithe was only the legal expres
sion of a custom in which the nation ac
quiesced. That custom began in the purely
voluntary gifts of individuals ; it grew in
the manner and under the influences above
described. No real compulsion, so far as
we know, was used. It continued to grow,
getting stronger and more established, until
at last the universal consent of the nation
turned this custom into a part of the common
law of England. Thus it is true that it was
the voluntary devotion of individuals, whose
numbers, increasing age after age, at last
comprised the whole nation, which conferred
on the Church of England her tithes." —
Brewer's Endowments and Establishment.
Editor's notes.
The position of things at the time when
the obligation to pay tithe to the parish
priest had become part of the common law
was this. The tit be in a great number of
parishes had been success fuUy assigned to
monasteries, which however were required
by law to give back a portion (small tithe)
to the clergyman fulfilling the duties of the
cure, retaining the remainder (great tithe)
for their own use. This was the origin of
vicarages. Where there had been no
monastic appropriation of tithes, the whole
were due to the parson. On the dissolution
of the monasteries the appropriated tithes
passed into lay hands and for the most part
have so remained ever since.
There are three kinds of tithes :
(1) Predial, i.e. arising immediately out of
land, as com, hay, wood, fruits, &c.
(2) Mixed, i.e.produce of animals receiving
their nourishment from the land, as calves,
lambs,kids, pigs, chickens, milk, cheese, eggs.
(3) Personal, i.e. arising out of the per
sonal labour of the parishioners.
As to predial and mixed tithes, they
were originally payable in kind, but in 1836
the Tithe Commutation Act (6 & 7 Will.
IV. ch. 71) was passed, by which a rent-
charge graduated from time to time accord
ing to the price of corn, was substituted.
The tithe rent-charge of hops, fruit, and
garden produce, known as "extraordinary
tithe," was so arranged as to become a kind
of shifting burden on the land, payable or
not according as the special cultivation was
adopted or abandoned. Its rate was con
siderably higher than that of ordinary tithe.
It has been a fruitful cause of irritation
between the clergy and the tithe-payers, and
has at last been abolished by Act of Par
liament (49 & 50 Vict. ch. 54). A fixed
charge will take its place. 3 B

733

TITHES

Personal tithe is practically extinct. By
a statute of Ed. VI. (2 & 3 Ed. VI. ch. 13)
it can only be demanded where it is shown
to have been customarily paid for forty
years prior to the Act. By the same Act
restrictions are placed on the payment
of other customary offerings. These were
once numerous, but have long since dis
appeared. Easter offerings form the only
survival of these payments, and by some are
thought to represent personal tithe also.
Easter offerings are said to amount to 2d.
a head for every parishioner old enough
to be a communicant, except in London,
where the charge is supposed, for some un
known reason to be \d. Easter offerings
cannot be legally demanded unless a cus
tom to pay them in the particular place is
proved. [L. T. D.]
The great fall in rents of late has natu
rally raised discussions about the effect of
the Commutation Act, and the Dissenters
have availed themselves of it to get up an
agitation against tithes, nominally on behaff
of the farmers, who it is quite plain are not
the parties affected, as the rent of all land
inevitably varies with whatever rates or
charges they pay by arrangement with their
landlords. On the other hand, there is no
doubt that a fixed rent charge (with the
slight variations due to the mode of reckon
ing it under the Act by corn averages for
the previous seven years) is as hard upon
the landowners as the fixed charges under
their own family settlements and mortgages,
which are never made proportionate to the
rent. Another grievance made by some of
these writers against tithes is that the
averages work injustice with the present
low prices of corn. But that again is an
incident of every kind of commutation or
rent charge. And all these agitators find it
convenient to forget that the excess arising
from both the above causes is much more
than counterbalanced by the fact that, as
Sir J. Caird put it, the tithe in 1836, when
most of the commutations were made, was
about four millions on thirty-three of rental,
while in 1876 it was the same four millions
(and now rather less) on fifty millions—
subject, no doubt, to a considerable decrease
of rental since, but not yet to anything like
the former thirty-three. Moreover, it
should be remembered that the parochial
clergy only receive about £2,410,000 of the
four miUions of tithe, the other 40 per cent.
of it going to impropriators of various kinds,
according to a parliamentary return quoted
by one of the agitators for another purpose.
Rating of Tithes has been the subject of
litigation which is not concluded, and it is
better not to anticipate the result. Some
Welsh justices issued a distress warrant on
a rector for rates on tithes which he had

TOBIT
been unable to recover. The Acts of 6 &
7 W. IV. c. 71 and 1 Vict. c. 6, s. 8, to
gether enact that the rates may be assessed
on the owner of the tithe, but recovered from
the occupiers of the land from which it
arises on giving them 21 days' notice ; and
the first Act contains provisions for the
occupier who so pays to deduct it from his
next payment of rent. Legal opinions have
been given that the justices were wrong,
which is all that can be safely said at pre
sent. [G.]
TITLE (See Orders). Canon 33: "It
has been long since provided by many
decrees of the ancient Fathers, that none
should be admitted, either deacon or priest,
who had not first some certam place where
he might use his function : according to
which examples we do ordain, that hence
forth no person shall be admitted into sacred
orders, except (1) he shaU at that time
exhibit to the bishop, of whom he desireth
imposition of hands, a presentation of himself
to some ecclesiastical preferment then void
in the diocese ; or (2) shall bring to the
said bishop a true and undoubted certificate,
that either he is provided of some church
within the said diocese where he may attend
the cure of souls, or (3) of some minister's
place vacant either in the cathedral church
of that diocese, or in some other coUegiate
church therein also situate, where he may
execute his ministry ; or (4) that he is a
feUow, or in right as a feUow, or (5) to be a
conduct or chaplain in some coUege in
Cambridge or Oxford ; or (6) except he be
a Master of Arts of five years' standing, that
liveth of his own charge in either of the
universities; or (7) except by the bishop
himself that doth ordain him minister, he be
shortly after to be admitted either to some
benefice or curatesbip then void. And if
any bishop shall admit any person into the
ministry that bath none of these titles, as
is aforesaid, then he shall keep and maintain
him with all things necessary, till he do
prefer him to some ecclesiastical Uving ; and
if the said bishop refuse so to do, he shaU be-
suspended by the archbishop, being assisted
with another bishop, from giving of orders-
by the space of a year." It legally follows
from this last clause that a bishop may, if
he pleases, ordain any man of good private
means without any of the specified qualifi
cations. TOBIT, THE BOOK OF. An apocryphal
book of Scripture. It was written in Chal
dee, by some Babylonian Jew, and seems,
in its original draught, to have been the
memoirs of the famUy to which it relates,
first begun by Tobit, then continued by
Tobias, and finished by some other of the
family ; and afterward digested by the
Chaldee author into that form in which we

TOLERATION
now have it. It was translated out of the
Chaldee into Latin by St. Jerome, and bis
translation is that which we have in the
Vulgar Latin edition of the Bible. But
there is a Greek version much older than
this, from which was made the Syriac
version, and also that which we have in
English among the apocryphal writers, in
our Bible. But the Chaldee original is not
now extant. The Hebrew copies of this
book, as weU as of that of Judith, seem to
be of a modern composition (See Dr. Wace's
Apocrypha). Two of the offertory sentences are from
the book of Tobit.
TOLERATION. The old legal meaning
of " toleration " was the permission to profess
religious opinions different from those of the
estabUshed religion for the time, without
liabUity to prosecution or civU disability of
any kind. And in that sense " toleration "
cannot be said to exist any longer, because
everybody is at liberty to do so, provided
such opinions are not uttered with such
indecency and offence to people in general
as to be what is caUed a blasphemous
libel; just as some degree of violence of
expression of political opinion is a " seditious
libel " (see Blasphemy). It is evident that
no a priori rule or definition of them can
be laid down ; the question of degree has to
he determined by the jury that tries each
particular case. Moreover it is to . be re
membered that the dictum of several great
judges, that Christianity is part of the
common law of the land, has never been
overruled. It is too often forgotten that
toleration by the State, which means im
munity from civil disabilities or prosecution
on pubUc grounds, is an entirely different
thing from the absurd demand that any
Church, whether " established " or non-estab
lished, shall not be allowed and enabled to
eject from its own body, and to silence in its
own places of meeting, members, or non-
members, who preach or act contrary to its
own standards of faith or ritual, provided
they are not immoral, in which case no
civU court will assist them, any more
than the owners of copyright of immoral
books, according to a famous decision of
Lord Eldon's. Within those limits the
same court would decide one case in favour
of Popery or Unitarianism and the next
against them, because between different
parties. All this is perfectly weU known
and recognised by the Dissenters, who occa-
sionaUy apply to the courts of law on these
grounds with success ; and yet people go on
uttering platitudes about the intoleranceof
the Church of England because its authorities
are obliged every now and then to resort to
the same kind of proceedings to restrain
ministers who are paid for preaching and

TOLERATION

739

acting according to its written standards of
doctrine and ritual, from doing just the
contrary. And they do not choose to see
that exactly the same proceedings would
take place, only much more summarily and
effectually through the civil courts, if the
Church were disestabUshed. What Dis
senters mean and want by disestablishing
the Church is not liberty of doctrine, but
simply robbery ; for liberty of doctrine has
long been unlimited, except that clergymen
have not liberty to take their wages for
doing one thing, and to do the opposite thing,
as a great judge said in a celebrated case.
The history of the " Toleration Acts," so far
as is material now, is this. So long as the
established reUgion was that of Rome, there
was no such thing as legal toleration, and
the more so as the Papists became more
afraid of Protestantism. That is, there was
no toleration by law, though it was a matter
of discretion with the king and the bishops
in those days how far the laws de heretico
comburendo, which existed from the time of
5 R. II. ses. 2, c. 5, should be put in force.
That first Act, which was passed in 1381,
was to enable the Roman Church to put
down Wiclif and his followers. During all
Henry VIII.'s gradual changes of his own
reUgion and the State's, heretics or dis
senters either way were burnt and be
headed impartially. Nor in the early days
of Protestantism was any toleration of Pa
pists much thought of, for the two very
solid reasons, that Popery was then amply
proved to mean either rebellion or unlimited
persecution, according as it had the lower or
the upper hand. The toleration of the
Puritans while they were dominant was
testified by their abolition and confiscation
and ejectment of every bishop and clergy
man who would not take their tests,
innumerably more than the usurpers of
church benefices who were again turned out
at the Restoration if they would not con
form. We are continuaUy being harangued
about the tyranny of turning out the robbers,
if they refused to conform, but never of the
robbery. The first express Toleration Act
was 1 W. & M. c. 18, for the relief of Pro
testant Dissenters. These penalties, which
had been in force against such as absented
themselves from church, or frequented un
lawful conventicles, were remitted, if they
took the oaths of allegiance and supremacy,
and made a declaration against transubstan
tiation. Papists and persons who denied the
Trinity were excluded from the benefits of
the Act. An attempt was made at the same
time to pass a comprehensive Bill, in order
to admit Dissenters by altering the Uturgy,
and making certain portions of it discre
tionary; but it failed, and has not again
been renewed. The Legislature has no
3 b 2

740

TOLERATION

TONSURE

more right to do that than to aiter the
standards of faith and ritual of any sect,
without its own consent. 53 Geo. III. c.
160, repealed the clause in the Toleration
Act which excepted Unitarians; and the
statutes of 18 Geo. HI. c. 60, 31 Geo. III.
c. 32, and 43 Geo. III. c. 30, removed the
penalties and disabilities to which Romanists
had been subjected. By the "Catholic Eman
cipation Act " (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) Romanists
were restored to the enjoyment of all civil
rights, and by the Act 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115,
it was provided that Roman Catholics should
be subject to the same laws as appUed to
Protestant Dissenters. By the Acts of 7
& 8 Vict. c. 102, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 59, and 21
& 22 Vict. c. 48, both Romanists and Jews
are reUeved from all enactments that had
been against them, and are thus admitted to
all the privileges of the constitution. The
law commonly called the "Test and Cor
poration Acts," that all taking any office,
Dissenters or not, should have taken the
sacrament of the Lord's supper according to
the rites of the Church of England, within
a year, were abrogated by 9 Geo. TV. c. 17.
By the "Ecclesiastical Titles Act," 1851,
though repealed as to the penalties in 1858,
it is unlawful for Roman bishops to use
English territorial titles, which Pope Pius
IN. had presumed to confer. Another con
cession to Dissenters was made by 18 & 19
Vict. c. 36 ; by which they are allowed to
certify their places of worship to, and register
them with, the registrar-general of births,
deaths, and marriages, and when so certified
they are exempt from all interference. By
19 & 20 Vict. c. 119, ministers of religious
bodies outside the Church of England are
empowered to officiate at marriages in their
registered chapels, the superintendent-regis
trar of the district being present. By a later
Act of 1880 any others beside the ordained
ministers of the Church of England are
aUowed to perform the burial service in
churchyards, and any " Christian " burial
service that they choose (See Burial).
At that time of the " Emancipation Act "
of 1829, nothing looked less formidable
or aggressive than Popery. Yet before the
Act had attained the age of 21 years all
England was resounding with the phrase
" Papal Aggression," and Lord Melbourne
said that " all the clever men had been on
one side in 1829, and all the fools on the
other, and yet all that the fools predicted
had come to pass, and nothing that the
clever men had" (See Eccl. Titles Act).
The many Acts that have since been passed
at the demand of the Dissenters have nothing
to do with toleration, and have latterly be
come just the contrary, being simply the
stealing of property given forthe maintenance
of the Church and of education for it. And

though every kind of statistics proves that
Churchmen contribute to all general charities
both civil and religious, and to schools, three
times as much as all the Dissenters together,
the latter claim, and have in many cases got,
equal or more control over them, and are
now set upon destroying all voluntary schools
because they are generally Chm-ch schools.
They have succeeded, by the Education -
Act of 1870 and its successors, in making
Churchmen who maintain their own schools
pay a double tax : which those whose duty
and profession it is to defend the interests
of the Church in Parliament did nothing to
prevent. Not long ago the Dissenters, or
persons in the same interest, tried a lawsuit
to prevent a new foundation of a Church of
England college at Oxford, having destroyed
already the ecclesiastical character of the old
ones. And now they are themselves trying
to establish one there, of which " every pro
fessor shall declare on his appointment that
he is a dissenter from the Established
Church," though with the still odder qualifi
cation that he believes every one of tho
principal doctrines of the Church down to
infant baptism. The only one not specified
is episcopacy ; but there is no prohibition of
beUef even in that if they choose, provided
only they declare that they dissent from
the Church with liberty to believe aU its
doctrines. Probably this is the first time
in history that schism has been treated as
the condition for enjoying the privileges and
endowments of a Christian society. It was
always defended before as the only means
of retaining orthodoxy. These people are
making it plainer every day that modern
dissent is not theological, but only hatred
of the Church. [G.]
TOUCHING FOR THE EVIL (See
King's Evil ; Cramp-rings).
TONSURE. The cutting off the hair of
the head either wholly or partiaUy, as a
sign of dedication to the clerical or monastic
life. A clerical tonsure was made necessary
about the fifth or sixth century. No men
tion is made of it before, and it is first
spoken of with decided disapprobation.
The ancient tonsure of the Western clergy
by no means consisted in shaven crowns:
this was expressly forbidden them, lest, as
St. Jerome says (lib. iii. in Ezek. c. 44),
they should resemble the priests of Isis and
Serapis, who shaved the crowns of their
heads. But the ecclesiastical tonsure was
nothing more than polling the head, and
cutting the hair to a moderate degree.
After a time different fashions were adopted
by the clerical tensors, and something
emblematical was discovered in the manner
in which the scissors were directed. The
Eastern clergy were accustomed to shave
the whole of the head, leaving only the

TRACERY
hair on the hinder part untouched. The
Celtic clergy, including the British, shaved
all the hair in front of a line drawn over the
top of the head from ear to ear ; whereas the
Italians shaved their heads according to
what they called the tonsure of St. Peter,
vvhich consisted of a circle of hair round the
shorn top of the head, supposed to represent
the crown of thorns, and called therefore the
coronal tonsure. The earliest representation
of this is in a sixth century mosaic of St.
Apollinaris at Ravenna. So completely was
this considered a party badge, that the
question of tonsure was one of the gravest
subjects of dispute between the adherents of
Celtic or Scottish usages in England and of
the Roman. When Wilfrith, who had been
brought up in the Scottish school, visited
Gaul and became converted to Roman
fashions, he received the coronal tonsure at
Lyons. — Hook's Archbishops, i. xv. ; Eddius.
Vita Wilfr.
TRACERY. The ornamental frame-work
in a window, or in a compartment of panel
ling or screen-work. The first form of
tracery was doubtless suggested by the
pierced circle often found between the
heads of two lancets, and connected with
them by a single hood.
The next advance was to combine two
such pairs and put another circle over
them, so as to make a window of four
(upright) " lights," with two small circles
over them, and one large one over all, under
one arch which was generally " equilateral,"
or such as would contain an equilateral
triangle. Then came windows of three and
six lights, and more, up to nine, as at Lin
coln, Carlisle, Exeter, and now St. Alban's,
with circles over them, of which various
forms may be seen in any architectural
hooks. It is unsatisfactory to indicate
tracery in pictures by mere lines, as the
thickness of the tracery bars is an essential
feature of the construction, and mere lines
give a false idea of the effect, and they look
poor without foliation or cusps (q. v.).
Some of the finest windows would appear
impossible to construct when only the cen
tral lines of the bars are shown. We have
already explained the differences between
the tracery of the Early or Geometrical,
and the Late or Flowing Decorated, and the
Perpendicular styles (See also Windows;
and Sharpe's Decorated Window Tracery).
And the term is not confined to windows ;
it is also used for any open paneUing with
ornamental bars, and even for mere sunk
panelling in the ends of stalls and such-like
places, and sometimes large doors are so
ornamented. [G]
TRACT, in the Roman Missal, is an
anthem, generally taken from the Psalms,
foUowing, and sometimes substituted for,

TRADITION

741

the Gradual (i.e. the anthem after the
Epistle), during penitential seasons, as the
third Sunday in Advent, the three Sundays
before Lent, Sundays, Mondays, Wednes
days, and Fridays in Lent, Easter Saturdays,
and Easter Even, and certain holidays.
Cardinal Bona says it is ' so called, " a
trahendo: quia tractim et graviter, et
prolixo descensu cantatur," because it is
sung in a protracted or slow manner.
TRADITION. Tradition sometimes
means the doctrine held by Christians, as
distinguished from the same doctrine written
in the Bible. It is also used as an equiva
lent to " custom " as in the 34th Article.
Traditions in the former sense may be
divided into those which have been
commonly maintained in some particular
age only, or which a portion of the Church
has maintained without separating from the
rest: aud those which the great body of
Christians from the beginning have always
held to be articles of the faith. The former
class of tradition may be certainly true, but
the ecclesiastical authority which supports
them can only render them probable. The
latter sort of traditions afford an irresistible
confirmation of the doctrine of Scripture,
and a certain test of the correctness of
Scripture interpretation. It is not here
meant that the real sense of Scripture is
obscure in any points of faith, so that it is
necessary to consult previously the traditions
and judgments of the universal Church.
Romanists do not hold that. " Our assertion
is not that all the passages of Scripture are
so obscure that in order to explain and fix
their meaning it is indispensable to recur
to a judge. We say that there are some
which ignorance, carelessness, bad reasoning,
passion, party interest, may pervert, and in
fact may have perverted, to a meaning
contrary to sound doctrine (Card, de la
Luzerne, Diss, sur les Eglises Cath. et Prot
t. i. p. 59). The difference between the
Anglo-Catholic and the common Roman
Catholic doctrine of tradition is this. The
former only admits tradition as confirma
tory of the true meaning of Scripture, the
latter asserts that it is also supplementary
to Scripture, conveying doctrines which
Scripture has omitted. "We hold," says
the writer quoted above (torn U. p. 321),
but the Church of England denies, "that
unwritten tradition is an irrefragable rule cf
faith in two ways: first by itself, because
there are truths which have only been
given to the Church by this way : secondly,
because it is the most certain interpreter
of the Holy Scripture, and the infallible
means of knowing its meaning (See Palmer's
Treatise on the Church, ii. 44). [H.]
The difference between traditionary facts
and traditionary doctrines is not always

742

TRADITION

sufficiently observed. Tradition alone
cannot prove a doctrine to be true, or an
essential part of Christianity. All that it
can prove is that the doctrine was held
more or less generally, according to the
evidence, so far back as the time to which
the evidence carries it. And no rules can
be laid down as to the evidence that is
sufficient to prove anything. To take a
doctrine unquestioned by all churchmen,
the propriety of infant baptism: hardly
anybody doubts the evidence or tradition
that it was practised from the earliest times.
That is all that tradition can do for it. But
as it is not opposed to any teaching of our
Lord or the Apostles, but rather agree
able thereto (Art. 27), all people, except
those of a particular sect, take that to be
sufficient to establish it. On the other
hand, no traditionary evidence of opinions
as to its effect, or the consequences of dying
without baptism, can be properly said to prove
anything, according to the sixth article : —
" whatsoever is not read in Holy Scripture,
nor may be proved thereby, is not to be
required of any man to be believed as an
article of faith." Tradition of facts alone is
quite another thing, and there is an un
reasonable tendency nowadays to under
value it, and to imagine that almost any
history or tradition of facts not intrinsically
incredible can be overborne by ingenious
conjectures of probabilities. Archbishop
Whately's Historic Doubts (about the history
of Napoleon and some later French events)
was written to expose the absurdity of such
conjectures; for he showed that even very
recent history was full of the greatest impro
babilities, and apparently quite inconsistent'
with the then present state of Europe ; andit I
now appears still more so. Within living
memory it was the fashion with " advanced "
scholars to believe that Niebuhr had success
fully rewritten early Roman history, and that
Bunsen and others had expanded Egyptian
history into periods of -enormous length.
Such beliefs have all vanished again. Hero
dotus has been in effect called a liar in still
more recent times, but is now again recog
nised as the father of history, and not of
lies, where he professes to relate facts.
Dr. Salmon, in his recent " Introduction
to the New Testament," points out the much
greater probability of the primitive traditions
that St. Paul did write the Epistle to the
Hebrews and that the Apocalypse was
written in the time of Domitian, than of any
actual or possible guesses, from what the
guessers call internal evidence, that the
Epistle was written by somebody else, and
that the Apocalypse was revealed as early as
Nero, or before the destruction of Jerusalem.
People forget the immense probability of
the tradition itself being true, and especially

TRANSEPT
people who have not the least hesitation in
imputing forgery to every written tradition
or contemporaneous history which they do
not like. They think if they can make out
that the a priori or internal probabilities,
from style or anything else, are what they
want, the business is done : whereas those
probabilities are themselves always doubtful
and disputed, and the turn of a probability
is worth scarcely anything against actual
history or tradition coming close up to the
time of the events. [G]
TRADITIONS OF THE CHURCH (See
Ceremony). " It is not necessary that tra-*
ditions and ceremonies be in all places one,
and utterly like ; for at all times they
have been divers, and may be changed
according to the diversities of countries,
times, and men's manners, so that nothing
be ordained against God's word. Whoso
ever, through his private judgment, will
ingly and purposely, doth openly break the
traditions and ceremonies of the Church,
which be not repugnant to the word of
God, and be - ordained and approved by
common authority, ought to be rebuked
openly (that others may fear to do the
like), as he that offendeth against the com
mon order of the Church, and hurteth the
authority of the magistrate, and woundeth
the consciences of the weak brethren.
" Every particular or national Church
hath authority to ordain, change, and
abolish, ceremonies or rites of the Church
ordained only by man's authority, so that
all things be done to edifying." — Article
XXXIV. The word " tradition " is not here used
in the same sense in which it was used in
the explanation of the sixth Article. It ,
there signified unwritten articles of faith,
asserted to be derived from Christ and
His apostles : in this' Article it means cus
toms or practices, relative to the external
worship of God, which had been delivered
down from former times ; that is, in the
sixth Article, traditions meant traditional
doctrines, of pretended Divine authority;
and in this it means traditional practices
acknowledged to be of human institution.
__ _£J1?. [L07Yhl%7h(j
TRADITORS (Traitors). Persons who,
in times of persecution, delivered the sacred
Scriptures and sacred utensUs of the church,
in fact anything that was demanded of
them, to the persecutors. The first Council
of Aries (can. 13), which was held immedi
ately after the Diocletian persecution, makes
it deposition from his order for any clergyman,
who could be convicted by his public acts of
this crime, either of betraying the Scriptures,
or any of the holy vessels, or the names of
his brethren.
TRANSEPT. 1. The transverse portion

TRANSITION
right across cruciform churches. 2. The
northern or southern end of them, exclusive
of the intervening tower or space (See
Cathedral). TRANSITION. About the year 1145
the use of the pointed arch was introduced
into EngUsh architecture, and with this so
many constructive changes in the fabric,
that though Norman decorations were long
retained, and even the round arch was used,
except in the more important constructive
portions, a style equally distinct from
Norman and from Early English was the
result, and this style is called Semi-Norman
or Transition. Before the close of the twelfth
century, the round arch had almost entirely
disappeared,and the Early EngUsh, or Lancet,
style was fully developed about 1190. But
all the changes are equally called Transitions.
TRANSLATION. I. The removal of a
bishop from the charge of one diocese to
that of another, in which case the bishop in
his attestations writes "anno translationis
nostra?," not " anno consecrationis nostras."
II. In literature, the rendering of a work
from the original into another language.
All the scriptural portions of the Prayer
Book are not derived from the translation
in common use. For example, the Psalter
is from the great English Bible set forth
and used in the time of Henry VIII. and
Edward VI., mainly Coverdale's which he
printed in 1535. It was reprinted in 1838.
III. In the Roman Church, when two
festivals of a certain class concur on the
same day with other festivals of the same or
similar class, the celebration of one or other
of these festivals is transferred to some
future day, according to rules which are
given in the Breviary and Missal. This is
called a translation.
IV. The removal of a body from one
place to another. Thus, when the relics of
St. Martin were removed from his burial
place at Cande to the basilica dedicated to
his honour at Tours, it was called the " trans
lation " of St. Martin, and the fact was com
memorated in a festival under that name.
Edward, king of the West Saxons, murdered
at Corfe Castle, and buried without any
solemnity, was three years afterwards "trans
lated " to Shaftesbury. [H.]
TRANSOM. A horizontal mullion, or
cross-bar, in a window, or in panelling.
The transom first occurs in late Decorated
windows, and in Perpendicular windows of
large size it is of universal occurrence. It
was probably adopted in consequence of the
attenuation of the upright mullions which
began in the Late Decorated style.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This word
is used to express the doctrine held by the
Church of Rome, and enforced upon all her
members concerning the condition of the

TRANSUBSTANTIATION 743
consecrated elements in the Sacrament of the
Eucharist. It is held that while the accidents
of bread and wine (colour, taste, smeU, &c.)
remain — in short everything that indicates
their nature and substance — the substance of
them is transmuted into the very substance
of the natural body of our Saviour Jesus
Christ. There has taken place, it is said, a
conversion of the whole substance of tbe
bread into the substance of His Body, and
of the whole substance of the wine into the
substance of His Blood.
The doctrine of the Church of Rome which
is thus expressed has been emphatically
rejected by the Church of England. At the
time of the Reformation no point of dif
ference was debated at greater length, or
with greater warmth, than this. The judg
ment of the Church of England is expressed
in the Twenty-eighth Article of Religion.
" Transubstantiation (or the. change of the
substance of bread and wine) in the Supper
of the Lord, cannot be proved by holy writ ;
but is repugnant to the plain words of
Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a
Sacrament, and hath given occasion to
many superstitions."
The idea expressed by this word is thus
held to be a false development, and per
version, of the views concerning the con
dition and use of the sacred elements which
prevailed originally in the Church of Christ.
It is not denied that the consecrated elements
are no longer to be considered as common
bread and wine ; nor that Christ, as Hooker
says (E. P. bk. v., lxvii. 11), " doth by His
own divine power add tothenatural substance
. . . supernatural efficacy, which additions to
the nature of the consecrated elements maketh
them that unto us which otherwise they
could not be." But to draw from this the
inference that tbe elements have undergone
an actual physical change in then natural
substance, and to proceed to analyse and
define this change, is regarded justly as a
dangerous and presumptuous speculation.
The consistency of the doctrine of the Church
of England with Holy Scripture, and with
the language used by early Christian writers,
has been abundantly vindicated. It is
sufficient to refer to Bishop Cosin's Historia
Transubstantiationis (cc. v.-vii.); Bishop
Harold Browne on the Articles (Art. xxviu.
pp. 681-695. Ed. ii.).
The word transubstantiation is believed
to have come into use in the course of the
11th or 12th century. The idea which it
represents had been the subject of much
debate for some centuries before. Paschasius
Radbert, abbot of Corbie (c. 840), is generally
considered as the first writer by whom it
was distinctly enunciated. On the other
hand, Bertram (or Ratramn), also a monk
of Corbie some thirty or forty years

744

TRAVERSE

later, whose book was censured by the
Council of Trent, maintained the absence of
any corporal, or physical, change in the
sacred elements. At the Lateran Council,
1216, under Pope Innocent III., the word
transubstantiation was sanctioned, and the
doctrine implied by it enforced. At the
CouncU of Trent, 1551, the dogma of tran
substantiation was formally reaffirmed ; and
finally it was inserted as an article of faith
in the creed of Pope Pius IV.
These innovations on the doctrine of the
primitive Church, thus unhappily sanctioned
and enforced, have created, and rendered
permanent, one of the most important points
of difference between the Church of England
and the Church of Rome (See Real Pre
sence). [J. G. H.]
TRAVERSE. A seat of state with a
canopy, formerly placed at the upper end of
the choir in the royal chapels, and tem
porarily in cathedrals, for the use of the
sovereign. TREASURER. A dignitary formerly
existing in all cathedrals and collegiate
churches of the old foundation in England,
and in Ireland and Scotland in such churches
as followed the English model. The treasurer
was not the bursar, but rather the chief
sacristan. It is the old English cyrcward,
and mediaeval perpetual sacristan (See Sa
cristan). He had tbe care of the plate,
vestments, furniture, necessaries of Divine
service; the control of the sacristan and
inferior officers, of the bells, and the general
superintendence of the fabric. This dignity
was founded at York in the 11th ; at Chi
chester, Lichfield, Wells, Hereford, and St.
Paul's, in the 12th; at St. David's and
Llandaff in the 13th century. But at the
Reformation the dignity fell into disuse in
many cathedrals. Inmany foreign churches
the place of treasurer was discharged by a
dignitary called a sacristan ; but in others,
as at Glasgow, and the royal chapel, Stir
ling, there was a treasurer and a sacristan,
both dignitaries. At York it was abolished
in 1547. In cathedrals of the new founda
tion, the treasurer is merely the bursar;
the canons taking this office " in annual
rotation. — Jebb; Walcott's Sac. Arch, p.
588. [H.]
TRENT, COUNCIL OP (See Roman
Catholic Church, Popery, Council of Trent).
This important council met in 1545, and
was dissolved in 1563. Its nominal period
extended over eighteen years, but its actual
sessions occupied less than five. Protestants
from the days of Luther had been urgent
for the convocation of a free synod. They
had reiterated the demand at Nuremberg,
and Ratisbon and Spires. There were in
deed on both sides earnest and pious persons
who were anxious that the questions at issue

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
should be settled by competent authority.
The evU Uves of the clergy, and the general
disorders of the Church, afforded another
strong reason by which many were in
fluenced. At the same time, the endless
extortions of the Papal chancery had raised
disputes in every European state, which
there seemed no other hope of aUaying. It
was the great object of the pope and his
adherents to condemn Lutheran doctrine,
and to avoid definition on points disputed in
the Roman Church. Clement VII. had
promised that a general councU should be
held in Italy for raising subsidies against the
Turks, and for the suppression of heresy,
but he reaUy used his influence to prevent
its assembling. On his death in 1534 his
successor, Paul III., published a bull of
convocation. Various difficulties howeve?
arose, partly on account of the proposed
place of meeting, and partly through the
war between the emperor and the king of
France, and interposed a delay of some
years. The city of Trent in the Tyrol, on
the confines of Italy and Germany, and now
in the dominions of Austria, was at length
selected, the summons was issued, and the
councU was opened December 13, 1545.
The meeting had been so long deferred, that
when a few ecclesiastics and others assem
bled, it was hardly believed that the synod
was really convened ; and the importance
of the movement was not perceived until
somewhat later.
The first three sessions were occupied by
preUminary matters, after which the actual
business commenced. The constitution of
the assembly, as well as the form of pro
cedure, was governed by arbitrary rules»
The legates presided as the representatives
of the pope ; who also appointed the secre
taries and other officers. Bishops alone
were allowed to vote, but an exception was.
made in the case of certain abbots and
generals of orders, for whose admission no
precedent could however be aUeged, but
such as would be equaUy availing for aU
presbyters. Proxies were generaUy refused,
although some were allowed by the sole
authority of the pope. AU discussions were
confined to previous congregations, and in
the sessions which foUowed there was no
deliberation, but only the acceptance or
rejection of the proposed conclusions. The
judgments of the councU were embodied
partly in decrees which profess to contain
the Catholic doctrine on the points in ques
tion, partly in canons by which the con
trary opinions are anathematized as here
tical. In the fourth session, which began
AprU 5, 1546, somewhat less than fifty
bishops being present, it was decreed that
the canon of Scripture includes the bjoks

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
commonly called apocryphal, and that
tradition is to be received as of equal au
thority with the written Word; that the
Vulgate is to be taken for the standard
text, and no interpretation allowed but
such as the Church has affixed. In the
fifth session the decree on original sin was
passed; in the sixth, that on justification;
and in the seventh, that on the sacraments
in general, and baptism and confirmation
in particular. In the eighth session, the
removal to Bologna was appointed, where
the two foUowing sessions were held ; but
no decrees were passed, and in September,
1547, the council was prorogued. The
translation to an Italian city had been made
under a bull of Paul III., when the German
bishops were urgent for reformation, and
there seemed no other escape. A disease
which broke out at Trent was the alleged
excuse. In 1551 the council was again
convened by Julius III., who had been
present at a former period as legate. The
eleventh and twellth sessions were spent in
formal business ; in the thirteenth the sa
crament of the Eucharist was treated ; in the
fourteenth the sacraments of penance and
extreme unction; in the fifteenth, a safe
conduct was granted to the Protestants ;
and in the sixteenth, which was held in
April, 1552, the prorogation of the councU
for two years was decreed. Paul IV. was,
however, resolutely opposed to its revival, on
the ground that his authority was higher
than that of a synod, which was therefore
needless ; and by the threat of secular reforma
tion he deterred some princes from urging
the reassembling of the council, which did
not take place tiU January 1562, when the
seventeenth session was held under Pius IV.
In the eighteenth, certam of the Fathers
were appointed to prepare an index of pro
hibited books, and at the same time the
safe-conduct was removed ; in the eighteenth
and nineteenth no business was transacted ;
in the twenty-first, the communion under
one kind was enjoined for all, except the
celebrant ; in the twenty-second, the sacri
fice of the mass was declared to be a true
and Catholic doctrine ; in the twenty-third,
the subject handled was the sacrament of
orders ; in the twenty-fourth, the sacrament
of matrimony; and in the twenty-fifth, de
crees were passed on purgatory, the invo
cation of saints, the worship of relics and
images, indulgences, fasting, the index of
prohibited books, the catechism, the bre
viary, and the missal. Alter which, the
decrees passed under Paul III. and Julius
III. were read, and the council was dis
solved. In reviewing the history of this remark
able assembly, it is impossible to overlook
the want of unity both in purpose and

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

745

opinion among its members. The repre
sentatives of the German emperor, of the
kings of France and Spain, of the duke
of Bavaria, and of other secular princes,
urgently demanded the reformation of the
Church, while the partisans of the Roman
court were desirous only to suppress Pro
testantism. There were none but Italians
on whom the pope could entirely depend,,
for even the Spanish prelates wished his
power to be restrained, and that of other
bishops to be enlarged. The Germans and
French demanded the restoration of the cup,
and the marriage of the clergy, while the
Spaniards, who opposed them on these
points, were united with them on some
others against the Roman faction. One
great party was urgent that the later
sessions should be declared a continuation
of the earlier, while another vehemently
opposed the declaration ; and the council
never ventured to rule the question either
way. There were endless conflicts between
the bishops and the monastic orders, and
of Franciscans and Dominicans, with each
other. Whether the Blessed Virgin was
conceived without sin ; what is the true
nature of transubstantiation ; whether Christ
offered Himself in the holy supper ; whether
the apostles were ordained priests at that
time or previously, — were among the topics
of vehement contention. On the subject of
the great doctrine of justification by faith,
the members of the council were far from
being agreed, and it is beyond denial that
some of them held the Protestant view.
Even the scanty number who ventured to-
decide on the canon of Scripture, and on
tradition, were at variance among them
selves. Some disputes lasted throughout
the whole period, such as whether the
councU should be said to represent the
universal Church; whether the legates
should have the privilege of proposing ali
matters for debate; and whether doctrine
should precede reformation. The question
of the residence of bishops, that is, whether
it is binding by Divine ordinance, or by the
law of the Church, in which important
considerations were involved, excited long-
and angry conflicts. Day after day, through
weeks and months of the most critical
period, the dispute was renewed. The
legates themselves were divided ; and at
one time the dissolution of the council
seemed inevitable.
There are many controverted points on
which the council gives no information,
and they are the very questions which it
was most important to decide. No one-
can learn from its decrees, for instance,
what is the settled doctrine about purgai-
tory, nor in what due veneration for images
consists, nor which is the sacramental form

746

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

in penance, or matrimony, nor what is the
nature of original sin, nor what is the pro
per definition of a sacrament. There were
some subjects debated more than suffi
ciently, but left at last undecided; and
there were some positions which the coun
cil could not renounce, because this would
have contradicted the decrees of former
popes and councils, and which they could
not affirm, because they were opposed by
powerful members of the existing Church.
In spite, however, of the imperfect and
contradictory statements of the Fathers of
Trent, they had no hesitation in pro
nouncing judgment on what they esteemed
Lutheran opinions. We can indeed find
no parallel for the prodigality of their
curses, unless we go back to the days of
the Donatists. They reach not only to
those whom the Church of all ages has
-called blessed, but to many also of the
doctors most esteemed in the Roman com
munion itself. If any one, for example,
denies that the works of justified persons
are truly meritorious of eternal life, or
that the mass is a true and propitiatory
sacrifice, or that the custom of confessing
privately to a priest has existed from the
apostolic age, or that the Church has power
¦to change an institution of Christ, he
falls under the imprecation of the council.
In the decree of the last session on the
invocation of saints, and the use of images
and relics, an anathema is pronounced, not
only against those who teach, but those
who even think differently. And yet the
synod which spoke with so much boldness
had no claim, either from numbers or
character, to be taken as representative of
the Catholic Church. In the first seven
sessions held under Paul III., when the
ground was laid for maintaining all the
errors and corruptions of the Roman Church,
less than sixty bishops were present. In
the thirteenth, under Julius III., when
transubstantiation and the worship of the
Rost were defined, only forty-five bishops
and two cardinals were assembled. And in
the ninth session there were only thirty-
five collected, who yet presumed to take the
title of an CScumenical Council. In the
later sessions held under Pius IV., there
was a greater number of bishops at Trent ;
but the chief subjects in dispute had been
ruled in the earlier periods of the council,
and the deficiency of numbers was not
remedied by any subsequent confirmation.
Of those who were present, the chief part
were Italians ; some were bishops of incon
siderable sees, and some mere titulars.
There were among them not a few who
subsisted on pensions granted by the pope.
The council was in no sense the free as
sembly to which Luther and others had

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
appealed, for it was guided throughout by
papal influence ; and, as the Protestants
complained in 1546, it was not Convened
in a neutral place, while the pope, who was
the great delinquent on trial, was allowed to
be the judge in his own cause. There were
external causes at work, which prevented
the freedom of debate. At the very time
when the doctrine of justification was under
review, a league was formed between the
pope and the emperor for putting down the
Protestants; and whUe the council was
debating the bishop of Rome was sending
his contingent of troops. In the council
itself, the legates assumed unreasonable
authority, and their interruptions were the
subject of continual complaint. During the
later sessions, the Inquisition was in full
force, and there were persons present in the
council who had been sufferers. The as
sembly was over-borne by Italian prelates.
At one time, when very important subjects
were under discussion, there were no more
than two bishops to represent the Church of
France. On another occasion, forty bishops
were sent by the Roman court for the
purpose of carrying a particular point, by
outvoting the Spanish bishops, by whom it
was opposed. We find the ambassadors of
secular princes expressing in the strongest
language their sense of the tryanny under
which the councU was held, and by which
its freedom was annihilated.
No one who considers these circum
stances can wonder that the beneficial re
forms of the Church did not result, which
had been so long expected and so anxiously
desired. They had been demanded, but
in vain, by the emperor, and other great
princes, as well as by diets and other as
semblies of the empire. Even as late as
1503, the French ambassador delivered a
list of thirty-four articles of required re
formation. After the twenty-second ses
sion we find the Imperialists affirming that
none of the desired changes had been pro
posed. And just before the close of the
council, the Spanish ambassador came to
the legates with a written complaint, that
the principal things for which it was as
sembled had been omitted, and the rest
carried with precipitation. The French
envoy fiUed the letters which he addressed
to his court with similar testimony. What
ever beneficial changes in the administra
tion of Church affairs seemed to have been
made, were neutralized by the terms in
which the rights of the see of Rome were
reserved, and which were vague enough to
admit every abuse, the pope himself being
constituted judge in each case, and possess
ing also a dispensing power.
The last session was brought hastily to
a close, partly through the diplomatic skiU

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
of the legate Morone ; but chiefly on ac
count of the illness of the pope, because
everybody knew that if he died during
_ the sitting of the assembly, a schism was
' inevitable. The history of the council was written,
in 1619, by Sarpi, and forty years later by
Cardinal Pallavicini. The former was the
most learned person of the age, a states
man and historian as well as a divine ; the
latter is chiefly known as an apologist of
the court and Church of Rome. His work
has been described as more injurious to
papal interests than that of his prede
cessor ; because if the one has shown how
much may be said against the Council of
Trent, the other has made it equally plain
how little can be alleged in its defence.
The decrees of the council were signed
by only 255 members : four of these were
legates of the papal see ; two, cardinals ;
three, patriarchs ; twenty-five, archbishops ;
one hundred and sixty-eight, bishops ;
thirty-nine, deputies of absent prelates ;
seven, abbots ; and seven were generals of
religious orders. The Greek Church and
the English Church were not represented.
It was subscribed on separate schedules, by
the ambassadors of the sovereigns who still
adhered to the Romish system.
The following are the anathemas of the
council. I. "The sacred oecumenical and general
synod of Trent, lawfully assembled in the
Holy Ghost, and presided over by the
three legates of the apostolic see, having
it constantly in view that, by the removal
of errors, the gospel, which, promised afore
time in the Holy Scriptures by the pro
phets, Christ himself first published with
his own mouth, and then commanded his
apostles to preach to every creature, as the
source of all saving truth and instruction
of manners, should be preserved pure in the
Church; and clearly perceiving that this
truth and this instruction are contained
in written books and unwritten traditions,
which traditions have been received by the
apostles from the month of Christ himself,
or dictated by the Holy Spirit, and by
the apostles handed down even to us, re
ceives and reverences, conformably to tbe
example of the orthodox Fathers, with the
same pious regard and veneration, all tbe
books as well of the Old as of the New
Testament —both having God for their
author, and the traditions relating both to
faith and practice, inasmuch as these tradi
tions were either delivered by word of mouth,
from Christ, or dictated by the Holy
Ghost, and preserved by uninterrupted
succession in the Catholic Church. The
books received by this council are, of the
Old Testament, the five books of Moses, viz.,

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

747

Genesis, &c, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four of
Kings, two of Chronicles, first of Esdras,
second of Esdras, called Nehemias, Tobias,
Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms of David,
consisting of 150, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Cantica, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, with Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel,
twelve minor prophets, viz., Hosea, &c,
the first and second of Maccabees. Of .
the New Testament, the four Gospels, the
Acts of the Apostles, the Epistle of St.
Paul the Apostle to the Romans, two to
the Corinthians, one to the Galatians, one
to the Ephesians, one to the Philippians,
one to the Colossians, two to the Thes
salonians, two to Timothy, one to Titus,
one to Philemon, one to the Hebrews, the
Epistle catholic of St. James, the two Epis
tles of St. Peter, the three Epistles of St.
John, the Epistle of St. Jude, and the
Revelations of St. John.
Whosoever shall not receive these books,
entire with all their parts (i.e. the Apo
crypha as well as the canonical books), as
they are used to be read in the (Roman)
Catholic Church, and are contained in the
ancient Vulgate Latin edition, for sacred
and canonical, and shall knowingly and
wilfully contemn the aforesaid traditions :
let him be accursed (See Bible, Scripture,
Apocrypha). II. Moreover, in order to repress the
arrogant and self-sufficient, the council
decrees, that no one, relying on his own
wisdom, shall presume to pervert and in
terpret Holy Scripture to his own sense,
in matters of faith and manners, pertain
ing to the edification of Christian doctrine,
contrary to the sense which hath been and
is maintained by the holy mother Church,
to whom it belongs to judge of the true
meaning and interpretation of the. Holy
Scriptures, or contrary to the unanimous
consent of the Fathers, even if such inter
pretations should never be made public
(See Fathers and Tradition).
III. Whosoever shaU say, that the sacra
ments of the New Law were not all in
stituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, or that
they are more or less in number than seven ;
that is to say, baptism, confirmation, the
Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction,
orders, and matrimony ; or that any one of
these seven is not truly and properly a
sacrament : let him be accursed (See Seven
Sacraments). IV. Whosoever shall say, that by the
sacraments of the New Law, grace is not
conferred by the mere performance of the act,
but that faith alone in the Divine promise
is sufficient to obtain grace : let him be ac
cursed (See Opus Operatum).
V. Whosoever shall say, that it is not
requisite that the ministers, when celebrating

748

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

the sacraments, should have, at least, the
intention of doing that which the Church
doeth : let him be accursed (See Intention,
Priests'). VI. Whosoever shall say, that the free
wUl of man, after the sin of Adam, was lost
and extinguished : let him be accursed '(See
Free Will).
VII. The formal cause of justification is
the righteousness of God : not that where
by he is himself righteous, but that where
by he maketh us righteous; that with
which we, being by him endowed, are re
newed in the spirit of our mind, and are
not only accounted, but are truly called.
and are righteous, each of us receiving into
himself righteousness, according to the
measure whereby the Spirit divideth to
every man severally as he will, and accord
ing to every man's disposition and co-opera
tion (See Sanctification).
VIII. Whosoever shall say, that the un
godly is justified by faith alone, so as to
understand that nothing else is required
to co-operate in obtaining the grace of justi
fication ; and that it is by no means neces
sary that he should be prepared and disposed
by the motion of his own will : let him be
accursed (See Justification).
IX. Whosoever shall say, that in the
mass there is not a true and proper sacrifice
offered up to God, and that the offering
up is no more than the giving us Christ to
eat : let him be accursed (See Satisfaction,
Romish). X. Whosoever shall say, that by these
words, " This do in remembrance of me,"
Christ did not ordain the apostles, priests,
or that he did not appoint that they and
other priests should offer up his body and
blood : let him be accursed (See Orders).
XI. Whosoever shall say, that the sa
crifice of the mass is one only of praise and
thanksgiving, or a bare commemoration of
the sacrifice made on the cross, but not a
propitiatory sacrifice, or that it is profitable
only to the partaker, and that it ought not
to be offered up for the quick and the dead
for sins, pains, satisfactions, and other ne
cessities : let him be. accursed (See Mass,
Sacrifice of).
XII. Whosoever shaU deny, that in the
most holy sacrament of the eucharist, the
body and blood, together with the soul and
Divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ, and,
consequently, the whole of Christ, are truly,
really, and substantially contained; but
shall say that they are there only symboli
cally, figuratively, or virtually : let him be
accursed (See Real Presence and Iransub-
stantiation). XIII. Whosoever shall say, that in the
holy sacrament of the eucharist, the sub
stance of bread and wine remains, together

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
with the substance of the body and blood
of our Lord Jesus Christ, and shall deny
that wonderful and singular change of the
whole substance of the bread into the body,
and of the whole substance of the wine into
the blood, the species of bread and wine
still remaining, which change the (Roman)
Catholic Church very fitly calleth Tran
substantiation : let him be accursed (See
Train substantiation).
XIV. Whosoever shall say, that Christ
exhibited in the eucharist is only spirit
ually eaten, and not also sacramentally
and really : let him be accursed (See Eu
charist). XV. Whosoever shall say, that in the
most holy sacrament of the eucharist, Christ,
the only-begotten Son of God, is not to be
adored with the worship called Latria even
outwardly; nor honoured by a peculiar
festival, nor solemnly carried about in pro
cessions, according to the praiseworthy and
universal rite and usage of the holy Church,
nor exposed publicly to the people to be
worshipped, and that its worshippers are
idolaters : let him be accursed (See Corpus
Christi). XVI. Whosoever shall say, that the holy
eucharist ought not to be reserved in a
sacred place, but is immediately after con
secration necessarily to be distributed to
those present, or that it ought not to be
earned in a respectful manner to the sick :
let him be accursed (See Elevation qf the
Host). XVII. Whosoever shall say, that it is
the commandment of God, or necessary to
salvation, that all and evety faithful Chris
tian should receive the most holy sacra
ment of the eucharist, under both kinds :
let him be accursed (See Communion in
One Kind).
XVIII. WThosoever shall say, that the
holy Catholic Church hath not been moved
by just cause and reason to administer the
bread only to the laity, and even to the
clergy not officiating, or that it is in error
in so doing : let him be accursed (See Cup).
XIX. Whosoever shall deny, that the
whole of Christ, the source and author
of all grace, is received in the bread, be
cause, as some falsely affirm, according to
Christ's own institution, he is not re
ceived under one and each kind : let him be
accursed (See Communion in One Kind).
XX. Whosoever shall say, that the mass
ought to be performed only in the vulgar
tongue : let him be accursed (See Liturgy).
XXI. The Catholic Church, instructed by
the Holy Ghost, and in conformity to the
Holy Scriptures, and the ancient tradition
of the Fathers, hath taught in its sacred
councils, and, lastly, in this cecumenical
synod, that there is a purgatory, and that

TRENT, COUNCIL OF
the souls detained therein are assisted by
the prayers of the faithful, and more especi
ally by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar
{See Purgatory).
XXII. Whosoever shall say, that after
receiving the grace of justification, any peni
tent sinner hath his offence so remitted, and
his obnoxiousness to eternal punishment so
blotted out, as to render him no longer ob
noxious to temporal punishment, to be
undergone either in this world or in the
future in purgatory, before an entrance can
be opened to the kingdom of heaven: let
him accursed (See Purgatory).
XXIII. This holy synod enjoins all bi
shops and others who undertake the office
•of teaching, to instruct the faithful, that
the saints who reign together with Christ
offer up their prayers to God for men, that
it is good and profitable to invoke them in
a supplicating manner, and that, in order to
procure benefit from God through his Son
Jesus Christ our Lord, who is our only
Redeemer and Saviour, we should have
recourse to their prayers, help, and assis
tance ; and that those persons hold impious
opinions who deny that the saints enjoying
eternal happiness in heaven are to be in
voked ; or who affirm, that the saints do not
pray for men, or that the invoking them
that they may pray ever for every one of
us in particular, is idolatry, or is repugnant
to the word of God, and contrary to the
honour of the one Mediator between God
and men, Jesus Christ, or that it is fooUsh
to supplicate orally or mentally those who
reign in heaven (See Invocation of Saints).
XXIV. Also the bodies of the holy mar
tyrs and others Uving with Christ, having
heen lively members of Christ and temples
of the Holy Ghost, and to be raised again
by him to eternal life and glory, are to be
reverenced by the faithful, as by them many
benefits are bestowed by God on men ; so
that they who affirm that reverence and
honour are not due to the reliques of saints,
or that it is useless for the faithful to honour
them or other sacred monuments, and a
vain thing to celebrate the memory of the
*aints, for the purpose of obtaining their
assistance, are wholly to be condemned, as
the Church hath before condemned and now
•condemns them. The images of Christ,
and of the Vfrgin Mother of God, and of
the other saints, are to be set up and re
tained, especiaUy in churches, and due
fhonour and reverence to be paid unto them
¦(See Image Worship, Mariolatry, and
Relics). XXV. Since the power of granting in
dulgences hath been bestowed by Christ
upon the Church, and such power thus
Divinely imparted hath been exercised by
Rer even in the earUest times; this holy

TRENT, COUNCIL OF

749

synod teaches and enjoins that the use of
indulgences, as very salutary to Christian
people, and approved of by the sacred
councils, be retained in the Church, and
pronounces an anathema on such as shall
affirm them to be useless, or deny the
power of granting them to be in the Church
(See Indulgences).
XXVI. The holy synod exhorts and
adjures all pastors, by the coming of our
Lord and Saviour, that as good soldiers
they enjoin the faithful to observe all
things which the holy Roman Church, the
mother and mistress of all Churches, hath
enacted, as well as such things as have
been enacted by this and other ceeumenical
councils (See Church of Rome).
XXVII. The chief pontiffs, by virtue of
the supreme authority given them in the
universal Church, have justly assumed the
power of reserving some graver criminal
causes to their own peculiar judgment
(See Supremacy, Papal).
XXVIII. The more weighty criminal
charges against bishops which deserve de
position and deprivation may be judged and
determined only by the supreme Roman
pontiff (See Pope).
XXIX. This holy synod enjoins all pa
triarchs, primates, archbishops, bishops, and
all others who, by right or custom, ought to
assist at a provincial council, that in the
first provincial synod that may be holden
after the conclusion of the present council,
they do openly receive all and each of the
things which have been defined and enacted
by this holy synod; also that they do
promise and profess true obedience to the
supreme Roman pontiff, and at the same
time publicly detest and anathematize all
heresies condemned by the sacred canons,
the general councils, and especially by this
present synod (See Popery).
XXX. Whosoever shall say, that the
clergy in holy orders, or regulars having
made a solemn profession of chastity, may
contract marriage, and that a marriage so
contracted is vaUd, notwithstanding the
ecclesiastical law or vow; and that to
maintain the contrary is nothing else than
to condemn matrimony, and that all may
contract marriage who do not feel them
selves to have the gift of continence, even
though they should have made a vow of
it: let him be accursed; since God denies
it not to such as rightly ask it, nor will he
suffer us to be tempted above what we are
able (See Celibacy).
XXXI. Whosoever shall say, that the
state of matrimony is to be preferred to the
state of virginity or single life, and that it
is not better or more blessed to continue in
virginity or single life : let him be accursed
(See Matrimony).

750

TRENTAL

TRENTAL (Lat. triginta, softened in
Ital. to trenta). A service of thirty masses
for the dead, usually celebrated on as many
different days.
TRICINALE. "A round ball with a
screw coin for the water of mixture," at
the holy communion in Bishop Andrewes's
chapel, and in Canterbury cathedral. — Can
terbury's Dom. 1646, and Neale's Hist, of
the Puritans, vol. u. pp. 223, 224.
TRIFORIUM. Any passage in the walls
of a church, but generaUy restricted in its
use to the passage immediately over the
arches of the great arcade, and usually, in
Norman and Early English, marked by an
arcade of its own. It is, in fact, the opened
front of the gallery or space between the
stone vault of the aisle and the wooden
roof above it. In Norman churches the
openings were generally plain wide arches,
one to each bay, or "severy," as in the
remaining Norman parts of St. Alban's and
Norwich ; or double or treble, as at Peter
borough. In Early English the triforium
consisted of unglazed windows, generally in
pairs or threes, and in Early Decorated still
more so. It was then that the triforia
attained their greatest beauty at Salisbury
and Westminster, and rather later at Ely
and Lincoln, and the nave of Lichfield.
Later in the Decorated style, they began to
close up and to sink into pannelling, with a
mere dark space behind, as in the nave of
York and Worcester. At St. Alban's both
the Early English and the Decorated tri
foria are very fine blank arcades, with only
a passage behind them. In the Perpen
dicular style, the triforium vanished al
together, and the tall and monotonous
clearstory windows come down nearly to
the nave arches, sometimes with a blank
portion under a transom across the windows,
and sometimes without, as at Bath. The
effect of this is very inferior to the older
arrangements with the height divided into
three stories, each complete and beautiful in
itseff. [G.]
TRINITY. The first of the Thirty-nine
Articles is, " There is but one living and
true God, everlasting, without body, parts,
or passions : of infinite power, wisdom, and
goodness; the Maker and Preserver of aU
things, both visible and invisible. And in
unity of this Godhead there be three persons,
of one substance, power, and eternity ; the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost."
The credendum of the Athanasian Creed
begins, "The Catholic faith is this; That
we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity
in Unity, neither confounding the persons
nor dividing the substance." The Nicene
Creed equally affirms the Trinity. The
mystery of the Trinity in Unity is taught
by revelation — not by reason ; although it

TRINITY
is not in contradiction to reason, rightly
exercised, nor more unintelUgible than many
of the " things hard to be understood " in
Holy Scripture. A plurality in the God
head is indicated by the language of the
very earliest revelations ; which plurality
is plainly expressed under the Gospel dis
pensation — a sacred Three being enumerated
by mutual relation in the form of baptism,
and by name in the apostolic benediction ;
which Three are also frequently mentioned
together elsewhere, though not in terms so
clear. I. The doctrine may perhaps be gleaned
as much from the economy of creation, as
from that of redemption ; and here it may
be observed, that in the very commence
ment of the sacred history, the Deity is
mentioned under a term of plural signifi
cation; and when man, the more eminent
work, is to be made, and is afterwards
spoken of, a Divine council seems implied :
" Let us make man," &c, " the man is be
come as one of us ! " The word FI17K, in
its singular form is rarely used, only (in
imitation of the Aramaic usage) in poetry,
and later Hebrew. But the plural of
majesty, Q*h?N, occurs more than two-
thousand times.
Elohim, in the plural, was the first term
used in the Divine revelation, and it seems
intended to indicate that plurality — the holy
Trinity — afterwards more plainly revealed.
And it is to be noticed, that by this word
(Elohim) was the earliest revelation made
to man. In this was the faith of the
patriarchs expressed, as particularly in Gen.
xxviii. 20-22 ; and by this name God ex
pressly declares he appeared unto them,
when by his " name Jehovah " he was " not
known" (Ex. vi. 3). Indeed this latter
term seems for a time to have been used
less as a name than as a character of the
Elohim, since it was subsequently that it
was announced as the " name " — I AM —
by which the Divine plurality was to be
known in unity (nifP) (Ex. iii. 14;.
vi. 2). The translation of Jehovah by
Adonai (or Lords) is also remarkable ; with
the coincidence to be found in the mode
adopted by the heathen, of speaking of their
gods ; as in the name of Baalim for Baal
(Judges ii. 11 ; Hosea xi. 2).
That Elohim implies plurality seems
evident, from the construction of such a
passage as Gen. xx. 13, where it is said,
"when they, Elohim, caused me to wan
der." Again (xxxv. 7), when "they ap
peared unto him," at Bethel. And (Josh.
xxiv. 19) "the Elohim are holy." In Ps.
Iviii. 11, the Elohim are caUed "judges;"
in Ps. cxlix. 2; Isa. xliv. 2, and liv. 5,
"makers" and "kings;" in Eccl. xii. 1,

TRINITY
"creators;" and in Jer. xxiii. 36, "the
living Gods." Other places are mentioned
by Parkhurst ; as Gen. xxxi. 53 ; Deut. iv.
7; v. 23, or 26 ; 1 Sam. iv. 8 ; 2 Sam. vii.
23 ; Isa. vi. 8 ; Jer. x. 10, <&c.
In perfect accordance with this is the
first great commandment given from Mount
Sinai : " I am the Lord thy God " (Jehovah
Elohim), thou "shalt have no other gods
before me ; " more plainly set forth in the
baptismal " name " — the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost, a " holy, blessed, and
glorious Trinity," in inseparable Unity, and
perfect co-equality, as may be most safely
concluded, from the various passages in
which the sacred Three are mentioned in
different order — the Father first, in St.
Matt, xxviii. 19, — the Son first, in 2 Cor.
xiii. 14, — and the Holy Ghost first, in 1
Cor. xii. 4-6 ; Eph. iv. 4-6, and St. Luke
i. 35. Tho laws and ordinances of the Jews
were peculiarly adapted to guard the pure
worship against heathen idolatry ; there
fore, when the legislator, in speaking of
God, uses a term implying plurality, which
he does, with verbs and persons singular,
above thirty times, this, too, in the Deca
logue, and in the repetition of laws, and
frequently prefaced by an address, de
manding attention, — " Hear, 0 Israel ! "
" Thus saith the Lord ! " it could not but
be that plurality in the Godhead was in
tended to be announced. This is strongly
corroborated by such expressions as " holy
God," " thy Creators," being used by Joshua
and Solomon ; the one an eminent type of
Christ, the other inspired with learning
in an extraordinary degree (See Bishop
Huntingford's Thoughts on the Trinity,
xxii., xxiii.). And we may be rather con
firmed in the opinion, by the futile attempts
of the Jewish Rabbins to make tolerable
sense of the peculiar phraseology adopted,
while denying the impUcation of a plu
rality. II. This wonderful truth seems referred
to, and corroborated by, the introduction to
St John's Gospel ; which declares that the
" Word was in the beginning with God.
Again, each of the sacred Three is noticed
as acting separately in the work. With
respect to the Father this is clear from
innumerable passages, in which the Lord
God is mentioned as the Creator (unless in
such a Trinity be implied, which then
shortly decides the point at issue). Of the
Son it is said, " all things were made by
him ; " and expressly, " without him was not
anything made that was made" (St. John i. 3 ;
Col. i. 16). And of the Holy Spirit, that by
him are made and created both man and beast
and all things (Gen. i. 2 ; Job. xxxiii. 4 ; Ps.
civ. 30). Thus is that passage intelligible,

TRINITY SUNDAY

75 S

" By the word of the Lord were the heavens
made : and all the host of them by the
breath of his mouth " (Ps. xxxiii. 6). The
mode of operation in the work of redemp
tion has been before noticed. To all these
may be added, that tbe sacred Three are
mentioned equally as sending and instructing
the prophets aud teachers (Jer. vii. 25;
St. Matt. ix. 38 : x. 5 ; Acts xxvi. 16-18 ; Isa.
xlviii. 16 ; Acts xiii. 2, 4 : xx. 28),— and
equally speaking by them (Heb. i. 1 ; 2 Cor.
xiii. 3 ; St. Mark xiii. 11). Each, too,
gives life— raises the dead— and is joined in
the form of baptism, and Christian benedic
tion. The formula given and repeated in
the New Testament, " Go ye . . . iu the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost," is in itself sufficient for a
believer in the revelation of God.
The word " Trinity," being a Latin word,
does not occur in Holy Scripture ; nor does
the word " Unity," as applied to the Deity.
But, neither do the words " omnipresence "
and " omniscience ; " and as the use of these
has never been objected to in speaking of
the attributes of Him who is everywhere
present, and " knoweth all things," so may
the others be used with equal propriety to
express the distinct existence of Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost, and the simple
oneness of God. The use is admissible, to
prevent circumlocution. The word Trinity
was used by the Greek aud Latin Fathers,
in the middle of the second century, in a
way that indicated it was not then a novel
expression, and was considered by the ortho
dox so unobjectionable, as to be employed
without reserve in their opposition to the
Sabellian heresy.
The doctrine of a Trinity, and this in
Unity, is not then an arbitrary assumption,
or an attempt to be wise " above that which
is written ; " but it necessarily arises out of
many Scriptural expressions and passages,.
which though apparently, or to human sense,
contradictory to each other, must in reality
be consistent : and the Catholic, or othodox
system, framed on the whole of these, recon
ciles them in the only possible way. Uni
tarians are obliged to resort to new transla
tions and incorrect versions of the New
Testament. [H.]
TRINITY SUNDAY. The Sunday next
after Whitsunday. The solemn festivals,
which in tlie foregoing parts of our annual
service have propounded to our consideration
the mysterious work of man's redemption,
and the several steps taken to accomplish it,
and the manifestation of the special work of
the Spirit on Whitsunday, natm-ally lead us-
up to, and at last conclude with, that of the
Trinity. Though the Octave of Pentecost has
been observed in honour of the Blessed

752

TRINE IMMERSION

Trinity from very early times, the name
itself is of comparatively recent date. It
has been used in England since the time of
St. Osmund (a.d. 1080), and may by him
have been adopted from still earlier offices of
the Church. It appears to have been re
garded as a separate festival in the Western
world only by the English Church, and
those Churches of Germany which owe their
origin to the EngUsh Boniface or Winfrith.
'Thomas a Becket, who was consecrated on
the Octave of Whitsunday, 1162, appointed
that Sunday for the Feast of Trinity, and
the same was appointed by a synod of Aries,
a.d. 1260, for that province ; but the first to
enjoin the universal observance of the day
was Pope John XXII., in 1334. The reason
¦given why the Roman Church had no sepa
rate festival tUl then is that " it honoured
the Blessed Trinity in its daily worship by
Doxologies and the Memoria " (Patrologus,
c. Ix.). The Memoria is our Collect for this
day, and is taken from the Gregorian Sa
cramentary. The Epistle and the Gospel are the same
that were anciently assigned in the Lec
tionary of St. Jerome for the Octave of
Pentecost, and have always been used in
the English Church ; the Epistle being the
vision of St. John (Rev. iv.) ; and the
Gospel, the dialogue of our Lord with Nico-
demus ; and the mention, which we find
therein, of baptism, of the Holy Spirit and
the gifts of it, though it might then fit the
day as a repetition, as it were, of Pentecost,
so is it no less fit for it as a feast of the
Blessed Trinity. In the Gospel we have set
before us all the three Persons of the sacred
Trinity, and the same likewise represented
in the vision, which the Epistle speaks of,
with an hymn of praise, " Holy, holy, holy,
Lord God Almighty," &c. : which expres
sions, by ancient inierpretation, relate to the
Holy Trinity, as is above said.
. In the Roman Church the Sundays be
tween Whitsunday and Advent are reck
oned from Pentecost : in our Church, fol
lowing the old English custom in the un
reformed office, we count from Trinity
¦Sunday. — Durandus, Rationale, de Prim.
Dom. post Pent ; Martene, de Antiq. Eccl.
Discip. xxxvUi. 22 ; Wheatly, P. B. p.
243 ; Annot P. B. i. 114. [H]
TRINE IMMERSION (See Baptism;
Immersion). Dipping or plunging the can
didate for baptism into the water three
times. Tertullian speaks thus of the cere
mony. " We dip not once but three times,
at the naming of every Person of the
Trinity " (Cont Prax. c. 26 ; de Coron. Mil.
•c. 3). In the first of these passages the
word for " dip " is tinguere, which may
mean simply wet or moisten ; in the second,
•the more emphatic word mergere is used.

TRUCE OF GOD
St. Ambrose is very full in his description
of this rite (de Sacrament, bk. ii. c. 7), and
speaks of it as signifying Christ's three days'
burial — "buried with them in baptism"
(Col. ii. 12), as do others of the Fathers,
as St. BasU, Jerome, Chrysostom, &c. St.
Augustine joins the two reasons ; trine
immersion is both a symbol of the Holy
Trinity, in whose name we are baptized, and
also a type of the Lord's burial, and of His
resurrection on the third day from the dead
(Horn. 3 ap. Gratian. de Consecrat Dist. 4,
cap. 78). Trine immersion was ordered in
the Prayer Book of 1549, but omitted in that
of 1552. [H]
TRISAGION (tPIs, dyiov, thrice holy).
A creed set hymnwise, having special re
ference to the work of God for man as set
forth in the Scriptures, sung in the Greek
liturgies after the bringing in of the Gospel.
In the Roman rite it is sung only once a
year — on Good Friday. — Freeman's Princ.
Div. Serv. ii. 338 (See Tersanctus).
TRUCE OF GOD. In the French Treve
de Dieu : in modern Latin, Trevia, Treuvia,
Treuga, or Truga Dei.
In the eleventh century, when the dis
orders and Ucences of private wars, between
particular lords and families, were a great
disturbance to the peace of the kingdom
of France, a remarkable attempt was made
by the clergy to bind men to the observance
of peace, by abstaining from aU acts of
violence, or revenge. By the Council of
Limoges in 1031, it was decreed that if the
chiefs of the district refused to comply, it
should be laid under an interdict. But as
it was clearly impossible to enforce per
petual peace, another effort was made (about
1040) to mitigate the horrors of war by the
proposal of a scheme called the Truce of
God. This scheme provided for the sus
pension of all hostilities from the evening of
Wednesday in each week to the dawn of the
following Monday — the period sacred to the
memory of our Lord's betrayal, crucifixion,
and resurrection — also during Advent and
Lent. At a council held at Elne (a city of
the Spanish March) in 1047 the weekly rest
from war was reduced from four days to two
— Saturday and Sunday. The longer in
terval however was enacted by later councils ;
and received the Papal sanction from
Urban II. at the Council of Clermont in
a.d. 1094. The Truce of God was renewed .
in the strongest terms by Pope Calixtus II.
at the Council of Reims in 1119. There
were also several regulations enacted for the
protection during war of clergy, monks,
nuns, and women, for securing the privilege
of sanctuary, and mitigating the injuries
done to the labours of husbandry. The
frequent re-enactments of the Truce prove
indeed that it was irregularly observed,

TRUMPETS
nevertheless it must have acted as a bene
ficial check upon the lawlessness of the age ;
it was a distinct recognition of the evils of
war, and a praiseworthy attempt to provide
some remedy for them.— Sismondi, iv. 248 ;
Robertson, Cii. Hist ii. 544-6; Milman,
Lat. Christ iii. 152, 207.
TRUMPETS, FEAST OF (ny-nn DV).
An annual festival of the Jews,T expressly
enjoined by the law of Moses, and observed
upon the first day of the seventh month,
called Tisri, which was the beginning of the
civil year.
This festival is expressly called a sabbath,
and was a very solemn day, on which no
servile work was to be done; only pro
vision made for their meals, which were
usually very plentiful at this time (See
Smith's Diet Bible, p. 1572).
TUNICLE. An ecclesiastical garment
mentioned in the rubrics of King Edward
VI.'s First Book, to be worn by the assist
ant ministers at the holy Communion. It
is the same as the tunic or the dalmatic,
which was also an episcopal garment.
OriginaUy it had no sleeves ; and was the
same with the Greek colobion. The sleeves
were added in the West about the fourth
century ; and then the vestment was called
i a dalmatic. The tunicle in the Roman
Church is proper to subdeacons. — Goar, Rit.
Qrsec. p. Ill ; Palmer's Orig. Liturq. ii.
314. TURRET. A smatt tower appended to a
larger tower, or the angle or other part of a
building for support, or to carry stairs, or for
ornament, or a bell. Like the tower, it is
often finished with a high conical capping,
which is then called a spiret or pinnacle.
TYPE (twos-, a blow, then the mark of
a blow). An impression, image, or repre
sentation of some model, which is termed
the antitype. In this sense we often use
the word to denote the prefiguration of the
great events of man's redemption by persons
or things in the Old Testament.

u.
UBIQUITARIANS. A sect of heretics,
so called because they maintained that the
hody of Jesus Christ is (ubique) every
where, or in every place.
Brentius, or Brentzen, one of the earliest
reformers, is said to have first broached this
error, in Germany, about the year 1560
(de Person. Union. Brentii, opp. viii. 831).
Melanchthon immediately declared against
it, as introducing a kind of confusion in the
two natures of Jesus Christ. On the other
hand, it was espoused by Flacius Illyricus,

ULTRAMONTANISTS

753

Osiander, and others. The Universities of
Leipsic and Wiirtemberg in vain opposed
this heresy, which gained ground daily.
Six Ubiquitarians, viz. Smidelin, Selneocer,
Musculus, Chemnitius, Chytra3us and, Cor-
nerus, had a meeting, in 1577, in the monas
tery of Berg, and composed a kind of creed,
or formulary of faith, in which the Ubiquity
of Christ's body was the leading article.
However, the U biquitarians were not quite
agreed among themselves ; some holding
that Jesus Christ, even during His mortal
life, was everywhere, and others dating the
Ubiquity of His body from the time of His
ascension only. — Dorner's Person of Christ,
ii., ii. 280, 422.
ULTRAMONTANISTS. Those who
claim for the pope an unlimited authority
in matters of faith and discipline in every
part of the Church of Christ, and assert his
infallibility. Ultramontanism dates from
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand, a.d. 1073), who
asserted, " Quod solus Papa possit uti imperi-
alibus insigniis ; — quod solius Papa? pedes
omnes principes deoseulentur; — quod. ilU
liceat Imperatores deponere; — quod a fideli-
tate iniquorum subjectos possit absolvere."
Rut the infallibility of the pope was not
introduced into the schools till the fifteenth
century (Fleury, lib. xciii. c. 15).
Cardinal Bellarmine (a.d. 1599) was the
great upholder' and writer of the Ultra
montane doctrines, and he lays down that
the pope, when teaching the whole Church
in matters of faith, cannot err ; whence it
follows that the Church of Rome cannot
err ; nor can the pope err in precepts of
morals which are prescribed to the whole
Church, and which relate to things necessary
to salvation, or to such as are good or bad
in themselves (Disp. de Summo Pont iv.
2-5). The question of the precise relation be
tween the authority of the pope and that of
the general councils was keenly argued for
more than 250 years, the Ultramontane
party elevating the pope to a position of
feudal supremacy, and maintaining that
his decrees are in themselves sufficient,
whether or not accepted by the body of
bishops; the moderates, or GalUcan party,
holding that the pope is, with regard to the
body of bishops, only primus inter pares,
and that his decrees are the expression of
their opinions. It remained for Pope Pius
IX. to make this an article of faith in the
Roman Church. In 1854 he proclaimed
on his own authority the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception ; for although there
were fifty-three cardinals, forty-three arch
bishops, and a hundred bishops at the
assembly, there was no synodal authority,
for they had been selected and invited for
their well-known opinions. In 1870 the
3 c

754

UNCTION

pope went a step further, and promulgated
the dogma , of Papal Infallibility. This
naturally has caused much division and
discussion, to which reference is made in the
article on Old Catholics. [H.]
UNCTION (See Extreme Unction).
UNIFORMITY, ACTS OF. By Acts 1
Edw. VI. c. 1, and 5 & 6 Edw. VI., it was
ordered that whereas there had been diver
sity in the services of the Church, as in the
uses of Sarum, of York, of Bangor, and of
Lincoln, and divers other uses, there should
be " one convenient and meet order of com
mon and open prayer." And this was to be
observed by all ministers. 1 Mary, c. 2, re
versed this, and ordered that "all such Divine
service, and administration of sacraments,
as were most commonly used in England
in the last year of Henry VIII., shall be
used throughout the realm." 1 Eliz. c. 2,
restored the order, of 5 & 6 Edw. VI. " with
the alteration or addition of certain lessons
to be used on every Sunday in the year,
and the form of Litany altered and corrected,
and two sentences only added in the delivery
of the sacrament to the communicants, and
none other or otherwise." 13 & 14 Car.
II. c. 4, is that' which is known as the '• Act
of Uniformity." It recites that "in the
first year of the late Queen Elizabeth there
Was one uniform order of common service
and prayer, and of the administration of
sacraments, rites, and ceremonies in the
Church of England," yet that " a great
number of people wilfully and schismatically
abstain and refuse to come to their parish
churches," and that " by the great and
scandalous neglect of ministers, great mis
chiefs and inconveniencies during the times
of the late unhappy troubles have arisen
and grown, and many people have been led
into factions and schisms," therefore "His
Majesty hath been pleased to authorize and
require the Presidents of the Convocations
of Canterbury and York and other the bishops
and clergy of the same, to review the Book
of Common Prayer, and the book of the
form and manner of the making and con
secrating of bishops, priests and deacons
. . . and they have exhibited and pre
sented the same unto His Majesty in one
book, intituled "The Book of Common
Prayer, and Administration of the Sacra
ments, and other Rites and Ceremonies of
the Church, according to tlie Use of the Church
of England, together with, tlie ¦ Psalter, . or
Psalms of David, pointed as they are to be
said or sung in Churches ; and the form and
manner of making, ordaining and conse
crating of bishops, priests and deacons."
By the second section of ' the Act . it was
ordered that, whereas nothing conduces more
tothe settling of the peace of this nation,
nor to the honour of our religion, than a

UNIFORMITY
universal agreement in the public worship
of Almighty God, all and singular ministers
in any cathedral, collegiate or parish church
or chapel, shaU be bound to say and use the
Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, celebration
and administration of both the sacraments,
and all other the public and common prayer
in such order and. form as is mentioned in
the said book, annexed and joined to this
present Act, and intituled "The Book of
Common Prayer," &c. The Act of Uni
formity passed both Houses of Parliament on
July 9, 1662 (See also the Preface to the
Prayer Book). In 1872 an Act " for the
Amendment of the Act of Uniformity"
was passed. It sanctions, (1) The use of a
shortened form of Morning and Evening
Prayer therein prescribed, on any day except
Sunday, Christmas Day, Ash- Wednesday,
Good Friday, and Ascension Day, in Ueu
of the Usual Order for Morning and Evening
Prayer ; but if in a cathedral, "in addition
to," not " in lieu of," the ordinary services.
(2) Any special form of service, approved by
the ordinary for any special occasion, such
service, with the exception of hymns and
anthems, to be taken exclusively from the
Bible or Prayer Book (See Hymns). (3)
The use of additional seivices on Sundays
and Holydays, such services, with the
exception of the hymns , and anthems, to
be taken from the Bible or Prayer Book,
and approved by the ordinary. (4) The
separation of the Order of Morning Prayer,
the Litany, and the Communion Service;
and the use of the Litany after the third
collect at Evening Prayer either in lieu of,
or in addition to, the use of it in the morning.
(5) The preaching a sermon, without a pre
vious service. The Act for the Abolition
of University Tests, passed in 1871, had
already repealed some of the sections of
Charles's Act, in so far as they excluded
Nonconformists from the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge.
Romanists and Protestant Dissenters con
tinually talk of the ejectment of their re
spective predecessors under the two Acts of
Uniformity of Elizabeth and Charles IL,
carefuUy suppressing their own treatment of
the Anglican clergy when they had the
opportunity. The number of ejectments of
the existing clergy under Mary is unknown,
and not worth inquiry into by the side of
the infinitely worse persecution of Protes
tants throughout her reign. It is well
known, and has not been controverted, that
the . deprivations of Marian clergy who
refused to resume the .Protestant- Prayer
Book- under the Act of 1559 were only 189.
The Dissenters, on the authority of Calamy,
have always talked of their " 2000 martyrs
who were ejected on Bartholomew's day in
1662,".for refusing to conform to the Prayer

UNIGENITUS
'Book, which was practically the old one,
and at any rate no more anti-Presbyterian.
They carefully forget that those were only
a smaU portion of the Puritan intruders and
• ejectors of sixteen years before. Dr. Little
dale (in the Times of 5th Oct., 1886) said
that it is quite certain tbat Calamy's figure
of 293 recusants in the diocese of London
ought to be 127, for which he refers to
authorities ; and so, if the same proportion
of exaggeration prevailed generaUy the as
serted " 2000 martyrs " ought to be " 867
intruders," or about a seventh of the Angli
can incumbents ejected by the Puritans a
few years before, who are known to have
been between 5000 and 6000. [G.]
UNIGENITUS, THE BULL. The in
strument, of which Unigenitus was the
first word, issued by Pope Clement XL, in
1713, against the French translation of the
New Testament, with notes, by Pasquier
Quesnel, priest of the Oratory, and a cele
brated Jansenist. The book, having occa
sioned considerable disputes, had already
been condemned by the Court of Rome in
1708 ; but this step being found ineffectual,
Clement, who had privately spoken of it
in terms of rapture, declaring it to be an
•excellent book, and one which no person
resident at Rome was capable of writing,
proceeded to condemn one hundred and
one propositions of the notes; such as —
grace, the effectual principle of all good
works; faith, the first and fountain of all
the graces of a Christian; the Scriptures
should be read by all, &c. This bull, pro
cured by Louis and the Jesuits, occasioned
great commotion in France. Forty Gallican
bishops accepted it ; but it was opposed by
many others, especially by Noailles, arch
bishop of Paris. Many of the prelates, and
other persons eminent for piety and learning,
appealed, on the subject, from the papal
authority to that of a general council, but
in vain.
UNION, HYPOSTATICAL (ivwis ko6'
v-rroo-Taa-iv). A term of dogmatic theology
first used by Cyril of Alexandria in his
second epistle to Nestorius, a.d. 430. It
impUes the union of the human nature of
Christ with the Divine, constituting two
natures in one person. Not consubstantially,
as the three persons in the Godhead; nor
physically, as soul and body united in one
person ; nor mystically, as is the union
between Christ and believers ; but so as
that the manhood subsist in the second
person, yet without making confusion, both
making but one person. It was miraculous
(Luke i. 34, 35). Complete and real ; Christ
¦took a real human body and soul, and not
in appearance. Inseparable (Heb. vii. 25).
" As oft as we attribute to God what the
manhood of Christ claims, or to man what

UNITARIANS

755

his Deity hath right unto, we understand
by the Name of God, and the name of Man,
neither the one nor the other nature, but
the whole Person of Christ in Whom both
natures are." — Hooker's Ecc. Pol. v., li.— Iv.
UNITARIANS. A title which certain
heretics, who do not worship God, as re
vealed in the Bible, assume most unfairly, as
if those who do so worship Him do not hold
the doctrine of the Divine Unity. Chris
tians worship the Trinity in Unity, and the
Unity in Trinity.
This name includes all, whether Arians
of old, or more lately Socinians, and other
Deists, who deny the Divinity of Jesus
Christ, and the separate personality of the
Holy Ghost. They are not very numerous
in England, although most of the old
English Presbyterian congregations have
fallen into Unitarianism.
The sect made little progress in England
till the opening of the eighteenth century,
when many of the old Presbyterian ministers
embraced opinions adverse to the Trinitarian
doctrine. In 1708, Whiston published his
essay upon the. Apostolic Constitutions, to
prove that the Arian was the doctrine of the
primitive Church ; and he was followed by
an abler man, Samuel Clarke, who in 1712
published his Scripture Doctrine of the
Trinity. A controversy thereupon took
place, very voluminous, which increased in
warmth when the bishop of London, in 1718,
peremptorily forbade the Arian alteration of
the Doxology, which had been introduced
at St. James's, Westminster. Amongst the
Dissenters too there was no less voluminous
controversy on the subject, especially in the
West of England, and two Presbyterian
ministers, Pierce and HaUett of Exeter, in
consequence of their participation in these
sentiments, were removed from their pastoral
charges. Nevertheless, the Presbyterian
clergy gradually became infected with the
heresy, although for some time they gave no
particular expression from their pulpits to
their views in this respect. In course of
little time, however, their congregations
either came to be entirely assimilated with
themselves in doctrine, or in part seceded to
the Independent body.
Many of the clergy who held Unitarian,
views managed to keep their livings, such
as Blackburne, who was certainly an Anti-
trinitarian (Confessional (1772), p. 359).
" In fact, a singular want of openness and
proper Christian candour seemed to have
been a general characteristic of the party."
Clarke's recantation was no proper recanta
tion ; several of the clergy satisfied their con
sciences by altering the liturgy (Whiston's
Memoirs, 2nd ed. p. 213 ; Fairbairn's App.
to Dorner, p. 401). Some were more
honest, gave up their livings, and cele-
3 c 2

756

UNITED BRETHREN

brated Unitarian worship after Dr. Clarke's
reformed liturgy in their own houses. These
were gathered together by the exertions and
influence of Dr. Priestley, who was helped
by Belsham, a man of superior ability, whose
work, Calm Inquiry (1811), is the ablest of
modern Unitarianism, and may be taken as
a standard of Unitarian doctrine. His
improved version of the New Testament,
however, is full of mistakes and falsifi
cations. Persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity
were excepted from the benefits of the Tolera
tion Act, and remained so until 1813, when
the section in that statute which affected
them was abrogated by the 53 Geo. III. c.
160, which was extended to Ireland by 57
Geo. III. c. 70. Since that period they
have been exactly in the same position as
all other Protestant Dissenters with respect
to their political immunities. These persons
do not object to the form of attestation " on
the true faith of a Christian," though deny
ing the principal doctrines of Christianity
as recognised by the Catholic Church.
The form of ecclesiastical government
adopted by the Unitarians is substantially
" congregational ; " each individual congre
gation ruling itself without regard to any
courts or synods. The Unitarian Calendar
gives about 380 congregations of Unitarians
with mission stations, 334 societies in
America, 116 in Transylvania, with 50,000
members. — Dorner, On the Person of
Christ, with Appendix by Dr. Fairbaim ;
Whiston's Memoirs, 1st ed. p. 121 ; Blunt's
Diet. Sects, 606.
UNITED BRETHREN (See Moravians).
UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe
in the ultimate salvation of all mankind,
whether wicked or good. This is no new
idea, as it was held by Origen and his fol
lowers, and doubtless by many others in
their private opinion, especially those who
maintain Unitarianism. It is a comfortable
doctrine for sinners. As. a distinct sect,
Universalists have not made any great
impression. One ReiUy, an Unitarian
preacher, got together a congregation on
this basis in London, and he was followed
by Winchester, an American preacher, a.d.
1781, but the congregation failed, and was
soon broken up. In America, on the con
trary, a large sect of Universalists was
formed (quite distinct from the Unitarians),
which flourished, especially at Boston, under
the name of the Independent Christian Uni
versalists, and still flourishes. In the first
place this was a reaction against the terrible
doctrines of Calvinism, but latterly it has
assumed a different aspect, and the denial of
the eternity of future punishment tends to
weaken the sense of moral responsibility,
leading through Antinomianism to Deism.

UNIVERSITY
As an opinion, Universalism is very common
among English laymen, and has been main
tained by some English clergy, the most
influential of whom have been in recent
times Professor Maurice and Canon Farrar,
though the latter strenuously denies that he
is a Universalis t. But it is hard to see the
distinction. — Whitemore's Hist, of Uni
versalism, Boston, 1860 ; Farrar's Sermons ;
Maurice, Theol. Essays, Moral and Meta
physical Philosophy ; Blunt's Diet Theol. ;
Blunt's Diet Sects. [H.]
UNIVERSITY. ' University, as Johnson
observes, originally meant a community or
corporation; — it afterwards came to be re
stricted to those communities for divine and
secular learning, which were originally
called studia generalia, schools, pedagogies
(as St. Andrew's), academies, Sec In aU of
these, the four great branches of knowledge
were professed, divinity, law, medicine, and
the liberal arts and sciences. In the tweffth
century, degrees were conferred (see Degrees),
first in canon and civil law, afterwards in
theology and phUosophy ; though all these
branches of learning had long been taught.
The universities were gradually endowed
with important privileges. For ages they
had been regarded in England as great and
influential, with corporate titles, though not
with corporate privileges. These were for
mally given to them by Queen Elizabeth,
under whose auspices the third University
of Dublin, endowed with like privileges, was
founded. It is foreign to the object of a Church
Dictionary to notice those corporations for
mere secular learning, to which in England
the title of University, though with a novel
meaning, has of late years been legally given.
The term, as formerly understood in Eng
land, Ireland, and Scotland, as throughout
Europe for ages, comprehended Divine
learning as an essential and crowning part
of the system. The old universities are
connected with the Church by the closest
ties. Their discipUne is recognised by the
canons (the xvi., xxii., and xviii., for ex
ample), and their degrees are essential
qualifications for many Church preferments ;
these also were conferred under the invo
cation of the Holy Trinity ; all their solemn
assemblies were accompanied with the
prayers of the Church ; and the foundations
within the universities, upon which their
influence and very existence depend, have
been made with the plain and obvious under
standing that these great corporations are
the nurseries of the Church ; that those who
partake of their privileges are to be educated
as her generic children. But this has all
been changed in late years, and the original
intention of the founders of colleges in the
great universities has been ignored, and

URIM AND THUMMIM
Dissenters and Atheists admitted to advan
tages and emoluments and power, which
had all been provided for the Church of
England. URIM AND THUMMIM (DniK,
D*BFI : bqXao-is Kal dXqBeia : doctrina et
Veritas). So the Hebrews called a certain
oracular manner of consulting God ; which
was done by the high priest, dressed in his
robes, and having on his pectoral, or breast
plate. Inside the breastplate were placed
" the Urim and Thummim " ; and they were
to he on Aaron's heart, when he went in
before the Lord (Ex. xxviii. 15-30). There
is no description of the Urim and Thummim,
and for the many theories regarding them
reference must be made to Dean Plumptre's
article in the Diet, of the Bible.
' It is a matter of conjecture when this
Urim and Thummim entirely ceased : there
is, however, no instance of it in Scripture
during the first temple ; nor in the second.
And hence came that saying among the
Jews, that the Holy Spirit spake to the
Israelites during the tabernacle, by Urim
and Thummim ; under the first temple, by
the prophets; and, under the second, by
Bath-Col. URSUL1NES. An order of nuns, found
ed originally by St. Angeli, of Brescia, in
the year 1537, and so called from St. Ursula,
to whom they are dedicated.
USE. In former times each bishop had
the power of making improvements in
the liturgy of his church: in process of
time, different customs arose, and several
became so established as to receive the
names of their respective churches. Thus
gradually the " Uses " or customs of York,
Sarum, Hereford, Bangor, Lincoln, Aberdeen,
&c, some of which are referred to in the
original preface to the Prayer Book, came to
be distinguished from each other, thus
showing the independence of the English
Church, which never accepted the Roman
Ritual. MS. copies of early English " Uses "
are found in most of our great libraries, and
the missals and other ritual books of Sarum,
York, and Hereford have been printed.
Independently of these " Uses" of particular
dioceses, the monastic societies of England
had many different rituals, which, however,
all agreed substantially, having all been
derived from the Sacramentary of Gregory,
which dates long before the assumption of
universal authority by the Bishop of Rome.
The Benedictine, Carthusian, Cistercian, and
other orders, had peculiar missals. Schul-
tingius nearly transcribes a very ancient
sacramentary belonging to the Benedictines
of England ; Bishop Barlow, in his MS.
notes on the Roman missal, speaks of a
missal belonging to the monastery of Eve
sham ; and Zaccaria mentions a MS. missal

USE

757

of Oxford, written in the thirteenth or four
teenth century, which is in the library of
the canons of S. Salvator at Bologna. This
last must probably be referred to "some of
the monastic societies, who had formerly
houses in Oxford ; as the bishopric or
church of Oxford was not founded till the
sixteenth century.
But the most important " Use," both
because of its universality, and as from it
our Prayer Book was chiefly formed, was
that of Sarum. This was arranged by
Osmund, bishop of Salisbury about a.d.
1083. A great disturbance and riot had
been caused by the overbearing action of
Norman Thurstan, who had been appointed
abbot of Glastonbury by WiUiam I. (Chron.
Sax. ad ann. 1083). Thurstan was evidently
in the wrong, and was removed from his post
by the king, though afterwards reinstated
by WiUiam Rufus on payment of a fine
(Malmesbury, Hist. Glaston. col. 1731, ed.
Migne). He was a man, according to Roger
of Hoveden, "not worthy to be named."
He starved his community for his own gain,
kept them out of their library, sold their
books (Chron. Sax. ad ann. 1083), and
endeavoured to change their old use of
chanting to a more modern style introduced
by WUUam of Fecamp. To prevent any
such scandal, and an arbitrary change of
ritual in his diocese, Osmund put forth the
" Use of Salisbury." He was a man of note.
He had fought for the Conqueror, and had
been promoted to high honour. He was the
second. chanceUor whom William appointed
after his accession to the throne. He be
came bishop of SaUsbury in 1078, when he
applied his powerful mind to ecclesiastical
affairs. Having settled his see at old Sarum,
he completed the cathedral which bis pre
decessor had begun ; he coUected together
clergy distinguished for their learning and
skid in chanting ; and with their assistance
he ascertained all rubrics, which were not
sufficiently determinate, or where books,
through the inaccuracy of transcribers, were
inconsistent with each other; he adjusted
and settled the ceremonial on points which
had been previously left to the discretion of
the officiating minister; in fine, he produced
a " custom book," or use, which was wholly
or partially adopted in various parts of the
kingdom, especially in the South of England.
The first edition of tbe SaUsbury Breviary
was printed at Venice in 1483. With
several interpolations introduced from time
to time, it becarne the model ritual of the
Church of England, until the reign of PhUip
and Mary, when many of the clergy re
ceived licenses from Cardinal Pole to say
the Roman breviary. In the reign of
Edward VI., and in that of Queen Elizabeth,
the Sarum Use became the basis of our

758

VACANCY

present Book of Common Prayer. As the rites
of the churches throughout the British
empire were not by any means uniform at
the middle of the sixteenth century, the
metropolitan of Canterbury, and other
bishops and doctors of the holy Catholic
Church, at the request and desire of King
Edward VI., revised the ritual books ; and
having examined the Oriental liturgies, and
the notices which the orthodox Fathers
supply, they edited the English Ritual,
containing the common prayer and adminis
tration of all the sacraments and rites of the
Church. And although our liturgy and
other offices were corrected and improved,
chiefly after the example of the ancient
Gallican, Spanish, Alexandrian, and Ori
ental, yet the greater portion of our prayers
have been continually retained and used by
the Church of England for more than 1200
years, as may be seen from comparison of
the Prayer Book with the Use of Sarum. —
Palmer's Orig. Lit. i. 186; Maskell, Mon.
Rit. Ang. Eccl. i. xcvi. : iii. 1 ; Hook's
Archbishops, ii. 164. [H.]

V.
VACANCY of any ecclesiastical office or
preferment may be effected by resignation
and its acceptance by the proper superior,
or by appointment to something else which
vacates it by law, either at once or after
some time fixed by statute, as a deanery
vacates a living in six months unless it
is within the allowed value and distance
(see Dean), while institution to any prefer
ment inconsistent with the Plurality Acts
vacates the previous one at once (See Plu
rality). Election and confirmation, or
appointment by letters patent, to a bishopric
(not colonial or suffragan) vacates all other
preferment, and no licence to hold it in
commendam can now be given. Appoint
ment to an English bishopric (not suffragan)
also gives the Crown the presentation to
all preferment then held by the bishop.' If
the patronage belongs to A., B., and C. in
turn, and it is A.'s turn to present, he does
not lose it, but has the next, and so they
are all postponed; or you may say that
the Crown presentation does not cotmt, but
is a mere substitution of one incumbent for
another, without regard to any patron. The
Crown has all the profits of a vacant see,
and all its rights of patronage, not only
until the new bishop is appointed or con
firmed, but until he has " done homage " to
the Queen. The guardian of the spiritu
alities, who is generally the metropolitan,
but in some cases the dean and chapter by

VALENTINIANS
special grant, performs all ecclesiastical func
tions during the vacancy, with the aid of a
bishop for such as require one, which is
hard upon the doers of the work. In some
cases the archbishop of a province has had
to do , all the work of another diocese for a
longtime, gratis.
The profits of all other preferments and
benefices go to the successor by 28 Hen. VIH.
c. 11. During the vacancy of a deanery
the chapter cannot do official acts which
require to be done in the name of the dean
and chapter, though the dean's presence or
concurrence is not necessary. During the-
vacancy of a living the churchwardens have
to take out a sequestration to receive and
take care of the profits, and pay so much as
is assigned by the bishop to the curate whom
he appoints to serve, by that same Act and
1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, s. 100, and if the profits
then are not sufficient, they are to be de
ducted from the successor. They have also-
to take care of the parsonage and all other
property of the living, but subject to the
widow's right to keep the house for two-
months after the incumbent's death. By
2 & 3 Vict. c. 49, s. 6, new parishes may be
formed during vacancy of the benefice or
benefices affected, with the consent of the
patrons. [G.]
VALENTINIANS. Followers of the
Gnostic heresy, who sprang up in the second.
century, and were so called from their leader,
Valentihus. This sect was very numerous,
a fact which TertuRian ascribes to the air of
mystery with which their doctrines were sur
rounded (Adv. Valent i.). Valentinus (circ.
a.d. 132-161) was an Egyptian, but if we
may judge from his Hellenistic expressions,
and the Aramaic names which appear in his
system, he was of Jewish origin. His-
success as a teacher made him aspire to the
episcopacy; but another having been pre
ferred before him, Valentinus, enraged at
this denial, and resolved to revenge himseff'
of the supposed affront given him, departed.
from the doctrine of the Church, and
assumed the title of a Gnostic. He began
to preach bis doctrine in Egypt, and from
thence, coming to Rome, under the pontifi
cate of Pope Hyginus, he there spread his
errors, and continued to dogmatise till the
pontificate of Anicetus, i.e. from the year
140 to 160.— Euseb. H. E. iv. 2.
Of all the Gnostics, none formed a more
regular system than Valentinus. His notions
were drawn from the principles of the Pla~
tonists. The -_ons were attributes of the
Deity, or Platonic ideas, which he realized,
or made persons of them, to compose thereof
a complete deity, which he called Pleroma,
or Plenitude ; under which was the Creator
of the world, and the angels, to whom he
committed the government of it. The most

VALENTINE, ST.
ancient heretics had already established those
principles, and invented genealogies of the
_ons (see Gnostics); but Valentinus,
refining upon what they had said, placed
them in a new order, and thereto added
many fictions. His system was this :
In the Pleroma he supposed thirty iEons,
fifteen males and fifteen females. Besides
these, there were four unmarried ; Horus
(opos), Christ, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus.
The youngest of the iEons, Sophia (Wis
dom), fired with vast desire of comprehend
ing the nature of the Supreme Deity, in her
agitation brought forth a daughter called
Achamoth (DID^n, Philosophy), who, being
excluded from the Pleroma, descended to the
rude and shapeless mass of matter, and by
the help of Jesus brought forth the Demi
urge (iinpiovpyos, Artificer). This Demi
urge separated the more subtile or animal
matter from the grosser or material, framing
from the former the visible heavens, from
the latter the earth. Men he compounded
of both kinds of matter. As he waxed
insolent, and arrogated to himself the honours
" of the Supreme God, Christ descended, and,
having an ethereal body, passed through
the body of Mary as water through a canal,
to whom Jesus, another of the highest
iEons, joined himself when he was baptized
in Jordan by John. The Demiurge caused
him to be crucified, but before his execution
both Jesus and the rational soul forsook
him, so that only his essential soul and
ethereal body were suspended on the cross.
There are three sorts of men — the spiritual,
material, and animal. These three sub
stances were united together in Adam, but
they were divided in his children. That
which was spiritual went into Seth, the
material into Cain, and the animal into Abel.
The spiritual men shall be immortal, what
ever crimes they commit ; the material, on
the contrary, shall be annihilated, whatever
good they do ; the animal, who according to
the precepts of Christ, renounce the pagan
deities and the Jewish God may be admitted,
if they do good, to the mansions of the
blessed near the Pleroma, and shall be anni
hilated if they do evil.
The whole system of Valentinus seems
full of the grossest absurdities, but we must
remember that we learn it, not from his own
writings, but chiefly from those of his oppo
nents. These were Irenajus (adv. Heres.),
Tertullian (adv. Valen., where the heresy is
treated in a tone of jesting irony), and
Hippolytus (Refut. omn. Heres.). — See
Bishop Kaye's Tertullian, 509; Rose's
Neander, ii. 70; Stubbs' Mosheim, i. 148;
Burton's Bampton Lectures. [H.]
VALENTINE, ST. : Bishop and martyr.
He greatly assisted the martyrs at Rome in
the persecution under Claudius IL, and was

VATICAN COUNCIL

759

himself beheaded on the 14th of Febmary,
c. a.d. 270. His name occurs in the early
sacramentaries. The custom of choosing
" valentines " appears to have had its origin
in a heathen practice connected with the
worship of Juno, on or about this day, but
is in no way connected with the festival. —
Alban Butler's Lives of Saints; Annot. P. B.
[41]- [H.]
_ VALES1ANS. Christian heretics, dis
ciples of Valesius, an Arabian philosopher,
who appeared about the year 250, and besides
being Gnostics, maintained that concupi
scence acted so strongly upon man, that it
was not in his power to resist it, and that
even the grace of God was not sufficient to
enable him to get the better of it. Upon
this principle he taught that the only way
for a man to be saved was to make himself
an eunuch. The Origenists afterwards fell
into the same error, but it was Valesius who
gave birth to it. The bishop of Phila
delphia condemned this philosopher, and the
other Churches of the East ' followed his
example. The Valesians were very cruel. They
were not satisfied to mutilate those of their
sect, but they had the barbarity to make
eunuchs of strangers who chanced to pass
by where they lived. This heresy spread
greatly in Arabia, and especially in the ter
ritory of Philadelphia. — Epiphan. Heres.
lviii. ; Aug. Heres. xxvii.
VATICAN CODEX. The celebrated
Greek MS. of the Bible, known as Codex
B ; numbered 1209 in the Vatican Library ;
one of the three oldest vellum MSS. in exis
tence, the others being the Alexandrian
known as A, and the Sinaitic known as X
(See Bible). Most part of Genesis is want
ing, the MS. beginning at chapter xlvi.,
verse 28, and there are several deficiencies
in the Psalms. The Pastoral Epistles, and
the book of Revelation, are altogether want
ing, and the MS. ends at Hebrews ix. 14.
It is written on very thin' vellum, in small
uncial characters, the later additions being
supplied in a cursive hand. Cardinal Mai's
edition was issued in 1857, three years after
the cardinal's death. In this the lacuna}
in tbe original are supplied from other
codices in the Vatican Library. Thus the
Pastoral Epistles are taken from MS. 1761,
of the tenth century, and the Apocalypse
from MS. 2066, attributed to the eighth
century. But the edition falls far short of
what had been expected. — Scrivener, Intro.
to Study of the N. T.: St. Mark's Gospel,
Append. [H.]
VATICAN COUNCIL, THE. This
council was convoked by a Bull of Pius IX.,
June 29, 1868. By the Romanists it was
called an OScumenical Council, but falsely so,
as no representatives were invited from the

760

VAUDOIS

Eastern or the English Church (See Oecu
menical). The first meeting was held on
December 8, 1869, when amongst other
matters that for which- the council had
chiefly been convened — the Infallibility of
the Pope — was discussed. An attempt was
made to prove that the declaration of Papal
Infallibility was in harmony with the utter
ances of former councils, more especially
the Council of Lyons, a.d. 1274, and of
Florence, a.d. 1439 ; but the arguments
never had any weight with scholars, and
were shattered by Dr. Dollinger, who in a
long letter published in the German press
exposed the gross inaccuracy of the state
ments on which they were based. The
dogma of Infallibility was proclaimed July
18, 1870. Out of 601 bishops present in
Rome when the final vote was taken, 535
are said to have voted "placet"; 2 "non
placet " ; whUe 66 absented, themselves from
the council. But only five days before
(i.e. on July 13) the votes are said to have
been, " placet " 451 ; "non placet " 88. All
that can certainly be affirmed is, that
the dogma did not receive the unanimous
assent even of those prelates who composed
the council, while a large number of the
most eminent, especially in Germany, France
and England, offered a. more or less positive
opposition. The council was suspended bv a
Bull of Pius IX., October 20, 1870 (See in
fallibility, and a book called Janus on the
Vatican Council). [W. R. W. S.]
VAUDOIS (See Waldenses).
VAULT. This is generally taken to
mean either an arched stone roof, or an
imitation of some of its usual shapes in
either visible wood or wooden framing
plastered. York Minster now exhibits all
of them — viz. stone vaulting in all the
aisles, plaster imitation of stone in the main
roof of the nave and choir and the chapter
house, which is an octagonal dome sixty-
three feet wide, and the south transept has
been very unwisely "restored," as Mr.
Street called it, with visible wood vaulting
instead of plaster, which had long existed.
Everybody complains justly that the altera
tion has made it look much lower. The
modern craze for destroying .plaster, and
leaving rough stonework like a wall in a
field, which Street also did in the aisle
vaults of that transept, is the result of pure
ignorance of really ancient usage. No such
walls or vaults were ever left in fine
churches. The inside of St. Alban's Cathe
dral, both Norman walls and vaults, and the
Decorated vault of the south aisle, were and
are plastered all over, and the original De
corated vault of the choir is wood, painted
in patterns, of which the ground is mainly
white. Subject to these qnaUfications, we may

VAULT
treat vaulting as practically a stone arched
roof, of which there are various construc
tions belonging to the different styles . of
architecture. The earliest is the simple
barrel vault, or a semi-cylinder resting aU
along on two walls, which is evidently
subject to the same mechanical conditions
as a round arch, and is incapable of standing
without very considerable thickness, if it is
not supported by abutments a good way up
the haunches. In fact the thickness must
not be less than a 22nd of the diameter
(see chapter on Domes in the "Book on
BuUding "). Accordingly there are very few
barrel vaults of any great width, and very
few Norman vaults at all, except over
aisles, and no Saxon ones are known. More
over, there is another fatal impediment to
building simply barrel vaults over clearstory
windows, except small ones in very thick
walls, that the wall over the windows is
incapable of affording much abutment. In
fact, the science of vaulting may be said to
consist of knowing how to carry a stone
roof only on the unwindowed parts of a long
wall, which may be called piers fortified by
flying buttresses. The commonly stated
analogy of vaults to domes is a false one
altogether, and the mechanical conditions
are quite different. Every horizontal sec
tion of a dome is concave inside, but no
horizontal section of a vault is. Every
lump of vaulting springing from one pier
is an inverted, hollow-sided pyramid, of
which the horizontal section is either a
rectangle, or a polygon, or (in fan tracery)
a circle, curved the opposite way from a
dome. We can only give a very cursory account
here of the different kinds of vaulting. Our
only great Norman vault is at Durham,
where the ribs, which it is another common
error to consider an essential part of a vault,
are some of them transverse and semi
circular, and others diagonal, and therefore
necessarily flatfish semi-ellipses. If you
were to build a complete barrel vault, and
then pierce it through over every window
with another equal one, only just enough
for them both to stand on at the piers, the
diagonal edges would all be ellipses, and the
whole system of vaults much more stable
than a continuous barrel vault; and there
would be no thrust over the windows,
because it is carried to the piers and flying
buttresses between the windows. The ribs,
which were added in all grand work, but very
often not in crypts, and kitchens, and other
low vaulted rooms, are mainly decorative,
and add little or nothing to the strength,
unless they are very deep themselves, be
cause they also add their weight, and would
not stand alone. The directly transverse
ribs are also mainly ornamental, i.e. the

VAULT
vault could stand without them, though
they seem to carry it.
In Early English and Decorated vaults the
transverse section and ribs became pointed
arches, and also the east and west arches
over the windows, but the diagonal ones
are flatter arches than the transverse, being
wider with the same height. The ribs
themselves are always made in one plane,
and the vaulting sometimes assumes curious
shapes in following them. They are gener
ally circular in sweep, and not elliptical.
The middle of vaults is seldom much above
the top of the arch over the windows, and
may indeed be lower. Sometimes there is a
large rib running right along the top from
east to west, which again is merely orna
mental, as of course the bosses are at the
various intersections of ribs. There are also
often a multitude of other ribs in various
¦directions, giving a beautiful appearance of
a stone framework all mechanically arranged
in the direction of the thrusts ; and vaulting
is generally spoken of as if it were really so,
I and as if the panelling did nothing except
fill up and lie on the ribs. But that also is
all a mistake. Without the panelling the
ribs would have very inadequate stability,
and often none at all. Take the simple
case of the great central east and west rib,
in such vaults as Lichfield. Remove the
panelling, which forms a pointed arch up to
it on each side ; it could not stand without
every piece of it being arched itself from
transverse ribs, and so of all other ribs.
When there are shorter ribs than the main
ones, the vaulting is caUed Heme, which
seems merely to mean ribbed or bound
together. The vault of the choir of Lincoln,
Irom the great transept to the small one, has
a fanciful and bewildering peculiarity in the
main diagonal ribs not meeting each other
so as to form continuous arches, but each
meeting the next but one to its proper
opposite, and each severy of the vault looks
twisted, as if the south clearstory had been
pushed westwards relatively to the north
one, though the windows and piers are really
opposite as usual.
As the styles advanced there was a
tendency to make the horizontal sections
right through all the vaulting more polygonal
than rectangular, or, as we may say, to
round or chamfer off the corners where the
cross vault meets the main ones ; and hence
come the terms " quadripartite and sexpartite
vaulting," according to the number of faces
of the vaulting pyramids. And finally this
process reached its climax in the conoidal
vaults of completely circular horizontal
section (i.e. semicircular round each pier) of
the weU-known "fan tracery" of King's
College Chapel, Bath Abbey, St. Mary
Redcliffe, and many smaUer examples, in

VEIL

761

which' the ribs are visibly nothing but
ornamental panelling, generally with a large
boss in the middle to fill up the gap where
the highest circles meet. In still later
examples, such as Henry VII.'s chapel at
Westminster, and- St. George's, Windsor,
the central bosses become deep and danger
ous looking "pendants," stuck on also in
other places where they are not wanted at
all, but are a base addition, meaning nothing,
and entirely unstructural, whereas all genuine
ornamentation of the early styles meant
something, and had at first a structural
reason and appearance of use, though
perhaps no real necessity. Fan tracery was
the last, and we may say the only invention
of the Perpendicular style, and then it began
rapidly to decline and fall, and all subse
quent architecture became, and will for ever
be, mere copying of old forms, with more
or less of " ecclecticism," except the mere
displays of fantastic ugliness and vulgarity
which modern architects try to pass off for
originality. This is of course equally true
of the Italian, or classical, and the Gothic
styles as used now (though generally for
gotten). [G.]
The word "Vault" is also commonly
used for a repository of the dead ; the coffin
being placed in a vaulted tomb. ?
" As in a vault, an ancient receptacle,
Where, for these many hundred years, the bones
Of all my buried ancestors are pack'd."
Shakespeare, Jiomeo and Juliet, iv. 3.
VEIL. 1. The name given in the East for
our "fair linen cloth" with which the con
secrated elements are covered.
2. Hangings in front of the chancel gate,
used in old times partly to hide the sight
of the east end from the catechumens
and unbelievers, and partly to cover the
sacrifice of the Eucharist, in the time
of consecration (See Chrys. Horn. iii. in
Ephes.). There were also veils before the
other doors of a church. St. Jerome com
mends Nepotian among other things, for
seeing that the gates had their veils
(Hieron. Epitaph. Nepotian).
3. At the service of the Churching of
Women, the woman was always supposed
to wear a veil. In an inventory of church
goods belonging to St. Benet's, Grace Church,
in 1560, there is "a churching cloth, fringed,"
from which it would seem that the veU was
in some cases provided by the church. In
Archdeacon Hale's Precedents there are
several presentations of clergymen for re
fusing to church women who did not wear
veils.- — Annot. P. B. (See Cliurching).
4. Bridal veils are of great antiquity.
St. Ambrose speaks of the custom of
veiling when he says the Christian marriage
ought to be sanctified with the sacerdotal
veil, and benediction — "Cum ipsum con-

762

VENI

jugium velamine saoerdotali et benedictione
sanctificari oporteat (Ep. 70).
5. Paten and Chalice veils. A square of
silk, of a colour in accordance with the
season, with which the paten and chalice
are covered. They were always of the best
materials that could be got (Renaudot,
Lit. Or. i. 304 : U. 61). [H.]
VENI, CREATOR SPIRITUS. A hymn
to the Holy Ghost, used in our Ordinal
before the laying on of hands at the or
dination of priests, and consecration of
bishops. It is undoubtedly of great an
tiquity, and is generally ascribed to St.
Ambrose in the fourth century. But the
Benedictine editors of Ambrose's works do
not think there is sufficient evidence for
the fact. It is published by Thomasius
amongst the collection of ancient hymns
used in the Western Churches (Thom. Op.
a bezzosi, torn. ii. p., 375), and in the
Pontifical of Soisson, which dates from the
eleventh century (Martene, torn. ii. p. 50).
In the Salisbury and Paris Breviary it is
set down as a hymn for Pentecost. It
was introduced into the ordination service
probably in the eleventh century. The first
version given in our Prayer Book was
inserted in 1661 ; the second version, which
is an expansion rather than a translation,
is the earlier, having been inserted in 1549,
and revised in 1661. — Palmer, Orig. Liturg.
ii. 295 ; Maskell, Mon. Rit ii. 223. [H.j
VENITE, EXULTEMUS. "0 come, let
us sing" (Ps. 95). This psalm from very
early times has been placed before the
psalms of the noctum, in the Western
Churches. St. Athanasius says that before
the beginning of their prayers the Christians
(of Constantinople) invited and exhorted one
another in the words of this psalm. St.
Augustine also refers to it, and Amalarius
later on (820) speaks of it as being sung on
Sundays at the beginning of nocturns
(Amalar. de Eccl. Off. Ub. iv. c. 9). In
Henry VIII.'s Primer it is entitled "A
Song stirring to the praise of God " ; in
other ancient English offices it is called the
invitatory psalm. [H.]
VENIAL SIN. The Church of Rome,
following the schoolmen, represents some
sins as pardonable, and others not. The
first they call venial, the second, mortal,
sins. Thomas Aquinas makes seven dis
tinctions in sin (See Sin).
VERNACULAR (Lat., from verna, a
slave born in the house). The common
language of a country. Our Article (xxiv.)
speaks of having public prayer or adminis
tering the sacraments in a tongue not under-
standed of the people, as repugnant to the
Word of God. It is evident that in the
time of the Fathers the vernacular " under-
standed of the people " was only used. After

VERSE
a time not a foreign language but a low
tone of voice seems to have been adopted in
some places by the priests, for in the civil
law it was ordered : " We will and com
mand that all bishops and priests celebrate
the Holy Eucharist not in a low voice, .
but in a loud and clear voice, which may .
be heard by tlie faithful, that thereby the
minds of the hearers may be raised with
greater devotion to set forth the praises. of .
the Lord God ; for so doth the Apostle teach
us in his first Epistle to the Corinthians"
(Justin. Novell. 123, 137). In England the
intelligent use of the services by the people
was always encouraged, and herein her
Church differed considerably from other
European Churches. In a.d. 740, Egbert,
archbishop of York, ordered that "every
priest do instil the Lord's Prayer and Creed
into the people entrusted to him." Two
centuries later _ffric, archbishop of-Canter-
bury, enjoined the clergy to "speak the
sense of the Gospel to the people in English,
and of the Pater Noster and of the Creed,"
(Johnson's Eng. Canons, i. 186, 248, 398).
Similar injunctions are to be found in
Peckham's Constitutions, and in the canons
of many diocesan synods in the mediasval
period.— Blunt's Diet Doct. 783. [H.]
VERGER (from virga, a rod). It clearly
ought to be spelt Virger. ,He who carries
the mace before the dean or canons in a
cathedral or coUegiate church. In some
cathedrals the dean has his own verger, the
canons theirs : ; in others the verger goes
before any member of the church, whether
capitular or not, when he leaves his place,
to perform any part of the service. An
officer of a similar title precedes the vice-
chancellor in the English universities, but is
there called 'an esquire bedel,' bedellus.
The inferior ones are called ' yeoman bedels,'
at Cambridge.
VERSE. A line or short sentence,
generally applied to poetry, but also ap
plicable to prose, as Cicero employs it. See
Facciolati in voc. Hence it came to mean
a short sentence. It has, in an ecclesiastical
sense, these several meanings :
1. The short paragraphs, numbered for
tbe sake of reference, into which the Bible
is at present divided, are called verses.
These divisions were introduced into the
Old Testament by Rabbi Nathan, in the
fifteenth century. Those in the New were
introduced by Robert Stephens in 1551.
2. The short sentence of the minister,
which is followed by the response of the
choir or people, in the Latin ritual. These
are marked V. & R. It is something like
the versicles in our service, but is frequently
longer. 3. A sentence or short anthem, as in the
Introits of the Latin service.

VERSICLES
4. Verse in the English choral service
means those passages in the hymns or
anthems which are sung by a portion only
of the choir, sometimes by a single voice,
as contradistinguished from the full parts,
or chorus. Thus we have full and verse
anthems. VERSICLES. Short or diminutive
verses, said alternately by the minister and
people ; such, for example, as the fol
lowing : —
Min. 0 Lord, show thy mercy upon us ;
Ans. And grant us thy salvation.
Min. 0 God, make clean our hearts
within us ;
Ans. And take not thy. Holy Spirit from
us.
The versicles, properly so called (with
their responses) are in most instances pas
sages from the Psalms, and are thus dis
tinguished from other suffrages, which are
neither verses from the Psalms, nor form
in each petition and response a continuous
sentence. In the Litany the two versicles
with their responses. "0 Lord, deal not
with us after our sins," and "0 Lord, let
thy mercy be shewed upon us," are dis
tinguished from the other suffrages (in the
Litany) by having the words Priest and
Answer prefixed; and by being each a
verse from the Psalms. To which may be
added, that till the last Review, these had
been always prefaced in the English Litany,
since the Reformation, by the words " the
versicles." VERSIONS OF SCRIPTURE (See
Bible; Targum; Peshito).
VESICA PISCIS (See Piscis).
VESPERS, or EVENSONG, is men
tioned by the most ancient Fathers, and it
is probable that the custom of holding an
assembly for pubhc worship at this time
is of the most primitive antiquity. Cer
tainly in the fourth century, and perhaps
in the third, there was public evening
service in the Eastern Churches, as we
leam from the Apostolical Constitutions ;
and Cassian, in the beginning of the fifth
century, appears to refer the evening and
noctural assemblies of the Egyptians to the
time of St. Mark the Evangelist.
VESTMENTS. VESTURES (Lat. ves-
timentum, from vestire, to clothe). Gar
ments. Ecclesiastical vestments are articles
of dress or ornament, worn by ministers in
the celebration of Divine service. It has
been supposed by some that the Christian
vestments were adopted from those used in
the Levitical Church, but this does not
appear probable. There seems, in fact,
to have been originally but Uttle resem
blance. The dress worn by Christian mini
sters in primitive times was chiefly white,
that in the Jewish Church highly coloured

VESTMENTS

763-

(Marriott's Vest. Christ); nothing really
resembling the Jewish mitre appears among
Christian ornaments, till towards mediaeval
times, when the mitre was used (see
Mitre); the girdle, so important in the
Jewish priestly vestures, is not early known
as a Christian vestment in the shape which
it took about the sixth and the eighth cen
turies ; and the chasuble, called the vest
ment in Christian Churches, has no great
resemblance to anything -worn by the Le
vitical priests. On the other hand the
vestments are similar to the ordinary dress
of the Romans and Easterns in the early
times. In the albe we have the tunic;
the paenula, after the fashion of the toga
had gone out, was the super-vestment, often
mentioned by heathen writers, frequently
with an additional ornament — the orarium'
(stole) ; the dalmatic was used by a Roman
emperor ; the cope had a similar origin ;
the maniple was a handkerchief carried in>
the hand ; and the paUium, omophorion, &c.r
are modifications of that which is known
now simply as the stole (See Planeta, Stole,
Maniple, Cope). That such vestments were
used in early times seems certain, and in
the 4th council of Toledo (a.d. 633) they
are referred to as being ordinarily worn.
Because they were derived from the Roman
dress, which was adopted by all who came-
under the Roman civilization, and under
the Constantinopolitan emperors, it cannot
be said that they are in themselves badges
of the Roman Church. The English
Church, despite many endeavours on the-
part of the pope's adherents, was never
subject to the bishop of Rome. The Eng
lish " uses" differed from the Roman ritual,.
and in the " Sarum Use " the colours used
at different seasons in the ornaments and
vestments, were not identical with those of
Rome. The vestments that were used in the-
Communion Service at the time of the Re
formation are described by Archbishop-
Cranmer or under his directions, in a book
caUed the "Rationale of the Ceremonies
to be used in the Church of England, with
an explanation," &c. There is (1) the
Amice, a broad and oblong piece of linen
with two strings to fasten it (See Amice).
The explanation of this is, " He (the cele
brant) putteth on the Amice, which as
touching the mystery, signifies the veil
with the which the Jews covered the face of
Christ when they buffeted Him in the time
of His Passion. And as touching the-
minister, it signifies faith, which is the head,
ground, and foundation of all virtues ; and
therefore he puts that upon his head first."
(2) The Albe (see Albe), " which, as touch
ing the mystery, signifieth the white garment
wherewith Herod clothed Christ in mockery

764

VESTMENTS

when he sent Him to Pilate. And as touch
ing the minister, it signifieth the pureness
of conscience, and innocency he ought to
have." (3) The Girdle, a cord or narrow
band of silk or other material (see Girdle),
which fastened the albe round the waist,
which is explained thus : " The Girdle, as
touching the mystery, signifies the scourge
with which Christ was scourged. And as
touching the minister, it signifies the con
tinent and chaste living, or else the close
mind which he ought to have at prayers,
when he celebrates." (4) The Stole (see
Stole), which, "as touching the mystery,
signifieth the ropes or bands that Christ
was bound with to the pillar, when He was
scourged. And as touching the minister,
it signifieth the yoke of patience, which he
must bear as the servant of God." (5) The
Maniple (see Maniple), called in the
Rationale, the "Phanon," which the cele
brant " puts on his arm, which admonisheth
him of ghostly strength, and godly patience
that he ought to have to vanquish and over
come all infirmity." (6) The Chasuble or
particular vestment (see Chasuble), of which
it is said in the Rationale " the over ves
ture, or chesible, as touching the mystery,
signifieth the purple mantle that PUate's
soldiers put upon Christ after that they had
scourged Him. And as touching the minis
ter, it signifies charity, a virtue excellent
above aU other." The Cope, and the Tu
nicle are not mentioned in the Rationale of
Cranmer, probably because they were not
connected with the vestments in which the
priest celebrated (See Cope ; Tunicle). But
in the rubric of 1549 (Edward's First Prayer
Book) the mention of a " vestment or cope "
implies that the chasuble or cope was to be
used according to the purpose of the cele
brant to consecrate the Sacrament or not be
used at the discretion of the minister. One
of the " Certain Notes " in the First Prayer
Book of Edward. VI. is this, " And whenso
ever the bishop shall celebrate the holy
•Communion in the church, or execute any
other public ministration, he shall have
upon him, beside his rochette, a surpleis
or albe, and a cope or vestmente, and also
his pastoral staffe in his hande or else borne
or holden by his chaplain." A rubric before
the Communion office runs thus, "Upon the
day, and at the time appointed for the
ministration of the holy Communion, the
priest that shall execute the holy ministry,
shall put upon him the vesture appointed
for that ministration; that is to say, a
white albe plain, with a vestment or cope.
And where there be many priests, or deacons,
there so many shall be ready to help the
priest in the ministration, as shall be re-
.quisite ; and shaU have upon them likewise
the vestures appointed for their ministry,

VESTMENTS
that is to say albes with tunacles." It is
clear that here it was intended that the
celebrant should wear (1) a linen albe, and
(2) over it the vestment, namely, the chasu
ble, tlie characteristic eucharistic robe of
all Christendom, dating from the earliest
ages of the Church. A rubric at the end of
the Communion Service directs that when
there " were none to communicate with the
priest," he was to " put upon him a plain
albe or surpleis, with a cope," and not to
consecrate the Sacrament. These were the
necessary vestments (though others might
be used), and they were insisted on in
after times. According to Statute 1 Eliz.
c. 2 (1559), it was enacted " that such orna
ments of the church, and of the ministers
thereof, shall be retained and be in use, as
was in this Church of England by authority
of Parliament, in the second year of the
reign of King Edward VI., until other order
shaU be therein taken by the authority
of the Queen's Majesty, with the advice of
her commissioners appointed and authorized
under the great seal of England, for causes
ecclesiastical, or of the Metropolitan of this
Realm." The words " until other order be
taken " opens the question of Queen Eliza
beth's Advertisements, with regard to which
there has been much controversy (See Ad
vertisements). The Prayer Book of 1604
ordered " that the minister at the time of
the Communion, and at all other times in
his ministration shall use such ornaments
in the Church as were in use by authority
of Parliament in the second year of the
reign of King Edward the Sixth," and that of
1662 ordered "that such ornaments of the
Church and of the ministers thereof, at
all times of their ministration, shall be
retained, and be in use as were in this
Church of England, by the authority of
Parliament, in the 2nd year of the reign of
King Edward VL" The question of vest-
ments gave great trouble to Archbishop
Parker, and it has been a matter of con
troversy ever since that time. At the
present day there are Protestant associa
tions to do away with the vestments
allowed or ordered by Edward VI.'s first
Prayer Book. But in the older times the
Puritans, as they were called, went to even
further lengths. The surplice and the " comer
cap," i.e. the cap of the universities, were
looked upon as abominations of the Church
of Rome. They were called the " defiled
robes of Antichrist," and many of the clergy
gave in to the prevaiUng opinion. The
consequence was that other holy things also
were treated with irreverence. Common
basons were used instead of fonts at baptism,
and the religious observance of the Lord's
supper became in many places a mere form.
Queen Elizabeth however insisted upon a

VESTRY
reverent solemnization of the rites of the
Church, and under the rule of Archbishop
Parker, matters were brought to a satisfac
tory conclusion. It was the evident in
tention of our ecclesiastical rulers to reform,
not to destroy. They continually bore in
mind that they were reforming the old
Church, and not establishing a new sect.
Bishop Jewell, Gheast, and even Horn, the
Puritan bishop of Winchester, realised this
principle, and became aware that, although
the popular cry was against vestments, it
was not really directed against those things,
in themselves immaterial, but against the
whole system of episcopacy in the Church.
It is not necessary to follow the controversy
throughout. For many years the surplice
was considered the only necessary vestment.
But when there came a revival with regard
to Church ritual in 1830, many persons
looking to King Edward's first Prayer Book,
adopted the use of a vestment, or chasuble
over an albe; and the practice extended
itself partly in consequence of the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council having
stated in 1857 " the same dresses (and the
same utensils or articles) which were used
under the Fn-st Prayer Book of Edward Vlth.
may still be used." Others, foUowing in
their steps, adopted other vestments, e.g.
the amice and maniple, which are not men
tioned in that Prayer Book. This has caused
much litigation ; Sir R. PhilUmore in 1870
based his judgment in favour of the vest
ments and other ornaments upon the lan
guage of the Privy CouncU in 1857. But
his judgment was reversed by the Privy
CouncU in 1871, which then, and also in
1877, declared all vestments, except the
surplice, to be Illegal. — Strype's Parker, i.
302, 485; Fuller's Ch. Hist 76; Neale's
Hist. Pur. i. 153 ; Hook's Archbishops, ix.
269, 389 ; Palmer's Orig. Liturg. U. 309 ;
Perry in Blunt's Annot. P. B. [H.]
VESTRY (Anciently Revestry or Sa
cristy). A room attached to a church
for the keeping of the vestments and the
sacred vessels. The most usual place for
the vestiy was at the north side of the
chancel, at the east end. There was not
infrequently an altar in the vestry; and
sometimes it was arranged with an addi
tional chamber, so as to form a domus
inelusa for the residence of an officiating
priest. And from their meeting in this room,
certain assemblies of the parishioners, for
the despatch of the official business of the
parish, are caUed vestries or vestry meet
ings. It is not, however, essential to the
validity of the meeting, that it should be
held in the vestry of the church. It may be
convened in any place in the parish, pro
vided the parishioners have free access to

VESTRY

765

it, even though the place fixed on be
private property. Notice of meeting must
be given three days previously, by affixing
on or near the doors of all churches or
chapels within the parish, a printed or
written notice. The incumbent is ex officio
chairman of the meeting. All persons, male
and female, rated to the reUef of the poor,
whether inhabitants of the parish or not, are
entitled to attend the vestry and vote
thereat : and this right is also extended to
all inhabitants coming into the parish since
the last rate for the reUef of the poor, if they
consent to be rated. But no person is en
titled to vote, who shall have neglected or
refused to pay any rate which may be due,
and shall have been demanded of him, nor
is he entitled to be present at any vestry
meeting. A motion to adjourn the vestry
for six or twelve months, or for any time,
with- a view to defeat the object of the
meeting, is Ulegal, and therefore no such
motion should be allowed by the chairman.
The functions of vestries, since the aboli
tion of compulsory church-rates in 1868, are
to elect churchwardens, to present for ap
pointment fit persons as overseers of the
poor, to administer the property of the
parish, and (if so appointed under local Acts)
to suprintend the paving and lighting of the
parish, and to levy rates for those purposes.
The remedy for neglect of duty by a ,
vestry is a mandamus from the Court of
Queen's Bench, directed to the officer
whose duty it would be to perform the
particular act, or in some cases by an
ordinary process against him, or by a
process against the churchwardens out of
the ecclesiastical courts.
In tho year 1818 was passed the 58
Geo. III. c. 69, making general regula
tions for the holding of vestries, and this
Act was amended next year by the 59
Geo. III. c. 85. In the same year was
passed the 59 Geo. III. c. 12, commonly
caUed Sturges Bourne's Act, authorising
the formation of select vestries for the
management of the relief of paupers ; but
that is superseded by the Poor Law Amend
ment Act of 1834.
The 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 20 was an im
portant Act relating to vestries, commonly
called Hobhouse's Act. It authorises,
upon the petition of a certain number of
parishioners paying rates, the formation of
a representative select vestry. To 1000
ratepayers 12 representatives are allowed;
above 1000, 24 ; above 2000, 36 ; and so
on, allowing 12 additional representatives
for every additional 1000 ratepayers, until
the number of the select vestry reaches
120, which is the limit of elected members.
There are others ex officio, including the
clergy of the district. Section 40 of this

766

VESTRY

Act saves all ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and
provides that the Act shall not invalidate
or avoid any ecclesiastical law or constitu
tion of the Chm-ch of England, save as
concerns the appointment of vestries. It is
repealed as to the metropolis and other
arrangements for metropolitan vestries (not
under special Acts as Marylebone is) made
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120. And by c. 112 of
the following year, other powers "not re
lating to the affairs of the Chm-ch," are
given to the vestries constituted thereunder.
These Acts do not affect the power of rate
payers to elect the incumbent, where they
unfortunately have it.
A series of church-building Acts, eighteen
in number, were passed between 1818 and
1848, beginning with the 58 Geo. III.,
and ending with the 11 & 12 Vict. They
contained clauses which provided for the
formation of select vestries in the new
ecclesiastical districts constituted by those
Acts. In 1851 came the 14 & 15 Vict.
c. 97, which enumerates all these Acts,
and by section 20 not only forbids tbe
formation of select vestries in new districts
to be formed, but abolishes all those which
had been formed under the Acts enumer
ated. By the Metropolitan Burials Act of 1852
(15 & 16 Vict. c. 85, amended and extended
by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 134) new and import
ant duties were thrown upon vestries. It
is therein provided, that, upon the requisi
tion in writing of ten or more ratepayers
of any parish in the metropolis in which
the place or places of burial shaU appear
to such ratepayers insufficient or danger
ous to health (and whether any order in
council ' in relation to any burial ground
in such parish has or has not been made),
the churchwardens or other persons to
whom it belongs to convene meetings of
the vestry of such parish, shall convene a
meeting of the vestry, for the special
purpose of determining whether a burial
ground shall be provided under this Act
for the parish ; and public notice of such
vestry meeting, and the place and hour of
holding the same, and the special purpose
thereof, shall be given in the usual manner
in which notices of the meetings of the
vestry are given, at least seven days before
holding such vestry meeting ; and if it
be resolved by the vestry that a burial
.ground shall be provided under this Act
for the parish, a copy of such resolution,
extracted from the minutes of the vestry,
,and signed, by the chairman, shall be sent
to one of her Majesty's principal secretaries
of state.
In case of such resolution as aforesaid,
the vestry shall appoint not less than
three, nor more than nine persons, being

VESTRY
ratepayers of the parish, to be the burial
board of such parish, of whom one third,
or as nearly as may be one third (to be
determined among themselves), shall go
out of office yearly, at such time as shall
be from time to time fixed by the vestry,
but shall be eligible for immediate re
appointment : provided always, that the
incumbent of the parish shall be eligible
to be appointed and re-appointed from
time to time as one of the members of the
said board, although not a ratepayer of the
parish ; provided also, that any member
of the board may at any time resign his
office, on giving notice in writing to the
churchwardens or persons to whom it
belongs to convene meetings of the vestry.
Any vacancies in the board may be filled
up by the vestry when and as the vestry
shall think fit.
The board shall meet at least once in
every month at their office, or some other
convenient place, previously publicly noti
fied, and the said board may meet at such
other time as at any previous meeting
shall be determined upon : and it shall be
at all times competent for any two mem
bers of the board, by writing under their
hands, to summon, with at least forty-eight
hours' notice, the board for any special
purpose mentioned in such writing, and to
meet at such times as shall be appointed
therein. At all meetings of the board, any num
ber not less than three members of such
board shall be a sufficient number for
transacting business, and for exercising all
the powers of the board.
The board shall appoint, and may re
move at pleasure, a clerk, and such other
officers and servants as shall be necessary
for the business of the board, and for the
purposes of their burial ground ; and, with
the approval of the vestry, may appoint
reasonable salaries, wages, and allowances
for such clerk, officers, and servants, and,
when necessary, may hire and rent a suf
ficient office for holding their meetings and
transacting their business.
Entries of all proceedings of the board,
with the names of the members who attend
each, meeting, shall be made in books to
be provided and kept for that purpose,
under the direction of the board, and shall
be signed by the members present, or any
two of them ; and all entries purporting
to be so signed shall be received as evi
dence, without proof of any meeting of the
board having been duly convened or held,
or of the presence at any such meeting of
the persons named in any such entry as
being present thereat, or of such persons
being members of the board, or of the
signature of any person by whom any

VESTRY
such entry purports to be signed, all which
matters shall be presumed until the con
trary be proved ; and the board shall provide
and keep books in which shall be entered
true and regular accounts of all sums of
money received and paid, for or on account
of the pmposes of this Act in the parish, and
of all Uabilities incurred by them for such
purposes, and of the several purposes for
which such sums of money are paid and
such Uabilities incurred.
All such books shall, at all reasonable
times, be open to the examination of every
member of such board, churchwarden,
overseer, and ratepayer without fee or
reward, and they respectively may take
copies of, or extracts from such books, or
any part thereof, without paying for the
same ; and in case the members of such
board, or any of them, or any of the
officers or servants of such board having the
custody of the said books, being thereunto
reasonably requested, refuse to permit or do
not permit any churchwarden, overseer or
ratepayer to examine the same, or take any
such copies or extracts, every such mem
ber, officer, or servant so offending shall
for every such offence, upon a summary
conviction thereof before any justice of the
peace, forfeit any sum not exceeding five
pounds. The vestry shall yearly appoint two
persons, not being members of the board,
to be auditors of the accounts of the
board, and at such time in the month of
March in every year as the vestry shall
appoint, the board shall produce to the
auditors their accounts, with sufficient
vouchers for all monies received and paid,
and the auditors shall examine such
accounts and vouchers, and report thereon
to the vestry.
. The expenses incurred, or to be incurred,
by the burial board of any parish in
parrying this Act into execution, shall be
chargeable upon and paid out of the rates
for the relief of the poor of such parish;
the expenses to be so incurred for or on
account of any parish in providing and
laying out a burial ground under this Act,
and building the necessary chapel or chapels
thereon, not to exceed such sum as the
vestry shall authorize to be expended for
such purpose ; and the oveersers or other
officers authorized to make and levy rates
for the relief of the poor in any parish
shall, upon receipt of a certificate under
the hands of such number of members of
the burial board as are authorized to
exercise- the powers of the board, of the
sums required from time to time for defray
ing any such expenses as aforesaid, pay such
sums out of the rates for the relief of the
poor, as the board shall du-ect.

VESTRY

767

Provided always, that it shall be lawful
for the board, with the sanction of the
vestry and the approval of the commis
sioners of her Majesty's treasury, to borrow
any money required for providing and
laying out any burial ground under this
Act, and building a chapel or chapels there
on, or any of such purposes, and to
charge the future poor rates of the parish
with the payment of such money and
interest thereon ; provided that there shall
be paid in every year, in addition to the
interest of the money borrowed and un
paid, not less than one-twentieth of the
principal sum borrowed, until the whole is
discharged. The commissioners for carrying into
execution an Act of the session holden in
the 14th and 15th years of her Majesty,
c. 53, " to authorize for a further pe
riod the advance of money out of the
consolidated fund to a limited amount for
carrying on public works and fisheries and
employment of the poor," and any Act or
Acts, amending or continuing the same,
may from time to time make to the burial
board of any parish for the purposes of this
Act any loan under the provisions of the
recited Act, or the several Acts therein
recited or referred to, upon security of the
rates for the relief of the poor of the parish.
The money raised for defraying such
expenses, and the income arising from the
burial ground provided for the parish, ex
cept fees payable to the incumbent, clerk,
and sexton of the parish, and the other fees
herein directed to be otherwise paid, shall
be applied by the board in or towards
defraying the expenses of such board under
this Act; and whenever, after repayment
of all monies borrowed for the purposes of
this Act in or for any parish, and the interest
thereof, and after satisfying all the liabili
ties of the board with reference to the
execution of this Act in or for the parish,
and providing such a balance as shall be
deemed by the board sufficient to meet their
probable liabilities during the then next
year, there shall be at the time of holding
the meeting of the vestry at which the
yearly report of the auditors shall be pro
duced, any surplus money at the disposal of
the board, they shall pay the same to the
overseers, in aid of the rate for the relief of
the poor of the parish.
The vestries of any parishes which ' shall
have respectively resolved to provide burial
grounds under this Act, may concur in pro
viding one burial ground for the common
use of such parishes, in such manner, not
inconsistent with the provisions of this Act,
as they shaU mutually agree; and may
agree as to the proportions in which the
expenses of such burial ground shaU be

768

VESTRY

borne by such parishes, and the proportion
for each of such parishes of such expenses
shall be chargeable upon and paid out of the
monies to be raised for the relief of the poor
of the same respective parish accordingly ;
and, according and subject to the terms
which shall have been so agreed on, the
burial boards appointed for such parishes
respectively shall, for the purpose of providing
and managing such one burial ground, and
taking and holding land for the same, act
as one joint burial board for all such parishes,
and may have a joint office, clerk, and
officers, and all the provisions of this Act
shall apply to such joint burial board ac
cordingly ; and the accounts and vouchers
of such board shall be examined and re
ported on by the auditors of each of such
parishes; and the surplus money at the
disposal as aforesaid of such board, shall be
paid to the overseers of such parishes re
spectively in the same proportions as those in
which such parishes shall be liable to such
expenses. For the more easy execution of the
purposes of this Act, the burial board of
every parish appointed under this Act shall
be a body corporate, by the name of " The
Burial Board for the Parish of  , in the
County of  ," and by that name shall
have perpetual succession and a common
seal, and shall sue and be sued, and have
power and authority (without any licence
in mortmain) to take, purchase, and hold
land for the purposes of this Act ; and where
the burial boards of two or more parishes
act as, and form, one joint burial board for
aU such parishes for the purposes aforesaid,
such joint board shall for such purposes only
be a body corporate, by the name of " The
Burial Board for the Parishes of  ,
and  , in the County of-  ," and by
that name shall have perpetual succession,
and a common seal, and shall sue and be
sued, and have power and authority as
aforesaid to take, purchase, and hold land
for the purposes of this Act.
Every burial board shall, with all con
venient speed, proceed to provide a burial
ground for the parish or parishes for which
they are appointed to act, and to make
arrangements for facilitating interments
therein ; and in providing such burial
ground, the board shall have reference to
the convenience of access thereto from the
parish or parishes for which the same is
provided ; and any such burial ground may
be provided either within or without the
limits of the parish, or all or any of the
parishes, for which the same is provided;
but no ground not already used as or ap
propriated for a cemetery, shaU be appro
priated as a burial ground, or as an ad
dition to a burial ground, under this Act,

VIATICUM
nearer than 200 yards to any dwelling
house, without the consent in writing of
the owner, lessee, and occupier of such dwell
ing house.
For the providing such burial ground, it
shall be lawful for the burial board, with
the approval of the vestry or vestries of the
parish or respective parishes, to contract for
and purchase any lands for the purpose of
forming a burial ground, or for making
additions to any burial ground to be formed
or purchased under this Act, as such board
may think fit, or to purchase from any
company or persons entitled thereto any
cemetery or cemeteries, or part or parts
thereof, subject to the rights in vaults and
graves, and other subsisting rights, which
may have been previously granted therein-:
provided always that it shall be lawful for
such board, in lieu of providing any such
burial ground, to contract with any such
company or persons entitled as aforesaid for
the interment in such cemetery or cemeteries,
and either in any allotted part of such
cemetery or cemeteries or otherwise, and
upon such terms as the burial board may
think fit, of the bodies of persons who
would have had rights of interment in the
burial grounds of such parish or respective
parishes. VIATICUM (from via, a way = Greek
icbobtov). The provision made for a journey.
Hence, in the ancient Church, both baptism
an d th e Eucharist were caUed Viatica, because
tbey were equally esteemed men's necessary
provision and proper armour, both to sustain
and conduct them safe on their way in their
passage through this world to eternal life.
The administration of baptism is thus spoken
of by St. Basil and Gregory Nazianzen, as
the giving to men their viaticum, or pro
vision for their journey to another world
(Basil, Horn. 13, de Bapt : Naz. Orat. 40,
de Bapt) ; and under this impression it was
frequently delayed till the hour of death,
being esteemed as a final security and safe
guard to future happiness. But this delay
was always esteemed a grievous error, as
pointed out by Gregory Nazianzen in his
work on Baptism quoted above, and other
Fathers; and forbidden by councils (e.g.
Cone. Elib. can. 73, &c). More strictly,
however, the term viaticum denoted the ,
Eucharist given to persons in immediate
danger of death. In this sense is used the
term rd i<pdbta tov Qeov (Clem. Ep. 1,
ad Cor. c ii. : Basil, Ep. Ivii. ccxlix. ad
Melet : Cyril, Horn. Cat. v. sec. 12), and
icpobiov fcoijj alaviov, which occurs in the
Uturgies of St. James, St. Basil, and St.
Mark (Hammond, Liturg. Sec p. 191). The
13th canon of the Nicene Council ordains
that none " be deprived of his perfect and
most necessary viaticum, when he departs

VICAR
out of this life." Several other canons of
various councils are to the same effect,
providing also for the giving of the viaticum
under peculiar circumstances, as to persons
in extreme weakness, delirium, or subject
to canonical discipline (Carth. iv. cc. 76, 77 :
Araus. i. c. 3 : Arelat ii. c. 28 : Epaon. c. 36 :
Tolet xi. c. 11, Sec).
Two things must be observed from these
canons in the case of the viaticum being
taken to a sick person : (1) the penitential
discipline was not observed even in the case
of evil livers, although stipulation was made
that it should be completed in case of re
covery ; (2) it might be received by persons
not fasting (See Fasting Communion).
The dying person was evidently in early
times communicated from the reserved
sacrament, and the viaticum was conveyed
in a vessel called the " Chrismal." The
priest would usually take it, but a deacon
(Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 65), or even a lay
man (Euseb. H. E. vi. 44), might be com
missioned to convey it. The question as to
whether the sacrament was administered in
one kind only need not here be considered
(see Communion in One Kind), but it is
probable that in the early times the bread
was dipped into the wine, and so received
(Bede, H. E. iv. 14). This was certainly
the case in the Eastern Chm-ch, and is
implied in several ancient Western service
books. "Corpus Domini nostri J. Christi,
sanguine suo inlitum intinctum, mundet te
ab omni peccato " (Gerbertus, Liturg. Ale-
man, ii. 487). With regard to persons in
extremis, and hardly able to swallow, the
Uquid contents of the chalice were allowed
to be dropped into his mouth (Cone.
Carthag. iv. c. 76; Tolet xi. c. 11). In
the Church of England at the present time
private celebrations at the sick-bed only are
allowed. For this, see Communion of Sick.
— Bona, Rer. Lit. i. c. xxi ; Martene, lib. i.
c. vii.; Lingard, Anglo-Saxon Church, ii.
p. 44, ed. 1858; Maskell, Mon. Rit i.
eclxxii. [H]
, VICAR. Vicarius, as its etymology
denotes, means a deputy ; and vicars in
ecclesiology are deputies of various kinds.
Those which are most commonly spoken
of are the vicars who in one way or an
other represent those who were originally
charged with the parochial cure of souls and
received the endowments attached thereto.
The history of their institution or growth is
obscure and complicated, and would be out
of (place here. Many pages of it may be
read in PhilUmore's Eccl. Law and other
books. It is enough to say that when a
spiritual rector or parson, persona ecciesie,
had been endowed with the great tithes of
a parish he was chargeable with the cure of
souls himself. When the endowments had

VICARS CHORAL

769

somehow got into the hands of an ecclesi
astical corporation, or a monastery, they had
to provide what may be called a curate in a
popular sense ; and an Act as early as 15
Ric. II. c. 6, enacted that " on every appro
priation (i.e. endowment of any such body,
or of a lay rector, with the tithes) . . . the
vicar should be well and sufficiently en
dowed." And by 4 Hen. IV. c. 12, " in ever j
church appropriated there shall be a secular
(i.e. a non-monkish) person ordained vicar
perpetual, canonically instituted and in
ducted, and covenably endowed by the
discretion of the ordinary to do divine
service and to inform the people, and to
keep hospitaUty there ; and no religious (i.e.
no monk) shall in any wise be made vicar
in any church appropriated."
Those well-intended laws were however
baffled and evaded by the monasteries, both
by making very inadequate endowments,
and otherwise, like all other attempts to
regulate them; and thence it was that the
scandalous anomaly exists of laymen, the
grantees of the spoils of the monasteries,
receiving the greatest part of the tithes of
many parishes which were granted originally
for the maintenance of the church, the clergy
and the poor. (The subject of rectors or
parsons belongs to other articles : q.v.)
Generally, but not invariably, the vicars
were endowed under the above-mentioned
Acts with what are called "small tithes,"
the rectors having the " great" ones, which
are usually of corn, hay and wood and fruit;
but potatoes have beeu decided -to be
" small," in whatever quantity they may
be grown. But all this has been superseded
and made immaterial by the Tithe Com
mutation Acts (See Tithes). Moreover, the
word vicar has acquired a much wider
meaning by two recent Acts. By the Dis
trict Churches Tithes Act, 1865, s. 9, in
cumbents of new parishes as soon as they
were endowed with any payment out of the
great or small tithes arising therein could
be declared by the Ecclesiastical Commis
sioners rectors and vicars accordingly, instead
of being " perpetual curates," as they were
before. This was found anomalous and
misleading, and so that section was repealed
by 31 & 32 Vict. c. 117, which absolutely
makes the incumbents of all new parishes
thereafter vicars, as soon as they become
entitled to perform marriages and to keep
the fees. Consequently perpetual curates
have all but ceased to exist and will become
extinct, except for the short interval during
which the incumbent of the old parish re
mains entitled to the marriage fees. Per
petual curacies had long been declared to
be benefices (See Curates, and Pews). [G.]
VICARS CHORAL. The assistants or
deputies of the canons or prebendaries of
F 3d

770

VICARS CHORAL

collegiate chm-ches, in the discharge of
their duties, especially, though not ex
clusively, those performed in the choir or
chancel; as distinguished from those be
longing to the altar and pulpit.
The vicars choral, as their name implies,
were originally appointed as the deputies
of the canons and prebendaries for Church
purposes; that is, to provide for the absence
or incapacity of the great body of capitular
members : the clerical vicars to chant in
rotation the prayers at matins and evensong,
Sec, and the whole body to form a sufficient
and permanent choir for the performance of
the daily service ; a duty which the canons
were originally required to perform in
person. The presbyteral members were
usually four, being the vicars of the four
dignitaries, persone principales (See Per
sona). Sometimes they were five; the
rest were deacons, and in minor orders, in
later times, chiefly laymen.
This institution was most salutary ; since,
were every canon required to have the pe
culiar qualifications required from vicars,
viz. a practical knowledge of ecclesiastical
music, men of higher and more important
qualities would of necessity be often ex
cluded from the canonical stalls. In fact,
the appointment of deacons and inferior
ministers to this peculiar office, which we
do not find established tUl the beginning of
tbe fourth century (i.e. the KavoviKol ifraKrai,
Bingham, iii. 7), bears a striking analogy to
the regulation of the Jewish temple; where
some of the Levites, the deacons of the
elder Church, were newly appointed by
David to the musical service. OriginaUy
the vicars choral were commensurate with
the capitular members, each of these having
a vicar, appointed by himself, and holding
his place only so long as his principal lived.
The numbers have now greatly diminished.
At York they were at one time 36 ; at
Salisbury, 25 ; at Hereford, 20.
In all cathedrals of the old foundation in
England, where there were choirs, the vicars
choral formed a minor corporation, in some
way under the control of the dean or
chapter, but with separate estates, with
collegiate buildings, halls, and chapels, some
of which still subsist. Those at Chichester
and Wells were incorporated in the 14th
century, those at Hereford and Exeter in the
15th. At Southwell they formerly consti
tuted a college, till the Reformation. Their
presidents were styled custos, or warden,
sub-dean, sub-chanter, provost, or pro
curator. In cathedrals of the new foundation, the
name Vicar Choral was generally superseded
by that of Minor Canon for the clergy, and
Lay-clerk for the laity (See Minor Canon).
— Jebb, Choral Service.

VICAR PENSIONARY
III. VICAR GENERAL of a bishop is
his chancellor (q.v.). The vicars general
of the two archbishops have some provincial
functions also, and generally act for them
in confirming bishops of the province, hut
must be distinguished from the Provincial
Judge or Dean of Arches and Judge of the
Chancery Court of York (who oddly enough
is not the Chancellor). Neither is a com
missary, who is appointed by a bishop or
archbishop for a particular purpose or time,
the same as his vicar general, who has a
judicial office. The viear general of Canter
bury usually institutes incumbents, and pro
rogues convocation. But that is not the
use of York. Under the Statute of Supre
macy, 26 Hen. VIII. c. 1, which was repealed
by Mary and not revived by Elizabeth but
another Act substituted for it, Thomas
Cromwell was appointed "the king's vicar
general, vicegerent and principal com
missary." Not that the Act expressly
instituted such an office, but it gave the
king power to visit, repress, &c, all heresies,
which by any manner of spiritual au
thority or jurisdiction might lawfully be
repressed, corrected, &c, and declared him
" the only supreme head in earth of the
Church of England." That title was altered
by 1 Eliz. c. 1, into " supreme governor in
all spnitual or ecclesiastical things or
causes as well as in temporal ; " which the
Report of the Commission on Ecclesiastical
Courts, 1883, very oddly omits, whUe it states
(on what authority it also omits to say) that
the more indefinite " title of supreme head
was never accepted as part o f the Reformation
settlement." It certainly was accepted and
acted on in the most practical way for twenty-
five years, until the Act was first repealed by
the Papists and then amended as above, and
the Court of High Commission substituted
for the royal vicar general, until that also was
abolished by the Long Parliament, and again
declared illegal by 1 W. & M. c. 1. [G.]
VICARS' COLLEGE. The residence of
the non-capitular members of a cathedral.
At WeUs, the court remains, entered by
a gatehouse and lined with the houses
of the vicars, with hall, library, and
chapel ; at Hereford the college forms a
beautiful cloistered quadrangle, with the
same adjuncts : at Chichester and Exeter
the haUs only, which are of the fourteenth
century, have been preserved : and at Lh>
coin considerable portions,! of the ancient
buildings remain. Until the civU war the
collegiate Ufe was everywhere maintained —
at Hereford so lately as 1828.— Walcott's
Sac. Arch. 603. [H]
VICAR PENSIONARY. Certain cler
gymen appointed at a fixed stipend to serve
chm-ches, the titles of which belonged to a
collegiate foundation: as at St. Salvador's

VICE-DEAN
CoUege, St. Andrews) See Lyons' History
of St. Andrews).
VICE-DEAN, or SUBDEAN. In ca
thedrals of the new foundation, one of the
canons is annually chosen to represent the
dean in his absence ; and as such he ranks
next to him in the choir and chapter. In
most of the old ones it is a permanent office.
At York it is singular that the subdean is
not even a canon ex officio, nor in fact at
present. [G.]
VIDAME : Vicedominus. The vicege
rent, or official of a bishop in temporals.
A dignitary in a few foreign cathedrals is
thus called : a sort of subdean.
VIGIL (Lat. vigilare, to watch). The
night or evening before certain holy-days of
the Church. In former times it was cus
tomary to have religious services on these
eves, and sometimes to spend a great part
of the night in prayer and other devotions,
to qualify the soul for the better observance
of the festival itself on the morrow. These
nights thus spent were called vigils or
watchings, and are still professedly observed
in the Church of England.
This term originated in a custom of the
early Christians, who fasted and watched
the whole night previous to any great fes
tival; hence Vigilie, VigUs, or watchings.
As a military custom this was most an
cient. The Jews seem originally to have
divided the night into three watches ; but
in the New Testament we read of "the
fourth watch of the night " (St. Mark vi.
48), a custom, perhaps, introduced by their
conquerors, the Romans, who divided their
night into four vigils. The primitive
Christians might have been inclined to
this custom from various references to it in
the Gospel ; particularly in the close of the
parable of the ten virgins ; though it is not
improbable that the secrecy with which they
were obliged to meet, " for fear of the Jews "
(St. John xx. 19), and other persecutors,
went far towards establishing it. The cus
tom became general, and St. Jerome, who
had to defend it against VigUantius, brings
forward abundant Scriptural authority (Ep.
xxxvi., de Observ. Vigil). But this, like
many other innocent or " necessary cere
monies, having been at length abused, tbe
nocturnal vigils were abolished, about the
year 420, and turned into evening fasts,
preparatory to the principal festival (Duran-
dus, vi. 7). But it appears- that a vigil was
observed on All HaUows Day, by watching
and ringing of bells aU night long, even till
the year 1545, when Henry VIII., in his
letter to Cranmer, as to "creeping to the
cross," &c, desired it might be abolished.
Every festival has not a vigil preceding it.
Those appointed by the Church are as
follows : —

VIRGIN MARY

771

Before the Nativity of our Lord. The
Purification and Annunciation of the Blessed
Virgin. Easter Day. Ascension Day. Pen
tecost. St. Matthias. St. John Baptist.
St. Peter. St. James. St. Bartholomew.
St. Matthew. St. Simon and St. Jude. St.
Thomas. St. Andrew. All Saints.
It has been given as a reason why the
other holy-days have no vigils before them,
that they generally happened between
Christmas and the Purification, or between
Easter and Whitsuntide, seasons of joy
which the Church did not think fit to break
into by fasting and humiliation. See fully
on this subject, Wheatly on the Common
Prayer. VIRGIN MARY (See Mariolatry and
Mother qf God). The mother of our Blessed
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. " She was
of all the women, of all the virgins in Israel,
elected and chosen by God to be the
instrument of bringing into the world the
long-desired Messias. All the virtuous
daughters of Jacob, a good whUe before the
revelation of our Saviour, but especially in
the age when He appeared (the time wherein
they saw the more punctual and remarkable
prophecies concerning the coming of the
Messias fulfilled), desired, and were not
without hopes, each of them, that they
might have had this honour done unto
them. But it was granted to none of all
these holy women and virgins, but to the
Virgin Mary. And therefore 'aU genera
tions shaU call her blessed.' " — Bishop Bull's
Sermons. Although always the greatest veneration
was given to the Blessed Virgin, yet no
instance of Divine honour paid her is
recorded of an earlier date than the fifth
century. Cyril :of Alexandria and Proklus
of Constantinople were the first to pay
these honours to her. Festivals to her
memory began to be held about the year
431, but were not generally observed until
the sixth century. From this time until
the sixteenth century, they were general in
all the Western Churches, though differing
in number and in rank, in the several
countries of Europe. The Greek Church
observes only three great festivals of this
description. The English Calendar contains two classes
of these festivals: I. The Red-letter Fes
tivals. 1. The Purification. Candlemas,
Feb. 2, instituted in the sixth century. 2.
The Annunciation, popularly styled Lady
Day, March 25th, an early festival, styled
by St. Bernard, radix omnium festorum.
II. The Black-letter (or lesser) Festivals.
1 The Visitation of Mary to EUzabeth,
instituted by Urban VI., 1389. 2. The
Nativity of Mary, Sept. 8th, instituted in
the Eastern Church in the seventh century ;
3 d 2

772

VISITATION

in the Western, in the eleventh or twelfth.
3. The Conception. This feast, according to
Bellarmine, was not necessarily dependent
upon the question so fiercely discussed in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries respect
ing the immaculate conception (See Con
ception). The Assumption of Mary into
Heaven, Aug. 15th, early instituted. Mary
was the tutelary divinity of France ; and
for this reason this day was observed with
peculiar care. It was also the birthday of
Napoleon, and accordingly was observed
under his dynasty as the great festival of the
nation. These occur in all the Calendars (Eastern
Orthodox, Armenian, Ethiopic, Roman and
Anglican), but there are many other festivals
to the Virgin Mary, which are observed in
one or other of the Calendars. The Pre
sentation (not of our Lord, but of Mary ac
cording to a legend) and the Assumption, or
taking of St. Mary into Heaven in body and
soul, are observed both in the Greek and
Latin Churches. The others are more local
and fanciful (See Diet Christ. Ant). [H]
VISITATION. Ecclesiastical visita
tions by bishops and archdeacons under the
general law are of a different kind from
those by the visitors of colleges and other
such corporations under their special statutes.
The latter class of visitors are more judicial
than the former, and seldom — we may now
say, never — act except when appealed to by
some members of the coUege against others
under the statutes, and there is no appeal
from them so long as they keep within their
jurisdiction. Nor indeed is there an appeal
then in the legal sense. Their judgments
then either go for nothing, or if necessary,
they may be restrained. College visitors
may be anybody, either official or some
heirs of a founder; and in a few cases the
colleges have power to elect their own visitor.
We are only concerned here with strictly
ecclesiastical visitation. In ancient times
bishops appear to have had much more visita
torial power and to have exercised it much
oftener than they have for some centuries.
It is only necessary to consider what power
they and their archdeacons have now.
Their punitive powers over the clergy were
materially reduced by the Clergy Discipline
Act of 1840, as was decided in the famous
Dean of York's case, which arose under a
visitation held that very year by (the first)
Dr. Phillimore as commissary for the arch
bishop. He, and then the archbishop, form
ally "deprived" Dean Cockburn both for
simony in selling his official patronage and for
contumacy in refusing to answer the charge ;
for both of which he expressed his regret at
a later stage of tlie visitation, after the
decision of the Queen's Bench, that the
deprivation was ultra vires of the visitor,

VISITATION
since, that Act, whether it would have been
so before or not, which was left undecided.
But the Court held that all the proceedings
up to that point were legal, i.e. so far as they
were of the nature of an inquiry, on which
the archbishop might then have taken pro
ceedings in the provincial Court under the
Act. The judgment is given in full in
Phillimore's Ecc. Law, 1335.
It seems to have been the old rule or
practice that bishops visited their cathedrals
first, and then their parish churches, or rather
the clergy of them, every three years. But
cathedral visitations have long been very
rare occurrences and seldom made except
for some special reason. The bishop then
issues a series of questions, as in the York
case, which are answered in writing first, and
then he holds a personal inquiry, if he thinks
fit. Lord Penzance's Report on ecclesiastical
courts in 1883 states that no particular
formality is required (See Ecclesiastical
Courts). The diocesan visitations are a
different thing. In some dioceses, e.g.
London, they are held only, every fourth
year, but generally every third. When the
bishop visits, aU tbe archdeacons' jurisdic
tion is suspended or " inhibited " for the time.
He issues questions to the clergy, and
summons them to meet him at a few of the
principal churches in the diocese, and by
custom delivers a " charge." Meanwhile his
chancellor, by himself or one or more surro
gates, visits at the same churches where the
archdeacons generaUy do, for the purpose of
admitting churchwardens, and sometimes
also they deUver charges by way of informa
tion to the churchwardens.
Canons 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121,
137, contain many directions about archi
diaconal visitations, but they are mostly
obsolete, if they ever were observed, and it
is unnecessary to copy them here. The
archdeacons visit every year except when
the bishop does, and they summon the'
clergy and deliver charges as he does, besides
admitting the newly elected or continuing
churchwardens (See Churchwardens). This
is independent of the archdeacons' general
duty lo visit the churches when they think
fit, to see that they are in good repair (See
Visitor, and Archdeacon). [G.]
VISITATION OF THE SICK. I. In
all ages of the Chm-ch her presbyters have
been expected to visit the sick, to pray with
them, to pronounce absolution, and to ad
minister the sacraments and extreme unc
tion. "Is any sick among you," writes
St. James, "let him send for the elders
(roiis irpeo-BvTipovs) of the Church, and
let them pray over him, anointing him
with oil in the name of the Lord : and the
prayer of faith shall save the sick, and
the Lord shall raise him up, and if he have

VISITATION
committed sins they shall be forgiven him "
(v. 14). Part of this office might be per
formed by deacons or laymen, and in times
of epidemic or infectious disease, certain
officers called parabolani were appointed for
this very purpose (Bingham, ix. 9, 3). The
sacrament also could be conveyed by a
messenger. But the pronouncing the abso
lution, and the administration of the unc
tion required the presence of a priest.
Hence, St. Polycarp, the disciple of St.
John, in his epistle to the Ephesians,
especially enjoins the presbyters to look
after the sick (iirio-Kiirrea-dai tovs do-6eveis),
and in many councils similar directions are
given (e.g. Cone. Nic. c. 13 ; Cone. Carthag.
iv. cc. 76, 77 ; Cone. Araus. i. c. 3).
In England many provincial constitutions
required aU rectors and vicars of parishes
" to be diligent in their visitations of those
that are sick" (Lyndwood, Prov. Const, i.
2 ; WUkins' Cone. torn. i. p. 103 ; Thorpe,
2, 100). It is to be observed that it is gener
ally implied that the priests should be sent
for, or informed of the sickness; "Notice
shall be given to the Minister of the Parish "
(Rubric) ; and in the Ordination of Deacons
it is stated to be part of their duty to search
out the sick in the parish in which they
are appointed to minister, and to give notice
of such cases to the incumbent. In many
places now this important work is done by
district visitors and lay helpers (See Lay
Helpers). Canon 67 directs " When any person is
dangerously sick in any parish, the minister
or curate (having knowledge thereof) shall
resort unto him or her (if the disease be
not known or probably suspected to be
infectious) to instruct and comfort them in
their distress according to the order of the
Communion Book if he be no preacher, or
if he be a preacher, then as he shaU think
most needful and convenient."
II. The order for the Visitation of the
Sick in the Prayer Book is a formulary
which has been used with slight alteration
in our churches from earliest times. Nearly
aU the rubrics and prayers are to be found
in the ancient Manuals of the Church of
England, and some of the prayers can be
traced almost to primitive times. Two
portions of the old rite have been omitted
in bur Prayer Book, the use of extreme
unction (for the reason of which see Com
munion qf the Sick, Extreme Unction), and
the procession of the priest and his clerks ;
" In primis induat se sacerdos super pelUcio
cum stola, et in eundo dicat cum suis
ministris septem psalmos pcenitentiales cum
Gloria Patri" (Pontificate Saram). The
structure of the office shows that it is not
intended to be used in the ordinary visits of
the clergyman to his sick parishioner. The

VISITOR

773

Exhortation and Confession and the form
of Absolution, more solemn and direct than
in any other office (see Absolution), evi
dently imply that it is to be used once, and
not as the customary prayers of the clergy.
The duties of the clergy in visiting the
sick therefore resolve themselves into two
distinct branches — the ordinary pastoral
instruction, consolation, and prayer, and
the use of the two services of Visitation
and Communion. The office contains, 1.
Supplications to avert evil, in the salu
tation and short litany. 2. Prayers to
procure good things, in the Lord's Prayer
and the two collects. 3. Exhortations
prescribed in the large form of exhortation ;
and directions in the rubric, to advise tbe
sick man to forgive freely, to give liberally,
to do justice in settUng his estate, and to
confess his sins humbly and ingenuously
unto God's minister now with him. 4.
Consolations; in the absolution, and the
prayer to God to confirm it; in the 71st
Psalm, and the concluding benedictions.
The four prayers for particular purposes
for a sick chUd, for one past recovery, for
a dying person, and for one troubled in
conscience, at the end of the office, were
added at the revision in 1661. — Martene,
de Ant. Eccl. Rit. iii. c. 11 ; Maskell, Mon.
Rit. i. 80 ; Palmer, Orig. Liturg. ii. 220 ;
Blunt's Annot. P. B. ii. 275 ; P. B. inter
leaved, 200. [H]
VISITOR. The distinctions between the
different kinds of visitatorial power have
been noticed already under Visitation. As
a general rule, all corporations, aggregate
or sole, not purely civil, are visitable by
somebody, and both the corporations as a
whole and the members thereof. In one
very famous case, that of Trinity College,
Cambridge, under its old Elizabethan
statutes, which worked for as many cen
turies as they now do for years without
alteration, the Master had a different visitor
from the College, possibly because the
Crown, which was general visitor through
the Lord Chancellor, had the appointment
of the Master, who was therefore made
visitable and deprivable by the bishop of
Ely. It must be remembered that the
Clergy Discipline Act, 1840, only affected
the trial of clergymen, and all the old
visitatorial power remained over the lay
members and officers of cathedral chapters,
as was determined in R. v. Dean of Chester
(15 Ad. & Ell. N.S. 513, and Phill. E. L.
1343), where it was held that under the
cathedral statutes a deprived chorister or
vicar choral could only appeal to the bishop
as visitor, and not to the courts of law, either
ecclesiastical or civil. But in the Exeter Rere
dos case (Phillpotts v. Boyd, 6 P. C. 435),
an appeal was heard from the bishop as

774

VOLUNTARY

ordinary visitor of the cathedral to the
Dean of Arches and the Privy CouncU, and
the visitor's (assessor's) judgment reversed,
and also Sir R. Phillimore's, that the bishop
had no such jurisdiction as visitor, though it
affirmed that he has no preliminary discre
tion, as he or his chancellor has, to refuse
a faculty, there being no precedent of a
faculty to a chapter. [G.]
VOLUNTARY. A piece of music played
on the organ, usuaUy after the Psalms,
sometimes after the second lesson, so called
because the choice of the music is left to
the will (voluntas) of the organist, and is
¦mentioned by Archbishop Seeker as having
long been customary in his day. At Dur
ham a voluntary has been substituted for
the "Agnus Dei" which was once sung
during the communion of the laity. The
term is now generaUy appUed to the pieces
of music played by the organist at the be
ginning and end of the service. Lord
Bacon approves of voluntaries as affordmg
time for meditation.
VOWS, BAPTISMAL. (1) Of renun
ciation. This is referred to by TertuUian
(De Coron. iii.); St. BasU refers to it as
one of the unwritten traditions and customs
of the Church ; and St. Cyril gives the form
as "I renounce thee Satan, and aU thy
works, and all thy pomp, and all thy ser
vice." The English form originaUy con
tained three renunciations, as is the case in
the form in the Eastern Church (Neale's
Hist East. Church, ii. 945). These were
combined in 1552.
(2) The vow of belief. This is of Scriptural
origin (Acts viii. 37, &c), and a confession
of belief is spoken of in most of the Fathers
as necessary before baptism. The Creed,
though not yet written down, was required
to be said by each catechumen in the
early times (St. Cyp. Ep. 70, 76 (See
Creed). (3). The vow of obedience. This does
not appear in the ancient sacramentaries,
and seems to have been inserted in our
Prayer Book by Bishop Cosin's advice.
Yet in very ancient times a similar declara
tion had to be made in the Eastern Church ;
Justin Martyr speaks of such a vow ; and
the Apostolic Constitutions appoint a " pro
mise of obedience." — Just. Mart. Apol. i. ;
Apost. Constit. vii. c. 42 ; Martene, Ant
Eccl. i. 180 ; Bingham, ii. 7, 6 ; Annot. P. B.
ii. 222. [H]
VULGAR TONGUE. The tongue com
monly spoken by the natives in any place
(from Lat. vulgus, " the common people ").
This expression in the baptismal office stood
formerly " in the English tongue." The alter
ation was made in compliance, as it should
seem, with a suggestion of Bishop Cosin, that
"suppose, as it often falls out, that children

VULGATE
of strangers, which never intend to stay in
England, be brought there to be baptized,"
it would be exceptionable that " they also
should be exhorted and enjoined to learn
those principles of religion in the English
tongue." VULGATE (VULGATA EDITH), Koivt,
eKboo-is). The name originally of any cur
rent popular version of the Bible. In this
sense it was frequently applied to the Sep
tuagint. But the Vulgate has long since
become the special name of the Latin revised
version which was produced by Jerome early
in the fifth century. The earliest Latin
translation of the Bible was made in North
Africa. Tertullian, a.d. 200-245, testifies to
the general currency of such a version. It
was excessively Uteral, but rude and rough,
and as such, offensive to the ears of ItaUans.
This led to a recension being made in North
Italy under ecclesiastical authority in the
fourth century with direct reference to the
Greek text of the New Testament. This
version, called the Italic (Itala) (see Italic
Version), is recommended by St. Augustine
for its accuracy and perspicuity (De Doctr.
Christ. 15) and was preferred by him to
aU others. It was afterwards corrected
from the emendations of St. Jerome; and
it is the mixture of the ancient Italic
version with the corrections of St. Jerome,
that is now caUed the Vulgate, and which
the Council of Trent has declared to be
authentic. The version of St. Jerome,
however, forms the main part of the Vul
gate, with the exception of some of the
apocryphal books, and the Psalter. The
translation of the latter from the Hebrew
was not adopted publicly by the Western
Chm-ch, though still to be found in his
works. The Psalter was twice corrected
by him from the old Italic version; the
first recension was for a long time used in
the Roman Church, the latter was first
adopted by the Churches of Gaul and
Britain, and was finally adopted by the
Western Church by an ordinance of Pius V.
The old Roman Psalter is still, however,
used at the Vatican, and at St. Mark's,
Venice (See Hieron. Pref. in Josh. ; Pref.
Post. inPs. Apol. cRuff. U. 24; Ep. 23,ad
Lucin. 135, ad Sunn, et Fret ; Aug. Ep.
88, ad Hieron. ; Ep. 97, de Doctr. Chr. n.
11). A revision of the Vulgate was made by
order of Sixtus V., and published at Rome
in 1590. But this, though pronounced by
papal authority to be authentic, became
such an object of ridicule among the learned
from its gross inaccuracies, that his suc
cessor, Gregory XIV., caused it to be sup
pressed, and another authentic Vulgate was
published in 1592, by Clement VIII.—
Walton's Prolegomena; Hodius, de Bibl.

WAFER BREAD
Text. Orig; Home's Introd. ; " Vulgate" in
Diet, of Bible.
The Vulgate of the New Testament is
generally preferred by the Romanists to the
common Greek text. The priests read no
other at the altar ; the preachers quote no
other in the pulpit, nor the divines in the
schools (See Bible).

w.
WAFER BREAD. Bread used in the
Eucharist in mediaeval times, and still pre
ferred to ordinary bread by tbe Romanists,
the Lutheran Protestants, and others, in
the celebration of that holy sacrament.
I. It seems certain that in the primitive
Church neither unleavened bread nor wafers
were used. Ancient writers say that the
bread used was common bread, such as was
made for their own use (Ambros. de Sacram.
lib. iv. c. 4). It was also a charge against the
Ebionites that they celebrated in unleavened
bread, and water only (Epiphan. Her, 30 ;
Ebionit n. 16). The bread generally used
was expressly called " fermentum," and
though this is explained by the schoolmen,
who claimed primitive custom for unleavened
bread, as the eulogia, or panis benedictus,
which was blessed for such as did not com
municate, Pope Innocent I. plainly says that
it refers to the sacrament itself (Innoc. Ep.
ad Decentium, c. 5). Moreover, no Greek
writer before Michael Cerularius, who lived
c. a.d. 1051, objected to the use of un
leavened bread in the Roman Church, which
would seem to show that it was not exten
sively used before that time. Even some
Roman writers speak of the custom as
erroneous (Bingham, xv. 2).
How the change in this matter was made,
and the exact time when, is not easily deter
mined. Cardinal Bona's conjecture seems
probable enough ; that it crept in upon the
people's leaving off to make their oblations
in common bread; which occasioned the
clergy to provide it themselves, and they,
under pretence of decency and respect,
brought it from leaven to unleaven, and
from a loaf of common bread, that might be
broken, to a nice and delicate wafer, formed
in the figure of a Denarius, or penny, to
represent' the pence, for which our Saviour
was betrayed ; and then also the people,
instead of offering a loaf of bread,as formerly,
, were ordered to offer a penny, which was
either to be given to the poor; or to be ex
pended upon something pertaining to the
sacrifice of the altar (Bona, Rer. Liturg.
lib. vi.).
The alteration in the eucharistic bread

WAGER 775
occasioned great disputes between the East
ern and Western Churches.
II. The first Common Prayer Book of
King Edward VI. enjoins unleavened bread
to be used throughout the whole kingdom
for the celebration of the Eucharist. It was
ordered to be round, in imitation of the
wafers used by the Greek and Roman
Chm-ches; but it was to be without all
manner of print, the wafers usually having
the impression either of a crucifix or the
holy lamb ; and something more large and
thicker than the wafers, which were of the
size of a penny. This rubric, affording
matter for scruple, was set aside at the re
view of the liturgy in the fifth of King
Edward ; and another inserted in its room,
which still exists, by which it is declared
sufficient that the bread be such as is usually
eaten. By the injunctions of Queen Eliza
beth, wafer bread seems to have been again
enjoined, for among other orders this was
one : " For the more reverence to be given
to these holy mysteries- — the sacramental
bread, &c, made and formed plain without
any figure thereupon, of the same fineness
and fashion round, though somewhat bigger
in compass and thickness, as the usual bread
and wafers, heretofore called singing cakes,
which served for the use of private mass."
Archbishop Parker, being asked for an ex
planation, wrote : " It shall suffice, ' I
expound, where there either wanteth such
fine usual bread, or superstition be feared in
the wafer bread, they may have the com
munion in fine usual bread ; which is rather
a toleration in these two necessities than is
in plain ordering, as it is in the injunction "
(Corresp. p. 376). Archbishop Grindal,
Parker's successor, at one time disapproved
the use of wafer bread which prevailed in
the Churches; but afterwards he seems to
have been satisfied with it, as his friend and
adviser, Peter Martyr, informed him that
no contention on the subject existed on the
Continent. There, as in the existing Church
of England, unleavened bread was generally
used (Hook's Archbishops, x. 42).
It was the custom in Westminster Abbey,
and in the Royal Chapels, and the practice
of such men as Bishop Andrewes, to use
wafers, but " for peace sake," where wafers
were objected to, plain and pure wheaten
bread was allowed. It has been decided by
the Privy Council that it not onlymay, but
must be common bread; the Injunctions,
according to them, being of no validity
against the rubric, while the Advertisements
having been made under Act of ParUament,
and not contrary to the rubric, are an indica
tion of its meaning — i.e. of the word " re
tained" in the Ornaments rubric (But see
Advertisements). WAGER (See Battle and Ordeal).

776

WAKE

WAKE (See Dedication).
WALDENSES (See Albigenses). . A sect
which derived its name from Peter sur
named Valdus from his native place Val-
dum or- Validium, a town in the Marsh of
Lyons: He was a merchant of Lyons about
a.d. 1160. From the perusal of the Scrip
tures and other writings, and from comparing
the doctrines of Scripture with the supersti
tions and practices of the age in which he
lived, Waldo perceived the corruption of the
existing mediasval Church, and in advance
of his age, became a reformer. He shared
the fate of those who are so circumstanced.
He had many followers, and exposed both
himself and them to suspicion and persecu
tion. They aimed 'rather at redressing
abuses in morals and discipline than cor
ruptions in doctrine. It is probable that,
in attacking error, the Waldenses them
selves sometimes became erroneous. They
are accused of having maintained the un
lawfulness of oaths and of infant baptism,
and of being seditious. These charges
were easily made, but writers of celebrity
have undertaken fo confute them. The
marvel is, that, when every attempt was
made to blacken their character, the success
of their accusers was not greater than it has
proved to be. It is certain that tbey were
austere, if not morose, in their practice ;'
that' tbey -prohibited wars and lawsuits,
penal punishments, and all attempts to ac
quire wealth.
Those of them who dwelt in the valleys of
Piedmont, in the seventeenth century were
subjected by the Church of Rome to the
most barbarous and inhuman persecutions,
especially in the years 1655, 1656, and 1696.
The most horrible scenes of violence and
bloodshed were exhibited in this theatre of
papal tyranny, and the Waldenses at last
owed their existence and support to the
interference of the English and Dutch
governments (See Faber, On tlie Waldenses
and Albigenses, and Dr. Maitland, .Facte and
Documents, &c).
WARBURTONIAN LECTURE. A
lecture founded by Bishop Warburton, to
prove the truth of revealed religion in gene
ral, and the Christian in particular, from
the completion of tbe prophecies in the Old
and New Testament which relate to the
Christian Church, especially to the apostasy
of papal Rome. To be preached at Lincoln's
Inn. WARDEN. The head of some colleges,
and the superior of some conventual churches,
in which the chapter remains, is called a
warden. The head of the collegiate church
of Galway is called warden, as was the case
at Manchester, till the erection of the colle
giate church there into a cathedral.
WATCHERS (See Acomete).

WATER, HOLY
WATCHING LOFTS. Positions from
which the great shrines were watched. At
Oxford and at St. Alban's the loft is a
beautiful structure of wood ; at Lichfield it
is a gallery over the door of the sacristy;
at Worcester it is a stone oriel ; at West
minster there is one over Henry VI.'s
chantry (Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 609). [H.]
WAYSIDE CROSSES. These were, in
olden times, very numerous, and gave their
name to several places or districts. They
were erected (1) as marks of the boundary
of a monastic, capitular or parochial juris
diction; (2) to commemorate a battle, as
the Neville's Cross near Durham ; (3) to
mark the halting-place of a burial procession, .
as the fifteen " Queen Eleanor Crosses," of'
which three remain at Geddington, North
ampton, and Waltham ; (4) as memorials of
any violent death ; (5) as stations or
preaching-places, whence they 'were some
times called " weeping-crosses," as at
Shrewsbury. There are remains of way
side crosses near Doncaster, and at Braith-
well, also at Nevern, Carew, and Newmarket.
Crosses were often erected at cross-roads,
with inscriptions inviting the prayers of the
traveller (Walcott's Sac. Arch. p. 610). [H.]
WATER, HOLY. Water which has
been blessed by a priest, usually placed in a
basin, called the holy water stoup, at the
entrance of the church. The primary idea
was, that the hands of the worshippers
might be washed, and "pure hands lifted
up in prayer ; " afterwards it symbolised
their purification from defilement before
engaging in prayer.. Then the idea came
in that some intrinsic benefit resulted from
the physical application of the holy water,
independent of its mystic meaning. It is
not used in the Church of England, nor
can it be traced to primitive times.
The only holy water in the Apostolic
age, and that immediately succeeding, ex
cept the water which was mingled with the
wine at the Eucharist, was that which was
used at the Sacrament of Baptism (See Bap
tism). This came afterwards to be regarded
not only as the outward and visible sign of
the regeneration of the person baptized, but
as of miraculous efficacy. St. Augustine
of Hippo speaks of persons bringing their
children to be baptized, because "by this
remedy they would retain their bodily health "
(Ep. xcviii. 5). The water blessed for the
baptismal service was regarded as holy,
and carried off in vessels, to be used in
sprinkling families, houses and possessions,
in expectation of a blessing thereby (Ordo.
Rom. i. 42). St. Chrysostom speaks of
persons keeping the water consecrated at
the Baptisms at Epiphany throughout tbe
year — doubtless as a sort of charm — and this
water never, as was asserted, became cor-

WEDNESDAY
rupted (de Bapt. Christi, sec. 2). It is not
difficult to see how this led to the consecra
tion of holy water apart from the office of
Baptism. It has been supposed by some
that the benediction of the water, distinct
from Baptism, was enjoined by Alexander
I., bishop of Rome, a.d. 109 (Walcott's
Sac. Arch. 314). But the mention of it is
in the forged decretals, ascribed indeed to
Alexander, but probably composed about
a.d. 850 (See Decretals). In the " Apos
tolic Constitutions," directions are given for
the benediction of water, with oil, " for the
imparting health, putting to flight devils,
scattering every evil design, through
Christ." But this is given in the 8th book,
in which, there were no doubt corrupt
additions inserted much later than the
reputed date of. the former canons (viii. c.
29). It seems however certain that before
the 8th century water was blessed for the
purpose of exorcising evil spirits in houses
if not in persons.
In the Pontifical of Egbert, who was
archbishop of York a.d. 732, there are
forms of prayer for blessing the water to be
used in the consecration of a church (Pont.
Egb. Surtees Soc. 1852). And these seem
to have been derived from the Sacramen
taries of Gelasius and Gregory (Liturg.
Rom. Vet., Murat. torn. i. col. 738; torn. ii.
col. 225). They have reference to places,
not to persons. The sprinkling of persons
with holy water, however, is of ancient
date, for there is a charge of Leo IV. to his
clergy in 847, in which he urges the
priests to "bless water wherewith the
people may be sprinkled." This would
seem to show that tbe use had been in
existence previously (Cone. Labb. t. viii. c.
37). Stoups for the holy or consecrated water
are to be found in many churches in Eng
land. But since the Reformation, " holy
water " has had no place in our Church, on
account of the superstitions which were
connected with it. [H.]
WEDNESDAY (Old English, Wodens
deg, Woden's day). This day has been
marked in many cases by the Church with
especial observance. Thus it was often added
- to Friday as a weekly fast, and in our own
Church it is numbered among the rogation
and ember days; besides which, through
out the year the Litany is appointed to be
sung or said on Wednesday, as well as on
Sunday and Friday after Morning Prayer.
WESLEYANS (See Methodists).
WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY (See
Assembly of Divines).
WESTMINSTER CONFESSION (See
Confessions of Faith).
WHITSUNDAY. One of the great
festivals of the Church, held in commemora-

• WHITSUNDAY 777
tion of the descent of the Holy Ghost on
the day of Pentecost.
I. The word irevrrjKoo-Tr), sometimes called
by Latin writers quinquagesima, was in the
primitive times used either for the whole
period. of fifty days from Easter to Whit
sunday, or for the festival day itself, i.e. the
fiftieth day from the morrow of the Passover
Sabbath. This . is in accordance with the
original' institution, " Ye shall count from
the morrow after the Sabbath; from that
day seven weeks shall be complete " (Lev.
xxiii. 15).
It is mentioned as a separate feast of the
Christian Church by the earliest writers, as
Irenams (Fragm. de Pasch: in Just. Mart);
Tertullian (de Coron. 3 ; de Idol. 4, &c.) ;
Origen (cont. Cels. viii.). The season be
tween Easter and Pentecost was considered
a continuous festival. Tertullian speaks of
it as " latissimum spatitim," and says that
it is unlawful to fast then, or to worship
kneeling (de Coron. ut sup.). This rule was
also laid down in several councils, notably
that of Nica;a, a.d. 325 (Can. 20, Labbe, ii.
37), and Baptisms were permitted during
the whole time, though afterwards they
were restricted to the vigil of the festival
(Tertull. de Bapt. c 19; Hieron. Com. m
Zach. xiv. 8 : Ep. lxi.).
• II. The origin of the word Whitsunday
has been much debated. The conjecture of
Hamon L'Estrange that it is derived from
the French Huiet, which signifies eight, and
would imply the eighth Sunday from Easter,
need hardly be considered (Riddell, p. 681).
But it has been also connected with the
word Pentecost through the German. Dr.
Neale (Essays on Liturgiology) traces it
thus : Pentecost, Pingsten, Whingsten,
German Pfingsten, English Whitsun. And
this theory has been held by several writers.
The Germans indeed have their Pfingsten
Woche, in correspondence with our Whitsun
week. But the derivation is hardly tenable,.
for neither Pfingsten nor Whingsten ever
existed in English. Another derivation is
from witan, German wissen, from which the
Saxon parliament got its nameof Witana-
gemote. If this is accepted it would refer
to the wit, or special wisdom which was
inspired into the Apostles on the day off
Pentecost. A writer of the fourteenth
century says :
" This daie Wit sonday is cald
For wisdom and wit seuene faid
Was gouen to the ApoBtles as this daie."
(Camb. Univ. MSS. Dd. I. i. p. 234).
This would point to the word being de
rived from witan or wit, and the spelling.
has sometimes been regarded as evidence.
But we have to remember that in early and
mediaaval times the spelling, in all cases,
was most arbitrary. Thus in this particular

778

WHITSUNDAY

instance we have Hwit Wijt, Wite,. Whit
and Wit, Sec, as prefixes. In a MS. of the
" Ancien Rivole " (c. a.d. 1255) the word is
spelt hwitsunnedei, but in a later copy it is
In the four versions of the

" Cursor Mundi " (14th century) there are
the terms Wijt sundai, Wit sonday, Witt
Sunday and Witsonen day. In the " Promp-
torium Parvulorum " (a.d. 1440), the words
Whysson tyde and Whitsonday are both
used. Chaucer wrote Whysson day (Ro-
unaunt of the Rqse), and in the north of
England the word Whissen is still used.
Wiclif wrote it'Witsun tide. The spelling
therefore throws no light on the subject, but
for other reasons philologists now are of
opinion that the derivation from " white " is
the probable one. Hwit is the old English
form corresponding to the modern word
"white." In the Ancient Saxon Chronicle,
under date a.d. 1067, these words occur :
"And Ealdred Arceb. hig gehalgode (hal
lowed) to cwene (queen) on Westmynstre
on Hwitan Sunnan daeg." The "h" in
hwit, as in other words beginning with
" hw," was soon after generally omitted or
transposed, and so hwit or " white " became
wit, and wit became whit. A sim ilar change,
among others, may be given in the common
relative who, which was in Saxon " hwa."
The change from the long " i " to the short
has taken place in many words and places,
as whitlow, Saxon hwit and low, a flame ;
whittle, Saxon hwitel ; Whitchurch, Whitby,
Sec; and in some cases in even more
shortened form, as Wheddon, on Exmoor,
from Whitedown, then Whitdown and
Wheddon. The Saxon hwit being the same
as our " white," seems to make the deriva
tion clear. It may be added that the
Icelandic name Hvita-sunnu-dagr, and the
Welsh name Sui Gwyn, which goes back as
far as the laws of Howel the Good (c. a.d.
907), both mean White Sunday. It is
objected to this derivation that the Chm-ch
had in early times already a White Sunday,
i.e. the Dominica in Albis, the first Sunday
after Easter, when the chrisoms were worn
for the last time (Procter, p. 290, note).
But it must be remembered that the feast of
Pentecost was also a great time for the
administration of the baptismal rite, to which
reference has been made above, and that
the neophytes then put on their white
chrisoms (Bingham, xi., vi. 7). In fact these
two festivals of Easter and Pentecost were
the only times when adult baptism was
allowed in early times in the Western
'Church, except in the case of the sick,
though in the Eastern Church the Epiphany
was added (Greg. Naz. Orat. xl., de Bapt).
It is probable that the later time was pre
ferred in these cold climates to the earlier,
and hence the _ second " White Sunday."

WICLIFITES
Wheatly judiciously avoids the question, or
rather takes the two derivations, hwit and
witan. " It was styled," he says, " Whit
Sunday, partly because of the vast diffusion
of light and knowledge which were then
shed upon the Apostles in order to the
enlightening of the world, but principally
from the white garments which they which
were baptized at this time put on." It is
to be observed that the Prayer Book adopts
the spelling Whitsunday, except in the
Table of Proper Psalms, where it is Whit
Sunday, and we commonly speak of Whitsun
week, Whitsun -Monday, these being only
shortened forms for Whitsunday-week, &c.
III. The similar harmony of Epistle,
Gospel, Collect, Lessons and Psalms, that
has been pointed out upon Christmas, and
Easter, and Ascension, may be observed on
this day. The Collect is from the Gregorian
Sacramentary. It was formerly used every
day at Lauds, and was translated into
English at least a century and a half before
the Prayer Book was set forth. It appears
in all the English Prymers. The Epistle is
according to the Eastern rule (Acts ii. 1-11),
whereas in the Salisbury Use it was
Acts x. 34-47. But the Gospel is the same
as in the SaUsbury Use (St. John xiv.
15-31). Whitsun week is one of tbe
canonical Ember seasons (see Ember Days),
the summer ordinations taking place on
Trinity Sunday.
It is interesting to note that on Whit
sunday (June 9) in the year 1549 the Book
of Common Prayer in English was first used
instead of the Latin Offices. No doubt the
day was chosen, for the book was ready
some time before, as a devout trust that
the Holy Ghost was with the Church of
England in the important step then taken
(Blunt's Diet. Doct. Tlieol. ; E. Daniel, P.B. ;
Skeat's Etymolog. Diet ; Blunt's Annot.
P. B. ; Wheatly ; Procter ; Bishop Barry :
in loc). [H.]
WICLIFITES. The followers of John
Wiclif, Doctor and Professor of Theology at
Oxford, and afterwards Rector of Lutter
worth, in Leicestershire, and justly called
the first reformer. The period of his greatest
activity lies between the years 360c-380.
He died in 384. His followers were also
called Lollards (see Lollards), but they
did not behave with that moderation which
Wiclif inculcated. His ideas were briefly
these : " The Scriptures ought to be in the
vulgar tongue, contain aU things necessary
to salvation, may be understood by every
well-disposed man ; he declared against tra
ditions, the popes' authority, their power
over the temporalities of kings, and pro
nounced the pope to be the chiefest anti
christ. He taught that the Church of Rome
may err ; he rejected merit of works, and

WINDOWS
transubstantiation, and owned but two
sacraments ; he was against images, auricular
confession, pardons, indulgences, and mon
astic vows ; he approved tbe marriage of
priests, and was the most strenuous opponent
of the Mendicant Friars (Introduction to
the Fasciculi Zizaniorum Rolls Series;
Lives of Wiclif by Dr. Vaughan and Mr.
Le Bas).
WINDOWS. The general characteristics
of the windows of the Succession styles of
church architecture are so well known, that
little need be said of them, and we must
refer to architectural books for details, which
cannot be appreciated without good draw
ings : mere lines of tracery are entirely
misleading as to effects, which in a great
measure depend on the fitting together of
ribs of stone which ought never to be much
thinner than a third of the intervening
lights. Saxon, Romanesque, and Norman
windows were all roundheaded, and generally
single ; but occasionally two were combined
with a shaft and capital between them and
another round, arch thrown over both. Such
are the windows both of the belfry and
triforium of the St. Alban's tower ; the
earliest great one now remaining. The
shafts of that triforium are supposed to have
come from the earlier Saxon church.
There were also a few completely circular
Norman windows, of which much the finest
seems to have been at Iffley, but it is gone
except in the pages of Rickman. It is still
more remarkable because it included eight
other circles round a central octagon, with
some beautiful connecting lines. The north
transept great circle at Lincoln has only four
round arches radiating from the centre, and
sixteen uncusped circles, and is therefore
Norman in design though considered to be
of about a.d. 1200.
Early English windows, as everybody
knows, were purely lancets, but too many
people do not know that they were seldom
sharper than an equilateral arch, except
where it was necessary to raise them in
order to bring a narrower arch up to the
same height as a wider one close to it.
Later in the style two lancets were put
together. That however was not a universal
rule without exceptions, as all over SaUsbury,
and later still a circle was put over them
and another arch, which gradually expanded
into the Geometrical or Early Decorated
¦style of window, by far the grandest of aU.
The largest window of that style, the east
of Lincoln, is of the simplest construction,
made by successive duplications until eight
upright lights are reached, with circles first
over two, then over four, and finally over
all the eight, or filling the whole width of
the arch. Cusping of smaU arches _ in
-windows came in with this style, which

WINDO'WS

779

immensely increased their richness, though
it was not always used, and had begun in
the later Early English times. In that very
Lincoln window the " lights " are uncusped,
but all the circles over them have cusps,
some open and some closed or solid. Though
that is the largest Geometrical window,
there are two that have nine lights, viz.
the old west window of Exeter and the new
one of St. Alban's. Those of York and
Carlisle (east) also, with nine lights, are of
the later or Flowing Decorated style, which
differs from the Early more in principle of
construction or design than in appearance at
first sight. All those four are 26 feet wide,
while the Lincoln one is 30.
Most writers now agree that the division
between those two styles is the true dividing
line in Gothic architecture between its rise
and its decline. Up to that time it was
always adding new and grander features
without losing any, and without any con
fusion of parts naturally distinct, and' care
fully preserving horizontal demarcations as
well as vertical. A glance at the York or
Carlisle windows shows two fundamental
changes: the capitals of the mullions are
gone, so that tbey run up continuously into
the tracery without any horizontal mark to
show that they were columns supporting a
mass of perforated wall or tracery ; and the
tracery itself is evidently designed for the
bars, and not the lights seen through them,
and the stone is treated as if it were flexible,
instead of as a series of balanced arches,
forming circles or any other regular figures.
The distinction is less conspicuous in win
dows of only two or three lights, but still it
is there. After this had flourished for about
forty years, the tracery again became rigid,
apparently from mere poverty of invention
and loss of architectural genius, and they
stiffened into mere upright bars, and a sort
of pierced panelUng, in widths halved as
you go up, while the early window circles
doubled as they rose. A few arches were
thrown across great Perpendicular windows
here and there, giving them an appearance
of division and combination, but they merely
cut across all the vertical lines and construc-
tionally do nothing.
Transoms or hoiizontal ribs across the
vertical lights are almost peculiar to Per
pendicular windows, but a few tall Decor
ated ones have them, or where there was some
internal reason for them. The enormously
high Perpendicular windows at the east
and. west of Bath abbey have respectively
two and three transoms. Such long thin
mullions would have been unsafe without,
or at any rate would have looked so, even
if stiffened with iron bars, and architecture
never should look weak. It was probably
for the same reason that the twelve tall

780 WINDOWS, PAINTED
windows, sixty feet high, in the tower of old
St. Paul's had a number of small transoms,
set back more like iron bars, according to the
pictures of that building. What are called
"spherical triangle "windows, or equilateral
triangles with curved sides, as in the clear
story at Lichfield, and in the top of the
south transept of York, are Early Decorated.
Vesicse are drawn as two equilateral arches
(or thereabouts) on the top of each other,
base to base, and the bases omitted ; or you
may say they are two equal arches of 120°
meeting each other. They chiefly belong
to the Early English and the two Decor
ated styles. Square-headed windows, with
one or two mullions and simple cusped
tracery over them, came in perhaps late
in the Early English style, chiefly for
aisles, and continued through all the others
till square ones became common, as the
Perpendicular sank into the Tudor style,
and the church-building of the middle ages
ceased in the time of Henry VIII. Since
then there has been no original style of
architecture, but only compounds and
copies. Probably all practicable forms had
been exhausted. At any rate it is mere
nonsense to complain that original styles
are no longer invented, without proving that
they are possible, and that can only be
proved by inventing one — not too ugly to
use. It is equal nonsense to object to
Gothic building now because it is a copy,
when every alternative must be just as
much a copy, of Greek or Roman or some
other dead language of architecture.
" Jesse windows " are a base kind of
Perpendicular, with offshoots like boughs
from the mullions. Only a few of them
exist, but quite enough. We have no
such large wheel windows as some foreign
ones. They belong to all tbe styles. The
south one of Lincoln is much later than the
north, and in the Flowing Decorated style,
which does not suit it so well. There is a
good one at the east of Durham, and two
large modern ones in the Westminster tran
septs. The finest by far is, in the south
transept of York, either Early English or
Geometrical. And Street made one in his
new west front and nave of Bristol, of much
the same character as the Westminster
ones. [G.J
WINDOWS, PAINTED. It is a well-
established fact that glass, both white
and coloured as well as opaque and trans
parent, was manufactured by the ancient
Egyptians. But it was used by them princi
pally for ornaments and utensils. The first
undoubted mention of the insertion of glass
in windows is found in the " De Opif. Dei "
of Lactantius, c. 8, which was written about
the end of the 3rd century. Leo III., a.d.
795-816, adorned the windows of the Lateran

WINDOWS, PAINTED
with coloured glass. And the art of glass
painting is minutely described by Theo
philus, who lived in the 10th century, in
his " Divers. Art. Schedula." The glass used
in glass paintings is either white or coloured.
The white is composed of sUex and alkali
" fritted," i.e. exposed to a strong fire until
vitrified, and then formed into sheets. The
glass is then " annealed," i.e. allowed to cool
very slowly in order to toughen it.
Coloured glass is of two kinds, (a) " pot-
metal " glass, i.e. glass coloured through the
entire substance, and (B) " cbvered " or
" coated " glass, i.e. coloured only one side.
Coloured glass is formed by adding colouring
matter to the materials of white glass while
in fusion. It is manufactured in sheets in
the same manner as other glass.
Methods. Glass painters possess the
power of colouring white glass, and even
varying the tints of coloured glass, by means
of stains and enamels. There are three
distinct methods of staining or colouring.
(1) The mosaic method, which is the most
simple. Under this system the painter
generally arranged the glass in pieces of
white and coloured glass like a mosaic, and
only used two pigments — a yellow stain and
a brown enamel. The main outlines of the
design when finished were formed by the
connecting leads, and each colour, roughly
speaking, represents a piece of glass. (2) In
the enamel method no coloured glass is used,
but the design is painted on white glass.
This method is the most difficult of all.
(3) The mosaic enamel is a combination
of the two other methods. Under each
method the practical course of proceeding is
much the same. A cartoon of the design
is made, and the pieces of glass are cut to
the required shape. They are then painted
and heated to redness in a kiln, i.e. burnt,
by which process the colours are perma
nently fixed. The number of burnings
vary according to circumstances.

Styles.

Early Pointed,

ending about 1280

Decorated, 1280

„ 1380

Perpendicular, 1380

„ 1530

Cinque Cento, 1500

„ 1550

Intermediate to present day.
(1) Early Pointed Style. The oldest
painted windows known to exist are those
of the Abbey of St. Denys, which it seems
certain were executed by the Abbe' Suger in
the 12th century. There are none of quite
so early a date as these in England. Early
English painted windows are in general
almost entirely composed of coloured or
white glass. The white glass is covered
with patterns, while the coloured is given
up to figures, and there is generally a wide
coloured border. The colours are very vivid

WINDOWS, PAINTED
and intense. There are three classes of
coloured windows in this style—
a. Medallion or panel, containing small
pictures representing some historical event
or some theological doctrine. This design
is probably confined to this period, but
as a rule mere general arrangement affords
scarcely any criterion of date.
B. Figure or canopy windows. Windows,
strictly speaking, come under this headwhich
have one large figure under a low-crowned
canopy occupying the whole window within
a border, or where two or more such figures
are placed one above another. The canopy
is of a simple and rude design, and the
figure is executed in rich colours on a
coloured ground.
¦y. Jesse windows, which are illuminated
charts of the genealogy of Christ. The
main stem is almost hidden by figures, and
branches spring from it at intervals on which
are placed a series of oval panels, one above
the other, in which the principal figures are
placed. SmaUer attendant figures are re
presented outside the panels upon lateral
scrolls of foliage.
The foliage in this style is very conven
tional and unnatural. The figures are tall
and badlyproportioned, but are often grandly
conceived, and the faces fuU of expression
and character. The glass used is thick and
substantial. (2) Decorated, 1280-1380. In this style
a more natural form of foliage is used, and
the colouring is rich but not gay. The
yeUow stain is employed for the first time,
and its lemon coloured tint alters very much
the appearance of the windows of this period.
Abrupt alternation of masses of variegated
colouring with masses of nearly white glass
seems to have been a favourite practice at
this time. The arrangements of both
individual windows and of their general
dispositions were very various. The chancel
of Merton Chapel, Oxford, York Chapter
House, Lincoln and Hereford Cathedrals,
&c, present good examples of this glass,
remains of which are more numerous than
of that of any other period. The figures
are more severe in drawing than in the
previous style, but more refined, the dra
peries ampler and more flowing, and the
attitudes forced and extravagant. White
glass is often used for the naked parts of
the bodies, and the hair not unfrequently
stained yellow. The canopies of this pe
riod have almost invariably flat fronts, and
straight-sided gables over the main arch
ways, with high spires and pinnacles. The
colouring of the architectural details is
capricious. Borders are placed round all
the lights with a pattern of conventional
foliage, or an heraldic design, e.g. Stan
ford Church , Northamptonshire. The letters

WINDOWS, PAINTED

781

found on these windows are Lombardic
capitals. (3) Perpendicular. This style terminated
with the use of Gothic ornamental details.
An especial peculiarity of the style is the
substitution of flat delicate and conventional
ornaments for the more decided and naturaUy
shaped leaves of which so much of the
detail of decorated glass painting is com
posed. The Stipple method of shading
seems to have been introduced about the
beginning of the 15 th century, and a taste
for broader and softer colour is apparent.
Hence Perpendicular windows appear paler
and less rich than those of the former period,
but gain in general effect. The canopies of
this style have projecting fronts large in
proportion to the figures, and they also
differ from the previous style in the principal
architectural parts being left white, while
the details are stained yellow, and thus the
picture has the effect of being framed in
white and yellow glass. The figures of this
period are better drawn and less fantastic
than in the earlier periods, and heraldic
decoration was much in fashion. The choir
of York Cathedral, Nettlestead Church, Kent,
Canterbury Cathedral, and Fairford Church,
Gloucestershire, possess good examples of
this style. The borders resemble those
of the later Decorated. The lettering is
black-letter, and the beautiful round glass
shown in John van Eyck's pictures began
to be used now.
(4) Cinque Cento Style lasted about fifty
years, i.e. from 1500-1550, thus overlapping
the Perpendicular Period, which it resembles,
differing principally from it in ornamental
detail. The Italian architecture of the 16th
century is represented in the windows of
this date, hence the name of the style.
Friezes, arabesques, Sec, take the place of
the Gothic ornament. The figures are often
in the dress of the 16th century, and the
whole character of the style is more orna
mental and less severe than that of the
Perpendicular. Canopies appear generaUy
to be confined to the lower lights. There is
usually one large canopy, covering, e.g., a
group of benefactors. The choir of Brussels
Cathedral and Auch Cathedral abroad,
and King's College, Cambridge, at home,
contain beautilul windows of this date.
The profuse employment of yeUow stain is
noticeable, and the discontinuation of borders.
An architectural screen or elevation of great
and smaU arches forms a frequent back
ground, and sometimes festoons are hung
across the front of tbe principal arch.
Roman and black-letter characters are used
indiscriminately until 1530, and Arabic
numerals. (5) Intermediate. This style divides into
periods. i.e. (a) from 1550 to about 1820, and

782

WINDOWS, PAINTED

(3), since that date. The first period exhibits
the gradual decUne of the art, and is dis
tinguished by the use of enamel colours
discovered in the 16th century. This pro
cess is easy, but results in the diminished
transparency and brilliancy of the picture.
The architectural detaUs are copied from the
PaUadian style of architecture. The con
trasts of light and shade are not kept up, and
the designs become less effective. After the
commencement of thel8th century, the archi
tectural framework is dispensed with. In
England, glass painting, much retarded by
the ecclesiastical struggles in the reign of
EUzabeth, made considerable progress during
the reigns of James I. and Charles I. There
are many windows of this date at Oxford
which are distinguished by their landscape
background. With the Revolution the art
came to a standstill, and the windows after
this period, as at Arundel Castle, or in the
west end of New College Chapel, show how
terribly the art had declined. The revival
of the Mosaic system in England and the
disuse of enamels is characterised by much
strength and vividness of colour, but a want
of originaUty marred the improvement, the
artists while copying the imperfect drawing
of earlier styles, often failing to reproduce the
spirit and character which give them their
beauty. Glass painting, however, has since
this revival been making rapid strides, and
the windows of the more famous firms of
glass stainers of the present day almost vie
in spirit, vividness of colour and general
effect, with the most boasted specimens of the
Middle Ages (See Ancient Glass Paint
ings by an Amateur, Sec). [F. H.]
A few years ago a style of painted glass
came partiaUy into fashion here, which goes
by the name of Munich glass, and of which
the characteristics are, the use of stronger
and darker colours and a more pictorial style,
especially in introducing shade and perspec
tive, which were completely absent from
the early painted windows. TheoreticaUy
such a style sounds as if it ought to be
superior to the other ; but theory turns out
to be as much opposed to experience in this
as it is in many other things. Such win
dows have the fatal defect of shutting out
far more light than the early ones ever did ;
and in themselves they have a narrow escape
of looking more like coloured linen blinds
than glass: and for some reason or other
the shading which is necessary to produce
pictorial effects gives the whole an opaque
and too often a vulgar look of being only a
very second-rate picture. In short, painted
glass is something sui generis, and must not
be considered or treated as a picture. The
Cinque Cento style above mentioned ap
proximated to this Munich style, and is
quite unsuitable for Gothic buildings; at

WISDOM,
any rate, many churches are spoilt by first
building windows which are only large
enough to light the place properly with
"white" or plain glass, and then fining them
with painted glass, and very often too dark
besides. Clearstories especiaUy ought to be
kept clear of it, except those fiUed with
large perpendicular windows designed on
purpose for it, such as those at Bath Abbey,
for example, which have nevertheless lost
their painted glass long ago. The effect of
a painted window, after aU, depends far
more on the character of the glass and the
general colouring of the window than on
what are caUed the subjects; and conse
quently a paper picture of it is by no
means sufficient alone to enable one to judge
what the effect of the window will be, ex
cept negatively, or to condemn an obviously
bad one. [G.]
WINE, EUCHARISTIC. Wine has
always been held to be an essential element
in the Holy Communion. Endeavours
have been made at different times to substi
tute water (See Aquarii; Ebionites), but
this has never been allowed by the Church.
It was always the custom, however, to
mingle water with the wine : the Jews did
this in the Paschal cup — the " Cup of Bless
ing " — and it seems almost certain that our
Lord used the mixture at the institution of
the Eucharist (Maimonides, lib. de Solemn.
Pasch. c 7, sect. 5; St. Cyprian, Ep. 63,
c. 7). There is no doubt that it was the
custom from the earliest ages of the Church
to mingle water with the wine, Justin
Martyr (Apol. i.), Irenaaus (lib. v. c. 2),
St. Cyprian, and other early writers bearing
witness to the fact (See Mixed Chalice).
The Greeks use hot water with the wine,
following the liturgy of St. Chrysostom,
according to which boiling water (to _iov)
is to be poured into the chalice (Lit St.
Chrysost c. 34). The wine used has
generally been red; as such St. Cyprian
refers to it (Ep. 63), and St. Augustine speaks
of the tongue being empurpled with it in
the Eucharist (Horn. 82, in Matt. xxvi.
34, 35). Later provincial councils ordered
that the wine should always be red ; but in
the Roman Church at the present day white
wine is used. In the seventeenth century
claret ; in the eighteenth sack was employed
at the Holy Communion in England. At
the present time " Tent," a sweet, red,
Spanish wine, or some similar wine, not
used for ordinary consumption, is generaUy
adopted. [H.]
WISDOM, BOOK OF. An apocryphal
book of Scripture; so called on account of
the wise maxims and useful instructions
contained therein.
The Book of Wisdom is commonly
ascribed to King Solomon, either because

WORD
the author imitated that king's manner of
writing, or because he sometimes speaks
in his name. But it, is certain Solomon was
not the author of it ; for it was not written
in Hebrew, nor was it inserted in the Jew
ish canon, nor is the style like Solomon's :
and therefore St. Jerome observes justly,
that it smells strongly of the Grecian
eloquence; that it is composed with art
and method, after the manner of the Greek
philosophers, very different from that noble
simplicity, so full of Ufe and energy, to be
found in the Hebrew books. It has been
attributed by many of the ancients to Philo,
a Jew, but more ancient than he whose
works are now extant. But it is commonly
ascribed to an HeUenistic Jew, who Uved
since Ezra, and about the time of the
Maccabees (See Dr. Wace, Apocrypha ;
Smith, Diet Bible).
WORD, THE (6 Aoyor). The only be
gotten Son of the Father, the uncreated
Wisdom, the second person of the most Holy
Trinity, equal and consubstantial with the
Father, the Living Word, never separated
from the Father (Origen, in Joann. torn. i.).
St. John the Evangelist, more expressly than
any other, has opened to us the mystery of
the Word of God, when he tells us, " In the
beginning was the Word, and the Word
was with God, and the Word was God.
The same was in the beginning with God.
All things were made by him, and without
him was not anything made that was
made." The Chaldee paraphrasts, the most
anoient Jewish writers, generally use the
name (X1DD), Memra, or Word, where in
other places is used the name Jehovah : as
for example Ps. ex. 1. The Lord said
rWO "unto His Word," i.e. to Christ.
In effect, according to them, it was Memra
who created the world ; who appeared to
Abraham in the plain of Mamre; and to
Jacob at Bethel. It was Memra to whom
Jacob appealed to witness the covenant
between him and Laban. The same Word
appeared to Moses at Sinai; gave the law
to the Israelites; spoke face to face with
that lawgiver ; marched at the head of that
people ; enabled them to conquer nations,
and was a consuming fire to all who vio
lated the law of the Lord. All these
characters, where the paraphrast uses the
word Memra, clearly denote Almighty God.
This Word therefore was God, and the
Hebrews were of this opinion at the time
that the Targum was composed (See
Bishop BuU on the Nicene _ Creed, i., i. 19;
Pearson on the Greed, Art. ii.).
WORKS. The doctrine of the Church
of Eno-land on the subject of works is to be
found in the " Articles of Religion," in the
Prayer Book, Nos. xi., xii., xiii. (See Good
Works; Justification; Sanctification).

WORSHIP

783

WORSHIP (0. E. weorth-scype, worth
and ship, the latter being a common ter
mination as in lordship. Probably it is
derived from Sax. scyppan, to form or
build). I. An offering of praise to God. In
this sense worship and praise are almost
synonymous, as used in many passages in
Holy Scripture, such as "0 worship the
Lord in the beauty of Holiness" (See Ps.
xxix. 2: xlvi. 2; 1 Chron. xvi. 20; Ste
Matt. iv. 10, &c). The ceremonial worship
was not given to the Jews merely as a
means of spiritual education, but it is
throughout regarded as having reference to-
Him in Whose service it was used, looking
to the object of worship, and not to the
worshippers. So when the Jewish nation
attained its highest pitch of prosperity, and
probably of intellectual as well as spiritual
progress, in the reigns of David and Solomon,
the elaborate system of ceremonial worship
was developed instead of being narrowed.
We have but to refer to the books of the
Kings and Chronicles to see what impor
tance was given at that time to ceremonial
worship. The captives "by the waters of
Babylon" sat down and wept when they
remembered the songs of Sion. And when
restored, the service of the Temple was
attuned to the worship of God. Our
Blessed Lord when He visited the Temple,
and both at the commencement and end of
His ministry cast out those who made
traffic in the holy place, said no word
against the ritual of worship that was
held therein, but Himself went to the
Temple and joined with the worshippers. No
act or word of His is recorded which tends
in the least towards a depreciation of the
Temple service, which was above all else a
service of worship. This service of worship
we find referred to by all the Fathers of the
Church (Justin. Apol. ii. 98 ; Chrys. de
Sacerdot. vi. c. 4, &c), and we of the English
Church join in the chorus of saints when
we sing, " We praise Thee, we worship
Thee," after we have participated in the
highest act of worship.
II. The word is used in a lower sense.
Besides the usual application of this term to
the supreme homage and devotion due only
to the Divine Being, it is occasionally used
in the Bible and Prayer Book to denote
honour, respect, and reverence given to
men. Thus, in the 84th Psalm, it is said
that " the Lord will give grace and worship
(favour and dignity) to them that live a
godly life." In the Order of Matrimony in
the English Prayer Book, the husband
promises to worship his wife, that is, to
render to her all that respect and honour to
which she is entitled by the command of"
God, and the station she holds.
Hooker explains this from the fact, that

784 -

XEROPHAGIA

ZWLNGLIANS

in heathen times men had two wives, the
one called the primary or lawful wife, the
other the half wife, or concubine (Eccles.
Pol. v., lxxu. 8). By the old Roman law,
this was the difference between a wife and
a concubine: that the husband before
marriage promised that he designed to pro
mote the woman he was married to, to the
honour of materfamilias, or mistress of the
family. " The first right accruing to the wife by
marriage, is honour ; and, therefore, the
man says, ' with my body I thee worship ; '
that is, ' with my body I thee honour : '
for so the word signifies in this place ; and
so Mr. Selden, and before him Martin
Bucer, who Uved at the time when our
liturgy was compUed, have translated it.
The design of it is to express that the
woman, by virtue of this marriage, has a
share in all the titles and honours which are
due, or belong to, the person of her husband.
It is true the modem sense of the word is
somewhat different: for which reason, I
find, that at the review of our liturgy, after
the restoration of King Charles IL, 'wor
ship' was promised to be changed for
'honour.' How the alteration came to be
omitted I cannot discover; but so long as'
the old word is explained in the sense that
I have given of it, one would thmk no
objection could be urged against using it." —
Wheatly.

X.
XEROPHAGIA (Snpocpayia), from ^npds,
dry, and (bayeiv, to eat. Fast days in the
early Christian Church. They are defined
by Epiphanius to be days when bread and
salt only were used, and water only allowed
in the evening (Compend. Doctr. Cath.).
Tertullian refers to this fast, connecting
"lavacri abstinentiam " with the Xero-
phagia (Adv. Psych, i. 14, 15). This fast
was kept during tbe six days of the Holy
Week for devotion, but was not obligatory
(See Fasting). The 50th canon of the
Council of Laodicea forbids the remission of
fasting on the fifth day of the Holy Week,
-" fasting being continued throughout Lent,
£npoqbayovvTcs ; " on which Balsamon re
marks, " not however on the Sabbaths and
^Sundays in Lent, for on these days we are
not compelled to £npo(payeiv, as we are on
the other days of the fast" (Can. Ap. 69).
Fish at first was only permissible, but
-others added fowl to the food allowed (Soc.
H. E. v. 22).

YEAR, ECCLESIASTICAL (See Ad
vent, Calendar, and Feasts).
YORK, Use of (See Use).
YULE. An Old EngUsh word signifying
probably " noise " ; hence loud sound of
mirth and so on. Compare the Old EngUsh
gylan, to make merry, and the German
"jolen," "jodeln," to sing in a high-
pitched voice. The yule of August anciently
signified Lammas; but the word is now
used to denote the festival of Christmas
only. The yule log in Yorkshire corre
sponding to the ashen faggot in Devonshire
is still in many places burnt on Christmas-
eve, or Yule Time. See Johnson in voc,
and Skeat's Etymol. Diet

z.
ZEALOTS. . A sect of the Jews, so
called from their pretended great zeal for
God's law, and the honour of religion.
Simon the Apostle, from his surname Zelotes
(St. Luke vi. 15), which is equivalent to the
Chaldaic Kavavaios of SS. Matt, and Mark,
is supposed to have originaUy belonged to
this Sect. They were a branch of the Pha
risees, though some account them a distinct
sect (See Pharisees).
The Zealots were a most violent and
ungovernable set of fanatics, who on pre
tence of asserting the honour of God's laws,
and the strictness and purity of reUgion,
assumed a liberty of questioning notorious
offenders, without staying for the ordi
nary formalities of law: and "even when
they thought fit, they executed capital
punishments upon them with their own
hands. The faU of Jerusalem was accelerated by
these fanatics, as may be seen in Josephus'
history. — B. Jud. iv. c. iii. 9, 13, 14; vii.
viii. c. 1 (See Jost, Geschichte des Juden-
thums und seiner Sekten).
ZWLNGLIANS. The disciples of the
Reformer Ulric Zwingli, a Canon of Zurich
a.d. 1516-1531. It was long and vehe
mently disputed between the followers of
Luther and. Zwingli which of the two
masters was entitled to the honour of
having led the way to the Reformation.
The fact appears to be that Zwingli was
the first to detect the corruption of the
Roman Church, but the circumstances in
which he was placed did not so soon
involve him in open conflict with the
hierarchy ; and although he diverged from

ZWINGLIANS
the Roman Church in his views upon doc
trine farther than Luther, he did not act
with so much daring, nor in so wide a
sphere. Moreover he died young, and
hence, although he was a man of more
learning and judgment than Luther, he
never acquired such a wide reputation. His
disagreement with Luther on the Real
Presence made a complete separation be
tween them. Luther held that, together
with the bread and wine, the body and blood
of Christ were reaUy present in the Eucharist.
Zwingli held, that the bread and wine were
only signs and symbols of the absent body
and blood of Christ ; so that the Eucharist
was merely a pious and solemn ceremony,
to bring it to the remembrance of the
faithful. The opinions of Zwingli were
adopted in Switzerland, and several neigh
bouring countries. They gave rise to the
most violent animosities between their fa-

ZWINGLIANS

785

vourers and the disciples of Luther. Fre
quent advances to peace were made by the
Zwinglians; ' Luther uniformly -rejected
them with sternness. He declared an
union to be impossible; he caUed tho
Zwinglians '* ministers of . Satan." When
they entreated him to consider them as
brothers, " What fraternity," he exclaimed,
" do you ask with me, if you persist in your
belief? " On one occasion, the ingenuity of
Bucer enabled him to frame a creed, which
each party, construing the words in his own
sense, might sign. This effected a tempo
rary truce ; but the division soon broke
out with fresh animosity. " Happy," ex
claimed Luther, " is the man who has not
been of the counsel of the Sacramentarians ;
who has not walked in the ways of tho
Zwinglians" (Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. i.
103 ; Stubbs' Mosheim, ii. 394, 402-406).

3 E

APPENDIX.

(See Mark's, St., Gospel)

A note in the Revised Version of the
New Testament at the last twelve verses of
this gospel, which record the Ascension, did
all it could to expel them short of actual
omission, and so revived an old controversy
with the effect of producing some new and
very striking evidence in favour of the
received text and Authorised Version. The
note is this :
"The two oldest Greek MSS. and some
other authorities omit from v. 9 to the end.
Some others have a different ending to the
gospel " ; and the Revisers put a wide break
in their text before v. 9. A considerable
book in vindication of the verses had been
published some years before by Dean
Burgon, to which he says in his later book,
" The Revision Revised," that no answer has
ever been attempted. Dr. Scrivener, the
greatest of modern textual critics by general
consent, also defends them in all the edi
tions of his " Introduction to the Criticism
of the New Testament," both before
and since the publication of the Revised
Version and Dr. Hort's "Introduction to
the Greek Testament," which contains 28
close pages against the verses. Canon Cook,
the editor of the " Speaker's Commentary,"
in his bookl on " the Revised Version of the
first three Gospels," has produced some new
historical reasons of overwhelming weight,
as his facts are not disputed, against the
" two oldest MSS." on which Dr. Hort founds
most of his expulsions of received texts, and
sometimes on one of them against the other.
A summary of the latest arguments was
given in the " Quarterly Review," vol. 154,
by a writer whose own name would have
added weight to it, and who added a further
discovery of his own which strongly con
firms Canon Cook's conclusion about the
independent value of the two MSS.
They are the Vatican (B) and the Sinaitic,
which is denoted by K, A having been long
appropriated to the rather later Alexandrian
MS., which was more than any other the

basis of the textus receptus, the parent of the
A. V. All parties agree that N and B were
written between 330 and 340 a.d. ; and of
course they were copied from either one or
more then existing copies. Consequently,
though they are now the oldest surviving
MSS. of the whole or most of the N. T., tbe
quotation of any passage as genuine by an
earlier writer of authority, or the general use
of it in lectioharies not much later, is both
earlier and better evidence than its omission
in these two MSS. and its mere non-
quotation by any writer who was not want
ing a Scriptural authority for (in this case)
the Ascension is nothing against it. Dr. Hort
admits that Irena?us used this passage in the
2nd century, " and possibly Justin " also ;
and it was actually one of the lessons for
Ascension-day in the early Greek lection
aries. All that however goes for nothing
with Dr. Hort against what he calls " the
unique criterion supplied by the independent
attestations of s and B," and he is quite sure
that they represent independent streams of
still earlier testimony. But no reply worth
notice, and none by Dr. Hort himself or any
of his colleagues, has been made to the
conclusion of the four writers we have
mentioned, that there is nothing worthy to
be called evidence of any such independent
representation, even if there were none the
other way ; nor a single scrap of history or
allusion by anybody to that imaginary
" Syrian recension " or revised version by
some imperfectly informed conclave at some
later period, to which Dr. Hort attributes the
manufacture of the received Greek text.
Canon Cook introduces us more fuUy than
any one before to the real nature of the
undoubted recension by Eusebius under the
order of Constantine, of which there can
henceforth be no reasonable doubt that X
and B are only different copies made by two
scribes, and as to this passage by one, at the
same time and place, from such previous MS.
or MSS. as were set, before them. The story

APPENDIX.

7S7

as made out by Canon Cook and his reviewer
is a very striking case of circumstantial
evidence— not theory from what Dr. Hort
calls internal evidence, which resolves itself
into his own opinion at every point.
Eusebius himself records that Constantine
had. desired him to get fifty copies of the
Bible transcribed as quickly as possible for
the public use of the great number of people
who had then joined the Church. They
were to be written by expert scribes, and the
emperor ordered the treasurer of the province
to supply aU the materials, and Eusebius
was authorised to employ two public car
riages. He adds that " the work followed
immediately on the emperor's word;" and
gives a particular description of what we may
call the typography of the books when
done, i.e. that they were written rpio-o-d ko.1
Terpao-o-d : which might mean several things,
but unquestionably agrees with the fact
that N and B are written throughout in pages
of four and three columns respectively.
Facsimiles are given by both Burgon and
Scrivener. Eusebius also says that the parch
ment or vellum was of the very best ; which
is against the case with those two MSS. It
seems to have been the skin of antelopes.
Both of them are remarkable for the beauty
of the writing. But they appear to corre
spond no less to what might be expected
from fhe emperor's order for the greatest
expedition. For, besides the multitude of
questionable omissions, it now turns out,
though the early editors of the Vatican had
naturally corrected that transparent error,
lhatBabounds in careless repetitions of words
and clauses ; and also the less manifest one
of dropping whole lines or clauses, so as to
make nonsense, from the writer's eye having
taken a bad shot — a risk to which all copiers
are liable ; and it is fortunate when their mis
take makes nonsense, because it then reveals
itself. K also appears to have been done so
carelessly that the scribe of B was employed
to rewrite several sheets of it — and this one
for another reason. Dr. Hort admits that
the scribe whom we may call B wrote six
leaves of K ; and from certain indications
they were what printers caU "cancels" or
substitutes for others taken out ; and it is
admitted that the sheet containing the last
chapter of St. Mark is one of them. So there
is an end of the theory of independence of
N and B as to this passage, and of their
representing different streams of tradition
or transmission, for which there is not a
word of evidence. And for all we know,
N was at first written with these very
verses, as we shall see presently. Tischen-
dorf speaks of the magna vitiositas of both
N and B, though he was himself the
discoverer of X in one of the monasteries
of Sinai ; and they are specially remarkable

for their great multitude of omissions com
pared with all other MSS. and versions,
except one or two which manifestly followed
them, especially the one called L. Dr.
Hort, whose ingenuity in defending his own
multitude of omissions is equal to nearly
every difficulty, invented a theory of what
he called " conflation," which always acts in
favour of omission, and is almost ipso facto
condemned thereby. It is too complicated
to explain here, and is logically blown to
pieces by Burgon, Cook, and Scrivener,
though some much smaller critics think it
very convincing, and the majority of the
Revisers did so too ; or, more probably, could
not answer him from want of knowledge,
and voted down Dr. Scrivener, who was
very likely a less nimble advocate though an
older and a far more cautious judge. Now
let us see how the B scribe dealt with these
final verses of St. Mark in the " two inde
pendent MSS." which bis sole hand has left
us. And first of B itself.
In no other place in the whole volume
of both Testaments is there an entire blank
column left between one book and the next.
But between St. Mark and St. Luke there is,
and not only a whole column, but nearly
twelve lines over ; more than enough to leave
a wide break to mark the end Of the book, and
an ornamental finial besides. The columns
of B have forty-two lines of sixteen to
eighteen letters, whUe X has forty-eight of
generally twelve. Until the Q. Reviewer
pointed out what comes next, it was a
further puzzle that N has not a whole
blank column in the same place, but has
just seven words at the top of it ; and various
solutions were guessed at. But he found a
very simple one in the fact that the scribe,
apparently not having given satisfaction by
his feat in B, spread his last full column
out wider, in re-writing N, giving it
considerably fewer letters and words than
the average in that neighbourhood, and so
managed to make a pretence of occupying
another column. If one such abnormally
vacant column could be explained away
as an accident, it is quite impossible that
two can be accidental in the very same
place, and no other in the two MSS. ; and
now this proved contrivance to prevent the
appearance of a second vacancy makes the
whole transaction a most suspicious com
bination instead of two independent testi
monies. What then was it done for, and what
does it prove? First it proves that the
scribe knew very well that St. Mark's gospel
as generally received did not end with
iqjoBovvTo ydp, and evidently expected to
have to write in the other twelve verses
afterwards. Indeed Dr. Hort himself
admits that there must have been some

788

APPENDIX.

other ending beyond that, and also; that
another entirely different "short conclu
sion," as he calls it, which appears in the
aforesaid MS. L, is manifestly spurious.
Whether the twelve verses were erased, or
absent from some other cause, in the copy
which Eusebius had given to the scribe, the
omission was much too large to escape his
notice, as a few letters or words here and
there might. It is very suspicious that he
is said, and not denied, to have been the first
person who advocated it, whether it first
canle from design or from a casual loss of one
leaf in some older MS. Dr. Hort admits
there must have been a loss of something :
in other words, that both his favourite
MSS. are wrong. Then why was not the
omission of these verses ? And then comes
in the awkward fact that Eusebius was
suspected and accused of Arianism, and that
the Arians had been received into favour
by Constantine about the very time that
this edition of the fifty copies was ordered
and made. It may well be caUed provi
dential that two of them have survived to
tell this tale of Eusebian contrivance for
excluding one of the two gospel records of
the Ascension. And the other by an equally
suspicious coincidence, is dropped by K out of
St. Luke xxii. 51, though B is innocent of
that ; and there Dr. Hort throws his most
favourite MS. over, and persuaded the Re
visers to depreciate that text also by a note.

It must not be supposed however that
N and B do not often differ : which proves
either great carelessness and vitiositas, or
else, what is known otherwise, that MSS.
had begun to diverge considerably, and
therefore to abound in errors, long before
the 4th century. And therefore it by no
means follows that copies made in that
age are more accurate than later ones,
which may have been derived from better
originals, or more carefully collated. This
does not even profess to be a summary of
aU that has been written on this large
omission from the gospel ; but as the case
for it now avowedly depends on these two '
MSS., against which the latest discoveries
seem decisive in this place at any rate,
and as to their independence, everywhere,
we have not thought it necessary to discuss
the case as it stood before. The wonder is
that, with all the influence of Constantine
and the advantage of his fifty magnificent
copies, Eusebius could get practically no
concurrence from later editors in his omis
sions; for there is an enormous prepon
derance against them. They evidently knew
the "magna scripture vitiositas" of these
two, and probably of all those fifty copies.
See Burgon's Last Twelve Verses of St.
Mark, and The Revision Revised, and
Scrivener's Introduction to tlie Criticism qf
the N. T., 3rd edition, and Salmon's Intro
duction to the N. 'P., 2nd ed. [G.]

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