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YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

Bought with the income
of the
ANN S. FARNAM FUND

COHELETH,

COlOIOfrLY OAUiED

THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES
^rmsMtls from i^e ©rijinal '§thtein,

COMMENTARY, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL

CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG.

BXEB'OjM.ev yap aprt Ji' l^oVrpou If alyiyfAari,
TOT£ 51 TrpocajTTOV TTpof TTpoffdJffov, — 1 Cor. xiii. 12.

LONDON :
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS.
1861.

PRINTED BY D. MARPLES, LIVERPOOL.
'5 '^¦¦' f' o

TO

MY PATHEB-IN-lAW,

WILLIAM OROSFIELD, ESQ.

THIS WOEK

IS AFFECTIONATELY INSOEIBED.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Pkbfagb .
Tltt™.Tt»/\T»TrO'nT/\TkI

vii.

IMlKOUUOliUJN Section I.

— Title of the Book, and its Signification .

1

II.

— Canonicity of the Book 

9

III.

— Design and Method of the Book

16

IV.

— Importance of the Book ....

21

V.

— Historical Sketch of the Exegesis of the Book

27

A. Jewish Expositions 
ih.
B. Christian Expositions
99
VI.
— Author, Date, and Form of the Book
224
A. Arguments against the Solomonic Authorship
245
B. Arguments for the Solomonic Authorship
examined 
253
VII.
— Exegetical Helps 
256
COMMENTABY
257
Translation
.
480
Appendix I. —
-Ancient Version 
495
A. The Septuagint ...
496
B. Aquila
497
C. Theodotion . ...
ib.
D. Symmachus 
498
E. The Syriac . . . .
ib.
F. The Old Italic .
501
G. The Vulgate . ....
ib.
H. The Chaldee Paraphrase .
502
II.-
-Versions of the Eeformers —
A. Luther's Version 
519
B. The Swiss or Zurich Version .
521
C. Coverdale's Version .
ib.
III
— Addenda et Corrigenda ... . .
526
PREFACE.

The present is another volume of the five Megiloth upon which
I undertook to comment. The notes are more extensive than
those upon the Song of Songs — 1. Because I have endeavoured
to trace more fully the connection of Biblical Exegesis in its four
great epochs — to shew what influence the Versions of antiquity,
belonging to the first epoch, had upon the Mediseval Expositors
of the second; how far, again, these ancient Versions and the
Jewish Commentators of the Middle Ages of the first two epochs
have influenced the Translations of the Reformers in the third
epoch ; and how much Modern Criticism, forming the fourth
epoch, is indebted to the former epochs ; and 2. Because, in
tracing the historic connection, with the original sources before
me. I have found that commentators of high rank have
frequently both misquoted and mistranslated the ancients, and
especially the Hebrew writers, to such an extent as might hardly
have been credited had not the originals accompanied my
translations.' I trust that the translation of the important
Chaldee Paraphrase, the collation of the inestimable but
neglected Syriac Version with the original, and the discovery
' Compare, for instance, the flagrant errors of Hugh Broughton, p. 118;
Dr. Gill, p. 175 ; Havemick, Keil, and Stuart, p. 12 ; Preston, Appendix III.

VIIl. PREFACE.
of the Version from which Coverdale made his translation,
given in the Appendices, will be found acceptable contributions
to Biblical Literature.
I embrace this opportunity of acknowledging my obligations
to my friend, the Rev. W. C. Stalltbeass, for kind assistance
occasionally rendered ; and to Mr. David Marples, the printer,
who has manifested more than a professional interest in this
volume, and to whose care and good taste the correctness of
the work is largely indebted.
If the Commentary now presented to the public should throw
any light upon the acknowledged obscurities of the book, or if
the exhibition of the various and conflicting views propounded
by the pious and the learned should lower the offensive tone of
dogmatisers, I shall esteem it a suflScient reward for the seven
years' labour bestowed upon it.

10, Rake Lane, LrvEEPOOL,
July, 1861.

INTRODUCTION.

SECTION 1.-
This book is called in Hebrew Pibrjp Coheleth, the appellation
which its hero gives himself. This term occurs seven times in
the book; three times in the beginning (i. 1. 2. 12), three times
at the end (xii. 8. 9. 10), and once in the middle (vii. 27) of it.
That it is not a proper name, but an appellative, is evident from
its having the article in xii. 8, and especially from its being
construed with a feminine verb in vii. 27. It is generally
agreed that Solomon is described by this designation, as David
had no other son who was King of Israel in Jerusalem; vide
i. 1. 12,
The precise signification of this appellation has, from time
immemorial, been a matter of great contention, and the occasion
of numerous and most conflicting opinions. According to its
form rhiip is participle active feminine, Kal, from bijp , kindred
with ^ip, Greek KaXeto, Latin calo, and our English word call;
it signifies primarily to call, then to call together, to assemble, to
collect. Like IH^ r\'}p ]^h 2^3 ^4^ *^^^ participle is the
only instance in which the Kal is used ; but the sense is easily
ascertained from the other conjugations. As the Niphal' ^npj^
i. e. the passive of Kal, means to be called, to be collected together
(Exod. xxxii. 1 ; Levit. viii. 4 ; Numb. xvi. 3 ; xvii. 7 ; Josh.
xviii. 1 ; xxii. 12 al.), Phjip the Kal part. act. fern, means
congregatrix, bie SSeTfammelnbc, bie 3?erfommtetin, collectress, female
gatherer. Now the difiiculty consists in determining three questions.

2 INTRODUCTION.
viz., what did Solomon collect? why does he bear this name
here ? and how came it to be in the feminine gender ?
i. As to the first question, namely, what did Solomon collect?
we submit that a reference to the passages where the verb 7il|7
occurs, either in Niphal (Exod. xxxii. 1 ; Levit. viii. 4 ; Numb.
xvi. 3 ; xvii. 7 ; xx. 2 ; Josh, xviii. 1 ; xxii. 12 ; Judg. xx. 1 ;
2 Sam. XX. 14 ; 1 Kings viii. 2 ; 2 Chron. v. 3 ; xx. 26 ; Esth.
viii. 11, ix. 2. 15. 16. 18 ; Jerem. xxvi. 9 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 7) ; or
Hiphil (Exod. xxxv. 1 ; Levit. viii. 3 ; Numb. i. 18 ; viii. 9
X. 7 ; xvi. 19 ; xx. 8. 10 ; Deut. iv. 10 ; xxxi. 12. 28
1 Kings viii. 1 ; xii. 21 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 5 ; xv. 3 ; xxviii. 1
2 Chron. v. 2 ; xi. 1 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 13 ; Job xi. 10) ; shews
beyond a doubt that it is invariably used for collecting or
gathering persons, especially for religious purposes. So also its
derivatives, bT^p H^np D\Vnp5 and /IvnpO without excep
tion denote assemblies or gatherings of people. The natural
signification of n'^Hp therefore is, an assembler of scattered
people into the more immediate presence of God ; a gatherer of
those afar off unto God ; and we retain the literal meaning of
assembler, gatherer^
ii. From this definition of Ooheleth, the second question, viz.,
why Solomon bears this title here ? is easily answered. He
has it because it is descriptive of the design of the booh, and
because it connects his labours here with his worh recorded in
1 Kings viii. Solomon, who is there described as gathering
(¦'Qi?-) *^® people to hold communion with the Most High in
the place which he erected for this purpose, is here again repre
sented as the gatherer (/ibilp ) of the same people, who, through
inexplicable difficulties and perplexities in the moral govern
ment of God, loosened their ties, and were in danger of becoming
totally detached from that community.
So also Aquila,£-wa9poiirTic ; Symmachus w«pi|«iairTn; ; Midrash Yalkut, Eccles.
1. 1 ; Rambach, Notse uberiores in Eoclesiasten, contained in the second volume
of Michaelis, Notse uberiores, p. 838 ; Van der Palm, Eoclesiastes philologice et
oritioe illustratus, Lugd. Batav., 1784, p. 50, <feo. ; Wangemann, Der Prediger
Salomonis, Berlin, 1856, p. 44.

INTRODUCTION. 3
Before we proceed to the examination of the third question,
we shall review the difierent modes in which these two questions
have been propounded.
1. One of the traditional opinions given in the Midrash
Eabba is that ^^Jlp means preacher, and that Solomon
obtained this name because his discourses were delivered before
i/'^il) *^^ congregation.^ But — 1. The verb bijp does not at all
include the idea of preaching ; 2. The explanation preacher
ascribes an office to Solomon which is nowhere mentioned in
the Scriptures. The appeal to xii. 9, where we are told that
Coheleth " taught the people wisdom,^'' no more proves Solomon
to have been a preacher, than a reference to Deut. iv. 5, where
we are told that Moses taught the people the divine institutions,
or to Deut. xi. 19, where the Israelites are commanded to teach
their children, would prove that they were preachers. The
phrase r\yi_ IS? simply means to impart knowledge, to inform,
irrespective of the way in which it is done (comp. Is. xl. 14) ;
and the passage in xii. 9 would never have been forced into
that far-fetched sense, if it had not been for want of proof that
Coheleth means preacher. 3. The title preacher is too modern,
and quite inconsistent with the book itself; since iv. 17, and
almost all the succeeding appeals, which are in the singular
number, " Keep thy foot when thou goest," &c., shew that
these discourses were not delivered before an assembly of people,
as the Midrash and others "will have it. 4. This explanation
entirely destroys the connection between the design of the book
and the import of the symbolic name Coheleth, which,
according to our intei-pretation, is very obvious.
2. We are told that Coheleth means gatherer or acquirer of
wisdom, and Solomon is called by this name because he gathered
or acquired much wisdom, just as he is called elsewhere
' Midrash Rabba, "^npi J'idm: v"\n vnm, Eooles. i. 1; hence the Sept. iKxTvinriao-Tnc;
the Tulg. ecclesiastes ; and St. Jerome's explanation, ImXna-ma-rii! Groeco sermone
appellatwr qui coetum, i. e., ecclesiam congregat.. Comment, in loco ; Luther^
Coverdale, the Geneva Version, the Authorised Version, and many modern com
mentators.

4 INTRODUCTION.
" gathejer son of Jakeh " (Pro v. xxx. 1), because he gathered or
acquired all the wisdom, and gave it out again.' As ofishoots
of this must be regarded the two following interpretations : —
3. Collector, compiler, and that Solomon is so called because
he collected together in this hooh diversified experience and various
views and maxims for the good of mankind!'
4. Eclectic, eKXeKriKos, a name given to Solomon by his
father or teacher, because of his skill in selecting and purifying,
from the systems of different philosophers, the accumulation of
sentiments contained in this booh; just as the great philosopher,
whose original name was Aristocles, was by his teacher called
Plato, in consequence of the fluency of his speech or the
comeliness of his person.'
5. Coheleth means accumulated wisdom, and this appellation
was given to Solomon because wisdom was accumulated in him.*
But all these interpretations are alike contrary to the signifi
cation of 7T\p which never means to gather THINGS, or to
compile, but invariably denotes to gather PEOPLE, to convene an
assembly. The view mentioned in No. 3 incurs the additional
censure of regarding this book as a compilation of difierent
sayings and maxims, whereas it is a regular treatise upon a
definite subject, and each part of it gradually develops the
design of the author ; and the view given in No. 5 is contrary
to the grammatical form of !^2i^p which is the active participle,
and can therefore not be taken in a passive sense.
6. It means the reunited, the gathered soul, and it describes
Solomon's re-admission into the Church, in consequence of his
' Rashi rt«'pni rrasnn ta iwffl np' p ium isiip nn« mpo3 pi nnri niMn brrpv bs ;
and also Rashbam in loco.
2 Grotius, Annot. ad Eoolesiat. i. 1 ; Mayer, A Commentary upon the holy
writings of Job, David, and Solomon, p. 771 ; Mendelssohn, Commentary on
Eoclesiastes, translated by Theod. Preston, London, 1845, p. 130; Friedlander,
Der Prediger, Berlin, 1788, p. 91; Heinemann, Uebersetzung des Koheleth!
Berlin, 1831, p. 3.
3 Rosenthal, Koheleth, iibersetzt nebst einem ebraisohen Commentar Praff
1858, p. 17. '
'' Ibn Ezra, 12 n';np:ffl noann ]W'j to p m-i»:.

INTRODUCTION. 5
repentance; and the first verse we are told ought to be translated,
" The words of the soul, or person congregated or gathered unto
the church or congregation of saints, viz. of the son of David,
King in Jerusalem." ' This explanation owes its origin to the
last-mentioned view, and is guilty of the same violation of
g-rammar, viz., assigning to the active participle rh\ip a
passive sense.
7. It means the penitent^ and describes the contrite state of
Solomon's heart for his apostacy. But, apart from the fact
that even the Arabic word bv^p, which is appealed to for this
meaning of the Hebrew ^^'i^p, cannot be made to bear this
sense ; recourse to a cognate language, in order to assign an
anomalous signification to a frequently occurring and well
defined expression, must always be deprecated. Besides, this
interpretation is utterly at variance with the book itself, since
there is not a single passage in it which, according to its plain
sense, can be construed into a confession of sin, or taken as the
language of a repenting and contrite heart, denouncing sin as a
heinous crime.
8. It signifies concessus, an assembly, an academy; and the
first verse is either to be translated, " The sayings of the
academy of the son of David," D''ODrT wise men being supplied
after phxip^ or "The sayings of a member of the academy,"
&c., bv^ being supplied before rOTip.* To say nothing of
-its intolerant harshness, chap. i. 12 shews the utter inconsistency
' Cartwright, Metaphrasis etHomilise in Librum Salomonis qui soribitur Eocle
siastes, Amstelodami, 1647, fol. I ; Bishop Reynolds, Annotations on the Book of
Ecclesiastes, vol. iv. of his works, London, 1826, p. 38 ; Granger, Exposition on
Eoclesiastes, London, 1631.
^ Coeeejus, Comm. in i. 1, and Heb. Lex. in voc. ; Sohultens, Diss, de Utilitate
dialectomm Orient, ad tuendam integritatem cod. Heb., c. 2, § 24; Schroder,
Instit. Ling. Hebr., p. 336, quoted by Van der Palm, p. 48 ; Holden, p. xxxiv. ;
Knobel, p. 5.
' Doderlein, Scholia in Libros Vet. Test. Poet., p. 170, &c. ; and his Salome's
Prediger und Hohes Lied, Jena, 1784, p. xv., &o. ; Nachtigal, Koheleth oder die
Versammlung der Weisen, Halle, 1798, p. 20, &c.
* Gaab, Beitrage zur Erklarung des sogenannten Hohenlieds, Koheleth, cfcc. ;
Tubingen, 1795, p. 48.

6 INTRODUCTION.
of this interpretation, for, according to it, Solomon addresses
his literary society, " I, O academy ! was King in Jerusalem,"
thus making Solomon inform the members of the society over
which he was president who and what he was, as if they did
not know it. '
9. It means an old man, and Solomon indicates by the name
Coheleth his weakness of mind, when, yielding to his wives, he
worshipped idols.' Here, again, recourse is had to the Arabic to
obtain this sense, which must be repudiated, for the reason given
in No. 7. Besides the Hebrew has several terms for old man
(n2'''tt? Ipf) and if the sacred writer had intended to convey
this idea, he would assuredly have chosen one of them, and
not have felt obliged to assign a foreign signification to a
well-known Hebrew word.
10. It means exclaiming voice, and the words of the inscrip
tion ought to be rendered, " The words of the voice of one
exclaiming," being analogous to the title assumed by John the
Baptist (John i. 23).^ But as this far-fetched explanation is
also obtained by appealing to a cognate language, we must
reject it, for the reason already given.
11. It means Sophist, according to the primitive signification
of the word, which implied a combination of philosophy and
rhetoric, I^btip being the same as o-o^tor^s in Greek, with
this difierence, that the Hebrew sage was so denominated, from
his being the occasion of a great concourse of people who came
to hear him, whilst the Greek speaker obtained his name from
the wisdom he professed to teach.'
12. It means philosopher, or moralist.''

' Simonis Lex. Heb. in voc; Schmidt, Salome's Prediger, oder Koheleth
Lehren, Giessen, 1794, p. 80, <feo.
2 Lud. de Dieu, as quoted by Desvoeux, p. 477, and Holden, p. xxxi.
3 Desvoeux, A Philosophical and Critical Essay on Eoclesiastes, London, 1760,
p. 479, &c.
* Spohn, Der Prediger Salome, Leipzig, 1785, p. 3; Gaab, Beitrage, &c., p. 48;
Auerbach, Das Buch Koheleth neu iibersetzt mit einem Hebraischen Commentar,
Breslau, 1837, p. 28, &c.

INTRODUCTION. 7
13. It means the departed spirit of Solomon, which is intro
duced as speaking throughout this book in the form of a shadow.'
These interpretations are so far-fetched, and so unnatural, that
they require no refutation, and the enumeration of them will tend
to shew the soundness of the explanation we defend.
iii. With regard to the third question, viz.. How came this
title to be in the feminine gender ? we reply, Because Solomon
personifies Wisdom, who appears herself, in Prov. i. 10, and
viii. 1, &c., as Coheleth, or the gatherer of the people.^ Such a
personification of wisdom also occurs in the New Testament, as
will be seen from a comparison of Luke xi. 49, 50, with Matt.
xxiii. 34, and is in perfect harmony with the notions which were
current about Solomon, who is regarded as wisdom incarnate,
and is represented as teaching in this capacity (Book of Wisdom,
vii. 7 — ix.). Moreover, this explanation is both substantiated
by and explanatory of the otherwise inexplicable construction of
Coheleth with a feminine verb {^VTip iTiaX) in vii. 27, which
already Eashi (HDDnn mXip mDN)' and Ibn Ezra ^~ll^^* nblSi)
(nODnrr ywb bV rvr\p , though giving a diflferent interpretation
of Coheleth, were obliged to admit that it is owing to wisdom
being spoken of. The assertion, therefore, that this incarnation
of wisdom is not indicated by the sacred writer, utterly ignores
this passage. The objection that such expressions as, I gave my
heart to know wisdom; I acquired wisdom (i. 16. 17; ii..l2);
wisdom stood by me (ii. 9) ; wisdom wah far from me (vii. 23), &c ,

' Augusti, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p. 240, &c.
2 So also St. Augustine, Sapientia semel per Salomonem cecinit, quoted by
Knobel, p. 6, and by Hengstenberg in Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., art. Ecclesiastes,
vol. i., p. 594; Geier, in Salomonis Regis Israel Eoclesiasten Comment, ed.
quartua, Leipsise, 1711, p. 10 ; Le Clerc, Comment. Conoio. Salom. i. 1 ;
Rambach, Notse uberiores in Eoclesiasten Salomonis, contained in vol. ii. of
Michaelis, Notse uberiores, p. 835; Carpzov. Int. ad Lib., p. 201 ; Holden, p. xlvi. ;
Ewald, Krit. Gramm., p. 569 ; and his Spriiche Salome's und Koheleth, Gbttingen,
1837, p. 189; Kbster, Das Buch Hiob und der Prediger Salome's, Schleswig,
1831, p. 102; Hitzig, Die Spriiche und der Prediger Salerno's, Leipzig, 1847,
p. 128; Wangemann, Der Prediger Salomonis, Berlin, 1856, p. 43 ; Hengstenberg,
Der Prediger Salomo, Berlin, 1859, p. 39, &o.

8 INTRODUCTION.
are incompatible with it,' arises from a confusion of wisdom
animating a person with a personified idea ; the wisdom which is
concrete in Solomon with absolute wisdom. It must be borne
in mind that Solomon, though animated by and representing
wisdom, does not lose his individuality ; and hence he speaks
sometimes of his own experience, and sometimes utters the
words of wisdom, whose organ he is, just as the Apostles are
sometimes the organs of the Holy Ghost. Comp. Acts xv. 28.
This question, too, viz.. How came this title to be in the
feminine gender ? has been variously answered.
1. It is in the feminine gender, because rhiip, Coheleth,
refers to tt^3 J , the intellectual soul understood.^ But this expla
nation, though virtually the same as that which we have given,
is very indistinct, in consequence of the views of its propounders
respecting the signification of Coheleth.
2. It is in the feminine form, to shew the great excellency of the
preacher, or his charming style, which this gender indicates.'
3. It is in the feminine, because a preacher travails, as it were
like a mother, in the spiritual birth of his children, just as the
Apostle Paul says, " My little children, of whom I travail again
in birth till Christ be formed in you" (Gal. iv. 19), and has
tender and motherly affection for his people.''
4. It is in the feminine, to describe the infirmity of Solomon,
who appears here as worn out by old age.^
5. The feminine is used in a neuter sense, because the departed
spirits have no specific gender (comp. Matt. xxii. 30),^ in accord-
' Knobel, p. 7.
2 Rashi, rtaaon -iibej: niom; rraanrt nsiip moNinnann nsinp laic 'd n'lnpn los
noann nsapon, on xii. 8, and vii. 27 ; Rashbam, on vii. 27 ; Ben Meleoh, on vii. 27,
which has been followed by many Christian commentators.
" Lorinus, Comment, in Eoclesiasten, Moguntise, 1607, p. 12; Zirkel, Unter-
suohung iiber den Prediger mit Philologiscbeu und Kritischen Bemerkungen,
Wiirzhurg, 1792.
' Pineda, Comment, in Eoclesiasten, Antw., 1620, in loco; Mayer, Comment,
p. 771.
5 Mercer, Comment, in loc. ; Simonis, Lex. Heb. in voc.
6 Augusti, p. 242, &c.

INTRODUCTION. 9
ance with the explanation given in ii. 13. These views require
no refutation.6. The termination D, is not at all feminine, but, as in
Arabic, is used as an auxesis to the force of the word, so that
TOy\^ means a pre-eminent preacher} But, apart from the
fact that such a usage of the feminine termination has no
parallel in Hebrew, and that recourse to a foreign language is
to be deprecated, this atJ^jjo-iy means much; accordingly, rhlip
would signify much preaching, and not pre-eminent preacher.
7. The feminine gender is to be explained, from the custom in
Hebrew and other languages of designating by feminine and
abstract names persons holding certain ranks and offices.^
Against this explanation we urge — 1, That Coheleth is neither
a name of rank nor of office, but simply describes the act of
gathering the pe^le together ; 2. That the construction of the
feminine verb with it in vii. 27, is utterly irreconcileable with this
view; 3. That abstracts, though sometimes expressed by feminine
forms, are never formed from the active participle ; and 4. That
there is not a single instance to be found where a concrete is
first made an abstract, then again taken in a personal sense.
SECTION II. — CANONICITY" OF THE BOOK.
In inquiring into the canonicity of any book of the Old
Testament, it must always be borne in mind that no inspired
writer gives a catalogue of the books regarded as canonical up
to his time, and that even the earliest uninspired notice taken
of the entire canon is a simple reference to its threefold division,
viz., the Law, the Prophets, and the other writings, i. e., Hagio-
graphy.^ The reason of this categorical designation is obvious.
' Jahn, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p. 828, Szo.
" Desvoeux, p. 477 ; Gesenius, Lehrgeb., p. 468, and 878 ; Knobel, p. 8, &o. ;
Herzfeld, Coheleth iibersetzt und eriautert, Braunschweig, 1838, p. 25; Stuart,
A Commentary on Ecclesiastes, New York, 1851, p. 107 ; Plumptre, in Smith's
Dictionary of the Bible, art. Ecclesiastes.
' Comp. the Prologue to Jesus son of Sirach, o vO|M05 xai oi vpo^nrcu xa! ra aAXa
TTATpia 0(€^i'a, and farther on, o vojuo? ttai ai 'jrfO'pnrsXai xat rk Aoiwa t«v ^(€?i(»v. And
see also Luke xxiv. 44. C

10 INTRODUCTION.
The sacred books were too well known to every Israelite to
require a more specific account of them. It was only when
the superiority of the inspired books had to be defended before
a heathen, who was ignorant of their number and import, that
Josephus felt himself obliged to enumerate and deserve them
more particularly. " We have not," he submits, " a countless
number of books opposing and contradicting each other, but
only two-and-twenty, containing the records of every age, which
are justly believed to be Divine, and of these five belong to
Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four contain
hymns to God and maxims of life for men." ' But even this
vindication being necessarily confined to the certainty of the
number, the publicity, and veracity of the Hebrew records, as
contrasted with the countless number of the concealed writings of
the Hellenists, rendered it superfiuous to give the names of
books which were well known to every Jew, and which would
have been utterly useless to Apion, the heathen. It is, however,
generally admitted that these twenty-two books are : 1 — 5, the
Books of Moses ; 6, Joshua ; 7, Judges and Ruth, which
belongs to that period ; 8, first and second Samuel ; 9, first
and second Kings ; 10, first and second Chronicles ; 11, Ezra
and Nehemiah, because Ezra appears in Nehemiah, and because
both were ascribed to one author (comp. Baba Bathra, 15, a;
Sanedrin, 93, b) ; 12, Esther ; 13, Isaiah ; 14, Jeremiah and
Lamentations, by the same author ; 15, Ezekiel ; 16, Daniel ;
17, the Minor Prophets, put together because of their smallness,
and also to obtain the number 22 ; 18, Job ; 19, the Psalms ;
20, the Proverbs ; 21, Ecclesiastes ; 22, the Song of Songs.
1 Comp. Joseph, cont. Apion. i. 8, with Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iii. 10. Josephus'
division of the Scriptures into twenty two books is owing to an ancient custom to
obtain the number of the Hebrew alphabet, or some other significant or saored
number, when divisions were made. The division into four-and-twenty books,
HMim Dnips, which is adopted by the Massorites, and is become a technical name
among the Jews for the Old Testament, is from the Greek-speaking Jews, who
made it according to the Greek alphabet, containing twenty-four letters. For the
same reason, the Iliad and the Odyssey are respectively divided into twenty -four
books.

INTRODUCTION. 11
The correctness of this admission is evident, from the catalogue
of the inspired writings given in the Talmud. Here, again,
we must remark that this formal account of the books is not
given to shew which are canonical, as this would have been
superfluous in the eyes of the Talmudists and of the Jews,
since every Israelite well knew from of old the canonical books ;
but is incidentally brought forward to point out the order in
which they are to follow each other — a circumstance which
greatly increases its importance and value. Three subjects are
discussed in Baba Bathra, pp. 13 and 14, viz., 1. The aggluti
nation or joining together of the canonical scrolls or books ;
2. The order in which they are to follow each other ; and
3. Their respective authors or compilers. The first discussion,
viz., about the agglutination of the scrolls, throws no direct light
upon the point under consideration. The gross misunder
standing, however, of the passage in the Talmud which contains
it will be seen in the foot-note.' The third discussion will be
' The passage is, ims mirr 't tsd 't 'in 'so cainD ''S'l: mm mw pmn Y'n
•TOMi TOSS '2D3 inMi in« ta Qnm« D'oam ps* ':Ba ''ainai pss 'ibi ''«'13 nns» ':Da min
?'¦mix «'i rriw p n't 'd ")» in«3 j'pano d'«<3: totosj lb vnm pn p Dwaa nsuBn min< <3-\
nn«3 n'pmD cnnai Ci'«'i3 rmn iris'; ix'ini 'iDSn "\ ion idss '3Da 'm '« «¦;» vn vh
¦DiJiicani ; Our Rabbins teach that one may join the Pentateuch, the Prophets,
and the Hagiography together in one, so said B. Mayer; B. Jehudah said the
Pentateuch by itself, the Prophets by themselves, and the Hagiography by them
selves ; and the Sages said, each book by itself. Then B. Jehudah said it happened
that Bayithos, the natural son, had the eight Prophets joined together in one,
according to the advice of B. Eliezer ben Azariah ; but others said that it was not
so, but that each one was by itself. Then Bab said, it happened that the Law, the
Prophets, and the Hagiography were brought before us joined together in one, and
we pronounced them lawful. And this decided the question. The whole dis
cussion is so plain that it requires no comment, and we are amazed that Haver-
nick (Allgemeine Einleitung in das Alte Test, erster Theil, erste Abth. 1854,
p. 40) should have taken it to treat upon the division of the canon, and then have
disconnected and so wofully mistranslated the words, inMi in« '!3 nnniM Q'aam
ios» '3B3, bie aScifen fagen: aUeg iji eine« unb jebet ^eil ieM^t wieber fiit
fi^, b.^. bitbet twieber ein fto ft^ abgef(|)toiTencg @anje: The wise men say, the
whole is one, and each part forms one again for itself, i. e., forms again for itself a
complete whole : and that he should also have disconnected the decision of the
discussion, omitted the last and most important word, -and translated is'ini
in«3 D'paTm Q'linsi Q'«'33 mm v^ish, "unb fite ^afectt vmS :^itttctlafreti bte %^oxa^,
ftop^etcn unb ^ogiograp^en serfcunben ju einem ©anjen," amd they (i.«., the

12 INTRODUCTION.
examined in the section appropriated to the authorship of this
book. It is the second, viz., the discussion about the order of
the sacred books, which is of the utmost importance to the
identity of Josephus' canon, inasmuch as in it all the inspired
books are mentioned by name. Here, then, we have it beyond
the shadow of a doubt that the books which, according to
Josephus {I. c), formed the sacred canon long before his time;
which no Jew, as he tells us, dared to alter in any way ; upon
which all the Jews are taught from their very infancy to look
as the decrees of God ; and for which every Jew, if neces
sary, would gladly die, are, according to the order of this
discussion, the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings,
Jeremiah, Ezehiel, Isaiah, and the Minor Prophets; Buth, Psalms,
Job, Proverbs, Coheleth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel,
Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.^ The Old Testament canon,
same wise men) have bequeathed to us the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiography,
united in one whole, connecting it with the preceding quotation. Keil, who
almost rewrote this part of Haverniok's work, has espoused this extraordinary
blunder; so also Professor Stuart, who gravely tells us (Critical History and
Defence of the Old Testament Canon, Davidson's ed., London, 1849, p. 233, &a.),
" In the Gemara Tract, Babba Bathra, fol. 13, c. 2, we find the following declara
tion : Our wise men say that the whole is one, and each part is one by itself; and
they have transmitted to us the Law, the Prophets, and the Kethubim, united
together in one." The works of Havernick, Keil, and Stuart occupy too high a
position, both here and on the Continent, to leave so flagrant an error unnoticed.
•vm D':ffii n'Sffl' ';«pirM rroT D'atei "jntoib d<iqbiibi smrr d'n'i: bw pTO pn im i
»win 191 nfflOD Nbm n^nn lai B»in ns '3i swim 'n in nbnn ypa-i Dnp »fflin n3D
9S)in ft i';ni p^w^ im«3 iwam:© dv'33 nsn^b n^nn n'na pni' 'm nnx vn nwi: rtpa
D>«'33 p|iD <D«')Di rr~ai 'm 'u nrnxia: imDT jv3 Miani »\Bin'! n'onp^'ji na'oi dto» ''»»'i
¦jNpin'i n'OTD onp nn'iB' nan oyva -«avn 'T'« rponp'';! rv-[vt> n^ana'bi imna rvb a'»n iin
n'BiDi «:a-nn n<m'T b^pin'i Mjaiin n'Ma rpoTi mmn n'BiD D'abm p'3 's)ni rrsw'y rrmp'b
'xnnnj') wnnn:! «:aiin') M:a-iin p<3nD «non: n'';i3 n<»iD'i Nnnna The Babbins teach
that the order of the Prophets is — Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings,
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah and the Minor Prophets, of which Hosea is the first,
as it is written, " The Lord spake to Hosea first." (Hos. i.) But has Hosea really
spoken first ? and were there not many prophets between Moses and Hosea ?
R. Jochanan replied, because he was the first of the four prophets who prophesied
at that time, viz., Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, and Micah. Then(isaiah}ought to be put
at the head of these f Since Ms prophecy was written upon Haggai, Zechariah,.
and Malachi, the last of the prophets, it loas considered as separate, and wntten
down separately, and was put at the head because it is little and might easily be

INTRODUCTION. 13
therefore, which we now possess, is the canon which the Jews
had long before the time of Christ, and Coheleth composed one
of the sacred books which our Lord called ray ypa^as, the
Scriptures (Matt. xxii. 29). Hence the Septuagint version,
which was made before the Christian era, the translations of
Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, which belong to the first
two centuries of Christianity, and the Catalogue of Melito,"
bishop of Sardis (fl. 170 A. D.), which he brought from
Palestine — all these include Coheleth.
As reference is frequently made to the discussions in the
Talmud, &c., where it is affirmed objections have been made at a
very early period against the canonicity of Coheleth, we believe
that the real force of these passages will best be seen by giving
them entire. Upon the declaration in the Mishna, that all
the books in the Bible pollute the hands, (i. e., are inspired, or
canonical, see my Commentary on the Song of Songs, p. 3,)
including the Song of Songs and Coheleth,' R. Jehudah said
the Song of Songs does pollute the hands, but about Coheleth there
is a difference of opinion : B. Josi said Coheleth does not pollute
the hands, and the difference of opinion is about the Song of
Songs. R. Simeon said Coheleth is one of those points upon
which the decision of Beth-Shammai is more lenient and Beth-
Hillel more rigid. Then R. Shimeon Ben-Aszai said, 1 have
lost. Since Isaiah was before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, ought not Isaiah to be at
the head ? As the book of Kings ends with tribulation, and Jeremiah is all
tribulation, and Ezekiel begins with tribulation and ends in consolation, whereas
Isaiah is all consolation, tribulation is joined to tribulation {i. e., Jeremiah to the
end of Kings), and consolation to consolation (i. e., Isaiah to the end of Ezekiel.)
The order of the Hagiography is Buth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Coheleth, the
Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles. To him
who says that as Job lived in the days of Moses, the book of Job ought to be put
first, as the beginning, we reply, we must not begin with pvmishment. Buth, too,
contains chastisements ? But such chastisements as have a happy issue.
T«) -mi« mirp 't D'th n« j'^Knon rtnpi Dn'^n tw D'Tn n« j'somo wipn' ¦¦ana 'n i
xyyan tot D'Tn ns ndiqq nrx n'lnp idin w 'i npi'inn nbnpi wm nn motqd nn'ffln
D':pn n':OT vniia 'bd '3« tapo 'm» p ii)""i iom ri"a 'imnni \B"a ''jipn rtnp n'lm npibno
D'T) D'Tn HM D'NDTDD rtnpi D'T»n Twffi na»w'a ¦^c^^^s p t»'')m 'i n« ia'wm» cva
•Cn 3"b

14 INTRODUCTION.
received it from the mouth of the seventy-two elders, at the time
when B. Eliezer Ben-Azzai was appointed elder, that the Song
of Songs and Coheleth pollute the hands. — Yadayim, v. 3.
In the Talmud, where the same discussion is given, we are
told :' B. Mayer said Coheleth does not pollute the hands, but
there is a difference of opinion about the Song of Songs ; B. Josi
said the Song of Songs does pollute the hands, and the difference
of opinion is about Coheleth ; whereas B. Simeon said Coheleth
is one of those points upon which the decision of Beth-Shammai
is more lenient and BethSillel more rigid ; but Buth, the Song
of Songs, and Esther pollute the hands ; this is according to what
B. Joshua had said. B. Simeon ben Menasia submitted that
Coheleth does not pollute the hands, because it contains Solomon^ s own
wisdom. Whereupon they said unto him, and has he (Solomon) only
indited this (Coheleth) , and has it not long been said that he also
spoke three thousand proverbs (1 Kings v. 12), and said, too, Bo
not add to his words f (Prov. xxx. 6). What means this (^D')^{^)
^^ and he said"? J^ thou (R. Simeon) wilt say he (Solomon)
said it appropriately, having written down what he wished and
kept back what he wished, then come and hear, Do not add to His
words {i.e., to God's words). — Megila, 7, a.
In another tract of the Talmud it is recorded:" B. Jehuda,
son of B. Samuel, son of Shilath, said in the name of Bab, the
sages wanted to declare Coheleth apocryphal, because its statements
contradict each other. And why have they not declared it
apocryphal ? Because it begins with words of the Law and ends
with the words of the Law : it begins with the words of the Law,
NDion Q'Tffln TW now 'dv 't vrcart Tma npi'^nDi D'Tn nw ndtdki 13>n rtnp -raw tnd 'i i
?n'«n TOT nn '!a« n'a '-TOinm m"a 'Mpn n'lnp Tain ii»n\B 'n rtnpa npibnoi qth n«
MDiDo i:'M n'jnp idim «'Dm p ]'»nw 'i s'jn SOTrr 'la iont «m d'th n« yws^n inD«i
nm'jiD -laTi -tom: laa w'jni ins laba ii 'ai ib i-to« M»n rrdm b® mnarra) ':dq d'th hh
'Sa'Hii amTK 'Wmt ioh wia la'ta Nom 'ai nnwi 'no Tiai ¦?» f^cm ¦;« lawi Wia Q'sbM
•'«"» 'i nVmi man ¦;» r|Dm bw 3>dib «n ama'x Nb
ni pniD ma™ 'jbo rtnp ibd 11:3'; D'oan wpa a-n nramn nb'w '^¦^ n<-ia mw ai ia« a
amST mm nai mb'nn mm nan ibidi mm nai mVnniB 'jbo ihtoi Mb na ':Bai m ns
?lip lb I'MT Min sjown nnn w 'n m naxi V3o\ar\ nrtn bTO»>s) ibns* baa oiMb jnn' no
ni '3 TDW vnisn n»i mt D>nbMn ns »n\B3 ban lan fjiD am3T mm 'lai ibid ib ot ¦warn
'('a 'b na»i umri ba

INTRODUCTION. 15
for it opens with the words, " What advantage has man in all his
labour wherewith he labours under the sun?" (i. 3) and it is said
in the school of B. Jannai that " under the sun " means that which
is unprofitable for him ; just as " above the sun " denotes that
which is profitable for him : it ends with the words of the Law,
for it concludes with the words, '¦'¦In conclusion, all is heard;
fear the Lord, and keep his commandments," &c. (xii. 13.) —
Shabbath, 30, b.
In the Midrash we read,' " the sages wanted to declare Coheleth
apocryphal, because they found sentiments in it Unding to infide
lity." —Yz.j\kx& Rabba, 161, b.
Thus also St. Jerome tells us :^ the Hebrews say that, among
other writings of Solomon which are obsolete and forgotten, this
book ought to be obliterated, because it asserts that all the creatures
of God are vain, and regards the whole as nothing, and prefers
eating and drinking and transient pleasures before all things.
From this one paragraph it deserves the dignity that it should be
placed among the number of the divine volumes, in which it
condenses the whole of its discussion, summing up the whole
enumeration, as it were, and says that the end of its discourse is
very easily heard, having nothing difficult in it, namely, that we
should fear God and keep his commandments (xii. 13, 14).
But we submit that these discussions, so far from impairing,
confirm the canonicity of Coheleth, since they shew beyond a
doubt — 1. That these objections, which were by no means
confined to the book in question, were urged by the school of
Shammai, which exercised a supercilious rigour in the interpre-
.«Dp ,naT Mip'D nis'o isb D'mta D'lai ia imsos) »3Bo nbnp ibd raab D'oan wpa '
•(a"»
' Aiunt Hebraci, cum inter cetera scripta Salomonis, quai antiquata sunt, nee
in memoria duraverunt, et hie liber obliterandus videretur, eo quod vanas assereret
Dei creaturas et totum putaret esse pro nihUo et oibum et potum et delicias
transeuntes prseferret omnibus : ea hoc uno capitulo meruisse auotoritatem, ut in
divinorum voluminum numero poneretur, quod totam disputationem suam et
omnem catalogum hac quasi uya.Ke^x>^aiia-ei coarotaverit et dixerit finem sermonum
suorum auditu esse promptissimum, nee aliquid in se habere difficile, ut scilicet
Deum timeamus et ejus prseoepta faciamus. — Hieron. Comment, xii. 13.

16 INTRODUCTION.
tation of Scripture ;' 2. That they were overruled by the positive
declaration from the seventy-two elders, which is to us of the
utmost importance, being a testimony anterior to the Christian
era, that Coheleth is canonical ; 3. That the objections, against
it were based upon apparent contradictions and difficulties ; and
4. That these difficulties had been so satisfactorily explained by
the Rabbins themselves, that when the apparent contradictions
of the book of Proverbs were urged against its canonicity, the
satisfactory solution of Coheleth was adduced as an instance to
caution against accepting contradictions too rashly."
Coheleth is the fourth of the (riiV'-JQ Urort) five Megiloth, or
books, which are read annually in the synagogue at five
appointed seasons. The reason for its occupying the fourth
position in the present arrangement of the Hebrew canon is,
that the feast of Tabernacles, on which it is read, is the fourth of
these occasions. SECTION III. — DESIGN AND METHOD OF THE BOOK.
The design of this book, as has already been intimated [vide
supra, p. 2), is to gather together the desponding people of God
from the various expediencies to which they have resorted, in con
sequence of the inexplicable difficulties and perplexities in the moral
government of God, into the community of the Lord, by shewing
them the utter insufficiency of all human efforts to obtain real
happiness, which cannot be secured by wisdom, pleasure, industry,
' Comp. Graetz, Gesohichte der Juden iv., p. 40, (fee; Jost, Gesohichte des
Judenthums und seiner Seoten, J., p. 61, (fee.
s The passage alluded to is as follows : pniD inaT vnw 11:3b ifflpa 'bwD IDD tjHi
j:"S>'b to: «3n NO»ra p'n3iBNi p'3"» i«b nbnp •bo 'idm imi:3 «b nn ':bdi m n« m; and
also the book of Proverbs, they [the wise men] wanted to declare apocryphal,
because there are statements in it contradicting each other. And why did they not
declare it apocryphal? They said, the book of Coheleth was not [declared
apocryphal], because we have examined it and found its meaning ; let us therefore
here [the Book of Proverbs] also examine more closely, Shabbath 30, b. Preston
(Comment, on Eccles., p. 75), in citing this passage, has omitted the word inb,
and therefore mistranslated the whole ; be has also given a wrong reference to
it, viz., Mishna, Shabbas, oh. x.- Plumptre (in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
art. Ecclesiastes, p. 473) quotes it from Preston, with these errors uncorrected.

INTRODUCTION. 17
wealth, &c. , but consists in the calm enjoyment of life, in the resig
nation to the dealings of Providence, in the service of God, and in
the belief in a future state of retribution, when all the mysteries
in the present course of the world shall be solved.
The method which the sacred writer adopts to carry out this
design is most striking and eflTective. Instead of writing an
elaborate metaphysical disquisition, logically analysing and
refuting, or denouncing, ex cathedra, the various systems of
happiness which the different orders of minds and temperaments
had constructed for themselves, Solomon is introduced as recount
ing his painful experience in all these attempts. Thus by laying
open, as it were, to the gaze of the people the struggles of a man
of like feelings with themselves, who could fully sympathise with
all their difficulties, having passed through them himself, and
found the true clue to their solution, the sacred writer carries out
his design far more touchingly and effectively than, an Aristo
telian treatise, or the Mount Ebal curses upon the heads of the
people, would have done.
The book consists of a Prologue, four sections, and an Epilogue:
the Prologue and Epilogue are distinguished by their beginning
with the same phrase (i. 1 ; xii. 8), ending with two marked
sentences (i. 11 ; xii. 14), and embodying the grand problenf, and
solution proposed by Coheleth ; whilst the four sections are indi
cated by the recurrence of the same formula, giving the result of
each experiment or examination of particular efibrts to obtain
real happiness for the craving soul (ii. 26 ; v. 19 ; and viii. 15).
The Prologue — i. 2-11 — gives the theme or problem of
the disquisition. Assuming that there is no hereafter, that the
longing soul is to be satisfied with the things here, Coheleth
declares that all human efforts to this efiFect are utterly vain (2)
and fruitless (3) ; that conscious man is more deplorable than
unconscious nature : he must speedily quit this life, whilst the
earth abides for ever (4) ; the objects of nature depart and retrace
their course again, but man vanishes and is for ever forgotten
(5-11).

18 INTRODUCTION.
The FIRST SECTION — i. 11-ii. 26 — records the failure of different
experiments to satisfy the cravings of the soul with temporal
things, thus corroborating the allegation in the Prologue, and
also shewing what their disappointment from this point of view
led to. Coheleth, with all the resources of a monarch at his
command (12), applied himself assiduously to discover, by the aid
of wisdom, the nature of earthly pursuits (13), and found that
they were all fruitless (14), since they could not rectify destinies
(15). Reflecting, therefore, upon the large amount of wisdom he
had acquired (16), he came to the conclusion that it is all useless
(17), as the accumulation of it only increased his sorrow and pain
(18). He then resolved to try pleasure, to see whether it would
yield the desired happiness, but found that this too was vain
(ii. 1), and hence denounced it (2) ; for, having procured every
imaginable pleasure (3-10), he found that it was utterly insuffi
cient to impart lasting good (11). Whereupon he compared
wisdom with pleasure (12), and though he saw the former had a
decided advantage over the latter (13, 14, a.), yet he also saw
that it does not exempt its possessor from death and oblivion,
but that the wise and the fool must both alike die and be for
gotten (14, b. -16). This made him hate both life and the
possessions which, though acquired by industry and wisdom,
he must leave to another, who may be a reckless fool (17-21),
convincing him that man has nothing from his toil but wearisome
days and sleepless nights (22, 23) ; that there is, therefore,
nothing left for man but to enjoy himself (24, a) ; yet this, too,
he found was not in the power of man (24, b. 25), God gives this
power to the righteous and withholds it from the wicked, and
that it is, after all, transitory (26).
The SECOND SECTION— iii. l.-v. 19.— Having shewn in the
preceding section that neither wisdom nor pleasure can ensure
lasting good for man, Coheleth now shews that industry is also
unable to secure it.
All the events of life are permanently fixed (iii. 1-8), and
hence the fi-iiitlessness of human labour (9). God has indeed

INTRODUCTION. 19
prescribed bounds to man's employment, in harmony with this
fixed order of things, but man through his ignorance often mis
takes it (10, 11), thus again shewing that there is nothing left for
man but the enjoyment of the things of this world in his posses-
sion,"being the gift of God to the righteous (12, 13). The cause
of this immutable arrangement in the events of life is, that man
may fear God, and feel that it is He who orders all things (14, 15).
The apparent success of wickedness (16) does not militate against
this conclusion, since there is a fixed day for righteous retribu
tion (17) ; but even if, as is affirmed, all terminates here, and
man and beast have the same destiny (18-21), this shows all the
more clearly that there is nothing left for man but to enjoy life,
since this is his only portion (22). The state of suffering (iv. 1),
however, according to this view, becomes desperate, and death,
and not to have been born at all, are preferable to life (2, 3).
The exertions made, in spite of the prescribed order of things,
either arise from jealousy (4), and fail in their end (5, 6), or are
prompted by avarice (7, 8), and defeat themselves (9-1 6). Since
all things are thus under the control of an Omnipotent God, we
ought to serve him acceptably (17 -v. 6), trust to his protection
under oppression (7, 8), remember that the rich oppressor, after
all, has not even the comfort of the poor labourer (9-11), and
that he often brings misery upon his children and himself
(12-16). These considerations, therefore, again shew that there
is nothing left for man but to enjoy life the few years of his
existence, being the gift of God (17 - 19).
The THIRD SECTION — vi. 1 - viii. 15. — Riches comes now
under review, and it, too, is shewn to be utterly unable to secure
real happiness (vi. 1 - 9), since the rich man can neither overrule
the order of Providence (10), nor know what will conduce to his
well-being (11, 12). And \a.^\\.j, prudence, or what is generally
called common sense, is examined and shewn to be as unsatisfac
tory as all the preceding experiments. Coheleth thought that to
live so as to leave a good name (vi. 1 - 4) ; to listen to merited
rebuke (5 - 9) ; not to indulge in a repining spirit, but to submit

20 INTRODUCTION.
to God's Providence (10-14); to be temperate in religious
matters (15-20) ; not to pry into everybody's opinions (21, 22)—
lessons of prudence or common sense, higher wisdom being
unattainable (23, 24) ; to submit to the powers that be, even
under oppression, believing that the mightiest tyrant will ulti
mately be punished (viii. 1-9), and that, though righteous retri
bution is sometimes withheld (10), which, indeed, is the cause of
increased wickedness (11), yet that God will eventually admi
nister rewards and punishments (12, 13), that this would satisfy
him during the few years of his life. But as this did not account
for the melancholy fact that the fortunes of the righteous and the
wicked are often reversed all their life-time, this common sense
view of life too proved vain (14) ; and Coheleth therefore recurs
to his repeated conclusion, that there is nothing left for man but
to enjoy the things of this life (15).
The FOURTH SECTION — viii. 15 -xii. 7. — To shew more
strikingly the force of his final conclusion, submitted at the end
of this section, Coheleth gives first a resume of the investigations
contained in the preceding sections. Having found that it is
impossible to fathom the work of God by wisdom (viii. 16, 17) ;
that even the righteous and the wise are subject to this inscru
table Providence, just as the wicked (ix. 1, 2) ; that all must
alike die and be forgotten (3-5), and that they have no more
participation in what takes place here (6) ; that we are therefore
to indulge in pleasures here while we can, since there is no
hereafter (7-10) ; that success does not always attend the strong
and the skilful (11, 12) ; and that wisdom, though decidedly
advantageous in many respects, is often despised and counteracted
by folly (13 - x. 3) ; that we are to be patient under sufferings
from rulers (4), who by virtue of their power frequently pervert
the order of things (5-7), since violent opposition may only tend
to increase our sufferings (8-11) ; that the exercise of prudence in
the affairs of life will be more advantageous than folly (12-20) ;
that we are to be charitable, though the recipients of our bene
volence appear ungrateful, since they may after all requite us

INTRODUCTION. 21
(xi. 1, 2) ; that we are always to be at our work, and not be
deterred by imaginary failures, since we know not which of our
efforts may prove successful (3-6), and thus make life as agree
able as we can (7), for we must always bear in mind that this is
the only scene of enjoyment ; that the future is all vanity (8) :
but as this too did not satisfy the craving of the soul, Coheleth at
last came to the conclusion, that enjoyment of this life, together
with a belief in a future judgment, will secure real happiness for
ma.n (9, 10), and that we are therefore to live from our early youth
in the fear of God and of a final judgment, when all that is
perplexing now shall be rectified (xii. 1-7).
The Epilogue— xii. 8-12. — Thus all human efforts to obtain
real happiness are vain (xii. 8) ; this is the experience of the
wisest and most painstaking Coheleth (9, 10) ; the Sacred
Writings alone are the way to it (11, 12) ; there is a righteous
Judge, who marks, and will in the great day of judgment judge,
everything we do ; we must therefore fear Him, and keep His
commandments (13, 14).
SECTION IV.  IMPORTANCE OF THE BOOK.
To understand more clearly the importance of this book, and
the gap it fills up in the Old Testament lessons, it will be neces
sary briefiy to examine the state of things to which the doctrine
of temporal retribution had in the course of time given rise.
Only those who have a special cause to plead will deny that the
principle of virtue and vice being visibly rewarded on earth is
enunciated, wherever the subject of righteousness and wickedness
is spoken of in the Old Testament. God declares, at the very
giving of the Law, that he will shew mercy to thousands of
those who love Him and keep His commandments, and visit the
iniquity of those who hate Him to the third and fourth genera
tion (Exod. XX. 5, 6) ; that they who honour their parents shall
be blessed with long life [Ibid. 12). The whole of the
twenty-sixth chapter of Leviticus and the twenty-eighth chapter
of Deuteronomy are replete with promises of earthly blessings to

22 INTRODUCTION.
those who will walk in the way of the Lord, and threatenings of
temporal afflictions upon those who shall transgress His law.
The faithful fulfilment of these promises and threatenings, in the
early stages of the Jewish history, convinced every Israelite
that " God judgeth the righteous, and God is angry with the
wicked every day" and afforded a source of consolation to which
the righteous resorted when the power of the wicked threatened
destruction (1 Sam. xxiv. 13 - 16 ; xxvi. 23 ; Ps. vii. ; ix.).
When David, therefore, received the calamitous tidings that
Saul in a malicious freak had caused eighty-five priests to be
killed, and that his own life was in imminent danger, he
addressed the mighty tyrant in the full assurance of this
righteous retribution :
" Why gloriest thou, hero, in wickedness ?
The favour of God endureth for ever.
Thy tongue deviseth mischief
Like a sharp razor, thou mischief-maker !
Thou lovest evil more than good,
Lying more than speaking uprightly.
Thou lovest all sorts of destruction, deceitful tongue !
God shall therefore smite thee down for ever,
He will seize thee, and snatch thee out of the tent,
And root thee out of the living land.
The righteous shall see it and fear,
And they shall laugh over him —
' See there the man who made not God his bulwark,
And trusted in the multitude of his riches, sti-engthened himself
in his wickedness ;'
But I am as a green olive-tree in the house of God ;
I trust in the favour of God for ever and ever ;
I will praise Thee, because thou hast executed it.
And hope in Thy name, because it is good before thy saints." Ps. Hi.
Like a net of fine threads is this doctrine spread over the entire
Old Testament (compare Psalms xvii. 1, 2 ; xxvi. 1, 2; xxviii.
1-3; XXXV.; liv. 7-9; Iv. 20-24; xc. ; cxii.; cxxv. 3; cxxvii.;
cxl. ; cxli. 10 ; Prov. x. 6 ; xi. 5 - 8. 19 ; xii. 7 ; Hag. ii. 15 - 20 ;
Zech. i. 2 - 6 ; viii. 9-17; Malachi ii. 17). It is also propounded
in the New Testament. Thus our Saviour says, in his sermon

INTRODUCTION. 23
on the Mount, " Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the
earth " (Matt. v. 5) ; and declares that " every one that hath
forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or
wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake, shall " not only
" inherit everlasting life," but shall receive " an hundredfold here
in this life " (comp. Matt. xix. 29, with Mark x. 29, 30 ; Luke
xviii. 29, 30).
But whilst provision was made in the New Testament against
the difficulties arising from the mysterious inequalities in the
distribution of the fortunes of man by the removal of the
boundary line between the world that is now and the world that
is to come, and the extension of the sphere of retribution, thus
affording transcendent consolation to the suffering saint, in the
face of the prosperous sinner, and enabling him to say, " Sorrow
ful, yet alway rejoicing; poor, yet making many rich; having
nothing, yet possessing all things " (2 Cor. vi. 10) ; " I have
learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith to be content" (Phil.
iv. 11) ; " for the sufferings of this present time are not worthy
to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us "
(Rom. viii. 18) : the Old Testament, by limiting the bar of
judgment to this side of the grave, yielded no explanation of, or
succour under, the distracting sight of the righteous suffering
all their life, and then dying for their righteousness, and the
wicked prospering and prolonging their days through their
wickedness. Such a bewildering state of things, as permitted by an
inscrutable Providence, frequently engendered jealousy, anger,
malice, and revenge on the part of the righteous, who, in despair,
were alternately ready to join issue with, or to rise against, the
wicked. It was under such circumstances that Psalm xxxvii.
was written —
" Be not inflamed against the wicked.
Be not envious at the evil-doers,
For soon shall they be cut down as the grass,
And wither as the green herbage.
Trust in Jehovah and do good,

24 INTRODUCTION.
Best quietly in the land, and cherish truth.
And delight in Jehovah,
And He shall grant thee thy heart's desire.
Boll thy cause upon Jehovah,
And trust in Him, He will accomplish it,
And shall display thy righteousness as the light,
And thy justice as the noon-day.
Be silent before Jehovah, and wait on Him,
Be not inflamed against the successful in his course.
Against the man who practiseth deceit.
Abstain from anger, and leave wrath.
Be not inflamed, so that thou also dost evil;
For evil-doers shall be cut off,
And they that wait on Jehovah, they shall possess the lend.
Only a little longer, and the wicked is no more,
And thou shalt search in his place, but he wUl be gone;
While the meek shall possess the land,
And delight in great peace.
Let tke wicked plot against the righteous.
And gnash upon him with his teeth;
The Lord shall laugh at him,
For he seeth that his day is coming.
Let the wicked draw the sword, and stretch their bow,
To cut down the poor and the needy.
To murder the upright in conduct;
Their sword shall enter into their own hearts,
And their bows shall be broken.
Better the little of a righteous man,
Than the abundance of many wicked.
For the arms of the wicked shall be broken,
But Jehovah upholdeth the righteous.
Jehovah knoweth the days of the pious.
And their inheritance shall be for ever;
They shall not be ashamed in the time of distress.
And in the days of famine they shall be satisfied.
But the wicked shall perish, '
And the enemies of Jehovah shall vanish like the excellency
of pastures;
They shall vanish in smoke.
The wicked borroweth and repayetb not.
But the righteous is merciful and giveth;
For the blessed of Him shall inherit the land,
And the cursed of Him shall be cut off.
By Jehovah are the steps of this man fixed,

INTRODUCTION. 25
And He deligbteth in his way;
Though he stumble, he shall not fall.
For Jehovah supporteth his hand.
1 have been young and am grown old.
And never have I seen the righteous forsaken,
Or his seed begging bread ;
Every day he is merciful and lendeth,
And his seed must be blessed.
" Depart from evil and do good,
And ever rest quietly ;
For Jehovah loveth righteousness
And forsaketh not his saints,
They are always preserved ;
But the seed of the wicked are cut off.
The righteous shall possess the land.
And shall dwell therein for ever.
The mouth of the righteous speaketh wisdom,
And his tongue uttereth justice.
The law of his God is in his heart.
His steps shall not totter.
The wicked lurketh for the righteous.
And seeketh to slay him ;
Jehovah leaveth him not in his hand,
Condemnetb him not when he is judged.
Wait upon Jehovah, and heed His way,
And He shall raise thee to the heritage of the land.
Thou shalt see the destruction of the wicked ;
I, too, saw a wicked man, overbearing,
And spreading as a green, deep-rooted tree,
Yet he disappeared, and lo ! he was no more,
And I searched for him but he could not be found.
Mark the pious, and behold the upright,
For there is a future for the man of peace.
While the impious are destroyed together.
The future of the wicked is cut off.
And the salvation of the righteous is from Jehovah,
Their strength in time of distress;
And -Jehovah helpeth them and delivereth them.
He delivereth them from the wicked, and saveth them,
For they trust in him."
Since, however, this Psalm, as well as Psalms xlix. and Ixxiii.,
called forth by similar circumstances, endeavour to console the

26 INTRODUCTION.
distressed, and allay the prevailing scepticism in the moral
government of God, by assuring the people that this contrariety
of fortunes is only temporary, and that the righteous shall ulti
mately prosper and prolong their days upon the earth, and the
wicked shall suddenly be cut off in great miseiy, thus keeping
within the narrow limits of present reward and punishment;
they leave the main difficulty unsolved. Hence the recurrence
of this perplexity passing over almost into despair, when these
reassurances and consolations were not realised by experience,
and when, moreover, the sufferers, however conscious of their
innocence, were looked upon as rejected of God, in consequence
of some secret guilt. The book of Job, which has so successfully
combated the latter notion, shewing that the afflictions of the
righteous are not always a proper test of sin committed, only
confirmed the old opinion that the righteous are visibly rewarded
here, inasmuch as it represents their calamities as transitory, and
Job himself as restored to double his original happiness in this
life. After the Babylonian captivity, when the political affairs of
the nation were such as to render the disparity of the destinies of
men and their moral life still more striking, the people began to
arraign the character of God —
" Every one that doeth evil
Is good in the sight of .Jehovah, and he deligbteth in them.
Or where is the God of justice?" — Mai. ii. 17.
" It is vain to serve God,
And what profit is it that we keep his ordinance.
And that we walk mournfully before Jehovah of Hosts ?
For now we pronounce the proud happy ;
They also that work wickedness are built up ;
They even' tempt God, yet they are delivered." — Ibid. iii. 17. 18.
Awful as this language appears, it had by no means reached
its climax. The inheritance of the Lord, which was to be the
praise and the ruler of all the earth, was now reduced and
degraded to the rank of a mere province by the Persians ; her
inhabitants, to whom the idea of bondage was most revolting

INTRODUCTION. 27
(comp. Matt. xxii. 17, with John viii. 33), were groaning under
the extortions and tyranny of satraps ; her seats of justice were
filled with most unprincipled and wicked men (Coheleth iii. 16) ;
might became right, and the impunity and success with which
wickedness was practised swelled most alarmingly the ranks of
the wicked {Ibid. viii. 10, 11).
Under these circumstances, when the old cherished faith in
temporal retribution was utterly subverted by the melancholy
experience of the reversion of destinies; when the diversified
minds of the desponding people, released from the terrors of the
Law, began to import as well as to construct philosophic systems
to satisfy the cravings of their minds {Ibid. xii. 12), and to resort
to various other experiments to obtain happiness, the paramount
importance of a book which opens a new bar of judgment in the
world to come, when all present irregularities shall be rectified
by the Judge of the quick and dead, will at once be obvious.
SECTION V. — HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE EXEGESIS OF THE BOOK.
Few books in the Bible have given rise to greater diversities
of opinion than Coheleth. So conflicting were the views about
it up to his time, that Luther remarked, " difficult as this book
is, it is almost more difficult to clear the author of the visionary
fancies palmed upon him by his numerous commentators, than
to develop his meaning." What would this sagacious reformer
have said, if he could have forseen the countless speculations of
which it has been the subject for the last three hundred years?
A complete history of the interpretation of this book would of
itself form a large folio. Our object, therefore, in this sketch, is
simply to give the leading and most striking views which Jews
and Christians, in different ages, have formed of Coheleth.
A. Jewish Expositions.
217, B.C. — 50, A.D. — The Apocryphal book called " the
Wisdom of Solomon" ' may, in a certain sense, be regarded as
' The age of this book is a point of great contention ; the above figures shew

28 INTRODUCTION.
the first comment upon Coheleth, inasmuch as it imitatively
combats the same errors. The evils which were occasioned by
the absence of retributive justice, and which had called forth
Coheleth, became more general and formidable with the pro
longed and increased sufferings of the people, and hence gave
rise also to the book of Wisdom. To invest its solemn warnings
and salutary lessons with greater weight, the author of the book
of Wisdom personates Solomon, and both imitates and quotes the
very language of Coheleth, which for similar reasons was also
ascribed to this wise monarch.
Having shewn, in the first chapter, that sin separates man
from God, and renders him unfit for the acquisition of wisdom,
the author of the book of Wisdom introduces, in the second
chapter, the wicked as declaring their own views of the life and
destiny of man (1 - 9).
THE BOOK OF WISDOM. COHELETH.
ii. 1. For those who do not judge Not many are the days of his life
aright speak among themselves thus: (v. 19) ; all his days he eats in dark-
Short and gloomy is our life, and ness, and has much trouble and
there is no remedy in the death of a grief and anger (v. 16) ; no one has
man ; and no one is known to have power over the day of death (viii. 8) ;
returned from Hades. no one can release from Hades
(iii. 22).
3. For we are born by chance, and For man is chance (iii. 19), and
after it we shall be as if we had after it he goes to the dead, i.e.,
never existed ; for the breath in our to oblivion (ix. 3) ; the death of man
nostrils is smoke, and thought is a and beast is the same, and both
spark in the beating of our heart. have the same breath or spirit
(iii. 19).
the two extremes of the hypotheses about it. As it is beyond our range to enter
into a discussion upon this subject, we refer to Calmet's Preface to this book,
given by Arnold in* his commentary upon the apocryphal books, being a con
tinuation of Patrick and Lowth's commentary on the Bible ; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib.
Lit., art. Wisdom of Solomon; De Wette, Einleitung in das Alte Test., § 314;
Ewald, Gesohichte des Volkes Israel, iv., p. 554 ; Graetz, Gesohichte der Juden,
iii., pp. 315, 493 ; Jost, Gesohichte des Judenthums, i., p. 376, (fee. ; Herzfeld,
Gesohichte des Volkes Israel, ii., p. 75 ; Grimm, Das Buch der Weisheit, Kurz-
gefasstes Exegetisches Handbuoh zu den Apooryphen des Alten Test, sechste
Lieferung, p, 32, ifec.

INTRODUCTION.

29

THE BOOK OF WISDOM.
3. When extiiiguished, the body
turns into dust, and the spirit
vanishes like the subtle air.
4. And our name is forgotten in
time, and no one remembers our
works; and our life passes away
like the residue of a cloud, and is
dispersed like a mist driven away by
the beams of the sun, and crushed
by the heat thereof.
5. For our life is a passing shadow,
and there is no returning of our end;
for it is closed, and no one returns.
6. Come, then, let us enjoy present
pleasures, and diligently use the
world while young.

7. Let us fill ourselves with costly
wine and perfumes, let no flower of
the spring escape us.
8. Let us crown ourselves with
rose buds before they wither.
9. Let none of us be without his
share of voluptuousness; let us leave
everywhere tokens of our joyfulness,
for this is our portion, and this our
lot.

COHELETH.
Man, like- beast, is of the dust, and
turns into dust; his spirit vanishes
away like the beast's (iii. 20, 21).
Their name is forgotten (ix. 5),
there is no remembrance of those
who passed away (i. 11).

When man departs he returns no
more (see comment, on i. 11).
Go eat thy bread with joy, and
drink- thy wine with a cheerful
heart (ix. 16) ; rejoice, young man,
whUe young, and let thy heart cheer
thee in the days of thine early life
(xi. 9).
Let thy garments at all times be
white, and let no perfume be lacking
upon thy head (ix. 8).

I did not keep back my heart from
any pleasure, this was to be my
portion from all my toil (ii. 10) ;
there is nothing better for man than
to rejoice in his works, for this is his
portion (iii. 22; comp. also ix. 17,
and ix. 9).

Those who assert that the book of Wisdom was written either
to oppose the erroneous sentiments expressed in Coheleth, or to
supplement and vindicate its misunderstood passages,' have failed
to see that both books owe their origin to the same circum
stances, and combat the same errors.^

' Augusti, Einleitung in das Alte Test., p. 249 ; Schmidt, Salomo's Prediger
oder Koheleths Lehren, p. 71, note.
'' Comp. Grimm, Introduction to his Comment, on the Book of Wisdom,
p. 29, (fee.

30 INTRODUCTION.
300, B.C. — 550, A.D. — The exact age of the Midrashic hte-
rature upon Coheleth cannot now be ascertained. When the
prophetic fire began to be extinguished, and the voice of the
prophets was gradually dying away, a number of God-fearing
teachers arose, who, by their instruction, encouragement, and
solemn admonitions, rooted and builded up the people in their
most holy faith. As the Bible formed the central point, around
which their legends, sermons, lectures, discussions, investiga
tions, &c., clustered, a homiletico-exegetical literature was, in the
course of time, developed, called Midrash (U''^^a'), which became
as mysterious in its gigantic dimensions, as it is in its origin.
Starting with the conviction that all sciences, as well as the
requirements of man for time and eternity, are contained in the
Scriptures, and that every repetition, figure, parallelism, synonym,
word, letter, nay the very shape and ornaments of the letter, or
titles, must have some recondite meaning, "just as every fibre of
a fly's wing, or an ant's foot, has its peculiar significance," the
text was explained in a fourfold manner, viz., 1. lOtt'i), in a
simple, primary, or literal ; 2. ti?")"!, secondary, homiletic, or spi
ritual ; 3. TDl, allegorical ; 4. TID, recondite or mysterious sense,
which was afterwards designated by the acrostic Par des, DnS,
transposing the "l and the "T.
The rules for this exegesis afforded as great a facility for
introducing into the text, as for deducing from it, any and every
imaginable conceit. A few of them will suffice as a specimen.
1. A word is to be explained both -with the preceding and
following words (innx'?') VJS"? tyiTJ KtpC)). Thus, nm nj^l
-)^n nati^i n'^'^'i'a nnsitf ,-nS i"? m'?'- vh diix, and'Saml
TT T, *. t;* t I t;t .,.,-.7 /
' mia (from wi, to investigate) properly denotes the investigation or sUidy of
the Bible, which, in accordance with the above-mentioned manner in which it
was pursued, developed itself in the n3bn (from fbn, to go), current law, fixed rule
of life, also called «n»o» (from »DW, to hear), what was heard or accepted, and
rr\in, Chaldee, m:«, what was said, without having the authority of a law, i.e.,
free exposition, homilies, moral sayings and legends. It is the coUeotion of the
latter development {i.e., of the homilies and legends) which is now called win,
or m:n iciid.

INTRODUCTION. 31
Abraham's loife, bare him no children; and she had an handmaid,
an Egyptian, whose name was Hctgar (Gen. xvi. 1), is explained
first, and Sarai, Abraham^s wife, bare no children to him and to
herself (TvTi 17) ; and then again, to him {i. e., Abraham) and to
her {i. e., Sarai) there was an handmaid (pTl^p rVy) w\
2. Letters are to be taken from one word and joined to another,
or formed into a new word (¦jili;")')'!") 'I''3"'D'101 Ti'TlJ) ; thus D^l/lJI
'|¦^^<^^7 iJl7nj~n}^, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his
kinsman (Numb, xx-vii. 11), is explained, and ye shall give the
inheritance of his wife to him, i. e., the husband, taking away the
1 fi-om iJH^nj , and the b from ''"'^'f^r') '^^^ forming the word \b,
i. e., 17 "IKti' J^^n^'/lSt Diil/IJI, deducing therefrom that a man
inherits the property of his wife, {"^Vip) (Baba Bathra, iii. 6.)
3. Words containing the same letters are exchanged for one
another. Comp. my Commentary on the Song of Songs, p. 27.
4. The letters of a word are transposed ; thus IJ^Di^, our labour
(Deut. XXV. 7), is made to mean our children, 13D^i^, by trans
posing the D and the b-
5. Letters resembling each other in sound or appearance, or
belonging to the same organ, are interchanged ; accordingly
^PV.1 -n^ni? r\f-)V2 ripQ ^^b-rir^ n-nn is explained, the Law
which Moses has given us is (iliyii'^ip) THE BETROTHED or WIFE
of the congregation of Jacob (Deut. xxx. 4), by changing the 1
in rt^^i^^2 for the K, and the t for the U).
6. Every letter of a word is reduced to its numerical value,
and the word is explained by another of the same quantity;
thus, from the passage. And all the inhabitants of the earth were
of one language (Gen. xi. 1), is deduced that they all spoke
Hebrew, 1131^ being changed for its synonym ^ity?,' and li^nj^n
5 + 100 + 4-1-300 = 409, is substituted for its equivalent JIHK
1^-8 + 400=409. This rule is called ^^ntaD''J = ^''tODIJ =
ypaju/iareta, from ypi.ii.[i.a, letter, from its bearing upon the letters.
7. Every letter of a word is taken as an initial or abbreviation
1 Preston, not perceiving this, could not comprehend how the Rabbins make
these two numbers the same. Comment, on Eccles., p. 69.

32 INTRODUCTION.
of a word. Accordingly the long and costly tunic which Jacob
made for his beloved Joseph, as an expression of peculiar fond
ness, indicated the troubles into which the Patriarch plunged his
favoured son, inasmuch as D''C'| (Gen. xxxiii. 13), by this rule of
interpretation, called 1')pi-)ViMi = notariGun, from notarius, a short
hand-writer, one who writes with abbreviations, is DnriiD ")3''2)iS
D'ljnD D''Vi<yp^'' Potiphar, who imprisoned Joseph, and the
merchants, who bought and sold him again as a slave.
8. The letters of the alphabet are taken in their inverse order,
K, the first letter, is expressed by Pt, the last letter of the
alphabet; 3., the second letter, by 1^, the last but one; J by ");
¦7 by p ; n by U, and so on. Accordingly ^tp, Sheshach, is
explained by b^^, Babel (Jer. xxv. 26 ; li. 41) ; >Dp^2^ by Dnto3
(ibid. li. 1). This mode of interpretation is called U)2r]ii Athbash,
thereby indicating this inversion.'
Strange and arbitrary as these rules may appear, it -will be
seen in the sequel that they have been followed by the ancient
translators of the Bible, and in some of the Patristic commen
taries. We shall also see that the overlooking of this fact has
caused many modern critics to regard the apparent discrepancies
between the ancient versions and the Hebrew original, as owing
to different readings or wilful corruptions of the text on the part
of the Jews, when, in truth, these deviations are simply the
result of the application of one or the other of these exegetical
rules. The Midrashic view is, that Solomon wrote this book to eoopose
the emptiness and vanity of all worldly pursuits and carnal grati
fications, and to shew that the happiness of man consists in fearing

' When the reference is omitted in the illustrations of the exegetical rules,
the cited explanations will be fouud in the Midrash Rabba, or Midrash Jalkut,
upon the respective passages. For fuller information on this ancient mode of
interpretation, we must refer to the excellent treatises of Frankel, Ueber den
Einfluss der Palastinisohen Exegese auf die Alexandrinische Hermeneutik,
Leipzig, 1851 ; Programm zur Eroffnung des jiidisch — theologischen Seminars
zu Breslau, Breslau, 1854; Hirsohfeld, Die hagadische Exegese, Berlin, 1847;
Ben-Chananja, Jahrgang, i., pp. 116 and 227, (fee.

INTRODUCTION. 33
God and obeying his commands. When young and joyful, the
inspired monarch composed songs ; when middle-aged and sober,
he wrote wise proverbs and prudential maxims ; and when old
and weary of life, he described every earthly pleasure as vain
and empty.' As is frequently the case, these much misunderstood
Rabbins have given the proper view of the design of the book,
though the nature of the Midrash precluded a regular commentary
upon Coheleth in the historico-critical sense of the word.
1 A.D. ¦ — It now remained to be shewn how Solomon, who in
his old age was seduced by his foreign wives to idolatry, also
became a preacher of righteousness in his old age. The elastic
rules of interpretation, aided by an oriental imagination, soon
contrived to deduce it from the text. In chap, i., verse 12,
Coheleth says, " I was king over Israel," i. e., " and am no
more." Taking Solomon to be the author of Coheleth, this
strange and remarkable assertion legitimately leads to one con
clusion only, viz., that there was a period in his life when he
was dethroned. Hence arose the legend, that when Solomon,
elated with riches and wisdom, departed from the ways of the
Lord, he was dethroned by Ashmodai, the king of the demons,
and expelled from his capital as an example of the effects of sin.
It was then that this ex-monarch went about the provinces and
towns of the land of Israel mourning over his guilt, and saying,
" I am Coheleth, whose name was formerly Solomon, who was
king over Israel in Jerusalem, but through my sins have been
driven from my throne and residence." Having thus confessed
his sins, and denounced the folly of attempting to find satisfac
tion in earthly pleasures, the penitent Solomon was in his old
age reinstated in the possession of his kingdom, where he died,
at peace with God and man. There can be no doubt that this
view is, at least, as old as the Christian era, being found in the
earliest Jewish traditions.^
p:v '31 nb 'n"m nbnp p inNi 'biDD p nn«i nbnn 303 w-\-'itir[ Tffi iom ]n:v '3-n i
':in '3T D'bin n3-i ims i^tn b»D n3T id-im bnjn iai 'n3T idi« i»: qim^s pH yya
•iDp ':« pbn mp''' ' HiM ri'"^P D'^iQ ''3fi io« '»« 'm 'lo"
2 See Midrash Yalkut on Coheleth i. 12.
F

34 INTRODUCTION.
100-250 A.D. — But though the homiletic [ll^H), the alle
gorical (TIDI), and the mysterious (IID) modes of treating the
Bible were adopted by a large majority of the Rabbins, being
more suited to the practical and spiritual requirements of their
congregations, it must not be supposed that the literal sense
(taiys) was excluded, or even neglected. Free enquiry into the
text and context of the Bible, and free expression of doubts
about the inspiration of any portion of Scripture which was
transmitted as canonical, were far more tolerated and encouraged
by these Rabbins, who are so often accused of bigotry and per
secution (mostly by those who do not understand them), than
even in our free England. Thus we find, in the Mishna, that
some, after a critical examination of its context, came to the con
clusion that this book was not inspired. Others went farther
still, and maintained that it contains heretical sentiments.^ Tet
these Rabbins were not put out of the synagogue as unfit
teachers of those committed to their care.
300-400 A.D. — From the passage in St. Jerome's commen
tary upon this book, given in the foot-note to p. 15, it will he
seen that the doubts with regard to the inspiration of Coheleth
had been entirely removed from the minds of the Jews in his
days, and that they allegorised it very largely. Thus he tells
us that they interpret iii. 2-8 as referring to their past and
future history.
" The time for being born and for planting" refer to God's choosing and
making Israel his people ; " the time for dying and plucking up that which
is planted," to their being carried away into captivity ; " the time for
killing," to their bondage in Egypt ; " the time for healing," to their
deliverance from it; " the time for breaking down," to the destruction of
the temple ; " the time for building up," to their building the temple again;
"the time for weeping," to the taking of Jerusalem ; " the time for laughing,"
to its restoration a second time ; " the time for casting away stones," to
the dispersion and casting away of the Jews; "the time for gathering
stones," to their being gathered in again from among all nations ; " the
time for embracing," to the love of God which compassed them about as a
girdle (Jer. xiii. 7, &o.) ; " the time for refraining," to the removing of God's
' Vide supra, p. 13, (fee.

INTRODUCTION. 35
love, and their misery in the captivity, which God shewed to Jeremiah by a
girdle hid in a rook and marred ; " the time for getting and keeping," to
the time of blessing and preserving them ; " the time for loosing and
casting away," to the time of their rejection ; " the time for sowing," to the
time of sowing them again; " the time for keeping silence," to the present
silence of the prophets ; " the time for speaking," to the time when God
shall again speak unto them and comfort them in the land of their enemies;
"the time for hatred," to the time when they crucified Christ; "the time
for love," to the time of the patriarchs, when God loved them ; " the time
for war," to the time of their impenitence ; " the time for peace," to the time
when the fulness of the Gentiles shall come in, and all Israel be saved."
400 - 500 A.D. — The old view and the allegorising of this
book became more and mors general. It is related in the
Talmud^ (Gittin. 68, b), that the fugitive Solomon came before
the Sanhedrin, declaring that it was he who had been king over
Israel, that they tested the truthfulness of his assertion, and
found it to be correct. The indelicate means, however, adopted
for this test, as there recorded, shew the vitiated taste of the
age in polluting a legend otherwise so attractive and instructive."
An anecdote, however, related in another part of the Talmud
(Abodah Sarah iii.), in connection with Coheleth x. 20, will
shew that the strictly literal explanation was not ignored.
The Emperor Antoninus complained once to Babbi that the great men
of Borne annoyed him much. Eabbi made no reply, but took the Emperor
into his garden several successive days, and each day pulled a radish out of
the ground. Whereupon the Emperor answered. You are right; you shew
me thereby that I am to remove these great ones singly, and not all at the
same time, lest they rise against me. Why did Rabbi convey his advice in
this manner? why did he not say what the Emperor should do? He
feared lest it should reach the ears of these great ones, and thereby cause
persecution of the Jews. But could he not tell it secretly to the Emperor?
He remembered the passage, " The birds of heaven convey the report." —
Coheleth x. 20.
^ Hieron. Com. in loco.
^ For the development and completion of the Talmud, see my Commentary
on the Song of Songs, p. 24, &a.
Mini niQiffi n3o pa-i tid« pin:D 'a: ntoo '3 a^bm-nn b«iiB' bs -jbo wn nbnp <:« s
'OMp 'riTObnb inb inbia «b inb nn« n'lab «3bo "jb 'M Np in':3b n'b -nnN 'wn 'md y^ wb Nnb'o
inb »3n. «pi <nMp '<piDi inb inba ''»i3i ipT3 inb inb© 'nup ^>m inb inbiD ¦\3"3jb wbn
n'b»-pipm wnb'OTMSi snpw n<b i3m 'abinb ni'n« h^d'h »M3 nib <d: nb Bin «pi in''n-n':3
a no ya'y i ':'» Nnin»'3 n'b nin ''3n '>rm ms n-"in b"B o av

36 INTRODUCTION.
600 A.D. — The Chaldee paraphrase,' which is the first entire
commentary upon this book, based its explanations upon this
view. Chap. i. 12 is thus paraphrased: —
When King Solomon was sitting upon the throne of his kingdom, his
heart became elated with riches, and he transgressed the word of God ; and
lie gathered many horses and chariots and riders, and he amassed much
gold and silver, and he married wives from foreign nations. Whereupon
the anger of the Lord was kindled against him, and he sent to him
Ashmodai, the king of the demons, and he drove him from the throne of his
kingdom, and took away the ring from his hand, in order that he should
roam and wander about in the world to reprove it ; and he went about the
provincial towns and cities of the land of Israel, weeping and lamenting,
and saying, " I am Coheleth, whose name was formerly Solomon, who was
King over Israel in Jerusalem."-
Those passages which are most perplexing to the historico-
critical commentator form no difficulty whatever to the Chaldee
paraphrast. Chap. ii. 24, where hilarity is recommended as the
best thing for the disappointed sons of toil, is referred to the
gathering of strength for the service and glory of God :
There is nothing comely for man but that he eat and drink and make
his soul see good before the sons of man, to perform the commandments, to
walk in the straight path before Him, so that it may be well with him from
his labour.
Chap. iii. 17 - 22, which has been so frequently quoted to
shew that Coheleth denies the immortality of the soul, is made
to describe the awful condition of the wicked in the great day of
judgment, and to set forth the necessity of fearing the Lord —
17. I said in my heart, the righteous God will judge in the great day of
judgment, because a time is appointed for every thing ; and for every work
done in this world they will be judged.
18. I said in my heart concerning the children of men, that as for the
chastisements and evil events which come upon them, it is God's doing, to
' The very inferior style of this paraphrase, as well as some of its legends and
allusions, shew most unquestionably that it was -written at the end of the fifth, or
the beginning of the sixth century. But though committed to writing at this
period, when the late portions of it were introduced, any one acquainted with
the Midrashic literature will at once perceive that it contains legends -and
Hagadio interpretations as old as, and even older than, the Christian era.

INTRODUCTION. 37
try and to prove them, and' to see whether they will return in repentance ;
He leaves them in rest, and they are healed. But the wicked, who are like
cattle, do not repent, therefore they are unalterably convicted by it to do
them evil.
19. For the destiny of the wicked and the destiny of the beast of the
field there is one destiny for both of them, and as the beast of the field dies,
so he dies who does not return in repentance before his death, and the
breath of life of both is judged alike in every respect ; and the advantage of
a sinner over the beast of the field is nothing but the burial-place, for all is
vanity. 20. All go to one place ; all the inhabitants of the earth are made of dust,
and when they die all return to the dust.
21. Who is wise to know the breathing spirit of the children of men,
whether it goes upwards to heaven, and the breathing spirit of the beast,
whether it goes downwards to the earth ?
22. Therefore I saw that there was no good in this world but that a man
should rejoice in his good woAs, and eat and drink and do good to his
heart, for this is his good part in this world, to acquire thereby the world
to come, so that no man should say in his heart. Why am I giving away
money to do charity ? I had better leave it to my son after me, or be nursed
for it in my old age ; because who can bring him to see what will be after
him? With all the allegorising and spiritualising of this paraphrast,
he yet anticipated modern criticism, inasmuch as he saw that
the deplorable state of things delineated in this book could not
possibly refer to the prosperous reign of Solomon, and that it
therefore describes the time when Jerusalem was trodden down
under the foot of the Gentiles, and the Jews carried into captivity.
But as he adhered to the traditional opinion that Solomon was
the author of the book, the paraphrast was obliged to resort to
the expedient that Solomon was transported by the spirit of
prophecy into the distant future, whcJSe history he depicts.
Hence i, 12 is thus paraphrased : —
The words of prophecy which. Ooheleth, that is, the son of David the
King, who was in Jerusalem, prophesied. When Solomon, the King of
Israel, saw by the spirit of prophecy the kingdom of Eehoboam his son,
that it will be divided with Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and that Jerusalem
and the holy temple will be destroyed, and that the people of Israel will be
carried away into captivity, he said, by His word, Vanity of vanities is this
world, vanity of vanities is all for which I and my father David have
laboured, all is vanity !

38 INTRODUCTION.
800 - 1040 A.D. — This view of Soloriion's career became so
popular that it gave rise to a beautiful and entertaining Midrash
or Romance, in which the monarch's exile is said to have been
three years. During this time he came into the country of
Ammon, was met and taken up by the royal cook, whom he soon
excelled, and succeeded, by the command of the king. Whilst
in this position, the king's daughter was enamoured of him.
The king, grieved at it, drove them both away ; they however
married, and she, by finding the ring which Solomon lost, and
which was the cause of Ashmodai being able to dethrone him, was
the means of restoring him to his throne in Jerusalem. Being
reinstated into his glorious possession, " Solomon sent for his
¦wife's father, the king of the children of Ammon, and said to him.
Why hast thou unlawfully destroyed two souls ? Tremblingly
he replied. Far be it from me ! I have not killed them, I only
expelled them into the desert, and know not what has become
of them. Whereupon Solomon, of blessed memory, said. If thou
shouldst see them, wilt thou be able to recognise them ? Know
then that I am the cook, and thy daughter is my -wife. And
Solomon sent for her, and she came and kissed her father's hand,
who went back to his land in exceeding great joy."' Rapoport,
who ingeniously tries to shew the psychological and ethical ideas
of this legend, aptly compares it to the German " Faust." ^
1040-1105. — Rashi,' the celebrated commentator and
founder of the Germano-French Rabbinical literature, though
somewhat affected by the reaction in favour of the literal and
grammatical exegesis, which took place at, and progressed ever
since, the beginning of the seventh century, in consequence of the
extravagant length to which the allegorisers had gone, still
1 This Midrash is printed by the indefatigable Jelhnek, in his Bet ha-Midrash,
vol. ii., pp. 86, 87.
' See the very elaborate article, Ashmodai, in his Erech Millin.
3 Bashi, 'il/i, is an abbreviation for ^pTi'S' nobffl »n, Babbi Solomon YitzcliaU,
erroneously explained by Buxtorf, Babbi Solomon Jarchi. He was born at
Troyes, in Champagne, in 1040, where also he died, about 1105. Interesting
sketches of him are given in Zunz Zeitschrift fiir die Wissenschaft des Juden
thums, p. 277, &o.

INTRODUCTION. 39
adheres to the traditional view of this book. He, too, maintains
that Solomon was dethroned by Ashmodai for his sins, and when
brought to repentance wrote this book, to reprove the worldly-
minded of their folly, and to admonish them by his sad expe
rience to return to the Lord.
As the commentary of Rashi abounds in grammatical and
traditional lore, we give the following specimen of the first
chapter : —
Chap. i. 1 . The words. So. — Wherever 'lan is used at the beginning of a
book, it shews that it is full of reproof; thus, at the beginning of Deutero
nomy, " These are the words (ann) which Moses spake" (Deut. i. 1), which
is seen from the words, and " Jeshurun got fat and kicked" {Ibid, xxxii. 15).
So also Amos, beginning with " The words of Amos," and continuing, " hear
this word, ye kine of Bashan " (iv. 1) ; the book of Jeremiah, commencing
with " The words of Jeremiah," and going on, " ask ye now, and see whether
a man doth travail with child" (xxx. 6) ; and, " The last words of David"
(2 Sam. xxiii. 1), which are followed by " but the sons of Belial shall be all
of them as the thorns thrust away " {Ibid. ver. 6). So here, " The words of
Coheleth," are followed by, " and the sun rises" (ver. 5), and " all the rivers
flow into the sea" (ver. 7), comparing the wicked to the sun, moon, and
sea ; so it is interpreted in the book Siphri, from which I gather that the
context here speaks of the wicked, who are like the brightness of the sun,
which ultimately goes down. There is also another interpretation there,
viz., " All the rivers flow into the sea ; " what is meant thereby ? " It refers
to the idolaters, those fools who worship the waters, believing that there is
something in them, because they see the ocean, that all the streams flow
into it, &nd yet it is never full ; and they do not understand that the same
waters which flow into it come back again, for the waters of the streams
which run into the sea are the same waters which have run before, for they
return by a submarine passage, and go again upon the earth into the sea,
and come back again under the sea; therefore the rivers never cease running,
and the sea is never full ; but there is no reality in the water." Thus far
the Siphri. nbnp, collector, because he gathered much wisdom. And so we
find that he is called Agur : " The word of Agur {i.e., gatherer) the son of
Jakeh " (Prov, xxx. 1), because he gathered wisdom and brought it up
again. Others, however, interpret nbnp preacher, because he spoke all his
words in an assembly. " King in Jerusalem," i. e , the city of wisdom.
2. Vanity of vanities, de. — Coheleth complains, saying, respecting the
creation efi'ected in seven days, that it is altogether vanity of vanities.
ban has a Chatuph Pattacb, because it is construct, i.e.. The utmost of all
vanities, ban is mentioned seven times in this verse, referring to the work
of the seven days of the creation.

40 INTRODUCTION.
3- What advantage, rfc. — pin' is reward, advantage, nnn in exchange' for.
'iBQ« sun, i. e., law, so it is called in Prov. vi. 23, " the law is light." Every
labour for which he gives up the study of the law, what advantage is there
in it?
4. Generation goes, So. — However the wicked man may labour and
exert himself to oppress and rob, he does not destroy his works, for when
this generation is gone, another generation comes, and takes all away from
his children, as it is written, " the poor will rob his children'' (Job xx. 10).
But the earth abidethfor ever. — And who are those that continue ? The
meek and the humble, who are bowed down to the earth, as it is written,
"the meek shall inherit the earth" (Ps. xxxvii. 11). And the Midrash
Tanchumah says that all Israel is called land, as it is written, " ye shall be
a delightsome land " (Mai. iii. 12).
5. And the sun, So. — When the sun rises in the morning, and sets in the
evening, and travels all the night, then he pants to return to the same place
where he rose yesterday, that he may rise there again.
6. He goes to the, Se. — nnn is the spirit, tendency of the sun, called in
French talent, comp. "-whither the spirit was to go" (Ezek. i. 12).
And upon his. So. — So it will also be to-morrow ; the course or circuit
which he ran yesterday he goes round to-day. He goes to the south
always in the daytime, and comes round by the north in the night. He
turns round alternately east and west; sometimes his course is in the day,
and sometimes comes round in the night ; in the summer solstice he walks,
and in the winter solstice the sun turns round. So are the wicked ; however
the sun may shine, it will ultimately go down ; however much that which
appertains to them may go on aod increase, their end is to return to the
place of their defilement. From an unholy place they come, and to an
unholy source they return.
7. All the streams, Sc. —All the streams flow into the sea; and the sea ia
not full, because they do not remain therein, for the great ocean is higher
than any part of the earth, as it is written, " he that calleth for the waters
of the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth" (Amos ix. 6).
And how can one pour out, if not from a higher place to a lower? And
the streams flow in channels under the mountains from the ocean, and
return again; and this is the meaning of the words, " from the place to
which the streams go, there they return again ; " so is the wicked man,
" in all points, as he came, so shall he go " (v. 16).
8. All, So. — This refers to the third verse. If a man gives up the study
of the law to employ himself in idle things, he will find them wearisome
and unattainable; and if he is occupied with sight-seeing, his eye will not
be satisfied; and if with the hearing of the ear, his ear will not be filled.
9. What was, rfe.— Nothing is new that a man learns apart from the
law; he will find nothing but what had already been in existence since the
six days of the creation. But he who studies the law will constantly find
in it new things, as it is written, " Let her breasts satisfy thee" (Prov

INTRODUCTION. 41
V. 19) ; just as the breast, wherein substance is found as long as the infant
uses it; and so we find in the Talmud (Tract Chaglga), that K. Eliezer ben
Harkanus propounded things which no one ever heard before, not even in
the mysterious vision of Ezekiel,
10. There is, Sc. — If you meet anything apart from the law respecting
which it is said, Behold, this is new ! whereas indeed it is not new, for it
has been in existence in days bygone, only there is no remembrance of the
former things, therefore they appear to be new. So also things which will
happen in the future, will not be remembered by the generation that will
follow them. The Midrash Agadah expounds the words, " there is no
remembrance of the former,'' of the Amalekites, whose remembrance has
been destroyed, and the latter part of tliis verse, viz., " and to the latter," (fee,
of the Edomites, whose remembrance will be destroyed, as it is written.
" And there shall not be any remaining of the house of Esau " (Obad. i. 18).
12. I, the preacher, Se- — -I was king of the whole world, afterwards only
over Israel, afterwards only over Jerusalem, and afterwards only over my
staft', because it is said, I was king in Jerusalem, but am no more now.
13. And I gave my heart to know, inquire in the law, which is wisdom,
and to understand thereby all the evil work which was done under the
sun, mentioned above. And I understood thereby that it is an evil occu-
— tion which the blessed God gave to the children of men, namely, " life
ind death, good and evil" (Deut. xxx. 15). st p9 is an evil conduct,
occupation. 13 ni:s>b to occupy themselves. v:» may, however, be taken in
the sense of dwelling, or it may signify meditation, thought, so also 13 ni:»b.
The word p: means having it before them.
14. nn nwT breaking of the spirit, as " be crushed (ijji), ye people, and
be broken " (Is. viii. 9). nn talent. The end of every work terminates in
pain of heart. ,
15. The crooked. So. — He who is perverted when alive, cannot correct
himself when dead ; he who prepares in the day of preparation, eats on the
Sabbath. And our Eabbins refer it to one who committed incest and had a
bastard, or to a follower of the law who deserted it, being once right and
afterwards became wrong.
And he who separated himself cannot be numbered. — That is, he who
separates himself from the number of the righteous cannot be numbered
with them when they receive their reward.
16. I spoke. So. — Now, having come down from my greatness, I set my
heart to say, Who would have said of me that I should come to this position ?
17. And I have set my heart now to know the nature of wisdom, and to
what it leads, and the nature of madness and folly, mbbn madness,
confusion, comp. mixed (bino) with water (Is, i. 21), nibsic folly.
I know now that there is a crushing of the spirit even in wisdom, for
though a man relies much on his wisdom, and does not keep himself from
forbidden things, the. result is that he brings anger upon anger. I said I
G

42 INTRODUCTION.
will multiply horses, and not cause the people to go down into Egypt, but
at the end I made them go down. I said I will multiply wives, and they
will not turn my heart; and yet it is said of me that " his wives turned away
his heart" (1 Kings xi. 4). And it is also said that he relied much on
his wisdom, and did many things; as it is written, "The man spake unto
Ithiel, even unto Ithiel and Uoal" (Prov. xxx. 1).
How much this eminent commentator has contributed to
Biblical exegesis, and how far he has anticipated and influenced
modern expositions, will be seen in the sequel ; though, to form
a proper estimate of what exegesis owes to him, a thorough
perusal of all his writings is necessary. The painstaking and
honest Gesenius recognised, though not fully, the merits of
Rashi, and other Jewish expositors,' which bolder and more pre
judiced critics deny, mostly without reading their writings.
1085-1155. — To Rashbam^ belongs the honour of first eluci
dating the true design of this book. This distinguished Rabbi,
possessed of a highly cultivated and classical mind, clearly saw
that i. 2-11 contains the burden of the argument; that it con
trasts the speedy passage of human life with the permanent existence
of nature, thus shewing the advantage of the latter over the former;
that all the ensuing experiments recounted in this book to dispel the
melancholy effect of this contemplation were useless, and that com
fort could alone be found in the calm enjoyment of life, in resignor
tion to the dealings of Providence, in the belief in a future state,
when all that is perplexing in the present state of things shall be
rectified. Rashbam moreover saw that the first two verses and epilogue
of Coheleth were subversive of the Solomonic authorship of the
book. But instead of adhering to this alternative, which could
hardly be expected from an expositor living in a period when

' See the Dissertation prefixed to his Manual, Hebrew and German Lexicon,
3rd ed., Leipzig, 1828, and the translation of it by Dr. Robinson, in the American
Biblical Repository for 1888.
2 Rashbam, oi'm, is the acrostic of ¦^^Nn p bwinic <n, Rabbi Samuel ben Meier;
he was the grandson of Rashi, and was born about 1085, and died about 1155.
See Zunz, zur Literatur und Geschicbte, i., p, 70, &c.

INTRODUCTION. 43
historical exegesis was struggling hard to emerge from the abyss
of allegory, he contented himself with the admission that these
portions were added by others. The marvel is, that he has said
and done so much. His style is simple and beautiful ; and the
commentary, which has only recently been published, by the
praiseworthy Jellinek,' besides evolving the design of the book,
also contains valuable criticisms. Yet all that Ewald said in
noticing the book was, " Although we cannot expect any very
great profit from the learned Rabbins of the middle ages for the
Old Testament hermeneutics of the present day, and especially
from their writings upon such books as Coheleth and the Song
of Songs, yet they deserve publication for the history of inter
pretation." " We cannot say that if Ewald had perused this
commentary he would have formed a different estimate of it.
Every one acquainted with the writings of this very learned but
very crotchety and prejudiced writer knows that he runs down
every book which he has not written himself, or which does not
repeat or does not eulogise what he has laid. How different
from Gesenius !
The foUo-wing is a specimen of Rashbam's commentary : —
1. The words of Coheleth, So. — Solomon is called Coheleth, because he
gathered wisdom from all the children of the East, and was wiser than any
man, as he is also called in another place, "Agur (gatherer), the son of
Jakeh " (Prov. xxx. 1), King, because he was king in Jerusalem.
2. Vanity of vanities, said Coheleth. — He has not as yet said it, except
in these words, where he repeats them in order to shew, in general and in
particular, that all is vanity. Parallel passages to this are found in
Ps. cxv. 1, " Not unto us, O Lord, not unto us ;" Ps. xciii. -S, " The floods
have lifted up, O Lord, the floods have lifted up ;" and Ps. xcii. 10, " For
lo, thy enemies, O Lord, for lo, thy enemies," beginning first with the
predicate, and then mentioning the subject. Because he is anxious to give
the subject, therefore he brings it in the middle of the sentence, and then
begins his remarks again. So it is here ; he mentions the name of Coheleth
in the first part of the sentence, and then resumes the subject and proceeds.
' Commentar zu Koheleth und dem Hohen Liede von R. Samuel ben Meier,
herausgegeben von Adolph Jellinek, Leipzig, 1855.
2 Jahrbiicher der Bibliachen Wissenschaft von Heinrich Ewald, Jahrb. vii,,
p. 155.

44 INTRODUCTION.
These two verses were not written by Coheleth, but by him who compiled
these words as they are at present. What he means by " vanity of vanities"
is, that he gave his heart to search and to investigate the afi'airs of this
world, and found all vanity.
3. What advantage. So. — All these words refer to what is said below,
" Nothing is good for man but that he should eat and drink," &,c. {infra, ii. 4.)
That is to say, all these works of man are vanity, and there is no work so
good for man as that he should eat and drink, and rejoice with his portion.
^inn;nn, What reward and advantage has a man from all his labour that he
labours under the sun ? for his end is to pass away and vanish from the
world, and return no more. According to this explanation, there is a con
nection between this sentence and the sequel. " Under the sun," because
there is no hiding-place from its heat, therefore he mentions it; and it is
the same as the phrase " under heaven.''
4. One generation goes and another oomes, for all die and return to the
dust, but the earth remains for ever, that is to say abides, for it does not
move from its place.
6. And the sun rises. — In the morning he rises in his place in the east,
and in the evening he goes down and sets in the west, and then travels all
night, because he pants and hastens to reach his place by the time of the
morning, where he rose to-day. And also to-morrow he will rise there, and
travel under the sea froig the east towards the south, and then go through
the south and west until he turns and goes to the north till he reaches his
place in the east. When the sun is in the north, and gradually approaches
the east, the word 33iD is properly used for it.
6. Bound, So. — This clause is a repetition of the words, " he goes to the
south and returns to the north," that is to say, he returns and goes round
all the quarters of the world. " And on its circuits the wind returns," so
it always goes round again on its movements and courses, and goes round
all the quarters of the world ; but man is to-day here and to-morrow in the
grave, and his works cease, so that he is remembered no more ; therefore it
is said. What advantage has man ?
7. And the sea, Sc — For if it were full, the streams would no longer
flow into it. " To the place where the rivers go, there they go again.'' So
to-morrow they will go again into the sea, for they do not leave ofi' their
habit and course ; but man leaves his course and habit, he vanishes away
from the world. All this refers to " What advantage hath man ?"
8. " All things, Sc. — All the works of this world are wearisome, for no
man can enumerate them all. " The eye is not satisfied with seeing," for
man looks out constantly, and hopes for new things. " The ear is not full with
hearing." The ear constantly hears, and desires to hear, the works which
are done in the world. Because the ear is hollow, therefore the word sbo,
to fiU, is used. 0'»»3; ig intransitive, uieary, faint. Comp. Deut. xxv. 18.
9. Whal was, Sc — Ani what advantage has man in all this, since what

INTRODUCTION. 45
has been long ago that will be in the future, and what has been done long
ago will be done again, for there is nothing new under the sun.
10. 7s there anything, Se. — If there be anything of which it ia said,
Behold there is something new, it is not true, for such a thing has happened
long before us.
11. There is no remembrance. So. — This refers to the question, What
advantage has man? !a':i«J«'ib, i.e., the children of men who were born before us
in this world have no remembrance, since they have been dead long ago,
and their memory is lost. And also succeeding men (D<:iin«b), those who
will come after us, will not be remembered by those who will follow them,
for all die, and will be remembered no more. For if a man dies to-day,
there will not be born another man like him, since men are not like each
Other ; but other defunct creatures are remembered, for when one of them
dies to-day, another is born like unto it; therefore those who see it say,
" This creature is like unto the one which died ; " hence there is a difi'erence
in this respect between rational and irrational creatures. For this cause it
is said. What advantage has man ?
12. /, Coheleth, Se. — Because I was king, and had leisure on account of
my greatness.
13. And I gave it, Se. — To enquire in the works of the world, and I
found that it is an evil employment which God has given to man to occupy
himself therewith j;w is from n"b, changing the,n into a i, and ni:9b is
from the same root (n»), therefore the repetition is idiomatic, just as
we find ];:p ni:pb from n:p^ and ]::? ni:3b from nH,both having the same sig
nification. 14. rm nwi. The inclination of the spirit, nw; is from nsi, to desire, just
as nio-i is from nn-j to liken, and ra:» from n», to humble, to afflict, nn is
talent in French.
15. The crooked, Sc. — If a man has perverted his works, he can never be
right in his works before God. And he who has omitted anything, the
omission can never be counted among the other things which he has
dutifully discharged.
16. I said in my heart. So., i.e., in"*:* = pensai moi in French. iiDsb, thus
I said, bs b» more than all the wise men who were before me in Jerusalem
before I was born.
17. And I gave my heart, Sc. — nsni, i. e., tiS"!b comp. bsiw nffl»' ns>i. The
word nibbn has the same meaning as in chap. ii. 2. rabsia, wisdom. The
words are repeated, because of the former phrase, to know wisdom, which is
repeated. ]V»'i, gratification, inclination, like nn nwi ; and as ^i'ls, from
n3s, to desire; JV3«, from n3«, to want; )vb», from nb», to be above; ^i'JiJ, from
HOT, to meditate; so f '»,¦], is from nsi, to desire.
18.' For in much, Sc. — Because of much wisdom a man thinks deeply
about everything which the eyes see, and therefore he is much irritated.
f]pv is a repetition of the same sentence ; because he increases much wisdom

46 INTRODUCTION.
and much knowledge, he meditates and pries into the works which God has
done in the world, desiring to know why he made them thus ; because he
does not understand them, hence he is irritated, and increases his pain
through the multitude of his thoughts.
The difference between Rashbam and Rashi is remarkable,
and shews the striking progress Biblical exegesis has made.
Whilst the grandfather constantly refers to the Midrash Tan-
chuma, the Midrash Agadah, and the Rabbins whose allegories
he adopts, the grandson has not a single allusion to the Midrash,
but firmly adheres to the text and context, tracing the logical
sequence of every verse, and explaining the difficult grammatical
forms and words.
1092-1167. — It cannot be said that Ibn Ezra or Bahe^ as
he is sometimes called, did as much for evolving the design
of this book in the Spanish school of exegesis, in which he
deservedly occupies so distinguished a position, as Rashbam has
done for it in the Germano-French school.
Ibn Ezra, too, maintains that Solomon wrote this book in his
old age, to give the new and rising generation the benefit of his
past experience.^ As to the design of Coheleth, Ibn Ezra
believes that since the works of God, though good in themselves,
do not produce a good effect upon all men, owing to the various
dispositions, modes of thinking, &c., &c., of the recipients, — just
as the same sun which bleaches the garment tans the face of ike
fuller, — the Lord inspired Solomon to explain these things, and to
teach the right way, to shew that all the devices of man are vanity,
that the fear of God can alone make him happy, and that this
fear can only be obtained by the study of wisdom.
The following is Ibn Ezra's introduction to Coheleth, and the
first chapter of his commentary : —
' Babe, »i"ni, is an abbre-viation for Babbi Abraham ben Ezra, xiis p ama '31
He was born in Toledo, in 1092, and died in Rome, in 1167. See Reland,
Analeota Rabbinioa; Vitee celeberrimorum Rabbinorum, pp. 69-80; Ersoh und
Gruber, Encyolop. i., pp. 79-84; Fiirst, BibUoth. Judaica i., pp. 251-257.
"n 'D>3 'n<D: -|3i 13 D'Nan nnnb idh' ib'«3 ns'n vo' nnnsa '3 nv icon ':':» «
See his commentary on i. 12.

INTRODUCTION. 47

PREFACE TO ECCLESIASTES.

The way of life is above to the wise, that he may depart from hell beneath.
As a captured stranger longs to return to his own country, and be with his
own people, so the intellectual spirit pants to get up to the highest stages,
until it reaches the abode of the spirits, which dwell not in houses of clay.
For bodies are compared to houses, whose foundations are in the dust, hence
we find " angels, whose dwelling is not with flesh." — (Dan. ii. 11.) This
is the case when the spirit — washed and purified from the impure lusts of
the flesh, which are despicable, and defile holiness, lowering it into the
depths of hell — determines to know its origin, and to see its own mystery
with the unclouded eye of wisdom, so that that which is afar ofi' is brought
near, and the night becomes like the day; then it will be prepared to know
truths comprised in faithful words, which will be indelibly engraved upon it in
its separation from the body, for the writing is the writing of God, therefore
the spirit sent into this world is confined in the body until death. All this
is for its own benefit, and although it suffers for some years, yet it will rest
and rejoice world without end.
"All works are divisible into four classes: — 1. Altogether good.
2. Good for the most part, but having also some evil. 3. Altogether evil.
4. Evil for the most part, but having also some good. The first class is
the portion of the sons of God, the second belongs to men on earth, and
the two remaining have no existence, for the Lord God could not create
anything but what is good. Everything being good, as a whole, as it is
written, " And God saw everything that He had made, and behold it was
very good" (Gen. i 31). And if there was some evil amongst it, it was
slight, for it is not compatible with divine wisdom to withhold much good
because of a little evU. The cause of the evil, however, lies in the imper
fection of the recipient, and we cannot compare the works of God to any
other work but his own, since all are his own works. Thus we find that
the sun makes the spread out cloth white, at the same time that he makes
the face of the fuller brown. Here, then, the same operation comes from
th^ same operator, and yet there are different results, because the recipients
are different.
The thoughts of men differ in proportion to the difference of the nature
of their bodies ; and their different natures again arise from the various
conditions of the heavenly bodies, and the place of the sun, and those
which are influenced by him, and by various climates, religions, and food,
and many other innumerable things; and yet every one thinks himself right.
Therefore the Lord God of Israel has stirred up the spirit of Solomon,
his friend, to explain desirable things, and teach the right way.
For no work made by a creature can stand, as in fact no creature is able
to create any substance, nor to annihilate any ; all the works of the
creature being only imitations and non-essentials ; as, to separate that
which is united, and unite that which is separated, to set in motion that

48 INTRODUCTION.
which is at rest, and to set at rest that which is in motion. The works of
man are therefore altogether nothing and vanity, except to fear the Lord.
No man can attain the fear of the Lord, unless he ascends the ladder of
wisdom, and is built and established on understanding.
COMMENTARY.
Chap. i. I. The words, Sc. — It is written that Solomon " spake three
thousand parables, and that his songs were a thousand and five" (1 Kings
iv. 32). Now, a parable is a thing with which another is compared, as we
find, "Put forth a riddle, and speak a parable unto the house of Israel"
(Ezek. xvii. 2). Here the parable is the great eagle, and the thing com
pared with it is Nebuchadnezzar. But the expression (tsS) song is generally
placed at the beginning, and (W) word in the middle; but because Solomon
was desirous to indite words which should impress the heart, he began with
the expression ('w) words. '!?"!, words, has not, however, always the same
importance, as may be seen either from the following verse, or from this
verse itself Here the following verse also shews the impressiveness designed
in the first verse. Coheleth is Solomon, for there was no other king of the
sons of David, the anointed of the Lord, besides Solomon ; he was called
Coheleth (rtfjp), because wisdom was gathered in him. He mentions the
residence of his dominion, because it was his glory, as we find the king of
Jerusalem was called Melchisedec; for Jerusalem was called Salem, as is
evident from Ps. Ixxvi. 2.
2. Vanity of vanities, Se. — By vanity (bjn) Coheleth describes the empty
things of this world, and bin is construct to ci'bin, although there are no
Segoleth nouns which change in the construct, except ^Jjiiit) ¦nn (Exod.
vii. 28), ^nbi ii:D (Isa. xxvi. 20), ^]ni?n neop (Hab. ii. 15), and even these
have a Patach, and the word in question has Tzere. The repetition of the
same noun in the genitive plural is used either for superlatively good, as
D'3bo Tjba, King of Kings, i. e , the highest king ; or for superlatively bad, as
°'7?5 ""J*, servant of servants, i. e., most abject servant; hence Q'bjn bin vanity
of vanities, denotes utmost vanity ; so also nibsb D;:iNQa «)'» <:a ara d-tn \:a ban -qKi
in' "j.?™? ™?, surely men of low degree are vanity, and men of high degree'are
a lie ; to be laid in the balance, they are altogether lighter than vanity (Ps.
Ixii. 10), the n in bann being the comparative, as the d in D^b^iTa ':8b n^nm ban,
more than all who were before in Jerusalem (Eccles. ii. 9), and in ban
'nbaipn nrabia, I Jtave more understanding than all my teachers (Ps. cxix, 99),
meaning, if men were to be put in a balance with vanity, they would be
lighter than vanity. The repetition, " vanity of vanities," indicates per
petuity, as " the floods have lifted up, 0 Lord, the floods have lifted up
their voice" (Ps. xciii. 3), and " they compassed me about, yea, they com
passed me about" [Ibid, cxviii. 11). That it should not be said. Granted
that there is vanity in the things of this world, but there is solidity as
well, he therefore adds, all is vanity.

INTRODUCTION. 49
3. What advantage. So. — jnn; is according to the analogy of Jiia-i, and
is derived from the verb, the e: of which is defective (i. e. ¦•"o), as is evident
from the Hiphil. The meaning is, since all is vanity, what profit has man
from all his work. The sense of the phrase, under the sun, is revolving time;
for the sun alone is the cause of time, since the day depends upon the sun.
from its rising to the setting thereof; the night, too, is from sunset to
sunrising, whether the moon and the stars are seen or not ; so also seedtime
and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter depend upon the inclination
of the sun, whether northward or southward. Although the moon has strong
influences upon rivers and aqueous plants, and upon the human brain ;
although Pleiades has binding influences, and Orion loosing influences;
yet all their influences put together, when compared with those of the sun,
are like one of its many parts. Although the sun is one, yet its influences
differ, both according to the changes of the hundred and twenty planets
which form the seven planets, and according to the change of the course of
all of them, caused by the motion of the greatest sphere which projects.
Therefore the position of the heavenly bodies will never be found alike,
even for one moment. Hence it is written in the book Yetzirah, cap. i. § 4,
"Two letters liuild two houses, three build six, &c., &c., till the mouth
cannot tell, nor the ear hear, this endless transposition and multiplication." '
But the labour of searching after wisdom, in order to enlighten the mind,
has an advantage; for the spirit of man is not subject to the sun.
4. One generation, Sc. — Because everything under the sun is composed
of four elements, from which they proceed and to which they return, viz.,
fire, air, water, and earth, these tour are adduced ; and the earth is
mentioned first, because she is as it were the mother; then the sun is
mentioned, the abode of fire, because of its great heat, and this is the
generating fire ; then the air and the water.' Eespecting the earth, Coheleth
says that all things created out of it will return to it, just as we find, " Dust
thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return" (Gen. iii, 19); and that the
' According to Ibn Ezra on Job xxxviii. 31, Pleiades has the power of con
solidating vegetation, and Orion of dissolving it.
' What the book Yetzirah — which Ibn Ezra quotes — means by " two letters
form two houses," is, that two letters yield to combinations or transpositions,
e. g., a« and «3 ; three yield six, e. g., «n«, DWM, njsa, m«d, dnib, and mdi» ; four
yield twenty-four, and so on. In order to ascertain how often a certain number
of letters 'can be transposed, the product of the preceding number must be
multipHed with it. Thus —
Letter 2 x 1 = 2
3x2= 6
4 X 6 = 24
5 X 24 = 130
6 X 120= 720
7 X 720= 5040, and so on.
H

50 INTRODUCTION.
earth will continue undiminished as long as one generation comes from it
and another returns to it. It may be that the word in means sojourners;
thus we find " to dwell in the tents of wickedness " (Ps. Ixxxiv. 10).'
5. The sun rises. So. — Mathematicians have long since propounded, that
all visible creatures are divisible into ten parts, and the sun is the greatest
of all, and there is none like it; it is the root in the universe, just as the
point is in geometry, and the number one in mathematics ; and the sense
is, although the sun has a motion rising and setting, it returns back to its
former place, and the place in which the sun rises to-day is nearer than the
one in which it will rise to-morrow ; and because its motion is to the north
and south, therefore it rises twice a-year in one place, and once from the
extremity of the south, and once from the extremity of the north, thus
completing a year. But though this is also the case with the moon, the
five planets, and all the heavenly bodies, yet is the sun alone mentioned,
because of its being the greatest, as we find, " in them has he set a
tabernacle for the sun " (Ps. xix. 4), not mentioning the stars. f]«i» means
panting, comp, nn np«ti i^p: ni«a, at her pleasure she snuffs up the wind
(.Jer, ii. 24), thus, as it were, panting after air in her desire to return to
the place. *
6. It goes, Sc. — Some say that this verse also refers to the sun, which
goes to the north and to the south, and explain nn to mean the side;
but this is incorrect, as is evident from the wor3s, nnn a^ vna'ap b»-i, and
the wind returns upon its circuits; the whole verse therefore refers to the
wind, which moves to the north and to the south, when it goes round from
the south to the north by the east, and'when it goes from the north to the
south it goes by the west, therefore Coheleth says, nnn ijbin aaiD aiiD, round
round goes the wind; and at the end of the year it turns again on its
circuits, when the sun turns, which is the cause of all the motions of the
wind; and the navigators know these things, for these motions vary in the
same manner every day in the year.
7. All the rivers, Sc. — Although all the streams flow into the sea, yet it
does not overflow, so as to transgress the law and cover the earth, because
the waters which flow into it return constantly to their own place, for there
is evaporation constantly rising from the sea to the sky, which forms the
clouds ; the sweet waters only ascending because of their lightness, and the
vapour is con-s-erted into rain, as it is written, " He calleth for the waters of
the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth " (Amos v. 8) ; and
the waters of the springs are from the rain, and the streams are* from the
springs, as we see in the time of drought that most of the springs are dried
up ; and again we find it written, " The brook dried up, because there had
' Ibn Ezra means thereby all living beings which have their temporal abode
upon -this earth, including all animal and vegetable life. This explanation of
m, everything that sojourns, that moves about upon the earth, is also followed by
Mendelssohn a.nd Preston.

INTRODUCTION. 51
been no rain in the land" (1 Kings xvii. 7); and this explains how the
streams return again from the place whither they went. And Solomon has
not explained the cause of the waters returning to their place, just as he
did not explain the cause of the sun returning from the west to the east ;
whether it is above the sky, or from the sides, or it is below the earth, being
an orb, and placed in the midst of the highest sphere; for all these things
require proofs, or such an explanation of everything seen by the eyes as not
to require proof. And the object in mentioning these four, viz., the sun,
which is the element of fire, the air, the water, and the earth, is because all
things existing under the sun — plants, beasts, men, the fowls, and the fish
of the sea — are all formed of them. And if the elements return back to
their own place, where they formerly were, how can those abide which
were formed of them ? and as the creatures are vanity at their beginning, so
they wUl be at their end ; and if man is vanity, much more so is his work,
which is accidental, and still more his thought, which is an accident of an
accident, as it is written, " The Lord knoweth the thoughts of men that
they are vanity" (Ps. xciv. 11).
8. All, Sc. — Some interpret D'ya; transitively, ivearying others, according
to the analogy of D'Mbo, but this is incorrect, for d'!>?) is neuter, as the other
instance, ??.^i. f]l», /ain< and weary, in Deut. xxv. 18, shows: and if it were
as they interpret it, it ought to have been c'w;|i?, the I'iel, comp. na^ 3?3^n b«,
do not weary these (Josh. vii. 3) ; but Q'w; is intransitive, meaning that
the things themselves are faint and defective, there is no strength in
them, therefore man cannot describe them. Having described the four
elements, which continue in the same position, and if they are set in
motion they return again at the end to their former position ; knowing the
general principle and the particulars ensuing therefrom, that they do not
continue one moment in the same position, therefore, no man is able to
describe them.
And the eye is not satisfied with seeing them; for the cause of the eye
seeing objects is that they are reflected in the pure air. And they do not
abide even one moment. The ear is not tilled with hearing the particulars,
for the cause of hearing is also the entrance of the air containing the forms
of the sounds, and these two cannot abide; therefore the eye cannot
master them in their particulars, nor can the ear hear all their numbers,
because they are innumerable to man, for the Creator alone knows both
generals and particulars, for they are all the works of His hands.
9. That which was, Sc. — The singer (David) said of the heavenly Being,
that " He commanded, and they were created ; He hath also established
them for ever and ever" (Psalm cxl viii. 5); and of the earthly beings he
said, that " His name alone is excellent" {Ibid. v. 18). That is to say, they
are altogether vanity. The words " what was will be " refer to the spheres
and their hosts, for they are like wheels continually turning round, and
their beginning is like their end, and their end like their beginning.

52 INTRODUCTION.
What was done will be done. — This refers to the different kinds of beings,
viz., man, horses, every species of animal and vegetable life, the propagation
of which depends upon the motions of the heavenly bodies. As long,
therefore, as these heavenly bodies abide, these kinds will also continue in
the same way, being formed- according to these heavenly bodies. And the
meaning is, " Although 1 cannot enumerate the particulars, the generals
are observed, known, and described; and in this way it is seen that the
upper and lower worlds continue in the same manner, and there is nothing
new." 10, Is there. So. — * is frequently found to denote something BAEELTmct
with ; comp, ^»n n;n; -laiN: -aS;-), and when it rarely happened that the cloud
rested, Sc. (Numb. ix. 20); fiDij-i lion ui;., it sometimes happens that one
scatters and yet increases (Prov. xi. 24) ; '^'1«° *?1 *?., it sometimes happens
that a wicked man is prolonged in his wickedness (Eccl. vii. 15), for, generally
speaking, "the years of the wicked are shortened" (Prov. x. 27). If any
thing should seem new to one, the same has already happened before.
?<nbs> means times, ages; thus, n'obi i«, rock of ages (Is. xxvi. 4); ^rKfm
D'Db3>"b3 raabo, t7t,y kingdom is a kingdom of all ages (Psalm cxlv. 13) ;
D'rabj? nyiitSn, a salvation for all ages, i, e,, everlasting (Is. xlv. 17).
II. There is no remembrance, Sc. — If it is questioned whether such a
novel thing has actually happened in former days, it is because there is no
remembrance of former things; which will also be the case with the things
that will take place in days to come, they too will be forgotten at a later
period. Hitherto Solomon spoke in general, and now he begins to take
up specifically those things which occurred to him.
12, /, Coheleth, Sc. — The contents of this book shew that Solomon
wrote it in his advanced days, and appeals as it were to the new and rising
generation, and tells them, ' such and such things I have tried in my
lifetime, and forsooth I could try everything because of my being king.'
Over Israel is mentioned, because there was always among them prophets
and wise men, such as the children of Zerach,' and not as the sons of Kedar
who dwelled in tents, and thereby shewing that he was king over a wise
and intelligent people. Jerusalem, is mentioned, because its situation is
advantageous for the reception of wisdom. It is known that the habitable
world is divided into seven parts, and there are no men with proper
faculties to acquire wisdom except in the three central parts, for the
foremost and the hindmost parts, being either too hot or too cold, interfere .
with the nature of man. It is, moreover, known that the latitude of
Jerusalem is 38 degrees, and this is the centre of the habitable world, for
habitation is impossible except beyond the degrees where the sun inclines
either in the north or south.
13. And I gave my heart, So. — It is better to connect this verse with
1 Ethan, Heman, Chalool, and Darda, the celebrated sages, who were contem
poraries with Solomon. Comp. 1 Kings v. 11 ; 1 Chron. ii. 6.

INTRODUCTION. 53
what follows ; and the meaning is that he searched after knowledge. This
is the sense of iirib. Comp. yi«n iwa, from searching out the land (Numb.
xiii. 25), i.e., to see desirable things, and the source of all things, though
this is an unpleasant task, since men are often employed in unprofitable
things, mjsb, to be employed, is from the same root as p», employment.
Some, however, maintain that it is from the same root as 'i,», afflicted, and
say that the verb has here the same signification as in "ttm 'n':» »:«, / was
greatly afflicted (Ps. cxvi. 10), and bw-jip: p«: n», he humbled the pride of
Israel (Hos. v. 5). But it is more likely that it denotes to testify, as n:»n"Nb
^T^, thou shalt not testify against thy neighbour (Exod. xx. 16) ; and even
w:», in Ps. cxvi. 10, is to be taken in the same sense, just as we find av« ip'^,
and Job declared (Job iii. 2), and this is evident from the immediately
following words, 'lona »ri"jnN ':«, I have said in my haste; compare also bd*?
D?5'^, '"*, the Lord wUl hear them (Ps. Iv. 20), i.e., he will testify against
them. And when Coheleth had employed himself with discovering the
nature of things, he found that they were vanity and striving after the
wind. The meaning of the phrase under heaven is the same as under the
sun. It may be that in the words under heaven, as in under the sun,
Coheleth alludes to the upper sphere, where all the heavenly hosts are.
Now the knowledge of astrology is connected with the forty-eight forms of
the sphere, and after Coheleth had employed himself to learn by this science
the nature of all things which are produced by the power of heaven, he saw
that it was a sore and difficult employment, because of the limited knowledge
which man has, to enumerate the causes and effects, as there is no number
to the heavenly hosts, and the ancients knew no more than 1022. This is
moreover proved by the connection of under heaven with there is an appointed
time for everything in iii. 1. So also is the phrase to be understood in
ii. 3.
14. / saw all the, Sc. — The meaning of nn nwi may be the same as
°'"!ij ^li"'! rjn nsn nnDM, Ephraim feeds on ivind, and follows after the east
wind (Hos. xii. 2), i.e., feeds upon that which neither profits nor satisfies;
nn, wind, means emptiness, because the wind escapes in various directions,
so that no man can lay hold on it ; thus we find they sow wind (Hos. viii. 7),
and the wind passes over it (Ps. ciii. 16). It is, however, more likely that
rem., as ]V9'], signifies thought, just as ran-] and ]i'0'7, two different forms
of n"b, have the same meaning.
15. The crooked, Sc. — nwip is participle ^assiw, according to the analogy
of lanp, and may be derived from two different roots, one regular (nw),
and the other irregular (nw), signifying the same thing. The word Jipnb is
intransitive, and, according to the first interpretation of the two preceding
verses, the meaning is, having seen that everything is vanity, this vanity
cannot be rendered solid, for that which is defective cannot be rectified,
because its nature is radically defective ; and he who is defective cannot be
numbered with the perfect. This interpretation implies an omission of

54 INTRODUCTION.
b»a, man, before pen, or takes ]S-\m as an adjective; as ^itD«l, the first, and
^nns, the last, intpn may also be regarded as referring to m»tp; so that nwo
by itself would denote naturally defective, and pm nwtp, accidentally defective.
If we, however, adopt the second interpretation, viz., that man is born in
defective circumstances, then man has no power to perfect himself, and it is
found that he who occupies himself with the investigation of the nature of
things by the operation of the heavenly bodies, occupies himself uselessly ;
and this is the case with most men and most of their works.
16, I said, (^c — Because the heart is the habitation of the spirit, and is
created first in the body — for it is like a king, and the inteUeot like its
minister — therefore it is used for wisdom, and knowledge, and taste, and
the operation of thought being the first receptacle of the heavenly soul ; just
as lips are used for language, because words proceed out of them. Hence
it is said, "A wise prudent heart" (1 Kings iii. 12), " He who buys a heart
loves his soul " (Prov. xix, 8).
/ have increased and added wisdom, i. e., he compiled and learned the
wisdom of the ancients, and added to it.
And my heart saiv much wisdom, i. e., which be did not compile. The
adverb fiain, like taiT'T, is construed both with the singular and with the
plural, comp. vn; na-]n"-'3,/or they shall be many {infra, xi. 8), the infinitive
absolute has a quaraetz ; comp. na-iM nain, multiplying, I will multiply (Gen.
xxii. 17).
17, And I gave. So. — Having learned wisdom, and added to it, I gave
my heart to know the nature of folly (comp, ot? ^,^^'^'?",1> ^J**^ he feigned him
self mad in their hand (1 Sam. xxi. 14), and the nature of wisdom, which is
the opposite of folly, although this also is a vain striving).
18. For in much. So. — Because when he sought to know wisdom, he
found that the wise man, who understands the affairs of the world through
his great knowledge, has constant provocation arid pain, and has no pleasure
in his children, because he knows that their end is to die, either in his life
time or afterwards; nor does he rejoice in riches, which fly away like a
bird, and cannot help or save in the day of trouble; and the day of death
stares into his eyes.

It will be seen from this specimen, and still more from other
parts of the commentary, that the peculiar philosophical and
asti-ological notions which Ibn Ezra entertained greatly inter
fered with his tracing the logical sequence of the text, inasmuch
as he constantly introduces his favourite theories into the decla
rations of Coheleth. Still, the commentary is a masterpiece,
and a storehouse of varied learning. It contains more gram
matical and lexicographical lore than any modern exposition of

INTRODUCTION. 55
Coheleth we have yet seen, and some of his ingenious criticisms
deserve the greatest attention of grammarians.
Thus, in trying to explain why the superior power of wisdom
is characterised as excelling the strength of ten mighty men
(chap. vii. 19), Ibn Ezra remarks —
The number ten is mentioned, because it is the arithmetical completion,
as this decade is the highest of all, for all above it are merely units. More
over, since the main strength of a thing lies in its beginning, middle, and
end, the «^(one) being in Hebrew the first or beginning, the ' {ten) the end,
and the n {five), together with i {six), form the middle [of this number ten] ;
hence these four letters 'inM constitute the original vowels; and no word or
syllable can be pronounced without one or the other of these letters.'
On xii. 5, Ibn Ezra disputes, the existence of diminutives in
Hebrew. He says —
R. Adonim ben Temim, the Babylonian (who flourished at the end
of the 10th century), whose soul is in Paradise, maintains that n:i'a» is
an epithet for the human spirit; and he thus analyses it — p'^M is adjective
mas. and ™i'?« the/em, ; and if thou wantest to make it diminutive, it will be
n:i'a«, the proper names ]i3'i3N, Aminon (2 Sam, xiii. 20), and to*:, Oashmu
(Nehem. vi. 6), he says are also diminutives. But this is poor grammar,
since there is no word in Hebrew which can be made into a diminutive ;
and if the genius of the Hebrew languages had admitted of making diminu
tives, we should have found bundreds and thousands of them in the
Scriptures. Now ^i:i3«, Amnon, and Ji:'»M, Aminon, are two names of the
same individual, just as ridbsS, Shelomo, and pob«>, Slialmon, 's>3m, Abshai,
and '*as, Abishai, i.:aN, Abner, and ¦i.:'?^, Abiner. As for the i in TO«i_3,
Oashmu, it is redundant, as in nn'., Jethro, i.q., in;, Jether.^
' Ewald, who sneers at the Rabbins of the middle ages, will be
surprised to find his theory about liJ''!?ti (Hebrew Grammar,
D'lnM nn i:dd nbsnb ib'id no ba '3 bban »«"i «im paian -[d invn iiaM rnic» pm i
WDa Ti^'m nbnna \anpn pioba fiV'^n rrn ididi in'Bsom \D«-in lai bs np's nvn iia»a •
n»i:n im m» «sd'ib pn' sbi "jiBob nn nvni« n»n«n nbm t:"»2DM i''''-ini «"nn vn ':n'
loB -mca Qno nns n'n'ia p-
?ajn n«in p'a« ipnpT |3i m«n ':a nnb 'i:'3 n:va« '3 9": 'rnion ''on p Q':n« 'i idm a
m':B pnpT inn ioim ^¦atoy^ ]i:'dm nba pi n:vaN n'nn n:T»sn dni nap: pwb n:Ta«i "i3ib
niMob Nipna q'«sd: vn' piDpnb ]HBbn tid'3 ni mn ib'«i bba i:')!»pnffl nbci tmprf p«ba jn '3
n:'a«i i:a« '«'3mi 'id3« prabwi nobic ina 'n« iB'Nb nioiu ':© ]i:'o«i p:n« Dbi«i 'Dbubi
nn'i -in' to3 idiuj V'l 'DDini

56

INTRODUCTION.

§ 167), propounded by a Rabbi of the tenth century, and so ably
opposed by another Rabbi of the twelfth century.
1100. — From the constant remarks of Ibn Ezra, — some say
(OnDIK ty, ii. 12 ; iii. 1. 18; iv. 12. 17 ; v. 19;.ix. 17; x. 4,
al.), some interpret it [WVI^D '^\ iii. 11 ; iv. 19 ; v. 1. 2. 5; -yii.
1. 19; viii. 5, 8. 10; x. 1, al.), most interpreters (D''ty~)3an m,
iv. 17; x. 6, 9), one of the interpreters says (D''!y"13QrT p ITMi,
ii. 16 ; X. 17), &c., — it is evident that numerous commentaries,
which are now lost, have been written on this book in the tenth,
eleventh, and twelfth centuries. Would that we at least had a
history of the various views which those forgotten commentators
entertained concerning Coheleth ! It would no doubt have
formed a curious and valuable addition to the literature of
Biblical interpretation. However, one of these views is preserved
by Ibn Ezra, who tells us in his commentary, chap. vii. 3,
that' —
In consequence of the diCBculties and apparent contradictions of this
book, as, for instance —

In one place he says —
Anger is better than laughter vii. 3
In much wisdom is much anger i. 18
It is good and comely to eat
and drink . . . v. 17
I praised mirth . . . viii, 15

What advantage has the wise
man over the fool ?
I praised the dead
There is no work, nor ac
count, nor knowledge, nor
• wisdom in the grave

VI. B
iv. 2

ix. 10

In another he says the reverse —
Anger rests in the bosom of
fools .... vii. 9
Remove anger from thy heart xi. 10
It is good to go to the house
of mourning . . . vii. 2
To mirth I said. What avails
she? ... ii. 2
There is an advantage to
wisdom over folly . . ii. 13
A living dog is better than
a dead lion . . . ix. 4
There is an appointed time
for every thing there . iii. 17

nam "jDn ion'I laT D'aT niaipoa idm'ib nnn I3'»p D'lan nin -\qdi nnbiB 'laia i«i'o '
aiiD iD« ni nM m pniD vian ':Dn nbnpiDD n:jb cnan wpy b/'i b«i«' '03n noN ni Tiasai
¦labD D»3 iDm m yxT\ t3»3 an noan ana 'a ]3i m:' D'b'D3 pna d»3 '3 m -loni pvmo Dsa
ni -jDni nnomn nM ':» 'nnaw pi ba«n n'a b« nabb aim m ym ninwbi bi3Mb no' ¦!»« aiapi
D'nnn n« ':« nawi pi nnanb pin' vo'id -[Dm b'D3n p nsnb inv no '3 pi rrow m rra 'nmbi
-[oni biMwa noam ra>ni pa«ni niava p« '3 •¦31 nnn n'iMn •'d aim mn 'n abab '3 m -ajm

INTRODUCTION. 57
In one place he says — In another place the reverse—^
It shall not be well with the There is a wicked man wbo
wicked, and he shall not prolongs his days in his
prolong his days . . vii. 13 wickedness . . . vii. 15
It shall be well with those There are wicked to whom it
who fear God . . . viii. 12 happens according to the
doings of the righteous . viii. 14
And many more like these will be found by an attentive reader, for which,
as the wise men of Israel of blessed memory tell us, the sages wanted to
make this book apocryphal, though it is well known that the least among the
wise will not write a book and contradict himself in it. Whebkkorb, one
OF THE COMMENTATORS EXPLAINED Cohelcth (fl.^fjp) BT ASSEMBLY, AND MAIN
TAINED THAT THIS BOOK WAS COMPOSED BT THE DISCIPLES OF SoLOMON, AND
CONTAINS THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF EACH OF THEM, But this Opinion is
Utterly inadmissible, because the words " Coheleth was a wise man" (xii, 9),
shew that it refers to a single individual. So also " Coheleth was desirous
to find acceptable words" (xii. 10), and especially "I, Coheleth, xvas king"
a. 12), are most conclusively against it.

It will be seen, from this view of Coheleth, that as literal
and grammatical interpretation progressed, the sceptical pas
sages in this book, which were so easily converted into
orthodoxy by the allegorisers of former days, became more
and more perplexing.
1135-1204. — The great philosophers of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, who created a new epoch in Jewish litera
ture, now began to grapple with these hard sayings of Coheleth,
which they occasionally quote and explain in their respective
works. Thus Maimonides,' in his More Nebochim, ii. 28,
¦i»H pi in»ia -rmm »im id' "loni d'd' "]'"»" «bi »wib rvn^ Mb aiiQi pi yon bab n> '3
iw «S)3' aic'n iDBnnni o'p'ian nm»D3 t:n'b« S'ana d'Sidt ib' "[Dm I3'nb«n '«Tb aiB n^JT'
D'WDnn ]Q -in« Tisini neca viai -vnci ibd lan' xb ?'nanaic bpn '3 »n'i nin iDoa nbsa
'::'« nn inamnn 'sa in« inw bsi ison nan VTDbn '3 in«i aps' nbnp id3 nbnp nbo »iob
n'«ini ysn '-m «2K)b nbnp iDpi iwi mx «in n:ni can nbnp n'niD invi iiasa bba pa:
"jbn 'n"n nbnp ':« n-majn
1 Maimonides, or Bambam, oa'sn, as he is also called, from .the initials of
pn'n p noD 'ai, Babbi Moses ben Maimon, was born on the 30th of March, 1133,
I

58 INTRODUCTION.
defends Solomon from the heretical opinion, as deduced from
Coheleth, i. 4, that this world has existed from all eternity. As
the Rev. Theodore Preston, who gives this part of Maimonides'
work,' has so wofully mistranslated it, we have been obliged to
make a new translation, which is given in Appendix III.,
together with his version and the Hebrew.
1142. — Nathaniel, called in Arabic Abul-Barcat Hibat Allah
b. Malka, who was the medical Coryphseus of the Mahommedan
dominions in the twelfth century, as well as a distinguished
philosopher and Hebraist, and who was designated "the only
one of his time," Wachid-al Zeman, because of his extraordinary
services, now tried his skill on this difficult book. His com
mentary, which is written in Arabic, has never been published,
but the MS. is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Isaac Ibn
Ezra, son of the immortal commentator, celebrated Abul-Barcat's
commentary on Coheleth in a poem, in which he declares that
this Solomonic book will henceforth (1143 A. D.) go by the name
of him who has so successfully unlocked its meaning." Some
idea, however, may be formed of the merits of this commentary
from the following specimen, quoted by the learned Pocock in
his Notae Miscellanece ad Portam Mosis : ' —
rm ppnnn F]1«» in )d )« bspB Dn'b» rinaibsi i'ainb« ddt 'b» 'ai »iv 'n bspB
^Mi Nmoa 'bM «nTTB iicibn qv 'bw pbwbbs i:9 riioiann Nn:Ni nbsnb nbi» msn ':a
Mn»D bnnif'i «fflMbn' 'ib» DDib« bnn yi«bM bac 'bs nbw:' 'n ba risii «nb c:>b nnnan nn
nab«iQ nbb« i« nbs?' ini nnin« aai'i ?'«nab«3 noD: D'p' Mb ]m n'b» ai'o nppnni "[bi obs
Dixit, Quis noit, &c,, via increpationis et aversationis ipsorum, quasi diceret,
Quisquis noverit, ac pro certo habuerit, Spiritum hominum ascendere sursum,
ac servari ipsum apud Creatorem usque ad diem resurrectionis, qui turn in
in Cordova, and died 13th December, 1204. An instructive sketch of the life and
labours of this most illustrious philosopher is given by Jost, in Herzog's Real-
Encyclopadie fiir Protestautisohe Theologie und Kirohe, vol. viii., p. 691-697;
Graetz, Gesohichte der Juden vi., p. 310.
' The Hebrew Text, and a Latin version of the Book of Solomon called Eocle
siastes ; with original Notes, philological and exegetical. London, 1845, p. 18.
' Comp. Zeitschrift der Deutsohen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang,
1859, p. 711; Graetz, Gesohichte der Juden, vi., p. 303.
3 The theological works of Dr. Pooock, London, 1740, vol. i. p. 196.

INTRODUCTION. 59
corpus suum ipsum remittet, spiritum autem jumenti non iterum reverti,
sed descendere in imum terras instar corporis quod tabescit et dissolvitur ;
baec cum certo noverit, oportet ilium non se jumentorum more gerere, et
cupiditatibus suis indulgere, cum sciat Deum de ipso rationem sumpturum.
1270. — The celebrated Zohar, or the Talmud of the Kabbala,
as it is aptly called, which, as is now critically certain, was
compiled in the second half of the thirteenth century,' also refers
to the hard sayings and apparent contradictions of Coheleth, and
attempts to overcome the difficulty by resorting to the hypo
thesis, that Solomon qxiotes the language of ignorant unbelievers to
expose their folly. Chap. iii. 19, is thus commented upon : —
Solomon did not say this for himself, as the other words, but he repeats
here the words of the worldly fool, who says so. And what do they say ?
That " the destiny of man and the destiny of beasts," &c.' They are fools,
because they know not, nor do they enquire into wisdom; they say that this
world goes on by chance, and the Holy One, blessed be He, takes no cog
nisance of it; but that " the destiny of man and the destiny of the beast is
the same, and the same destiny happens to all." And as Solomon knew
these fools who spoke in this manner, he called them beasts, for they
degraded themselves into mere beasts by uttering such sentiments.^
This attempt to explain away the obnoxious passages, is sub
stantially the same as the one mentioned by Ibn Ezra {vide
' For the development of the Zohar see Jost, Gesohichte des Judenthums, ifec,
vol. iii., p. 74-81. Preston's remark on Mendelssohn's Introduction (p. 76), that
" the Zohar is a most ancient Jewish commentary on the Pentateuch," is a mere
repetition of an impudent assertion of the Kabbalists, who palmed it upon Simeon
ben Jochai, which is now entirely exploded. Compare also Steinschneider's very
able work on Jewish Literature, London, Longman, &c., 1857, p. 11,1 &o. ; and
Die Religionsphilosophie des Sohar und ihr Verhaltniss zur allgemeinen jiidischen
Theologie, von D. H. Joel, Lsipzig, 1849.
NDbsT 'NfflaiDT 'Ibn p'« iinM «bM pbn p:'« iNma "ni:a vnp 'xn nnbta ins «b «
pbanon Nbi ]'»t «bi 'mibbb 'lai nnnan mpni taisn mpn '3 'inM 'Nni ']3 nnsT
mpni xsivtn mpn sbw in"b» n:iEiM Mb n"api mpna b'lM snbs 'urn 'inM Mnnana
pi'MT nnna pnb 'ip mi 'iMpT 'mibbtq p:'Ma VanoM nnbsj lai 'ui inM mpni nnnan
pbM pbn pinMT paa mnn nnna in"n3a 'las This passage is quoted by Mendelssohn
in his very elaborate Introduction to his Commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes.
The biblical student wiU find a great mass of valuable information in this
Introduction, which has been translated by Preston in the work quoted in Note 2
of the preceding page, and in the foregoing note in this page.

60 INTRODUCTION.
supra, p. 57), only that there the heretical sentiments are ascribed
to the different disciples of Solomon, whereas here they are put
into the mouth of unbelievers generally.
To the period of the Zohar we must ascribe the Midrash
Themurah, which is based upon Coheleth. The design of this
Midrash is to shew that all the opposites which exist upon this
earth, e. g., riches and poverty, beauty and deformity, &c., con
tribute to the harmony of the whole, and speak of the wisdom of
the Creator ; and they must respectively be received with thank
fulness and resignation. To enforce this lesson, the Midrash
especially expatiates upon chap. iii. 1-8, in connection with
Ps. cxxxvi.'
1280-1350. — Joseph Ibn Caspi, a celebrated expositor and
philosopher, who flourished in the beginning of the fourteenth
century, wrote a commentary on this book, propounding,
according to his own assertion, quite a new theory of its import.
He maintains that the design of Coheletb. is to teach man titat his
occupations with the affairs of this world are to be as little as
possible, since they are all vain, and that he is to give himself up
to the study of the law and science. This Coheleth sets forth in
twenty-one arguments, which are first treated according to the
ten D''72n in connection with the passages of Scripture, and
then according to their logical sequence. Whereupon he gives
some hints on the perfection of the soul, and on prophecy, as
connected with the active mind, and quotes ten verses firom this
book, which, according to him, recommend the Aristotelian
medium between the two extremes. Caspi -wrote this commen
tary when he was fifty years old, and called it The Seal of Life;
it has never been printed, but the MS. is at Oxford. Our
notice of it is taken from Steinschneider's very elaborate and
excellent article on Joseph Caspi, in Ersch and Gruber's
Encyclopedia, the remarks of which on this commentary we

• This Midrash is comprised in the collection of small Midrashim edited by
Jellinek, to which reference has already been made, p. 38, note i.

INTRODUCTION. 61
subjoin in the foot-note.* Ibn Caspi's extremely scarce com
mentary on the Song of Songs we published in our " Intro
duction to the Song of Songs," pp. 47-49, where the reader
•will find the theory of active and passive mind largely
developed. 1298 - 1370. — Though the celebrated Bechinoth Olam (Trial
of the World), does not profess to be an exposition of our book,
yet there can be no doubt that the design of its author was to
propound, in a popular and attractive style, the doctrine of
Coheleth. Jedajah Penini, the Jewish Cicero, as he is called by
Christians, like Coheleth, shews, in the most striking manner, the
utter vanity of all earthly pursuits and pleasures, apart from a
future life and judgment. Like Coheleth, he finishes his intro
ductory part — which forms the basis of the succeeding contem
plations — with the appalling fact that man is a prey to death ;
whereupon he shews the unsatisfactory nature and vanity of all
human pursuits, and then, like Coheleth, concludes with setting
before man the fear of God and a future world. A few specimens
will shew the resemblance of the Bechinoth Olam to Coheleth.
After describing the transcendent powers of the human mind,
and the heavenly endowments of man (§ 1), and yet the evil to
' Ser Sottitnentar ju ^c^elet I>eftnbet jti^ tn farma unb in Drfotb. 3nt
epigraph ifljmt 3ofef»on fii^ »om Snaben=Big jum ©rcifcnalteic (Ps, xxxvii.
25) Sillier serfa^t ju ^oben, im Sitter son 50 ^a^ten biefen eommentat, beffcn
Zixt bie Slufgabe beS Tlen^en ba^in fcejlimnic, bie Sefc^oftigung mit ben 21ngrie»
genjeiten biefet aSSelt, ba fie eitet feien, auf ein SJfinimum ju befilranfen,
unb ft$ bem ©tubium beS ©cfe^eS unb bet SBiffenfc^aft ^n^nqeim, was
So^elet buti!^ 21 Scweife baiget^an ^o6e. gt nennt biefen Sommcntar ein
©iegcl beg Seten^ (cnb nn'nn) ffir atle feine ©otgen unb ©ebanfen. ®{e
angebli(|cn 21 S3ett>eife Salomon'^ wetben 3ufawnten^ange bet Sibetjlelten
na(| ben 10 o'ban au^gefujtt, bann in togifdjcr Dtbnung lurj jufammengefa^t.
3n biefet allgemeinen (Srlauterung 6e$aut)tet et HvoaS JJcue^ gelcijlet ju 5al>en,
unb fpecietlc, bcteit^ Wt i^m gegebene Srftarungen liberge'pen ju bitxfcn. 9Ja^
bicfem geroiffcrmafen polemifc^en X^dle fiigt ex cinige Slnbeutungcn iiber
35ollfomment>eit bet ©eele, $rot)^etic mit 3litctfi(|t auf bie " actise ^ntelligenj"
ici, fii^rt jc|)n 25erfe auS ^o^clct an, wd(^e bie C2ltiiloteIif($e3 SKitte sstiifc(;en
ben (Srttemen empfe^en. Sluf biefen " Sommentat So^elet'S" setweiji So^anan
Ittemanno in bet (jinleitung ju fcinem Sommentar iiber ba^ f)c5eticb. ®rfc&
unb ©ruber, SlUgcmcinc ©nc^clcpabie, ^miie ©ection, vol. xxxi., p. 64.

62 INTRODUCTION.
which this highly gifted man is exposed (§ 2), Jedajah says,
in §3-
For a man of such capacities I am filled with sorrow and grief; this
Saphir masterpiece is exposed to chance and misfortune, like a target to the
arrows; ho is the object of disgrace and contempt, like the lower brutes;
he is weighed down with oppression and contumely, from his youth to his
hoary age. He who ought to sit in the counsels of wisdom, pines away in
solitude ; he who is like a son of God, is doomed to silence. The shepherd
of truth must feed upon the wind ; the bearer of wisdom and morality must
succumb under bis burden. Wisdom denies help to him who trusted to his
intelligence for deliverance; the hands are weakened of him who holds fast
to his integrity; or if calamities befall man, he dies and is no more, as the
brute of the field and the beast of the forest; the sacred temple is mixed up
with clods, and thrown down under trees ; the body formed by compass of
Grod, is consigned by God to rest in darkness. This contemplation heavily
afBicts me, and I cannot be comforted. The masterwork of God loath
somely disappears, and is no more ! Cedars planted by God's own hand are
felled down! I studied man, I carefully examined his nature, and I found
no imperfection in him, except that he is a prey to death.
This is also the burden of the prologue in Coheleth, and in
both forms the basis of the argument. Having shewn that this
is the deplorable condition of man, R. Jedajah, like Coheleth,
goes on to shew that' no human effort can pacify the disturbed
mind, apart from the fear of God and the belief in a future
existence ; that it is the prospect of travelling on to a life beyond
the grave, which reconciles us to the afflictions we have to pass
through on our way to it. Imitating Coheleth, Jedajah there
fore counsels us, towards the end of his treatise —
Eemember thy Creator, who has entrusted thee with a noble soul ! thou
hast taken her in as a stranger upon this earth ; thou givest her shelter as a
guest. As long, therefore, as she sojourns in thy dark abode, she looks to
the place whence she came ; she thinks in her low estate of her former glory,
how she stood high in the holy place, and mourns ! Pity her, and speak
comfortably to her, for none but thou canst save her. As long as she is
with thee, she is like a bird caught and imprisoned by a careless child; she
sees many birds freely fly over her, right and left, about their nests, but has
no power to overcome the youth who holds her ; and she is aflBicted. If
thou dost not wish to lay violent hands on this thy trust, cultivate and
guard her. Why stir up evil ? why lose thyself in a maze of devices, and

INTRODUCTION. 63
thus multiply thy wearisome labour and toil? Thou knowest how immense
is the work of cultivating the soul, and how short are the days of our life to
do it ; and had we to live a thousand years twice told, it would be too short,
for the desired object is far off; but the days of our sojourn here are few
and evU, and do not suflBce to accomplish even little things. Attend, there
fore, my ears, I will teach you help ; see, my heart, see that thou forsake the
besotting things of time; enjoy from earthly things as much as is necessary
for the sustenance of life, which cannot be neglected without suff'ering; take
of the best fruits of the land, of its spices for the preservation of thy health,
of its sweetness for thy enjoyment ; but shun all excess, let that be for the
beasts of the field, and the men who are like them ; leave consuming
pleasures, and ants' treasures, that vanish like a dream, the interpretation
of which is, " the body will soon decay before its time, and the spirit goes
down like the spirit of the beast after death.'' My heart, may this be the
dream of thy persecutors, and its interpretation for thy enemies ! Take my
counsel, whilst thy branches are still green, whilst thy sun is not clouded,
and thou art young and cheerful, and hast strength to run the race with the
swiftness of the hart, to obtain the prize, and to rouse others from their
lethargy and earthly pleasures by thy sweet savour, and by the brightness
of thy light. Why, then, steepest thou ? why delay to tear off the delusive
mask, and escape from infatuations ? Arise, invoke wisdom, before the days
of evil come, before the many infirmities of old age draw nigh, and strength
is changed into weakness, and hope into despair.
We need hardly remind the reader of the relationship which
this paragraph sustains to the twelfth chapter of Coheleth. It
will be seen that Jedajah, like the sacred writer, whilst setting
before us the bright prospect of the life to come, also recommends
the cheerful but moderate enjoyment of the blessings of the life
that now is. This imitation is still more striking when we
compare the concluding remarks of the two books. Coheleth,
towards the end, praises "the words of the wise," and admonishes
that all heed should be paid to them (xii. 11, 12). Jedajah
finishes by urging that all attention be given to the thirteen
articles of belief written by Maimonides, who was greatly
attacked in those days —
Finally, turn neither to the left nor right from all that the wise men have
believed, the chief of whom was the distinguished teacher Rambam, of
blessed memory, with whom no one can be compared from among all the
wise men of Israel who lived since the conclusion of the Talmud ; then I

64 INTRODUCTION.
shall be sure that thou, enriched with all the knowledge of religion and
philosophy, wilt fear the Lord thy God.
The Bechinoth Olam has always occupied a very high position
among the Jews, and has been a source of comfort to many, who
looked upon Coheleth as a sealed book.^
1399. — The Nitzachon of R. Jomtob Lipmann Miihlhausen
has also taken up some of the hard sayings of Coheleth. This
Nitzachon, or Victory, is a polemical work against Christianity,
written in Cracow about 1399, according to a MS. note. It
consists of seven parts, according to the seven days of the week,
and three hundred and fifty-four sections, ten of which are
devoted to what the author regards the most difficult passages of
Coheleth. The following are the first three sections : —
§ 311. Chap. i. 1, 2, Vanity of vanities, Sc. — Forbid it that such a
thought should ever enter into the heart, that the works of the blessed God
in the creation of the world are vanity ! for he has created all things for his
glory (comp. my Comment. § 3). The meaning is, that all the labour
wherewith one labours to acquire and enjoy the things which are under the
sun is utterly vain and profitless ; all the exertions which man makes in
this world which is under the rotation of the sun, for his aggrandisement,
gratification, and enjoyment, and which are not for the glory of God. The
" under the sun " is mentioned, because most of the pursuits of man in this
lower world consist in growing fruit and other things which depend upon
the sun ; whereas, all the work ought to be for the glory of God, who is
above the sun. Comp. § 68. And thus King Solomon, peace be upon
him, concludes this book by saying, " Finally, all is heard, fear God and
keep his commandments, for for this all is man" (xii. 13), i.e., for this was
man created. And in this sense the Eabbins, of blessed memory, have
explained it, viz., Man has no advantage from that wherein he labours
under the sun, but he has an advantage from his labours in the law which
is before the sun.
§ 312. iii. 19, For the destiny of man. So. — Let not thy heart lead thee
astray to think that Coheleth speaks here of the soul, since he says himself
that " the spirit shall return to God" (xii. 7), see § 120. Now, the end of
this verse shews his meaning, whore he says, " As the one dies, so dies the
other," i. e., it is with regard to the dying of the animal's spirit that he says
' A sketch of R. Jedajah's life will be found in Stern's beautiful edition of the
Bechinoth Olam, Wien, 1847. See also Jost, Gesohichte des Judenthums und
seiner Sekten, vol. iii., p. 28, &c.

INTRODUCTION. 65
all have the same spirit," for this spirit does die, since it is of the wind
which is upon the waters (comp. § I) ; but of the upper spirit which returns
to God it is impossible to say so, for this continues to live, as I shall shew
in § 320.
§ 313, And the advantage of man, Sc. — I have already explained, in
§ 312, that the spirit returns to God, and that it has an essential and great
advantage. The advantage, therefore, which is here denied, refers to that
which is earthly and carnal, for the word t:TM, man, is derived from nn-is,
earth, and it is for this reason that Ooheleth does not here use the word
^^g, man, as I explained in § 5. And the meaning is, that as regards
the body, there is no advantage in it over the body of the beast, for all came
from the earth and return to the earth again ; but as regards the intellect,
there is an advantage in it. Comp. §§76 and 312.
20. Who knows, So. — st^' 'n means he who is worthy to know. Comp.
.loel ii. 14, i.e., he who is worthy, let him take these words to heart, that
the spirit of man goes up, for this is its nature (comp. my Comment. § 76),
and must give an account; and the spirit of the beast goes naturally down,
for the spirit of the beast is from the elements, from the wind which blows
upon the earth, and has no reward or punishment.'
R. Lipmann has been quite as successful in refuting Chris
tianity, as he has here shewn himself to be in removing the
difficulties firom Coheleth. In justice, however, to this Rabbi, it
must be said that he always makes a distinction in his polemics
between Christianity and Christians ; and whilst he attacks the
former, he endeavours to prove, from Isa, Ixvi. 23 and the con
cluding words of Psalm cxlv., that all conscientious and pious
non-Israelites will be saved.^ When we bear in mind the state
of Christianity in his days, the bitter sufferings which were then
inflicted upon the Jews in the name of Christ, and the awful
curses pronounced by the heads of the Church against all those
who were out of its pale, instead of being surprised that
R. Lipmann wrote against such a system, we wonder at his
charity. ' Liber Nizaohon Rabbi Lipmanni, &c., curant. Theod, Haokspan, Norinberg,
1644. = Comp. ni2D »ao Q"pnn 'la Da"m anai •. Man Dbi»b pbn onb m' nbwn niniM 'p'ns ?:
Dbi»n niniM 'p'Tsn Mip: ':'m 3B"»m lab maon m ':a, § 265. See also § 333,
niniM 'p'TS nnin: bs mm MbM nbisn ovpb min ni ps -n^ Dbi»b wip nia "lua ba pa'i
-mi ba bbaa nnnm Dbisn
K

66 INTRODUCTION.
1490. — It is difficult to gather from the Michlal Yophi (Per
fection of Beauty) what the author took the design of this book
to be. As far as it can be stated with any definiteness, it seems
to be that Solomon examined in this book the various conflicting
opinions which he gathered together {hence the name TVrfp)
respecting the affairs of this world, and the destiny of man, and
came to the conclusion that the best thing for man is to fear God,
and to remember that there is a future judgment.^
The Biblical student will always feel grateful to R. Solomon
ben Melech for this very usefiil manual, which is a compilation
of grammatical and critical notes on the whole Old Testament
from the best Jewish commentators, such as Rashi, Ibn Ezra,
Kimchi, &c.
1475 - 1530. — So numerous and conflicting were the opinions
about this book in the fifteenth century, that R. Isaac Aramah,
who was desirous of making himself master of the subject, was
perfectly astonished to find that both the ancient and more
modern commentators were so greatly divided. Some forcing
upon it a strange and far-fetched literal sense ; others, a philoso
phical meaning, too mysterious and profound to be understood;
and others, again, interpreting it according to the Midrash, find
in it laws and statutes full of piety. The point in which all of
them have erred alike is, that they alter the sense of the booh into
palatable sentiment ; and yet not one of them has put such sense
into it as fo be able to boast, with reason, that they have drawn
from this rook loholesome food, or elicited sweetness from this jlint
{i.e., from this difficult book). Rejecting, therefore, all these
different views, R. Aramah came to the conclusion, that every
statement in this book is perfectly plain and consistent with ortho
doxy, that it contains the sublimest of all conteinplations, and
teaches the highest order of heavenly yiisdom. Rabbi A. was
therefore amazed how it could ever enter into the minds of com
mentators to think that the sages, of blessed memory, wanted to
put such a book among the apocrypha, and that the only reason
1 'DV bbara with the nn3W Bpb of Abendana, Amsterdam, 1661, p. 47.

INTRODUCTION. 67
why they left it in the canon was, that the first and last words of
it were consistent with the law.
" Now, it was not because thinking men found it difficult to
discover the good sense of it that the sages wanted to hide this
book, but for fear of the multitude, who waste the riches of the
law. But as it is the habit of these ignorant people to look
merely at the beginning and the end of a book, and these por
tions unmistakeably contain the fear of God, therefore the wise
men at last determined not to hide it from these people."
Such, then, is the forced interpretation which this Rabbi gives
of the plain words of the sages, entirely ignoring what they
distinctly say, that " the book contains sentiments tending to
infidelity;" that "it utters Solomon's own wisdom," &c. {vide
supra, pp. 14-16). Yet Aramah exclaims against the far-fetched
explanations of others.
1548. — As grammatical exegesis was comparatively little
pursued in the sixteenth century, the difficulties of Coheleth
occasioned no trouble, and the book was regarded by its com
mentators as surpassing all other books of Scripture in heavenly
lessons. Thus Elisha Galicho, or Galiko, who flourished in the
second half of the sixteenth century,' tells us, in the preface to
his commentary on Coheleth —
Since all the pursuits of this world and its lusts cling to the creature in
consequence of his earthliness and desire, and the soul of man covets these
things, and is in danger of being inextricably ensnared by them, many
lessons are given in the Law, Prophets, and Hagiographa, to point out the
way to the tree of life. Hence both the earlier and latter sages carefully
composed encouragement and admonitions, parables and proverbs, to teach
man wisdom by moral sayings, the fear of God, and the fear of sin, making
hedges and fences for the benefit of the multitude. And Solomon excelled
all in his moral Proverbs, which are as numerous as the advantages which
accrue to man when he inclines his ears to them. Now, to surpass even
these, he wrote Coheleth, the whole of which, from beginning to end,
is perpetually turning round the same point, and that is, to expose the
' The first edition of this Commentary, said to have been published in
Venice, 1548, is extremely scarce. I have never seen it; the one I possess
was published in Venice, 1578, 4to, Giov, di Gara.

68 INTRODUCTION.
vanity of all earthly pursuits, and to teach man to know that his happiness
is no happiness at all, and that his wishes and desires are vain and delusive,
and will not bear examination ; that the great object of life in this world is
to attain to the perfection of the soul, and its immortality ; to acquire that
light which will shine in the light of the countenance of the Eternal King
in the world to come. This is the design of this holy book, which is a guide
whereunto all must look.
Having thus given the design of the book, R. Galicho divides
it into twenty-seven sections, according to the number of letters
in the Hebrew alphabet, including the five final letters, and
gives a minute analysis of the contents of each section.
The first section (chap. i. 1-11) speaks in general terms of
the affairs of this world, and of the dignity of the human soul,
shewing that it is in the nature of the soul to cling to things
which tend to its perfection.
The second section (chap. i. 12 — ii. 11) speaks more particu
larly of the pursuits of this world, such as wisdom, pleasure,
mirth, riches, covetousness, &c., and sets forth their respective
dangers. The third section (chap. ii. 12-24) gives the distinction
between wisdom and folly, shewing that man ought to despise
the pursuit after mammon, and lay hold of that which will
elevate the soul.
The fourth section (chap. iii. 1-9) speaks of the allotted times
of adversity and prosperity, being intimately connected with
what precedes, thereby shewing either that Israel is not subjected
to chance, or that we are not to relinquish our hope, when in
adverse circumstances, for the coming of better days, or that
there is certainty in times or seasons, or that an apparently bad
time may really be good, and vice versa.
The fifth section (chap. iii. 10-17) speaks of the design and
use of our afflictions ; of the fact that the righteous sometimes
suffer, whilst the wicked prosper ; and shews why man is created
in a state of depravity, and what human nature was before its
fall. The sixth section (chap. iii. 18-22) refutes the opinion of the'

INTRODUCTION. 69
wicked respecting their prosperity and the sufferings of the
righteous, as well as the opinion .of those who believe that the
world is under chance, and not Providence, and deny the im
mortality of the soul ; and then dwells upon the happiness of the
soul in a future state.
The seventh section (chap. iv. 1-8) takes up again the exist
ence of Providence; the good of sufferings, which are sent to
awaken to repentance, to make one active who has the power of
diminishing crime, but does not exercise it in consequence of
being unscrupulously engrossed in the affairs of this life out of
jealousy ; speaks of those who, despite all sufferings, continue in
sin ; of a pious and God-serving man, but withal not too self-
confident, whose example ought to be imitated, yet is shunned
and despised; of the punishment of him who refuses to get
man-ied, and dies without issue; of the evil of sin, and the
advantage of holiness ; and of the responsibility of man to choose
the service of God.
The eighth section (chap. iv. 9-16) praises the connection
with the pious as helping one in the service of God; blames
those who associate -with the impious, and speaks of the union of
the good disposition -with the soul.
The ninth section (chap. iv. 17 -v. 7) enters minutely into
the subject of divine worship, viz., prayer, and its necessary
concomitants, almsgiving and vows, setting forth the evil con
sequences of violating these; it speaks of the necessity of
departing firom evil, which is the essential cleansing of ourselves
and preparation to enter the house of God, the world of spirits ;
of the strict performance of vows, and of shunning pleasure.
The tenth section (chap. v. 8-19) continues to speak of the
advantage of benevolence and almsgiving, even in rendering
wealth more durable, thus shewing the folly of acquiring money,
and not contributing to the cause of God, and the evils to which
unhallowed riches will lead, and the necessity of working for
that which elevates the soul ; and then passes on to the fact that
some benevolent and almsgiving men lose their fortunes, whilst

70 INTRODUCTION.
misers and lewd men multiply their wealth ; or it may be that
the particulars still speak of the purifying of the body and soul
for going into the house of God, which is the land of Israel, and
not to run after the pleasures of riches, as purification is a
blessing to the man who practises it, and to his issue, and in
the hour of death ; mammon, however, is the ruin of a man both
here and hereafter.
The eleventh section (chap. vi. 1-6) speaks of the blindness
of the worldly men who, notwithstanding all the indications
that their prosperity is not a matter of chance, but firom Provi
dence, wantonly squander the bounties of God, as if their own
strength had acquired them; thus neither enjoying these gifts
themselves, nor devoting them to the glory of God — better an
untimely birth than such men.
The twelfth section (chap. vi. 7-12) speaks of the infatuation of
the worldly rich, who do not see that the study of the law surpasses
all, and that there is no advantage to a -wise man above a fool,
except that he investigate things, to be confirmed in the service
of God ; shews that, by possessing knowledge, one who has been
an old sinner may yet amend his ways ; and then goes on to
vindicate the creation of passions, &c. Or it may speak of the
many warnings man requires to abstain from carnal pleasures,
&c. ; of what the penitent must undergo, and of the superiority
of a penitent over a righteous man, since the former has not only
to labour for the future, but also to amend the past.
The thirteenth section (chap. vii. 1-12) speaks of the superi
ority of the enjoyment of the soul in the world of spirits, to
bodily happiness in this world; of the excellency of a good
name, which is to be acquired by remembering the day of death,
by visiting the houses of mourners, by listening to the corrections
of teachers, by hating evil inclinations, by listening to the
teaching of the law and refusing to hear the mockery of fools,
and not to despair of getting a good name even in old age.
There are, however, other means whereby to get a good name,
viz., to consider the end of a thing from the beginning; to be

INTRODUCTION. 71
cheerful under sufferings, and not murmur against God ; .to help
the needy ; not to trust to one's-self, but to be watchful over
one's besetting sins, and to study the word of God.
The fourteenth section (chap. vii. 13-24) mentions things
which, when observed, will prevent a man losing his good
name, namely, keeping of God's wonderful works constantly
before his eyes; not to be over wise so as to attempt to take
away fi:om or add to the word of God ; to examine his conduct
daily, not to slip either in prosperity or adversity. Or it tells
us to preach repentance in the days of calamity ; to beware of a
little knowledge ; to add to theory practice, as each is beautiful
in its season; not to be over wicked or over righteous in our
o-wn estimation ; to set a good example ; to be always occupied
with the study of God, which will keep from the innumerable
sins by which we are surrounded ; and above all to be meek.
The fifteenth section (chap. vii. 25 - viii. 1) mentions the
weapons where-with we are to conquer the evil heart, viz.,
studying the word of God, wisdom, bearing in mind a future
judgment, comparing a good with an evil act, and their respective
consequences, not to have too much intercourse with women,
whose cunning the wise alone can elude, &c., &c.
The sixteenth section (chap. viii. 2 - 10) advises to obey God
rather than man, even at the peril of life, since the loss of it in
the service of God here will secure us everlasting life hereafter ;
tells us that the tyrant who compels us to transgress the word of
God -mil be severely punished in the world to come, cautions us
not to judge the things which take place by their outward
appearance, &c.
The seventeenth section (chap. viii. 11-15) speaks of the
marvellous forbearance of God with the wicked, of the righteous
sharing in the punishment of the wicked, and that they are
joyfully to submit to sufferings or death.
The eighteenth section (viii. 16 -ix. 3) speaks of the inscru-
tableness of God's dealings, of the folly of trying to find them
out, of the wickedness of making God the author of evil, &c., &c.

72 INTRODUCTION.
The -nineteenth section (chap. ix. 4-6) speaks of the power
of sin, and of the still greater power of meekness ; or shews that
man must combine both his component parts, i. e., matter and
form, for the service of God, and the sinner may yet experience
the power of repentance.
The twentieth section (chap. ix. 7-12) expatiates upon the
penitent, declares that it is never too late to repent, and shews
the reward reserved for those who repent, &c., &c.
The twenty-first section (chap. ix. 13 -x. 4) speaks of the
advantage of wisdom over strength, and of the infatuation of
worldly men, who do not see this.
The twenty-second section (chap. x. 5-15) speaks of the fact
that men prefer folly to wisdom, and though they discover their
error, they will not leave it ; advises men to enter deeply into
the wisdom of the law, shews how to pursue it, cautions against
yielding to the evil heart, &c., &c.
The twenty-third section (chap. x. 16 - 20) advises leaders of
communities and kings to set a good example to those under
them, not to indulge in pleasures which may lead them to
commit violence and oppression, then God -will withdraw his
protection and blessing, &c., &c.
The twenty-fourth section (chap. xii. 8) recommends alms
giving, which, like good conduct, is a pillar of the world ; or
recommends kindness to those who are engaged in the study of
the law, for though we may have no return for it here, we shall
be blessed for it hereafter, &c.
The twenty-fifth section (chap. xi. 9 -xii. 1) recommends
that we should enlist in the service of God from early youth, or
perhaps suggests that we should neither be dejected nor too
buoyant, remembering that we shall be brought into judgment
for all we do, &c., &c.
The twenty-sixth section (chap xii. 2-7) describes the
weakness of our bodily frame in old age, in consequence of
which we are unable to do much good, hence the admonition to
remember the Creator whilst we are young.

INTRODUCTION. 73
The twenty-seventh section (chap. xii. 8-14) repeats the
assertion made in the beginning, namely, that all worldly
pursuits are vanity ; describes the wisdom of Coheleth, and the
claim he has to our attention ; and concludes by telling us that
all depends upon fearing God and obeying his commandments.
We have given a copious extract of this analysis, if such it
may be called, because Galicho is the first expositor who gives
a summary of the contents of Coheleth. The commentary is
chiefly allegorical, very extensive, and abounds in quotations
from the Midrashim, and other Rabbinical writings.
1580. - — Though we now find all commentators agreeing in
the traditional view that Solomon wrote this book in his old
age, when he repented, and was restored to God and his earthly
kingdom, yet their opinions as to the design and plan of
Coheleth are as divergent as ever. Every fresh commentator
either actually or virtually regards all his predecessors as having
misunderstood Coheleth. Accordingly, the distinguished Moses
Alshech' submits that Solomon wrote this treatise to teach that
man has been sent into this world to gain the world to come.
As one goes from a palace to the town, to trade in various articles, in
order to bring good things to his house, to satisfy his soul from all the
transactions he has made in the city whither he went, so that he may rejoice
in the palace whence he came, as this is his home, and this the place where
he rests from all his labours wherewith he laboured in the city to which he
went; — but he who does not labour in the city, to gather good things, will
return to his palace whence he came just as he left it, and, instead of
pleasure, he will have sorrow and distress ; — so will it be with every man
of Israel who leaves the mansions of the upper world, the enjoyments and
pleasures in the palace of the King of the Universe, and comes into the
houses of clay of this world to engage in the law and commandments,
that he may bring into the treasury of the Holy King, in the upper world,
wherewith to satisfy his soul from his labours in this world. But if he
' Moses Alshech was born in Safet, Upper Galilee, about 1520. He was the
pupil of the famous Jos. Earo, and made such astonishing progress in the
acquisition of varied learning, that he became one of the most distinguished
commentators of the sixteenth century, and occupied the office of chief Rabbi in
his native place, where he died about 1595, L

74 INTRODUCTION.
chooses his way in this world to sit down, and not do anything in the law
and commandments, and indulges in eating the fat and drinking the sweet
things of this world, and throws the work of the law and the command
ments behind his back, then an untimely birth is better than he. For the
spirit shall return to God without any good, and full of after-growths of the
miry clay, and scabs of sins and transgressions; and will have brought all this
evil upon him by his own lusts. For the delusive good things of this world
he gradually forsakes the Lord, till he despises the good and chooses the
evil. Wherefore Solomon, in his great wisdom, here teaches man to know
the vanity of earthly pursuits, so that the righteous may lay hold of the way
of the Lord lo perfect his heart, since there is nothing good but the service
and fear of the Lord all the day. And this it is with which he concludes:
" The end of the matter is. All is heard, fear God," &c., &c.'
As it is to be expected from this celebrated Rabbi and
preacher, his commentary contains many beautiful thoughts and
attractive parables, which might be serviceable to homilists, but
does not contribute much to the exegesis of the book.
1631. — Far less interesting, but much more recondite, than
Alshech, is the commentary of El. Loanz,^ who, like Solomon,
according to tradition, betook himself in his old age to write
upon the vanity of all earthly things. " When Solomon began
in his latter days," says this Kabbalist, " to learn Mishna Thorah,
he found it his duty to speak publicly to the people words of
wisdom and instruction."
This Baal-Shem also grapples with the difficulties and hard
sayings of Coheleth, and the manner in which he attempts to
explain them does no credit to the Kabbalah, of which he had
such a wonderful knowledge, as will be seen from the following
specimen of the introduction to his commentary : —
As to the words, " Eejoice, 0 young man, in thy youth,'' &o. (xi. 9), we
find in the Midrash Rabba that R, Samuel, the son of Isaac, says that the
wise men wanted to hide Coheleth, because there are in it sentiments
which lean to infidelity ; they said that it contains Solomon's own wisdom,

1 Commentary on the Five Megilloth, Offenbach, 1721, p. 48, &o.
* Eliah Loanz, also called Baal-Shem (the renowned or wonder-working man),
from his marvellous knowledge of the Kabbala and El. Ashkenasi, was born in
Frankfort. on-the-Maine about 1550, and died in Worms, 16;)6.

INTRODUCTION. 75
because he uttered the above words. Moses said, " Ye shall not follow the
ways of your hearts," &c. (Numb. xv. 39), and Solomon says, " Walk in the
ways of thy heart" (xi. 9), doing away, as it were, with judge and judgment;
but when he said, " for all this, God will bring thee into judgment {Ibid.),
they said that " Solomon, honour be upon him, said well." Now, this pro
ceeding is a matter of great astonishment to every intelligent man ; 1 . How
could our sages, of blessed memory, pass judgment upon the beginning of
the verse, without at once seeing the orthodox end of it, and thus try to
hide the book ; especially as we so frequently find the saying in the writings
of our Eabbins, of blessed memory, " Fool 1 always look to the end of a
sentence !" ? 2. Why were our sages going to contradict themselves ? Have
they not already declared (Perek Hasholeach, p. 45), in the name of
E. Nachman — and there was no difi'erence of opinion about this — that a
scroll of the law copied by an infidel must be burned ? and has not Yoreh
Deab (§ 281) explained this declaration, " Even if there is no flaw or mistake
in such a copy, it must be burnt, from the very fact that an infidel made
it?" yet this book, which tends to infidelity, the sages wanted to hide,
when they, according to their own teaching, ought to have burnt it. 3. If
the beginning of the verse is heresy, how can the end be so orthodox as to
merit the approbation, " Solomon has said well," &c. ? 4. The passage
begins with, " Eejoice, 0 young man," and against this they exclaim, " It
is Solomon's own wisdom," as if this were the great difiSculty in their eyes ;
when in fact the words, " and walk in the ways of thy heart," are the
difficulty, inasmuch as th^ contradict the injunction of our Babbi Moses,
peace be upon him. 5. Why did they not say that Solomon also contradicts
Moses in the following clause of the same verse ? — Comp. " Walk in the
sight of thine eyes " (xi. 9) with " and ye shall not walk after your eyes "
(Numb. XV. 39). 6. Why were they going to conceal it ? why had they not
the courage to explain the difficulties as E. Hanah did, or E. Levi, which
is recorded in the Talmud (Shabbath, 30, 2), e.g., E. Hanah said. What
is the meaning of " Eejoice, 0 young man, in thy youth, &o,, &c. . . God
will bring thee into judgment" ? The former, the evil spirit (n"s'n) in man,
cries, the latter is the language of the good spirit (iD"s'n). E. Levi said,
the former refers to the joy in the words of the law, the latter to good works ;
and Eashi, the great luminary of blessed memory, explains " Eejoice, O
young man" in the study of the law, " and walk in the ways of thy heart,"
i.e., understand, as far as thou canst see, what is in thy heart, what good
works thou canst do ; " and know that for all this," &c,, i. e., know that for
all thou hast learned thou wilt bo judged, if thou dost not keep it. 7. Why
did they regard the first part of this verse as heretical, and not other
passages, such as " Whatsoever thine hand findeth to do,'' &c. (ix. 10) giving
liberty to anything one likes, because " there is no work nor account in
the grave" {Ibid.), thus doing away with all future judgment, and making
the gi-ave a place of refuge ? I therefore wonder that they did not give this

76 INTRODUCTION.
passage as a reason for wanting to conceal the book, rather than the verse,
" Eejoice, O young man," especially as it occurs first. They would have
liked to take this too in the sense of E. Hanah and E. Levi, viz., to regard
the bad passages as being from the evil spirit, and the good passages from
the good spirit ; and to say that the reason why they wanted to conceal the
book was because they feared lest one wickedly inclined should take it up,
and prefer to be guided by the beginning of the verse, which is heretical,
and not look to the end, or, if he saw it, would say the former part is the
true one. But when they saw that it concludes with, " and know that for
all this! &e.- — which shews that E. Hanah's explanation is untenable, for,
according to his meaning, " all this" ought to be omitted — they come to
the conclusion that nb«~b3"b» must be explained by nevertheless, as Eesh
Lakish interpreted it, i.e., "Eejoice in thy learning, and do good to thy
heart, to understand what is in thy heart, according to the sight of thine eyes,
for thou canst not judge except what thine eye sees, and know that, notwith
standing this, God will bring thee into judgment." The other difficulties
still require a solution; let us therefore inquire into the seventh question,
viz,, why the sages did not think of hiding the book for the assertion,
" Whatsoever thine hand finds to do," &c. (ix. 10) ; and the cause of it is,
either it is to be explained as we have stated it in the commentary, or that
the word paan refers to rms-a ; and Coheleth says, because thou canst not do
any good work in the grave, which might be balanced against thy sins, since
the dead are free from all the commandments; and that it is preceded by
the passage, " and enjoy life with thy wife," wherein Coheleth incites to the
observance of the law and its commandments, as it is explained below, so
that it does not belong to the heretical passages. But when they saw this
verse they were astounded and dismayed at its foolish sentiments, since
even a fool would be led thereby to heresy; and they at first thought
that Solomon talked foolishness in saying, " Eejoice, O young man," and
therefore they said that this is Solomon's own wisdom, i. e., it is nothing
but nonsense; it does not become one of the common people to talk so,
much less a wise man like Solomon, for how can the term rnnb' be applied
to a young man iina? it ought to be innnaa -iina nnia; but more than this,
it is heretical, since Moses said, "Ye shall not walk in the way of your
heart" (Numb. xv. 39), and Solomon here says, " Walk in the way of your
heart," &c. Now, why the sages did not burn it, but intended to hide the
book, is because Solomon was no infidel ; on the contrary, if his words are
properly examined, it will be seen that they are perfectly true, and becoming
such a wise man as he was. That an empty-headed man may shelter
himself under the literal meaning of the words, is no reason why the
wise men should have burned a book of such sublime sentiments. For
we find in the Pentateuch, " let us make (nms:) man (the plural), yet there
is no fear of its leading to infidelity [or polytheism], for the answer is
close by it, in the singular, mw, and he created (Gen, i, 26, 27), so it is with

INTRODUCTION. 77
the sentiments of Solomon. The reason, however, why the wise men
wanted to hide the book is, that there were in those days some popular philo
sophers among the Gentiles who were greatly followed, and our sages were
afraid lest one of them should come forward, and say, Behold, he whose
wisdom spread all over the world says, " Eejoice, 0, young man,'' &c.,
and not understanding his meaning, he may be led thereby into infidelity ; it
therefore occurred to our sages to hi,de the book. But when they saw his
remark, " And know that for all this he wUl bring thee into judgment," &c.,
they saw that the beginning of the verse was no nonsense, and the middle was
not heretical ; for the law of interpretation compelled them to take the first
part of the verse also in a good sense ; and the'y explained, " Eejoice, O young
man," as referring to the mind, which attains to its highest stage by
studying the wisdom of the law ; i.e., till thou art called a young man; whilst
thou art still a boy of tender years, occupy thyself to such an extent with
the law that thou mayest be called young man ; and although thou dost
not study it for its own sake, yet thou wilt do thy heart good, for when
thou shalt become a young man thy heart will draw thee to that which is
good, to study the law for its own sake; for, as the sages of blessed memory
said, " begin from motive, and you will end in doing a thing from being
purely interested in it ;" and mark that, notwithstanding all thy studies in
the law, God will bring thee into judgment, for thou mayest not have
studied, or acted, or thought as thou oughtest to have done."
This curious defence of the sages in retaining Coheleth in the
canon is very important, inasmuch as it shews that even the
Kabbalists, with all their contempt for literal interpretation,
were greatly staggered at the difficulties adduced by these wise
men' for their first intention to conceal the book ; and that their
reasons for setting aside this intention are beset with gTeater
difficulties than the book itself.
1724. — In the commentary of Moses Landsberger, Kabbalistic
interpretation seems to have reached its climax. He does not
assign any design to the book, or admit any literal meaning, but
explains every verse according to the rules Grammatia and
Notaricun.^ The redeeming part of Landsberger's work is, that
it is extremely short. Thus all he tells us on chap. i. 15, " The
crooked cannot be made straight," is, that it means Cain, Korah,
Balaam, Ahithophel, Gehazi, and Doeg, the six wicked ones who,
' For these rules of interpretation, see p. 31, &c.

78 INTRODUCTION.
according to Ahoth de Babbi Nathan, have no portion in the world
to come}
1770. — A new era now commenced in Biblical exegesis, and
in Hebrew literature generally. The immortal Mendelssohn
was now directing the mispent Jewish intellect and zeal to the
proper study of the Word of God, in accordance -with the literal
and grammatical sense. His first effort to this effect was the
publication of a Hebrew commentary on Coheleth, which
appeared, according to the Jewish chronology, in 5530, i.e.,
1770 of the Christian era.^
Mendelssohn, too, complains that "nearly all the commen
tators who have preceded me have almost entirely failed in doing
justice to their task of interpretation .... I have not
found in one of them an interpretation adequate to the correct
explanation of the connection of the verses of the book; but,
according to their method, nearly every verse is spoken sepa
rately and unconnectedly ; and this -would not be right in a
private and insignificant author, and much less in a -wise king "
(p. 73). As to the design of the book, Mendelssohn thinks ihtd
Solomon wrote it to propound the doctrine of the immortality of the
soul, and the necessity of leading a cheerful and contented life; and
interspersed these cardinal points with lessons of minor importance,
such as worship, politics, domestic economy, &c.
Mendelssohn di-^des the book into thirteen sections. The
first section, which is a sort of introduction, is from chap. i. 1 to
verse 11 ; the second, from chap. i. 12 to ii. 11 ; the third is from
chap. ii. 12 to 26 ; the fourth, from chap. iii. 1 to iv. 3 ; the
fifth, from chap. iv. 4 to 16 ; the sixth, from chap. iv. 17 to v. 19;

' This precious document is contained in the D'linM ini\i>, the guard of the
faithful, as he calls his commentary on the .Pentateuch and five Megilloth,
published in Ofi'enbach, 1724, p. 40, &o.
" This commentary was so highly thought of, that it was almost immediately
translated into German, by J. J. Rabe, the translator of the Mishnah, and
published in Ansbaoh, 1771. A translation has also more recently been published
by Theodor Preston, London, 1845, to which our references will be made, for the
sake of the English reader.

INTRODUCTION. 79
the seventh, from chap. vi. 1 to vii. 14; the eighth, from chap.
vii. 15 to viii. 9 ; the ninth, from chap. viii. 10 to ix. 12 ; the
tenth, from chap. ix. 13 to x. 15 ; the eleventh, from chap. x. 16
to xi. 6 ; the twelfth, firom chap. xi. 7 to xii. 7 ; the thirteenth
section, which is, as it were, the conclusion and seal of the con
tents, is from chap. xii. 8 to the end of the book.
How much this distinguished philosopher and commentator
has followed the criticisms, and sometimes even the peculiarities,
of Ibn Ezra, will be seen in the course of our Commentary.
1788. — As the above commentary appeared with the Hebrew
original which it purported to elucidate, David Friedlander, the
worthy disciple of Mendelssohn, published, in 1788, a translation
of Coheleth, according to the explanation of his master, with an
introduction of his own, and a valuable " treatise upon the best
use of Scripture."
We cannot do better than give Friedlander's own words,
respecting what he thinks is the design, unity, style, &c., of this
book. The real import of the whole work is : " Contemplations upon the fruitless
struggle after happiness and the vanity of human aff'airs.'' A tone of unity
pervades the whole book ft-om beginning to end, which puts it beyond a
doubt that the varied experience and observations given therein have all
been made by the august author, and that they are not observations made
by others which he has simply collected or compiled. This is moreover
evident irom the interspersed wise maxims which, as is well known, are
the oldest fruit of human sagacity, and are the result of real experience,
contained in pithy sayings which memory easily retains. The remarks are
made from a profound knowledge of the world and mankind, and are taken
from common life ; they have mostly a tinge of melancholy, and sometimes
the colour is even thickly laid on. This imparts to them a deep interest;
we hear a powerful prince of the past, possessing all the greatest earthly
happiness, philosophising upon the wrong use of life, and stirring us up to
the fear of God, virtue, and morality. What a powerful reason to trust to his
experience, and to listen to his advice ! The august author has adopted no
definite plan. In his own fashion he goes through the whole of human
life, and throws out his remarks upon its several positions. He contem
plates, teaches, mourns, comforts, imparts counsel, contradicts, and corrects
himself; and although the whole betrays the course of mere social ideas, yet
the principal thread upon which all things are strung is never entirely lost.

80 INTRODUCTION.
From this point of view the apparent contradictions are easily solved.
The author is no dogmatic and phlegmatic teacher, but a warm and animated
examiner of truth. To a philosopher, it is essential to listen to the opposite
opinions. He, without regarding his own system, listens to all objections
which can be made, and does not fear the consequences of statements he
admits. The difi'erence, however, between the philosopher and our august
author is, that in his book two voices, as it were, speak ; or, in other words,
that he candidly places before the eyes of the reader all the objections which
he makes, and all that transpires in his inmost soul ; he is not afraid to
THINK aloud. It would therefore be dishonest if we were to charge him
with all the opinions which he adduces, and thus requite his openness;
justice demands that we should adhere to that which this great man gives,
at the end of his contemplations, as the result of his investigations, namely,
The conclusion which contains all is, Feah God, keep his com
mandments, THIS IS THE DESTINY OF MAN.
The best commentaries agree that Coheleth must be judged in this way,
and no careful reader can refuse his assent to this opinion.
It will be seen from the above that the import and plan of this book
differ from the import and plan of all other books of the Bible. The same
is the case with its language ; it is unmistakably difi'erent from the language
of older or contemporary writings. Single words and phrases, compounds
and idioms, as well as certain repetitions and favourite expressions, are
peculiar to this book. It may therefore rightly be asserted, that with respect
to expression and style, as well as import and tone, Coheleth has no com
panion in the whole Bible, Whether this is merely to be ascribed to the
author's manner of philosophising, or to some other causes, I dare not
decide. But this much is certain, that the great obscurity which rests upon
the whole is very much increased through the want of parallels; it is this
which increases the difficulty of interpreting it.'
In addition to this very comprehensive introduction, Fried
lander gives a summary of the contents of every paragraph,
which Mendelssohn has not done. As we have therein not only
the disciple's opinion of the plan of Coheleth, but also the idea
of the great master, we give it entire.
The first section (chap. i. 1-11) is an introduction, wherein the preacher
speaks generally; all earthly things, all the work and industry of man, are
utterly vain and useless. All things in nature will always continue as they
now are, for everything has been predetermined ; all things move in a per-
' Der Prediger, aus dem Hebraischen von David Friedlander, Berlin, 1788,
pp. 82-86,

INTRODUCTION. 81
petual round ; man cannot create anything new, he can only separate or
join in a difi'erent way that which is created.
The second section (chap. i. 13 -ii. 11). — Searching does not make us
happy; the more knowledge, the more suffering. The impossibiliy of accom
plishing our desire to make the imperfect perfect, and correct the crooked, is
a source of grief. The enjoyment of sensual pleasures, so far from making
us happy, terminates in disgust; neither does the combination of intellec
tual enjoyment and sensual pleasures make one happy: all is vanity and
emptiness. The third section (chap ii. 12-26). — Wisdom has indeed an essential
advantage over folly. To be occupied in researches and study, is a far
nobler employment than to pursue sensual pleasures ; still, the wise and the
fool have the same destiny, the-name of both is soon forgotten. This makes
life hateful; the thought that I may leave my hard-earned goods to an
unworthy heir is also grievous. Nay, even one's own enjoyment of the
present is not in the power of man, for all is fixed beforehand.
The fourth section (chap. iii. 1-iv. 3). — A further development of the
same idea. Everything seems to have its root in eternal predestination ;
everything in the moral and physical world is subject to an iron necessity ;
man can make no alteration in the course of things. Nothing, however, is
absolutely evil; things are apparently evil, but result in good. God's ulti
mate design is always effected ; when men choose they act arbitrarily,
but after all the will of God is done. There must be a future when good
and evil will be rewarded, else the injustice so frequently practised here
would be incompatible with the justice and mercy of the Creator. A future
would necessarily presuppose immortality, still this cannot be demonstrated
from the nature of the soul; man and beast seem to be accidental and
perishing beings; but the violence perpetrated under the sun, the tears of
the oppressed, speak loudly for a future and immortality.
The fifth section (chap. iv. 4-16) is on matters of social happiness. Many
find a source of happiness in the exertion of industry, but the mainspring
is jealousy, every one being desirous to be above his neighbour. Verse 5
gives the remark of the industrious, and verse 6 the reply of the lazy. The
royal preacher recommends social and matrimonial life; married people
have a good reward; children make the bond of union still tighter. The
wise ought to rule; birth has no claim to the throne. The populace are
always for new governments; the worthlessness of popular favour.
The sixth section (chap. iv. 17 -v. 19), — True piety consists in fearing
God, and not in costly sacrifices, or in much uniiitelligible prayer; sin not,
and sacrifice not. Human government is imperfect; one man cannot
superintend all the government, and the prince is easily deceived by the
necessary multitude of state officials. Even a farmer-king must have sub
ordinates whom he trusts, how much more requires a great potentate?
Eiches do not make happy; they often make one unhappy. Man departs
M

82 INTRODUCTION.
naked from this world, and many a one does not even take with him
good actions as a sign of his conduct ; many a one wastes away this life by
"HifgardUness ; a rational use of one's possessions is happiness and the
will of God.
The seventh section (chap. vi. 1 - vii. 14). — Eepeated complaints against
Providence, that many want the sense to enjoy their possessions. The
advantage of wisdom is nothing, if the wise must suffer. The doctrine of
predestination is repeated in answer to these complaints ; we cannot contend
with a mighty one ; murmuring is therefore useless, especially as that which
the wise must do without is worthless and vanity. The idea of earthly
happiness is very vague, which is shewn by several examples; then follow
detached lessons and wise sayings. The whole universe is intimately con
nected, and bears the impress of the sublimity, goodness, and wisdom of the
Author; it is therefore reasonable that we should not murmur against God,
but bear our fate with patience and resignation.
The eighth section (chap. vii. 15 -viii. 9). — Eules for governing and
admonitions to princes. Absolute justice is impracticable for the transac
tions of government ; experience, too, teaches that it is not for man. It is
now impossible to ascertain whether man was originally perfect; at present
he is not. Folly and ignorance are the source of vice; sensuality, which
goes by the name of folly, is here personified as a harlot, and, by the way,
an attack is made upon the whole female sex. Another cause of evil in the
world is man's daily increasing wants ; naturally he has few wants, but they
are multiplied in social connections. Eules for subjects. Admonitions not
to enter into any conspiracy against rulers. A faithful servant of state will
suffer and be quiet ; a tyrant does not last long ; he can, as little as other
earthborn children, escape plagues, natural death, and being killed in war —
experience shews this.
The ninth section (chap. viii. 10-ix. 12). Further contemplations on
the apparent prosperity of the wicked and adversity of the good. Because
punishment does not always follow immediately upon transgression, the
wicked are inclined to believe that there is no retribution ; but it is certain
that the righteous will be happy in a future life ; the prosperity of the wicked
is but momentary, and will pass away like a shadow. If the virtuous were
always prosperous and the vicious unfortunate, there would be no merit in
virtue. We cannot judge the whole, and from the little we see taking
place upon earth, no conclusion can be formed; but this much is certain,
that without another world and immortality, future punishment and reward,
the whole would be inexplicahle. To judge from what takes place here
below, sensual pleasure would seem the highest good; and this too brings
care and trouble, and at last causes disgust and vexation. If all terminated
with this life, everything would contradict our moral nature, for the same
things happen alike to all. It cannot be reconciled with the justice of the
Creator, that so many sinners, without repenting in the least, depart into

INTRODUCTION. 83
the realms of the dead; their existence becomes for them a positive curse.
Moreover, without a future, earthly life would be the highest good ; and life,
however miserable, would be preferable to annihilation, from which the
soul recoils. The living dog would be better than a dead lion. What
keeps us from breaking all laws, to accomplish all for which we have
power, to break through all bonds which are in the way of our gratifications?
But all this is contrary to the moral sense of man. Moreover, this happiness
is not always the portion of the able and wise. The swift does not always
win the race. This is another source of pain to him who denies a future
life. The conviction of immortality, and reward and punishment in
another life, can alone remove the doubt and reconcile these contradictions.
Here below we are not able to survey the whole, to distinguish apparent
good and apparent evil, and hence are also not able to judge of the way of
Providence ; but the future will throw light upon all these obscurities, and
solve all these apparent contradictions into the most beautiful harmony.
The tenth section (chap. ix. 13 -x. 15) Observations on the value of
intellectual powers with respect to political matters, illustrated by an
example — the smallest error of a wise man may involve the most serious
consequences. Fools do not rule long ; if they attain to important offices,
through the rashness of the prince, their honour is of short duration.
Flatterers and slanderers cannot go on long ; being always obliged to
contrive new ways to advance, they consume their powers. Wisdom goes
only one way, the straight one, and thereby always overthrows her enemies.
The eleventh section (ohap. x. 16 -xi. 6). Description of a bad govern
ment ; caution in judging it is recommended. Encouragements to
commerce and alliance with other nations ; rules to be observed thereby.
As the preacher recommends attention to misfortunes which may happen
in the course of nature, so he also warns against all superstitious sooth
saying, forebodings, watching the clouds, and other offsprings of an
unbridled imagination.
The twelfth section (chap. xi. 7- xii. 7). Eest is desirable after labour,
and enjoyment of what one has acquired. But the enjoyment must be
moderate, and in keeping with the laws prescribed by the fear of God and
the regulations of man. Hereupon follows an allegorical description of
old age, and the decay of the mind and body, which is extremely difficult to
explain. (Many words in this section are foreign, and can only be explained
and translated by conjecture.)
The thirteenth section (chap. xii. 8- 14). The conclusion. The preacher
says that his object in this treatise was to teach man the truth which is
useful for them, and that he has endeavoured to express himself attractively,
to make a deeper impression on them. The conclusion of the whole
enquiry is, that all the doings of man will be brought before the judgment
of God, and that we are therefore to fear Him and keep His command
ments.

84 INTRODUCTION.
This sensible introduction and analysis of Coheleth shew how
creditably Friedlander responded to the appeal of his master in
defence of rational exegesis.
1831. — In 1831 Moses Heinemann published a translation of
Coheleth, with brief but comprehensive notes. He too thinks
that this book contains a collection of diverse experience, observa
tions, opinions, truths, and lessons of wisdom, which Solomon
collected together (hence the name rhyipi collector or compiler), to
shew that everlasting life is the sole end of our existence here, and
that everything earthly and sensual is vain, foolish, and transi
tory.^ This view of regarding the book as a collection of differ
ent opinions, &c., has its origin in an anxiety to remove from
Solomon every obnoxious sentiment. Hence Heinemann's very
forced explanation of
Chap. iii. 18-21. I thought in my heart, Sc. — Among the different
sections of faith, egotism often produces so-called libertines, who ridicule all
Divine revelation and reject every religious ordinance; whilst, touching
freedom of will, they consider the giving of law to emanate irom their
peculiar intellect, and form rules of life according to their arbitrary inclina
tions. Eespecting such arrogant individuals Coheleth remarks that they
consider themselves the chosen of God by virtue of their reason, making the
greatest dignity of man and his prerogatives above all other creatures to
consist in being the cause of their actions. Coheleth, whilst characterising
such a mode of thinking as recommends acts contrary to the Divine will as
sceptical, places the latter on a par with the use of intuitive actions in
irrational creatures, and regards the works of both, like all earthly things,
as perishable and aimless, as vain and empty. And though it is certain
that the human spirit, by virtue of its power of development and capacities,
rises higher and higher to the uppermost intellectual spheres, yet are we
as unable to say whether such a misguided spirit as has departed from the
way of the law will reach that uppermost height, where the obedient may
approach the Deity to enjoy its bliss in the voice of the Divine favour, as
we are unable to define the low point of the animal spirit,'
1837. — This mode of forcing upon the sacred writer philo
sophic sentiments, which are alike contrary to the scope of the
' Uebersetzung des Koheleth, nebst grammatisoh exegetischera Commentar
von Moses Heinemann, Berlin, 1831, p. 3, and p. 129.
' Commentary, p. 38, &o.

INTRODUCTION. 85
passage and the simple meaning of the text, in order to overcome
difficulties which are insurmountable without the true clue to
the design of the book, is adopted to a still larger extent by
S. H. Auerbach. In 1837 he published a German translation
of this book, with the original text, and a Hebrew commentary,
maintaining quite a new theory, that Solomon wrote Coheleth
(which signifies philosophy) to shew the relation of man both to
himself and to his fellow men, or society.
The sacred writer (Auerbach tells us) starts with the idea that all things
in nature are ordained by the Creator for a certain end, unknown to us,
whereunto all creation must follow, according to the inwardly working
powers of the Deity. And as man, though individually possessing a free
will in relation to the whole, is subject to these laws of nature with all his
actions and will — so that he, like all other creatures, cannot and must not
resist the power of the whole, or the great design of the Creator — he cannot
calculate beforehand with certainty the result of his actions, or the success
of his aims and efforts. If, therefore, his aims are to be successful, they
must harmonise with those of the whole, or of God. But, as the purposes
of God are unknown to man, nay are incomprehensible, a harmony and a
right conduct on the part of man with regard to God must be purely
accidental. Successful undertakings are therefore nothing else than acci
dentally right and proper catches of the design or will of God, inasmuch as
those undertakings have been subservient to the aim of the whole.
The creative will of the divine powers — D'nbN, synonymous with the
expression nature, i.e., the producing power — which, united in the one
Being (ni.rr), unremittingly work on in such a diversity of ways, that the
power of the human soul, being borne along, only passes a subjective judg
ment, dependent upon the present moment. The soul can comprehend
and grasp things only as they are momentarily brought before her by the
sensible world. All depends upon this external, momentary, and accidental
impression. Even to will and not to will, or love and hatred, are not in
the positive intellectual powers of man, but in the positive representation of
things ; and on this, again, time and space, by which man is swayed, have
an important influence, so that one and the same thing, which received in
one moment our affirmative, will in the next moment have a negative.
Man has indeed the power of adding to or taking from existing things,
or to hate and love ; but this power is circumscribed by time and circum
stances, namely, can be exercised only in the position in which the things
are before him (v:Bb, Coheleth ix. 1), in the outer and sensible world. Hence
the fate of a man very often depends upon a single accident or judgment;
and hence also the defects which he sees are frequently not objective, but
subjective. Thus, for instance, the most moral, just, pious, and wise man

86 INTRODUCTION.
may suffer throughout the whole of his life for a single error, because he
has not rightly comprehended and judged a thing there (d^. Ibid, iii, 17),
where it then was in time and space ; and the unrestrainable consequence,
which is always only in accordance with the Divine purpose as regards the
whole, will stamp his act, then performed, as a failure and misdemeanor,'
Having given us this philosophic disquisition, which we are
to take as the main idea of the sacred writer, Auerbach submits
that the book consists of two parts, comprising two treatises or
discourses ; the first, as we gather from his Commentary, extends
from chap. ii. to vii. 24 ; and the second, from chap. vii. 25 to
xii. 8, and that each of these parts has two sections, viz.,
i. 1 -iii. 22, and iv. 1 -vii. 24, form the two sections of the first
part ; and vii. 25 - ix. 10, and ix, 1 1 - xii. 8, are the two sections
of the second part. The first section, in each case, we are told
contains the enquiry, or is philosophical ; and the second gives
the application, or is practical.
Part I.
The first section (chap. i. 1 - iii. 22) treats on the relation of man to
himself with respect to the all-ruling order of God here below, in which
man can neither effect a change nor produce anything new, and hence
cannot of himself, with his physical or moral powers, be the author of his
earthly happiness. And the section concludes with the lesson deduced there
from, that, since man is as perishable and vain as all other creatures, it can
hardly be defined with certainty whether his powers and capacities, when
compared with those of animals, are to be regarded as superior, inasmuch
as man and the animal are both passive instruments of Providence,
the whole of man's earthly happiness would accordingly be to make the
best of his fate and of the present, and submit resignedly to the fulfilment
of his duties. Hereupon follows
The second section (chap. iv. 1-vii. 24), which is the application or
practical part, wherein the author discloses to man his grossest defects and
infirmities, warring in him and depriving him of the enjoyment of peace,
e.g., avarice, envy, &"c,, &c., in order to cure the evil.
Pakt II. treats on the relation of man to his fellow man, or society, and in
The fiest section (chap. vii. 25 -ix. 10) examines whether and bow
man can therein find happiness. His first thought on social life leads to
woman, the natural and inseparable companion of man, who fatally affects
the destiny of man. He is then forced, as it were, by her to the consideration
' See the introductory Epistle to the Commentary, pp. 8 and 9.

INTRODUCTION. 87
of the pomp and gaiety of the world, the varieties of fame, wealth, and
ambition, since that which man desires under these circumstances, he, even
with his innate capacities, cannot obtain, if he is not favoured by special
circumstances. As in the former part, the author shews us the vanity of
man's exertion and toil, and then concludes with the lesson that man,
knowing his frailty, should enjoy life with the woman he loves, and try to
derive as much pleasure as possible from all his toil. Whereupon again
follows —
The second section (chap. ix. 11 -xii. 8) which is again the application,
or the practical one. The sacred writer gives some of the most important
rules of life to the man who is to enter into social life, e.g., to have social
feelings, to be dauntless, cautious, diligent, forbearing, &c., and concludes
with the admonition to enjoy life, before the weakness of old age comes on,
and death terminates our existence.
At the conclusion (chap. xii. 8-14) a few verses are appended, which con
tain a summary view of the whole work, telling us that the sacred writer
wanted to find out something new, and, instead of it, felt himself constrained
to write down the old truth; that all the words of the wise tend to one
thing; that therefore all book-making, and prying into things, are super
fluous ; and that we are to fear God and keep His commandments, because
by this only will the good or bad of every action be determined.'
To make the sacred writer propound this philosophic theory,
Auerbach proceeds to translate many passages in a most unna
tural and unjustifiable way. The rendering of chap. iii. 18-22
will suffice as a specimen.''
I thus thought with respect to men: May God make it clear to them,
that they may see how that, with respect to their existence, they are like
beasts. For whether it be the destiny of man, or that of a beast, it ia
always only one destiny ; the one dies like the other, the capacities of both
terminate alike, and the superiority of man is without influence, because all
is vain. Both make the same way, they come from the earth, and return
to it. Who can therefore determine whether man's higher strivings be
higher, and the animals' lower strivings be lower? I, on the contrary,
1 See the introductory Epistle to the Commentary, pp. 12 and 13.
« Sd; bai^ite alfo in Sctreff bet 9Kenf(|en : inoge c^ i|nen @ott erloutern,
baf fie einfeien, wie fie in 3{u(ffi$t \^\i$ ©afcing gteii^ bem 35iel;e finb. jDenn,
eg fci bag ©d;i(Ifot beg SKenfc^en ober bag beg SBie^eg, eg iji imnier nur gin
®0i(ffal; jener jlirbt wie biefeg, beibct ga(;igfeiten laiifen auf Sing Jinnug
unb au(^ beg SPJenfi^en SJorjug ifi o^ne ginflup, weit 2lt(eg eitel ijl. ©ie
ma^en beibe einen gleit^en SBeg ; fie entflejen son bet gtbe unb fe|)ten ba^in
jutud, 2Bet fonn otgo nun befiimmen, baf beg 3}?enfd;cn ^olieteg ©ttc6en bag
giii^etc fei, unb beg SJie^eg nicbtigeg ©ttefcen bag Sliebtige fei ; i^ bcfct)tiefe

88 INTRODUCTION.
conclude that man has no other advantage than to rejoice in the discharge
of his duties, for this alone is his portion, because no one can shew him the
future and its consequences.
1838. — No commentator, since Rashbam, has so strictly
adhered to the literal and grammatical meaning of Coheleth as
Herzfeld, now chief Eabbi of Brunswick, and so well known by
his very elaborate history of the Jews. He, however, advances
a new theory, viz., that the design of Coheleth is to demonstrate
the vanity of all things; and, by thus shewing up the exertions of
ALL men to be alike vain, the sacred writer tries to comfort his
unhappy nation, who imagined that THEY ALONE are given up to
misfortunes. Thus Herzfeld tells us —
The sole tendency of the book is to teach the vanity of human efforts.
And now, since xii. 9, and the whole colouring of the book, shew that it
was intended for the people, the question is, what eff'ect did the writer think
to produce thereby upon the people ? It could surely not have been the
intention of our old Jewish sage to make philosophers of the people; and
just as little could it have entered into his mind to temper the pride of
his fellow-citizens with such a memento mori, since this nation had, for
thousands of years, not been out of the school of sufferings for a single
decade of years. There is, however, another object left: the demonstra
tions in our book of the vanity of all that is human, are so entirely free Irom
all peculiarly national colouring — so much so, that the peculiarly national
term mn', to designate the Deity, is dropped, and ?'n'jH is invariably used —
that the writer evidently did not intend to confine his demonstrations to the
circumstances under which this people lived, but extended them to the
circumstances of mankind generally. Now, by shewing that the exertions
of all men are alike vain, he tries to comfort his unhappy people, and take
away their belief, that they alone were given up to misery.'
The chief Rabbi of Brunswick di-ddes the book into nineteen
sections. The first section is from chap. i. 1 to 11 ; the second,
from chap. i. 12 to 18 ; the third, from chap. ii. I to 11 ; the
i)ielmet;t, bo? bem SSenfi^en niii^tg mc^t ftommt, alg fi$ feinct f fti^tetfftUung
JU etfteuen, benn nut biefeg iji fein SEJeil, mil ijm JJiemanb bie 3ufunft unb
t^tc gotgen jeigen fann.
' Coheleth iibersetzt und eriautert von Dr. L. Herzfeld, Braunschweig, 1838,
p. 10, &o.

INTRODUCTION. 89
fourth, from chap. ii. 12 to 23 ; the fifth, from chap. ii. 24 to
iii. 15 ; the sixth, firom chap. iii. 16 to iv. 3 ; the seventh, from
chap. iv. 4 to 12 ; the eighth, from chap. iv. 13 to 16 ; the ninth,
from chap. iv. 17 to v. 6; the tenth, from chap. v. 7 to vii. 9 ;
the eleventh, from chap. vii. 10 to 22 ; the twelfth, firom chap
vii. 23 to 24 ; the thirteenth, from chap. vii. 25 to viii. 13 ; the
fourteenth, firom chap. viii. 14 to 15 ; the fifteenth, from chap.
viii. 16 to ix, 12 ; the sixteenth, ft'om chap. ix. 13 to x. 3 ; the
seventeenth, firom chap. x. 4 to 20 ; the eighteenth, from chap. xi. 1
to xii. 8 ; the nineteenth section is from chap. xii. 9 to 14.
The commentary is preceded by an introduction of three
chapters, treating respectively on the contents, tendency, and
character of Coheleth. The third chapter, viz., the one treating
on the character of the book, is directed against Knobel, who, in
his then recent commentary, entered very minutely into the
later Hebrew words and phrases of Coheleth, shewing up a pro
digious number of them, and Herzfeld reduces " the expressions
and constructions foreign to the old literature," to about eleven
or fifteen, and " the Chaldaisms " to about eight or ten. This
has been hailed by the defenders of the antiquity of Coheleth,
who to this day quote the chief Rabbi of Brunswick, in opposi
tion to those who maintain that the diction of this book belongs
to the time when the Hebrew language was extremely vitiated
and rapidly dying away. But the chronological order we have
adopted will soon bring us back to Herzfeld, and his view upon
this subject.
1848. — The sixteenth volume of Cahen's celebrated edition
of the Hebrew Bible, with a French translation, and philological
and explanatory notes, contains a commentary on Coheleth,
which, as Cahen informs us,' is chiefly made up from a commu
nication of Leopold Dukes, to whom Hebrew literati are so
' La plus grande partie de oe que nous aliens dire sur L'Ecclesiaste est de
M. Dukes ; il en est de meme des notes. Ce savant a bien voulu nous donner
sur ce livre interessant un travail que nous avons tantot modifie, tantot abrege.
Nous avons aussi puise a quelques autres sources. La Bible, par S. Cahen,
tome seizi^me, k Paris, 1848, Avant-propos., p. xxv.
N

90 INTRODUCTION.
largely indebted for his numerous literary productions. We
must therefore regard that which Dukes and Cahen conjointly
propound about this book as the Duko-Cahen view.
The design of the book, we are here told, is to propound the phi
losophy of life, which the author, who is a sceptic, does, by treating
upon the following questions : What is the world ? What is its
destiny ? Is it governed by a superior intelligence, or is it the toy
of chance? Is the soul mortal or immortal? To give the reader
a proper idea of this novel view, we must let these learned men
speak for themselves. Cahen says that —
M. Dukes comjiares the course of the reflections of Ecclesiastes to the
veil which, among the Egyptians, covered the statue of Isis. No mortal
was permitted to raise this veil, but every one was allowed to give his
opinion as to what was behind it. Heraclites and Democrites, placed before
this veil, commented on it each in his own way, the one weeping, the other
laughing; our book holds the middle course between these two ways Doubt
resembles a cloud which appears on the horizon, grows imperceptibly, and
announces tempest, which the power of man knows not how to appease.
Doubt begins with the individual, and finishes wiih the world; the solution
begins with the world, and finishes with the individual. Doubt is the friut
of contemplation, but it is like children who instruct their mothers, or like
spices which give a good flavour to food. Doubt by itself is of no use; its
value consists in the service which it renders t-o reflection; one is not to
stop at doubt, it must serve him as a vehicle. Doubt is as old as reflection.
Before Descartes, -a Spanish proverb said, Fl-que no duda, no sdbe akun
res — He who doubts nothing knows nothing; and before the Spanish, a
Greek philosopher had already propounded this principle as the foundation
of all knowledge.
The sacred writer was a philosopher, who wished to view life from an
elevated standpoint; he would not content himself with the limited horizon
of those men who, taking life as it is, do not complain, except when fortune
is against them. He speaks for humanity, and his words have always
found an echo. His book is a great monologue, which presents life to us in
energetic traits, and its laconic style shews the profoundness of the thinker.
It is scepticism softened by maxims. The object which the writer has most
prominently before him is the future destiny of man.
It is doubt, the vanity of the things of this world, which forms the thread
of the entire book. The writer begins with "All is vanity" (i. 2), and
repeats it at the end of the book (xii. 9). To prove this, he accumulates
different observations on human life and its vicissitudes. He weighs all,
business and leisure, pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow, and determines

INTRODUCTION. 91
what is true and what is false ; what is lasting, and what is perishable; what
is real, and what is apparent. He adopts no methodical arrangement, but
simply the association of ideas. He asks himself, What is the world ? What
ia its destiny ? Is it governed by a superior intelligence, or is it the toy of
chance? Is the soul mortal or immortal? These are the questions on
which our author treats.'
1854. — Whilst Cahen was editing his gigantic Bible work
in France — where Rashi, Rashbam, and many other eminent
Jews had laboured to explain the Word of God, at a period
when the so-called Christians were engrossed with the Crusade
and the extermination of heretics — Philippson was at the same
time busy with the publication of a similar work in Germany.
This splendid edition of the Bible, besides giving the Hebrew
original with a German translation in parallel columns, and a
critical and exegetical commentary, is illustrated with upwards
of five hundred English woodcuts.
The Rabbi of Magdeburg also could not acquiesce in any of the
multifarious theories propounded by the long succession of com
mentators, as to the design of Coheleth, and therefore advanced
a new view. He maintains that the object of the book is to shew
that a belief in the vanity of human life is not only compatible
with a belief in God and moral efforts, but that by combining
the two together the sole end and value of life is manifested^
According to Philippson, Coheleth consists of three parts and
an epilogue.
The FIRST PART (chap. i. 2 -iii. 22), which is the general one,
has three sections. After giving the main observation as if it
were the motto, that all is vanity (chap. i. 2), the sacred writer
shews that this applies to all things in general (sect, i , chap. i.
3-11), and to the affairs of life in particular (sect, ii., chap.
i. 12 -ii. 23), and then deduces therefrom a rule of life, and
shews its soundness (sect, iii., chap. ii. 24 -iii. 22).
' See Introduction, pp. xxv., xxvii. We wish our space had permitted us to give
the whole of this very instructive Introduction.
'^ Die Israelitische Bibel, von Ludwig Philippson, Drifter Theil, 1854, pp. 746,
747.

92 INTRODUCTION.
The second part (chap. iv. 1-xi. 8), which is the special
one, has two sections. Coheleth considers the more important
events of human life from the point of view attained (sect, i.,
chap. iv. 1-vii. 12), and describes the conduct of a wise man
according to his opinion, following the given rule of life (sect, ii.,
chap. vii. 1 - xi. 8) .
The third part (chap. xi. 9 - xii. 8) gives the result of the
whole investigation, a close application of his established rule
of life, and concludes with the main observation, namely, that
all is vanity.
The epilogue (chap, xii 9-14) having been added by the
author shortly after the completion of the book, in consequence
of some scruples which arose among a small circle of friends to
whom he first read it, warns that the book is not to be read -with
levity of mind, and shews, in a brief and striking manner, its
religious stand-point.'
This is the design, and this the division of the book, according
to the chief Rabbi of Magdeburg, Dr. Philippson.
1855. — We now return to the chief Rabbi of Brunswick, Dr.
Herzfeld. In the first volume of his " History of the people of
Israel " (of which the first number appeared in 1855), Herzfeld,
after the lapse of seventeen years, takes up again his old favourite,
Coheleth. As so much has been said about his defence of the
book, we shall give his more matured view of its design and age
entire. The design of Coheleth is to shew that all is vanity, and that man cannot
secure even the vain happiness of this earth. The author puts his observations
into the mouth of Solomon, because in him were united royal power and
great wisdom, the fame of which would invest his words with authority;
and because he only who possessed all this, and by means of it secured all
kinds of pleasures, is entitled to such a general declaration that all is
vanity. Accordingly, Solomon shews that all his splendour could not yield
him happiness; nor could all human wisdom do it, because of its being
very limited, and because it is utterly impossible by its aid to turn to our

' Die Israelitische Bibel, von Ludwig Philippson, Dritter Theil, 1854, pp. 760,
751.

introduction. 93
advantage sublunary things, for all things, even the " transactions, love, and
hatred " of man, are under a divine fatality ; nor, lastly, was virtue capable
of making him happy, since earthly happiness is not always bestowed
according to moral worth, but is purely a gift of God. This will not appear
awful to one who believes in a future life, where virtue, unrewarded here,
wiU be rewarded ; but this belief, which was then still novel, had to struggle
with such great doubts in the mind of the author, that it often was overcome.
When looking in such hopeless moments at the distribution of happiness
and misery, without any regard to the worth of the recipient, he would have
regarded God as unjust, but for the pious feelings which strove against it ; he
therefore preferred to conclude that God governs the world by a higher and
inscrutable method, according to which he distributes unmerited lots in
single instances, without however being unjust, when that higher method
does not require it. Man can receive good from God in two ways — as a
reward for virtue, whenever that method permits it; and as a free gift, most
likely in order to further that method ; but man may also lose it in two ways
— first by his vicious conduct, and then through a wrong adjustment of his
circumstances. Hence, although we cannot with certainty secure happiness
by our industry, there are instances, nevertheless, where our conduct may
influence our happiness or misery. It does not contradict his theme when
the author, in treating upon it, especially towards the end, intersperses a
number of peculiar moral and wise rules, recommending the enjoyment of
every lawful pleasure which presents itself, manly self-denial in misfortune,
quiet endurance of all that cannot be averted, in which the epicurean and
stoical views are thoroughly blended together. Still these interspersed
rules are a secondary matter with the author, and are often involuntary
digressions ; his main object is to preach the vanity of all things human.-
By keeping his illustration free from all national colouring, the author, who
probably wrote about the end of the Persian dominion, wanted to shew his
oppressed nation that no other nation is much better off than they are ;
the Messianic hopes must have nearly disappeared at that time. As to the
importance of the book, we submit that the very fact of its entering upon
new ground, i. e., philosophy, is in itself of no small importance. There are
single questions in the Prophets and Psalms of higher importance, but they
are not explained, not dialectically pursued ; they are either left unanswered,
or answered not logically, but in a lyrically or prophetically peremptory
declaration. A more expansive course has indeed been pursued in the book
of Job ; the enquiry why and whether (not whether and why) the righteous
often suff'er and the wicked prosper, receives many phases; but here again
the discourses turn throughout into the lyric, and with the lyric the argument
is lost ; and God, who appears at the conclusion, does not answer the
proposed question, but cuts it off', and bids the sophists be silent. It is only
in Coheleth that it appears in prose, which is the only adequate form for
philosophic disquisition ; and it is not the author's fault that the way which

94 introduction.
he opened has been left untrodden by his successors. Moreover, the indepen
dence and openness of his sentiments are highly to be praised; in these he
has not only surpassed all the canonical and apocryphal writers, but also
Philo and the philosophers of our Arabian school. He has also, from his
point of view, satisfactorily solved the proposed question. It is only to be
regretted that he has not conceded a value to virtue independent of reward,
as his investigations brought him so closely to it. The treatise is unequal.
That the author drops Solomon almost entirely, as soon as he has made him
explain that all his grandeur could not make him happy, is owing to
the fact that a royal mouth was not requisite for the other declarations,
and, as has already been remarked, that he never seriously intended to
ascribe it to Solomon. There is a plan in the arrangement of it, which
however is not always preserved, and we must frequently be satisfied with
the unity of the theme, which is far better observed. The style of the
composition is for the most part simple in the discursive portions, hut
sometimes diffuse and clumsy, because the author had to create a philo
sophical language. The words newly made or newly applied for this purpose
indicate skill; the observations and admonitions interspersed are in a
gnomological form, but are no great performance ; finally, the description
of old age and approaching death, at the end of the book, though suff'ering
from an oriental redundancy of figure, has a great charm in its vacillation
between lyric and elegy.'
To this exposition of the design, importance, plan, and diction
of the book, which is given in the text of the history, Herzfeld
adds, in the twentieth Excursus, a disquisition on the authorship
of Coheleth. As this must be especially interesting to those who
have so frequently appealed to him upon this subject, we shall
also give it entire.
All that I have to say upon Coheleth will be found dispersed through the
introduction of my Commentary, published in 1838, except the much
disputed Solomonic authorship, about which I promised to explain myself
another time. Some greatly blamed me for this caution, and others again
charged me with taking Solomon to be the author, although the very reverse
is to be deduced from numerous passages in the introduction and commentary.
The cause of my silence was simply owing to the fact that seventeen yeais
ago a Jewish theologian could not handle Biblical criticism without serious
danger. However, the point then passed by must now be retrieved.
The book itself states (i. 1. 12) that a son of David, king in Israel, i e.,
Solomon, is the author; and hence the origin of the unanimous popular
' Gesohichte des Volkes lisrael, von Dr. L. Herzfeld, Nordhausen, 1857;
Zweiter Band, pp. 28-31.

introduction. 95
tradition, which is by no means contradicted by the assertion that King
Hezekiah and his associates wrote Coheleth (Baba Bathra, 15, a), as this
simply refers to the final editorship. But Solomon, whose father first ele
vated Jerusalem to a royal residence, could not say " more than all (kings)
who were before me in Jerusalem" (i. 16; ii. 7), nor recommend to wait
cautiously for an opportunity to rise against a tyrant (viii. 5, 6), nor give a
description of a royal spendthrift (x. 16-19), nor were the people so unhappy
in his time, as iv. 1, v. 7 presuppose. The complaints about unrighteous
judges (iii. 17), about violence (iv. 1; v. 7), about unworthy filling of places
of honour (x. 5-7) — it might be urged, are not so very strange, for a king who
has once placed himself in the position of a popular teacher. But still, this
objection against the Solomonic authorship has some weight when added to
the former. Moreover, the belief in tbe return of the soul to God, though
questioned in iii. 21, being nevertheless so common as to be discussed in a
popular work, andeven obtain the victory, cannot be ascribed to Solomon, for
there is no trace of it to be found from his days till after the exile. Finally,
I have shewn in my commentary (p. 13-22), that although many words and
phrases in Coheleth are wrongly explained as later Hebrew or Chaldee,
there yet remains a considerable number of both in the book. All these
arguments combined are perfectly sufficient to shew that Solomon is not the
author of this book. This done, we can now give some clues for ascertaining
the date of its composition, which we were obliged to omit before. The
¦Chaldaisms in it would not oblige us to put it later than the Chaldee
invasion; but the state in which the doctrine of the immortality of the soul
appears therein, and its eleven to fifteen later Hebrew expressions, speak
for its being written a century at least after the exile. But it appears to me
to be of a still later date, from the two following reasons: — 1. The word
n^, as I iave already shewn in the commentary (p. 25), denotes such a
speaker in congregations, as the Sopherim (Q'^ipD) were. The author could
not have newly formed this word in order to apply it to Solomon, as this
designation is not at all applicable to him ; it must already have existed, and
obtained the secondary signification of teacher of wisdom, before it could be
applie4 to Solomon. Now, the Sopherim (D'^dd) did not appear in Judea
till the time of Ezra, and the expression Coheleth (n^^P), to designate them,
must have originated after it; and its transition from the primary to a
secondary sense must have taken place later still. 2. The niBDs 'b»? (xii. 11)
are evidently the same as the Q'"!?b. On the other hand, the political horizon
of the author (iv. 13-1 6, comp. the commentary) does not tally with the
dominion of tbe Ptolemies extending to the Maccabean period, or with the
Seleucean to a date nearly as late, but perfectly corresponds with the last
century of the Persian dominion. I therefore believe that this book was
written shortly before the era of Alexander the Great. The fear, that every
sigh about the rulers may be betrayed (x. 20), perfectly harmonises with
this time. This view does not, indeed, agree with the remark that Coheleth

96 introduction.
was locked up because of its questionable contents, till the men of the great
synagogue liberated it (Aboth E. Nathan, c. 1) ; but this modern note cannot
subvert a well weighed result of criticism, and is also contradicted by
Shabbath, 30, b, where it is related that " the sages" wanted to hide it from
the people, but ultimately abstained from it'
We think that Rabbi Herzfeld will -henceforth be no autho
rity with those who have hitherto appealed to him in corrobora
tion of the pure Hebrew diction and Solomonic authorship of
Coheleth. 1858. — There is, however, another Jewish commentator,
though not a chief Rabbi, yet of some considerable abihty, who
still maintains the Solomonic authorship, and might henceforth
have been quoted as an authority upon this subject instead of
Herzfeld, were it not for the extravagant and eccentric theories
which he propounds. The individual is Nathan Rosenthal, who
published, in 1858, the text of Coheleth, with a German trans
lation, and an extensive Hebrew commentary, in which he
advances an entirely new view as to the design of this book.
According to him, Solomon, who was an Eclectic {ribTip,vide
supra, p. 4, No. 4), wrote this book, both to shew that wisdom is
useful only in proportion as it is combined with the fear of God
and the keeping of his commands, and to remove from, us the per
nicious opinion of the philosophers, who believed that everlasting
happiness, and the immortality of the soul, depend upon the culti
vation of the intellect, and not upon our conduct and works ; thus
making no distinction between those who serve God and those who
serve him not, by teaching us the very reverse, namely, that it is
through the law and fear of God that man can attain to spiritual
and everlasting happiness.^
As to the question, " How could Solomon collect difi'erent
philosophic systems which were foreign to the Jews, and did
not appear among the Gentiles till many centuries after, since
1 Gesohichte des Volkes lisrael, vol. ii., pp. 66, 67.
= Koheleth von Salomo, iibersetzt nebst einem ebraisohen Commentar von
Nathan Rosenthal, Prag,, 1858, p. 11.

introduction. 97
Thales, the first philosopher, lived about four hundred years
after Solomon ? " Rosenthal submits that philosophic systems
existed from time immemorial ; that Plato got his wisdom from
the Prophets ; Socrates learned his from Ahithophel and Asaph
the Korahite ; Aristotle stole his from the writings of Solomon,
which he seized when at Jerusalem with Alexander,* &c., there
being nothing new under the sun, since even the Telegraph is
referred to in Ps. xix. 4.^ Chap. iii. 18 will suffice as a speci
men of some of his renderings.
I thought within myself about the talk of the children of men that
they enjoy tbe food of the gods, and give themselves the appearance that
they are their favourite animals.'
Rosenthal maintains tliat Solomon refers in this passage to
the food of the gods, and the nectar which the ancients said the
soul enjoyed when reposing from her labours.
1860. — The last, and the most remarkable, Jewish production
on Coheleth, is by Professor S. D. Luzzatto. It is printed in the
third annual volume of Hebrew Essays and Reviews,* and pur
ports to be the Introduction to an unpublished commentary upon
our book, written thirty-six years ago. After bitterly com
plaining that all commentators have misunderstood and outraged
the sense of Coheleth, Luzzatto maintains that the book totally
denies the immortality of the soul, and recommends the enjoyment
of carnal pleasures, as the only thing left for man ; that it was
¦written after the Babylonish captivity by a man of the name of
Coheleth, who, to invest it with authority, ascribed it to Solomon,
' Koheleth von Salomo, iibersetzt nebst einem ebraisohen Commentar von
Nathan Rosenthal, Prag., 1858, pp. 12, 13.
¦jan nsp ts D'lm idi« siuin y-i« 'pmn 'ni «2vn lain mpn "jid niu-inn nsuiann to ^
wn d')i»i 1^ nnna «2di ii'm mwnn nnvn m«2Dnn p nnw «'niB r|N f]«i3»totD vnpyr\
?ip «2' yi«n taa n'^ip »dib2 '';a Q'ln l'«i inw I'x i ainaa rxhn im iB'm nnw nano 'nsoiu
p. 22 tin^n ';an nspai.
3 3^ bac^te na$ auf bie SiJeben bet SWenfc^en in nteinem 3nnetn, ba? fie
©gttetfpeifen genie^cn, unb geten fi$ bag 2lnfe:^en, ba? fie feine Sieblingg=
t^iete finb.
* Ozar Nechmad: Briefe und Abhandlungen jiidischer Literatur betreflfend;
herausgegeben von Ignaz Blumenfeld: Dritter Jahrgang, Wien, I860, pp. 15-25.
0

98 INTRODUCTION.
whose name did originally appear in the book; that the con
temporary sages, recognising this trick, and knowing the real
author, erased the name Solomon, put in the proper name,
Coheleth, and left the words " son of David, king in Jerusalem "
to brand the impostor : for every one knew the mean position of
Coheleth, and by declaring himself to be king, and son of Da-vdd,
he would be denounced as a madman. All this, however, was
forgotten in the course of time. And when the later sages
found this book, purporting to be the composition of the royal
son of David, and saw that it contained infidel sentiments,
being unable to prevail -with the majority of their colleagues to
exclude it from the canon, they, in their anxiety to redeem the
character of Solomon, and the sacred Scripture, from the charge
of heresy, added three half verses thoroughly orthodox, viz.,
tD3i:>a3 D''iibikr\ •f\H^y nbi^-b^-bv r"f1, and know that for all
this God will bring thee into judgment (xi. 6, b) ; ^''X'^^3"/^^<^ lip
^''Jliin^l ''^''2,, and remember thy Creator in the days of thy
youth (xii. i, a) ; and WriJ ItVi W^T^b^TTb'^ y\tF\ mini, and
the spirit shall return to God who gave it (xii. 8, b) ; the first
addition of eight words, the second of five, and the third of six,
making in all nineteen words ; as D'^rt^Nn, however, occurs twice,
it must only be taken for one word, hence eighteen only remain ;
and these are D''"ID1D ]1pn T'^D n"', mentioned in the Talmud
(Shabbath, 97, a), of which no one ever knew the meaning
till Professor Luzzatto thus identified them with the interpola
tions before us ! .
This is an epitome of a somewhat extensive Introduction,
written in Hebrew by this master of the Hebrew language.
The Professor, however, tells us, in a letter to the editor of this
Annual, that he thinks better of Coheleth in his advanced
years ; but what his better thoughts are he does not condescend
to say.'

m 'iciTDa ffl'i, nn* 'ma«no w 'niaffinn taa vh 'a. -psiM 'Miip to i»ti -p s>t ¦nrm i
iDD rtjjD fn I'm: cna poiDo '3«ic ciaT p ?: la m'vj'Ba ciia: iw dj'nib tj'aan naa
'Dan 'D'a nn'nm non anv 'aan- cn'i 'Mia 'an« '3's?a n'^u rtnp

INTRODUCTION. 99
Other Jewish commentaries, not mentioned in this sketch,
will be found in the Appendix. We now proceed to —
B. Christian Expositions.
In the early part of the Christian era Coheleth seems not to
have been in great favour with the Fathers of the Chm-ch,
judging firom the general silence which prevails about it in the
first, second, and a part of the third centuries. This is rather
ominous, as we should have expected that, firom its shewing the
emptiness of all earthly things, this book would be welcomed by
the suffering followers of Christ, who had to lose aU for their
Master's sake, and to take up their cross and follow Him.
Whether this silence is owing to the fact that Coheleth is
nowhere quoted in the New Testament, or to the doubts which
existed in the minds of some respecting its canonicity, or to
some other cause, it is not easy to divine.
210-270. — However, in the first half of the third century,
the wonder-working Gregory (Thaumaturgnis), who was born at
Neocsesareia, in Cappadocia, at the beginning of the third century,
and died in 270, wrote a short metaphrase of Coheleth.' Con
sidering that he was the pupil and convert of Origen, the father of
allegorical interpretation in the Greek Church, we are astonished
to find such a comparatively simple paraphrase. According to
Thaumaturgnis, the design of the Preacher is to shew that all the
affairs and pursuits of man which are undertaken in human things
are vain and useless, in order to lead us to the contemplation of
heavenly things. Like the Midrash,^ Thaumaturgus regards the
book as prophetic: " Solomon," says he, "son of David, king
and prophet, also the most distinguished of all men, and the
wisest prophet." The following is a specimen of his mode of
paraphrasing : —
Chap. i. 8. All things, Sc. — The things which man contemplates, his
pursuits as well as his words, have neither measure nor end. There is
' Metaphrasis in Ecolesiast., in his works edited by Gerardus Vossius, Leipzig,
1604, 4to ; or in GaUandii Biblioth. Patrum, Paris, 1788, torn. iii.
' Vide mpra, p. 37.

100 introduction.
indeed a large supply of their words, but there is no fruit from their endless
talk, which is replete with error.
9, 10. What, So. — "What is it that is new which has not already been
found by experience, provided it were remarkable and worthy of record?
and there is nothing new and fresh, and unknown to the ancients.
11. There is no remembrance. So. — As the past is buried iu oblivion, so
the present things will in the process of time sink into oblivion to a future
generation. 12, /, the Preacher, So. — Nor do I now, speaking as Preacher, utter these
words without consideration ; but I, to whose honour has been entrusted
the sovereignty of the Jews, have diligently and accurately examined and
weighed these things.
14. / have seen all, Sc. — All these inferior things here below are full of a
prodigious and execrable spirit, so much so that no man is able to enume
rate them, nay rather to contemplate them, so excessive is the absurdity
which has takeil possession of human aff'airs.
331 -396. — The first attempt to explain this book was made
by Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, who was born about
331, and died about 396. He wrote a number of homilies on
Coheleth, eight of which are extant, comprising the first three
chapters, and it need hardly be said that his explanation is
allegorical. He maintains that the design of this book is to
elevate the mind above every material object, and to quiet it, so
that it may soar above all which seems great and sublime in this
world, to that which the perceptions of the senses cannot reach, and
to excite in it a longing after the super-sensible.^
The following is a specimen of Gregory's exposition : —
Chap. i. 1. The words of the Preacher, Se. — Why is this book more than
any other called " the words of the Preacher," seeing that Moses and the
Prophets were also read in the church and congregation ? Because in other
books there are many things about wars, cities, countries, and marriages,
which are not so profitable to the Church of God, but tbe doctrine of this
book relates to the only canon of ecclesiastical life, for it sets forth those
things whereby one may lead an upright and virtuous life.
9. What is that. So. — He refers to the resurrection and the reunion of
the body with the soul. Taking, as the basis of bis comment, the Septua
gint interrogative rendering of this verse viz., WJiat is that which has been .«
' Homil. 1 init. in his works edited by Morell and Grester, 2 vols., Paris,
1615-1618, reprinted in 1638.

introduction. 101
reply. That which is to be, and What is that which has been done? reply.
That which shall be done, Gregory remarks : Now, what does this interro
gation mean when from what we have been told, viz., that all things are
vanity, we might object, if all things be vanity, it is evident that there could
never have been any of those things which have existed, for that which is
vain cannot exist at all ; moreover, what cannot exist, no one would speak
about, when considering those things which have existed ? Accordingly, if
these things do not exist, tell me what is that which has been, or how does
it continue to exist? To this question I reply, briefly, Do you wish to
know " what is that which has been ?" consider what is that which shall be
and you will know it ; reflect what you shall be who have elevated yourself
by a life of virtue, if you have moulded your life in all good impressions;
if you have been removed from all the pollutions of vice ; if you have purged
your nature from natural impurities, consider, I repeat, what you shall be
when you have thus been adorned, and with what beauty you shall invest
yourself if you can comprehend these things by reason. You see then the
meaning of "what is that which has been?" namely from the first, that
which has been formed after the image and likeness of God. And where
now (I speak to him who teaches these things) is that which has existed in
times past, and will again exist in the future, but does not exist now ? He
who teaches these sublime things replies that the present things have been
called vanity, because these sublime things are not among them.
What is that which has been done 1 reply. That which shall be done. Let
no one suppose that there is here a senseless repetition in the words, has
been (nja), and has been done (ntosi), as the former refers to the soul, and the
latter to the body ; the soul which has always existed (njr) without sin shall
be purged and be so again, and the body which was made at first (nsisi)
shall he made again.
And there is no new, Sc. — Since the resurrection is nothing but a restora
tion of the pristine state and condition.
10. Behold this is new. So. — What has been said he endeavours to
confirm by the words immediately following ; if anything really exists now,
it is that which has existed in the ages before us, as the passage declares it ;
but wonder not if the things which have existed are forgotten, for the
things which are now will one day also be buried in oblivion.
11. There is no remembrance. So. — Just as we have now no remembrance
of the happiness in which man was created, so in the resurrection there will
be no remembrance of the misery which man now suff'ers; for when our
nature turned to sin, a forgetfulness of good things came upon us, but when
we shall return to goodness, evils shall be buried in oblivion.
338. — Shortly after the appearance of Gregory's Homilies
in the Greek Church, St. Jerome, the father of allegorical inter
pretation in the Latin Church, -wrote an elaborate commentary

102 introduction.
upon this book, with the express purpose of inducing St. Blesilla,
a Roman young lady, to lead a monastic life. Accordingly, he
maintains that the design of Coheleth is, to shew the utter vanity
of every sublunary enjoyment, and hence the necessity of betaking
oneself to an ascetic life, devoted entirely to the service of God. It
is almost superfluous to say that St. Jerome explained the book
allegorically. The following is a specimen of his mode of
interpretation. Chap. iv. 8. There is one, So. — This is Christ, for he is one, and there is
not a second, for he came to save the world without any companion ; and
though there be many sons of God, many who, by adoption, are called the
brethren of Christ, yet there was none so worthy as to be joined with him in
this work. Of his labour for our sins and sufferings for us there is no end;
man's understanding cannot comprehend the greatness thereof.
The eye is not satisfied. So. — Christ is always desiring and seeking our
salvation, nor does he say, " For whom do I labour ? " for though we
despise his love, and refuse his mercies, he still labours to bring us to
repentance, in order to win us to himself
9. Better two than one, Sc. — For it is better to have Christ dwelling in
us than to be alone, open to the snares of the enemy.
10. If one falls, Sc. — Christ raises him up who is a partaker of Him;
but woe to him who when he falls has not Christ in him to raise him up
again. But one alone, So. — Unless Christ sleeps and rests with us in death, we
shall never be able to receive the glow of everlasting life.
11. If two lie together, Se. — If any one should be dissolved by death and
lie in the grave, yet if he has Christ with him he shall be warmed, and,
being quickened, shall quickly live again.
12. And if one. So. — If the devil, assaulting man as a stronger, shall
prevail against him, he shall stand, when Christ shall stand for him as his
fellow. Before such a mode of interpretation all difficulties disappear,
and the most heterodox sentiments are easily converted into
thoroughly orthodox admonitions. In most instances this Rabbi
of the Christian Church had nothing to do but to Christianise
the allegories of the Rabbins of the Je-wdsh Church. Thus the.
commendation of eating and drinking, which the Midrash refers
to the service of God,' St. Jerome explains of the sacrament
1 Vide supra, p. 36.

introduction. 103
of the Lord's Supper ; bonum est veros cibos et veram sumere
potionem, quos de agni came et sanguine in divinis voluminibus
invenimus. He also tried to get over the inconvenient passages,
by putting them into the mouths of sceptics and opponents to the
truth, whom he introduces as speaking ' — a scheme which has
been adopted by subsequent expositors.
380. — It is not to be wondered at that some who adopted
the view propounded by St. Jerome, viz., that this book teaches
the utter vanity and worthlessness of every earthly pleasure,
refused to deduce from it the necessity of leading an ascetic
and monastic life, regarding such a doctrine as contrary to the
goodness and beneficence of the Creator, and rejected the book
as Epicurean and uncanonical. Hence we find that Philastrius,
bishop of Brescia, who wrote a catalogue of heretics and heresies
about the year 380, refers to those who reject many things in the
Old Testament, and among these the book of Ecclesiastes, because
they read in it that everything under heaven is vanity of vanities,
and because Ecclesiastes advises every one to eat and drink, and
indulge in pleasures.
The prelate's reply to these two objections is rather remarkable,
and shews how easily heretics were disposed of in those days.
To the charge, that this book denounces all the creatures of God
as vain and worthless, Philastrius replies that they are here so
described, in comparison with the future glory of believers in
Christ. As to the second objection, namely, that we are here
recommended to indulge in eating and drinking, the bishop
submits that Solomon speaks of spiritual food, of the sacrament
of the Lord's Supper, as St. Jerome explained it, respecting
which the Prophet said, " Taste and see that the Lord is good."^
' Et hace inquit aliquis loquentur Epicurus, et Aritippus, et Cyrenaici,
ix. 7, 8.
" Si dixit, vanitas vanitatis est, quae in sseoulo sunt, hsec utique transeuntia
prsedicavit propter futuram illam gloriam eminentem pt perpetuam, ut ait
apostolus ; transit enim figura hujus mundi et gloria. Si autem figura et vita et
honor et dignitas mundi istius oessabunt et destruentur, ilia quippe erit deside-
randa ooelestis et angelica dignitas, quae incorporatione ac passione et resurreo-

104 introduction.
333 or 40 - 397 -^ The comparatively few heretics who urged
their reasons against the inspiration of Coheleth, made no
impression upon such a man as the eloquent St. Ambrose, bishop
of Milan, who was born in 333 or 340 at Augusta Trevirorum
(Treves), and died in his bishopric in 397. From his great
fondness of celibacy and monasticism, in commendation of which
he wrote several treatises, and from the ascetic mode of his life,
we are quite prepared to find that this book formed St. Ambrose's
armoury, supplying him with abundant weapons to defend the
nothingness of all earthly enjoyments. Coheleth is therefore
largely quoted by our ascetic Father in his various productions.
The following is a specimen of his exposition : —
Chap. iv. 8. There is one, Sc. — Who is this but He of whom it is said.
Your Master is one in heaven? (Matt, xxiii. 8), He is not the second,
because He is the first ; He has not a second, because He alone is without
sin ; He alone is without a helper,^
9. Better two, Sc. — Does Christ labour ? He does labour, but it is in
us ; He labours by making us labour, by supporting us in our labour ; and
He that labours in us gives us a reward for our labours.
10. If one falls. So. — Christ did not fall, but cast Himself down; He
humbled himself that He might make us his followers. He will raise us up,
because when He was down he raised Himself up.
11. If two lie together. So.- — -We are dead with Christ, and therefore live
with Him ; Christ is dead with us that He may heat us; and he who dies
in Christ, being warmed by Christ, receives the vapour of life and resur
rection. 12. Two are better than one. — That thou mayest know that this is spoken
in mystery, and not of the number two being better than one, he added a
mystical thing, namely, a threefold cord is not easily broken; for three
which are not compounded are not broken, and the Trinity which is of an
uncompounded nature cannot be divided, because God who is one and
simple, is whatsoever is.'
15, I saw all the living. So. — Christ is the second young man ; he is the
first according to his dignity, none being before him ; but the second
tlone quippe est Christi oredentibus adventura, qua3 non temporalis, oamalis ao
caduoa  Non de hao esoa solum carnali dicebat .... sed
diversam esoam gloriamque sanctorum hominem nuntiabat  De qua
esoa ait et Propheta: Gustate et videte, quia suavis est Dominus. Bibl. Patr.,
torn, iv., p. 42.
1 De Virgin., u. 10. ' Cohorta ad Clericos.

INTRODUCTION. 105
according to the flesh, because the second Adam. Moreover, I say I not
only read that he is the second, but that he is the last; be is both the first
and the last : he is the first, because through him are all things ; the last,
because through him shall be the resurrection.'
354-430. — St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, who was born
in 354, at Tagaste, an inland town in Numidia, like his tutor
and father in God, St. Ambrose, explains this book allegorically.
" Having discovered the vanity of this world, the wisest of men
wrote the whole of this book for nothing else but that we might
discern that life which is not vanity under the sun, but real under
Him who made the sun."^
The following is a specimen of St. Augustine's exposition : —
ii. 24. There is nothing better for man but to eat. So. — We cannot under
stand this better than as referring to the partaking of that table, which our
Priest after the order of Melchizedeck has instituted for us in the New
Testament. For this sacrifice succeeded all the Old Testament sacrifices,
which were only shadows of good things to come ; as we hear our Saviour
speaking prophetically in the fortieth Psalm, " Sacrifice and cff'ering thou
didst not desire, but a body hast thou prepared me." For his body is
offiered and sacrificed now, instead of all other offerings and sacrffices.
That Ecclesiastes cannot mean by eating and drinking, which he so often
recommends, carnal pleasure, is sufficiently evident from the passage, where
he says, " it is better to go to the house of mourning than to the house of
feasting." X. 16. Woe to thee, O land. So. — Ecclesiastes calls the devU a child,
because of bis foolishness, and pride, temerity, and petulance, and other
vices incident to childhood; but Christ he calls the son of the great, of the
holy patriarchs belonging to tbe free city, because he descended from them
according to the flesh.^
550. — It is quite a relief to the monotony of patristic expo
sition to find Olympiodorus, surnamed Diaconus, or Monachus,
who lived in the middle of the sixth century, and sustained the
office of Diaconus in Alexandria, advance a new theory, viz.,
that Solomon treats in this book upon natural things, and thus
designs it to be a treatise on natural philosophy, which would
' De Virgin., c. 12. ' De oivit. Dei, ix., u. 3.
' De oivit. Dei, xvii., o. 20.
P

106 INTRODUCTION.
otherwise be wanting in the Sacred Scriptures, and intersperses
this treatise with a few moral sentences and maxims. As to the
objectionable passages, Olympiodorus maintains that Solomon
does not speak his own mind, but acts the part of one who is
astonished at seeing what transpires in-the world.^
787. — Elias of Crete, supposed to have been the metropolitan
of Crete who took part in the second General Council of Nicsea,
A.D. 787, treats of Ecclesiastes in his commentaries on the
Orations of Gregory Nazianzen. He entirely espouses the -new
of Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, whose very words he repeats, -viz.,
that " this book is emphatically called Ecclesiastes, because its
doctrine relates to the only canon of ecclesiastical life, truly setting
forth those things through which we may be able to realise a life
combined with virtue. For the things which are here set forth
tend to make the mind live above the senses, and raise itself to those
things which are nobler than sense and desire," &c. To this Ehas
adds, that —
Ecclesiastes advises us not to waste our admiration on any of the things
here below, since all things in nature end in vanity; no remains are
left of them when they go. Just as they who write upon the water,
though they labour to form signs of letters upon the aqueous element, leave
no impression behind, so is every earthly pleasure, for no sooner is the act
over than the pleasure is gone, and leaves no trace behind. Ecclesiastes
again and again recurs to this subject, that, by repeatedly speaking upon
the same things, he may more effectually place before our eyes the vanity
of the things of human life, and shew that this vanity is not confined
to the visible part of these things, but is altogether inherent in them.
Having shewn the vanity of all things, Ecclesiastes adds that this condition
of things, and the misery of life, are not to be ascribed to God, but to
man's wilful violation of God's commandments.'
This view was adopted by all the writers of the middle ages,
and received a freshness firom the mystical and metaphysical
treatment of the scholastics, worthy of their hair-splitting
intellects. ' Bibl. Patr., tom. xiii., p. 602.
" Opera Gregory Nazianzen, Paris, 1630, p. 675.

INTRODUCTION. 107
1096 - 1140. — Thus Hugo of St. Victor' says, that the design
of this book is to persuade us to despise the world, by shewing us
the vanity of all earthly things. The vain things discussed by
Ecclesiastes are reduced to three classes : — 1. Things made for
man; 2. Things made by man; and 3. Things made in man.
In the things made for man, there is the vanity of mutability ;
in the things made by man, there is the vanity of curiosity ; and
in the things made in man, there is the vanity of mortality."
Having given the three titles of the author (viz.. Preacher,
Son of David, and King,) in the first verse, Hugo maintains that
Solomon gives the sum of these three parts of his book in verses
2, 3, and 4. In verse 2, the vanity of mutability is maintained,
which is discussed in the first part of the book, viz., chap. i.
5-11 ; verse 3 mentions the vanity of curiosity, which is dis-
cussed in the second part, viz., chap. i. 12 -xi. 10; and verse 4
mentions the vanity of mortality, which is discussed in the third
part of the book, viz., chap. xii. 1-14.
The first vanity is natural, and becoming the nature of worldly
things ; the second is sinful, because perverse and firoward ; the
third is penal and miserable. The first is the occasion of sin,
the second is sin, and the third is the punishment of sin.'
The follo-(ving is a specimen of his mode of exposition : —
Chap. iii. 5. There is a time to cast away stones. — If we regard stones as
the brave deeds of virtue, the casting away of stones is the multiplication of
1 Hugo of St. Victor was born in 1096, either at Ypres, in the Netherlands, or iu
Lower Saxony, and became an Augustinian canon in the monastery of St. Victor,
at Paris, where he died in 1140, aged forty-four. His works were printed in
3 vols, fol., Rouen, 1648. An interesting sketch of his life is given in Herzog,
Real-Encyklopadie fiir Protestantische Theologie und Kirohe, vol. vi., pp.
307-315. 2 Ostendit secundum triplicem vanitatem, omnia esse vanitati subjeota, id est
caduca, transitoria, videlicet et quae propter homines facta sunt et quae ab homi-
nibus facta sunt et quae in hominibus facta sunt. In his, quse propter homines
facta sunt, vanitas est mutabUitatis. In his, quae ab hominibus facta sunt, vanitas
est curiositatis. In his, quse in hominibus facta sunt, vanitas mortalitatis.
3 Prima vanitas naturalis est, et apta sive oongrua; seounda vanitas culpabilis
est, quia perversa: tertia vanitas posnaUs et misera. Prima causa est peccati:
secunda peccatum : tertia poena peccati.

108 INTRODUCTION.
good works. To gather stones is, after laborious effort, to gain the fruit of
good works. There is a time therefore for both casting away and gathering
stones, because a man ought first to discipline himself in the anxieties of
active life, that he may afterwards discern the fruit of his works in the
pleasure of contemplation.
1096-1164. — The celebrated Peter Lombard' is by no
means behind his contemporary, Hugo of St. Victor, in the
allegorising of this book, as will be seen from the following
specimen : —
Chap, xii. 5. The almond. So. — Following the Vulgate's rendering of this
verse, viz.. The almond tree shall flourish, the grasshopper shall be made fat,
and the caper shall be destroyed, this scholastic remarks. The almond tree is
Christ. There are three things in the almond, viz., the rind, the shell, and
the kernel ; and Christ consists of three substances^ the flesh corresponding
with the rind, the mind with the shell, the divinity with the kernel.
The rind is bitter, the shell is strong, the kernel is sweet. But when
shall the almond flower ? In the resurrection, for it seemed dead and
dry in His passion and death. As the almond flowered, so the grasshopper
fattens, i. e., the Gentiles, and the caper bush is scattered, i. e., the Jewish
people. By the grasshopper, not without cause, are the Gentiles indicated;
for, as the grasshopper moves by leaps, nor can it move without leaping,
so the Gentiles moved after Zion by leaps. But the caper bush is
scattered, because the barren brought forth most, &o. — Isa, liv. 1.
1100-1173. — Richard of St. Victor," the Coryphaeus of the
mystics, fully sustains this reputation by his treatment of this
book. The following is a specimen of it : —
Chap. i. 7, — AU the rivers flow into the sea, Sc. — We know that the
water of rivers is sweet, and that of the sea is bitter. What, then, is it for
rivers to run into the sea, but for all fleshly passions to end in bitterness?
Therefore all rivers run into the sea, because the issue of joy is sorrow. All
sweet waters are changed into bitter in the sea, because laughter is mingled
with grief
I Peter Lombard was born about 1 096, at a village near Novaria, in Lombardy,
hence his surname Lombard ; went to France to study theology, was made Pro
fessor of Divinity in 1141, and Bishop of Paris in 1150, where he died in 1164.
For a sketch of his Life see Herzog, vol. viii., pp. 466-476.
2 Richard of St. Victor was born about 1100, in Scotland, went to Paris to pro
secute his studies, became first a canon and then prior of St. Victor, near the
walls of Paris, where he died in 1173. His works were published in 2 vols, fol.,
Rouen, 1650. Comp. Herzog, vol. xiii,, pp, 19-22.

INTRODUCTION. 109
Galfi-id, another scholastic of this period, thus expatiates upon —
i. 5. — The sun also ariseth, So. — This indicates mystically the Divine
Saviour. The true Sun of Eighteousness " arose " on the night of his
nativity, and " set" in his passion, and " hastened to the place whence he
arose " on the day of his ascension, &o.'
1221-1274. — Bonaventura," who also maintains that this
book describes the vanity of earthly things, to teach thereby con
tempt for the world, propounds this view in a far more specu
lative manner than any of the schoolmen. As to the objection,
that the creatures of God, which he himself pronounced " very
good" (Gen. i. 31), and designed for a certain end, cannot be
characterised as vain, Bonaventura replies that they are not
called vain because «they are deficient in goodness or order, but
because they are wanting in unchangeableness. Therefore,
although everything is vanity, yet it is not so vain but it has
some reality and good. Now, as the world is vain because it
yields no permanent support, and God alone possesses intrans-
mutable repose {intransmutabilitatis quieteni), therefore true life
and happiness can be found iu God only.'
1270-1340. — With Nicholas de Lyra, forerunner of the
Reformation, a new era begins in Biblical exegesis. Unlike the
rest of the schoolmen, who knew little of Greek and nothing of
1 The above specimens of scholastic interpretation are selected from Badius
Ascensius, Allegoriarum Bibliorum, 1520, which contains expositions of thirty of
the most distinguished schoolmen, arranged in the order of the books of the
Bible, It is to be regretted that this comprehensive and most interesting manual
of mediaeval exposition has become so very scarce.
' Bonaventura is the ecclesiastical name of the celebrated Franciscan, Pidenza,
who was born at Bognarea, in Tuscany, in 1'221, and died Bishop of Albano, in
1274. He was seized -with a dangerous illness when four years old, from which
he recovered through the intercession of St. Francis, to whose prayers his mother
recommended him.' This great saint, on beholding the convalescent Fidenza,
exclaimed, 0 buona ventura, hence his name Bonaventura. See the sketch of
his life in Herzog, vol. ii., pp. 290-294.
' Quod objioitur, quod creaturae non sunt vanae, quia valde bcnae et in finem
ordinatoe, solvendtim, quod non diountur vanae per defectum boni, vel ordinis, sed
per defectum esse incommutabilis et sic omnis creatura est vana neo ita vana,
quin habeat veritatem et bonitatem. Expositio in librum Ecolesiast. Opp., tom.
i., p. 294, seq., Mogunt., 1609.

110 INTRODUCTION.
Hebrew, De Lyra, who was born a Jew, brought to his work a
refined mind, well stored, both with his vernacular Hebrew and
a large acquaintance with Greek. He could therefore no more
follow the frivolities and cavilings of his fellow-expositors ; but,
whilst admitting the four modes of interpretation beautifully
expressed in the rule —
Litera gesta docet, quid credas allegoria,
Moralis quid agas, quo tendas anagogia :
The literal teaches the bearing, the allegorical what to believe;
The moral what to do, the anagogio where to go,
he maintains that the literal meaning must be thoroughly under
stood before we can comprehend the spiritual, inasmuch as all
mystical exposition presupposes a literal sense as its foundation.
To those who are desirous of advancing in the study of the Saored
Scriptures, it is therefore necessary to begin with the understanding
of the literal meaning, especially as from the literal sense only,
and not from the mystical, can we derive arguments or clear up
difficulties.^ Acting upon such a rational rule of interpretation,
and availing himself of all that was valuable in the Jewish
expositors, we do not wonder that he produced such a beautifiil
commentary upon the Bible," for which he obtained the title.
Doctor planus et utilis, and gave a new tone to Biblical exegesis.
As to his view on Coheleth, though he has not fully hit upon
its design, yet he has come nearer to it than any of his prede
cessors, inasmuch as he maintains that as mankind look for
happiness in different^ directions, — wealth, pleasure, honour, know
ledge, cfcc, — Solomon, whose wisdom was formed in different
ways, sets himself to shew that felicity consists in none of these, but
in the fear of God.
1 Omnes expositiones mysticae praesupponunt sensum literalem tanquam fun-
damentum .... ideo volentibus profioere in studio Sacrae Scripturse neces-
sarium est inoipere ab intelleotu sensus literalis, maxime cum ex solo sensu
literati et non ex mysticis possit argumentum fieri ad probation em vel declara-
tionem ahcuius dubii.
2 BibUa sacra latina, cum postUlis, Venice, 1480, 4 vols, folio; the edition we
have used.

INTRODUCTION. Ill
He divides the book into two parts : in the first part (chap.
i. 2 -vii. 12), Solomon descants on the false sources of happiness;
and in the second part (chap. vii. 1-xii. 14), which has two
sections, he treats upon true happiness, shewing that it consists
objectively in God alone ; formally (formaliter) in the clear vision
and enjoyment of God in meritorious works ; to which Solomon
urges us, on to the end of chap, xi., and persuades us to prompti
tude in chap. xii.
How much the Reformation and the Reformers owe to this
converted Jew, may be seen from the well-known Roman
Catholic saying —
Si Lyra non lyrasset,
Lutheris non saltasset.
If Lyra had not played profanation,
Luther would not have danced the Beformalion.
1528. — The new path thus opened by De Lyra was at last
crowded by a host of Reformers, who, though discarding all the
metaphysical conceits of the schoolmen, were too absorbed in the
doctrines of our utter inability to do anything good, of the insuffi
ciency of the law, and justification by faith alone, to see anything
else in this book. Thus John Brentius, the Suabian Reformer,
who wrote the first Protestant commentary on Coheleth,' main
tains that this book is, so to speak, an appendix to the Law of
Moses. Now the Law teaches that man of himself is utterly unable
to act virtuously, and that the more he exerts himself to acquire
righteousness by his own works and thoughts, the more he fails in
the attempt. With this doctrine this little book perfectly
agrees, and TEACHES THAT ALL THB_ POWER OF MEN, THEIR
WISDOM, REASONING, AND DESIGNS, GRIEVOUSLY DEVIATE FROM
THE NATURAL EMPLOYMENT OF CREATED BEINGS ; FORSOOTH
THERE IS NOT ONE WHO, IF LEFT TO HIMSELF, COULD BOAST OF
BEING ABLE, IN THE SMALLEST DEGREE, EITHER TO ACQUIRE
1 Ecclesiastes Salomonis, cum commentariis, juxta piis adque eruditis Johannis
Brentii, Haganoae, 1528.

112 INTRODUCTION.
RIGHTEOUSNESS IN THE PRESENCE OF GOD, OR TO LIVE IN HAPPY
AND PROSPEROUS RELATION WITH HIS FELLOW- CREATURES.'
There is, however, a striking feature introduced by Brentius
into the practical bearing of this book, which has been entirely
overlooked by his predecessors. Whilst all the Fathers and
Schoolmen maintain that the tendency of Coheleth is to make us
despise every earthly pleasure, the Suabian Reformer submits
that it teaches man piously and cheerfully to enjoy the good
creatures of God.
1532. — This idea is still more fully developed by Luther,
who declares that Solomon condemns the evil lust, and not the
creatures themselves; since he says himself, respecting the use of
the creatures, that —
There is nothing better than to be cheerful, and enjoy one's life ; to eat,
drink, and delight in one's employment; he would therefore contradict him
self, if he also condemned the things themselves, and not rather the abuse of
them, which consists in the human passions. Some foolish persons, not
understanding these things, have absurdly taught contempt for and flight from
the world, and have committed many foolish things themselves ; as we read
in the lives of the Fathers that there were some who even shut themselves
up from ever seeing the sun ; reminding us of the passage where Solomon
condemns him who eats all his days in darkness (well they deserve to have
their eyes put out), and for the sake of religion lived in the most sordid
plight ; whereas, living above the world is not living out of the world.'
Luther maintains that the design of this book is to teach us to
use with grateful hearts the things present, and the creatures of
God which are bountifully bestowed upon us by the blessing of
God, without anxiety about future temporal blessings ; to have a
quiet and tranquil heart, and a mind full of cheerfulness and
contentment with the will and dealings of God?
1 Ad hano rationem libellus iste acoedit et docet, omnium hominum vires,
sapientiam, rationem atque oonsilia a genuine creaturarum usu faede aberrare ao
retrocedere, nimirum, ne quisque»sit, qui glorietur ac cristas erigat, se posse vel
¦ quidque sibi reliotus coram Deo sive ad justitiam parandam sive ad creaturas
felici atque prospero exitu traotandas. Prooemion, p. 11, b.
2 Ecclesiastes Salomonis cum aunotationibus Martin. Lutherus, Vitemberg,
1532. See the Preface.
' Est status et consilium hujus libeUi erudire nos, ut cum gratiarum actione

INTROD UCTION. 113,
The sagacious Reformer has not only done much towards the
better understanding of the true design of Coheleth, but has also
discovered, by sheer penetration, without possessing any critical
knowledge of the original, that Solomon could not have been the
author of this book. He says, in his Table Talk, This book
wants more completeness ; it is too abrupt  Solomon
himself has not written the book of Ecclesiastes, it was compiled by
Sirach at the time of the Maccabees  If is like the
Talmud, made up of many books, which perhaps belonged to the
library of King Ptolemy Euergetes in Egypt.^
1556. — Melancthon succeeded still more in shewing the true
scope of Coheleth. According to him, the design of the book is
to propound the doctrine of an overruling Providence, the necessity
of obedience and submission, the doctrine of a future judgment,
and the importance of attending to our calling?
As to the utility of the book, he remarks that —
It confirms us in the belief of an overruling Providence, and shews us that
we are to be submissive in every station of life, and perform the duties of our
calling ; that we should cling to the consolations he propounded, notwith
standing the many difficulties we have to encounter; that we should know
that lo follow our calling is pleasing to God ; that He is the Euler of his
Church ; that He wishes us to invoke his aid ; that He will assuredly help
those who faithfully serve Him in their calling; and that His Church will
finally pass into eternal intercourse with the Deity, when God will be all in
all. If we believe this, we shall submit to God, and act in accordance with
His will ; we shall neither repine at nor despise the duties of our calling,
nor fall blindly into contempt of God, after the manner of the Epicureans,
utamur rebus prsBsentibus et creaturis Dei, quae nobis Dei benedicatione largiter
dantur et donata sunt, sine solicitudine futurorum, tantum ut tranquillum et
quietum cor habeamus et animum gaudii plenum contenti scilicet verbo et opere
Dei. ' Sieg Sud; fotlte Biilliget fein, i^nt iji jn uiel afcgefctoc^en. .... So
5at ©atomo felbjl bag Suc^, ben ^tebiget, nicdt gefc^riefcen, fonbetn eg if} jut
3cit bet SKaccaiaer »on ©itai^ gemoc()t .... SDaju fo iii'g tt)ie ein*
Solmub oug »ietcn SSii^ern sufomtnengcjogen, sicHeif^t m& bet Sibetep beg
^onigg ^tctemoug (Suergeteg in Slegppten. Table Talk, p. 400 and 4i)i,
Eorstermann and Birdseil's edition.
' Enarratio conoionum bbri Salomonis eui titulus est Ecclesiastes, seounda
editio, Vitemberg, 1556.

114 INTRODUCTION.
1580. — Thomas Cartwright is, to my knowledge, the first
English Protestant who wrote on Coheleth.' This celebrated
Puritan maintains that Solomon — who was called Coheleth (i.e.,
the reunited or gathered one), because he was reunited with the
Church from whence he had been expelled, in consequence of
his grievous sins — wrote this book to give a divine solution of
the problem respecting the greatest good for man. " What in many
books of the Sacred Scriptures is referred to occasionally and
incidentally, the Preacher discusses through an entire book, and,
discussing, settles it definitely. The method which this Prophet
pursues in his enquiry is to refute the unsubstantial happiness —
the mark of the foolish, of the besotted, and of the ignorant —
and then vividly to describe the true and genuine happiness, as
identified with piety towards God, and with the fi'uits of recti
tude towards man." " " The prophets of God imitate the thrifty
and skilful farmer, who first weeds out the thorns, and uproots
other baneful growths, before he commits the good seed to the
ground." '
1588. — The learned Whitaker, in defending this book,
espoused the patristic view, viz., that Solomon exhorts men,
with a divine eloquence, to despise and contemn the world,*
1597. — The next English production is a poetical paraphrase
of Ecclesiastes, written by Henry Lock, and dedicated to Queen
Elizabeth.^ Lock, like Cartwright, regards the book as a
treatise on the highest good. SoLOMON, the King of Peace;

' Metaphrasis et Homilise in Librum Solomonis, quis inscribitur Eoclesiastes.
He wrote this commentary towards the end of his life, and it was published after
his death in Amsterdam, 1647.
2 Lectori. ' Homilise, p. 452.
* A Disputation on Holy Scripture against Papists, by William Whitaker, D.D.
The Parker Society's edition, pp. 31, 32.
-*¦ * Ecclesiastes, otherwise called the Preacher, containing Solomon's sermons,
or commentaries (as it may probably be called), upon the forty-ninth Psalm of
David his father, compendiously abridged, and also paraphrastically dilated in
English Poesie, according to the analogy of Scripture and consent of the most
approved writers thereof, by H. L., Gentleman. London, printed by Richard
Field, dwelling in the Blackfriars, near Ludgate, 1597.

INTRODUCTION. ' 115
Yedida, the Beloved of God; ECCLESIASTES, the Preacher, who
in his Proverbs instructed thee as a child to a civil and honest
life, in this work instrncteth thy manly thoughts to the inquisition
of the highest good, to the end that by his last song of heavenly
hve thy ripened thoughts might be inflamed with that glorious
bridegroom, Christ Jesus.
As this paraphrase is one of the scarcest books in our language,
we give the whole introduction of this great curiosity, and a
specimen of the paraphrase.
To THB Chbistian Eeadbr,
It is the most fit subject for the nobility of man's spirit to meditate of
felicity, and a true saying of Aristotle, that omnia appetunt bonum. Yea,
the common practice of our high-minded age is to strive for the same in the
superlative degree. But so foolish and new-fangled are our desires, that,
wishing we wot not what, and seeking it we know not how nor where, we
come all far short of the same, and some run headlong to the despised
contrary (looking for it on earth), and, thereby groping for it to their graves,
they are there cut ofif of their hopes, and die discontented with their haps.
Whereas, if they acknowledged it to be the tree of life, planted in the
heavenly paradise, they would less labour their bodies for attaining these
transitory shadows of pleasures, and more exercise the faculties of the soul
for achieving the same, so much the more despising these instable and
imperfect happinesses of this life, as they found their foolish aff'ections of
the flesh (doting on thee) to work neglect of the nutriment of their soul,
and slackens in the constant travail in religion and virtue (which is requi
site for tbe long journey we have to pass through life and death thereunto).
But this having been the sickness of all ages, and specially of the Jews in
Solomon's time, (which induced him, as it should appear, to take so great
pains in removing them from that error,) I the less marvel that our age,
flourishing in the pride of like long peace and plenty, under her Majesty's
most happy reign, be also sorted with the world as they were, dreaming of
that perfection and perpetuity here, which God by nature hath denied unto
us, and but by her Highness' reign we could hope for. And since it is the
duty of every part and member of the body to join in the assistance and
care of the whole, if any particular of it should Sufi's!, I have in a dutiful
compassion of this common calamity endeavoured to seek forth some
mithridate for this poison, by which so many perish, and have here brought
thee a dose of the wisest Physician's composition that ever had practice of
that case — who did not (for tbe experiment of his potion's quality) first kill
many patients in trial thereof, but, applying it to his own wound first.

116 INTRODUCTION.
dares confidently write probatum est, and, by the seal of the Holy Spirit and
consent of the Church, doth warrant thee to taste of the same. It is a
receipt so oldly composed, perhaps, that thou respectest it the less, or of so
small price that thou shamest to take it ; or, perhaps, knowing the bitterness
of the taste, thou hast as lieve continue sick as to try it. But deceive not
thyself, it is not the nature of the perfectest drugs, which with age increase
in strength, of the kind of Sibillces' works, which, refused, grow higher prized ;
and of the herb called woodrose, which, only handled, had an evil smell,
but, more forcibly rubbed, yieldeth sweet savour. Eeoeive it therefore as
confidently as he assured it, and as kindly as I intend it — who, in respect
that the obscurity of many places, the contrariety (as at first would appear)
of some points, and strange dependency of the whole together, have done
my careful and studious endeavour (by consideration and imitation of the
best interpreters thereof) to explain the sense, accord the different plans,
to join by probable connection the whole discourse together; which (as
well to distinguish the several arguments as to vary the verse, and
please the reader) I have not altogether unfitly distributed into three
sermons, each one containing four chapters a-piece. The first especially
shewing the vain opinion of felicity, which is not in earth to be found.
The second pointing more directly (by the lawful use of this life) the true
way unto her. The last teaching her residence to be in heaven, and
persuading the speedy pursuit of her favour. And that you might truly
consider of the cairiage of the matter, .according to tbe scope of the text, I
have caused the same to be quoted in the margin, reducing for memory's
sake into two abstract lines of verse, set in the top of every leaf, the substance
of every page's contents, which afterwards as thou seest is paraphrastically
dilated page by page, in the plainest form I can devise. Who, in respect of
the gravity of the argument, did restrain my pen from the helps of much
profane learning, and in consideration of the antiquity of the work, and
ma-jesty of the author, could not (without great indecency) have used the
authorities of men, or of so late times (as since the learnings flourished,
whence we now receive our common light). Like naked truth, therefore,
I pray thee receive it, for its own if not my sake, and in anything I seem to
swerve from thy conceit of many points, I pray thee confer further therein
with D. Gregorius, Neocesariensis Epist. Olimpiodorus ; D. Salonius Epist.;
Viennesis ; Theod. Beza; John Serranus; Anth. Corranus ; Tremelius; all
interpreters and paraphrasers in prose upon this work; and J. Leotius;
Ro. Lemmannus ; J. Viniames; reducers thereof into Latin poesie; or any
other thou likest better of; so shall my errors be covered or excused ; whilst
their difi'erent forms, distributions of methode and interpretations, will leave
thee (I am persuaded) in some points as little satisfied as this my labour
shall do — who in some things was forced to digress from them all, when,
either too much in one place or too little in another, they followed the form
of a paraphrase which they undertook ; into which error also it is not unlike
but that I have sometimes failed myself, and I doubt not but many things

INTRODUCTION.

117

more might have been said, and perhaps to more purpose than I have done,
but non omnia possumus omnes. According to my sufficiency I have dis
charged myself faithfully unto thee, and therefore I trust (in these days
wherein some pernicious, many uncivil, and a swarm of superfluous and
unprofitable books pass from the press) it shall not be needful for me to
use great insinuation for thy favour, since it lieth not in the bounds of a
Preface to prepare a perverse mind, or in the nature of such a work to go
a-begging for a grace. I will therefore cut off that labour, and only signify
unto thee the excellency of this work, compiled by the wisest man and
mightiest king of Israel, even Solomon, the King of Peace; Yedida, the
Beloved of God; Ecclesiastes, the Preacher, who in his Proverbs instructed
thee as a child to a civil and honest life, in this work instructeth thy manly
thoughts to the inquisition of the highest good. To the end that by his
last song of heavenly love thy ripened thoughts might be inflamed with
that glorious bridegroom, Christ Jesus, to whose holy direction I heartily
commend thee.

1, These sacred words King David's son did preach, who
Israel taught,
2. All vanity of vanities, he calls, more light than thought.
1. The heavenly words of Holy David's son.
Who over Israel's race sometimes did reign,
Wherewith to virtue he his subjects wone.
Whilst in Jerusalem he did remain.
And to instruct them thus did not disdain.
Those words, no vain discourse it is I write,
Pen'd by a Prince, as God did them indite.
Strange doctrines, which some paradoxes call,
But yet the quintessence of holy creed.
Lives pure Elixer, which is sought of all,
T' assuage care's corrosives, in heart that breed,
Of happiness the generative feed;
Of moral speculation practice found;
Of constant faith the quiet fruit he found.

1. The words of
the Preacher, &c.

The fairest happiness which some propound.
In minds, in bodies, and in fortune's gifts,
(Which all conjoined seldome times are found)
But to a vain conceit the fancy lifts.
And their best sectaries do lose their drifts;
The crown it is of heaven's most glorious state.
Earth's fruits all vain ; care, folly, and debate.

2. Vanity of
vanities, saith
the, &o.

118 INTRODUCTION.
Yea vain, all vain (saith he), man's soul well proves,
Whoever on earth's spacious orb below
Hath breath, life, being, sense, or what so moves
By vegetative kind; or which doth owe
To nature a declining state to grow.
Vain in the root, in bud, in flower all vain;
Vain fruit, whose offsprings vainly vades again.
1605. — « The far-famed Hebraist," Hugh Broughton, pub
lished " a Commentary on Coheleth or Ecclesiastes," in 1605,
which he " framed for the instruction of Prince Henry our hope."'
Broughton maintains that " all this book of Coheleth, or Solomon,
tendeth to open Nathan's speech (1 Chron. xvii.) touching the
eternal throne of David ; and all this syllogism ariseth hence by
the Jews'' grant, in the Chaldee upon this place.
If all things under the sun be subject to extreme vanity, the eternal
throne promised unto David must be of another world :
But all things under the sun be subject to extreme vanity :
Therefore this is all the man, to look unto the judgment of God for
another world, and unto the throne of the better stay !
The proposition is omitted, as lapped in the prophecy of
Nathan closely, and not to be opened directly to the profane,
who would contemn all speech of the world to come. And the
humble would conceive it." "
It is most unaccountable that this great Hebraist, who boasted
that a learned Rabbi, with whom he conversed in Hebrew, said to
him —
" Oh that you would set over all your new Testament into such Hebrew
as you speak to me ! you should turn all our nation,"
should so wofully mistranslate the only quotation he makes firom
Ibn Ezra, viz., Il vhr^pT^ rXQ^Xyn Diya r\bT]p NIpJ, which he
renders he is called Koheleth, by the term of wisdom^ which
I A Commentary upon Coheleth or Ecclesiastes, framed for the instruction of
Prince Henry our hope, by Hugh Broughton, 1605.
' lUd., pp. 13, 14,

INTRODUCTION. 119
was gathered in him, not knowing that DtyD is a common idio
matic term for an account of, i. e., he is called Coheleth ON account
OF the wisdom which was gathered in him. For the merits of
Broughton's translation of Coheleth, we must refer to the com
mentary, where different renderings are discussed.
About this time Greenham's " brief sum of Ecclesiastes "
appeared, which occupies less than a page in the folio editions of
his works. Keeping to the old traditional view, this celebrated
Puritan maintains that Solomon became sorrowful of his folly,
and being desirous to leave to the world a testimony of his sorrow,
he taketh upon him in this book the person of a public penitentair,
professing it to be a monument of his unwise dealing, and therefore
it may be called Solomon's recantations  Solomon
.iheweth in this book that he proved all, and yet this is his con
clusion, that to fear God, in reverent regard to keep his command
ments, is all a man can come to, the only way to find peace of
conscience, and to assure us of the favour of God}
1606. — Roused by the zeal for Biblical studies which the
Reformation had kindled in the Protestant Church, the Jesuits
were now determined that they would not be behind th,eir
opponents. And it is only justice to say, that, as a repository of
patristic and mediseval lore, the commentary of Lorinus" sur
passes all that had hitherto been published on Coheleth by
Protestants. But though this work, like all others of the same
school, is very useful for historical purposes, it contributes little
or nothing to critical exposition, as will be seen from the
following specimen.
According to Lorinus, this book lays down a natural discipline,
hut, at the same time, things empty and vain are therein distin
guished from things which are profitable, and admonitions are
given to relinquish the one and to pursue the other, that God may
1 The works of Richard Greenham, fifth edition, London, 1612, p. 628.
' Joannis Lorini Avenionensis Societatis Jesu, Commentarii in Eoclesiasten.
Moguntise, 1607. The edition which I possess is the second edition ; the first
appeared in Lugd., 1606.

120 INTRODUCTION.
be feared and the commandments obeyed.^ Therefore devotion to
the sciences is expressly repudiated in chap. i. ; the craving for
luxuries, in chap, ii, ; the desire of long life, in chap. iii. ; the
lust of rule, in chap. iv. and part of chap. v. ; the greediness
after riches, in the latter part of chap. v. and chap. vi. ; the art of
divination, in chap, vii, ; the chase after praise and fame, in the
former part of chap. viii. ; the hunt after fortune, in the latter
part of chap. viii. and beginning of chap. ix. ; vigour of body,
in the latter part of chap. ix. and chap. x. ; a certain kind of
youthful indulgence, in chap. xi. and chap. xii.
The following is a specimen of his commentary : —
Chap. iii. 20. All go, Sc. — The Eoyal Bible leaves out the word wopEiierai,
It is retained in all the editions of the Septuagint, and in the Sixtine
Manuscripts; also in an old translation, where it is rendered uadawJ. By
the word place may be understood state and condition, and not merely the
space containing it. As in Job (vii. 10), "And his own place will know
him no more," Sometimes the word seems even to denote time, compare
" Up to that time (loci) I had told nothing" (Neb. ii, 16).
All are of the dust, Sc. — The Chaldee restricts this to man. (All the
inhabitants of the world have been created of dust, and when dead they
shall be turned into dust) ; but though the Hebrew word ^sri may be
rendered in the masculine gender, and thus be understood of men only, yet
mention has also been made of beasts. The earth is called by Lucretius
and others the mother of all things ; hence words implying maternal relation
are fittingly applied to it. As va/xf.i.nTaif, mother of all; wanfi'^n;, nourisher of
all ; vaviZfm, giver of all gifts ; S-n/uiiTiip, great mother ; 'Ex j/n; ykp ih nana mH
E!f ym wavra texeutS, for of the earth all things are, and to the earth all things in
the end return. Indeed, all things made, being compounds, consist for the
most part of earth, and are resolved into it especially; to man, however,
the term is peculiarly adapted, for he was formed directly by God from the
earth. Comp. also xii. 7 of this book, •• And the dust return to its own
earth, whence it came ;" and Genesis iii. 19, " Till thou return to the ground,
for out of it wast thou taken, for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou
return." There is a similar expression, ira/ra chap. v. 14, Job evidently
speaks of the earth as mother; and this idea is sanctioned by Chrysostom,
by St, Thomas, and Gregory on Job ; also by Jerome, Cyprian, Gaudentius
of Brixa, and Prosper. Job is speaking either of Adam or of the human
' Naturalem disoiplinam hio tradi, simul tamen inania ao vana ab utilibus
necessariisque seoerni, monendo relinquendam vanitatem, et utilia honestaque
sectanda, ut timeatur Deus, ejusque mandatis pareatur. Prolegomena, cap. v.

INTRODUCTION. 121
race universally, which descends from the same original. The story of
Brutus is well known, how he obtained the supreme authority in the
city, because he kissed his mother the ground ; having thus interpreted
the oracle from the cave. Similar to this is the answer of the soothsayers
respecting the dream of Julius Caesar. It was customary with the ancients,
according to the testimony of Varro, to place the new-born babe instantly on
the ground, and to invoke the goddess Ops, who is the earth itself. The
same deity was named Levana, from lifting up out of the earth, a hvando ;
Fauna, from favouring, a favendo ; Fatua, from speaking, a fando ; as if it
were not lawful to speak before touching it (viz., the earth), Maia too,
and Bona, and Magna Mater. Ecclesiasticus seems to have used this same
term in the passage, " There is a heavy yoke on the sons of Adam, from the
day of their leaving their mother's womb until the day of their burial in
the mother of all " (xi. 1). But the author of the Book of Wisdom also
states of himself, " And when I was born I breathed the common air and
fell upon the earth, which is of like nature " (vii. 3). Upon this consult our
commentary. Hence the Latins speak of the new-born babe falling on the
ground, and by lifting up a son denote educating him and adopting him as
one's own. Augustine, in addition to many profane writers, mentions a
ceremony, in which the infant, after being discharged from the womb, was
lifted up naked from the ground. On this point Macrobius is preeminently
deserving of perusal ; lastly, also, our own Pontanus and Pineda, That
same author of the Book of Wisdom calls the first man {ymiiU xa) wpoitotXicttov) ,
earth-born andflrst framed ; Paul uses the expression of the earth, earthy ;
and the Greek profane writers also use the first epithet, especially the poets ;
just as the Latins use the terms earth-born and progeny of earth, when
describing the formation of man from the earth. Hear how these have
expressed what Ecclesiastes here gives as an apophthegm, Phocylides
iZfAa yap lie yai>J5 E^Ofxev xal TravrSf 1^ avrhv
Our body we derive from the earth, and we all
are resolved into it, and become dust.
Earth must be restored to earth, says Cicero (Tusc, 3), when repeating the
words of Euripides, They commit a very grave error who think that men
can spring from the earth without the intercourse of male and female, in
the same manner that things spring from putrid matter. This opinion
seems to have been held by Plato, and by the poet Stesicorus, Empedocles,
and Parmenides, the Egyptians and Athenians, Avicenna and other Arabians,
Anaximander, Archelaus, Zeno, Cardan, whom Scaliger ridicules and refutes,
inasmuch as the thing was never known to occur. It is also contrary to
Aristotle, who scouts this very theory; as also Tychiades. As if, says the
latter, men could spring from the earth like vegetables. Bead on this
Christopher Vega, The thought is sometimes indulged, that all other things
R

122 INTRODUCTION.
are to be resolved into earth, and are nothing but earth. So says Arnobius
of those magnificent temples of idols, and Chrysostom and Bernard of gold
and silver, calling them red and white earth.
The earth. — In Hebrew and Chaldee it is ib», or vnnsi, in Greek x™?.
words which properly mean du.st. They are so found in Genesis ii. 7, where
the formation of the body of Adam is described ; although in the sentence of
his death, and his return to earth, whence he was taken {ibid. iii. 19), the
term t»; j.5t, earth, is found, which the translator renders dust, and in the
former passage, the mud of earth; and an older translation, which Augustine
adopts, has the dust of the earth, though sometimes he employs the rendering
of the two former. Job puts God in mind. Remember, I beseech Thee, that as
MIRE hast Thou made me, and into bust Thou wilt make me return (x. 9).
Man, no doubt, was made of earth mixed with water; of this water watering
tbe earth, Moses immediately after makes mention, when describing the crea
tion ; hence, with propriety, has the translator substituted the term mud for
dust : by this mud, or clay, or mire, he designates the body as distinguished
from the soul, an opinion which Pineda approves, following Gregory of
Valentia (though Toletus thinks otherwise, being rather of opinion that the
entire man is meant, so that the earth may be taken for the body, and the
water for the soul) ; and because the earth is the larger ingredient, for that
reason it is sometimes called dust, sometimes earth, instead of clay, mire, and
slime. Josephus has happily said, that man was formed of fermented earth,
using the word <pupv(r6ai, which means earth mixing with water, and kneading
it as it were into dough. Symmachus, however, in this passage uses the word rof
yni, earth, and the old Latin translator uses hdmi, the ground. These words
are sometimes confounded, and are differently used, according to the words
with which they are joined. Some by earth understand chaos, as if allusion
were made to the oblique case, x'''- Their notion is, that in the beginning
matter was made without any form at all, and that to this allusion is made
in the Book of Wisdom (xi. 18), by the expression, invisible matter; and in
the Epistle to the Hebrews, that things visible were made of things invisible;
but consult what we have said in our work on Wisdom. Man, in his rela
tion to God, is compared to the potter's clay, that he may learn humility,
and to submit himself entirely to the Divine counsels, and to implore the
Divine assistance.
Return. — Whilst men are formed of all that is corruptible, nay rather
whilst they are constantly flowing by, there is a perpetual onward move
ment on our passage to the goal of corruption, and to the point of circula
tion. As we have seen in the first chapter, one generation passes away and
another succeeds; by our birth we enter as it were by one gate, at death we
depart through another. There is no standing still, because tbe fashion of
this world passeth away. Like snakes we move round and round, and
complete our tSv hiavrov, circular year of life. We glide away like waters
that return not, and we walk on a path that we shall never retrace.

INTRODUCTION. 123
1612. — Though Piscator also regards Ecclesiastes as the pro
duction of Solomon's old age, in attestation to his people of his
repudiation of idolatry, yet he, like Brentius and Luther, main
tains, in opposition to the patristic and mediaeval view, that this
book recommends a cheerful and grateful enjoyment of earthly
blessings} He divides the book into two parts : —
I. Doctrinal, concerning the nature of true happiness, on
which the sacred writer exhibits —
a. Negatively, that it does not exist in the bare pos
session of earthly good ;
b. Positively, in a natural serenity arising from a filial
fear of God, and the legitimate enjoyment of
earthly good bestowed by Providence.
n. Admonitory, which, like the preceding part, also consists
of two sections.
a. A dissuasion from undue anxiety for the acquisition
of earthly good ;
b. A persuasion to fear God, to good works, and the
cheerful enjoyment of earthly good bestowed by
Providence.
Piscator's commentary contains judicious critical notes, and
has deservedly occupied a distinguished position with the
authors of the Assembly's annotations, who used it greatly to
their advantage, as may be seen by a comparison of the two
works. 1620. — Pineda was determined not only to outdo all Pro
testant expositors, but even to surpass his fellow-Jesuit commen
tator Lorinus, and therefore produced a folio volume on Coheleth,
of one thousand and seventy-nine pages. As far as the design of
the book is concerned, this bulky volume contributes nothing
towards its elucidation, inasmuch as Pineda simply repeats what
the Fathers have said, viz., that the object of Ecclesiastes is to
teach us the vanity of all that is earthly, and to direct our minds
' Johannis Piscatoris Commentariorum in omnes libros veteris Testamenti
Tomus Tertius, p. 403.

124 INTRODUCTION.
to that which is heavenly. Its chief merit consists in supplying
us with a thorough digest — more thorough even than that of
Lorinus — of all that the Fathers and others have said upon each
verse. In addition to this, Pineda gives, in nine parallel columns,
at the end of each chapter, the Vulgate, the Venice version, that
of R. Shirwode,' variations of the Hebrew, translations of the
Septuagint, Syriac, Arabic, the Brylinger edition of the Bible
(1582), and variations of other interpreters; and then gives, in
four lower columns, two versions of the Chaldee paraphrase
(viz., that of Zamara from the Complutentian Bible, and of
Peter Costus, published 1554), and a catena of the Greek
Fathers. The following specimen will give an idea of this most
elaborate commentary : —
Cap. iii. 21. Who knoweth, Sc.
1. The difficulty of the meaning, beasts, figurative.
2, The question, in the relative Who. The proof of the immortality of
the soul by the wise,
3. To know or to be ignorant, of experience. To know, for to refiect,
illustration from Paul.
4. The sign of the interrogative in Hebrew. The spirii. What?
5, Whether Limbus is described as the place beneath. Before Christ
all souls descended beneath. The two expositions identical.
6, Where will the souls released from the body be judged?
7, Periphrasis for immortality and corruption. Examples from Moses,
Judges, and Ezekiel.
1 " Robert Shirwode," says Wood, " received his first education in the city of
Coventry, whence, being translated to the University of Oxon, made a conside
rable progress in logicals, but more by far in the Hebrew and Greek languages.
Thence, in his mature years, he went to Lovaine, in Brabant, where, about the
year 1519, he succeeded Robert Wakfel, an Englishman, iu the reading
the Hebrew lecture to the academicians of the place." — Athense Oxonienses,
vol. i. column 58. He published a commentary on Ecclesiastes, under the
title, hiber Hebrmorum Concionatoris, seu Eoclesiasten, nuper ad verita
tem Hebrceicam recognitus, cum nonnulis annotationibus Chaldaicis et quon-
rundam Babbinorum sententiis, textus obscures aliquos literaliter explanantibus.
Antwerp. 1523, qu. This I am sorry I could not obtain, in consequence of its
extreme rarity, and hence was obliged to omit it in the chronological order of
the history.

INTRODUCTION. 125
1. That this passage is somewhat obscure is shown by Olympiodorus,
who describes it as enigmatic. "Everywhere," he says, "the Preacher,
teaching us by enigmas, directs our thoughts to a future life." Therefore
many think, as we have shown before, that these words are among those
which recognise slightly the immortality of the human soul, as Olympio
dorus, " in secunda exponendi ratione," Nicolaus, Cajet. Bonav. Arbor.,
have deduced. But we have said, and affirm again, that these are the proper,
actual, real sentiments of Solomon. And I now add, that so far from this
passage affecting the solid and firm truth of the immortality of the soul, it
strikingly confirms it. For common error and popular ignorance (if this is
possible on a matter so clear and true) does not enfeeble the truth which it
rejects or ignores, nor can it strengthen the falsehood which it sanctions.
Olympiodorus, however, when he mooted the whole difficulty of the passage,
notes the first and literal sense of the phrase, " spirit of beasts," as the
name applied to those men " who, not improving the gift of reason, are
compared to senseless brutes," or who appear to be deficient of sense. Of
whom it might be questioned, he says, as it seems very doubtful to us, whether
those who are reckoned worthy of the name of wisdom be so reckoned in the
Divine judgment, and those who are now placed in the rank of beasts and
of the ignorant be not placed in a better and loftier position by the supreme
judgment. But soberly, both the antecedents and the course of the present
passage require that the word " beast " should be taken in a literal, and not
a figurative sense, as all interpreters agree.
2. Jerome says that by this question is indicated the difficulty of the
matter, as it appears to be blasphemous. " Who knows, if the s]iirit," &o.
Not that be makes no distinction between animals and the dignity of the
human soul ; but by asking who, he wishes to shew the difficulty of the
matter. For the pronoun who in the Bible denotes difficulty, and not
impossibility ; for example, Isa. liii. 8, " Who shall declare ?" Ps. xv. 1,
" Who shall abide ?" Jerem. xvii, 9, " Who can know it ?" These words
of Jerome have been copied by Salonius and Hugo Carensis ; Kaldeeus also
seems to have glanced back at the same thing, when he says that the
knowledge of the immortality of the soul belongs not to every one, but to
the wise only. "Who being wise,'' he says, "who knows?" &c. And
verily, if the subject be of certain knowledge, and demonstrative by
reasoning, it belongs to none but to philosophers and the wise ; nor did
Olympiodorus adopt this opinion when he said, " This is plainly discovered
by every one wbo has the least share of reason." Just as, referring to the
natural light of reason, unless eclipsed by the density of the body, says
Chrysostom (Homil. 4, De Provid.), those who doubt the immortality of the
soul might doubt also whether it is daylight at the meridian. Cajetan is
ofi'ended from an entirely opposite extreme, when he affirms, that " who
knoweth" is the same as if he had said, "none knoweth." "For no
philosopher," he says, has hitherto proved the immortality of the soul, and
no reasoning seems to be conclusive; but we receive it on faith, and it

126 INTRODUCTION.
harmonises with rational probability." He has taught this in chap. ix.
Epist. to Eom. And, in truth, Scotus concurs in the same opinion (iv.
distinct. 43, quest 2), Before either of these, Hugo Victor has, in his way,
written admirably ; " It cannot be known by man with the same certainty
as those things which it is impossible to doubt, and which are proved to the
sceptical or doubtful by demonstrative evidence." These were followed by
Vatab., who remarks on this verse, that tbe immortality of the soul " can
only be ascertained by the Word of God." And in like manner, Campensis
John Ferus, then Julius Scaliger (De Subtil, contra Cardanura. Exercit.
307, c. 20). But having touched on this point, as in duty bound, so to this
Physician we leave the questions connected with the demonstration of the
immortality of the soul, and, concurring with the most sagacious philo
sophers, let us quit the books concerning the soul. And perchance Eccle
siastes has this matter little in view.
3. " Who knoweth." — The word .ladagh, by which we often denote the
knowledge and opinion of the intellect, is also connected with practice and
sense. A hundred instances might be adduced which are familiar to the
inquirer. From this root are the expressions in Gen. iii. 7, " They knew "
(felt, it was palpable to them) " themselves to be naked," and Gen. xxii. 12,
" Now know I that thou fearest God." It is therefore possible to construe
the word in this sense, when everything common to the man and the beast
may be perceived by the senses, who verily can say that he has with his
senses felt, seen, discovered the immortality of the soul ! Hugo Victor
smelt out this meaning ; " No one," he says, " knows this of men as those
things are known which are seen, and heard, and touched, and perceived
with the other senses ; for they think that nothing is known which is not
discerned by the bodily eye, and felt by the touch 1" In this way, E. Salom.
thinks, the word to know may be taken for reflecting or pondering on the
soul ; q. d; " Who ponders that his soul is immortal? that it will stand at
the Divine bar before the supreme Judge ; and that, both in immortality
and responsibility, it exceeds tbe brute ? For the bulk of men so live, that
they neither think nor ponder, but rather openly profess self-ignorance."
The original word in Psalm xxxv. 8, has this force, " Let destruction
come on him which he knoweth not." Chaldaeus elegantly renders it, " Let
the calamity which he neither knows nor considers come on him." And so,
Ps. cxxxix. 1, " Thou knowest my downsitting and uprising." Therefore,
Solomon says, the man is hardly to be found who ponders in his heart, who
considers the dignity of his nature, who regards himself as more important
and better than the brutes. With this the phrase of the Apostle appears to
correspond, 2 Cor. v. 1 ; " We know ' (we know well, we forget not, it falls
not away from our recollection or thought) " that if our earthly house of
this tabernacle," &c. It thus appears that the Apostle answers the query of
Solomon, Who is it that understands, i.e., considers, this? We, replies
Paul ; we know, i. e., consider, fix the attention of heart and mind, we
understand well, are skilled by habit to contemplate earnestly, as the rude

INTRODUCTION. 127
and undisciplined are iucapable of the thought. If you suggest to a carnal
man any lofty and spiritual reflection, he might reply, I surely know it to
be so, but I know it not in the sense of reflecting it and revolving it in my
mind ? Therefore it is designedly that the Preacher asks, " Who knoweth ?"
who hath by repeated thought and discourse discovered the truth of the
immortality of the soul and of the future judgment ?
4. If the spirit of the children of Adam. — The interrogation is correct,
being also fouud in the Septuagint and the ancient version of Jerome.
There is this distinction, however, that whereas these subjoin the particle
of interrogation to the verb (if it ascends, if it descends), in the Hebrew it
is affixed to the verb itself; for n (He) is customarily affixed to the word as
a note of interrogation. " Spirit" here does not stand, as above, for breathing,
but for the living soul, although in the original it is the same word, Euach,
as before.
Ascends above, and the spirit of beasts descends beloiv. — It is very easy to
understand what Solomon wished to signify by the words. Jerome explains
the words " ascend above " to mean " ascend to heaven." Olympiodorus
says more explicitly, " above" is used for the " kingdom of heaven," " beneath,"
for the lower abyss ; and Kaldseus appears to follow this principle of inter
pretation, "And who understands whether the souls of men ascend above
the firmament ; or the spirit of beasts, below the earth ?" In almost the
same way Complut. ; but Costa has, " Who, I ask, so excels in wisdom that
he can discover whether the spirits of men fly into heaven, and the spirit of
brutes lies fixed in tbe ground?" Both the Chald. and Septuag., the Syriac
and Arabic versions retain the second part from the Hebrew, which reads,
" Whether the spirit of beasts descends beneath the earth."
A briefer Dissertation on the signification of the words "Above and beneath,''
" Ascend and descend."
5. It seems too much to demand that the " descending " as well as
"ascending" and " above" should have reference to heaven — an interpre
tation which many later writers, after the Chaldee and Jerome, too readily
admit. If you object to this, that this sentiment is brought out by Solomon
at a period when yet the souls of the righteous had not risen to heaven, but
had gone down to the deep, i. e., to the place which was limbus, and the
abode of the holy fathers ; they reply, that by " above " is meant the state
and place of reward, which was possibly meanwhile under the earth, but
afterwards in the higher heaven, whither the souls of the righteous were
transplanted when their first retreat was opened by the King of Glory.
Yet hardly ever will you find this mode of speaking in the Scriptures, that,
before the advent of the Lord Christ, " the spirit of men ascended," but
rather that it " descended " to the deep, or at most was carried to Abraham's
bosom, which was a part of the deep, a vast chaos separating the place of
the damned from the repose of the just. Besides, it seems forced and harsh

128 INTRODUCTION.
that the abode of the fathers and of the just should be called heaven. Lastly,
as " the Preacher " speaks generally of immortality and the last judgment,
it did not behove him to look back on the souls of the righteous, for they
are only a few who rise " above " to the place of holy rest.
Therefore Arboreus, wishing this to be the idea of Solomon, contends
that when he said this, all were conducted to the deep equally, although
with a different design and issue; i.e., the human souls were borne to the
lower regions, but not all to the same place ; as Jacob has said. Genesis
xxxvii. 35, " I shall go down to my son in sorrow.'' Therefore no human
spirit then "ascended above " to the heavenly joys. Hence we deny that
Solomon, in the distinction he made between the spirit of men and of
brutes, meant that the immortal spirit, released from the chains of the
body, would fly to the higher regions. But, says he, who understands
absolutely? who, through only human authority? Who can know by
himself whether his hope is true or false? Who, on his own proof, can
instil faith into us on this matter ? This principle of interpretation is rare,
although it but little deviates from that view of the immortality of the soul,
and of Divine judgment, which other expositors recognise here.
In the third place, the exposition of the Greeks in the Catena is not very
dissimilar, " Because," says it, " it is impossible before the judgment to
determine clearly what renders the righteous unrighteous. For many
unrighteous pass into unrighteousness, &c., yet are raised above ; and, on
the other hand, many righteous fall into unrighteousness, and are plunged
into evil." You see here what Didymus, the author of the Catena, would
understand by the terms " above," " beneath," " ascend," and " descend,"
and of the state of lofty virtue and of vice, and of infamous and flagrant
sin, 0. In the fourth place, Cajet. Nicolaus, Bonavent. Dionys., and several
more recently, call the place " above " the scene of Divine judgment and
recompense. But the reason for which the place " above'' comes to represent
the Divine judgment is not explained. Whether the judgment of souls
departed from the body will be conducted in some higher sphere is uncertain.
Although, from the passage resembling this in Cohel, xii. 7, " and the
spirit shall return to Him who made it," it appears that tbe judged souls,
loosed from the body, stand before the Supreme Judge, and are revealed at
His bar; because at the last judgment day, when the Judge comes in clouds,
and the righteous are caught together with Christ in the air, they appear
placed in the air, or in the upper sphere, but below heaven, as the form of
speech current among the holy Fathers not obscurely points out. For so
Chrysostom (Homil. xiv. in Matt.) says, "All souls, when they depart hence,
are carried to the awful tribunal." And in the same strain, Augustine
(Lib. de Vanitate Ssculi, cap. i.) wrote, " When the soul is severed from
the body, the angels come and conduct it before the bar of tbe Judge."
This view, expressed in similar words, is common to other Fathers, viz., that
souls are conducted to a certain place, whither, iis they are not admitted to

INTRODUCTION. 129
heaven before the judgment, the Judge oomes, his presence being attested
by a special manifestation, and the sentence is passed. This point, I think,
is uncertain, and not determined by the wiser theologians, whether in the
instant of death it is carried to any other place than heaven, or to the
abode of the lost, or into purgatory. Therefore no special place " above " is
assigned for the judgment of souls. If a sphere " above " is spoken of for
the judgment, it is because God the Judge dwells in heaven. Albeit the
high and the lofty is regarded as removed from none. It becomes us
therefore to say, that the immortal soul ascends "above!" or returns to its
Maker, because it " falls into the hand of the living God." But truly the
" souls of beasts descend beneath," i.e., because there is no judgment for
them, or aught worthy of recompense.
7. But, fourthly, according to the use and hidden meaning of the scriptural
term, this seems to be a periphrasis for the immortality of souls ; of the
natural extinction of the souls of brutes, and of the natural immortality of
the souls of men, as well as of the eternal future. For this reason, to
" asoend above" signifies the same as to save the surviving, not to sufifer it
to be reduced with the body to dust. To " descend beneath " is equivalent
to being entirely dissolved with the body. Hence Hugo Victor wisely
explains these words, " The spirit of the children of Adam rises above,
because, in the dissolution of the body by death, the survivor continues in
life ; and the spirit of beasts descends beneath, since it melts away with the
body into corruption,'' So Job laments, chap. xvii. 16, " Into the deepest
pit my all have gone down," q. d., it is all over with his interests, his wealth,
and life, and the universe is gone into a terrible condition. So it is usual
to caU incurable death and inevitable ruin " tbe lowest hell" (Deut. xxxii.
22), " the lowest pit " (Ps. Ixxxviii, 6), " the stones of the pit " (Isa, xiv. 19);
for, being swallowed up by the earth, or departing and being reduced to
the earth, they speedily vanish. And from the opposite idea is derived the
phrase to " rise from the earth,'' which is equivalent to the words, to be
saved, to survive, to live. An instance occurs in Ps. xxx. 3, " Thou hast
brought up my life irom the grave," properly, in Hebrew, " made to ascend "
or •' exalted," as Vatab. renders it. The Psalmist immediately explains
himself, " Thou hast kept me alive, that I should not go down to the pit,"
i. e., " beneath " to the sepulchre. And in Prov. xxiii. 14, " and shalt
deliver his soul from hell." To this class belongs the expression, " the low
parts of the earth" (E^ek. xxvi. 20). The word " descend" frequently refers
to death and the grave; Gen. xiii. 38 ; xliv, 29, 31 ; Ezek. xxvi. 20. Hence
it is apparent that the term "beneath "has reference to corruption and
death; "above," to life and preservation; and as the phrase "ascend
above " signifies to be saved, so to " descend beneath " means to perish, and
the earth into which the descent is made is the state of corruption. Thus,
also, to " return to God," who is the Author of all life, implies that the soul
does not perish, but is united to the Original of life. So " the spirit returns
unto Him who made it" (chap, xii, 7), S

130

INTRODUCTION.

VULGAT.
21. Quis no-
uit si spiritus
filiorum Add as-
cendat sursum :

mentorum desee-
dal deorsum ?

VENETA.

SHIRW.

21. Quis CO- 21.Quisscit, f 21,/?Jer.G.P.T.Qui3
gnoscit spiritu an ilk spiritus sciens. £7a»ij9. quotusquis-
filiorum homi- filioruhominis que interim nouit. T. G.
nu nu ille asce- asoendit sur- an spiritus. Camp. An
dat sursum, & sum ? spiritus hominis anima ascensura
spiritu iumeto- iumentianille sit sursum. G. An spi-
rii num ille de- descedit deor- ritus filiorum hominum
scendat deorsii sum in ter- sit is qui ascendat sursum.
in terram ? ram ? E. Spiritus filiorum homi
num asceudens ipse sur
sum Hieron. T. Spiritus
pecotis. P. E. Spiritus
iumenti. G. S. An spiri
tus animalis. Camp. An
anima reliquorum ani-
mantium. Cor. Spiritus
bestiae. G. S. sit is qui
descendit subtus terram.
E. descendens ipse sub
terram. T. deorsum in
terram. Camp, cum cor-
poribus interitura sit.
CATENA GR^CORUM. parari. Nam qui ab hac laetitia
semel exciderit, ad illam rursus
huius tantum prsesentis vitae admi-
niculis, nullo se modo restituet,
quantumuis ea probet, appetatque,
quae ad illius recuperationem apprime
faciunt.

VARIETAS EX HEBR^O-

21. Et quid abundauit homo a
peccatore, &c. Quid igitur inter hos
discriminis este deprehendi qiiidve
preestantius inueni ? Nihil (inquit)
cum vniuersa sint vanitas, prsetar
rationalem, spiritalemque Isetitiam,
quse ex honestis hominum, virtu-
tisque operibus apta nata est com-

Pineda's gigantic commentary has no equal, and is indispen
sable to the historico-critical expositor.
1621. — Within twelve months of the appearance of Pineda's
work, John Ferdinand, another Roman Catholic, also published
an immense folio of five hundred and seventy pages upon
Coheleth,' which is a little more critical than those of his Catho
lic predecessors, Lorinus and Pineda. Like several Protestant
1 Commentarius in Librum Ecclesiastes, Auctore Tr. Joanne Ferdinando,
Magistro Yilillensi. Rom se, 1621.

INTRODUCTION.

131

SEPTUAG.
21. Et quis
nouit spiritus
flliorii homi
nis, si ascedat
ipse sursii ? &
spirit, pecoris
si descendat
ipse deorsum
in terram ?

SYRIAC. 2L Et
quis cogno-
seit spiritum
flliorum ho
minum as
cendere sur
sum, S spiri
tum iumeto-
rum descen
dat deorsum
in terram ?

ARAB, 21. Et
quis cogno-
uerit omne
spiritu filij
hominis, an
ima eius as-
cendet sur
sum, & si
spiritus ani
malis ani
mus descen-
derit ad pro-
fundum ter-

BRYLIN. 21. Et
quis nouit
spiritum fl
liorum ho
minis si as
oendit ipse
sursum ? S
spiritum bes-
ti(e si descen
dit ipse deor
sum in ter
ram?

VARIETAS EX
ALHS INTERP.
21. Hier. quis
scit Thaum. incer-
tum. Compl. quis
nouit spiritu,
Thaum. incertum
de animabus hu-
manis. Compl. si
ascendit. Thaum.
in altum subuola-
tursB. Compl. &
spiritum bestise.
Olymp. spiritus iu
menti. Compl. si
descendit ipse.
Thaum. an deorsum
sint defluxura.

CHALD. COMPLUT. ZAM.
Et quis est sapiens, qui sciat, si
spiritus omnis filiorum hominis, as
cendat supra flrmamentum, & spiri
tus omnis iumenti descendat sub
terram.

CHALD. PETR. COSTI.
21, Quis qU6eso tantum sapientia
exoellit, vt ei exploratum esse possit
num animi hominum in cesium peruo-
lent, spiritus vero brutorum animan-
tium desixus humi iaoeat.

commentators, Ferdinand regards this book as a treatise upon
the highest good, which, according to him, consists in despising
every earthly good, and in adhering to the service of God.
Solomon, being raised above men, and enlightened with the Divine
light, condemns all earthly things, all the desires of men, and all
the opinions of the philosophers, who make human happiness to
consist in created good and perishing things, and not in those
things which make us truly happy}

Supra hominem elevatus, divinoque illustratus lumine damnat cunota terrena

132 INTRODUCTION.
The specimens we have given from the commentaries of
Lorinus and Pineda will give a fair idea of Ferdinand's mode of
interpretation. 1621. — Whilst the chief leaders of the Reformation on the
Continent were issuing expositions upon this book on the one
hand, and Roman Catholics, in emulation, were plying us with
their bulky folios on the other, no commentary on Coheleth,
written in English, was published till 1621, when the small
quarto of Thomas Granger made its appearance.' Granger, too,
regards Coheleth as a treatise upon the highest good. It is
Solomon's Ethics, A^s tract de summo bono, of the chief and
complete felicity, and the world} s vanity, and therefore the very
root, seed, or kernel of all happy knowledge, both of good cmd evil,
in all things, natural, political, ecclesiastical
The main purpose of Solomon in this book is to shew wherein the blessed
estate and happy condition of man in this vale of misery consisteth. Which,
seeing that it is not to be found in the world, I mean out of the Church,
the wise men of the world are of so different, yea contrary opinions among
themselves, and all aberr from tbe truth, because, being in darkness,
they neither know God nor themselves, neither what is good nor what is
ill for man in this vain life. Again, they lay down this for a ground or
principle, that there is a summum bonum, or felicity, by the wisdom and
endeavour of man to be found in the things of the world; but, this ground
hominum desideria, et omnes opiniones Philosophorum, qui in bono create, et in
his rebus perituris constituunt fselicitatem hominis, pro re quae nos beatifical.
P. 7.
1 J. Serranus' " godly and learned commentary upon Ecclesiastes," which
appeared, 1585, is a translation from the Latin ; Cartwright's Homilies are in
Latin, and were not published till 1648 ; Henry Lock's is a poetical paraphrase;
and H. Broughton's is simply a translation of Coheleth, with a general introduc
tion, but -without a commentary. As to Mr. Barham's quoting Pilkington (see
the Bible Revised, part i., p. viii. Intr.) as one of those commentators on
Eoclesiastes who deserve special mention, we can only say, that if he had perused
the biographical notice prefixed to the Parker Society's edition of this prelate's
works, he would never have fallen into this error. The author of this biogra
phical notice (the Rev. James Scholefield) shews, beyond a doubt (p. ii.), that
Pilkington's lectures on Ecclesiastes were never published.
s A familiar exposition or commentary on Eoclesiastes, wherein the world's
vanity and the true felicity are plainly deciphered, by Thomas Granger, London,
1621. See the beginning of the third Dedicatory Epistle.

INTRODUCTION. 133
being false, all their buildings must needs fall down to the ground. But
Solomon here, by the special instruction and direction of the Spirit of God,
layetb down such a felicity as the world by their wisdom could not compre
hend. The brief sum whereof is this. Fear Ood and keep his commandments ;
or, in a word, faithful obedience is the chief good. This is the theme, or
question, as appears by the conclusion of all, chapter xii. 13. Now the
argument of confirmation is thus framed : —
Prop. — Either is the fear of Ood and obedience to His Principal
laws the chief good, or else it is to be found in ^ ogiam.
and by the things of this world, which we call
the goods of the body, the goods of the mind, the
goods of fortune, or outward goods.
AssoM, — But it is not to be found in and by these things.
CoNCL. — Therefore is the fear of Ood, and obedience to His
laws, the chief good.
The proposition is evident, the assumption is to be proved.
Peop. — If all be most vain, then there is no felicity or ProsyUogism,
chief good to be found in the things of the ^con&miSgl^
ivorld. principal.
AssuM. — But all things are vanity, most vain.
CoNOL. — Therefore, So.^
Granger labours to establish syllogisms, prosy Uogisms, epi-
syllogisms, throughout the book.
1627. — Though the enormous Roman Catholic commentaries
chiefly consist of the same copious extracts from the Fathers
and the mediseval writers, we should be sorry to miss the large
folio of Cornelius a Lapide on Ecclesiastes. Not that this
Jesuit contributed much towards developing the true design of
Coheleth, for he simply repeats the opinion of St. Augustine and
St. Jerome upon this subject, and says that the scope of the book
is to teach us true wisdom, enabling us to discern vanity from
truth, and to see that all the things which present themselves upon
this earth, alluring and enticing us, are utterly vain, and tliat
those things in heaven are really true and solid, so that by learning
this lesson we may rise to a contempt of this vain world, and be
^ Commentary, pp. 2, 3.

134 INTRODUCTION.
possessed with a love for and longing after heaven and God, the
true and the solid}
Neither has Lapide improved upon the division of the book ;
for, like De Lyra and others, he divides it into two parts : —
Part I. (chap. i. 1 - vi. 12) shews that all earthly things which
are highly esteemed by vain man, are empty and vain, and that
consequently the happiness said to exist in them is vain.
Part II. (chap. vii. 1-xii. 14) explodes this vanity, and shews
that truth and true happiness are centred in virtue, and in the
fear and service of God.
Accordingly, Ecclesiastes refutes those who consider supreme
happiness to consist in knowledge, in chap, i, ; reproves those
who, like the Epicureans, place it in pleasure, in chaps, ii. and
iii. ; those who place it in honour, in chap. iv. ; and those who
consider it to consist in riches, in chaps, v. and vi. ; the former
part of these chapters being occupied -with refuting the opinions
of others, and the latter part, with establishing his own. He
then speaks in chap. vii. of three kinds of good, of the soul, body,
and fortune, and the opposite evils ; then, she-wing the use of
all things, &c., that all our aflFairs are controlled by Divine
Providence. And recommends, in chap. viii. to the end of the
book, that we should lead a godly life, she-wing how we shall at
last be united with God, and enjoy eternal happiness.^
' Finis et scopus hujus libri est, docere veram sapientiam ; scilicet qua secer-
namus vanitatem k veritate ; nimirum ut cognoscamus vana esse omnia quse in
terris se ostentant, allioiunt et abblandiuntur ; vera verb et solida esse, qusB in ,
ccelis sunt, ut ex hao dispari cognitione assurgamus ad mundi, utpote vani, con-
temptum, ao ad coeli Deique, utpote veri solidique amorem et desiderium. — R. P.
Cornelii a Lapide, e Societate Jesu, Commentarius in Eoclesiasten. Antverpise,
1694, p. 4.
'' VerCim dioo duas primarias Ecclesiastis esse partes. Prior est k c. i. usque
ad cap. -vii. quS, ostendit omnes res mundi sublunares, quas homines vani magnas
sestimant, inanes esse et vanos, ao proinde vanara esse felicitatem quaj iu ijs
coUocatur. Posterior k c. vii. porrigitur usque ad finem, qua depulsa vanitate,
demonstrat veritatem veramque felicitatem sitam esse in virtute, ao Dei timore
et cultu. Igitur prime statim oapite eos refellit, qui soientiS, summum bonum
metiebantur, secundo item ao tertio capitibus eos redargiiit, qui in voluptate
finem bonorum, ut Epiourei ooUooarunt; quarto capite eos, qui in honoribus;

INTRODUCTION. 135
But the chief utility of this book is its lengthy quotations from
the Fathers and schoolmen. It must also be added that Lapides'
commentary is more critical than those of his fellow-Jesuit
expositors, Lorinus, Pineda, and Ferdinand.
1628. — The highly gifted William Pemble, who died in his
thirty-second year (April 14, 1623), while on a visit to his
tutor, Richard Capel, minister of Eastington, in Gloucestershire,
¦wrote an analytical exposition of Ecclesiastes, which was
published in 1628, and is embodied in the several folio editions
of his entire works.' Capel, who published the commentary of
his pupil, prefixed a dedicatory epistle to it, giving therein his
own opinion of the design of the book, which entirely agrees
with that of Pemble.
" As we in our sickness," says the teacher, " complain of
what occasioned our sickness, rather than of the disease itself;
so Solomon, when he came to himself, made this book, wherein
his drift is, not to stand so much upon his fall, as the means of
his fall ; I mean the vanity not of some but of all worldly
matters, which were the means and occasion that first drew him
firom the Lord ; such sweet things did deaden his taste, and
made him that he could not relish the things of heaven."
This is rather an ingenious attempt to account for the remark
able fact, that there is not a single recantation in the book, which
is described as Solomon's Becantation.
"Coheleth," says the pupil, "a preacher, or reconciled peni
tent, or both, this being his penitential sermon, or writing
delivered to the church or assembly of the faithful Jews,"
quinto et sexto eos confutat, qui in divitiis et opibus felicitatem posu^re. Prior
itaque hsec capitum sex portio in refeUendis alienis oocupatur; altera verb
totidem capitum pars in confirmanda sua sententia versatur. Igitur o. -di. de
tribus bonorum generibus disserit: Animi, inquam, corporis et fortune, deque
contrariis mails. Quis horum omnium sit usus, utque res omnes nostras k divina
pendeant providentia, luoulenter ostendit. Hinc ad finem usque libri de vita pife
ae justfe transigenda, quo tandem Deo conjungamur, et fehoitate perfruamur
setema, concionatur, p. 5.
1 Solomon's Recantation and Repentance, or the Book of Ecclesiastes briefly
and fully explained. Works, p. 273, &c.

136 INTRODUCTION.
institutes an inquiry " wherein man's chiefest good and blessedness
consisteth." He proceeds in the first part (i. l-vi. 12) "nega
tively, disabling the virtue of such things as might seem to make
us happy; and declares, in the second part, (vii. 1-xii. 14)
AFFIRMATIVELY and POSITIVELY, wherein man's blessedness
stands, and whereby it is obtained. This he doth —
" 1. Particularly, in the several degrees and means of true
happiness, so far as in this life we may attain unto it, in chaps.
vii., viii., ix., x., xi., and part of chap. xii.
" 2. Summarily, in the conclusion of this whole discourse,
chapter xii. 8."
As this is the first entirely analytical commentary, and as
it shews how the Scriptures were reduced to the logic and
mathematical precision of the time, we give a specimen of
Pemble's Analysis of chap. i. 1-7.
Inscription, verse 1 , describing the author of the book —
1, By the person he now takes on him, Coheleth, a Preacher, or recon
ciled penitent, or both, this being his penitential sermon, or writing,
delivered to the Church or assembly of the faithful Jews.
2. By his parentage, son of David.
3. By his dignity and office, a king, amplified by the place, in
Jerusalem.Doctrine, enquiring wherein man's chiefest good and blessedness con
sisteth, wherein he proceedeth —
1. Negatively, disabling the virtue of such things as might seem to
make us happy, which is done —
1. Generally, in one main proposition, That there is nothing within
the compass and power of created nature that can make a man happy.
This negative proposition is —
1. Delivered (verse 2), concluding all under vanity, and that most
vain vanity, weakness, inconstancy, fruitlessness, &c., and that
repeated, to make it seem the more vain.
2. Conflrmed by four general reasons.
2. Affirmatively. See chap. vii.
Verse 3. 1. From \hs fruitlessness of all human actions, endea
vours, counsels, and projects, wherein he busieth himself under
the sun, i.e., in matters of this world, whose uttermost extent is
confined within the possibilities of the creature, and the circuit of
this life. All the happiness that man may propose or procure to
himself by those means, if it be resolved into its sinful issue and

INTRODUCTION. 137
conclusion, ends in nothing, and leaves unto a man no profit,
ynn\ i.e., residue, and remaining fruit to abide with him ; when all
that account is subducted, there resteth nothing but ciphers,
2, From the mutability and changeable condition of man him
self. Eternity is an inseparable accident of perfect felicity; nor
can those things make us truly happy, which cannot establish us
in the perpetual enjoyment of our bliss. And thus are the things
of our world, whose greatest strength cannot alter the frail and
perishing estate of man. But (verse 4) generation cometh, and
generation passeth away, both fathers and children, all are at last
thrust out of possession of the earth's felicity. In which only com
plement of true felicity, man is so far from being happy as his con
dition is worse than that of other creatures, yea, of those that seem
most inconstant. Instances are four —
1. The earth abiding for ever, seeing the rise and fall of all
ages, the stage of all actions, the womb that giveth and receiveth
all, viler than the worst man for its nature, better than the most
happy for its continuance in that being that it hath (verse 4).
2. The sun (verse 5) which, as a champion, runs his course
from one end of heaven to the other; and with an even and
unaltered motion observes the time of rising and setting; so
setting in the evening, as it ariseth with equal glory and bright
ness in the morning (not so in man). Sotes oeddere, &c,
3. The winds (verse 6), which seem most unsteady and change
able in their motion, yet so pass over the quarters and coasts of
the world, as they observe their circuits, rna'ac, wherein they
run their compass yearly, monthly, and daily (in some places)
as God ordains, who brings them out of his treasury.
4. The waters, a shuttle and running substance, yet more
durable and lasting than man and his felicity. The sea still
holding the same quantity since the creation for depth and wide-
ness, notwithstanding the infinite access of all rivers emptying
themselves into it; and as the sea is never full, so are rivers
never empty, the waters still running, but still renewed by
supply from the clouds and their fountains (verse 7).
1636. — This opinion is also espoused by Cocceius, the founder
of the Theological school bearing his name.' The following is
his analysis of the book : —
A. Thesis (i. 2).
B. Demonstration. Because —
I. Labour is unprofitable (3), from 1. The nature of things (4-7), 2.
1 Cocceji Opera, Editio Tertia, Amstelodami, vol. ii,, p, 520, seq.
T

138 INTRODUCTION.
Imperfection of things (8-12). 3, The kinds of labour, where there is,
(1.) Examination (13). (2.) Attestation (14). (8.) Declaration (15). (4.)
Demonstration, a. In proof of wisdom and folly (16). A §. Absolute
(18, &c.) B. §. Comparative (chap, ii, 12, &c.) 6. The result of the proof.
A. §. Hatred of life (17). B. §. Hatred of work (18). C. §. Despair of
work (20). 4. The reasons, I. placed (1.) generically ; (2.) specifically
(iii. 2). II. Eeference to the thesis (9). III. Illustrates (1.) The govern
ment of God (11). (2.) Invocation of good (12). (3.) Its confirmation
(13, &c.) Because —
II. Labour oppresses. 1, The injustice and violence of men (chap, iv. 1).
2. The effect of these on (i.) Society, a. Emulation (4). b. Envy (5).
(2.) Individuals, avarice (6, &c.) 3, 'The vanity of overmuch help (13, &c.).
Because —
III. There is danger in well doing, in 1. Approach to God's house (chap.
V. 1). 2. Prayer (2). 3. Vows (4, &c.). 4, Eecognition of the Divine
government (8). Because —
IV. The common hope of good is vain. 1. Honour. 2. Money (10).
3. Abundant increase (11). 4. Satisfaction (12). 5. Treasures (13, &o.)
6. A large family (chap. vi. 3), Because —
V. The fruit of labour is transient (7, 8). Because —
VI. Eager desire is vain (9). 1. tS wapo'v, is better. 2. Men remain
within their own rank (10). 3. Hope and gladness heap up vanity (11).
4. Uncertainty of human good (12). (1.) Overshadowed good. (2). Un
known future. (3,) Good not subjected to sensible test. Hence, better is
(a.) Name to ointment (chap. vii. 1). (6.) Day of death to day of birth.
(c.) Society of the mourning than of the merry (2). {d) Sorrow to
laughter (3). {e) The end than the beginning (8). if.) Patience (9).
{g) Wisdom with inheritance (11). (h) Justice and wisdom, with the
excess of each (16, (fee), (i.) Pleasure than wisdom, wherein 1§. Thesis,
extolling wisdom (chap. viii. 1). 2§. Confirmation, from the fruits of
wisdom. (1.) In public life (3). (2.) Private (5). 3§. Antithesis
(1,) Defects of wisdom in (1,) Public life. (2.) Private (9, 10, &c.)
(2). Pleasures of good, which includes in it —
i. Proposition (15).
ii. Confirmation, from the inconvenience of wisdom (16).
A. Useless labours (17).
B. Utter emptiness, from 1. Common appointment of God (chap. ix. 1).
2. Common uncertainty (2). 3. Common lot (3, &c.). 4. Obstructions to
wisdom (13).
(6.) Impertinence of those to whom it is necessary (16). (c.) Their
guilt (18). {d.) Mixture of folly in tbe wise (chap. x. 1). (e.) Unjust
distribution of honour (5, &c.). (/.) ETravopflMnf, concerning vain and baneful
pleasure (15). (1,) The state from the throat (17). (2.) Constitution
from care (18). (1.) In an example of evil (19). (2.) Of good (20).
(3.) Evils following.

INTRODUCTION. 139
a. Envy (20). 6. Neglect of the needy (chap, xi. 1). c. The Pretext
(4). (d.) Advice given (6).
(3.) In life itself (7). (4,) In better portions of life (9, &c.).
C. Epilogue, in which the author
1. Concludes his thesis (chap. xii. 8).
2. Delivers its use (9).
1, npoiropj)! (10),
2. Eei colophon (13).
1637. — The states of the Netherlands, where our persecuted
Puritans and other eminent di-vines found an hospitable
asylum, and where many of their elaborate works were first
published, now obtained a vernacular authorised version, with
large annotations, by the advice and authority of the States-
General given to the Synod of Dort. " The Dutch Annota
tions," as they are called, were so highly esteemed, that they
were translated into. English by Theodor Haak, in 1657,' and
were recommended by Parliament, along with Diodati, to the
authors of the Assembly's Annotations. The Dutch Annotators
agree, with " many of the learned," that Solomon wrote this book
in his old age, after that he had for many years together turned
away from the right path of true godliness, but was now again
converted unto God. Wherein he, by inspiration of the Holy Ghost,
before the whole congregation of God, testifieth his earnest sorrow
and repentance for the former part of his life, loathing and
abhorring it, as being vanity of vanities, whereby a man is not
able to attain unto temporal rest, and satisfaction or contentment
of mind, much less unto the highest and chiefest good, which is
everlasting salvation. In like manner his intent and purpose is,
by his own example and pattern, to lead all men to virtue and
piety. To this end and purpose he doth in theflrst place make a short recital of
the whole course of his life, and wherein he had chiefly taken his delight
and recreation. Then, in the second place, he relateth also that he heeded
and observed the practice and course, about which many men did most
' The Dutch Annotations upon the whole Bible, translated by Theodor Haak,
2 vols, fol., 1657.

140 INTRODUCTION.
busy and trouble themselves in this life, being, for tbe most part, vanities,
yea also wicked and ungodly devices, he testifying that the AU-wise and
Almighty God directeth and governeth all things according to His will
and pleasure, and that things do not fall out in the world by fortune or
chance, as many men do imagine. Lastly, Solomon exhorteth all men to
fear and serve God uprightly, and to practise and perform all good works
and duties, rejoicing in an honest and godly manner in the things which
they do enjoy, and have received at the bountiful hand of God, especially
while they are yet young, strong, and of perfect memory and understanding,
having at all times the severe and righteous judgment of God before their
eyes.i It will be seen that these Dutch divines, like the early
Reformers, recognise that this book recommends a grateful enjoy
ment of the good creatures of God.
1639. — Determined tliat the Roman Catholics should no
longer have the monopoly of the large folio commentaries,
Michael Jermin, " Doctor in Divinity, and Rector of St. Martin's,
Ludgate," now produced a folio upon Ecclesiastes.^ The mode
of commenting on the text which our Protestant divine adopted
is similar to that pursued by the Catholics, whom he evidently
imitates; and we are sorry to say that the copy is infinitely
inferior to the original, as will be seen firom the following speci
men. With many of his predecessors, Jermin thinks that the
scope of the Boyal Philosopher, the Ecclesiastical King of Israel,
in this book, is to shew where the greatest good of man is, by
shewing it not to be in the things of this world ; he declareth what
it is, by declaring what we must be, in the fear of the Lord, and in
keeping his commandments.
A specimen of his commentary —
Chap. vi. 4. For he cometh in with vanity, So. — Saint Bernard, speaking
unto man, saith, Cogita undo veneris, et erubesce, ubi sis et ingemisce, quo
vadis et contremisce, Think from whence thou camest, and be ashamed,
where thou art, and sigh for sorrow, whither thou goest, and tremble with

1 Vol. i., not ]
2 A Commentary upon the whole book of Eoclesiastes, or the Preacher, by
Michael Jermin, Doctor in Divinity, and Rector of St Martin's, Ludgate, London.
1639.

INTRODUCTION. 141
anguish (Ser. de. Primord. Med. et Noviss.) Saint Austin, also, speaking
unto man, saith, Intelligas ergo in quantum sit ingressus tuus flebilis, pro-
gressus tuus debilis, et egressus tuus liorribilis. Understand, therefore, how
lamentable thy coming is, how feeble thy going on is, how terrible thy
going out is (1. cui tit. Speculum Peccato). It is the like manner of
expressing himself, and of setting out man's misery and condition, which
here the Preacher useth. He cometh in with vanity, with the vanity of
original corruption, and departeth in darkness, in the darkness of his actual
transgressions. For these are darkness, indeed, by which the light of God's
favour is darkened and kept firom us, the light of knowledge is darkened
and shut up in us, by which the darkness of eternal misery is brought upon
us. Saint Austin noteth (Ps. viii.), Non dicit Deus, flant tenebres, et facta
sunt, et tamen tenebras ordinavit, et divisit a luce tenebras, God did not say.
Let there be darkness, and there was darkness ; but yet God ordered the
darkness, and divided the darkness from the light : it is so with the trans
gressions of men; God never said. Let them be; but, having their being
from man, he ordereth them, and by his justice divideth them from tbe
light of happiness. But here is nothing said of the covetous wretch's life ;
his vain coming in, his dark going out mentioned; we read nothing of
his wretched life, as if that were not worthy to be remembered. And
indeed it follows. His name shall be covered with darkness; whereby is not
meant only that his name shall be forgotten, for then it bad been enough
to have said, his name shall be covered. But, seeing it is added that his
name shall be covered with darkness, it is meant that the foulness and
blackness of his actions shall make his name to be as a thing abhorred to
be thought upon. And surely when vanity lets him in, and darkness shuts
him out, what could it be but wretchedness that kept him company in the
meanwhile ? But it seemeth to me that the original here may not amiss be
translated, he cometh into vanity, and goeth into darkness. First, he cometh
into vanity : Saint Ambrose, shewing the vanity of man's life, and that it
is but a shadow, telleth us (Ps. cxviii,), that when the Son of God was born
of the Virgin, it is said that the power of the highest overshadowed her ;
Quia in umbram descendit, ab umbra incipiens operari salutem hominis, et
consummaturus claritate solis aterni. Because he descended into a shadow,
from a shadow beginning to work the salvation of man, which he will finish
in the brightness of the Eternal Sun. And the same Father, considering
the words of David, I will live and keep thy words, thereupon noteth {ibid.),
Vivam ait, quasi nondum vivens ; hio enim in umbra vivimus. Ergo vita ista
in corpore, umbra est vita, et imago, non Veritas, He saith, I will live, as not
living yet, for here we live in a shadow. This life therefore in the body is
a shadow and an image of life, not the truth of it. Secondly, He goeth into
darkness; sed forte tales esse putet homo, quales patiuntur in carceribus inclusi.
Utinam tales essent, tamen in tabilus nemo vult esse. In his autem carcerum
tenebris possint includi et innocentes. In talibus enim tenebris sunt inclusi
martyres. But perhaps some one may think this darkness to be such as they

142 INTRODUCTION.
suffer who are shut up in prison. I wish that it were such ; but yet in this
darkness no one would willingly be. But, in the darkness of prisons,
innocents may be shut up, for in such darkness martyrs have been impri
soned, as Saint Austin speaketh (Homil. 40). This, therefore, is another
darkness, this is that outer darkness of which the Scripture speaketh, and
into which he is cast, Qui extra Deum penitus est, quoniam dum tempus est
corrigi noluerit, Who is without God wholly, because, when there was time,
he would not be corrected, as St, Austin speaketh, (Ps. v.) So doth St.
Ambrose also expound the outer darkness, saying, Quieunque extra sunt
promissa ecelestium mandatorum, in tenebris exterioribus sunt ; quia mandata
Dei lumen sunt. Et quieunque sine Christo est, in tenebris est, quia lumen in
tenebris est Christus, Whosoever are without the promises of the heavenly
commandments, they are in outer darkness, because the commandments
of God are light. Whosoever is without Christ, he is darkness, because
Christ is a light in darkness. And of this outer darkness St. Austin saith,
Penitus autem esse extra Deum, quid est nisi esse in summa cceoitate ? But to
be wholly without God, what is it but to be in extreme darkness ? Into this
darkness, therefore, it is that the soul of a covetous wretch goeth, when the
life into which he came is vanished away. And when his soul thus lieth in
the darkness of horror, when his body lieth in the darkness of the grave,
then is his name also covered, either with the darkness of silence, abhorring
to mention it, or, if it be mentioned, with the darkness of reproaches that
are cast upon it.
1643. — It is remarkable that, notwithstanding all the oriental
celebrities and Biblical scholars who lived in England at the
period, the first commentary upon the entire Bible in English
is a translation from the Italian of Diodati, the history of which
is as follows. John Diodati or Deodati, who was born at
Geneva (not at Lucca), on June 6, 1575, where he also died
on October 3, 1649,' published the first edition of his Italian
version of the Bible at Geneva, 1603, fol., issued a second
edition with notes in 1607, 4to, and a third improved edition
in 1641, fol. He also began publishing a French translation
of the Bible, with many additional notes, in 1644, which he
1 Orme's remark, that Diodati was " bom 1576, died 1638 " (Bibliotheca
Biblica, p. 160), is a most unaccountable blunder. Even the English translator
of Diodati, R. G., as he signs himself, is inaccurate in the biographical and
bibliographical remarks which he makes in his address to the reader, as will
be seen from the excellent article on Diodati in Ersch and Gruber's Encyolop.,
sect. V.

INTRODUCTION.

143

finished in 1646. The annotations of the second edition were
published by R. G. in 1643, and thus supplied the English
reading public with a commentary on the whole Bible. R. G.
also published a second edition in 1648, inserting additional
notes, which Diodati made in his French Bible, and a third
edition in 1651. Diodati's annotations were so highly esteemed
that they were recommended, along with the Dutch annotations,
to the author of the Assembly's annotations. But, whatever
may be the merits of these notes on other portions of Scripture,
they throw no additional light upon Coheleth, since Diodati
simply repeats what many of his predecessors have said, viz.,
Solomon, towards the latter end of his life, after he had seen so
many trials, and committed so many errors, makes here a solemn
kind of speech for a public confession, and the instruction of the
Church upon two very weighty and necessary points. The first is,
how a faithful man ought and may wisely govern his life in this
world, lo live happily therein. The other, how he should direct it
towards the sovereign end of eternal happiness.
The following is a specimen of his analysis : —

Solomon's design in
this book
(excellent

j\. For iis principal author, one Shepherd, chap. xii. 11.
2. For its insin*-(l. Wisdom.

mental author,
Solomon, com
mended for his

2. Assiduity
in teaching
words of

/¦I. Truth, chap. xii. 10.
2. Delight.

'l. Quicken as
.3. Power to\ ^oads.
2. Fasten as nails,
chap. xii. 11)
doth shew wherein the summum bonum or true happiness of man doth
consist; a thing eagerly sought after by the heathen philosophers, but
never found out by them, they in this argument being as men destitute
of light, and wandering in darkness. This happiness doth Solomon the
Preacher define —
Negatively, in the six first chapters, shewing wherein it doth
not consist, therein confuting the vain opinions and con
jectures of the philosophers.
Affirmatively, in the six last chapters, shewing wherein this
happiness doth consist, therein rectifying the judgment of
all that seek after it.

144 INTRODUCTION.
1644. — As a literary curiosity must be mentioned, Quarles'
poetical paraphrase of Ecclesiastes, published by his widow in
1644.' The title of the book, viz,, Solomonis Becantation, shews
that Quarles follows the opinion that this is a penitential dirge.
The following is a specimen of this curious paraphrase, which
consists of twelve sections, according to the number of the
chapters, each section being followed by a soliloquy of similar
length. Chap. i. l-ll: —
l. Thus says the best of preachers and of kings.
Thus Solomon, tbe son of David sings,
2. The greatest happiness that earth can prize
Is all most vain, and vainest vanities.
3, What profit can accrue to man ? what gains
Can crown his actions, or reward his pains ?
Beneath the orb of heaven's surrounding sun,
What, worth his labour, hath his labour done ?
4, One generation gives another way.
But earth abides in one perpetual stay ;
5. The prince of light puts on his morning crown.
And in the evening lays his glory down.
Where, leaving earth to take a short repose.
He soon returns, and rises where he rose.
6. The troubled air provokes the southern states.
And then it blusters at the Boreau gates ;
It whirls about in his uncertain sphere.
And rides his unknown circuit everywhere.
7. All rivers to the seas their tribute yield, .
And yet th' hydropic seas are never filled.
Their sliding streams pursue their passage home.
And drive their hasty tides from whence they come,
8. The world is all composed of change, nor can
Her vanity be charactered by man ;
The eye 's not satisfied, and what we hear
Fills not the concave of th' insatiate ear :
9. The thing that heretofore hath been, we see
Is but the same that is, and is to be :
And what is done, is what is to be done ;
There 's nothing that is new beneath the sun.
10. What novelty can earth proclaim, and say
It had no precedent before this day .'
' Solomon's Recantation, (fee, by John Quarles, London, 1644.

INTRODUCTION. 145
No, no; there's nothing modern times can own.
The which precedent ages have not known ;
11. The deeds of former days expire their date
In our collapsed memories, and what
Time's early sunshine hath not ripened yet,
Succeeding generations shall forget.
1644. — The appearance of Grotius' Commentary on the Old
Testament in 1644, a year before his death, gave a new tone to
the interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures in general, and to
that of Coheleth in particular, through the profound scholarship
and great liberality displayed therein. This acute critic takes
Coheleth to mean collector, compiler, and regards the book as '
a collection of different opinions concerning liappiness, as pro
pounded by those who were reputed sages by their own people, just
as the book of Job discusses the different opinions respecting the
Divine government of human affairs. We are therefore not to
wonder if we find things in it which we cannot approve, since
all the difi'erent opinions are necessarily mixed up with his argu
ment, just as Aristotle does, before giving his final opinion ; but
the beginning and end sufficiently shew the drift of the book, for
which, as the Hebrews say, it deserves a place in the canon.
The main service, however, which Grotius has rendered with
regard to this book, is his shrewd discovery that Solomon is not
its author, which no commentator had made since the days of
' Meliiis fortfe vertetur ffufaSpMo-rns {coacervator), quomodo verbum hnp per
o-DvaSpos^Eiv verti solet, ut intelligamus redactas in huno librum varias hominum,
qui sapientes apud sues quisque habebantur, opiniones mf. tS; A^aifAmaq [de
beatitudine) , plank siout liber Jobi omnes ferme quse fuerunt aut esse possunt de
divina rerum humanarum gubernatione, aut contra eam, sententias complec-
titur. Quare mirari non debemus, si qufedam hio legimus non probanda; omnes
enim sententias cum suis argumentis reoitanti, ut Aristoteles faoere solet prius-
quam quid definiat, necesse erat id aooidere ; sed ciim et initium et finis satis
monstrent quod sit scriptoris propositum, ob eas oausas (ut aiunt Hebrsei),
meritb in canonem receptus est. Ego tamen Solomonis esse non puto, sed
scriptum serius sub illius Regis, tanquam pcenitentia ducti, nomine. Argumentum
ejus rei habeo multa vooabula, quse non alibi quam in Daniele, Esdra et
Chaldseis interpretibus reperias. Hugonis Grotii Opera, 4 vols. Londini, 1679,
vol. i., p. 258. U

146 INTRODUCTION.
Luther. " I believe," says he, " that the book is not the produc
tion of Solomon, but was written in the name of this king, as being
led by repentance to do it. For it contains many words which
cannot be found except in Ezra, Daniel, and the Chaldee para-
phrasts. Grotius' notes are very brief, but always very instructive, and
abound with parallels from the Classics.
1645. — Stimulated by the annotations on the Bible, which
the Germans, the Dutch, the Italians, and the French Pro
testants possessed, English Protestants were at last determined
to have something similar. To this end a committee of Parlia
ment nominated some of the most learned divines of the day,
supplying them with books, and recommending to them the
Dutch and Diodati's Annotations, to produce a similar work.
Hence the commentary upon the Scriptures, known by the
erroneous name of " The Assembly'' s Annotations," ' which was
first published in 1645 ; then, with improvements, in 1651 ; and
a third edition, 1657, Dr. Reynolds, bishop of Norwich, is the
author of the Commentary on Ecclesiastes. Reynolds follows
the opinion of many of his predecessors, that Solomon makes
known his repentance to all the Church, that thereby he might
1 " The Annotations on the Bible," says Neal, " which go under their [the
Assembly's'] name, were neither undertaken nor re-vised by them, but by a Com
mittee of Parliament, who named the commentators, and furnished them with
books ; nor were they all members of the Assembly, as appears by the following
list. Those with asterisks were not of the Assembly.
The Commentary on Written by
The five books of Moses  Rev. Mr. Ley, Sub-Dean ,of Chester.
The two books of Kings  \
The two books of Chronicles ....
Ezra  Y Dr. Gouge.
Nehemiah  • 
Esther 
The Psalms  'Mr. Meric Casaubon.
Proverbs  Mr. Francis Taylor.
Eoclesiastes  Dr. Reynolds.
Solomon's Song  I.Mr. Smalwood, recommended by Arch-
) bishop Usher.

INTRODUCTION. 147
glorify God, and strengthen his brethren, thus imitating his father
David; he therefore translates chap. i. 1, The words of the soul,
or person congregated or gathered unto the church or congregation
of saints, &c.' He also divides the book into two principal
parts, in the first of which (chap. ii. - vi. 12) the penitent king
shews, firom his own experience, that happiness can neither be
found in wisdom, knowledge, pleasures, honour, greatness, power,
nor in an outward form of religion, it all being vanity ; but in
the excellent means which he prescribes in the second part
(chap. vii. -xii. 12), viz. : —
Contentation of heart in the sweet and free enjoyment of all outward
blessings, with thanksgiving, and in the fear of God; quiet and humble
acquiescency under the holy and powerful providence of God, in all the
events which befall us in the world ; sincerity of heart in his worship, and
prudent piety in our vows, prayers, and addresses unto him ; patience of
spirit under all the oppressions we meet with in the world ; a composed pre
paredness of mind to undergo son-ows and afflictions ; prudent and pious
moderation of spirit in our behaviour towards all men, that so we may
preserve our names from calumny, and our persons from danger ; meekness,
charity, patience towards such as ofi'end, considering common frailty and
our own weakness ; sobriety of mind, contenting ourselves with a measure
of wisdom and knowledge, and not busying ouwelves with things too high
for us ; practical prudence, which may render us beautiful in the eyes of
others ; loyalty and obedience towards magistrates, that our lives may not
The Commentary on Written by
Isaiah  \
Jeremiah  I Mr. Gataker.
Lamentations  j
Ezekiel  | *Mr. Pemberton, in the first edition,
Daniel, and the smaller Prophets [ *Bishop Richardson, in the second.
Matthew 
Mark  ' 

Mr. Ley.

Luke 
John  Dr. D. Eeatly ; but his notes are broken and
St. Paul's Epistles  ¦ imperfect, the author dying before he
had re-vised them.
There were two other persons concerned in this work, who might probably
have the other parts of Scripture allotted them, not here mentioned, viz., Mr.
Downham, and Mr. Reading." History of the Puritans, part iii., chap. x.
^ Annotations upon all the books of the Old and New Testament, third
edition, 2 vols. London, 1657., vol. i. not paged.

148 INTRODUCTION.
be made uncomfortable by their displeasure; wisdom to discern of time and
judgment; preparedness of heart against inevitable evils; submission to
the holy and invincible providence of God, admiring his works, adoring his
judgments ; joyful fruition of comforts; conscionable and industrious walking
in our particular callings; wisdom so to carry ourselves amidst the many
casualties which meet us in the world, as that we may by our loyalty
towards superiors decline the danger of displeasure from them, and by
our charity to inferiors lay up «. good foundationfor ourselves against the
time to come; lastly, moderation in the use of comforts here, and prepara
tion, by the fear of God and keeping of his commandments, for death and
judgment hereafter. That by these means, as our life is sweet, so our death
may be welcome. That the piety of our youth may help us to bear the
infirmities of our age, and to lift up our heads in the day of redemption.
Reynolds' commentary, though homiletic, contains many
critical remarks, explanations of idioms, &c., and not only sur
passes all English expositions on Ecclesiastes which preceded it,
but will bear comparison with those which have succeeded it.
1647. — Whilst homiletic commentaries were now being
multiplied in England, Germany continued to furnish us with
critical expositions ; and the elaborate work of Geier on
Coheleth will always be an honour to its age.' Geier, however,
is satisfied with the old opinion that Solomonis design in this book
is partly to confess the vanity of those things which he had formerly
been so fond of, to his utter ruin, and partly to deter others from
the like fondness of vanities, and to lead them to the true sovereign
good, which is the fear of God} He also divides the book into
two principal parts, though he difiers from his predecessors in
making the first part, which shews wherein happiness does not
consist, to extend from i. 1 to ix. 18 ; and the second part,
shewing wherein true happiness does consist, to extend fi-om
X. to xii. 14.

' In Salomonis Regis Israel Eoclesiasten Commentarius Martini Geieri,
Lipsife, 1647; editio quarta, Lipsise, 1791, is the one we have used.
' Scopus denique, Salomoni in hoc libro prsefixus, fuit, partim oonfessionem
edere vanitatum cum damno haotenus traotatarum, partim alios omnes simUi vani-
tatum seotatione deterrere, atque ad verum summum bonum adducere, nempe ad
Timorem Dei, p. 5, vi.

INTRODUCTION.

149

The following is the tabular view which Geier gives of the
argument of Ecclesiastes :' —

t?i

/I. KUT
pso-tv, or
remonstra- tion. The
things in
which hap
piness doesi
not consist
because of
the vanity
which So
lomon ob
served,
II. Kbto &e-
o-iv, or the
position wherein(
happiness does con-
\ sist.

^t'" (from his own experienpe,\''°^ '"^ knowledge, chap, i,
r the (nor in pleasure, chap, ii,
a^ f^ime, being changeable, chap. iii.
Persons, (^«i°g ""J"^'.
, t invidious,
because , * . . I
, . , ¦( and avaricious,!
their cha- , .
racter W ™'>«. | chap. v.
Vand rich, f
Things, /Eiches which -i absolutely, chap. vi.

[invidious, Ichap. iv.

CD

|;

B*

s

03

1

<^

O
C'^
>§¦¦
o
o|
-.a
"
being un
certain,
Vviz,,
are contracted J comparatively, chap. vii.
Administra- i human, chap, viii.
tion J divine, chap. ix.
in uprightness towards superiors; chap. x.
in benevolence towards the poor, chap, xi,
in piety towards God, chap, xii.
Geier's commentary contains much that is critically valuable.
1647. — It is not surprising that Lightfoot, who declared
himself a mere child in Hebrew and Rabbinical learning, in
/ 1. Kar' a<fatp£o-iy sen
remotionem, qua
in re non oonsis-
tat felioitas; ubi
de vanitate, quam
Salomo observa-
vit in rebus
SCO
, . . . ( Scientia, cap. i.
Isms, quse partim m j _.
I u su rerum vanat, cap. u.
TempoTum conversiones, cap. iii.
nnjustornm, \
invidorum,
PersonarumJ avarorum,
mores, ut regum,impiorum,divitum,
I Divitiarum, traotantur
poap. IV.
cap. V.
Rerum in-
certitud.ut,
Administrationis
quse 1 simplioiter, cap. vi.
) oomparatfe, cap. -vii.
) humanse, cap, viii.
J divinse, cap. ix
II. KttTi Seith! seu
positionem, quod
felioitas eonsistat
probitate erga superiores, cap. x.
caritate erga proximum egenum, cap. xi.
pietate erga Deum, cap. xii.
150 INTRODUCTION.
comparison with Hugh Broughton, adopted the singular view
of the latter, that the design of Coheleth is to shew that the king
dom promised to David is not of this world. In his " Chronicle of
the Times, and the Order of the Texts of the Old Testament,"
which appeared in 1647, Lightfoot says, upon —
The Book of Eoclesiastes.
After his great fall, Solomon recovereth again by repentance, and writeth
this book of Ecclesiastes, as his penitential dirge for that his folly. He
calleth himself in it Koheleth, or the gathering soul ; either recollecting itself,
or, by admonition, gathering others, that go astray after vanity. He sheweth
in it, that all things on this side heaven are but vanity ; and he had found
it so by sad experience ; and so the kingdom promised to David, which
was to be everlasting, must not be expected to be of this world, as John
xviii. 36.'
1651. — Far superior, in a critical point of view, to every
thing which has hitherto been published on Ecclesiastes, is the
scholarly commentary of Mercer. Like Luther and others, he
maintains that the design of this book is to shew the vanity of
human affairs, studies, projects, and dispositions, and to condemn
the restless anxiety and fickleness of man ; and, having drawn us
away from these, to invite us to the contemplation cf lofty realities,
to the fear of God, and to the keeping of his commandments. It
moreover teaches us to enjoy present things with a calm and
grateful heart, without anxiety and solicitude, which Christ also
teaches.^ Without being tedious in detailing the various opinions of
others, Mercer's commentary is a storehouse of Rabbinical and
other varied learning, which this learned expositor does not
' Comp. his Works, vol. ii., p. 205, Pitman's edition.
' Scopus hujus libri et institutum est rerum humanarum, studiorum, consili-
orum et affectuum vanitatem ostendere, ao irrequietam humanorum animorum
ouriositatem et inconstantiam damnare ; deinde nos ab ea subvehere ad rerum
sublimium oonsiderationem, ad timorem et judicium Domini ac observationem
ejus mandatorum, ut ad extremum hbri concludit nn rn^, finis verbi, &c. Interim
etiam docet rebus prsesentibus pacatfe et tranquilly frui cum gratiarum actione sine
anxietate et solicitudine; ut Christus etiam doouit. — Joannis Merceri Commen
tarii in Jobum, et Salomonis Proverbia, Eoclesiasten, Canticum Canticorum.
Amsterodami, 1651, p. 618.

INTRODUCTION. 151
quote to parade his learning, but thoroughly examines, and
shews what is feasible and what is not. Mercer's commentary
is as much a repository of Rabbinical lore, as the commentaries
of the Jesuits Lorinus, Pineda, and A. Lapide are of Patristic
and mediseval literature, without the prolixity of the latter.
1653. — The second English commentary on the entire Bible
is that of "John Mayer, Doctor in Divinity." Though our
English divine espouses the old view of the design of this book,
yet he puts it into a somewhat difi'erent shape. Here, he says,
are observations touching the vanities of this world, and sentences
uttered hereupon, partly as the author hereof, Solomon, thought in
the time of his vanity, and partly after that, by repentance, he rose
up again, persuading to thefea/r of God,, and to the keeping of his
commandmen ts}
Mayer's commentary is brief, but terse and lucid, and by no
means deserves to be so very scarce.
1654. — The ecclesiastical administration, directed by the
tyrannical William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had driven
some of the most pious and learned divines to seek an asylum
in the American wilderness. " There, a few resolute Puritans —
who, in the cause of their religion, feared neither the rage of the
ocean nor the hardship of uncivilised life ; neither the fangs of
savage beasts nor the tomahawks of more savage men — had
built, amidst the primeval forests, villages which are now great
and opulent cities, but which have, through every change,
retained some trace of the character derived from their
founders."^ There, too, these uncompromising Puritans have
raised to themselves monuments of piety and learning, which
neither the corroding power of time nor the mighty deeds of
valour could destroy or overtop. Among the number of those
who sought a refuge in New England, in 1633, was the eminent
John Cotton, who, besides many other works, wrote an exposition
1 A Commentary upon the Holy Writings of Job, David, and Solomon, ifcc, by
John Mayer, Doctor in Divinity, London, 1653, p. 771.
2 Maoaulay, History of England, vol. i., p. 92.

152 INTRODUCTION.
on Ecclesiastes, which was published in London, 1654, two
years after the death of the author, by his fellow minister.
Dr. Tuckney.' Cotton maintains that the design of this book is
to describe the corruption of all. things, in order to bring us to
Christ, as pourtrayed in the Canticles. This learned divine
submits that —
The way to stir us up to seek after Christ is to behold and be convinced
of the vanity of all things here below. When Eve brought forth Cain, she
hoped she had got the promised seed (Gen. iv. 1 with iii, 15).. But when
she saw by his spirit and carriage that she was deceived in him, she called
her next son Abel (Gen, iv, 2), which signifieth vanity. And so she must
see all things to be before she bring forth Seth, the father of the promised
seed. Now Abel, or vanity, expresseth the state of all the creatures by the
fall. And Solomon taketh up Eve's word, and amplifieth it; Vanity, yea
vanity of vanities. So this whole book is a commentary upon the state of cor
ruption (Eom. viii. 20). A fit introduction to Christ in the Canticles.
He, too, divides the book into two parts ; the first part shews,
" that the chief good of the sons of men is not to be found in
all the creatures under the sun, nor in man's labours and ways
about them, for they are all vanity and vexation of spirit; and
the second part shews, that it is to be found in the fear of God
and the keeping of his commandments." Cotton's remarks upon
chap. i. 2, which contains the argument of the first part of the
book, is a literary curiosity, and shews how successfully the
hair-splitting logic of the old country was transplanted into the
New World.
Chap, i, 2, Vanity of vanities, Sc. — Here is set forth —
i. The condition of all things, by the adjunct of vanity, all is vanity; and
this is amplified by many ornaments of rhetoric.
1, An hyperbole. Vanity itself ; for. Vain.
2. Polyptoton, Vanity of vanities.
3. Epizeuxis, (the like sound continued in the same sentence,) Vanity
OF vanities.
1 A brief exposition, with practical observations, upon the whole book of
Eoclesiastes, by John Cotton. Published by Anthony Tuckney, D.D., Master of
St. John's College in Cambridge, London, 1654. Second impression, corrected,
London, 1657, is the edition we have used.

INTRODUCTION. 153
4. Anadiphsis, (the same sound repeated in the end of one sentence,
and the beginning of the other,) Vanity of vanities, vanity, &c.
5. Epanalepsis, (the same sound repeated in the beginning of the
sentence, and in the end,) Vanity, &c., all is vanity.
6. Anaphora, (the same sound repeated in the beginning of the sen
tences,) Vanity, &o., vanity, &c.
7. Epistrophe, (the same sound repeated in the end of the sentences,)
OF Vanities, &c., of vanities.
8. Epanodos, (the same sound repeated in the beginning and midst, in
the midst and end,) Vanity, vanity, vanity.
9. Nunwrus oratorious, (the same number of syllables repeated in both
sentences,) Vanity of vanities, vanity of vanities.
10. Climax, (the same sound continued and increased by degrees,) Vanity
of vanities, vanity of vanities, &c.
11. Paranomasia, (the repeating of like sounds, yet somewhat dif
ferent.)
ii. This confirmed by the testimony of Coheleth, saith the Preacher,
1655. — John Richardson, bishop of Ardagh, who furnished
the notes on Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Minor Prophets, for the
second edition of the Assembly's Annotations,' published in
1655 a volume of " Choice Observations and Explanations "
upon the entire Old Testament, " containing in them," as he
modestly tells us, " many remarkable matters, either not taken
notice of or mistaken by most," which he intended as " Addi-
tionals to the large Annotations made by some of the Assembly
of Divines." ^ But, notwithstanding the promises made on the
title-page, as far as Ecclesiastes is concerned, this prelate simply
repeats what Bishop Reynolds has said in the Assembly's
Annotations, which it pretends to supplement.
1657. — Twelve months after the appearance of the preceding
works. Sir Edward Leigh, the well-known author of the Critica
Sacra, and Annotations on the New Testament, issued a thin
folio of annotations on the five poetical books of the Old
Testament, viz., Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
' Vide supra, p. 144, note 1.
2 Choice Observations and Explanations upon the Old Testament, &c.
London, 1655. X

154 INTRODUCTION.
Canticles, " being encouraged in the publication thereof by the
epistle of a grave and reverend divine (John Trapp), who hath
honoured him with the patronage of a late learned work of his
that way." The baronet thinks that the subject of this book is to
set forth the vanity of the creature in reference to the satisfaction
of the souls of men. " God set up two great lights in Solomon's
heart, one shewing the excellency of Christ, in the Canticles,'
the other, the vanity of the creature, as in Ecclesiastes." ' It
¦will be remembered that Cotton propounds the same -view.
Leigh's commentary only occupies twelve pages of the work,
and is necessarily very meagre.
1658. — Less pretentious, but more lucid, than Leigh's, is the
commentary of Arthm* Jackson on Ecclesiastes, contained in his
annotations upon the same five books.^ This Nonconformist
di-vine thoroughly espouses the view propounded by his prede
cessors, that the book is Solomon's penitential dirge. Though
Jackson has been anticipated by several English commentators, —
for he truly remarks, in his epistle to the reader, " When I fii-st
undertook this work of writing these Annotations upon the
Scriptures, there was not, as I remember, any piece of this
kind extant in English, save only the Geneva marginal notes," —
his commentary could not have been well spared at that
period, since it possesses several excellencies ; it is brief, and
generally very much to the purpose.
1659. — Dissatisfied with the method, hitherto adopted, of
vindicating Solomon from the heterodox sentiments contained in
this book, by either putting them into the mouth of infidels, or
by affirming that he entertained them prior to his repentance.
Dr. Gell saw no other alternative but to allegorise the difficult
passages. Hence, in his elaborate essay toward the emendation
' Annotations on the five poetical books of the Old Testament, &o,, by Edward
Leigh. London, 1C57, p. 157.
2 Annotations upon the five books immediately following the historical part of
the Old Testament, commonly called the five doctrinal or poetical books, to wit,
the book of Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of
Solomon, by Arthur Jackson. London, 1658.

INTRODUCTION. 155
of the authorised version, a folio of eight hundred and five
pages, he thus explains —
Chap. ix. 9. — Enjoy life with the wife which thou hast loved. So. — The
wife here means our memory and thoughts. And an excellent portion it is
in this vain life, that with our wife, our memory and thoughts, we may see
and enjoy the divine life, and the words of life, and keep the words of life in
our heart and in our soul all the days of our vain life. For unless thus, or
in the like manner, the advice of Solomon be understood, a sensual Epicurean
might make notable use of it, to confirm hirnself in his voluptuousness.'
Yet this essay displays great learning on the part of the
author, and was so highly esteemed, that it was translated into
German shortly after its appearance in England.
1660. — " The grave and reverend divine," Trapp, who
encouraged Sir Edward Leigh to publish his volume on the
poetical books, now issued a commentary on the same books
himself. According to this Puritan divine, this book contains
Solomonis sapiential sermon of the sovereign good, and how to
obtain to it. " How many several opinions there were amongst
them concerning the chief good va. Solomon's days is uncertain;
divers of these he confuteth in this book, and that from his own
experience, the best school-dame."^ This shews that Trapp
resorted to the old expedient of putting the objectionable
passages into the mouth of heretics, with which Gell was
displeased. Both Trapp and Mayer published commentaries on
the entire Bible ; the former illustrates the meaning of Scripture
by numerous anecdotes and parallels from profane history, whilst
the latter gives a lucid digest of the opinions of those who have
preceded him, in addition to his own judicious remarks. We
could never understand why these commentaries have been
allowed to become so extremely scarce, and modern expositions
of a much inferior character to usurp their place.
1 An Essay toward the Amendment of the last English translation of the
Bible, by Robert Gell, D.D. London, 1659, pp. 642, 643.
' A Commentary upon the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of
Songs, by John Trapp. London, 1660, p. 217.

156 INTRODUCTION.
1664. — The celebrated Cornelius Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, —
whose immortal work, called Augustinus, inflicted such a wound
on the Romish Church as neither the power nor wisdom of its
pontifi's will ever be able to heal, — wrote a commentary on
Ecclesiastes, which was published, together with his annotations
on other portions of the Bible, in 1664, six years after the death
of the author.' After finding fault with Luther for denying
the Solomonic authorship, the prelate maintains that the design
cf the book is as St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Jerome have
declared it, viz., to incite us to contemn the world, and to raise
our minds to the- super-sensible.^
1666. — Dr. John Smith, a member of the Royal College of
Physicians, published in 1666 ' a very curious critico-anatomical
treatise upon the six former verses of the twelfth chapter of
Coheleth, in which he endeavours to shew that Solomon was
thoroughly conversant with all the modern discoveries of anatomy,
as well as with the circulation of the blood. After describing
the Harveian theory of the circulation, the Doctor remarks : —
This is the true doctrine of the excellency and motion of the blood, and
of tbe use of the heart and the parts appertaining thereunto; all which
were perfectly known to Solomon, as will abundantly appear anon, in the
explication of the symptoms we are now about. Yet it pleased the Lord
that this knowledge should, with the possessor of it, sink into dust and
darkness, where it lay buried for the space of two thousand five hundred
years at the least, till it was retrieved thencefrom by the wisdom and
industry of that incomparable and for ever to be renowned Dr. William
Harvey, tbe greatest honour of our nation, and of all societies of which he
was a member.'
The following is his analysis of the six verses : —
' Cornelii Jansenii Episcopi quondam Iprensis Analeota in Proverbia, Eocle
siasten Sapientiam, Habaouo, Sophoniam. Lovanii, 1644, editio seounda, 1673.
= Scopus et argumentum totius libri est, ut breviter expressit S. Gregorius
Nyssenus Serm. i, in Eoclesiasten, mentem supra sensum attollere, hoc est, ut
inquit Hieronymus ad contemptum mundi homines provocare, p. 117.
3 The Portrait of Old Age, wherein is contained a saored anatomy both of soul
and body, and a perfect account of the infirmities of age incident to them both,
by John Smith, of the College of Physicians. London, 1 666, third edition, 1752.
* Page 206.

60

Generally, verse 1, by way of 1 1''""'.'""-
¦' I Negation.

('Weak ened fa
culties.

/Medi ately
in the

^Internal verse 2

VExternal, ^

Particu
larly in
symptoms (
forerun-
ing death.

Simple eminent eflfects,
and most remarkable
¦ alterations, ver. 5. Of

Immediately, verse 6, such
as belong to the

The evil days come.
No pleasure in them.
Eational r^^cip^J- The sun shall be darkened.
(Inferior. The light.
Irrational. The moon.
.Subservient to them both. The stars.
fLimbs I ^"P^™'^- -^^^ keepers of the house shall tremble.
'Animal, verse 3, ap- '1 Inferior. The strong men shall bow themselves.
pearing in the Mouth. The grinders shall cease because they are few.
.Eyes. The lookers out of the window shall be darkened.
Natural, verse 4. The beginning. The doors shall be shut in the streets, when
the voioe of the grinding is low.
Inward and outward in want of sleep, which binds up both.
He shall rise up at the voice of the bird.
.Vital and natural; the active daughters of music belonging
to the vital ; the passive to the animal. AU the daughters
of music shall be brought low.
The mind Fear i ¦'-'®^®^''- ^^ ^''"^^ ** afraid of that which is high.
\ Greater, Fears shall be in the way.
Excrementitious. The almond tree shall flourish.
Aliment i ^P®''™- O"" hard. The grasshopper shall be a burden.
I Sang, or tender. Desire shall fail.
Brain, and the parts j Without the skull. The silver cord be loosed.
arising therefrom (Within the skull. The golden bowl be broken.
Heart, and the parts arising f Importation. The pitcher broken at the fountain.
therefrom, as they relate to 1 Exportation, The wheel broken at the cistern.

Mixed, verse 4, latter
end. Of

The body in re
spect of parts.

!21w
o u
o
o

Or

158 INTRODUCTION.
Pool, in whose house Dr. Smith died, thought so highly of
this production that he introduced the substance of it into his
Synopsis. 1680. — An anonymous commentary appeared in 1680, in
London, which is unquestionably the most extraordinary pro
duction on Coheleth. Solomon, we are told, in the all-penetrating
spirit of true prophecy, discloses here the deep things of God's
divinity, and the natural and spiritual things of the first and
second creation, what each amounted to. He, like other awakened
spiritual saints, infallibly prophesies or foretells what will become
of any men or angels to eternity (as found rebelliously fixing in
their first-creation life and state of vanity, or obediently surren
dering it for the second) in eternal life or death.
The following is a specimen of this commentary upon
chapter iv. : —
Vbhse 9. — Two are better than one ; because they have a good reward for
their labour.
The birth of new creature life, in the true saint, makes, vrtth his natural
man, the two that are better than one; or than the natural man, single and
alone, however perfect, wise, strong, honourable, and glorious. The natural
man of the saint, is by his spiritual man (under and with the fountain-spirit
of life in Christ) fetched up, by way of death and resurrection, into the
everlasting life of the spiritual, in lieu of its fading natural. This com
pleted, the whole person is spiritual. I live, yet not I, but Christ in me,
says Paul (Gal. ii. 20). He had the two, better than one; he, and the Spirit
of Christ. By the death of nature, as to its own law-life, and quickening
of it up into Christ's gospel-life, the Spirit of Christ lives in the whole
saint, and he in it, as his Euler, Lord, and King. But man alone, in his
own nature, however wise and righteous, will find himself at length not
only destitute of, but in unchangeable enmity to, that spirit of Christ, in
which alone any can be saved. The natural man, in his own uncrucified
will and self-chosen course therein, remains single and alone, to his final
ruin. The reason why the said two are better than one is, because they have
a good reward for their labour. Man, fixed in his own life and way, and
so in enmity to God; what reward can he expect but final wrath, as the
meet recompense of his error? On the obedient death of nature (in which
it is impossible to please Ood in anything) is man raised into that life of
grace, in which it is as impossible not to please him in everything. The
reward of this will be the full enjoyment and clear vision of God for

INTRODUCTION. 159
Verse 10. — For if they fall, the one will lift up his fellow; but woe to him
that is alone when hefalleth: for he hath not another to help him up.
The gospel-spirit of Christ, in the saint, takes his whole natural man
(partly crucified and partly not) into its care and protection. And so the
fountain, gospel-spirit, in Christ himself, takes the whole man of the saint
into its protection, under the covering shadow and cherishing influence of
its twofold cherubim-wings, as also under the joint regard and care of his
infinite and almighty Divinity. The saint is deeply concerned, in this
ease, when Christ has committed to him (set up in him, and entrusted him
with, his unspeakable spiritual gift or life) that unchangeable good thing,
to recommit that and himself back again to Christ, for the nourishing,
strengthening, and encouraging it, against all the counterworkings of his
rebellious, and (in part) uncrucified natural mind or man, which will, to its
last gasp, without any interruption, fight against God, and his spiritual
mind. Till all the mystical nerves and bones thereof be cut asunder and
broken, all the life and strength thereof utterly extinguished and abolished,
is it a perpetual warrior against the spirit of Christ, in himself and saints.
Paul found this fleshly foe of his own house, this carnal mind of enmity,
about him, long after his gospel-conversion and true spiritual saintship
(Eom. vii, 17, 23). On this he cries out, O wretched man that I am, ivho
shall deliver me from this body of death ? (v. 24.) This enemy within the
saint, till fully run down into death, exposes him to frequent slips and sore
miscarriages, as in Solomon and other saints has been evident. But, that
that is born of God, in them, and never sins, recovers their falling, miscarrying
natural man, or spirit (by a gradual and at length total death-work thereof,
upon it) into harmony with itself, Christ, and God most high, in a newness
of life, for evermore. This war of spirit against flesh (Gal. v. 17), is not
finished but by the total death of the fleshly mind. Flesh will not leave off
fighting till dead, and therefore ought not spirit (or the spiritual man in the
saint) to leave off fighting while anything of life is left in it. The continu
ally sinning natural spirit, till fully crucified, will, in the course of its own
will, need daily forgiveness, as well as an offending brother, even to seventy
times seven (Matt, xviii. 21, 22). Through the propitiatory, covering mercy-
seat, which spiritual life brings the saints under, God so looks on his obedient
spiritual man, as not to impute to him the daily sins of his natural man
(Eom. iv. 7, 8). Thus is the spiritual man also under Christ as a covering
shadow to the natural, in the same person, and qualified to help up or
recover it out of all its failings and backsliding steps. The spiritual man,
under the holy anointing, is to the decayed, old, grey-headed, crucified
natural, the fresh oil David prayed for (Ps. Ixxi. 9, 18), that gives a new
verdure and fresh lustre to the whole person of the saint — a glory that
excels and remains for ever. Thus, on all accounts, to wit, the sins of the
guilty natural spirit (or the mystical grey hairs, decays, old age and death,
brought upon it by the demolishing, crucifying-work of Christ and the
spiritual, as its only cure) the spiritual is ready at hand to help it up out of

160 INTRODUCTION.
all falls in his lifetime, and out of that grave or death that extinguishes all
power of sinning or falling in him. Christ and the spiritual man fetch him
up into an everlasting harmony with them, in their newness of life.
T. — But woe to him that is alone when he falleth ; for he hath not another
to help him up.
Here is the deplorable condition of all fixed in the life of nature, and so
in unchangeable enmity to the spirit of grace, that is the only meet helper
and lifter up of the natural spirit out of all its falls. Submitting to the
death of the natural man is the only way by which the saint receives that
spiritual life that can help it at all dead lifts out of its falls, and out of that
death (that is the only cure of all evil in it) into its never-sinning life.
When man chooses his fading creature-life before God's, and God, in
judgment on him, gives him his choice, or chooses his delusions (Isa. Ixvi. 4),
who can help him up ? If Ood be against him, who can be for him ?
Himself he cannot help. He is gone, then, on all bands. All that finally
refuse the terms of receiving the spirit of grace reject it. And all that
wilfully reject it Ood will reject, with all their false confidences in their own.
He will swear in wrath, they shall never enter into his rest. What then can
they say or do ? or any other for them ? who will or can help them up,
when fallen under the final wrath of God ?
Vbhse 11. — Again, if two lie together, then they have heat ; but how can one
be warm alone 1
The natural man of the saint receives light and warmth from the spiritual,
as fast as baptised, transformed, and raised into a marriage-union with it in
its life, and so made an equal yoke-fellow to it, under Christ's most easy and
delightful yoke or government over both. As fast as the natural and spiri
tual man of the saint come to a right conjugal union, as of twain made one
new man, the whole saint and Christ do lie in the intimate embraces of
conjugal love, with mutual delight and satisfaction in one another, for ever.
A most comfortable spiritual warmth and cherishing influence from Christ
does the saint find in this mystical marriage-union with him, figured by the
literal marriage-union (Eph. v. 22. 32). Christ and the saint are one spirit;
as man and wife, one flesh (1 Cor. vi, 16, 17). Christ is head to all saints,
and every saint; they members of his mystical body, flesh, and bones. So is
Christ's spiritual state of life and headship, and saints' relation to him
therein, expressed in the very words of the figurative, literal headship and
relation of the man to the woman. The marriage-union of the saint with
Christ, and their mutual love therein, is indissoluble and everlasting,
because founded in a spirit of everlasting righteousness and love. Saints
are everlastingly subject, and most delightfully obedient to him ; and he
most delightfully kind to them beyond all words for ever.
1683. — Matthew Pool, however, returned to the old view,
that Solomon wrote this book in his old age, as a public testimony

INTRODUCTION.

161

of his repentance and detestation of all those vain and wicked
courses to which he had addicted himself, wherein he followed the
example of his father David, who after his fall penned the fifty -
first Psalm. He also divides the book into two parts, viz.,
negative and positive, and accounts for the heterodox sentiments
by saying " that Solomon speaks some and most things in his
own name, but some other things in the name and according to
the opinion of worldly and ungodly men." '
1691. — According to Sebastian Schmidt,^ the design of
Coheleth, which is given in the twelfth chapter, is, 1. To call
man away from the vain things of this life, wherein he centres his
' Annotations .upon the Holy Bible, &c., 2 vols. fol. London, 1683 - 1685,
vol. i. Introduction to Ecclesiastes. These annotations, however, were not all
written by this eminent Nonconformist ; he died when he reached the fifty-ninth
chapter of Isaiah. The following is a list of the several portions of the Bible,
and the names of those who commented upon them : —

Genesis to Isaiah,
i.-lviii  •

Matthew Pool.

Romans 
The Epistles toi

Mr. Mayo.

]

Mr. Jackson
Mousley,

of

Corinthians . .
Galatians 

Dr. Collins.

Isaiah Iix. and Ix.

.son of Arthur Jackson,

Ephesians ....

Mr. Veal.

Isaiah Ixi. - Ixvi.

and corrector of the
first edition of Pool's
Synopsis.

Philippians .••¦)Mr. Adams.
Colossians  )
Thessalonians . . Mr. Barker.

Jeremiah 
Lamentations . .

Dr. Collins.

Timothy 
Titus 

•Dr. Collins.

Ezekiel 
Minor Prophets

Mr. Hurst.

Philemon  ,
Hebrews 

Mr. Obadiah

Daniel 

Mr. Cooper.

Hughes.
Matthew  -i
Of James 
Mark 
^Dr. Collins.
Mr. Vinke.
Peter 
Jude 
¦Mr. Veal.
Luke . ...
John 
Revelation ....
Acts 
Dr. Collins.
* Scopus hujus libri manifesto habetur in fine cap. xii. scilicet (1) avocare a
vanitatibus quibusounque hujus mundi, in quibus aliqua hominis beatitude coUo
catur: cap. xii. 8 et (2) 4 variis autoribus profauia, qui ad vanam mundi beatitu-
dinem deducunt extra scripttiram sacram. ver. 12, tandem vero (3) adducere ad
timorem Dei, observationem prseceptorum ejus nominatim etiam in pio hujus
mundi cum laita consoientia usu, judioii extremi meditationem, praemiumque
sanctorum in altera vita, vers. pen. et ult. Commentarius in librum Solomonis
regis, hebr. Koheleth, grffio. et lat. Ecclesiastes dictum. Argeutor. 1691. My
edition is 1704. Y
162 INTRODUCTION.
happiness (xii. 8) ; 2. From those profane teachers who lead him
to indulge in the vain happiness of this world, contrary to the
Sacred Scriptures (verse 12) ; and 3. To lead him to the fear of
God and the keeping of his commandments (13, 14).
Schmidt divides the book vaiofive parts or sections :' —
i. (Chap. i. 1), The title of the book, which, being so very short,
can hardly be called a division.
ii. (Chap. i. 2 -iii. 12), wherein Solomon gives his exposition
of true happiness ; a. negative, by refuting that which is false,
and centred in the things of this world without God (i. 2 -iii, 11),
and b. positive, by shewing that it consists in the fear of God,
and in the hope of a future life (iii. 12-14).
iii. (Chap. iii. 15 -iv. 16), wherein six examples are given
from human life, through which man may be prevented firom
securing this highest good.
iv. (Chap. iv. 17 -xii. 8) gives lessons respecting the true
service of God and a happy life, in fourteen rules of life.
V. (Chap. xii. 9-14), this last section gives the epilogue.
' Partes Libri Ecclesiastes sunt quinque. i. Titulus : qui quidem adeo brevis,
ut vix possit pars dici, cap. i. 1.
ii. Summi boni expositio : per summi boni falsi, in rebus hujus mundi positi,
extra Deum, remotionem k ver. 2, cap. i. ad cap. iii. 12, et veri simul in Deo et
pietate alteram vitam sperante positi insinuationem, cap. iii. 12-14. Removetur
falsum, tum asserendo falsitatem: turn probando, quia omnia in mundo vana
sunt. Ubi I. Salomonis de vanitate totius mundi propositio sive assertio, cap. i. 2.
II. Ejusdem probatio [sumta (1.) Ex oonscientiae humanaj compellatse testi-
monio, ver, 3. (2.) A vanitatis rerum demonstratione : tum perpetuarum, ver.
4-7, tum transeuntium, laborisque omnis rerum, ver. 8-11, tum actionum atque
laborum hominum, quse probatur (1.) Autoritate Salomonis, ver. 12, 13. (2.)
Explioatione vanitatis ipsius earum, quae duplex est: prior, imperfectae in se
bonitatis, ver. 14, et prolixfe exponitur a ver. 16, iuolus. cap. i. usque ad cap. iii. 1,
exolus. posterior, impossibilis sine Deo operationis, ver. 15, deduciturque k ver. 1,
cap. iii. usque ad ver. 12 exolus.] a ver. 7, cap. i. usque ad cap. iii. 12 exolus.
iii. (Pars) Monstratio sani Judioii de variis in vita humaua casibus, quibus
offendi homo et ab amplexu expositi veri sommi boni absterreri potest: quorum
imprimis vi. sunt a ver. 15, inolus. cap. iii. usque ad cap. iv. 17 exolus.
iv. De cultu Dei et beata hoc in mundo vita informatio : constans dootrinis
xiv. a ver. 17, inolus. cap. iv, usque ad cap. xii. 9 exolus.
V. Ultima est Epilogus k ver. 9 cap. xii. usque ad finem libri. — Commentarius
in librum Salomonis regis, <fec., p, 11,

INTRODUCTION. 163
1694. — In 1694, more than forty years after the death of the
author, appeared Alexander Nisbet's exposition on Ecclesiastes.'
Nisbet was one of those Scotch divines who felt the want of a
national commentary to represent the doctrines of their Church,
and formed a plan to this efiect with Mr. Robert Douglas, Mr.
Rutherford, Mr. Robert Blair, Mr G. Hutcheson, Mr. James
Ferguson, Mr. James Durham, Mr. John Smith, &c., all of whom
had particular books allotted to them." But the work was never
completed. Mr. Warner, in his Epistle to the Reader, prefixed
to Nisbet's commentary, accounts for its being published so long
after the author's death. " It .was perfected," says he, " and
made ready for the press before his death, and had long since
come abroad into the world, if it had not been for some assertions
the author had upon chap. viii. 4, concerning obedience to
supreme powers, which did not relish with the late times, wherein -
supremacy and absolute power were screwed up to the greatest
height." However, Biblical exegesis did not sustain any very great loss
in consequence of this commentary being hid from the public
for so many years, as will be seen from the view which Nisbet
takes of Coheleth. Solomon, according to this Scotch di-vine,
being restored again, is Ecclesiastes, a penitent soul, preaching his
repentance to the Church; the Messiah, the true Solomon, who
was known by the title. Son of David, is how speaking to the
same by his type. " The scope of the Spirit of God, by this
divine preacher, being to point out to miserable fallen man
the way to recover his lost happiness,' he doth first proceed
negatively, to convince him wherein it cannot be found " (chap.
i. 2-iv. 12), and second, " gives directions for attaining to that
true peace and quietness which is attainable in this life " (chap.
vi. -xii. 14).
1700. — Bishop Patrick restricts the design of the book to
' An Exposition, with practical observations upon the book of Ecclesiastes.
Edinburgh, 1694.
' Comp. Gillies, Hist., col. 1, 296.

164 INTRODUCTION.
what is said in chap. xii. 13, viz., fear God, and keep his
commandments, this is the happiness of man, or the chief good.
" The sense of the whole sermon, as we may call it," says this
excellent prelate, " seems to be comprehended in this syllogism —
Whatsoever is vain and perishing cannot make man happy ;
But all men's designs here in this world are vain and perishing ;
Therefore they cannot, prosecuting such designs, make themselves happy."
The bishop, though agreeing with most of his predecessors
that the book is to be divided into two parts, makes each part to
consist of six chapters. He also maintains " that those words
which seem to countenance men in the neglect of religion, and
to open a gap to licentiousness, are only opinions which he
intends to confute according to the method he had propounded
to himself in this book. Wherein he first represents the various
ends men drive at, which in the very entrance of it (that men
might not mistake his meaning) he pronounces to be so vain, that
he had no words significant enough to express their vanity ;
and then their difi'erent opinions about God and His pro-vidence,
and their own souls." '
1701. — Maintaining that this book is a treatise upon the
highest good, F. Yeard, dean of Achonry, was dissatisfied with
the method hitherto pursued of making Solomon repeat the hete
rodox sentiments, and hence endeavoured to prove, in his para
phrase upon Ecclesiastes," that the preacher introduces a refined
sensualist, or a sensual worldling, who interrupts him, in order
to attack and ridicule his doctrine. Of course, these impertinent
interruptions and impudent mockeries, in which this sensualist
indulges at the expense of no less a personage than King
Solomon, are introduced and cut short whenever and wherever
the Dean thinks it proper.
' A Critical Conlmentary and Paraphrase on the Old and New Testament, by
Patrick, Lowth, Os*ald, Whitby, and Lowman. 4 vols., London, 1848, vol. iii.,
pp. 112, 113.
2 A paraphrase upon Eoclesiastes, &o., by F. Yeard, Dean of Achonry. London,
1701.

INTRODUCTION. 165
1703. -^ A decided approach towards developing the true
design of Coheleth is to be seen in the treatise of Du Hamel.
The design of Ecclesiastes is,' he says, to collect the different
opinions of men, and the different reflections whereby the mind is
wont to be agitated concerning the end of the righteous and the
wicked, and to set forth, at the conclusion of the book, what we
ought to think respecting it. He says we should also hear the end
of his discourse, viz., fear God and keep His commandments, for
in this consists the whole duty of man, in this is every blessing, in
this is happiness. This is the main object of the book ; the other
things are introduced, as it is generally done in a dissertation or
disquisition, and are for the most part the opinions of the great
mass of the people. He sometimes seems to assent to the opinions
of others, but instantly refutes them, being fully convinced of this
one thing, that happiness must be sought in God alone, that created
things cannot render us happy, that they are vain and full of
instability. 1710. — As might be expected, Matthew Henry adheres t6
the old traditional view, which he expresses in his own quaint
manner. Ecclesiastes, he tells us, is a penitential and practical
sermon, the text or doctrine is. Vanity of vanities, all is vanity
(chap. i. 1) ; and the use and application of it by way of exhorta
tion is, that we are to remember our Creator, to fear Him,
AND to keep His commandments. The scope of the book is to
shew that our happiness consists not in being as gods to ourselves,
to have what we will, and do what we will, but in having him

' Hoc Ecclesiastas fuit propositum, ut varias hominum opiniones et varias
quibus animus agitari solet cogitationes circa fines bonorum et malorum coUigeret
ao tandem quid senUendum sit in caloe libri proponeret. Finem, inquit, loquendi
pariter audiamus, Deum time et mandata ejus observa, hoc est enim omnis
homo, hoc est omne hominis bonum, hsec ejus felioitas. Ba est summa libri,
reliqua instar dissertationis aut disquisitionis ac plerumque juxta vulgi sententiam
proferuntur. Interdum aliorum opinionibus videtur assentiri, sed statim eas
refeUit; id unum omnino persuasus, felicitatem in Deo uno quseri oportere, res
creatas nos beare non posse, vanas esse et inconstantice plenas. Salomon, ii., iii.,
cum annott. Rotomagi, 1703.

166 introduction.
that made us to be a God to us} Like his predecessors, he
di-vides this sermon into two parts, viz., a negative and positive,
and puts the objectionable passages into the mouth of atheists
and epicures.
1718. — Having experienced the vanity of all things, by being
suddenly hurled from a high position of honour and trust to a
state of degradation, the celebrated Matthew Prior betook
himself, from a fellow-feeling, to write upon the adventures of
the royal preacher, and produced the admirable poem, Solomon
on the Vanity of the World. With the poetic and literary merits
of this production we have nothing to do. That question has
long since been decided by a far more competent and appropriate
tribunal. Our object is to give the author's idea of the design
of the book. Prior's opinion is, that Solomon teaches us not to
repine at the miseries of life, which are ordained by Omnipotence,
and from which the richest, the wisest, and the greatest of men
was not eocempt, hut to submit to God^s providence, and cheerfully
to look forward to death as a release from a life replete with
vanities and miseries.
The pleasures of life, says he, do not compensate for the miseries ; age
steals upon us unawares, and death, as the only cure of our ills, ought to be
expected, but not feared. This instruction is to be illustrated by the action
of some great person. Who, therefore, more proper for the business than
Solomon himself? and why may he not be supposed now to repeat, what,
we take for granted, he acted almost three thousand years since ? If, in
the fair situation where this prince was placed, he was acquainted with
sorrow ; if, endowed with the greatest perfections of nature, and possessed
of all the advantages of external condition, he could not find happiness; the
rest of mankind may safely take the monarch's word for the truth of what
he asserts.
Prior makes the whole poem a soliloquy, divided into three
books ; the first she-wing the insufficiency of knowledge, the
second of pleasure, and the third of power. " Solomon is the
person that speaks ; he is at once the hero and the author ; but
' An Exposition of the Old and New Testament, (fee, by Matthew Henry,
3 vols. London, 1828, vol. ii., p. 582.

introduction. 167
he tells us very often what others say to him. Those chiefly
introduced are his rabbis and philosophers in the first book, and
his women with their attendants in the second ; with these
sacred history mentions him to have conversed, as likewise with
the angel brought down in the third book to help him out of his
difficulties, or at least to teach him how to overcome them."
The following is the concluding advice given by the angel,
and embodies the lesson of the whole : —
Now, Solomon, remembering who thou art,
Act through the remnant life a decent part ;
Go forth, be strong; with patience and with care
Perform and sufifer ; to thyself severe.
Gracious to others, thy desires suppressed,
Difi'used thy virtues, first of men, be best.
Thy sum of duty let two words contain,
O, may they graven in thy heart remain !
Be humble, and be just. The angel said:
With upward speed his agile wings he spread,
Whilst on the holy ground I prostrate lay,
By various doubts impelled, or to obey
Or to object ; at length (my mournful look
Heavenward erect) determined thus I spoke :
Supreme, all-wise, eternal Potentate !
Sole Author, sole Disposer of our fate !
Enthroned in light and immortality.
Whom no man fully sees, and none can see !
Original of Beings, Power Divine !
Since that I live, and that I think, is thine ;
Benign Creator ! let thy plastic hand
Dispose its own efi'ect ; let thy command
Eestore, great Father, thy instructed son.
And in my act may Thy great will be done,^
Thus* Prior makes the remedy which this book yields for the
ills and woes of this life, to consist in entire resignation to the
will of God, and not in a future life, when all things shall be
shewn to have worked together for our good. The poet, more
over, thinks that Ecclesiastes is not a regular and perfect treatise,
' See Prior's Poems, in Bohn's Cabinet Edition of the British Poets, vol. iii.,
pp. 62. 79.

168 introduction.
but that in it great treasures are " heaped up together in a con
fused magnificence}^
1720, — More sober than the above production, and more
consistent with the subject, is the commentary of Rambach,
contained in the second volume of comments published by
D. J. H. Michaelis.' As Rambach adopted the view and even the
divisions of Sebastian Schmidt, we refer the reader to page 157,
where we have given an analysis of his commentary.
1723. — The idea started by Luther, that Ecclesiastes is a
sort of patch-work, has been espoused by Wachter, who,
however, went far beyond the great Reformer, maintaining that
it consists of a medley of extracts from the different writings of
Solomon, and that it is a hopeless task to search for any connection
in translating it. Accordingly, he remarks upon ' —
Chap. i. 4. One generation passeth away. So. — How this verse, as well as
the three following, come here, is difficult to say ; I leave it to those to
think about it who try to shew a most beautiful connection between all the
sayings in this book. They believe that these furnish a few illustrations of
vanity taken from nature, and that here is the first, namely, the perishing
of generations Now that a generation passes away, and is destroyed, may
indeed be called vanity. But Solomon not only speaks of passing away,
but also of coming on, of generations, and contemplates the perpetuam
sucoessionem, or the perpetual succession and eonstant continuation of the
human race. That this continuance (since one generation is always joined
to the other, as if they were all one generation which departs and returns,
' Uberiorum Adnotationum Philologico-exegeticarum in Hagiographos Vet.
Testamenti Libros, vol. ii. Halae, 1720.
2 seSie biefet SSer^ famt ben 3 fotgenben ^ie|er ge()crc, iji fi^tber ju fogen, ic^
laffe bie natlbcnden, bie bie ff^onjic Connexion allet 2lugfprit(^e in biefem SSuc^e
jeigcn tboUen. ®ie mepnen, ba? biefeg einige Srcmpel ber (gitelfeit in bet
S^otut fepn, unb jmat |)tcr bag erjie, ne^mlic^ bet Untergang bet Otfc^jleci^tet.
Sltlein, baf ein ©efi^Ie^t bal;in unb untetge^et, iji wo^t (Sitelfeit ju nennen.
Salomo abet tebet ni$t nut »cm -^inge^en/fonbctn au^ »om Sommen beg
®ef4)le^teg, unt> fie^ct cigentli^ auf bie perpetuam sucoessionem obet jiete
golg unb immetwa^tenbe .gpttfe^ung beg @,ef(|tcc|)teg bet 3Ketif(^en. Dt biefe
Sejianbigfeit, ba imntet ein ©efc^lec^te am anbetn f;anget, ate tuaten jte ein
@efi$Ic(|ite, bag tt)egge|et unb :^et!ommct, tbie bie Sonne, SBtnb unb gtuffe
immetbat wieberfommen, eine gitctteit fe9, Ian ic^ mit nic^t einbilben, unb cbeu
fo tbcnig bie Sefionbigleit bet ®tben.— ©et gjtebiget ©alomo neu iibetfc^t mit
.Sutaen Stnmetf ungen »on ®Ceotg) SBCo^tet) 5Kemmingen, 1723, pp. 3. 6. lo. 14.

INTRODUCTION. 169
just as the sun, wind, and rivers always return) should be vanity, I cannot
imagine, and just as little can I imagine it of the continuance of the
earth. 1726. — Calmet, like Bishop Patrick and others, restricts the
design of the book to what is said in chap. xii. 1 3, 14. This
book^ says this learned Benedictine monk, may be considered as a
discourse or harangue, wherein Solomon wishes to shew that every
thing in this world is only vanity and vexation of spirit, and that
there is but one thing solid, one on which man may safely build,
viz., the fear of God, the keeping of His commandments, and the
expectation of a judgment
1727. ^ Dr. Edward Wells, so well known by his Sacred
Geography, published the third volume of his paraphrase of the
Old Testament, containing Ecclesiastes," in 1727. He adopts
Bishop Patrick's view, as well as his division of the book.
Dr. Wells' production is a simple paraphrase of the bishop's
commentary, as the former tells us himself in the introduction to
the first volume. " Bishop Patrick's commentary being large,
and consequently chargeable to be procured, I judged I might
be of ser-vice to young students in divinity, who have not much
to lay out in books, if what made the chief substance of the
said bishop's commentary was reduced into a paraphrase."
Dr, Wells has by no means improved upon the bishop's
commentary ; we do not therefore wonder that, whilst his
Sacred Geography has undergone several editions, and was even
translated into German, his paraphrase is little known, and
scarce. 1729. — More correct, though not entirely so, is the -view
1 On pent considerer cet ouvrage comme un discours ou une harangue, dans
laquelle Salomon veut prouver, que tout ce qui est dans le monde n'est que
vanite et qu'affliction d'esprit, qu'il n'y a qu'une seule chose de solide et sur
laquelle I'homme puisse faire quelque fond: c'est sur la orainte de Dieu, sur
I'observation de ses loix, sur I'attente de ses jugemens. — Commentaire literate
sur la Bible, tom. v., Paris, 1726, p. 2.
2 An Help for the more easy and clear understanding of the Holy Scriptures,
being the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles. Oxford,
1727. Z

170 INTRODUCTION.
propounded by J. Hardouin, that what Ecclesiastes inculcates from
time to time, and to which all his maxims tend, is that the best^ the
most quieting, the most innocent, the most happy thing for a man
in this life is to enjoy himself with his family in his repasts ; to
be contented with the good he may have acquired by legitimate
labour, aiid to recognise that to be able to do this is a gift of God,
which must therefore be used with thankfulness ; that in this as
well as in all other things he m,ight not forget that we shall be
called to the judgment bar of God.
1731. — The learned Le Clerc advances a new theory that"
Wisdom, who is the speaker in this, having gathered from the
grave contemplations of human life, what is shunned and what is
accomplished, pronounces by the mouth of Solomon what of this is
vain. He makes no attempt to analyse the book, but prefixes to each
chapter a brief summary of its contents. Thus he says that —
Chap. i. speaks of the emptiness of human wisdom,
ii. The emptiness of pleasure, wealth, wisdom, joy.
iii. The uncertainty of all things, the weakness of the human mind
in things divine, the venality of human tribunals, the external
resemblance between men and brutes.
iv. Solomon's view of oppression, of the envious, of the avaricious,
and of senseless things.
V. Admonitions on the worship of God, vows, magistrates, riches.
vi. Accessory disadvantages of riches and the miseries of human
life arising from disquietude ; infirmities and ignorance of the
human mind.
1 Que le meilleur, c'est a dire, le plus tranquille, le plus innocent, le plus
hem-eux, en cette vie, est de jouir soi-m^me aveo sa famille dans ses repas, du
bien qu'un travail legitime peut avoir acquis, et de reoonnaitre, que de le pouvoir
faire, c'est un don de Dieu, dont il faut par consequent user aveo action de
graces. Qu'en oela enfin et en toutes autres ohoses, il ne faut point oublier que
nous serons tous cites au jugement de Dieu. C'est ce que I'Ecclesiaste inoulque
de temps en temps et k quoi rendent toutes ses maximes. — Paraphrase de
TEoclesiaste aveo des remarques. Paris, 1729, Preface, p. 12.
2 Eadem, nempe, sapientia quee, h vitae humanae seria contemplatione, quid
vitandum, quid faciendum sit oolHgit; eadem, inquam, sapientia omnibus pensi-
tatis, rerum quarum-vis htyus vitae inanitatem, ore Salomonis, prsedioat.— Veteris
Testamenti libri Hagiographi, &a. Amstelaedami, 1731, p. C77.

INTRODUCTION. 171
vii, A good name, excessive joy, injustice, patience, the guise of evil
speakers, the corruption of men and especially of women.
viii. On reverence towards superiors, and Divine Providence.
ix. The innocent and the wicked are subjected to the same fate on
earth; death evaded by neither, whereby all hope is extin
guished; events not in the power of men; the praise of wisdom.
X. The inconvenience of folly in all ; in those who govern, in
works, in vain attempts, in sovereignties.
xi. Liberality in almsgiving, and tbe use of life.
xii. Eemembrance of God in youth, the advancing disadvantages of
old age figuratively described, and death ; all things empty
except the fear of God, who brings all to judgment.
1732. — Bauer, in his elaborate commentary,' assures us that
Coheleth has hitherto been entirely mistaken by those who
pretended to elucidate it ; that it contains Solomon's last and
solemn address, which he wrote down and delivered to the con
gregation of Israel after the fiight of Jeroboam into Egypt, as
is evident from 1 Kings xi. 41," that its purport is to exhibit the
doings of men here upon earth, and the infirmities and sins mixed
up therewith, and to shew how they may improve their works
under the sun, and that it therefore treats upon the summum
hominis officium, good works, and not upon the summum bonum,
GOOD days.' To this end Solomon, after the introduction
' gttautcttet ®tunb=5S;ett Bom ^tebiget ©alomo. SK. SJtifiian gtiebticj)
Sauct. Seipjig, 1732.
- This proof he derives from his translation of the passage, which is — Vtnb
weitet bie Siebe ©atomonig, unb aHeg, tbag et getjan \ai, unb feine Sffieif Jeit,
ftnb tiit^t biefe gef(^tict>en im Suc^e bie 9?ebe ©alomonig. — I6id., p. 3.
3 @ie :^anbett Bon Sitelfeitcn, bag iji bon citten unb uWen 35etti(|tungen bet
TOenfi^en, tbotep et bet Sitelfeit immet entgegen (iettet, roag gut, obet njag
beifet mate, unb bie 5Kenfi$en tjun fotten untet bem fsiramet, bie 3eit i(;tet
Sebcng»2:agc iibet. ®g ift bannenI)eto ein gtoffct gel;let, baf bie 2Iugleget bom
fptebigct ©atomo ni4)t fotgfaltig genug :^aben attenditen unb bemct Jen iboKen,
baf ©alomo butc^ bag SKott gitelfeit betjle^e bag Deteitelte aBelt^Seicn unb bie
menf(^Iic^cn get)tet unb ©^wac^'peiten, nebft benen ba|iin geftotigen iBotut»
t:^eUen ; unb baf ct benen gitelfeiten entgegen flette ito»: iw liio ein folc&eg
Out, bag fie tfun folten. SMan ^at nii^t eingcfe^en, baf ©aiomo bet gitelfeit
entgegen iiette cap. ii. 3, summum hominum officium, fo efwag guteg, bag bie
S[»enf(^en«,Sinbet t^un nnb »ot i^te borne^miie unb bejie SE^at fatten folten, ate
bc9 beten Ubung unb 35ettic^tung eg bem 2Kcnf(|en wo^l unb gliidlii^ ge^en
tbtobe. SBSeit nun, mij bet ^eipbnifc^en Philosophic, summum bonum unb

172 INTRODUCTION.
(i. 1-11), enumerates first his own doings, stating their faults
and how he corrected them (i. 12 -iii. 15) ; he then proceeds to
the various doings of others, shewing also their faults, and how
they ought to be corrected (iii. 16 -xii. 8), and concludes by
addressing himself to his son Rehoboam (xii. 9, &c.)
1734. — However, to the great annoyance of Bauer, which he
had not even the power to conceal, all his protests against the
wrong interpretations of others, and all his confident assertions
about the correctness of his views, were of no use. Peter
Hanssen, in spite of all, published a commentary shortly after,
in opposition to Bauer, in which he gives the folio-wing analysis
of the design of the book. 1. King Solomon made the basis of
his contemplation the intrinsic value of human life, which he
calls Tlin^. 2. But he does not find it in human life as
enjoyed in this world. 3. Hence he teaches that life in this
world, when looked upon apart from eternity, has no value
whatever, that it derives it entirely from the future (chap, iii, 11).'
4. To this end he puts 7211, or vanity,^ everything which does
summum hominis officium lange nicf)t fo ua^e miteinanbet uetttjanbt finb, ate
nacf) beg ©otomonig feinet weifen ginftd;t, fo iji man ba^eto auf bie ^Kcpnung
getat^en, wenn ©alomo »on gitelfeiten tebe, fo betjie^e et babutd; Unglii(fg=
goHe unb gatalitaten, bntc^ roet^e man ungtitifti^ tbi'tibe, unb bag gufe, fo et
ben gitelfeiten entgegen jlctte, fe9 nid;t summum hominis officium, fonbetn
summum bonum, nt(J;t i»ag gut unb loblicp ift, baf man eg tjue, fonbetn t»ag
in biefem Seben nut ju genieffen gut wate. §.\xx%, ©alomo ^anbete ni^t »on
guten SBetcEen, fonbetn nut oon guten Sagen, unb benenfelben fietle et Ungtiirfg^
gdtle unb bofe Sage ate gitelfeiten entegen. ©a boc^ ©alomo in biefem gan^en
gStebiget 5«nbelt bon bem SJun bet 3Rcnf(i^en ^iet ouf gtben, wag bep foti^em
S^un fi(^ sot gitelfeiten ftnben, unb wag batgcgen gut unb beffcr tt)ate bot ben
gWenfc^en unb et t^un folte untet bet ©onnen, cap. i. 3. SBic benn xoo^ ju
raettfen, baf bag SBott eitel, ingleic^en gitelfeit na^ bet |)ebtaifi$en ?!)Junb=3ltt
bon gan^ befonbetet Sebeutung iji, unb fid) blof bem citlen Seben unb SBanbel
bet ?Wenfi|)en beplegen laffet.— gtlautettet ©tunb^Sett bom ^tebiget ©olomo.
3». gjtijlian gtiebti(^ SBauet. Seipjig, 1732, pp. 5, 6.
' Settad;tungen ttbet ben ?!tebiget ©alomo, &c., oon ^ctet ^anffen. Sflbecf,
1734, 3tt)eite 3luf[age, 1744,
•^ 1. Set .Sonig t;at ben innetli(;j)cn SBettJ beg menfi^tic^en gctieng, loel^en
et 3itt;ton nennet, jum @tunb feinet SSettac^tung gelegt. 2. gt jtnbet i^n abet
ni^t in bem menfcjlic|en Seben, tttie eg in biefet Sffielt gcnoffen ibitb. 3. ©a^et
le^tet et, baf bag Seben in biefet aSett, wenn man eg aujfet bet gwigfeit

INTRODUCTION. 173
not farther our real happiness, in contrast with piJT', and
submits that, if there is no other life, all the inward and outward
aspirations belong to the dominion of vanity. And whilst he
demonstrates this by various arguments, he also teaches, 5. That
although human life, apart from eternity, has no plJl"", it never
theless has a 21J0, or a certain kind of good ; 6. This good man
must seek to enjoy, but in such a way as not to interfere with
the acquisition of the p1J1\ 7. His first and last argument
must be employed in behalf of the eternity in question, and the
judgment through wliich we enter therein, and immediately
obtain the Tl'lJT'. 8. And indeed man must prepare for it from
his youth, that he may not miss this peculiar end of the present
life. This constitutes the main import, which Solomon has
interspersed with diverse salutary lessons, which are specially
useful to rulers, and which he appears to have written chiefly
for the use and admonition of his son and heir-apparent.
1748. — " The learned Dr. Gill" adopts the Rabbinical view,
that Solomon wrote this book in his old age, after his fall and
recovery out of it, and when he was brought to true repentance for
anfie|et, gat feinen SiSettl) ^abc, fonbetn bcnfeltigen attein aug bem 3ufiinftigen
^crleiten muffe, g. 3, ii. 4. gt fejt p bem gnbe bem Sit^ton bag $cfel obet
gitele, fo ni(|tg ju unfetet ttjajten Sotlfommenbeit bepttagt, entgegen, unb
bc^auptet, baf, njcnn fein anbet Seben nail biefem tt)ate, olle innetli(|e unb
auffetli(|c gmpftnbungen in biefeg fRni^ bet gitelfeit gebiitcn. SBie et nun
biefeg mit uetfi^iebcnen ©riinbeu beroeift, fo lebtet et 5. Obgtei^ bag menf=
^lii^e Seben Bon bet gwigfcit abgefonbett, fein Sit^i^on bot, fo fomme ibm bO(i^
ein Tof obet cine gett)iffe ©I'ttc ju. 8. ©iefe @itte muf bet fKcnfcf) ju genieffen
fucben. ©ocb fo, baf eg an gtlangung beg Sifbton nic^t binbetli^ gc^. 7. ©ein
ctjieg unb lejtcg Kugenmcrf muf immet auf bie bebotjlebcnbc gnjigfeit, unb auf
bag @etic§t, babut(| tt)it in felbige eingcbcn, unb folglii^ bag Sitbton etlangen,
geri^itet fep. 8. Unb I'ncax muf bet 3Kenfi$ ftd() bon Sugenb ouf baju anfi^irfen,
bamit et biefeg eigcntli(|)en gnbjibcdg beg gegentt>attigen Sebeng ni(^t betfeblen
mogc. Sffiie nun biefeg ben ^aupt=3ubalt aufmac()t, fo jiteuet ©alomo aUetle^
bcilfamc Sebten mit ein, bie infonbetbeit ben 3iegenten niijlit^ finb, unb tt)el^e et
botnebmlicf) feinem ©obn unb gton»gtbcn jum 3tujcn unb jut gtinnctung fcb^iut
gcf(|tieben JU bl^fU. This quotation is made from Rabe's translation of
Mendelssohn's commentary on Eoclesiastes, where the learned translator has
reprinted Bauer's, Hanssen's, Desvoeux', and J. D. Michaelis' versions in four
parallel columns, and has also given an analysis of their respective views of
Coheleth.

174 INTRODUCTION.
it ; and that the general scope and design of it is to expose the
vanity of all worldly enjoyments, to shew that a marCs happiness
does not lie in natural wisdom and knowledge, nor in worldly
wealth, nor in civil honour, power, and authority, nor in the mere
externals of religion ; but in the fear of God and the worship of
Him. It encourages men to a free use of the good things of life
in a moderate way, wiih thankfulness to God ; to submit with
cheerfulness to adverse dispensations of Providence ; to fear and
honour the king, to be dutiful to civil magistrates, and kind to the
poor ; to expect a future state and an awful judgment ; with many
other useful things.
It must not be supposed, however, that Gill deduces this design
from logically tracing the proper position which each verse
occupies with regard to the whole argument, and a rational
explanation of the text. His commentary chiefly consists of
heterogeneous spiritual explanations, and a medley of Rabbinical
quotations, which he frequently misunderstood. The folio-wing
specimens of his mode of interpretation and mistranslations of
the Rabbins will shew the coiTCctness of these remarks : —
Chap. vii. 28. One man among a thousand have I found. — It is a great
rarity to find a good man, truly wise and gracious ; there are many that
walk in the broad way, and but few that find the strait gate and narrow
way, and are saved ; they are but as one to a thousand (see Jer. v. 1 ;
Matt. vii. 13, 14). Or rather, by this one of a thousand is meant the
Messiah, the Wisdom of God he sought for (verse 25), and now says he
found ; to whom he looked for peace, pardon, and atonement, under a sense
of his sins ; who is the messenger, an interpreter, one among a thousand ;
yea, who is the chiefest among ten thousands (Job xxxiii, 23 ; Cant, v, 10),
who is superior to angels and men, in the dignity of his person ; in the
perfection, purity, and holiness of his nature; in the excellency of his
names ; in his offices and relations ; and in his concern in the affairs of
grace and salvation ; and who is to be found by every truly wise ami
gracious soul that seeks him early and earnestly, in the word and ordinances,
under the illumination and direction of the blessed Spirit, If it is to be
understood of a mere man, I should think the sense was this : of all the
men that have been ensnared and taken by an adulterous woman, but one of
a thousand have I observed, — and perhaps Solomon has respect to himself, —
that was ever recovered out of her hands. , But a woman among all tlwse
have I not found : that is, among all the harlots and adulterous women I

INTRODUCTION. 175
ever knew or heard of, I never knew nor heard of one that was ever reclaimed
from her evil ways, and reformed or became a chaste and virtuous woman ;
he may have respect to the thousand women that were either his wives and
concubines, and, among all these, he found not one that deserved the
above character ; for this is not to be understood of women in general, for
Solomon must have known that there have been good women in all ages,
and perhaps more than men ; and that there were many in his days, though
those with whom his more intimate acquaintance was were not such,
which was his unhappiness ; and his criminal conversation with them is
what he lamented and repented of. It may be interpreted thus. One man,
the Messiah, among all the sons of men have I found free from original sin ;
but one woman among all the daughters of Eve I have not found clear of it.
How revolting to our feelings, to say nothing of the gross
violation of the laws of language, to make the one man be either
" a penitent that has been ensnared and taken by an adulterous
woman" or " the Messiah, among all the sons of men, free from
original sin." We shall now give a few instances of his
mistranslation of the Rabbins.
Chap. v. 8. And there be higher than they. — Gill here remarks, " Aben
Ezra interprets it of the secret of the name of God, which he says is inex
plicable." The following are Ibn Ezra's words : — varrn m rwcrm -fava w <3 »t
t:>m3i on '3 xnaaa ¦wa »t «¦; D'ln D'loiai rraj "jsn niaj in« tal D'21 on pT ins urNi
vh^ msDm wnsan nn niu "jsd ryw. '3 »t can nio »ivm niiB 13:<« Dntonio rhu to
fins') taiM, know that there is a watch who sees this oppression, and not one
only, but tliere are many, and every one of them is higher than the other ;
there are so many watches, that no man can know their number, for they rise
higher than those whose degrees differ or vary ; and he who is acquainted with
the mystery of' the sacred name, i. e., with divinity, knows that the words
" higJier than the high " refer to the fifty flve angels, and I cannot explain it.
V. 20. For he shall not much remember the days of his life, Sc. — "Be
they more or fewer as Jarchi," adds Gill. Now Jarchi, as he is erroneously
called, says nothing of the sort; his words are xirai d'Q' "[IIm ]'«« • min vb '3
?bis") i") nown 1313 mio' jin fiiDM") mn' rra')i 'sin «')i on iosd '3 ' vn 'n' nw iwr • mn
trTiimn, "for not many," for life here is not long; on liteuallv, /or there
is no length of this in this world. "He shall remember the days of his life,"
for they are few, and not many ; and why shall he toil to gather wealth ? let
him rather labour in his life for that which will stand by him in the world to
come. Gill's remark is evidently owing to his mistaking kT) Di^D
n2")n for be they more or fewer.

176 INTRODUCTION.
Upon the same verse Gill says, —
" Some, as Aben Ezra observes, and which he approves of, and is agree
ably to the accents, render the words if he has not much, he remembers the
days of his life, if he has but little of the good things of this life, he
remembers how few his days are he has to live." Ibn Ezra's words ate
onT3T3 ^b wi ?n3 iiunniB i"n 'O' n« 1131' rmrt 3iiDn i"; -nas)' «"; d« ibibd ic • vh '3
3nn n«i n«n n31 to3 t]Di3 nsi i"n 'd< n3-in «') '3 1131' p «iniD ':'93 jismi ' 11b nnna
" If not." Some interpret it, if happiness does not remain long with one, he
should remember the days of his life wherein he enjoyed himself, and he will
have joy of heart in the remembrance thereof. I, however, think that the
proper meaning is this. Let him re->nember that the days of his life are not
many, and that n« is redundant, as in "And there came a lion and (nm) a
bear" (1 Sam. xvii. 34).
This misrepresentation of Ibn Ezra is all the more serious,
since it deprives this learned Rabbi of the honour of being the
first who gave the right construction of the text, and makes him
talk nonsense. These few specimens must suflBce here.
Other errors quite as flagrant, or even more so, will be found
dispersed throughout the commentary, and are noticed in their
proper places. We have felt it a disagreeable duty to expose
these blunders, because Gill is regarded, along -with Lightfoot,
as the oracle upon Rabbinical literature ; and because many a
divine, who prefers devoting his time to the acquisition of some
profane language, rather than to the study of the original of the
Old Testament, from which he professes to teach the will of God,
looks up to Dr. Gill as his guide in Jewish matters.
1749. — The learned and eccentric William Whiston tells us'
that he wrote " a very small dissertation on the book of Ecclesiastes,
to shew that it is a collection of Solomonis reflections about points
of the greatest consequence ; the most of them when he was a
religious man, in his first and last days ; but several of them
when he was irreligious and sceptical, during his amours and
idolatry. This book is not printed."
1751. — Grotius' criticisms on Ecclesiastes began at last to
produce their effect upon the Continent. We now find the
' Memoirs of the Life and Writings of William Whiston. London, 1749, p. 347.

INTRODUCTION. 177
learned John David Michaelis, so well known as the editor of
and annotator on Lowth's Prselections on Hebrew Poetry, boldly
maintaining that a prophet who lived after the Babylonish
captivity wrote this book in the name of Solomon, in order that
he might be able, in the person of so happy and wise a king,
to philosophise all the more touchingly about the vanity of
human happiness ; and that the design of Coheleth is to shew, in
the first place, the great imperfections of the happiness of a man
who is left to himself, and is separated from God (chap, i. 1 - iv.
16), and, secondly, to point out the means to a true and lasting
erijoyment of this life (chap. iv. 17 -xii. 14).
i. Solomon substantiates his main proposition (chap. i. 2), by
she-wing the transitoriness of pleasure sought in knowledge
(3-14), the grief we experience at the discovery of imperfections
which we cannot rectify (15-18), the insuflSciency and fleetness
of sensual pleasures (ii. 1-11), and our inability, with all our
wisdom, to avoid meeting with the same fate as the brute
(12-26), because of the unavoidable destinies which issue from
the fixed course of the world (iii, 1-15), and from unavoidable
misfortunes (iii. 16 -iv. 3), and because man uses his work,
which ought to be a pastime, as a means to obtain fame and
riches, and engages therein chiefly out of envy and jealousy
(iv. 4-16).
ii. Whereupon he gives the directions for happiness : to be
religious (iv. 17 -v. 6), not to be too uneasy through the evils
which befall others (7, 8), to abstain from too great a love for
money (9-12), to be cheerful and patient at the wickedness
which the wisdom of God permits to take place, remembering
.our own sinfulness (vii.), to endure the injustice of govern
ment without rebellion (viii. -ix. 10), to use labour as a means
for maintaining contentment, since it is mostly rewarded, as is
evident from the example of a wise and foolish mode of govern
ment (11-18), continuing to encourage us to work (xi. 1-6),
1 ^oetifibet gnttt»utf bet ©ebanfen beg q5tebiget»Su(bg ©alomong. @iiU
tingen, 1751. 3tt)eite Sluflagc, 1762. 2A

178 INTRODUCTION.
with this restriction, however, that we are to enjoy the lawful
pleasures of life (7, 8), yet not to forget the changeableness of
all earthly things, or the fear of God (xi. 9 -xii. 7) ; then follows
the conclusion (8-14).
1753. — In England, too, the writings of Grotius aided the
progress of liberal criticism, as may be seen from the almost
unparalleled remarks of Bishop Lowth on Ecclesiastes. The
learned prelate says' —
There is another didactic work of Solomon, entitled Kohelet (Eccle
siastes), or the Preacher; or rather, perhaps, Wisdom, the Preacher; the
general tenor and style of which is very difi'erent from the book of
Proverbs, though there are many detached sentiments and proverbs
interspersed; for the whole work is uniform, and confined to one subject,
namely, the vanity of the world exemplified by tbe experience of Solomon,
who is introduced in the character of a person investigating a very difficult
question — examining the arguments on either side, and at length disen
gaging himself from an anxious and doubtful disputation. It would be very
difficult to distinguish the parts and arrangement of this production; the
order of the subject and the connection of the arguments are involved in so
much obscurity, that scarcely any two commentators have agreed concerning
the plan of the work, and the accurate division of it into parts or sections.
The truth is, the laws of methodical composition and arrangement were
neither known by the Hebrews nor regarded in their didactic writings.
They uniformly retained the old sententious manner; nor did they submit
to method, even where the occasion appeared to demand it. The style of
this work is, however, singular; the language is generally low, I might
almost call it mean or vulgar; it is frequently loose, unconnected, approaching
to the incorrectness of conversation ; and possesses very little of the poetical
character, even in the composition and structure of the periods — which
peculiarity may possibly be accounted for from the nature of the subject.
Thus this refined scholar and acute critic believed that
Solomon was simply introduced or personated in this treatise,
and that the language is low, of course too low for the golden
age of Solomonic Hebrew, though the wary prelate chose not
to express it so.
1760. — As if to corroborate at once the remark of the foregoing
1 Lectures on the Saored Poetry of the Hebrews. Lecture xxiv., Gregory's
translation, third edition. London, 1835, pp. 270, 271.

INTRODUCTION. 179
writer, " that scarcely any two commentators have agreed con
cerning the plan of the book," the first exposition which appeared
after the publication of that statement is a protest against all its
predecessors. Thus Desvoeux maintains that the author'' s design
is to prove the immortality of the soul, or rather the necessity of
another state after this life, from such arguments as may be
afforded by reason and experience,'^ and that it is upon this
principle alone that this book can.be understood and explained.
He says —
The whole discourse may be reduced to three propositions, every one of
which, when properly reflected upon, yields a strong proof of a future state
of rewards and punishments. But it must be observed that, though in all
reasonings two propositions must be apprehended by the mind in order to
form any conclusion, yet it is not always necessary both should be expressed.
When the second is so obvious, that it does in a manner obtrude itself upon
tbe mind, as soon as the first is mentioned, or so certainly true that no man
in his right senses can well question it, then a philosopher may, according
to the strictest rules, and an orator generally does, leave it to be understood
and supplied by the attentive reader or hearer; and this is what the logicians
call an enthymeme. Now I hope this proposition, human affairs are under
the inspection and government of a wise, powerful, and infinitely perfect Being,
who can never be supposed to act but agreeably to his attributes, shall be easily
granted to be one of those, which may be left unexpressed in a religious
argument. Then let it be considered as the minor or second proposition of
a syllogism, whereof any of the three we are going to mention is the major
or first proposition; and I am much mistaken if the doctrine I look upon as
being chiefly taught in this book, does not appear to be the regular conse
quence of such a syllogism. These three propositions, every one of which
is attended with its proper apparatus of proofs and special observations,
are the following: —
I. No labour or trouble of men in this world can ever be so profitable as
to produce in them a lasting contentment, and thorough satisfaction of
mind, II, Earthly goods, and whatever we can acquire by our utmost trouble
and labour in this world, are so far from making us lastingly happy, that
they may be even looked on as real obstacles to our ease, quiet, and
tranquillity. ' A Philosophical and Critical Essay on Ecclesiastes; wherein the author's
design is stated ; his doctrine vindicated ; his method explained in an analytical
paraphrase, annexed to a new version of the text from the Hebrew, &c., by
A. V. Desvoeux. London, 1760, p. 79.

180 INTRODUCTION.
III. Men know not what is or is not truly advantageous to them,
because they are either ignorant, or unmindful, of that which must come
to pass after they are dead.
Therefore any one may conclude that there must be a state of true and
solid happiness for men out of this world.
PROPOSITION I. — Chap. i. 2, 3.
chap. "Ver,
I. 4- 11. First proof — The course of nature.
12, &c. Second proof — Men's occupations.
16-18. Eirst Head. — Wisdom or philosophy,
, 11, 1,2, Second Head, — Pleasure,
3-10. Both jointly.
11. General conclusion of the second proof
A review of the second proof, with special conclusions relating
to every particular therein mentioned, viz.,
I. Wisdom.
11. Eiches.
III. Pleasure.
Third proof. — Inconstancy of men's will.
Conclusion of the third proof.
A review of the second and third proofs considered jointly,
with special observations and corollaries.
First observation. — God is inculpable.
Second observation. — God is the Author of whatever
befalls us in this world.
First corollary. — God shall redress all grievances
Second corollary. — God must be exalted, and man
humbled.
22. Third corollary. — God alloweth men to enjoy the
present.
IV. 1. Fourth proof — Men's neglect of proper opportunities, evi
denced in several instances, viz.,
1-3. I. Oppression.
4. II. Envy.
5, 6. III. Idleness,
7-12. IV. Avarice.
V. 13 - 9. V. Misapplication of esteem and regard.
N. B. — V. 1-9 is a digression, containing several
admonitions, in order to prevent any miscon
struction of the foregoing remarks.
10 - 12. VI. Expensive living.
PROPOSITION IL — Chap. V. 13,
v. 14-17. First proof. — Instability of riches.

12-

¦17.

18-

¦23.

24-

¦ 26.

1,

&c.

9.

10,

11.

12-

•15.

16,

, 17.

18,

,21,

INTRODUCTION. 181
Chap, Ver,
VI, 18-2. Second proof — Insufficiency of riches to make one happy.
3-6. Corollary. — The fate of au abortive is preferable, upon the
whole, to that of one who lives without enjoying life.
7-9. Third proof. — Men's insatiableness.
10, 11. General conclusion from the first and second propositions.
PROPOSITION III. — Chap. vi. 12,
VII, 1, &c. First proof. — Wrong estimation of things.
A digression intended, like that v. 1-9, to prevent any
misconstruction of the foregoing observations, and con
taining several advices, together with a strong commen
dation of him who gives them, in order to enforce the
observation of the rules laid down by him.
9-12. First advice. — Not to blame Providence.
13. Second advice.' — Not to judge of Providence.
14, 15. Third advice. — To submit to Providence.
16 - 20. Fourth advice. — To avoid excess.
21, 22. Fifth advice. — Not to mind idle reports.
23-25. Commendation of the foregoing advices, from the author's
application to examine everything ; and, especially,
26-29. I. Wickedness and ignorance.
viii. 1-8. II. Wisdom.
Second proof. — Anticipated judgments.
9 - 14. I. That sin shall go unpunished, because it is so in this
world.
IX. 15 - 6. II. That life is preferable to death.
7-9. First corollary. — Earthly enjoyments are not
criminal.
10. Second corollary, — A proper use must be made
of our faculties.
11-15. Third proof. — Judgments that are seemingly right, yet truly
false.
16, &c. Fourth proof — Little regard paid to wisdom.
16. I. Past services are forgotten.
X. 17-4. II, The least fault is taken notice of
5 - 19. III. Favour gets what is due to merit.
20. A caution, to prevent the abuse of the foregoing remarks.
PRACTICAL INFERENCES.
XI. 1-4. I, From the _^rsi PROPOSITION. We must give unto earthly
goods that stability which they are capable of.
5, 6. II. From the first and second pboposiiions. We must, in
our conduct, conform to the design of Providence
upon us, and leave the success to God.

182 INTRODUCTION.
Chap. Ver.
XII. 7, 8. Ill, From the three propositions, but especially from the
third. We must seek for happiness beyond the grave.
9 - 12. Commendation of the work, from several considerations.
13, 14. Conclusion of the whole.
Desvoeux's commentary is one of the most curious and
elaborate productions on Ecclesiastes ; it contains much valuable
criticism, but the author is too rash in his emendations of the
text, and too fond of forcing upon the sacred writer the most
far-fetched interpretation, in order to establish his preconceived
notions. The philological notes are distributed under different
heads, without any regard to the order of chapters and verses ;
hence it is very difficult to find the comments upon the respec
tive verses in this ill-arranged mass of singular learning.
1768. — A similar fate to that which induced Prior to write
his poem on the vanity of the world, gave rise to another poetical
paraphrase of Coheleth, which was published anonymously in
1768.' " The author (a Turkey merchant)," whose name is said
to be Mr. Brodick, " was at Lisbon during the great earthquake,
just then sitting in his night-gown and slippers. Before he
could dress himself, part of the house he was in fell, and blocked
him up. By this means his life was saved, for all who had run
out were dashed to pieces by the falling houses." " He saw all
his property swallowed up. Some time after his arrival in
England, he lost his eyesight, when her Majesty was pleased to
make him pensioner in the Charter House, where he died,
January, 1795.
Brodick entirely espouses the traditional -vdew that Solomon
wrote this book in his old age, after having openly violated the
laws of God. " The only atonement he could now make was to
point out the rock on which he had split, to the end that future
1 Coheleth, or the Royal Preacher, a. Poetical Paraphrase of the Book of
Eoclesiastes. Most humbly inscribed to the King. Printed for J. Wallis, atYorick's
Head, Ludgate Street, 1768. Reprinted, -vrith supplementary notes, by Nathaniel
Higgins, at Whitchurch, Salop, 1824. This is the edition to which we refer.
' Wesley's Journals, Monday, Feb. 8, 1768, as quoted by Dr. Adam Clarke in
his introduction to Ecclesiastes.

INTRODUCTION. 183
princes might take warning by his example. He therefore
thought it a duty incumbent on him to make his repentance as
public as his crimes, and to leave an eternal monument to
posterity that the wisest of men, when left to their own conduct,
are liable to the greatest failings ; that a contempt of religion,
especially when princes set the example, always introduces a
general corruption of manners, and that those in the most
exalted stations, no less than those in the meanest, have occasion
enough to be reminded of their duty — in a word, that the
welfare or ruin of a nation depends, in great measure, on the
virtuous or vicious deportment of those who hold the reins of
government."' The subject of the book is the chief or sovereign
good, which man, as a rational and accountable being, should here
propose to himself. Brodick also, both in the division of the
book and in accounting for the difficult passages, follows his
predecessors. " Solomon," says he, " shews in the first place
what is not happiness, and then what it really is. He frequently
speaks, not according to his own sentiments, though he proposes
the thing in a naked and simple manner, designedly making
use of such terms as might set the picture in a fuller and clearer
light  We must therefore take particular care to
distinguish the doubts and objections of others from Solomon's
answers." That Wesley should have seen such great originality in this
production as to lead him to say that " the author of it under
stands both the difficult expressions and the connection of the
whole better than any other either ancient or modern writer
whom I have seen," and that Adam Clarke should have
" cordially subscribed to Mr. Wesley's opinion," we must ascribe
to the peculiar warm-heartedness of our Wesleyan brethren,
which often manifests itself in hyperboles.
1770. — As the unfortunate Dr. Dodd, in his valuable com
mentary upon the Bible, adopts Desvoeux's view, we must refer
to page 179, where we have given an analysis of it.
' Introduction, p. xii.

184 INTRODUCTION.
1777. — Kleuker' maintains that the design of this book is
neither to teach the fear of God,^ as some affirm, nor to set forth
the vanity of all earthly things,' as others will have it, but to
shew that the object, value, and cardinal duty of life are, that man
should quietly pursue his course, do good as his hand finds it, and,
instead of embittering his days under the sun, cheerfully eat and
drink, and be contented with his labours during his transitory Ufe,
for this is his portion for all the trouble and toil which he has}
1778. — The interruption theory advanced by Dean Yeard
found at last an eminent defender in the person of Herder. This
refined poet and scholar says ° —
There are two voices to be distinguished in this book ; the one is of
a subtle inquirer who searches after truth, and, in the tone of I, mostly
concludes with, "All is vanity;" whilst the other, in the tone of Thou,
frequently interrupts him, upbraids him with the temerity of his inquiry,
and mostly concludes with, What will be the ultimate result of the
whole life ? There are indeed no proper questions and answers, doubts
and solutions; but still a something proceeds out of one and the same
mouth which resembles both, and is to be distinguished by interruptions
and continuations. Hence the book may be divided into two columns,
1 ©alotttonifi^c ©c^tiften: gtjiet %^t\\, wclc^et ben ^tebiget cnt^olt.
2ei()3ig, 1777.
2 ©a« „gilt(^te @ott" iji ni(|t ^oMpl^md beg Su$cg, fonbetn Mo? cine
©(^luffumme unb glcii^fam ein Dtafelfptu(^ ffit bie ^totis beg ficrjeng, p. 9.
' gg iii ni(|t gnbat>ft*t bet 3{ebe, biefeg Cbic gitelfeit atteg Srbifc^en) unb
weitet 5>li$tg ju tcjten, fonbetn biefe gmpftnbung ifi nut ©lunbanna^nte ju
^6|»ctem 3ict, chap. i. 2.
* Set 3wcif, SSett^ unb gatbinatpfliiipt beg Se6cna beileSct botin, ba? bet
Wtv.% tu^ig feinen @ang fottgejt, bag @ute tjuf, Wie feine ^anb eg ftnbct,
unb fiatt fi(| feine Sage untet bet Sonne ju betbittetn, mit gteube iffet unb
ttinfet unb feinet Sttbeit fro^ wirb, in ben SEagen feinet SSetgcingti^Ieit, benn
bog iji fein S^eil fiit atte WIW unb 2ltbeit, bie et t;at, p. 22. glfiet'g
(Jommentat itbet ben ^tcbiget, p. 24.
5 gg finb jwei ©timmen ju untetfi^eiben, bie eine etneg ©tuMctg, bet Sffia^t^cit
fu4)t unb in bem Im feineg 3(|g nteijieng bamit „ baf Sllteg cite! fei " enbet,
tuajtenb eine anbete ©timme, im Sone beg Du, i^n oft untetbticfit, i^m bag
SSetrocgcne feinet Untetfu^ungen oot^dtt, unb meifieng bamit enbet : wag jute^t
bag aJcfultat beg ganjen ?ebeng bleibe ? gg ifi nicit boUig gtagc unb Stntmott,
3rocifct unb Slufliifung, abet boi^ aug einem unb bemfetben SKunbe gtwag, bag
beiben gteitpet unb fii^ but^ Stbbtii^c unb gottfc^ungen untctft^cibet. 5Kan
fann bag Su^ atfo gleic^ifam in jwei Jtolumnen tt;eiten, babon bie cine bem
ctmattetcn ©ucfcer, bie jweite bem roatncnben Septet gcjotet.

INTRODUCTION.

185

the one belonging to the exhausted enquirer, and the other to the warning
teacher —

THE ENQUIRER.

THE TEACHER.

THE ENQUIRER.

THE ¦¦

CEACHE

i. 1-11,

vii. 1.

vii.

2-15.

i, 12-18.

vii. 16.
vii.
17-23.
ii. 1-11.
vii. 24-29.
ii. 12-26.
viii. 1.
viii.
2-13.
iii. 1-15.
viii, 14-17,
iii. 16-22.
ix. 1-3.
ix.
4-10.
iv. 1-16.
ix, 11-18,
iv.
17.
X. 1-3.
X.
4.
V,
1-
-8.
X. 5-7.
X.
8-19.
V. 9-19.
X.
20.
vi. 1-11.
xi.
1-12.
As to the import of the book. Herder remarks,' I know no
book of antiquity which describes the sum of human life, the vicis
situdes and vanities in its occupations, projects, speculations, and
pleasures, as well as that which is alone real, lasting, progressive,
changeable, profitable therein, more fully, more impressively, and
more concisely than Coheleth.
1779. — It is rather remarkable that Eichhorn should have
arrived at the same conclusion, independently of Herder. He
regards this book as a dialogue between a passionate inquirer and
a calm teacher.
There is evidently, says he," an interchange of two different persons in
the book. There is an observer or inquirer, who looks gloomily upon the
life and destiny of man, and in his youthful warmth draws exaggerating
conclusions from his observations, and seldom does justice to the good of
^ Wn ifi fein Sucf) aug bem Slltctt^ume bcfannt, tt)efd;eg bie ©umme beg
menf4)U^en Sebeng, feine Slbwe^felungen unb 9Ji^tig!eiten in ®cfd;aften,
gntibutfen, ©pecutationem unb SSctgniigen, jugleic() mit bem, n>ag einjig in
x\)m »a^r, bauetnb, fottge^enb, tt)cd;felnb, Io{)nenb ifi, teid;et, cinbtinglic^et,
futjet beftptietie, alg biefeg. —Stiefe itbet bag tbeologiftle ©tubium; gtfiet'g
gommentat, pp. 18, 19.
2 gg wci^feln ganj offenbat jweietfei ^erfonen in bem S5u(I;e <A, ein
SScttac^tet, 35eobad;tet, gotf(|)et, bet mit ftnficten Slidcn Seben unb ©^itffat
bet SWenftbcn umfaft unb in jugcnblicbet $i^c bie golgetungen aug feinen
Semetfungen iibetfpannt unb bem Outen biefet grbe felten ®ete(I;tigfeit toibet*
fasten laft. S^tn jut ©eite fie^t ein attet SGScifct, bet bag Seuet beg tafi^cn
8B
186 INTRODUCTION.
this earth. By his side stands an aged sage, who assuages the fire of the
hasty youth, leads hitn back to the path of truth which he has overstepped
in the warmth of his temper, and shews him that evil has a good side. The
former always concludes with the complaint that all is vanity, and the
latter, with the inference which a sage will deduce from the course of the
world. THE ENQUIRER. THE TEACHER.
Chap. i.-iv. 16. Chap. iv. 17-v. 11.
V. 12 -vi. 12, vii. 1-14.
vii. 15. vii. 16-22.
vii. 23-29, viii. 1-8.
viii. 9-ix. 6, ix. 7-10.
ix. 11-18. X. 1-4.
X. 5-7. X. 8 -xii. 7.
The conclusion of the book  xii. 8-14.
1779. — Jacobi maintains that this book is intended to be
exclusively a guide for courtiers ; a fact which, he greatly
deplores, has hitherto been overlooked. He says ' —
The chief object of the writer is not to depict the life of men gene
rally, although some features of it are alluded to, but to describe the life
of those courtiers who do not find it their vocation to be idle and lazy, but
to think, think profoundly, labour zealously, wearisomely, and anxiously,
and deprive themselves of their best pleasures, and rarely obtain the object
of their desire. The life of such persons, being that which he had experienced
himself, he depicts with a master-hand, and gives the wisest and most whole
some lessons how such persons, who make their own life wearisome, may
obtain peace of mind, and greatly enjoy the pleasures of life, which the
benign Creator and Ruler of the world has bestowed upon them.
Siinglingg mafigt, ibn auf ben ^fab bet Sffiabtbeit, libet ben et in bet |)i^e
weggefc^cffen mat, jutiicffiibtt unb jeigt, wie auc^ bag 336fe feine gute ©cite
babe. Senet enbigt immet mit bet Stage, bag 3tlteg citel fei nnb biefet mit
ben gotgetungen, bie ein SfBcifet aug bem Sauf bet SBett jieben toitb. —
ginleitung in bag Slltc Sefiament, iii., p. 648, &o. ; glfiet'g gommentat,
pp. 19, 20.
' ©ie $aupt=2Ibfi(|)t beg Sctfaffetg biefet ©4)tift ifi nicbt bag allgemeine
Seben bet OTenfcbcu Ju beftbteibcn, obgteitb au(| son fetbigem ein unb dnbctet
3ug angebtaiJ^t witb, fonbetn et fi^itbett bag Seben betienigen §ofIeute, tt)el($c
ibten Setuf nicbt im 5Kiipiggange unb SEanbctn ftnben, fonbetn benfen, weit
binaug bcnien, cifrig, miibfam, dngfiti^ witfen, fti$ beg mebtcfien SSetgniigeng
betauben, unb ben botgcf^e^ten 3»bccf ibtet aSunfibe felten cttcii^cn. Sag
Seben fott^et ^etfoncn, weli^eg ct an ftcb' unb anbetn ctfobten, ftbilbett et mit

INTRODUCTION. 187
1784. — None of these views, however, could satisfy Doder
lein,' who submits that the author, who probably lived about the
time of the Babylonish captivity, started the notion that this book
was a prselection or treatise delivered by Solomon to his literary
academy,^ as Coheleth signifies such an academy ; and that the
theme and main import of it is given in chap. i. 2, 3, and is
repeated again in xii. 8, as the result of all the observations and
discourses, namely, the vanity of all earthly things, which men
prize so highly and labour for so arduously. -
It shews ^ the nothingness, or, as Luther puts it, the vanity, the perish-
ableness, the instability, the defectiveness, the unsatisfactoriness found in
the earthly things which man seeks, values, and toilsomely seizes ; it proves
that man does not find here below that which he strives after; that he cannot
find it however much he may toil in the world, exert both mind and body,
and spare neither trouble nor pain, because every earthly good is transitory,
and the enjoyment of it is mingled with anxiety and uneasiness ; that if
earthly good, of whatever kind it be, is the end of man, and wearisome
striving after it the means to obtain it, his trouble is thankless, useless, and
profitless.bet |)anb eineg SKeifietg, unb giebet bie weifefien unb beitfamfien Sebten,
ibie foti^e, ftcb felbet bag mitbfeetigfie Seben fcbaffenbe ^etfonen jut SRube beg
©eifieg gelangcn unb bie Setgnfigungen beg Sebeng genieffen, ttjeit beffet
genieffen fonnten, bie ibnen bet giltige @cb6)3fct unb 3lcgietet bet Selt
gtinnet. — Sag Bon feinen 35ottt)iltfen getettete ^tcbigct=35ucb beg ©alomog.
3ettc, 1779, pp. 10, 11.
^ ©alomong ^icbigct unb b^bcg Sieb neu libctfc^t mit tutjen etloutctnbcn
Slnmetfungen bon S. Sobann gb^^ifiopb Sfibetlein. Sena, 1784.
^ 2Bie eg fibeint, fo erbi^tet bet SSetfaffet beg Suibeg, baf bief eine S?ot=
lefung, obet cine Slbbanblung fe^, wclibe ©alomo feinet gelebtten Slfabemie
Botgelegt babe. Senn biefe Slfabemie motbte ill untet bem 3?amen ifobeletb,
Sctfieben, pp. xv., xvi.
2 %^tma unb ^auptinnbatt beg SBu(|>eg ibitb bict C^. i. 2, 33 angejcigt unb
fi. xii. 8 alg £RefuItat atlct Scttaibtungcn unb ©ifcutfe tbiebetbobtt. gg ifi
bie 9?i0tigfeit obet, wie Sutbet fejt, bie gitelfeit, b. i. bie §infdttigfeit, bet
Unbcfianb, bag SRangctbafte, bag 9Ji$tbeftiebigenbe, bag in ben ittbifd;cn
©ingen, bie bet aUenftb fuibt, fi^djt, mit 2»ube baftb*/ angettoffen roitb ; eg
ifi bet SciBcif baf et bict bag ni(bt finbe, wotnacb et fitcbt, nicbt finben
liinnc, fo febt et ft(b auf bet SSSelf plagt, befcbaftigt, @eifi unb Soipet anfltengt,
unb iBcbct SDJiibe no^ ©cbmetj fi^cut, tbcil jebeg gtbcngutflittbtig, bet @enuf
bon jebcm mit @tam unb Untub bctmifcbt iP J tiaf wenn gtbengut, son tbelcbet
2ltt eg au^ fe9, gnbjwccE, unb mubfameg ©ttebcn batnacb SWittct ifi, feine
aWubc unbonlbar, setgebcng, unb unbelobnt feipc, pp. 1, 2.

188 INTRODUCTION.
Doderlein divides the book into five sections, with a prologue
and epilogue. The following are his divisions : —

Prologue ... chap. i. 1-11

Section iv.

vi.

9-x. 1

Section i. chap. i. 12-18

V.

X.

2-xi. 6

ii. ii. 1-v, 8

vi.

xi.

7 -xii. 8

iii. v. 9- vi. 8

Conclusion ...

... xii.

8-14.

1785. — Spohn, again, maintains that Coheleth is neither a
continuous discourse nor a dialogue, but adopts the view of
Grotius, that it is a compilation of moral sentences. He says' —
-4s to the order and disposition according to which the author of Eccle
siastes arranged his thoughts, I afiSrm that he who seeks in it a logical
disposition will not find it, in spite of all art. It consists of moral
maxims, which directly or indirectly promote true fear of God — maxims
which call our attention to the wise government of God, to lead us thereby
to repose firm confidence iu God — maxims which draw our thoughts away
from the world, and direct them to virtue. In this way we can be cheerful,
and enjoy the pleasures which the Creator offers us on all sides, in the midst
of our wearisome labours and the perishableness of all earthly things.
The chief value of this elaborate commentary consists in the
copious collation which it gives of the various readings of the
Greek versions. Spohn Was, however, too fond of emendations,
and frequently adopted other readings, simply because they
differed from the received text.
1787. The confused commentary of Greenway, in England,
forms a lamentable contrast to the last-mentioned scholarly pro
duction on the Continent. Greenway's eccentric commentary
' Sag bie ginti^tung unb SInlagc, na$ tt>etdjet bet SBetfaffet beg ^Stebigetg
feine 3been georbnet babe, bettift, fo batte i(b bofiit, baf berjenige, bet eine
togifalifi^e ©ifjjofition barinne fu(bct, be^ otlet Sunfi, fie nicbt finben tt)irb.
gg ftnb motatifd;e ©d|e, bie ndbct obet entfetntet wabte Ootteg 55etebrung
befiitbetn; ©a^e, welcbc auf bie ttjeife SBcIttegietung Ootteg aufmetffam matben,
um babutcb ju einem fefien SBetttauen gegen ®ott geteitet ju tbetben; ©a§e,
bie ben ©inn bon bet SSctt abjicben unb auf S£ugenb binlenfen. Sluf biefet
aSeife fonnen tbit ftcticb fe^n unb gteuben, bie bet ©ib(J))fet bon qtJen ©eiten
batreid;t, be? unfern 3)titbfetigf eiten, bc^ bet ^infatligleit attet itbifcben ©inge
genieffen. ©ct ^tebiget ©atomo aug bem bebrdifibcn aufg neue titetfe^t unb
mit ftitiftben Slnmctfungen, oon 5K. ©otttieb SebctcdSit ©pobn. Seipjig, 1785,
p. xxxvi.

INTRODUCTION. 189
consists of three parts, and was published at different times :
the first part, containing chaps, ii., vii. 23-29, xi. 7-10, and
xii. 1 - 13, was published in 1781 ; the second part, containing
chaps, iii., iv., v., vi., and vii., has gone through three editions,
none of which bears a date ; the third part, containing chaps.
i., viii., ix., x., xi. 1-6, and xii. 14, with some desultory
" reflections and notes " on different portions of Scripture,
appeared in 1787. As to the design of the book, Greenway
adopts the patristic opinion, that " it is a discourse, and that the
sum and substance of the observations and instructions delivered
therein is, that the present world, and everything belonging to it, is
There vanity."
Some idea may be formed of the manner in which our author
has acquitted himself in this " New Translation, with a Para
phrase," from the following remarks, which he subjoined to the
first part : —
The translator considers the Hebrew text, as it appears in our printed
Bibles, merely as a translation ; the original text being the letters without
vowel points, without pauses, and even without any division into words.
He therefore thinks himself at liberty, whenever the context requires it,
either to read with different points, or to divide the letters differently into
words or sentences. He supposes himself, too, at liberty to read some sorts
of words either with or without a Vau, with or without a Yod ; for all
readers have seen and allowed the necessity of doing this in many instances,
and therefore it may be necessary in others, which they have not been
aware of He has, too, now and then taken the liberty of applying that
common rule, Literce homogenea, sive unius organi facile inter se permutantur,
where no application of it perhaps has been made before. And these are
all the liberties he has presumed to take, except he has in a single instance
supposed a word should be read with an Aleph epentheticum, as is done in
the present way of reading the text in many places.'
After this specimen, the reader will not be surprised to hear
that this commentary is rarely to be met with complete.
1790. — A more scholarly performance than Greenway's, is
the translation of Ecclesiastes which Dr. Hodgson, principal of
1 Ecclesiastes, in three parts. A new Translation, with a, Paraphrase. To
which is added a new Translation of other passages of Scripture, with notes and
reflections. Part i., p. 14.

190 INTRODUCTION.
Hereford College, Oxford, published in 1790.' It is to be
regretted that the Doctor has studiously avoided any expression,
in his critical notes, which might lead the reader to discover
what his view was on the design of the book. The merits of
his renderings and notes will be found discussed in the course of
the commentary.
1793. — Biblical criticism had now made such progress on
the Continent, that even the Roman Catholic Jahn found the
sound laws of interpretation far more powerful than the
teachings of the infallible Churcli. Hence, contrary to all
tradition, he, like many Protestant commentators, affirmed that
the language and import of Ecclesiastes preclude the Solomonic
authorship^ and joined issue with Luther, in maintaining that
the design of the book is to teach men to repress their restless and
eager efforts, which hurry them on in heaping up wealth, in
securing pleasures, and acquiring honours ; and, at the same
time, to instruct them not to increase the troubles of life, by
denying themselves the enjoyment of harmless, though uncertain
and jleeting pleasures.
1794. — Similar to this is the view of Pfannkuche,' who says
that the design of the sacred writer is to recommend to the mind
1 Ecclesiastes; a new Translation from the original Hebrew, by Bernard
Hodgson, LL.D,, Principal of Hereford College, Oxford, 1790,
2 ©atomo fipticbt im ganjen Sucbc, ba abet bie ©ptacbc unb ©ibteibatt
biefeg SBcifen, wie fie in ben ©ptii^njottetn bottiegt, in unferm Sucbe nicbt ju
ftnben ifi, fonbetn bicle gbatbaifmen unb jiingetc SBotte botlommen, fo fann
man f^tieffen, baf eg bon ©atomo niibt bcttiibte. ©iefeg ibitb nod; babut^
befidtigt, baf ©olomo fibwetUcb fo bittet iibet Untetbtiitfung, Ungetcibtigtcit
bei ®eti(^tffiettcn, gtbebung bet SEbotcn ju bobcn SBiitben, &c., ftagen !onnte,
njcnn et nitbt eine ©atptc auf fid; fetbfi ma^en wottte ; auib bei Sebjeitcu
tonnte et tt50bl nicbt fd;teiben, icb wat Jionig in 3etufatem, no^ bin Sonig in
3etufatem, ba biefeg Sebet wuffic. ©et Serfaffet muf atfo in jiingetet 3eit
getebt baben, nut bat et feine Seobacbtungen bem Weifen ^iJnige in ben SKunbe
getegt. ginleitung in bie giittticbe Sil^ct beg Sltten Sunbeg, § 214.
3 Soriptorem totum in eo esse, ut animum de future securum, sorte quacunque
contentum Isetitiseque patentem tamquam bonorum in hac rerum inconstantia et
fragilitate extremum, malorumque, quibus vita undique septa sit, leuimen prs-
sentissimum prfedioet atque oommendet. — Exercitatt. in Eoclesiasten. Getting.,
1794, pp. 7, 8.

INTRODUCTION. 191
contentment with its lot, without anxiety for the future ; and to be
open to pleasure, as if it were the extreme of happiness, in the
midst of the prevailing inconstancy and frailty of things ; shewing
the most efficacious means of mitigating the evils whereby life is
surrounded on every side.
1794. — Simultaneous with Pfannkuche's commentary, ap
peared the small but elaborate work of John Ernest Christian
Schmidt on Coheleth, wherein the learned author maintains,
that the design of this book is to prescribe laws to all human
exertions, no matter what the object for which they are made, in
order to keep them within proper limits, so that it may be
regarded as the most beautiful commentary on the figure of the
Greek Nemesis; that Solomon was not its author; that it
consists of twelve essays, written under different states of mind,
and at different periods, and was not finished for publication ; but
is simply a sketch of a work which the author intended to work
out at some future period. The following are the twelve
essays : —
Essay

i. chap. i. and ii.

Essay

vii.

chap.

, vi.

7 -vii. IC

ii. iii.

viii.

vii.

11-29.

iii. iv. 1-16.

ix.
viii.
1-13.
iv. iv. 17-v. 6
x.
viii.
14-ix. 10,
V. V. 7-19.
xi.
ix.
11 -X, 20,
vi. vi. 1-6.
xii.
xi.
1-xii, 7.
Epilogue, by a
later hand.
chap. xii. 8-
14.'
1795. — Gaab thinks that the design of this book is to teach us
how to live cheerfully and contentedly, in the midst of all the
imperfection and instability of our fate.
This art, he says,' is not shewn to us in a strictly connected whole, but in
a collection of single observations and sentences. Just as Canticles is a
' ©atomo'g gjtebiget obet .Sobctetb'g Sebten, son Sobann gtnfi gbtifiian
©cbmibt. ©iefcn, 1794, pp. 23, 82, loo.
2 ©et 3»e! biefeg Su^g ifi, ju Icbten, wic man bei attet Itnbottfommenbeit
unb Unbefidnblgfcit feinet ©^liffaale benno^ ftob unb juftieben leben fonne.
Siefe .Sunfi tbitb abet nid;t in einem fitcng jufammenbdngenbert ©anjen,
fonbetn in einet ©ommlung einjetnet Setta^^tungen unb ©entenjen gcjeigt;— fo
tt)ie bag ilantifum eine SoUc!tion fteinct ®ebi(^te, fo ifi bet ^tebiget cine
192 INTRODUCTION.
collection of small poems, so Ecclesiastes is a collection of larger or smaller
moral essays and admonitions. It is the production of some later writer,
who perhaps lived after the Babylonish captivity, and had either no perfect
command of the language, or wrote it in this book very incorrectly and
negligently, and in the assumed person of Solomon ; just as Cicero, in his
De senectute, spoke in the name of Cato, ut majorem rem auotoritatem haberet
oratio. 1798. — The various theories hitherto advanced about the
import and division of Coheleth sink into utter insignificance
before the discoveries made by the learned and lynx-eyed
Nachtigal. This book, he tells us,' contains the investigations of
several associations of literary men among tlie Israelites ; it
contains propositions which at that time formed the limits of
philosophic speculation, and which seem to have been proposed
intentionally, to agitate and to explain doubts, and thus to develop
the intellectual faculties.
The book consists of the following parts, although not indi
cated by the Massorites : —
I. Prosaic Parts, or later additions and remarks, made by several
classifiers, collators, and readers of this book. These are —
1, The superscription, i, 1.
2. Tbe words, rbrp rnsM, i. 2 ; vii. 27 ; xii. 8.
3, The additions at the end, xii, 8-14.
II. Poetical Parts, constituting the chief portions of the book, and
consisting of three kinds of poetry.
Sotteftion gtijffetet obet fteinetet motatif^et Sluffd^c unb gtmabnungcn. gt
ifi bag 2Bctf irgenb eineg fpdtctcn ©ibiiftfiettctg, bet biettcitbt gat natb bem
babi5)Ionif(ben gtit lebte, bie ©pta^e entwebct niibt ganj in feinet ©eroatt
batte, obet fie wenigfieng in biefet ©ibiift febt infotteft unb naibtdfig ftbtieb,
unb in bet angenommcnen ^erfobn ©alomog, Wie giceto bei feinem ©cbtiftcben:
de senectute in gatOg f^Jta^, ut majorem auotoritatem haberet oratio. — -Scittdgc
jut gtfldtung beg fogenanntcn |)obentiebg, Bobelctbg unb bet j?tagtiebei son
'JJtofeffot ®aab. Siibingcn, n^^, pp, 48, 49,
1 ©iefeg Sucb entbdlt bie gotf^ungen mebtetet SSctfammlungen benfenbet
gSdnnet untet ben Sftaetiten ; eg entbdtt ©d^e, bie bamatg bie ®tdn3e bet
})bitofopbif<bcn ©peculation waren, unb bie jum 5£bcit abftcbtti^ botgelcgt ju
feipn fcbciifU/ ">n 3tbeifet unb Seleu^tuug bet 3tbeifcl anjuregcn, unb fo bie
®eifitegfrdfte ju cntnjicf ctn — jtobctetb obet bie Setfammtung bet SSeifen,
gewobntid; genannt bet ?)tebigei ©atomo'g. Scatbeitet son 3. g. g. Jla^figal.
^atte, 1798, p. 67.

INTRODUCTION. 193
I. Aniiphonies, i. e., a poetical treatise upon one subject, made by different
singers, who partly define more minutely the idea which constitutes the
subject of conversation ; sometimes correcting the expressions of other
singers, but mostly corroborating the main proposition in question, and
exhibiting its different sides without intending to contradict.
The way in which these Songs originated was perhaps this: the President
of the society of the Israelitish sages rose, and sang, "Vanity, vanity, all is
vanity .'" The assembly repeated this verse as a chorus. Thereby the key
note was struck which determined the subject of conversation for this session,
and gave an impetus to further investigation. The president now sang the
fleetness and changeableness in human life, and in nature generally; and
the assembly joined in at every pause with. Vanity, vanity, all is vanity!
Another singer rose after the president, and sang in the name of Solomon,
the most admired Jewish king, and who was considered as having had most
of the enjoyments of this life, the vanity of all that is looked upon as
happiness upon the earth, and of all human plans, and the assembly of
singers, at appropriate places, animated the song with their accords. When
this singer left off, or the ideas of the sentences belonging to him were
exhausted, a third singer arose, then a fourth, then a fifth, &c., &c,, &c.
Each endeavoured to corroborate the same idea by some illustrations, to
exhibit it in some different shade, and also to correct here and there the
remarks of the other singers,
A careful comparison of these single sections will, it is to be hoped,
convince every unprejudiced person that the different spirit which breathes
in them, as well as the difference in the mode of treating the subject, indicate
different singers. Compare, for instance, ohap, i. 12 -ii, 26, with chap, iii.
1-8, 9-15, 16-22; chap. iv. 1-6, 7-9. The other antipbonies tviz,,
chap. V. 9-vi. 9, and viii, 8-x. 1), which are separated from the first (viz.,
chap. i. 2-iv. 16) by proverbs, &c,, &c,, were most probably sung at other
sittings of the same assembly of sages, or perhaps in similar assemblies of
other Jewish sages, formed immediately after the first. The last group
of antipbonies (chap. xi. 7 -xii, 7) is, in its main parts, treated differently
from the others, and can hardly be ascribed, in its present form, to
the same assembly of sages to whom the first three groups most probably
belong. Two things connected with these songs, and influencing their explanations
and mode of treatment, still deserve to be noticed — 1. Most of the singers
in this book appear in the person of a philosopher of antiquity ; compare, for
example, i, 12; iii. 16; iv. 1. 7; v. 12 ; vi. 1; vii. 15; viii. 9, 16; ix. 11.
Solomon, who is one of the sages here introduced, and who also appears in
the Book of Wisdom, is easily recognised. The other sages we shall perhaps
never know, owing to the want of historical identifications. 2. In many of
these antipbonies, we notice a singular interweaving of ideas, which to us
occidentals appear to be widely separated; comp, ii, 3, with ver, 1 ; ii. 9 with
i, 16; ii, 18, 19, witli 12, 13; iii, 11 -14 with ii, 24-26,
2C

194 INTRODUCTION.
2. Maxims of the sages, of which there are three collections in our book —
1. chap. iv. 17-v. 8. 2. chap. vi. 10- vii. 2. 3. chap. x. 2-xi. 6.
Some of these maxims are evidently connected together (only they are
sometimes separated in the present recension of the original, e.g., vii. 14,
18, 16, 17, 20) ; some even seem to have such a bearing to each other as
the antipbonies, i.e., are occasioned by the same idea, but expressed by
different minds, and we may describe these as anti-maxims (Gegenspriiche);
as, for example, vii. 1-9 ; x. 16-19. Most of the maxims, however, are
now so separated and isolated that all the exertions of commentators have
failed to connect them with the other portions of the book. Several
questions suggest themselves upon this point, e.g.. How did these maxims
originate? What connection have they with the assembly of sages? What
connection with the antipbonies? To what periods are they to be ascribed?
or Do they belong to one period ? &c., &c. We may perhaps assume that
the making of such gnomes was assigned to a special sitting of the assembly
of sages ; or that a few singers appeared with some maxims, after a group of
antipbonies, as a relief; or that the collator who collected and compiled the
antipbonies sung in the assembly of Jewish sages, also found collections of
maxims which partly belonged to the same sages, and connected with the
others as one whole, because they indicated a similarity in composition and
spirit. The second hypothesis will appear the most probable one, to one
who regards the present arrangement of this book ; and the third, to one
who has no regard for it.
3. Hidden questions, or propositions and their solutions. Of this mode of
treatment, so common among the sages of the East, we have in this book
only a small collection, namely, vii. 23 -viii. 7, where we find two hidden
questions and their solution.
The following is Nachtigal's view of Coheleth : —

Superscription, chap. i. 1.

I.
Antipbonies, chap. i. 2-iv,
Chorus, chap, i, 2
16
1.
(I. 1.) chap.
i. 3-7
8, (II,6,)chap,ii,16,17
lo.
(V.) chap, iii, 16-
¦22
2.
(I, 2.)
8-11
9. (IL 7.) 18, 19
16.
(VI,) iv, 1-
•6
3.
(II. 1.)
12-15
10. (II. 8,) 20, 21
17.
(VIL) 7
¦9
4.
(II. 2.)
16-18
11. (IL 9,) 22, 23
18.
(VIIL) 10
¦12
5.
{U. 3,)
ii. 1, 2
12, (II, 10,) 24-26
19.
(IX,) 13.
¦16
6.
(II- 4.)
3-11
13, (III.) iii. 1-8
7.
(II 5.)
12-15
14. (IV.) 9-15
II, Maxims of the sages, chap, iv, 17-v, 8
1, chap, iv, 17 2. chap, v, 1 ¦ 6 3, chap, v. 7, 8
INTRODUCTION. 195
III. Antipbonies, chap. v. 9-vi. 9
1. chap. V. 9-11 3. chap. V, 17-19 5. chap. vi. 7 ¦ 9
2, 12-16 4. vi. 1-6
IV. Maxims of the sages, chap. vi. 10 - vii. 22

1. oh

ap. vi.

10

8.

chap.

vii.

3,4

15,

chap.

vii.

14

2.

10

9,

5,6

16.

18
3.
11
10,
7,8
17.
15
4.
11
11,
9
18.
16,17
5.
12
12,
10
19.
19
6.
12
13,
11, 12
20.
20
7,
vii.
1,2
14.
13
2L
21,22
V. Obscure questions, and their solutions, chap, vii. 23 -viii. 7
1. First Question, with six answers, chap. vii. 23 -viii. 1
2. Second question, with two solutions, chap. viii. 1 - 7
VI, Antipbonies, chap, viii. 8-x. I.
1. chap. viii. 8-10 5. chap. ix. 1 9. chap, ix, 11, 12
2. 11-13 6. 2-4 10. 13-x. 1
3. 14,
15
7.
4-6
4. 16,
17
8.
7-10
VII,
Mi
ixims of the sages, chap. x. 2 ¦
¦xi. 6
1, chap, X, 2
8.
chap.
X. 11
15. chap. xi. 1
2. 3
9.
12-14
16. 2
3. 4
10.
14
17. 3
4. 5
11.
15
18, 4
5. 6,7
12.
16,17
19. 5
6. 8,9
13.
18,19
20, 6
7, JO 14, 20
VIII, Antipbonies, chap. xi. 7 - xii. 7
1, chap, xi, 7-8 3, chap, xii. 1, 5
2. 9, 10 4. 6, 7
Prosaic additions, chap. xii. 8 - 14
1. chap. xii. 8 4. chap, xii 11 7. chap, xii, 12
2. 9 5. 13 8. 13,14
3. 10 6. 12
1802. — The third volume of Dr. Coke's commentary, con
taining Ecclesiastes, was published in 1802.' The commentary
' A Commentary on the Holy Bible. By Thomas Coke, LL. D., of the Uni-
versity'of Oxford. London, 1802, vol. iii., p. 395, i-c.
196 INTRODUCTION.
on this book, like that on all the other portions of the Bible, is
mostly a reprint of the unfortunate Dr. Dodd's work ; and as
the latter adopted Desvoeux's view, that the design of the book
is to prove the immortality of the soul, or rather the necessity of
another state after this life (see p. 179), the former, of course,
also espoused it. We could never discover why Dr. Coke so
unceremoniously appropriated this work, except that he thought
it more to the glory of God that an exposition on the Bible
should have the name of a respectable Wesleyan doctor, rather
than that of a clergyman of the Church of England who had
died upon the scaffold.
1804. — The brief notes of Dr. Priestley on Ecclesiastes,
contained in the second volume of his notes on the Scriptures,
have the advantage of embodying in a little space the old view,
that the object of the whole work is to shew the vanity of the
ordinary pursuits of mankind ; in what the true enjoyment of life
consists ; and the importance of having a constant respect to God,
and the laws that he has prescribed to us} We are, however,
surprised to find that this famous Unitarian doctor, who insisted
so much upon strictly literal and grammatical exposition and
criticism, should paraphrase —
Chap. iii. 21. Who knoweth the spirit of man, Sc. — What difference is
there between the breath of life in man, and that which animates a beast,
except that the one breathes upwards, and the other downwards ?
1813. — Though Adam Clarke has done nothing towards
elucidating the design of Coheleth, inasmuch as he adopts the
opinion of the Turkey merchant,^ and of so many others besides,
that the subject of the book is the chief or sovereign good, which
man, as a rational and accountable being, should here propose to
himself; yet he has done good service in disputing two points
tenaciously held in England, viz., the penitential character of
1 Notes on all the Books of Scripture, for the use of the pulpit and private
families, in four volumes. Northumberland, vol. ii., 1804, p. 279, &c,
- Vide supra, p, 183,

INTRODUCTION. 197
Solomon as described in this book, and the purity of the diction.
He

I can by no means adopt the hypothesis, that the book was written by
Solomon after be was restored from his grievous apostasy. This is an
assumption that never was proved, and never can be. I must say, the
language and style puzzle me not a little. Chaldaisms and Syriasms are
certainly frequent in it, and not a few Chaldee words and terminations ;
and the style is such as may be seen in those writers who lived at or after
the captivity. If these can be reconciled with the age of Solomon, I have
no objection ; but the attempts that have been made to deny this, and
overthrow the evidence, are in my view often trifling, and generally
ineffectual That Solomon, son of David,, might have been the author of the
whole matter of this, and a subsequent writer put it in his own language, is a
possible case ; and, were this to be allowed, it would solve all difliculties.^
1818. — The view, that this book treats on the sovereign good, is
also entertained by Umbreit, in his commentary, which he charac
terises as Coheleth, the wise king''s struggles of the soul} The only
novelty about this production is the arbitrary way in which the
author transposes the text. According to him the order is this —
chap. i. 1-v. 8 chap. x. 11 chap. ix.
viii.2-19 vii. 7,19 x. 1-3, 12-15,
vi. 1-12 viii. 1 4-7,16,19,18,
vii. 1-10, 13, 11 vii. 14, 15, 16, 20 8,9,17,20
X. 10 17,18,21-29 xi.
vii. 12 viii, 14-17 xii.
Adopting this, he assures us we shall be all right.
1821. — We do not wonder that Dr. Ralph Wardlaw, in his
Lectures on the Book of Ecclesiastes, should still adhere to the
traditional opinion, that this book contains Solomon's repent
ance ; that " we behold him here, after a temporary apostasy
¦from the Lord God of Israel, ' confessing, and forsaking, and
¦finding mercy ; ' we behold him returning from the broken and
1 The Holy Bible, with a commentary and critical notes. By Adam Clarke,
LL.D., F.S.A,, &c. London, I8S6, vol. iii., p. 2524.
2 ©ag SBucb tbctcbeg in bet Sfcibe bet atttcfiamcntli^en ©cbtiften ben 9Jamen
„ffiotte .Sobclctb'g" ttdgt, bebanbcit fein anbteg Sbetna, alg biefeg; SBag ifi
beg 2Kenf(ben b^cbftf^ ®ui? .Kobelctb'g beg njcifen tonigg ©cetenfampf obet
(sbilofopbif'be SSettacbtungen itbet bag bocdfie ®ut, »on gtiebticb SBilbetm gatt
Umbtcif, ®otba, 1918, p. lo.

198 INTRODUCTION,
empty cisterns of the world to the Fountain of living water."^
Dr. Wardlaw does not pretend to be critical ; and when he
does go out of his homiletic province, to correct the authorised
version, he is generally wrong.
1822. — But we are astonished that Mr. Holden, in his
elaborate work, should have altogether ignored the remark of
Dr. Adam Clarke, that it never was and never can be proved
that Solomon wrote this book after he was restored from his
grievous apostasy ; and should still maintain, that " when, by the
grace of that Almighty Being whom he had offended, Solomon was
made sensible of his transgression, he became a sincere penitent,
and published to the world the evidence of a broken and contrite
heart in the booh of Ecclesiastes}^ ' He says —
The leading object of the Ecclesiastes is an inquiry into the Sovereign
Good, which the author conducts upon the plan of first proving what does
not constitute it, though too often regarded in that light by the folly of man
kind; and, in the next place, shewing that it consists in Wisdom, or Religion,
which, for that reason, is highly extolled. The book, in fact, may be
considered as designed to praise and recommend True Wisdom to the
observance of men, as the only real and permanent good.'
Mr. Holden, moreover, tells us, that Solomon has divided the
book into two parts and thirty-three sections.
Part I., which extends from i. 2 to vi. 9, is taken up in
demonstrating the vanity of all earthly conditions, occupations,
and pleasures, and consists of the following nineteen sections : —
Sec, 1, The vanity of all earthly things . . chap. i. 2
2. 'The unprofitableness of human labour, and the
transitoriness of human life . . . i. 3 - 1 1
3. The vanity of laborious inquiries into the ways and
works of man . . . . i. 12 - 18
4. Luxury and pleasure are only vanity and vexation
of spirit . . . . . ii. 1 - 11
1 Lectures on the Book of Ecclesiastes, by Ralph Wardlaw, D.D,, 2 vols.
Glasgow, 1821. Second edition, 1838, vol. i., p. 7.
2 An Attempt to illustrate the Book of Ecclesiastes. By the Rev. George
Holden, M. A. London, 1822, p, Ixxiv.
3 Ibid., p, Ixxii.

INTRODUCTION. 199
Sec. 5. Though tbe wise excel fools, yet, as death happens
to them both, human learning is but vanity ii. 12-17
6. The vanity of human labour, in leaving it they
know not to whom . . . ii. 18 - 23
7. The emptiness of sensual enjoyments . . ii. 24-26
8. Though there is a proper time for the execution of all
human purposes, yet are they useless and vain ;
the Divine counsels, however, are immutable . iii. 1 - 14
9. The vanity of human pursuits proved from the
wickedness prevailing in courts of justice, con
trasted with the righteous judgment of God . iii. 15-17
10. Though life, considered in itself, is vanity (for men
die as well as beasts), yet, in the end, it will be
very different with the spirit of man and that of

iii.

18 - 22

iv.

1-3

iv.

4

iv.

5-6

iv.

7-8

1 1. Vanity is increased unto men by oppression
12. The vanity of prosperity ....
13. The vanity of folly, or of preferring the world to
True Wisdom ...
14. The vanity of covetousness
15. Though society has its advantages, yet dominion
and empire are but vanity . . . iv. 9 - 16.
16. Errors in the performance of Divine worship, which
render it vain and unprofitable . . . v. 1 - 7
17. The vanity of murmuring at injustice ; for, though
the oppression of the poor and the perversidn of
judgment greatly prevail, they do not escape the
notice of the Almighty . . . v. 8-9
18. The vanity of riches, with an admonition as to the
moderate enjoyment of them . t. 10-20
19. The vanity of avarice . vi, 1 - 9
Part II., which extends from vi. 10 to xii. 14, is occupied in
eulogising wisdom ; in describing its nature, its excellence, and
its beneficial effects ; and consists of the following fourteen
sections : —
Sec. 20. Since all human designs, labours, and enjoyments
are vain, it is natural to enquire. What is good
for man ? What is his Supreme Good ? . vi. 10 - 12
The answer is contained in the remainder of the
book.
21. The praise of character and reputation . vii, 1

200 INTRODUCTION.
22. Affliction improves the heart, and exalts the cha
racter of the wise . . . vii. 2 - 10
23. The excellence of Wisdom . . vii. 11-14
24. An objection, with the answer . . vii. 15 -viii. 7
25. The evil of wickedness shews the advantage of True
Wisdom ... . . viii. 8-13
26. An objection, with the answer . viii. 14-ix. 1
27, An objection, with the answer , , , ix, 2-x. 17
28, The banefulness of sloth . . . . x. 18
29. The power of wealth . . . x. 19
30. An exhortation against speaking evil of dignities , x, 20
31. Exhortation to charity and benevolence xi. 1 - 10
32. An exhortation to the early cultivation of religious
habits . . . xii. 1 - 7
33. The conclusion . . . xii, 8-14
Mr. Holden's commentary is one of the best productions on
Ecclesiastes in our language.
1823. — The ordinary divergency of opinion is again relieved
by an extraordinary discovery of D. Gottlieb Philipp Christian
Kaiser, Professor in Erlangen. He assures us that ' the lives of
the kings of the house of David, from Solomon down to Zedekiah,
are positively and plainly chronicled in this book in strict order,
a fact which not one of all the translators or commentators for
two thousand years has even as much as faintly dreamt of ; that
the overthrow of the Jewish state is pragmatically balanced in it ;
and that, through this historic key alone, is every chief difficulty
removed fro'm the way of interpreting this book. Kaiser says^ —
We have here an unknown kind of oriental poetry, an allegorico-
historico-didactic poem, which connects, in a veiled and collective manner,
the spirit of historic pragmatism of the Hebrews and Jews, and .which
' feinet bet auf ung gefommenen Uebetfc^et unb Jlugteget, alg fol^ct, feit
2,noo Sabtcn abnbetc, baf in bem S5ut&e bog Seben bet ©aoibifi^en JJonige son
©atomo big 3ebelia in fitengct Dtbnung febt Hat unb befiimmt gejei^nct,
bet Umfiutj beg jitbifcbcn ©taateg batin ptagmafif($ ctwogen unb but^ biefen
bifiotifi^en ©(btiiffet jebe ^au|)t=©t^n)ietigfe{t bet Stuglegung bcfeitiget mitb.—
j?obeletb, bag goUcctitium bet ©abibifcbcn Jionige in Setufalcm, ein bifio'
tifcbcg Sebtgebi^it iibet ben Umfiutj beg jubifcbcn ©toateg, son ©. ©ottlieb
$bitiPP gbtifiian ^aifet. gttongen, 1823, p. v.
« Bit letnen bielmebt bict eine nocb unbefannte ©itbtunggatt beg Drientg
{ennen, ein attcgotif*4ifiotif(beg Sebtgcbicbt, wclcbeg oetfcbteiett unb cottec=

INTRODUCTION.

201

gives us occasionally really important solutions of the secret history of
the Jewish kings, e.g., the conduct of Josiab towards the Egyptian king
Necho. Moreover, through this key we also gain something in a dogmatic
point of view, inasmuch as every stumbling-block disappears, and the author
of Coheleth appears throughout consistently to attack unbelief and luxury;
some of his remarks being ironical and satirical, as is evident from bis calling
the poem a satire in xii. 11.
Kaiser divides the book into sixteen sections —
Sec. 1 . Contains the prologue
2. The life of Solomon
3. Contains the complaint about Solomon's successors,
Jeroboam, king of Israel, and Kehoboam and
Abijam, kings of Judah
4. The life of King Asa
5. The life of Jehoshaphat
6. The life of Jehoram
7. King Ahaziah and Queen Athaliah
8. Kings Joash and Amaziah .
9. The life of Uzziah .
10. Contrast between Jotham and Ahaz, to the advan
tage of the former
11. Hezekiah, Manasseh, and Ammon .
12, Eeflections on .Josiab
13. Gives the collective expression of the assembly
with regard to the above-named sovereigns,
especially with regard to Josiah and his succes
sors, as well as the end of Jehoahaz . viii. 14 - ix, 10
14. The life and end of Jehoiakim . . . ix. 11-x. 4
15. Eeign of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah . x. 5-xi, 8
16. Conclusion . . . xi. 9 -xii. 14

ip. i. 1

-11

. i. 12 -

ii. I]

d . ii.

12-

26

. iii.

1-

15

iii

16

-22

. iv.

1-

6

. iv.

7-

12

. iv.

13

-16

. iv.

17

-V. 19

. vi.

1-

12

. vii

. 1

-14

. vii

.15

-viii. 18

The following specimen of Kaiser's interpretation of chap. iii.
16 - iv. 12, comprising the lives of three kings, will shew how
he overcame the most diflacult portion of this book : —

tibifeb ben ©eifi beg bifiotifcbcn ^togmatigmug bet f)cbtdet unb Suben con=
centtitt, unb bie unb bo tt)irfti$ wi^tige ouffi^tiiffe iibet bie gebeime ©efi^ii^te
bet jiibifcbcn .SiJnige ettbeilt, j.g. iibet bog SBcnebmen beg Sofia gegen ben
egiptJtif^cn .Sonig 3f cc^o. ©ogmotifcb fdttt butcb ben biflotifcben ©cbluffcl autb
attet infiof wcg unb bet Setfaffet beg ^obclctbg bleibt ficb in bet motalifcben
Sefdmpfung beg Ungloubeng unb beg Sutu# butcb unb but$ glciib ; mom^e
feinct Slcuffetungcn Rnb Stonic unb ^etfiflage, tt)ie ct benn f^elbfi fein ©ebicirt
^. xii. 11 ein ©ijottgebiibt nennt, Pp. xiii., xiv.
2D

202 INTRODUCTION.
Thk Life of Jehoshaphat, chap. iii. 16-22.
iii, 16, And, ynoreover, I saw, Sc^-nn is primarily the infinitive, and
means in returning, turning back, moreover. It is here equivalent to 'ri3«3,
/ turned, I became a successor, or the kingdom turned, underwent a change in
government, vide infra, iv, 1, and the explanation thereupon, Jehoshaphat
succeeded Asa in Judah,
Under the sun, i.e., in a kingdom ; here it means in the dominion of the
ten tribes, or of Israel, as Jehoshaphat lived at the time when Abab was
king over Israel, , Jezebel, Ahab's idolatrous wife from Sidon, wrote false
letters in the name of Abab, and got unprincipled boys, who gave false
witness against Naboth, that he blasphemed God and the king. Whereupon
Naboth was stoned, and Ahab confiscated his vineyard (1 Kings xvi, 29, &c.,
xxi.) Then Elijah prophesied of Ahab: "In the place where dogs licked
the blood of Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine;" and of Jezebel;
" The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel." Both these were
fulfilled. Jehoshaphat lived to see the tragical end of Ahab, and took part
in the war which the latter waged against the Syrians, and in which he
perished, and Jehoshaphat escaped with great difficulty. Immediately after
this war, in which Ahab received the reward of unrighteous judgment and
of unjust possessions, Jehoshaphat set up righteous judgment and judges
in Israel, and said to the judges, " Take heed what ye do, for ye judge not
for man, but for the Lord" (2 Chron. xix. 1- 6).
17. Ood shall judge. So. — This refers to the name Jehoshaphat, loottlin;,
vi\iia\i s\grn&ei Jehovah judges. His name itself may also have reminded
him of his duty to institute righteous judgment. Nomen ei omen haboit,
?m, there, i.e., in the place of judgment. There is no necessity, with
Houbigant and Doderlein, to alter the reading,
18, I said in my heart, Sc. — Are the sons of men (the rulers) beasts to
themselves ? do they make themselves beasts ? The corpse of Jezebel,
which was thrown down from the window and eaten by the dogs, became a
nbi:, carcase, a beast, though she was the daughter of a king (2 Kings ix. 34).
According to verse 37 of the same chapter, her carcase became " as dung
upon the face of the field in the portion of Jezreel," referring to ''?V'?, which
signifies no dung. Isaiah speaks with fearful earnestness of this circum
stance (v. 23 - 25), and probably Ps. xlix., in which the word npm is used
of man (ver. 14), was composed on this event. Comp, also ver, 5 ; Ezra,
viii, 29 ; Sirach xl. 3 - 8. The forty-ninth Psalm was copied for the sons of
Korah ; and at the time of Jehoshaphat they sang songs, according to
2 Chron. xx. 19. The eighty-fifth Psalm, too, was composed with reference
to Jehosbaphat's upholding justice; comp. ver. 11-14.
19, !:« riDrisn ]p 13-TNri inin has rightly been rendered by Van der Palm,
neque de Iwmine plus reliquum est {erat), quam de bestia. It refers to the fact,
that of the body of Jezebel, only the skull, hands, and feet were left. This
historical reference does away with the dispute, whether the author could

INTRODUCTION. 203
have uttered in vexation anything which is dogmatically not true. He has
simply narrated a historical event. In verses 21 and 22, however, he
speaks ironically, in the name of a collective king, whose principles were
not firm,
20, All go to one place. — Here, too, many have thought that it is asserted
that everything is of dust, whereas it still refers to the history of Ahab and
Jezebel, to which allusion is also made in Isa, v, 23 -25, " which justify the
wicked . . . and their blossom shall go up as dust .... their
carcases are as dung in the midst of the streets." In this sense the word
dust also occurs in the sequel, chap, xii, 7 {i.e., as the extinction of the royal
dignity); compare also 1 Kings xxi, 21, where the destruction of Abab is
spoken of
21, Who knoweth. — Some have endeavoured to find epicurean sentiments
in this verse, whereas the very reverse is what he taught The sense is: I
(collective-king, not the author of this book) thought it sometimes uncertain,
especially at this awflil event, whether the spirit of man goes upwards {i.e.,
to God), and has an advantage over the spirit of beasts. The author him
self says the very reverse, in xii. 7.
22. Wherefore I perceive. — Therefore I thought that sensual pleasure is
good, because no one could know what shall be after this life. This is
again iromcally spoken, respecting the unbelief of leaders who are the
source of luxury. The Life of Jehoram, chap. iv. 1-6.
Chap, iv, 1. And I turned. — '¦Piifii means, my dominion got another ruler
(comp. 1 Kings ii. 15), the kingdom has changed hands (1 Chron, xi.
14. 23; and supra, ii. 20). Commentators incorrectly render it adverbially,
i. e., / considered again, &c.
Opjpression, Sc. — Jehoram commenced his reign by killing his six brothers,
to whom their father Jehoshaphat had given fortified cities, 2 Chron. xxi. 1,
&c, ; 2 Kings, viii. 16, &o.
2. And I praised. So. — nam is a verbal adjective, construed with ]o, and
denotes esteemed happier; the Sept. iirmiTo., better Symmachus ifMna-fura.
Thus Crcesus exclaimed upon the stake, in the words of Solomon, " No one
is to be esteemed happy before his death ! " Pint, vit, Sol.
4. Again I considered. — nsip, jealousy, is fear for the rule of his brothers,
5, The fool ('''psii) Jehoram also served idols. Besides, he was a fool
because he entangled his own hands, that is, did not unite himself with his
brethren. Comp. p|n iii. 5.
He ate his own flesh, that is, executed his own brothers. Compare Judges
ix, 2, where a brother is called the flesh (iiB|) of his brother; and also the
phrase, to eat the flesh of a people, Micah iii. 3. Relations by blood are
called in Scripture the same flesh, because of their kindred stock.
6. Better a handful. So. — Jehoram had nothing but travail and vexation
of spirit and conscience by his bad earthly gain. The Edomites and Libnah

204 INTRODUCTION.
revolted against him ; the Philistines and the Bedouin Arabs took away all
his substance, his wives, and his sons, except Ahaziah ; and he died of a
loathsome and sore disease in his bowels, probably dysentery, and was not
buried in the sepulchre of the kings.
King Ahaziah and Queen Athaliah, chap. iv. 7 - 12.
7. And I turned, Sc. — A new vanity ! a new misfortune in the kingdom !
8, There is one. So. ('?ifi l'«i 10«). — Ahaziah was the only remaining son
of Jehoram ; Jehu raised himself to the throne of Israel, and not only killed
the King of Israel, but Ahaziah, also, who reigned only one year ; and we
are told, in 2 Chron, xxii, 9, that none of the house of Ahaziah could again
become king ; comp, 2 Kings viii, 25.
He hath neither son nor brother Ifi )'m n«j|? D3), — Athaliah, the mother of
Ahaziah, destroyed all the seed-royal which remained in Judah ; no son, no
brother of Ahaziah could immediately succeed him ; his mother, Athaliah,
undertook the government. However, a son of Ahaziah, twelve years old,
was secretly obtained. But Ahaziah had no advantage from his restlessness,
wherewith he betook himself to the covenant with Israel, and the war with
the Syrians.
9. Two are better than one. — To preserve the royal family, a covenant
was made in the meantime. Jehoiada, the high priest, took Jehpshabeath,
the sister of King Ahaziah, to wife; the same hid the child Joash, and
her husband made a covenant with — 1. The captains; 2, The Levites
and priests, as well as the guards ; 3. The heads of the families. After
the ambitious woman, Athaliah, had reigned six years, the plan to put
Joash upon the throne was carried out. The high priest received for it " a
good reward " throughout his life ; he was already ninety years old when he
carried out this plan, and reached the age of a hundred and thirty years,
and, out of gratitude, was buried among the kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 15, 16).
10, For if they fall, Sc. — C'i?^, to raise up, is also used in the sense of
preserving, a ruler or generation (2 Sam. vii. 12). iVwi must be taken for
ibm, and when; comp, 8 Codd, Kenn. and Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. Talm. et
Eabb., and infra, vi. 6 ; in this case the n in nn«n will appear more appro
priate, i.e., but if it should happen that the solitary one falls.
II, Again, if two lie together. — This refers to the marriage of the aged
Jehoiada with the king's sister. Commentators, not knowing this historical
sense, and in keeping with their finding general lessons throughout this
book, regard this as a commendation of married life, with which, however,
the following proverb does not at all agree. i
12. And if one prevail. — A third portion of those who committed perjury
posted themselves in the Temple, another third beset the royal palace, and
another stood at the gate; and the people were only allowed to be in the outer
courts. Joash, wbo was hid in the Temple, was anointed; Athaliah, the
idolatrous Israelitish princess, was slain ; and the prince was led to the
palace and, to the throne amidst the rejoicings of the people (2 Chron. xxiii.

INTRODUCTION. 205
2 Kings xi.) The throne was preserved for the rightful sovereign by the
efforts of the high priest ; but never did a high priest seat himself upon the
throne in the time of the kings.
Notwithstanding the ingenuity and learning displayed by
Kaiser, we do not think that he has ever succeeded in inducing
any one to adopt his theory.
1826. — After tracing these ingenious conceits, it is cheering
to come to Ewald, whose four pages on Coheleth, subjoined to
his work on the Song of Solomon, contain more critical acumen,
and a clearer view of the true design of this book, than many a
bulky volume noticed in this sketch. He says ' — •
The author, who is utterly unknown to us, was a pious Israelite — as is
evident from traces in this book — whose heart was greatly touched with
the sufi'erings of his brethren, and who felt himself compelled to impart
unto them his well-meant written counsel under these oppressions. But he
had no practice in writing, and it seems as if this book was his first
production, the style being so little developed and compressed, and there
being so little connection in the flow of his thoughts. The words are never
strictly measured; the author frequently expresses himself too strongly, in
the heat of his discourse ; he frequently does not carry through his thought,
and only hints at what is in his mind, and thus continually struggles with
his thoughts and words. Hence the first and greatest obscurity, which,
however, disappears when we become thoroughly acquainted with the mind
of the venerated author. The author lived after the exile (I suppose about
I ©et ung Biittig unbefannte Setfoffcr wot, nac^ ben ©puten feineg S5u(bg
JU fcbtiefcn, ein ftommet Sftoelit, beffen 5etj bei ben Scibcn feinet 3JJitbtiibct
bcibcgt wotb unb bet ibnen fc^tiftli($ feinen looblmeincnbcn Siotb fi'it bie ©tongfale
bet ®egen»att mitjutbeilcn ficb gebtungcn fiibtte. 2tbct im ©^tciben wat ct
menig geiibt; fofi fcbeint et biefe ©$tift juetfi gefibtiebcn ju baben: fo wenig
gebilbct unb gebtongt ifi bie ©ptacbc unb fo wcnig jufommenbcingenb bet gluf
bet ®ebanfen. ©ie gSotte finb nie fitcng obgemeffen; oft btucft bet SSctfaffct
cine ©entcnj im geuet bet 3{ebe ju fiotf aug, oft fiibtt ct ben ©ebonfcn nicbt
Bottfionbig but0 unb bcutct nut on, wag in fcinem Snnctn ifi ; unb fo fdmpft
ct bcfianbig mit feinen ©ebonfen unb SDSotten. ©abet bie erfie unb gtiifte
©unfelbeit, bie fi^ inbef bebt, wenn man ficb mit b^*" ®"1tc beg ebtwutbigen
aSetfaffetg ganj Bctttaut gema^t bat. Unb biefet SSctfofTct lebte na^ bem
gtit C3?acb meinet iBctmutbung etwo loo 3abt son SlIetonbetD, in einet
fummctootten, ©eifi unb Scitpct niebetbiitcEenben 3eit, untet bet S^rannci
itbetmiitbiget ^cttfi^ct, umgcbcn »on SBetjttJeifelnbcn unb Sttcnbcn.
Untet folibcn Umfidnben lebte bet ftomme Sctfaffet. gt wottte bag Unglurf
reenn ni^t ^iliXi, bocb tinbetn, inbem et feinen 5Kitbtiibetn bcilfame l8ot=
fiibtgtegcln fiit bie gegennjottige ©cbtcrfcngjeit bietct. gt tatb jut ©cbulb

206 INTRODUCTION.
a hundred years before Alexander), in a time of mental and bodily oppres
sion, under the tyranny of overbearing rulers, and was surrounded by
desponding and erring people. He was therefore anxious, it not to remove,
at least to mitigate their misfortunes, by offering salutary precautions to his
brethren for those fearful times. He recommends them patience and endurance,
caution and wisdom ; he denounces rebellion and the expression of too liberal
sentiments ; but, above all, he directs his readers to a sincere fear of Ood, and
to the thought that Ood ivill one day judge everything, and rectify that which
is perplexing here upon earth ; he flnally advises them not to despond over
their misfortunes, but to enjoy life with a cheerful heart and gratitude to
Ood, before old age approaches with all its infirmities.
1827. — Henzius maintains that' the sabered writer shews in this
book tliat course which weak man, who is unable to see through
the intricacies of human life, ought to pursue, that he may be
happy, in the midst of so much inconstancy and vanity as are
attached to all things. Being persuaded that God is supreme
ruler of the world, and that he provides with supreme wisdom for
the affairs of man, and hoping for the immortality of the soul, he
submits that we should enjoy and endure, with a pious resolution,
whatever blessings and evils this present life brings with it, as
ordained by God ; and that we should endeavour, with every
effort, to keep the laws of God in our various conditions of life.
unb jum Slugbatten, jut Sotficbt unb ^lugbeit; et tobelt bie gmpotung unb
JU ftcien 9{cbcn; bot ottem abet leitct et feine Sefei ju einet e^ten gutcbt
©ottcg unb JU bem ©ebanfen, bof ©ott cinfi ottcg ticbten unb bag auf gtben
Unglci^e ebnen wetbe ; et empftebtt cnblicb, ficb bet ju gtof en Sefiimmeinif
ubct bag gegenwattige Ungliitf ju entfcbtogcn, unb tiebet bie 3eit beg Sebeng,
bcBot bag bobe Ittet mit feinen ©^tbci^en fomme, ftob unb mit ©onf gegen
©ott JU geniefen.— ©og ^obelieb ©otomo'g libctfc^t mit ginlcitung, 2lnmet=
fungen nnb einem Snbang iibet ben ^itebiget bon ©t. ©cotg ^einticb Slugnfi
gwatb, pp. 152, 153, 154. ©ottingen, 1826.
' Agit auctor in hoc libro de ratione, quam homo debilis, qui vitse humanas
implioitas diffioultates clare perspioere minime possit, sequi deheat, ut in omnium
rerum tanta inconstantia atque vanitate feUx evadat. Persuasnm sibi habens,
Deum 0. M. summum esse mundi reotorem summaque sapientia humaiiis rebus
providere, animffi vero immortalitatem sperans tantum et verisimilem potius
duoens quam certam in banc abit sententiam; pia mente fruenda esse atque
toleranda quae prtesens vita aflferat bona et mala, tanquam a Deo immissa, sum-
meque contendendum, ut in omnibus vitse oonditionibus leges divinse obser-
ventur. — Progr. quo libri Ecclesiastse argumenti brevis adumbratio continetur.
Dorpat, 1827.

INTRODUCTION. 207
1830. — According to Rosenmiiller,' the design of the book is
to propound the sovereign good, which consists in enjoying the
present life unth a tranquil mind, and in leading a virtuous and
pious life, so as to please God. Like many others, he divides
the book into two parts ; the first part (i. 2 - iv. 6) depicts the
vanity of all earthly things, and the second (iv. 7 -xii. 7)
shews what man ought to do by this vanity, to which is added an
epilogue (xii. 8-14), giving a summary of the whole doctrine.
1831. — Koster submits that this book is'' an oriental lecture
to young men on that which is permanent in the vanity of earthly
things. He divides the book into four sections, with a prologue and
epilogue : —
Prologue (chap. i. 2-11). — Looking at the general vanity of earthly
things, the question arises. What abiding thing has man? (ver. 2, 3) since
generations come and go like the sun, wind, and rivers (4-7), and nothing
really new takes place upon the earth (8-11).
Section I. (chap. i. 12 -iii. 22) treats upon the question. What is best,
considering the vanity of that which is earthly ? Or, What is absolute good ?
Section II. (iv. l-vi. 12). — Which is the better of two opposite
things ? Or, What is relative good?
Section III. (vii. 1-ix. 16). — The true wisdom of life in general.
Section IV. (ix. 17 -xii. 8). — The true wisdom of life in the particular
conditions of life.

' Tum vero docet, summum bonum homini in eo ponendum esse, cum ut vita
prsBsente animo tranqiulo suaque sorte ooutento fruatur, tum, ut pietati et virtuti
studeat, quo propitium sibi reddat summum numem.
Eoclesiastje liber duabus potissimum partibus absolvitur, quarum prior (cap.
i.-iv. 16) in demonstranda vanitate rerum mundanarum et humanie inprimis
vitas versatur, atque pleraque qua homines moliuntur studia inania et fluxa esse
ostendit; posterior (cap. iv. 17 -xii. 7) quidnam hominibus in hao vita inprimis
epeotandum studendumque sit docet, regulasques vitse recte instituendffi vitio-
rumque cavendorum ex vitse humante observatione tradit. Additur Epilogus
(cap. xii. 8-14) qui et hujus libri usum oommendat, et omnis in illo traditSE
dootrinse summam brevi complectitur. — Em. Frid. Car. Eosenmiilleri Scholia
in Vetus Testamentum, Partis nonse, volumen secundum. Lipsise, 1830,
pp. 9. 10. 18.
2 gine motgentanbifibc SRebe on bie Sugcnb, iibet bog Sleibenbe in bet
9Jitbtigfeit bet itbifcben ©inge. — ©ag Sucb ?)iob unb bet ^Srebiget ©olomo'g
oon ©t. griebticb SSutcbotb SiSfiet. ©d;tegt»ig, 1831, p. lis.

208 INTRODUCTION.
EriLooDE (xii. 9-14). — The strivings of the Preacher to compile syste
matically wise maxims both for himself and others (9 - 11). The young man
is therefore to follow these maxims only, and learn their main import
(12-14). 1836. — According to Knobel,' the design of Coheleth is to
shew the nothingness of human life and efforts, and to impart and
inculcate directions relative to it. He divides the book into
two parts, one partial, and the other theoretical ; and, with the
caution that we must not be too strict in tracing a logical
sequence and plan, as the author was not very particular about
it, he gives the following analysis of its contents : —
Part I. Theoretical (i. 2-iv. 16). — Coheleth begins with the theme
of the whole book, that all is vanity (i. 2), and then proposes the question,
What is the value of human efforts (3) ? But, instead of giving a direct
answer, he describes the permanent, fixed, unchangeable, and ever-returning
course of things, to shew that the efforts of man to afifect the course of
things ordered and governed from above al-e ineffectual and vain (4-11).
He also expresses this view about things generally (14), and illustrates it
by two examples from his own experience, viz., striving after wisdom
(12-18), and exertion for pleasure, pronouncing both these kinds of human
efforts vain, because they cannot secure lasting good (chap, ii.) Whereupon
he explains himself further about the cause of this state of things : all
efforts are vain, because man is dependent upon time and circumstances,
which God has powerfully and unalterably ordered in a fixed course
(iii. 1-15). But perhaps moral and immoral efforts may have a certain
eff'ect, and therefore they are not altogether vain, and if the eff'ect is not in
this world, perhaps in that which is to come ? This, however, is doubtful
(iii. 16 - iv. 3) . The main principle deduced from this fmitlessnes of human
efforts, thus established and traced to its origin, is, that we are not to he too
zealous in our efforts, nor be guilty of the contrary (4-12), since even our
best exertions are temporary in their result, and are soon forgotten, which
shews their vanity (iv. 13-16).
Part IL is Pbactioal (iv. 17 -xii, 7), and shews how the conduct of
man ought to be regulated according to the above theory of life. It opens
with directions about the practice of religion, visiting the temple, sacrifice,
prayer, vows (iv. 17-v. 6). To this are joined directions .about gain,
' ©emnacb tbottte ^obetetb bie S'licbtiglcit beg mcnfcblicbcn Sebeng unb ©ttebcng
nacbweifen unb cine batauf bejiigli^e Scbcng^antbcifung cttbeiten unb ein«
fcbfltfen. — gommentat i'tbet bag S5u^ ki>^i[ti\) bon Slugufl Snobet. Seipjig,
1836, p. 39,

INTRODUCTION. 209
enjoyment of earthly goods ; he then speaks of covetousness and avarice ;
the advantage and disadvantage of earthly goods ; the misfortunes which
come upon man in consequence of wealth, wherewith he has not even been
satisfied, or of which he can take away nothing when he dies, &c,, &c. In
short, earthly goods are the theme (v. 7-vi. 12). Hereupon follow
directions about true wisdom and morality, contrasting therewith their
opposites ; moderate zeal, patience, contentment, and a conduct void of any
impropriety whatsoever, are recommended ; whilst sensual enjoyment,
reveby, impatience, discontentment, and every sort of improper dealing,
are repudiated. And lastly, he shews where immorality mostly abounds
(vii. 1 - 29). To this are joined further directions about political conduct ;
every enterprise against the ruler is censured, because, if he is bad, he will
be punished from above (vui. 1-15). Coheleth adheres for the present
to the last thought, and treats, in a digression, upon the incomprehensible
and unchangeable government of God, who lets the same thing happen to
all men alike, so that no human efforts have those results which are
calculated upon and expected (viii. 16 -x. 3). Whereupon he returns to
rulers, gives his opinion of them and their dealings, and proposes rules by
which to regulate our conduct towards them (x. 4- 20). The last practical
directions are about benevolence, which is recommended (xi. 1-6). Having
thus given us rules for aU the exigencies of life, Coheleth inculcates once
more very impressively the main principle, that we are cheerfully to enjoy life,
but not without the fear of God (xi. 7 -xii. 7), and repeats his theme (8).
Knobel's commentary is one of the most elaborate and
thorough productions on Coheleth.
1837. — In his translation of Coheleth, Ewald had now an
opportunity of developing somewhat more fiilly the opinion
about the origin and design of this book, which he briefly had
propounded in the appendix to the Song of Songs eleven years
before, already noticed, p. 205. The object of Coheleth, according
to him,' is to admit cordially all that is true about the condition of
his own times, and the limitedness of man generally, be it ever so
bitter or sad; and also to discover that which is good, furthering,
imperishable, as well as acceptable to the will of God, in the midst
' ©ie Slufgobe wax, ottcg 2Bobtc itbet ben 3ufianb jenct 3eit unb bie
Sefcbtanftbeit beg §Kcnfi$en itbcrbomit, unb toote eg au$ noc^ fo bittet unb
fibienc eg no$ fo ttautig, gonj bet ffiobtbeit nacb jugebenb, bcnnoii^ bog mitten
im itbif^en SBccbfct, Unoctlietbate fo tt)ie bem gcittlicben SBitten Slngemeffenc
JU ctfotfcben uub olg bog SBobtc @ut beg menfi$Iic&cn Sebeng Hot ju bcjcicb==
ncn. — ©ptiitbc ©alomo'g, ,SobeIct son fieinti^ gloalb. ®ottingeny 1837,
p. 183.
2E

210

INTRODUCTION.

of earthly changeableness, instability, and suffering, and set it
clearly before us as the real good of human life. He says —
As a new truth is here to be established in opposition to so many vain
views and efforts, Coheleth is introduced as seeking and discovering the
permanent good for man. He advances certain truths respecting the
relation of things to God, and then compares therewith the diflferent views
and eflPorts of men, and finds much that is vain and empty. Though he
tries and investigates all things, turning indefatigably to every side of the
examination and perception, he does not the less strictly observe the great
deficiencies and faults of his own times, and causes the voice of dissatisfaction
and despair loudly to be heard about them. But, dissatisfied therewith, and
seeking above all to impart peace and consolation, he quickly changes from
an observing inquirer into an instructing and counseling senior friend, and
to our great surprise advances the most beautiful maxims about caution
and patience, fidelity and thoughtful industry. Not perfectly satisfied and
satisfying, however, even with these detached wise maxims and admonitions,
he at last concludes, from his observations, experiments, and researches,
that there is no other lasting good for man than serene joy in God,
comprising as it does everything else.
Ewald, like Koster, divides the book into four parts, or
discourses —
DisoouESB I. (i. 2-ii. 26). — The speaker starts here simply with the
vanity of all worldly things, and glances at the historical experience of
Solomon. This is the most sad and melancholy portion of the whole work.
Discourse II. (iii. l-vi. 9). — Here, too, he starts with the order of
worldly things, and establishes the main theme from the disturbances in the
then world, and begins already to intersperse it with soothing maxims.
DisooiJESE III. (vi. 10 -viii. 15), — ^He also establishes the main theme,
from the inability of wisdom to solve the problems of life.
Discourse IV. (viii. 16 -xii, 8), — The main theme is now completely
finished, amidst references to the frequently despised wisdom, whereupon
follows immediately the undisturbed admonition to lay hold of this as the
demonstrated supreme and lasting good,
A Postscript (xii, 9-14) gives some explanations about the author and
the book,
Ewald's masterly translation and analysis of this book are
accompanied by a few meagre and comparatively unimportant
notes. 1838. — A very elaborate article on " The Philosophy of
Ecclesiastes," appeared in the American Biblical Repository for

INTRODUCTION. 211
1838, by Dr. Isaac Nordheimer, the well-known author of the
critical grammar of the Hebrew language. He entertains a
similar view of the book to that of Piscator {vide supra, p. 123),
viz., that its design is to ascertain and exhibit the obligations of
man to himself, to his fellow-man, and to God} The Hebrew
grammarian thus philosophises upon the object of the book : —
When the mind, intent on investigating all the relations of life, goes
onwards in its activity, without first examining into and ascertaining its
own powers, in order thereby to regulate its demands and decisions, it is
liable to fall into a scepticism whose effects on practical life are exceedingly
hurtful. Thus, the man who has resolved to subject life to a rigid scrutiny;
to ascertain with precision the obligations of man to himself, to his fellow-
man, and to God ; and to institute a minute inquiry into his future fate,
with the view of adjusting his life and actions accordingly, may easily, in
forming his conclusions, strike into a wrong path, which, instead of
conducting him to the haven of contentment, may lead to his eternal
destruction: unless he first resolves to ascertain the extent of the powers
of his mind, that he may know what, as man, he may expect to attain, and
then set bounds to his endeavours by selecting some definite object of
pursuit. For, by entering thus unprepared on his examination of nature
and life, whenever he met with the reverse of that which he had hoped to
find true, or whenever he came to the knowledge of the many unaccountable
contradictions and apparently inexplicable enigmas which exist in nature,
in the fate of man, and in the relations of man to his Creator, he would
either be induced to regard the world as a vale of misery, and consequently
drag out his useless life in hopeless discontent ; or, disheartened by the
constantly recurring obstacles to his progress presented by the revolving
course of events, he would deny the existence of everything exalted in
nature, and thus degrade himself to a level with the brutes. To set bounds
to this sinful endeavour, and to warn mankind of the danger attendant
upon it, appear to have been the principal aim of the author of this book.
In order to execute his arduous undertaking in the most effectual manner
possible, he adopted, and with great propriety, the Socratic, or sceptical
method of induction. The main feature of this method consists in a
suspension of the final decision until the truth has been rendered perfectly
evident, and the writer has it in his power to make assertions that shall be
incontrovertible ; hence it is the most perfect mode of attaining absolute
certainty that can be conceived. In this manner it is that the author of
Ecclesiastes institutes bis examination into tbe powers of the human mind,
which he carries to such fearful lengths that reason itself threatens to toiler
from its throne. All this is done in order to test its strength, and to bound
1 Biblical Repository, vol. xii., 1838, p. 197, seq.

212 INTRODUCTION.
its sphere of action accordingly, to the end that it may not run in danger,
from the impossibility of comprehending the highest phenomena in nature,
of introducing into practical life the errors which are the result of such
imperfect conceptions. And at last he arrives at the conclusion, that as
reason can know itself in the form of human reason alone, it is utterly
unable to penetrate the ultimate designs of the Deity, or even all the secrets
of his works in nature, viz., that it can never succeed in discovering all the
hidden powers which are constantly at work in the world ; and that,
consequently, man has no right to complain of the apparent contradictions
be meets with, much less to sufifer himself to be led by them into eri'or?
Nordheimer intended this article to be an introduction to a
new translation of Ecclesiastes, which, however, was never
published. 1840. — More simple than the last-mentioned article, and
more to the point, is the view which Steudel propounded, in the
fourth supplement to his Prselections on the Theology of the
Old Testament. He says ' —
The design of the book is to shew that everything earthly is unstable and
uncertain, and that we can therefore find no satisfaction in anything, or in
any exertion which is exclusively regarded as the end of life ; that nothing
earthly will shew to us the Supreme Ruler of all, as such, distributing the
blessings of life according to a fixed plan perceptible to the human eye, so
that man might thereby be guided what to do and what to leave, in order
to secure something that is satisfactory and enduring ; that no striving
after earthly good or enjoyment, the accoraplishinent of great works, or the
acquisition of a good name, will lead him to that end ; and that the rule for
' ©et Stbccf beg SSucbg ifi nacb bet gegebenen Subottgubetftcbt biefet. gg
fott gejeigt wetben: atteg Stbifcbe ifi unfiet unb unficbet; cben botum fonn
in 9Jicbtg, in feinem ©ttebcn, bag ougfcbticf licb otg Sebengjiel fcfigebaltcn tbiitbc,
Scftiebigung gefunben tbetben. ©utcbaug nicbtg 3tbifcbcg ifi, wag ung ben
bocbfien Senfet ottct ©inge alg einen fotcben naibwiefe, bet nocb fefiem, bem
spjenfcbcn etfennboten ^Jlone beg Sebeng ®Iiid bettbeitt, fo bof bet Wenf(|
bictno^ fein SEbun unb Soffen einticbten fonnte, um etwag Sefticbigenbeg unb
©tonbbattenbeg flit fti^ ju geminnen. 9Jicbt Stingen nocb itbifi^em ®ut unb
®enuf, nid)t 3?ingcn nocb bem 3ufionbebtingen gtofet SBetfc, ni^t ^tingen
nacb gutem SJomen fltbtt ibn jum 3ielc ; eg bat tbobt jebeg feinen 2Bettb, unb
ibct bog eine obet bog onbetc befip, ifi je nad) beffen innetem SEettbe mebt
obet minbet beffet boton, otg bet, ibctii^et eg cntbebtt. ' Slbet tbeitg ftnbet et
boib wi^t bog 35ottfommene botin ; tbeitg mog ein Stnbetet, bet ni^t fo ongfltiCji
batna# tto^tet, eg oucb booon ttogen ; tbeitg enbli^i fonn eg ibm aud^ untet
ben ?)onben entf^njinben, unb ben gcbofften gtfolg nicbt fiit ibn bnben. So
etgibt fid) olg Sicgel fiit bag gtbentcbcn, ju geniefen, —botb botwutfgftei ju

INTRODUCTION. 213
our earthly life is to enjoy, without contracting any blame, what God gives us
to enjoy ; to be active in tbe sphere of activity which God indicates, till enjoy
ment and activity gradually diminish by themselves, and terminate with
death ; that we are to look forward to a future judgment, where good and e?il
will be rewarded and punished, and regulate our conduct here accordingly.
1844. — De Wette's matured view of Coheleth is given in
his last edition of the historical and critical introduction to the
Old Testament. The doctrine of wisdom, he says, which
Coheleth here propounds, is the nothingness and uselessness of all
things, and the reality of enjoyment alone}
The following is his analysis of the contents of the book : —
The main theme is. All is vain and fruitless chap. i. 2, 3
Reasons for it —
1. The aimless course of things . i. 4- 11
2. The vanity of striving after wisdom . . i. 12 - 18
3. The vanity of earthly enjoyment, and all the efforts
to have it in connection with wisdom, although
the gratification of desire has the highest value ii. 1-26
4. The transitoriness and changeableness of all things,
whereby gratification is again commended as
tbe best thing ..... iii, 1 - 15
5. The prevalence of injustice and violence among
men, since, without a future retribution, the end
of man is like that of the beast ; for this reason
death is more to be desired than life, which,
however, is to be enjoyed cheerfully . . iii. 16 - iv. 3
6, The vain efforts and strivings of men, commenda
tion of quietness, and society ¦ . . iv. 4-12
geniefen, tt>ag ©ott jum ©enuffe botbictct, unb tbatig ju fep, n>ie ©ott ben
j?teig bet Sbatigfcit juwcifi, big ©enuf unb Sbatigleit ficb mcbt unb mebt
bon fetbfi bctbietet, unb butcb ben Sob ficb f^Iicft. Uebtigeng botf unb fott
bict bet Slicf ouf ein Seben bet iBctgcItung geticbtet bleiben, too ©ott otg ben
©etccbten ficb tccbtfettigen ibitb, auf toelcben befwegen unfet gonjeg Sbun unb
Soffen fietg geti^tet fc^n muf. — 5Kitbin empftcbit bog iBu^ in Sejug ouf bie
©egennjott bie Sunfi, mit toeifct SRcfignation bog Seben olg ein bem aSccbfct
untcttbotfeneg mit feinen gtcuben unb Scibcn binjunebmen unb nocb ^toften
jn beftu^ten, bie SSctgcItung obet bet 3u!unft anbeimjufictten, iibtigeng fo ju
teben bof mon ibtet nicbt mit gutibt gcbcnfcn miif e. — SSottcfungen iibet bie
Sbeologic beg Slltcn SEcfiomenteg »on ©t. 3ob. gbtifiian gticbi. ©tcubet.
Setlin, 1840, SBcitoge i»., pp. 524, 525,
1 Scbtbud; bet bifiotifi^^titif^cn ginlcitung in bag Stite Sefioment. SBcttin,
1832, § 283.

viii. 14-ix.

ix

, 7-10 -

ix.

11-x, 1

X,

2-xi, 6

214 INTRODUCTION.
7. The vanity of royal dignity . chap. iv. 13 - 16
Desultory maxims : Ptespecting the worship of God iv. 17-v. 6
And respecting injustice . v. 7, 8
B. The vanity of striving after riches, and of avarice ;
commendation of enjoying life . . . v. 9 - vi. 9
Submission to one's fate, considering the vanity of
things . ¦ . . . vi. 10-12
Desultory maxims, mostly of sceptical import . vii. 1- viii. 13
9. As, for instance, the fruitlessness of striving after
wisdom (vii. 23, &c.)
10, The unavoidableness of death (viii, 8,)
11, The prosperity of the wicked, adversity of the pious;
the incomprehensible government of the world .
Commendation of pleasure
The superiority of wisdom, which, however, is
frequently of no avail ....
Desultory maxims, mostly of a sceptical import
An exhortation to enjoy life before old age
approaches . xi. 7 - xii. 8
Conclusion and summary of the book, with some
information about Coheleth . xii. 9-14
This, according to De Wette, is all that Coheleth teaches ; he
gives no hope of a future existence, and the view which he
propounds of the present life inclines to fatalism, scepticism,
and epicureanism, as may be seen from the following passage : —
The doctrine of retribution on earth, elevated by no hope of a future
state, which constitutes its religious principle, had to contend with power
ful doubts, which the sad experience of life afforded, and which shew them
selves already in Proverbs (xxiv. 19), and more plainly in tbe Psalms
(xxxvii., Ixxiii,) Now, the more unhappy and hopeless the times became, the
more faith and inspiration grew cold, tbe more powerful these doubts became,
and thus they formed themselves at last into the view of life as propounded
by Coheleth, which inclines to fatalism, scepticism, and epicureanism.i
1 ©ie itbifcbc, butcb feine $offnung ouf bog Scnfeitg gebobenc SSctget
tunggtebte, ml^i bog teligiofc ^tincip betfctben ougmocbtc, batte mit micbtigcn
3weifeln ju fiimpfen, toelcbe bie ungtiidti^c gtfobtung on bie |)anb gab, unb
bie fi$ fcbon in ben ©pttt^tttottctn (xxiv. 19), beutlit^ct Ps. xxxvii., ixxiii.,
tcgen. 3e ungtiicEli^et unb ttofilofet nun bie 3citen wutben, je mcbt bet
©toube unb bie Segci^etung ctfotteten, befio mticbtiget ttjuiben jene 3tt)eifel;
unb fo gefiotteten fie fi$ jutcgt ju einet ScbenganfiC^t, wie fte jlobcletb ootttogt,
bie ficb junt gotaligmug, ©fepticigmug unb gpifuteigmug binneigt (§ 2823,
which Steuart most ^grossly mistranslates : " The doctrine of retribution, which

INTRODUCTION. 215
1844. — Undeterred by the positive declarations of De Wette
respecting the lowering character of this book, Lisco published
the same year the second volume of his commentary on the
Bible, containing Ecclesiastes, in which he maintains that the
design of Coheleth is to shew that a contented and cheerful
enjoyment of life is the sum of human happiness upon earth, and
that this is impossible without truly fearing God}
He divides the book into eleven parts —
Part 1. declares. All is vanity . . chap. i. 1-11
2. proves it from the Preacher's own experience . i. 12 -ii. 26
3. The vanity of all things recommends a cheerful
enjoyment of life .... iii, 1 - 22
4. Further description of the vanity of earthly things iv. 1 - 16
5. Different lessons. All is vanity . . . iv. 17-vii. 1
a. Man before God. iv. 17 - v. 6.
b. The folly of covetousness, v. 7 - 16.
c. Hence cheerful enjoyment of life is best, v.
17 - 19.
d. Unhappy is the discontented rich man, vi.
1-vii. 1.
6. That which is good and that which is better vii. 2 - 29
7. The wise conduct in various relations of life . viii. 1 - 17
8. The incomprehensible government of God . ix. 1 - x, 3
9. Different admonitions how to conduct oneself x. 4 ¦ xi, 6
10, Enjoy life wisely . . xi. 7-xii. 8
11. Concluding remark . . xii. 9-14
1846. — In 1845 appeared Mr. Preston's translation of
Mendelssohn's commentary on Ecclesiastes, with additional
constitutes the religious element of the book, has many strong doubts to contend
with, and these his own experience of misfortunes helped to supply 
The more unhappy the times were, and the more they led to despair, the more
also that belief and animation grew cold, the stronger did those doubts becoiue;
so that they finally shaped themselves into the ordinary system of Epicureanism
joined with Fatalism. This the author of the book professes." Commentary on
Eoclesiastes, p. 25.
. ' 3tt>ecl ifi ibm bie fefic Scgtfinbung bet Stnficbt nub Uebetjeugung : gin
ftobet, beitetct ©enuf beg Sebeng ifi bie ©umme beg mcnfcbli^en ©titdcg ouf
gtben, et ifi obet obne njobte ©ottegfutcbt nic|t moglic^.— ©og Slltc S£efioment
mit gtfidtungen, ginlcitungen, Sluffci^en unb Slegffictn, bon gtiebti^ Sifco.
3njcitet Sunb. Settin, 1844, p. 267.

216 INTRODUCTION.
notes by the translator.' As Mr. Preston adopts the view of
that distinguished philosopher, we refer to p. 78, &c., for the
analysis of his exposition. Preston, however, differs firom his
" guide " in the division of the book, inasmuch as he makes it to
consist of seventeen sections.

§ 1. chap. i. 2-11

§7.

chap

.iv.4-16

§13.

chap. X. 16 - 20

2. i. 12-18

8.

V. 1-20

14.

xi. 1 - 6

3. ii. 1-2

9.

vi. 1 - vii. 14

15.

xi. 7-xii.

4. ii. 3-12

10.

vii. 15 - viii. 1

16,

xii. 9 - 12

5. ii. 13-26

11.

viii. 2-ix. 12
17.
xii. 13-14
6. iii. 1-iv. 3
12.
ix. 13-x. 15
Mr. Preston's " original notes, philological and exegetical,"
contain a great deal of valuable matter, and are very superior
to those of Mr. Holden.
1845. — The valuable article on Ecclesiastes, in Kitto 's
Cyclopsedia of Biblical Literature, has done more towards
elucidating the true character of this book than any previous
production in the English language. Though written by a
foreigner (Hengstenberg), yet it must be looked upon as the
first voice raised against the Salomonic authorship of Coheleth
by an English orthodox cyclopaedia. According to Hengsten
berg, the book was written about the time of Malachi, when
" the author had received the mission to treat professedly,
and in a concentrated manner, the highly important sentence,
Vanitas vanitatum, omniaque vanitas," in order to deduce
therefrom some practical results. The practical application,
says Hengstenberg, is placed before us in the following
manner : ^ —
What is incumbent upon man, since everything else is naught ? What
real good remains for us, after the appearance in every seeming good has
' nbnp, the Hebrew text and a Latin version of the book of Solomon, called
Eoclesiastes; with original notes, philological and exegetical, and a translation
of the commentary of Mendelssohn from the Rabbinic Hebrew, &c., &o., by
Theodore Preston, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College. London, 1845.
¦^ A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, edited by John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., vol.i.,
p. 596.
INTRODUCTION. 217
been destroyed ? The answer is, Man shall not gain by cunning and
grasping ; shall not consume himself in vain meditations, nor in a hurried
activity ; he shall not murmur about the loss of that which is naught ; he
shall not, by means of a self-made righteousness, constrain God to grant
him salvation ; but instead he shall fear God (xii. 13 ; v. 6, 7), and be
mindful of his Creator (xii. 1) ; he shall do good as much as he is able
(iii. 12; and in other passages). And all this, as it is constantly inculcated
by the author, with a contented and grateful heart, freed from care and
avarice; living for the present moment, joyfully taking from the hand of
the Lord what he off'ers, in a friendly manner. Man shall not be of a
sorrowful countenance, but enjoy the gifts of God in quiet serenity. What
would avail him all his cares and all his avarice ? By them he cannot turn
anything aside from him, or obtain anything, since everything happens as
it shall happen.
1846. — In America, too, the progress of Biblical criticism
gave a new tone to the interpretation of this book. Thus
Dr. Noyes, in the introduction to his excellent version of
Ecclesiastes, is of opinion that Coheleth was written about three
hundred and thirty years before the Christian era, and, like
Hengstenberg, maintains that the main doctrine, or speculative
view, of the author is the vanity of human things, that is, of human
striving, and of human fortunes and experiences ; and his most
prominent practical precept is, that men should enjoy the present
blessings of life as they come, without anxiety and over-strenuous
exertions, relating to distant and future good}
Dr. Noyes gives the following analysis of the book, consisting
of twelve sections, to shew the correctness of his opinion about
its design : —
The principal thought is first laid down, that all is vain and unprofitable
(chap. i. 1, 2). This view the Preacher illustrates —
1. By the wearisome, ever-recurring changes which are
taking place, without bringing to pass anything new,
or leading to any new result, adapted to give satis
faction to tbe mind of man . . . chap, i, 4-11
' A new translation of the Proverbs, Eoclesiastes, and the Canticles, with
Introductions and Notes, chiefly explanatory. By George R. Noyes, D.D.,
Hancock Professor of Hebrew, &c., &c., in Harvard University. Boston and
London, 1846, p, 78, 2F

218 INTRODUCTION.
2. By the dissatisfaction attending the pursuit of wisdom
or knowledge . . . • . 12-18
3, By the unsatisfactoriness of the pleasures of life, and
of strivings after them, even when united with the
pursuit of knowledge and philosophy . . ii. 1 - 1 1
4. The author then compares the pleasures of knowledge
with those of sense, and recommends the tranquil
and contented enjoyment of the blessings of life as
the best of a vain world . . . . ii. 12 - 26
5. The vanity of human things is illustrated by their
fixed changes, periods, courses, limits, and times.
Hence the folly of anxiety and exertion to alter the
unalterable, and the wisdom of making the best of
them in obedience and submission to the Divine will iii. 1-15
6, By man's injustice and violence, and his resemblance to
the brute, in respect to hardships and death. This, too,
shews that the cheerful enjoyment of life, &c.,is best iii. 16-22
7, By the sufferings of the oppressed, the envy towards
the prosperous, the evils of avarice and solitude ; the
evils attendant on royalty, arising from the infirmities
of its possessor, and the fickleness of the people
(chap, iv.) Then follow some proverbial maxims
respecting the worship of God (chap. v. 1-7) ; then
proverbs recommending the quiet pursuit of agricul
ture, in preference to the agitating, avaricious pursuit
of wealth (8-17); whereupon the advice is again
given to enjoy with a tranquil mind the good things
of life . . . . V. 18 - 20
8, The vanity of human things connected with wealth
hoarded up without being enjoyed or used (vi, 1 -6),
and with insatiable desires (7-9), Then follows an
obscure passage, apparently intended to illustrate the
vanity of human things . . vi. 10 - 12
9, Then follows a series of maxims and precepts respecting
the guidance, support, and consolation of men in their
passage through life, recommending righteousness
and piety, with occasional remarks on the vanity of
human things, such as the vanity of striving after
wisdom, the certainty of death, &c, . . vii. 1- viii. 13
10, Then follows a new illustration of the vanity of human
things, drawn from the prosperity of tbe wicked and
the sufferings of the righteous, and the impossibility
of comprehending the ways of Providence, closing
again with the practical exhortation to enjoy with a
quiet and cheerful mind the good things of life viii, 14-ix. 10

INTRODUCTION. 219
11. A new illustration of the vanity of human life, drawn
from the circumstances, that success does not always
answer to a man's strength, wisdom, or other advan
tages, and that wisdom, with all its benefits to the
public, often brings but little consideration to its
possessor. Then follow various proverbial maxims,
shewing the advantages of wisdom and prudence, and
the evil of rulers unfit for their station, and designed
to regulate their conduct in private and public.
This section closes with a recommendation of libe
rality to the poor, and of diligent exertion in our
appropriate pursuits, without an over-anxious solici
tude respecting the issue of our labours . ix. 11 - xi, 6
12, The Preacher now exhorts to a cheerful enjoyment of
life as it passes, and the putting away of care and
sorrow, in view of that portion of life's vanity which
consists in the evil days of old age, and of the long
period of darkness in prospect (xi. 7-xii. 8). Then
follows a repetition of the chief truth which has been
illustrated in the work, namely, the vanity of human
things ; and the final recommendation of the Preacher,
as the conclusion of the whole matter, and the whole
business of man, namely, " to fear God and keep his
commandments "..... xii. 9 - 14
1847. — Germany continued to furnish us with increasingly-
important works on Ecclesiastes. The brief commentary by
Hitzig, contained in the seventh part of " The condensed Exege
tical Manual to the Old Testament," penetrates as much into
the design of the book, and the circumstances of the time which
gave rise to it, as any of its more bulky predecessors. The
author, says this learned critic,' was induced to write this book
by the circumstances of his times. He wrote it not from mere
inclination, but compelled by bitter necessity and for a practical
end, being desirous to teach how men are to adapt themselves to life
' 3ut abfaffung beg Su^eg .Sobelctb betbogcn ben SSetf. bie SctbHtniffe
feinct ©egcnwatt. 9Jicbt nocb 35Bittfiibt, fonbetn untet bem Swonge bittetet
SRotbwcnbigfcit fcbtieb et, ju einem ptaftifcben 3tt)crfe. gt tbottte Icbten, toie
man ftcb iibetbaupt jum Seben fietten, mie man namentlicb in einet 3cit, bi
alfo bcfc|offcn, fi^ betbaltcn fotte.— ©ct ?!rebiget ©alomo'g. gtflatt son
©t. g. §itjig; Sutjgefofteg excgetifcbcg |)anbbu(b jum Sttten SEcfiomcnt.
©icbcntc Siefctung. Sei|)jig, 1847, p. 124.

220 INTRODUCTION.
generally, and how to act in a peculiar time like his. He divides
the book into three parts, each consisting of four sections —
Part I. describes the vanity of all things, shewn in chap. i. 2-iv. 16
Sec. 1. The vanity of all things, as well as of thinking
about it . . . . . . i. 2 - 18
2. The vanity of wisdom exerting itself to secure
happiness; conclusion deduced therefrom . ii. 1-26
3, That all things, and even man himself, have a
time appointed by God . iii. 1 22
4. That lite is full of sufferings, painful exertions,
and disappointments . . iv. 1 - 16
Pari II. shews how we are to act under a state of vanity,
being himself as yet uncertain what rule of life to
adopt; adduces conflicting maxims . . iv. 17 -viii. 17
Sec, 5, How we are to regulate our life in the face of
God's order ... . iv. 17-v. 19
6. 'The unhappiness of not enjoying enjoyments . vi, 1-12
7, Turning the loud disapprobations against the
sinfulness of man . vii. 1 - 29
8, The incomprehensible absence of just retribution
leads to the folly of sin . viii. 1 - 17
Part III. presciibes our conduct iu life more definitely, as
the author himself had by this time arrived at more
certain conclusions about it . ix. 1 - xii. 8
Sec. 9. Since annihilation follows this vain life, we must
gain its cheerful side , . . ix. 1 - 10
10. Wisdom is often of no use to the wise, but to others.
The fool makes mischief, and brings misfortune
upon himself . . ix. 11-x. 20
11. How we are to act, having an uncertain future,
old age, and approaching death before us xi, 1 - xii. 8
12. Epilogue, giving some information about the
author, and the design of the book . . xii, 9 - 14
Hitzig was closely followed by Moses Stuart, who has,
however, not always understood his guide. Compare infra,
p. 226, and especially the Commentary.
1848.— Whilst Hitzig, with his mastery of the genius of the
Hebrew language, has thus supplied the scholar with a help to
the understanding of this book, Heiligstedt aimed to furnish
the student with a grammatical analysis of the text. As to
the design of Coheleth, Heiligstedt maintains a similar view to

INTRODUCTION. 221
that of Eosenmiiller, namely, that it teaches that, in the midst of
the prevailing vanity of all things worldly and human, supreme
happiness consists in man's enjoying gladly and cheerfully the
blessings and pleasures of this Ufe ; that the power of cheerfully
enjoying the good things of life is a gift which God imparts to
man ; that it is not lawful for man, whilst thus enjoying the good
things of life, to conduct himself immoderately and impiously, but
that he should live uprightly, and be always mindful of God, the
Supreme Judge and Creator}
1848. — Simultaneous with Heiligstedt's commentary, appeared,
in the Studien und Kritiken, a very masterly article on Coheleth,
written by J. G. Vaihinger. He submits that the design of the
Preacher is to propound the immortality of the soul, wherein alone
the solution of the otherwise inexplicable problems of life are
happily to be found ; and to encourage us to look forward to a
future judgment, amid the discrepancies between the moral nature
and fate of man} He tells us —
The book consists of four interwoven poetico-dialectic discourses, all
treating upon the same theme, viz , the vanity of human life, as well as the
object and aim of it. Each discourse consists of three parts, which are
again subdivided into strophes and half strophes; the discourses resemble
those contained in the first part of Proverbs, and especially those found in
the Book of Job, only that they are much more complicated in the progress
of their ideas.
' In omnium rerum mundanarum humanarumque vanitate bonum vitse
humanas summum, verum et stabile nonnisi in eo constare, ut homo vitte prse
sentis bonis et jucunditatibus laete et hilare fruatur; vitse bonis Isete fruendi
facultatem esse donum, quod Deus homini impertiatur ; tamen in illis vitse bonis
Isete fruendis homini non licere immoderatum et impium se gerere, sed eum
oportere in probitate manere et semper Dei, judicis sui summi et creatoris,
memorem esse. — Erano. Jos. Valent. Dominic. Maureri Commentarius Gram-
maticus Historious Criticus in Vetus Testamentum, vol. iv., sec. ii. Lipsise,
1848, pp. xii,, xiii.
2 fiietoug ctgob ftd; mit ate Iettet ©ebonfe beg ^tcbigetg bie Stbfitbt auf
bie Unfietbticbfeit beg ©eifieg binjutocifen, in wclcbet ottein bie SSfung beg
fonfi uncntttjittboten Sfatbfctg beg SWenf^entebeng fi# gtiidlicbctwcifc finbet,
unb bei bem unbeftiebigenben SSetbdItnif jwifcben ftttlicbcr Scff^afTcnbcit unb
mcnfcblicbent ©i^irffal ouf bog jenfeitigc ©crid^t ©ottcg ju tbattcn.— Sbcolc^
gif($e ©tubien unb iititifen. 1848, pp. 443, 444.

222 INTRODUCTION.
Discourse I. (ohap. i. 2-ii. 26) shews fhat by the eternal, unalterably
fixed course of all earthly things, and the experience of tbe vain and
unsatisfactory strivings after earthly wisdom and selfish gratifications, a God
fearing enjoyment of life, and accepting gratefully the present good, can
alone constitute the end of our earthly existence.
Discourse II. (chap. iii. 1-v. 19) shews that by the experience that all
our eflferts in the world depend upon time and circumstances, and that the
success of human labour is altogether controlled by circumstances, the
cheerful enjoyment of life, connected with the fear of God and humility, is
to be recommended as the highest good.
Discourse III. (chap. vi. 1-viii. 15) shews that by the observation that
man is frequently deprived of the enjoyment of riches, acquired through the
favour of God, either from the fault of others or his own, we must try in
a nobler way to procure the real and cheerful enjoyment of life, by joyfully
using earthly blessings, following higher wisdom, and avoiding folly.
Discourse IV. (chap. viii. 16 -xii. 8), considering the melancholy expe
rience of the inscrutable government of God in the distribution of human
destinies, nothing remains to us, besides the exercise of wisdom and the fear
of God, for the quieting of our minds, but in looking forward to a retributive
eternity, and to an otherwise cheerless old age, cheerfully and gratefully to
enjoy the good and the beautiful in life, especially in our youth and in the
vigour of our manhood.
The four discourses treat upon one main theme, namely, that
human life and strivings are in themselves vain and unsatisfac
tory; prosperity and adversity, success and disappointment,
depend entirely upon time and chance, or, in other words, upon
the inscrutable government of God ; and that the only end of
existence would seem to be, to live a life of resignation, to enjoy
cheerfully the good things it affords, forgetting all its evils, in
connection with benevolence, wisdom, and the fear of God. But
as man cannot of himself secure this, and, even if secured, it
would in reality not be satisfactory, there must be, in spite of all
doubt, a future judgment, where that adjustment will take place
which is here sought in vain.
It is to be regretted that this excellent treatise is so much
occupied with the needless investigation of strophes and half-
strophes. 1848. — The strange version of Ecclesiastes by Francis
Barham forms a lamentable contrast to these masterly produc-

INTRODUCTION. 223
tions on the Continent. In the preface of this translation we are
told that the main purpose of this book appears to be to describe
the summum bonum, or chief good, and to delineate the best form
of character and conduct which is most conducive to joyfulness or
happiness} This, Solomon represents to be inseparably connected with piety towards
God, and philanthropy towards man. Like the divine Messiah to whom he
refers, and who often confirmed his words, he teaches us to evidence our
religion by our conduct. He recommends useful industry or profitable
labour, and a cheerful, thankful, temperate enjoyment of all temporal
blessings, which are the proper rewards of persevering rectitude. He advo
cates a wholesome, generous, and genial system of divine philosophy, in
which faith and adoration are blended with wisdom and virtue, usefulness
and charity, peace and liberty. All these are represented to us in relation
to the immortality of man, and the future judgment of the righteous and
the wicked ; and we are continually warned against the vanity and vexation
of spirit by which the foolish and profligate are deceived and tormented.
Such appears to me a true statement of certain facts, which render the
Book of Ecclesiastes a most valuable epitome of theoretical and practical
divinity. The following is a specimen of this version : —
Chap. i. 2. — In vain are vanities,
In vain are vanities — all is vain.
3. Some profit should man have ;
As all have their labour.
Which they should execute under the sun.
4. Therewith one generation advances.
And another generation departs,
And the earth fulfils its periods.
Yet we are told in the preface, " In a translation of the Holy
Scriptures, beyond comparison with any other work, the most
exact fidelity to the original is of supreme importance ; because,
just in proportion as we deviate from the true meaning, we lose
its peculiar, its unique value, as the expression of the mind of
the Divine Spirit."
Not the least striking features about this production are the
1 The Bible Revised, Part I. The Book of Ecclesiastes, by Francis Barham.
London, 1848, pp. iv. vii.

224 INTRODUCTION.
flagrant literary blunders of which Mr. Barham is guilty.
" Among the translators or explainers of Ecclesiastes," he
says, " I would especially mention the names of the Jewish
Targumists and Cabbalists, with Philo, Maimonides ....
Pilkington, &c., &c." A tyro in Hebrew literature must know
that there is only one Targum on Ecclesiastes extant, and that
Maimonides never wrote a commentary on this book. As for
Philo, so far from having expounded it, there is not even a
single quotation from Ecclesiastes to be found in his works.
That Pilkington never published a commentary on it, has been
shewn in the foot note, p. 132. We have given more space and
prominence to Mr. Barham's work than it deserves, because he
published it as the first part of " The Bible Eevised," which we
trust he will discontinue.
1849. — As Keil, in his continuation of Haverhick's Intro
duction to the Old Testament,' adopted Vaihinger's view, we
must refer to page 221, &c., for the analysis of it.
1850. — The American Biblical Eepository contains another
article on Ecclesiastes, which was delivered as a lecture by
Professor Stowe, of Cincinnati.^ The Professor's view of the
book will be seen from the following extract : —
Solomon . . . seeking happiness in the things of earth ... is disappointed
and disgusted ; and, instead of repenting of his errors, he becomes dissatisfied
with the arrangements of Providence, misanthropic,, and sceptical. His
conscience, however, is not entirely asleep, but occasionally interposes to
check his murmurings and reprove him for his follies. In this state of
mind he is introduced, and in the character of Koheleth gives full and
strong utterance to all his feelings. Hence, inconsistent statements and
wrong sentiments are to be expected in the progress of the discourse ; and
it is not till the close of the book that all his errors are corrected, and he
comes to " the conclusion of the whole matter," a humbled, penitent,
believing, religious man.
1851. — Dr. James Hamilton found the Professor's view so
' ^obctnicf'g ^onbbucb bet bifiotifcb=ftitlfcbcn ginlcitung in bag Stltc Sef^
tament. ©tittet %^t\l ouggcotbcitet oon ©t. goti gticbrii^ Stnl. gttangen,
1849, pp. 434-464.
'' Biblical Repository for April, 1850,

INTRODUCTION. 225
nearly akin to his own, that he copied it in the preface to
his Lectures on Ecclesiastes,' from which we made the preceding
extract. There is therefore no necessity for recapitulating the
Doctor's view.
1851. — Professor Stuart, as has already been remarked,
closely follows the opinion of Hitzig, both as to the design and
division of the book, " bating the strong neological tendencies "
of his guide. Thus he tells us, that the design of Coheleth is to
shew the vanity and utter insufficiency of all earthly pursuits and
objects to confer solid and lasting happiness, and also to instruct
his readers how to demean thmeselves accordingly} Like Hitzig,
he divides the book into three parts, each part consisting of four
chapters. Part I. (chap. i. 2 - iv. 16.) — Coheleth shews the vanity of human efforts,
and of all earthly things in which men seek satisfaction. He begins with
the unchangeable order of things in the natural world. Over this, man can
acquire no influence, and have no control (i. 4-11). He then proceeds, in
various ways, to illustrate and establish the position, that all human
eiforts to obtain abiding good in the present world are vain and fruitless.
The acquisition of wisdom, or riches, or honours, and also indulgence in
sensual pleasure, fail of their end. The most to which one can attain, is to
enjoy the fruits of his toil in the sober gratification of the natural appetites.
Providence, has so arranged the vicissitudes of things, that they all have
their regular course ; and all that we can do is merely to submit to this,
having no power to change or arrest it. After all the strivings of men, all
go down to the grave, and perish in common with other living creatures
around them. In fact, so multiplied are the sorrows of life, resulting from
man's weakness, and springing from oppression, and from vain strife for
wealth and defeated objects of ambition, that it is better to die than to
live (i. 12 -iv. 16).
Part II. (chap. iv. 17 -viii. 17.) — Having thus established the general
theory, he now gives practical instruction, beginning with religion. Fre
quenting the place of worship, prayer, offerings, and vows are here brought
to view, and instructions are given. Thence he proceeds to descant on a
variety of topics, with which the happiness and comfort of men are deeply
' The Royal Preacher; Lectures on Eoclesiastes, by James HamOton, D.D.,
F.L.S. London, 1851, pp. ix., x.
^ A Commentary on Eoclesiastes, by Moses Stuart, lately Professor of Sacred
Literature in the theological seminary at Andover, Mass. New York, 1851,
p. 23.
2G

226 INTRODUCTION.
concerned. Several of these topics, e.g., riches, wisdom, the oppression of
rulers, &c., are introduced again and again, as occasion prompts, and in
order to present them in all their important aspects. In the course of this
part of his work divers objections are presented, some of which are
answered forthwith, and some after intervening matter, which pressed upon
his mind, has been thrown in.
Part III. (chap. ix. 1 - xii. 8.) All doubts now disappear. The ultimate
conclusions to which Coheleth has come, after examining into the whole
matter before him, are now brought before us. God is supreme, and all
things and all men are in his hands. He has made, and intends to make,
no distinction between men as to their mortality and exposedness to
suflfering. This, although it is a source of much concern and sorrow,
must be borne, as having been appointed by him. Eational and cheerful
enjoyment, so far as practicable, he permits, and even enjoins. Moreover,
wisdom may alleviate some evils, and prevent some others ; so that,
although it -is not itself tbe chief good, and cannot of itself secure solid and
lasting happiness, it may be of much use even in the common aff'airs of
life. In the midst of exposure to oppression and misfortune, it may help
to direct our conduct, so far as to avoid as much evil and secure as much
good as is possible. A diligent observance of active duty, and a thankful
enjoyment of what can be enjoyed, are the sum of what we can do to
mitigate tbe sorrows and trials of life. Through all, and in all, with which
we are concerned, and at all seasons of life, God is to be remembered, and
also his judicial power to be recognised. Then comes a description of old
age, and its preparation for and approach to the tomb, when the soul
returns to God, to appear before his tribunal.
Conclusion (chap. xii. 9-14), wherein Coheleth gives a brief , account of
himself, and of his object in writing the book.
We have said before (p. 220) that Stuart does not always
fairly represent Hitzig. Let the following specimen suffice.
Eeferring to Hitzig's remarks on chap. vii. 26, Stuart says —
Hitzig seems to represent him [Coheleth] as expecting to find at least
some of a good character among women, and as being disappointed in not
finding them. Says he, more suo : gt benit JU fifcbcn unb ftcbfi, i. e., he
designs to catch fish, and catches crabs. But, levity apart, his disappointment
could not be great at not finding them among the class of women whom he
describes. He was grieved, rather than disappointed.
Now Hitzig says nothing about being disappointed in the
character of woman. What he says is, that to alight all at once
upon the woman, in ver. 26, when he has declared, in ver. 25,
that he was determined to find wisdom, &c., &c., seems at first

INTRODUCTION. 227
sight as if he caught crabs when he intended to fish. The follow
ing are Hitzig's own words in their connection ' —
Chap. vii. 25. / turned. So. — The counsels given in ver. 16-24 have
likewise displeased him, because, according to them, moderate sinning would
be wisdom, and he knows, a priori, that sin is folly. Hence he now strives
to find that it (sin) is really folly (6) ; in which case, that which is wisdom
will soon be apparent, namely, the forsaking of sin. — 'aM is subordinate
= with my heart, i. e., understanding.
To know and to search. — The two accusatives belong to iBpa, before which
the ¦; is not repeated, in order to separate it externally from the preceding
infinitive. For pasjn, see ver. 27.
26. And I found, Sc. — On his way, Coheleth finds woman ; he intends
to fish, and catches crabs : how is that ? Intepding to find that sin is folly,
he fixed upon a certain object; and we see that (lai rraan sjpa), his search
after wisdom, Sc, is directed, in the first place, to comprehend sin in its
nature and consequences. Pursuing this object (comp. ver. 27, b), Coheleth
finds that which he brings before us in this verse, namely, that he must
search for sin where it grows, in man (Job v. 6, 7) ; and he looks for it at its
very source (comp. Sirach xxv. 24), where it appears most marked; he goes
to the woman, who was regarded in the East as morally weaker than man.
Thus, she is brought forward as the representative of sin, as incarnate
rsxirm, wickedness.
We have thought it a duty to Sacred literature to clear
Hitzig from this misrepresentation and charge of " levity,"
made by one who is more indebted to this scholar for his
' ©ie sRotbfcblage abet 25. 16 ff. baben ibn ebenbefbolb ni^t beftiebigt,
weit ibnen jufolgc ein moffigeg ©itnbigen SBeigbeit ibate, ibm obet a priori
fefi fiebt, bof bie ©iinbc ^ot^eit fep fottte. Stifo befitebt et ficb uun ju
ftnben, baf fte oucb roitlticb Sbotbeit fep Cb3 ; in wel^em gotte, wae SSSeigbeit
fe9, ftcb 6alb ctgeben refitbe, nemlicb bie ©unbe ju lof en. — 'i";! otbnet ftcb
untet = mit meinem ^ctjen b. i. Setfionbc. 3u etfennen unb ju fotf^en]
©ie beiben 3Ilfug. gcb^ten nut ju wpa, bot wetcbem, um eg duffctli^ »on ben
botbetgcbenbcn Snftn. ju ttennen, "? nicbt toicbctbolt toitb. — Uebet pw g.
JU 3?. 27. — S5. 26. auf feinem SBcge ftnbet Sob. bag SSeib; ct benft ju
fifcbcn unb ftcbfi,— toic gebt ©ag ju? ifficnn et baf bie ©iinbc Sb<"cbeit fep
ftnben witt, fo bat ct ftcb ein befiimmteg 3iet gcfiecft ; unb tbit mcrfen, bof
fein "1 nnan mpi junocbfi botouf auggebt, bie ©itnbc in ibtem SBcfen unb ibten
golgen ju begtcifen. ©iefeg Bid bctfolgcnb (pojl. 25. 27t3 ftnbet Sob., mS
et SS. 26. botbtingt. 9Jemti(b et muf bie ©iinbc bo ouffu^cn wo fie tbcicbfi,
im 3)?cnf(ben C?>i. "f- 6- V, unb fucbt fie an ibret Ouctte Cbgt. ©it. xxv. 243 wo
fte jugteicb am moifitteficn bctbotttitt : beim SBeibe, bog im Dticnt iibcrboupt
fut motalif^ fcbtbcicbet benn bet ^am gilt. Sllfo witb baffctbc otg 3Jepta»
fentont bet ©iJnbe, otg cingcfteifcbtc n»ii3-io, botgcfilbtt.

228 INTRODUCTION.
criticisms on Ecclesiastes than any one else. We .must add,
that the charge frequently preferred ^against the Germans of
indistinctness and confusion of thought often arises from a mis
understanding of their meaning.
Stuart's commentary, with all its defects, is incomparably the
best work on Ecclesiastes in the English language. He has
endeavoured to give a grammatical analysis of the text, as well
as to trace the logical sequence of the context, and has shewn
the untenableness of the opinion that Solomon was the author of
the book.
1854. — Kitto would neither be moved by the article on
Ecclesiastes in his own Cyclopedia, nor take notice of the more
elaborate refutation of the Solomonic authorship by Professor
Stuart. He looked upon all the arguments advanced against
Solomon having written the book as forming " a monument of
microscopic ingenuity in criticism," ' and as having been satis
factorily disposed of by Mr. Holden and others. As to the
design of the book, he tells us that he was formerly inclined to
acquiescence in the conclusion that it is an inquiry after the
summum bonum, the chief (JOOd ; but, upon more deliberate
consideration, he thinks that the object of it is, by shewing the
emptiness of all things earthly, to force those who follow its general
argument to deduce the absolute necessity of a future and better
existence, as the only solution of the otherwise inscrutable pheno
mena which the course of men's life presents.
1855. — In Germany, however. Biblical criticism has by
this time made such progress that there are but few who can
muster corn-age to defend the Solomonic authorship. The only
question of dispute with them is whether it is to be assigned to
the earlier or latter part of the Persian dominion, or to a post-
Persian period. Elster, in his valuable commentary published
in 1855, is of opinion that Coheleth lived at the latter end of
the unhappy Persian dominion, about three hundred and fifty
1 Daily Bible Illustrations, &o. By John Kitto, D. D., F. S. A. Job and the
Poetical Books. 1854, p. 365.

INTRODUCTION. 229
years before Christ, and that the design of the^ book is to exhort
the suffering and desponding Israelites to retain their pristine joy
in life, the trite nature and import of which are to rejoice in good,
and to be happy in God}
Elster's commentary, comprising one hundred and thirty-three
pages, does honour to the author, and will always afford a source
of information and pleasure to every reader.
1856. — The interest which we find now manifested in
Ecclesiastes is almost unparalleled. In England, Scotland,
America, and Germany, scholars of different grades and of
various opinions tried their skill to elucidate it ; and we have to
notice no less than six several productions in this single year.
At home we have a very thorough article of Dr. Samuel
Davidson on Coheleth, in " The Text of the Old Testament
Considered."^ This excellent Hebrew scholar, like the pre
ceding writer, is of opinion that the author of the book lived in
the later part of the Persian government, not long after the
time of Malachi, i.e., 350-340 B.C., and that his design is to
institute the inquiry after the summum bonum. Though adopting
substantially Vaihinger's division of the book, and mode of
tracing the gradual development of the sacred writer's thoughts.
Dr. Davidson has succeeded in giving to this part of the
work all the appearance of originality, by purging it from
Vaihinger's hair-splitting speculations about strophes and half-
strophes, and by infusing into it some independent thoughts.
The following is his analysis : —
The contents are comprehended in four discourses.
Discourse I. (chap. i. 2 - ii. 26,) — After proposing the general theme in
' gt wcnbct ftcb on bie cinjcln'en Snbibibucn, unb on biefe tiebtet ct feine
3Mabnung, beten Setn bie Scbte bilbct; bie utfptilnglicbc, unmittclbote gtcube
am Seben ft^ ju betbobtcn, tbcl^e gteube abet ibt wabteg SBcfen, ibten
wabten Snbalt bat in bet gteubc am @utcn, in bet gteube in @ott.—
gommcntot iibet ben '?5rebigct ©alomo, bon gtnfi gifict. ©ottingen, 1855,
p. 28.
2 The Text of the Old Testament Considered; or. The Second Volume of
Home's Introduction to the Bible, by Samuel Davidson, D. D., LL, D. London,
1856, pp. 781-790.

230 INTRODUCTION.
the second and third verses, that all is vanity, Koheleth shews the vanity of
theoretical wisdom applied to the investigation of things, and then of
practical wisdom directed to the enjoyment of life, arriving at the result,
that man by his efforts cannot obtain abiding good.
Discourse II. (chap. iii. 1 - v. 19.) — The second discourse begins with
a description of the absolute dependence of man on a higher, immutable
Providence, succeeded by an answer to tbe inquiry after the summum bonum,
that there is no higher good for man than to enjoy himself; but that
such good cannot easily be attained amid the many disappointments which
are observable on earth. Under these circumstances, however, a man
should strive after happiness, through the fear of God and a conscientious
fulfilment of duty, trusting in the providence of the Most High, and setting
a proper value on earthly possessions, by means of contentedness with the
share bestowed by God, and cheerful enjoyment of the benefits received.
Discourse III. (chap. vi. I -viii. 15,) — In the third discourse the
writer sets forth the vanity of striving after riches, develops the true
practical wisdom of life, and shews how it is to be gained, notwithstanding
all the incongruities of earthly life.
Discourse IV, (chap, viii. 16 - xii. 8.) — In the fourth discourse these
incongruities are more particularly examined, maxims being laid down, at
the same time, for the true enjoyment of life; after which, the whole is
summed up in the enunciation of tbe same sentiment which stands at the
beginning, viz., that solid, unchanging happiness is not to be found in
earthly things.
1856. — In Scotland there appeared a " New Translation and
Exposition of the Book of Ecclesiastes ; with Critical Notes on
the Hebrew Text. By Benjamin Weiss." This zealous
missionary is very wroth with " the torturers of Sacred Writ,
who have maintained that (according to their lexicon) they
discovered in this book many passportless Chaldaisms, and
therefore they have denied its Solomonic authorship." Mr.
Weiss meets all the lingual difficulties with the assertion that
the rich and wise Solomon knew the post-exile patois, and, in
corroboration of it, asks these critics, "What language did
Solomon employ in courting, or in obtaining his foreign women
from their parents?"' After this specimen of his mode of
arguing, we are not at all surprised to hear Mr. Weiss repeat
' New Translation and Exposition of the Book of Eoclesiastes ; with critical
notes on the Hebrew text. By Benjamin Weiss, missionary to the Jews, &c., <fcc.
Dundee, 1856, p. 10.

INTRODUCTION. 231
the old story, that this book contains Solomon''s penitential dirge
and lamentation over his sins.
1856. — In America, we have this year " The Book of Eccle
siastes explained, by James M. Macdonald, D. D." And though
the Doctor pretends to give us " the results of criticisms on the
Hebrew without the process by which it has been reached," yet,
contrary to the results of the best critical investigations, he
maintains that Solomon wrote this book, and that " we
undoubtedly have the proof and monument of his repentance in
the book of Ecclesiastes." ' It is rather strange that one of
Dr. Macdonald's reasons for not intending to prepare a gram
matical praxis for students in Hebrew is, that " this has been
so ably and fully done by such scholars as Van der Palm,
Desvoeux, Eosenmiiller, Gesenius, &c." Any one, even slightly
acquainted with the history of exegesis, knows that Gesenius
never wrote a commentary on Ecclesiastes. But the identifica
tion of authorship is evidently not among Dr. Macdonald's
gifts. 1856. — Dr. Ludwig von Essen is one of the several Germans
who commented on Coheleth in 1856. As a priest of the
Roman Catholic Church, he is quite enraged with the Protestant
heretics for denying the Solomonic authorship of this book, and
grieved to find Jahn and Herbst, members of the true Church,
infected with this heresy. Von Essen's work, however, is not a
regular exposition of Ecclesiastes, but simply a contribution ^
towards it, consisting of four sections : —
Section I. discusses the superscription, and II. the authorship
of the book ; III. the period of life in which Solomon wrote it,
• whether before or after his fall ; and IV. gives an explanation
of the difficult portion of it, viz., chap. iii. 18-22. As to. the
design of the book. Dr. Von Essen thinks that Solomon wrote it
' The Book of Ecclesiastes explained. By James M. Macdonald, D.D. New
York, 1856, p. 69.
2 ©et !}5tebiget ©alomo'g. gin Seittog jut gtflatung beg oltcn Sefia=
mentcg. 25on Subwig »on gffen, ©octot bet Stbcotogie, &c. ©^offbouf^en,
1856.

232 INTRODUCTION.
after his fall and recovery, and designed it to be a monument of
his conversion}
1856. — The next German work on Ecclesiastes, issued from
the press this year, which 'we have to notice, is that of
Dr. Wangemann. He is the only Protestant commentator in
Germany, as far as we know, who has the courage still to
maintain that Solomon was the author of this book, and that it
contains the monarch'' s confession of sin. He says " —
The book contains the confessions of a richly-gifted and much experienced
soul; it is the outflowing of the fulness of a sinful heart, condensing the
manifold results of an excited life into one sum. This sum has described
its starting point in the first verse, namely, that all things under the sun
are vanity; and its terminus in the words, " Fear God, and keep his
commandments, for he shall demand an account of this life.'' Between
these two poles the confessions move about in great fulness, with a geniality
peculiar to the richly endowed Solomonic spirit which cannot be fathomed
by the measures of our intellectual comprehension and scheming.
Wangemann, also, divides the book into two parts, with an
introduction and conclusion. The following is his analysis : — -
I. Introduction,!. 1-11.
A. Superscription and table of the principal contents, i. 1-3.
a. The author stated (1).
b. The starting point (2).
c. The theme (3).
B. The starting point established, i. 4-7.
The vanity and fruitlessness of all earthly things.
^ Unfetet SWeinung nocb bat ©olomo bog Sueb ^obetctb nocb feinem gatte
gefcbtieben, b. b. mit anbetn SBotten, wxx gtouben, bof ©olomo ftcb bon feinem
gflttc Wicbet etbolt unb ficb bon feinen ©itnbcn wiebet befebtt bat, unb baf
unfci Sucb ein ©enlmot biefet Sefebtung fei. Ibid., p. 70.
2 ©og Sucb entbalt Sefentniffe einet teicb bcgobten unb biclctfabtenen ©cetc,
eg ifi ein 2lugfluf aug einem botten ©iinbcnbetjcn, melcbcg bie monnicbfac^cn
gtgcbniffe eineg bcwcgten Sebeng untet eine ©ummo jufommenfoft. ©iefc
©ummo bat ibten ?luggangg)3unct im etfien SSctfc felbfi ongegeben, baf namti^
Slttcg untet bet ©onne eitet fei — unb ibten gnbpunct in bem SBotte: giitcbtc
@ott unb batte feine ©ebote, benn ct tt)itb 9Jecbenfcbaft fotbctn »on beinem
Seben. 3l*ifi$en biefen beiben $oten bewegen ficb bie SelenntnifTc in gtofet
giittc, mit bet einem fatomonifib tci^ bcgobten ©eifie eigenen ©eniotitdt,
iBcIcbc ficb nicbt untet bag SWof bctflanbegmaf iget Scgtiffe unb @d)cmotifiiungen
befaffcn toft.- ©et ^tcbiget ©olomonig nad; Snbolt unb 3ufammcnbang
ptoftifcb auggclcgt eon ©t. SBangemann. Setlin, i856, p, 20,

INTRODUCTION. 233
C. The theme established, i. 8-11
Man's labour in itself is without result.
11. Principal portion of the book, i. 12 - xji. 7.
A. Introduction, i. 12-15.
Solomon describes his personal connection with the question
mooted.
B. First Past, i. 16 -vii. 14.
Observations on the strivings of men under the sun, and
description of the relation in which man, as creature,
stands to God, his Creator.
1. Solomon's observations fi-om his own life, i, 16- iii. 15.
a. First attempt — striving after wisdom, i. 16-18.
b. Second attempt — sensual enjoyment, ii. 1, 2.
c. 'Third attempt — all kinds of work, ii. 3 - 19.
The practical application of the foregoing, ii. 1 2 - 19.
d. Fourth attempt — ceasing from work, ii. 20-23.
e. Tbe practical conclusion that follows from this course,
ii. 24-26.
/. The theoretical conclusion that Solonaon draws from the
observations of his life, iii. 1-8.
God fixes time and measure ; man's own doings divide
themselves in opposites, and in themselves give no
satisfaction.
g. Close of the first section, iii. 9-15.
Man's goal is not in time, but in eternity.
2. Solomon's observations in reference to other men, and
their dealings with each other, iii. 16 -iv. 12.
a. Tbe scene of this intercourse resembles a tribunal, iii.
16-17.
b. Man's foolish thoughts concerning himself, iii. 18 - 22.
c. The dealings of men with each other, iv. 1-8.
d. The practical conclusion, drawn from the observation of
men's intercourse, iv. 9-12.
3. The conclusions at which Solomon arrived, from his obser
vations of his own life, as well as from the dealings of
men in general, iv. 13 -vii. 14.
a. His own life is a failure, iv. 13-16.
6. Keasons why Solomon fell under such severe chastise
ment from God, iv. 17-v. 9.
aa. First reason — he did not keep the vows of bis
youth, iv. 17-v. 6.
bb Second reason — Solomon's multifarious under
takings involved a complicated administration,
and, in consequence, much injustice was
brought about in the land, v. 7, 8.
2H

234 INTRODUCTION.
CO. Third reason — Solomon's heart was bent upon
money, v. 9.
0. The want which such empty striving brings with it,
V. 10-16.
d. Conclusion from the foregoing, v. 17-19.
e. In the ordinary course of the world, also, such empty
striving brings no gain, vi. 1-9.
/. What man should learn from this, vi. 10-12.
g. The conclusion for practical life from the first section,
vii. 1 - 14.
C. Second Part, vii. 15 -x. 1.
Observations on tbe government of God under the sun.
Description of the relation in which man stands, as a
sinner, to the holy God.
1 . First attempt at a solution, which proceeds from human
uprightness, vii. 15 - 24.
a. Merely human uprightness gives no satisfactory solution,
vii. 16-18.
b. The universality of sin, vii. 19 - 22.
e. The impossibility of finding a solution hence, vii. 23, 24,
2. Second attempt — the investigation of folly, vii. 25-29.
a. The adulterous woman as chief cause of folly.
6. The root of sin.
3. The first solution of the problem, viii. 1-13.
a. Obedience to God, the sovereign Lord, viii. 2-8.
6. Humble submission to His will, viii. 9 - 13.
4. The great problem again propounded, viii. 14_ix. 10.
a. The government of God is entirely hid from man, viii. 17.
b. Man cannot obtain the approbation of God by his own
conduct, ix. 1, 2.
c. Wherefore the folly of the fool increases, ix. 3.
d. And the anticipation of the time after death brings no
consolation to the natural man, ix, 4-10.
5. Conclusion from the contemplation of the government of
God, ix. 11-x. I.
•. a. Man is powerless.
6. And an unresisting prey to death.
0. There is a remedy for the pressure of this truth.
d. But this is generally not heeded.
D. The solution of the problem, x. 2 -xii. 7.
1. Eules of conduct in regard to this life, x. 2-20.
a. Ver. 2, 3 ; I. 4 ; e. 5-10; d. 11 - 15; e. 16-20.
2. Final solution of the problem by the prospect of the future
life, xi. 1 - xii. 7.
III. Conclusion of the Book, xii, 8-14,

INTRODUCTION. 235
1856. — The last treatise on Ecclesiastes of this year, which
we intend to mention, is contained in Dr. Ernst Meier's
" History of the Poetical-National Literature of the Hebrews."
He submits that Coheleth, — who lived at the beginning of the
unhappy Macedonian dominion, when the national feeling of
the Jews was dead, and his suffering brethren were tired of
existence, — thoughtfully seeks to elevate himself above the confusion
and misery of his time, and for this purpose has written down in this
book, not only the result of his observations, but also the whole process
by which he arrived at it. The result, however, is the thought that
ALL IS VANITY.' In Other words, the design of Coheleth is to
shew that there is, in reality, no summum bonum. He says —
The whole human life and striving appear to Coheleth fruitless and
vain ; there is, in reality, no true highest good for man. Hence, nothing
remains for him but to enjoy life as cheerfully as possible, before joyless
death terminates all his misery. Two main thoughts underlie the whole of
his observations.
1. The human spirit cannot perceive, either in nature or in the moral
world, a rational design and final object of development. Everything
moves in a perpetual round ; there is nothing abiding in the change of
appearances, no satisfactory result, no real good. A righteous moral
government of the world is indeed not to be denied, but it is equally certain
that man can nowhere perceive it.
2. As man, with all his trouble and skill, can find no absolute object, no
truly real good in life, he may at least acbiece objects and advantages which
have a relative value. The best thing for him, under these circumstances,
is not to dive into the inscrutable plan of tbe Divine government of the
world, according to which the righteous frequently suffer, whilst the wicked
prosper. On the contrary, since man's life is apparently a prey to chance,
we must use wisely time and circumstances, enjoy thankfully the pleasures
of the fleeting moment which we can seize, but thereby not relinquish our
belief in the Divine government of the world, and in a righteous retribution.
These are the main thoughts which the author seeks to carry through, and
to prove in various ways.
' ©ct SSetfofet fetbfi %i unfitcitig »iel ctfobtcu unb ctlebt. gt fucbt
benfenb ftd; itbet bie 3ct»iitftniffe unb bog glenb bet 3eit ju ctbeben, unb bat
JU bem gnbe nicbt blof bog 3icfultat feinet S3ettacbtung, fonbetn ou$ ben
ganjen SBcg, Sbic ct ju bcmfclben gclongte, in biefet ©^itift niebetgclegt. ©ief
SRcfultat obet ifi bet ©ebonfe, baf Slttcg eitet fei. — ©cfcbicbte bet poctifcbcn
9tationaf<=8itetatut bet ^ebtaet, son ©t. gtnft aj?eier. Scipjig, 1856, p. 55i.

236 INTRODUCTION.
1857. — After a lapse of nine years, the Studien und Kritiken
bring us again a very lengthy and elaborate article on Coheleth,
tliis time written by Umbreit. As the purport of the article is
to shew the unity of Ecclesiastes, the author has not formally
stated his view of the design and object of the book. It is,
however, evident, from the two passages which we subjoin in the
foot note, that Umbreit thinks the design of Coheleth is to shew
the vanity of striving to secure something unchangeable or impe
rishable, a'midst the changeable or perishing nature of all things
under the sun ; and that the sacred writer therefore recommends it
as the best thing for man, under these circumstances, not uselessly
to complain, but to enjoy the present with a calm resignation, and
to be conscientiously active and trustful in God, whilst looking
forward to the development of the future}
1858. — Ten years after the appearance of his article on
Coheleth in the Studien und Kritiken, Vaihinger published the
fourth volume of his commentary on the Poetical Books of the
Old Testament, containing " the Preacher, and the Song of
Songs." As this exposition is based upon the author's view of
the design and plan of the book already described, we must
refer to page 221, et seq., for this description.
1859. — Hengstenberg maintains that it is quite misleading
' Sfo^ botouggebenbet ttebctfi|tift (3?. i) bcrnebmen wxt S. 2-3 ben
©tunbton beg ^Stebigetg, bet feine fotgcnbc 3Jcbc butcbbtingt unb untet ben
manni^foltlgficn Scwegungen unb Setubigungen feinet im unmittelbat ung
botgebottenen ©ttebcn nocb einem Sleibenben im SSctgongli^^en Icbcnbig
cttcgtcn ©ecIe immet bon neucm buribfcbtagt ; tbit baben bog SEbcma unb aucb
bag gtgebnif feinet gotfi^ung unb feinet vbitbfo))bifib')'oetifcben ©orlegung.
gt fiettt bie SeboutJtung an bie ©pi^e, bof Sltteg gonj eitel unb febnett bet*
gdnglid; fc!5>, uhb baf eg fitt ben SSenfi^cn Id ottct feinet Wl\x\t, ibomit ct
ft^ abmitbet untet bet ©onne,;ni^tg Steibenbeg gebe. — Snbem bet ^Jtcbiger
bei bet nicbt ju betdnbetnben Setanbetti^feit ottct ©inge untet bet ©onne,
wo ein ffiteibenbeg ju ettingen, eine bctgcbticbc a)?iibc unb bie .Ktoge botubet
eine nid;tige ifi, otte 2Bcigbeit beg Sebeng in bie ftcie, fiitte gntfogung unb
cine gcTOiffenbaft tbatige, in gotfbctttoucnbem |)inblicf auf bie cntroicfenlnbe
3ufunft ftommgenflgfomc SBenuguug bet ©egenwott jum eigenen unb jum |>eilc
Slnbctct gefet^t, tiebtet ct in etgteifenbct gtbobung beg ©eifieg bag Ic^te SOSoit
bet gtmabnung [cap. xi., xii.] no^ befonbetg on bie Sngenb.— Sbcolcgifibc
©tubien unb jtiitifen. 3abtgung, 1857, pp. s, 9. 54.

INTRODUCTION. 237
to represent Coheleth as occupied with any single narrow theme ;
that the booh has no plan, its object being to inculcate various
lessons, all of which are designed to make us fear God and live
in him ; hence the description of the vanity of all that is earthly,
since he only knows what he has in God, to whom " Vanity of
vanities, all is vanity !" has become a living consciousness}
Entering more minutely into the contents of the book,
Hengstenberg says —
Coheleth appeared under those distressing circumstances of the time
{i.e., under the tyranny of the Persians), partly consoling, partly admo
nishing and reproving, so that " the rebuke of the wise " is perceptible in it
(chap. vii. 5). It is not accidental that the author begins with discharging
his first mission, and tliat he does it with special zeal, bis object being,
above all, to encourage the heart of the people, — which, despite of its great
infirmities, was still the people of his heritage, the people amongst whom
God dwelled, — to return to their God. Only when this object had been
attained could admonition and reproof be effectual. The writer begins
his consolatory mission in a way which may appear at first sight somewhat
striking. The people complain on all sides that everything is vanity of
vanities ; that their times are evil compared with the past, and especially
with the glorious day of Solomon. But the writer breaks in with the
proclamation that human life generally is vanity; that this world is a vale
of tears; and that the difference between happy and unhappy times is much
less real than it appears to superficial observation "(chap. i. 2-11). The
cross is borne more easily when we know that it is the universal destiny of
man. It will be remembered that Herzfeld also maintained that the
declaration of the vanity of all things was intended as a comfort
for the unhappy Israelites, vide supra, p. 88.
The great service, however, which Hengstenberg has ren
dered, consists in the fact that he, though decidedly orthodox, is
»
1 gin flii^tigcr Slid ouf ben Snbolt jeigt, bof betfelbe bict ju teicb if*,
um untet ein fot^cg beteinjclteg Sbcma fubfummitt ju mctben. aSitt mon
cinmol ein Z^tma aufficHcn, fo muf man eg fo ottgemcin foffen toic bet SSetf.
felbfi bicf tbut in g. xii. 13 ; fittcbtc ©ott. ©ie gutcbt ©otteg unb bag Seben
in \W JU fotbctn, botouf gcbet julct^t ottcg in bem Suebe bin, bem bient
aucb bie ©oticgung bet SUicbtigfeit ottcg 3tbifcbcn ; wag ct an ©ott l^al, tbcif
nut, tt)cm bog : „ gitelfeit bet gitelfeiten unb ottcg gitelfeit " jum lebenbigcn
Seibuftfcpn getbotben ifi.-^©et ^tebigcr ©alomo auggclcgt bon g. SB. ^eng»
flenbctg. S5cttin,'i8.59,pp. 15, 16.

238 INTRODUCTION.
compelled to declare that it is utterly impossible to reconcile the
contents of this book with the Solomonic authorship, and that
it is undoubtedly a post-exile production.
1859. — Keil, another unquestionably orthodox scholar, also
asserts that " the language and import of the book shew that it
originated in the times of Ezra and Nehemiah." His view of
the design of the book has already been mentioned, page 224.
1859. — Dr. Buchanan, however, abides by the old opinion,
that Solomon wrote this book after Divine grace had raised him
from his grievous fall, and that, guided by the Spirit of God, and
taught by his own terrible experience, he has therein expounded
the chief good. It is greatly to be regretted that the Doctor,
who is evidently a total stranger to Biblical criticism, should
yet dogmatise so offensively upon the subject, and quote those
learned men who gave up a pre-conceived notion, as the result
of scientific investigation, as an illustration of " the perversity of
the human mind." Speaking of the Solomonic authorship of
Ecclesiastes, — which, as we have seen, has now been relinquished
by such orthodox and learned scholars as Hengstenberg, Keil,
Vaihinger, Elster, &c., — Dr. Buchanan says —
It certainly does seem strange that there should ever have been a question
among critics or commentators as to the authorship of this portion of
Scripture. Such, however, is the fact. There have been Rabbis and
Talmudists among the Jews,, and learned men in the Christian Church,
who contrived to persuade themselves, and tried to persuade others, that
not Solomon, but some one else, must have written this book. The
circumstance seems only to prove that there is no point, however plain,
about which the perversity of the human mind will not find means to raise
a dispute.^ Nothing but ignorance could have indited the assertion that
" there have been Eabbis and Talmudists among the Jews . . .
' ©IJtacbc unb 3nbatt betibcifen bie gntfiebung beg 5Bu$g in bie 3eiten
gfto'g unb 3'Jebcmio'g. — Sebtbucb bet bifiotifi^=ftitif(ben ginlcitung in bie
Sononifcben unb ofjoft^i^bif^cn ©cbtiften beg Sltten Seflamentcg »on ^ail
gtiebticb Scit, 3wcite Slufloge. gtonffutt a. 5K., 1859, p. 383.
2 The Book of Eoclesiastes ; its meaning and its lessons, by Robert Buchanan,
D.D. London, 1859, p. 12,

INTRODUCTION. 239
who contrived to persuade themselves, and tried to persuade
others, that not Solomon, but some one else, must have written
this book." No Talmudist denied the Solomonic authorship of
this book. And had' the Doctor been acquainted with Jewish
literature or Biblical criticism, his homilies would have been
less dogmatic and more profitable. It is not to be expected
that every preacher should have a critical knowledge of the
Bible ; but we have a right to expect that one who writes to
shew the " meaning " of a portion of the Scriptures, who passes
judgment upon Matthew Henry, that he is " not always critically
accurate,'" and who ostentatiously quotes the Septuagint, the
French and modern versions," should know something about
criticism. Let the following specimen suffice to shew how he is
" critically accurate " .• —
Chap, iii. 18. " I said in my heart," continues Solomon, " concerning the
estate of the sons of men," &c. To remove the difficulty that hangs over
this verse, it is only necessary to understand what he thus said in his heart
as a prayer. The sons of men, to whose estate he refers, are evidently the
worldly, the unspiritual, the carnal, as contradistinguished from those who
are the sons or the children of God. In meditating upon their condition,
and observing how completely they were engrossed with earthly things, the
earnest desire arose within him, that God would shew them to themselves,
to see that, living as they did, they were lowering themselves to a level with
the beasts that perish.'
1860. — Though the Rev. Charles Bridges also follows the
traditional view of this book in his exposition of Ecclesiastes,*
yet the gentle spirit which he manifests towards those 'who
entertain different opinions from his own, and the humility he
displays in his work, form a striking contrast to the preceding
writer, and therefore deprive criticism of its severity. How
meekly he concludes the Preface : " He does not presume to
have swept away all obscurities from the sky ; but possibly a
1 The Book of Ecclesiastes; its meaning and its lessons, by Robert Buchanan,
D. D. London, 1859, p. 42.
2 Ibid., p. 11] . 3 Ibid., pp. 128, 129.
* An Exposition of the Book of Eoclesiastes. By the Eev. Charles Bridges,
M. A. London, 1860, pp. ix. xii.

240 INTRODUCTION.
few rays of light may have been cast upon the dark clouds. For
instances of failure in interpretation, he would crave forbearance.
For success, he would give the glory where alone it is due." No
one who knows the writings of the excellent Mr. Bridges, will
expect an exposition from his pen in harmony with the present
results of Biblical criticism ; and those who resort to his com
mentary for edification will be abundantly satisfied.
1860. — Mr. Plumptre, in his article on Ecclesiastes in Dr.
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, tries to temper the traditional
view of this book with some of the results of modem criticism.
He maintains that the book professes to be the confession of a
man of wide experience, looking back upon his past life, and
looking out upon the disorders and calamities which surround
him ; that the writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to
selfishness and sensuality ; who has paid the penalty of that sin
in satiety and weariness of life ; in whom the mood of spirit,
over-reflective, indisposed to aetion, of which Shakspeare has
given us in Hamlet, Jaques, Richard II., three distinct examples,
has become dominant in its darkest form, but who has, through
all this, been under the discipline of a divine education, and has
learnt from it the lessons which God meant to teach him ; and
that the lesson which he has learnt, and which he teaches us,
after reproducing the stages through which he has passed, is,
that " to fear God, and to keep his commandments, is the highest
good attainable ; that the righteous judgment of God will in the
end fulfil itself, and set right all the seeming discords of the
world"' Mr. Plumptre tells us that " we may look on the whole book
as falling into five divisions ; " but in his analysis, however, he
only gives us four, viz. : —
1. chap. i. 2-ii. 26 3. chap. vi. 10 -viii. 15
2. iii. l-vi. 9 4. viii. 16 -xii. 8
We must therefore conclude that there is an error in printing.
' A Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by William Smith, LL.D., London,
1860, article Ecclesiastes.

INTRODUCTION. 241
As to the authorship of the book, though Mr. Plumptre appa
rently halts between the two opinions, his sympathies seem,
however, to be with the anti-Solomonic side.
1860. — The irresistible force of modern criticism, as well as
the insurmountableness of its results, may be seen in Mr. Ayre's
edition of the second volume of " Home's Introduction to
the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures."
Supplementing Home, who adopted Mr. Holden's view and
division of Ecclesiastes {vide supra, p. 198, &c.), Mr. Ayre
remarks:' —
Perhaps this book will be best understood if we consider it as divided
into four different discourses.
Discourse I. (chap. i. 2-ii. 26) exhibits, in chap, i., the vanity of theo
retical wisdom directed to the knowledge of things; and, chap, ii,, the
notUingness of practical wisdom, which aims at enjoying life ; whence the
result is, that man, with all bis striving, can attain no lasting good.
Discourse II. (chap. iii. 1-v. 19) — Following the idea thrown out
ii. 21-26, it begins with a description (iii. 1-8) of man's entire dependence
on a higher, unchangeable Providence ; and, in reply to the question of the
chief good, shews that there can be no higher (iii. 9 - 22) than for a man to
enjoy himself and do good; which, however (iv.), it is not easy to attain;
still, a man must, in tbe fear of God, and a conscientious fulfilment of
duty, seek trustingly and contentedly to use the earthly goods entrusted to
him (v.).
Discourse III. (chap. vi. 1-viii. 15) shews the vanity of grasping at
riches (vi.), then describes practical wisdom (vii. 1-22), and indicates the
mode of its attainment, in spite of all the incongruities of earthly life
(vii. 23 -viii. 15).
Discourse IV. (chap. viii. 16 -xii, 7), — It further discusses these incon
gruities, and lays down rules for the conduct of a happy life which may
please God, and conducts to the conclusion of the whole (xii. 8- 14), that
God's future judgment wUl clear up all present mysteries and irregularities.
This is the great object which the book intends to develop, but which is
not disclosed till worldly -reasonings are shewn to be insufficient. For,
after each several discussion, a difficulty still remains, which has again to
be taken up, till the reader's view is raised at last to that high judgment
seat before which every wrong will be redressed.
' An Introduction to the Criticism of the Old Testament, cfec. By the Rev.
Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D. Eevised and edited by the Rev, John Ayre, M. A,
London, 1860, pp, 744, 745. 21

242 INTRODUCTION.
As to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes, so far from
quoting those who deny it as illustrating " the perversity of the
human mind," Mr. Ayre says : —
It is not easy to decide upon the authorship ; different minds will arrive
at different conclusions. The reasons which have been given make
Hengstenberg and Keil, as well as other critics, believe that the book is not
from Solomon, If this be conceded, the same proof will shew that the date
of its composition must be placed not earlier than the exile. . . . It is
fanciful to say that, as the Persian government, probably in its later
administration, became oppressive, allusion is made to it; all that can
fairly be supposed is, that tbe language might place it about the time of
Nehemiah or Malachi, to which prophet's book Ewald considers Ecclesiastes
to bear a marked resemblance.'
It will be seen that Mr. Ayre's view of the design, plan,
authtJrship, and date of the book is the same as that of Vaihinger,
Keil, and Dr. Davidson, and constituted one of the heresies
iibputed to the last writer, which lielped to call for our author's
revised and more orthodox edition of Home's Introduction.
Nut that we object to this view ; on the contrary, we hail it
as a triumph of enlightened and liberal criticism in England.
We are persuaded, that if those who repudiate the results of
rational exegesis as " the perversity of the human mind," or hereti
cal, were to bestow the labour upon Biblical criticism which every
page almost of Mr. Ayre's revised volume indicates, they would
manifest less ignorance and more charity.
What lessons of humility and forbearance ought we to learn
from the sketch of what has befallen this book, when we see
that the pious and the learned, both among Jews and Christians,
have, with equal confidence, advanced the most opposite and
contradictory theories about its meaning ! We are positively
assured, as we have seen, that the book contains the holy
lamentations of Solomon, together with a prophetic vision of the
splitting up of the royal house of David, the destruction of the
temple, and the captivity ; and we are also told that it is a dis
cussion between a refined sensualist or hot-headed worldling,
1 An Introduction to the Criticism of the Old Testament, Sea., p. 471.

INTRODUCTION. 243
and a sober sage — That Solomon makes known in it his repent
ance to all the Church, that thereby he might glorify God, and
strengthen his brethren, thus imitating his father David in the
fifty-first Psalm ; and that he wrote it " when he was irreligious
and sceptical, during his amours and idolatry " — That " the
Messiah, the true Solomon, who was known by the title, Son of
David, addresses this book to the saints ; " and that a profligate,
who wanted to disseminate effectually his infamous sentiments,
palmed it upon Solomon. It teaches us to despise the world,
with all its pleasures, and flee to monasteries ; it shews that
sensual gratifications are man's greatest blessings upon earth — It
is a philosophic lecture delivered to a literary society upon topics
of the greatest moment ; it is a medley of detached and hetero
geneous fragments belonging to various authors and different
ages — It describes the beautiful order of God's moral govern
ment, proving that all things work together for good to them
that love the Lord ; it proves that all is disorder and confusion,
and that the world is the sport of chance — It is a treatise upon
the summum bonum; it is " a chronicle of the lives of the kings
of the house of David, from Solomon down to Zedekiah " — Its
object is to prove the immortality of the soul ; and to deny a
future existence — It is designed to comfort the unhappy Jews
in their misfortunes ; it contains the gloomy imaginations of a
melancholy misanthrope — It " is intended to open Nathan's
speech (1 Chron. xvii.) touching the eternal throne of David ; "
it propounds the modern discoveries of anatomy, as well as tlie
Harveian theory of the circulation of the blood — " It foretells
what will become of men or angels to eternity (as found
rebelliously fixing in their first-creation life and state of vanity,
or obediently surrendering it for the second), in eternal life or
death ; " it propounds a view of life inclining to fatalism,
scepticism, and epicureanism ! What a solemn lesson for the
pious and for the learned to abstain from dogmatism, and what
an admonition not to urge one's own pious emotions or ingenious
conceits as the meaning of the Word of God !

244 INTRODUCTION.
SECTION VI.  AUTHOR, DATE, AND FORM OF THE BOOK.
The title of the book ascribes the words therein contained to
Coheleth, or female-gatherer [vide supra, p. 1), son of David,
King in Jerusalem. In the twelfth verse of the first chapter
this enigmatic individual prefaces his autobiography by calling
himself by the same name ; " I, Coheleth," says he, " was King
over Israel in Jerusalem." As Solomon was the only son of
David who was king over Israel, there can be no doubt that he
is meant by the appellation Coheletli. This is fully corrobo
rated by the unequivocal allusions made throughout this book to
particular circumstances connected with the life of this great
monarch. Compare, for instance, Coheleth i. 16, &c., with
1 Kings iii. 12; Coheleth ii. 4-10, with 1 Kings v. 27-32,
vii. 1-8, ix. 17-19, x. 14-29; Coheleth vii. 20, with
1 Kings viii. 46; Coheleth vii. 28, with 1 Kings xi, 1-8;
Coheleth xii. 9, with 1 Kings iv. 32.
The question to be determined is, whether Solomon has really
said or written down the thin§s, contained in this book ; or
whether some one else put these sentiments into his mouth as
peculiarly appropriate to him, in accordance with the well-
known form of personated authorship. In other words. Is
Solomon the real author of this book, or a simple actor in it?
If we implicitly submit to the decision of tradition, we must
undoubtedly believe that Solomon is the actual author of this
book ; for this is beyond question the unanimous declaration
of both the Synagogue and the Church. The remark in the
Talmud (Baba-Bathra, 15, a) that King Hezekiah and his
associates wrote this book, as well as Isaiah, Proverbs, and the
Song of Songs,' does by no means contradict this traditional
' The whole passage is as follows: — siBirr arm xys^i rrajiDi liDD ana nmn nna <D
'T to w'mn 1DD ana in nm cj'BDiiai iidd ana ';midib minai» ]'piDD nainmi iidd ana
T ')»i jD'n T toi nwn t toi nn-iaM 't '3»i pis 'ato 't ¦» ^tonih ?!« t ¦;» D'jpi mw
lana inD'oi "pin ni2pi '^ata iddi iidd 'na rviyv mp ':a '¦dru t ¦;»! pdn 't toi iimr
?'311)1 ')«pin> ipx) :",n:p lana '"min noja 'ib:m rtnpi'n^ffln tsj >')ii3n rv'swx p'c p"«n
,¦) -a o'la^n nan ¦>» C3n>i tide: ana 'iw inos nVmi Vn iw, who xorote them? [the

INTRODUCTION. 245
opinion, since this simply refers to the final editorship. But, if
we appeal to the internal evidence of the book itself, we must,
with equal certainty, conclude that Solomon is the personated
author of the sentiments ascribed to him, as will appear from
the following considerations : —
A. ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE SOLOMONIC AUTHORSHIP.
1. The book itself does not pretend to have been written by
Solomon. All the other reputed writings of this great monarch
have his name in the inscriptions. The book of Proverbs begins
with "The Proverbs of Solomon," so does the Song of Songs,
{i. e., which is Solomon's) Psalm Ixxii. and Ixxvii. And had this
book professed to be Solomon's, his name would surely have
appeared at least in the superscription.
2. The enigmatic and impersonal name Coheleth, a female-
gatherer, by which Solomon is designated in this book, shews
that he is simply introduced in an ideal sense, as the representa
tive of wisdom.
3. The sacred writer himself clearly indicates, in chap. i. 12,
that he assumes Solomon as the speaker, for he represents him
as belonging to the past, making him say, " I was King over
Israel in Jerusalem." That the praaterite / was Cip^Tl) shews
that, when this was said, Solomon was no longer king, is by no
means an invention of modern criticism ; it has been acknow
ledged from time immemorial, and has given rise to the legend
inspired book]. Moses wrote his book, and the section of Balaam (Numb.
xxii. -xxiv.), and Job ; Joshua wrote his book, and the eight verses of the law
(Deut. xxxiv. 5-12) ; Samuel wrote his book. Judges and Buth; David wrote the
Psalms of the ten elders, viz., Adam, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, Heman,
Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah; Jeremiah wrote his book. Kings
and Lamentations ; Hezekiah and his associates wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, the Song
of Songs, and Coheleth, designated p"ii)n' [from their initials] ; the man of the
Great Synagogue wrote Ezekiel, the twelve minor Prophets, Daniel, and Ezra,
designated by a"i:p; Ezra wrote his book, and the genealogies of the Book of
Chronicles, down to himself. Nothing can be more plain than that the word ana
is here used in the sense of writing down, writing out, transcribing, &c., for final
editorship, and has nothing to do with authorship.

246 INTRODUCTION.
that Solomon was dethroned by Ashmodai, king of the demons.
Hence the Chaldee paraphrase of this verse ' —
When King Solomon was sitting upon the throne of his kingdom, his
heart became greatly elated with riches, and be transgressed the command
ment of the Word of God ; and he gathered many horses, and chariots, and
riders, and he amassed much gold and silver, and he married wives from
foreign nations. Whereupon the anger of the Lord was kindled against
him, and he sent to him Ashmodai, the king of tbe demons, and he drove
him from the throne of his kingdom, and took away the ring from bis hand,
in order that he should roam and wander about in the world, to reprove it ;
and be went about the provincial towns and cities of the land of Israel,
weeping and lamenting, and saying, " I am Coheleth, whose name was
formerly called Solomon, who was King over Israel in Jerusalem."

So also Midrash Yalkut, in loco; the Talmud, Gittin, 68, b;"
and Midrash Maase Bishlomo Hammelech.' Nothing can be
more distinct than Rashi's explanation of the passage : " I was
at first," says he, " king over the whole world, then only over
Israel, then only- over Jerusalem, and at last had only my
roaming stick; for it is written, I WAS king in Jerusalem, but
AM NOT KING NOW." * Even Hugo of St. Victor could not get
over this prseterite, and says that it is here used " because
Solomon had put off his kingly robes, abdicated his throne, and
was now lying in dust and ashes repenting over his sins, and not
deeming himself worthy to be king any longer."
Thus we have a long series of ancient witnesses confirming
the results of modern criticism, that the prseterite, " I was king
(¦'jp'"''!!), represents Solomon as being king no more." But as
history forbids us to adopt their legend to account for this fact,
ninj '3S 1551 Pinns to vt-vrh n'3'7 aa3n'« rr'niabn ¦'ura to a'n^ «3bn ri&'jsi mn na >
•[•a ^viaii ^'pnsa ]nnnNi tr^h Manii «spa lasi ]'N'm ]'*tdi I'a'mi pwo iijjai >;t Ni-a'p
¦jpii n<raa^D n'Diia ^ta a'n; nm n_'\S-! «3')d '«"!P*s n'ni'i Titii 'nito "i Mi;n fi'pn t
N»"\M 'aiai 'aVs '3T3 to nino nini n'nin'aiM'? M^toa 'bji ''b^eq ¦nnn ^'ja an; in n'piBiSi:
bkiniB' to M3|)Q 'n'ln «n npip ]p npnn riia'jtf n<n«i "ini rhyp njn idni psi waa itfvtf^.
?biijn'a
2 'Vide supra, p. 35.
' Jellinek, Baith Hammidrash, ii., p. 86, et seq.
Taw: nnii) ''ipo 'jn f]iD3')i ma'; n^'rmv to tjwa'ji Sniiu' to' rjiDa'ji o'jwn ta to- ¦ira 'n'n ¦•
¦pr^ ii'N v\BaN ^aN ?''wn'a -pn -n'n

INTRODUCTION. 247
we have here most undeniable proof that the sacred writer
describes Solomon as belonging to the past, and that he has
assumed this great monarch as the speaker.
4. Various statements are made by Coheleth which are most
incongruous, and are utterly irreconcileable with any other
supposition than that Solomon is the assumed speaker.
a. In chap. i. 16 Coheleth says, " I have acquired far greater
wisdom than any (king) who was before me in Jerusalem ; " so
also, in ii. 7, " I bought me men-servants and maid-servants,
and had house-born servants ; I had also many herds of oxen
and sheep, above all (the kings) who were before me in Jeru
salem." That Coheleth is here comparing himself with kings is
evident ft-om the nature of the case, as the comparison with
individuals of a different rank to himself would fail to establish
the point of greatness in question. Besides, the adjuncts
d'^^'IT'B and obti;')"!'' bv which are used with regard to both,
•TT • 'TT ; - *-* '
and describe the place of GoheletJi's dominion (i. 1. 12. 16 ; ii. 7, 9),
shew., beyond the shadow of a doubt, that they also denote the
place of the sovereignty of those with whom Coheleth compares
himself As Solomon, however, was only the second king over
Israel, he could not therefore refer to a long succession of lyings,
and thus shews that he was assumed as the speaker at a very
late period of the Jewish history. Hengstenberg, who admits
that ii. 7 precludes the interpretations which take the com
parison to consist between Solomon and non-royal personages,
submits that, as Jerusalem was the seat Of an ancient monarchy,
which is evident from the fact that a noble member of it went
forth to meet the patriarch Abraham, Solomon could therefore
with propriety compare himself with the sovereigns who pre
ceded him. But this explanation is simply gratuitous, as the
Jewish history does not mention any line of kings who reigned in
Jerusalem. The incidental and solitary mention of Melchizedek,
king of Salem, is too mysterious and circumscribed to justify the
comparison with a succession of kings in Jerusalem.
b. The addition in Jerusalem (i. 1. 12), which occurs in no

248 INTRODUCTION.
other of the reputed writings of Solomon, shews that the book
was written at a time when there was another kingship, the
seat of which was out of Jerusalem, as this distinction became
necessary only after the kingdom was divided into two, and when
there was a royal residence in Samaria as well as in Jerusalem.
The force of this argument may be seen from the feeble way in
which it is opposed. " The addition, in Jerusalem," says
Hengstenberg, " is to remind us that Coheleth gathered his
experience in the very place whose complainings and sighings
gave rise to the writing of this book." But have not all or
most of the sacred writings been called forth by more immediate
local circumstances ? Why, then, does not some such reminder
accompany the inscription of any other book ?
c. Solomon speaks of his own wisdom, riches, and greatness
as unparalleled (i. 16 ; ii. 7. 9). This is incompatible with
modest wisdom and true greatness, and can only be accounted
for on the supposition that the assumed Solomon is made to
say it.
d. Coheleth declares, in ii. 18. 19, that he detested all his
estates which he had toiled to acquire, because he must bequeath
them to an utter stranger, who for aught he knows may foolishly
waste all. Now, as this most unquestionably implies that he
had no children of his own to inherit his possessions, it could
not have been uttered by Solomon, who had an heir-apparent
eagerly waiting to succeed him.
e. Coheleth recommends individuals patiently to submit to
the decrees of the king, even when he abuses his authority, since
the tyrant is sure to provoke the anger of the mass of his subjects,
when condign punishment will inevitably be inflicted upon him
by his people (viii. 2-9). The doctrine of such a relation of
monarchs and their subjects could never have been propounded
by Solomon, or by any other oriental sovereign, and we question
whether we could even find a European monarch of the present
enlightened age to endorse this view. Those who explain the
whole passage as referring to God, and to the absolute obedience

INTRODUCTION. 249
which creatures owe to the Creator, who is the King, are guilty
of strange inconsistencies, as will be seen in the commentary.
/. The description given of a royal spendthrift, and of the
misery which he inflicts upon his land (x. 16-19), could not
proceed from the mouth of a king, and especially not from
Solomon, who was himself a spendthrift, unless he intended to
write a satire upon himself.
g. The state of violence and misery depicted with so much
bitterness in this book — on the supposition that it could be
made to harmonise with the reign of Solomon — must have been
brought about by this monarch's own extravagances and sins.
Is it possible that the author of these evils would speak of them
in such terms ? Mr. Plumptre meets this question by submitting
that " there are forms of satiety and self-reproach of which this
half-sad, half-scornful retrospect of a man's own life — this utter
ance of bitter words, by which he is condemned out of his own
mouth — is the most natural expression."' But we submit
that it is impossible to shape the case in question into one of'
those forms. Here is a man, who has publicly abused God's
mercies, who has violated God's law, abandoned himself to
revelry with his harem of foreign and idolatrous women, for
whose idols he at last built temples, and thereby caused others
to be guilty of injustice and violence ; and yet all the confession
he has to make before God and man is not to acknowledge his
own crimes, and humble himself in dust and ashes, but simply
to complain of those whom he had made to sin. The different
things which Coheleth tells us he has tried in his lifetime, he
does not in the slightest degree characterise as sinful, but simply
as philosophic experiments which have failed to yield the con
templated result. And if this can be construed into an acceptable
form of confession of sins and crimes, our notions of the holiness
and justice of God and the moral laws of society must be radically
wrong. No religious community in our days would accept such
a document from an offender, as the proper expression of sin
' Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. Ecclesiastes, p, 474.
aK

250 INTRODUCTION.
committed against God, and against its laws ; and if we are in
doubt as to what the Jews of old regarded as the proper " retro
spect of a man's own life," laden with perhaps less guilt than
that of Solomon, and what they deemed to be " the most natural
expression " of such a retrospect, let us read the prayer of
Daniel, and the prayer of Solomon himself at the dedication of
the Temple, let us peruse the Penitential Psalms, but especially
let us compare the fifty-first Psalm with the contents of " The
Words of Coheleth," and we shall know whether the last can
pass as such. We therefore submit that,, supposing the descrip
tion of the state of violence and misery given in this book could
be made to harmonise with the days of Solomon, the bitter com
plaints of Solomon about others who simply acted a secondary
part in bringing about this miserable state of things, without the
slightest reference to himself, whose guilty conduct was the
chief cause of it, would alone preclude the Solomonic author
ship of the book.
5. But we submit that the state of oppression, violence, and
misery depicted in this book cannot be reconciled with the reign of
Solomon, and is therefore against the Solomonic authorship of it.
Palestine, the inheritance of the Lord, was then groaning under
the oppression of satraps, and presented such a scene of injustice
and violence, that death was thought preferable to life, and not
to have been bom at all was deemed still better (iv. 1 - 4 ; v. 7) ;
Asiatic despotism, which permits no will to its subjects, was
rampant (viii. 1-4), filling "the holy places" with wicked
officials (viii. 10), suddenly raising servants to posts of honour,
and hurling the great from their lofty positions (x. 5 - 7) ; this
tyranny, with its numerous spies, had penetrated into the privacy
of families to such a fearftil extent, that it actually became
dangerous to give utterance to one's thoughts even in the secrecy
of home (x. 20) ; wickedness and crime were perpetrated with
perfect impunity, so much so, that people were thereby encou
raged to commit heinous sins, and were led to deny the moral
government of God (viii. 10, 11), and to neglect their duties

INTRODUCTION. 251
to the Creator (v. 1-5). The utter impossibility of attempting
to reconcile this state of things with the age of Solomon is so
manifest, that even Hengstenberg, after giving a summary of
those sufferings, according to his analysis of the contents, afBrms
that, this being the external and internal condition of God^s people,
the idea cannot for a moment be entertained that the book belongs
to the time of Solomon, and that he was the author of it}
When Mr. Ayre declares, upon his own authority, that the
argument derived from " the description of manners, and the
complaints of oppression, misgovernment," &c., against the
Solomonic authorship of this book " is of little weight," we
have nothing to say ; but when he adds that " Hengstenberg
very properly rejects objections of this kind," ^ evidently referring
to his remark fifteen years ago in Kitto's Cyclopaedia,' we
question whether he has taken Hengstenberg's words in their
legitimate sense ; and maintain, that if he had been acquainted
with Hengstenberg's commentary on Ecclesiastes, he would not
have made such an assertion ; for, besides the passage already
quoted, Hengstenberg distinctly says that the description given
in the book of the oppression, misgovernment, &c., of God^s people,
fits solely and exclusively the Persian dominion}
6. The fact that Solomon is represented as labouring to .
acquire wisdom, possessions, and renown, and as prosecuting his
search after sensual enjoyments, in order to ascertain what is
good for the children of men (ii. 3-9; iii. 12. 22, &c.), thus
making philosophical experiments to discover the summum
bonum, and to solve the problems of life, is both incompatible
^ ©inb nun baS bie nu^eren unb bie inneren 3ufianbe ^f^ SSolfeg ©otteg,
fo wirb ni(^t botan gebac^t TOerben fiinnen, ba? boS Suif
ax\i ©alcttto^ Beit unb son i^nt berfaft fei?. ©er gjrebtgcr
©atomo, p. 6.
2 An Introduction to the Criticism of the Old Testament, &c., p. 740.
3 A CyclopiEdia of Biblical Literature, art. Eoclesiastes, pp. 594, 595.
* ©ie bargelegten 3iige nun paffen einjig unb attein auf bie 3eit bet
f erWen fierf^iaft tlier ba« Sofl ©otteS  Sffite bie aufercn, fo
(jafTen an* bie inneren Suftanbe be« Solteg, wie jte ftc^ in unferen S5uc()e
barjletlen, auf bfe 3eit ber f etftft^en |)erfc^aft. md., pp. 5, o.

252 INTRODUCTION.
with the conduct of the historical Solomon, and is an idea
of a much later period than the age of this great monarch. It
was evidently introduced into Palestine by those Jews who
bestowed " much study " upon the " many books " (xii. 12) of
the Greek philosopliers, and the speculations to which it gave
rise, as recorded in this book, contain the incipient forms of
Pharisaism and Sadduceeism.
7. The reference to a future bar of judgment, when all the
present irregularities in the moral government of God shall be
rectified by the Judge of the quick and the dead, whereby
Coheleth solves the grand problem of this book, shews, beyond
all doubt, that Solomon could not have been the author of it,
and that it must be a post-exile production.
With those who believe that the blessed Trinity is revealed
in the first verse of the first chapter of Genesis ; that the doctrine
of justification by faith, the atonement, and all the other cardinal
truths of Christianity, are set forth in the chapters immediately
following, we do not intend to argue. We appeal to those whom
a rational and reverential study of Holy Writ, and a due regard
to the laws of language, have taught that God, who causes the
natural light at first to break feebly upon our eyes, and to increase
gradually in splendour till it attains to its meridian glory, also
caused the light of the Sun of Righteousness, at first beaming
faintly, to shine more and more unto tbe perfect day, and
we ask if such an explicit declaration about the return of the
soul to God, who shall hereafter judge not only every action
but every secret of man, whether it be good or evil, can be
assigned to the early dawn of Revelation? Let the dim
intimations respecting a future state, given under the types
and figures prior to the exile (Gen. i. 27, v. 24, xxxvii. 35,
xlix. 33 ; Deut. xviii. 10, 11 ; 1 Sam. xi. 6, xxviii. 7, &c. ; Isa.
viii. 19; xxvi. 18, 19, xxix. 4; Ezek. xxxvii. 1-4), be com
pared with the naked truth, as declared after the exile by
Daniel (xii. 2, 3) in the Book of Wisdom (ii. 23, &c. ; vi.
18, 19), Tobit (ii. 17), 2 Macabees (vii. 9. 36), and especially in

INTRODUCTION. 253
the New Testament ; and we submit that the gradual develop
ment of this doctrine will be fully recognised ; and hence it will
also be conceded, that the distinct reference of Coheleth to a
future judgment, precludes the idea of the Solomonic authorship
of the book.
8. The strongest argument, however, against the Solomonic
authorship of this book, is its vitiated language and style. We
do not allude so much to the numerous Aramaic expressions,
which have no parallel in any other portion of Scripture of equal
size, and which would of itself be sufficient to shew that it is the
last written work in the canon of the Old Testament, but we
refer to the whole complexion of it. We could as easily believe
that Chaucer is the author of Rasselas, as that Solomon wrote
Coheleth. B.  ARGUMENTS FOR THE SOLOMONIC AUTHORSHIP EXAMINED.
1. It is asserted that the book itself ascribes the words therein
contained to Solomon, that it represents him as narrating his
personal experience (I gave my heart to so and so ; I did so and
so; I saw; I concluded, &c.), and that to depart from the literal
meaning of these statements is to call in question the truth of
Scripture. But, as Mr. Plumptre rightly remarks, " this hypo
thesis, that every such statement in a canonical book must be
received as literally true, is, in fact, an assumption that inspired
writers were debarred from forms of composition which were
open, without blame, to others. In the literature of every other
nation, the form of personated authorship, where there is no
animus decipiendi, has been recognised as a legitimate channel
for the expression of opinion, or the quasi-dramatic representation
of character. Why should we venture on the assertion that, if
adopted by the writers of the Old Testament, it would have
made them guilty of falsehood, and been inconsistent with their
inspiration?'" Other figures of speech, involving the same
principle, are used both in the Old and New Testaments. Our
' Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. Ecclesiastes, p. 474.

254 INTRODUCTION.
Saviour, in his description of the poor and the rich man, not
only gives the former a name, but puts statements into the
mouth of the latter and of Abraham (the man cried and said:
Father Abraham, and Abraham said: Son, remember, &c.), and
is it urged, that to depart from the literal meaning here is to
call in question the truth of Scripture ? If it be admitted that
the sacred writers used one figure of speech whereby they made
people say things which in reality they did not say, there can
be no difficulty in their using another figure which involved the
same thing. No one ever thought that Plato, Cicero, &c.,
violated truth because they used it, and it never enters our
minds to characterise the Book of Wisdom as an imposition, for
personating Solomon. It is therefore um-easonable to urge that
as an insurmountable difficulty here, which forms no difficulty at
all elsewhere.
2. It is urged that the book has been handed down as Solomon's
by the concurrent voice of tradition, and that it would be both
" dangerous and irreligious to desert this combined testimony."
But we submit that whatever may be the authority of tradition
on other points, it has certainly no power to determine points of
criticism, and that this is practically acknowledged by all modern
expositors, as may be seen in every page of their works.
Tradition has handed down the Book of Wisdom as the inspired
work of Solomon. Clement of Alexandria, Origen, TertuUian,
Cyprian, Athanasius, Cyril, Epiphanius, Eusebius, Augustine,
Isidore, &c., quote it as such. " To the testimony of those few
among the ancients," says Calmet, " who have disputed its
authority, we oppose a crowd of witnesses, in all ages of the
Church, who have acknowledged and quoted it as divine Scrip
ture. In short, to the scruples of those who, seeing antiquity
wavering upon this point, have found some difficulty to persuade
themselves to admit this book into the canon, we oppose the
third council of Carthage, in 397 ; that of Sardica, in 347 ; that
of Constantinople, in TruUo, in 692 ; the eleventh of Toledo, in
' See vol. ii. of Home's Introduction, Davidson's ed., pp. 1323, 1324.

INTRODUCTION. . 235
675 ; that of Florence, in 1438 ; and, lastly, the fourth session of
the council of Trent, all of which expressly admitted this book
into the class of holy scripture. And there is scarce any ancient
father who has not quoted and commended it. Many of them
attribute it to Solomon, others to some prophet, and all to an
inspired writer." ' Tradition has treated the parable of Dives
and Lazarus as a real narrative, yet the most pious and learned
Protestants deny the canonicity of the Book of Wisdom, and
reject the interpretation of the passage in Luke, without regarding
it as " dangerous and irreligious to desert this combined testi
mony." If we are at liberty to use our judgment in one case in
defiance of tradition, surely we cannot be denounced for using it
in another.
As the date of the book must be determined by internal evi
dence, it cannot be expected that it will ever be definitely settled.
The Rabbinical Hebrew, in which it is written, leaves no doubt
in our mind that it must have originated at least in the latter
•end of the Persian government (350 -340' B.C.) ; and if it could
be shewn that the Old Testament canon was not closed till after
that time, the language and complexion of the book would fully
justify us in assigning it to a much later period.
The/orw of the book is poetico-didactic, without the beautiful
parallelisms and rhythm of the poetry written in the golden age
of the Hebrew language. Even the grandest portion of the
book (xi. 1-7), where the sacred writer rises infinitely above
his regular level, is devoid of those charms which imparted
such life and fascination to the older Hebrew poetry. The
gnomes and maxims with which it abounds, and which have
caused some erroneously to assign to it a gnomological character,
are simply introduced to illustrate certain points in question, and
only show that when the book was written, the proverbial say
ings of the Solomonic age had already become household words,
and were largely introduced in discussing the affairs of life.
' Preface to the Book of Wisdom, given in Patrick, Lowth, Amald, Whitby,
and Lowraan's Commentary.

256 INTRODUCTION.

SECTION VII. — EXEGETICAL HELPS.
ANCIENT VERSIONS.
1, The Septuagint, | .^ g^.^^,^ ^^^ ^^^.^^^.^
2. The Vulgate, J •'^
3, St. Jerome, Translation and Comment., Opp. Tom. ii.
4, The Syriac, in Walton's Polyglot and Bible Society's ed.
5. The Chaldee Paraphrase, in Bomberg's and Buxtorfs Rabbinic Bible,
JEWISH COMMENTATORS.
6. Eashi, in the Rabbinic Bible.
7. Rashbam, edited by Jellinek.
8. Ibn Ezra, in the Rabbinic Bible.
9. Mendelssohn, translated by Mr. Preston.
10. ¦g)et3fetb, rh^'p ilbetfe|t unb au^gelcgt.
11. Cahen, La Bible. Tom, xvi,
12. ^^ifip^jfon, ©ie S^raelitifc^e Sifcel, ©tittet J^ett.
CHRISTIAN COMMENTATORS.
13. Pineda, Comment, in Eoclesiasten.
14. Mercer, Comment, in Jobum, et Solomonis Proverbia, Eoclesiasten, &c.
15. Grotius, Opp. Tom. i.
16. Reynolds, Annotation on the Book of Ecclesiastes.
17. Le Clerc, Comment, in Vet. Test. Tom. iii.
18. Desvoeux, Philological and Critical Essay oh Ecclesiastes.
19. Hodgson, Ecclesiastes, a new Translation.
20. Holden, An Attempt to illustrate the Book of Ecclesiastes.
21. Rosenmiiller, Scholia in Vet. Test. P. ix , vol. ii.
22. Snobet, Sommentat iibet baS Suc^ ^o^elet^.
23. (groalb, ©ptii(|e ©alomo'g ilo^eletj.
24. Noyes, A new Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, &c.
25. |)i|ig, ©Ct $tebiget ©alomo.
26. Heiligstedt, in Maure's Comment. Vol. iv., sect. 11.
27. Stuart, A Commentary on Ecclesiastes,
28. gtjlct, gommentat iibet ben ^tebiget.
29. SBai^tnget, ©et ^tebiget unb bag ^obelieb.
30. |)engfienbetg, ©et ?!tebtget ©atomo, translated into English by
D,W. Simon, in Clark's Foreign Theological Library.
For particulars about the dates and places of these commentaries, see the
Historical Sketch.

THE

WORDS OF COHELETH,

SON OF DAVID, KING IN JERUSALEM:

THE

WORDS OF COHELETH,
SON OF DAVID, KING IN JERUSALEM.

PROLOGUE.
CHAPTER L 2-U. *
Coheleth declares that all human efforts are utterly vain (2), Man has no
advantage from all his labour (3) ; he must speedily quit this life,
whilst the earth abides for ever (4). The objects of nature depart and
retrace their course again, but man vanishes and is for ever forgotten
(5-11).
2 Vanity of vanities, saith Coheleth, vanity of vanities, all is

1. The words of Ooheleth, Sec. For
the explanation of this verse, see
Introduction, sec. i.
2. Vanity of vanities, &c. Deeply
impressed with the brevity of man's
life, and with the conviction that no
human effort can protract man's
existence here, Coheleth denounces,
in the most intense language ima
ginable, all undue exertions to satisfy
the cravings of the soul. 'y^Xl (from
"'^ri, to steam, to exhale, to breathe),
prop, steam, vapour, breath; hence,
tropically, that which is unsubstan
tial and evaporates, nothingness,
vanity, is tbe construct of "Jjij, like
»i.1 of »"ij, and "iin of Tin, comp.
Ewald, Gram. § 21-'!, a; Fiirst, Lex.
«. V. The construction of the same
noun in the genitive expresses the

superlative degree, vanity of vani
ties, i. e., utter or absolute vanity,
comp. D'lJi? ^59, servant of servants,
i. e., most abject servant (Gen. ix. 25;
Numb. iii. 32 ; Song of Songs i. 1 ;
1 Tim. vi. 15 ; Gesen. § 119, 2 ;
Ewald, § 313 c.) The repetition of
the same phrase, vanity of vanities,
a second time, gives the highest
intensity to the statement ; comp.
D^ip niinp wto nin; niinj wto, the
floods have lifted up, O Eternal !
the floods have lifted up their voice
(Ps. xciii. 3 ; cxv. 1). ''^n here is
not to be taken as synonymous with
the Greek ii wSv, the universe, (Geier,
Rosenmiiller, &c.), which contradicts
the sequel (iii. 11-14), and is con
trary to the context, where the well-
regulated and permanent laws of

260

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

3 vanity: since man hath no advantage from all his toil
4 wherewith he toileth under the sun ; for generation passeth
away and generation cometh on ; while the earth abideth

nature are contrasted with the tran
sitory existence of man, but refers to
"131 iSioS "js, all the undue human exer
tions, spoken of in the next verse.
3. Since man hath no advantage, &c.
The inspired writer gives here the
reason why he pronounced all human
efforts as useless, since, with all his
exertions, the rational man cannot
secute to himself any real and lasting
happiness. .4iS this verse assigns a
reason for the statement made in the
preceding verse, Coverdale and the
Bishop's Bible rightly begin it with
for. Both in the Old and New
'Testament, as well as in profane
writings, interrogations are frequently
used as emphatic denials ; compare
'aw tj'ribN nnnn, am I instead of Ood?
i. e., surely I am not Ood. I am not
almighty (Gen. xxx. 2 ; 1. 19 ; Zech.
i, 5 ; Matt, xvi, 26 ; Gesen, § 1 53, 2 ;
Ewald, § 824, b). This is especially
the case with no, which loses entirely
its interrogative force, and becomes
an emphatic negation ; comp, i3!j"no
"'^'1? Pjn, we have no portion in David
(1 Kings xii. 16), and is parallel to
i^, not, in the next clause; and nni
nbina-')? p,ianM, and I should not look
upon a virgin (Job xxxi, 1), where the
Sept. has xai ol; the Vulg, ut ne, and
the Syriac, Pj comp. also Job vi.
25; xvi. 6; and see Fiirst, Lex., s.v 4.
The phrase dinJ piin'. nn, therefore,
is tantamount to there is no advan
tage WHATEVER to man, &c. Jiin;
is from ^^;, to extend, to run over, to
surpass, to leave behind, according to
the analogy of ^iins, interpretation,
and ]fo)iii, power {infra, viii. 4; Gesen.
§ 84, 15 ; Ewald, § 163, d), and sig
nifies that which is over, remainder,
gain, profi,t, beneflt, remaining or
abiding beneflt or liappiness. This
word, which only occurs in this book,
{vide infra, ii. 1 1, 1 3 ; iii, 9 ; v, 8, 1 5 ;
vii. 12; X. 10), is frequently found

in later Hebrew writings. The ^ in
DTM^, the dative appurtenance, has
here taken the vowel of the article,
which is fallen away by contraction,
in consequence of the preposition
(Gesen. § 35, 2 ; Rem. 2). '"J* sig
nifies oppressive labour, toil, implying
wearisome effort, and is rendered
more energetic by the construction
to bnj, the noun and the verb being
of the same root; compare the similar
construction in the New Testameirt,
I'lnStjf.cU i7re66/xtiirit, with desire have
I desired, i. e,, / have intensely or
greatly desired (Luke xxii. 15 : John
iii, 29 ; Acts v, 28 ; Gesen. § 138, 1;
Rem. 1 ; Ewald, § 281). The phrase
is well rendered by the Sept., Iv b-mti
/wo;^9ftj cLvroZ w fAo^Qsi; and Chald,, n^rnb
n'lB NOT"! : the rendering of Luther,
SKil^e bie ct :^at; followed by Cover-
dale and the Autb, Ver,, the labour
which he taketh, is too languid. The
¦i) in 'rtW'.ifi is an abbreviation of itfM ;
comp. Song of Songs i. 6 ; Gesen.
§ 36. The phrase *niSn nnn, under
the sun, which only occurs in this
book (i. 14 ; ii. 1 1. 17. 20. 22 ; iii. 16;
iv, 1, 3. 7, 15; v, 12, 17; vi, 1. 12;
viii. 9. 15. 17; ix, 3, 6, 9, 11. 13;
X. 5), and in later Hebrew writings,
is tantamount to yi.Nn"''?, which is
used in viii, 14, 16 ; xi. 2, and refers
to Jiin;, i.e., yiiji DiNb ]i-iri'.-nD, what
lasting benefit lias man upon earth,
&c. The Chaldee curiously para
phrases this verse, what does man
bequeath to man after his death, of
all his toil which he toils, &c.
4. For generation passeth away, Sic.
The utter failure and vanity of all
human effort is shewn by the fact
that man, with all his ploddings,
cannot protract his short continu
ance; generation after generation
drops off the tree of life, while the
earth abides for ever. What an awful
fact, that the world, and all the
objects around, are abiding, and

CHAP. I.J COHELETH. 261
0 for ever. The sun also riseth and the sun setteth, and,
though it pantingly goeth to its place, it riseth there again.

possess an immutable and ever-
returning course, but man has no
fixed abode here, and must rapidly
disappear from this scene of action.
Man's assiduity and perseverance
may secure for him aflduence and
honours, yet the ruthless hand of
death violently shakes him off the
tree of life, scatters all his amassed
wealth, buries all his acquirements
in oblivion, while the earth, upon
which he displays bis ingenuity,
abides for ever; and in this respect
the earth, man's workshop, has an
advantage over man. Knobel and
Stuart, and, in fact, most commenta
tors, make the sentiment of this verse
to be, " that as the earth is fixed
and immutable, admitting of no
change for the better, man has no
hope of lightening his misery by
vainly attempting to effect a change
in unchangeable nature; his condi
tion in the world, and his relation to
it, must ever remain the same. His
innate frailty, on the one hand, and,
on the other hand, the foreclosure
against any change in the things
without, concur to shew that he can
find no permanent happiness." But
this is against the scope of the pas
sage, which evidently contrasts the
transitory state (l''n) of man, with
tbe permanently abiding condition
(rtrds) of the earth. 'This is the
burden of the argument, that man,
wbo was made a little lower than the
angels, who is capable of developing
such intellectual life, should especi
ally be so ephemeral, while inferior
nature abides permanently. The
passage in Tacit. An. iii., c, 53, "All
human things go a certain round,
and there are revolutions in man
analogous to the vicissitudes of the
seasons," to which Knobel refers, is
inapposite. More appropriate is the
remark of Ibn Ezra, nsd: ba nvn iiasJi
IMS' t:rTO D'TDiD n3>nMD i3-\in taaim nnn
TiNn «in\B mn nnm ibmh am iiw nn^'iMi
s'niB yixa bnni onsiiM lai -pNni D'om

a)«n DipD iDDffln lai p in«i m'?vn loa
p in«i mbinn lusn N'ni noin m iiaDi
?'nni nnn, because all things that are
found under the sun are composed of
four elements, from which they pro
ceed, and to which they return, and
these are fire, the quiet wind, i. e., the
air, and the water, and the earth,
these four are adduced; and the earth
is mentioned first, because she is, as it
were, the mother; then the sun is men
tioned instead of fire, because of its
great heat, and this is the generative
fire; then the air and the water.
¦^^n, to go, like words signifying to
depart in other languages, is euphe
mistically used for departing this
life, dying; comp, infra, v. 14, 15;
viii, 10; Ps. xxxix. 14; Job x.
21; xiv. 20 ; and o ^ev vlo^ rov avB^Mnov
viriyu in Matt. xxvi. 24. The i in
yisni has, as frequently, an adver
sative meaning, yet while (Gesen,
§ 155, 1, b; § Ewald, 341, a),
5. The sun also ariseth, &c. From
the firmly fixed earth, Coheleth pro
ceeds to the perpetually coursing
sun, and here, again, he shews tbe
advantage of nature over man. The
sun rises in brilliancy in the morn
ing, and, though he, exhausted,
retires in the evening, and his
brightness is obscured by the dark
ness of night, yet he rises again
every morning in equal splendour,
rejoicing like a hero to run his
course again ; but man, when be
goes, returns hither no more. Thus
Job, when speaking of tbe same fact,
shewing the advantage of nature over
man, adduces a tree, which will grow
again after it has been cut down ;
but man, when once cut off, appears
no more
There remaineth liope for the tree.
If it is cut down it striketh out again.
And its shoots do not fail ;
If its roots moulder in the earth,
And its trunli decayeth in the dust.
It flourisheth again from the smell of water.
And, like young plants, groweth branches;
But man, he dieUi and is destroyed,
Man,, departing, is gone, xiv, 7-9,

262

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

6 The wind goeth to the south, and tumeth to the north ; it
goeth round and round, yet the wind retumeth fo its course.
to expect that the sun would be de
scribed as exhausted at his setting,
after the long and swift course of tbe
day, than at his rising, when we are
expressly told that, refreshed, lie
rejoices like a hero to run his race
(Ps, xix, 5). rni is well rendered by
the Syriac ojJ-JJ »OoZ rni> i-^.

Still more striking is the parallel in
Catullus —
Soles occidere, et redu-e possunt ;
Nobis eum semel occidit brevis lux,
Kox est perpetua una dormienda,
*' Suns that set again may rise ;
We, when once our fleeting light,
Once om" day in darkness dies,
Sleep in one eternal night," Catullus, v,
Elstei, therefore, has mistaken the
sense, in afiirming that the sacred
writer adduces the course of the sun
to indicate " the gloomy impression
which the contemplation of it pro
duces upon the human mind, because
this luminary appears tired of its
ever-restless motion, and annoyed at
the endless monotony of its course."
Ni3, to go in, to enter, is used of the
setting sun, because, according to tbe
Hebrews and other ancient nations,
it enters in the evening into the
ocean, its subterraneous dwelling
(Ps. xix. 5 ; Hab. iii. 11), The 1 in
^Ni is, as frequently, to be rendered
though. f]«^, to snuff, to breathe hard,
to pant with running to its subter
raneous dwelling (.Job vii 2 ; xxxvi,
20). The rendering of the Sep
tuagint, exhei, draws heavily, and
Aquila, eIj-ttveT, fetches breath, pants,
faintly express the meaning of the
original, while that of Symm. Theod.
£irttvao-Tp£<|)E>, Vulg. revertitur, misses it
altogether. The Chaldee's, Rashi's,
and Rashbam's explanation of the
words fj^SiS iDiP'? ''Nl, " the sun, which
rises in the morning in the east,
and sets in the evening in tlie west,
goes pantingly all night through the
sea back to its place [i.e., the east),
where it rises again," yields substan
tially tbe same illustration which
we have deduced from this verse.
Ewald's rendering, bte ©onne ge|)t
untet (inipi? ''«i) unb jwat an listen
Dtt, wo fite feu^ienb aufgejt, i- e;
the sun sets, and that in its place,
where it also rises pantingly, is both
forced in its construction and incon
gruous. Surely it is more natural

rises again, as is evident from the
context, where so much stress is laid
upon the repetition of the courses of
the objects adduced.
6. The wind goeth to the south, &c.
The howling and empty wind is
adduced as another proof that the
objects of nature have an advantage
over man. The apparently restless
and disorderly wind has its regular
course ; it goes to the south, and
turns about to the north, and,
though it sometimes veers vehe
mently round the whole earth, it
always returns to its rounds; but
man, when he goes, returns hither
no more. The word nil, ivind, is to
be supplied in the first clause from
the second. The repetition iJiD alio,
round, round, expresses continuance
(Gen. xiv. 10; Deut. ii. 27; Gesen.
§ 108, 4; Ewald, 313, a). The south
and north are mentioned, because
the east and west have already been
referred to in connection with the
rising and setting of the sun, and
thus all the four quarters of the
earth are divided between the sun
and the wind. The verb ara, to
return, is here construed with the
preposition ''9, to, as in Prov. xxvi,
11, iMp.-'!S> Tj itas, as a dog returns
to his vomit (comp. also Mai. iii. 24).
The suffix in vni'?9 expresses the
well known, the regular rounds, or
course ; the whole clause is well
rendered by the Vulg. et in ciroulos
suos revertitur. The Sept., Syriac,
Arabic, Vulg., Rashi, Rashbam,
who are followed by some mo
dern commentators, refer the first
part of this verse to the sun, i.e..

CHAP. I.]

COHELETH.

263

7 All the streams run into the sea, and the sea doth not
overflow; the place where the streams go to, thence they
8 return again. All words are feeble. Men could never utter,

the sun goeth towards the south, and
turneth about unto the north ; but
this is against the symmetry of the
description, since it would predicate
too much of the sun and too little
of the wind. Besides this would
break the thread of the argument ;
since the sun, like the wind and the
streams, is evidently adduced to shew
that, notwithstanding his departure,
he returns again, which would be lost
according to this construction. Still
more objectionable is the Chaldee
paraphrase, which refers the whole
of this verse to the sun. When
Dr, Adam Clarke afiirms that " our
Version alone has mistaken the mean
ing," as he calls it, I wonder that he
should have made such an assertion
in the face of Ibn Ezra, Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishop's Bible, &c.
7. All the streams, &c. The flow
ing streams are the last instance
which the inspired writer points out
to illustrate his position. These
streams, which apparently run off to
be absorbed in the bosom of the
mighty ocean, nevertheless return by
subterraneous passages and chan
nels ; but man, when he goes, returns
hither no more. According to the
Hebrews, and other ancient nations,
the earth is surrounded by the great
ocean, with which the different seas
and rivers are connected by subter
raneous passages and channels, and
it is through these that the streams
make their way backwards and for
wards to their parent water (Gen.
vii. 11; Job xxxviii. 16; Prov. viii.
28; Sirach xl. 11); hence the Chal
dee paraphrase of this verse, s^rrj bi
-inDD-i t3i:';piM ¦^b )'^?:i ]'^i« m'q 's'lani
in^^V^onp 'nifrVDir^piMi xitisi^ws noSs^
'l^jsp ym) p';n ]i:'M ^an'p:?! j'^iw K'^'Q^l
NDinn, aU the vivers and streams of
water run and fiow into the ocean,
which surrounds the world like a ring,
and the ocean is not full ; and to the
place where the rivers have run and

flowed, thither they return again
through the subterraneous channels
(comp. also Horn. II. xviii. 609 ; xxi.
196). D')m (from bm, to run, to fiow)
is better rendered streams, being of a
much wider meaning than the ex
pression rivers. ci;n is the great ocean
which surrounds the earth, rendered
by the Chaldee, c:iy^-3iN, ^xeM;. )'«,
not, prop, const, of J^«, nothingness, is
the negative of ifi;: , is, and includes
the verb to be in all its tenses (Gesen.,
§ 152 ; Ewald, § 321 ; Fiirst, Lex. s. v.)
Dipo, place, is the const, before
iS=ntiM, to indicate that the relative
clause is to be regarded as one noun
(comp. infra, xi. 3 : Gen. xl. 8 ; Lev.
iv.24; Gesen.§ 116,2; Ewald,§o32,c).
Ibn Ezra's explanation of the words,
N^o 13.5'M D;ni, and the sea is not full,
an tDrii »'piri ¦)« d'hd t« nto' Ton t
i«ni Dni'jp iia»a ^b))^' ta'pinon t:<oni D'33»n
Dm: aw, because there is evaporation
constantly rising from the sea to the
sky, which forms the clouds, — the sweet
waters only ascending because of their
lightness, — and the vapour is converted
into rain, is too modern ao idea,
and was unknown to the ancient
Hebrews, as is evident from the
passages quoted above, and from the
Chaldee paraphrase. With Sym
machus, the Vulgate, Chaldee, seve
ral MSS,, Grotius, Umbreit, &c., d^
is to be taken for cnSo, thence, as is
evident from verse 5, where the sun
is described as rising again (D>fi) in
or from the place to which it went.
The words nab^ c'aiS, however, are
not to be rendered they return to go
again, but th^y return again, which is
evident from ver. 14, where the same
phrase occurs, and must be rendered
so ; the verb aisS is frequently used
adverbially for again; comp. aiiiSn Ab
aiiD nSirh w, mine eyes shall not see
happiness again (Job vii. 7; Gen. xxvi.
18 ; Gesen. § 142, 3 ; Ewald, § 285).
8. All words are feeble, &c. Hav
ing shewn, in some of the most

264

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

the eye could never be satisfied with seeing, and the ear
9 could never be filled with hearing all. What hath been still is.

prominent instances of nature, the
permanency and uniformity of their
existence and operations, contrasted
with the transitoriness and instabi
lity of man, the sacred writer ex
claims, that all human language is
too feeble to enumerate all the objects
in nature which possess the same
properties, and might be adduced in
illustration of his proposition —
objects so numerous that the eye
could never see, nor the ear hear of,
them all. As la^ in Hebrew, like
the corresponding expressions in
other languages (comp. |AW> in
Syriac, n^n in Chaldee, from ''^a, to
speak, ftif^a. in Greek, from plm, to
speak, whence also res in Latin,
©a^e in German, from fagen) is
derived from a verb signifying to
speak (ia^), and, like its equivalents
in other languages, denotes both a
word, as uttered by the living voice,
and a thing which a word is used to
express ; hence Dna^ has here been
rendered by some words,a.nd by others
things. The word Q'W;, too, has been
variously explained, as some took it
in its passive signification, and others
have assigned to it an active meaning.
Thus the Vulg. has cunct^ kes
DiFFioiLES, all things are hard, which
Luther (e^ tjl otle« S^un fo boU
31?ii|e baf, &c,) and Coverdale {all
things are so hard, &c ) follow.
Desvoeux has, all these considerations
are tiresome ; Hodgson and Booth-
royd have, all things thus at their
task. But, against these renderings
is to be urged, that though ia^ un
doubtedly means also a thing, yet
the context requires that it should
be taken hero in its primary sense,
viz., a word, as is evident from the
verb IM, with which it is connected,
thus forming the well-known con
struction "laT la-i, {vide infra, vii; 21).
As for D'»'j;, it is invariably used in
a passive sense (comp. Deut. xxv. 18;
2 Sam. xii. 2), and can therefore

form no exception here. Moreover,
the rendering we advocate is the one
most compatible with the scope of
the passage, as will be seen from the
remarks upon the next clause.
ITie eye could never be satisfied, &c.
The objects which might he adduced
in illustration of this proposition are
so numerous that the eye could never
see them all, nor the ear hear all.
As the eye is not only the inlet of
thought, but is also the outlet of
feelings and emotions, those inward
conditions and actions are ascribed
to it which it manifests. Thus,
because it expresses the hoping of the
soul, tbe eye is represented as hoping;
comp. llaffi' -fJ'bM % W, THE BYES of
all HOPE to thee (Ps. cxlv. 15) ; hence,
also, the phrase n;3'» ipnD, the desire
of the eyes (1 Kings xx. 6); miivfuU
Tm ifSa\y,m (1 John ii. 16), and tbe
insatiableness of the eye in the text
before us (comp. also infra, ii. 10 ;
iv. 8; Prov. xxvii. 20). Reynolds,
Gill, Holden, &c,, explain tbe mean
ing of this clause, " the pleasure of
these senses is so blunted by the
same objects constantly presented,
that they are pricked with further
desire of new objects of delight,"
But this evidently arose from their
mistaking the sense of the first clause.
Tbe sacred writer, having described
the stability and regularity of several
objects of nature, affirms, in this
verse, that these are by no means all;
that the objects which possess the
same properties are too numerous to
be described ; and that the curious
eye, which wishes to see them all, and
the inquisitive ear. that desires to
hear all, could never be gratified,
for the telling of them would require
more words than man possesses ;
the human eye and ear, whose func
tions are of short duration, deter
mined to compass aD, would cease
to exist long before all is told, and
hence could never be satisfied.
9. What hath been, &c. The in-

CHAP. I.J

COHELETH.

265

and what hath been done is still done, and there is nothing
10 new under the sun. If there be anything of which it
is said. Behold this is new ! it hath been long ago, in

ference is here drawn from the state
ment made in the preceding verse.
In all those objects of nature, there
fore, we see that that which has
existed continues to exist, and the
motions which these existing objects
have made they make again ; the
earth, which has existed, still exists;
the sun is still the same, and runs
the same race ; the wind is still the
same, and returns to its well-known
course ; the streams are still the
same, and flow in the same manner
into the mighty ocean : it is the
same with numberless objects of
nature — their existence is perma
nent, their course regular and uni
form, and there is no deviation.
njTO nn is rendered by the Sept.
interrogatively, tl to yeyomq ; -n tS
irETrom/uEVOT ; Vulg. quid est quod fuit?
which is followed by the Arabic,
Luther, Grotius, Holden, Boothroyd,
&c. ; but this is contrary to the usage
of the combination ffl'nn in this book
(comp. infra, iii. 15 ; vi. 10 ; vii. 24 ;
viii. 7 ; X. 14 ; where it signifies id
quod, and where even the Sept., with
the exception of vii. 24, and the
Vulg., translate it so). As in other
languages, both interrogatives 'n,
who, for persons, and nn, what, for
things, are used in Hebrew for inde-
flnite pronouns, whosoever, whatsoever,
with the relative pronoun either ex
pressed or implied {infra, v. 9 ; ix. 4;
Exod. xxiv. 14; Prov. ix. 4; Numb.
xxiii. 3; 1 Sam. xx 4; Gesen, §37, 2;
Ewald, § 331, b; § 857, c), so that
^"np exactly corresponds to iw» 'P in
Exod, xxxii. 33; 2 Sam. xx. 11.
The verb nvi, to be, refers to the
permanent existence of the objects
of nature, and nto, to do, to their
uniform and regular operations. The
imperfect expresses the permanent
state, it is now and ever shall be
(Gen. xliii. 32; Prov.xv. 20; Gesen.
§ 127, 2 ; Ewald, § 136, b), ''3 r«,

nothing (Numb. xi. 6 ; Judg. xiii. 4;
2 Sam. xii. 13 ; 2 Kings iv. 2 ; Prov.
xiii. 7), corresponding to the Greek
ou wa« (Luke i. 87; Rev. xxi. 17;
Gesen. § 152, 1 ; Ewald, § 323, b).
10. Iftherebeanything,&c. Having
atfirmed that no innovation occurs
in the objects of nature, the sacred
writer states bow, if anything should
seem new in tbe operations of nature,
it is to be accounted for; it is merely
owing to the individual who happens
not to be acquainted with the pheno
menon which had taken place in
bygone years. The particle dn, if,
is implied before *, there is ; comp.
Judg. xi. 36 ; Prov. xxiv. 10 ; Song
of Songs, viii, 1 ; Ewald, § 367, b.
laj, a word also a thing, vide supra,
verse 8. "ifw in "nas'si, is not the
nominative, making it a prosopopeia
(Desv. p. 310), a thing crying out to
the beholder. See this is new, but is
the accusative; and in><', the third
person, as frequently elsewhere, is
used for the impersonal or passive ;
compare exactly the same phrase
n; Nnn"'3 in«' iiSh rriaN-'jS'^s, for any
thing lost of which, or respecting
which, it is said that it is this, i.e.,
¦siBB'w, miserably rendered in the
Autb. Ver. (Exod. xxii. 8) ; and see
also infra, vii. 21 ; ix. 15 ; xii. 1. 5 ;
Gen. xi. 9 ; 1 Sam, xix, 22 ; Gesen.
§ 137, 3 ; Ewald, § 282, 2. The Sept.
renders the words ion'^ lai iii^, ?{
\a\ria-ii xal ifii, whatsoever speaks and
says, so also the Syriac nSIQJj ^D
.Vo^in, as if the Hebrew were
-iDN'tii laTtti '!3; the Vulg,, again, has
NEC VALET QUISQUAM DECEKE, nOr is
any man able to say, as if the Hebrew
were lai!' *« ''?i' * ; but we are
prepared for such deviations from
tbe Hebrew text, by the frequent
blunders which we meet in those
versions. Tbe expression "laa, from

2M

266

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

11 the time of old, which was before us.

But there is no

naa, to plait, to bind, or tie strongly
together, hence to be strong, great,
long, is used adverbially for long ago,
already, formerly ; >iU, by which tbe
Sept. renders it, and jam of the Vulg.,
are not exact equivalents, inasmuch
as these refer to both time past and
present, which has caused the trans
lators of our Authorised Version and
some commentators to ascribe the
same signification to the Hebrew
expression {vide infra, ii. 16) , whereas
naa is invariably used with reference
to time past; it only occurs in this
book (ii. 12, 16; iii. 15; iv. 2; vi.
10 ; ix. 6. 7), liut is of frequent
occurrence in later Hebrew writings.
?'nWs, the plur., is often used for
the ages of antiquity, the time that is
past (Is. li. 9), and' the b before it
expresses the time when, in, within
which anything happens (Gen. vii.
4; Ps. xxx. 6; Ezra x. 8; Gesen.
§ 154, 3, e ; Ewald, § 217, d). The
words i3'5B\)«a n;n ibSm have occasioned
some diificulty, owing to the verb
n;n, which is singtdar, and refers to
D'ajis, plural. Symmachus has iv -rx
ulmi, nvi niliM obiib both in the singu
lar; several of Kennicott's and De
Rossi's MSS. have vn n^« both in
the plural ; so also the Chaldee,
w^QII?^ Iin '1, which were before.
Hitzig, Stuart, Elster, &c., try to
account for the anomaly in the text,
by regarding n^ as being used in a
kind of impersonal way (compare
Ewald, § 295, d). 'There is, however,
no necessity for any of those altera
tions proposed by the ancient ver
sions, or for the artificial explanation
given by the modern commentators
alluded to, Tbe Hebrews, like other
people, were not always very parti
cular about making a verb, adjective,
or pronoun agree with its subject in
gender or number, especially in col
loquial language ; we have unde
niable proof of this in chap, ix, 6 ;
X, 15, 17; Jer. xlviii, 15; Dan ix,
24; Zech, xi, 5; Gesen. § 121, 6,
Rem. 1; § 137, 1; Ewald, § 184, o.
Hodgson's mode of eluding this

anomaly, by rendering tbe clause,
the same, which is now presented
to us, happened ages ago; or tbe
similar one of Ewald, fdpon Wat
botlctngji, wag gefi^e^n »ot unfeten
Stugen, making it the subject of
the sentence, which is followed by
Heiligstedt, only increases the diffi
culty, by palming upon the words
a very harsh and unnatural con
struction. Had the sacred writer
intended to say what this rendering
makes out, the original would have
been ^^'pob nti« «in I am therefore
not a little surprised to see Philippson
defend this forced construction.
11 But there is no remembrance,
&c. Having shewn the permanent
existence and uniform return of the
objects of nature to tbe respective
places from which they apparently
vanished, as illustrated by the per
manently abiding earth, the pant
ingly disappearing yet gloriously
rising sun, the seemingly scattered
but regularly returning wind, tbe
engulfed andyet emerging streams,
the sacred writer now contrasts these
with tbe departing but never-return
ing and ever forgotten man, and thus
establishes his proposition, that all
human efforts to divert it are utter
vanity, since "man has no advantage
from all the toil wherewith he toileth
under the sun." This verse, which
contains the reason for tbe statement
made in ver. 2-4, has been greatly
misunderstood, through the render
ing of c:'bii)N-i and t3'jnn« by former
things, and things that are to come;
and by the aflBrmation that it ac
counts for the mistake that some
commit in. supposing certain things
to be new which have merely been
forgotten. A careful examination of
the text and scope of tbe passage
will, however, shew the incorrectness
of this interpretation. The burden
of tbe sacred writer — after having
affirmed that all human effort is
vain, as man's existence and activity
here must for ever cease (ver. 2-4) —
is to prove his position, which he

CHAP. I.]

COHELETH.

267

remembrance of former men, nor will there be any remem
brance of future men among those who will live hereafter.

does by adducing, in the second
clause of verse 4 and verses 5-10,
instances of stability in objects of
nature, and contrasting them with
the instability of man. Then to take
this verse (11) "as assigning a reason
why some err in supposing that
something new takes place," is to
miss tbe whole force of the argument.
It was to be expected, that after the
inspired writer had enumerated his
illustrations, he would recur to his
main proposition, " the vanishing of
Aan from this scene of action," which
he does in our rendering. This is,
moreover, corroborated both by the
similar sentiment in ii. 16, 17; ix. 5,
which is the burden of the sacred
vrriter, and by the fact that the words
ED'juis'i and D'bnn^ being masculine
forms, are universally used for men
(comp. Deut. xix. 14; Job xviii. 20;
and infra, iv. 16), and never for
things, which are expressed by the
feminine (comp. niJtBNn, Isa. xiii. 9 ;

xlvi. 9; xlviii, 3, &c,; Gesen. § 107, 3,
b). The Chaldee has therefore rightly
rendered it "i:n l'«oiP «;'j;l' wjiai n<S,
there is no remembrance of the former
GBNEBATioN ; thus also Rashbam ex
plains D'bifiN-j by ly^ob ima:iB Dn« '^a
rtwa, the sons of men that were born
before us in the world, and tj'jnnN by
Dbiua irnnx wa'ffl, those men that will
come after us in the world; R. Bechai,
Chobath Halvavoth ; Alshech, &c.
Knobel, Heiligstedt, Elster, Ac, have
also seen tbe inconsistency of render
ing D'iffiN-i and D':nn« hy former and
future THINGS, though they missed
the sense of the passage. Jinai is tbe
construct of linai, i.q., nai, vide infra,
ix. 5 (comp, Gesen. § 93, 3 ; Ewald,
§ 214, a), and, as is frequently tbe
case, precedes a preposition (comp.
Isa. Ivi. 10 ; Ps. Iviii. 5 ; Gesen. §
116, 1; Ewald, §289, b). cnbisused
pleonastically. d9, with, also among,
like the Latin apud (comp. 2 Sam.
xiii. 23; Isa. xxxviii. 11).

SECTION L
CHAPTER L 12 — 11. 26.

Coheleth, with all the resources of a monarch at his command (12), applied
himself assiduously to discover, by the aid of wisdom, the nature of
earthly pursuits (13), and found that they were all fruitless (14), since
they could not rectify destinies (15). Reflecting, therefore, upon the
large amount of wisdbm he had acquired (16), he came to the conclusion
that it is all useless (17), as the accumulation of it only increased his
sorrow and pain (18). He then resolved to try pleasure, to see whether
it would yield tbe desired happiness, but found that this, too was vain
(ii. 1), and hence denounced it (2) ; for, having procured every imagi
nable pleasure (3-10), he found that it was utterly insufficient to
impart lasting good, (11). Whereupon he compared wisdom with
pleasure (12) ; and, though he saw the former had a decided advantage
over the latter (13-14, a), yet he also saw that it does not exempt its

268

COHELETH.

[chap. I.

possessor from death and oblivion, but that the wise and the fool must
both alike die and be forgotten (14 b- 16). This made him bate both
life and the possessions which, though acquired by industry and
wisdom, he must leave to another, wbo may be a reckless fool (17-21),
convincing him that man has nothing from his toil but wearisome days
and sleepless nights (23-23); that there is, therefore, nothing left for
man but to enjoy himself (24 a) ; yet this, too, he found was not in tbe
power of man (24 b-25) ; God gives this power to the righteous, and
withholds it from the wicked; and that it is, after all, transitory (26).
12, 13 I, Coheleth, was king over Israel in Jerusalem. And

12 / Coheleth, &c. The sacred
writer now proceeds to prove tbe
burden of tbe argument stated in the
prologue, and to shew the vanity of
all human efforts to satisfy the
craving of tbe immortal soul, by the
failure of the many experiments
which he has made to that efi'ect.
The first effort he made was wisdom
(13-18), an experiment so natural to
an intellectual being, and which
many cultivated minds have made
since, in the absence of a belief in a
future state. Coheleth states that
he, having been a king, had ample
means and opportunities of testing
the best of the varied speculations
of men. The prseterite tense, 'n;n,
1 was king, &c., shews that at the
time when this was written Solo
mon was no longer king. 'The at
tempt of Ibn Ezra to account for
this prseterite, by ¦ insinuating '3^»
nnM< ib'^a na^n vd' nnnwa 'a nv ncnn
»n 'D'a <n'D: "[ai -|a D'^an Ttvmb, that
Solomon wrote it in his old age, and
appeals, as it were, to the new or
rising generations, and tells them such
and such things I tried in my lifetime,
is an ingenious conceit, and does not
remove the difficulty. The Chaldee
fully felt this dilemma, and hence
resorted to the traditional fable that
Solomon, having departed from the
words of the Law in tbe pride of his
heart, was dethroned by Ashmodai,
king of the demons, and thus said,
"I was king but am not now;" comp.
also Midrash Yalkut, in loco; Tal
mud, Gittin, 68, b ; Midrash Maase
Bishlomo Hammeleh, in Jellinek's

Baith Hammidrash ii., p. 86. Simi
larly Rashi, fjiDabi D'jwn'ta ba -pn 'nTi
to WDayi mab ?'biaiT bs fiiDabi birtixf bs
vmas bax t:'';ffln'a -fa »n'n na«: nniD 'bpD
-pa ir», I was at flrst king over the
whole world, then only over Israel,
then only over Jerusalem, and then
over my stick, for it is said, ' I was king
in Jerusalem,' but I am not king now ;
There is no doubt that the fable of
Solomon's dethronement arose from
an anxious desire to account for this
difficulty, as the Rabbins evidently
saw thai 'n'n means I was, and am
no more, and to make Solomon die a
penitent (see Steinschneider, Heb.
Lit., p. 47). As far, however, as his
tory is concerned, we know that
Solomon was king till bis death;
and as be, therefore, could not write
" I was king, and am no more," which
the Rabbins themselves admit is the
meaning of wn, we, who do not be
lieve the traditional fable, must con
clude that some one later than Solo
mon was the author of this book.
Moreover the expression (D'bi^m), in
Jerusalem, also shews that the book
was written after Solomon, when the
kingdom was divided into two, and
when ther* was another royal resi
dence besides Jerusalem. Ibn Ezra's
attempt to elude this, by saying,
bap'; pai nnipo nvn niasa ta'beiT'a noMi
ntaann, that Jerusalem is mentioned
because it uas the proper place for
acquiring wisdom, does not comport
with an address of a king to his con
temporaneous people.
13. And I gave my heart, &c.
Thus circumstanced, Coheleth exa-

chap. I.J

COHELETH.

269

I gave my heart to enquire diligently into wisdom
respecting all that is done under heaven ; this is an evil
business which God hath given to the children of men to

mined, by the help of wisdom or
philosophy, the nature of all human
actions, in order to discover those
sublunary gratifications and enjoy
ments which would remove the
desponding impression made by the
contemplation of the permanency
and regularity in the objects and
laws of nature, contrasted with the
transitoriness and instability of man.
But he soon found that tbe endea
vour to seek human happiness in wis
dom was a vain employment, which
God has wisely imposed upon man,
who, in the pride of his heart, looks
to his own faculties for an infallible
guide to happiness. As the heart is
regarded among the Hebrews and
other nations, not only as the seat
of the passions, but also as possessing
the faculty of thinking, judging,
&c., &c (Is. X. 7 ; Judg. xvi. 17 ;
Job. xii. 3 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 18 ;
comp. also cor in Latin ; Cicero,
'Tusc. i. 9 ; Plant. Pers. iv. 4. 71) ;
hence arose the phrases ab jnj, to give
one's heart to something {vide irifra,
ver. 17; vii. 21; viii. 9. 16; Dan.
X. 12; 1 Chron. xxii. 19); ab pn
(2 Chron. xii. 14 ; xxx. 19) ; ab d*
(Is. xii. 22 ; Hag. ii. 15. 18) ; ab n'lfi
(Job vii, .17 ; Ps. xlviii. 14 ; Ixii. 11);
and the Latin, animum applicare,
attendere; hence, also, the phrases
which apostrophise the heart, e.g., ia"!
ab D9, to speak to the heart (ver. 16) ;
aba IDS, to say to the heart (ii. 1). The
rendering of Symmachus, wfoeBi/Aw,
I sat before myself, or, / proposed
to myself, is too languid. The
Vulgate's rendering of this phrase is
capricious and in consistent Thus.in
the passage before us it is translated,
PEOPOsut IN AHIMO MEO, I proposed in
my mind; in ver. 1 7 of this chap , and
viii. 9, DEDi coK MEUM, I havo given
my heart ; in vii. 21, ne aooommodes
COR TOUM, do not accommodate thine
heart ; in viii. 16, apposui coh

MEUM, / applied my heart. The
synonymous expressions iSni and "iw,
both primarily signifying to go, to
go in search cf anything, to seek, are
here used not so much in any dis
tinction of meaning, but, as two
verbs of a similar import are fre
quently employed to give intensity to
the statement (comp. infra, vii. 25;
Song of Songs, v. 6; Matt. iv. 39).
nnana, into wisdom, is wrongly ren
dered adverbially by the Vulgate
(sapienter), which Luther (njci^ti(|),
Holden {sagaciously and diligently),
Preston {soientifioally), &c., follow.
The censure here uttered is not upon
absolute wisdom, for this the sacred
writer praises in the sequel ; but
upon wisdom acquired for the pur
pose of guiding in the gratification
of his desires, and for finding in it
solid happiness. The sublunary
works are the productions of men,
as the Chaldee rightly paraphrases
it («?:« \;a nais ba), and not, as Ibn
Ezra maintains, tbe operations of
nature, ps, from n» to labour, to
toil oppressively, to be oppressed,
afflicted; hence to cry out under it,
then to cry aloud, in a more exten
sive sense ; to call out, to let one's
voice be heard through joy or sorrow,
thus ni» bip ^w nniaji ni» bip )'n
»oiu 'abM ni3_» b\p hx^ib^^ not the sound
of the cry of victory, nor the sound of
the cry of defeat, the sound of singing I
hear (Exod. xxxii, 18) , hence to speak,
according to the analogy of );;p, from
njij, |;ia, from n:a, denotes work, busi
ness, employment, occupation. The
word only occurs in this book {vide
infra, ii, 23, 26 ; iii. 10 ; iv. 8 ; v. 2,
13; viii. 16); but is frequently used in
later Hebrew writings in this sense,
which is also given by the Sept.
Aquila, Theodo. (wEpn-woo-juoi), Symm.
(ao-;^o\itt), and many modern com
mentators, as,' for instance, Knobel,
De Wette, Preston, Philippson, &c.

270

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

14 busy themselves therewith. I considered all the works
that are done under the sun, and behold they are all

The renderings 3)Jil^e (Luther), tra
vail (Autb. Ver.), curiosity (Holden),
do not exactly express the sense.
ST. ]<», liter, an employment of sad
ness, i. e., a sad, an evil employ
ment, or business. Jri, which is here,
as frequently elsewhere, a noun
(comp. Exod. xxxii. 22 ; Ps. Ixxviii.
49), is placed in the genitive, after
X?^, to express its quality ; the same
construction occurs in iv. 8 and v. 13
(comp. Gesen. § 106, 1; Ewald, § 287,
f). The Sept. uniformly translates p,»
sn, in the three places, wEpiD-was-iuof
nonfk, an evil occupation ; whilst the
Vulg. inconsistently renders it here,
occopATio PEssiMA, Utterly bad occu
pation; in iv. 8 and v. 13, affiictio
PESSIMA, utterly bad affliction. 'The
pronoun "isiM is implied before jni
(Gesen. § 123, 3; Ewald, § 332)^
^a ni:»b is not to give evidence of
himself (some quoted by Ibn Ezra,
Desvoeux, &c.), nor /or their humili
ation (another opinion quoted by
Ibn Ezra, Hodgson, &c.), nor that
they may weary themselves therein
(Luther, Boothroyd, &c,), for these
renderings are against the significa
tion of pw, by which the meaning of
ni» must be determined, since the
phrase ps niw is a construction of
very frequent occurrence (comp.
2 Sam. xvi. 23 ; 2 Kings xiii. 14 ;
Gesen. § 138, 1; Rem. 1; Ewald,
§ 281, a). The Sept., Vulg,, Syriac,
Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Knobel,
De Wette, Preston, &c., rightly retain
tbe idiom.
14. I considered all the works, &o.
Having summarily stated, in the
preceding verses, that he was dis
appointed in the wisdom by which
he had hoped to remove tbe sad
impression which the contemplation
mentioned in 2-11 left upon his
mind, the sacred writer gives in this
and in the following verse the cause
of this disappointment. With all
the help that this so much coveted
wisdom could render, he found that

the efibrts made, by her assistance,
to secure comfort and solid happi
ness, are mere vanity and striving
after the wind, nsn, to see, to view,
to consider. B'iBsan, the works s-poken
of in the preceding verse. The
phrase mn ni»n, which also occurs
in ii. 11. 17. 26 ; iv. 4. 6 ; vi. 9, has
produced a variety of renderings,
owing to the difi'erent etymologies
assigned to nwn. Thus the Syriac
(|j1o5j \kihLi), the Chaldee
(«mn niTa:p), Vulg. {affliotis spiritus),
Rashi (mn naia), Alshech, Coverdale,
Authorised Version, &c., have break
ing down or vexation of spirit, i. e.,
the contemplation of these things
breaks down or produces a crushing
effect on, or irritates, one's spirits,
deriving nwn from 3>»n = y2n, to
break, to depress. But as nwn,
according to the analogy of nin^,
from nn^, nins, from nns, niaifi, irom
nati, can grammatically only be
derived from n»n , which is moreover
corroborated by the parallel form,
nin^i'^n (iw/ra, ver. 17; iv. 16), this
rendering is inadmissible. As the
only legitimate root, n»n, however,
signifies both to feed, and then spiri
tually to feed or feast upon anything,
to delight in anything, hence diflferent
interpretations have been defended,
based upon one or the other shade
of meaning of the root. Thus Aquila,
Theod. {vofxri an/juv), Symmachus
(Bis-maiq avsfx.m), have feeding upon
the wind; Rashbam, a pleasure for
the talented, (,51,2 .^31,^ rt^ p^n nwn) '<
Desvoeux, company for the wind;
but these interpretations are too
artificial. It is therefore better to
take the secondary meaning of the
word, viz., to desire, to strive after
anything, hence nm nwn, a striving
after the wind ; so the Sept. (TrpoaipEa-it
imifAa.ro;), Ibn Ezra (nin naionn),
Gesenius, Rosenmiiller, Knobel, De
Wette, Noyes, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Elster, &c. This is corroborated by

CHAP. I.j

COHELETH.

271

15 vanity, and striving after the wind; for the depressed
cannot be set right, since he that is gone cannot be num-

Hos. xii. 2, where nm n»n, stands in
parallelism with Q'njj fjTj.
15. The depressed cannot be set
right, &c. And the reason of this
is to be found in tbe fact, that no
cogitation of tbe human mind, no
amount of wisdom, however great,
can remove the depression produced
by the fact stated in 2- 11, since it
cannot recall one who has departed
this life to be numbered among the
living. Thus the hope of finding
comfort in wisdom, terminates with
, the same gloomy conclusion, as the
contemplation of nature in verse 11.
nwo, Pual part, of nwij., nw, to
curve, to bend, passive to be bent,
bowed down, depressed ("Ps. xxxviii. 7),
jnpn is masculine, and, according to
the analogy of I'l'J*;, signifies he that
is wanting, he that is gone, nijan),
to be numbered with (comp, Isa, liii.
12), i. e., n';nn n«, with the living.
As the second clause assigns the
reason for the statement made in
the first, the i in liipni is therefore
to be _ rendered for, since (Gesen.
§ 155, 1. e.) 'This we believe to be
the most natural interpretation of
the verse, which has called forth
such a variety of explanations from
time immemorial to the present
da_y. Thus the Talmud (Jebamoth,
22, b) explains the first clause of
illegitimate offspring mns>n b» san ni
HiDD niDD Tbim . The Vulgate has,
PeRVEHSI DIFFICIIE COBRIQUNinE,
et STUITORUM INFINITUS est NUMB-
BUS, the perverse are difficult to be
corrected, and the fools are infinite in
number. Tbe Chaldee refers it to
tbe sins of man, and his inability to
repent after death. As a man who
has corrupted his ways in this world,
and dies in them without repentance,
cannot amend after his death; and a
man who departs from the Law and
the Prophets when alive, cannot be
numbered with the righteous in Para
dise after his death. This Midrashic
explanation is followed by St. Jerome

in" his commentary : Qui peevebsus
NISI ANTE COBRIGATUR, NON POTEST
ADORNABI ; RECTA OBNATUM EEOIP-
TUNT, ET CORVA CORRECTIONEM, he
that is perverse, unless he be first
corrected, cannot be adorned; right
things receive adorning, and crooked
things correction. Similarly Rashi,
iDSBncmt) m nnmo ]ipnb bav vh vna nwn
biapa tann» nimnb bav Nb ?naan poo
DnaiB, he who is perverted when alive,
cannot correct himself when dead ;
and he who absented himself from the
assembly of the righteous, cannot be
numbered with them when they receive
their reward. Rashbam refers it to
the inability of man who has once
perverted his deeds, ever to appear
right in the presence of God as
before. 13'm vffl»n nn din mw dnib
"p'n '3Db nb'nnaa ricsoa pinn nvnb bia'
nrnb 'bia' ivm pen ini« nan niiB non csi
n'niB:\B nmnn ns mo'Di 'U'o nw. Ibn
Ezra mentions two different interpre
tations. According to one, Coheleth
saw that everything is worthless ;
that emptiness cannot be rendered
substantial, for natural defectiveness
(nwp) is irreparable or irremediable,
because that defectiveness is inborn,
and one who becomes imperfect
(lintpni) cannot be numbered among
the perfect ones, ^inipn would accord
ingly stand for jmon bsa, one who has
failed, ''M being omitted before
the word JiiDni ; or pen might be
taken as an adjective, like liii5«n, linns,
or as a noun belonging to nwn, so
that nwp by itself would be innate
defectiveness, and ]i"'Dn nwn con
tracted defectiveness. " According
to the other interpretation, however,
man is not naturally defective, but
is, by birth, placed in imperfect
circumstances, and has no power to
perfect himself; and it is generally
found that those who strive to find
out these sources by the help of
astrology or natural science, strive
to no purpose ; and this is the case
with most men, and most of their

272

COHELETH.

[chap. I.

16 bered again. I therefore spake to my heart saying, " I, lol
I have acquired far greater wisdom than any one who was

works." Thus, according to the first
interpretation, the rendering of this
verse would be, " The naturally
defective is irreparable, and he wbo
becomes imperfect can no more be
numbered among the perfect ones ;"
and, according to the second, " The
imperfect has no power to perfect
himself, and the cause of the imper
fection he cannot fathom," which
Reynolds, Patrick, Gill, &c., nearly
follow. Holden has, "That which
is perverse is with difficulty cor
rected, and that which is defective
is with difficulty supplied." These
commentators apply this verse to the
moral endeavours of man. Booth
royd and Philippson render it, "What
is crooked cannot be made straight,
nor can the defects of things be
numbered," i. e., all the efibrts of
man are vain, because the existing
deficiencies cannot be improved, but
must remain deficient, and these defi
ciencies are not to be met with here
and there, but are innumerable. We
will only remark here, on this inter
pretation, which refers it to man's
scientific efforts, that it would require
niiintan in the plural, and neipn ]'«.
Knobel and Stuart, who, taking the
same view, refer the second clause to
the inability of man to supply the
things wanted to render human life
happy, escape this censure. Noyes
and others regard this verse as a
proverbial phrase, introduced " to
assign a reason why human striving
should be vain, and human pursuits
should be so iucapable of affording
satisfaction, namely, the perverse-
ness of human nature, and the
imperfections of human things. As
that which is by nature crooked
cannot by human endeavours be
straightened — as the vine, for in
stance, cannot be made to grow up
straight, like the poplar ; and as
that which is naturally wanting to
anything cannot be supplied by
human exertion — for instance, a

man cannot be made to possess
wings, like a bird, or more than two
bands or feet — so there are irregu
larities, discords, imperfections, in
human life and the course of human
things, which are irremediable, and
render it impossible for man to find
complete satisfaction." Elster refers
this verse to the imperfection of aU
human efforts both moral and physi
cal, and their inability to obtain for
man his highest aim ; the realities
of life never coming up to one's con
ceptions, there being always some
thing deficient which precludes the
possibility of man's ever securing a
complete harmony between them.
But all these interpretations, apart
from the other objections which
might be urged against some of
them separately, miss the thread of
the argument. The design of the
sacred writer is to shew that his
resort to practical wisdom, for having
the difficulty and sadness removed
which the contemplation of nature
has produced upon his mind, was
" vanity and striving after the wind,"
since the fact stated in verse 1 1
cannot be obviated. To take, there
fore, the verse before us as descrip
tive of the moral state of man, or of
his physical inabilities, or of the
defects in nature, is to overlook the
ve"ry burden of tbe writer, as ex
pressed in vv, 4 and 11, to which
be evidently here returns, in shewing
the inefficiency of wisdom, as is
plain from our rendering, which is
moreover corroborated by tbe fact
that the Vulg,, St, Jerome in bis com
mentary, the Chaldee, Rashi, Rash
bam, Ibn Ezra, &c,, take Jinon and
nwp as referring to persons, and not
to things.
16. I therefore spake, &e. Having
described to us tbe inability of wis
dom to remove that depression, the
sacred writer makes a most pathetic
appeal to his heart, being the seat of
the ¦intellectual faculties {vide supra.

CHAP. I.J

COHELETH.

273

before me over Jerusalem — my heart having seen much

ver. 13), before he summons it to try
another experiment. For the origin
of the phrase ab as nan, to speak to the
heart, and similar phrases (chap, ii.
1. 15;Gon.xxiv.45;lSam.i. 13; Ps.
xiv, 1 ; XV. 2), see ver. 13. The pro
noun '?*?, before the verb, with the pro
nominal suffix, is not " designed to
give special emphasis to the clause"
(Stuart), but is used pleonastically,
which is one of the characteristics of
thisbook;comp. tra/'rii, ii.l. 11. 14.15.
18. 20. 24, &c. 'PiBDin? 'nbniiri, literally,
I made great and increased, i.e., I
greatly increased, I became exceed
ingly great in wisdom; the second
verb, which is used as a complement,
is subordinate to the first ; vide infra,
ii. 9 ; iv. 17 ; viii. 3 ; Song of Songs,
ii. 3; Gesen. § 142, 3; Ewald, § 285,
npan is the accusative; comp. 1 Kings,
X. 7 ; Gesen. § 188. The Vulg. erro
neously renders this clause magnus
effectus sum, et pracessi omnes sapi
entia qui, &c., which Luther, Cover-
dale, Authorised Version, &c , follow,
but which is rightly rejected by Ibn
Ezra and most modern commen
tators. The preposition b» before ba,
like super in Latin, and our words
over, above, expresses the idea of
surpassing, going beyond anything;
comp. nsiDian b» npn;, thou art greater
than tlie report which I have heard
(2 Chron. ix. 6; Gen. Ixix. 26; Ps.
Ixxxix. 8; Job xxiii. 2). The ren
dering, therefore, of Umbreit, " I
have gathered much wisdom respect
ing all things," &o., is incorrect, ba,
as frequently, is used distributively,
every one, any one, which accounts
for the verb nvr being in the singular.
The reading I'n nti« ba in the plural,
which is found in one of De Rossi's
MSS., and which is favoured by the
Sept., Syriac, Chaldee, Vulg, &e., has
evidently arisen from a desire of
uniformity to ii. 7. The preposition
bs before D'jtiin; is used in the sense
of power, dominion, rvlership, and
refers to all the kings that sat upon
the Jewish throne. As, however,
one king only reigned before Solomon 21

in Jerusalem, viz,, his father David,
we have here another proof that this
book must have been written after
Solomon, at a time when the writer
could look back upon a whole suc
cession of kings. Those who main
tain the Solomonic authorship of this
book have resorted to various expe
dients, in order to account for this
incongruity. Thus tbe Chaldee has
paraphrased it 'pnp nn n swan ba b»
'a!!ipin''a, / have increased wisdom above
all THE SAGES that were before me in
Jerusalem, which Rashi, Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, and many Christian com
mentators follow. Reynolds, Patrick,
&c., refer it to all men; Gussetius
restricts it to the princes, rulers, and
civil magistrates in Jerusalem ; and
Gill refers it to the governors of
Jerusalem, to the Jebusites, as well
as to Saul and David. But see ver.
12, and ii. 7.
My heart having seen, &c. This
clause gives the reason why the
sacred writer appeals to the heart;
because it was the heart that acquired
that surpassing amount of wisdom
and knowledge for the purpose of re
moving the sad impression, Coheleth
therefore confers with it about the
fruitless result of this experiment
before trying another. As this clause
is merely exegetical, it is better ren
dered participially. Tbe heart is de
scribed as seeing wisdom, for the
reason given in ver. 13. The phrase
to see wisdom (see also infra, ii. 12,
and Jer. ii. 31) is owing to the fact
that the Jews did not view abstrac
tions, but regarded the operations of
the mind and feelings when they
became objective and were visible in
a concrete form, nann, Hiphil, infln.
abso., which has generally Tsere,
with or without Yod (comp. idnijn,
Judges xvii. 3; naan, Exod. viii. 11;
Gesen. § 53, 3, Rem. 2), meaning
literally multiplicando, is used ad
verbially {vide infra, ii. 7; v. 6. 11,
16, 19; vii, 16, 17; ix, 18; xii. 9;
Gesen. § 75, 5, Rem. 14, § 131, 2;
Ewald, § 280, c). The Vulg., mis-

274

COHELETH.

[CHAP. I.

17 wisdom and knowledge, for I have given my heart to
know wisdom and knowledge — I know that even this is
18 striving after the wind. For, in much wisdom is much
sadness, and multiplying knowledge is multiplying sorrow.

taking this usage of the infinitive,
has wrongly rendered this clause : et
MENS MEA OONTEMPLATA EST MDLTA
SAPIENTER ET DiDioi, and my mind
has contemplated many things wisely,
and 1 have learned. Luther is equally
wrong : Unb ntein ^etj 5at biet gelernt
unb etfo|ren.
17. For I have given my heart, &c.
This is epexegetiool of the last clause
in the preceding verse : " My heart
has seen much wisdom and know
ledge, because I have applied it to
acquire wisdom and knowledge ;" the
participial rendering might therefore
still be retained. The Authorised Ver
sion and Stuart's translation are con
fused; Coverdale's is far better: "My
heart had great experience of wisdom
and knowledge, for thereunto 1 ap
plied my mind, that I might know
what were wisdom and knowledge."
'The words nibatoi nibbh nsni npan nsnb
are rendered by most modern com
mentators, lo know wisdom, and to
know madness and folly ; but this is
against the meaning of the words, as
well as against the scope of the
passage. ns>ni is not an infinitive,
and can therefore not be rendered to
know, like nsnb; it is a noun, and
must be translated knowledge ; it is
joined by the copula to ^'^X! i wisdom,
as nibais is to nibbin, and is regarded
so by the Sept., Vulg., Syriac, Chal
dee, &c. nib^ic, again, is not folly,
but, on tbe contrary, means prudence ;
it frequently occurs in Chaldee and
later Hebrew writings, and has in
variably this sense, which is also
given here by the Sept., Syriac, Chal
dee, Rashbam, Luther, &c. More
over, this rendering is contrary to
the context; tbe intention of the
sacred writer is not to prove the
inutility o^ folly and madness, but to
shew the inefiiciency of wisdom to
remove that sad impression which the

contemplation of naturehad produced
upon his mind, and to secure lasting
happiness. The introduction, there
fore, of " folly and madness" breaks
the whole thread of the argument.
Tbis objection is, of course, equally
applicable to the expression nibbin,
folly, as it now stands in the text,
which, in order to avoid this dilemma,
has unwarrantably been rendered
by Dathe, Desvoeux, &c., splendid
matters ; by Gill, things boasted of;
by Boothroyd, excellence. I have,
therefore, no hesitation in concluding
that the words have crept into the
text through the carelessness of a
transcriber. This is placed beyond
the shadow of a doubt by the itnme-
diately following verse, which con
cludes the argument, stating the
result of acquiring npan, wisdom, and
nsn, knowledge, — the very words used
in this verse, — but makes no mention
whatever of " folly and madness."
But if the clause is retained, not to
obscure the argument, ni:ia^, intelli
gence, must be substituted for nibbin,
folly, according to the Sept., Syriac,
Chaldee, and Arabic. The perfect,
'1??!^, is used for the present (comp.
Jobix.2;x.l3;Gesen.§126,3; Ewald,
§ 135, b). Nin, prop, pro., third pers.,
is used for the auxiliary verb to be
(comp. Gesen. § 121, 2), Jiwn is the
same as nwn in verse 14, from n»n,
just as ]i'pn and man are merely
different forms from the root nnn,
and have the same meaning (Gesen.
§ 84, 15, 16). The Vulg., mistaking
the sense, translates the last clause:
IN HIS QUOQUE ESSET LABOR ET AF-
FLioTio spiRiius, in this also there
was labour and vexation of spirit.
Equally erroneous is Luther's ren
dering, 3$ itjatb aUx gma^x, baf
foI^eS au^ sroaje iji.
18. For in much wisdom, &c,, i.e.,
since the acquisition of human know-

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

275

ii. 1 I then spake to my heart. Come, now, let me try thee

with mirth, and thou shalt see pleasure !

And, lo !

this

ledge, so far from being able to remove
the depression and secure solid happi
ness, causes only sorrow and disap
pointment. For the more knowledge
we acquire, the more clearly and
acutely we see and feel tbe fleetness
of life, the emptiness of our enjoy
ments, and the abortiveness of all
our efforts, based upon this knowUdge,
to ameliorate our condition. It must
be borne in mind that the sacred
writer does not here depreciate the
acquisition of wisdom in itself, or
absolutely, for he eulogises it in tbis
very book {vide infra, ii. 13, 14, &c.)
It is the proud human wisdom which
dethrones God and deifies man, pre
tending to give him laws and regu
lations whereby to make him happy;
it is this wisdom to which be resorted
in trouble; believing its pretensions,
he sought to be comforted by its
power, and found, as every one simi
larly circumstanced will find, that
the more he acquired of it, for the
purpose of finding comfort in it,
apart from Ood, the greater was his
sorrow and disappointment. A simi
lar instance of absolute language
being used instead of relative, also
occurs in viii. 12, 13." For the
meaning of d»3, see infra, vii. 3 ;
Ps. vi. 8 ; X. 14. Fj'pi' is taken by
some as tbe third person imp. Hiph.,
and the construction is regarded as
elliptical, fj'pvi to stand for fj^pi' ntim,
" Ae who increases" (Herzfeld, Hitzig,
Gesen. § 50, 8, Rem. 1); but the word
is better taken as the participle of
f]'nih (comp. Is. xxix. 14; xxxviii. 5),
which, as is evident from other forms
of the Hiphil, returns to the Kal,
and forms its participle according to
this conjugation (Ewald, § 127, b).
The Chaldee paraphrase has rightly
rendered it by fl'pin, so also Rash
bam. The Sept., mistaking the
word D»3, vexation, for the assonant
n?n, knowledge, renders the first
clause of this verse ?t< ev vj^nSn a-a^iac
T^n9(l5 j.»a;s-£»f, " he who increases

wisdom increases knowledge.'' The
Chaldee refers the augmentation of
sorrow here spoken of, not to the man
who acquires wisdom, but to God,
and to his relatives, and curiously
paraphrases the verse. " For tho
man who increases wisdom, when he
sins and does not repent, increases
the wrath of God; and tbe youth
who is multiplying knowledge, and
dies in his youth, is multiplying
pain in the heart of his relatives."
Equally erroneous is the Vulgate,
which, contrary to the signification
of the word ais^n, and the scope of
the whole passage, renders the last
clause ET QUI addit soientiam,
ADDiT ET LABOREM, and he who adds
knowledge adds also labour, which
St. Jerome explains, sapiens dolet,
TAM IN ABDlTO QUAM IN PBOFUNDO
latere SAPIENTIAM, NEO ITA SE
PB^BEBE MENTIBUS, SlCOT LUMEN,
BISUI, SED PEB TOBMENTA QU,S;DAM
ET INTOLEBANOUM LABOREM JUGI
MEDITATIONE ET STUDIO AD EAM
PEBVBNiRE, the wise man deplores that
wisdom, which, lying hid in a depth of
secrecy, does not shew itself to the
mind as light does to the eyes, so
that a man cannot attain to it unless
it be by torments and intolerable
labour, by continual meditation and
study, applying it to the labour which
one has in acquiring knowledge,
Luther, though keeping more to the
meaning of aiHpo, has given it the
same erroneous explanation, Unb bet
biet Ic|ten muf, bet muf btet leiben.
1. I then spake to my heart, &c.
Having found the acquisition of
wisdom unable to remove the depres
sion and satisfy the longings of the
soul, Coheleth now appeals to his
heart to try another experiment ; he
leaves the laboratory of knowledge,
and betakes himself to the bowers of
pleasure ; but, alas ! this, too, he
finds unable to divert bis sorrow,
and allay the cravings of his mind.
The heart or soul, being the seat of

276

COHELETH.

[CHAP. II.

2 too is vanity. To mirth I said. Thou actest foolishly !

the intellect {vide supra, ¦ver. 13), is
constantly addressed in this book
(see i, 16 ; ii. 1. 15 ; iii. 17) ; it is that
in man which makes him dissatisfied
with the things that are transient,
and long for things which produce
solid happiness. Similar instances
occur, both in other parts of tbe
Old Testament and in the New,
where man, roused by difiBcult cir
cumstances, apostrophises his mind
(Ps. xiii. 6. 12 ; xliii. 5 ; Luke xii.
19). For the pleonastic use of
the pron. '?« after 'finoM, which has
already the pronoun, see i. 16. nnij
aba is the same as ab bw nns (Gen. viii.
31) ; abb nnM (Hos. vii. 2) ; and D» nan
ab ; and is well explained by Ibn
Ezra, 'ODi us nan'. The rendering of
the Sept. eTttov lyw Iv itapUa. fA.au, which
the Vulg, {dixi ego in corde meo),
Luther (i^ fpta^ in meinem ^etjen),
Authorised Version, and the modern
commentators follow, is contrary to
the immediately following apos
trophe, >«"nab is used for incitement
(Numb, xxii, 6; Judg, xix, 11), the
n in the imper, nab, is paragogio or
intensive, and m; is the particle of
incitement ; it is well rendered by the
Chaldee |?|, and explained by Ibn
Ezra (Gen, xii, 11) nn» ina »: nbn;
the expression i*i is like now, which
we employ in the same sense, napjH
is the Piel of noi, to try, with the a
pronominal affix second person fern,
{vide infra, vii, 2-3), referring to ab,
heart, and n paragogic (comp. nar,
Exod. xiii. 16), and is rightly ren
dered by the Sept, •Treipatrai a-£ Iv Ev^pa-
oTjvn; Syriac and Chaldee, Ninna ]'na«,
Desvoeux, Hodgson, Knobel, Booth
royd, Gesenitts, Herzfeld, Ewald,
Stuart, Philippson, Elster, Fiirst, &c,
Tbe rendering of tbe Vulg, {affluam
deliciis), which is paraphrased by
Luther, tip WiU WO^I te6en ; Cover-
dale, / will take mine ease; and
Reynolds, I will pour out plentifully
wine with joy, I will pour out myself
in delights, is based upon a Rabbinic
exposition, which is evident from
Rashi (ninfflb ]" "^on), and Rashbam

(nnniB bio ma'Dja 'oss injnx), who as
usual transmit the traditional expla
nations, n«n.i, and thou shalt see,
i.e., enjoy, 'i'he ancients used the
expression to see in a far more intense
and comprehensive sense than we do.
Personifying every passion and emo
tion, they spoke of seeing, when they
were in the midst of them and shared
in them. Hence the phrase D>.»n nsn
{infra, ix. 9), and the Greek lUXv {mv,
to see life; ISetv Bivcmv, to see death.
The infinitive nsni is used with refe
rence to the future, because of the
imperfect by which it is preceded, as
indicated by the i (Gesen. § 126, 6, a;
Ewald, § 135, c), which is wrongly
translated therefore by the Authorised
Version. The preposition a before
aiiD, after nxn, a verb of sense,
expresses the intensity and perti
nacity with which the object is
seized (comp. Gen. xxi. 16 ; Job
iii. 9; Gesen. § 154, 3, 2; Ewald,
§ 217, f 2, y). The Vulgate's ren
dering of aiioa nsni, etfruor bonis, as
well as Luther's ic^ witt gute Sage
5aben, which is followed by Cover-
dale, / will have good days, are loose
and tame paraphrases.
2. To mirth I said, &c. The
indulgence in pleasure and merri
ment, so far from gratifying the
cravings of the soul, is a mere tem
porary frenzy, and only causes
man, when dethroned reason resumes
the reins of her empire, to see and
inveigh' against the folly in which
he had plunged. Coheleth does not
denounce innocent cheerfulness and
pleasure, for this he himself recom
mends in tbe sequel. What he re
pudiates is, that rational man, seeing
the inability of wisdom to calm the
mind saddened by the admonition of
everything around that it has no
abiding place here, and aching after
solid happiness, should betake him
self to pleasure and mirth, in the
vain hope thereby to quiet the voice
of reason. To denounce this in terms
most emphatic, the sacred writer per
sonifies pleasure and mirth, and then

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

277

3 and to pleasure, What doth she do? I resolved with my

tells the one that she acts madly, and
ironically asks the other what she
does ? whether she acts differently ?
How, then, can rational man betake
himself to those which act so madly,
in hope of having his actions regu
lated by them in such a manner as
to satisfy reason ? piriip, wanton plea
sure, vide infra, vii, 3,6; x, 1 9,
The preposition b in pinicb and nnntob
is not to be rendered of (Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, Authorised Version, Men
delssohn, Holden, Preston, Herzfeld,
Philippson, &c,), nor in respect to
(Knobel, Stuart, &c,), but is to be
taken in its natural sense, to ; so the
Sept,, Luther, Coverdale, Desvoeux,
Hodgson, Rosenmiiller, Boothroyd,
Elster, &c. bbinp Pual part, ofbbn,
to shine, to glory, to boast, to vaunt,
to be foolish, to be mad, is the passive
of Wn, to make foolish, to make mad
{vide infra, vii. 7 ; Is. xliv. 25 ; Job
xii. 17), the causat. of Kal, and ought
to be rendered as a neutral verb, to
act foolishly, to act madly, as is
evident from Ps. cii. 9, which is the
only other passage where this parti
ciple occurs, and means those who
act madly against me ; and from the
verb ni)», to act, which is used in
parallelism with it in the text before
us. Tbe rendering of the Sept.,
Theodo., mpi^Spa, rambling about;
Symm. &o'f uSot, tumult; Aquila, irxhnm,
error ; do not express the sense.
The paraphrase of the Vulgate
(risum reputavi erroeem, laughter
I counted error), and Ibn Ezra, ('nnn«
bbiriD «inm pinob nEi:n '3, / said that
he who inclines to mirth is mad), are
both languid, and against the text.
In tbe Talmud (Sabbath 30, 2), bfnrm
is taken for ^^np, so also Rashi, who
explains it naiwo, thou art praised, and
a contradiction is noticed between
this passage, where mirth is praised,
and vii. 3, where it is condemned.
The interrogation niis ni"np, what
does she do ? used as an emphatic
denial {vide supra, i. 3) is exceedingly
forcible. The sacred writer has
declared that mirth acts the fool,

and now asks whether pleasure acts
differently, or, in other words, de
nounces it as acting in the same
manner. Following the example of
tbe Chaldee paraphrase (n'M r^mr^ no
aj'na» 'n naab, what advantage does it
yield to the man who indulges in it ?)
Rashi (nmw naito nn, what good does
it produce?) and Ibn Ezra (aim nn
n\BS>n), modern commentators take
the verb nto» in the sense of yielding,
producing, and explain this clause,
" what solid good does pleasure yield
or produce ?" But this requires an
unnecessary departure from the usual
meaning of niB», to do, a harsh
ellipsis of aiia, good, and, above all,
weakens the sense. The sacred
writer has forcibly denounced mirth
as acting the fool ; and is it likely
that he would treat pleasure, its
parallel, with more leniency, simply
ask what good it yields, and thus
weaken tbe second hemistich? ni
is an abbreviation of n«i, and is
peculiar to later Hebrew writers
\vide infra, ver. 24; v. 15, 18 ; vii.
23; ix. 13; 2 Kings vi, 19; Ezek.
xl. 45 ; Fiirst, Lexicon, s. v. ; Ewald,
§ 183, a ; Gesen. § 34). The Syriac
- P T, ..OP
rendering of bbinp by ^OCTl \lliD,
as if the original were b»;'nn, which
Houbigant has actually adopted,
because it corresponds better to
Tws rrrna in the next member ; tbe
Septuagint's version of nto nrnn, ti
TouTo woe"? ; why doest thou thus ? as if
tbe original were nj nx rvas nn, which
is followed by Hodgson and Booth
royd ; and the Vulgate's paraphrase,
QUID fustra deoiperis ? why art
thou vainly deceived ? are to be
rejected as unwarranted deviations
from the text.
3. / resolved, &c. Having given
us summarily the result of his experi
ment with pleasure, in verses 1 and 2,
Coheleth now details some particular
instances of the pleasures by which
he vainly sought to remove the
depression from his mind, and secure
lasting happiness. He conferred and

278

COHELETH.

[CHAP. II.

heart to draw my body "with pleasure, my mind guiding
with wisdom, and to lay hold on folly, till I should see
what is good for the sons of men which they should do

resolved with his heart — for the
reason given in ver. 1 — to indulge
in banqueting and pleasure, and
thus try to satisfy the cravings of the
soul, 'aba 'nnn, liter., / thought with
my heart, i. e., I and my mind came
to the conclusion. The sentence is
pregnant, implying the result of the
cogitation, and the determination to
act in accordance with it. ^^n, tu
draw, to bring out, to cheer; so
the Syriac (nVnmoVn\l Rashi
{•psb), Rashbam ('ns» nniobi :i:»nnb
j"a), Lee, &c. Others, however,
render it to lead (Chaldee n'aa wnaib
'npa n» Mnnnn M;Btt)n, to lead my
body into the banqueting-house), to
inure, to train (Parchon mannbi bnab),
to indulge (Mendelssohn, Preston,
&c,), to make robust, to strengthen
(Reynolds, Patrick, Gill, Gesenius,
Noyes, &c,), to allure (Herzfeld,
Heiligstedt) to hold on, to be con
stantly at it (Knobel, De Wette,
Elster, &c,), to hold on, i. e., to cherish
(Fiirst), which are far less suitable
to the expression •'|;i, wine. The
term 1" is frequently used by a
synecdoche for all delicacies and
feasting (comp, Prov. ix. 2 ; Song of
Songs viii. 2), and is well explained
by Rashi ^"n oic b» rrrtp a:w nnwD ba.
Ibn Ezra appropriately renders 'ntoa
by 'B13, body. For the omission
of the suffix after i^'^, see Gesen.
§ 145, 2.
My mind guiding with wisdom, &c.
Coheleth resolved to draw his body,
as it were, with the alluring cords of
pleasure, determined that his pas
sions should not be wildly let loose,
but that wisdom, by her prudont
guidance in the selection of earthly
gratifications, should hold the reins,
and restrain the passions from run
ning riot. This explanation is evi
dent, from ver. 9. 'The words ana 'abi
nnana, my heart guiding with wisdom,
are parenthetical, as is evident from

iin«b, to lay hold, which, together
with ^p^, to draw, depends upon
'Pin, / resolved. The expression ab,
heart, possessing the faculty of
thinking, judging, &o. {vide supra,
i. 13), is here more properly rendered
mind, and stands in opposition to
itoa, body, am, to guide, is evidently
designed to carry out the figure
begun with, ij^p, to draw. It was
not to be a blind drawing into
every pleasure, but guided by vigi
lant prudence.
And to lay hold on, &c., i.e.,
indulge himself in pleasure which
he subsequently found to be mere
folly, as stated in the preceding verse.
This he did, not to revel in sensuality,
but to see whether he, with all the
vast resources at his command, could
not discover bow to sweeten tbe
years of man's existence, few and
bitter, contrasted with the ever-
enduring objects of nature. To
recount the almost countless expla
nations and observations palmed
upon tbis verse, would be unprofit
able. We must be satisfied with the
leading renderings and expositions.
Already the ancient versions are very
discordant. Thus the Sept. has nai
xcflrea-nE^afA.tiv el y} KapJi'a fjLOu IXttua-Ei ajj atvov
TTlv capxa jttoy, Kal itap5t'tt fi.ov ci^riynTEV Iv
a-o^ia Ktti rod HparvTal 'iir EiKppcfryvtj, and I
examined whether my heart would
draw out my flesh as wine, and my
heart led in wisdom, and to lay hold
on pleasure, altering tbe text into
j:;a •qiujpn 'ab dn 'nnn ; the Vulg,, oogi-
TAVi in corde meo abstrahebb a
vino CARNEM MEAM, ut animum MEUM
TEANSFERRKM ad sapientiam DEVI-
taremque siultitiam, &c,, which
Luther (ba battle ic^ in meinem
^etjen, meinen Sefb »om 2Betn ju
jtc^en, unb mein ?)etj jut.-SeigJett ju
jie^en, baf \6) etgtiffe wai ifiott;eit ift,
&c,) ; and Coverdale (so I thought in
my heart to withdraw my flesh from
wine, to apply my mind unto wisdom.

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

279

4 under heaven, the numbered days of their lives ; I therefore

and to comprehend foolishness) fol
low, altering 1'.:? into );:a, nnana
into npanb, and mbapa inNbi into niobi
nibapn, Luther and Coverdale, not
following the Vulgate in the last
alteration, take tbe word ins, to lay
hold of, to seize, in the sense of
comprehending. As these emenda
tions are not stipported by any MSS.,
we shall not pause to animadvert
upon them, but pass on to the ren
dering given by St. Jerome in his
commentary, in which he adheres to
tbe text ; there he translates this
verse, Oonsideravi in corde meo, ut
traherem in vino carnem meam, et cor
meum deduxitme in sapientiam, which
he explains : volui vitam meam
TEADERE DELIOIIS, BT CABNEM MEAM
AB OMNIBUS OURIS LIBEBABE, ET
QUASI VINO SIC VOLUPTATE SOPIEE ;
SED OOGIIATIO MEA, ET EATIO NATU-
EALIS RETEAXEEUNT ME, ET DEDUX-
ERUNT AD SAPIENTIAM EEQUIEENDAM,
/ desired to give my life to pleasures,
and free my body from all cares, and
put it to sleep, as it were, with wine
and pleasure ; but my thoughts end
natural reason drew me back, and led
me to seek wisdom ; so also Rashi,
rraana babann 'ab ]"a "[mna 'n»a ?« ¦[«
mina p'lnnb, though my body inclined
after pleasure, my mind urged by
wisdom to lay hold on the Law ; but
this is contrary to verse 9, where we
are told that wisdom, so far from
repudiating, assisted in procuring
pleasures. Ibn Ezra, who is followed
by Mendelssohn, Reynolds, Patrick,
Gill, Jermin, Desvoeux, Preston,
Noyes, &c., maintains that Coheleth,
seeing wisdom by itself produced
pain, and pleasure by itself was of
no use, resolves, in this verse, on a
middle course — to unite the pursuits
of wisdom with those of pleasure.
But this is contrary to the scope of the
passage, which obviously describes
in detail (4- 11) the pleasures cate
gorically denounced as folly in ver. 2.
But what is most subversive of this
united indulgence in both wisdom and
pleasure, is the fact that Coheleth,

having finished his description of
wisdom, as given in i. 12-18, and of
pleasure, as given in 4-1 1, discussed,
in bis resume, ver. 12-14, the respec
tive merits of wisdom and folly
separately, and makes no mention
whatever of this middle course, or
union of both wisdom and pleasure.
Hodgson's rendering, "I enquired of
mine heart whether I should give
myself unto wine, but mine heart
inclined unto wisdom, or whether I
should embrace folly," is contrary to
the text, orrj.n 'n; nstpn is the accu
sative of time ; tbe same phrase occurs
in V. 17.
4. I therefore increased my posses
sions. Here, and in the following
six verses, Coheleth enumerates some
of tbe pleasures and enjoyments in
which he indulged. The words
'top 'nbn?rt yield excellent sense in
their literal translation, / increased
my works or possessions, and do not
refer to Solomon's costly and splendid
ivory throne, overlaid with gold, as
described in 1 Kings x. 18, but
describe the undertakings of this
monarch generally. David had built
a cedar bouse (2 Chron. ii. 3), pos
sessed vineyards, orchards, treasures
of all kinds, and servants of all sorts
(1 Chron. xxvii. 25-31); but Solomon,
seeking happiness in grandeur, in
creased or multiplied {^i^b-viri) these
possessions ('IBS'?) which he, as suc
cessor to the throne, inherited from
his father. Hence " he builded
houses ; " not satisfied with tbe royal
residence already existing, he erected
another, the completion of which
occupied thirteen years; he built a
mansion for his wife, and various
other edifices (1 Kings vii, 1 - 8 ; ix.
17-19). nton, work, like na«bp, is
used metonomically for the efiects of
work, that which is gained by work,
wealth, riches, estates, possessions
(Exod. xxiii. 12; ISam. xxv. 2; Isa.
xxvi. 12). Ibn Ezra's explanation
of 'iBSn 'nbnjirt, viz., Q'bma cosn 'n'las,
which is followed by Luther, Autho
rised Version, and almost all modern

280

COHELETH.

[chap. II.

increased my possessions, I builded me houses, I planted
/5 me vineyards, I made me gardens and pleasure-grounds.

commentators, is, to say the least, an
unnecessary paraphrase.
/ planted me vineyards, &c. To
the in-door pleasures he added out
door enjoyments. With all the plea
sure that we derive from gardens
and parks, those who have not tra
velled in the East can form but
an inadequate idea bow indispen
sable a part a garden forms of an
Eastern's luxury, and how great is
the enjoyment which he derives from
it. The burning heat of the Eastern
sun renders the interior of dwell
ings almost intolerable during the
day. Shady arched walks, therefore,
formed by vines planted in rows or
avenues, and trained above a trellis-
work, or airy and fragrant bowers
formed by the outspread branches of
trees in gardens, are retreats, the
delight of which an Eastern alone
can fully appreciate. It is this most
enviable, quiet, and shady retreat
that gave rise to the beautiful repre
sentation of happy and tranquil
Israel, as sitting under vines and fig-
trees (1 Kings iv. 25 ; Mich. iv. 4 ;
Zech. iii. 10). No wonder that the
Israelites selected such a charming
spot for serving their heavenly Father
(Gen. xxiv. 63 ; Matt. xxvi. 30 ; John
xviii. 1, 2) ; for entertaining their
earthly friends (Isa. li. 3) ; and for
burying those dear to them (Gen.
xxiii. 19, 20 ; 2 Kings xxi. 26; 2 Sam.
xxv. 1). Because one vineyard is
mentioned as belonging to Solomon
(Song of Songs, viii. 11), Knobel con
cludes that be had only that one, and
that "tbe author here exaggerates de
signedly, in order to shew that even
the best means of pleasure do not
yield any lasting satisfaction." But
surely the words, " Solomon had a
vineyard in Baal-Hammon," do not
affirm, or even remotely imply, that
he had none elsewhere. "The one
there mentioned was for a particular
purpose (see my Commentary, in loco) ;
the passage describes the vineyard

in that locality. Besides, even if we
had not been told that Solomon had
planted himself vineyards, we should
naturally conclude that he had many,
since they form such an essential
part of Eastern enjoyment, and since
he came into possession of his father's
estates, which comprised vineyards
(1 Chron. xxvii. 27). 'The Chaldee
makes Solomon describe in tbis verse
the good works which he performed,
viz.jthe building of the Temple, and
the various edifices and courts be
longing to it. Even the vineyards,
this paraphrase says, were planted
that the Sanhedrin might have wine
to refresh themselves during their
sittings and their religious exercises,
and for the purpose of offering obla
tions upon tbe altar. The most
effectual refutation of this interpre
tation is to be found in verse 11,
where the works are characterised as
mere vanity and striving after the
wind, which could surely not be said
of such praiseworthy undertakings.
5. I made me gardens, &c. He
had not only vineyards, but also
gardens and pleasure-grounds, pro
ducing all kinds of delicious fruit,
and aromatics, which are most cal
culated to regale the senses, and are
so essential to Oriental luxury. The
Hebrew names for the different kinds
of gardens denote the occupation
assigned to Adam when the Lord
placed him in the garden of Eden.
We are told that the Lord God took
the man and put him in the garden
of Eden to cultivate it (nnasb), and to
guard it (nnpaSbi) ; hence we find that
the expressions' denoting gardens
signify one or the other of these two
offices. Thus cina is derived from
nna = ma (for the termination O- see
Fiirst, Lexicon, under ta d, c), to dig,
hence a garden generally, cultivated
by means of spades and axes (Judg.
XV. 5; Job xxiv. 18), and afterwards
applied especially to a vineyard.
]? is from j?a, to guard ; hence that

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

281

6 and I planted in them trees of all sorts of fruit. I made
me pools of water, to water therefrom the grove shooting

which is guarded and protected
against every intrusion, a guarden ;
the German, ©atten, and the Eng
lish, garden, denote the same thing.
taTiB, according to the analogy of the
quadriliteral itins, is a compound of
Tis and t:ns, to break up, to separate,
and denotes a garden, a pleasure-
ground, either from its being sepa
rated, enclosed (see my commentary
on the Song of Songs, iv. 13), or,
which is perhaps better, from its
being cultivated by breaking up the
ground with ploughs or other imple
ments. The difference between ]s
and D"na cannot now be exactly
defined ; the former, however, seems
to denote a garden containing smaller
plants, such as herbs, flowers, as
well as fruit-trees (Deut. xi. 10 ;
1 Kings xxi. 2), and the latter
pleasure-grounds or parks planted
with large trees, and containing dif
ferent animals, in which sense it is
also used in other languages (comp.
Xenophon, Anab. i. 2. 4 ; Cyrop.
i. 4, &c. ; Koran, xxxiii. 11). From
the delightful regions which it Ae-
scrihed,Paradise was afterwards used
for the blessed abode of saints in
glory (Luke xxiii. 43; 2 Cor. xii. 4;
Rev. ii. 7 ; comp. Wemyss, Clavis
Symb. 386; Kalisoh, Gen. p. 108).
The distinction which Ibn Ezra
makes between these two expressions,
viz., that in J| trees of all kinds are
grown (D'an D'a'nn D'an D':b's la w),
while in dtis only one kind is planted
(nnw j'on sin), is not correct; the
very passage to which he refers for
proof of his assertion (Song of Songs
iv. 13) contradicts it; for, not only
are there pomegranates described as
growing in this garden, but also
cypresses and nards, and, in fact,
" all sorts of frankincense trees."
Those who maintain that ]l signifies
a place containing smaller plants
only, such ^s herbs, vegetables,
shrubs, flowers, &c., overlook the
fact that nna, in tJiem, refers to ;a.

garden, as well as onns, pleasure-
ground. It may be that the Chaldee
paraphrase here is correct in taking
the royal garden mentioned in Neb.
iii. 15 ; 2 Kings xxv. 4, which was
situated at the pool of Siloara, that
is, at the mouth of Tyropason (see
Robinson, Palestine, i. p. 833, &c.),
to be one of those which Solomon
planted. ^?, sing., is used collectively
(comp. )an y? ninj inttiwi Dn«ri M3nn;i,
and the man and his wife hid ihetn-
selves among the trees of the garden
Gen. iii. 8; Is. x. 19; Ps. Ixxiv. 5).
6. I made me pools of water, &c.
The intense heat in the East requires
that plants should be frequently irri
gated to preserve them from being
parched up. As the streams which
were not dried up in tbe summer
were very few in Palestine, tirtificial
reservoirs were made to receive the
rain or collect the spring waters for
times of need. These tanks of water
constituted one of the most charming
features in gardens; rows of palms or
other trees, with outspread branches,
and studded with fruit, encircled
these rills, in whose waters the deep-
blue or grey dove was frequently
seen bathing, and reflecting upon its
golden breast the splendid colours of
the falling rays (Song of Songs v. 13).
Maundrell gives a beautiful descrip
tion of the effect which these artificial
waters produced upon him, when
seeing the garden of the Emir of
Beyrout, anciently called Berytus —
" 'The liest sight that this place
affords, and the most worthy to be
remembered, is the orange garden.
It contains a large quadrangular
plot of ground, divided into sixteen
lesser squares, four in a row, with
walks between them. The walks are
shaded with orange trees of a large
spreading size. . . . Every one of these
sixteen lesser squares in the garden
was bordered with stone, and in the
stone-work were troughs, very artisti
cally contrived, for conveying the

ao

282

COHELETH.

[CHAP. II.

7 up trees ; I bought me men-servants and maid-servants,

water all over the garden, there being
little outlets cut at every tree, for the
stream as it passed by to flow out
and water it" (see Early Travels in
Palestine, Bohn's edition, pp. 415,
416). This will give us some idea of
what the gardens and reservoirs of
tbe wisest and wealthiest Eastern
monarch must have been. The pool
of the king, mentioned in Nehem. ii.
14, is said to be one of those which
Solomon made (Joseph. Bel. Jud. v.
4, c. 2). niana is the construct of
nana, a pool, instead of niana, perhaps
to distinguish it from the plural con
struct of nana, a blessing (Ewald,
§ 212, c), and is derived from the
first meaning of ':pa, viz., to kneel
down ; hence a kneeling-place for
cattle or men when drinking (comp.
D'pn-nNa bM n'Sb yinn O'bmn tpa^, and
he made his camels to kneel down
without the city, by the well of water.
(Gen. xxiv. 11 ; Judg. vii. 5, 6, &c.)
These passages are decidedly against
those who derive the word in ques
tion from the secondary meaning
of ^.a, to bless; hence a pool, which
was accounted a special blessing in
bot countries, or tpa (Arabic), to
fioiv. ' Instead of nnn, masculine, we
should have expected )nn, feminine,
since niana, to which it refers, is
feminiDC ; but such disagreement in
gender is of no uncommon occur
rence {vide infra, x. 9 ; xi. 8; xii. 1).
Although nnis is a neuter intransi
tive, yet it is followed by an accusative
D'S» ; such instances are not unfre-
quent with verbs signifying to grow,
to flow, &c , and imply abundance in
the thing that stands in the accusa
tive ; comp. D'liiiipp iba nb», the whole
of it went up in nettles, i. e , it entirely
changed into them (Prov. xxiv. 31;
Isa. V. 6 ; xxxiv. 13) ; just as it is
said a burning house goes up in
¦flames and smoke (Gesen. § 138, 1,
Rem. 2; Ewald, § 281, b).
7. I bought me man-servants, &c.
An oriental potentate's happiness
and luxury would be incomplete
without a numerous retinue of ser

vants of all kinds. To keep those
magnificent edifices and pleasure-
grounds in order, to provide for and
serve his large and sumptuous table,
to attend to his forty thousand stalls
of horses (1 Kings iv. 26), Solomon
must have required an enormous
number of domestics, and it is there
fore no wonder that when the Queen
of Sheba beheld them "there was no
more spirit in her" (1 Kings x. 5).
The buying of servants here men
tioned was practised among the
Hebrews, in common with other
nations, from time immemorial.
Already Abraham, the father of the
Hebrew nation, had an exceedingly
large number of servants, which' he
bought (Gen. xvii. 12), and could
muster three hundred and eighteen,
bom in his house, against the kings
who had captured Lot and his
household. (Gen. xiv.) Joseph was
sold by his brothers as a slave to the
Ishmaelites, who were traders both
in costly spices and slaves (Gen.
xxxvii. 28). Such slaves were called
the purchase of money (f|pa nJijp),
ifyvpiivnroi (Gen. xvii. 12. 23) ; their
offspring, as well as the children of
captives of war, who were made
slaves (Numb. xxxi. 1 1. 26. 35 ;
Deut. XX. 14, xxi. 10), born in
bondage, belonged to the master,
and are called house-born (n'a 'tV,
ciiuyivETg, Gen. xiv. 14; xvii. 12), or
sons of a handmaid (nn« \aa, Exod.
xxiii. 12; Ps. cxvi. 16), or sons of
the house (n;a '3a), as iu the text
before us and Gen. xv. 3. The usual
value of a servant was fifty silver
shekels for au Israelite (Levit. xxvii.
3) and thirty for a non-Israelite
lExod. xxi. 32). It must not, how
ever, be supposed that Hebrew servi
tude bears any resemblance to that of
the ancient Greeks and Romans, or
to the modern slavery of tbe Qnited
States. The fact that the Hebrew
language has no word for slave, con
sidered as a mere thing, or instru
ment, under the absolute mercy of^
another — that the name w simply

CHAP. II.] COHELETH.
and had house-born servants

283

I had also many herds of
oxen and sheep, above all who were before me in Jeru-

means labourer, and is the same
which God gave to his chosen people
Israel, to his favourite servant Moses,
to the prophets and kinffs, while the
Greek designation SouXo; means one
hound or chained, the Latin manci-
pium denotes captured goods, which
seems also to be the meaning of the
modern expression slave — would
alone be sufficient to shew the dis
similarity between the Jewish system
of servitude and the slavery of the
nations alluded to. We are, how
ever, not left to prove the dissimi
larity from the etymology of these
designations ; the records of sacred
and profane history place it beyond
the shadow of a doubt. The Hebrew
servant, whether an Israelite or not,
had written upon his forehead by
the hand of the Creator, that he,
ieing a man, is, like his master,
created in the image of Ood (Gen. i.
27, comp. with ix. 5, 6) ; the natural
rights, therefore, of both master and
servant alike were regarded by God,
whose image they botb bore, and
equal provisions were made for both
(2 Sam. xiv, 14; Prov. xxiv. 23,
xxviii. 21 ; Job xxxiv. 19, &c.) ; the
Greek slave was defined by Aristotle
to be a living working tool and pos
session {i JouXoc B|«4"X°'' 'py^''^, Ethic.
Nicom. viii. 13 ; o JoSao; xrnfjii n
tfj..f,u)(t>v, Polit. i. 4), and was regarded
as possessing fewer faculties than a
free man (Plato, Polit. ii. 1. 13), as
a being who had "nothing healthy
in his soul," which naturally differed
from other men, and as belonging
" to a race in which men possessing
any intellect ought never to trust."
This, Plato (Leg. vi. 19) tells us,
has the authority of the wisest of
poets, who, when speaking of Zeus,
says —
*Hfjtio-v ykp r apErtit atroaivvrat Exipvowa. zeu;
'AvEpOf, wr av jUlv Itara. ^ouMop ^fAetg EXtltriV.
"Half their mind wide-seeing Jove has ta'en
, From men, whose doom has slavery's day
bronght on," — Odtb, ivil. 882.

The Hebrew servant, working with
his master, who, like Saul or Elisha,
followed behind the plough (1 Sam.
xi. 5 ; 1 Kings xix. 19), or like Moses
and David tended the flock (Exod.
iii. 1; 1 Sam. xvi. 11, xvii. 20, 28,
34), also celebrated with his master,
when they both came home in tbe
evening, the Sabbath, and all the
numerous festivals, which released
him from labour nearly half tbe
time (Exod xx. 10; Deut. v. 14,
&c,), and was instructed in morals
and religion (Deut. xxxi. 10-13);
the Greek and Roman slave, being
regarded as belonging to a different
caste, " was not to be spoken to as a
free man" (Plato, Leg. vi. 19), and
his testimony in courts of law was
never taken unless extorted by tor
ture (Demostb. o. Onetor. i. p. 874;
Cic. Partit. Drat. 34, pro Sail. 28).
The Hebrew servant, if he escaped
from his master, could not be deli
vered up to him by the inhabitants
of tbe place in which he sought
refuge (Deut. xxiii. 1 5, 16) ; the Greek
and Roman slave, when he ran
away, was not allowed to take refuge
anywhere, the master pursued him
wherever he pleased (Xen. Mem. ii.
10, §1,2; Florus, iii. 19), and, when
caught, branded him with a red-hot
iron. Tbe Hebrew servant had tbe
full protection of the law, if be lost
any member of his body through tbe
brutal treatment of his master, he
was immediately manumitted (Exod.
xxi. 26, 27), and, if killed, the master
was treated as a murderer (comp.
Exod. xxi. 12, with verse 20, and
Gen. ix. 5, 6), and, according to the
Talmud (Sanhedrin, 52, b), was
executed by the sword; the Roman
slave had no personal rights; he was
under the absolute power of his
master, who could brand, torture, or
put him to death at pleasure ; if the
master was murdered by a slave, or
by an unknown assassin, all the
slaves on the premises were put to

284

COHELETH.

[CHAF. II.

8 salem ; I amassed me also silver and gold, and the treasures

death (Tacit. Ann. .xiii. 82), a brutal
instance of which happened in the
reign of Nero, when four hundred
were executed for the murder com
mitted by one, on the person of
Pedanius Secundus, prefect of the
city (Tacit. Ann. xiv. 42-46). A
Hebrew servant — and be it remem
bered that we are speaking all along
of servants wbo are non-Israelites —
could marry the daughter of his
master (1 Chron. ii. 35), the master
himself frequently took a maid
servant (Gen. xxx. 3 ; Deut. xxi.
10-14), or gave her to his son for
wife (Exod. xxi. 9). And if the
servant was an Israelite, he could
only serve six years (Exod. xxi, 2 ;
Levit, xxv, 41 ; Deut. xv. 12), during
which time he was to be considered
as a hireling, and treated with the
leniency of a citizen (Levit. xxv.
39-43); he could therefore acquire
property, and redeem himself before
the Sabbath-year (Levit. xxv. 40) ;
if, however, he was released at the
end of six years, his master was
enjoined to supply him with every
comfort (Deut. XV. 14). Such, then,
was the humane treatment of Hebrew
servants, and it stands out in bold
relief when contrasted with the in
human treatment of the Greek and
Roman slaves, or with the legal
position of slaves in the United
States. The reader will do well
to consult the following works on
this subject:— ©aalfc^ii^, Sltc^ootogie
bet ?)ebtaet, ii. p. 236-248; STOoS.
9iec(lt., p. 702-708; Beclser's Chari-
cles, English edition; Parker, 1845,
p. 270-280; Gallus, p. 212-234;
Smith, Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Antiquities, under Servus ;
Ramsay, Roman Antiquities, second
edition, p. 94-101, and especially
the very excellent treatise, 23te 2?et=
^dltniffe bet ©ftaben bei ben alten
f)ebtaetn na^ biblif^en unb tatmubi=
ftfien Guetten barge(iet(t, bon St.
SW. ^Kieljiner. Jlopen'^agen, 1859.
'n':;^ is not possbdi, / posssessed
(Vulg.), nor I got (Autb. Ver.), nor

i(^ ^atte (Luther), but I bought me
(Coverdale, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Stuart,
Elster, &c.), as is evident from Gen.
xvii. 12, 13. 23. 2'?, where bought
servants, as here, are used in contra
distinction to home-bom ones. n;a 'la,
sons of the 'house, i. e., home-borni
servants, is well rendered by the
Sept. o'DuyevEit ; the Vulg. multamque
familiam habui, which is followed by
Luther (@eftnbe), and Coverdale (/
had a great household), is incorrect.
For the sing, n^n construed with the
plural noun n;a 'ja, see i. 10; also
Gen. xxvi: 14, xlvii. 17, 18 ; 2 Chron.
xxxii. 29, the only passages where
the construction J«iJ njpn and njpa
nga is to be found. It seems that
njpta here is the cotistruct, instead of
ni5o. For tbe adverbial use of nanrr,
see i, 16, where also tbe usage of
the phrase above' all, i.e., kings, is
accounted for. fen stands for bsbn,
the preposition b is omitted after ]a
{vide infra, vi. 5. 8, vii. 2, ix. 4,
xii. 12).
8. I amassed me also, &c. In
addition to his numerous herds of
cattle, in which the wealth of people
generally for the most part consisted
in ancient times, Coheleth also
amassed riches in silver and gold,
and treasures peculiar to kings and
kingdoms. 'The fleet which Solomon
sent to Ophir, manned by the skilful
Tyrian mariners, brought him an
nually between four hundred and
twenty and four hundred and fifty-
talents of gold (1 Kings ix. 26 - 28) ;
his yearly revenue in gold was
six hundred and sixty-six talents
(i6646,850), besides that which came
in from vassal-kings and provinces
(1 Kings x. 14, 15), and so great was
the quantity of these precious metals
which he bad, that silver and gold
were regarded in Jerusalem as
stones (1 Kings x. 27 ; 2 Chron.
i. 15). Dia, to heap up, to amass,
for the sake of keeping, and not for
circulation, nbjp (from ban, kindred
with nje,, to enclose, to shut up), that
which is shut up and taken care of,

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

285

of kings and kingdoms ; I got me men-singers and women-
singers, and the delights of men, a large number of wives ;

a precious thing, a treasure (comp,
my Commentary on the Song of
Songs, V. 11). Herzfeld ingeniously
accounts for the absence of the
article in D'?5p, kings, and its presence
before nj'np, kingdom, because kings
constantly change, while countries
fixedly abide, nynn (from pn, to sub
jugate, to rule, to judge), that which
is governed, a province, land or
country (Esth. i. 1, &c. ; Ezra, ii. 1 ;
Dan. xi. 24; Lam. i. 1), is a word
belonging to later Hebrew. The
phrase treasures of kings and king
doms does not mean " the tribute
paid to him by kings and kingdoms
in treasures " (la^rrnw pboi pbn 'napioi
sanab 'b, Chaldee, Reynoids, &c.), btit
denotes such costly things as are
peculiar to royalty, in contradistinc
tion to the wealth, consisting in
cattle, which was common to every
opulent person.
I got me men-singers, &c. To
riches he added the charms and
sensuous gratifications which consti
tute the great delight of men. The
Hebrews, from tbe earliest periods,
cultivated the art of music, which
they seem to have pursued even in
their Egyptian bondage, most pro
bably to beguile many a weary hour,
as is evident from Exod. xv. 20,
where we find the presence of both
vocal and instrumental music imme
diately after the exodus. How highly
susceptible they were of its seductive
power, is seen from the soothing
effect it produced upon the disturbed
mind of Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 16) and
Elisha (2 Kings iii. 15), and from its
general use in domestic life, at feasts
and joyous meetings (Isa. v. 11, 12;
Amos vi. 5 ; Sirach xxxii. 5, 6,
xlix. 1). Professional singers of
both sexes were employed by David
(2 Sana. xix. 36 ; Sirach ix. 4),
and at a later period even foreign
women found maintenance among
the Hebrews by singing (Isa. xxiii.
16). It was therefore to be expected

that Coheleth, in trying to indulge
in all pleasures, would have singers
of both sexes. On music among
the Hebrews, see Kitto, Cyclop. Bib.
Lit.; ssjinet, Stcolwoettetbut^; ©aat=
fi^fl^, Jlti^oologie bet ?)ebtaet, s.v.,
nto, to do, when used with re
gard to human beings, signifies to
get, to acquire, to procure (comp.
¦p^m TO»-n^M iijpin, the men whom I
acquired in Haran, Gen. xii. 5),
Respecting the etymology and signi
fication of tbe words ninHii njiii, an
almost endless variety of opinions
has obtained. The ancient versions,
deriving it from nn^, to pour out,
take nniiS in tbe sense of out-pourers,
and refer it either to persons or things.
Thus the Sept. {o'mxoous xal olnj^iag),
and St. Jerome in his commentary
{ministros vini et ministras), tako
these words as men and women-
pourers out of wine, i. e., cup-bearers,
evidently alluding to the D'P^n, cup
bearers, mentioned in 1 Kings x. 5 ;
2 Chron. ix. 4, whereas Aquila (xuXi'xiov
xa( xt/Xijt((t), Symm. {fiirpoov a-y^rifzara,
Kal IwiSniMttTa), the Vulgate {scyphps
et urceos), the Chaldee (N"n j^niiSn' j'ainp
'n'nn «;n );nitin ]'ainni 'n.iitJD)''take it
for vessels which are used ior pouring
out hquids. But against the flrst
interpretation is to be urged, that
cup-bearers are only servants, and as
these have already been mentioned
in the preceding verse, the repetition
of them here would be mere tauto
logy. The second is wholly inappo
site, as the last clause of this verse
describes human, beings, and not
things. V/hat is, however, most
subversive of both these renderings
is the fact that the words in question
are explanatory of the immediately
preceding tin»in 'aa niawn, which
refers to amorous delight (comp^
Song of Songs vii. 7). Equally
forcible is this objection to tbe
rendering of the Syriac by musicians
UZLi-Lj^TV>0 1 1 - . ^ - «^o I

286

COHELETH.

[CHAF. II.

9 so that I greatly increased above all that were before me
10 in Jerusalem, my wisdom also standing me by ; and nothing
that my eyes desired did I withhold from them ; I did not
or musical instruments, (Ibn Melech
nni 'ba, which is followed by Luther,
Authorised Version, &c), deriving it
from nnai, to spoil, to ravish, (hence
nnifi, a musician, or musical instru
ment, that ravishes the heart), or
splendid and delightful coaches, palan
quins ('i^''! aiwrib as nba» 'ii maann,
Rashi and Rashbam, who adduce,
in corroboration of this explanation,
the Talmudic usage of nnaS in Sab
bath bnni na'n nnm), or great abun
dance (Paulus, Ewald, Elster, &c,)
Ibn Ezra's opinion, therefore, is
most natural, that nniii signifies a
wife, a concubine, and it may either
be derived, as this learned commen
tator maintains, from tv§, to violate,
to spoil, to capture, hence a female
captured in war, a woman, as women
formed the greatest treasures in the
spoil of war, aod are especially men
tioned in the enumeration of the
costly and highly prized articles
which fell to the lot of the con
querors (Judg. v. 30) ; these fair
captives became the wives or concu
bines of the warriors (Deut. xxi. 11),
or of those to whom they were sold
or presented. This derivation is
followed by Mendelssohn, Desvoeux,
Kleuker, Heinemann, Preston, &c.
Or nniti may be deduced from "rri^, im-
petum facere in aliquam, comprimere
aliquam, concubere cum aliqua (Prov.
xix. 26, xxiv. 15), hence a concubine,
so Herzfeld and Philippson. nnti
has a passive signification, according
to the analogy of nia, spoil, from iia,
to spoil, npi, a purpose, from Dpi, to
purpose, &c. The repetition of the
same noun in the plural, expresses
multitude, {com]^ D'nnnn orn,adamsel,
two damsels, i.e., many damsels, Judg.
V. 30; Q'nin nin, generation, generations,
i. e., many generations, Ps. Ixxii. 5 ;
Gesen. § 108, 4; Ewald, § 313, a).
This rendering of nn«) by woman,
wife, concubine, which is adopted by
most modern commentators (Knobel,

Gesenius, De Wette, Noyes, Heilig
stedt, Hitzig, Stuart, &c.), though
defending various etymologies, is
most compatible with the words
Qn«n '5.a nia^wn, and is the one most
naturally expected, since it would
have been surpassing strange that
Solomon, who was so enamoured of
the fair sex, that he had a thousand
wives and concubines (1 Kings xi. 1,
&c.), should, as Ibn Ezra rightly
remarks, so minutely enumerate his
principal pleasures, and entirely
omit, in this catalogue, bis greatest
delight. 9. So that I greatly increased, &c.
In verse 4 Coheleth told us that he
increased ('!nbn?n) his possessions, and
now he tells us bow he greatly in
creased ('fiEpini 'nbnj) in riches and
fame, through the amassing of such
various and costly estates and trea
sures, effected by the help of wisdom.
For the construction of 'Pppini 'nbna,
see supra, i. 16. The words 'b nnny
are rendered by tbe Ynig. perseveravit
mecum, which Luther, Coverdale,
Authorised Version, &c., follow, and
which Rashi, Reynolds, Patrick,
Knobel, Hitzig, &c,, explain, his
wisdom was never smothered and
suppressed, or undermined in the
midst of all those pleasures, so that
he always retained the full sense of
his position and aim ; but this inter
pretation is too far fetched. The
Chaldee explanation ('n; N»','p), stood
me by, assisted me, which is also tbe
second meaning given by Rashi, and
followed by Mendelssohn, Herzfeld,
Ewald, Elster, &c., is much more na
tural (comp. Dan. xii. 1 ; Esth. viii.
11: ix. 16).
10. And nothing that my eyes de
sired, &c. The object which he bad
in view in accumulating all these
vast and multifarious estates is here
given. It was not to gratify an
avaricious propensity, which greedily
seeks, grasps, and hoards up every-

CHAP. II.]

COHELETH.

287

keep back my heart from any pleasure, as my heart was
to receive happiness from all my toil; and this was to be
11 my portion from all my toil. But when I looked at all
my works which my hand worked, and at the toil which I
toiled to accomplish them, behold all was vanity and striving
after the wind, since there is ~ no advantage under the

thing of value for the sake of tbe
thing, but it was to enable him
thereby to gratify every desire and
indulge in every pleasure; it was this
advantage that he sought to derive
from all his toil, ba expresses tbe
Latin nullus, nothing. For the
ascription of desire to the eye, see
supra, i. 8. The heart is represented
as freely indulging in pleasure, be
cause it has been summoned to do
so (i. 16), and because it has been
described as having, in tbe first ex
periment, devoted itself to tbe ac
quisition of wisdom (i. 13). onn is
masculine, because D'a'.s, eyes, like all
other members of tbe human body,
although usually feminine, are occa
sionally employed as masculine (Job
xxi. 20 ; Zech. iv. 10; Song of Songs,
iv. 9; Gesen. § 107, 4, b; Ewald,
§ 174, d). The particle '3 assigns a
reason why Coheleth did not deny
any pleasure to bis heart, since he
wanted to find that happiness in the
pursuit after pleasure, which the pur
suit after wisdom had failed to yield.
Tbe construction )n nnto, though rare,
also occurs in Prov. v. 18 ; 2 Chron.
XX. 27. ;n in such cases designates
the source out of which the joy is
derived, nil, and this, i. e., ability to
satisfy the desire of the eyes, and to
grant the heart every pleasure, men
tioned in the immediately preceding
clause, was the portion which he ob
tained from all bis toil, bns, labour,
is metynomically used for that which
is acquired by labour, the fruit of
labour, abundance, wealth ; so vv. 18
and 19. This seems to be the natural
meaning of this clause, though it has
occasioned a variety of interpreta
tions. The Vulg. bas, et hanc ratus
sum partem meam, si uterer labore

meo, which Luther (unb bag btctt ic&
fiir mein S^eit son attet meinet
Sltbeit) and Coverdale {and this I
took for the portion of all my trouble)
follow, and which Jermin, Gill,
Preston, &c., explain to mean, this
temporary enjoyment was all that
Solomon desired to obtain, all that
he bad in view ; but this is too harsh
an ellipsis. The opinion of Rashi,
Ibn Ezra, Reynolds, Patrick, Knobel,
Noyes, Elster, &c., that Solomon de
scribes hero the inefficiency of all bis
toil, since it secured for him nothing
more than temporary enjoyment, in
curs the same objection, as well as
anticipates the following verse.
11. But when I looked at all my
works, &c. This verse states the
conclusion at which Coheleth arrived
respecting the power of pleasure, —
the second experiment by which he
tried to remove depression from his
mind, and supply the aching void, —
and after the detailed description,
substantiates tbe summary declara
tion made in verses 1 and 2. All the
sumptuous banqueting, the magni
ficent edifices, the delightful vine
yards, parks, and pleasure-grounds,
the charming rills, the splendid
retinue of servants, the numerous
herds, the costly treasures, the en
chanting music, the amorous de
lights, and the complete gratification
of every desire, so minutely and
forcibly described in 3 - 10, were
utterly insufficient to quiet tbe mind
craving after higher enjoyments, and
to secure lasting happiness ; and thus
tbe pursuit after pleasure, like wis
dom, proved mere vanity and striving
after tbe wind, nas, to turn, in order
to look, and to look (corop. nj^pb naoi,
and he shall look upwards, Isa. viii.

288

COHELETH.

[chap. II.

12 sun. I then turned to consider wisdom, and madness, and

21) ; it is used in its primary sense
in the next verse ; the preposition a,
by which it is followed, indicates
that the looking is minute inspection,
examination (Job vi. 28). The ex
pression 'top describes the whole of
the works, and is designedly chosen
because it was used for the entire
works at the beginning of this
description {vide supra, ii. 2). bn»
designates tbe toil which he had
(niffl»b) in aocomplishing these works.
For tfie phrase nm nwn, striving after
the wind, see i, 14; and for Jinn;, ad
vantage, i, 3, niiBS'j, to accomplish,
refers to 'to!>n ba, all my works. The
Vulg. renders riiiBSb by frustra, mis
taking it for banb, vanity.
12. I then, turned to consider, &c.
Having shewn that both wisdom
(i. 13-18) arid pleasure (ii. 1-11)
are alike valueless, as far as removing
mental depression and securing per
manent happiness are concerned; and
being desirous that this relative esti
mate should not be ta'xen for an
absolute one, Coheleth now proceeds
to shew their respective merits, in
dependent of the use be' had tried to
make of them. The ability to in
quire into and pass judgment upon
the intrinsic value of wisdom and
folly or pleasure, he claims, upon the
ground that he, being so mighty a
potentate, had gained, through his
extraordinary riches and wisdom,
unparalleled experience, which his-
successors cannot be expected to
surpass. That niNnb here means to
see by comparing, is evident from the
following verse, where the advantage
of wisdom over folly is given as the
result of this seeing or comparing.
The words nibapi nibbin, madness and
folly, stand for nnpip, pleasure, which
is called '''jinp, foolish actor, and
nibap, folly, in ii, 1 , 2, and are co
ordinates with npan, wisdom; all
these three nouns are objects ot the
action expressed by tbe verb niwn, to
see. For the phrase to see wisdom,
vide supra, i. 16, The particle '? is
causal, assigning a reason for the

preceding statement. Tbe words
Dn«n np, what is the man ? as Ibn
Ezra rightly remarks, imply a kind
of undervaluing the person (comp.
Ps. viii. 4). The accusative ntiM n«,
whom, depends upon imiB», they have
made, i.e., ivho has been made; the
third person plura), here with a
pleonastic suffix, which is also found
in vii. 18, like the third person
singular, is as frequently used for the
impersonal or xhepassive (comp. i. 10 ;
Gen. xi. 9; Gesen. § 137, 3; Ewald,
§ 282). The interrogative is used for
a strong negation (i. e., " he will not
be greater and have more experience
than I," comp, i, 8; Gen, xxx. 2;
Gesen. § 153, 2 ; Ewald, § 324, b).
Simple as this strictly grammatical
explanation seems to be, yet few
verses in this book have been more
variously interpreted than the one
before us; almost every word has
been altered, or bad some unnatural
meaning forced upon it, either by the
ancient versions or modern commen
tators. 'The first clause has only
suffered from the Chaldee, which has
i:nb?iDi sniabnn «nbinbn, government of
the kingdom and understanding, in
stead of nnbbini mbaa, madness and
folly. Jerome, in his commentary,
takes the words nibppi nibbin, madness
and folly, as a mere addition to npan,
wisdom, to shew that what man can
attain has more madness and folly
in it than true wisdom {plus erroris
sluUitimq ue habere quam vera certceque
prudentice); somewhat similar, Hitzig
and Stuart, wisdom, even madness
and folly ; and Mendelssohn, who
explains it, " And I turned from
looking for prosperity and happiness
in all the works of madness and folly,
though they be done scientifically."
As the Chaldee is an unwarranted
alteration, we shall pass it by, and
notice the violent constructions of
Jerome, and we submit — 1. That
such an antithesis would require
nMi Da, even this, or nan, behold, before
rabapi nibbin, madness and folly, and
no brachyology or pathos could occa-

chap. II.]

coheleth.

289

folly ; for what is the man that will come after the king.

sion the omissions. 2, That Coheleth
nowhere calls absolute wisdom /o%,
3. That it contradicts the immedi
ately following verse. 4. That this
violent construction is contrary to
the scope of the passage, and has
arisen from missing the thread of
connection between this verse and
the preceding statement, overlooking
that Coheleth, having placed the
relative value of wisdom and folly
upon the same scale, is here evi
dently trying to shew their absolute
worth. 'The ancient versions, the
Jewish commentators, and the vast
majority of modern expositors are
therefore right in following tbe natu
ral construction, and regarding all the
three words as objects of the action
expressed by the verb. Hitzig's
argument, which is magnified by
Stuart, that tbe common exegesis
is a mere repetition of what was
proposed in i. 17, falls to the ground,
since it is based upon a misunder
standing of the design of this
verse. Wltat is the man, &c. It is this
part of the verse which has been so
differently treated both by the ancient
versions and modern expositors. The
Sept , following a traditional expla
nation of '^5'^n, and altering some of
the other words, has SVi riq Mpcoira;
BVE\sva^rai owiirx t?? 8ou\rig ra off a, ETFOimrav
a-lmv, for what man will follow after
counsel as far as they use it ? The
Vulgate, adhering more closely to
the Midrash, and omitting the words
naa ntiM ns, and altering iniics, the
third person plural, into inw», his
maker, has : quid est, inquam,
HOMO, UT SEQUI POSSIT EEGEM FAC-
tobem anuM ? what is man, said I,
that he can follow the King his
Maker? Gussetius,however, whoalco
espouses this Midrashic view, prefers
retaining the verb imiDj, in order to
obtain an argument for tbe Trinity,
since, according to him, this plural
verb refers to ^Jan, the King of
Kings. The Chaldee paraphrase, of
course, gives the tradition in full,

Mabp nn'ia nna nsjbsb naab n'« nmn np
'nib» nni3ip« naa snn ' sniwnio' nnai
a'b nTMriMi, ichat use is it for a man
to pray after the decree of the King,
and after the sentence which has long
been passed concerning him, and has
been executed upon him ? which Rashi
and Rashbam follow. Coverdale has,
for what is he among men that might
be compared to me the king in such
works ? We must not pause to
animadvert upon these traditional
explanations and textual emenda
tions, as they are contrary to the
laws of exegesis ; we pass on to those
who adhere to the received text, and
base their various interpretations
thereupon. Ibn Ezra explains it,
bai -[b&n 'nns sa'o anna rpnn nbia' nn 'a
D'nnM imws naa ,niB»'« nn, for what
power will the man have who will come
after the king? all that he will do,
others have done long ago ; so also
Philippson. Or, which is substan
tially the same, /or what can the man
do that cometh after the king ? even
that which hath been already done;
so the Auth. Versipn, Mendelssohn,
Reynolds, Desvoeux, Knobel, De
Wette, Noyes, Preston, Hitzig, Stuart,
&c. (only that tbe last two, compelled
by their misinterpretations of the
first clause, alter iniiBj, the third
person plural, into iniiBS, the inf.
const, with the final n omitted, thus
obtaining the sense, he shall do what
long ago was his (the king's) doing),
and which H. Michaelis, Knobel, &c.,
explain, what will my successor to
the throne do ? be will do that which
others have done long before him.
But against this is to be urged 1. That
the supplying of the verb nto^ in the
second clause, or between nn and
tansn is an exceedingly harsh ellipsis,
and, even if it could be shewn that
it ever takes place, which is very
questionable, ought not to be resorted
to unless absolutely necessary, which,
however, is not the case here. 2. 'This
objection becomes still more formid
able, by making the accusative ns
- wiiB» larnttis depend upon tbis ira-
P

290

coheleth.

[chap. II.

1,3 who has been made long ago ? and I saw that there is an
advantage to wisdom over folly, as is the advantage of light

plied verb. 3. It is evident from
'¦J™, after, which refers to the king's
successors to the throne {vide infra,
ver. 18), that na? is predicated of
royalty. The interpretation of Ibn
Ezra, referring onM to a private man,
contrasted with the king, which most
modern commentators follow, incurs
the additional censure that it forces
upon tbe term onM tbe sen%e plebeian
or eivilian, in contradistinction to
¦qbn, king, which it never has, and
that, on the contrary, the article
before it shews that it refers to a
specific individual, the king's suc
cessor, i. e., he who comes after him.
Greater still are the objections
against Jermin ; for what is that
man who shall attain after the king,
to that which they have already made
him ? which he explains, " to that
which wisdom, and the knowledge
of madness and folly have made
him ;" and Holden, "for what, 0 man,
shall come after the king ? anything
perfectly new ? no ; only that which
hath been already done; and there
fore I am well qualified to form a
correct judgment respecting them."
And what shall we say to Herzfeld's
explanation, who maintains that in
the words " wisdom, and madness,
and folly," Solomon contrasts himself
with the world at large ; he is wisdom
personified, and the rest of the world
madness and folly ; to justify this,
Solomon asks, for what is the man
who comes after the k'lng ? i.e., who
surely is behind tbe royal sage ? and
answers, what has been done long ago,
i. e., acknowledged fruitless exertions,
folly ; this is, as it were, the whole
man, and constitutes his being ?
Could it have been believed that
so excellent a Hebrew scholar would
force such an obscuration upon the
text ? Ewald, Heiligstedt, and
Elster, feeling the objections against
supplying the verb nips;, and the
harsh construction necessarily arising
from tbis proceeding, translate this

verse, and I turned to see .wisdom,
and madness ,^arid folly, what the man
will be that shall follow the king,
compared with him wlio has been
chosen long ago. But against this
is the particle 'a, which by no means
admits of "iJi np, being dependent
upon ni«nb, io say nothing of the
unnecessary and forced meaning
assigned to np and nw, when the
legitimate signification yields good
sense. 13. And I saw that there is an ad-
tage to wisdom, &c. The comparison
instituted in the last verse as to the
merits of absolute wisdom and folly
is here brought to an issue, and the
verdict is given in favour of the
former. However true that wisdom,
when acquired, to remove by its
power the depression caused by the
contemplation of the fact that, while
the world and natural objects abide
and constantly return to their wonted
actions, man has no abiding place
here, never returns when once gone;
that wisdom, when obtained to ame
liorate by its laws the condition ofman
and secure permanent happiness, only
increases our disappointment and
pain in proportion to the amount we
acquire for that purpose {vide supra,
i. 18); yet, considering it absolutely,
independent of the use Coheleth has
tried to make of it in the passage
alluded to, who, that has been con
strained with the sacred writer to
denounce it as " striving after the
wind," as a canker growing in us
with the growth of wisdom, will not
also award the palm to wisdom wheti
compared with folly ? Instead, there
fore, of contradicting each other, as
some have vainly maintained, these
two statements are perfectly harmo
nious. The cultivation of the mind
is far more exalting, delightful, and
exquisite to a rational being, than
the indulgence of the passions in de
grading, enervating, and poignant
pleasures. Wisdom, therefore, like

chap. II.]

coheleth.

291

14 over darkness. The wise man, his eyes are in his head,
while the fool walks in blindness, and yet I knew that the

splendid and genial light, illuminates
and quickens everythiag around it ;
whilst folly, like brooding and lifeless
darkness, leaves gloom and depres
sion in its train. It is on this ac
count that wise precepts are fre
quently called light (Ps. cxix. 105 ;
Prov. vi.23), and ignorance is termed
darkness (Job xxxviii. 19). For Jinn;
see supra, i. 3. For ]'a see Gesen.
§ 119, 1. ]inn'a in the last clause
stands for Jiin'a, the vowel i belong
ing to tbe feeble letter is not unfre-
quently transferred to the preceding
consonant (comp. nbb'i for nbV^, Jerm.
xxv. 86; Gesen. §'^4, 1 ;' Ewald,
§ 34, 10). 'The Chaldee, desirous of
magnifying wisdom to the utmost,
has paraphrased it IP «npainb nnin n'M
«;b'b TiiiDn )n «pi' nina nniiaa n'W sniiD^,
the superiority of wisdom over folly,
is greater than the superiority of the
Ught of the day over the darkness of
the night.
14. The wise man, his eyes, &c.
Light and darkness, used in the pre
ceding verse to shew the superiority of
wisdom over ioWy in the abstraot,h ave
suggested in this verse the figurative
use of open and closed eyes, to illus
trate these qualities as manifest in the
concrete; in the circumspect, reflec^
ing, and heedful conduct of the wise
man, and the indiscreet, unreflect
ing, and heedless dealings of tbe
fool, tiann stands absolutely for the
sake of prominence (comp. tj'pn bm
iann, Ood, perfect is his way, Ps. xviii.
80; Gesen. § 145, 2). The words
iifiiJna I'a'?, his eyes are in his head,
i. e., has them in their useful place,
are tantamount to nimpa, are open,
as is evident from the antithesis,
ijbin ijtfna b'pani, and the fool walks in
biinndess ; '^', to be dark, to be dim,
is frequently used to denote the dim
ness of sight {vide infra, xii. 3 ; Ps.
Ixix. 23 ; Lam. v. 17). To have one's
eyes open is a well known phrase for
a wise and watchful man (comp.
?TipB nw; nnw, bribery blinds the open-

«^«i,.Exod. xxiii. 8 with Deut. xvi.
19, where t:'nBB is exchanged for
D'pan '5'», the eyes of the wise; but
especially Prov. xx. 18, where open
eyes, as here, are contrasted with
sleep- closed ones).
A nd yet I kneio, &o. But, neverthe
less, this superiority cannot obviate
the fact stated in i. 3. 11.18; the wise
man cannot devise anything to
exempt him from the fate common
to all, tbe contetnplation of which
so much distresses Coheleth; the
wise man and the fool must die
alike. The particle oa is frequently
used adversatively, for yet, notwith
standing, nevertheless (comp. infra,
vi. 7 ; Ps. cx!tix. 2 ; Ezek. xvi. 28 ;
Gesen. Lex, s.v. 4:; Ewald, § 354, a).
For the pleonastic use of '?«, /, after
'B9T, with the pronominal suffix,
see i. 16. nnpn (from Trtg, to meet,
to happen, to befall), that which
befalls, hap, fate, destiny, event, and
refers here to death, which is the
burden of the sacred writer. In
consequence of tlae poverty of tbe
Hebrew language, the cardinal "viii
is used in this book in at least six
different significations, each of which
is expressed by a different word in
Latin — 1. In its primary sense as
cardinal, unus, one (vii. 28, ix. 18).
2. Indef. aliquis, eT? ti; (iv. 8).
3. Alter (iv. 10) ; 4. Solus (iv. 9.
10) ; 6. Unious (iv. 11) ; and 6. Idem,
the same (ii. 14; iii. 19. 20; vi. 6;
ix. 2. 3 ; xii. 11, and iu the passage
before us), c^ba, all of them, denotes
also both, as is evident from the two
nouns, viz. nan, the wise man, and
b'pa, the fool, to which it refers. It
is probably used instead of t:n':sJ,
both, because these two classes con
stitute all mankind. For the same
reason ten, all, is often used for
both, {vide infra, iii. 19. 20 ; vi. 6 ;
vii. 15 ; ix. 1,2; x. 19 ; and comp.
the well-known .Talmudic phrase
ban 'nn, although referring to two
persons). Hence the Vulg,, though

292

COHELETH.

[chap. II.

15 same fate will meet both. I therefore spake with my
heart, A fate like that of the fool must also meet me, even
me, and why am I then wiser? and I said to my heart

somewhat paraphrastic, has rightly
rendered this clause et didici, quod
UNUS UTaiUSQOE ESSEI INTERITUS,
and I learned that they were both
alike to die ; so also Rashi imo' Dn'JS),
both die ; and still better Rashbam,
nnsa Dn':iB n'nniB m p nia nsi bai oai,
and nevertheless the one is like the
other, for both die alike.
15. 1 therefore spake with my heart,
&c. Seeing, then, that he as a
wise man, though in other respects
having unquestionable advantages
over tbe fool, cannot exempt himself
from death and oblivion, and that
wisdom, as far as the evil in question
is concerned, only makes him see
more clearly, and feel more acutely
the fleetness of life, the emptiness of
all earthly enjoyments, and the utter
inability of ameliorating his condi
tion, Coheleth rightly characterises
the labour of acquiring wisdom tnore
than others as " striving after the
wind" {eomy>. supra, i. 18-18). For
the use of '?«, I, vi^th the verb wbich
has tbe suffix of the same pronoun,
see i. 16, and for the phrase to say
or to speak to the heart, i. 13. The
subject to pni?'., will befall, is the
implied 'rrs^.fate, before nnppa, i.e.,
'jnp; '3«"Da b'pan nn.pn|i nnpn, a fate like
the fate of the fool will also befall me,
as is evident from the ? in nnpp?,
which, when preceding a substantive,
denotes something like itself (comp.
DIN nsnna 'a"w;i, an appearance like
the appearance of a man touched me
Dan. X. 18; infra, viii. 14; Isa. v.
29; xxix. 4; Gesen. § 144; Ewald,
§ 221, a). As our language has
the same ellipsis, we have imitated
it in the translation, which seems
preferable to the common rendering,
regarding '?np; as an impersonal verb.
The particle na, also, used of acces
sion, frequently denotes even. The
repetition of the pronoun 'jh, the
nominative instead of 'rii« before the
verbal suffix 'j in '?'ip;, gives great

emphasis to the statement. For simi
lar instances, see 2 Chron. xxviii.
10. ni.n'b ninw pane QPiM-pn «bri
oa>nb.«, are not upon you, upon you tfie
sins against the Eternal your Ood ?
see also Gen. xlix. 8; Gesen. § 121, 3;
Ewald, § 311, a. i«, then, must
not be omitted (Vulg., a few MSS.,
some modern commentators) ; nor
changed into iji? (Houbigant), for
which there is no authority; nor
taken in the sense of formerly, {i. e.,
why have I been so wise formerly ?
Knobel) ; nor as referring to tlie
time when the fate of the fool also
meets him (Herzfeld); nor to the close
of life, when all this experience has
been gained (Hitzig) ; nor to the
point when his convictions are full
(Stuart) ; but like 'a, then, is a sign
of the apodosis: if it be so, if the
same fate befalls the wise and the
fool, why then, &c. — a sense wbich
our particle then also has (compare
Ewald, § 358, a), nni' is prop. part.
what is over, hence, as a substantive,
surplus, residue, gain, profit {vide
infra, -vi. 8. 11; vii. 11), whence is
derived its adverbial signification,
more {infra, vii. 1 6 ; xii. 9).
This too is vanity, i. e., to acquire
wisdom above others, for the purpose
of removing by its power the depres
sion of the mind, and to avert the
fate common to all {vide supra, i.
13-18). ni, this, is therefore rightly
referred by Ibn Ezra to npan, wisdom.
Knobel, Elster, &o,, having missed
the logical sequence of this clause,
take it to refer to the destiny of
life, according, to which tbe wise
man meets with the same fate as the
fool, which they say Coheleth pro
nounces " vanity." The Septuagint,
anxious for the orthodoxy of the
sacred writer, inserts b'pan, the fool,
between w, then, and nni', more, and
supplies nan from the immediately
following verb, and makes it SioVi
S,ifpm Ix ircptff-nifA.a.To! ?ia)iE~, for this

chap. II.]

coheleth.

293

16 that this too is vanity ; since there is no remembrance of
the wise man as of the fool for ever, for, as in time
• past, both will be forgotten in days to come. And, alas !

reason, or perhaps to this effect, the
fool speaks abundantly; putting the
apparently heterodox sentiments into
the mouth of a fool. So also the Syr.
16. Since there is no remembrance,
&o. The vanity of being wiser, in
order to avert tbe fate that awaits
all mankind, is shewn from the
painful fact that both the wise man
and the fool alike die, and are alike
forgotten, which is the burden of the
sacred writer (comp, i 11.15). This
verse fully corroborates our rendering
of L 11. For the construct Jinai,
comp. i. 16, where also is explained
the use of the b as a sign of the
genitive. C3», with, like nn» {infra,
V. 15), is from oas, to bind together,
to unite, to connect. Both expres
sions are properly nouns, signifying
a gathering, a union, a connection,
close union of one with another,
fellowship, in nature or fate, of one
with the other; hence the idea of
similarity, likeness, like, as; (comp.
ni'3»T:» iDbn, they pass away like ships,
Jobix. 26; Ps. Ixxxviii. 5; a-ndinfra,
vii. 11; Ewald, § 217, h). For
nns, see infra, v. 15. "i??^? is a
compound of ^a=niti«a (Gesen. § 36;
Ewald, § 181, b), inasmuch as, since
{vide infra, vii. 2, viii. 4 ; Gen.
xxxix. 9. 23 ; Ewald, § 222, a ;
§ 336, o), and '^'^, formerly, time past
(comp. i. 10), and is used as anti
thesis to ta'Nan D'p^n, the coming days.
This explanation of the much dis
puted I?!'??, which we believe to be
most natural, and consonant with
the sequel, seems also to have been
entertained by the Chaldee, which
paraphrases Q'san t3'p;n naatfa by np
pvnsi myf yirf\ na 'nini'a naa ninn
'ninra 'inn^, that which was in his days
long before, so will be the days that
vnll omne after him, &c. ; and Ibn
Ezra, who interprets it nawa rrrr ban

nasffl pia ina la'san D'D'a, all will be
forgotten in the days to come, as in
time past. The rendering of the
Sept. xaSoTi nSn, is ambiguous, inas
much as it may refer to time past or
present, and has occasioned the ren
dering in the Auth. Ver., seeing that
which now is, contrary to the signifi
cation of this word {vide supra, i. 10).
This is one of tbe three instances
{vide infra, ix. 6, 7), where our
translators have shewn their incon
sistency in the translation of "las.
The translation of Gesenius, Knobel,
Elster, Fiirst, &c., since in the days
to come all will have been long ago
forgotten, taking naa as qualifying
the verb naiiia is very forced, inas
much as this adverb is too far
removed from the verb. Herzfeld's
version, njenn bie fomwcnben S:oge
eine Seittang botbei ftnb, iji Sltteg
bctgeffen/ when the coming days shall
have passed some time, all will be
forgotten, resolving laatfa into n^Ma
ia?, when something, naa is past (an,
opinion already mentioned by Ibn
Ezra, nnin M'rro D'wnBnn ^n •v\^ nn»
D'D'n naaisa vaoa nn» ntosai na» nan b»
naaioa nvnb 'wn n>n nn» vvan) is incon
gruous ; since the coming days will
always continue, and hence can
never be characterised as long past.
D'»an Q'p'n is the accusative of time,
IN the coming days (Gesen. § 1 18, 2 ;
Ewald, § 300, a). The Vulg., there
fore, ET FUTUEA TEMPORA OBLIVIONE
CUNOTA PARITER OPERIENT, and the
times to come shall cover all things
with oblivion, which is followed by
Luther, unb bie liinftigen Sagen ber=
geffen oUeg, making D'Han D'pjrr the
nominat'ive, is an unwarrantable
paraphrase, naiiia is the part. Niphal,
used to denote permanency (comp.
Isa. xxiii. 16). 'fsn, all for both, the
wise man and the fool {vide supra,
ver. 14). lj'«, how, alas, apocopated
from na'«,.i. g,, 'm and na, is an excla
mation of pain or grief (comp. Ps.

294

coheleth.

[chap. II.

17 how dieth the wise, like the fool! Therefore I hated life,
for an evil pressure was upon me, the work which I worked
under the sun, as all is vanity and striving after the wind ;

Ixxiii. 19; Isa. xiv. 4), and is well
explained by Rashbam, nan sin ^«
t2"pnnn; whereas the Auth. Version
{and how dieth the wise man ? as the
fool), influenced by the traditional
explanation of this clause, has
departed from the simple meaning
of the words, nin;, the imperfect,
like the participle in the preceding
clause, denotes continuance. The
Chaldee, anxious to make also this
verse orthodox, paraphrases it, Qins
'n«n snbsb s'miii tj'S sn'anb sinan n'.^
na'^ 'nini'a 'naa' ninn np xnaa' nn'sTanai
nantis Nbia 'riinna''.i.nnb prnsi Njpi' pn'»
«;p.'nsn «BiD s'rn iiii^it 'ja yno\ i'na'«i
«a;nn «BiDa, because the remembrance
of the wise man is not with the fool
in the world to come; and after the
death of a man, that which has been
in his days long ago, .so it will be in
the days that will come after him, all
will be disclosed; and how then say
the sons of men that the end of the
righteous is the same as the end of
the wicked ? This Midrashic inter
pretation, which is given by Rashi,
has as usual been adopted by Chris
tian Fathers. Thus St. Gregory of
Nyssa, who takes the statement in
verses 14 and 15 as an objection
urged by a sceptic, affirms that tho
sacred writer denounces it with the
words, " this, too, is vanity," and
corroborates this denunciation by
asserting, in the verse before us, that
the remembrance of the wise man is
not with the fool for ever ; though
they both die alike, their end is not
alike ; and by asking, " How dieth
the wise man? as the fool?" which
he explains, how therefore does any
one say that the one dies like the
other ?
17. Therefore I hated life, &o. The
fact that a life spent in toiling to
acquire wisdom has no advantage
whatever over a life wasted in frehzied
folly, as far as the problem of Co
heleth is concerned, produced in him

weariness of an existence pregnant
with the consciousness of its certain,
speedy, and gloomy dissolution, which
became more poignant at every fruit
less effdrt to avert it. Of course this
refers to the state of life described in
the preceding part of this treatise,
when Coheleth sought to find by the
aid of wisdom a satisfactory solution
of the problems of life. We should
have deemed it superfluous to make
this remark, had not the Hagadic
interpretation, in its anxiety to make
the sentiment of this verse strictly
orthodox, strangely perverted the
meaning of the text, and had not
that perverse exposition been adopted
by the ancient versions and Fathers,
and followed by some modern com
mentators. Thus the Chaldee para
phrases it t:in« ^'ifi'a ]'»n b| n; m^ 'mpi
N12J3N 'ja bs TasriN 'n «*a M^is 'bs iD'a
pnNnbsa stfpsinin^, and T hated all
evil life, because evil was to me the
evil work which is to the sons of men
wider tfie sun in this world, making
Coheleth express his disgust with
sin. Hence the Sept., xa! E/Mi'imirtt o-uv
rhv ^osnv ort wovnfoy Iv Ijwe to' <jtoii)fjtA to
•jiETeomfxivov vtto tov nXiov; the Vulg,, et
idcirco tceduit me vitce mem, videntem
mala universa esse sub sole ; and the
explanation of Gill, &c. Rashi,
again, takes it as a prophecy respect
ing the wicked offspring of Rehoboam
(D'Sion vnw DSann bin mm bia saann),
whom Solomon hated. Q'jn is not
the living (Ibn Ezra, D'anb n«inn C3S)),
which is contrary to the context
(comp. nw '^« in the preceding
verse), but signifies life in the ab
stract, i. e , his own life. The pre
position bs, upon, when used with a
noun, adjective, or verb, denoting
heaviness, burdensome, afflicting, indi
cates the pressure or weight of the
painful annoyance with which it lies
upon the person {vide infra, vi. 1;
viii. 6 ; Isa. i. 14 ; Job vii. 20 ; Gesen.
§ 1 54, 3, 6 ; Ewald, § 217, i). ntospn.

chap. II.]

coheleth.

295

18 and I hated all my gain which I gained under the sun,
as I must leave it to the man who shall come after me, and
19 no one knoweth whether he will be a wise man or a fool,
and yet he shall have power over all my gain which I have

the work, i. e., the toil of men {vide
supra, i. 14).
18. And I hated all my gain, &c.
The weariness of life expressed in
the preceding verse, is now followed
by deploring all his works, which
have not only utterly failed to satisfy
the cravings of tbe soul, but which
he cannot even bequeath to his
own offspring, but must leave to a
stranger. For the pleonastic use of
tbe pron. 'as, I, after the verb, with
the pronominal suffix, see i. 16. bps,
labour, toil, is, in this and in the two
following verses, used metonymically
for the fruit of labour or toil, gain,
riches, possessions, which alone can
be inherited; Rashbam, therefore,
rightly remai-ks, 'nws ns 'bns n«. The
verbal adjective, bns, obtains the
force of a participle, by virtue of the
pronoun added to it, and hence is
followed by an accusative, and stands
for the present tense {vide infra, 22;
iii. 9 ; iv. 8 ; ix. 9). «n'3« is not from
n:; (Knobel) but from ma, like the
forms b'ln, to despise (Lam. i. 8), from
""', '''^n, to despise (Prov. iv. 21), from
lib, n'pn, to incite (Jer. xxxviii. 22),
from niD ; this Hiphil has a short
vowel under the preformative, fol
lowed by Dagesh forte (Gesen. § 72,
Rem. 9; Ewald, § 122, e). The
phrase ^'!S^ '^^:<^, who shall be after
me ? is tiie same as '^bnn 'nn« vhsa,
who shall come after the king ? in ver.
12, and precludes the possibility of
referring it to Coheleth's own son, as
is evident from the expression tjnsb,
which couldnotbe used to design ate a
child ; and especially from the follow
ing verse, and verse 21. The strange
rendering of the Vulgate, bursus de-
TESTATUS SUM OMNEM INDUSTRIAM
MEAM, QUA SUB SOLE STUDIOSISSIME
LABORAVI, HABITUEUS HjEREDEM POST
ME, again I detested all my industry
wherewith I most studiously laboured

tinder the sun, being likely to have
an heir after me, which has led some
to regard this statement as expressing
a querulous and mean selfishness,
begrudging his heir the possession
of the accumulated property ; as well
as the more softened paraphrase of the
Chaldee, n'nnp 'n 'ninnp ba n; nm 'wspi
a'3'paiiS'«n ^'aa'pn «pbsa' Mtfnifl' nini?
aB;i n'nas Dsan; 'n';.i 'nna »n«n''nao»ann^
Mhiabp nubs ]'pn;i Njaaiii 'nnws "in;'jp
and I hated all the labour which I
laboured under the sun in this world,
because I must leave it to Mehoboam
my son, who will come after me, and
Jeroboam his servant will come and
take out of his hand the ten tribes, and
possess half of the kingdom, referring
it to Rehoboam , which Rashi, Knobel,
and many others follow, are both
against the words of the text, and
contrary to the character of Ooheleth,.
who shews tender and fatherly feel.
ings (iv. 8 ; v. 13). Orientals, to the
present day, have the welfare of their
children too much at heart to give
vent to such mean selfishness. Jer-
min's explanation of this verse is
really a curiosity : " It is commanded
of God in the law of Moses (Levit.
xi. 41) ' every creeping thing that
creepeth on the earth shall be an
abomination unto thee;' and what
is all man's labour concerning the
things of this life but a creeping
thing on tbe earth? Wherefore
Solomon might well say, ' / hated all
my labour.' "
19. And no one knoweth, &c. And
what is still more galling, is the fact
that this stranger, to whom all the
property, so wisely and prudently
acquired, is to be left, may, for aught
Coheleth knows, be a fool, and im
prudently and wantonly squander
all. This declaration about his
ignorance of the character of the in
dividual who is to be his heir, yields

296

coheleth.

[chap. II.

20 wisely gained under the sun ; this, too, is vanity. Thus I
turned to cause my heart to despair of all the gain which I

an additional proof to the one already
given in the preceding verse, that
Coheleth cannot refer to his son, and
thus exonerates him from the sel
fishness and meanness imputed to
him. It moreover shews that these
words could not proceed from Solo
mon, who knew his successor, and
well knew whether he was a wise
man or a fool. The i before the in
terrogative ''P, is the regular con
junction, introducing an additional
reason to the one already given iu
the preceding verse, why Ooheleth
loathed his possessions, i. e., he must
not only leave his property to a
stranger, but does not even know
what he will be, whether wise or
foolish. Herzfeld's remark, that —
biefet 35et^ iji aU integtirenbei X^iii
beg mit "n'3«ia anfangenben <Ba^eg
aboetbtalifi^ aufjufafen aU ftftnbe;
„ Weil i(^ i^n bmtetlaf en fottte bem
3»enfc&en, bet m(^ mit fein wixi,
unb it& nii^t Wiif" obet: o^ne ju
roiffen, „ ob u. «. w. " '"?', fie^t nam=
ti(^ eigentli* ffit '9 •i'?«i, " this verse
must be taken adverbially, as an in
tegral part of the sentence beginning
with isiTSKti, i. e., ' because I must
leave it to the man who shall come
after me, and I know not,' or ' with
out knowing whether,' &c., &c. 'ni,
standing for 'n naSsi," is both an un
necessary deviation from the regular
meaning of the i, and weakens the
sense of the passage. The formula,
sni' 'p, who knows, is used for no one
knows, in the sense of the Latin
nescio an (comp. infra, iii. 21; vi. 12;
Ps. xc. 11; Prov. xxiv. 22 ; and the
force of the interrogative in i. 16).
The Vulg.'s rendering of this clause,
QUEM lONORO UTRUM, whom I ktlOW
not whether, &c., is an unwarranted
departure from the text. The dis-
jumctive question, utrum-an ? is here
expressed by the rare form is — n,
instead of its usual dm before the
second clause ; a similar instance
occurs in Job xvi. 3. i« nin-'nanb ypn

^'np2-np, are the airy words al an
end? or what provoketh thee ? (comp.
Gesen. § 153, 2). The i before iDbip;,
is as frequently used adversatively,
i. e., and yet he shall rule {vide supra,
i. 4). The rendering of the Sept.,
Ksi El E^ouiria^ETttf, and if he will rule,
taking the I for d«i, as continuing
the interrogative ti-om the preceding
clause, is both unjustifiable and in
consistent with the preceding verse,
where Coheleth said that a stranger
will have all his possessions; he
could therefore not be made to ques
tion again whether he will have the
power over it. That 'nnanrni 'Bbps* is
not to be translated wherein I have
laboured, and wherein I have shewn
myself wise (Sept., Geneva Version,
Auth. Version, and most modern
commentators), nor wherein I have
sweated and been solicitous (quibus
DESUDAVI ET SOLLICITUS FUI, Vulg.),
but which I have wisely laboured or
gained, the second verb being sub
ordinate to the flrst {vide supra, i. 16),
is evident from verse 20, where
Coheleth, referring to it, explains it
by nppna ibns. The Chaldee has
therefore rightly rendered it n'j'pnsn
'npama; so also ibn Ezra, 'nnanioi 'nSns
D'-inwn D'bsBnn 'nnan nbnic sni laoiDn nnn
nnana 'nbns© iditbi ; Luther, bie ii)
WtxSiii) get^an '^abe ; Coverdale and
the Bishops' Bible, which I with such
wisdom have taken.
20. Thus I turned, &c. This and
the following verse are a rhetorical
epanalepsis, resuming and repeating,
in a somewhat different form, the
statement made in verses 18 and 19.
Not perceiving this, commentators
have experienced great difficulty in
their attempts to connect these verses
with what precedes. The i before
'niap introduces the epanalepsis, and
must therefore be rendered thus,
3ap, to tum, to leave one thing and
turn to another, to turn in order to
DO something {infra, vii. 25 ; 1 Sam.
xxii. 17, 18), and thus differs from

CHAP. II.]

coheleth.

297

21 gained under the sun ; for here is a man which hath
laboured wisely, and prudently, and dexterously, and to a
man who hath not worked at it at all he must leave it as

aiiB and njB, to tum in order to see
{vide, ver 12; iv. 1. 7; ix. 11 ; Fiirst,
Lex. s.». aap). nis; is not the PaM
(Preston), but th^ infinitive PteZ —
the vowel of the first radical being
prolonged to compensate for the
Dagesh forte, which is lost from the
middle letter (comp. Gesen. § 64, 8) —
of i^^l, to relinquish, to abandon as
hopeless, to despair ; the Piel as
frequently has a caMsatiwe. significa
tion (Gesen. § 52, 2, b ; Ewald,
§ 120, c). This word only occurs
five times more in the Old Testament
(1 Sam. xxvii. 1 ; Isa. Ivii. 10 ; Jer.
ii. 25, xviii. 12 ; Job vi. 26), but is
frequently used in tbis sense in
Rabbinic writings, bs, upon, like
cm in Greek, also marks the object
of a discourse' or action, hence
signifies in reference to, concerning,
of (comp. ^b» 'WniS, / have heard
concerning thee. Gen. xii. 15 ; on
TttuTtt nv inr' avrS ysypafjifXEva, these
things were written respecting him,
John xii. 16). The Sept., xa.1 lirliT-TfE^tt
Et/a) rov a.'jrora^Aff-Qat rri nap^ia. fAOU etti
wavTi rS fjioxBx, and I turned to bid
farewell to my heart respecting all
my labour, though languid, yet gives
the sense of the original ; whilst the
Vulg. , UNDE OE SSAVI, RENUN OIA VITQUE
COR MEUM ULTRA LABORARE, whcreforO
I ceased, and my heart renounced to
labour any more, is an unjustifiable
violation of the text. The Syriac
and I turned to relax my heart, does
not give the true meaning of i!)m; ;
Luther's rendering, batum Wanbte i(|)
mxij, baf mein ?)erj abliefe son attet
Sttbeit, which is followed by Cover-
dale and the Bishops' Bible (" so I
turned me to refrain my mind from
all such travail"), adhering to the
prim ary sense of tf m^ ; and the Geneva
version (" therefore I went about to
make my heart abhor all the labour"),
ignore the preposition bs, Hodgson's

translation, " I turned my heart to
pensive musing on all the works,"
is preposterous.
21. For here is a man, &c. In
resuming here tbe statement made
in ver. 18, Coheleth leaves it beyond
the shadow of a doubt that he did
not intend to express, by the words
'''T,n« n'n'.iti ta'wb isn'iM, I must leave it
to the man who shall be after me, a
misanthropic feeling, begrudging his
very children the enjoyment of his
amassed wealth ; but, on the con
trary, deplored the fact that the
acquired property cannot sometimes
even be bequeathed to one's own
children , but must be left to stran gers.
This is evident from the synonymous
phrase, i,3n; ia-bns ^b«S nn«b, he leaves
it to a man who has not worked for
it at all, which undoubtedly means
a stranger, in contradistinction to
children, who, in the East especially,
always cooperate with their parents
in the acquisition of wealth. The
Chaldee has therefore rightly para
phrased it nnn «bn naabi nbi nba nin'.!
n'.a'in; n'a, and he dies without children,
and leaves it to a man who has not
worked at it. '?, for, is causal,
assigning a reason for the despair
expressed in the preceding verse.
The verb bps is to be supplied from th e
second clause before ibnsti, ig'.,'bnsti
ibns, who has laboured his labour,
here used metonymically for who has
gained his gain. The preposition a
before nsn, npan and Jiii??, nouns of
quality, forms a periphrasis for the
adjective or adverb (comp. nin;"bip,
n'aa, the voice of the Eternal is with
power, i.e., is powerful, Ps. xxix. 4;
Exod. xii. 11 ; 1 Chron. xxvi. 14;
Gesen.§106,l,Rem.l;Ewald,§217,f.) The rendering of Ewald, beffen SMitJe
ft^ um aSBeig^eit unb Stiffen, unb
Su^tigfeit bte^t, taking the ? as
marking the object for which he
expended his labour, is contrary to
the scope of the passage, which

2Q

298

coheleth.

[chap. II.

22 his portion ; this, too, is vanity, and a great evil. For man
hath nothing firom all his labour and the striving of his heart

speaks of the bequeathing of riches,
and not of mental capacities; of these
Coheleth himself complains that they
cannot be transmitted. Besides, if
this were the meaning, the following
clause would undoubtedly have been
nna bps ^'yf Dnijbi, in the plural. As
]intf3 (from 'niiia, kindred with ni*,
nsJM, to be straight, to be right,
physically or morally, Esth. viii. 5,
infra, x. 17, with the termination Ji,
according to the analogy of Jinp;,
vide supra, i. 2), means both that
which is done in a right manner,
dexterity, adroitness, industry {vide
infra, iv. 4), and by metonymy, that
which is gained by acting aright,
success, prosperity ; hence the Syriac

{\t6.

O) , the Chaldee (ipivai),

the Geneva Bible, the Authorised
Version, Geier, Rambach, Van der
Palm, Hodgson, Noyes, &c., retain
tbe primary sense of straight, right,
equity ; the Sept. (Iv avSfEi'a), Symm.
(ev yof j/oTUTi) , Vulg. (sollioitudo) , Luther
(@ef(iil«i(*feit), Coverdale and the
Bishops' Bible {opportunity), Hodg
son, Herzfeld, Ewald, Hitzig, Stuart,
Philippson, Fiirst, Elster, &c., adhere
to tbe idea of that wbich is done
aright, i. e., dexterity, industry ;
whilst Gesenius, Holden, Rosen
miiller, Knobel, Preston, &c., render
it success, prosperity. But as the
scope of the passage is to set forth
the deplorable fact that wealth
acquired by toil must be left to one
who has not toiled tov it at all, the
meaning industry or dexterity is
preferable to success or equity, and
also agrees better with nnan, wisdom,
and nsn, intelligence. ia"bps, i. «.,
ibnsa, he has not laboured in the
labour (comp. Ps. cxxvii. 1 ; Jonah
iv. 10). 'The suffix in i3:n; also
refers to bns, and the suffix in ipbn to
the second lanM, ie., to the man who
has not worked therein (i''p?>a) ; he
must leave it (i''?*) as his portion ;

the verb ]na, to bestow, being one of
the verbs which are construed with
two accusatives (compare D;ia nwM
*in^5, / shall give the heathen for
thine inheritance, Ps. ii. 8, xviii. 41 ;
Gesen. § 189, 2; 'Ewald, § 283, b;
so tbe Chaldee n'pbin '.inpb wa'an;,
Luther, Auth.Ver., Knobel, Herzfeld,
Noyes, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Elster,
&c.) Others, however, take the
sufiBx i3w; to be the same as in ipbn,
i. e., he gives it, namely his portion, to
another (the Sept., Vulgate, Geneva
Version, Ewald, &e.), or refer it to
the first ian«, i. e., ib jn;, to the man
who has not worked therein, to him
he must give his portion (Ibn Ezra,
Bauer, Stuart, &c.) But as the first
of these constructions creates a pleo
nasm, which is only used to give
special emphasis, as is not tbe case
here, and the second involves the
clogging repetition of the dative, as
well as the taking of tbe suffix for
the dative, after the verb ]n, which
is of very rare occurrence, the one
we have adopted is preferable.
22. For man hath nothing, &c.
But as for the man who thus exerts
his powers of body and mind to
obtain solid happiness here, he reaps
in this respect no advantage of all
his efforts. Thus Coheleth, in con
cluding! tbe flrst section of bis
disquisition, repeats the very words
with which he began {vide supra,
i. 3). Dn«b nin-np, what is there to
man ? is the same as tansb jinn;-np,
what advantage is there to man ? in
i. 3,— ^where the use of the interroga
tive for an emphatic denial is
explained, — and is well rendered by
the Vulg. quid enim proderit homini,
and still better by the Chaldee tarns
najb n'b n's nMjn nn, for what advan
tage hath man ? The Sept. S'ti yivirai
TO) avSpxiroi EV TTavr) fAo^Qu avrov, for it
happens to a man in all his labour, is
an unwarranted departure from the
text, without yielding any sense.
nin is not a later Hebrew or Aramean

chap. II.]

coheleth.

299

23 that he laboureth under the sun, since his business grieveth
and irritateth him all his days, and his mind doth not rest
24 even at night ; this also is vanity. There is nothing better for
form, instead of n;n (Knobel, Hitzig,
Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster, &c ), but
is tbe part, of nin = nin, to blow, to
breathe; hence to have life, to exist,
to be, a primitive form, as is evident
from its onomatopoetic nature, and
its use in the earliest Hebrew (comp.
Gen. xxvii. 29 ; Isa. xvi. 4, &c.)
The words bos Mn* iab Ji'^nai ibns are
generally rendered his labour and
the vexation or striving of his heart,
wherein he hath laboured; but this
is incongruous, inasmuch as bns can
only be predicated of bns, aid not
of ji'sn ; nor can tbis rendering be
defended by resorting to the figure
Zeugma, where two subjects have a
verb in common, which can with
propriety predicate the action of
only one; for, in such a case, the
verb immediately follows the subject
of the action which it properly or
legitimately expresses (comp. Gen.
xlvii. 19; Isa. Iv. 3; Job iv. 10).
Accordingly, the construction would
have been bns sin* ibps"baai iab ji'sn.
It is therefore more consistent, with
Herzfeld and Philippson, to take the
tf = ntfM in Nin^, not as a relative
pronoun, but as a conjunction, that,
in which sense it is frequently used
(pide infra, v. 4 ; vii. 29, &c.) For the
signification of ]i'sn, striving, s.s well as
for its form, see i. 14 ; and for the use
of bns in the present tense, see ii. 18.
23. Since his business, &c. To
strengthen the conclusion submitted
in the preceding verse, Coheleth
adduces an additional fact, that not
only bas man no future and abiding
advantage from all his toil, but that
it does not even yield present enjoy
ment whilst engaged therein, for
man's labour is accompanied with
grief and irritation in the daytime,
and deprivation of rest in the night.
'? is not to be taken as truly intro-
dueing em pb atically the direct diction
(Ewald, Hitzig, Elster, &c.), but has
its- usual sense for, only in a more

intense degree, by virtue of the
implied negation in the preceding
verse (comp. Micah vi. 4 ; Job xxxi.
18 ; Gesen. § 155, 1 e d). vn;-ba, all
his days, is the accusative of time, in
an adverbial limitation. This is
evident — 1. From chap. v. 16, where
the same phrase occurs, and is
acknowledged to be so ; 2. From
the Quametz under tbe i in Dsai,
which, being used to join words in
pairs, connects it inseparably with
D'aton (comp. inai irin. Gen. i. 2 ;
nWi Di', ib'id. viii. 22 ; see also infra,
iv. 8; Gesen. § 104, 2, d; Ewald,
§ 243, a) ; and 3. From the antithesis
nb'ba, which is the accusative of
time. The whole clause is therefore
rightly explained by Ibn Ezra tavn ba
Bsai 1BD3 awaa v:'» ba ypna mnw, the
whole day whilst awake, all his labour
is grief of mind and irritation ; so
also the Vulg., which, omitting I'ms,
has, CUNCTI DIES EJUS DOLORIBUS ET
ainuMNis PLENi spNT, all his days
are full of sorrow and grief; sub
stantially the same is the loose
paraphrase of Luther, benn atte feine
Sefctage ©cfimetjen mit ©tomen unb
Seib, followed by Coverdale and the
Bishops' Bible {but heaviness, sorrow,
and disquietness all the days of his
life), which mistake tbe word i3;?»,
and Herzfeld. D'atan, grief, tbe ab
stract, which, as in Greek and Latin,
is frequently expressed in Hebrew
by the plural (comp. O'jn, Ufe, Gen.
ii. 9 ; t3'ni.3D, blindness, ibid. xix. 2 ;
Gesen. § 108, 2, a ; Ewald, § 179, a),
and tjsa, irritation, are used as inten
sive adjectives {vide infra, x. 6 ; Ps.
v. 9 ; Song of Songs v. 16; 1 Cor.
ii. 14; PhiL iii. 2; Gesen. § 106, 1,
Rem. 1 ; Ewald, § 296, b).
24, There is nothing better, &c.
• Seeing that neither the exertions of
wisdom (i. 12- ii. 11) nor the pur
suits after pleasure (ii. 12 - 23) can
satisfy the cravings of tbe soul,
Coheleth concludes that there is

300

coheleth.

[chap. II,

man than to eat and drink, and let his soul enjoy pleasure in

nothing left for man but calmly and
cheerfully to enjoy the present ; yet
this, too, he finds is not always in
the power of man. Much difficulty
bas been experienced in tbe rendering
of the first part of tbis verse. The
Sept. translates it, oIk So-tiv iyaSiv
avSpfloTTW, 0 ^ayErat xal TiUrai Kai o 5ei^E(
T? •\'V'/jfi CLVrov ayaQlv Iv fx,oy^6u) ayrow, man
has not the good which he shall eat
and drink, and which he shall shew
his soul as good in his labour ; sub
stantially the same, Geier, Dathe,
and Knobel, fein ©tficE (-Witb) but!|»
ben aw enfi|en, bag et effe unb tttnfe unb
feine ©eele ©Iticf fc^auen lafe bei
fetnet SKiiJe ; Mendelssohn, Fried
lander, and Preston, it is no great
good for a man to eat and drink and
enjoy himself in his employment ;
Desvoeux, no good in man that he
eateth and drinketh, and maketh his
soul see good in his labour; Rosen
miiller, Herzfeld, and Philippson ;
ni(|t (n beg 3)Jenfi|)en Sefa^igung
Itegt tg, bof et effe unb trinfe unb
fetne ©eele OuteS geniefen laffe fnt
atte feine SRii^e. But against these
renderings is to be urged, that they
are contrary to the scope of the
whole argument. Coheleth having
shewn tbe utter vanity of all exer
tions to secure abiding good, evi
dently intends to prove that enjoy
ment of the present is the only good
thing left for man ; the contrast
between this clause and the preceding
verse puts tbis beyond tbe shadow of
a doubt. Moreover, these renderings
are against iii. 12. 22; v. 17; viii.
15 ; ix. 7-9, where the same or
similar language is employed to
recommend present enjoyment as
the best thing for man. The Vulg.,
feeling this difficulty, bas rendered
it interrogatively, nonne melius
EST COMEDERE ET BIBBBEET OSTEN
DERE ANIM,ffi; SU,S: BONA DE LABOR-
iBus SUIS ? is it not better to eat and.
drink, and to shew his soul the good
things of his labours ? so also Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, Hodg
son, Boothroyd, Hengstenberg, &c.

Bot though this rendering gives the
sense of the passage, yet the difficulty
of assigning to ]'« here an interro
gative meaning in the face of the
similar phrase aiio j'm, in iii. 12. 22 ;
viii. 15, &c., as well as the awkward
ness of an interrogative sentence in
this connection, will always be
against it. The rendering of the Syr.
there is nothing good for man except to
eat,&c., the Chaldee x^a'M.a n'Btin n'^
""SV '1 jnbM, St. Jerome,'More est bo
num homini, nisi quod comedit, &o.,
Rashbam and Ibn Ezra, which is
followed by the Geneva and Auth.
Versions, De Wette, Ewald, Hitzig,.
Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger,
&c , is the most preferable. A com
parison of tbis clause with iii. 12
will shew that the n, which this
rendering supplies before bai4'ti, has
been dropped in transcribing, be
cause the word which immediately
precedes it ends with n. For a
similar instance, where the meeting
of the same letter has been the cause
of the dropping of one, see Job
xxxiii. 17. The a before onM, as
well as in iii. 12, has the same signi
fication as the b in vi. 12 ; viii. 15 ;
allied to this is the use of the a, to
denote the object in doing a thing
=for, in X. 17. 'a 'as 'li'sn riroa.
stands for nroa 'a 'jm 'n'Nn, by an
attraction which taikes the subject
of tbe dependent clauses into the
governing one as tbe object; this
takes place especially after verbs of
observing, knowing, shewing, or declar
ing (compare aiio-ia niNn-n« D'ribN Nnn,
and Ood saw the light that ii was
good, instead of ni«n aita^'a ta'nb« «n||i,
and Ood saw that the light was goody
Gen. i. 4, vi. 2, xlix. 15 ; Exod.
xxxii. 22; 1 Kings v. 17"; comp.
also Mark xi. 32, xii. 34; Acts iii. 10 ;
Ewald, § 336, b; Winer, § 66, 5).
Not perceiving this construction,
which is of very frequent occurrence
in this book (iii. 21; v. 19; viii. 17;

CHAP. II.]

coheleth.

301

25 his labour ; even this I saw cometh firom God : for who should

xi. 8), expositors have found great
difficulty in explaining these pas
sages, and have often obscured tbe
sense, which is obvious enough when
the attraction is solved.
26. For who should eat, &c. The
two assertions made in the preceding
verse, viz., that the best thing for
man is to enjoy the fruit of his
labour, and that this enjoyment is a
gift of God, are now accounted for
in this and .the following verses.
" Nothing is better for man than to
enjoy his labours, for who except the
labourer ('apn yin) has tbe first claim
to do so ? To render this statement
more striking and vivid, Coheleth
places himself in the position of the
labourer, and says, " If I toil, who
should enjoy the fruit of my toil more
than I ?" A similar instance occurs
in iv. 8. So Rashi 'S'a' nn bia«b 'i«n 'n
'nsban nsbiab nnn' 'm, who is entitled
to eat my labours, and who should
¦hasten to partake of them, except I ?
Rashbam nnnbi bia«b 'i«nm wn 'n 'nn\D
mnmbi biasb w p bsi 'nsban 'bnsa mn«b
ibnsa aiEa.niotBbi, /or who is entitled
to eat and hasten to rejoice in my
toil, except I ? therefore man {the
labourer) should eat and drink and
rejoice in his labour, and Ibn Ezra
':ina ini« biasb 'wn «iniB 'n wn, is there
any one so entitled to eat it as I am ?
This appears to be the most natural
explanation, and most consonant
with the scope of the passage. Others,
hovf-ever, maintain that tbis verse
contains a proof, from Solomon's
personal experience, of the assertion
made in the latter part of the pre-,
ceding verse, viz., that the enjoyment
of things is a gift of Ood, and explain
it, " Who shall eat, or who shall
drink, more than I? no one! and
if I, abounding in all good things
more than any one (ii. 1 - 10) found
th^t it was not in my power to
enjoy them (ii. 2-11) surely the
ability. to enjoy the fruits of our
labour must be from God" (Luther,
Mendelssohn, Herzfeld), or " I who
have so richly enjoyed life can testify

from my own experience, that it is
a gift of God " (Patrick, Knobel,
Hengstenberg, &c.) But tbe very
fact that, according to these expla
nations, tbis verse simply raises a
question without furnishing us with
the clue for its solution, and that
these diametrically opposite interpre
tations are therefore to be urged
with equal right, shews the prefer-
ableness of the view we advocate.
St. Jerome, again, who is followed
by Coverdale, Desvoeux, Spohn,
Ewald, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Philippson, Elster, Vaihinger, &c.,
renders this verse, quis enim oome-
DIT, BT QUIS PARCH SINE ILLO, QUI
HOMINI BONO CORAM SB DEDIT ? for
who eats, and who forbears it without
him, who gives to the man that is good
in his sight ? But this alteration of
'3np, the flrst person, into 13QD, the
third person, is both unnecessary
and unwarranted. The appeal to
the Sept. and Syriac is nugatory, for
these ancient versions may simply
have resolved the figure by which
Coheleth places himself in the posi
tion of tbe labourer, and refer direct
to tbe labourer, which is also done
by Ibn Ezra, -when explaining it
(i:nD nab 'iinn bat)' 'd '3). This is
corroborated by tbe fact that the
ancient Latin version, which is re
tained in tbe Vulgate, has ut ego,
the first person, 'a, causal, assigns a
reason for the flrst statement made
in the foregoing verse. The interro
gative 'p is used as an emphatic
dema.\, vide supra, i. 3. ^iri, to hasten,
is of frequent occurrence in the Old
Test., and is used with other verbs
or nouns, to intensify their meaning
(comp, Ps. xxii. 20 ; cxix. 60) ; tbe
full construction would be 'ni bati' 'p
biasb ttim; ; hence Symmachus' ren
dering of *iinj by avaX(»«i,. shall
consume ; the text, however, by
leaving the verb to be mentally
supplied from the flrst clause, renders
the construction more forcible. A
similar instance of «Jin being con
strued with ^5», is to be found in

302

coheleth.

[chap. II.

26 eat, and who should hasten thereunto, except I? For
to the man who is good before him, he giveth wisdom,
and knowledge, and joy ; but to the sinner he giveth the
business to gather and to amass, to give it to him who

Hab. i. 8, "jiasb Bin ntoa, like an eagle
hasting to eat. So Rashi, Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, Geneva, and Auth.Version.
The Septuagint mETm, and the Syriac
(AjlJ, shall drink, has evidently
arisen from a desire to make it
conform with the preceding verse.
Aquila fEiErai, and Jerome parcit,
confounding iiSw with the assonant
ovv, is undoubtedly owing to a con
ceit of making this clause an anti
thesis to the former, i. e., who shall
eat, and who shall refrainfrom eating,
ot not eat it ? The Vulgate delioiis
affluet, shall abound with delights,
wbich is followed by Luther (ft(^
etgo^t), Knobel, Gesenius, Herzfeld,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Philipp
son, Fiirst, Elster, &c., who try to
justify it by appealing to the Aramean
or Mishnaic usage of this word, is
contrary to its uniform signification
in the Old Testament, and is rendered
nugatory by tbe passage in Hab.
quoted above. ]p ym, except, which
occurs nowhere else in the Old
Testament, is a well-known Talmudic
phrase (comp. n«n'n yin t:'niB 'n'a ban
Q'nm, everything is from Ood, except
the fear of Ood, i. e., man is a free
agent ; God, wbo gives him every
blessing, does not make him religious ;
Berach. 32, 2. 71 ; Nidah, 16, 72 ;
comp. also n3'« ynsa n'lbn «'n« nisn ba
D'Mbai nbnsn p yin • • • ynsa sbs nam:,
all tlie commandments which are local
(for Palestine) are not to be practised
but in the land, except circumcision
and the sowing of diverse seed (Kid.
1. 9, see also Middoth, 2, 3).
26. For to the man, &c. The
second assertion, made in the latter
part of verse 24, is now substanti
ated. Having had more wisdom,
knowledge, and enjoyment than any
one else (1. 16, &c.), and having re
ceived these as a gift from the Lord,

who was pleased with him (1 Kings
It. 12, 13), Coheleth can therefore
testify, from his own experience, that
these blessings are bestowed by God
on the righteous, and are withheld
from tbe wicked. Whilst the spiri
tual capacities are described as being
communicated directly from the Lord,
the earthly materials are given to us
through the medium of men, whom
God uses as instruments to effect his
great purposes. The wicked are also
represented as amassing wealth for
tbe righteous,' in Job. xxvii. 13 - 17;
Prov. xiii. 22 ; xxviii. 8. 'a, causal,for,
introduces the reason for the second
assertion, viz., that the capacity to
enjoy earthly possessions (D'nbNn n>n
«'n) is from Ood; the intimate con
nection of tbis statement, with the
reason given for it in the verse before
us, is evident from the pronoun in
v:d), which refers to p'nb«n, Ood, in
ver. 24, b. Herzfeld will not admit
that t3'rib« 'asb aiiQ and NBin have any
reference to the moral character of
the individuals thus described ; HEin,
he says, bejei^netStnen, bet bie ®nabe
©otteg betfe^tt, i^tet nic^t t^eitjafttg
toitb ; Herzfeld, therefore, makes this
verse to set forth God's arbitrary
granting or withholding the power of
enjoying earthly good, as he likes or
dislikes any one, irrespective of bis
moral worth. But vii. 26, and espe
cially viii. 12, 13, where tbe same
two characters are contrasted, and
where «T2in is defined by sn niiJs, an
evildoer, and t:'nb» 'asbp sn; i33'«, one
wJio does not fear Ood, are subversive
of tbis interpretation. The Vulgate's
paraphrase of ]^3S pa «Binbi , pecoa-
TOEI autem DEDlT ArFLlCIIONEM ET
CORAM supehfluam, but to the sinner
he has given vexation and superfluous
care, is both an unwarranted depar
ture from the text, and does not at all
improve the sense.

CHAP. III.] coheleth. 303
is good before God. This, too, is vanity, and striving after
the wind.
This, too, is vanity, &c., i. e., this words, which Coheleth has already
wisdom, knowledge, and joy, are characterised as vain, and unable to
utterly unable to satisfy the mind, secure for him lasting good, in i. 16 ;
which is disturbed by tbe contempla- ii. 1. Thus Coheleth concludes the
tion of .the fact, that whilst all the flrst portion of his enquiry, by shew-
objects of nature are abiding, man ing that wisdom, knowledge, and en-
vanishes and is buried in oblivion, joyment-of earthly blessings, which
That ban ninaa refers to nrtnipinsni npan are the best things for shortlived
is evident, from the fact that these man, cannot satisfy the cravings of
are the very things, and the very the human soul.

SECTION U.
CHAPTER IIL 1 — V. 19.
All the events of life are immutably fixed (1-8), hence the fruitlessness of
human labour (9). God has indeed prescribed bounds to man's employ
ment, in harmony with this fixed order of things, but man through his
ignorance often mistakes it (10, 11) ; thus again shewing that there is
nothing left for man but the enjoyment of the things of this world in
his possession, and that even this is a gift of God (12, 13). The
cause of this immutable arrangement in the events of life is, that man
may fear God, and feel that it is he who orders all things (14, 15). The
apparent success of wickedness (16) does not militate against this con
clusion (17) ; but even if, as is affirmed, all terminates here, and man
and beast have the same destiny (18-21), this shews all the more
clearly that there is nothing left for man but to enjoy life, since this is
his only portion (22). The state of suffering (iv. 1), however, according
to this view, becomes desperate, and death, and not to have been born
at all, are preferable to life (2, 3). The exertions made, in spite of the
prescribed order of things, often arise from jealousy (4), and fail in their
end (5, 6), or are prompted by avarice (7, 8), and defeat themselves
(9-16). Since all things are thus under the control of an omnipotent
God, we ought to serve him acceptably (17-v. 6), trust to his protection
under oppression (7, 8), remember that the rich oppressor, after all, has
not even the comfort of the poor labourer (9-11), and that he often
brings misery upon his children and himself (12 - 16). These conside
rations, therefore, again shew that there is nothing left for man but to
enjoy life the few years of his existence, being tbe gift of God (17- 19).

304

coheleth.

[chap. HI.

iii. 1 There is a fixed time for all things, and an appointed
2 season for all undertakings under heaven ; a time to be
born, and a time to die ; a time to plant, and a time to pluck

1. There isa flxed time, &c. Having
shewn, in the preceding section, that
neither wisdom nor pleasure can
avert the gloomy fate of man, and
that enjoyment, tbe only thing left
for man under these circumstances,
is utterly insufficient to cheer his de
jected mind, Coheleth now shews that
industry, another favourite experi
ment which is frequently made, is
equally fruitless in its efforts to alter
this state of things. All the events
of life are permanently fixed (1-8),
and hence the abortiveness of human
labour (9). That bab, to all, does not
refer to the rerum creatarum universi-
tas (Geier, Rosenmiiller, &c.), but to
the affairs of human life (comp. i. 2
with 14), is evident from the second
clause, where ysn is added to deter
mine its meaning, as well as from
the sequel, which enumerates some
of the things denoted thereby. Ip;
(from pi, to number, to measure, to
determine, to fix), a fixed time (siap jni
rvr\' 'nn, Rashi, IbnEzra),isaword be
longing to later Hebrew, and is used
for the earlier expression nsin ; it only
occurs in Nehem. ii. 6 ; Esth. ix. 27,
31; and in Chaldee, Dan. ii. 16,21; iii.
7, 8; iv. 33; vi 11; vii 12. 22. 25;
Ezra V. 3. Gesenius' explanation
of p] bab by cuique rei tempus certum
quoddam, i. e., nihil est quod perpetui-
tate gaudeat, omnia fluxa sunt et
caduca (Thesa. and Lex., s.v., ipi), is
against the scope of the passage,
which is not to describe the fraUty
and fleetness of all things, but, on
the contrary, the immutable fixed
ness of the things to be mentioned.
The meaning of ns must of course
be determined by ipi. yon (from yen,
to incline, to bend, to desire), prop.
desire, metonymically the object one
desires, anything for which we strive, i
business, undertaking. So ^'
business, undertaking, thing, in Syriac,

from f^^i to desire, and nbMifi or
.Mb«i?5, a thing, a matter, in Chaldee
(comp. Dan. iv. 14, &c.), from bHip,
to ask, to desire. The word is there
fore well rendered by the Septuagint
wpttj/f*it, arid Symmachus ;^Eifa. 'The
Vulgate's rendering of this clause
by ET SUIS SPATIIS TRANSEUNT UNI
VERSA SUB coelo, and in their periods
all things pass under heaven, is a
lame paraphrase. Still more objec
tionable is Desvoeux's version, " all
the determinations of man's will
under heaven have their proper time."
2. A time to be born, &c. Coheleth
begins his series of proofs in illustra
tion of the general proposition made
in the foregoing verse, by referring
to the commencement and end of
life. Both the hour of our birth
and of our death are preordained by
a power over which we have no
control, and no exertion on our part
can hasten on tbe fixed time to be
born, or delay the appointed day of
death. The preposition b, prefixed
to the inflnitives in this enumera
tion, gives them the force of the
Latin Oerund (comp. Gesen. § 45, 3 ;
Ewald, § 292, b). The Septuagint,
the Chaldee, Gesenius (Lex, s. v ),
Knobel, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Philippson,
Stuart, &c., take nnb . in its usual
active mea.nin§, giving birth; but the
antithetical expression nin, to die,
requires it to be taken in tbe sense
of ilp^n, to be bom, which the infin.
active sometimes has (compare wbn
niapb na'n;, the days for you to
slaughter are accomplished, Jerem.
xxv. 34; Ewald, § 304, c). nnbb nsis
therefore well rendered by the Vulg.
tempus nasoendi; so also Rashbam,
Luther, Coverdale, the Geneva
Bible, Auth. Version (text), Ewald,
Noyes, HeOigstedt, Elster, &c.
A time to plant, &c. The illustra
tion from humanexistence is followed
by another taken from vegetable life.

CHAP. III.]

coheleth.

305

3 up that which is planted ; a time to kill, and a time to save ;
4 a time to break down, and a time to build up houses ; a time
to weep, and a time to laugh ; a time to mourn, and a time

in order to evince more strikingly
the utter inability of man's efforts to
affect the immutably flxed condition
of things. Not only our life, but
even that of vegetables, bas its
beginning and end predetermined.
Rashi, who is followed by some
Christian commentafors, regards this
clause as metaphorically describing
the planting and uprooting of nations
and kingdoms (comp. Jerem. xviii.
6, &c,) ; but tbis is too far-fetched.
Although nsp is more in accordance
with the rule of forming infinitives
from verbs (3"D), yet this is the only
place where this form occurs ; else
where the influ. is sfai (comp. Gesen.
§ 166, 2, Rem. 1; Ewald, 238, c).
nps has here its primary signification,
to pluck out, to uproot ; in the other
passages where it occurs (Gen. xlix.
6; Josh. xi. 6. 9; 2 Sam. viii. 4;
1 Chron. xviii. 4 ; Zepb. ii. 4), it
is generally used in a metaphorical
sense. That it here refers to the
uprooting at tbe appointed time of
harvest, when the vegetables are
gathered in, and not in order to
transplant or to destroy an enemy's
plants (entwebet um e^ ju betfegen,
obet : ^ftanjung eine^ Seinbeg, Hit
zig) is evident from the parallel
hemistich, which speaks of the natu
ral termination of human life, and
therefore demands that the termina
tion of the vegetable life should be
understood in a natural manner, i. e.,
the ordinary ingathering of it when
matured. 3. ,A time to kill, &c. Having
averred, in the foregoing verse, tliat
the natural termination of life is im
mutably flxed, Coheleth now submits
that the bringing about of violent
death and destruction, which seem
fortuitous and to be in the power of
man, is also predetermined. The com
mon rendering of »isnb nsi ainnb ns
by a time to kill and a time to heal,
is rightly rejected by Ibn Ezra,

inasmuch as it does not comport
with the antithesis, which is so
strictly adhered to in this description
of events, since the opposite of killing
is not healing ; he therefore explains
ainnb by yinnb, to strike, to loound,
which would well agree with to heal.
But as this explanation docs away
with' the different kinds of death
which Coheleth manifestly intends
to describe, as is evident from the
words ninb and ainn'i, the Syriac
version \i^\0 ^nV:\ ] 1 nj
n » >.i,An\ which takes sen, to
heal, in the sense of preserving or
saving life,i% preferable. TheChaldee,
which is followed by some Christian
commentators, refers this verse to the
time of war, when destroying and
saving life, demolishing and erecting
buildings, take place; hut this is
too restricted an application of this
passage. It is therefore better to
take it in a more general sense, as
descriptive of all accidents, affirming
that every apparently fortuitous loss
or preservation of life, or of the
abode which shelters the living, is
predetermined. Rashbam's explana
tion, which refers the -whole descrip
tion contained in 2-8 to peace and
war, is still more objectionable.
4 A time to weep, &c. The sorrow
and joy here mentioned are inti
mately connected with, and are the
natural consequence of, tbe events
described in the preceding verse.
The expression nia?b, to weep, in the
beginning of this verse, is design
edly chosen for its proximity in
sound to the word ni:ab, to build, at
the end of the last verse ; so also
nip'5, to hap, to dance, is used in the
sense and instead of ninii), to rejoice,
because of its assonance with nicp,
to mourn. The omission of tbe b
before the two last inflnitives is pro
bably intended to give variety to the

2B

306

COHELETH.

[CHAP. III.

5 to rejoice ; a time to cast away stones, and a time to gather
up stones ; a time to embrace, and a time to refrain from
6 embracing ; a time to seek, and a time to lose ; a time to
7 keep, and a time to cast away ; a time to rend garments, and
a time to sew them together ; a time to be silent, and a time

construction. Such omissions are
not unfrequent {vide infra, xii. 12).
5. A time to oast aivay stones, &c.
The Chaldee, Ibn Ezra, &c., take
the casting away and the gathering
of stones to refer to the time when
these building materials are useless
and dispersed, and to the time when
they become useful again, and are
carefully collected for the erection of
dwellings. This well comports with
the argument, inasmuch as it shews
that the apparently opposite treat
ment of one and the same material,
which seems to be at the arbitrary
disposal of man, has nevertheless its
cause, and is ordained by the same
uncontrollable power. 'This expla
nation doe§ not at all encroach upon
the statement made in the latter
part of the third verse, for there the
fate of houses is described, whilst
here that of building materials is
mentioned. Others, however, under
stand it as describing the time of
war and peace, when the invading
enemy oasts stones over arable land
to render it unflt for cultivation
(comp. 2 Kings iii. 19, 25), and when
the stones are gathered up in order
to restore the land to its useful
state (tsa. v. 2), so Knobel, Hitzig,
Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster, &c. ; or,
as referring to the demolishing and
erecting of buildings or fortresses
(De Lyra, Reynolds, Rosenmiiller,
Noyes, &c.) ; or to the work in plan
tations and vineyards, when there is
a -time for clearing these cultivated
spots of stones, and when we must
gather them to make fencejj(Patrick,
Vaihinger, &c.) ; or to the casting
away and gathering stones for any
purpose whqtsoever (Holden, Kitto,
&c.) Pianb and pann, the Z'aZ and the
Piel, are, as frequently, used indis

criminately, without any distinctive
shade of meaning, vide infra, ver. 6;
viii. 10 ; Ewald, § 120, b.
6. A time to -seek, &o. Even the
ever-changing desire in man to seek
after new objects, and carelessly
losing them as soon as they are
obtained, the whimsical grasping of
a thing, and then to reject it, all
these are not done from choice, but
are predetermined. Though the
Piel of nas, to bs lost; to lose, signifies
to destroy, in all other places where
it occurs iu the Old Testament, its
Kal signification is here rightly
retained by the Sept., Vulg,, Luther,
Coverdale, Geneva Version, Bishops'
Bible, Auth, Version, and the majo
rity of modern commentators, as is
evident from the antithetical '££?, to
seek. We had a similar instance in
the foregoing verse, where tbe Piel
retains the Kal signification. The
Syriac (i^lO 0,^0 Vl\ (±£31
(SnVtN, transposing the words
seeking and losing, has evidently
arisen from the carelessness of the
transcriber. 7. A time to rend, &c. The sus
taining of losses, and the parting
with that which is dear to us, men
tioned in the p.-eccding verse, sug
gested the allusion here made to
the time of mourning, as indicated
by the rending of garments,' and
the silence consequent upon deep
grief. It was a custom which
obtained at a very early period, to
rend one's garments, or to tear them
in the front of the breast, as un
expression of grief, and, when the
time of mourning was over, the
rent (see infra, vii. 2) was repaired
(comp. Gen. xxxvii. 29, xliv. 13 ;

CHAP. III.]

COHELETH.

307

8 to speak ; a time to love, and a time to hate ; a time of war,
9 and a time of peace. He who laboureth hath therefore no
10 advantage from that wherein he laboureth. I have considered
the business which God hath given to the sons of men to

Judg. xi. 85; 2 Sam. i. 2. 11, iii.
31, xiii. 31 ; 1 Maccab. ii. 14, iii. 47;
Judith,, xiv. 16. 19 ; Joseph. Wars,
2. 15, 2; Mishna, Moed Katon, iii.
17 ; Shabbath, xiii. 3 ; Sffitnet, SfteaU
ibottettu^, and ©aalfc^utj, 2lt^do=
logte bet |)e'6iaet, s. v. Stauet). The
Jews to tbe present day still rend
the front of their garments at tbe
death of a parent, child, brother, or
sister, as an expression of deep grief,
and this act of rending is called
ns'np. The Chaldee has therefore
rightly rendered the words sinpb and
niBpb by «^iab snnb, to tear the gar
ment, and ns'ia nNn«b, to repair the
rent. When Herzfeld maintains
that there can be no allusion here
to the rending of garments at the
time of mourning, because this custom
did not exist in Goheleth's time, we
oppose to tbis the foregoing quota
tions. For an instance of silence
under deep grief, see Job ii. 1 2, 13.
8. A time to love, &c. Our loving
a person and then hating him again,
or being at war with a nation to-day
and at peace to-morrow, are also
predetermined by the same Omni
potent Disposer of all things. In
all the instances adduced from the
events of life, Coheleth used the
inflnitive mood, with the exception
of the last clause, wheie nouns are
employed, probably to mark the end
of the list. The sacred writer began
with birth and death, and finished
with war doad peace, as if to indicate
that we enter upon the battle of life
at our very birth, and that death
alone terminates the conflict and
secures peace.
9. He who laboureth, &c. Having
conflrmed the general proposition by
twenty-eight illustrations from the
common events of life, that nothing
is within the power of man, but that
all things are immutably fixed by

Omnipotence, Coheleth now submits
that all the exertions of the indus
trious to alter his circumstances and
to secure to himself abiding good
(Jiin;) , must of necessity be ineffectual .
The interrogative, as is frequently
the case {vide supra, i. 8), is used for
an emphatic denial; Luther has there
fore rightly rendered it so (SKan
atbeite, wk man ibitt, fo fann man
nii^t me^t au^tii|ten), though led
astray by the wrong version of the
Vulgate, (quid habet amplius homo
de LABORE suo ? wliat morc has man
from his labour ?) he mistook its
connection with what precedes.
1 0. / have considered the business,
&c. In this and in tbe following verse,
Coheleth assigns a reason why the
efforts of man to secure lasting good
are ineffectual. He prefaces this
reason, which is contained in the
following verse, by telling us here
that what he is going to say is the
result of a minute inspection of the
different employments which God
has assigned to the children of men.
The difficulty experienced in the
interpretation of the following verse
bas been greatly increased by the
Vulgate's mistranslation of this verse,
Vidi affllctionem, quam dedit Deus
flliis hominum, ut distendantur in ea,
which is followed by Luther, Sajet
fa^e i^ bie SOJit^e, bie @ott ben
5Kenf($en gegefcen ^at, baf fte batinnen
geplagt tbetben ; Coverdale and the
Bishops' Bible, for as touching the
travail and carefulness which Ood
hath given unto men, I see that he
hath given it them, to be exercised in
it ; the Geneva Version, I have seen
the travail that Ood hath given to the
sons of men to humble them thereby ;
Authorised Version, / have seen the
travail which Ood hath given to the
sons of men to be exercised in it, and
which Bishop Reynolds, Knobel,

308

COHELETH.

[CHAP. III.

11 busy themselves therewith; he hath made it all beautiful in

Vaihinger, &c., explain that man's
propensity to exertion, in spite of
the immutably fixed order of things,
has been implanted by God in order
to exercise, bumble, or plague him
therewith. Against this we urge —
1. That this verse makes a simple
assertion, without drawing or re
motely implying any inference to
complete it ; and 2, 'That niisb does
neiti.or mean to afflict, nor humble,
nor exercise, but simply to work, to
toil, as is evident from the noun ps,
work, nitb which it is connected, and
which determines its meaning, vide
supra, i. 13. Tbe phrase is therefore
well explained by Rashi and Rash
bam aninnb :n:nn, and Ibn Ezra
la iptasn'm nn«n '3':s, who has rightly
pointed out the intimate connection
between this verse and the following
one. n»n, to see, is used here as in
ii. 12, in the sense of examining,
investigating. 11. He hath made it all, &c. On
examining the employments which
God has assigned to man, Coheleth
found that the benign Creator has
made them beautiful in their respec
tive seasons; that in addition to this
excellent order of things, be has also
implanted in the hearts of men a
desire for that which is beyond time,
and that the failure of man's efforts
to secure lasting good, is owing to
his ignorance of the works of God.
As the verb ntes, he has made, refers
to D'tnbM, Ood, in the preceding verse,
thus shewing the intimate connection
between these two verses, it will at
once be perceived that ''5n"n«, all, at
tbe beginning of this verse, refers
to ly!Sn"n«, the employment, business.
Ibn Ezra has therefore well explained
tbe connectioii, onKn '3'3S ba 'n'«n nicwa
insa no' D'nb»n rms baniB 'nnan la ipDsn'S)
when I examined all the works of men
wherewith they are occupied,,.^ found
that Ood has made it all beautiful in
its season, nff , beautiful, appropriate,
proper, well {vide infra, v. 17). Tbe
suffix in irisa, in its season, refers to
bsn, all. C3, also, has here its natu

ral accessory signification, i.e., " he
not only made those employments
beautiful, but he also, or in addition
to this," &c. cbsn, remote time, the un
measured past, or future, hence eter
nity, in which sense it is always used
in the Old Testament, and is here
contrasted with ns, time. 'The suffix
in naba, in their heart, refers to
DnMn 'aa^, the children of men, in the
preceding verse, just as bsrrns, all,
refers to j;3», work, and nips, lie has
made, to ia'nb«. Ood, in the same
verse, '^an (a compound of 'ba with
the preposition, which this word
attaches to itself without affecting its
meaning, comp, '^aa, Deut. iv. 42;
Job xxxv. 16; xxxvL 12; 'bab ibid.
xxxviii. 41 ; xii. 25 ; Isa. v. 14), with
out (Deut. ix. 28; Isa. v. 13; Lam.
i. 4), like yin, without, denotes any
thing standing outside the circle of its
fellows, forming an exception, being
tbe only one in that position, hence
is used metaphorically as an adverb
of restriction, except, only, nos, like
oTi in Greek, and quod in Latin, is a
conjunction attached to tbis adverb,
just as the conjunction '? is to dds
(Deut. XV. 4), so that ntf « 'ban signifies
only that (comp. Ewald, § 354, b).
Coheleth has evidently chosen this
more difficult adverb of restriction
because of its assonance with oabj,
tbe word which immediately precedes
it. NSn, to flnd, to find out, to dis
cover, to comprehend {vide infra, vii.
24. 27 ; viii. 17, &c.). nvVsn 'top, the
works of Ood, i. e., his providential
dealings, moral government (compare
infra, viii. 17), where the same thing
is affirmed. The beginning and end
of a thing are idiomatically used to
express the whole, entirely, all in all,
eternity, like airs t!!; app^Ss /"-XP' ''¦£^ou5
in Greek. Thus the phrase, beginning
and end of a speech, is used in x. 13
for the whole of it, the two ends of
tbe day for the entire day, always
{infra, xi, 6; Gen. xlix. 27; Ps. xcii.
3) ; hence God is called the beginning
and the end, the first and the last,
i.e., all in all, eternal (Isa. xii. 4;

CHAP. 111.]

COHELETH.

309

its season ; he hath also put eternity into their heart, only that

xliv. 6; xlviii. 12), which is also ex
pressed by Alpha and Omega (Rev.
i. 8), being the first and the last
letters of the Greek alphabet, thus
corresponding to tbe Rabbinic usage
of N and n, the first and the last letters
of the Hebrew alphabet, to designate
the whole (comp. "Adam transgressed
the whole law from « to n " in Yalkut
Rubeni, p. 174). Tbe words " man
cannot comprehend the work which
God worketh from beginning to end,"
therefore mean ' the work of God is
entirely or altogSther incomprehen
sible to man.' Having analysed
tbe text and context, we proceed to
examine some of the innumerable
explanations wbich have been given
of the clause 'bap Daba pj Dbi>n-n« na
nfes^iii« niBSpn"n« Dn«n ssp'.'sb niij«
D'nb.«n, which constitutes the great
difficulty of this rerse. The Sept.
renders it xalyE a-vv rlv alma IStuitEy Iv
KapSia. avrSv, qicqi^ fAn B'upfi 6 avdpaiTros ro
'jTo'.nfA.a 0 Eiioinic-v/ o Seo?, and also the
world (cri)v=nM) he has put into their
heart, in order that man might not
find out the work which Ood has
worked; so also the Syriac, tUO
]:.Ad jTii, ]^^:^ \aJi\ .*a.2jiJ;
the Vulg., St. Jerome, Rashi, Luther,
the Bishop's Bible, tbe Geneva Ver
sion, the Authorised Version, and
many modern commentators; all
these agree in rendering iabi> world,
but generally differ about the par-
ticdlar meaning of world in this con
nection. Thus the Vulgate explains
it as denoting the problems or affairs
of the world: ft mundum tradidit
DISPUTATIONI EORUM, UT NON INVE-
NIAT HOMO OPUS, QUOD OPERATUS EST
Deus, and he has delivered the world
to their disputation, so that man can
not find out the work which he has
worked, &c. ; hence Luther, unb Idft
i^t ?)etj ft4> angften, tt>ie e« ge^en fott
in bet SfBett; benn bet !D?enf(| fann
bo(5 ni^t tteffen bag SBett, bag @ott

t^Ut ; St. Jerome takes it to mean the
pleasures or enjoyments of this world,
and explains it : Dedit Deus mundum
ad inhabitandum hominibus, ut fru-
antur varietatibus temporum, et non
qucerant de causis rerum naturalium,
quomodo creata sunt omnia, quare hoc
vel illud ab initio mundi usque ad oon-
summationem fecerit orescere, manere,
mutari; Luther, in his Comment.)
@ott $at bem SKenfc^en ni#t attein bie
aSelt gegeben, baf fte miigen bet gegen=
n)attigen Oaten itauc^en, fonbetn aut^
fo geben, baf fte beg mit Steube unb
Suji mo(iten litauii^en, baf fte gteube
unb Sujl babon gotten, unb fann bo(^
bet SD?enf(| bie Steatuten nti^t nac^
feinem aSitten tegieten, in 3eit obet
3Kaf faffen, tt>ie et fagt, boc^ fann et
ni^t tteffen bag SSetf bag @ott t|ut,
mebet Slnfang no$ Snbe; and the
Geneva Bible, also he hath set the
world in their heart, yet cannot man
find out the work, &c., i.e., though
God has done so much for man,
making the world without beautiful,
and implanting capacities of enjoying
it in his heart, yet (n^M 'ban) man,
&c. Whilst some interpreters, men
tioned by Ibn Ezra, (ni 'a O'lBnon wi
j'3S m V'l i3'3innp pinba Nin® ina nbisn
Dbisn ni«n) Knobel, De Wette, Gesen.,
Noyes, &o., take the expression world
in a grosser sense, as denoting
SBettftnn, worldly-mindedness, like aliv
in Eph. ii. 2, and explain the passage
" God has made everything beautiful
in its season, but he has put the love
of this world into their heart, in order
that they might not be able to dis
cover the work which God works,"
&c., submitting that, according to the
siame idiom by which God is said to
harden the heart of Pharaoh, he may
also be said to put worldly-minded
ness into the hearts of men, to pre
vent them seeing the beautiful hBi>
mony of his dispensations. Rashi,
again, takes world to denote the wis
dom of the world, and explains the
passage aba ]n: nsjH nbsn nnan n« oa
m sbs nnm •Tn'A ba aba ban -n: Nb nvnan
nmsD ba ns Dn«n wsn' Mbii) 'na nsp mi nsp

310 COHELETH. [CHAP. Ill,
man understandeth not the work which God hath made from

nnai inmpD ns nM st Mbi inw nsnb na'9n
nnn in avn nn.^'i aNTo aiiab ab jn'iB 'na bwv
nnbsn )ifflb non Dbsn jsa aina "[abi niD«
n'a naa' Mb namp inn'n av onMn sn' dmid
ntcs no' ban® nniM Nin -jab lana siQ' Nbi
"[niDiB Nin no' nan nn'nb ns id'id m insa
n'a n3iai pinn 'nn'o ns 5"n» Nnii) nnib nnMn
nvnan p labsi-j) no' in nna ntoiai, also the
wisdom of the world which he put into
the heart of his creatures, he has not
put it all into the heart of each one
separately, but gave every one a little,
so that man might not find out and
know all the work of Ood, that he
might not know the day of Ids visita
tion, and what may cause him to
stumble in order that he may give his
lieart to repentance, for he might grieve
and say, I shall die to-day or to
morrow. Therefore is obsn written
here defectively, signifying hidden,
for if man knew that the day of his
death is near, he would not build
houses, nor plant vineyards, hence it is
said that ' he made everything beautiful
in its season! i.e., it is a good thing that
there is a fixed time to die, that man
may be inclined to say, ' my appointed
time may still be far off,' and go on
building houses and planting vine
yards, and thus it is beautiful that it
is hid from the creature, evidently to
escape the difficulty of the preceding
explanation. Whilst Lord Bacon,
Ewald, Elster, &o., take the expres
sion MorM moie literally, and explain
it that man is a microcosm reflecting
the macrocosm ; " God," says our im
mortal philosopher, "has framed the
mind like a glass, capable of the
image of tbe universe, and desirous
to receive it as the eye to receive thg
light" (Advancement of Learning,
p. 30, Bohn's ed.). But against
these explanations we urge — 1. That
the expression obs occurs upwards of
three hundred times in the Old Tes
tament, and never denotes world, or
worldly affairs, or worldly pleasures,
or worldly wisdom, but invariably
signifies time past or present, unmea
sured time, eternity, and is so used in
all the other passages of this very

book (i.4 : ii. 16; iii. 14; ix. 6; xii. 6).
2. These explanations are precluded
by the evident antitheses between D'rs
and ns. 3, The accessory particle taa,
also, which introduces this clause,
shews beyond doubt that there is a
gradation in the description of the
doings of God, i. e., ' he has not only
made everything beautiful, in its sea
son, but has done something greater
or grander still ; '' and to say that
this consists in infatuating man by
implanting in his heart the world, or
worldly wisdom, or cares, or pleasures,
is most incongruous. Rashbam tries
to adhere to the literal meaning of
Dbs, inasmuch as be explained it by
time as composed of different seasons,
of prosperity and adversity, described
in verses 1-8, viz., nnb jn: pin nM na
cn-D D'nsic la'a'i ist® nnM 'aa b\B Daba 'pn
ST Nbi Nsn' NbiB 'Bb nsnb D'ns id'i naiiab
nsi \DNnn 'pn nws' niB» n<i»nn nN onNn
nsnb Dbia im naiiab D'nsn ba vn' dmic fiid
laba nnN'K) 'Db yn 'aob naiicna onN aw Mb
IN naiQb ban im Dbisa nnN nnpniD 'nnM
nMjn ni'Ni 'insn sm n'lM ni bs nsnb ban
'naiinna 'b S'an, he has also put time
into the hearts of the children of men,
that they nlay know and understand
that there are different seasons, seasons
of prosperity and seasons of adversity,
so that man might not find out the
work which Ood works from beginning
to end. For, if all the seasons were
alike, either wholly good or wholly evil,
man would not repent before Ood; as
he might say in his heart, since tliere is
one fate in the world, all are either
unalterably good or evil, I shall relin
quish my work, and what good shall I
have by repenting ? Ibn Ezra adheres
still more closely to thebteral meaning
of Dbi), and says that obsn nM Da ]'isi
Dbisb vn' ib'Na D'pDsnn nnM 'aa« oaba pi
lOMnn D'nbMn n»sn i3'a' Nb DpDSnn niasai
F]iD nsi, tlie meaning of' he bas also put
eternity into their heart,' is, the chil
dren of men are so engrossed in business
as if they were to live eternally, and
because of their engrossing business they
do not understand the work of Ood
from beginning to end. But these ex-

CHAP. III.]

COHELETH.

311

12 beginning to end. I knew, then, that there was no good for
them but to rejoice and do themselves good all their life ;
13 and also that if a man eat and drink, and see pleasure in all

planations, besides being extremely
ioreed and artificial, incur the third
objection which we urged against tbe
other interpretations. The rendering
of Covefdale (" He hath 'planted igno
rance also in the hearts of men, that
they should not flnd out the ground
of his works"), which is followed by
Parkhurst, Hodgson (" also I viewed
the darkness which he spreadeth over
men's hearts"), "and Holden ("yet
he hath also put obscurity into tbe
midst of them"), bas evidently origi
nated from tbe second sense which
Rashi has assigned to Dbi>, and de
serves no refutation. Whilst tbe
alteration of Dbi) into obs, to which
is assigned tbe meaning of wisdom,
understanding, by appealing to the
Arabic signification of this root
(Gaab, Spohn, Hitzig, Stuart, &c.)
must be repudiated as arbitrary and
unwarranted. 12. I knew that there was nothing
better, &c. Two things became evi
dent to Coheleth from these facts;
first, since man cannot secure to
himself any abiding good, there is
nothing left for him but to enjoy
tbe present. Each of these two
things is introduced with 'nsn;, I
knew, i.e., I came to know, I dis
covered. Da aim ]'m is explained by
Rashbam nn ibbn D'lBSn nbaai D'nsn baa,
and is rendered by Luther baf nil^tg
Seffeteg batinnen iii ; Coverdale and
the Bishops' Bible, " in these things
there is nothing better for a man,"
&c., referring the pronoun Da, to the
works of Ood ; so also Desvoeux,
Holden, &c. ; but it is evident from
DnNa aim I'm in ii. 24, and from .aiiD J'm
DnMb in viii. 15, where b is used
ii^tead of the a, that it refers to
onNn, mankind, in the preceding
verse, which, being a noun of multi
tude, is followed by a relative pronoun
in the plural. The Chaldee has
therefore well rendered it ]in| ap tv';
«^3'N '.na, there is nothing better for the

children of men, &c., so also Rashi
nvnaa aiia i'm, Ibn Ezra, Mendelssohn,
Knobel, Herzfeld, De Wette, Hitzig,
Stuart, Philippson, Elster, Hengsten
berg, &c. 'The Vulg., ignoring the
pronoun Da, as it ignores onMa in ii.
24, leaves the sense ambiguous.
That aiia niiDSb, to do good, is not
here used in a moral sense, i. e.,
to do right (the Sept,, Vulg., Chaldee,
Rashi, Reynolds, Patrick, Rosen
miiller, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &o.), but means to do oneself
good, to procure pleasures, like nijn
aim' in ii. 24 ; v. 17 (Rashbam nimsb
lossb naiTD, Ibn Ezra D'aiio D"n n'n'o,
Luther fi^ gittti^ t^un, Hodgson,
Spohn, Knobel, Herzfeld, De Wette,
Gesenius, Hitzig, Heilegstedt, Stuart,
Fiirst, &c.), is evident from ii. 24;
iii. 22 ; v, 17 ; viii. 16 ; ix. 7, where
the same physical enjoyment is
spoken of without mixing it up with
moral dealings, and especially from
the following verse, where Coheleth,
in resuming what he has said in
tbis verse, explains ninipb, to rejoice,
by nn^i bat*'^, to eat arid drink, and
aiiD niiDSb, to do good, by aiio nMn,
ibps'ba?, to see happiness or be happy
in his work. The suffix in v;na, his
life, refers to DnMn, man, in the pre
ceding verse. 'The sudden transition
from the singular to the plural, and
the plural to the singular (NSp;, ver.
11, Da and VTiJi, ver. 12), arises from
the fact that the singular has here a
plural meaning, inasmuch as the
individual man is spoken of as the
representative of the whole human
race (comp. Gen. vi. 1 ; Exod. i. 20,
xxxiii. 4; Gesen. § 146, 1; Ewald,
§317, c).
1 3. And also that if a man, &c.
This verse forms an integral part of
the preceding one, intensifying ita
statement. Not only is there nothing
left for man but present enjoyment,
but even for this man is dependent
upon God, Dai, and also, is still

312

COHELETH.

[CHAP. III.

14 his labour, it is a gift of God. I knew that whatever God
hath made, the same continueth for ever ; to it nothing can
can be added, and from it nothing can be taken, and God

dependent upon 'i?»Xi I knew. The
conditional particle 'a, if, is to be
supplied after Di^, and '''iai nnn, is its
appadosis (comp, i«/rrt, V. 18; Ewald,
§ 357, c.) The construction is pecu
liar; it begins with the imperfect
baM', and continues with the prsete
rite nnti and nMn, with i conversive;
the Syriac and Cbaldee have the im
perfect throughout. For the phrase
aiio nMn, see ii, 1. Coverdale and
the Bishops' Bible {for all that a
man eateth and drinketh, yea whatso
ever a man enjoyeth of all his labour,
that same is a gift of Ood) mistook
the text for "iai onNn baM'ti ba Dai.
14. / knew that whatever, &c. The
second lesson which Coheleth learned
from the facts described in 1 - 9 is,
that all the affairs of human life
alluded to, which God has preor
dained, are immutably fixed, that no
ingenuity ^^r industry, however great,
can affect it in the slightest degree,
and that God has so ordained it, in
order to make man feel how entirely
dependent he is upon the Disposer
of all things, and to arouse in him
a reverential awe. 'fisn;, J know, as
in ver. 12, marks the introduction of
the second thing which became ap
parent to Ooheleth. nto' n«JN-b3
D'nbN, whatever Ood hath made, does
not denote the works of creation
(Rashi, Grotius, Le Clerc, &c,), which
is contrary to the scope of Coheleth
^ who evidently points out man's
inability to affect any change in the
circumstances of his life contrary to
the preordained plan of God — but
refers to p] b'ab, Ood has fixed a time
for all things, and to the ensuing
description, nms, to do, to make,
has here the sense of to appoint, to
ordain, to fix. The pronoun Nin has
here the force of airo'? in Greek,
and idem in Latin, and is used for
the sake of emphasis (comp. Gesen.
§ 124, 2, Rem. 3 ; Ewald, § 314).
Herzfeld's remark, that the use of it

here makes D'ribMn nias] i^s"''?, a
nominative absolute, is contrary to
the particle '3 by which this clause
is preceded. For the use of bs, in
tbe sense of accession, see Gen.
xxviii. 9 ; Levit. v. 16 ; Gesenius,
§ 154, 3, Rem. 2. The" suffix in vto
refers to D'nbMn ntos^ ntiN-ba. The
negative particle ]'n, when placed
before an infinit. with b, expresses
inability or impossibility (comp. J'm
^sionb ^ns, nothing is able to stand
before thee, 2 Chron. xx. 6 ; Gesen.
§ 132, 3, Rem. 1 ; Ewald, § 321, c).
The construction of Nn; with '.apbp,
used here and in viii. 12, 13, instead
of the more regular one '3?p Nn;
(2 Kings i. 15, xix. 6 ; Jerem. i. 8),
or MT with the accusative of person
or thing feared (Numb. xiv. 9 ; Job
ix. 35), need not be regarded as
belonging to later Hebrew (Herzfeld
and others), since it also occurs in
1 Sam xviii. 12. imt;^, that they
may fear, refers to DnM, men, in tbe
preceding verse, which must -be
supplied in the translation, being
too far removed from the verb. The
reading iNn'ia with one Yod, which
is found in many MSS., and noted
by the Masorites instead of iNn"m,
does not alter the seiise of the word.
According to the Hagadic interpre
tation, this verse is to be rendered I
know that whatsoever Ood hath made
shall be for ever, man cannot add to it
or take from it {i. e., cannot alter it),
but Ood doth it (i.e., does alter it),
that man might fear before him (see
tbe Midrash in loco). So also the
Chaldee, and Rashi, who refers to
the Deluge and to the days of Ahaz
and Hezekiah, when God altered the
course of the sea and of the sun,
"which he hath established forever,"
in order that man might fear before
him. But this rendering is both
contrary to the scope of the passage
and to the meaning of ntos, in the
first clause of this very verse. The

CHAP. III.]

COHELETH.

313

15 hath so done it that men may fear before him. What hath
been was long ago, and what is to be was long ago, for God

Vulg., NON POSSUMUS ElS QUISQUAM
ADDERE NEC AUEERRE, QU^ FEOIT
Deus ut timeatur, we cannot add
anything, nor take away from the
things which Ood has made that he
may be feared, violently construes
the text "iai D'nbN nias ntiMO.
15. What hiith "been, &e. That
God's ordinances are immutably
fixed, is evident from the undeviating
occurrence of the same events. For
rmifi-nn, what hath been, see supra,
i. 9. The Sept. and Vulg. have
rightly rendered it here to ystofiEyov,
quod factum est, though they mis
translated it in i. 9; whilst Desvoeux
and Hodgson, to be consistent in
their error, render it here also inter
rogatively. The pronoun Nin, as in
the preceding verse, is used for the
sake of emphasis, and the auxiliary
rrn, as usual, is to be supplied, so
that rrmd'Tvg refers to that which
recently took place, whilst -vn naa Nin
or Nin rm na? describes the same
thing as already having occurred
long before. So the Syriac version,
- 7 . i 7 ¦» , P 7 .. 7
wkOioA^l op ^ locjij (Ld,
what was, has been long ago ; Rashi,
IN ima'Mni 'ims Nin naa la'aobn rrnt} nn
VTiNniD D'nnMn ini:BD«3, that which hap
pened before our eyes had happened
long before, and we have seen it, or
heard of it from others icho saw it.
The Vulg. (quod factum est, ipsum
permanet, that which has been made,
the same remains), Lutber (SJSag @Ott
t^ut, bag fie^et ba, that which Ood
does, remains), the Geneva Bible
(what is that that hath been? that
is now), Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, and the Auth. Version {the
thing that hath been is now), which
are followed by Knobel, Ewald,
Heiligstedt, Elster, Vaihinger, &c.,
violate the meaning of nas, which
invariably denotes time long past
(vide supra, i. 10). Whilst De Wette,
Noyes, Hitzig, Stuart, &c. (that which
is, was long ago), most inconsistently

ascribe a sense to rrn here which
they rightly deny in i. 12. ni'nb ns>N
exactly corresponds to our phrase
that which is to be, and to the French
ce qui est a etre (comp. Gen. xv. 12 ;
Prov. xix. 8 ; Gesen. § 182, 3, Rem.
1; Ewald, §237). Luther's rendering
of this clause unb mag et t^un wiU,
bag muf tbetben, and that which he
will do must come to pass, is an
unwarranted paraphrase.
For Ood recalleth, &c. The reason
why the events of every period are
alike is because God, having flxed a
time for everything (jpj bab, vide,
ver. 1), that which has transpired at
a certain season, must return with tbe
return of that season. Tbe l before
D'ribMn is causal, assigning a reason
for the assertion made in the preced
ing clause, tcpa, to seek out, to recall.
^?., part. Niphal of f^, to run after,
to pursue, is that which is chased
away, put to flight, that which is
gone and past. This term is here
designedly chosen because of its
connection with time, whose rapid
march overtakes and speedily leaves
behind every event which God has
predetermined for every season.
Having referred to the miraculous
passage of the Israelites through
the Red Sea, to illustrate its inter
pretation of the preceding verse that
God suspends the laws of nature,
the Hageida, in harmony with that
interpretation, explains itipa; D'ribNni
F]in5"nM, and Ood avenged the perse
cuted Israelites, i. e., he inflicted
punishment upon the Egyptians
who pursued the Jews into the sea
4 comp. the Midrash, the Chaldee
'araphr., and Rashi). That the
Sept. (nai 0 &EOC ^tiri-.ffU TOV iioni.Ofi,tvvi),
Symmachus (o 51 Sej? Itti^htwei Imp
rSif 'Eii.iixiofji.hm), and the Syriac
version (U^JjA POJ |0T-^0
X
". k ¦*¦
«£)JJt\SDj), should follow this sense
of ^Ti:, is what might have been

2 S

314 COHELETH. [CHAP. Ill,
16 recalleth what is past. And, moreover, I saw under the sun,
in the place of justice there was iniquity, and in the place of
17 equity there was iniquity. I said to my heart, God will

expected, but that Seb. Schmidt,
Rambach, Doderlein, Holden, Heine
mann, Hengstenberg, &c , should
have adopted this Hagadic interpre
tation is surpassing strange, for it is
contrary to the former part of the
verse, with which it is evidently
connected ; it anticipates what fol
lows, and has, as we have seen,
arisen from the Midrashic explana
tion of the preceding part of tbis
verse. Luther's version benn et
ttac^tet unb jaget i^m nad), is both
contrary to tbe text and unintel
ligible. 16. And moreover I saw, &c. The
conclusion — that enjoyment of the
present is the only thing left for
man — at which Coheleth arrived from
the contemplation of the inability of
industry to counteract the immutably
fl.xed events of human life, is now
corroborated by another insurmount
able difficulty, which our exertions to
secure lasting good have to encounter.
Man's exertions are not only baffled
by the inscrutable laws of God, but
are defeated by tbe lawlessness and
wickednessof thosewho are appointed
under God to uphold and protect the
rights of the community, nisi, and
again, moreover, indicates the com
mencement of another difficult}-. Tbe
omission of it by the Vulgate weakens
the sense. Dipp, place, is not tbe
object of 'n'Nn,/sc[u; (the Sept., Luther,
Geneva Bible, Authorised Version,
Desvoeux, Hodgson, De Wette,
Knobel, Ewald, Vaibingrr, &c.),
which is contrary to the accents,
and imparts a lameness to the dic
tion, but is simply an adverb of place
for Dipna, in the place (vide infra,
xi. 3; "Job i. 4; Ezek. vi., 13;
Gesen. § 118 ; Ewald. § 204, a), thus
leaving the whole circumstance as
the accusative of the verb: so the
Vulg., Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
Herzfeld, Hitzig, Noyes, Stuart,
Elster, &c. nntf, i. q., Dtf, with the

demonstrative n-, {videJerem.xvi'ii. 2;
Ps. cxxii. 5 ; Gesen. § 150, 1; Ewald,
§ 216, d) is used after BBiiipn Dipp and
pnsn Dipp for the sake of emphasis,
just as Min in ver. 14, and is there
fore wrongly omitted by the Vulg.
The remark of Mendelssohn, Herz
feld, and Philippson, that BSipa— bie
©ttafe beg Ungete^ten, PT? bet So|n
beg ®etect)ten fei, unb baf alfo »*'3,
auf lasiBn iejogen, bag Unge|ltaft»'
bteiben beg Ungete^ten, bagegen auf
PI? bejogen, bag Un6eIo|ntMeiben
beg ©etei^ten bebeute — denotes the
punishment of the wicked, and pns the
reward of the righteous, and that
siSn when referred to lOBtip, signifies
the withholding of punishment from
tJie wicked, whilst, with reference to
pns, it means the withholding of
reward from the righteous, is very
artificial. The simplest way is to
take the clause Sffinn np* pnsn Dipp
as a mere repetition after iDBitJnn Dipp
sipnn nn^, to give intensity to the
statement; tbis is frequently done
in Hebrew to describe a continued
state of things {vide infra, iv. 1 ;
Isa. liii. 7 ; Ewald, § 813, a). The
Sept. Kal ETI fSov yTTO TCV )iXtcV TCTTOV Tllf
xptffsw-, Ixsr 0 affsQiig' xal roirov rMV Sinaixv,
iniX 0 Ei;3-£Siis, and moreover, I saw
under tlie sun the place of judgment,
there was the impious ; and the place
of the righteous, there was the pious ;
both confounds ' the abstracts SiSn
and pns with the concretes B*n and
P'ns in the following verse, in which
Luther (ba Wax ein gotttofeg SBefen ;
unb ©tatten bet ©etei^tigfeit, ba
tbaten ©Otttofe) partly shares, and
bas P'nsn for SttSnn, which the Arabic
follows, but which has evidently
arisen from the transcriber mistaking
ae-E^ni for lure^Mr.
17. I said to my heart, &c. Under
these distressing circumstances, find
ing that there is no protection of
right or administration of justice
here, Coheleth at first tried to com-

CHAP. III.]-

COHELETH.

315

judge the righteous and the wicked, for there is a time for
18 every thing and deed there. Tet I said to my heart respecting

fort himself with tbe thought that
there may be an infallible tribunal
hereafter, when the righteous Judge
will redress every grievance, and
reward tbe just and the unjust,
according to their merits. Whether
we take d^ as an adverb of place,
there, i. e., with God (comp. Gen.
xlix. 24), wbo is mentioned in the
preceding clause (the Sept., Syriac,
Ibn Ezra, the Geneva Bible, the
Auth. Version, Reynolds, Heiligstedt,
Elster, Hengstenberg, &c.), or re
gard it as an adverb of time, then
(the Vulg., St. Jerome, the Chaldee,
Knobel, De Wette, &c.), tbe context
shews beyond all doubt that tbe
retribution in question refers to a
future bar of judgment. Tbis is
evident from the antithesis (verse
18-21), where Coheleth expresses a
doubt about what he has here
advanced, and where it is admitted,
on all bands, that he discusses a
future state of existence : rightly,
therefore, tbe Chaldee Ni'n Di'a ;'^ I'n;
«an, Ood will judge in the great day
of judgment ; St. Jerome, in tem
pore JUDIOII, IN FUTORUM JUDICIUM,
future judgment ; Ibn Ezra, ion did
Nan Dbisb. The alteration of d^ into
Dfe, praet. of Diin, to appoint (Arch
bishop Seeker, Houbigant, Doder
lein, Van der Palm, Dathe, Hodgson,
Boothroyd, Holden, Ewald, Hitzig,
Stuart, &c..), must be rejected as
arbitrary. Equally arbitrary is the
assertion of Herzfeld, which is fol
lowed by Fiirst (Concordance, s. v.)
and Vaihinger, that d* is the part.
of the Talmudic verb diid, to estimate,
to judge. The Vulgate's omission of
ntonri'bs bsi, and Luther's omission
of Dai, will no more surprise us after
what we have seen of their proceed
ings with tbe text. Coverdale and
tbe Bishops' Bible, " Then thought
I in my mind, God shall separate
the righteous from the ungodly, and
then shall be tbe time and judgment
of all counsels and works," can neither

be reconciled with the original, nor
with any of the ancient versions.
" 18. Yet I said to my heart, &c.
The momentary consolation found in
the thought of a future judgment,
as expressed in the preceding verse,
being based upon assigning a priori
a superiority to man over other crea
tures, now disappears, when Coheleth
comes to think that tbe only dignity
with wbich God has endowed the
human race above tbe brute creation
is, that he has enabled man to under
stand that he is like the beast. Tbe
formula, 'aba ':m 'PinpM, which is re
peated at the beginning of this verse,
shews that the continuation of this
thought takes a different turn, wbich
is best indicated in the translation
by supplyingajraiB,^^*. As the prepo
sition bs is used to denote, I . The object
of a.discourse,eoncerning {vide supra,'ii.
10), 2. The standard by which a thing
is measured, according to (Gen. xlviii.
0; Exod, xii,5), 3, The cause for which
a thing is done, because (Ps, xliv. 23;
Job xxxiv. 36), and as nan, or tbe fem.
nnan, signifies both a word, speech, or
language, and a thing, a matter, affair
(vide supra, i. 8) ; .hence the Sept. and
the Syriac render nnan"bs, mpl Xa^iSs,
1 1 N^nV) ^^, concerning the speech;
or Herzfeld, according to the language
of the children of men ; the Vulg.,
Coverdale, the Bishop's Bible, Auth.
Ver., Knobel, Noyes, &c., concerning,
or with respect to, the affairs of man ;
Ibn Ezra, Ewald, De Wette, Hitzig,
Stuart, Elster, &c., on account of the
children of men. Whichever of these
meanings be adopted, the sense of
the passage, according to our view,
remains substantially the same, and
the choice must be determined by the
remainder of the verse, and the use
of this phrase in the other passages
of this book (infra, vii. 14; viii. 2).
D-^^ is the inflnit. Kal na from Tia = ma,
to separate, to select, to choose (accord
ing to the analogy of nn. infinit. of

316

COHELETH.

[CHAP. III.

the children of men, God hath chosen them to shew that

n-in, Isa. xlv. 1 ; ^* of ^a^, Jer. v. 26;
comp. Gesen. § 67, Rem. 3 ; Ewald,
§ 238, b; § 255, d), with the suffix
D_ in the accusative ; the ) before it
introduces the indirect speech, which,
is frequently the case after tbe verb
nnM (comp. D.anM n'niiJnb njn; npN, tite
Eternal said he would destroy you
(Deut. ix. 25 ; Esth. i. 17 ; iv. 13 ;
infra, viii. 17 ; Ewald, § 338, a). The
Sept., oTi SmxpivET oItoijs, that he may
judge them, has evidently arisen from
exchanging it for tDEi?j; in the preced
ing verse, which, like bnab, is the eighth
word of the parallel line, both of
which begin with exactly the same
words ; whilst the Syriac Ir^J mis
took Dnab for DMnab. D'ribMn, the sub
ject of the infinit. na, follows the verb
between which the accusative d_ is
inserted. The proper order would
be DniM D'ribMn nab, but instances where
the object precedes tbe subject are
not unfrequent (comp. ion jisjb tfp bbMa,
as fire consumes straw, Isa. v. 24;
^ij'jp in'N ribto, when Sargon sent hitn,
ibid. XX. 1; Gesenius, § 133, 3; Ewald,
§ 309, a). As the i before niNnb, the
second infinitive, shews that it is in
timately connected with the flrst in
finitive, and that it must refer to the
same subject; the word, as it now
stands in the text, yields a most
awkward sense, i.e., God has chosen
the children of men that he might
see they are beasts. There can,
therefore, be little doubt that the Sept.
i i .7
(tou SeTJai) , th e Syriac (O lO Kt.Sn,\o),
the Vulg., and St. Jerome (ut osten
dere), lire rigbt in reading it niNnb,
the Hiphil, instead of niNnb, the Kal ;
nothing is more easily mistaken by
a transcriber than the insignificant
- and -. Hence Rashi rightly ex
plains it by DniMnnb. The Sh'va
under ip, instead of ttS=ntt)M, is most
probably owing to one of the Segol
points having been dropped, as tbe
sacred writer always uses * before
the n (vide ii. 22; vi. 10; xii. 9).
npna, beast, as frequently is used for

beasts. npna-oniiS, that they are beasts,
i.e., LIKE beasts. To express strongly
the resemblance of one thing to
another, the Hebrews omit the 3
comparison, and make the thing
wherewith the subject is compared
the predicate of the subject (comp.
IB Dn3 iiDM'n, his head is the finest gold,
i.e., AS thefinest gold, Song of Songs,
V. 1 1 ; N'n nnin-DM, if she be a wall,
i.e., LIKE a wall, ibid. viii. 91. The
accumulation of the relative pro
nouns Dnb nnn • • • on, yields that
ironical climax which is expressed
iu Latin by ipsissimi, and in German
by |l04)fifelb|l (comp. Ewald, § 31 5, a).
Tbe rendering of tbe Sept, Vulg.,
and Syriac, with the exception of
the mistake adverted to, is substan
tially the same which we advocate.
Rashi's explanation, which is evi
dently the basis of the 'Turkey
merchant's rendering, " Oh ! that
God would enlighten them, and
make them see that even they them
selves are like beasts," and is followed
by Adam Clark, &c., &c., referring it
to the corrupt judges mentioned in
ver. 16, is contrary to the form and
signification of Dnab, as well as to tbe
scope of tbe passage. The explana
tion of Ibn Ezra, " I said in my
heart, because of tbe children of men,
God bas chosen them (from among
all creatures), and yet I saw that they
are like beasts to themselves," i. e.,
in their own estimation ('aba 'nnnM
mnbin ban D'nbMn Dnna-a DnMn ':a niasa
DWDab en nmna ma cnm 'n'Nni pNn
Dniaicnna) ; the Geneva version, " I
considered in mine heart the estate
of the children of men, that God
had purged them ; yet to see to,
they are in themselves as beasts;"
Broughton, " I said in my heart,
after tbe manner of the sons of men,
when God made them known, that
I saw how they are beasts ; they to
themselves ; " and the Authorised
Version (text), " I said in my heart
concerning the estate of the sons of
men, that God might manifest them,
and that they might see that they

CHAP. III.]

COHELETH.

317

19 they, even they, are like beasts. For man is mere chance,
and the beast is mere chance, and they are both subject to

themselves are beasts ;" besides the
objections wbich they individually
incur, are alike guilty of assign
ing two different subjects to the
two inseparable infinitives. Luther's
version (3^ fptac^ in meinem lietjen
son bem SBefen bet ?IKenf(^en, batinnen
@ott anjeiget unb la^t eg anfe^en, alg
maten pe untet ft^ felbfi mie bag
SSie^). Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible (" 1 communed with my own
heart also concerning the children
of men, how God hath chosen them,
and yet letteth them appear as
though they were beasts"), escape
this objection, but they can neither
be harmonised with the text nor
context. De Wette, Knobel, Ewald,
Heiligstedt, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c. (I spake in my heart, it is
because of the children of men —
i. e , that the perversion of justice
described in ver. 16, happens — that
God may prove them, and that they
may see that they are beasts) vio
lently connect tbis verse with verse
16, assign two different subjects to
the two infinitives, and create a
harsh ellipsis, which is inadmissible.
Still more objectionable is Philipp-
son's violent rendering, ^(j) fpta$ in
meinem ^ctjen itbet bag ©etebe bet
3Kenfi$enf6Jne, mo^t um @ott ju
etfotfi^en ifi'g unb ju fe^en, baf fte
fSiel) finb, making D'ribMri the accusa
tive of Dnab, i. q., D'ribMn-nM Dnb nnab,
which has b^ea anticipated in the
marginal reading of the Auth. Ver.
19. For man is a mere chance, &c.
Coheleth assigns a reason why he
put man and beast upon the same
level in the foregoing verse ; for both,
he says, are the offspring of, and the
victims to, the same blind chance;
their bodies are alike subject to death,
and their souls are the same; man
has no advantage whatever over the
beast, for both are alike vain ; hence
the correctness of the remark, that
" men are like beasts." The fact
that rnpp is written all the three times

with a Segol, shews beyond doubt
that it is in the absolute, and must
be taken as the predicate, i.e.,' a. mere
chance are the children of men,' they
are tbe offspring of blind accident.
For the meaning of nnpn, see ii. 14.
Dnb nrjN rnpni, and the same chance is
to them both, i. e., both are subject to
the same chance, is not explanatory
of nnnan rnpni DnMn-'aa rnpp, rnan is
a mere chance, and the beast is a mere
chance (Hengstenberg), bnt expresses
an additional idea, i.e., man and
beast are not only the offspring of
the same blind chance, but are alike
subject to it during thejr life. For
"¦ns, one, the same, see ii. 14. To
make this statement orthodox, the
Hagada restricts it to the wicked,
who, according to its exegesis, are
described at the end of tbe preceding
verse to be like beasts (uiie Midrash,
in loco). Hence the Cbaldee para
phrase, N-i'sa lisnMi Nj'^n Ntfa'M psnN
]in^iab nn.fisnN ^¦^¦q,asforihefateof
the wicked and the fate of the unclean
beast, both have the same fate; hence
also the Sept., Ka'iyE etuToTj o-uVrtVTfljWa
v\mv rov avQftu'jruu Keti a-vvavrnfjia rou Krrivovi;
ffwavrrifxa, EV auToi';* and the Syriac,
*P0« 7l>*p-7.-i,p :,-
]jLj1 wLOJ UrtV \^ vO«^
r . p -n ^ p r^^ p -7.
T^ (-•rVJ^Ir-.-^i^j Ur\^, these
(i.e., the wicked mentioned in the
preceding verse) meet with the fate
of the children of men and the fate of
the beast; one fate have they. 'The
Vulgate : iDciEco onus interitus
EST hominis et JUMENTORUM, ET
jEqua OTRiusQUE CONDITIO, therefore
the death of man and of beasts is one,
and the cond'ition of both is the same;
Luther, benn eg ge^t bem SKenfc|ien
wit bem 3?ie^, omitting a clause ;
who is literally translated by Cover-
dale, " for it happeneth unto men as
it doth unto beasts, even one condi
tion unto them both," supplying the
omission of Luther and Coverdale;
the Geneva Version, " for the condi-

318

COHELETH.

[CHAP. III.

the same chance ; as is the death of one, so is the death of
the other, and both have the same spirit ; and the advantage
20 of man over the beast is nothing, for both are vanity : both
go to the same place, both were made of dust, and both tm-n
21 into dust again : no one knoweth whether the spirit of man

tion of the children of men, and the
condition of beasts are even as one
condition unto them;" and the Autb.
Version, " for that which hefalleth
the sons of men hefalleth beasts ;
even one thing hefalleth them ;" are
tame paraphrases, and do not express
the sense of the original.
As is the death of one, &c. Not
only are man and the beast alike
the objects ,Df chance in their birth
and life, but, having the same
perishable body and spirit, they are
also alike as far as death and the
soul are concerned, so that man has
no advantage whatever over the
beast. Similarly the Psalmist —
Man in, or despite of , his glory, abideth not ;
He is like the beasts wbich perish. 3d. 13. 21.
nin is a noun in tbe construct state
before ni, and describes the state of
the body. Thedouble? — a, denoting
similarity, is used for as — so (comp.
Gen. xviii. 25, xliv. 18 ; Jud. viii. 18;
Gesen. § 154, 3, f.; Ewald, § 360, a).
So also the repeated ni — ni is used
for this — that; one — theotlier (comp.
Job i. 16 ; Ps. Ixxv. 8). As the
two nouns DnMn^'ja and npna, to
which these pronouns refer, are of
different genders, we ought, correctly
speaking, to have nMi — n; ; but, as
we have already seen (vide supra,
i. 11), strict attention to these mat
ters is not always to be expected, nini
bsb nnM, and both have the same spiiit,
like Dnb nnM nnpni, and they are both
subject to the same chance, in the
preceding clause, expresses an addi
tional idea, i. e., not only are their
bodies alike a prey to death, but
their spirits are tbe same. That
nin denotes the living principle, the
spirit, the soul, is evident both from
the context and from verse 21, where

this expression is unquestionably
used in this sense. For ban, all,
both, see ii. 14. The Sept. renders
'iai nnim, xal ri lorEpiVjrEue-Ey 0 avSpoiiro^
irapa TO xriivo; ¦ oliiv, and what advan
tage has man over the heast? nothing;
so alsoSymmachiis,xa!Ti'!rXEovav9f«»7rof
KT^vouf ; and Theodotion, nai ri^ vEpiffo-Eta
rS avSfiUnrx ; making nnim a compound
of nn' nni.
20. Both go to the same place, &c.
The declaration made in the pre
ceding verse, that both man and the
beast have the same body and spirit,
is substantiated in this and the fol
lowing verses. As the perishing
body was mentioned flrst (]? ni nina
ni riin), Coheleth explains it flrst.
The bodies of both man and beast
are made of earth, and, when they
cease to live, turn into earth again
(Gen. i. 24, ii. 7. 19, iii. 19 ; Ps.
xxii. 16, civ. 29, cxlvi. 4 ; Job x. 9,
xxxiv. 15, Sirach, xl. 11, xii. 10).
ban, both, and n™, the same, as in
the preceding verse. What this
" same place " is to which botb go,
we are told in the next clause.
jn n;n, to be from, to come from, to
proceed out of, to originate from
(comp. I'tn; nsnp D'bs 'a'bn, kings of
nations shall come out of her. Gen.
xvii. 16), to be made of, is well ren
dered by the Sept. ly-vETo ino rov ^o6^,
were made of dust, and still better
by the Vulgate, de terra facta sunt ;
and by Lutber, bon ©taub gema^t.
1??"''? ^''¦''*> *o return to dust, to be
converted or changed into dust again
(comp. Gen. iii. 19).
SI. No one knoweth, &c. Having
substantiated the first assertion, that
both man and tbe beast have the
same perishable body, Coheleth now
proceeds to account for his second
remark (Vsb nnN mni), that they have

CHAP. III.]

COHELETH.

319

goeth upward, and whether the spirit of the beast goeth down-

both also the same spirit, or that
their respective spirits have the same
destiny. The penetrating Rashbam
has here again beautifully pointed
out the connection of tbis verse with
ver. 19, which many modern critics
of greater pretensions have failed to
see. This verse, says tbis Rabbi of
tbe middle ages. — bab nnN mm bs aom
Nin 'n 'a Dn'Ticb nnN mn nniN '3n p bs
nnna mm nbsnb nbis DnMn mniB sti'ib
Dnb nnN mn nniN ':m p bsi nicnb nnni'
ban bam, — is explanatory of the words,
" and both have the same spirit."
Why I say they have both the same
spirit is because who knows whether
the spirit of man goes upward, and
wheiher the spirit of the beast goes
downward ? Therefore I maintain
that they have both the same spirit,
and that all isvanity. Fortbe question
about the destiny of the body which
is capable of ocular demonstration,
Coheleth could refer to that which
every one might see for himself.
But the question about the destiny
of the soul is of a different nature,
and is beyond our ken; Coheleth
therefore throws the burden of the
argument upon bis opponents, by
maintaining that no one can shew
that tbe spirit of man and the beast
are not the same ; that the one is
destined to soar up to and be with
the Father of our spirits, and that
the other is doomed to descend into
the earth, and be mingled with the
dust, like tbe body, 'aa mn sni' 'p
nnn»n nnnan mm nbsnb N'h nbin DnMn
vv- T":- - x!t: • xt T-n|
pMb rranb N'n, who knoweth the spirit
of man, whether it goeth upward, and
the spirit of the beast, whether it
goeth downward to the earth ? is
again a contraction of Nin nbi>n sni' 'n
nnnan mn M'n nni'ni nbsnb D'wn 'aa mn
ynMb rrepb, who knoweth whether the
spirit of man goeth upward, and
whether the spirit of tlie beast goeth
downward to the earth ? (comp. ii.
24),whichi8beautilully solved by the
Syriac, as may be seen below. The
interrogative sni' 'p, who knoweth, as
frequently, is used for an emphatic

denial (vide ii. 19, vi. 12, and the
remark on i. 3). nm, the vital spirit,
the soul, as is evident from verse 19,
which is here taken up again. That
D.'n^b, to heaven, is to be supplied
after nbsnb N'n nbi>, goeth upward,
which the Chaldee very properly
expresses (NS'pnb), and that it denotes
immortality, is placed beyond a doubt
by the antithetical phrase N'n nnn'
nppb, goes dowmoard, which is defined
by the additional ywb, to the earth,
and which unquestionably denotes
mortality, the abode of the destroyed
body. nbi> and nnn', as well as the
copula N'n (vide infra, v. 18; Gesen.
§ 121, 2; Ewald, § 297, b), are
feminine, because mn, to which they
refer, is usually feminine. Though
the present pointing of the n in nbi>n
and nnn.'n does not militate against
our rendering, inasmuch as the He-
interrogative has not unfrequently a
Pattach followed by a Dagesh, like
tbe article (compare nirp 'a'sa ap';n,
should it have been accepted in the
sight of the Eternal ? Levit. x. 19 ;
Job xxiii. 6 ; Isa. xxvii. 7 ; Gesen.
§ 100, 4; Ewald, § 104, b), yet it
can hardly be doubted that the
Masorites have designed it as the
article-pronoun, in order to remove
the denial of the immortality of the
soul. All the ancient versions, bow-
ever, take the ,ff«interrogatively; thus
the Sept,, Hal T(? oThv to orvEy^ua vlSjv tou
avdpruTTou Ei avaQatvEt avro eU avoo ; Xa( TlVEvfXA
rov Krmovi; £( xvraQatvEl aiiro Karoo Elq rriy
ym ; who has seen the spirit of the
sons of men whether, it goes upwards,
and the spirit of the beast, whether it
goes downwards to the earth ? the
Vulg., QUIS NOVIT, SI SPIRITUS FILIO
RUM Adam asoendat sursum, et
SI SPIRITUS JUMENTORUM DESCENDAT
DEORSUM ? who knows whether the
spirit of the sons of Adam ascends
upward, and whether tlie spirit of
beasts descends downward? the Syr.,
.,0 7 7 J .,0 7 0 i 7

320

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IV.

22 ward to the earth. Wherefore I saw that there is nothing .
better for man than to rejoice in his labours, for this is his
portion, since no one can bring him to see what will be here-
iv. 1 after. Then I saw again all the oppressed who are suffering
under the sun, and beheld the tears of the oppressed, and

K'V'AjoXX wjOI ]Kj^, and
who knows whether the spirit of man
goes uptvard, and whether the spirit
of the beast goes downward to the
earth? the Chaldee, sn'.n np'an Nin p
NS'pnb Mb'.sb Mp.bBn m* jn '.aa Nnn®? nm j'm
MSnNb snb 'N'ri^Nnron 'iin'san NnnsS? mm ,
who is wise enough to know whether
the soul of man goes upward to
heaven, and whether the soul of the
beast goes downward to the earth ?
So also Luther, the Geneva Version,
Knobel, Herzfeld, De Wette, Ewald,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elstei-,
Vaihinger, and almost all modern
commentators. The unnatural con
struction of Rashi, " He who has
understanding understands that the
spirit of man goes upward, and the
spirit of the beast goes downward,"
referring to ai* sni- 'p in Joel, ii. 14,
for this sense of sni' 'p, which is fol
lowed by Mendelssohn and Preston;
and the far-fetched explanation of
Ibn Ezra, "Who knows, who among
men can understand, the immense
difference between the spirit of man
that goes upward, and the spirit of
the beast that goes downward, not
one in athousand" — DnNn 'laa sn'iB 'n
]'3sni nnnan mm onMn mn p «'ffl »nsnn
na'nsi npms mnn nsni f]bN 'm nnN Nb 'a
DN '3 nnsp iVsN ]'anb ibav Nbi nvNnb
D'b'afflnn — which is followed by Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, Reynolds,
Patrick, Hodgson, Holden, Heng
stenberg, &c,, are contrary to the
scope of the passage, and violate the
intimate connection which subsists
between this verse and verse 19.
Even Mr. Ayre, in the orthodox edi
tion of tbe second volume of Home's
Introduction (p. 745), disapproves of
Hengstenberg for not admitting that
the He is interrogative, and rightly

remarks, " that a distinct assertion
here of a future life would have been
premature; iM« tbe author reserved
for his conclusion," The denial of
the immortality of the soul contained
in this verse forms the very basis of
Coheleth's disquisition, as we have
seen in i, 2-11.
22. Wherefore I saw, &c. Since this
istheconditionofman,Cohelethagaiushews that there is nothing left for
him but to enjoy the present, as this
is his only portion, and as no one
can shew what will take place after
our death. The i in 'n'Nni, as fre
quently, is inferential. V)n, portion,
lot, as in ii. 10. Though this verse
is an inference from the preceding
verses, and therefore has its cause
there, yet, to make it more impres
sive, Coheleth repeats the reason in
a different form. The interrogative,
niN-ib i3N'a; 'p, who shall bring him to
see? is the same as sni' V, who knows ?
in the preceding verse, and is used
for an emphatic denial. For the
construction ? nNn, see ii. 1. rrn;i6 np
I'nnM^ what will be after him ? i. e.,
after his death, hereafter (vide infra,
X. 14), whether there be a future
state of existence and enjoyment or
not. 1. Then I saw again, &e. From
this point of view, viz., that there
is no future state, Coheleth again
returns to contemplate tbe bitter
state of sufferings, tbe violation of
social laws, and tbe perversion of
justice which he alluded to in iii. 16.
nMnNi 'mti, literally I turned and saw,
i. e., I again saw, indicates the return
to the subject from another point of
view ; for the adverbial use of ai«i,
see i. 7. Tbe Vulg , verti me ad
ALIA, Elf vidi, / turned myself to other
things and saw, is a loose paraphrase,

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

321

they had no comforter, and from their oppressors there was

and mistakes the connection. D'ptis,
in the first clause, is taien by the
Sept. (a-uKo<(>avTia?), Vulg. (calumnias),
Chaldee (1'P'in) , and after them Cover-
dale, Geneva Version, Luther, Auth.
Version, Knobel, Hodgson, Hitzig,
De Wette, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster,
&c., &stheabstract,oppression; whilst,
in the second clause, these same
authorities render it as concrete, op
pressed. But the inconsistency of
taking the same expression in the
same verse in two different senses is
most glaring ; and as there can be no
doubt that D'ptis, in the second clause,
means oppressed, wbich is evident
from the expression nspn, tears, which
can only be predicated of persons ; its
meaningin the first clause mustthere-
fore be determined thereby. Hence
Sym. (toii; ff-vxo<favrovfiivovi;), Rashi,
Rashbam, Jermin, Herzfeld, Philipp
son, &c., are consistent in taking it
as concrete in both clauses. The ob
jection of Knobel, Hitzig, Holden,
Elster, &c., that a'ipsa does not well
agree with this rendering, has no
force, for it is just as appropriate to
say D'ptfs rrms, to make oppressed ones,
as to say J D'nas ntos, to make slaves,
or D'tfBi n«s, to make souls, nspn,
tear, is used collectively.
And they had no comforter. The
manifestation of sympathy with suf
ferers in the East was and still is
more formal than in the West
(compare iii. 7, vii. 2, and xii. 5).
Friends even travelled great dis
tances, and stayed with the sufferer
for days, in order to comfort him.
The Jews in the present day still re
gard it as an imperative duty to visit
the afflicted, which is called baM onap,
comforting the mourners, the very
word used in our text, and the
sufferers look forward to these con
doling visits as a great relief. This
will shew the force of the passage
before us. The individuals in ques
tion are not only suffering from cruel
injustice, but are left to bewail' their
gloomy fate without the customary
and the highly-prized condolence,

which renders their sufferings still
more poignant. The clause n'p
n'a Dn'pais continues to depend upon
^l'^, i. e., and behold, from the hand
of their oppressors there is violence.
na, power, is here used in a bad
sense, for force, violence. The repeti
tion of the words, " and they had no
comforter," describes pathetically the
continued state of things (vide supra,
iii. 16). The Hagadic explanation of
this clause, as given in the Cbaldee
paraphrase, tin'paiMn m )p jinpnsnb n'b
]in'! D'n:^ 'n n'bi Nb'nai Nn; Fjipni,' 'and
there is none with a strong hand
and power to deliver them from the
hand of their oppressors, and none to
comfort them, which is followed by
the Vulgate, neo posse resistere
EORUM VIOLBNIIiE OUNOTORUM AUXI-
Lio DESTiTUTOs, nor were they able to
resist their violence, being destitute of
help from any ; Coverdale, and there
was no man to comfort them, or that
would deliver and defend them from
the violence of their oppressors, and
others; not only require us to supply
the negative particle J'm, but also the
principal v^rb b'sn, to take na in a
double sense, viz,, power to resist,
and violence, according to the Hagadic
laws of exegesis (vide supra, p. 30),
and to reconstrue the wh'ole sentence,
which none bat the rabid oppo
nents of the received text would do.
Neither does Luther's version (unb
bie i^nen Unrec^t tjaten, maren ju
miiiltig, baf fte feinen Sriijler ^aben
fonnten, and those that did them
injustice were too powerful, so that
they (the sufferers) could not be com
forted) express the sense of the text.
The usual interpretation is supported
by the Sept., aoro p^Etpo? avKo^^avrovvraiv
avTovt \a-)(yt;, from the hand of their
oppressors was violence; Rashi, D'npois
naa QniN D'Dpini D'mnan, their oppres
sors subdued and overpowered them
violently, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, and
most modern commentators. The
Syriac, which rightly translated the
flrst Dnjp, |j| 1 nV), ocmforter, in-

2 T

322

COHELETH.

[chap. IV.

2 violence, and they had no comforter ; and I esteemed happy
the dead who have died long ago, more than the living who
3 are still alive ; and happier than both, him who hath not
been born, who hath not seen these evil doings which are

consistently renders the second onm,
* P2 ^
PJA!iD, helper.
2. And I esteemed happy the dead,
&c. These heart-rending and har
rowing miseries, brought upon the
helpless and innocent by the very
men who were appointed to amelio
rate the condition of the community,
were so intolerable, that Coheleth
regarded those whom death had
relieved from these bitter sufferings
as happier than those who endured
them. This lamentable description
of the misery to which Coheleth was
an eyewitness (nMnMi), and which so
frequently calls forth bis indignation
against the authors of it (vide infra,
V. 8, viii 4. 10, x. 5-7), shews that
Solomon could not have written this
book, for in his days no such misery
was prevalent, as is evident from
1 Kings iv. 20-25; x. 6-9. Be
sides, even if the books oiKings and
Chronicles bad not; given us the
history of this monarch's enlightened
and peaceful reign, it could not be
imagined that such a mighty nnd
wise potentate, who had given such
a signal evidence of the administra
tion of justice in the case of the two
mothers, would so bitterly complain
of the judges of his land wbo were of
his own creation, when it was in his
power to crush the miscreants and
avenge tbe cause of the injured, who
are represented as " having no com
forter." nasi, according to Ibn Ezra,
Herzfeld, &o., is a verbal adjective,
like ]Nn, and, as is frequently the
case, is used with a personal pro
noun for a finite verb (comp. Exod.
vii. 27, ix. 2, al.) ; according to
Gesen., Knobel, Heiligstedt, Elster,
&c., it is the participle Piel for naiiJp,
the p having dropped, as in Zeph.
i. 14 ; and, according to Rashbam,
Mendelssohn, Ewald, Hitzig, &o,, it

is the infinitive absolute, continuing
the construction which began with the
finite verb (compare Ewald, § 351, c).
The first of these views is the least
objectionable, since the examples
adduced to shew that tbe Piel part.
drops the p are questionable, and
since tbe pronoun 'aN, with which
nati is connected, is against its being
an inflnitive. The additions mn naai^,
loho have died long ago, to D'nnn, the
dead, and nans o'jn npn nwN, who are
still living, to D'jnn, the living, which
appear tautological in a modern
translation, give peculiar emphasis
to tbe original, i. e., Coheleth not
only regarded those who have recently
been deprived of life as happier than
the living, but he praised those who
had long been forgotten (a fate which
was so much dreaded by the East
erns), as happier than those who were
not only living, but were in vigour,
and bad the prospect of a long life.
The Septuagint's rendering of niiJM
nans D'^n nnn by oa-ci avroi ^oJs-iv £»? tou
vijv, as many of them as are living
until now, cannot be reconciled with
the text ; the Vulg., Coverdale, and
the Bishops' Bible most arbitrarily
omit both additions, mns is a con
traction of mn ns (Gen. xv. 16; 1 Sam.
vii. 12; Gesenius, § 150, 2; Ewald,
§217, e).
3. And happier than both, &c.
The comparison of the death-relieved
sufferers with the living martyrs is
here extended to the yet unborn,
wbo are pronounced as happier still,
because they have not suffered at
all, whilst those relieved by death had
suffered for some time. A parallel
passage with the one before us, where
the dead and tbe unborn are pre
ferred to the living sufferers, is to be
found in Job —
Why died I not from the womb,
Come forth from the belly, and depart 1

chap. IV.]

COHELETH.

323

Wherefore did knees meet me.
And why breasts, tliat I should suck?
FornowlBhonld have sank down and rested,
I should have slept, and then have reposed
With kings and counsellors of the earth,
Wbo built themselves pyramids ;
Or with princes rich in gold.
Who filled their bouses with silver ;
Or like a hidden abortion I should not
have been.
Like infants who have never seen the light.
m. 11-16.
So also Theognis —
navTa;v fxEV fji.ri <^uvai ETCl^dovtoiff-iV apiffrov,.
M)jS' EfflSfitv avyag o^EOf nfiXlou'
OuVTtt 5', o'jran; aiKttrrA i:vy,Bt^ 'Ai^ao 'ffEp^ffat,
K.al KstffQat TToXX^v yr.v ETTafjinc-afAEVov.
" Not to be bom, never to see the snn.
No worldly blessing is a greater one 1
And tbe next best is speedily to die.
And, lapt beneath a load of earth, to lie 1"
426-428.

4 done under the sun. Then I saw that all the toil, and
all the dexterity in work, are from jealousy of one toward
the other, this also is vanity and striving after the wind j
striving after the wind. '?m 'n'Mni
M'n '3 niBspn ]intoa"b3 nMi bns"ba"nN
"iai nM3p, and I saw all the toil and
all the dexterity in work, that they
are from jealousy, &c., is again an
attraction instead of bns-ba-'a 'jn 'p'Nm
"lai nM3p N'n niospn jiniiia-bai, andlsaiii
that all the toil and the dexterity in
work are from jealousy, &c. (vide
supra, ii. 24). Tho solution of this
attraction shews -that '? is a conjunc
tion, depending upon the verb 'in'Mn,
I saw (comp. Gen. i. 4; Job xxii 12;
Gesen, § 142, 4, Rem. 2 ; § 1 55, 4, c ;
Ewald, § 336), and that the copula
M'n refers to liniiSai bns. This is, more
over, evident from the preposition )n
in insnn, which indicates the cause
of this industry and dexterity, and
must be construed with nNi bps-ba"nM
niBsnn ]inica-ba, for it never goes with
nNip; this noun is invariably con
strued with b (1 Kings xix. 10), or
with a (Prov. iii. 31 ; xxiii. 17; xxiv. 1).
and from the fact that nNip is not
passive, being envied, ba^ SSeneiben=.
nsetben, but active, the envying, iaS
Seneiben. Hence the the Vulg., rur-
SUM OONTEMPLATUS SUM OMNES LABO-
RES HOMINUM, ET INDUSTBIAS ANI
MADVERT! PATERE INVIDI^ PROXIMI,
again I considered all the labours of
men, and I noticed that their industries
are exposed to the envy of their neigh
bour; Luther, i^ fa^e an SlTbett unb
©ef^icttic^feit in aHen ©at^en : ba
neibet etner ben anbetn; Coverdale,
" again I saw that all the travail and
diligence of labour was bated of every
one ; " the Authorised Version, in the
t^t, " again I considered all travail
and every rigbt work, that for this a
man is envied of his neighbour; " iu
the margin, " this is the envy of a
man from his neighbour;" and Hodg
son, " Then I viewed every ingeni
ous and excellent work; but such
caused a man to be envied by his
neighbour," do not give the sense of
the original.

natf must be mentally supplied before
aiioi, as it still governs the accusative
n^N nN. Tbe Sept., Syriac, Lutber,
the Authorised Version, &c., make
nN to be the nominative, which both
weakens the force of the passage and
Involves an Anomaly ; whilst the
Vulg., ET FELICIOBEM UTROQUE JUDI-
CAVI, QUI NEOnUM NATUS EST, and I
judged him happier than both of them
who has not yet been bom, which is
followed by the Geneva Version,
&c., unnecessarily introduces another
verb to govern the accusative, sn nMn,
to see evil, i. e., to experience it, to
suffer under it (comp. the opposite
phrase aiio nNn, to see good, ii. 1).
4. Then I saw that all the toil, &c.
The industry and dexterity mani
fested in the pursuits and avocations
of life, in spite of the unalterably
flxed destinies of man, and to the
neglect of the enjoyment of the pre
sent, which is the only portion of
man, arise from a mean desire to
outdo one's neighbour, whose pro
sperity is looked upon with a jealous
eye; yet this base competition fre
quently terminates in the Ipss of
the object eagerly pursued, and iii

324

COHELETH.

[chap. IV.

5 the sluggard foldeth his hands and yet eateth his meat ;

5. The sluggard foldeth his hands,
&c To show the vain efforts of tbe
mean characters mentioned iri the
preceding verse, Coheleth points to
the fact that, while industrious and
dexterous jealousy, attempting gree
dily to grasp the object of her eager
pursuit, flnds frequently that she has
striven after the wind, the slothful
man quietly enjoys his repast. Much
diificulty has been experienced by
commentators in explaining this
verse, and multifarious are the opi
nions respecting its meaning. This
perplexity, I believe, is not owing to
any real difficulty in the text or con
text, but is to be ascribed to the fact
that interpreters have too implicitly
followed the traditional explanation.
Thus the Chaldee paraphrases this
verse, Nbi Nia'ipa 'iT n^ fi'DMi b'lM N;piii
rrb n'Nn no bV tr bii': Miripan nnppb'^'as
prnpa iiifin bsn ica ib'DMi, the fool goes
and folds his hands in summer and
will not labour, and in winter eats
all he has, even the garment from the
skin of his flesh; taking it to mean
that the fool, unwilling to work at
opportune seasons, when labour is to
be got, is obliged, at the time when
employment is not to be found, and
when hunger-bitten, as a penalty,
to sell his very garments in order to
satisfy tbe cravings of nature. It is
this explanation which has influ
enced, all the commentators. The
Vulg. (STULTUS COMPLICATMANUS SUAS
ET COMEDIT C.^RNES SUAS, DICENS: the
fool foldeth his hands together, and
eateth his own flesh, saying , &c.) takes
it in the same sense, and puts the
words of the following verse into the
mouth of the fool ; thus also Ibn
Ezra, nN:p pnb ]'n D'bss D'b'ca DnNa m' dj
nN b'pain ]l^ nann I'miu naNbna iposn' iRi
n'nn Nba inMiB'i Dnb »'« nn D'baiMi Drpn'
tj'Dinb bins' Mbi lb wiB nn ba baiM Minm nnMi
• aiiD 1 asna nin'» niasa inioa nM baiN ib'Na
'b 'n nniMn Min b'Dan 'nan, there are also
sluggard fools among men, who are
not jealous, and do not engage in
work to live thereby, but fold their
liands, and eat up all they have, and

are left without support ; and having
eaten up all he had, and not laboured
to replenish, he is like one consuming
his own flesh, for he dies of hunger
(ver. 9) ; these are the words of the
fool, who says, I have plenty, <6c.
Hence Coverdale : the fool foldeth
his hands together, and eateth up his
own flesh ; one handful (saith he) is
better with rest, dc; and Mendels
sohn; and hence the. various at
tempts to connect it with the pre
ceding verse. Bishop Reynolds says
that this envy has for its conse
quence, that foolish and slothful
men refuse to take pains, and prefer
poverty rather than to be envied.
Mendelssohn takes this verse to be
an address of the diligent to the
indolent, to blame him. Knobel,
Preston, Philippson, Elster, &c.,
maintain that this verse describes
the opposite extreme ; the preceding
verse depicted a man driven by
jealousy to laborious industry, whilst
this verse speaks of one wbo, through
indolence, lives on his patrimony,
and consumes it without taking any
steps to repair the inroads be makes
upon it. Gesenius and others take
it as still descriptive of jealousy, and
explain the words iniB|baM, the fool
devoured by envy, comparing with it
ov ^vfi.h Kariim (Hom. II. vi. 202).
Against all these interpretations we
urge that they are forced and un
natural, that some are against the
genius of language, and some against
the context. This will be seen from
an analysis of the words of the verse,
and their relation to each other, b'pa
(from bpa, to be thick, fat, fleshy, to
be inactive, lazy, or languid, either in
body or mind, as the latter is gene
rally the result of the former) denotes
a sluggard, a fool, a sinner, whose
heart is overlaid with fat, and is
obdurate, so that he is rendered dull
and callous to the commandments
of God (Deut. xxxii. 15; Ps. xvii.
10; Ixxiii. 7; cxix. 70; Isa. vi. 10;
comp. Prov. xv. 20; xix. 1; infra,
ver. 17. al.). That tbe idea of inae-

chap. IV.]

COHELETH.

325

6 better a handfal of enjoyment than two handsful of labour

tivity in labour, viz., bss, is here
intended, is evident from the imme
diately following words, '''X"'^^ P?".
folds his hands, which are used as
descriptive of a lazy man, i.e., bas
(comp. Prov. vi 10; xxiv. 33), and
not a fool, in the ordinary mean'
ing of this word ; and from the
preceding verse, where tbe oppo
site character is described, viz.,
one active and industrious. Tbis last
remark also shows that 'J'p?, the
slothful, is not to be taken absolutely,
but relatively ; when compared with
this wide-awake activity; impelled by
envy, wbich is always on the alert,
he, who is contented with enjoying
what he has, without attempting to
replenish what he consumes, is inac
tive, slothful, ntoa bjN , to eat meat,
is frequently used in Scripture as
indicative of an ample and delicate
repast (Exod. xvi. 8; xxi. 28; Isa.
xxii. 13 ; Ezek. xxxix. 17), just as the
abstinence fi-om it is mentioned in
cases of humiliation and fasting
(Dan. X. 3), and we have no rigbt to
depart from its natural signification
here, and force upon it the sense of
consuming one's own flesh, especially
as the words, mn nisni ban, vanity and
striving after the wirid, predicated in
the preceding verse of the enviously
industrious, show that tbe words
into nM ba'N, eating his meat, tbe predi
cate of the easy sluggard, are in
tended as an antithesis, the one
repining, the other enjoying ; just as
the enviously industrious is contrasted
with the reposingly slothful.
6. Better a handful of enjoyment,
&c. Coheleth, therefore, submits
that he who quietly enjoys his scanty
patrimony, without harassing cares
and useless pursuits after gain, is to
be preferred to him who succeeds in
amassing wealth, but cannot enjoy
it for want of tranquillity of mind.
This verse has shared in its interpre
tation the fate of tbe preceding one.
The Vtilg., Ibn Ezra, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, Reynolds, Mendels
sohn, &c., as we have seen, put it

into the mouth of the sluggard, as an
apology for his laziness; whilst Pres
ton, Philippson, Elster, and others,
maintain that it contains a recom
mendation of Ooheleth to avoid both
extremes, viz., envious and toilsome
industry, and careless slothfulness,
and to choose the middle course.
But how such a middle course is to
be got out of the words in this verse,
I am at a loss to divine, nm F]a, a
handful of quiet, manifestly describes
tbe b'pa, sluggard, who quietly en
joys his repast, as is evident from
r}r\ nisni bns, labour and striving after
the wirid, which depicts the liito) ''9?
niBsnn, nuin of labour and dexterity,
in verse 4. Hence this verse must
be taken as giving the estimate of the
respective merits of the two classes
described in verses 4 and 5. Nbp in
both clauses is followed by f]?, a
handful, and ia;3Pn, two handsful, geni-.
fives of measure, and nm, enjoyment,
and bps, toil, accusatives of the things
measured (comp. in'a Nbp pba 'b-iw-DM
anil fjpa, if Balak would give me his
house full of silver and gold. Numb.
xxii. 18; nnp."f|a Mbn, a handful of
meal, 1 Kings xvii. 12 ; Judges vi. 38;
Gesen. Lex., s. v., Nbp; Gram. § 118;
Ewald, § 287, h; so the Sept., Syriac,
Knobel, Herzfeld, Ewald, Gesenius,
De Wette , Heiligstedt, Hitzig, Stuart,
Philippson, Elster, Hengstenberg,
and most modern critics). The ren-
deringof Symmachus, i^etb awnava-Exi,
the Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, nroa, bpsa ; Vulg.-, cum requie,
eum labore; Luther, mit Slu^e, mit
SKfl^e; Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
tbe Geneva Version, the Authorised
Version, with quietness, with travail,
supplying a a before nna and bns, the
accusative depending upon Nbp, are
contrary to grammar. Auerbach in
geniously remarks that the difference
between t^ and D'jgn.is bbnn Nin i^a
nisassn ds n'n ba Nin joini n'a« 'SSONn,
the former denotes the hollow of the
hand, whilst the latter signifies the
whole hand, including the flngers.
nn; (from ni3, to settle down, to rest)

326

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IV.

7 and striving after the wind And again I saw a vanity under
8 the sun ; here is one who hath no one with him, hath not
even a son or brother, and yet there is no end to all his

denotes quiet, rest, and hence also
happiness, enjoyment, pleasure, de
light, from the great luxury wbich
rest is to Orientals (comp. -^^iinbti nm,
the enjoyment or delight of thy table.
Job xxxvi. 16, and infra, vi. 5 with
3, where it is used as a synonym with
aiTO in the sense of good, which mean
ing it frequently bas in post-Biblical
Hebrew. We need only refer to the
well-known phrase, DnMb ib mi, it is
good with that man; and see also
infra, ix. 17).
7. And again I saw, &c. From
jealousy Coheleth proceeds to avarice,
as the two features are intimately
connected with each other ; both are
described as the cause of hard labour,
undertaken in spite of the immutably
fixed order of things, and as neglect
ing the enjoyment of the present,
which is the only portion of man;
the former is instigated to work by
envying the possessions of others,
whilst the latter is impelled to toil
by an insatiable desire of filthy lucre.
For the adverbial use of aito see i. 7.
The Vulg., OONSIDERANS REPERI ET
ALiAM VANITATEM SUB SOLE, Consider
ing I also found another vanity under
the sun, is a loose paraphrase, and an
inconsistent departure from its tame
rendering of the same phrase in
verse 1.
8. Here is one, &o. The miser is
now introduced. Here is a solitary
being, without connection, either by
blood or ties of friendship, to inherit
his amassed wealth, yet is he actuated
by the greedy love of money to toil
incessantly, and does not endure
two mouths in his house, or even
suffer his own mouth to enjoy the
fruit of bis labours. The pronoun
ib, to him, from the second clause,
must be supplied after '?iti, second,
i. q., i'' '?* )'Ni, ccnd has riot a second.
But who is meant by this second ?
According to St. Jerome, St. Ambrose,
&c., it is Ohrist ; according to Rashi,

Rashbam, &c., it is (iS"Db ':« DnM),
a companion or apartner in business;
according to Ibn Ezra, it is (naiM
maaa nis N'mu), a wife ; according to
Holden, &c., it is a son to inlierit the
fruit of his labours ; according to
Bishop Reynolds, Knobel, &c., it is
a second generally, associate, wife,
friend, or partner ; and, according
to Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster, &c., it
is simply exegetical of the emphatic
meaning of nnN, viz., one only. The
following verse, however, which un
questionably restricts it to the union
of social -polity, corroborates the
opinion of Rashi and Rashbam, that
a partner is thereby intended. D|,
with the negative particle )'n, gives
intensity to the statement, i. e., not
even a son or a brother (comp.
infra, viii. 16; 2 Sam. xvii. 12, 13;
Ps. xiv. 3; liii. 4; Ewald, § 352,
b) ; as much as to say, not to find
a companion or friend is strange
enough, but not even to have a
brother or son, which everybody
has, this is indeed astonishing; and
yet this solitary individual labours
without end" to amass wealth. Eor
the Quametz under the i in rtMi,
being used to join words in pairs,
see ii. 23. Herzfeld regards the
second Da, before vi'S, as synonymous
with 1. and; but this is an unneces
sary deviation from its meaning, and
weakens the force of the passage ; it
is used as in the former clause for
emphasis, shewing that this lonely
being does not only labour inces
santly, but that his greedy eye is not
even satisfied with his great wealth.
Owing to tbe apparent inconsistency
of construing saiSn,- sing, with I'a's,
the dual, 54 of Kennicott's MSS., the
Sept., Chaldee, St. Jerome, the Syriac,
and the Keri have i^'S in the singular.
There is, however, no need of resort
ing to a different reading for rectifying
tbis anomaly, since D^a'.s not unfre
quently takes a sing. fem. verb after

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

327

labour, even his eyes are not satisfied with riches ; and for
whom do I labour and deny my soul any of my riches ? this,
9 too, is vanity, and an evil business. Happier two than one,
10 because they have a good reward for their labour ; for if one

it (comp. np5 va'si, 1 Sam. iv. 15 ;
1 Kings xiv. 6. 12; Micah iv. 11;
Gesen. § 146, 5; Ewald, § 317, a).
For tbe phrase i;» sato, to satiate the
eye, see i. 8.
And for whom do I labour, &c. To
render the statement more striking
and vivid, Coheleth places himself in
the condition of such a friendless
and childless miser, and exclaims,
" If I were such a solitary being, for
whom would I toil?" &c. For a simi
lar instance of personification, see
ver. 15; ii. 15. The Chaldee, however,
supplies naba np''. Mb-i, and does not say
in his heart, putting it into the mouth
of the miser; so also the Vulgate,
NEC REOOGITAT, DICENS: CUI LABORO?
which is followed by Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Version,
tbe Authorised Version, &c. ; but
this unnecessary insertion of words
does not at all improve the sense.
npn, to be wanting, intransitive, is,
like all other verbs denoting want
or fulness, construed with the accu
sative in Kal, and in Piel, tbe causa
tive of Kal, with two acBusatives,
one of the person ('iflp.rnN), and tbe
other of the thing or object, which is
to be supplied from the noun naitan,
as indicated by thepartitive p (comp.
nipifiap 'ap;f'., let him kiss me — i.e.,
mjitia, a kiss — of the kisses. Song of
Songs, i. 2; Ps. cxxxii. 11 ; Gesen.
§ 154, 3, c ; Ewald, § 217, b, 1, b).
The full construction would therefore
be naiisn aiio-ba 'i!JD:-nN nBnni. npn,
followed by p, with the double accu
sative fully expressed, also occurs in
Ps. viii. 6 ; D'ribMn losp in-^.pnm, and
thou makest him want (in_, accusat.
of person) but little (iQ?p, accusat. of
thing or object) of Ood (see Hupfeld,
in loco). The opinion of Gesenius
. (Lex, s.v), Herzfeld, Hengstenberg,
Fiirst (Lex, s.v), &c., that ipn is
construed with p instead of the

accusative, is contrary to the usus
loquendi. Equally objectionable is
tbe artificial explanation of .Knobel
and Elster, that naiiap npn, sjJJangel
son tiwai toeg leiben laffen iji pragnant
gefagt fur : fKangel leiben unb entfernt
fein taffen, m. s. v. For sn ps, see
i. 13. 9. Happier two than one, &c. This
solitary and selfish miser, who thinks
to increase his happiness by increas
ing his wealth, defeats by his own
conduct the very object which he
has in view. Since the alliance
which be so much shuns, for fear of
having his riches diminished and his
happiness lessened, is the very thing
which promotes happiness, inasmuch
as two labouring together effect, by
mutual counsel and assistance, much
more than a solitary being could do,
and have therefore " good reward for
their conjoint labour." The abhor
rence with which a lonely life was
regarded among the Hebrews, and
tbe high estimation in which friend
ship was held, gave rise to the follow
ing proverbs : — Mnin'p iM Mninan im,
either friendship or death, Talmud,
Tanith, 23 ; )'n; Nba btSnipa D'nan ^ba d-^,
a man without friends is like a left
hand without the right, Mibchar
Peninim (comp. ®ute^, 3{oBbinifc^c
SSIumenlefe, p. 89). laiM, hke the
Latin quippe, qui, has frequently a
causal meaning (comp. Gen. xxx.
18, xxxiv. 27 ; Josh. iv. 7 ; Gesenius,
T pY SI)}
10. For if one fall, &o. To illus
trate the beneflt accruing from social
life, Coheleth adduces an example of
two travelling together, one of whom
happens to fall ; and, because he
has an associate, he has some one to
help him up, of which the solitary
being is .deprived. So it is in the
journey of life; union is strength;
the misfortune of one is relieved by

-328

COHELETH.

[CHAPi IV.

fall, the other will lift up his fellow ; but woe to the solitary
11 one who falleth and hath no fellow to help him up. Moreover,
if two sleep, together they are warm ; but a solitary one, how
though it yields good sense, is not
supported by MSS. nnMn ib'Mi stands
for nnMb 'm, the pronoun ib, for the
sake of emphasis, precedes the noun
which stands in apposition to it
(comp. Min mn iiis; onMn ib"Mnp; nifiM bi)
ifato, and whatsoever man called every
living creature, that was its name
(Gen. ii. 19 ; Exod. ii. 6 ; Deut.
xxxiv. 10 ; Gesen. § 121, b. Rem. 3;
Ewald, § 309, c).
11. Moreover, if two sleep together,
&c. The instance here adduced has
been suggested by tbe one in tbe
foregoing verse, and sets forth another
benefit which these fellow-travellers
mutually derive from union. They
not only support each other in their
onward march in the heat of the
day, but cheer and warm one another
in their repose in the cold of the
night. The heat of the day in
Palestine renders individuals very
susceptible to the cold in the night,
which, in times bygone, was not so
effectually excluded as with us.
Oriental houses had no glass win
dows, and the lattices, made to admit
the light in the day, let in the cold
in the night, which was felt all the
more severely by reason of the
Easterns sleeping on a fioor-mat,
and their outer-garthents being all tbe
covering they usually had (comp.
Exod. xxii. 26). Hence sleeping
together was and still is very com
mon, and was regarded as such a
comfortable thing that it is especially
mentioned in the Mishna among the
things not to be indulged in, if one
has vowed to derive no benefit from
his neighbour (Nedarira, iv. 4). This
strikinginjunction illustrates the pas
sage before us, without resorting to
the explanation of the Chaldee,
Rashi, Mendelssohn, &c., that it
refers to husband and wife, which is
against the tenor of the passage ; or .
to the fanciful opinion of Harmer
(Observations, i. p. 269), that it

the opportune assistance of the other.
The Chaldee, Ibn Ezra, Mendelssohn,
&c., restrict the terra falling to drop
ping down ill ; whilst Reynolds,
Holden, Preston, Stuart, &c., extend
it to all sorts, of misfortunes arising
from temporal, physical, or spiritual
distress. But it is far more natural
to take it in its literal sense, as
referring to travelling. In the East,
where travelling on foot is general,
the bad state of the, roads, and the
long and slovenly dresses of the
Orientals, .often occasion falling ;
hence the benefit of journeying in
company. A similar passage, where
the advantage of two going together
is set forth, occurs in the Iliad,
X. 224-226.
2lJV TE 5u' EpYOj«£VW, KaX TE TTpo 0 TOU £Vo'lifl"EV,
"Otrieoiq XEpJoj Eft' ]t*ouvoff S* Ei'jtEp ri voha-ri,
'AXXa TE 01 ^patrirm TS vooj Xettt^ 51 fjLvriq,
if two walk together one will always
see better than the other what is advan
tageous ; but one alone, though he sees
it ever so well, is more tardy in his
resolution, and limited in his view.
\%\ is used distributively, referring
to either of the two (comp. Prov.
xxviii. 1), and is well rendered by
the Chaldee Jimn nn bie; j'm, if one of
them fall; the Vulg., si unus oeciderit;
Luther, fattt i^rer einei; Coverdale,
and the Bishops' Bible. The Geneva
Version, "if they fall," which is
adopted by the Authorised Version,
does away with the help which this
passage is designed to express, for if
both the travellers fall, no helper is
left. i'l'M, woe to him, stands for
ib 'M (comp. Ewald, § 241), which in
deed is the reading of many MSS.
The interjection 'sj, woe, only occurs
once more (vide infra, x. 16), but
is frequently used in post-Biblical
Hebrew. The Chaldee reads it ibMi
or ib'Mi, if, i.e., "if a solitary one
fall, then there is not a second to
raise him up ;" but this reading.

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

329

12 can he be warm? And if an enemy overpower the solitary
one, two surely will withstand him, and a threefold cord is

refers to sleeping together for medi
cal purposes, aa^, to lie down, in
order to sleep ; hence to sleep (comp,
¦Tjbari n'a nns mniN aaidsi, where the
Authorised Version has rightly ren
dered it, but Uriah slept at the door
of the king's liouse, 2 Sam. xi. 9;
1 Kings xxi. 27; Prov. xxiii. 34),
whilst it has weakened the force of
the passage here, by translating it
to lie, thus deviating from Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, and the
Geneva Version, which translate it
here, when two sleep together. The
^ in Dm, which introduces the apo
dosis after dn, is better left un
translated, in accordance with the
genius of the English language.
Dn, the third person, with ib, tbe
pronoun, is used impersonally, which
is often the case with neuter verbs
(comp. 'b ns, / am distressed, Ps.
xxxi. 10 ; 'b mn], I am happy. Job
xxxii, 20; Gesen. § 137, 2; Ewald,
§ 295, a). Dm is the future A of
Dpn, to be warm, with Tsere under
tbe preformative, like nn], from nnn,
to be bitter (Isa, xxiv. 9 ; Gesen.
.§ 67, Rem. 3 ; Ewald, § 138, b).
The interrogative, as frequently, is
used for an emphatic denial (vide
supra, i. 3).
12 And, if an enemy, &c. A third
instance, to illustrate the advantage
of union, still suggested by these
fellow-travellers. The nightly repose
alluded to in the preceding verse is
frequently disturbed in the East by
marauders (Job i. 15, with Gen. xvi.
12 ; Song of Songs iii. 8), who subsist
on plunder and rapine, and are
always on the alert for travellers.
Now, if this lonely miser were as
saulted by such a robber, he would
succumb, whereas two would success
fully resist the assailant. The same
idea is strikingly set forth by Lok-
man, in the beautiful fable about
the lion and tbe two bulls —

Un lion attaqua nn jour deux taureaux;
maia eenz-ci se r^unirent, et le frappant de

lenrs comes, ils l'emp6cMrent de p^netrer
entre eux deux ; alors il aborda I'un d'eux
et le trompa en lui promettant de ne plus
rien entreprendre centre lui, quand bien
meme il se separerait de son compagnon.
Sur cette promesse les deux taureaux s'^tant
separ^s, le Uon les mit en pieces Tun apr^s
I'autre. Cette Fable signifie,
que lorsque les habitans de deux vUles se
r^unissent k xai meme avis, leurs ennemis
font contre elles de vains efforts ; mats que,
si la discorde les dl-vlse, elles p^rissent
toutes deux. — Fables de Lokman, par
Charles Schier. Fable I.
The subject of action to fptv must be
supplied from the act, as is fre
quently the case (compare ttSinm-CN
D'nij?!, will (the husbandman) plow
with oxen? Amos vi. 12; Ewald,
§ 294, b). The suffix i in itipm is a
contraction of in_ ; by the dropping
of the feeble n arose a — u, and
thence 6 (comp, io-ri], Hos, viii. 3 ;
Ps. xxxv. 8, infra, vi. 10 ; Gesen.
§ 58, 2; Ewald, § 249, b). That
¦in^n, the one, is not the subject,
referring to the assailant, " and if
one prevail" (the Syriac, Chaldee,
Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, the Geneva
Version, the Authorised Version,
Hodgson, &c.), but is tlie object, still
describing tbe solitary miser, " if an
enemy overpower the solitary one "
(the Septuagint, Symmachus, the
Vulgate, Rashi, Luther, Coverdale,
the Bishops' Bible, De Wette, Knobel,
Ewald, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Noyes,
Heiligstedt, Stuart, &c.), is evident
from verses 8-11 ; from the term
i™,, which can only refer to the sub
ject in iBpn; ; and from the successful
two, which are manifestly contrasted
with the unsuccessful one. For the
anticipation of the noun (nriNn) by
the pronoun (i in iopn]), see verse 10.
nps, to stand, is used with na: or ',ac]b,
before, to express resistance, to with
stand (comp. Josh. X. 8 ; Pa. cxxx.
3 ; cxlvii. 1 7).
And a threefold cord, &c. This
clause is added, to set forth still more
strikingly the strength and the advan
tage of combined effort. The lonely

2U

330

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IV.

13 not easily broken. Happier a poor and wise youth than an

miser, who shrinks from having a
single individual with him, for fear
of having his advantages lessened,
is shewn that the larger the number
of associates the greater the beneflt.
The alliance of three is mentioned,
because this number was regarded
as representing unity and complete
ness. Hence tbe complete adoration
of God, both by his angels in heaven
and man on earth, consisted in tbe
invocation of a threefold " holy " on
the part of the celestial beings (Is.
vi. 3), and three annual visits to
Jerusalem, and three daily prayers
at home on the part of tbe terrestrial
worshippers (Exod. xxiii. 14; Ps.
Iv. 1 8; Dan. vi. 11). nnnna is a later
Hebrew form for nnnp, without the
preposition (comp. Ewald, § 315, c).
13. Happier a poor and wise youth,
&c. A fourth illustration, to shew
the benefits accruing from sociable-
ness, and the disadvantages arising
from a solitary and selfish life. The
full force of this comparison will be
seen moreeasily if we bea.- in mind the
esteem in which old age and youth
were respectively held in the East.
Owing to a natural feeling, as well
as to the advantages connected with
it, old age has always been held in
reverence. In ancient days, when
books were exceedingly scarce, and
instruction and knowledge were ob
tained by oral communication, the
aged, being the depositaries of the
traditions of their fathers, having had
intercourse with the wise men of pre
ceding generations, and possessing
large experience of their own, were
naturally looked upon as the guides
and teachers of tbe people. " With
the aged," we are told, " is wisdom,
and in length of days understanding"
(Job xii. 12; xv. 10). Hence God
himself, when appearing to Moses in
the bush, and commissioning him
to deliver Israel from bondage, en
joined the deliverer to " go and gather
the aged of Israel," and communicate
with them flrst (Exod. iii. 16; comp.
also ibid. xxiv. 1 ; Numb. xi. 16).

The young, on the contrary, were
taught to regard grey hairs as " a
crown of glory," to rise from their
seats when an old man entered the
room (Lev. xix. 32 ; Prov. xxiii. 22 ;
Sirach iii. 13, vi. 35, viii. 6), and to let
him occupy tbe head of tbe table at
meals (Baba-Bathra, 119; SSiner,
SHeatoortetfcuc^; @aatf(^it|, 2lt4)aolo=
gte bet |)ef>taer, s.v., Sitter; Smith,
Dictionary of the Bible, s.v., age).
Yet, notwithstanding all the privi
leges belonging to old age, a young
man though poor, if wise and social,
is to be esteemed more than tbe
hoary aged though rich, if he be a
lonely, foolish, and incorrigible miser.
This idea is beautifully illustrated
in a Midrashic legend. The coin
which Abraham bequeathed to his
posterity as a memorial, we are told,
bas engraven on one side a hoary
aged male and female, and on the
other a young man and woman, to
teach us that, on the one side, man
may be old in mind and young in
body, and, on the other, that he may
be young in mind and old in body
(vide Tansbuma on Cbayeh Sarah,
p 27 ; hamburger, Oclfl bet |)agaba,
s. v., 2lttet) ; or, as the Book of Wis
dom has it, " Honotirable age is not
that which standeth in length of
time, nor that which is measured by
number of years, but wisdom is the
grey hair unto men, and an unspotted
life is old age" (iv. 8, 9). Much in
genious speculation has been ex
pended in tbe attempts to divine
whom Coheleth meant by the old and
and young kings. From the Chaldee,
which merely refers to Abraham and
Nimrod, Jeroboam and Rehoboam,
and from the Midrash and Rashi,
who simply adduce Joseph, David,
and Zedekiah to illustrate the decla
ration before us, modern commen
tators have affirmed that Coheleth
alludes to these parties. Others,
again, have maintained, with equal
assurance, that Amaziah and Joash
(so Kaiser), or the high priest Onias
and bis nephew Joseph, who flou-

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

331

old and foolish king who does not as yet know to be
14 admonished. For a prisoner may go from prison to a
throne, whilst a king may become a beggar in his own

rished 246 - 221 , b c. are meant (Hit
zig). But these expositors might,
with equal propriety, endeavour to
fix the name of tbe solitary miser de
picted in verse 8, or try to identify
the two social individuals mentioned
in verse 9. If it be admitted that the
sacred writer exposes there an evil
feature prevalent in his days, why
not concede the same thing here?
"'5l> prop. NATUS, one bom, a child, a
boy, and also a young man (comp.
Gen. iv. 23, where it is in parallelism
with iS'N, man; Gen. xxxvii. 30, xiii
22, where Joseph, seventeen years
old, is called nb;; and 1 Kings xii. 8,
where even the friends of Rehoboam's
youth, who, according to xiv. 21, was
forty-one years old, are called D'nV.
Though the form japn (from ]ap, to be
bent down, to be low, poor) only occurs
here and in ix. 15, 16, yet its signifi
cation, poor, wretched, is firmly esta
blished by the use of other forms of
this root in tbe Old Testament (comp.
rxisyo, poverty, Deut. viii 9; |app, Isa.
xl. 20) ; by the meaning of v^'^^'O.
to make poor, in Syriac, and other
cognate languages, and by the ren
derings of the ancient versions and
modern lexicographers. Desvoeux's
rendering of it by experienced, and
Hodgson's hy feeble, are therefore to
be rejected, ijbp, king, is used tropi
cally for one possessing grandeur or
riches, as is evident from its antithesis
^apn, ^oor, and from the contrast so
minutely observed in the other terms,
viz., Jpi., old man, and nb;, young man,
Dan, wise man, and b'pa, /ooZ.
Who does not as yet know, &c,
i.e., who, though having attained to
so advanced an age, bas led such a
selfish and solitary life that he did
not gain a kind friend or companion
to counsel or admonish him. s-i;,
to know, i.e., to come to know, to
learn, as in iii, 12, nni, to shine, to
have light ; Niphal, to be enlightened,

to be instructed, or warned, to beware
(comp. infra, xii. 12 ; Ezek, xxxiii.
4, 5). The Vulg,, qui nesoit puje-
viDERE in posterum, is a loose para
phrase, li. For a prisoner may go, &,c. The
assertion made in the preceding verse
is now corroborated, by adverting to
the fact that poverty and riches may
change their owners. The history
of all nations shews that some, who
have been born in meanness and
poverty, have, by wisdom and magna
nimity, raised themselves to honour
and riches; whilst others, who have
inherited kingdoms and renown,
have, by their foolish and selfish
conduct, been reduced to dishonour
and poverty. 'a,/or, assigns a reason
for the preference given to the poor
but wise youth. The subject of nsj,
the third person singular, must be
supplied from the action or condition
described, i.q., ns; niDN D'nDin n'an
¦ijbpb, a prisoner may go from prison
to reign (vide Yer. 12). D'niDn stands
for D'niDMn, dungeon (from npN, to
bind, to put in prison), as is indicated
by the Quametz under tbe n, the
radical n in the feeble verbs m"d is
not unfrequently dropped (compare
D'nnn for D'nnMn, 2 Chron. xxii. 5
with 2 Kings viii. 28 ; nnpn for ""ibNo,
Ezek. XX. 37 ; Gesenius and Fiirst,
Lexicons, s.v. n ; Ewald, § 53, c,
§ 86, b) ; so the Sept, Sym., Syriac,
Vulg., P.asbi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra,
Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Version, tbe Auth.
Version, De Wette, Knobel, Herzfeld,
Gesenius, and most modern commen
tators. The derivation of it from
niD, to turn aside, hence revolters,
political rebels (Parkhurst, Holden),
outcasts, menials (Ewald), fugitives
(Hitzig, Stuart, &c.), are contrary
to the punctuation. The expression
out of the dungeon, is used figuratively
for hw condition, abject circumstances.
Whilst a king may become, &c.

332

COHELETH.

[chap. IV.

15 kingdom. I see all the living who walk un^er the sun,

As tbe flrst clause of this verse
began with the causative ¦¦?, to assign
a reason for the superiority ascribed
to the poor but wise youth in the
flrst part of the foregoing verse, so
this second clause also begins with
the causative 'a, to assign a reason
for the inferiority ascribed to the
rich but foolish king in the second
part of the preceding verse, nbi:, to
be born, like yivofj-ai in Greek, also
denotes to be made, to become, and is
well explained by the Cbaldee n'asriN,
Rashi Min nin piBbi nos:, nbia, Herzfeld
and Philippson, Here, again, tbe
subject of the verb is to be supplied
from the tenor of the passage, i. q.,
Sin nbia Tjbp iniabna Da, in his very king
dom a king may become a beggar.
Simple and obvious as the sense of
this clause appears, yet interpreters
greatly differ in their explanation of
it. Thus, the Chaldee ('ni'a pjm DinN
Mpbsa Mj'apn ninn: n'asriM DrnaM-n n'niabpj
for even in the days of Abraham's
reignNimrod became poorin theworld)
still refers iniabpa to the young man,
and takes US'! nbi: astheonlypartintbis
verse belonging to the foolish king,
i. e., " for during his reign (i. e., the
young man's) he (i.e., the old king)
became poor," Rashi refers it entirely
to the youth (amnn "jsn: Nin iniabna d: 'a
nnna D'nann bsN loss j'lDpni nnnmn
D'fflnn), i. e., " for he was worthy to go
from the prison to reign, since even
in his own kingdom he made himself
poor." Ibn Ezra, again, who is fol
lowed by Mendelssohn and Preston,
maintains that it is explanatory of the
preceding part of this verse, nnnn bN "['n
nbi: -^bn Minw pin d: 'a lonb nana oann ns'
'ON ]TQan 'nMS' Dins psa mn, wonder not
at the origin of this wise youth, since
this old man, who is king, was also
born poor, according to the passage,
" naked came I out from my mother's
womb" (Job i. 21); whilst Rash
bam refers the first part of this verse
to the old and foolish king, who, like
the poor and wise young man, came
out poor from bis mother's womb
(D'niDM n'3), and the clause before us

to his son born during bis reign, who
is as poor and as foolish as himself.
Desvoeux renders it, " and because
he was born poor in tbe kingdom
that became bis ;" Hodgson, Knobel,
De Wette, Heiligstedt, &c., "yet in
his own kingdom was be born poor ;"
Vaihinger, " yea even in his own
kingdom he was born poor." But all
these renderings violate the relation
ship of the two causal particles at the
beginning of the two clauses of this
verse, and destroy their connection
with the two characters referred to
in the foregoing verse. Tbe exposi
tion we defend is substantially the
same as that of Symmachus, the Vul
gate, Lutber, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Version, the Auth.
Version, Reynolds, Hengstenberg, &c.
15. I see all the living, &c. Here,
again, Coheleth transports himself
into the midst of the scene which he
depicts, in order to render tbe illus
tration more vivid and striking. So
great is tbe popularity of this social
and wise young man, that, notwith
standing bis humble origin, Coheleth
can see all the people desert the
standard of the old and foolish king,
in spite of his high birth, and fiock
to this upstart. Lutber, Coverdale,
the Bishops' Bible, Desvoeux, &c.,
connect D'abnprj with nb.;n ds, i. e.,
walking with the young man ; but
this is against tbe accents, and
against tbe article before D'a^np,
which clearly shews that it is in
apposition to D'jnn, and that D'pbnp
iiJp^n nnn is the same as iiJpiSn 'N'i in
vii, 11 ; grammatically, therefore, the
predicate can only begin with ds,
before which the substantive verb, as
usual, is omitted (so the Sept, Vulg,,
the Syriac, the Cbaldee, the Geneva
Version, the Authorised Version, and
most modern commentators). Why
Holden says that " the authorised
translation is inadmissible," I cannot
divine ; since, in English as in
Hebrew, the verb substantive is
frequently omitted, ds, with the
substantive verb implied or ex-

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

333

16 with the sociable youth who standeth up in his place ; there
is no end to all the people, to all over whom he ruleth.

pressed, is used for being on the side
of one, or belonging to his party, to
succour, to help him (comp. ^^s D'ribN,
Ood is with thee, i.e., to help thee.
Gen. xxi. 22 ; ^^p» mrjM, / shall be
with thee, ibid. xxvi. 3 ; and ervai
fxeri rmt. Matt. xii. 30). Ewald
and Heiligstedt take DS as denoting
comparison, and translate the verse,
S>ot^, i$ fai ott bie Sebenben, fo unter
bet ©onne wanbeln, in Setgtei^ mit
bem Siingling, bem 3«>eiten, bet flatt
feinet ^etrfc^en fottte, which they ex
plain, ou^ bief ©litcE iji najet
bettaiJ^tet nii^t eben ju beneiben, fobalb
man i^n nut mitten im ©ttom bet
aSeltgeftlidjte benft (ds wie ii. 16;
vii 11) roo fein Slnbenfen balb etI6=
ft^en tbitb, yet even this fortune (of
this young man who has thus raised
himself to tbe throne) will not be
envied if we examine it more closely,
and bear in mind that he is in the
stream of the world's history (ds),
where his memory will soon be extin
guished. But this explanation in
volves a most unnatural ellipsis;
besides, as Elster rightly remarks,
had tbis been the meaning of the
sacred writer, he would not have
said, " I saw all the living in com
parison with this youth," but " I
considered tbis youth in comparison
with all the living." Still more
strange is Hodgson's rendering, " I
contemplate all tbe armies which,
with the heir, are in motion under
the sun." The article in nb;n shews
that it refers to tbe young man spoken
of in ver. 1 3. That p*n denotes here
one who forms a second, i. e., one
endowed with the feelings and happy
knack of associating himself with
people, the sociable, is evident from
verses 8 and 10, where it is used in
contrast with nnM, the solitary being.
The common rendering of '3«? by
second, i. e., the man who follows the
old one, regarding it as an " expli
cative," so far from explaining, only
obscures, the text, which would be

far more inteUigible if this so-called
explicative were omitted, nps, to
stand up, in the sense of ascending
the throne, only occurs in later He
brew (comp. Dan. viii. 23, xi. 2, 3.
20). The pronoun in vnnn refers to
the old and foolish king, whom this
upstart succeeds.
1 6. There is no end, &c. A further
description of the great popularity
of this wise youth : the people that
gather around him, and whose sove
reign he becomes, are innumerable.
The phrase, b yp ]'n, there is no end to
anything, is of such frequent occur
rence, and tbe ) before the object so
clearly points out the thing described,
that we are utterly astonished how
Tremellius, De Dieu, Patrick, Rey
nolds, Henry, &c., could insert the
word " fickleness " before people, as
the object designed by the sacred
writer, especially as DSn'bab yp."^'»,
there is no end to all the people, is so
manifestly intended to correspond to
D';nn"ba, all the living, in the preced
ing verse. It is equally surprising
that Mendelssohn should explain it,
" there is no end, in tbe opinion of
all the people, to all that they have
in their own time," which is followed
by Preston, taking tbe b in DSrrba)
as denoting according to, in the
opinion of, and Dn'.:?)b to mean in
their own time, and regarding the
whole clause as describing the dis
satisfaction and imjiatience of the
people with what they have in their
own time, and constantly wishing
for new changes, as this would
require b Dsn-ba '.:'.S|i. Besides, the
second bab before n;n-niSM, as the b
shews, is still depending upon yp.""^,
and must therefore be taken in the
same sense as the first, which is also
against the artificial renderings of
Herzfeld, fein Gnbe na^m attem Solfe
ein 3ebet, bet ijnen gegenwdtttg wax,
and Philippson, fein @nbe tbat beg
SBotfe«,bagM^et«>at,auf3ebeg@eite.The pronoun nitiM, as often, merely

334

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IV.

Yet those who will live afterwards shall not rejoice in him, for
17 even this is vanity and striving after the wind. Keep thy

serves as a sign of relation, giving to
tbe suffix Dn in Dn'.:Db a relative signifi
cation, i. e., before whom, whose; and,
in such a case, is separated from the
word which it thus affects, by one or
more words (comp. d* nvi ntiM, Gen.
xiii 3 ; Gesen. § 123, 1 ; ' Ewald,
§ 331, c). njn, he was, therefore
refers to the youth. Tbe phrase
':.ab nTi, to be before any one, means
to be his leader, just as 'nriM mn, to be
behind any one, means to follow one
as being led (1 Kings xvi. 21), and as
':.Db Nai Ms;, to go out and in before
one means to command, to lead.
Numb, xxvii. 17 ; 1 Sam, xviii, 16 ;
2 Chron. i. 10 ; Mic. ii 13 ; Gesen.
Lex., s. v., niB. The Chaldee has
therefore rightly rendered it mn-i
jin'nnp na-np, whose leader he was, so
also Dathe, Holden, Knobel, De
Wette, Gesenius, Hitzig, Stuart,
Elster, Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &o.
The Vulgate, inflnitus numerus est
populi omnium, qui fuerunt ante eum;
Lutber, unb beg 55oIfg, bag bot ijm
ging, tt»at fein (gnbe, unb bef , bag i|m
nac^ ging; Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible, " as for the people tbat have
been before him, and that come after
him, they are innumerable;" are
contrary to the text.
Yet those who will live hereafter.
Having been led to shew the advan
tage of sociableness and magnanimity
over selfishness, that the former may
raise the meanest subject to royal
dignity, whilst tbe latter may redtice
to beggary even a potentate, Coheleth
recurs to his grand theme that, how
ever great the position and the re
nown which this obscure individual
may iicquire, this will not exempt
him from tbe common fate of all
men. He, too, will soon be gone,
will quit the theatre upon whose
stage bis prudence enabled him to
play so grand a part, never to be
remembered by posterity. Thus
Coheleth returns to the deplorable
fact, which is the burden of the

prologue (i. 11) and of tbe whole
book. For the adversative meaning
of Da, yet, nevertheless, see ii. 14 ; for
'2'?"i!!T^?, those that will live afterwards,
posterity, future generations, seei. 11,
and for nin, see i. 17.
17. Keep thy feet, &c. Since all
things are thus under the control of
an Omnipotent Power, so that no
exertion of ours can secure for us
lasting good, or avert the evils com
mon to all men, Coheleth submits
that the best thing we can do is to
submit to the laws of God, and serve
him acceptably upon whom we in
evitably depend. In speaking of the
worship of God, the sacred writer
refers to three things — 1. The going
to the Temple, taken up in this verse;
2. Prayer, discussed in v. 1,2; and
3. Vows, in 3-6. Like all other
terms employed in ordinary life to
describe the physical world, the
expressions way or path, foot, and
walking, have been transferred to
our moral life. Hence the way of
the Lord, i. e., the path of obedience
ordained by and leading to the
Lord, wherein the righteous walk,
thus also becoming their way (Ps. i.
6, V. 9, xviii. 21, xxv. 4, xxvii 11,
cxix. 1. 33, cxxviii. 1), which is
through Christ, who is " the way "
(John xiv. 6), and leads to happiness
(Matt vii. 14). Sinners have their
way, which runs counter to the com
mandments of God (Judg. ii 19;
Job xxii. 15; Ps. i. 1. 6, cxlvi. 9 ;
Prov. ii. 12, iv. 19, xii. 26), and leads
to misery (Prov. vii. 27 ; Matt. vii.
13). Obedience is therefore described
as " running in the way of God's
commandments" (Ps. cxix. 32); and,
as the foot is the chief instrument in
this race, its attitude and movements
are used to indicate the moral acts
of man. Speaking of his obeying
God's Word, the Psalmist says that
he was enabled to do so because " I
have refrained my feet from every evil
way" (Ps. cxix. 101) ; and the Apostle

CHAP. IV.]

COHELETH.

335

feet when thou goest to the house of God, for it is nearer to
obey than to offer the sacrifice of the disobedient, as they

Paul, in exposing the conduct of
those who dissembled, says, " When
I saw that they walked not uprightly
(with a straight foot, as the original
has it), according to the truth of the
Gospel" (Gal. ii. 14). It is therefore
evident that, by the admonition fte«p
thy feet is meant that they should be
straight, and running in the way of
God's commandments ; or, in other
words, that tbe individual should be
obedient; and that it has no reference
whatever to the ancient custom of
discalceation when entering upon
the performance of religious ordi
nances (Exod. iii. 5 ; Josh. v. 15),
as is affirmed by the Midrash
Mode, Patrick, Holden, &c. The
vowels in ^)a-i are intended to shew
that the word is singular, hence tbe
Masoretic note tells us that the Yod
is superfluous, which the Sept., Vulg.,
Syriac, Chaldee, many of Kennicott's
MSS., and some modern critics fol
low; but, like most of tbe Keris,
this emendation is unnecessary, and
has probably arisen from a desire to
make it conform to Prov. i. 15, iv. 26.
For it is nearer to obey, &G. As
regards going to the Temple, Co
heleth remarks that to keep one's feet
in the way of obedience, which pre
vents doing evil, is a much nearer
way to appear before God than the
roundabout path of sinning, and
bringing sin-offerings. The adjective
ainp., like its opposite Pin-i (comp.
Prov. xxxi. 10), is used for compari
son (comp. '3np ain;:, nearer than I,
Ruth. iii. 12). The rendering of
Aquilafltai 'iyyi^s oa-rE aK0ii6iv),the Vulg.,
St. Jerome (et appropinqua ut audias),
the Syriac (V^Vl ¦ V)\ ^O^JDO),
the Chaldee (Nbapb tjjnw anpn 'nni),
Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
the Geneva Version, the Authorised
Version, Hodgson, Rosenmiiller, De
Wette, &c., and be nearer, or draw
nigh to hear, &c,, taking ainp^ as an

inflnitive dbsol., with an imperative
signiflcation, and of Knobel, Hitzig,
Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, &c., to draw
near to hear is better than, Sec, who
not only take ainj: as an inflnitive ab
solute, but also retain its literal mean
ing, are contrary to the uniform usage
of ainjj, which never occurs a,aaninflni-
tive absol,, but is always an adjective,
or is used for comparison. Still more
objectionable is the explanation of
Rashbam (inbsn sinmb amp -p 'm 'pni
D'b'oan 'nai n:'n:n nnv, a?id Ood will be
nearer to thee to hear thy prayer than
to the bringing of a sacriflce by a
fool) and Ibn Ezra ("['lan bapb amp nni'
D'b'oan ini:n'iD nam nnMa i:Mnpn dm,
Ood is nearer to accept thy prayer, if
offered sincerely, than the sacriflce
which fools bring), which, though ad
mitting ainp. to be used for comparison,
impose too harsh an ellipsis upon
the text. Had this been the meaning
of the sacred writer, he would un
doubtedly have -written snidb ainpi
¦fjnbBn. b^p^, fool, as frequently is used
in a moral sense (vide ver. 5) for
sinner, transgressor, disobedient, thus
forming a contrast with siaifi, to obey.
As they tvlio obey know not, &c.
This clause is explanatory of tbe re
mark made in the preceding one,
shewing how it is that obedience is
tbe nearer way to God. Those that
obey can appear at once before God,
as they have not to go .and bring
a sin-offering first, for they know
not how to commit sin. Referring
D'sni' D':'M, they know not, to D'b'pa,
the disobedient, commentators have
experienced the greatest difficulty in
explaining this clause. According
to the Hagadic explanation (i:'m b'oan
nn:b ^-^^ p wncnb snv, vide Midrash in
loco), it is to be rendered, for fools
know not to distinguish evil, i. e., from
good ; hence the Chaldee, |in'n'b DinM
*ab ap ^'a ]ina n3?)pb ^'ST; the two
readings of the Sept., S'ti om eIo-Iv eiJoVs;
TOU itovUffai uaKov, and KaXov and hence
also tbe rendering of the Syriac,

336

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IV.

V. 1 who obey know not to do evil. Do not hasten on thy
mouth, and do not urge thy heart to utter words before God,
for God is in heaven and thou art upon earth, therefore let

^j >^vVn\ ^-Jij_i' V? ^i-i^,
for they know not to do or distinguish
good ,- but as s-i nfes is a well-known
phrase, which uniformly denotes (foin^
or practising evil, this Hagadic inter
pretation must be rejected. 'To escape
tbis, the Vulg. and St Jerome, who
are followed by Luther, Coverdale,
the Geneva Bible, tbe Authorised
Version, Hodgson, Desvoeux, De
Wette, &c., render it for they know not
that they do evil, or when tliey do this
evil, or what evil they do, which is
interpreted, " for they make no con
science of or do not concern them
selves about doing evil, or they under
stand not when they do it ; " but this
interpretation is quite as unwarranted
as the former, inasmuch as s-i; by
itself never signifies to concern one
self, to enquire; and as the inflnit.
niiB_3>b cannot grammatically be trans
lated that, or what they do. Still
more untenable are the explanations
of Rashi inssb sn ninis Nin» pn b'oan j'm,
the fool knows not that he does himself
injury, Rashbam, D'b'oa D'snv ?:'m 'nniB
D':niin on p bsi, D'aiio d'icsd niwsb ibbn
sn m»9b, /or these fools know not how
to do good works, therefore they do
evil, and of those mentioned by Ibn
Ezra (lisn ma sn lam's 'a o'nniM »') , they
know not to do His will, or pleasure,
who are followed by Pagninus, Mer
cer, &c,, taking sn as synonymous
with sn (Ps. cxxxix, 2. 17). Ibn
Ezra, indeed, eludes all these diflB-
culties, by supplying pn, i. e., d:'n 'a
s-i nitosb p'^ D'sni', which is followed by
the Bishops' Bible, for they know
nought but to do evil; but an omission
or ellipsis of the most important word
in the clause, which transforms good
into mZ, cannot be imagined. Neither
can the forced renderings, Ju mii)tt
ttjerben bte, bie nut Steoel ju iiben
Wi^tn,destroyedshallthey bewho know
nought but to do evil (Kaiser, Schmidt,

Nachtigal) ; benn fte betjte'^en niii^t
ttautig JU fein, for they know not how
to be sad (Hitzig and Stuart), be re
conciled with the usus loquendi or the
context. The easiest solution, there
fore, is the one suggested by Herzfeld
and Philippson, who refer D'Sni' D':'n,
they knotv not, to the subject implied
in stisSb, to obey, i. e., those that obey
commit no sin, as the subject of the
action is frequently supplied from
the act (see verses 12 and 14).
1. Do not hasten, &c. From the
caution given how to appear before
God, Coheleth passes to the mode in
which our requests should be made
known to him. Two things are to
be observed in offering up our
prayers. We are, in the first place,
not to hurry on our mouth to speak
as much and as fast as it can ; and
secondly, we are not to allow our
heart to produce its thoughts precipi
tately ; we are to exercise reverence
and godly fear in the manner, and
forethought and discretion in the
matter of our supplications; both
our words and our thoughts are to be
simple and few at a time. If those
who appear before earthly potentates
arrange their thoughts and words in
an intelligent manner and in small
compass, how much more ought we to
. do it, as we ought to remember tbe
infinite distance between the Majesty
who is enthroned in heaven, and his
subjects upon earth. Fewness of
words, in tbe presence of our supe
riors, indicates a due reverence for
their elevated position, and a modest
acknowledgment of our inferiority.
Hence the advice of Sirach, " If thou
be among great men, make not thy
self equal with them, and when aged
men are in a place, use not many
words '' (xxxii. 9), " use not much
speech in the assembly of elders, and
multiply not words in thy prayer"
(vii. 14), and the injunction in the
Talmud, ^'tosin onM 'biB man vrv Dbisb

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

337

2 thy words be few ; moreover, dreaming cometh through the
multitude of things, and foolish talk through the multitude

na-'pn 'aob, the words of a man should
always be few in the presence of Ood
(Berachoth, 61, a), based upon this
verse, which our Saviour also urged
bis disciples to observe (Matt. vi. 71.
¦jn, like the Greek t^n, is hortatory,
and is best translated do not, whilst
Mb, like the Greek ou, ovx, expresses a
direct and absolute negative (Gesen.
§ 127, 3, c ; Ewald, § 320, a), bna,
intransitive in Kal, to be afraid, to
flee in trepidation, to be in haste, is
causative in Piel (comp. Ps. ii. 5,
Ixxxiii. 6; Job xxii. 10) ; the prepo
sitions bs here, and | in vii. 2, with
which it is construed, express the
weight and constraint included in the
idea of driving or hasting one onwards
(compare Ewald, § 217, i) ; ''nar\-bN
^B"bs therefore means, tfo not cause
thy mouth to hurry or run, referring
to the rapid utterance of a multitude
of words, whilst nnp'.~bN *jabi, and do
not urge on thy heart, refers to speak
ing quickly and precipitately. The
Vulgate, ne temere quid loquaris,
Luther, fei ni^t f^nett mit beinem
SSunbe, which is followed by Cover-
dale (be not hasty with thy mouth),
the Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, and many
modern commentators, is contrary to
the causative signification of bna,
D'n^«n '.:pb, before Ood, is a well-
known formula, describing the place
where Ood is present, his sanctuary
(Exod. xvi. 9, xviii 12 ; Deut xiv.
26, XV. 20), hence the phrase nNn:
nin; '.:B"nM, to appear before the
Eternal, which describes those who
go up to the sanctuary (Exod. xxiii.
15 ; Ps. xiii. 3 ; Isa. i. 12 ; Ewald,
§ 217, I). The plural D'psp only
occurs once more in Ps. cix. 8,
D'psp WTm, let his days be few ;
generally the singular is used (comp.
D'S-i-i ¦a'S);i,few and evil. Gen. xlviii 9;
Jerem. xiii. 2 ; Neb. ii. 12 ; Ewald,
§ 296, d).
2. Moreover, dreaming, &c. Another
reason to enforce the caution given

in the preceding verse. Not only
does the reverence due to an ordinary
sovereign require of us to be simple
and brief in our thoughts and words,
when we address the King of Kings,
but the evil resulting from engaging
in too many things, or speaking too
much on any occasion, forbids us to
pursue such a line of conduct in the
presence of the Majesty of heaven.
For surely, if engaging the mind in
a variety of things brings it into a
dreamy and confused state, and if
indulging the tongue in voluble talk
engenders folly, frothy and wordy
addresses to God must be an evil.
As '3 gives an additional reason, it
must be rendered moreover. Dibn
denotes tbe series of thoughts occu
pying the mind of a sleeping person,
as well as theidle thoughts entertained
in a wakeful state, hence extrava
gances, incoherent conceits, follies,
which arise from allowing the facul
ties to dwell upon a multitude of
things at a time (vide ver. 6) ; and
the a in ain?, following a verb of
coming, may either denote coming
with something or through it. Ac
cordingly, i;;?>n aina Dibnn Na may
either be translated, moreover, a
dream cometh with a midtitude of
things, i. e., it brings with it, is
attended with, or makes its appear
ance under a confused multitude of
objects; and D'nan aina b'pa bip, tlie
voice of the fool cometh with a multi
tude of words, i. e., comes out in an
incoherent quantity of words (tbe
Chaldee, Ibn Ezra, Mendelssohn,
Gesenius, Noyes, Preston, &c,) ; or,
dreaming cometh through a multitude
of things, the voice of a fool through
a multitude of words, so the Vulg,,
Rashbam, Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, and many
modern commentators, which we
prefer, as it is more in accordance
with the scope of the passage. These
two parts of the verse are taken by

3X

338

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

3 of words. When thou vowest a vow to God, hesitate not to
pay it, for fools have no fixed will ; pay that which thou hast

the Chaldee, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra,
Reynolds, Mendelssohn, Hodgson,
Holden, Knobel, De Wette, Noyes,
Hitzig, Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger,
Hengstenberg, &c., as including a
comparison, i.e., "just as is the case
with the one, so it is (i) with the
other." But this has arisen from
ignoring the fact that two distinct
objects are mentioned in the preced
ing verse, i.e., the multiplication of
words as well as of things, the one
connected with (ne) the mouth, and
tbe other with (ab) the heart, and that
tbe two clauses in this verse refer to
those two objects respectively. Be
sides, our explanation not only leaves
to the 1 its natural meaning, but
solves the otherwise inexplicable
sixth verse. For ps, see i. 13 ;
Symmachus (awofiiiffiiTai ovEipoc S-si n-xSflot
avO|uiac) mistook it for ]is. bip, voice,
by metonymy here and ver. 5, speech,
prattling, b'pa, prop, a noun, is also
used as an adjective (comp. b'pa wn,
a foolish man, Prov. xiv. 7).
3. When thou vowest, &c. Having
spoken of the requisite state of mind
when going to the Temple, and of the
reverence and godly fear to be exer
cised in it, Coheleth now speaks of the
conduct of worshippers when out of
it. In the Temple, standing before
tbe Lord, and stimulated by the
conviction that a self-imposed sacri
fice has a special merit in the sight
of God, vows were frequently made to
do or not to do certain things, which
the worshipper sometimes refused
to perform, after leaving the scene
of religious excitement, as the sacri
fice appeared too great upon calm
reflection. Such voluntary promises
to God obtained at a very early
period of religious life, Jacob, we
are told, made a solemn vow to
devote himself to God, if the Lord
would bring him home safely (Gen.
xxviii, 20), These self-imposed
vows consist of two kinds — I, Posi
tive (ttinpn "yn), wherein things are-

consecrated for religious purposes.
1, Men, who are to be redeemed
according to certain prices fixed for
different ages and sexes ; a boy from
a month to five years, at five shekels,
a girl at three shekels ; a boy, from
flve to twenty years, at twenty shekels,
and a girl at ten; a man, from twenty
to sixty, at fifty shekels, and a wo
man at thirty shekels; a man above
sixty, fifteen shekels, and a woman
ten : if the person is poor, the value
is proportionately lessened (Levit.
xxvii. 3-8). 2. Animals, which
could only be redeemed when the
ani mal vowed was unclean, and hence
was unfit for sacrifice (ibid. 9 - 13) ;
and 3. Houses or fields, which had
also to be valued by the priest, and
could be redeemed. II. Negative
(np'N '-i.-j:), wherein one promised to
abstain from enjoying or doing a
certain thing, which was solemnly
binding upon all, except a daughter,
when still under the roof of her
father, and a wife, whose vow the
father or husband could disannul
tbe day it was made, but not later.
Though the Bible nowhere regards
vows as duties, but, on the contrary,
distinctly declares that he who makes
no vows has not neglected any duty
(Deut. xxiii. 23), yet it demands
that what has thus been voluntarily
promised should be strictly per
formed (Deut. xxiii. 22-24). ntiMS
¦inn, at the beginning of this verse,
corresponding to ^bn n«5Ma in iv. 17,
shews tbat another part of Divine
worship, different to that described
in verses 1 and 2, is here intended.
For the construction -rt^. "inn, see i. 3.
For fools have no fixed will, i. e.,
it is only fools who waver in their
determination, and do not know
their own will. The Chaldee (n'b
MjfBpa ';•! Misn), the Vulg. (displicet
enim ei infidelis et stulta promissio),
Rashi (I'Mi D'nni:n D'smna na"pn ysn ]'n
D'obffln), and Rashbam, wbo are
followed by Luther, Coverdale, the

339
Better that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou
Do not suff'er thy mouth to
richly-curled hair, who came from
the South. ' My son,' said I to him,
' what led thee to determine to
destroy such beautiful hair ?' ' I
tended my father's flock,' quoth he,
' and as I went to draw water I saw
my refiection in it, and forthwith
the evil spirit (vanity) laid hold of
me and wanted to ruin me; I ex
claimed, Miserable being ! why be
proud of a property which does not
belong to thee ? thou wilt soon
become the portion of maggots and
worms ! By the Temple, 1 will cut it
off as a sacrifice to God !' I stood
up and kissed the youth's head, and
said, ' May many in Israel be like
thee ; thou bast indeed done accord
ing to the words of the law, and
made the vow for God.'" Would
that there were many among those
that profess to follow a higher stan
dard of morality, who, if their right
eye offended them, or their right
arm, would be as ready to pluck it
out or cut it off, and cast it from
them I For the use of nitiN instead
of '3, compare 2 Sam. xii. 6, with
ver. 10, where ntiN aps and '? aps are
interchanged(Fiirst, Lex,s.v.,ni!iN, 5;
Ewald, § 336, a).
5. Do not suffer thy mouth, &c.
From the positive, Coheleth pro
ceeds to the negative vows. If an in
dividual has once made a vow to
abstain from eating certain food, or
from indulging in certain pleasures,
he is not to allow his mouth, by par
taking of these abjured things, to
cause his flesh to sin in gratifying 7
its desires. ]n:, to give, like »dCTj
in Syriac, JiSoi|«i in Greek, and dare
in Latin, also denotes to permit, to
allow, to suffer, and is construed with
tbe accus. of the object and the infin.
c. b (comp. '3tn ^iionb 'Hn: ^b, I suffered
not my mouth to sin. Job xxxi. 30 ;
Gen. XX. 6 ; Judges i. 34). N'pnb, the
Hiphil of NBn, to sin, is to cause to
sin, and is rightly rendered so by the

chap, v.] COHELETH.
4 vowed
5 shouldest vow and not pay,
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, and most
modern commentators, take yon as
the predicate of God. But had this
been the sense of the passage, the
words supplied by Rashi would un
doubtedly have been in tbe text, or
we should at least have had ispn
instead of y-on. In addition to this
grammatical difficulty, it is to be
urged that the statement, Ood has
no pleasure in fools, is too trivial,
and tamely anticipates the forcible
declaration upon this subject in
verse 5, its appropriate place. The
Sept. (oTi ovx EO-Ttv ^EKrifjLct. EV a,ppoo-iv),
St. Jerome (quia non est voluntas in
insipieritibus), Ibn Ezra (]n n'nn Mbi
Di fen ]>N 'a D'b'oan), Desvoeux, Men
delssohn, Herzfeld, Preston, Philipp-
son,.&c., have therefore rightly taken
D'b'pa as the subject to yon.
4. Better tliat thou, &c. Since
vows are not enjoined in the Word
of God, and he who makes none is
guilty of no dereliction of duty ;
and since, once made, vows are as
binding as oaths, it is the height of
delusion to suppose that God would
be pleased with a mere promise for
which he did not ask, when the
non fulfilment of it involves a viola
tion of his law. Better, far better,
not to vow at all, than to vow and
not to pay. For the injunction here,
see Deut xxiii. 21-23. The Talmud
also cautions against rash vows, and
tries to prevent their frequent occur
rence, by minutely interpreting the
law respecting them (Numb, vi.),
and by rigidly enforcing their pay
ment (comp. Tr. Nazir). Hence it
is related of Simon the Just (ibid.
iv. 6), that because vows are often
made rashly and afterwards regretted,
and the sacrifice is not given with a
willing and pure heart, he said, " I
have never in my life eaten of the
sin-offering brought by a Nazir who
became defiled, except of one brought
by a very handsome youth, with

340

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

cause thy flesh to sin, and do not say before the angel that it

Sept, Vulg,, and most modern com
mentators ; it stands for M'pnrib ; the
characteristic n of the Hiphil, though
generally retained before prepositions
in the infinit,, is sometimes dropped
by contraction (compare oninab for
Dnn:nb, Exod, xiii, 2 1 ; a'nMb for a'-iMnb,
1 Sam, ii, 33 ; niM-)b for niMnnb, sujjra,
iii, 18; Gesen. §53, 3. 7;' Ewald,
244, b) nto,_/Z«s^, like a-apl in the
New Testament, denotes the seat of
carnal appetites and lusts (comp. Gen.
vi. 3 ; Ps. Ixxviii, 39, and the ap
proximation to this sense, supra,
ii, 3). The rendering of ¦fp.ioa-nM M'lonb
by to bring punishment upon thy body
(¦fjnpa 'bs D:'n? p onanb, Chaldee, Ibn
Ezra, Mendelssohn, Hitzig, Stuart),
or thy progeny (I'aa bs psn nipD"m,
Rashi), or to cause thy flesh to be
accused of sin (Gesenius, and Fiirst,
Lexicons, s.v., Npn) are unwarranted
departures from the signiflcation of
this Hiphil,
And do not say, &o. If the mouth
has been indulged, and the vow vio
lated, the sin of prevarication is not
to be added to it, by declaring, in the
presence of tbe angel presiding over
the altar, that it was (njjiS n-i:) a mis
taken vow; erroneous vows (niwiiS 'nx)
being one of the four kinds of vows
which were not obligatory (compare
Nedarim iii,). The God of all the
inhabitants of tbe earth, is also the
Lord of the angelic hosts who people
the heavens (D'niSn Mas, 1 Kings xxii,
19; 2 Chron. xviii. 18; Ps. ciii. 21,
cxlviii. 2), and who, like the abodes
which they occupy, have been created
by the Divine fiat (Ps. xxxiii. 6;
Chagiga, 14). Like their Creator,
who is a spirit (miavfia,, John iv. 24),
the angels are spiritual beings (wvEii-
fj^ara, Acts viii. 26, with 29. 39 ; 1 Cor.
xiv. 12. 32; Heb. i 14; Rev. v. 6),
and hence are immortal (Luke xx.
36) ; their number is exceedingly
great, " thousands of thousands,"
" ten thousand times ten thousand,"
and " myriads,'' occupy the plains of
heaven (Deut xxxiii, 2 ; 2 Kings vi
16, 17; Ps, Ixviii. 17; Dan, vii 10;

Matt, xxvi. 53 ; Luke ii. 13 ; Heb.
xii. 22 ; Jude 14 ; Rev. v. 11, ix.
16), they are always ready to do
the will of their Lord (nn»n 'aNbn,
Ps. ciii. 20, 21 ; Job ii. 1 ; Heb.
i. 14), wbo manifests his power, his
acts of mercy, and bis judgments
upon this earth, through their
agency, thus forming a connecting
link between heaven and earth, by
their perpetual ascending and de
scending the ladder which Jacob saw.
Tbe angels occupy different ranks
and offices in the various depart
ments of God's government. Seven
of them, as the highest functionaries
(D'nfe, princes or archangels) of the
innumerable company, surround the
throne of God, and form the cabinet
(Ezek. ix. 2; Tobit xii. 15; Rev.
i. 4, iv. 5, V. 6, viii. 2) ; viz.,
1. Michael, the prime minister
(binan n'fn, Dan. xii. 1 ; Rev. xii. 7. 9),
the high priest of heaven, the guar
dian and protector of the Jewish
nation (Dan x. 13), called by the
Jews bMntD'n pnan (Targum, Song of
Songs viii. 9), and is regarded by
Targum Jonathan as tbe angel who
wrestled with Jacob (Gen. xxxii. 25) ;
be attends to tbe welfare of the
Jews (Zech. i. 8 - 14), rebukes Satan
for bis malignant intentions towai-ds
Joshua, the high priest (ibid. iii. 1, 2).
As the protector of the Jews, Michael
contested with the Prince of Persia
for their liberty (Dan, x. 13. 20);
secured tbe body of Moses, the chief
of the nation, fiom the grasp of
Satan (Jude 9) (a passage which
has been greatly misunderstood
by Christian commentators, not
knowing that this is recorded in
Jewish writings; compare Midrash
Petirath Moshe, p. 1 1 5, ed. Jellinek) ;
and at the head of his angels also
contends with the dragon and his
angels, who are in pursuit after the
child Jesus, " who is caught up to
heaven" (Rev. xii 7). 2. Raphael,
who presides over tbe sanitary affairs
(Tobit iii. 17, xii. 16 ; Enoch xl. 8).
" When God would cure any sick

chap, v.]

COHELETH.

341

was error : why should God be angry on account of thy idle

person," says St. Jerome, " he sends
the archangel Raphael, one of the
seven spirits before his throne, to
accomplish the cure " (Dan. viii.
comp. Am aid's Com. on Tobit, iii. 17),
and there can be but little doubt
that this is tbe angel who went
down at certain seasons to move
the waters of the pool (John v. 4), to
cure tbe impotent people. 3. Gabriel,
tbe messenger, to announce or effect
deliverance. He therefore appears
to Daniel, to explain to him the
vision of deliverance (Dan. viii. 16),
and to reveal to him the remarkable
prediction about tbe coming Deli
verer (ibid. ix. 21) ; it is Gabriel who
also appears to the praying Zacharias,
announcing himself as a presence-
angel, and predicting the birth of
the Deliverer's forerunner (Luke i.
11 - 20), and it is he who six months
later comes to the Virgin Mary, to
tell her of tbe birth of tbe Deliverer
himself (iSici. i. 26- 35). 4. Uriel,
mentioned in 2 Esd. iv. 1, v. 20 ;
Enoch xix. 1, xx. 2 ; Targum
Jonathan, Deut. xxiv. 6; Bemidbar
Rabba, c. 2 ; Pirke R. Eliezer, c. 4.
In the two places last mentioned,
these four archangels are described
as surrounding tbe throne of the
Divine Majesty — Michael at the
rigbt, Uriel at tbe left, Gabriel
before, and Raphael behind ; Pirke
R. Eliezer places Gabriel at the left
and Uriel in the front; whilst the
Book of Enoch (xl. 8, 9) gives
5. Phaniel, instead of Uriel, as one
of the four archangels who, with
6. Raouel, and 7. Sarakiel, men
tioned in XX. 4. 6, constitute the
seven archangels.
Next to tbe cabinet comes the privy-
council (D'-aiinpn niD, Ps, Ixxxix. 6 - 8 ;
1 Kings xxii. i9; Dan.iv. 14, vii. 10),
composed of four-and-twenty crowned
elders (Rev. iv. 4, &c., vii. 13, &c., viii.
3, &c., and comp. v. 8), who surround
the throne of God (Rev. xi. 16; Isa.
xxiv. 23), before whom Christ wUl con
fess those who confessed him, and deny
those who denied him (Luke xii. 8,-9).

Then comes the council, consisting
of the seventy angel-princes, the pro
vincial governors presiding over the
affairs of the seventy nations into
which the human family is divided.
Hence Targum Jerashalmi, and Tar
gum Jonathan ben Uziel's paraphrase
on Gen. xi. 7, 8, NjaMbp ^'S?i?b ;'. nnN
]pn ]a3-is:i n'n:-; ^ina ]in'N 'inip' ]'n'.'p-n
! n'-ian' ']>ti'b ib_:'n I'lsnti; Mb-n ^im-ifi'b
]'»aitu mnsi Nnnp'''ib_s ;'V N-np'n nN'bVN-i
Nsnps ]'saiii) bap ba i^Mbn, the Lord
said to the seventy presence-angels.
Come, now, and let us go down, and
there let us confound their language,
so that one may not understand the
language of the other. And the Lord
manifested himself against that city,
and with him were the seventy angels,
according ito the seventy nations (see
also Rashi and Ibn Ezra on this
passage). Hence the Septuagint's
translation of Deut. xxxii. 8, S'te
^lEfAEpitfiv 0 v^itrroi rn 'iOvn .... Eff-rna-tv
opta idvSov kut' apiQfjLOV ayyE\m Beov, when
the Most High divided the nations . . .
he set the boundaries of the nations
according to the number of the angels,
explaining this passage by Gen. xi.
So alsoTargum Jonath an, nMbs mapriNa
mnii^-iBMa ni:n 'i:an ipB: 'n N.;ppBb Nnbs
N'n 'a MniabB-iN-i-ia N^:''.:ab pffi'bi 'pnan
'a-na-i M^Mbp j'sani) ds Mns'p Nm M:iai
N'n 'ai Npi-ip 'nnnb ^inns'banNn j'nns
j's?ii»i ]'_'.:n Diapa MjaiN 'pinn' b'pN N:ni
D;nspb inron bM'T.ii);n M'nitiB:, ' when the
Most High caused the world to be in
herited by the nations who proceeded
from the sons of Noah, when he dis
tributed writing and language to the
children of men at the dispersion, at
that time the Most High descended
with the seventy angel-princes of the
nations, who appeared with him to see
the city ; and at that time he flxed the
boundaries of the nations, according
to the seventy souls of Israel that went
down into Egypt (see also Rashi and
Ibn Ezra in hco) ; and hence Sirach,
alluding to this passage, says, " For
in the division of the nations of the
whole earth, he set a presiding angel
over every people, but Israel is the

342

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

Lord's portion," xvii. 17 (comp. also
Tobit V. 6; Targum on the Song of
Songs, i. 2 ; Ibn Ezra and Gesen. on
Isa. xxiv. 2). We therefore flnd that
when Joshua advanced on Jericho,
and saw the defending angel, he im
mediately exclaimed, " Art thou ours,
or our adversary's?" (v. 13), and the
angel replied that he came as the
Prince of the Eternal's host ; it was
Michael, the defender of the Jews, and
not tbe guardian angel of the adver
sary (comp. Rashi and Kimchi, in
loco). Hence we also flnd Michael,
the prince and guardian angel of the
Jews, come to support Daniel against
the guardian angel of Persia, who is
to be overthrown by the guardian
angel ofGreece (comp.Dan.x. 13. 21;
and St. Jerome and Ibn Ezra, in
loco) ; and hence the four guardian
angels of the four monarchies wbich
Zecharias saw (comp. Zech. vi. 1-8,
the Targum, Rashi, and Ibn Ezra,
in loco).
Then comes the innumerable com
pany of presence-angels, since every
individual has a guardian angel as
well as every nation. Thus Targum
Jonathan on Gen. xxxiii. 10, says,
'.BM Mnmna 'n 'b 'pni -nSN nap n'pn ja ]':a
¦;jn'-n NaMbn,/or this reason I saw the
benignity of thy face, and it is to me
like the sight of the face of thy angel
(see also Rashi on this passage).
Christ, in speaking of the care and
tenderness we ought to manifest for
children, says that their angels do
always behold the face of my Father
which is in heaven (Matt, xviii. 10),
upon which St. Jerome remarks :
MAGNA DIGNITAS ANIMARUM, UT UNA-
QUjEQUE habeat ab ORTO NATIVITATIS
IN OUSTODIAM SUI ANGELUM DELEGA-
TUM, great is the dignity of these little
ones, for every one of them has from his
very birth an angel delegated to guard
him (Patav, de Angelis, ii, c. 6),
When St. Peter was chained in
prison, his angel released him (Acts
xii 7-11); and when he knocked
at the door, the damsel, who had
recognised his voice, and wished to
let him in, was told that it was his
angel (ibid. xii. 14, 15).

Then there are angels who preside
over all the phenomena of nature;
an angel presides over the sun (Rev.
xix. 17) ; angels guard the storm and
lightning (Ps. civ. 4 ; Heb. i. 7) ; four
angels have charge over the four
winds (Rev. vii. 1, 2) ; an angel pre
sides over the waters (Rev. xvi. 5) ;
an angel also presides over the altar
in the Temple (ibid. xiv. 18).
Wherever the presence of God is
manifested in an especial manner,
the angelic hosts attend the Divine
Majesty. Ten thousands were present
at the giving of the law (Deut xxxiii.
2; Ps. Ixviii. 17; Acts vii. 53; Gal.
iii. 19), upon them God comes
down as on chariots (Ps. xviii. 10,
Ixviii. 17), by them his throne is
borne (1 Sam. iv. 4; 2 Sam. vi 2;
Ps. xcix. 1 ; Isa. xxxvii. 16), in their
presence God meets his people, and
from among them be declares his
will (Exod. xxv. 22). Hence the
manifestation of God in any place
premises the presence of angels, and
the appearance of angels betokens
the presence of God in an especial
manner. Thus, when Jacob in a
vision saw angels at Luz, he at once
exclaimed, "It is none other but
the house of God" (Gen. xxviii.
12 - 17). It is therefore evident that,
in places where God is worshipped,
and where he manifests himself as
he does not unto the world, there
angels are present Hence the Sept.
translates fipiN o'nbN na:, xal havrtov
ayyEiioiv -^axz ffoi, in the presence of
the angels wUl I Ang praise unto Thee
(Ps, cxxxviii. 1), referring to the
service of the Temple, where God's
presence is manifested ; so also the
Vulg., in conspectu angelorumpsallam
tibi. Not only were God and the
ministering angels present at the
worship in the Temple, but, wherever
two or three met together to study
tbe Word of God, the Shecbinah
and the angels were in the midst
of them ; hence the reverential
behaviour, " because of the angels."
It is related in the Talmud that
R. Jochanan ben Zakkai, being on a
journey with R. Eliezer ben Erech,

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

343

asked for au exposition of the vision
of Ezekiel. bsn 'n31 p ]:ni' p-^ yv n'n
nnM n'ln nnn pMn bs am'i v]iosn:i nionn
niBD'M nnN ninnn bsn nnn' no ':Bn 'an lb
'aMbm i:ns na'awi naann nicsna lanin nnN
ninn bs aanN ':mi i:niM pbn nnwn, where
upon R. Jochanan ben Zakkai got
down from the ass, and wrapped him
self in the fringed garment, and sat
down on a stone under an olive tree.
And B. Eliezer said to him, Rabbi,
wherefore didst thou go down from
the ass ? And he replied, whilst thou
explainest tlie vision of the chariot,
the Shechinah is in the midst of us,
and the angels accompany us, and
shall I ride upon an ass ? (Chagiga,
14, b.) Hence, also, the much dis
puted injunction in 1 Cor. xi. 10.
The Apostle having shewn in 7 - 9
the relation of the woman to the
man, she — being subordinate to the
man, having been created for him,
and her Jo'fa being derived from the
man — is to have the mark of being
under power, i.e., a covering upon
her face, " because of the angels,"
who, as we have seen, are present at
Divine worship, and who would be
offended at the woman that haughtily
discards the badge of being under
the power of man. See also on the
presence-angel, I Tim. v. 21.
It is therefore obvious that when
Coheleth enjoins reverential and in
genuous conduct in the Temple, in
the presence of ('^«^o) the angel, he
means a celestial being, which is
rightly maintained by tbe ancients.
Their difference of opinion as to the
particular angel here intended, arose
from the fact that the angels present
in the Temple occupy different offices,
and as our text assigns no special
office to the angel in question, every
interpreter felt at liberty to choose
from the different angelic officials
any one he liked. Thus, because
an angel, being the ambassador of
God, is often put for God, the Sept,
the Syriac, and Rashbam translate
?[Mbnn ':pb, in the presence of God ;
St. Jerome's teacher took it to be
the guardian angel of the worshipper,
noting down and carrying the uttered

words unto God (comp. St. Jerome,
inlooo; Tobit xii. 12); so also Ibn
Ezra, Grotius, Le Clerc, &c. Tbe
Chaldee understands by it the evil
angel, who is in the heart of every
one, and who shall arraign us before
the bar at the great day of judgment;
Bishop Reynolds, again, thinks that
it has "some allusion to the history
of Balaam, who, when the angel
stood in the way against him, made
such an excuse as this : It was an
error, I knew not that thou stood
against me, if it displeases thee I
will go back " (Numb. xxii. 34) ;
whilst others think it means Christ,
the Angel of the Covenant, who is
in the midst of the people. It seems,
however, more probable that '^^'?P,
like many other nouns, is used col
lectively for the angels wbo attend
the Divine Majesty (so Mede and
Patrick) ; or, which is still more literal
and in accordance with the scope of
the passage, that the angel presiding
over the altar is here intended. The
opinion of Rashi, tbat '^Nbn is the
priest or messenger who comes for the
thing vowed (npns -jsainb Nan-n'b»),
which is also followed by Desvoeux,
Mendelssohn, Gesen,, Knobel, Hol
den, Hitzig, Noyes, Heiligstedt,
Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c,, is contrary to the general
usage of the word. The appeal to
the solitary passage in Malachi ii. 7
is nugatory, for there it is the predi
cate of pb, priest. Besides, if a
human messenger or priest were
meant, we should undoubtedly have
bad T[Nbnn-bN npsn-bN, do not say to
the messenger, and not '.asb, before, in
the presence of (com-p. Deut. xxvi. 3, 5,
where God and the priest are seve
rally addressed, the former by nnnM
'.3Bb, and the latter by bN nnnsi). 'As
to the etymology and form of '^J^^o,
it is from '^[Nb, to send, to depute, to
do anything, kindred with i|bri, -qb;
and '^^, having its primitive root in
tbe biliteral "p, to move, to be in
motion, and is an abstract noun,
signifying function, mission, deputa
tion, then deputy, messenger, angel.
nnb, why, is the intensitive interroga-

344

COHELETH.

[CHAP. V.

6 talk, and destroy the work of thine hands ? For it is through
the multitude of idle thoughts, and vanities, and much
7 talking ; but fear thou the Lord. If thou seest oppression
of the poor, and perverting of justice and equity in the land,

five used for dissuading or rebuking.
For bip, prattling, see verse 2. The
destruction of property (^fX ntosn) is
mentioned, not because it is in keep
ing with the threats of the Old
Testament, which primarily refer to
chastisements in the present world
(Stuart), but, because the transgi-es-
sor thinks that, by indulging in the
abjured pleasures, he will be cheered
and strengthened to prosecute his
work successfully, whereas God, by
destroying the transgressors' handi
work, defeats the very object in view.
6. For it is through the multi
tude. Sea. In concluding this para-
gi-aph about Divine worship,Coheleth
gives, in a general summary, the
source of all the mischief connected
therewith, against which he has cau
tioned. The indulgence in the things
abjured, tbe plea that the vow has
been made inadvertently, as well as
tbe wrath of God, and the punish
ment consequent thereupon ; all this
arises from being thoughtless and in
cautious in the presence of God. '?,
for, assigns a reason for what is
mentioned in the foregoing admoni
tion, the substantive verb M'n, as is
frequently tbe case, is omitted after
it. D'bam nitabn an refers to the con
fused aud vain thoughts, while D'-ia-j
nann to tbe many and unmeaning
words of the worshipper. The particle
'3, in the second clause, obtains an
adversative force by virtue of the
negative "lai ^'B"nM ^nn-nbM in the pre
ceding verse, with which it is con
nected, i. e., " do not suffer thy mouth
to cause thy flesh to sin . . but
fear God, for he punishes sin" (comp.
Gen. xlv. 8; 1 Kings xxi. 15; Gesen.
§ 155, 1, e; Ewald, § 3.54, a). This
simple construction of the text is
supported by the Sept., the Syriac,
Rashbam, and Herzfeld. The arti
ficial rendering of the Vulg., ubi

multa sunt somnta, PLUBIMJ5 SUNT
vanitates, et sermones innumehi,
where there are many dreams, there
are many vanities and innumerable
words, which is followed by Luther
(WO biele Staume finb, ba ifi Sitelfeit
unb biete SBctte), Ewald, Heiligstedt,
Hengstenberg, &e,, taking "Sti D'bam
as the predicate of niribn ana ; of Cover-
dale and the Bishops' Bible, who try
to connect it with the preceding verse
by adding words (" and why? whereas
there are many dreams and many
words, there are also divers vanities"),
the Geneva Bible, and the Autho
rised Version, making nann D'-nani the
predicate of D'bam nin"7ri' ana ''a ; of
Reynolds, Holden,Knobel,De Wette,
Noyes, Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, &c.,
" for in a multitude of dreams there
are vanities, and so in many words ;"
of Desvoeux, " for it is in the multi
tude of dreams that both vanities
and words are multiplied;" Men
delssohn and Friedlander, Se9 otten
betnen Staumeteipen, gitelfeiten unb
SBotten betle^e bte ®(;tfutc^t gegen
@Ott ni4)t; Hodgson, "since as in the
multitude of dreams, so in the mul
titude of words, there are vanities;"
and of Preston, " forin tbe multitude
of dreamy and vain matters words
also may be multiplied," deviate from
the natural signification of the copula
and the simple order of the words.
7. If thou seest oppression, &c.
Closely connected with the service
due to the Supreme Being, is the
confldence we ought to repose in his
protection and moral government.
VVhen we see those who are deputed
to maintain and defend justice wrest
ing from the people that which be
longs to them, we are not to despair,
for the power of injustice is limited;
the lawless tyrant is not absolute,
there is another magistrate above
him, who will check his violence and

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

345

be not alarmed at the matter ; for there is a superior

unjust conduct, and there are still
higher magistrates to watch even over
this superior one, to call him to
account for duties neglected. For
n:'nn, kingdom, see ii. 8. npn, to be
astonished, to be struck with fear
(comp. Ps. xlviii 6 ; Jer. iv. 9) ; the
common rendering of it by " do not
marvel," is incongruous, inasmuch as
the assurance here given, that the
power of oppressors is limited, and
their unjust acts will not escape un
punished, can only be a reason for
sufferers not to be frightened or to
despair, but does by no means suffice
to remove tbe cause for'marveling at
seeing justice perverted by the very
men who are appointed to uphold it.
For ysn, which is rightly rendered
by tbe Septuagint, vpayfjoa., Vulg., ne-
gotium, Luther, the Bishops' Bible,
the Geneva Bible, the Authorised
Version in the text, and modern com
mentators, matter or thing, see iii. 1.
The explanation of the Chaldee (n?'«
j'bM ba bs 'n Nnisn, do not wonder how
the will of Ood can tolerate it; Rashi,
nsn ombs M'a'wa Dipn bsj issn bs nonn bM,
do not wonder at the determination of
Ood when lie punishes them; and Ibn
Ezra, S'W Nbm Dipob id' yBn nn nnMnm,
do not wonder at the purpose of God in
not avenging it, which is followed by
the Authorised Version in the margin,
Reynolds, Desvoeux, and Mendels
sohn, taking y-Bn for wili, purpose, dis
pensation, and referring it to God, re
quires a harsher and more intolerable
ellipsis than the one repudiated in
verse 3.
For there is a superior, &c. This
clause has been variously interpreted.
The Chaldee renders it bs n'n.N bM DinM
Nn*ab ap j'a m^jn '.:a '-lais n'la? Moinp 'ni?j
^•rmb j'Bpn-i ]':nii| paia'^'n^n-cip 'ionp..]pi
lirriSs py\' ]3onb ^irrinnbi N;B'*na, for
the idighty^Ood (Pi'ii) from on high
(naa bsn) watclies the deeds of tbe sous
of men, whether good or evil, and
from his presence are sent forth proud
and strong men to rule over the
wicked, and are appointed masters
over them (Drrbs D'naai), taking the

first naa for the High One, the second
naa for his high habitation, and the
plural D'naa for high rulers, whom God
appoints upon earth to restrain the
deeds of tbe wicked ; so also Rashi.
The assertion of Knobel, that the
Chaldee refers D'naa to Ood, is there
fore incorrect Ibn Ezra explains it
to mean angels, who, rising one above
tbe other in rank, are all watching
the evil conduct of the wicked. For
his words, and Dr. Gill's misrepre
sentation of them, see Introduction,
p. 175. Bishop Reynolds takes naa
nn» naa bsn after the Chaldee, the
High One from above is looking down;
and the plural, D'na?, he refers to tJie
angels, after Ibn Ezra ; Bishop Patrick
explains it " the king from on high
(i. e., his throne, or seat of judgment)
observes and will punish it ; and if
he does not do it, God and bis angels
will punish both the oppressors and
the king; " taking the first naa to de
note the king, the second na: his high
throne, and the plural D'na? to signify
Ood and his angels. Dr. Gill inter
prets nniij naa bsn naa according to the
Cbaldee, and D'na? he takes to denote
the three Divine persons; Holden,
again, paraphrases the Auth. Ver.,
" for [he that is] higher than the
highest angel in heaven and most
powerful potentate in the world re-
gardeth ; so that nothing happens with
out his permission; and [there be]
higher than they, i. e., there are the
High Ones of the Holy Trinity, above
the princes of the earth and the hier
archy of heaven ; " whilst Knobel,
Elster, and Vaihinger maintain that
the flrst naa denotes the king, the
second na: the unjust magistrate, and
the plural D'na: means God. But,
apart from the objections which might
be urged against each of these inter
pretations separately, we submit —
1. That they are all alike guilty of
assigning to the same expression,
and in the same verse, three different
meanings, which is a most unjusti
fiable mode of proceeding; and, 2.
The following verse manifestly refers

2Y

346 COHELETH. [CHAP. V.
8 watching the superior, and superiors again over them ; and
the advantage for the people is, that it extendeth to all ; even

to the king as the climax of the dif
ferent dignitaries mentioned in this
verse, and it would be preposterous
to suppose that Coheleth puts an
earthly monarch above God. The
Sept. has therefore rightly rendered
it 1)4*'^°^ ETrttVflt) ii-^nXou ^VKaff-ffsl, Kal v-^i)\ol
W amoiq, superior watches over supe
rior, and superiors again over them;
so also the Vulg. (excelso excelsior est
alius, et super hos quoque eminen-
tiores sunt alii), the Syriac, Rashbam,
Luther, Herzfeld, Hitzig, &c. The
substantive verb, as in the preceding
verse, and frequently in other places,
is omitted after 'a. The preposition
P,from, in bsn, expresses the height
from which the other superior looks
down (comp. Esth. iii. 1 ; Nehem.
iii 28 ; Ewald, § 219, a). The plural ,
D'naa is used to indicate that there
are a number of other officials, so
tbat there is always one to correct
the other. Dmbs, over them, refers to
the immediate antecedent, the supe
riors just mentioned.
8. And the advantage, &o. Having
shewn in the preceding verse that
the power of the unjust magistrates
is checked by those superior officials
wbo are in authority over them,
Coheleth now shews tbat even the
monarch himself, who is above all,
and seems to be absolute in bis
power, is subject to laws ; that he is
dependent upon the industry of his
people, so tbat even be cannot com
mit violence with impunity; and
herein consists " the advantage of
the people." For ]inn;, advantage,
see i. 3. yn.M, earth or land, is used
synecdocbically for its inhabitants
(comp. Gen. ix. 19, xi. 1 ; Isa. xxvi.
18). Tbe great advantage of the
people is, that this restriction of
power and subordination are not
simply confined to the various offi
cials of state, but are to be seen in
all (N'n bsa) without exception, nas:
is a.denominative from nas, a servant,
and henc^ signifies to become a ser

vant, to be subject (nnirib) to the field.
Rashi has therefore well paraphrased
this clause ni'nb Min -pns "^bn Nin iVSMffii
baM' nn ib id' nm'O ynMn nnics DNlnniob nas:
asna nn 1Mb DMi,/or though he is a king,
yet is he subject to tlie field; if it pro
duces fruit, he has to eat, arid if not,
he must die of hunger; so also Ibn
Ezra, nas: 1:00 nbsnb j'nid "^bnn ib'BM
in'nn imn 'a lans masa rniDb, even the
king, who has no superior, is subject
to the field for his maintenance, for
he subsists thereby. The different
explanations* given of tbis verse
are almost innumerable. Without
pausing to refute tbe Vulgate (et
INSUPER UNIVERSjE TERR^ REX IM-
perat SERVIENTI, and, moreover,
there is the king who reigns over all
the land subject to him), Luther
(UeBet bag ift bet jtiinig im ganjen
Sanbe, bag getb jtt bauen, for this
is the king over the whole land, to
cultivate the field), Coverdale ("the
whole land also, with the fields and
all tbat is therein, is in subjection
and bondage unto the king"), the
Bishops' Bible (" the increase of the
earth upholdeth all things, yea, the
king himself is maintained by hus
bandry"), and Hodgson ("lo! the
earth is most bountiful of all things;
kings from the earth are supplied"),
which are loose paraphrases, and
cannot be reconciled with tbe text ;
we have to remark that tbe Syriac
]n\V) 001 VN^n ]^i\\ li^Q-")
(o^^XaiD jlajj.^ affords no
help, inasmuch as it is exactly tho
same as the Hebrew, and pass on to
examine some of the different ver
sions which have been deduced from
tbe text. Tbe Sept. translates it
xal TiEp'.a-ffEia y^g ettI <!ravrt Is-rtv, $aa-t>.Ev^
TOU apyou slpya.irfA,(vov, the advantage of
the earth is for all, tlie king of the
tilled field (bns it) ; similarly Sym., xa!
WEpiVirsia yn; etti wavTi aiJTo't lo-Ti 8xa-i\ev!
rov opyou clpyao-fyiivov, which the Geneva

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

347

9 the king is subject to the field. Whoso loveth money is

Bible, the Auth. Version, Reynolds,
Holden, &c. follow, without, however,
taking the ) in nntob as the genitive to
¦q^p, and nas: as an adjective or part.
passive belonging to nnto. The Chald,
paraphrases it NSnN ni:rtiB na-iii nnim
Nabpi Mwabn '.:a pinipn ^n'san M'n Nbia bs
nia'S n'b^ n'b ]'n' ]in'n-ip^ita ;in'nsBa an;np
Tasri'p Nbpna nbs na:b' Nabp Minin ba'pb
Tasntop nM, and the great advantage
of cultivating the land is above all,
for when the subjects of a country
revolt, and the king flees from them
into the country, if he has nothing to
eat, this very king becomes subject
to a labourer in the field. Ac
cording to Rashi, rmnN nnias naio
I'ns ibn Nin ib'BNiD ban bs Nin aimn
rniob nas: ni'nb Nin, the profit of cul
tivating the ground is above all, for
even the king is subject to the field;
according to Rashbam the meaning
is ffl'iD miD Nin DnN ':a baa ynN pn'i
bnsn iDansn'i vm jsob nnnN masb Dbiab
m«b nonN nais nvnb ib vy -jbon fiNi omn'
nas:, as for the produce of the earth,
it is for all men alike, i. e., for all
men have to till the ground to support
themselves by labour, and even the
king cultivates the ground, i. e., inas
much as he deputes his people to do it
for his sustenance, therefore he is
called a husbandman ; whilst, accord
ing to Ibn Ezra, it means nnias jmn' '3
i:oo nbsnb ]'n-j3 -[bon ''Dn Nin nan baa ynMn
in'nn i:oo 'a lans masa nniob nas:, for
the advantage of cultivating the ground
is in every respect, since even the king,
who is the greatest in rank, is depen
dent upon the field for his subsistence.
The point in which all these exposi
tors agree is, that tbis verse is a
commendation of husbandry. But,
against all these interpretations is to
be urged — 1. That they most unna
turally take yiN for yiNn nnias, for
which not a singleinstance is adduced
from the hundreds of passages where
this term occurs ; and, had this been
the meaning of the sacred writer, he
would undoubtedly have used the
regular phrase npnN nas, to till the
ground (comp. Gen. iv. 2; Prov. xii.

II), or at least npnN instead of yi^
(comp. Gen. xlvii. 19. 22, 23; Ps.
ov. 35) ; 2. That it is contrary to the
usus loquendi to connect ]inn; with
?, and render it advantage in, or above,
01 for, in such cases it is invariably
construed with bs or ]n; and 3. That
it severs this verse from the preceding
one, with which it is manifestly con
nected. The rendering of Knobel,
Gesenius (Thesaur. s. v , nas), De
Wette, Noyes, Vaihinger, &c., an
advantage to a land, in all respects,
is a king who is honoured by the land,
takes the two manifestly distinct
expressions ynN and nnto as synony
mous, makes, contrary to usage, the
b in nntob dependent upon the passive
¦I???, and violates the connection of
this verse with the preceding one,
so much so, that even Knobel is
constrained to say, ©et ©a| ge^dt
genau genommen nid[)t ^ex\)ix, fonbetn
ifi alg beilauftg eingefc^cten ju t>etta(^»
ten, this sentence, strictly speaking,
does not belong to this place, but must
be regarded as incidentally introduced
here. Ewald andElster'stranslation,
unb ein SSott^ell beg Sanbeg bei otte
bem ill ein ^iinigbet Sanbfi^aft gefetjt,
and an advantage of the land, in every
respect, is a king appointed over the
land, i. e., the worst monarchy is
better, in every respect, than anarchy,
as well as that of Hitzig and Stuart,
" an advantage of a land in all this,
is a king to a cultivated field," also
incur tbe above-named objections.
9. Whoso loveth. money, &c. Not
only are the oppressed to he consoled
by the fact that the power of the
oppressor is restricted, but be assured
that these greedy tyrants do not even
enjoy the comforts of the humble
labourer. For the sinful love of
money, which causes them to adopt
such criminal means to obtain it,
only engenders desires in them which
can never be satisfied. That this is
the doom of money-lovers experience
fully verifies, so much so, that it has
become an axiom, expressed in the
proverbs of every nation : semper

348

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

never satisfied with money, nor he who loveth riches with

AVARUS EGET, the covctous is always
in want. For parallel passages, see
Juvenal —
Interea pleno q-uum target sacculufl ore
CreBcit amor zuimmi quantum ipsa pecunia
crevlt ;
Et minus hanc optat qui non habet.
•' Besides, while thus the streams of affluence
roU,
They nurse the eternal dropsy of the soul.
For thirst of wealth still grows with wealth
increased.
And they desire it less, who have it least."
Sax. xiv. 1S8-140.
and also Od. iii, xvi. 28 ; and Ovid
Fast, i. 211. fjca prop, silver, like
apyvpicv in Greek (Matt xxv. 18. 27 ;
Mark xiv. 11), and argent in French,
is used metonymically for money in
general (Gen. xxiii. 13, xliii. 15. 21 ;
Exod. xxii. 6 ; Deut. xxiii. 20), which
in ancient times was not coined, but
consisted in bars or ingots of silver,
the value of which was ascertained
by weight (compare Gen. xxiii. 16 ;
Exod. xxii. 17; 2 Sam. xviii 12;
Strabo, iii. 155), and which does still
take place in many parts of China
and Abyssinia (comp. SBinet, Sieat
SQB6ttet6uc(), ». v. @elb ; Kitto Cyclop.
Bib. Lit. under Money). Rashis
explanation of t]pa safe;"N"b by cannot
eat money, cannot feed upon it (baN' Nb
f]Da) , which is followed by Broughton,
Mendelssohn, &c., is incompatible
with the reason assigned in the fol
lowing verse for the remark here
made, inasmuch as it is there stated
that the increase of wealth brings
with it an increase of expenditure,
and that this constant coming and
going cannot satisfy him wbo loves
to hoard up his money. anV«-'ta is
the same as the simple ank in the
previous clause, 'o, as frequently,
being used for the indefinite pronoun,
whoso (vide supra, i. 9), and is
rightly rendered so by the Vulgate
(qui), the Chaldee ('n ^n), the Syriac,
Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Luther, Coverdale,
the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
tbe Authorised Version, and most
modern commentators. The Sept.'s
translation of it by riq, interroga

tively, which is folio wed by Rambach ,
Desvoeux, Schmidt, Spohn, &c., is
against its use in such connections.
Jinn, from ripn, to hum, to sound, to
make a noise, is properly a noise, espe
cially of a multitude (1 Sam. iv. 14,
xiv. 19 ; Job xxxix. 7), hence a noisy
multitude, a great multitude, either
of people or things, a mass, riches
(Ps. xxxvii 16; Isa. Ix. 5; Jerem.
iii. 23 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 16). The
distinction which Ibn Ezra makes
between Jinn and f]pa, that the former
denotes riches, consisting in a multi
tude of garments and merchandise
(ninip6 ':'Di D'naaa jion), or, according
to others whom he quotes, in the
multitude of slaves and servants ftion
D'an D'lDniBi mnBini D'nas map), whilst
the latter denotes wealth as consisting
in metal, is too artificial. Hengsten
berg's assertion, that Jinn never sig
nifies directly riches, but always
noise, or that which is scraped together
ivith noise, tumult, cunning, and force,
is contradicted by passages cited
above. The construction of anN with
the preposition 5, has no parallel in
the Old Testament. riNiaij denotes
the prodvee of the earth (Josh. v. 12;
Isa. xxx. 23), or of an investment,
hence profit, gain, revenue (Prov. x.
16, XV. 6; Isa. xxiii. 3), and is the
accusative after sa?);, which is to be
supplied mentally from the preceding
clause, i.e., nman saip;-i<b. This inter
pretation seems to be the most simple
and consonant with the scope of the
passage, and is adopted by the Auth.
Version, Hodgson, Herzfeld, Ewald,
Heiligstedt, Philippson, Stuart, Els
ter, Vaihinger, &c. The clause, how
ever, is variously rendered ; tbe Sept.
has, xal riq hyaTTiiffEV Iv orXnAet avrov
yhvnfia ; who has loved, in its fulness,
gain ? i. e., who has fully loved gain ?
taking ]inn as a noun of quality, the
a before it as forming a periphrasis
for an adjective or adverb (vide supra,
ii. 21), and exchanging the negative
^b for the pron. ib. The Chaldee
('i:i n'b n'b n'n; jinn toiaanb D'n-j'n )n),
the Vulg, (qui amat divitias,fruotum

chap. V.J

COHELETH.

349

10 what they yield; this, too, is vanity. For when riches
increase, those that consume them increase ; what advantage,
therefore, hath the owner thereof, except the looking thereon
11 with his eyes? Sweet is the sleep of the husbandman,

non capiet ex eis), and Rashbam, who
are followed by Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
Knobel, De Wette, Noyes, Hengsten
berg, &c,, supply ib after nmai?, i. e.,
whoso loves riches, there is no profit
to him, or has no profit from them ;
Rashi and Ibn Ezra render it, and
whoso loves riches, not fruit, shall not
be satisfied (':'ni D'naaa jino yapb anN
nNian ariN' Nbi nmino), supplying anv?
after the negative particle Mb, and
making the whole clause dependent
upon sain; in the preceding clause.
Desvoeux has, who loveth numerous
company? no income shall be sufficient
for him, Hitzig, unb wex lieli eine
Siitte bie ntc&tg einbtingt, supplying
ntoM before Nb.
io. For when riches increase, &o.
One source of dissatisfaction to the
money-lover arises from the fact that
when his wealth increases bis outlay
also increases — children, relations,
friends, servants, all flock around
him to take part in its consumption;
where the carcass is, there the eagles
gather together. Pheraulas, who was
born poor, and afterwards acquired
great wealth, though the very reverse
of the mean character here described,
replied to the young Sacian, who
admired his riches and splendour,
and thought tbat this noble-minded
Persian must now be as happy as he
was wealthy, " Po you think, Sacian,
that I live with the more pleasure the
more I possess ? Do you not know,
that I neither eat, nor drink, nor
sleep, with a particle more pleasure
now than when I was poor? But,
by having this abundance, I gain
merely this, that I have to guard
more, to distribute more to others,
and to have the trouble of taking
care of more ; for a great many
domestics now demand of me their
food, their drink, and their clothes ;

some are in want of physicians ; one
comes and brings me sheep that
have been torn by wolves, or oxen
that have been killed by falling over.
a precipice, or tells me of a distemper ¦
that has fallen on the cattle;' so that
I seem to myself, in possessing abun
dance, to have more afflictions than
I had before in possessing but little.
. . . If to possess riches were as
pleasant as to obtain them, the rich
would very much exceed the poor in
happiness. But it is obligatory on
him that possesses abundance to
expend abundance, both on the gods,
on his friends, and on strangers.
Wlioever, therefore, is greatly pleased
with the possession of riches, will, be
assured, feel much annoyed at the
expenditure of them." Xenophon,
Cyropaed. viii. 3. 35-44. Bohn's
Classical Lib. To give in the transla
tion the connection of the original,
we must supply the causative particle
for before ni^a, as this verse assigns
a reason for the assertion made in
the preceding one. aim, good, i.e.,
goods, wealth (comp. aim Dmna Nbp,
he filled their houses with wealth.
Job xxii. 18; 1 Kings x. 7). For
jintoa, see ii. 21. n'bsa, the owner
thereof, is plural of power (compare
verse 12, vii. 12, viii. 8; Exod. xxi.
29; Isa. i. 3; Gesen. § 108, 2, b;
Ewald, § 178), with the meaning of
the singular, hence the i sing, in
t:'S, which refers to it. The Maso
retic reading, niNn instead of n'Nn, is
immaterial, as this may simply be
another form of the same noun, like
n'ato and niato. The words ws niN-n,
seeing it with his eyes, refer to his
seeing the increased number of de-
vourers; the Vulg., oebnit divitias
ocuLis suis, he sees the riches with
his eyes, is less appropriate.
11. Sweet is the sleep, &c. The
troubles which the light of the day

350

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

whether he eat little or much ; whilst abundance doth not

discloses to the sight of the money-
lover (v:'s niM-;) do not close with the
day, since night affords him no relief.
Sleep, which gives the weary plough
man repose, whether he lives lavishly
or frugally, is scared from the cham
ber of abundance by cares and fears.
The refreshing sleep enjoyed by those
who lead a rural life has often been
celebrated by poets, botb of ancient
and modern times. Thus Horace —
Somnus agrestium
Lenis virorum non humiles domos
Fastidit umbrosamque ripam,
Non Zephyris agitata Tempe.
" Sleep, gentle Sleep, with no disdain.
Is looking ou the roof
Low nestling of the rural swain.
Or hank emhower'd in shades.
Not Tempo's breeze-fann'd glades."
Od. iii. 1. 21-24.
iai? is well explained by Rashi, Rash
bam, Ibn Ezra, and most modfern
commentators, by npnN nai>, one who
tills the ground, husbandman (comp.
Gen. iv. 2 ; Prov. xii. 11), rural life
with the ancients being the type of
natural happiness and tranquillity.
The Septuagint's rendering of it by
SoSxo;, slave, as if the original were
nas, which some moderns have fol
lowed, is both incorrect and inappo
site. 'The phrase baN* na-in-DNi tqsq-dn,
whether he eat little or much, as Rashi
rightly remarks ("jaa banin naa '3) , shews
his contented habits, his indiffer
ence to the fact that he lives
lavishly or frugally, dn; — dn, like
DN — DN, if — if, without the i, is used
disjunctively for whether — or, like
she—E'rB, iavTs — Iovte in Greek (comp.
1 Cor. xii. 26; 2 Cor. i. 6; infra,
xi. 3, xii. 14; Gen. xxxi. 52; Josh.
xxiv. 15 ; Ewald, § 361). For the
adverbial use of na-in, see i. 16.
Whilst abundance, &c. The dis
turbed rest of the avaricious and
careworn money-lover has also been
set forth by tbe classical writers as a
melancholy contrast to the sweet re
pose of the humble labourer —
An -vigilare metu exanimen, noctesque
diesque
Formidare malos lures, iuceudia, servos,

Ne te compilent fugientes ; hoc juvat ? horum
Semper ego optarim pauperrimus esse
bonorum.
*'But, with continual watching almost dead.
House-breaking thieves; and midnight-fires
to dread.
Or the suspected slave's untiniely flight
With the dear pelf ; if this be thy delight.
Be it my fate, so Heaven in bounty please,
StiU to be poor of blessings such as these."
HoEAOE. Sat. i. 1. 76-79.
*ati, satiety, like sato (Deut. xxxiii.
23), denotes abundance of things,
riches (comp. Gen. xii. 29 ; Prov. iii.
10) ; so Rashi (d'D3: saio), Rashbam
(an p), Ibn Ezra (pnn am), Knobel,
Heiligstedt, &c. St. Jerome, how
ever, takes it to mean abundance of
food (incocto cibo in stomachi angustiis
cBstuante), the repletion of the sto
mach with various delicacies, which,
being more than be can digest, keeps
the rich man awake ; this explanation
is also suggested by Ibn Ezra (rrn' in
baNnn bN ao), and is adopted by
Reynolds, Mendelssohn, Desvoeux,
Hodgson, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Elster,
Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c., but is
incompatible with the scope of the
passage. The character here depicted
is a greedy money-lover, who is tor
mented by every item of increased
expenditure, and it is therefore not
very likely that such an one will live
so abundantly as to be kept from
Bleeping by " overloading his sto
mach." Besides, this interpretation
mars the contrast here drawn, which
is not between faring sumptuously
and living meanly, but between the
quiet repose of the labourer aud the
disturbed, the anxious nights of the
money hunter. Tha simple order of
the words in tbis clause would have
been JinJ'b n'lijsb n'm isj'n Baten-i, but to
give prominence to the antithesis,
n'ltisb saterri is placed at the beginning
of the sentence (comp. Gesen. § 145,
1 ; Ewald, § 309, a). Tbe ) in n'sisb
is not tbe dative of appurtenance,
standing for n'«jsn sato, the abundance
of the rich (the Sept, Vulg., Rashi,
Rashbam, Luther, Coverdale, De
Wette, Gesenius (Lex. s.v.,b,i,o),
Ewald (§ 292, a), Hitzig, Heiligstedt,

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

351

12 suffer the rich to sleep. There is a sore evil which I have
seen under the sun — riches hath been hoarded up by the
13 rich for the owner thereof to his hurt. For the riches
perish in some unfortunate business, and he begetteth a

Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c.), but is the dative of person,
belonging to the verb n'sn, with which
it is often construed (comp. Exod.
xxxii. 10; 2 Sam. xvi. 11; 1 Chron.
xvi. 21) The repetition of the dative
(ib) has been occasioned by tbe inter
position of i::'N, which, as Herzfeld
rightly remarks, makes n'tosb sateni a
nominative absolute. The genius of
tbe English language does not admit
of imitating the order in the Hebrew;
in German the construction can be re
tained: o'bet bet Uebetfluf ben 3?e{(|en
— et loft i^n nt^t f^lafen.
12. There is a sore evil, &c. The
corroding desire for more wealth
(ver. 9), the mortification by day in
seeing the increased drains upon it
(10), and the anxious and sleepless
nights (11) which this wicked money-
lover has to endure, are aggravated
by the fact that his iniquity is visited
upon " his children and children's
children" (Exod. xxxiv. 7), inasmuch
as he hoards up riches for his son,
for the next owner of it (i'^?^), to his
son's harm (in*7?). The tern. part.
nbin, here and in verse 15, is used
adjectively, the relative pronoun ntoN
as frequently being implied after
'n'Nn (comp. infra, vi. 1), where the
full construction is to be found.
) moid nid3>, riches kept for, tbe subject
of the verb n'tos as frequently must
be supplied from circumstance (vide
supra, iv. 1 2. 14), i. e., riches kept by
tlie rich man for, &c. (comp, nsinb 'a
Tjb-nioto,/or until this time hath it been
kept for thee, 1 Sam. ix. 24, the only
other passage where b ninto occurs,
and where, as here, the subject
(nap) is to be supplied from tbe con
nection. I'J??, its owner, i. e., the or.e
who now owns it, the heir, to whom
the suffix in insnb refers. The ren
dering of i'5??^ iiiato ntos, riches kept
by its cwner (Knobel, Ewald, De

Wette, Herzfeld, Noyes, Hitzig, Hei
ligstedt, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c.) is ungrammatical, and is
contradicted by tbe passage already
cited, where this phrase occurs. The
rare instances of a. passive participle
being followed by ), which are ad
duced in justification of this render
ing, prove nothing, for even if their
correctness be admitted, it is most
unjustifiable to create more irregu
larities because similar ones are to
be found, and especially as the regu
lar construction yields good sense.
Besides, this rendering, as well as tbe
interpretation which commentators
generally give of this passage, are
contrary to the scope of the pas
sage, inasmuch as they refer ins-ib to
n'tos, the rich man wbo hoards up
riches to his own injury, whereas the
passage speaks of two distinct per
sons, one hoarding up the riches, and
the other possessing them, and the
context describes the misery of his
progeny. The plur. D'bsa, as in verse
10, is used for the singular, hence
insn^, to his harm, with sing, suffix ;
the Sept., Vulg., Rashi, Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, and almost all mo
dern versions, render it in the singu
lar, whilst the Authorised Version,
following the Geneva Bible, wrongly
translates it " for the owners thereof
to their hurt."
13. For the' riches perish. Sec. Co
heleth now shews how those riches
have been hoarded up by tbe money-
lover, to the hurt of the owner thereof,
or heir. , Having come into the pos
session of wealth, as well as of an
unquenchable thirst for more, which
is its concomitant, he is led to specu
late, and by some important under
taking loses all. This punishment
is felt all the more bitterly, because
he begets a son in these impoverished

352

COHELETH.

[CHAP. V.

14 son when he hath nothing in his possession. As he cometh
forth from the womb of his mother, even as he cometh
naked, he returneth again, and taketh nothing from his work

circumstances, whom he must leave
in utter destitution, sn j;?sa, literally
in an employment of evil, i. e., in an
evil or unlucky business, for ];.:s, being
in the construct before sn, see i 13,
and iv. 8. The incorrect and un
happy rendering of the Vulg,, afflia-
tione pessima, bas unfortunately been
followed by the Geneva Bible in the
meaningless phrase, " evil travail,"
which the Authorised Version has
adopted. Still worse is Luther's para
phrase, benn bet 3?eic§e fcmmt um wit
gtofem Santmet, which Coverdale
and the Bishops' Bible ("for ofttimes
they perish with bis great misery and
trouble") follow. 'The pronoun in
in'^a does not refer to ja, the son (the
Chaldee, the Vulg., Luther, Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, Mendels
sohn, Herzfeld, Gesenius (Lex. s. v.
n;, i. aa), Preston, &c., but to the
father ; as is evident both from the
following verse, which continues to
describe the condition of the father,
and from the scope of the passage,
which is manifestly to set forth tbe
additional grief of the father, who
not only loses all, but begets a son
when unable to leave him anything.
Rashbam has therefore rightly ex
plained nniNn in'a j'niu ja 'nnN ja n'bini
ib'nanbi wninb i:ab jn' nn ib \vta, and
he begets a son when he has nothing
in his possession, when he has nothing
to leave him ; so also Doderlein,
Kaiser, Heinemann, Knobel, Noyes,
&c. in;a, in his hand, i. e., that which
one takes with him, which belongs to
him, hence, like penes in Latin,
denotes possession, property.
14. As he cometh, &c. The riches
wbich this greedy money-lover lost
be never recovered throughout tbe
whole of his life, so that he died and
returned to the womb of tbe common
mother earth as stripped of all he had
as when he came from his mother's
womb. Tbe innermost recess of the
earth is represented as the bosom

where tbe embryo of all things living
is generated. 'The earth receives us
at our birth, nourishes us when born,
and ever afterwards supports us, and
finally receives us into her embrace
when we are rejected by the rest of
nature, and covers us with special
tenderness (Plin. ii. 63). Hence the
Psalmist speaks both of the womb
of his mother (dn jpa) and of tbe
earth (yn.N ni'nrnn) as the place where
he was formed.
For thou hast created my reins,
Thou hast woven me in the womb of my
mother ;
I praise thee because I was wonderfully
distinguished.
Wonderful are thy works.
And my soul knoweth it ftill well ;
My substance was not hid from thee
When I was formed in the secret place.
When I was wrought in the womb of the earth.
cxxxix. 13-15.
And Job, when deprived of all things,
spake of his departure as returning to
the bosom of the earth, in as destitute a
condition as when hg came from the
bosom of his mother, using the very
words of the passage before us- —
Naked came I forth from the bosom of my
mother.
And naked I return thither. i. 21.
So also Sirach, " Great travail is
created for every man, and a heavy
yoke is upon the sons of Adam,
from the day tbat they go forth
of their mother's womb, till the day
that they return to the mother of
all things" (xl. 1). For nabb aito, to
return again; and for Nia, to come,
and '^bn, to go, in the sense of to be
born, and to die, see i. 4; Natoa is
added to ns; ntosa, for the sake of
emphasis, i;id« supra, iv. 2. ibpsa Nto
is not receive, or take away for, by,
or THiiouGH his work (the Chaldee,
Knobel, De Wette, Ewald, Stuart,
Philippson, Elster, Sec), but take or
or FROM his work (the Vulgate, Ibn
Ezra, Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Auth.

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

353

15 which he may carry away as his possession. And even this
is a sore evil, just as he cometh so must he go, and what
16 advantage hath he who laboureth for the wind? Yet he

Version, Noyes, &c.), tbe a in i'jpsa,
as Ibn Ezra rightly remarks (rT'''a
Dnbai ninaa nni:ni ina D'n Dipn ibnsa),
stands for n, i. e., is partitive, comp,
Levit, viii, 32, " that which remains
o/ the flesh and of the bread;" and
especially Dsn Ntona -rmN iNto:-;, and
they shall carry with thee a portion
OF the burden of the people (Numb.
xi. 17), and 'aaain 'n'fea n©;, my couch
shall bear a part ob- my complaints
(Job vii. 13), where the same con
struction of ? Nto: occurs. For the
form Tjb' instead of 'q'bi', see Ewald,
-§ 131, b. in;a, in his possession, as in
the preceding verse.
15. And even this is a sore evil. Sec.
Having described, in the foregoing
verse, the miserable end of this cove
tous money-lover, Coheleth submits
that, had it been nothing else, had he
lived a happy life, in the enjoyment of
all bis acquired wealth, and only been
reduced to such a condition at the
close of it, even this alone (ni'D:;)
would be a sore evil, to be obliged
to depart this life in as destitute a
condition as he came, after having
toiled for years, and used all manner
of unjust means to obtain riches,
oa, at the beginning of this verse, is
intimately connected with Da at the
beginning of the following verse as
protasis and apodosis, as is evident
from the whole scope of the passage;
Da — D3 are therefore to be rendered
even — yet. The Vulgate, Luther,
Coverdale, and the Bishops' Bible
have therefore wrongly ignored tbis
particle. For ni, this, see ii. 2, and
nbin nsn, see verse 10 of this chapter.
nns (from Dps, to bring together, to
unite, to connect), like DS (vide ii 16),
is properly a noun, signif'^'inga gather
ing, a union, a connection, and, like jsn,
is never found without the prefix )
(comp. Dnpsb, in connection with them,
i. e., corresponding to tliem, according
to their manner, like them, Ezek. i. 20;
m^nasb ni, this one in connection with,

corresponding to. like, the other, infra,
vii. 14). That nns should be here
without the b, thus forming a solitary
exception to tbe thirty-one places
with the prefix (comp. Exod. xxv.
27, xxviii, 27, xxxvii. 14, xxxviii. 18,
xxxix. 20 ; Levit, iii. 9 ; 2 Sam. xvi.
13 (twice); 1 Kings vii. 20; 1 Chron.
xxiv. 31 (twice), xxv. 8, xxvi. 12. 16 ;
Nehem. xii. 24; Coheleth vii 14;
Ezek i 20. 21, iii 8 (twice), 13; x.
19, xi 22, xl. 18, xiii. 7, xlv. 6, 7,
xlviii, 13. 18 (twice), 21), will hardly
he admitted, especially when we bear
in mind theinseparableness of the pre
fixes from certain nouns when used
as prepositions. To ]snb we add iiasa.
Hence Ibn Giat rigtitly remarks, nosb
i:oQ nonn Nbs) jsob loa nobn 'ban Na' Nb
ji'onn pja r|an Na« nnsbai masa n'ai nobn
nnN nbn nvnb 'iNn n'ni nnsb p nnbni
ina mnsaiB D'pann ]o nann loa nna:i nnsba
nbn d:':si mbn 'niB onic nip npD D'niDsbi
nnN, that nn»-ba is a separation of
nnsba, according to the analogy of
nns^n, the a being changed into a be
fore another letter with Sheva. This
is, moreover, corroborated by the
Septuagint {Hsmp yap), the Syriac
-ft ^ P 7 ^7
'¦¦"•-U ' ' ')' which, however, take
the a in npsba as the causative particle,
the Vulgate, Kimchi, Solomon ben
Melech, &c. ^a — a, as — so (comp.
Ps. cxxvii. 4 ; Joel ii. 4 ; Gesen. § 154,
3, f ; Ewald, § 360, a). Nia and '^bn,
as i»the former verse, signify fo be
born, and to die. For Jinn;, advantage,
see i, 3, ninb, for the wind, i. e., to no
purpose. The untangible and fleeting
wind is frequently used in Scripture
to represent that which bas no sub
stance, is empty, hollow, and eludes
the grasp ; hence such phrases as " to
inherit the wind" (Prov. xi. 29), " to
bring forth wind" (Isa. xxvi. 18),
" words of wind" (Job xvi. 3), &c.
16. Yet he eateth all his days, &c.
The case, however, is difi'erent ; so
far from simply dying divested of all

2Z

354

COHELETH.

[CHAP. V.

eateth all his days in darkness, and is much disturbed, and

his property, the greedy money-getter
has nothing but anxiety, trouble, and
vexation all his lifetime, both in ob
taining and keeping his wealth. For
Da, yet, see the preceding verse.
i'^n;"ba, all his days, is as usual the
accusative of time, with an adver
bial signification (vide supra, ii. 23).
-qtona, in darkness, in obseurity, either
because he avoids company for fear
of the expenses connected therewith,
or he is avoided by every one in con
sequence of his mean and niggardly
disposition, thus forming a contrast
to D';nn n:: -rjbnb, to walk before the
living, in vi. 8. 'The Chaldee has
therefore aptly paraphrased it, ba
'nininba 'ninnb-i b'ni Nnto Naitona 'nini'
D'sp, ]ie dwells in obscurity all his days,
so that he may eat his bread alone.
Ibn Ezra's explanation (-Vn Niniu Dva
ibnsi I'pDS amn psni -jiana dm '3 b3N' Nb
nb'bn Nia ns baN' Nb pnn y-apb), he does
not eat in the daytime when it is light,
but in the night, i.e., owing to his
multitudinous undertakings and work
to obtain money, he cannot eat till the
evening oomes, is too far-fetched, and
does not comport with the following
clause. StOl more objectionable is
Mendelssohn's interpretation, viz.,
the miser eats in the dark to save the
light ; or, " he consumes all his day
in gloom" (Durell, Hitzig, Stuart,
Elster, &c.), taking vp;"''?, contrary
to the usus loquendi, as the object.
As to the Septuagint's changing baN'
into baN-j, xal Iv ?i-£v9si, which is followed
by Spohn, Ewald, Heiligstedt, &c., it
is rightly rejected by the Syriap, the
Chaldee, and most modern commen
tators; and though it is iu perfect
harmony with the exegetical rules
according to which tbat version was
made, we wonder tbat critics who re
ject these rules should have adopted
this alteration of the text.
And is much disturbed. Sec. These
are the natural consequences. One
who robs the poor and perverts jus
tice, to fill his bag, will be haunted
by the sighs and cries of the sufferers,
and, however steeled the heart of the

delinquent may be, he will neverthe
less experience many a grievous and
agonising hour, Dsa is an intransi
tive verb, third person sing., signify
ing to be d'lsturbed, irritated, vexed
(comp. vii 9 ; Nehem. iii. 33), hence
the noun DSa, i. 18, vii. 9. For na-;n,
infinit. absol. used adverbially, see
i. 16. i'bn stands for ib 'bn, literally
grief is to him, i e,, he has grief; the
sufiix, which is generally the accusa
tive, is not unfrequently also used
for the dative (comp. npin innto ians,
wlwso loves him (i. e., bis son), seeks
him (i.e., for him^ correction, Prov.
xiii. 24; Job xxxi. 18, xl. 22; Isa.
xliv. 21, Ixv. 5; Gesen. § 121, 4;
Ewald, § 315, b). The Sept. (xal.
^ufjtS ttoWm xal appoia-ria xal ^oXai, and
in much vexation, and infirmity, and
wrath), the Vulgate (et in cueis
MOLTIS, ET IN jERUMNA ATQUE TRIS-
TiTiA, and in many cares, and in
misery and sorrow), and the Syriac
pOTJOnno \l^\^0,andinmuch
anger, and wrath, and in mourning,
and sickness), which are followed by
Luther (unb in gtofem ©tamen unb
Sianf Jeit unb S:tautigfeit), Coverdale,
and the Bishops' Bible (with great
carefulness, sickness, and sorrow, i. e.,
he eats in much vexation. Sec),
making this clause dependent upon
bai*' in the preceding clause, are loose
paraphrases, and have given rise to
the unwarranted alterations of tbe
verb Dsa into Dsa, the noun, and i'bm
into 'bm (Desvoeux, Spohn, Ewaldi
Heiligstedt, &c.) The Geneva Ver
sion, " he eateth in darkness with
much grief, and in his sorrow and
anger," is only guilty of altering Dsa,
tbe verb, into Dsa, the noun, whilst
the Authorised Version, " and he hath
much sorrow and wrath with his sick
ness," not only makes the same un
warranted alteration, but also changes
i'^ni into i'bna, and most unjustifiably
construes the text i'bna p^spi na-nn Dsai,
Equally arbitrary and violent are the

CHAP, v.]

COHELETH.

355

17 hath grief and vexation. Behold, that which I have seen is
good, that it is well for man to eat and to drink, and to
enjoy the good in all his labours which he laboureth under
the sun, the numbered days of his life which God hath

renderings, "and anger, sickness, and
wrath multiply," taking nann as " the
prieterite Hiphil, which agrees with
each of the singular nouns separately,
and the i final in vbni is plainly a
mistake " (Durell) ; " and what the
better for having toiled for the wind,
and for having lived all his days in
gloom and great care, in disquiet and
vexation?" (Hodgson); "in darkness
he consumes all his days, and much
anger in bia sickness and irritation,"
altering Dsa, the verb, into Dsa, the
noun, making it the accusative after
bpN', and changing i'^ni into i'^na
(Hitzig) ; or " and is much irritated,
and his infirmity is matter of indign a-
tion," taking the i in ^siji as explica
tive or intransitive (Herzfeld, Stuart,
and Philippson).
17. Behold that which I have seen.
Sec. Having shewn tbat all things
are immutably fixed (iii. 1-22), and
that the mistaken exertions made
by men to alter their destinies arise
from impure motives, and defeat
themselves (iv. 1-v. 16), Coheleth
concludes this section by again sub
mitting that there is nothing left for
man but to enjoy life tbe few years
of bis existence. n.:n, lo, behold,
calls attention to what the writer
has previously asserted upon the
same subject. Pn 'n'N-i-ntoN, what I
have seen, i. e., what 1 have found
and propounded before (ii. 24-26).
aito, is good, liolds good, namely, tbat
it is well to eat, &c. For no;, beauti
ful, good, and then well (see iii. 11).
The Septuagint's rendering of this
clause, (Joy eTSov lyai ayafov, o Eff-rl Ka\ov
x.r.ji., behold I have seen good which is
beautiful. Sec, connecting aiio with
p» 'p'Nn, and making ns;-ntoN expli
cative of aito n-toN, which is followed
by tbe Authorised Version in the
margin, Geier, Rambach, Rosenmiil
ler, &c., who appeal to nw ntoN ^is,

an evil, which is sin (Hos. xii. 9), is
inadmissible, because of the Quametz
under ':n, which shews that it must
be connected with Tysn. The same
objection is to be urged against Des
voeux, Hitzig, and Stuart, who regard
ne; ntoN simply as a resumption of
aiiQ ntoN, referring to Zech. ix. 17.
The Syriac, 1^.1 ^1""? ^)^ UcTl
behold this which I, Ooheleth, have
seen, it is good and beautiful, and the
Chaldee paraphrase, nw n'ln 'n Nini
]inb n'Stoni n*}m '.:ab Nin Nap, and be
hold that which I have seen is good, and
that which is comely for them, wbich
take ntoN as a copula, and are followed
by the loose versions of Coverdale
and the Bishops' Bible (" therefore
we think it a better and a fairer thing
for a man to eat," &c.), the Autho
rised Version iu the text, Hodgson,
&c., and whicbhave causedHoubigant
and Spohn to alter the text into
r\m aiiD, are most arbitrary and un
justifiable. The loose renderings of
the Vulgate (hoc itaque visum est
MiHi BONUM, TjT, this, therefore as
seemed good to me, that. Sec), Lutber
(®c fe^e tc^ nun baS fiit gut an baf eg
fein fei, roenn man iffet unb ttinfet),
and the Geneva Bible, " behold, then,
what [ have seen good, that it is
comely to eat," &o., cannot be recon
ciled with the text. For the phrase
aiiD nsjn, to see good, see ii. 1. The
sufiix in ibns refers to the implied
DnM ; relative pronouns are frequently
used instead of nouns, when the sub
ject is obvious from tbe context
(comp. infra, vii. 1 ; Prov. xxvii. 9 ;
Ps. xviii. 15, xliv. 3; Ewald, § 294, b).
v;n-'n; nspn, as in ii. 3, and i'»!"''| in
the preceding verse, is the accusative
of time.

356

COHELETH.

[chap. V.

18 given him ; for this is his portion ; and I have also seen,
that a man to whom God hath given riches and wealth, and
if he hath enabled him to eat thereof, and to take his portion,
19 and to rejoice in his labour, this is a gift of God. He should
remember that the days of his life are not many, that God
causeth him to work for the enjoyment of his heart.

18. And I have also seen. Sec. Tbis
verse forms an integral part of the
])receding one, intensifying its state
ment. Not only is there nothing
left for man but present enjoyment,
but even for this he is dependent
upon God. D|, alto, is dependent
upon pN 'n'Nn in the preceding verse,
and the particle p is to be supplied
after it. '"'iai nnn ni is tho apodosis
to the protasis, which begins with
iiQ'btoni. The two synonymous terras
D'paii -ntos, riches and wealth, are used
to describe great abundance, and,
being inanimate things, are followed
by i3pn, the neuter in the singular.
19. He should remember. Sec. To
urge us on to the enjoyment of the
present, the only thing left for
man, as stated in verse 17, Coheleth
submits that we ought always to
remember two things ; first, the
shortness of our life, and hence the
necessity of enjoying it whilst it
lasts. The prominence which the
sacred writer has given to the flrst
part of this hemistich (na-in tib) gave
rise to the frequently occurring at
traction ; so that 'n'-ns nav na-in ^b 'a
i';n stands for i';n 'n; na-in nV '3 nai;
(comp. ii. 24, iii. 21, and especially
xi. 8, where this attraction takes
place in a similar phrase). So also
Kasbi, Ibn Ezra (for Gill's misre
presentation of these Rabbins, see
p. 175), Mendelssohn, Herzfeld, and
Philippson. The Septuagint, not
perceiving this attraction, renders
this clause, on oh iroWa. fAVyiffBha-Erai
Tctc hfA-spaq tS? ^(wnff alrou, for he shall
not much remember the days of his
life, wbich is followed by the Vul
gate (non enim satis recordabitur
dierum vita sua), Luther (benn et
benft nicjjt biet an bag elcnbe Seben),

who, by way of explanation, bas
miserable life instead of the days of
his life, Coverdale, and the Bishops'
Bible ("for he thinketh not much
how long he shall live"), the Geneva
Bible (" surely he will not much
remember the days of his life"), the
.^uth. Version in the text, Desvoeux,
Hodgson, Knobel, Gesenius, (Lex.
under njs), Ewald, De Wette, Stuart
Elster, &c., and which is explained
" in the enjoyment of the special
gifts of God, his reflections on the
sombre part, or on the shortness of
his days, will cease to be painful and
distressing to him I" The marginal
reading of tbe Authorised Version,
" though he give not much, yet he
remembereth the days of his life," is
a literary curiosity.
That Ood causeth, Sec The second
thing we are to .remember is, that
the design of God, in assigning to
us the various pursuits of life, is
present enjoyment. '?, that, is the
conjunction following the verb of
remembering, as in the preceding
clause. Tbe rendering of it by
because, for, forasmuch (the Septua
gint, Vulgate, Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, &c.), or wlien
(Stuart, &c.), is owing to their mis
understanding of the preceding part
of the verse. n:sp is the Hiphil
participle of n:s, which is so fre
quently used in this book for to
occupy, to work; the literal meaning
of the Hiphil, therefore, is to cause
to work; the pronoun ini), him, as
frequently, is omitted, iab nnpisa, in
01 for the enjoyment of his heart, i. e.,
he assigns to him work wherein is
enjoyment of heart, or makes him
work for, or that he might have.

chap. VI.J

COHELETH.

357

enjoyment. So some interpreters
mentioned in the Michlal Jophi
pa m:sb ^':sn pDS ]iicb win D'lDnBn id'
ipDS lb ^ni: D'pbNn '3 ifflin'Di nsv bsic Nini
iab nnffl'ia noa ]':si), the Septuagint
(o &E0? 'jTEpia-iTa avrov iv Ev<ppoirvVij xapji'a?
aircv, God occupies him in the joy of
his lieart), and the more paraphrastic
Vulgate (Deus oocupbt delioiis cor
EJUS, God occupies his heart with
delights), which gave rise to Luther's
version (@ott etfteuet fein fietj),
and to the rendering of Coverdale
and the Bishops' Bible (" God filleth
his heart with gladness," taking
ocoupet in the sense of filling), De
Wette, Gesenius, Vaihinger, &c. ;
others, however, translate it, God
leaves him to sing ia the joy of heart
(rraiBi nmiBn 'tt jsnb m jinn ib ]n: 'pn

b'SDo psjb n:sn, vna ipbna nniB ni'nbi laba
D'nn Dnb pm ina nnnn nnnia ]ifflb Nim,
Easbbam, Kbster, &o,), or Ood
answers him with the joy of his heart,
i. e., bestows upon him joy, as it
were, in answer to his desire (ic'
bNimn n:B' i:":si n:B )ifflbn Nini D'nniN
inbNiB 'B3 IDpaoni, some interpreters
mentioned by Ibn Ezra, the Geneva
Bible, the Auth, Ver,, Geier, Doder
lein, Eosenmiiller, Noyes, Elster,
Hengstenberg, &c.), or, God helps
thee . in the enjoyment of heart (nasn
i:s' Dm D'nicn nN n:sN ina n'soo T3':s
innoiua ib S"Do oiponiu j':sm. ynsn nN
1:00 bi3Nb itD'bicni lb m: Nin '3, Ibn
Ezra, Mendelssohn, Preston, Hitzig,
&c,) But these renderings do not
comport with the Hiphil, nor do
they affect the argument.

SECTION III.

CHAPTEE VL 1 — VIII. 15.

Coheleth now shews that wealth is utterly unable to secure real happiness
(vi. 1-9), since the rich man can neither overrule the order of
Providence (10), nor know what will conduce to his well-being (11, 12),
And lastly, prudence, or what is generally called common sense, is
examined, and shewn to be as unsatisfactory as all the preceding
experiments. Coheleth thought that to live so as to leave a good
name {vf. 1 - 4) ; to listen to merited rebuke (5 - 9) ; not to indulge ia
a repining spirit, but to submit to God's Providence (10 - 14) ; to be
temperate in religious matters (15 - 20) ; not to pry into everybody's
opinions (21, 22), lessons of prudence, or common sense, higher wisdom,
being unattainable (28, 24) ; to submit to the powers that be, even
under oppression, believing that the mightiest tyrant will ultimately
be punished (viii. 1-9), and that, though retribution is sometimes
withheld (10), which indeed is the cause of increased wickedness (11),
yet that God will eventually administer rewards and punishments
(12, 13) ; that this would satisfy him during tbe few years of bis life.
But as this did not account for the melancholy fact that the fortunes
of the righteous and the wicked are often reversed all their lifetime, this
common-sense view of life too often proved vain (14), and Coheleth
therefore recurs to his repeated conclusion, that there is nothing left
for man but to enjoy tbe things of this life (15).

358

COHELETH.

[chap. VI,

vi. 1 There is an evil which I have seen under the sun, and it
2 weigheth hea-vily upon man. Here is a man to "whom God
hath given riches, and wealth, and abundance, so that his
soul lacketh nothing of all that it desireth, and God hath
not given him the power to eat thereof, but a stranger eateth

1. There is an evil, &c. Coheleth
now shews that wealth, too, is utter
ly unable to secure real happiness.
As a-i, like woxis in Greek, is used
botb for tbe amount of numbers,
many, much, and tropically for de
gree, much, great, hence interpreters
are divided as to the rendering of
DnNn-bs N'n na-i. Thus the Vulgate
(frequens apud homines), Eashi (nanna
nam: N'n DnM ':a), Luther (eg ifi gemetn
fcci ben SKenf^cn), Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, Hodgson,
De Wette, Noyes, Preston, &c,,
translate it, it is common, general, or
much among people, whilst Easb
bam, Ibn Ezra, Knobel, Herzfeld,
Ewald, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Philipp
son, Stuart, Elster, Hengstenberg,
&c., render it, it weighs heavily upon
man. But as the preposition bs,
upon, which expresses the pressure
or weight of a grievance (vide supra,
ii. 17), and especially as the phrase
I'bs na-i Dn»n nsn in viii. 6, denoting
undoubtedly the evil of man is great,
or weighs heavily upon him (compare
also Isa. xxiv. 20), are against the
first rendering, we must decide for
the second.
2. Here is a man. Sec. To illus
trate the inability of riches to yield
satisfaction, Coheleth refers to a
type of man — instances of which
we may daily see in abundance
among the money-men of our day —
whose schemes of emolument have
largely prospered, and who has suc
ceeded in procuring all the luxuries
that the heart can desire and tbat
wealth can command, yet God bas
not given him the capacity of en
joying these overflowing resources
of earthly good, niaa is not glory,
honour (Sept Jo'f», Vulgate, Syriac,

Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'Bible,
tbe Geneva Bible, the Authorised
Version, Desvoeux, Knobel, Gesenius
(Lex. s.v), Ewald, De Wette, Hei
ligstedt, Noyes, Elster, Vaihinger,
Hengstenberg, &c.), which is incom
patible with the verb baMb, inasmuch
as it would be preposterous to say,
he cannot eat his honour, but abun
dance (Easbbam, Hodgson, Herzfeld,
Philippson, Stuart, Fiirst, &c.), in
which sense it is frequently coupled
with ntos (compare nan;-'a to'N n'tos;. 'a
in'.a niaa, when a man becomes rich,
when the abundance of his house in
creases, Ps. xlix. 17 ; Prov. iii, 16,
viii. 18 ; Isa. x. 3, Ixvi. 1 2). Whether
we take isa'N to stand for J'n (compare
Gen. xxx. 33, xxxix, 9), construe
npn with the dative, as in Deut.
XV. 8, and translate itoD:b non la'a'w
n3Nn;-ntoN bap, nic&tg fe:^It feinet ©eele
bon otteiit wai i|n gelufiet, nothing
lacketh to his soul of all that he
desires (the Vulg., Hodgson, Noyes,
&c.), or retain the usual rendering.
he denies nothing to his soul of all
(the Septg^the Geneva Bible, the
Authorise*Version, &c.), the prepo
sition ]p does not stand for the
object of npn, but is partitive (vide
supra, iv. 8). As too: is of a common
gender, tbe verb niNn; is better
referred to it. For ispp, the neuter
pronoun singular, referring to several
nouns, see v. 18.
But a stranger. Sec The poignancy
of the grief is enhanced by the fact
that he wbo inherits bis property,
and possesses the power of enjoying
it, is not even a son, but a total
stranger. To depart this life without
issue, and to leave one's possessions
to strangers, was one of the great
est calamities that could befaU an
Eastern, When God appeared to

CHAP. VI.]

COHELETH.

359

3 it ; this is vanity, and a sore evil. Though one J)eget a
hundred children, and live many years, yea, numerous as
may be the days of his years, yet, if his soul is not satisfied

Abraham (Gen. xv. 1-5), and told
him that he was bis shield, and pro
mised to reward him greatly, the
aged patriarch at once exclaimed,
'b ^npTin, " what canst thou give
when I am going off childless, and
when tbe owner of my house is to be
Dammesek Eliezer?" No blessing
could compensate tbe absence of
children, and no sorrow was greater
to him than to leave his acquired
property to a stranger, though this
stranger was his faithful servant.
ma: to'N, a stranger, one of another
family, in contradistinction to one's
own son. The explanation of it by
foreigner, enemy, plunderer (Eeynolds,
Ewald, Heiligstedt, &c.), is contrary
to the scope of the passAge which
speaks of a man who did not lose
his wealth, but retained it through
life, and could not enjoy it. More
over, the contrast in tbe next verse
plainly shews that a childless parent
is here intended. When describing
the inability of the owner of the
property to enjoy, the sacred writer
used tbe partitive i:pp ''3Nb, eat of it,
enjoy any part of it ; but, when
speaking of the stranger who comes
into possession of the property, he
is described as 's^n', without the
partitive, enjoying it all. =•
3. Though one beget. Sec. So great,
however, is the misery of not being
able to enjoy one's property, that,
even if the case were the very reverse
of what it was stated to be in tbe
preceding verse ; if, instead of being
childless and leaving one's posses
sions to a stranger, one had been
blessed with an unusually large
number of children ; and if, instead
of departing this life, and bequeath
ing one's property at the ordinary
time allotted to man, one lived an
extraordinary number of years in
the possession of bis wealth, yet,
if he had not the power of en
joying it, an abortion is far better

than he. dn, as often, is used con
cessively, and, as is generally the
case, is followed by the imperfect
(comp. iN'ip D;ptob nbs;-DN, though his
height were to mount up to heaven.
Job XX. 6 ; Isa. i. 18 ; Ps. cxxxix. 8;
Gesen. § 155, 2, g; Ewald, § 862, b).
to'N, a man, any one, one (comp. Gen.
xiii. 16 ; Exod. xvi. 29 ; Song of
Songs viii. 7). nNO is neither here
nor elsewhere used adverbially for
a hundred times (Knobel, &c.), but
invariably signifies a hundred; the
object, as is frequently the case
with numerals, is implied, and must
be taken from tbe context. Here,
of course, with the Chaldee, Eashi,
Ibn Ezra, &c., we must supply D':a
(compare nsato nnV nn)7S, the barren
woman hath born seven, i. e., children,
1 Sam. ii. 5, and vide infra, viii. 12).
Durell's construction of to'N with
nNO, i.e., though he beget a hundred
males, is ungrammatical, as nijn
cannot stand after a noun singular.
Besides, D':a is used in such a case,
and not to'N. Though some have
had nearly as many children (comp.
2 Chron. xi. 21 ; 2 Kings x. 1), yet
it will hardly be questioned that nNO
is used as a round number for a great
many (comp. Gen. xxvi. 12 ; 2 Sam.
xxiv. 3 ; Prov. xvii. 10 ; 1 Cor. xiv.
19 ; and see infra, viii. 12). an,
much, many, is used adverbially, and
like losn (vide supra, v. 1) is joined
to substantives ^^ttraZ (comp. a-i D'pna,
lightnings much, i. e., a great many,
in great number, Deut. xxxiii. 7 ;
Ps. xyiii. 15. The 1 in ani is cumu
lative, augmenting and intensifying
the concession made in tbe first
clause, i. e., numerous as may be. Sec.
Overlooking this, many interpreters
have found it difficult to explain
this hemistich, without producing a
truism or tautology. The unhappy
rendering of the Vulg., et vixerit
MULTOa ANNOS ET PLURES DIES
jEtatis HABUERIT, and live many

360

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VI.

with^good, and even if the grave did not wait for him, I say.

years, and have many days of years,
which is followed by Luther (unb
ptte fo langeg ?e'6en, baf et btele
3at;te fttettefite), Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Auth. Version
(" and live many years, so that the
days of his years be many "), Eey
nolds, Preston, &c., or, " and live
many years, and tbe days of bis
years be multiplied " (the Geneva
Bible, De Wette, &c.), must strike
every reader, as if one could live
many years without living many
days. To avoid this awkwardness,
tbe Chaldee explains this clause,
'ni:to 'oi' jin; 'n Nin Nnija-ii Nni:pbtoai,
and if he had bem, in power and domi
nion all the days of his life, taking an
to denote a chief, leader, a great man,
which is followed by Desvoeux,
Knobel, Vaihinger, &c. But against
this is to be urged, that a-i as a
substantive, in tbe sense of chief, is
invariably followed by tbe genitive of
that over which he is the chief. Eashi
and Ibn Ezra, again, explain a-i by
plenty, abundance (ibm 'n' aiia bai jin an) ,
i. e., if he bad plenty of riches, and
all manner of good the days of bis
life. But this requires too great and
too harsh an ellipsis; and, if the
sacred writer had intended to convey
this sense, be would undoubtedly
have written ib alio ani. Gill's asser
tion, that Rashi interprets it " suffi
cient, be lives as long as is desirable,"
when Eashi's words are 'n picb am an
naiiQ bab 'n, raewoin^ plenty of all sorts
of good, is another lamentable proof
of his misrepresenting the Eabbins.
Whilst Durell, dissatisfied with all
these explanations, alters i'n;to into
in.;to (compare 1 Sam. xiv. 34), and
translntes it, " and bis sheep (here
taken for substance in general) be
great all the days of his life." 'This
requires no refutation.
And even if the grave, Sec The
augmentation, rising in scale, has
here reached its climax. Not only
would numerous years not compen
sate for the inability of enjoying one's
property, but even (Dai, see ver. 5) if

the grave were not to exist for such
a man, if he were never to die, an
untimely birth, which has had no life
at all, would be preferable to him,
though in the possession of perpetual
life, so extraordinary and great a
boon. Great difficulty has been ex
perienced in tbe exposition of this
clause. Already St, Jerome mentions
diflferent explanations of it — 1. It
means that, having been occupied
for so many years in amassingwealtb,
and having laid up so much for many
years to come, the rich man did not
think of death or burial, and hence
" has no burial " in his mind, does
not remember that he must die, and
is not prepared for it. 2. It means
that his covetous heart does not
allow him to provide a respectable
sepulchre for his remains (so also tbe
Chaldee, Patrick, Clark, Knobel,
Stuart, &c.) 3. It means that he
is assaulted aud murdered for his
wealth, and his body is cast away
without interment (so also Eashi).
4. It means that he bas no burial,
because he has not lived; having
done no good or worthy thing whereby
to perpetuate his memory among his
posterity, but having allowed his life
to pass away in silence like a beast.
This opinion St. Jerome himself
adopts. 5. According to Easbbam,
again, it means that he has lost his
money, and therefore was not buried
(so also Desvoeux, Ewald, &c.) 6.
It means that bis heirs deny him an
honourable interment for want of re
spect (Reynols, Mendelssohn, Hol
den, Elster, Philippson, &c.) 7. It
is a marginal gloss, put inadvertently
into the text (Hitzig), Passing over
the emendations of the text as un
warranted and arbitrary, we submit
that these explanations, making Co
heleth speak of interment, or of fune
ral honours, or of a monument to
perpetuate his memory, are totally at
variance with the argument before
us. 1. The object of the sacred writer
is not to contrast the ignominy of a
graveless corpse with the blessedness

CHAP. VI.J

COHELETH.

361

4 Better than he is an untimely birth ; for this cometh in
nothingness and goeth in darkness, and with darkness is its
5 memory covered ; it doth not even see, and doth not know

of a long and fi-uitful life, but to shew
tbat nothing, not even a long and
fruitful Ufe, can compensate for the
inability of enjoying one's posses
sions. He therefore puts a prosper
ous, fruitful, and long life in the
balance with tbe want of power to
enjoy overflowing riches, and flnds
the latter so miserably wanting, that
he prefers na.'oseonslifelessness to such
a long life, as the fifth verse unmis
takeably shews. 2. n-Tiap invariably
means a burial-place, a grave, a
sepulchre. Jer. xxii. 19, the only in
stance which Gesenius adduces in his
lexicon to shew that it signifies burial,
the action of burying, sepulture, forms
no exception, inasmuch as ninn nniap
naj?; is better rendered in the sepulchre
of an ass he shall be buried. Besides,
the Jews had too great a respect tor
their dead to deny a grave to one
who happened to be a miser, or to lose
his money. 3. The concessive par
ticle D3 shews, beyond doubt, that the
climax is here reached by the con
cessions. These facts are also against
those who interpret this clause as re
ferring to accidental absence of funeral
honours, or of a grave. Now, in
Scripture language, very long life is
hyperbolically described hjnot seeing
death, or the grave (comp. the phrases
nin nNn; ijb, ,«, Xiziv Stavarai, not to see
death, Ps. Ixxxix, 49; Heb. xi. 5),
and nnto n-jn Nb, not to see the grave
(Ps. xvi. 10, xlix. 10), whilst a,speedy
death is described by the grave wait
ing for one (comp. 'b D'nap, graves wait
for me. Job xvii. 1). In the face of
the last-cited passage, the sense of
ib nn;n"Nb rriiap, the grave is not waiting
for him, will at once be obvious.
'nnp», the perfect, like novi, memini,
odi, in Latin, and oTJa, fA.EiMinfiai in
Greek, is used for the present (comp.
infra, viii. 14, ix. 16; Gesen. § 126,
3; Ewald, § 135, b). "The comparison
of one in great misery with an un
timely birth also occurs in Job iii. 1 6.

4. For this cometh. Sec. The fate
of the untimely birth is preferable,
because it is a mere nothing when
born ; it is immediately and quietly
put out of sight, and nothing is
known about it. Na, to come, i. e.,
into existence, ban, nothingness, i. e.,
a mere nothing in size and form.
lj.b;, it goes, i. e., to be buried, '^i^na,
in darkness, in obscurity, as untimely
births are removed and interred
without its being known, whilst the
funerals of grown-up and aged people
are attended with much noise and
great ceremonies. Dto, when used
in connection with the departed,
denotes memory ^"Ol (comp. Deut.
ix. 14 ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 22 ; 2 Sam.
xiv. 7; Ps. Ixxii 17). That it is
here memory, and not " name," is
evident from the fact that^ being an
untimely birth, it had no name
given to it. Some indeed (the Vulg.,
the Chaldee, Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Version,
the Authorised Version, Jermin, &c.)
refer this verse to the man who has
no ability to enjoy his property, and
others (Eashbam, Eeynolds, Patrick,
Gill, Desvoeux, &c.) to both the
joyless man and the untimely birth ;
but the following verse, which con
tinues this subject, as is evident from
the expression pa, leaves it beyond
the shadow of a doubt that it refers
to the abortion, the immediate ante
cedent. (So Eashi, Ibn Ezra, Men
delssohn, Scott, Clarke, Holden,
Knobel, De Wette, Herzfeld, Ewald,
Gesenius, Preston, Noyes, Stuart,
Elster ,Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c,)
For Jermin's remarkable explana
tion of this verse, see p, 140.
5. It doth not even see. Sec. And
not having lived at all, the untimely
birth is free from all the ills and
sufi'erings of life with which the joy
less rich man is loaded, and hence it
has more rest than be. Bearing in
mind what a luxury rest is with

3 A

362

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VI.

6 the sun ; it hath more rest than he. And if he live twice a
thousand years and see no good, do not both go to the same

Orientals, how eagerly they desire
it, and how highly they prize it ;
that from this circumstance the rest
promised in the land of Canaan, as
well as in the heavenly Canaan, has
borrowed its imagery; we shall be
able to enter more fully into the
preference here given to the reposing
abortive. Of course the contrast is
between the ever-busy, careworn, and
annoyed speculator, who is living,
and active, and the untimely birth,
which is dead, and resting; for in
death both rest alike. We should
have deemed this remark superfluous
had not some interpreters mistaken
the comparison. Da denotes accession,
augmenting and intensifying what
bas already been said, setting forth
more definitely and largely the idea
commenced with the words Na bana,
i. e., it is f ot only a mere nothing in
its size and form,. but has no life as
well, being dead prior to its birth.
topto nNn, to see the sun (i. q., niM nNn
tonto nin), is an established phrase
denoting to live (comp. infra, vii. 11,
xi. 7 ; Job iii. 16 ; Ps. xlix. 20, Iviii.
9), and has its analogy in the Greek
opa <piog nsXreio (Hom. II. 2 61), iw Xafjitro;
ai^rip, hfAEpai; ayvov tpao; cuf \Evff-a-Elv (Eurip.
Hippol.), and in the Latin, luminibus
uti, diem videre (Ovid. Frist v. 4, 44)-,
as well as in our phrase to see the
light of the day, and is evidently
chosen because of ^ton in tbe pre
ceding verse, st, as frequently, is
added to nNn, to augment and inten
sify the idea (comp. 1 Sam. xii. 17,
xxiii 23, xxv. 17 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 13 ;
1 Kings XX. 7. 22 ; 2 Kings v. 7).
Tbe explanation, tiot felt any worldly
happiness, which Eeynolds, Mendels
sohn, Herzfeld, &c., give to this pas
sage, is therefore contrary to the
usage of this phrase. The compli
cated rendering of the Sept., xai oix
tyvdi avaTrave-Etc touts) vTisp rovrov, and
has not known rest to this above that,
detaches s-i; from nN-n, and connects
it with the following part of tbe

hemistich, against the accents and
the usual connection of these two
verbs. Sodoes also the traditional
paraphrase of the Chaldee, p sr Nbi
'pNn Nnbsb p.n Nnbs p jnapb to'ab apj
and he does not know between good
and evil, to choose between this world
and the world to come, wbich is fol
lowed by the Vulg. (neque cognovii
DISTANTIAM BONI ET MALT, nor does
he know the difference between good
and evil), Luther (unb Weif feine
9Ju^e roebet t>ie W6) ba), Coverdale
(" and knoweth of no rest, neither
here nor there"). Ibn Ezra, too,
separates it from the preceding verb,
and is consequently obliged to supply
the word nniNp, which is followed by
tbe Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Ver.,
the Authorised Version , &c. nm, rest,
and then good as resulting therefrom,
as is evident from bp|n i3nn aito in
verse 3, tor which the synonymous
nip rnb nn: is here used (comp. also
iv. 6). For nip, standing for nibp, see
ii. 7.
6. And if he live. Sec But after
all the concessions made in verse 8,
however extraordinarily long the life
of this rich man may be, it must
eventually terminate, and he go to
the same place as the abortion ; so
that his long life, joylessly spent,
not only placed him below the un
timely birth as long as it lasted, but
is of no advantage to him in death,
since he must share the same doom
as the abortion. ibN, if (a contrac
tion of DN, if and ib, if), which only
occurs once more in the Old Testa
ment (Esth. vii. 4) is a particle of
later Hebrew, and is frequently used
in tbe Targums, the Mishna, and
the Syriac. The subject of >^t}, he
lived, is still to'N, a man, one, men
tioned in verse 3, to whom tbe rela
tive pronoun nip refers, with which
the preceding verse concludes, fj^^
D;p5B is not many thousand (D'DbN f]bN,
Ibu Ezra), but two thousand, tbe
dual D'.psB, two times, is used adver-

CHAP. VI.]

COHELETH.

363

7 place ? All the labour of this man is for his mouth, and yet
8 the soul cannot be satisfied ; for what advantage hath the

bially, like our twice. The phrase is
a paraphrase of i'' nn'.n~Nb rrniajj,
hyperbolically expressing unusually
long life. 'The interrogative ^bn is
used for an emphatic assertion (comp.
i. 3). For Dipo, place, i. e., the grave,
sheol, as well as nrtN, the same, and
ban, both, see iii. 20.
7. AU the labour. Sec. This verse
shews how the untimely birth has
more rest than this man, inasmuch
as it states tbat his life is a protracted
scene of toil, turmoil, and dissatis
faction, ever labouring to satisfy his
soul, which cannot be satisfied,
whilst the abortion escapes all this.
D'JNn does not refer to man generally,
as most commentators take it, but
to the particular individual described
in the preceding verses, as is evident
from the context, and especially from
tbe phrase Nbpn >jb to.D:, i. q., Nb too:
saton in verse 3, which is applied to
the case in question, irrab, for his
mouth, i. e., for his enjoyment. ¦ ne,
mouth, is used metonymically for the
food and dainties put into it Lutber
strangely renders tbis clause einem
jegli^en 3Kenfi|en ill Sltteit aufgetegt
nai^ feinet 5Kaf e, to every man work
is allotted, according to his measure,
taking irrab as a particle with suffix ;
so also Holden, who however trans
lates it, all the labour of this man is
with respect to or for himself, or his
own account; but this, to say tbe
least, is an unnecessary departure
from the meaning ns, and does not
improve the sense. For Da, yet, see
ii. 14. To be consistent with his
mistranslation of tbe former clause,
Lutber renders this part of the verse,
abet bag ^etj fann m$t baton bleiben,
but his heart cannot abide by it, i. e.,
the heart cannot keep to the work
allotted to man, but runs away from
it after greater things.
8. For what advantage. Sec. To
shew more strikingly that all the ex
ertions of tbis rich man fail to satisfy
the cravings of his soul, Coheleth ap

peals to the fact that no efforts of any
man can do this ; for the wise man in
this respecthas no advantage overthe
fool, nor the poor man over the chief.
'3 assigns a reason for the assertion
made in the last clause of the pre
ceding verse. For the interrogative
nni'^nn, what advantage? for an em
phatic denial, see i. 3. p, from the
first clause, must be supplied before
sni', i. e., "iai s-ii' )p ':sb-nn, what ad
vantage has the poor man over him
who knows. Sec. D';nn n:: -.[bn, to walk
before the living, denotes one who leads
a public life, in contradistinction to
the '^tona baN, him who spends his life
in obscurity (v. 16) ; one who is a
leader, a chief, a magnate (compare
iv. 16). For D';n, the living, denoting
men, see iv. 15. The difficulty ex
perienced in tbe interpretation of this
verse bas been increased by the dis
cordant and loose naraphrases of the
ancient versions. Thus tbe Sept.
renders it on rig iripicra-Eia rS (TCffw u5rEj>
TOV a^pova ; 5(oTi o ffEvfl? oTJev tsopiyinvai
KUTEvavTi rr,q !^aing,for what advantage
is there to the wise man above the fool ?
since the poor man knows to walk be
fore life. The Vulg. has, quid habet
AMPLIUS SAPIENS A STULTO ? ET QUID
PAUPER, NISI UT PEHGAT ILLUO, UBI
EST VITA? what has the u'ise man more
than the fool ? and what the poor man
but that he go thither where life is ?
which has evidently arisen from the
Hagadic explanation given by the
Chaldee, «p)»a Np'anb n'N N-imio nn DinM
bagpp Nb-n Nto'a N-rn )':'a N;Bto']n n'n; prn
jnbN nasp'b n;:s N-ia: Nihnb n'N nni ^in'ibs
Tns ]'na'n sn:; 'nj'^'aa ';n'Nn".niNa ppsnb
]ns7 NFipaa Njpns b-yg^^i^b,for what ad
vantage has the wise man in this world
over the fool, because of the wicked
generation by which he is not accepted?
and what is this poor man to do but
to study the law of the Lord, that he
may know how he will have to walk
before the righteous in paradise ?
The Syriac translates it ^ I? ^''^4^

364

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VL

wise man over the fool ? what the poor man over him who

l-»-»^— i,/or there is an advantage to
the wise man over the fool, why ? for
the poor man knows to go to life. So
also the Vatican copy of the Sept.,
0T( 'jTEpiG-ff-Eia roo ffo^Z vitlp rov atpocva.
The Eabbins, though adhering more
to the text, also diff'er greatly in their
interpretation of this verse. Accord
ing to Eashi, it means "for what has
this wise man more than tbe fool,
and what has the poor man less than
the rich man, since he, too. knows
how to walk before the living? " 'nnNi
b'Da n'n dnibd innana ib nnv nn N-n pay
nm nnip ib j'nc n'»sn p pncn ':sb nni
D"nn bsN ynwa "[ibnb sar Nin d:, and
since it is so (i. e., the appetite is in
satiable), what more has he through
his wisdom than if he were a fool?
and what has the^oor man less than
the rich man who has no rest of mind,
since he, too, knows how to proceed in
the land by the living ? wbich is fol
lowed by Broughton, who renders the
verse, " then what bath the wise man
more than the fool? and what less
hath the poor man of knowledge, to
walk before the living ? " But as tbis
interpretation restricts Dpn to the
money-getter in the preceding verse,
and necessitates the extraordinary
ellipsis of n'lBsn ]n pncn, it cannot be
entertained. Similarly Eashbam,
" what bas the wise man more than
tbe fool? what has this poor man
less than the wise man ? since he,
too, knows how to walk before the
living." b'Dan p nni'' oanb jmn' no 'nnw
bsi nnMa Dbisa pnisi j"n Dn'aiDic Dbisa
nan ni'Na, snv ':sb no ! ban ban 'nnoN p
snv Nin 'nniB oann ]n sm: ni ':s b'nnn
D'o3nn ]o nnNa D"nn nNS) ds Dbisa "iVb
for what advantage has the wise man
above the fool in the world, wherein
they both live and maintain themselves
alike ? and therefore I said that all is
vanity. " What to the poor man,"
Sc, i. e., wherein does this poor man

begin to be less than the wise man ?
since he, too, knows how to proceed in
the tvorld, with the rest of the living^
like one of the wise; but as this
explanation also imposes similar
harsh ellipses upon the text, it must
likewise be rejected. According to
Ibn Ezra, it means, " what advan
tage is there to the wise man above
the fool ? why should the intelligent
poor man walk like the rest of the
living ?" which he explains, »pa' aa
b'Dan fflD:3 Nbon Nb iidq:i yp j'n poo D3nn
NiniD 'asn snv ':sb nn psi • ib bj' jmn' no
n::a D'b'oan -pna -[ibnb ib no j'aoi snv
D"nn, if the wise will always be look
ing after money, and his desire is as
insatiable as the desire of the fool,
what advantage has he ? And the
meaning of snv '»b nn is, the poor
man who knows and is intelligent,
why should he walk in the way of
fools like the living ? taking s-ii' as
an adjective joined to 'as, and as
synonymous with oan in tbe pre
ceding clause, which few interpreters
will follow. Equally discordant are
the versions of the Eeformers. Thus
Luther has, benn waS tic^tet ein
SESeifet me^t au$ webet ein SRatt ?
aSag untetfte:^et ftc^ bet Itnte, baf et
untet ben Sebenbigcn Witt fein ? for
what does the wise man accomplish
more than the fool ? what does the
poor man dare, that he will be
among the living ? Coverdale, " for
what hath the wise more than the
fool ? what helpeth it the poor
that he knoweth to walk before the
living ?" substantially the same tbe
Bishops' Bible, " for what bath the
wisemorethan the fool? whatbelpetb
it the poor that he knoweth to walk
with fools before tbe living?" and
tbe Geneva Version, which is fol
lowed by tbe Authorised Version,
" for what hath the wise man more
than the fool? what hath the poor
tbat knoweth how to walk before
the living ? " Neither has more
modern criticism succeeded in les
sening this divergency of opinions.
According to Bishop Patrick, it is tbe

CHAP. VI.]

COHELETH.

365

9 knoweth to walk before the living? Better, indeed, is that
which is seen by the eyes, than that which is pursued by the

language of the wretch mentioned
before, who asks, " What excellence
is there in the wise man more than
in a fool, especially if he become poor,
though he knows," &c. According
to Dr. Durell, " tbe latter part of
tbis verse is an answer to tbe question
in the former part, and ought to be
rendered, 'for what bath the wise
more than tbe fool? that which the
poor bath who knoweth to walk
before the living;' i.e., in point of
morals, the wise has no advantage
over the poor who knows and prac
tises his duty." Herzfeld, though
he also takes the answer to be con
tained in tbis verse, reduces it to a
still shorter compass, inasmuch as
he translates it, benn wai ^at bet
.Sluge Botau^ bot bem Seoten ? wai
fogat bet Itme ? (gt Berile:^et, bot
ben Sebenben ju wanbeln, what advan
tage has the wise above the fool ?
what even the poor ? He knows to
walk before the living. Desvoeux,
Spohn, Knobel, Ewald, De Wette,
Hitzig, Noyes, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Elster, Vaihinger, Hengstenberg,
&c., like the Geneva Version and
the Authorised Version, take libnb sni'
D';nn na: as descriptive of ps, i.e.,
the poor who knows to walk before
the living. But againsfcthis is to be
urged — 1. That it destroys the sym
metry of the verse, inasmuch as the
first clause is made to describe two
individuals, whilst the whole of the
second clause, only one ; 2. That tbe
object of comparison is wanted in
the second clause ; and 3. That as
Dan, the wise man, is compared with
b'pa, the fool, in the flrst clause, it is
evident that '?», the poor, in the
second clause, must also have an
opposite wherewith to be compared,
which our rendering supplies.
9. Better, indeed, is that which. Sec.
It is indeed better to make the best
of what we see and is present, than
to let our soul wander after gratifi
cations wbich might be secured, but

are looming in the future. Luther
aptly paraphrases this clause, et! iji
beffet, ba3 gegenwattige @ut ge»
itouc^en, benn na^ anbetm gebenfen,
itis betterto enjoythepresent goodthan
to think about other good, and rightly
remarks, in his commentary, ©olomO
WiU, baf wix folten ttouc^en inS
@egenn»ottigen, unb @ott bafiit banfen
unb nit^t auf anbetS benfen ; wie bet
$unb in Stefopo nail bent ©cjatten
fi^nappet, unb lief baS 81eif(|) fatten,
Solomon submits that we should enjoy
the present, thank Ood for it, and
not speculate about getting other
things ; like the dog in j^sop, which
snapped at the shadow and dropped
the meat. Substantially the same
sentiment is expressed in iv. 6.
d;:'S nNnn, the sight of the eye, i. e.,
that which is tbe object of sight,
that which we can see (infra, xi. 9;
Levit. xiii. 12 ; Deut. xxviii 34) is
before us, is present, which we possess,
and can enjoy, is well paraphrased
by the Chaldee, nn bs 'nnp^ Nn?:b ap
n'b n'Mn, it is better for a man to rejoice
over what he has, and is contrasted
with toDrijbn, the wandering of the
desire, after things at a distance ;
ever dissatisfied with what it has,
and always running after that which
it has not. ^bn, to go, to go to and
fro, to wander (comp. Exod. ix. 23 ;
Ps. Ixxiii. 9, xci. 6), is evidently
chosen because of ':|'nb in the pre
ceding verse, by way of paranomasia.
The loose paraphrase of the Vulg.,
MELIUS EST VIDERE QUOD CUPIAS,
QUAM DESIDERARE QUOD NESCIAS, it
is better to see what thou desirest than
to desire what thou knowest not, and
the explanation of Eashi, n'n aito
b3Nnn v:'S nNnob mwis niMnb nib n»3in>
ffiDW -jbinn nniB'Di, it would have been
better for him to look at his riches
with the sight of his eyes, than to eat
and drink, which goes into the body,
are irreconcileable with the text, and
weaken the sense. Coverdale's ver
sion, " the sight of the eyes is better

366

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VI,

soul; yet this, too, is vanity and striving after the wind.
10 What hath been was long ago called by name ; moreover, it
is known that he is a man, and cannot contend with Him
who is mightier than he ; what advantage then hath man ?

than that the soul should so depart
away," is unintelligible, and is rightly
rejected by tbe Bishops' version.
Yet this, too, is vanity. Sec Yet
even this enjoyment of the present,
however pleasant for the moment, is
unable to allay the cravings of the
mind, and to impart lasting happi
ness. That nj-D: refers to d;:'.s nM-ip,
that which the eyes see, i. e., the
enjoyment of the present, is evident
from ii. 1, and the following verses.
Ibn Ezra's rendering of this verse,
"better that which tbe eyes can see
than the wandering of the soul,
though it is vanity and striving after
the wind," as if Coheleth had said,
DfflD:ffi D'boan nnna ima: ']ibnniB D3nb nn
'D bs RM pb nNn:n N2o:n ib 'n Mbon Mb
ban mD:n na»noa nbs' niCNi nNn:n«), why
should a wise man's desire walk in
the way of fools, whose desire is never
satisfied ? enough for him that which
is tangible and seen with the eye,
though that which is seen and enters
into his mind is vanity, is therefore
inadmissible. 10. What hath been. Sec. Coheleth
now gives the cause why all the
efibrts of riches fail to secure solid
happiness. It is because that every
thing which has happened has been
immutably fixed beforehand, and
because the opulent is, after all,
only a frail creature, unable to con
test with the Almighty. Tbe Vulg.'s
rendering of rrnto'nn by qui futurus
EST, he who shall be, is contrary to
the signification of nn, which is
used for things and not for persons,
unwarrantably converts n.;n, the pre
terite, into the future, and is against
the usual meaning of this phrase
(comp. i. 9, iii. 16, &c). into Nnp: naa,
it was long ago called byname, i.e.,
its very nature and fate have been pre
determined. The Masorites mark
in the margin the n in fl'pnnto as

superfluous, not because " the Punc
tuators failed to discover the idea
which the writer meant to convey,"
as Stuart asserts, but because they,
for some unknown reason, deemed
the article unnecessary after ntoN, as
is evident from x. 3. For isnn, being
a contraction . of inspp, see iv. 12.
Somewhat remarkable are the inter
pretations which the Eabbins give
of this verse. According to Eashi,
the meaning is, " what he was, his
fame has long sinoe been proclaimed,
and it is now known that be was but
a man, and could not contend with
him who is stronger than he," and
he explains it, nbinai nia'irm n'niimn
naa nmba, mm Nnp: naa 'vna ib nn'no
F]bn nnsi nnn«a dib ib n3' naa nasi n'n
bav Nbi nns) isioi bN Nbi onN nwid sniai
i:no t]'pn Nin» mon INbo ds pb, "what
has been," i. e., to him, the distinction
and eminence he had in his lifetime.
" Long sinoe has his name been called,"
i. e., has been long sinoe, and is now
past, long sinoe has his name been
famous for it, but it is now vanished.
" And ii is known that be is a man,"
i. e., and not a god, and that his end
was to die, and could not contend
with the angel of death, who was
stronger than he. According to
Eashbam, it means, " he who was
mighty, whose name is proclaimed,
and it is known that he wag a
mighty man, yet he could not con
tend with him who is stronger than
he," which he explains, n'la ''n» iniN
nsisa maai alien onN Nina sni:i loia Nnp:i
mnn "^Nbn ds onbnbi pb bia' Nb nn'on
i:nn tj'pn NiniB, he who was strong, and
his name proclaimed, and it is known
that he was a distinguished and power
ful man, could not, in the hour of
death, contend with the angel of death,
who is stronger than he. Ibn Ezra,
again, who takes verses 8 and 9 as
a caution given to the poor but pru-

CHAP. VI.J

COHELETH.

367

11 Moreover, there are many things which increase vanity ;
12 and who knoweth what is good for man in life, the numbered
days of his vain life, which he spendeth as a shadow ? and
dent man, regards tbis verse as a
continuation of tbis advice, and
explains it, sni:i iniB Nnp: naa. n'niB nn
ns »e:n na'bn lapa' nnbi "[ai -ja DnN Nin«
iD'Nb 'iNn ]'Ni i:a'«' Nb» pn'i ':ibB3 n'n»
lb 'iMn ]'N p bs i:nn 'f|'pnw ds p'lo bail)
Dn::3 nm mcs'i Q'iBp3n D"nn\B nn «pab
Dn ina n'n'o, ivhat he was, his name
has long since been called, and it is
known that he is such and such a
man; and why should he (i.e., tbe
poor and wise man) seek the desire
of his heart till he be like that man,
and probably without attaining to it?
Now it does not become a wise man to
compete with one who is richer than
he, hence he ought not to seek that
whichtlieliving{i,.e.,fhenchfoo\s)seek,and act so before them to be like them.
There can bo little doubt tbat the
traditional explanation contained in
Eashi and Eashbam, has given rise
to Luther's version, Iba^ ijt eg, tbenn
einet gleii^ 5o(^ betii^mt ift, fo weif
man boi^, baf et ein 5Kenfc^ iji, unb
fann nitjit Ijabetn ntit bem, bag it>m
JU matlltig iji, which, as usual, is
followed by Coverdale, " what is
more excellent than man ? yet can
he not, in the law, get the victory
over him that is mightier than he."
Hodgson's translation, "what is that
in the creation most mighty ? Let
its name be mentioned. Confessedly
it is man. Yet how unable is he to
contend with the power that is above
him," competes with any of the
Eabbinic expositions.
1 1 . Moreover, there are many things.
Sec. Anotherreason why all tbe labour
and accumulated riches of man fail
to satisfy his soul (as stated in ver. 7)
is, that there are so many things
which are got to yield comfort, but
which from their nature only increase
the void in his heart, and his disap
pointment. ¦¦? as frequently intro
duces an additional reason for the
assertion made in verse 7, and must
therefore be translated moreover (vide

V. 2). For D'nan, things, see i.
8. 10. DnMb nni'-np, what advantage
hath man ? as will be shewn in the
following verse, belongs to the end of
the preceding verse. For the inter
rogative used as an emphatic denial,
vide supra, i. 3. The Vulgate renders
this verse, verba sunt plueima mul
tamque IN DISPUTANDO HABENIIA VA
NITATEM, there are many words, and
they have much vanity in disputing,
taking D'na-7 to denote arguments, or
murmurings against God, Hence the
rendering of Coverdale, " a vain thing
is it to cast out many words, but
what hath a man else ? " the explana
tion of Jermin, Spohn, and others,
" for many words increase vanity, i.e.,
if man were to murmur or complain
before God about his lot, he would
only contract greater misery;" and the
interpretation of Desvoeux,"for there
are many arguments to shew the
multitude of vanities, i. e., that pre
vail on this earth ; " Ewald and
Elster, again, will have it that " the
many words" refer to the scholastic
philosophy which was then current
among the Jews to propound the
summum bonum; whilst Hitzig and
Stuart maintain tbat it means " truly
there are many words increasing
vanity, i.e., however, I will say no
more, sinoe much speaking has al
ready, been condemned, see v. 6."
But, apart from tbe violation which
these interpretations do to the text,
the rendering of nann D'aa^j, by many
words, is contrary to the scope of the
passage, which manifestly speaks of
the insufficiency of the many things
tending to increase or diminish hap
piness, but of which man is igno
rant, as is evident from the next
verse. 13. And who knoweth. Sec. The
shortsightedness and ignorance of
man render him utterly incapable of
knowing what things will yield him
comfort during the few years of his

368

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VII.

who can tell man what shall be after him under the sun ?
vii. 1 A good name is better than sweet perfume, and the day of

earthly existence; so tbat the very
objects which he toils to acquire in
order to make him happy, may turn
out to belong to the " many things
which increase vanity." The shadow,
playing so important a part in the
comforts of Oriental life, owing to the
refreshing coolness and shelter which
it affords in scorching climates, be
came, in consequence of its transient
and fugitive nature, an appropriate
metaphor of the fleeting life of man.
Hence we frequently find the days
of man's existence upon earth so
rapidly over and gone, compared with
the shadow which hurries over tbe
fields, flies away, and disappears.
Thus David, speaking of human life,
says, " our days upon earth are like
a shadow" (1 Chron. xxix. 15), " his
days are like the passing shadow"
(Ps. cxliv. 4) ; and Job, " our days
upon earth are a shadow' (viii. 9),
" he flies like a shadow, and doth not
abide (xiv. 2). See also infra, viii.
13. '3 here, being oontinuative of '3
in the former verse, must be rendered
and. Tbis is frequently the meaning
of this causal particle when it is re
peated (comp. n'iB 'a Nin D'ribN '3, for
he is a god, and is meditating, 1 Kings
xviii. 27 ; nis ]'m-'3 nainp ms-'3, for
trouble is nigh, and there is no help,
Ps. xxii. 12, so also yap . . . yip.
Matt vi. 32, xviii 10, 11, xxiv. 27.
28 ; Gesenius and Fiirst, Lex. s. u., '3) .
For the phrase sni' 'n, who knows ?
i.e., nobody knows, see iii. 2. The
close connection of this clause with
thflformer part of tbe preceding verse,
leaves no doubt upon my mind that
the words DnMb nni'-np belong to tbe
end of verse 10. Coheleth assigned
a reason, in verse 11, why.it is that
the acquisition of many things does
not yield happiness, " because there
are many things which yield the re
verse," which by itself is no reason
at all, unless we connect this verse
with it, " and because no one knows
what is good for man," hence, in

their ignorance, they alight upon that
which brings the opposite to what they
desire. Nothing can thereforebe more
plain; thus construed, D'na-^— to;'3
"ia-i D-iMb aiTQ"nn s-ni'"'? '3 ban D'a-in na-iin
for tliere are many things which in
crease vanity, and who knows tifiat is
good for man, i.e., so that, in the se
lection of things, he may avoid those
" which increase vanity," everything
is plain. If we want any more proofs
of the correctness of this construc
tion, we need only refer to the violent
and arbitrary means which commen
tators have adopted to trace the con
nection of these verses, and to explain
the meaning of onNb nni'^nn in its
present position, nepp, being accu
sative of measure, requires no preposi
tion (vide supra, ii). Hengstenberg's
remark, that the a from D'.'na is to be
supplied before it, is therefore gra
tuitous. D urell's alteration of it into
¦ispn, " who knoweth what is better in
life for a man than to number the days
of his life ? &c , that is, to take ac
count of them so as to turn them to
profit," is preposterous, vn; ntos, to
spend his days, has its analogy in the
Greek m-oiEiv xp'wv (Acts xv. 33), «i£iV
InauTo'v (James iv. 13), and iixam
<JToiyia-ova-iv Erti ,troWi (ProV. xiii. 23,
Sept.). The i in Di»s;^ as frequently
stands for th e relative pronoun (comp.
Gen. xlix. 25 ; Job xxix. 12 ; Ps. Iv.
20; Isa. xiii. 14 ; Gesenius, Lex. s. v.,
1 e c). As ntoH is used instead of '?
(vide infra, viii. 13 ; Ewald, § 353, a,
§ 362, b), which is still connected
with the two preceding causative
particles, viz, ntoN = '3 ... '3 ... '3,
it must also be rendered by and.
1. A good name. Sec Seeing, then,
that wealth was also unable to avert
the doom of man, and to secure last
ing good, Coheleth resorted to tbe
last experiment, viz., prudence, or
what is generally called the common
sense view of life, thinking tbat he
might thereby secure the desired
end. The particular features of this

CHAP. VII.j

COHELETH.

369

2 death than the day of his birth. It is better to go to the
house of mourning than to go to the house of feasting,
because this is the end of all men, and the living will lay it
better than the Hay of his birth,
when he enters upon the field, igno
rant of the strength and snares of
the enemy, and doubtful of victory.
A story told in tbe Midrash beauti
fully illustrates tbis passage. "Two
vessels met at sea, one was going
into the harbour and the other was
just starting for a long voyage; in
the former silence prevailed, whilst
iu the latter the voice of jubilee
was heard. A wise man who wit
nessed this scene exclaimed, in great
astonishment. What a perverted
world! the vessel wbich has safely
returned ought to rejoice, inasmuch
as it has overcome the perils of the
sea, but not the one which is starting
and has to weather all the dangers !
So we are also not to rejoice when a
man is born, when he starts upon
the journey of life, and goes to meet
the dangers of temptation, but when
he is freed from these dangers, finishes
his earthly course, and enters peace
ably and with a good report into the
haven of rest" (compare Leopold
Low, nnenn, i. p. 106). And since it
is death alone which decides the
victory, hence Sirach says, " Judge
none blessed before his death," and
the Jewish sages caution, in the
Mishna, "jnio DV n» "-jossa ]'nMn bN, do
not trust thyself till the day of thy
death (Aboth, ii. 4). Failing to see
this, Knobel refers this clause to
the fool, for whom the day of death
is better than the day of his birth,
because it frees him from the con
tempt which he experiences in life ;
whilst Hitzig, Stuart, &c., regard the
first clause as comprising a common
apothegm, introduced here to illus
trate the assertion in the second
clause, viz., " a good name is better
than sweet perfume, so is the day of
death better than one's birth."
2. It is better. Sec To obtain and
maintain such a name in life and
victory in death; means must be

view are given in this chapter and in
the following one. Like the enume
ration of the general events of life in
iii. 2-8, the description of this view
begins with the commencement and
end of life,. Paramount to all other
considerations, is to lead such a. life
as to secure a good name. In tropical
climates perfumes are in great requi
sition, and are used especially on
occasions of social gatherings, or on
visits to persons of rank (2 Sam. xii.
20; Euth iii, 3; Ps, xlv. 8; Prov.
vii. 17; Dan. x. 8; Amos vi. 6;
Matt. vi. 17) to prevent the ofFen-
siveness of tbe profuse perspiration
to which the melting beat subjects
those who are under its influence, as
well as to regale and refresh the
company. The sweet odour, there
fore, diffused by perfumes, became a
very beautiful and expressive meta
phor for the excellencies of character
(comp. Song of Songs i. 3), and an
offensive smell is used to express the
contrary idea (Gen. xxxiv. 30; Exod.
v. 21). Dto, name, without any ad
junct, also means a good name (comp.
ntosn Dto nna:, a good name is prefer
able to riches, Prov. xxii. 1 ; Zeph.
iii 19), and, as in the Song of Songs
i. 3, forms a paranomasia with jpto,
which is beautifully imitated by
Knobel and De Wette, beffet gut
@etu(^t, at^ gute ©etfltpe, and less
successfully by Ewald, Beffet Mi
guten 3?amenS 8uft al^ gutet ©alben
S)uft. Our language, however, does
not admit of an imitation, aito,
good, when connected with ^to, per
fume, denotes sweet, delicious,iii which
the goodness of the aromatic con
sists (comp. Ps. cxxxiii. 2 ; Song of
Songs, i 2),
And the day of death. Sec. To
such a man wbo has striven to live a
praiseworthy life and has succeeded,
tbe day of bis death, which is the
day wherein the battle is decided,
and he goes off the conqueror, is

3B

370 COHELETH. [CHAP. VII.
3 to heart. Better is thoughtful sadness than wanton mirth.

chosen and used adequate to this
purpose. Visits to houses of mourn
ing and to the graves were and still
are regarded by the Jews as produc
tive of a serious and beneficial state
of mind, influencing the moral con
duct of the visitor, by reminding
him of his own frailty and mortality,
and the necessity of preparation for
it. Hence the Talmudic proverb,
Nmp'niB NnsiD 'an Nn:M, the profit from
the house of mourning is silent refiec
tion (Berachoth, vi. 72). 'Thus also
the beautiful mediseval poet, Moses
Ibn Ezra — bs niasb 'B'sp ':wpn
'pibto 'to:'N ba; min jibn
(a'toni a'topn j'm-iJ in'nbMto
'DMi 'aN 'ns 'a in:an
Dn'bN ':iNnp jitob 'ba
'pipn' Dn'n^'b ':iMnni
I souglit the abode where all my kindi-ed
Bleep,
Parents and friends, in their sepulchral home,
I spoke, hut none replied. In silence deep,
I seem'd to hear a voice that bade me come.
And lay me on that couch, -where none
embrace,
And make, -with them, my o-wn last restmg
place,
Moses ben Ezba, Darstelhmg von Leopold
Dukes, Altona, 1889, p. 101.
In addition to what 'has already
been said upon mourning (vide supra,
iii. 7), we must remark here that the
time of mourning begins as soon as
the mourners have returned from
tbe grave, and lasts seven days (Gen.
L 10), hence is called nsa-to among
the Jews, during wbich time the
mourners sit barefooted on the
ground or footstools, and are visited
by their relations, friends, and ac
quaintances (comp, Sirach, xxii, 12).
For nabn instead of nabbn, see ii. 7.
nnton na, house of drinking, is a gene
ral term for a jovial place, hence it
is called nnpto n'a, in verse 4. Min,
this is, refers to nip^ death, which is
involved iu baM, mourning. Less
appropriate is the paraphrase of tbe
Vulgate, IN ILLA ENIM riNIS OUNO
TORUM ADMONBTUR HOMINUM, for in
that we are admonished of the end of

all men; or the explanation of Eashi
(DnMn ba fiid Nin baNnu) b'a-aa), who
refers it to the mourning itself The
phrase ab'bN ]n:, to take it to heart,
which also occurs in ix. 1, like D'to
2!!"^?, to lay it to heart (Isa. xiii 25,
Ivii. 11), is used for serious consi
deration, 'reflection, and is strangely
rendered by the Sept, 0 tfiv Uc-ei ayaS'ov
EV xapSia aiirov, the living will put good
into his heart; so also the Syriac,
-n t fl ^ .P ,P 0 7 7
omW (A04 »^otj ._..jo50,
which has evidently arisen from
taking over aw; from the following
verse, as this verb stands in the
Hebrew copy in tbe following line
under jn'. 'The Vulgate, et vivens
ooGiTAT, Quin fUTUKUM SIT, and the
living thinks what is to come, is a
good paraphrase,
3. Better is thoughtful sadness. Sec
The pensive reflections arising from
visits to the bouse of mourning are
far preferable to the levity produced
by resorts to the haunts of pleasure,
inasmuch as seriousness is beneficial
to the heart. That ds3 here is sad
thoughtfulness, sober reflection, is evi
dent from the fact that this verse
describes the state of mind produced
by visits to tbe house of mourning,
spoken of in the preceding verse,
which is not an angry, nor even a
simply sorrowful one, but is a reflect
ing, a thoughtful state of mind. Tbis
is, moreover, corroborated — 1. By
the words iab-bN jn; 'nni, and the living
will lay it to heart = reflect upon it,
which most unquestionably describes
this state of mind ; 2nd, By the
term Pinip, wanton mirth, levity (vide
supra, ii. 2), which gives the opposite
result, produced by frequenting the
haunts of pleasure ; and 3. By its
explicative d':b sn, which means sad
thoughtfulness, arising from dwelling
or reflecting upon thoughts suggested
by painful scenes or sufferings, as is
evident from tbe question d3.'.:b sinp
D'S-i, why are your countenances sad
or thoughtful? (Gen. xl. 7) put to

CHAP. VII.]

COHELETH.

371

4 for by a serious countenance the heart is improved. The
heart of the wise, therefore, is in the house of mourning, and
5 the heart of fools in the house of mirth. It is better for a
man to listen to the reproof of a wise man, than to hear the
6 song of fools ; for as the crackling of thorns is under the pot.

Pharaoh's butler and baker, who
dwelt upon the dream they bad in
the night, which HSngstenberg seems
to have overlooked in his assertion
tbat Nehem. ii. 2, is the only place
where d':|i sn occurs in the sense of
sadness, pensiveness. ab aw; is well
rendered by the Sept. {iya6vvBri<rErai
xapiia), the Syriac, Eashi (ab "[ion'
vann a'tonb onNn), Eashbam, Luther,
the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva
Version, tbe Autb. Ver., Hodgson,
Knobel, Herzfeld, Philippson, Vai
hinger, &c., the heart is made better,
inasmuch as his thoughts are di
rected to himself; he thinks of the
fleetness of life, and the necessity of
preparing himself for a speedy depar
ture, and hence is led to regulate
his conduct accordingly. The ren
dering, the heart is joyful or made
glad (Coverdale, Desvoeux, Umbreit,
Eosenmiiller, Stuart, Elster, &c.) is
at variance with tbe scope of the
passage, which speaks of the moral
effect produced by tbe -visits to the
house of mourning. The Vulgate's
strange rendering of this verse,
MELIOR est IRA KISU ; QUIA PEB
TRISTIIIAM VULTUS OOBRIGITUR ANI
MUS DELiNQUENTis, anger is better
than laughter, because through the
sadness of the countenance the mind
of the offender is corrected, taking
DS3 as the indignation either of God
or of pious men, manifested against
sin, originated from the Hagadic
interpretation given in the Midrash,
the Chaldee, and Eashi. It is sur
prising that Mercer, Grotius, and
several other commentators should
have followed this interpretation.
4. The lieart of the wise. Sec This
being tbe case, because such great
and solid benefits are to be derived
from visits to, and reflections upon

the house of mourning, therefore the
wise man will dwell upon it, whilst
the fool, who craves after sensuous
pleasures, will think of the abodes of
mirth. The construction a ab, to have
the heart in it, expresses both facts
mentioned in the preceding verses,
viz., the going to the respective places,
and the consequent thinking there
upon. 5. It is better for a man. Sec From
the lessons of the dead, Coheleth
passes on to those of tbe living. The
wise man not only learns salutary
lessons from the silent yet eloquent
rebukes of the dead, but will proflt
by the wholesome corrections of the
living, which are sometimes as dis
tasteful as visits to the dead. He
will prefer the reproving voice of tho
prudent, however disagreeable for
the moment, to tbe mirthful notes of
the fool. The proper construction of
tbis verse is Dan nnsa siatob to'Nb aito
"lai. s-btop, it is better for a man to
hear the reproof of a wise man, than
to hear. Sec. ; 'to'N, of the flrst clause,
is by carelessness of style put into
the second clause. In earlier and
more energetic Hebrew, to'N would
have been omitted altogether, and we
should have had sntop . . . s-biSb aita
"iai. The Vulgate's paraphrase of
D'b'pa n'to soto to'Nn, quam stultorum
ADULATioNE DEOiPi, tljMn to be de
ceived by the adulation of fools, taking
n'to to denote a plaudit song, which is
followed by Eeynolds, Patrick, Des
voeux, Stuart, &c., is contrary to the
following verse, where D'b'ps n'to is ex
plained by '''P3n pinto, the mirth of the
fool 6. For as the crackling of thorns.
Sec We have here a reason for the
assertion made in tbe second clause
of the preceding verse. The wise

372

COHELETH.

[chap, vii.

7 SO is the laughter of a fool ; this, also, is vanity ; for extor
tion maketh the wise man foolish, and bribery corrupteth the

man shuns the merry songs at the
compotations of fools, because be
knows that they are as transient and
unprofitable as the flashy and useless
noise of kindled thorns, which for a
moment seems very fierce, but sud
denly disappears. The charcoal,
generally used as fuel in the East
(Ps. xviii. 8 ; Isa. xlvii. 14 ; Jerem.
xxxvi 22, 23 ; John xviii. 18), is
comparatively slow in burning up,
and hence those who were impatient
of obtaining their meals in the ordi
nary way were tempted to employ
dried thorns. But it was soon found
tbat the ardent blaze snapt fiercely,
made much noise, and went out
immediately, without producing the
desired end (Ps. cxviii. 12 ; Joel
ii. 5). Hence this striking compari
son between the crackling of ignited
thorns under a kettle, and the merry
noise of an excited fool over his pot
p,/or, gives the reason why the wise
man acts as described in the fore
going verse. D'n'p, thorns, and n'p,
kettle, form a paronomasia, and are
evidently selected because of their
assonance with n'to in the preceding
veise, Knobel (WXi bag ©etauf^ bet
SUeffel untet bem j?effel), and Ewald
(tt)te untet bem S£c()f bet Sotnen
itni^etn, fo beS SE^oten .Si^etn), have
again imitated tbe paranomasia,
wbich might also be done in Eng
lish, viz,, as the noise of nettles under
the kettle.
7. For extortion. Sec Having
given, in the preceding verse, the
reason for the^assertion made in the
second clause of verse 5, Coheleth
gives here the reason for the allega
tion in theirs* clause of that verse.
The prudent man, when he is guilty
of misdemeanour, will prefer the re
proofs of the wise, however unpala
table, because he knows, in his better
moments, that the sin of taking
bribes, into which he has fallen, is
so pernicious that it infatuates even
the wise, and that bribery besots

the heart. The same evil conse
quences, attending the acceptance
of gifts by judges, are mentioned in
Exod. xxiii. 8 and Deut xvi, 19.
'3, /or, introduces the reason for the
assertion made in the_^rst clause of
verse 5, Instances where two sub-
jeets are proposed, and the latter ia
treated first and the former second,
are of frequent occurrence. Thus —
1 The wicked dra-sv- the sworij
2 And stretch their bow
2 To shoot down the poor and the needy,
1 To cut in pieces the upright in conduct.
Ps. XXSLTii. 14.
Here ^'snb, to shoot, in the third
hemistich, takes up ntop^, the bow, in
the second, and niapb, to cut down, in
tbe fourth hemistich, takes up a-in,
the sword of theflrst.
Behold how good and how pleasant
When brethren dwell togettier,
iPleasant] Like sweet perfume upon the head
Plowing down upon the beard.
The beard of Aaron,
IGoed.] As the dew of Hermon
Flowing upon the mountains of
Zion, Ps, cxxiii. 1-3.
Here, again, "pleasant," the second
remark, is taken up first, and " good,"
tbe first, is taken up second (comp.
also Isa. Ivi. 3, 4, 5 ; and infra, x. 11,
xi. 4). ptos, from ptos, to oppress, to
defraud;\itera,\\y oppression, extortion,
and metonymically the thing obtained
by oppression, fraud, or extortion
(comp. »tos ntoN ptosn, Lev. v. 23 ; Ps.
Ixii. 11; Isa. xxx. 12). Here, how
ever, it corresponds more to nnto,.
bribery, as is evident from n:nn, gift,
with which it stands in parallelism.
nmn, a gift, generally, is often used
in a specific sense, a present given in
order to bribe, hence bribery (comp.
Prov. XV. 27). The nonconformity
of ^aN'l, third person masc, and n:nn,
a noun /«»»,, is owing to the predi
cate preceding the subject, in which
case there is a frequent departure
from the general rule (comp. ij;^s ni
nsn Isa. xlvii. 11; 1 Kings xxii. 36;
infra, x. 1, xii, 4; Gesen. § 147, a;
Ewald, § 816, a). The traditional

CHAP. VII.J

COHELETH.

373

8 heart. The end of a reproof is better than its beginning.

explanation, as preserved in the
Cbaldee, which paraphrases this verse,
n'nrniNa b'lN Nb-i ^'aa No'sna brj^NB'jN DinN
N'npri ab npain fi; 'M5.to''a 'ibpa nainni
Ninto )n N:npa n'b na'n;nNn 'for the
robber mocks at the wise man, because
he goes not in his way, and destroys
with his evil speech the prudent heart
of the wise, ivhich was given to him
as a gift from heaven, has been fol
lowed by the ancient versions and
subsequent expositors. Thus the
Septuagint translates it, S'ti h o-vxofavria.
'TTEpl^EpEt a-o<^ov xal aTFoKt^vsi riiv xapiiav
si-rovitt; avrov, for calumny carries about
the wise man and destroys his heart,
and, like the Chaldee, takes pms for
M'ttj'a 'ibpa, regarding it as the subject
of both verbs, viz., bbin; and nasi;, and
n:nn as the genitive of ab; so also
the Vulgate (calumnia oontuebai
SAPIENTEM, ET PEEDBT EOBUR CORDIS
ILLIUS, calumny confounds the wise
and destroys the strength of his heart),
Rashi, and Eashbam, who, like the
Cbaldee, say that by n:riD ab is meant
a wise heart, because it is a gift to
man (comp. Prov. ii. 5). Similarly
Luther (ein SSSibetfpeniiiget mai^t
einen SGSeifen unwittig, unb betbetbet
ein milbeg ^etj), who, as usual, is
followed by Coverdale (" whoso doeth
wrong maketh a wise man to go out
of his wit, and destroyeth a gentle
heart"). Against this, however, is
to be urged, that it severs this verse
from its connection, tbat it is against
the parallelism, and that the predi
cates Dan bbin;, makes foolish the wise,
and ab-nN naN;, corrupts the heart,
undoubtedly refer to bribery, as will
be seen from a comparison of this
passage with Exod. xxii, 8 and Deut.
xvi. 19. The Bishops' Bible (" the
wise man hateth wrong dealing, and
abhorreth the heart that coveteth
rewards"), Desvoeux ("surely op
pression shall give lustre to a wise
man, but the gift corrupteth tbe
heart"), and Hodgson (" though in
fluence may sway a wise man to do
imprudently, yet it is the bribe which
corrupteth the heart"), are as curious

as they are irreconcileable with the
text. Ewald's alteration of ptos,
extortion, into ntos, riches (Jahrb. viii.
p. 175), is purely conjectural, and
does not improve the sense or the
connection. 8. The end of a reproof. Sec The
wise man submits to it because he
knows that the end of merited reproof
is better than we are at first inclined
to think. At the outset of a rebuke
fiesh and blood will sometimes rise,
excited feelings will rebel, but when
the reproof is over we calmly reflect
upon it, and find that, however dis
agreeable at the beginning, the end
of it is profitable. Hence the advan
tage of a patient and forbearing
spirit over a haughty and rebellious
temper. Expositors, having over
looked the connection of the preced
ing verse with verse 5, and translated
na-j here, thing, have found great
difficulty in the interpretation of this
verse, for it is not true that tbe end
of things generally is better than the
beginning, and other passages of
Scripture affirm the very reverse.
We are told of tlie beginning of things
which seems good, but the end is bad
(Prov. V. 3, 4, xvi. 25). The attempts
to particularise and defend it here
are either at the expense of the con
text or against the genius of the
language. The Septuagint and Vul
gate therefore rightly render nan by
¦Koyog, oratio, speech, though St.
Jerome, in loco, through his misinter
pretation of the preceding verse, was
at a loss what to make of it, and
hence submitted that " the end of a
speech is better than tbe beginning,"
1. Because with the end the speaker's
anxiety is over, and with the begin
ning it begins. 2. Because when the
speech is ended the hearer can reflect
upon what has been said, but at the
beginning he has not as yet got any
benefit. 3. Because it is better to
be quiet than to speak. 4. It may
mean as long as we are in this world
our knowledge is all a beginning,
but when that which is perfect is

374

COHELETH.

[chap. VII.

'9 forbearance is better than haughtiness. Do not, therefore,
hasten on thy spirit to be angry, for anger is cherished in
10 the bosom of fools. Do not say what was it that former
days were better than these ? for thou wouldst not ask from

come, we shall in the end be made
perfect. This patristic exposition
may fairly compete with any Eabbinic
interpretation of this verse. Adher
ing, then, to nan, signifying speech,
the connection, as we have traced it,
at once shews that the speech here
intended is of an admonitory kind,
rebuke, reproof, nan, a word, is also
used for words collectively, a speech,
in Gen. xliv. 18 ; Job iv. 2, xv. 3,
an advice, an admonition, in Prov.
iv. 4. 20 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 6 ; 1 Kings
i. 7. nin pM, long of spirit, like
fj.axpo&vf>.oq in Greek, and longanimus
in Latin, is a spirit that can bear
long, hence patience, forbearance ;
its proper antithesis is nin nsp, short
of spirit (Prov. xiv. 29), a spirit that
bears a short time, impatience, un-
forbearance; here, however, nin naj,
haughty of spirit, is contrasted there
with, because it 'is pride, which makes
reproof intolerable, and resists it in
every form. According to tbe ana
logy of the double forms, bin:, and
''IJ, pi?., and ^pp., there is a form na:, as
well as nia:, and naa, is the construct
of the former.
9. Do not, therefore, hasten, &c.
This, then, being tbe case, since the
issue of a reproof is so profitable,
our pride ought never to excite our
tempers to rise and be irritated under
such circumstances, especially as it
is the fool wbo, not being able to
perceive tbe end of such rebukes,
will harbour anger against those
that administer reproof unto him.
For the causative use of bnain, and
the a, expressing the force involved
in the idea of hurrying, see v. 1.
P'n, bosom, is regarded as the seat of
tbe affections, feelings. Sec (compare
Ps. xxxv. 13 ; Job xix. 27), i. e.,_ the
breast, the heart, so tbat the phrase
p'na ni:^, is the same as a'ba tni:.;, to
rest or be cherished in tlie heart

(comp, nnan ni:n )ia: a'ba, wisdom rests
in the heart of the intelligent, Prov.
xiv. 33).
10. Do not say. Sec This common-
sense view of life not only shews
how benefits are to be derived from
apparently unpleasant subjects, such
as -visiting houses of mourning, in
preference to places of mirth (1-4),
and submitting patiently to reproof
(5 - 9), but teaches us quietly to bear
all things, and to make the best of
the circumstances in which we are
placed (10-14). We are not to
indulge a repining disposition, em
ploying ourselves in searching after
causes why bygone days were better,
to the neglect of present enjoyments,
since such a line of conduct is con
trary to wisdom. The tendency to
praise the past above the present,
which Coheleth here denounces, is
common to the aged of every clime
and age. When man grows old, the
recollection of past sufferings grows
faint, whilst any present affliction is
keenly felt and greatly magnified.
The striking example of tbis in the
case of the Israelites, who, when in
the wilderness, having the presence
of God and heavenly food, soon
forgot their past bondage and extra
ordinary sufferings in Egypt, and felt
so acutely the comparatively little
inconveniences in the Desert, that
they wished to have back tbe former
days (Exod. xvi. 3 ; Numb. xi. 5, 6,
xiv. 1-4), is only a type of man gene
rally. Thus Aristotle, in his descrip
tion of those advanced in life (Ehet
ii. 13), says that "they never cease
talking of that which has taken place,
since they are delighted in awaken
ing the recollections of things."
And Horace, speaking of the many
inconveniences which encompass a
man of years, says, evidently having
the passage of Aristotle in his mind—

chap. VII.j

COHELETH.

375

11 wisdom after them. Wisdom is as good as riches, and
moreover hath an advantage over it for those who see the

Difficilis, querulus, laudator temporis acti
Se puero, castigator censorque minorum.
" Morose, complaining, and -with tedious
praise
Talking the manners of their youthful days."
De Abte Poet. 173-4:.
D':toNnn a^ov;, former days, the bygone
days of one's life. nbN, these, the
present days. The n in npsnn denotes
the source whence the question does
not proceed. nbNto has here a sub
junctive signiflcation, thou wouldst
not ask, as is evident from the con
text, wbich alone must decide it, since
the indicative form of the verb is
used to express the different moods.
The construction of bMto with "bs only
occurs once more in later Hebrew
(Nehem. i. 2), in the earlier stages of
the language it is construed with
b (Gen. xliii. 7). nt, these, refers to
D'jtoNnn D'pjn, as is evident from tbe
preposition bs, concerning, after. The
paraphrastic rendering of the Vul
gate, (sTULTA ENIM EST HUJUSCEMODI
INTERROGA Tio), which is followed by
Lutber (benn bu ftagfi fol$e« ni(|t
tbeiglil^), Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible (" for that were no wise ques
tion"), the Geneva Version and the
Authorised Version (" for thou doest
not enquire wisely of this thing or
concerning this "), and most com
mentators, refers nj-bs rtNto to tbe
question n;n no, and thereby con
founds it with ni'!5';«iS.
11. Wisdom is as good. Sec. Wis
dom is not to be violated by dwell
ing upon the imaginary good of
former days, since having her is in
some respects as good as possessing
wealth, and, in other respects, she
has a decided advantage over wealth,
for those wbo lead an active life.
The Septuagint renders tbe flrst
clause, ayaSh s-ofta fxlra. x\npovo/j.iaq,
uisdo:n is good with an inheritance,
so also the Vulgate, the Chaldee,
Easbbam, Ibn Ezra, Lutber, the
Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Bible,
tbe Authorised Version in the text,

which Ibn Ezra explains, pn' dmi
aim nnvi ib Nin aiio nbn: D3nb n'nnia
iniBS masa inw inaa' '3 iBoion 'Ninb, and
if it be desirable that a wise man
should have property, it will he good
for him, and especially good with
regard to those who see the sun, since
they will respect him for his riches,
and which Eashbam explains, naiicn
in"niB:ic D'oaai nbn: ds DnM bm moan naiioi
nnan ib ]'n dm in'a in"pn' Mb« vaMn lb
]ioon p nnv nnann naiBi i'D3: nininb 'na
innans) obisa D':n:nni D'abinn ©nffln 'Ninb
pb nnoiBi |ns"Dn a man's wisdom is
more respected, and is more advan
tageous, when it goes together with the
patrimony and property bequeathed to
him by his father, which will not
abide unless he has wisdom to manage
his riches ; but still better than riches
is wisdom for those who lead a public
life, for their wisdom assists and main
tains them. But whichever interpre
tation we adopt, this rendering is
contrary to tbe scope of tbe passage,
as tbis verse evidently gives the
reason why we are not to complain
of the disappearance of better and
wealthier days, by shewing that there
is an equivalent for riches, and more
than an equivalent to those who are
active upon the stage of life. To
translate, therefore, nbn_:-DS npan naio,
wisdom is good with riches, is to imply
that it is not good without riches,
thus praising up wealth above wis
dom, the very thing which Coheleth
denied in tbe preceding verse, and
combats in tbe following verse. The
forced explanations of Eashi (nbn: ds
DniaN niai), wisdom is good with the
inherited merits of the parents, taking
nbn: in a spiritual sense for merits;
Mendelssohn, if wisdom is good with
the possession of an inheritance, it is
found better when that is gone; and
Spohn, SGBeig^eit ift ipeilfam tteip 3am=
ntcttagen unb Sotjug benen, tt)elct;e
^eitete S;age ^af>en, wisdom is salutary
in days of mourning, and an advan
tage to those who have cheerful days.

376

COHELETH.

[chap. vii.

12 sun. For to be in the shelter of wisdom is to be under- the
shelter of riches, and the advantage of wisdom is, that

only shew the difficulty arising from
tbe rendering of ds, with. We avoid
all this if, with tbe Syriac, Cover-
dale, Authorised Version in the mar
gin, Desvoeux, Hodgson, Knobel,
De Wette, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Noyes,
Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c,, we take db as a comparison,
a sense which it frequently has, and
and in which it occurs in this very
book (see supra, ii, 16), nbn:, posses
sion, wealth (comp. Prov. xx. 21).
The Syriac ^^^;^ ^^ -^
^ P 7 7-, 0 f
P-i1 >~^|l0 _l0 wisdom is better
than weapons, has evidently arisen
from mistaking nbn: for nb'n:, an in
strument. The translator has no
doubt fallen into this error through
the passage anp 'ban nn?n naito, wisdom
is better than instruments of war (ix.
17). The ^ in nni'] as often is aug-
mentive (comp. Job v. 15; Ps Ixxiv.
11 ; and supra, vi. 3). nni' is not an
adverb, more (Gesenius, Lex. s.v.,
Hitzig, Stuart, &o,), which is against
the parallelism and the structure of
the following verse, but is a parti
cipial noun (comp, supra, vi. 8. 11).
For the phrase tonton 'i<n, see vi. 5.
12. For to be in the shelter. Sec.
Here we have the reasons for the
two assertions made in the preceding
verse respecting wisdom, viz,, its
being sometimes as useful as money,
and sometimes having the advantage
over it. That wisdom is in some
cases as good as riches, is evident
from tbe fact tbat it is as much a
defence as money. If " riches are
sometimes the ransom of a man's
life " (Prov, xiii, 8) wisdom will de
liver a whole city from destruction
(infra, ix, 15). And tbat, in other
cases, wisdom has a preeminence
over riches, is also evident, inasmuch
as it has the power of affecting the
inner man, it makes him serene and
cheerful, which the former cannot
do. '3, for, introducing the reason

for the assertion made in the fore
going verse. The verb to be, as
frequently, is to be supplied after it.
From tbe refreshing coolness which
the shadow of overhanging cliffs or
spreading branches of trees afford to
the Eastern in his scorching climate,
b's is used metaphorically for shelter,
protection, defence (compare Gen. xix.
8 ; Numb, xiv. 9 ; Ps. xvii. 9). The
figure has evidently been suggested
by the phrase topton '!<n, those who
see THE SUN, which immediately pre
cedes it. Symmachus (a-xsmT (to^U
wj trxEftEl ro apyvpiov, Wlsdom protects
just as money protects) , and the Vul
gate (SICUT ENIM PROTEGlT SAPIENTIA,
SIC PROTEGlT peounia), who ai'S fol
lowed by Luther (benn bie 3Beigt>eit
6ef(|itmet, fo 6ef(|itmet @etb aud;),
Coverdale and the Bishops' Bible
("for wisdom defendeth as well as
money"), and tbe Authorised Version
("for wisdom is a defence and money
is a defence"), ignoring tbe |, have
made some modern commentators to
to regard it here as the so-called a
essentia. But this, to say the least,
is an unnecessary deviation from the
natural signification of this preposi
tion, and necessitates us to supply
the 3 comparison. The explanation
of Eashi (bsa i:ib' nnann b;sa i:sj'id 'n ba
Na'ffl n«Bb nnm: nnanno Fjoan, wlwso is
under the protection of wisdom is under
the protection of money, because it is
wisdom that brings riches), and Ibn
Ezra (bsai nnann ^sa noin nann n'n' in
F]Dan, then — i.e., when he has riches
with-wisdom, according to Ibn Ezra's
view of the preceding verse — will
the wise man be protected both by the
shelter of wisdom and the shelter of
money), are as far-fetched as they are
at variance with tbe scope of tbe
passage, nsn )inn;i, and, moreover, an
advantage of wisdom is, takes up nni'i
of the preceding verse, and hence
shews that tbe latter is a noun, and
that nsn is the same as nnan, wisdom,
of which nni'i, and there is an advan-

CHAP, vn.]

COHELETH.

377

13 wisdom enliveneth the possessor thereof. Consider, more
over, the work of God, since no man can straighten that
14 which he hath made crooked. In the day of prosperity be
therefore in prosperity, and in the day of adversity consider
that God hath also made this as well as that, to the end that

tage, is the predicate. The Septua
gint's rendering of "i:i. nnann ns-n ^inn;i
by xal 'jTepia-a-Eia yvicrEtag t^j tro^taQ, and
the advantage of the knowledge of
wisdom, (§c , which is that of the
Chaldee Nn';niN-7 Nnpin NS-i:n nnim,
taking nsn as the construct with
nnan, is contrary to the accents, and,
if admitted, would yield the same
sense which we have given to tbe
passage. The Vulgate's paraphrase
(hoc autem plus habet ebuditjo
ET sapientia, quod VITAM TBIBUUNT
PossEssoRi SUO, but learning and
wisdom have this more, that they give
life to thepossessor thereof), is a muti
lation of the text, whilst Luther
(abet bie SBei^^eit gi6t bag ieUxi bent,
bet fte ^at, but wisdom gives life to
the possessor thereof) entirely omits
the words nsn ^in;i;i.
13. Consider, moreover. Sec. An
other reason for obeying the injunc
tion given in verse 10. Complaining
is vain; God has ordained it so, and,
however crooked it may appear to
us, no man can rectify it. nN-n, see,
consider, bear in mind, remember.
The expression moreover, which is
often omitted in Hebrew, must be
supplied in the translation, nicsp,
work, i. e., of providence, appointment,
ordaining; so also ]pnb, to rectify,
and n.is, to make crooked, are used in
a spiritual sense. Tbe interrogative,
in which the last clause is expressed,
is tantamount to an emphatic denial,
i. e., no one can. Sec. (vide supra, i. 3).
For the pleonastic suffix in inw, see
ii. 12. The Septuagint's rendering
of iniB ntoN nN ]p.nb bsv 'n '3 by on ri;
iuvhc-irai rou xoa-fAria-ai 'ov av o ^eog itaa-rpi'^rt
avrov ; for who is able to make him
straight, if God has distorted hin ?
which is followed by the Vulgate,

QUOD NEMO POSSIT CORRIGBRE, QUBM

ILLE DESPEXERIT, that no man can
correct him whom He has despised,
has evidently originated from the
traditional explanation, as contained
in the Chaldee, which paraphrases
this verse si'nniaji 'n Nnais n; b3npp 'in
]irp.i.nnb N-i'ary m ' Mva: n; N;np n; nas '-i
N:pnb b'y 'n Mp'sn Nin j'n DinM Nnbsa ^to'ne
n'nis 'n Nn^s 'nn ]nbN"pn:ta nn'n; con
sider the work of Ood and his power,
who made the blind, the hunch-backed,
and tlie lame, to be a wonder in the
world ; for who is so wise that he can
make straight one of these, except the
Lord of the world who made them
crooked ? and is precluded hy the
scope of the passage. For tbe com
plaints against which Coheleth speaks
are not about corporeal defects, but
those of a repining spirit which is
dissatisfied with the present order
of Providence. Luther's rendering
(benn wet fann bag fc^te^t nta^ien, bag
Sr ttflmmet ? for who can make that
bad which He makes crooked ?) is
irreconcileable with ]p.rt. '
14 In the day of Sec. Having
shewn that dissatisfaction with the
present is contrary to tbe common-
sense view of life, inasmuch as it
only mars the enjoyment of what
one possesses, without being able to
effect any change in tbe order of
God's providence, Coheleth deduces
therefrom the necessity of being con
tented and submissive, in whatever
circumstances of life we are placed,
since God designedly so interweaves
his providences that no man may
be able to foresee the future, in order
that all should live in constant de
pendence upon him. The sentiment
here propounded, not to mar present
blessings by undue anxiety for the
impenetrable future which a benign
Providence has concealed from the

3 C

378

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VII.

man should not discover anything which will be after him.

human eye, was also the maxim of
the ancient philosophers, and is
beautifully expressed by Horace —
Prudens futuri temporis exitum
Caliginosa nocte premit deus
Eidetque, si mortalis ultra
Pas trepidat. Quod adest, memento
Componere sequus ; cetera fluminis
Eitu feruntur, nunc medio alveo
Cum pace delahentis Etruacum
In mare, nunc lapides adesos.
" But God, in goodness ever -wise.
Hath hid, in clouds of depthless night.
All that in future prospect Ues
Beyond the ken of mortal sight.
And laughs to see vain man opprest
With idle fears, and morethanmandistrest,
" Then wisely form the present hour.
Enjoy the hliss that it bestows ;
The rest is all beyond our power.
And like the changeful Tiber flows,
-Who, now, beneath his banks subsides.
And peaceful to its native ocean glides,"
Od, iii, 29; 29-83.
The phrase aim? r^^ri, which the Sept.
rightly explains ^UBi iv ayaSS, means
live, as it were, in the atmosphere of
contentment or in a state of content
ment; be so — do not allow anything
to make you feel or think otherwise,
and is designedly chosen for the sake
of alliteration witli aim , so also nwn,
see, consider, bear in mind — the tiling
to be considered being given in the
following clause — is used to form a
paranomasia with nsn. For nns^, in
connection with, like, see v. 1 5, and
for nnan bs giving the motive or
occasion of the aetion, see iii, 18.
The various interpretations given of
almost every word of this verse by
modern commentators, have chiefly
beeu occasioned by the ancient ver
sions which, as usual, are to be
traced to Hagadic influence. Thus
the Chaldee paraphrases it a'mi'-^ Di'a
Npbs bab ap'p-) Nnia'pa n:M fiN 'nn';;. -nb
p|Mi banoM-i 'in Nto'a Nni'' ijbs 'p'; Mb-i i'?a
'to™ NnaiM"? i':a^;; nas ^'-n'b'ap^.ba '^'n n;
DS-nn 'ninria to:'.;* inato; Mb-i bbaa in Mpbs
Ninn NpbBb to'a, in the day when the
Lord does thee good, be thou also happy
and do good to all the world, that the
evil day may not come upon thee, see
and behold ; and also this against
that, Ood has made to reprove the
men of the world, so that men should

not find after him any ev'd in the
world to come, construing nMn before
nsn Di'a, i.e., "in the day of pros
perity look to tbe day of adversity,"
referring the pronoun in I'nriM to both
God and man, and taking it as well
as npiMp in a double sense, viz., Tnn.N
to denote after Him, against Him,
i.e., God, and after him, after lie
(i.e., man) has departed, liereafter,
and npiMp to signify nothing and
blemish, i. q., Din (comp. Dan. i. 4),
Hence the Vulgate, in die bona
ERUEHB bonis, EI MALAM DIEM PRiE-
CAVE ; SIOUT ENIM HANC, SIC ET
ILLAM FEOIT DeUS, DT NON INVENIAT
HOMO CONTRA EUM JUSTAS QUERl-
MONiAS, in the good day enjoy good
things, and biware of the evil day.
for Ood lias made both this and that,
so that man may not find against
Him a just complaint, also makes
the a in Di'? dependent upon nN-^ (so
also Ibn Ezra, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, Hodgson, Noyes, &c,), refers
the pronoun in vnnN to Ood (so also
Sym.. Eashi, Ibn Ezra, Luther,
Mendelssohn, Durell, Herzfeld, &c.),
and tiikes npiMp to denote fault (so
also Symmachus, Eashi, Ibn Ezra,
Doderlein, Spohn, Nachtigal, &c.)
Against this is to be urged — 1. That
the advice aitaa n.'.n, be hapj)y, which
refers to the conduct of man in the
day of his pirosjierity (naiia Di'a), abso
lutely requires that the antithetic
nMn should be taken as an admonition
how one is to demean him/elf in the
day of adversity (nsn Di'a) ;• 2. I'nrtN
or 'nnM is invariably used in this
book as a preposition of time, the
sufBx referring to the future of the
individual (ii. 18, iii. 22, vii. 12, ix.
3, x. 14), which is also against
Philippson, who refers it to tlie
manner of God's dealings, and trans
lates the clause fo bag bet 5Rei#
nt(^tg batflbet f;inaug ftnbe ; and 3.
npiMn always, without exception, sig
nifies something (see v. 13, ix. 5),
which sense the Septuagint (ftnJev),
the Syriac V^r^), and most modem

CHAP. VII.]

COHELETH.

379

15 I have seen in my fleeting days, both the righteous die in
his righteousness, and the wicked live long in his wickedness.
16 Be not therefore very righteous, and make not thyself too
notwithstanding (comp. Ewald, § 217,
f. 3). '^'¦iMn, to make long, to prolong,
isgeneraliy followed by the accusative
D'Pt' f^oys {vide infra, viii. 13; Deut.
V. 30), but sometimes is without it
(compare Prov. x.xviii. 2 ; Gesen.
§ '153, 2; Ewald, § 122, d). The
same ellipsis exists in German, eg
lange moi^cn, lange tteiben, instead
of lange teben.
16. Be not therefore very righteous.
Sec. This, then, being the case, since
the fortunes of life are not distri
buted according to tbe merits or
demerits of man, Coheleth submits
that we are not to be too rigid and
scrupulous in our religious and moral
conduct, which, whilst it secures no
special blessing, will only alienate
our friends from us, and thus mar
our enjoyment of the present, the
only thing left for man. Much
ingenuity has been expended by
commentators of all ages, in their
attempts to make this verse orthodox.
Thus the traditional view, as given
in the Midrash and the Cbaldee, and
followed by Eashi, refers it to judges.
biiDp Ma'^n a'jnriN-n ^n'Ba n'n; 'Nai Nnn Mb
n'bEpnyNb-i 'niiiB NDTib' b'n? tj:'-! n'aa,' be
not too righteous when the criminal is
found'guilty of death in thy court of
justice, so as to have compassion on
him and not execute him, taking '?'ya
in the sense of clemency. Mercer,
Geier, Mendelssohn, Hodgson, Eo
senmiiller, &c., who also restrict this
injunction to magistrates, take V'Vi
in the opposite sense, to denote rigid.
Ibn Ezra, wbo is followed by Grotius,
Lord Bacon (Adv. of Learning, viii.
c. 2, Apho. 31), Paley in one of his ser
mons, Le Clerc, Eeynolds, Desvoeux,
Patrick, Noyes, understands by P'ns,
hermitioal piety, one who, by seclu
sion, entirely neglects the mainte
nance of his body, awn -pnn mon ]':Bn
'' bNBnwi DinN pNa 'lO'nY'nn TOS'in'ina.
But 1. These explanations are con
trary to the usual meaning of p'ns,

commentators rightly assign to it
here. 15. I have seen both. Sec The
passive submission to tbe decrees of
God's providence, which Coheleth
bas propounded according to tbe
common-sense view of life (10-14) is
nowfollowed by wholesome directions
with regard to active life (15-20).
The golden lesson is not to run into
intemperance in religion or irreligion,
but to keep to the happy medium.
To inculcate this, the sacred writer
relates his experience, and then draws
the conclusion from it to shew the
soundness of this rule. In his fleet
ing days Coheleth has seen both the
righteous, who has the promise of
long life, die prematurely, though
he consistently maintained bis in
tegrity ; and the wicked, who is to
be cut off suddenly, prolong his days
in spite of his persisting in wicked
ness, ban, as frequently, signifies
both (comp. ii. 14), and is rightly
referred by the Vulg., Mendelssohn,
Herzfeld, Preston, &c., to the follow
ing cases: — 'ban 'n;a, in the days of
my vanity, i. e., in my vain or fieeting
days ; the noun in tbe genitive ex
pressing the quality of the nomina
tive, bas the suffix which refers to
the whole idea (comp. 'to'Ji^.in, the
mountain of my holiness, i.e., my
¦holy mountain, Ps. ii. 6 ; Song of
¦Songs viii. 2 ; Gesenius, § 121, 6 ;
Ewald, § 291, b). Though the a
sometimes signifies for, though (see
the following verse), and is so trans
lated here by Symmachus (-r? Jixaioo-wii
avrov), Ibn Ezra, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, Eeynolds, Patrick,
Hodgson, Hitzig, Stuart, &c., yet it
is more consonant with the scope of
the passage to render it with the
Septuagint, Vulgate, Syriac, Chaldee,
Luther, the Geneva Version, the
Authorised Version , &c. , by in, wbich ,
as Desvoeux and Knobel rightly re
mark, has here the sense of although.

380

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VII

17 wise, for thou wilt only make thyself to be forsaken. Be not
very wicked, and be not foolish, lest thou die before thy

which always signifies a man acting
morally in all things, and is so
defined in verse 20, aiia-ntos;. 2. The
preceding verse, which contains the
premises to this, describes the fate of
men really pious and really wicked.
Now, to make Coheleth say that
because some who were sincerely
good died prematurely, in spite of
their goodness, therefore be not thou
affectedly good, is most preposte
rous. The only legitimate conclusion
is, that be cautions us against being
very righteous, pursuing piety much,
in a good sense, Dr, Hammond
(Answ, to Cawdry, chap, ii. § 2).
Holden, Adam Clarke, Stuart and
others, who saw that " these interpre
tations are strained and far-fetched,"
resorted to their favourite but equally
arbitrary expedient of putting these
words into the mouth of an objector.
¦We need not, however, adopt any
violent means to make this verse
harmonise with orthodoxy, inasmuch
as the " politic precept unto neutral
ity and indifference in good courses"
here propounded, is in accordance
with the so-called common-sense view
of life discussed in this section, and
is not the final opinion of Coheleth.
That comes at the end of the book,
and must not be anticipated here.
For nann, much, see i 16, and the
adverbial signification of nni', see ii.
] 5. Dsnnn is rendered by Gesenius,
Fiirst (Lex. s. v), and most modem
commentators, to be wise in one's
own eyes ; but this is contrary to nan
ib nna'nn:, Exod. i. 10, the only other
passage where the Hithpael occurs,
and where it incontestably signifies
to make one's-self wise, to shew one's-
self wise, to act with wisdom, in
reality, wbich signification this con
jugation frequently has (comp. pinnn,
to shew one's-self strong, 2 Sam, x. 12;
2 Chron. xiii. 7, 8 ; fl3Npn, to shew
one's-self angry, Deut. i. 37, iv. 21,
ix, 8, 20 ; Gesen. § 54, 3 ; Ewald, §
124). Besides the antithesis bap '™"bM,

which speaks of real, and not affected'
foolishness, shews beyond doubt that
the wisdom under consideration must
also be real. 'We thus obtain another
proof that the piety against which
Coheleth cautions is sincere, and not
affected, piety. For the Pattach
under the final syllable of Dsnnn
instead of DSnnn with a Tzere, see
Gesen. § 54, 3, note. Dniton is the
Hithpael fut for Dnitonn — the n of
the syllable nn being assimilated
before n, i, io, a, a, and n (compare
Gesen. § 54, 2, 6; Ewald, § 124, c)—
and means make thyself desolate,
deserted, or lonely (comp. Job xvi. 7,
where all his friends desert him for
his piety), so the Geneva Bible, the
Authorised Version in the margin,
Desvoeux, Durell, Hodgson, Hitzig,
Stuart &c. The Septuagint's ren
dering of it by ftmo-ts EKn-Xny?;, lest
thou be confounded, which is followed
by tbe Vulgate ne obstupesoas, lest
thou be stupified, does not at all
militate against our explanation of
the argument. Lutber, Coverdale,
the Authorised Version in tbe text,
and others, who translate it, destroy
thyself, sever the connection of this
verse with tbe preceding one, since
the death of the righteous mentioned
there is not caused by themselves,
through imprudence, but is per
mitted by an inserutable Providence.
The interrogative, as often, is used
for an emphatic affirmation (vide
supra, i. 3), and the sense of the
passage is better expressed by ren
dering it, with the Septuagint aud
Vulgate, in the affirmative.
17. Be not very wicked. Sec. But,
on the other hand, we are to be as
rnoderate in the indulgence of sin as
we are to be temperate in the practice
of virtue. For, whilst it is true that
a man may live a long life in spite
of his wickedness, yet it is also true
that there ai-e certain laws of nature
which cannot be transgressed with
impunity, violation of these will most

CHAP. VII.J

COHELETH.

381

18 time. It is better that thou shouldest lay hold of this, and
also not let go thy hand from that, for whoso feareth God

assuredly be visited with premature
death. It is almost needless to say
that this verse shared tbe fate of tbe
preceding one, Ibn Ezra's forced
attempt to get over the difficulty wiU
shew to what tortures the text of
Scripture is put, to wring from it
sentiments which should be compa
tible with tbe interpreter's pre-con
ceived notions. " Know," be says,
(Dbisn 'nana pDsnnb N'n msiDnn '3 sm)
" tbat wicked here means to be en
gaged in worldly matters." Strange
that Herzfeld should follow this
interpretation, ns, time, also the
right time, proper time (comp. infra,
X. 17; Prov. xv 23), which is ren
dered still more emphatic by the
pronoun (comp. Ps. i. 3, civ. 27).
'The interrogation, as in the former
verse, is used for an emphatic asser
tion. 18. It is better that. Sec. Since
great piety causes isolation, and
great wickedness brings about pre
mature death, we must not give
ourselves up entirely to either, but
strive to take the middle course. A
God-fearing man will know bow to
avail himself of both. The repeated
n; . . . ni, this . . . that, is rightly
referred by tbe Cbaldee, Eashi, Eash
bam, Ibn Ezra, Knobel, Herzfeld,
Vaihinger, &c., to p'''^, piety, and
sto-j, sin, their immediate antecedents,
although, as we have seen, these
commentators differ in their interpre
tation of these terms. Most modern
commentators, however, (e.g., Eey
nolds, Patrick, Hodgson, Holden,
Noyes, Stuart, &c.), refer this to the
counsel given in verse 18 to avoid
wickedness, and that to the advice
in verse 16 to abstain from over-
righteousness. But, 1. According to
this interpretation, this verse contains
no farther development of tbe pre
cepts already given in verses 1 6 and
17, and is mere tautology. 2. Co
heleth nowhere refers to several pre
cepts by distinct pronouns; and 3.

This explanation proceeds from a
misunderstanding of the view here
propounded. Q'nbM ^iy., one who fears
God, according to this theory, ns;,
to go, to go along, to proceed with.
Db3"nN, both, i. e., P'js, righteousness,
and sto-i, sin, to which the two pro
nouns ni . . . nj, referred in the
preceding clause. Eashbam beauti
fully explains tbe whole verse "jb ana
sionn p nin d:i p'ns nvnb pnsa ma inNniu
NiniB DnM iniN 'a i:nn -p' n'Dn Nbi n:n bN
nN nniiD Ninn) Dbiaa main 't nst D'ns) nt
"i:i 'nn nnv sun i:'mi nann p'ns i:'mib inss
it is good that thou shouldest take hold
of this, i.e., on righteousness, to be
righteous, and also from that, i. e.,
from sin, do not withdraw thine hand
from it; for whoso fears Ood will
proceed properly in both, as he takes
care not to be very righteous, nor to
sin above measure. Sec. Tbe Vulgate,
which renders Db3"nN ns; by nihil
NEGLiGiT, gives the same meaning to
this phrase in the negative. So also
the Syriac, Eashi, Ibn Ezra, Durell,
Hitzig, Stuart, &c. The rendering
of ns; by escape (Luther, Coverdale,
&c.), come forth of (tbe Bishop's
Bible, the Geneva Versioli, the Auth.
Version, &c.), avoid (Desvoeux), loill
be guided by (Hodgson), &c., are con
trary to tbe usus loquendi, inasmuch
as it is an intransitive verb, and can
not govern the accusative. Tbe ap
peal to the phrase "vsn-nN ns; (Exod.
ix. 29. 33), is inapposite, as this case
is not exactly analogous. The ren
dering of the Septuagint, iyaBh ro
avrs^EO-Bat tre Iv rovrai, xatyE eLTTo rovrov fxn
fiiavrii; rriv J^stpi cov, it is good that thou
hold fast to this, and also by this de
file not thine hand, changing ren into
Nnpp ; and the Vulgate, bonum est te
SUSTENTARE JUSTUM, SEU ET AB ILLO
NE SUBTRAHASMANUM TUAM; QUIA QUI
TIMET Deum, nihil negligit, it is
good for thee to sustain the just, nay,
from him withdraw not thine hand;
for whoso fears Ood neglects nothing,
taking aiio in a double sense, viz., it

382

COHELETH.

[chap. vii.

19 will make his way with both. Wisdom alone is gTeater
strength to the wise, than many mighty men who have been
20 in the city ; for there is not a righteous man upon earth who

is good, and a good or upright man,
according to the Hagadic rule of
interpretation, evidently proceed
from a desire to make this verse or
thodox. 19. Wisdom alone. Sec In con
cluding this lesson of moderation,
Coheleth submits that it is wisdom
alone, or this common sense view of
life, which will shew itself more
powerful in him who acts according
to it, to resist the extremes of life,
than the combined strength of a nu
merous army in a beleagured city.
nnan, wisdom, is the view of life under
consideration, isn is rendered ac
tively by the Sept. (SoMo-si, will help),
Aquila (hio-xyirEi , will strengthen) , Vul
gate (confortavit), which is followed
by Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Version, the Autb,
Version, and most modern commen
tators, but without any example to
substantiate it, as us is invariably
used intransitively, to become strong,
to be strong, to shew itself strong, to
have protection. This may be seen
by referring to Gesenius (Lex. s.v),
who strangely enough .makes this
passage a solitary exception, though
the uniform signification of the Kal
yields excellent sense, and is rightly
given by Ibn Ezra nnanb iB' nai us nnv
D'an D'lD'biD nsn, wisdom has more
strength and power than many mighty
men, Knobel, Lee (Lex. s v). Sea.
ntos, ten, is frequently used for a
round number (Gen. xxxi. 7; Numb.
xiv. 22 ; Job xix. 3), and exactly cor
responds to our expression many,
which ought to be given in a version
to convey tbe proper sense of the
original, as Eashbam and Ibn Ezra
rightly maintain and substitute D'an,
many. Desvoeux's objection, that
" ten mighty men would be a poor
garrison for a besieged city," which
led him to interpret D'p'bto, princes,
chiefs, including the forces they com
mand (Comment, p, 570), is owing

to an oversight of this idiom, and of
the similar comparison cited above.
Tbe phrase D'na: n'S, a city of mighty
men, i. e., defended by mighty men
(Prov. xxi. 22), puts it beyond a doubt
as to what n'sa D'p'bto in this verse
means. With this well-known com
parison before us, and the simple
meaning of the text, we may well be
astonished at the extraordinary and
most unnatural interpretation which
Mendelssohn gives to tbis verse, viz.,
"this maxim will be conflrmed to a
wise man from any ten rulers that
bavo been in a city, that there is no
just man," Sec, taking nnan to denote
Apiece of wisdom, a wise maxim, and
the n in nntosn as descriptive of place.
Strange that Preston should follow
this interpretation. The prseterite
vn, and the article in n'sa, make tbe
illustration D'ta'bto nntosn appear as if
it had actually taken place. But
such personifications are frequently
resorted to by Coheleth in order to
render the statement more vivid and
striking (comp, ii. 15, iv. 8. 15, &c.)
20. For there is not. Sec The
reason why wisdom was stated in the
foregoing verse to be effectual in aid
ing the wise to avoid extremes is, that
righteousness, the only other thing
which might have been thought able
to assist in this respect, is imprac
ticable, inasmuch as there is not a
single righteous man who can in
violably follow its precepts. '? is not
surely, truly (the Geneva Version,
Hodgson, Noyes, &c.), nor although
(Holden, &c.), but for, assigning a
reason for the eulogy passed upon
wisdom in the preceding verse. For
the position of tbe negative particle
J'M, see Ewald, § 321, b. Eashbam's
explanation, nan ]'n« -p 'nnnM i'»3Si
panb "jab nNi p bsi. nnana Dbisa aiwn
baa aiiQ nms' niBN pMa can onM ]'n 'nma
¦jnss ninwb -p «' p bsv Nion' Nba vn'
nnim bpa Ntan 'n'b Mian NbiD nbm: nn'oti)
Dann]n having said that there is no-

CHAP. VII.]

COHELETH.

383

21 doeth good and sinneth not. Moreover, give not thy heart
to all the words which are uttered, lest thou hear thy servant

tiling in the world so excellent as
wisdom, Ooheleth now wants it to be
understood that there is, nevertheless,
not a single wise man upon the earth
who does good and errs not. Hence
the necessty of being exceedingly care
ful not to fall into error, especially
when one is a wise man, assigns to 'a
the abnormal sense of nevertheless,
takes P'ns in this verse to be synony
mous with D3n in the preceding one,
and does not improve the sense.
Equally objectionable is Ibn Ezra's
interpretation, p'ns 'nn bM ps nNab nin
J'N '3 Niann Nb© bain Mb 'a sn i:':si nann
namnna im mana in bsioa Mian' Mb niBM DnN,
Ooheleth now returns to explain verse
16, " Be not very righteous," and his
meaning is, know that it is impossible
for you not to sin, for there is not a
man existing who does not sin either
in deed, words, or thought, regarding
verse 19 as paientbetical, which is
followed by Mercer and others. Still
more artificial is the explanation of
Eeynolds, Spohn, Holden, Knobel,
Heiligstedt, &c., connecting it with
the following verse, viz., " Because
there is not a just man upon earth
that doeth good and sinneth not,
therefore it is also the part of wisdom
to take no heed unto all words," &c.,
as '3 never begins a new subject, and
is never construed with Da as cause
and effect.
21. Moreover, give not thy heart.
Sec. Another lesson which wisdom
teaches, is to abstain from prying
into everybody's sentiments, as this
frequently results in hearing things
which mar the peace and happiness
of the curious. The transition from
the former lesson to this is apparent.
In the preceding admonition, refe
rence had to be made to the imper
fections of the best of men, it is
therefore natural that Coheleth should
pass on to a propensity in man, which,
if indulged, would bring to his ears
the very failings of which he is guilty.
Lord Bacon beautifully remarks upon

this passage, " It is scarce credible
what uneasiness is created in life by
au useless curiosity about the things
that concern us ; as when we pry into
such secrets, as, being discovered,
give us distaste, but afford no assist
ance or relief. For — 1. 'There follows
vexation and disquiet of mind, as all
human things are full of perfidious-
ness and ingratitude. So that, though
we could procure some magic glass,
wherein to view the animosities, and
all that malice which is any way at
work against us, it were better for
us to break it directly than to use it.
For these things are but as the
rustlingofleaves, soon over. 2. This
curiosity always loads the mind with
suspicion, which is a violent enemy
to counsels, and renders them un
steady and perplexed. 3. It also
frequently fixes the evils themselves,
which would otherwise have blown
over : for it is a dangerous thing to
provoke the consciences of men,
who, so long as they think themselves
concealed, are easily changed for the
better ; but, if they once find them
selves discovered, drive out one evil
with another. It was" therefore
justly esteemed the utmost prudence
in Pompey that he directly burnt
all tbe papers of Sertorius, unperused
by himself or others " (Advancement
of Learning, viii. 2, Aphorism 4,
pp. 30 1, 3 02, Bohn's ed.) Servants are
adduced as an illustration, because
they are generally acquainted with
the faults of their masters, and are
often prone to speak about them to
others ; and because from them an
insult is felt more keenly, and the
master has the best opportunity of
resenting it. b ab jn:, to give one's
lieart to anything, i.e., io search it
out. For ina-i;, they spake, third person
plural, used impersonally or passively,
see i. 1 0. ^<b ntoM, that not, lest (comp.
Esth. i. 19, ii. 'lO). -fjbbpn is well
rendered by Symmachus ^(lljlJ(«JuvT»; o-e,
the Vulg. MALEDIOENTEM TIBI, CoVCr-

384

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VII.

22 speak evil against thee ; for thy heart knoweth that oftentimes
23 thou also hast spoken evil of others. All this have I tried
by wisdom ; I wished to be wiser, but it was far from me.
dale, the Bishops' Bible, &c., reviling,
abusing, or speaking evil of thee ; the
Piel of bbp_. is often used in this sense
(comp. infra, x. 20 ; Levit. xix. 14 ;
2 Sam. xvi. 5). For the construction
of ^bbp^, see Ewald, § 284, 6. The
Hagadic explanation of this verse,
^ab nionn Mb NS'ton Tjb jibbn'n N;b'p bs t]iM
¦qnas n; snton^'-n j'nV jin;; Nb-Tjinnibapb
rp loib; "i, also all the words which
the wicked speak to thee, give not
thy heart to accept them, lest the
days come when thou shalt hear thy
servant curse thee, gave rise to the
rendering of the Septuagint, xalys
elq TTavraq Xoyovg o'ug KaXho-oviriv aa-E^sTg
fiti aSt xapSiav a-ov, and also the Syriac
Version, r--^f\J^ ^^^ ^1°
and also do not g ve thy heart to all
the words which the wicked speak.
22. For thy heart knoweth. Sec.
To prove what bas been said, Cohe
leth appeals to our own experience.
"We know that we frequently dwell
upon the faults of our neighbours,
and it is but natural that they should
do the same. If we therefore like to
be inquisitive, we must expect to hear
the same free' expression of unplea
sant things about ourselves which
we exercise with regard to others,
and which they would hear if they
instituted the same inquiries. Da,
also, before D'nSB, times, belongs to
nWM, thou, where, however, it is
repeated, because the intervening
words are too many. The subordi
nate nia-n D'pss, many iimcs, depending
upon nbbp, thou hast spoken evil of, is
placed first, for the sake of emphasis.
The regular construction would be
D'psB D'nnN nbbp nnN-o: ntoN ^ab sn;. '3
nia-1, which is rightly given by the
Vulgate soiT enim oonsoibntia tua,
QUIA ET TO OREBEO MALEDIXISTI
ALUS, Eashbam nnssa snv nnN d: 'nniB

D'nnN nbbp d'dsd man niDN, Luther benn
bein |)et5 weif, baf bu anbetn au$
Oftmate gefluii^et ^ajl, Coverdale and
the Bishops' Bible " for thine own
heart knoweth, that thou thyself also
hast oft-times spoken evil by other
men," Hodgson, Herzfeld, &c. The
Geneva Version (" for oftentimes also
thine heart knoweth that thou like
wise hast cursed others"), which is
followed by the Authorised Version,
is a departure from Coverdale and
the Bishops' Bible for tbe worse.
The rendering of Knobel, De Wette,
Hitzig, Stuart, Vaihinger, &c., for
thou knowest many times or many
instances when. Sec, taking nian D'ps?
as tbe accusat. of the object governed
by »¦!;., is owing to a misunderstanding
of this emphatic construction. To
connect this verse with its rendering
of the former one, the Septuagint
translates it on "TrXEto-TrtXi; TtovnpEvffErai
a-E xal xaQo^ovg OToX'Kaq xaxdoa-Et xap^iav trov,
for many times he will do thee evil,
and will repeatedly afflict thy heart.
Sec. ; it substitutes, according to the
Hagadic mode of interpretation, sn;,
he shall do thee evil, shall afflict thee,
for ST, which is similar in appear
ance, making ia-iiiig (B^5), the sinner,
which was supplied in the preceding
verse, the subject, and doubly ex
plains the clause, first -^b Sn'^nian D'nss,
and then -fjab s-n; nian D'nss, because
the Hiphil sn; signifies both to do
evil, morally, and to afflict. We have
had such modesof explanation before,
see verse 18.
23. All this have I tried. Sec. This
line of conduct thus set forth, Co-
holeth tells us he had tried himself
by means of practical wisdom, wbich
he had so largely acquired, and there
fore could speak experimentally upon
tbe subject (comp, i, 12), He, more
over, tells us tbat, stimulated by her
salutary assistance in practical life,
he wished for her help in another
direction ; be wanted to obtain still

CHAP. VII.]

COHELETH.

385

24 Far remaineth what was far, and deep, deep ! who can find
25 it out ? I and my heart turned to know and diligently to

greater wisdom, so as to be able to
fathom and comprehend the myste
ries of Providence, but tbat in tbis
he utterly failed. For ni, that, see
ii. 2, and np:, to try, see ii. 1. 'fi"inN,
/ said, also I thought, I wished, is
closely connected with the future
(tipariN) which is subordinate to it,
and must be rendered, / thought to
be wise, or wiser (comp. n.33N 'PiST^i^b,
/ know not I shall flatter, i.e., I
know not to flatter, Job xxxii. 22 ;
Isa. xiii 21 ; Gesen. § 142, 3, c;
Ewald," § 285). The phrase is well
explained by Ibn Ezra, D3nNm 'niDpi
pinn nan Mimti 'nNsni nnv, I wished to
be wiser, but I found that this is too
remote an object.
24. Far remaineth what was far,
Sec. To shew the failure of his
attempt to fathom by wisdom the
counsels of the Almighty, Coheleth
says, that that wbich bad appeared
to him inexplicable in the moral
government of God prior to his
¦obtaining wisdom still continued
to be so afterwards. The same
sentiment is expressed in viii. 17.
The repetition pns pfis, in the second
clause; shews that pinn must also
be repeated in the first clause, and
tbat it bas been omitted for the
sake of bracby logy. Fully expressed,
the verse would be rrnto-np Nin pirn
"iai pfe? n;ntoTnp p-bsi p^rn,far remains
what was far, and deep remains what
was deep. The Septuagint, connecting
it with the preceding verse, renders
it itira, J.o^iffBiia'ofJoai xal ojjrl EfiaxpvvBn
tilt Ef/,ov fA,axpaV vlfEp o ^ xal 0a6v 0Arog,
I said I will be wise, but it was far
from me, beyond what it was, and
great measure ; thus also the Vulgate,
dixi : Sapiens effidar ; et ipsa longius
recessit a me, multo magis quam erat,
et alta profunditas, and the Syriac
I X • ....
., 0 i . •,¦" l> .-" L ' .-"

lnV70S> InkJQAO referring tbe
whole verse to wisdom, which is fol
lowed by Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible, " I thought to be wise, but
she went further from me than she
was before, yea and so deep that I
might not reach unto her." 13ut tbis
is inadmissible, because it cannot be
taken as a comparative, and because
the feminine nj^irrn and the masculine
pinn cannot both be the predicate of
the same subject. Luther's Version,
eg ifi fetne, was witb eg fein ? unb
ifi fe^t tief, wet wiVi eS jtnben ? which
is literally adopted in the Geneva
Bible, " it is far off, what may it
be ? and it is a profound deepness,
who can find it ? " and explained in
the margin " meaning wisdom," the
Authorised Version, Knobel, De
Wette, Noyes, Hitzig, Stuart, Vai
hinger, ifec, " tbat which is far off,
and exceeding deep, who can flnd
it out ? " besides referring tbe fem.
nirinn and the masc. pinn to the same
subject, violate the uniform meaning
of the phrase rrnto-nn, and render
the prseterite n;n in the present. The
loose renderings of Desvoeux, " what
ever is so far off, nay removed to the
greatest depth, who shall find it?"
and Hodgson,'" how distant is it, and
deep! ^eep'l who can reach it?"
incur the same objections,
25, / and my heart turned, &e.
From tbis vain attempt to speculate
about remote and profound things
(23-24) Coheleth returned with
greater eagerness than ever (iwb-i ns-nb
top.ai) to the teachings of practical wis
dom, setting forth her salutary coun
sels. The caution now given is to be
guarded against women (25 -29), for
they engender and perpetuate evil
and misery. For aap, to turn from
one thing, construed with b, to, indi
cating the other thing, to which the
transition is made, see ii. 20. 'abi is
not sensu meo (Symmachus), nor
animo mep (the Vulgate), 'abaNatonb

3D

386

COHELETH.

[chap. VII.

examine practical wisdom, in order to know the cause of

(the Syriac, the Cbaldee, Knobel,
Heiligstedt, Hitzig, Elster, Vaihinger,
&c.) making it the instrumental accu
sative, as if it were 'ab?, with my heart,
which twenty-eight of Kennicott's,
and fourty-four of De Eossi's MSS.
actually have, as this is contrary to
tbe i ; nor i^ fe^tte mein ^etj,
I applied my mind (Luther, Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, the Autho
rised Version in the text, Spohn,
Noyes, &c.), as if it were 'ab'nN ; nor
is it my desire, the copula nfl being
implied after it, and the infinitives
(nominascent) that follow are the
complement or predicate, i. e., and
my purpose or desire was to know.
Sec. ('lai nsnb 'niaiD nni Ibn Ezra),
unb meine Segejt wax ju etfennen
(Herzfeld, Stuart, &c.), but and my
heart (xal h xapiia fjoov, Sept.) as a com
panion, in accordance with the
uniform apostrophising of the heart
or tbe soul, which is always appealed
to and summoned when a new thing
is to be undertaken (vide, i. 13, ii, 1.
20). The predicate 'niap is singular,
though referring to both ':n and 'ab,
because it is placed at the beginning
of the sentence (comp. Gen. xxiv.
55 ; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8 ; Jer. xxx. 19 ;
Gesenius, § 147 ; Ewald, § 339, c).
For the use of nm and top.a, verbs of
similar import to express intensity,
see i 13. The omission of the b
before toga is harsh and un,common,
and is therefore rightly supplied in
the Syriac and the Chaldee para
phrase. The b is however also
omitted in D'p;bi D'nsinbi nni«b vm
D'l-toi (Gen, i. 14). Jiaton, fromi aton,
to hind, to knit together, to interlace
(Exod. xxvi. 1. 81, xxviii. 6, xxxv.
35), to combine skilfully, like all other
verbs of binding, knitting, &o. (see
Fiirst, Lex. under anN, Dpi, aton, aia),
is transferred to the combining of
thought, either in a good or bad
sense ; hence to think, to think out,
to devise, to plot, means combination,
device, the summing up of combina
tions, explanation, the sum, result,
estimate, decision (vide infra, ver. 27,

ix. 10). Jiai?jn defines np?n, where
with it is connected by the copula,
thus constituting the figure hen-
diadys = I'v ha. ivoXv, in which case
the defining noun may either stand
before or after the one it defines
(comp. D'-isinbi niniNb, for signs and
for seasons, i.e., for signs of seasons
Gen. i. 14 ; Dpii D'ptoa, odours and
kinds, i. e., divers kinds of odours
2 Chron. xvi. 14, infra, viii. 5, 6; ix.
1 1; Gesen § 155, 1, a. The i in nsnb;, as
frequently, marks the end or aim of
this enquiry (comp. Gesen. § 155, 1, e;
Ewald, § 347). That ston, bpa, and
nibspn, wickedness, vice, a.nd folly, are
here used metonymically for the
origin, source, or cause of these evils
is evident from the following verse.
The article in nibapn shews that it is
a special kind of folly, and tbat
nibbin defines it, i. q., nibbin ntoN nibapni,
and that folly which is madness, i. e.,
tbat mad or infatuated folly. What
this is, Coheleth tells us in the fol
lowing verses. 'The Vulgate renders
nibbin nibsDni bp3 ston nsnb by'uT ooq-
noscerem impietatem stulti et
EBBOBEM IMPRUDENTIUM, which is
followed by Luther (JU etfa^ten bet
©otttofen S^otjeit, unb Sttt^um bet
Sotlen), Coverdale and tbe Bishops'
Bible (" to know the foolishness of
the ungodly, and tbe error of doting
fools ") ; but against this is to be
urged — 1. That it is contrary to the
signification of bp3 and nibbin, which
are abstracts ; and 2. That it is
against the construction of tbe words
sto-i and nibspri, which are in the
absolute, as is evident from the
absence of the article in tbe nouns
supposed to be in the genitive. The
Syriac ]Iaa) J <n7nv. .;'' u'vPiV
"jioj^^lv.^O y n\'-,n\nt.nknnw
the wickedness of the fool, and folly
and adultery, incurs these objections
with regard to the words bpa ston ;
whilst Eashbam (nibiD3i mb3D btt B«n
mbbin b»), and the Geneva Bible
(" to know the wickedness of folly

chap, vii.]

COHELETH.

387

26 wickedness, vice, and mad folly, and I found the woman
• more bitter than death ; she is nets, her heart snares, and
her hands are chains ; whoso is good before God shall escape
27 from her ; but the sinner shall be caught by her; Behold
what I have found, saith Coheleth — taking one thing by one

and the foolishness of madness"),
tbe Authorised Version (" to know
tbe wickedness of folly, even of
foolishness and madness"), Desvoeux
(" to know tbe wickedness of igno
rance and the foolishness of that
which is in the greatest esteem"),
and Hodgson (" to make likewise
tbe evil of folly and the madness of
vice "), only incur tbe second objec
tion. The rendering of Knobel,
Herzfeld, Ewald, Hitzig, Heiligstedt,
Philippson, Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger,
Hengstenberg, &c., "to know wisdom
as folly, and folly as madness," taking
bps and nibbin as second accusatives
depending upon the verb nsnb, is very
artificial, and has not been substan
tiated by any really parallel instances
in Ewald's Grammar, § 284, b.
26. And I found. Sec. Coheleth
soon found that it is woman wbo
is the cause of all tbe mischief,
employing her arts and snares to
inveigle man; that only the God
fearing can be delivered from her,
whilst tbe sinner is irretrievably
caught That woman is the cause
of man's sin is quite in harmony
with the earliest notions of the female
sex, and with the opinions of Orien
tals to the present day. The conduct
of the first man, who tried to excul
pate his crime by ascribing the
culpability to the woman (Gen. iii.
6. 12), bas been faithfully copied by
his sons in all ages, to the detriment
of themselves, the female sex, and
society at large ; so that the woman
became the embodiment of wicked
ness (Zech. V. 8 ; Sirach xxv. 24,
xiii. 13, 14; 1 Tim. ii 14; Testa
ment of the Twelve Patriarchs,
Euben, § 5). NSin is one of the verbs
M"b which adopt the vowel points of
n"^ by virtue of their intimate con

nection, in consequence of which
these two classes of verbs not unfre
quently flow into one another (comp.
infra, viii 2. 12, ix. 18, x. 5 ; Gesen.
§ 75, vi. ; Ewald, § 116, b ; § 142, c).
ip does not agree with ntoN, because
it precedes it for the sake of emphasis,
as in the foregoing verse, nab and
n'-v may either be tbe accusative of
the manner or the respect in which
she is snares, &c., i.e., who is nets
and snares as to her lieart, and bands
as to her hand (comp. Gen. xxxvii.
21; Deut xxii 26, xxxiii. 11; Ps.
Ixxxiii 6; Gesen. § 139, 2 ; Ewald, §
281, c) ; or, wbich is still better, they
are to be taken as the subject or
nominative, N'ln, as frequently, being
used for the sake of emphasis (vide
supra, iii. 14) to describe tbe whole
sex ; so the Septuagint, Vulgate, the
Syriac, Desvoeux, Holden, &c. The
omission of tbe -) before D'niDM is
owing to tbe fact that when three or
more nouns or clauses are connected,
the copula is sometimes only inserted
between the first and second, and not
before tbe subsequent ones (comp.
niS'sp nibnMi •\ti, myrrh, and aloes,
and cassia, Ps. xlv. 9 ; Deut. xxix.
22 ; Job xiii 9 ; Isa. i. 13).
27. Behold what. Sec. 'The allega
tion made in tho foregoing verse
respecting tbe great wickedness of
woman, Coheleth here assures us is
not owing to his ignoring the faults
of his own sex, but is the result of
unbiassed and minute observations
of both sexes. Having examined
both man and woman, and taken
everything (npNb nnM) belonging to
their respective conditions into con
sideration, he now tells us both what
he bas found and what he has not
found among them to substantiate
the foregoing assertion. In giving

388

COHELETH.

[chap. vii.

28 to find the result — and what my soul is still seeking, and I
have not found ; one man among a thousand I have fouiid,

his reasons, Coheleth begins with
nNn, see, behold, to secure special
attention. That by ni, this, the
sacred writer points to what follows
(Desvoeux, Knobel, Heiligstedt, Hit
zig, Stuart, Elster, &c.), and not to
what precedes (Mendelssohn, Eo
senmiiller, Vaihinger, Hengstenberg,
&c.), is evident from verse 29, where
tbe same words (ni nM-n) are used to
call attention to what he is going to
say. Grotius, Durell, Houbigant,
Michaelis, Van der Palm, Spohn,
Knobel, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster,
&c., alter nbrip rrjpN into nbrlpn nnM,
maintaining that the words are
wrongly divided, and that the article
n has, by a mistake, been detached
from nWpn and attached to npst. In
supyiortof this they submit — 1. 'That
nbrip is construed with the masculine
verb nnN in all the other passages
where it occurs (compare i 1,2. 12,
and xii. 8, 9, 10) ; 2. That the phrase
nbripn nnN actually occurs in xii. 8,
where nbnp has the article ; and 3.
That this is supported by tbe Sept.
and the Syriac. But this emendation
is. arbitrary, as well as unnecessary,
and proceeds from a misunderstand
ing of the word rtnp, wbich describes
Solomon as personified wisdom, and.
hence may be construed both with
masculine and feminine verbs, ac
cording to tbe nature of the case
(vide supra, p. 7). The article in
xii. 8 has a special significance there,
and would be useless here. As to
the appeal to the ancient versions,
it is preposterous to seek support for
this emendation from the rendering
eTwev 0 ixx\>}<rMTrfig of the Septuagint,
since the Greek verb has no distinc
tion between masculine and femi
nine, and the masculine article i
before Ixxxno-wo-rit only shews tbat
ixxkwiarriK; is a masculine noun in
Greek, just as the article « before
xapi'ia shews tbat xapiU is feminine ;
and no one would ever try to establish
therefrom, by the same parity of

reasoning, that ab is feminine in
Hebrew. The Syr. /uiiOlCLO ^1
proves nothing, inasmuch as it only
shews tbat in the copy from which
this version was made, the n was
altogether wanting. The feminine
nnM is used in a neuter sense for one
thing (vide supra, i. 11), and the
verb substantive nn;n, which, as fre
quently, is omitted, must be supplied
after it, i. e., nn'n nnMb nns, one thing
to one thing was to find, &c., that is
to say, every individual thing peculiar
to either sex was, or came in, to make
up the result, thus shewing tbat all
partiality has beencarefully excluded.
In tbe translation tbis clause is better
put in parenthesis, to mark the inti
mate connection of tbis verse with
the following one, which the im
proper division of verses has entirely
destroyed. 28. And what. Sec Coheleth now
tells us what he has found and what
he has not found in the course of
bis examination. A man virtuous
and upright, and deserving this ap
pellation, be has found among a
thousand, but a woman possessing
these characteristics which make her
worthy of this name he has not found
among a similar number; or, in
other words, though Tiprigbt men
are not very numerous, yet they are
to be found, but upright women are
scarcely to be met with. This, then,
being the case, tbe allegation in
verse 26 is fully established. For
the Eastern notions of women we
must refer to verse 26, and my com
mentary on the Song of Songs, pp.
14-19, and add here the remarks of
St. Chrysostom, that the devil, when
depriving Job of his substance,
children, and health, left his wife,
" because he thought that she would
be a great furtherance unto him to
conquer that saint of God " (Homel.
38 in Epistol. ad Corinth.) ; " what
is woman, but a punishment that

CHAP. VII.]

COHELETH.

389

29 but a woman among all that number I have not found : only
behold this have I found, that God made man upright, but

cannot be driven away, a necessary
evil, a natural temptation, a desirable
calamity, a domestic danger, one
beloved for the colour of good?"
(Homel. 6 in Matt., quoted by Jer
min, p. 243) ; and the saying of
Mohammed, tbat among men there
were many perfect, but among women
only four — Asiah, the wife of Pha
raoh ; Mary, the mother of Christ;
Cadijab, his wife ; and Fatima, bis
daughter" (Pocock, Specimen Hist.
Arab. p. 188, ed. White, Oxon. 1806;
Prideaux, Life of Mahomet, p. 61,
quoted by Holden, p. 124). ntoN,
that, at the beginning of tbis verse,
depends upon ni nM-}, behold this, in
tbe foregoing verse ; so tbat ni-i, and
this, or the simple copula i, is to be
supplied before it, and is properly
given by tbe Syriac, Luther, and
tbe Geneva Bible ; hence the Sept.,
tbe Vulgate, the Authorised Version,
also rightly connect this verse with
the preceding one. Holden's asser
tion, that by doing tbis these versions
" produce the contradiction of saying
that the Preacher had not found
what before he asserted that he bad
found," proceeds from his having
mistaken the sense of tbe sacred
writer ; since the flnding and not
finding refer to two separate subjects,
tbe former to men, the latter to
women. To us it is a matter of
great surprise that commentators
should not have alighted upon this
simple and natural explanation of
the text, but have resorted to a
multitude of forced and conflicting
interpretations too numerous to be
repeated. The words 'too: ntopa-ns,
my soul is still seeking, are added, to
shew the difficulty of the task.
Coheleth had not only devoted the
same space of time in his search
after a good woman which he gave
to his search after a good man, but
he tells us that he is still in quest of
her. The absence of the Dagesh in
ntopa here, and in itopa in the following

verse, is owing to the peculiarity that
tbe radical letters in the forms of
Piel and Pael, which have Sheva
under them, may drop the charac
teristic Dagesh (comp. Ps. Ixxiv. 7 ;
Ezek. xvii. 7 ; Gesenius, § 20, 3 ;
Ewald, § 64). Tbat DnN and ntoN
stand for nto; to'M, an upright man,
and nnto; ntoN, an upright woman,
is evident from verse 26, and espe
cially from the following verse. Dnw
is not unfrequently used for to'N, like
avSpuiTTc; for aviip in Greek, and homo
for vir in Latin (comp. Ps. cv. 14,
with 1 Chron. xvi. 21, and Matt.
xix. 10). fjbN, a thousand, is put for
a large round number (comp. Ps. 1.
10, Ixxxiv. 11, xc. 4, cv. 8), and
hence the phrase one in a thousand
became an idiomatic expression for
something rare (compare Job ix. 3,
xxxiii. 23). D'to:N, rnen, is to be
supplied after flbMii, in a thousand.
nbN'baj, among this, i. e., large number.
Though tbe number thousand has
evidently been suggested by the
number of Solomon's wives and
concubines (1 Kings xi 1-9), yet
it would be contrary to the scope of
the passage to refer this description
to them. For if the thousand men
refer to tbe male sex generally, the
common laws of language and exe
gesis demand that the thousand
women should be interpreted of the
female sex generally. Bishop Patrick's
attempt to elude this dilemma by
trying to restrict the thousand men
to tbe multitude wbo attended upon
Solomon in the court, is simply gra
tuitous, inasmuch as there is not
the slightest intimation that Solo
mon's courtiers or servants are here
intended ; but, on the contrary, the
following verse clearly shews that
mankind generally are meant.
29. Only, behold. Sec. To avoid,
however, all misunderstanding as
regards the origin of this state of
things, and to shew that the degene
racy of both men and women, great

390 Coheleth. [chap. viii.
viii. 1 they seek out many devices. Who is like the wise
man ? and who like him that understandeth the meaning of

in the one case and great in the
other, has no other source than the
human heart, Coheleth finds it ne
cessary to add that when man left
tbe hands of the Creator he was not
so; God created men upright, but
they corrupted themselves, nab, only,
is used for singling out the subject
to which particular attention is drawn
(comp. Isa. xxvi. 13). That DnNn is
here used in a generic sense for man
kind, is evident from the plural pro
noun npn, they, thus affording an
other irrefragable proof tbat the
characteristics mentioned in the pre
ceding verses do not belong to par
ticular classes, but to mankind. For
the Piel itopa without the Dagesh in
the p, see the foregoing verse, niaaton,
devices (vide verse 25), has what is
called the Dagesh dirimens or euphonic
(comp. Gesen. § 20, 2; Ewald, §
188, f). The Vulgate's rendering of
D'an ni:aton itopa nnni, et ipse se in-
riNITIS MISOUERIT QU,S:STIONIBUS, ani
he has entangled himself with an in-
flnity of questions, connecting it with
the following verse; which is followed
by Coverdale, ". God made man just
and right, but they seek diverse
Bubtilties, whereas no man bath
wisdom and understanding to give
answer thereunto;" and Ewald, who
explains it i>o(^ wem hag waWaft
tugenb:t)afte Seib feJt felten fein ntag
CSS. 28) fo ifi bt»cf) nic^t weniget gett)i?,
ba? bet 2»enfc^, bon ©ebutt CJiatut)
unfi^ulbig unb einfat^, gerabe unb
tebtic^erf(|)offen,im@ett)itte beg Sebeng
ftc^ felt)|l btete unnot^ige gtagen unb
©tubeleien fe^offt, welt^em fiange junt
^tfigeln man nii^t einfeitig na^ge'ben
fott C2?. 29;) aufgebenb bietme^t unnii^e
©pi^finbigfeiten C8- S. bie lifcet
fc^led^tete SRatut beg SBeibeg, wel(^eS
bo(^ bietteit^t nd^et bettat^tet ein
Stttjunt i(l betgl. it. 9), foil man bie
teine SBaMeit unt> 2Be(gfeit fuc^en,
though a really virtuous woman may
be very rare (verse 28), yet it is not
less certain that man in his birth

(nature) is made innocent and simple,
upright and honest; that he creates
for himself, in the turmoil of life,
many unnecessary questions and en
quiries, and that we are not to yield
one-sidedly to this propensity of prying
into things (verse 29), but, relinquish
ing useless speculations — such as about
the more degenerate nature of woman,
which, perhaps, if more closely exa
mined would not be true (comp. ix. 9)
— we are to pursue real truth and
wisdom (chap, ix.) — destroys the
manifest antithesis between n-to' and
niaa^n, and is against the scope of
the passage, which has nothing to
do with speculation, but with moral
degeneracy. 1. Who is like the wise man? Sec.
The next lesson which this common
sense view of life teaches is gentle
submission. He who is truly wise,
who understands the import of this
matter, or of tbis view of life, bas no
compeer. The abnormal Dann3, in
stead of the normal Djns, vpith the n
dropped, and its vowel under the a
comparison, is not of unfrequent oc
currence, especially in later books
(comp. Ezek. xl. 25, xlviii. 22; 2
Chron. x. 7, xxv. 10, xxix. 27; Nehem.
ix. 19, xii 38; Gesen. § 52, 2; Ewald,
§ 244, a), sni' stands for sni'?, the 3
comparison, as usually, is to be sup
plied before it from the preceding
noun Dann.3. The expression ntos is
purely Chaldaic, and only occurs in
Daniel, and denotes interpretation,
signiflcation, import, meaning, nan,
thing, matter (see supra, i. 10), refers
to the view of life under considera
tion. The phrase nan ntos exactly
corresponds to the Hebrew nan jia: in
1 Sam. xvi. 18. The interrogative,
as frequently, is used for an emphatic
negative, i.e, 'no one can be com
pared with the wise man, and with
him who knows the import of this
view of life.' The rendering of the
Septuagint, rig oThv a-o<))suc or <n^Ut;
Kal rig olhv Kiio-iv fnjuaro; ; who knoWS the

chap, viii.]

coheleth.

391

the thing ? The wisdom of this man enlighteneth his
2 countenance, and his stern visage is changed. I say, then.
Obey the king's command, and especially because of the oath

wise or his wisdom ? and who knows
the interpretation of the word ? drop
ping the a comparison from Djnns,
making it the accusative to s-ii', which
is taken over from the following
clause, as well as referring it to the
wisdom of God, and understanding
by "iin the Scripture, is as usual to
be traced to Hagadic influence, as
may be seen from the Chaldee, which
paraphrases it Dp;nb b'a;-n Np'an Min jNn
Nwa:a Nj'p ntoB sn'nbi ';n Nnnam Vai?.,
who is the wise man, that can stand
before the wisdom of God, and fathom
the import of his word, like the pro
phets ? and especially from the Mid
rash Eabba, and Yalkut.
The wisdom of this man, Sec This
clause gives the reason for the senti
ment expressed in the former one.
He bas no equal, because his wisdom,
or the prudent view of life according
to which he regulates his conduct,
makes him cheerful, and teaches him
submission, to endure that which he
cannot cure. As the face is the mirror
of the soul, it is especially mentioned
in describing the state of our inner
most feelings. d':s n'Nn, to light up
the countenance, i.e., to brighten, to
cheer, to make happy (comp. Numb.
vi. 25; Ps. xix. 9; Prov. xvi 15, and
tbe synonymous expression, nn:, to
brighten up, to be cheerful, Ps. xxxiv.
6 ; Isa. Ix. 5). Tbat d'.:b ii>, strength
of face, means resolutensss, sternness,
or rigour of his face, as Holden , Herz
feld, Philippson, Elster, &c., rightly
maintain, is evident from Deut. xxvii.
50, where ope is 'i: is explained by
Jgrt d':B Nte;-Mb ntoN, which does not re
gard the peison of the old, inasmuch
as it could not properly be said that
an enemy is impudent to the young,
and therefore must mean a foe treat
ing with rigour both old and young.
N.:to; stands for njto; (comp. 2 Kings
xxv. 25, and Jer. iii. 33, with Lam.
iv. 1) ; for the cause of it, see supra,
viiie. The Septuagint's rendering

N:to; 1'^ li>1 by xal avaiSnc itpoa-i-nx avrov
fumSfurErai, and his shameless face will
be hated, altering M.3to; into MSte;, the
Niphal future of N:.to, to hate, which
is followed by Luther (WiX a6et
fte$ iji, bet ift feinbfetig), Coverdale
(" but malice puttetb it out of fa
vour"), Desvoeux (" whereas a sullen
look would make him an object of
hatred"), Durell (" but he that bath
an impudent countenance shall be
hated"), Hodgson ("but austerity in
tbe looks is hateful"), &c., is both
unjustifiable, and mars the connec
tion of this verse with the sequel.
The Vulg., ET potbntissimus faciem
ILLIUS coMMUTABiT, and the omnipo
tent will change his face, taking is as
nominative, and subject, v|S as the ac
cusative, governed by tbe verb wbich
follows it, and altering N3to;, the future
Pual, into N3to;, Piel, is to be repudi
ated, because — 1. It assigns to is a
sense which it never has, since the
term is invariably used as an abstract
and not a concrete; 2. It disjoins
the idiomatic and well-known phrase
d':b is ; and 3. It arbitrarily alters
the text. The same objections are
to be urged against Hitzig's render
ing, unb 1x0^ fein Slntlif entjlettt,
espoused by Stuart (" but haughti
ness disfigureth his face"), which
follows the construction and emen
dation of the Vulgate, though as
signing a different but equally un
justifiable sense to is, and adopts the
antithetic form of the Septuagint.
2. / say, then. Obey, Sec Having
submitted that tbis prudent view of
life will make us adapt ourselves
and cheerfully yield to the pressure,
of circumstances, Coheleth deduces
therefrom the lesson of submission
and obedience to the authority reign
ing over us for the time being, and
especially as submission and obedi
ence have been solemnly promised
with an oath invoking the name of
God. The oath referred to alludes

392

coheleth.

[chap. viii.

3 of God. Do not go away hastily from his presence, do not
even stand up because of an evil word, for he doth whatsoever

to the covenant at tbe coronation of
tbe king, when tbe sovereign solemnly
promises to govern the people ac
cording to the law of God, and tbe
people in return swear fealty and
allegiance to their monarch (comp.
2 Kings xi 17 ; 1 Chron. xi. 3, xxix.
24). Hence we are told by Josephus,
tbat when Ptolmey Lagi settled tbe
captive Jews in Egypt, he made them
take an oath of allegiance (Antiq.
xii. 1.) The pronoun ':m has caused
much difiSculty to interpreters, as it
has no predicate connected therewith.
The Septuagint, the Syriac, and the
Chaldee ignore it altogether, wbich
made Dathe strike it from the text,
D.urell alter it into n:n or n:M, I pray
thee, and Spohn change it into pM
The Vulgate (ego os regis observe)
leaving PM. alters nibto, the imperative,
into nnto, the participle, wbich is fol
lowed by Luther, the Bishops' Brble,
Hitzig, Stuart,'&c. ; whilst Ibn Ezra,
Coverdale, the Geneva Version, the
Authorised Version, Desvoeux, Hodg
son, Knobel, De Wette, Noyes, Hei
ligstedt, Elster, Hengstenberg, &c.,
regard it as an ellipsis, and supply
the verb ^'^^, 'I??" or nnM. But
as the first and second interpretations
alter the text, which is always to be
avoided, and tbe second has an addi
tional difiBculty, viz., making Cohe
leth represent himself as acting,
whereas, in all the other instances,
he advises others how to act, we
prefer the third explanation, espe
cially as ellipses are not uncommon
(comp. niMj^ nirp 'a-jMa, in mine ear
(said) Jehovah of hosts (Isa. v. 9 ;
Jerem. xx. 10; 2 Cor. ix. 6). nj,
mouth, is used metonymically for
that which proceeds from it, word,
command (comp. Gen. xlv. 21; Exod.
xvii 1 ; Job xxxix, 27, and the
phrases ns nM nnp, to disobey the
command. Numb. xvii. 14, xxx. 24;
1 Sam. xii. 15, and ns nas, to trans
gress the command. Numb. xiv. 21,
xxii. 18 ; 1 Sam, xxv. 24 ; Prov.

viii. 29). The i in bsi introduces an
additional and special motive for obe
dience, i. e., not only are we obliged
to submit, because of this common-
sense view of life, but also because
of tbe oath. For nnan bs, because,
see iii. 18. Eashi's explanation of
it hy unth, making it restrictive of
the command given in the preceding
clause 'a mniBM D'nbN nsia« nnan bssi
D'3bnn, and by or with the oath of
Ood will I keep the command of
kings, nsia»n nM i:in»as' Nb® nabai
Dipnb lasainaiD, obeying earthly monarchs
only as far as their commands do not
make us transgress the oath of obe
dience to Ood, instancing the three
Hebrew youths (Dan. iii), which is
followed by Bishops Eeynolds and
Patrick, is contrary to tbe usage of
this phrase. Still more arbitrary is
Mendelssohn's translation, " I coun
sel thee to observe tbe king's word ;
thy prince fulfiUeth tbe duty pro
mised to God," which is followed by
Friedlander, 3$ watne bi(^, BoUihecte
beg .gonigg SBillen ; bein gfttjl etfMt
bte @ott gef^wotene ^ftii^t, and by
Preston, who, misunderstanding his
Hebrew guide (ba nM nisni n'nin ':m
.iQ'biD Min '3 "[bnn 'd nM mn«b DSnn 'n
biBinn Nin bsn nbiMi • i:isn3 nimsb insa
D'nbMn nsia-m nnan niniu'. bs Dpin niSM),
makes him say, " I advise thee to
observe tbe king's word, and an ele
vated person, the subject-matter of
the oatb of God" — ^as nothing can be
more preposterous than to take bs to
denote prince, sovereign. D'ribN nsiato,
oath of God, i.e., an oath made by
the name of God, in which bis sacred
name is solemnly invoked as witness
to tbe transaction (Exod. xxii. 10;
2 Sam. xxi. 7 ; 1 Kings ii. 43).
3. Do not go away hastily. Sec.
This obedience must not be restricted
to ordinary occasions, when every
thing demanded on tbe part of the
sovereign is in accordance with the
feelings of the subject; but we are to
be submissive even when the king

CHAP. VIII.] coheleth. 393
4 pleaseth him ; inasmuch as the word of a king is powerful,

treats us harshly. If he chooses to
rebuke us, we are not, in consequence
of this insult, hastily to quit bis ser
vice and throw off our allegiance to
him ; nor are we to manifest our dis
approbation of it, since he can do
with the resenter whatever he likes.
pBn-;|br!, i.q., ':3bn ns;, to go away
from one's presence (Gen. iv. 16), i e.,
to withdraw from him, to quit his ser
vice, to throw off allegiance to him
comp. Dn'.:3p nbn, they withdreiv from
their presence (Hos. xi. 2 ; and see
infra, x. 4). ?[bn v^Bn bnap-bN, do not
be hasty, withdraw from his presence,
stands for v^n nabb bnap-bN, do not
hastily withdraw from his presence ;
bnan, the first verb, as frequently, is
used adverbially, to qualify '^bn, the
second verb (comp. na-ri: nsn:, we shall
know, we shall pursue, i e., we shall
know to pursue. Hos. vi. 3 ; lanp'bN
nnann, do not multiply speak, 1. e., do
not multiply to speak, \ Sam. ii. 3;
see also supra, i. 16 ; and infra, x. 1,
xii. 9). Eashi and Ibn Ezra's expla
nation of this lingual peculiarity,
n-OM Dipna Nirro j"'i» non'iD Min jia: nnv
bN .inano lann bN nannaiD nsn:i ja n'rri
bainiB aiiBnnsj -jab inn' bN .ibnn) v:Dn bnan
•jbnn ':c T:cn nabb that to = n'toN is to be
supplied in these cases before the
second verb, comes to the same
thing. Whilst the Septuagint, xai
vs^pi Koyov opxov &sou fjcri a-orovSaa-ytg, avo
irpOG-di<aov avrov 'jrosvirri, and the Syriao,
and because of the word of the oath
of God thou shalt not be hasty ; go
away from his presence ; the Cbaldee,
VnanN 'ninnp.nNbsb ni:p Nb ';n Niain jTsai
a'm j'pnn 'san-i 'bsi '''-i« 'ninnp_ and in
the time of the anger of the Lord, do
not cease to pray before him, tremble
before him, go and pray and ask for
mercy from him; and Easbbam,
vbSD pmnnb 'pn bto vasn bna '¦•rm »b
vnisn mn«b -jbn v:Db baN do not with

draw from his presence, but walk be
fore him, which detach bnan from i|.bn,
and which have given rise to the ren
dering of Desvoeux, " Be not hasty.
Go out of his presence. Stay not
whilst he gives wrong orders;" Durell,
" Eush not hastily from his presence :
go thy way, stand not in an evil
thing ; " Hodgson, " Thou shalt not
escape from his view ; go, persist not
in perverseness," and others ; impose
too artificial a sense upon the passage,
and are rightly rejected by the Vul
gate, Luther, Coverdale, tbe Bishops'
Bible, tbe Geneva Bible, and almost
all modern critics, nps, to stand up,
as frequently, means to protest, to
oppose, to resent (Ps. Ixxvi. 8, cxxx.
3 ; cxlvii 1 7), the J in na-na denotes
the cause for this standing up, as well
as for the action described in the
first clause (comp. Gen. xviii. 28 ;
Exod. X. 12). The rendering of the
Vulg. (neque PERMANEAS IN OPERE
MALo, and do not persist in an evil
work), wbich is followed by Luther,
Coverdale, tbe Bishops' Bible, &e.,
and of the Geneva Bible (" stand
not in an evil thing "), which is fol
lowed by the Authorised Version,
are contrary to the scope of the
passage, inasmuch as the hasty going
away ('^bn bnan) evidently shews tbat
nns is a limitation of it, restricting
the dissuasion to the standing up in
a passion, the step preceding the
hasty departure. Besides, verse 5
proves incontestably tbat s-i nan does
not mean an evil work, but signifies a
sore rebuke. Hitzig's version (plii^i
nii^t fkjen bei f4)timmen Sefe^l),
which is followed by Stuart (" do
not make delay in regard to a com
mand which is grievous," i. e., never
hesitate to execute his orders, what
ever they are), is contrary to the
phrase a nps, which never means to
hesitate, to delay.
4. Inasmuch as the word, &e. This
verse assigns a reason for the asser
tion made in tbe second half of the
foregoing verse," " the king can do

3K

394

coheleth.

[chap. viii.

5 and who shall say unto him. What doest thou? Whoso
keepeth the commandment knoweth not an evil word. More-

whatever be pleases," because, or
inasmuch as (iij^a), his royal mandate
(-rjbp na-n) is power itself, and no one
can call into question his doings, or
bring him to account for them. How
useless and hazardous, therefore, for
a subject to disrespect or bid defiance
to the person or power of a sove
reign. ntoNa,notM)7i«rewr (the Ohaldee
-n nnMa), in every place, where (Dipn baa
-iiBN Dipn iniNa ,«, Eashbam, Ibn Ezra,
the Geneva Bible, the Authorised
Version, &c,), which makes this
clause a needless repetition of tbe
sentiment expressed in the second
clause of the preceding verse, but
because, since, inasmuch as (comp.
ii. 16, vii. 2), as Eashi (nfflN b'aisa)
and almost all modern commentators
rightly render it. The Sept. (xaBSig
Safft\Evg E^ova-ia^oav 'ha'hlt), and the Syr.
-^.Vl ]A\V^ WV'^Vn; Uiuf
he speaks like a powerful king, which
have evidently given rise to Cover-
dale's rendering, " like as when a
king giveth a charge, bis command
ment is mighty; even so, who may
say unto him," &o., adopted in the
Bishops' Bible, are irreconcileable
both with the text and context Tbe
Vulg. (et SERMO ILLIUS POTESTATE
PLENUs EST, and his word is full of
power), Luther (in beg Sontgg fflott
ifi ©elbalt), and Hodgson entirely
ignore ntoN3. Eashi's explanation
(Nin biBin ni'-pn nan), which is adopted
by Desvoeux, who renders it, " the
word of a king is a despotic com
mander," submitting that " the word
of a king seems to be personified by
a very intelligible prosopopoeia," is
not only, as be himself concedes, too
bold in our Western languages, but
also too bold and incongruous for
Eastern languages, and, at all events,
ought not to be ascribed .to them
without incontestable proof, which,
however, Desvoeux has failed to
adduce. His argument, that Jiiabto

has apersonal signiflcation in Ohaldee,
which is a sufficient inducement to
retain it in Hebrew, is untenable,
inasmuch as in Chaldee too Jiiobto is
originally an abstract noun, and,
like many other abstracts, both in
that language and in Hebrew, ob
tained a concrete signification. This
is especially the case with those
nouns which denote authority, and
the very word authority is so used in
our language.
5. Whoso keepeth the command
ment. Sec But though the part of
wisdom is not to defy the power of
a potentate, even if that power is
abused, and is made to weigh heavily
upon us, yet such abuses are not the
rule, but the exception. Generally
speaking, a peaceful and obedient
subject, who submits to the institu
tions of the sovereign, will not expe
rience evil words, nisn, i. e., nisn
¦^^pn, the commandment of the king,
so that nisn nnito is the same as 'S
nfcto ^!;p in verse 2. ST, to see, to
observe, to perceive, experience, either
with tbe eye, ear, or feelings ; hence,
also, to liear (comp. Gen. ix. 24;
Levit. V. 1). That »Tian cannot
mean here an evil thing, an evil work,
a wrong action, is evident from the
words nisn nnito ; for to say, " whoso
keepeth the commandment shall
know no evil thing," is simply to
say, wlioso keeps the commandments
does not transgress them, or, the obe
dient are not disobedient. To avoid
this truism, tbe Vulgate was con
strained to resort to an inconsistency,
and translate it here non experietur
quidquam mali, which is followed by
Luther ^n)itb nii^tg Scfeg etfojten),
Coverdale and the Bishops' Bible
(" shall feel no harm"), the Geneva
Bible and tbe Authorised Version
(" shall feel or know no evil thing"),
thus making tbe same words sn nan
to signify two different things, a
wrong action, and infliction, punish
ment, which is against all rules of

chap. VIII.J

COHELETH.

395

over the heart of the wise man knoweth a time of judgment ;
• 6 for there is a time of judgment for everything, when the

language; a carefid comparison of
verses 3 and 5 will shew that the
same thing is intended.
Moreover the heart. Sec Another
reason why a wise man will yield
the obedience enjoined in verse 2 is
because he knows tbat there is an
appointed time of judgment, when
the tyrant shall be brought to retri
bution by a power infinitely above the
strength of any potentate ; knowing
this, he submissively and patiently
bides his time,-and does not attempt
to raise his feeble arm. The i in
nsi being connected with a clause
which gives an additional reason,
has, as frequently, the meaning of
moreover. iDBtopi ns is a hendiadys,
and is well translated by the Sept.,
xaipov xpio-EMc, time of judgment. For
tbis figure, see vii 25. The rendering
of the Vulgate (tempos et respon-
sioNEM, time and answers'), and of
Hodgson (" the rigbt time and use
of judgment"), are both contrary to
tbe text and context. Ibn Ezra
rightly remarks (ds pan iDEtDni ns j':si
vnnNbii) pioen) tbat this clause must
be connected with the following
verse. 6. For there is a time. Sec The
time of judgment is sure to come as
soon as the subjects find their suffer
ings intolerable ; revolt, and heavy
retribution for every evil which the
tyrant has perpetrated, will then be
the result of his lawless and out
rageous conduct. For yon, see iii. 1.
Of course toBtopi ns is a hendiadys, as
in the preceding verse. We should
have deemed it superfluous to make
this remark had not the Septuagint,
which has rightly rendered it so
there, most inconsistently translated
it here xaipig xal xpia-ig, time and judg
ment ; the Vulgate, too, has rendered
it differently (tempus et opportunitas).
'a, in the second clause, is rightly
rendered by the Chaldee (na) and
Eashi (ntoM3) as a particle of time, in
which sense it is frequently used

(comp. 'bN Na nan onb n;n'.-'3, when they
have a case they come to me, Exod.
xviii. 16 ; Ps. xxxii. 3 ; Gesenius,
§ 155, 1, c, b; Ewald, § 337, c).
vbs nan DnMn nsn is taken as— 1. The
wickedness of a man is great upon
him, i.e., when the measure of his
iniquity is full, regarding DnNn nsn
as the evil which a man commits,
nan as great, sufficient, full, and vbs.
as referring to D-iMn, the sinner (so
tbe Chaldee, Eashi, Eashbam) ; 2.
The evil of man is heavy upon him,
i. e., the evil which is inflicted upon
man by tbe tyrant becomes intole
rable ; or, 3. The evil of man (i. e., of
tbe tyrant) is heavy upon him {i.e.,
upon the oppressed). As the first
view is precluded by the phrase
vbs na-1, which describes tbe weight
of oppression upon the sufferers, and
the second leaves no natural subject
to the predicate in the following
verse, we must adopt the third inter
pretation. D-wn is not the king
exclusively, but refers to oppressors
generally, including the tyrannical
monarch. Tbis generic term is evi
dently chosen because a despotic
sovereign necessarily bas a host of
lawless and debased officials. The
rendering of the Septuagint and
Theodotion (ot* yvooa-tg tou avQpcoTTOv 9ro\X«
Ew' airov, for the knowledge of man is
great upon him, taking nsn for nsn),
and the Vulgate (et multa hominis
affiictio), wbich has evidently given
rise to the rendering of Coverdale
and the Bishops' Bible (" for every
thing will have opportunity and
judgment, and this is thething that
maketh man full of carefulness and
sorrow"), and the Auth. Version
(" because to every purpose there is
a time and judgment, therefore the
misery of man is great upon him "),
and is explained by Bishops Eey
nolds and Patrick " because to every
purpose or enterprise there is a
proper season, and peculiar manner
of acting ; upon which narrow points

396

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VIII.

7 tyranny of a man is heavy upon him. Because he knoweth
not what will be, and because no one can tell him when it*
8 will be. No man is ruler over his spirit to retain the spirit,
and there is no power over the day of death ; and there is no

the happy success of such under
takings do depend ; and tbis cannot
without much wisdom be duly ob
served ; hence it cometh to pass that
the misery of man is great upon
him," are contrary to the text and
context, for '3 — p is never used as
cause and effect. Ibn Ezra's expla
nation, sn' Nbi yen b3b ns '3 n"o b"s»
nan nsn m nsn S'an iin, although he
knows that there is an appointed time
for everything, yet he knows not when
that time will come, and this is a great
evil, taking '3 to signify although, is
too far-fetcbed. ^tiJl more objection
able are the renderings of Desvoeux
(" because man's evils are multiplied
upon him by his not knowing futu
rity ; for who will shew him what
turn things shall take ?") and Hodg
son (" for in every transaction there
is a crisis, aud a need of dexterity ;
yet great is man's misfortune therein,
that he knoweth not how a matter
shall turn out, and who shall tell
him what will come to pass?")
7. Because he knoweth not. See.
This righteous retribution is sure to
overtake the guilty ('?), because his
infatuation, connected with tbe deter
mination to carry out his evil designs
(sni' 13.VN), disables him from seeing
(n.;n;to-nn) what disastrous conse-
. quences his criminal conduct will
bring forth ; t*?) and because no one
else can tell him (n;n; ntoMS) when all
this will come to pass. '? . '?,
before the first and second clauses,
are causal and co-ordinate, assigning
reasons for the inevitable day of
retribution spoken of in the foregoing
verse, and, as usually, are to be ren
dered because . . . and because {vide
supra, vi. 11, 12). The pronoun in
w» refers to D'rori, tbe immediate
antecedent. The contrast between
the wise and submissive man in
verse 5, and the infatuated oppressor

in this verse, is exceedingly beautiful
and striking ; of the former it is
said that (Dan ab st) he knows a time
of retribution, and of the latter, tbat
(BT i3:'n) he knows not what will
happen to bim. i^*?a, like '3 in tho
preceding verse, is used as a particle
of time. The interrogative, as usual,
is for an emphatic denial, which
is best expressed in the translation.
Eashi well explains tbis verse, 'm'N '3
jni: i::'M nras nais B«nn®3 • rrn'iD nn st
lb 'iNi BDWDa iN'anb na'pn Tnsw nnb lib
lb Ta' 'n niasnion • rrrr niCMa 'a ! "jaa
sns '3 niiDn bito'bi nss ia biio'bi la -[bnnb-
DiMnD, "because he knoweth not" Sec,
when the wicked sins he does not think
that God will bring him to judgment,
and woe to him for it; " because when
it shall be," Sec, i. e., the retribution,
"who can tell him }" to advise or
consult with him, and take respite, for
it shall come upon him very suddenly.
The Vulgate's paraphrase (quia iono-
BAT PBiETERITA, ET FUTURA NULLO
SCIRE POTEST NUNCIO, bccausc he is
ignorant of things past, and things
to come, he is unable to know through
any messenger), is most arbitrary,
and confounds njJTto, the future, with
nTito, the praterite (which is also
done by St. Jerome, tbe Syriac, and
several MSS.), and itoNS, when, with
to-nn, ivhat ; so also Lutber (benn et
weii ni^t, wag gewefen ifi, unb wn
Vbitt i^m fagen, «jag roctben fott ?)
Equally arbitrary are the renderings
of Coverdale, " and why ? a man
knoweth not what is for to come,
for who will tell him?" and the
Bishops' Bible, " and why ? a man
knoweth not what is for to come,
for who can tell when it shall be ? "
8. No man is ruler. Sec. And when
the day of retribution does come, as
it assuredly will come, no man, how
ever great his power, will be able to
retain his spirit ; no dominion, how-

CHAP. VIII.]

COHELETH.

397

fiirlough in this battle, and no cunning will save the wicked ;
9 all this I have seen, having given my heart to all the doing

ever wide, wUl control the day of
death ; there will be no leave of
absence from this death-battle, and
no wicked subterfuge will secure the
escape of the crafty ; neither tyranny
nor cunning will save the tyrant or
tbe wicked from this appointed doom.
DnN J'M, no man, i. e., not even the
powerful despot, nin is rightly trans
lated by the Vulgate, the Cbaldee
(Npnto: mn), Eashi (isiaiiB ninn),
Eashbam (innic:), Luther, Coverdale,
the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, Hodgson,
Knobel, De Wette, Herzfeld, Heilig
stedt, Elster, Hengstenberg, &c., the
gpirit, the breath of life (comp. Gen.
vi. 17 ; Job xii. 10) ; the rendering
of it by wind (Schmidt, Desvoeux,
Mendelssohn, Friedlander, Spohn,
Boothroyd, Preston, Hitzig, Stuart,
Vaihinger, &c.), taking this clause to
form a comparison with the following
one, viz., "just as man has no power
over the wind, so he has none in the
day of death "), is — 1. Contrary to the
parallelism ninnDva jitobto; 2. Obliges
us to take tbe copula -; in tbe abnormal
sense of comparison; and 3. Leaves
the latter clause of the verse, which
shews that all the clauses are co-ordi
nate, unaccounted for. The Vulg. (non
EST IN hominis POTESTATE PKOHIBERE
spiEiTUM, it is not in man's power to
retain the spirit), is a languid para
phrase, neither giving the force of
DnM J'N, in which it is followed by
Luther, &c., nor substituting an
equivalent for the words ninn-nN Nibpb.
The word nnbton has called forth' a
greater variety of opinions ; the
Chaldee bas (n:';; ':p) weapons; so also
Ibn Ezra, who explains it by P«:,
weapon, and regards it as synony
mous with nbto (Job xxxiii. 18, xxxvi.
12) ; the only other instance, however,
where nnbton occurs (Ps. Ixxviii. 49),
and undoubtedly signifies a sending,
as well as its parallelism i^W,, are
decidedly against this rendering.
Less objectionable, but still requiring

too great au ellipsis, are the expla
nations substitute (1n ':a nbiBN nDNb ii
'Dipna 'nas, i. e., I will send my son or
servant in my stead, Eashi) martial
host (vb"n nnbton nibiab in'a nia j'n
i:nn inna): np' MbiD ninn 'iNbn db Dnbnb,
he cannot send the host of his soldiers
to wage war with the angel of death
to prevent him taking away the soul,
Eashbam), and embassy ("there is
no embassy admitted during the
war," Desvoeux). Whereas the ren
dering, sending away, disoliargei let
go on furlough, is naturally deduced
from the root, requires no ellipsis,
and suits tbe context and the paral
lelism. There is no necessity for
resorting to the far-fetched interpre
tation of ston by agitation, anxiety,
according to the example of Ibn
Ezra (nisam nBi:nn am s«n iditd), in
order to deduce therefrom the mean
ing of a wUy disposition, which is
ever fertile in schemes and resources
(Preston), for this word not unfre
quently means wicked deeds, fraud,
cunning (comp. Job xxxiv, 26; Prov.
viii. 7, xvi. 12). By vbsa is meant
»^.n ')»a. For the plural D'bsa, see
V. io.
9. All this have I seen. Sec This
retributive justice overtaking the
tyrant, spoken of in verses 6-8, Co
heleth assures us is what he has him
self seen, having carefully examined
the transactions of men. nrb3-nM, all
this, i. e., all which is stated in verses
6-8, about righteous retribution.
The construction Jin:-; 'n'Nn, the flnite
verb, with the inflnitive, instead of
'Fin:-; 'p'Nn, is of frequent occurrence.
When several successive acts or states
of the same subject are enumerated,
it often happens that the first of the
verbs takes the required form in re
spect to tense and person, whilst the
others are in the inflnitive absolute or
construct, with the same distinctions
implied (comp. Jin:-; . . . iniM aa-;;!,
and he made him ride . . . and ga/ve
him. Sec, Gen. xii. 43 ; Exod. xxxii.

398 COHELETH. [CHAP. VIII.
that is done under the sun. There is a time when a man
10 ruleth over men to their injury ; and thus I have seen wicked

29; Levit x. 9-11; 1 Sam. ii 28;
Esth. ix. 6. 12; infra, ix.l. 11; Gesen.
§ 131,4; Ewald, § 351, c).
There is a time when. Sec. Coheleth,
however, has also seen instances
where retributive justice is wanting;
man is sometimes permitted all his
life long to tyrannise over and crush
his fellow-men with impunity, ns, a
time = sometimes {vide infra, ix. 8), is
well rendered by tbe Vulg. interdum;
Lutber, JU Beiten ; to;, as usually,
is implied ; the Septuagint (ra oa-a,
all things) exchanges it for nN,
the sign of the accusative, and sup
plies b3 after it from the first part of
this verse. 'The pronoun ib is referred
by Symmachus (ei; xaxJv au™), the
Vulgate (in malum suum), Eashi,
Eashbam, Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version, Le Clerc,
Grotius, Hodgson, Herzfeld, Philipp
son, Stuart, &c., to the first d-tn, the
ruler's own heart; i.e., the despot by
his tyrannic sway ultimately brings
misery upon himself; whilst tbe Sep
tuagint (tou xaxZa-ai aurov), the Syriac,
the Chaldee, Ibn Ezra, Knobel,
Ewald, De Wette, Hitzig, Heilig
stedt Elster, Vaihinger, &c., refer it
to the second d-tm, i. e., man rules over
his fellow-men to their misfortune and
ruin. Against the first explanation,
however, is to be urged that — • 1. It
does not harmonise with the follow
ing verse, where the wicked is said
sometimes to escape with impunity ;
3. labto by itself does not mean to
tyrannise, but simply to rule in a law
ful sense ; 3, Chap. v. 12, to which
Philippson appeals for support, is
against this interpretation; and, 4.
It takes away the pronoun from its
immediate antecedents, and is obliged
to refer it to the more remote subject
10. And thus I have seen, Sec He
not only saw tyrants succeed in prac
tising their tyranny the whole of their
life without being visited by retri
butive justice, but that these wicked

ones are perpetuated by their children
when they die ; whilst tbe righteous
depart this life, and, leaving no issue,
are totally forgotten in the city. The
difficulty which commentators have
experienced in the interpretation of
this verse, has been greatly increased
by the arbitrary and senseless ren
derings of the Ancient Version. Thus
the Septuagint has xai tote fS-ov anSeTg
Elf ra<povg elgavQEVrag, xal ex tou aytov, xal
£iropEvBni7-av xal 'EirmiBna-av EV rn oroXEt, on
ouTws Eiroitia-av, and I saw the wicked
brought to the graves and from the
holy place, and tliey departed and they
were praised in the city, because they
had acted in this manner, altering
iNai D'nap into D'napb wan, labn; into
labni, and inan^-i^into inanto'-i. ' The
last alteration, as will be seen below
from Eashi's remark, is based upon
tbe Hagadic explanation of this verse.
The Vulgate has vim impios sepul-
TOS, QUI ETIAM, CUM ADHUC VIVE-
RENT, IN LOCO SANOTO EBANT, ET
LAUDABANIUR IN CIVITATE QUASI JUS-
TORUM oPERUM, I saw the wicked
buried, who, while they lived, were in
holyplaces, and were praised in the
city as if men of just works, dropping
tbe word iMaj, inserting D';n i:ns> ntoM,
changing Dipnni into Dipnai, and, like
tbe Septuagint, manto;; into mapto;).
Passing over these arbitrary altera
tions of the text, we come to St
Jerome, who renders it et tunc vidt
IMPIOS SEPULTOS, EI VENEBUNT, ET
DE LOCO SANOTO EQHESSI SUNT, ET
LAUDAII SUNT IN CIVITATE QUIA SIO
EECBBUNT, and then I saw the wicked
buried, and they came and went forth
from the holy place ; and they were
praised in the city because they had,
done so, which he explains, " I have
seen tbe wicked buried in such a
manner, and such an opinion was
entertained about them, that they
were esteemed holy on the earth,"
thus taking iMa and labn; in an im
personal sense. Hence the explana
tion of Eambach and Gill, " Multi-

CHAP. VIII.]

COHELETH.

399

men buried and come again, and those who did right depart

tudes came to attend the funeral of
such rich and mighty men, and
walked after or followed the corpse
(-iNai) ; and even tbe priests and
Levites from tbe Temple made a part .
of the funeral procession (toinp. Dippni
^^^n;), and walked in great solemnity
from thence to tbe place of interment,
which was usually without the city ;
all their evil deeds were forgotten
(n'sa in?nto;-j), their acts of oppression
and injustice, as if this had never
been done by them." But, 1. It is
most arbitrary to detach the verbs
from their immediate antecedents,
and make them refer to subjects not
at all mentioned in the context ; and,
2. The simple expressions isa and
labn; can never be forced to mean to
come to a funeral procession, to walk
after the corpse. The importance of St
Jerome's version consists in proving
that the present Hebrew text is the
same, which be used; a fact wbich
is also corroborated by the Syriac
1'" -'a ¦" "
Version, |S i <J A.1V10 ,_>,_iaiO
I a: '
OjiiL (ioCJlJ \tij-,^iD^ and thus
/ saw the wicked who were buried, and
they went out of the holy place and
were forgotten in the city who acted so ;
and the quaint Chaldee paraphrase,
iN'sntoN; inap.nM-n Nja'jn n'ln Mptoipai
ibwi jpn J^nto N'p'ns-n to'-np nriNn Npbsia
Mp-ip 'an; j'an J^toinM-i D:'n:a ' Nnpin'Nb
jinS n'aspN inasn Mna'rii and indeed t
have seen sinners who were buried and
blotted out of the world, from the holy
place where the righteous dwell, and
went to he burned in Gehenna, and are
forgotten from among the inhabitants
of the city ; and as they have done, so
it is done to them, which requires no
refutation. According to Eashi, this
verse is to be translated, " And I saw
the wicked, deserving to be buried,
nilo in the place of the Holy One,

and when they went away from it
they were praised Tn their city be
cause they had done so ; or, but they
were forgotten in the city where they
had acted so ;" which be explains 'n'Nn
vniB nesa jnionb j"iMn vn» D'nap D'smn
Mb DSn ni Dn'bs nnmw niniM nMo j'a D'la:
iBinp Dipo Min-i) na"pn b« in'aa iiobici n'n
DTsa D'naniBn vn DsnN bM Disn Dnabai
'npn bN Dipn bm in'aa' ims -jai -ja n»N
j":sbi b"n iniionn -ja ¦ inanwi MbM inanic'i
DniB naniB'iD ioidi nn:Ma ujnn: na nnaian
noM:« na vbs J3 niUN nnss n'sn jn nn3ii
Dipoa iflDiBin' pns bN D'i:n ba nN 'nsapi
n'»a 'n nniN Nin jai .onn sno' v:Db isn':«
man Dnbs " / saw the wicked buried,"
i.e., who deserved to be hidden in the
ground, for they were despised among
other nations, just as it is said of
them, " this people does not deserve to
be a people" (Isa. xxiii 13) ; and yet
they ruled in the house of the Lord
{for this is the meaning o/iomp Dipn),
and when they went from it into their
own country they were praised in their
city, because they have done this and
that in the house of the Lord ; do not
read inanto;; but inanto;i. So our
Babbins of blessed memory have in
terpreted it. According to the reading
EORGETTiNo, howcvcr, it is thus ex
plained in the Hagada : yet their end
is that tlieir name and memory are
blotted out from the very town
wherein they had thus acted ; comp.
" and I will gather all nations into
the valley of' Jehoshaphat " (Josh.
iv 2), i. e,, they shall be punished in
THE vert place where they despised
me; and, " Lord, thou shalt despise
their imagein the city" (Ps, Ixxiii. 20).
Similarly Eashbam, D'Sian Qbisa 'n'Nn
D'abini c'Ma vniu nmapi nn'nb D"iNniB
ia D'lBis vn man msni manim ttiinp oipnn
11BS J3 niDN n'S iniMa nnan Dnia na«: jbidi
/ have seen wicked men in the world,
who deserved to be buried, coming and
going from the place of the Holy One,
and committing therein destruction
and great evil; and their end was that
their name and memory were blotted
out in the very town where they had
acted so. Against this interpretation

400

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VIII.

from the place of the holy, and be forgotten in the city.

is to be urged — 1. That D'niap does
not mean who Reserve to be buried,
but always describes those who are
actually buried. 2. It violently con
strues iabn;i iNai as an expression of
the exercise of office, in which sense
it is never used. Preston's appeal to
1 Sam. xxix. 6 is nugatory, for there
and everywhere else the established
phrase Miai nNS is used, which is quite
different from the words in question.
3. Had the sacred writer intended
to convey by these words the idea of
bearing office, he would undoubtedly
have written labmi iNai, and not have
separated them by the insertion of
toinp. Dipan, producing thereby so
unnatural a construction. 4. The
parallelism im^ D'nap and in?nto;i labn;
n'sa shews tbat they are two distinct
and antithetical clauses. The proper
explanation, as frequently, is given.
by Ibn Ezra, who says, D'Sen 'n'Nn
D'niap j'niD' Nba inn Dnb isnni DnNa itabiDiD
Dbisb INai .Dmnb maisnn j'm '3 j':s3 Dnapa
onipna inns'i Dn':a iNia'iu j'asni n':iD
j':Bni labn' i»inp Dipnn nom Dn3i nins'i
I'niB Tsa inaniD'i ja Mba imn'ffl D'lainpn 'a
nnobs ni:a ja ina noNn ja tos noN om now
mnain, / saw the wicked who rule over
their fellow-men, and tyrannise over
them, die without anguish ; " they are
buried in their graves" is like " there
are no pains in their death" (Ps.
Ixxiii. 4), and they came into the
world a second time, i. e., their chil
dren succeed to their places and per
petuate them; whilst thosewho departed
from the holy place, that is, the holy
ones, die without issue, and are for
gotten in the city where they were, and
these are they who executed justice
(j3=noN), taking wa and labm in the
legitimate sense of coming into the
world and departing from it {vide
supra, i. 4), and ja with Symmachus
(i; iixata. vpa^avrcg), and the VulgatS
for right, well ; so also Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible,
&c. (comp. Exod. x. 29 ; Numb.
xxviii. 7 ; 2 Kings vii. 9). For the
indiscriminate use of tbe Piel T[bn,
and the Kal '^^n, see iii. 5 ; and for

the passive signification of the Hith
pael msnto'i, comp. Judg. xx. 15. 17 ;
Gesen.' "§'^4=. d; Ewald, § 124, c.
Luther's version — unb ba fa^e il^
©ottlofe, bie begtaben n>aten, bie
gegangen waten, unb gewanbett fatten
in ^eiliget ©totte, unb reaten betgeffen
in bet ©tabt, baf fte fo get^an fatten,
and then I saw the godless that were
buried, who had gone and had walked
in holy places, and were forgotten in
the city, which he explains, fte WaxiXl
in bet :^eiligen Stabte, bag iji, fte
tegietten in ©otteg Solt, ®a fa^e ic^
©otttofe bie begtaben waten, bag -iji,
i(^ fa^e baf bte S:9tannen betfiotben
tbaxen, unb ba? ein ftommet giitji
an bie ©tabt fom, alg na^ ©aut,
¦Dobtb, atfo betgeffen bie Seute balb
ftommet tteuet ^egenten, " they were
in the places of the holy," i. e., they
ruled the people of Ood. " Then I
saw tlie godless who were buried," i. e.,
I saw that the tyrants were dead,
and that a pious prince came to the
city ; and as, after Saul, David was
forgotten, so the people soon forgat
pious and faithful rulers, which has
given rise to Coverdale's translation,
and to tbe marginal notes in the
Bishops' Bible, " for I have often
seen the ungodly brought to their
graves, and yet they have returned
into tbe city again" (that is, the
ungodly hath been praised after their
burial), " from tbe place of holy
men, wbich in the city were grown
out of memory" (tbat is, the holy
men, after their burial, grew out of
memoiy), " as were those also that
lived well," — is most arbitrary, and
irreconcileable with tbe text. That
which is of importance in these
versions is the fact that they distin
guish two classes of men in tbis
verse, the righteous and the wicked.
The Geneva Bible alone has faith
fully followed Ibn Ezra's explana
tion, " And likewise I saw tbe wicked
buried, and they returned" (Marg.
Gloss, tbat is, others as wicked as
they) ; and they that came from tbe
holy pkce " (Marg. Gloss, they that

CHAP. VIII.J

COHELETH.

401

11 also this is vanity. Because sentence is not forthwith
executed for evil work, the heart of the sons of men is full

feared God, and worshipped him ac
cording as he bad appointed) " were
yet forgotten in the city where they
had done rigbt ;" whilst the Autho
rised Version (" and so I saw the
wicked buried, who had come and
gone from the place of the holy, and
they were forgotten in the city where
they had done so"), following Eashi,
is guilty of the violent proceedings
with the text mentioned above in
the analysis of this Eabbis interpre
tation. The renderings of Desvoeux
("nay, then I saw wicked men buried.
Though they came even from the
place of prostitution, they shall go
and be praised in the city where
they have done so"), and Hodgson
(" for hereby have I seen wicked
men brought to their graves; yea,
forth have they been led, from the
seat of royalty conducted, and con
signed to death in that city where so
they bad acted "), are an additional
evidence that learned men may be
ignorant of the laws of exegesis.
Knobel, Ewald, Herzfeld, De Wette,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Elster, Philipp
son, Vaihinger, &c., who adopt Ibn
Ezra's interpretation without men
tioning it, have successively marred
it by their attempts to improve upon
it. Thus Knobel and De Wette
(unb otgbonn fab i(b Stebtet beftattet
ttJetben ; unb eg famen an unb »om
beiltgen Otte gingen binmeg unb
tttutben betgeffen in bet ©tabt, wel6)e
teblitbgebanbelt batten), though rightly
taking Nia and ijbn to denote being
born and dying, totally destroy the
antithesis, by refen-ing both to ntoM
itos-j3, those who acted uprightly;
Ewald, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Elster,
Philippson, and Vaihinger do the
same thing by a more violent process,
inasmuch as they take iNai as an
ellipsis for Dibw iMai, they entered into
peace, as in Isa. Ivii 2, or for wai
D'napb, they entered their graves, and
'^^n;, the Piel, to be here used for the
Hiphil labi', they drove away; Herzfeld ,

wbo does not join in this arbitrary
rendering of labn;, explains it by emi
grating ; whilst Hitzig alters it into
w^n'. the perished. According to
Fiii-st (Concordance, s. v., nsto, ii.),
this verse ought to be rendered, " and
whilst I saw the wicked peacefully
buried, and go [to their fathers] and
depart from the place of the holy, yet
were those found (i. e., remembered)
in. the city who acted uprightly,"
taking nsto to denote to find, to exist.
to be found, which, as will be seen
from Ibu Ezras remark (in3niB'i ifflnB'i
iMsn'i Di:nnn), bas been proposed aud
rejected long ago. The many ellipses,
however, which this explanation pre
supposes, and the forced meaning it
assigns to the several expressions,
will, we believe, prevent its having
many followers. Stuart's version,
" and I saw the wicked buried, for
they had departed, even from a holy
place did they go away ; and then
they were forgotten in the city where
they had so done," taking iNai as
pluperfect, and the i before it as
standing in a kind of apodosis, is
simply preposterous ; for to say the
wicked were buried, for tliey had
departed, is nonsense ; sinoe they
could not be buried without dying
first Besides, Stuart makes the
verbs Mia and i|bn, which denote two
opposite things, express the same
idea, and destroys the antithesis of
the betnistiches.
11. Because sentence. Sec This
melancholy absence of retributive
justice induces many fearlessly to
commit sin, inasmuch as tbey have
no apprehension of punishment
(comp. Ps. cxxv. 3). The heart,
being the seat of reason and feelings
(vide supra, i. 13), is represented as
heooming replete with thoughts which
tend to and alternately ripen in the
perpetuation of evil (comp. infra,
ix. 3 ; Esth. vii. 5, and see the
similar expression in Acts v, 3).
ntoM, because, is used instead of '3

,T F

402 COHELETH. [CHAP. VIII.
12 in them to do evil, because a sinner doeth evil a hundred

(comp. vi. 12). J'M by no means ne
cessitates tbe alteration of ntos:. the
praterite Niph., third per. masc, into
ntow, the participle fem. ; for, though
it is true that this negative particle
is generally construed with the parti
ciple, yet we also assuredly find it
joined with a finite verb (comp. njpn
b|M 13.:'N, the bush was not consumed,
Exod. iii. 2 ; na-n D3nM bav -qbnn J'n,
the king cannot do anything against
you, Jer. xxxviii 5; Job xxxv. 15;
Gesen. Lex., s, v) This construction
is moreover corroborated by the fact
that D3pB is masculine, as is evident
from Dans snisi:;, Esth. i. 20, and
can therefore only agree with ritos:,
third per. masc, but not with the
alteration of it into ^tos;, the fem.
part. Dans, sentence, is a later HeBriw
word ; it only occurs once more in
Hebrew (Esth. i. 20), and may either
be derived from ans in Aramtean,
:ng = pna ^ pia?, to make known, to
announce, to pronounce, to pronounce
sentence, or it may be kindred with
the Aramsean pp?, to adjudicate, to
decide, with the termination d_ like
Dbp, ladder, DSbp, locust. Both the
pause-accent upon it, and theQaametz
under the a, sb ew that it is theabsolute
form ; nsarr 'tosn must therefore be
talten as accusative absol. (compare
Job i. 5 ; Ps. cxxii. 4, cxliv. 12 ;
Gesen. § 118, 3 ; Ewald, § 300, c).
The Septuagint (oti o'vx ttrnv ymfthn
avrippns-ig aTTo roov TFovouvriuv ro vovnpov Tap^u,
because there is no contradiction made
from them who do evil quickly), is
exceedingly obscure, the translator
evidently could not catch tbe mean
ing of the original, and, as is usual
in such cases, determined to follow
the very order of the words in the
Plebrew, altering, however, ntosp,
work, into 'vpsn, from the doers of,
which the Vulgate, St Jerome, the
Syriac, &c., follow, and which is
adopted by Spohn. 'The noun n-inn,
prop, haste, speed, is used adverbially
for n-inpa, in speed, forthwith, quickly
(comp. Numb. xvii. 11 ; Judg. ix. 54;
Ps. xxxi. 3). Schmidt, Ewald, and

Hengstenberg, however, take it in
the adject, sense, and, as both sub
stantives andadverbs may be employed
for adjectives (see Gesen. § 106, 1 ;
Ewald, § 296, d), translate it, abix
WO fein fltafenbeg Uttbeil etgebt, ba
nimmt bie Sogbeit fibnett itbctbanb,
unb bag menf^tiebe ^etj fiiUt fi^
mit ^lanen, SSofeg ju fliften, but
where no sentence is executed, there
wickedness soon has the upper hand,
and the human heart is filled with
schemes to do evil (Schmidt) ; Wnl
ni^t geffbicbt bet boibfte SBttte, fommt
leiipt bet Sogbeit Sbat ; batum ifi bag
§)ct3 bet 3Menf$enfinbet tn ibnen bott,
Sofeg ju tbun, because the supreme
will is not executed, deeds of wicked
ness are soon done, therefore is the
heart of men full to do evil (Ewald) ;
reeit nicbt etgebet ein 2lugfj)tu(b, eilet
bag SOSetf bet SSogbeit ; batum witb
bag $erj, U. g. W., because a sentence
is not executed, the work of wickedness
hastens, therefore the heart. Sec. (Heng
stenberg). Butthisdivisionoftbefirst
clause into two sentences renders tbe
words, " therefore the heart of men,"
&c., superfluous, since the second
sentence is already the apodosis, and
gives the result of the first, so tbat
the third sentence is thereby made
mere tautology. Besides, had this
been the meaning of the sacred
writer, he would undoubtedly have
placed J3"bB before nsnn ntoso. 'The
Septuagint's rendering of "iai ab Mbn
by 'Eor\npo<po(tiBn xapiia, tlie heart is fully
persuaded, does not exactly express
its meaning ; the Vulgate, absque
TIMORE ULLO FILII HOMINUM PER-
PETRANT MALA, the children of men
commit evils without any fear, is still
more languid and paraphrastic.
12. Because a sinner. Sec. This
clause resumes the statement made
in the flrst clause of the preceding
verse to render it more intense and
emphatic. What is there summa
rily and simply characterised as a
delay in the execution of the sentence
upon the wicked, is here more parti
cularly set forth in the striking

CHAP. VIII.]

COHELETH.

403

instance of a sinner wbo is both
spared for many years to perpetrate
crime, and is perpetuated in his
wicked progeny. ntoM is therefore
causal, and co-ordinate with ntoN in
the foregoing verse, both having the
same sense. That ''iai ntosa-j'N ntoN
and "i:! ntos Npn nto>! express the
same thing is moreover evident from
the two phrases aiio'mrr ntoM and
I'^Bbp wn; ntoM, which are used to
express the same thing, when the op
posite character is described. Hence
the Vulgate, Eashi, and Ibn Ezra's
rendering of ntoN by although, which
is followed by Lutber, Coverdale, the
Geneva Bible, the Auth. Version,
Hodgson, Knobel, Herzfeld, Stuart,
Elster, Vaihinger, Hengstenberg,
&c., is contrary to the evenness of
the construction. When we more
over add that ntoN never means
although, that Gesenius (Lex. s. v.
i*M B. 4), andEwald (Gram. § 362, b),
who assign to it this concessive sig
nification, have not adduced a single
instance to justify tbis unnatural
sense, the correctness and necessity
of our rendering will be obvious.
For Npn vfitb a Segol instead of
NEh with Tzere, see vii. 26. nMp is
not used adverbially for a hundred
times (Gesen. Lex. s. v. ; Ewald,
§ 269, d ; Knobel, Herzfeld, Heilig
stedt, Stuart, &c.), as there is no
analogy for this usage {vide supra,
vi. 3), but, as Eashi and Eashbam
rightly remark (Min piani Nin nsp Nnpn
nn'Dnn na'nn bs), is used brachylogi-
cally, and is the construct to an
omitted word (comp J'^P ><bi nnato,
drunken with — i.e. nin; nnn, the wrath
of the Eternal, as is evident from
ver. 1 7 — and not with wine, Isa. li. 2 1 ) .
The expression to be supplied in the
passage before us may either be
D'p; D':to, years (tbe Chaldee, Eashi,
Eashbam, &c.), or d'dbb, times (the
Vulg., St. Jerome, Ibn Ezra, Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, tbe
Geneva Bible, tbe Auth. Ver., &c.) ;
the former, however, is preferable,
for it agrees better with the delay of
the execution of retributive justice
mentioned in the preceding verse,

which undoubtedly implies waiting
many years, and which is not neces
sarily implied in the latter, inasmuch
as one may commit a hundred sins,
or a large number of them, in a very
short time. That ^'"jf,'?, part. Hiphil,
is here used as a noun, and signifies
one who makes long, or perpetuates,
aprolonger, a perpetuator, the wicked
progeny which perpetuates his family,
referring wai D'nap D'Ston, the wicked
being buriecl, and appear again in
their wicked descendants, who perpe
tuate them, are their perpetuators
(verse 10), is evident from tbe ib by
which it is followed, thus making an
essential difference between its signi
flcation here and in vii. 5, where it
is used absolutely. All that is to be
supplied here is tbe substantive verh,
wbich, as is well known, is generally
omitted. The literal translation of
lb ij'nNpi, ftherefore, is, and there is
a perpetuator to him ; the passive
rendering, however, and he is perpe
tuated, suits our idiom better. 'The
Septuagint's rendering of this clause,
o'? nijiaprEV ElTointrEv to irovrtpov a.7ro tote xal
alio fjoaxporrtrog avrm, wllOSO has sinncd
has done evil from that time and from
the length of them, meaning, most
probably, from the whole length of
their existence, takes n-toM as a pro
noun, changes hmo into wn, and
ib ij'nMn into dj-imo, and yields no
sense. Equally senseless is the
translation of Symmachus, afi-apriv
yap\ 0 xaxovpyog atriBaVEv ftaxpoBvfjo'iag
ysvifxEitig a'vrZ, for a sinner doing evil
is dead, long-suffering being granted
unto him, which St, Jerome (Com.
in loco) tells us was explained, " he
who does evil and sins is dead in
sin, although bis days be prolonged
to an old age," exchanging nyp for
its assonant nn, which is also done
by Aquila and Theodotion, xaxoupj-oj
aijiBavEv. More literal is the rendering
of St. Jerome, quia peccator facit
malum oentibs, et elongat ei Deus,
EX boo cognosoo ego, quod ebit
BONUM TtMENTIBUS DeUM,QU1 TIMENT
A FACIE EJUS, because a sinner does
evU a hundred times, and yet Ood
lengthens his days, hence I know that

404

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VIII.

years and is perpetuated. But I also knew that it shall be
well with those who fear God, who truly fear before him ;
13 and it shall not be well to the wicked, and, like a shadow,
he shall not prolong his existence, because he doth not fear

it shall be well with those who fear
Ood, who fear before his face, which
he explains, " from the fact that
God grants time for repentance to
him who sins very much, this being
meant by a hundred times, and does
not immediately punish him for his
wickedness, but waits tbat he may
return ; I understand how merciful
and gracious God will be to them
who fear bim and tremble at bis
word." Hence the Bishops' Bible,
" because an evil person offendeth
an hundred times, and God deferreth,
giving him long life, therefore am I
sure that it shall go well with them
that fear God," &c., and Desvoeux,
" because tbe sinner dieth, commit
ting evil, even from tbe delays
granted to him, thus I know that it
shall be well," &c., who, however,
alters nNp into nn, and Tj'nMn into
ijnMn, supplying jn: after it But
this interpretation is both contrary
to d: '3, which never means from
hence, and to the evenness of the
structure, as shewn above.
But I alio knew. Sec But though
Coheleth has seen ('n'N-;) the wicked
triumph in their »wickeclness, which
encourages men to practise evil
(9-12, a), yet he was also persuaded
('?*« ?!') that what he has asserted
(5 - 8) is also true, viz., tbat there is
an appointed time for righteous re
tribution, when it shall be well with
those who truly fear God. For tbe
adversative meaning of '3, but, see
V. 6. The participle yi' is placed
before PM for tbe sake of emphasis.
The repetition D'ribMn 'Mn;|; aiia-n;n; ntoN
vjDbn iM-i; ntoM, characterising the God
fearing, corresponds to the repetition
in the description of the godless. It
is one of Coheleth's favourite modes
of imparting emphasis to an allega
tion, and bas its parallel in the New
Testament (comp, p^ifa; rif^a, raginxg

X^f^!, honour widows, who are truly
widows, 1 Tim, v. 3). For the con
struction of NT with 'aobn, see iii. 14.
13. And it shall not. Sec. The dis
crepancy between the allegation in
the preceding verse, that wicked men
do live long in spite of committing sin,
and the assertion here that they shall
not live long, is a natural consequence
of limiting the bar of judgment to
this side of the grave ; and tbis limi
tation, be it remembered, formed tbe
starting-point, and is all along the
basis of Coheleth's reasoning. With
the promise of temporal rewards and
punishments, a believing Old Testa
ment philosopher could say ('.:m s-tp)
" / know, 1 have been assured, that
the righteous shall have a prosperous
and long life, and the wicked a
miserable and short existence ; " but
when he looked at the mysterious ad
ministration inthe moral government
of God, he also was constrained to
exclaim ('"'^7), "I see the very re
verse often take place." Hence the
discrepancy which weighed so deeply
upon the minds of the chosen people,
wbich led to such disastrous conse
quences, with which Coheleth deeply
sympathises (vide p. 21, &c.), and
which he ultimatelyreconciles. There
is therefore no need to resort to the
arbitrary rendering of the Vulgate,
ET BONUM NON SIT IMPIO, &c., and let
it not be well with the wicked. Sec,
and the explanation of St Jerome,
which make this verse an impreca
tion, in order to obviate the dis
crepancy, bsa D'n; 'i]''nM'"Mb, man shall
not prolong his days like a shadow,
is merely a negative mode of ex
pressing the well knovifn phrase,
'?? nna; . . d-tn, man, or his days,
shall flee away like a shadow, and is
n ell rendered by Luther {unb Ibie ein
©cbatten nitbt lange leben), Spohn
unb fetne I'ebengjcit tt)itb wie etn

CHAP. VIII.]

COHELETH.

405

14 before God. Still there is this vanity happening upon the
earth, that there are righteous men who have wages like
that of the wicked, and there are wicked who have wages
like that of the righteous; I said that this, too, is vanity.
15 And I praised mirth, because there is nothing better for

©(batten), and others. The Sept., ou
fjtaxpwET fljLiEpa; Ev o-xia, he shall not pro
long his days in, or under, a shadow,
wbich is followed by Desvoeux ; and
the Chaldee paraphrase, Na-^N nb 'n; Mbi
tni'n 'oi' j'Sppn; j'nn Mobsai 'riM-t Nobsb
Nbbp? JiDbn'i p'pns'i, and there ^sJiall'be
no space for him in the world to come,
and in this world the days of his life
shall be cut off, they shall flee and
pass away like a shadow ; the Vulgate,
NEC PROLONGENTUR DIES EJUS, SED
QUASI UMBRA TRAUSEANT, neither let
his days be prolonged, but like a
shadow let them pass away ; the Auth.
Version, " neither shall be prolong
his days, wbich are as a shadow;" and
Noyes, " he shall be like a shadow,
and shall not prolong his days,"
dividing it into two distinct clauses ;
as well as Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible, "neither shall he prolong his
days, but even as a shadow so shall
he be," &c. ; and the Geneva Bible,
" neither shall he prolong his days;
he shall be like a shadow, because,"
&c., connecting bs3, contrary to tbe
accents, with the closing part of the
verse, which is followed by Hitzig,
Stuart, Elster, &o., are inadmissible.
For the comparison of the fleeting
life of man with the transient shadow,
see vi. ] 2. D'n;, years, is, as frequently,
used for years of life, lifetime, life, ex
istence. Sere, too, N'n; is construed
with ':Bbn, for which see iii. 14.
14. Still there is this vanity. Sec
The conflict which has been carried
on in verses 5-13, between Coheleth's
knowledge or assurance (':n s-i') of
righteous retribution and his experi
ence ('n'>?5) of its absence in this
world, is now decided in favour of
the latter, by an appeal to the melan
choly fact tbat the very reverse of
retributive justice is to be seen, since

the righteous endure the sufferings
wherewith tbe wicked are threatened,
whilst the wicked enjoy the earthly
blessings promised to the righteous.
to;, belonging to all numbers and
genders, is construed with the sing.
''jn, vanity, and tbe plur. D'p'-ns, the
righteous. ynNn'bs, upon the earth,
used here, in verse 16, and in xi. 2,
is the same as topton nnn, under the
sun, or D;nten nnn, under heaven (comp.
i. 3). ntosp, ivork, is also used meto
nymically for the effect, fruits, or
wages of work generally, and the
special name for these fruits must be
determined by the nature of the em
ployment in question (comp. Exod.
xxiii. 16 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 2 ; Isa. xxvi.
12; Jer. xlviii. 7). As the work here
spoken of is the moral and immoral
conduct of the righteous and the
wicked (ntosn), the wages of course
must be reward, or happiness, and
punishment, or misery, the destiny or
fate consequent upon such modes of
living. The 3 comparison in nipsps,
shews that ntosp is implied before it,
i. e., D'stonn niBsna ntosp and nipsn
D'p'nsn niBSps (comp. supra, ii. 15).
S'an with bM or bs, as in Esth. ix. 26,
is to reach to any one, to come to, to
have. 15. And I praised. Sec Having
shewn the utter inability of wealth to
secure lasting happiness (vi. 1-12),
and the impossibility of prudence, or
a life regulated according to tbe
teachings of common sense, to over
rule the mysterious dealings of Pro
vidence, or to account for the melan
choly fact that the fortunes of tbe
righteous and the wicked are often
reversed all the days of their lives
(vii. l.-viii. 14), Coheleth recurs to
his repeated conclusion, that there is
nothing left for man but to enjoy

406

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VIII.

man under tlie sun than to eat, and drink, and rejoice, and
this will follow him in his work during the days of his life
which God giveth him under the sun.

the things of this life. ntoM is not a
conjunction introducing thie clause
"iai aiiQ-j'M ntoM, as an explanatory
peripbrase of nnnian'nM ':m 'nnaipi,
unb icb P'^fife bie llSreubeJ ba? noinli^
nicbtg gut fei fiit ben SKenfiben, i.e.,
I praise enjoyment that, namely, no
thing is good for man hut. Sec. (Herz
feld, Philippson, Hengstenberg, &c.),
but is causal, as is evident from the
connection of this verse with the pre
ceding one, and from tbe fact that
we have here tbe conclusion from
tbe foregoing experiments. Tbe
singular Mini may either refer to the
eating, drinking, and rejoicing com
prised in one, or, which is still better,
to liiD. nib, to incline, to join one' s-self
to any one, to attend, to follow, is here
construed with the accusative^ like
pan in Gen. xix. 19. ibnsa is tbe same
as ibns"baa in iii. 13 ; the a expresses
proximity, nearness; when man is en
gaged in or is at his work, this good

or enjoying spirit which he cultivates
will accompany him to his sphere of
labour. The phrase is well rendered
by tbe Septuagint, xal auTO Tvfjiirpoaka-rai
auTw Iv foo-^fBoi avrov, Horzfeld and
Philippson, linb bieg begleitet ibn ^ex
feinet 3)fiibe. The paraphrase of the
Vulgate, et hoc solum secum auferret
de labore suo, followed by Luther,
unb fol4)eg wetbe ibm son bet Sttbeit ;
Coverdale, and the Bishops' Bible,
" for that shall be have of his la
bour ; " the Geneva Bible, " for this
is adjoined to bis labour;" Desvoeux,
" for tbis shall borrow him from his
labour," wbich he explains, " man is
the property of labour; if ever that
tyrannical owner parts with him, it
is only by way of loan ; pleasurable
enjoyments may sometimes borrow
him for a whUe, but be must be re
turned; " and Hodgson, " and these
are to comfort him iu his labour,"
are contrary to the meaning of rnb.

SECTION IV.
CHAPTER VIIL 16 — XIL 7.

Coheleth now recapitulates the investigations contained in tbe preceding
sections, and gives us bis final conclusion. Having found that it is
impossible to fathom tbe work of God by wisdom (viii. 16, 17); that
even the righteous and the wise are subject to this inscrutable Provi
dence, just as the wicked (ix. 1, 2) ; that all must alike die and be
forgotten (3-5), and that they have no more participation in what
takes place here (6) ; that we are therefore to indulge in pleasures
here while we can, since there is no hereafter (7-10); that success
does not always attend the strong and tbe skilful (11, 12); and that
wisdom, though decidedly advantageous in many respects, is often
despised and counteracted by folly (13-x. 3) ; that we are to be patient
under sufferings from rulers (4), who by virtue of their power frequently

CHAP. VIII.]

COHELETH.

407

pervert the order of things (5-7), since violent opposition may only
tend to increase our sufferings (8-11) ; that the exercise of prudence
in the affairs of life will be more advantageous than folly (12 - 20) •
that we are to be charitable, though the recipients of our benevolence
appear ungrateful, since they may, after all, requite us (xi. 1, 2) ; tbat
we are always to be at our work, and not be deterred by imaginary
failures, since we know not which of our efforts may prove successful
(3-6), and thus make life as agi-eeable as we can (7), for we must
always bear in mind that this is the only scene of enjoyment;' that the
future is all vanity (8) ; but as this, too, did not satisfy the craving of
the soul, Coheleth at last came to the conclusion, that enjoyment of this
life, together with belief in a future judgment, will secure real happiness
for man (9, 10), and that we are therefore to live from our early youth
in the fear of God and of a flnal judgment, ¦when all that is perplexing
now shall be rectified (xii. 1-7).
16 As I gave my heart to know wisdom, and to see the work
which is done under the sun, how that one doth not see

16. As I gave my heart. Sec To
shew more strikingly the force of the
final conclusion, submitted at the
end of tbis section, Cobelet'n gives
first a resume of the investigations
contained in the foregoing three sec
tions. He tells us, tbat in tbe course
of bis enquiry be found it utterly
impossible to fathom the work of God
hy wisdom. The expression ntoN3
marks the beginning of a new sub
ject (comp. V. 3). For ab jn: and j;:s,
see i. 13 ; and for nn3n s^v, to know,
i. e., to acquire wisdom, see i. 16. '3,
the relative conjunction, introduces
the explanatory clause nb;bai Di»a d:
'iai, explicative of j;3Sn, aiid is still
depending upon niN-nbi (comp. -f|'?"ia'.i
njtoinb p'bBa-'a npan n'itab_?n, and thai
he may reveal or disclose to thee the
depths that they are double for thy
wisdom, i. e., tbey doubly surpass thy
wisdom. Job xi. 6, where '3 intro
duces rp-toinb D;bDa, explanatory of
rrapn ninbsn, and is dependent upon
""i;), see also ibid. xxii. 12). This
explanation, besides relieving this
clause from the complicated position
in which it is placed, by those wbo
assign to '3 a causal signification,
makes it evident that the much dis
puted suffix in vi;?a, which the Chal

dee, Reynolds, &c., refer to Solomon,
and Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Rosen
miiller, De Wette, &c., to his heart,
refers to man engrossed in this (j;:s)
"work which is done upon the earth"
(comp. ii. 23, v. 16, ix. 12). Da, with
the negative, gives intensity to the
statement, i. e., not even (comp. iv. 8).
After what has been said in i. 8,
upon the ascription of hope to tbe
eye, the phrase the eyes see sleep will
at once be intelligible (comp. also
Gen. xxxi. 40 ; Ps. cxxxii. 4 ; Prov.
vi. 4). Tho same phrase is also
used in Latin, comp.
Somnum hercle ego hac nocte oculis non
vidi meis.
"r faith, I have not seen sleep this night
with my eyes."
Terent. Hea-cttontim., ni. i. 82.
By the figure Zeugma, the words
nsh 13:'M v:'s;i n:to, he sees no sleep
with his eyes, which can with pro
priety be predicated only of nb;ba, the
nearer noun, refers also to Di»a, the
more remote one. This figure of
speech is of frequent occurrence in
the Old and New Testament, as well
as in profane writings (comp. bnto bip
isn: D'-i'ss '.3toi, the roaring of the lion,
and tlie teeth of the young lion are

408

COHELETH.

[CHAP. VIII.

17 sleep with his eyes by day and by night, I then saw that
man cannot find out all the doing of God which is done
under the sun; wherefore man laboureth to search it, and
cannot find it out ; and even if the wise man saith he under-

broken. Job iv. 10 ; where the break
ing can be said only of the teeth ;
see also Isa. Iv. 3 ; Jer. xv. 8 ; Hos.
i. 2, and yaXa vfjuiq 'EOTorltra, oi, 0paif/,a,
I have fed you with milk, not with
meat, 1 Cor. iii. 2, where Imnira,
which properly is the predicate of
yaXa, is also applied to gpZfxa ; so
also Luke i. 63 ; Hom. II. viii.
646). 17. J then saw. Sec Having
acquired tbis eagerly sought for
wisdom, and ascertained the value
of the utmost human exertions to
scrutinise God's dispensations, Cohe
leth was fully convinced that it is
utterly impossible for any man to
fathom the mysterious dealings of
Providence, and that the greatest
efforts, be they physical or intellec
tual, are totally useless and vain.
The 1 in 'p'Mni, as frequently, intro
duces tbe apodosis, the foregoing
verse being the .protasis, and is to be
rendered then (comp. ix. 3. 16, x.
10, 11; Gesenius, § 129, 1 Rem.;
Ewald, § 230), We have here, again,
an attraction, the ordinary construc
tion of which would be Mb '3 'n'M-ni
ntoN D'rrb.Nn ntosn-b3"nM Misnb DnNn bav
"i:i. ntos:, / then saw that man cannot
flnd out all the doing of Ood which
is done. Sec. (compare iii, 21). For
D'ribN.n ntosn, denoting God's provi
dential dealings, and NSn, to find out,
to fathom, -see iii. 11. Luther, mis
understanding this attraction, erro
neously translates it, unb icb fabe atte
SJBetfe ©otteg. Senn ein 3»enfcb
lann bag SHSetf ntibt ftnben, u. g. w.
Equally erroneous are the Bishops'
Bible ("I understood of all tbe works
of God, but it is not possible for a
man to attain unto the works that
are done," &o.), tbe Geneva Bible,
which is followed by the Autb. Ver.,
Desvoeux (" then I understood that
this is all God's own work, that man

is not able to find out the end of
this work that is done under the
sun"), Hodgson (" I perceived also,
in every work of God, that man can
account for nothing which is done
under tbe sun"), &o. That btoa, i. j.,
b ntoN, corresponding to the Aramaean
b'na, compounded of 'n a, means on
account of, because of, is sufficiently
established from 'obtoa, on whose
account, in Jonah i. 7, for which
verse 8 has 'nb ntoN.;i, as well as from
'btoa, o« my account (ibid., Yerse 12;
Ewald, § 222, e). Accordingly, btoa
ntoN signifies on account of that, on
tliis account, wherefore, therefore,
hence, and bas its exact analogy in
the frequently. occurring phrase of
accumulated relatives in Aramsean,
'n b'-na = 'n b 'n |, on this account,
hence. The rendering of it by what
soever, or however, in that, wherein
that (Septuagint oo-a Uv, the Syriac
J ii3, Rashbam s) nan iniMa, Gesen.
Lex., Philippson, Vaihinger, &c.),
making it equivalent to ntoM baa, which
some maintain was the original
reading of the text (Ewald, § 362, b;
Heiligstedt, &c,), is botb contrary to
the undoubted existence of the analo
gous phrase, and to its signification.
For the same reasons, we must reject
the paraphrastic rendering of the
Vulgate, et quantoplus laboraverit ad
quarendum, tanto minus inveniat,
which is adopted by Luther, unb je
mebt bet SKenf^ atbeitet ju fucben,
je Weniget et finbet, the explanation
of Rashi, the Geneva Bible, Hodgson,
tec, n»M b'aiua, /or the which; the
translation of Coverdale and the
Bishops' Bible, " and though he be
stow his labour . . . yet," &c., the
Authorised Version, " because though
. . . yet," &c. For tbe b in nsnb,
introducing the indirect speech, see
iii. 18,

CHAP. IX.]

COHELETH.

409

ix. I standeth it, he cannot find it out. For all this have I taken
to heart, and proved all this, that the righteous and the wise,
and their labours, are in the hand of God ; these men know

I. For all this. Sec The validity
of his assertion, that all human
efforts to fathom the moral govern
ment of God are vain and useless,
is evident from the fact, that if any
man or thing could render the myste
rious dealings of Providence more
apparent, it would be the conduct of
the righteous and the wise, yet tbey
themselves ahd their works are sub
ject to this arbitrary and inscrutable
Providence, and are totally ignorant
of the issue of their good and pru
dent works; they cannot tell whether
their labours will secure for them
love or hatred, happiness or misery,
since both prospeiity and adversity
come upon them irrespective of their
conduct. '3, for, assigns a reason
for the allegation in the foregoing
verse about tbe inscrutable nature
of God's dealings, and is wrongly
omitted by the Vulgate. For the
phrase to take it to heart, see vii. 2 ;
and for niab, the infinitive construct,
continuing the discourse after a finite
verb, with the signification of 'nna,
tbe finite verb, see viii 9. 'The
Septuagint's rendering of ni'b^'nNmabi
by xal xapiia fxov a-vfxtrav I'iiv rovro,
and my heart has seen all this, wbich
is followed by tbe Syriac, ¦ i *~l\o
(jOI ^^ Zu ]1jj, evidently pro
ceeds from having inadvertently sepa
rated nNmabi into nMn 'abi, mistaking
n for n, and the i for '. The D'j'ns
D'panrn, righteous and the wise, ave
mentioned, because they might have
been supposed to overrule or explain
this mysterious incongruity in the
administration of retributive justice.
¦>?», with Quametz impure, labour,
work, is wrongly taken by the
Chaldee, Rashi, Luther, the Bishops'
Bible, &c., for nas servant. D'ribNn n;a,
to be in the hand of Ood, is not to be
under a special Providence (Rashi,
Bishop Patrick, Gill, &c.), which is

contrary to the scope of the passage,
but menus absolutely depending
upon his arbitrary power, entirely
subject to his inscrutable dealings
(comp. Ps. xov, 4 ; Prov. xxi, 1 ;
Job xii to), i.e., the works of the
good and the wise will not produce
that which they desire, but tbat
which the unfathomable will of God
decrees; so much so, that retribu
tive justice is reversed, as is manifest
from the following verse, where the
same idea is more largely dwelt upon.
This determines the sense of the
much disputed sni' j'n nN?ip-D: nariM-D?
DnMn to be, that as tbe dealings of
Providence arc so irrespective of
merit, the righteous and the wise
cannot know from their own conduct
whether they will meet with the
expressions of love or hatred, t. e.,
prosperity or adversity, both await
them indiscriminately, since tbey
are distributed without any regard
to holy and prudent life. Thus nariN
and nN?to may either be taken m'eto-
nymically for the expression of God's
love and hatred, i.e., prosperity and
adversity, happiness and misery ; or,
with Ibn Ezra, may be regarded as
the object of love and hatred, nn ba
DNia' 'nn D'Snv d:'n D'n:iib in D'aniN antD
Dn'aeb ban, i. e., they know not when
the things which they love or hate
may come upon them, both are before
them. The repeated Da ... Da is
equivalent to the Latin tum . . tum,
both . . . and (comp. infra, verse 6,
Gen. xxiv. 25 ; Exod. xii. 31 ;
Gesen. Lex, s. V. ; Ewald, § 359) ;
but as tbe literal rendering, " botb
prosperity and adversity man know
eth not," would be awkward in
English, we must substitute tbe
disjunctive particles neither . . . nor.
ban, all, as frequently, also both, i. e.,
happiness and misery, as the two
conditions, comprise tbe totality of
man's feelings (comp. ii. 14). A
tyro in Hebrew knows tbat crpsBb

SG

410

COHELETH.

[chap. IX.

2 neither love nor hatred, both are before them, both just as
before all others ; the same fate happeneth to the righteous
and the wicked ; to the good and pure, and to the impure ;
to him who sacrificeth and to him who doth not sacrifice ; as
is the good so is the sinner, he that sweareth as he who

refers to D-ron, which is used cbllec-
tively for D'nanni D'p'-nsn, the righteous
and the wise ; yet Dr. Gill explains
it, " yet all things are before him ;
Elohim, the three divine Persons."
2. Both just as before all others. Sec
This verse is intimately connected
with tbe preceding one, being a con
tinuation of the same sentiment, and
ought not to have been separated
from it. Both happiness and misery,
which, as said at the end of the fore
going verse, indiscriminately await
the righteous and tbe wicked, come
to them just in the same arbitrary
manner as to all other men; there is
no difference in this respect between
tbe good and the bad, the pious and
the impious meet with tbe same fate.
That bisn, wbich is simply a further
explanation of ''an in the preceding
verse, should have called forth such
a diversity of opinions, must be
ascribed to tbe confusion wbich
reigns in the ancient versions on
this clause. The Septuagint renders
bsb ntoM3 bsn by fxaraiomg EV ro'iq -JTao-iv,
vanity in all, omitting ntoM3, and
alters b'sb ban into bba ban. ' Sym
machus, who also takes ban for barj,
connects it with Dn'.:pb ban at the end
of the foregoing verse, viz., Ta orivra
EfAVpo^Biy avrov oJ»^a, all before him
is uncertain; so also tbe Vulgate,
SED OMNIA IN FUTURUM SBRVANIUR
INCERTA, but all things are kept
uncertain for the future. The Syriac
.,7 i iy ''¦ 7 0 7 i
^\ \lo ILdcTI .-.OlQiOpOJ ^iO
V^nNp, all before him is vanity, all
as to all, has both the correct reading
of the text and this emendation, the
latter has evidently been inserted
into the text from a marginal gloss.
Hitjfig's explanation of this clause is

truly marvellous ; he takes nnM rnpn
both as the predicate of ban and the
subject of bab nwNa; the full construc
tion, according to him, is rnpp b3n
npN nnpn feb ntoNS nnN, atte ^nb'gtei^*
njie Me ttifft etn Sufatt. These -
arbitrary emendations and far-fetched
expositions appear all the more
monstrous when compared with Ibn
Ezra's simple and natural explana
tion of this clause, Na'iDioa DnbNa'b3n
bsb, all or both things happen to them
(i.e., to the righteous and v'lse) just
as to every one else ; similarly Rash
bam Drrasb ban bs) Nin ''d bab niBNa ban
bab jnu) nioa niMa nvasmoni nisnn ba
DnNn ':a. Dmeb,' which follows ban
at the end of the preceding verse,
belongs also to bsn at the beginning
of tbis verse, and the verb substan
tive, as is usually the case, is omitted
after ntoM.3; the full construction is
bib n;n; ntoMa Dn'.:Db bin, both await
them just as they await all others.
nnN n-ipp, the same fate, refers to the
same indiscriminate fortunes spoken
of io the preceding verse, which meet
alike tbe righteous and tbe wicked,
without any regard to merit or de
merit. For nnpn, /ate, and nnN, the
same, see ii. 14. aiio. good, is placed
before Nnpb; ninpb, to shew that the
purity and impurity are not Levitical
but moral. The Septuagint's inser
tion of sn, evil, after it, thus making
it a separate couplet, viz , Bnb-) aiiab,
which is also done by the Vulgate
and Syriac, and adopted by Desvoeux,
Spohn, &c., has no MS. authority,
and would, if admitted, be a needless
tautology, inasmuch as Ntona aiis? are
mentioned in the next couplet but
one. 3 — 3 is used when two things
are compared, as — so (comp. nNpns
otoiO, as is the sin-offering, so is the
trespass-offering, Levit. vii. 7; Ewald,

CHAP. IX.]

COHELETH.

411

3 feareth an oath. This is the greatest evil of all that is done
under the sun, that there is the same fate for all, and that,
although the heart of the sons of men is full of evil, and
madness is in their hearts during their life, yet, after it, they
4 go to the dead ; for who is excepted ? To all the living there

§ 360). The 3 comparison is omitted
before *ato!n, and ntoNa is used before
nsiato instead of 3, to give variety to
the construction. The antithetic
NT nsiato, he who fears an oath,
shews beyond doubt that careless
swearing, the habit of using an oath
at every declaration made, is in
tended by nsiato, and not perjury
(Vulgate, Rasbi, Rashbam), compare
Matt. V. 34, and 'Talmud, Gittin,
31, b, 35, a, where swearing gene
rally is discouraged.
3. This is the greatest. Sec What
is worst of all is, that this absence of
all distinction between tbe righteous
and the wicked, during the whole of
man's life-time, is also visible in
death ; that those wbo bad their
hearts full of wickedness and folly
all the days of their life, at the
end of their journey enter iuto the
realm of the dead, like tbe rest of
mankind. Tbe preposition a in
^aa gives to s-i the force of the super
lative, making it stand forth promi
nently as evil in the midst (a) of all
other evils; none of all those by
wbich it is surrounded cau eclipse
it, hence its superlative idea (comp.
nto:na bnn 'obN, my family is the weakest
in Manasseh, Judg. vi. 15 ; Song of
Songs i. 8 ; Lam. i I ; Amos iii. 16 ;
Ewald, § 313, c. The Vulgate has
therefore rightly rendered it, pessi-
MUM INTER OMNIA, the worst of all
things, and Ibn Ezra nTO:i3nD b'aa j'n
mn niDp nnv '^¦:n itsncn nnn, among
all things done under the sun noth'mg
is more difficult than this. Sec. ; so
also Knobel, Herzfeld, Vaihinger,
&c. That nnN rnpp refers to death,
to which all men, good and bad, are
alike subject, as in ii. 14, iii. 19, is
evident irom its explicative v-inN;
cnnn^bH at the end of the verse, d:;

is still dependent upon '?, which
must be mentally supplied before it,
i, e , d: '31, and that even if, although,
they have led such a wicked life,
there is no distinction made between
them and the righteous (bsb nnN rnpp),
the same fate is for all alike, 'i'he
1 before I'^nM-) must therefore be
regarded as introducing tbe apodosis,
d:i being the protasis (vide supra,
viii, 17). The suffix in '''inm refers
to D';nn, life, which, like many other
abstract nouns, is expressed by tbe
plural (comp. Gesen. § 108, 2, a ;
Ewald, § 179, a). For ab Nbp, see
viii 11. The omission of D'3bh, tliey
go, before D'non:bN, to the dead, which
imparts great energy to the diction
in the original, must be supplied in
the translation, as our idiom does
not admit of such an ellipsis. 'The
traditional ex])lanation of tbis clause,
taking D'nnn~bN, to the dead, for hell,
which is given in the Midrash, the
Chaldee, Rashi, &c., and which, as
usual, is followed by the Vulgate
(et post HjEc ad inferos DBnU-
CENTUR, and afterwards they shall
be brought down to hell). Gill, &o.,
requires no refutation.
4. For who is excepted ? In corro
boration of the mournful fact with
which the preceding verse concluded,
viz., tbat all men, good and bad, die
alike, Coheleth appeals to our own
experience, asking us whether any,
no matter what their conduct, can
be adduced as being exempted from
this fate common to all men. Some
difference shewn in this awful event
between the righteous and the wicked
would indeed be a slight satisfaction,
since the living, however low and
contemptible their condition, pos
sessing some rays of hope, are
preferable to the dead, however great

412

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IX.

and honoured. To enter into the
full force of the adage with which
Coheleth illustrates the advantage of
life over death, we must advert to
the respective positions which the
dog and the lion occupied in the
estimation of the Hebrews. Now
that we hear it affirmed " that, with
tbe exception of woman, there is
nothing on earth so agreeable, or so
necessary to the comfort of man, as
the dog" (Jesse's Anecdotes of Dogs,
Introd., Bohn's ed.) ; when we see
this animal, a most faithful and
cheering companion to the beggar
in his solitude, and tbe monarch in
his exile; the first to defend us in
danger, the last to desert us in
distress ; tenderly guarding the
infant, and gently guiding the blind;
when wo read some of the sweetest
lines composed to celebrate his noble
deeds and generous feelings, we could
hardly understand the contemptible
allusion to the dog, both here and
elsewhere in the Scriptures, did we
not bear in mind the Jewish treat
ment of the dog. The Jews excluded
dogs from all familiarity, and entirely
banished them from their premises.
These animals without owners had
therefore to take up their abode in
some desolate part of tbe town, bad
to subsist on offal, carrion, and
human corpses (Exod. xxii. 31 ;
1 Kings xiv. 11, xvi, 4, xxi 19. 23 ;
2 Kings ix. 36 ; Ps. Iix. 6). From
this disgusting way of subsistence,
and their repulsive habit alluded to
in Prov. xxvi. 11, and 2 Pet. ii. 22,
dogs were looked upon as the most
unclean, debased, and despicable crea
tures ; and the very term dog became
a metaphor for uncleanness, debase
ment, and despicableness (1 Sam.
xvii. 43, xxiv. 14 ; 2 Sam. ix. 8, xvi.
9 ; 2 Kings viii. 13 ; Sirach xiii.
22 ; Matt vii 6, xv. 26 ; Rev. xxii.
15). Hence the Jews called the
Gentiles dogs, because of their abase
ment and abominations, and hence
our Lord, when speaking of Jews
and Gentiles, calls the former chil
dren and the latter dojrs (Matt. XV. 26)^
and Mohammedans to this day call

Christians dogs by way of contempt.
'The lion, on the contrary, was
regarded as the king ot animals, in
consequence of bis strength and
invincible courage, and becatne the
symbol of might and majesty. Tbe
royal tribe of Israel is compared tp
a lion (Gen. xlix. 9) ; God, in his
power and majesty, is frequently
spoken of as a lion (Job x. 16; Isa.
xxxviii. 13; Lam. iii. 10; Hos. xiii.
7); and the Messiah is distinguished
as " the lion of tbe tribe of Judah "
(Rev. V. 5). Mohammed called his
uncle Homza, the lion of Ood (Gesen.
Comment, on Isaiah xxix. 1). Hence
the force of the passage. Notwith
standing tbe debased condition of
the one, and the majestic position of
the other, a despicable living dog is
preferable to an exalted but dead
lion. The same proveib exists in
Arabic (comp. Golii Adag. Cent. ii.
3). '3 is causal, assigning a reason
for the previous allegation, and is
therefore wrongly translated surely,
truly, in tbe Geneva Bible, by Stuart,
&c. 'n, as usually, is the interroga
tive who, with the substantive verb
implied, hence ntoN 'n means who is
it that, nna; (the Pual of nn|, to
prove, to approve, to select, to choose)
is selected, excepted, exempted ; the
interrogation is used for an emphatic
denial, and is therefore well rendered
by Symmachus riq yip slq as! 5iaTE)i£irei
Jaiv ; who shall always continue to
live ? and better still by the Vulgate,
NEMO EST QUI SEMPER VIVAT, ET
QUI HUJUS RBI HABEAT FIDOCIAM,
tliere is no one who lives for ever, or
hopes for tf — making, however, of
jinpa- to; D';nn-b3 bN in the Hebrew
jinpa D';nn-b3b to;, in— Rambach, Mi
chaelis, Rosenmiiller, Knobel, De
Wette, Gesenius, Noyes, Philippson,
Vaihinger, Fiirst, &c. Others, how
ever, who adhere to this construction,
and deduce the same sense from this
clause, unnecessarily change tbe
vowel-points of tbe Pual nna; either
for nna; the Kal (Elster, &c!)V or nna;
the Niphal (Hengstenberg, &c,) The
Keri nan;, wbich is adopted by the
Septuagint, Symmachus, the Syriac,

CHAP. IX.]

COHELETH.

413

5 is hope, for a living dog is better than a dead lion. For the
living know that they shall die ; but the dead know not
anything ; and there is no more any advantage to them, for

the Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, tbe Geneva Bible, the Autho
rised Version, Desvoeux, Hodgson,
Ewald, Hitzig, Stuart, &c., and which
is to be found in ten of Kennicott's
MSS., and thirteen of De Rossis,
connects it with the following part
of tbe verse, i.e., for to him who is
joined to all the living there is hope.
But — 1. This construction severs
the manifest connection of this verse
with tbe preceding one ; 2. It renders
ba before D';nn superfluous and in
tolerable, so much so, that it even
called forth the remark from Stuart,
that " the phrase has no parallel in
the Hebrew," and yet, strange to
say, he adopts it ; and 3. The Keri
evidently proceeds from an inten
tional transposition of the letters a
and n, which was one of the Hagadio
roles of exegesis, thereby to obtain
the supposed seventy different mean
ings of tbe text {vide supra, p, 31).
Lutber (benn bei atten Sebenbigen iji,
bag man wiinf^^t, nebtnlicb |)offnung,
for to aU the living there is that which
is desired, namely, hope), defies the
Hebrewtext. Equally arbitrary is tbe
strange version of Coverdale, " and
why? as long as a man liveth he
is careless; for a quick dog (say they)
is better than a dead lion," which is
adopted in the Bishops' Bible, and
has given rise to Broughton's trans
lation, " for all that be yet accom
panied unto all tbe living (say the
men of an evil heart) they have assur
ance. For it is better with the dog
alive than with the lion that is dead."
According to the explanation we de
fend, the expression ba before D'jinn
is not only tolerable but necessary,
inasmuch as by D';nn, all the living,
tbe sacred writer means irrational
as well as rational life, as is evident
from the illustration which he in
troduces of the dog and the lion.
There is no necessity for appealing to
the doubtful usage of tbe ), to intro

duce tbe subject, and to regard abab
as the nominative (Hitzig), nor for
taking itin the sense of quod attinet
AD, in respect to, as to (Knobel,
Preston, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Heng
stenberg, &c.), which it undoubtedly
bas elsewhere (comp. Ewald, § 310, a),
but wbich would produce a harsh
construction here, nor for assigning
to it the signification fogat, even
(Ewald, Gramm. § 310, b), which
has not a single parallel, but is to be
taken in its usual sense as standing
before tbe dative (so Symmachus,
xvvl ^Sovrt QkXnov es-tiv « Xeovt* teQvuxotj,
the Geneva Bible, Rasbi, Desvoeux,
Rosenmiiller, Herzfeld, &c,), and is
omitted before n'-nNn, not from an
inadvertency of the transcriber (Des
voeux, p. 332), but because of jn,
which precedes it, so that n;n.Nn stands
for n.;nMb (comp. ii. 7, vi. 5. 8, vii. 2,
xii. 12). However, it is better with
the Septuagint, the Vulgate, tbe
Syriac, the Chaldee, Desvoeux, &c.,
to translate as if it were in the nomi
native, since it conveys more forcibly
the sense of the original.
5. For the living know. Sec The
ray of hope dimly shining in the
breast of the living, mentioned in the
foregoing verse to shew the advan
tage of life over death, is here con
centrated in the consciousness of
death which the living possess, and
which, as the antithesis shews, bas
its concomitant faculties, enabling
the living to enjoy some earthly plea
sures when they do come, though
they be rare and arbitrary. The dead,
however, are entirely unconscious,
and can therefore share no more in
the pleasures of this earth, since the
faculties capable of enjoyment are
destroyed in them. '''^, for, because, as
signs a reason for tbe assertion in tbe
foregoing verse, th at there is hope to all
the living, which we are here told con
sists in their consciousness, together
with the feelings and passions belong-

414

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IX.

6 their memory ceaseth to be ; also their love as well as their
hatred and their zeal have long perished, and there is no
more any portion for them for ever in all that is done under
ing thereto. Hodgson's rendering,
" it is true the living know that they
shall die, but tbe dead know nothing,"
is both contrary to the signification
of '3, and is against the scope of the
passage. That tbe bare fact of con
sciousness and unconsciousness is
not all which forms the contrast and
constitutes the advantage of the
living over the dead, is evident from
the other feelings denied to the latter,
and of course must be affirmed of the
former. The expression nato, reward,
here advantage, is used instead of
Jinn; or Rbn of the following verse, be
cause of its forming a paranomasia
with 131, just as Dnrap and DnNjip are
employed in the sequel. Dna-i riato: is
generally rendered ihdr memory is
forgotten, i.e., the remembrance of
them is gone. Now, we can under
stand Luther and Coverdale doing
so, because they are consistent, and
translate the following verse baf man
fte nicbt ntebt liebet, nocb baiTet, no^
neibet, " for their memorial is for
gotten, so that they be neither loved,
hated, nor envied ; " but we can
neither understand nor exculpate the
inconsistency of almost all modern
commentators, wbo, whilst taking
the suffix in Dnai to express the object,
regard the sutflxes in DpapM, DnMpto
and DnN;p, so closely connected with
the former both by form and tbe ac
cessory particle Da, as the subject.
For these obvious reasons we must
take the suffixes of all the four nouns
in the same sense; and as the suffixes
of tbe following three nouns supply
the place of possessive pronouns, which
is generally conceded, as will be seen
in tbe following verse, the suffix of
the first noun must also express the
possessive, nai, therefore, like nM:ip,
napN, and nM:p, refers to the faculty
itself, nato, to forget, also to discon
tinue, to cease to exist (comp. Ps.
Ixxvii. 10 with verse 9, where it is
used in parallelism with nsab dbn, to

terminate for ever, and np:, to end;
and see also the following verse,
where naN, to perish, stands in paral
lelism with nato here).
6. Also their love. Sec The de
struction of the retetotive faculty is
not the only result of this unconscious
state of the dead; all the affections
and feelings perish likewise. Love,
hatred, and zeal, the triad in which
all human passions are comprised,
also become extinct. Hence the dead
can no more have any participation
in sublunary affairs ; tbe faculties re
quisite for this are gone. The ac
cessory Da, also, intimately connects
this verse with tbe preceding one,
from which it ought not to have been
separated, shewing that the subjects
which it introduces share the same
fate as the one mentioned before.
The repetition of it three times
(Da"DrD|) corresponds to our also —
as well as — and (comp. Isa. xlviii. 8,
and supra, verse 1). 'That DnN:i»,
¦ananM, and DnM:.p are tbe affections,
and not, by metonymy, the objects
upon which these passions are exer
cised (niotan fte mit ?iebe bingen, wag
fte mit Stbfibeu betfotgten, wag fie ntit
Sifet bettiebcn, u. g. w., Knobel), is
evident from tbe fact that the things
we love, bate, or are zealous for are
not annihilated when we die. nas
has here again been rendered incor
rectly and inconsistently in the Auth.
Version by now. naM determines the
meaning of nato, witli which it stands
in parallelism. For the singular,
nnjN, referring to several nouns, see
i. 10. The Vulgate's rendering of
Dbisb nis DnVj'N pbm by nee habent
partem in hoc saculo, followed by
Luther (unb b^t'en fein SEbeit ntebt
auf bet SBelt), Coverdale, tbe Bishops'
Bible, &c., taking Dbisb for nin Dbisa,
which is explained by St. Jerome,
tbat " the byjiocritical love of the
wicked towards God, their professed
hatred of sin, making them exclaim

CHAP. IX.]

COHELETH.

415

7 the sun. G«, then, eat with gladness thy bread, and drink
thy wine with cheerful heart, as God hath long since been
8 pleased with thy works ; let thy garments be white at all

with the Psalmist, ' do not I hate
them, O Lord, who hate thee,' &c.,
and their feigned zeal for goodness,
representing it to be as great as tbat
of Phineas ; all this perishes," is as
usual to be traoad to the Hagadic in
terpretation of this verse, which, to
obviate the absolute denial of the
survival of any feelings after the de
mise of the body, restricts it lo the
wicked. Hence the Chaldee, nna
jinnp'nn pjn -^jins jina n'b M^'to-i-n jin'nio
j'p' jin^in naa M'in jinnMpp ?|n jinnM:to I]n
Mobsb N.;p;n3 DS nis jinV nb ap pbim' Npbs
TaspN-n np ba jn N'^n jinb n'bi' 'pNn
Ntopsi ninn j'-nn Nnbsa| the wicked after
their death are useless ; their love, as
weU as their hatred and jealousy, be
hold they have perished long ago from
the world ! and they have no more a
good part with the righteous in the
world to come, and they have no en
joyment from all that is done (Dbisb)
in this world under the sun. (Compare
also the Midrash and Rashi in loco)
7. Oo, then, Sec Since death de
stroys all tbe capacities of enjoying
the fruition of our earthly toil, and
since God does not regulate our en
joyments here according to merit or
demerit, as is evident from the arbi
trary distribution of fortunes, we
must enjoy life whilst we can, and
not let our pleasures be interrupted
or marred by allowing doubts to enter
our minds as to whether we please or
displease God. God, who indulges
the wicked, must surely have long
since (nas) been pleased with our
works ; we must therefore not be
troubled with it now. Bread a.ndwine,
being tbe staff' and comfort of life, are
frequently used together as including
all things necessary to support and
cheer us (comp. infra, x. 1 9 ; Gen. xiv.
18; 1 Sam. xvi. 20, xxv. 18; Nehem.
V. 15 ; Lam. ii. 12 ; Tobit iv. 15 - 17).
Tbe imperative "^p is used emphati
cally, and has an inferential force,
i e., this being the case, go then. Sec

Tbe expressions aiio, good, and s-i, evil,
are frequently used to describe cheer
fulness and sadness; hence the phrase
aiio ab, a cheerful heart (Esth. v. 9,
Judg. xvi. 25), ab ap;, to cheer the heart
(1 Kings xxi 7; Ruth iii. 7), s-i ab,
a sad heart (Nehem. ii. 2 ; Prov. xxv.
20). ?i'tosn"nM D'ribNn nsn naa '3 for
/ I V-:- V . ¦.¦:t TT Tt ., J"'
God has long since been pleased with
the works, is not the principal reason
why Coheleth appeals to us in the
former part of tbe verse to enjoy life,
i.e., because he has loved us and
blessed us with these good things (the
Chaldee, Rasbi, Rashbam, Grotius,
Rosenmiiller, &c.), nor because we
can judge, from our being able to do
so, that our words are pleasing to God
(Le Clerc, Van der Palm, Noyes,
Philippson, &c.), which severs this
verse from the preceding one, and
contradicts the whole scope of tbe pas
sage, wherein itis denied that God re
wards those with whom he is pleased;
nor is it, as Ibn Ezra affirms, nbM '3
nicsniD D'nbMn nsn D'irsnn, /or Ood de
sires you to do so, i.e., indulge in
these enjoyments, who is followed by
Reynolds, Geier, Schmidt, Hodgson,
Nachtigal, Umbreit, Hitzig, Stuart,
Vaihinger,&c., as this is incompatible
with the words of the text, inasmuch
as the general term ^'tosp cannot be
specifically and exclusively referred
to enjoyment ; to convey this idea, tbe
words of the text would undoubtedly
have been ntosnto D'ribNn nsn naa '3
-/-!-,,, , V!T T T T:
ni'bj'nN — but a subordinate one,
8, Let thy garments be. Sec. From
the recommendation of dainty food,
Coheleth passes on to festive raiment.
The wearing of white garments in
hot climates has its origin in tbe
fact tbat they are cool and pleasant.
From tbe great expense, however,
connected with the perpetual cleaning
of them, they could only be worn
daily by persons of wealth, rank, or
office, who are distinguished by them
(2 Chron. v. 12 ; Matt. vi. 29 ; Joseph.

416

COHELETH.

[CHAP. IX.

9 times, and let no perfume be lacking upon thy head ; enjoy
life with the woman whom thou lovest, all the days of thy
vain life which He giveth thee under the sun, all thy vain
days, for this is thy portion in life, and in the labour where-

Antiq. viii. 7, 3), whilst ordinary
people reserved them for visits to the
great (Esth. viii. 15) and festive occa
sions. Hence white garments became
the emblem of purity and festivity.
The pure and happy angels are
clothed in white garments (Mark xvi.
5 ; John xx. 12) ; and tbe glorified
saints at their feast in heaven are clad
in white robes (2 Esdras ii. 39. 44,
45 ; Enoch Ixi. 18; Rev. iii. 4, 5. 18,
vi 11, vii. 9, xix. 8; Bahr, Symbolik
i. 338). Perfuming, too, was an in
dulgence reserved for occasions of
rejoicing (vide supra, vii. 1). Hence
both white garments and perfuming
were studiously avoided in times of
sorrow (2 Sam. xii. 20, xiv. 2, xix.
24; Dan. x. '3). Similar customs
prevailed among tbe Greeks and
Romans. Thus Horace tolls us —
Licebit
me repotia, natales alioSTe dierum
Festos albatus cclebret.
" -When rob'd in -white he mark'd with festal
mirth
His day of marriage, or his hour of birth."
Sat. ii. 2, 69-61.
See also Hom. Odyss. iv. 49, x. 360 ;
Herat. Od. ii. 7. 7, 8, iii. 29, 4, 5;
Ovid. Heriod. xv. 76 ; and especially
Cicero, in Orat. in Vatin. c. 13. To
wear always white garments, and to
have always one's head perfumed,
therefore means to be constantly
cheerful and happy, to regard life as
if it were a holiday. The moral in
terpretation of this verse, applying it
to a pure and sinless life, which is
given in the Midrash, the Cbaldee,
tho Talmud, Rashi, &c., and wbich
is followed by St. Jerome in his
spiritual application of these words,
and more recently by Hengstenberg,
who says that " white garments are
to be put on as an expression of lively
faith in the future glory of God's
people," is rightly rejected by Ibn

Ezra, and almost all modem com
mentators, as contrary to the scope
of the passage. As the singular ns,
time, is used in Hela-ew in the same
sense in wbich we employ the plural
(vide supra, viii. 9), the latter must
he given in our idiom to convey tbe
force of the original.
9. Enjoy life with the woman. Sec
To festive enjoyments are to be added
the gratifications with those who
are " the delight of man," wbich
formed an essential part in Eastern
pleasures (vide supra, ii. 8). The
discrepancy which some have found
between the recommendation here to
enjoy life with women, and the asser
tion made in vii. 26 - 28 about their
wickedness and the mischief arising
from intercourse with them, proceeds
from overlooking the different stages.
of the argument. Here, in tbe
resume, Coheleth has reached that
point from which he could see no
moral government at all, no retribu
tive justice, and nothing left for man
but momentary enjoyment and the
gratification of every desire which
is calculated to impart pleasure.
Whereas, there, in the disquisition,
Qoheleth bas passed this stage, and
gone on to the prudent or common-
sense view of life, which enjoined
moderation, and therefore precluded
every indulgence wbich was incom
patible with that view. For tbe
phrase D';n nNn, to see, i. e., to enjoy .
life, see ii, 1. rr|N-DN is rightly
explained by St. Jerome, qujEoum-
QUE TIBT PLA0UEEITF.«M1NABUM EJUS
GADUE coMPLEXu, whosocvcr among
women shall please thee, rejoice in her
embrace ; so also Ibn Ezra (DS nniB
na npmiB n-i'M), Mendelssohn, Holden,
Herzfeld, &c. The opinion of Bishops
Reynolds and Patrick that this refers
to the enjoyment of the marriage
state is against tbe context ; for, as

CHAP. IX.]

COHELETH.

417

Id with thou labourest under the sun. Whatever thine hand
findeth to do, whilst thou art able, do it ; for there is no
work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in Hades,
11 whereunto thou art going. Then again I saw under the

Holden rightly remarks, that " an
exhortation to pass a life of pleasure
aud voluptuous ease is in perfect
harmony with the counsel given
immediately before, ' eat thy bread
with joy,'" &c. 'I'his is moreover
corroborated by the absence of the
article in ntoN, wbich does not mean
wife, but any woman nartN^toM refers
to amor vulgivagus ; and, from the
nature of the case recommending,
as it does, a favourite woman, is
another evidence that sensual grati
fication, and not " the enjoyments of
the matrimonial state," is here urged.
ntoN before jn: does not refer to the
woman (Geier, Rambach, Michaelis,
Rosenmiiller, Heinemann,Vaihinger,
&c,), but to -f^an 'jn 'D;-b3 (the Septua
gint, tbe Vulgate, Le Clerc, Hodgson,
Nachtigal, Umbreit, Knobel, Herz
feld, Hitzig, Elster, Hengstenberg,
&c.) ; the adverbial clause belongs
to D';n, as is evident from viii. 15,
where we also see that the subject of
jn: is D'ribsrr. Tbe words iban 'o; ba,
all thy vain days, are repeated for
the sake of emphasis, to indicate that
not a single day ought to be per
mitted to pass unenjoyed, and are
therefore wrongly omitted by tbe
Septuagint, Syriac, Chaldee, several
of Kennicott's and De Rossi's MSS.,
who have overlooked that this is one
of Coheleth's favourite modes of im
parting force to an assertion (comp.
viii. 11, 12). Nin, this, is for the
neuter, as in iii. 22, v. 17, and refers
to the enjoyment of life.
10. Whatever thine hand. Sec. The
principal and specific cases of indul
gence adduced in the recommenda
tion of pleasure arewound up with the
general remark that we are to have re
course to (bi) any and every source of
voluptuous gratification (^naa) whilst
we have the power to do it ; since, in
the realm of death to which we are

all hastening, all labour and device,
all knowledge and wisdom cease ;
we have no moi-e power to enjoy.
Msn, to find, to gain, to possess, to
have ; hence n^ NSn, f Ae hand gains —
either by picking up, labour, or vic
tory, wherein the hand is the agent —
denotes possession, power, ability, i.e.,
QUODCUMQUE rACBRE POTEST MANUS,
whatever the hand is able to do, as
the Vulgate rightly has it (comp.
Levit. xii 8, xxv. 28). The ^^nba is
not to be construed, against the
accents, with ntos, i. e., do it as in
thy power, as well as thou canst (i; h
ivvajxig irov noirta-av, the Sept., Grotius,
Le Clerc, l)esvoeux), or, do it with
all thy power, or with thy might
(Tjb'n baa n'as, the Chaldee, Coverdale,
the Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Bible,
tbe Auth. Version, Geier, Michaelis,
Schmidt, Nachtigal, Van der Palm,
Rosenmiiller, Heinemann, Noyes,
Vaihinger, &c.), or do it instantly
(INSTANTER OPERARE, the VulgatO,
Luther, Reynolds, &c.) ; nor is it to
be rendered through thy power,
i. e., whatever thy hand flnds to do
through thy power (De Wette, Knobel,
Herzfeld, Hitzig, Stuart, Hen'gsten-
berg, &c ), but whilst thou art in thy
strength, whilst thou art living, as is
rightly explained by Rashi (msa
¦[naa nnNiB), and Rashbam (D"napiBa),
which, as the latter well remarks, is
evident (nianb niUN biMwa bs aoin), from
the powerless state of the dead in
the following hemistich, with which
it is contrasted. For Jiaton, see
vii 25.
11. Then again I saw, Sec Having
affirmed in verse 1 that both the
righteoifs and tbe wise are subject
to the same inscrutable and arbi
trary Providence as the wicked, and
having established his position with
regard to the pious in 2- 1 0, Coheleth
now proceeds to establish bis allega-

,-i H

418

COHELETH.

[chap. IX.

sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the
strong, nor yet bread to the wise, nor riches to the intelligent,
nor favour to the learned ; that the time of misfortune meeteth
12 all, and that man doth not even know his time ; like fish
which are taken in a destructive net, and like sparrows which
are caught in a snare, like these are the sons of men ensnared
in the time of misfortune, when it suddenly cometh upon them.

tion with regard to tbe wise and
intelligent. Like piety, wisdom can
not counteract that arbitrary state
of things according to which the
very reverse of what we expect from
the means employed takes place.
For the formula nM-i-i 'nato, / turned
and I saw, i. e., I saw again, marking
the transition to the other part of
tbe subject, see iv. 1, where also
aito^ as here, is used adverbially;
and for nM-i-j. the infinitive absolute,
instead ot nN-iNi, the finite verb, see
viii 9. That yinp, race, and nnnbn,
battle, mean a, successful issue in these
engagements is evident from the
context. 'The climactic d| marks gra
dation in the scale of importance, and
shews that theprindpal design of the
verse is to set forth the powerlessness
of wisdom, swiftness and strength
being introduced as mere stepping
stones whereby to- ascend to the
highest capacities of man. '3 before
the last clause, like tbe one preceding
it, is dependent upon nN-j, and must
therefore be translated that, and not
for. ns-n ns, which is substituted in
the following verse for s:ci ns here,
shews tbat s:s, chance, fortune, de
notes misfortune, and that the i before
it indicates tbat it serves to define
PS, constituting the figure hendiadys,
vide supra, vii. 25. This simple
explanation relieves the sentence
from the awkward and meaningless
rendering that "time meets all." and
also accounts for the verb- nnp;, it
happens, being in the singular.
12 And that man, Sec. Of how
little value wisdom is in tbis matter
is evident from tbe humiliating fact,
that it is not only utterly unable to

exempt tbe wise from tbe day of
calamity, but that it does not even
enable him to foresee it; and thus,
with the rest of mankind, the wise
are as suddenly, as ignorantly, and
as inextricably ensnared hy misfor
tunes as the simple fish or bird. '3
is still a conjunction, depending upon
nMn, so tbat '3 — '? — '? is to be trans
lated that — that — and that (vide
supra, vi. 11, 12). D3, with the
negative particle, is used with pecu
liar emphasis for not even (comp. iv.
8, viii. 16), i.e., the wise man is not
only subject to the same fate as the
fool, but cannot even foresee it. onMn,
when used after the description of a
particular class of men, refers to them
especially, see verse 1, and infra, x.
14). ins, his time, is not time of
'death (nesoit homo finem sudm,
the Vulgate, Grotius, Nachtigal,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Hengstenberg,
&c,), nor seasons of prosperous and
adverse fortunes (^Holden, &c), nor
proper time for working (Knobel, &c.),
but tlie time of misfortune, wbich is
determined by the last clause of this
verse, ens,, the masculine, refers
both to the masculine D':-i and the
feminine D'nes, giving preference to
the masculine gender, as is gene
rally the case in such instances.
topji' may either be regarded as a
verbal adjective, formed from the
future Hopbal of toip, or may be
taken as standing for topvp, the
participle Pual of top;, the preforma
tive n being omitted, and the absence
of the Dagesh forte in the P being
compensated for by the lengthening
of the preceding vowel (comp. Exod.
iii 2 ; Judg. xii. 8 ; 2 Kings ii. 10 ;

chap. IX.]

COHELETH.

419

13 Even this wisdom have I seen, and it seemed great to me :
14 There was a little city, and few men in it ; and a powerful
king came against it, and besieged it, and built great towers

Gesen. § 52, 2, Rem. 6; Ewald, § 169,
d). biBntoa=biBn ntoNS is feminine, re
ferring to ns, and still keeps up the
figure of the snare which is made to
fall over its victims.
13. Even this wisdom have I seen.
Sec Tbe assertion made in verse 11
abouttheinability of wisdom, and sub-
ordinately also of physical prowess,
is now illustrated by an example.
Coheleth relates an anecdote to shew
a display of wisdom which even to
him, the wisest of men, apjjeared very
great, yet it could not secure favour
to the wise man. The best rendering
of the involved nnan 'n'Nn ni'Dj, and
the one most consonant with the
context, is that of tbe Vulgate (hanc
quoque sub sole vidi sapientiam),
Rashbam (Dbisa 'n'Mn nNi nnsn f|N),
Luther (i(b ^ali aucb biefe aSSetgbeit
gefeben), Coverdale and the Bishops'
Bible (" this v/isdom have I seen
also "), the Geneva Bible, the Autho
rised Version, &e. The Septuagint
(xalyE rovro 'Jov tro^iay, dlso in this I
saw wisdom), making ni and nosn a
double accusative to nNn, which is
followed by Spohn, Koster, Hengsten
berg, &c., as well as tbe rendering
of Herzfeld, &c. (" 1 have also seen
tbis; there is wisdom," &c.), supply
ing the substantive verb before nnsn ;
of Knobel, De Wette, &c. (au^ bieg
nabm xij wa^x : Seigbeit untet bet
©onne, u. g. W., also this I saw,
namely wisdom under the sun. Sec),
and of Stuart, Elster, &c. (" I have
also seen this, I have seen wisdom,"
&c.), repeating mentally tbe verb 'P'Nn
before npan, require harsh ellipses,
and interrupt the manifest connec
tion of tbis passage with verse 11.
'^w, to me, i. e., appeared to me, the sub
stantive verb, asTisual, is to be sup
plied, which must be rendered is,
appears, or otherwise, according to
the requirement of the connection
(comp. Ewald, § 217, c).
14. There was a little city. Sec

The occasion upon which tbis extra
ordinary wisdom was displayed was
when a small and defenceless city
was attacked by a large and powerful
army, which, in addition to its im
mense superiority in numbers, bad
the advantage of occupying tbe
rising ground round the city, thus
affording it capital grflnnd for build
ing bulwarks overlooking the walls
into the very heart of the place.
Desperate and hopeless indeed ap
pears tbe state of the devoted inhabi
tants. Tbe substantive verb nn;n,
tliere was, must be supi)lied after
n:pp n'S, a small city. Esn na D'tojNi,
and few men within it, is added to
shew the very small number of defend
ers, which is not necessarily implied
in the simple mentioning of a little
city, for the inhabitants might have
hired soldiers to assist them, bin: -nbp,
a great king, a powerful king, leading
a large army (comp. Jer. xxvii, 7i.
The rendering of rt'bs by against it
does not convey the exact idea of
the original, which means over or
above it. Hence Ibn Ezra rightly
remarks, tbat ni:ab bavin "^in: Dipna N'ni
n:DO D'niaai D'nisn mbs, the city was
built on an incline, so that the enemy
could build tlie bulwarks overlooking
it, and higher than it. nisn, i.q.,
nsn, not from nsn (Ibn Ezra), which
does not occur, but from nis, to lie
in wait, is siege ivork, intrenchments,
a bulwark (1 Chron. xi. 7, xii. 8. 16),
here the idea of tower is more promi
nent, just as Jina (Isa. xxiii. 13), and
P.;-n (2 Kings xxv. 1 ; Jer. Iii. 4 ;
Ezek. iv. 2), which also signify tower,
are derived from jna and pm, to look
out. Tbe reading D'nisp, which is to
be found in two of De Rossis MSS.,
and which is adopted by Doderlein,
and Gesenius in his Thesaurus and
Lexicon, has too little authority to
support it, is unnecessary, and has
manifestly arisen from mistaking the
n for n. The addition of tho Vulgate,

420

COHELETH.

[chap. IX.

15 over it. And there was found in it a poor-wise man, and he
saved the city by his wisdom ; and yet no one remembered
16 that poor man. Therefore I say, wisdom is indeed better
than force, yet the wisdom of the poor is despised, and his

at the end of this verse, et perfecia
EST OBSiDio, and the siege was perfect,
owes its origin'^most probably to a
marginal gloss, giving another ver
sion of nni! aap-i.
15. And there was found. Sec. In
tbis critical sljite, when defence by
force of arms was utterly impossible,
a poverty-stricken wise man came
forward, and by hisprudence saved
the people and the place from destruc
tion And yet,, notwithstanding his
great wisdom and the services he had
rendered, the poor man was left in
his impoverished circumstances with
out ever being noticed. We thus
see that tbe battle is not to the
strong, nor riches or favour to the
wise, aud the allegation in verse 11 is
fully substantiated. The Midrashic
interpretation of the preceding verse,
and the one before us, again shews
how completely the Hagadio mode
of allegorising the Scriptures has
been Christianised. According to
the Midrash, the Chaldee, Sec, which
is also mentioned by St Jerome,
Rasbi, Ibn Ezra, and De Lyra, "the
little city" means the human body;
" the few men within it," the com
ponent parts of man; "the great
king," the evil propensity ; " tbe great
bulwarks," the snares of hell ; "the
poor wise man," the good spirit in
man. St. Jerome and De Lyra adopt
this explanation, and Dr. Gill, in
accordance " with some Christian
interpreters," explains it " to better
purpose concerning the Church at
tacked by Satan and delivered by
Christ, wbo, notwithstanding, is un
kindly and ungratefully used." Nsp
is rightly rendered by tbe Vulgate,
the Syriac, the Chaldee, Rashbam,
Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, tbe Geneva Bible, the Autho
rised Version, and most modern
commentators, inventus es.i; the third

person being used for the impersonal
or passive (vide supra, i. 10). Less
appropriate is the translation of
Desvoeux, Herzfeld, Hengstenberg,
&c., " he found," regarding T[bp, king,
as tbe subject of nsd, he found, since
the king, being repelled and defeated,
and hence having had no opportu
nity of seeing the interior of the
place, could not be said to have
found this man in it. The omission
of the 1 before D3n is not owing to
an oversight of the transcriber, but
shews tbe close union of the twq
nouns, i.e., poor — wise. There is
therefore no necessity, with Spohn,
&c., to adopt the i from some MSS.,
which will always be found to supply
or to take away letters, especially i
and '. For DnN, man, used collec
tively, men at large, and no man, vide
vii. 29, X 4. Ibn Ezra's explanation
of n3i i<b D-TM-i by D3nn iniMb rrn Nbm
iDbD'ffl amp D':Db n'sn 'id:m 'di nsi j3Dnn
DniN, there was no mention made of
this poor wise man in the mouth of
the men of the city prior to his saving
them, which is followed by Mendels
sohn, Schmidt, Friedlander, Rosen
miiller, &c., as well as tbe one adopted
by Doderlein, Spohn, &c., no one
thought of this poor-wise man in this
critical moment, are contrary to the
meaning of nsj, which denotes remem
bering something past, and to tbe
scope of the passage. Tbe Vulgate
bas therefore rightly rendered it, et
NULLUS DEINCEPS RECORDATUS EST
HOMINIS ILLIUS PAUPERIS, and none
afterwards remembered that poor
man ; so also the Chaldee, Rashbam,
Knobel, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Elster, &c.
16. Therefore I, say. Sec. "This
therefore shews that though indeed
wisdom is superior to strength, yet
it is despised, and the wise men are
neglected, thus establishing the alle
gation made in the first verse that

chap. IX.J

coheleth.

421

17 words are not listened to. Though the words of the wise
are listened to with greater pleasure than the shouting of a

the wise, like the righteous, are subject
to an arbitrary Providence, and can
not overrule the destiny common to
• all, which has no respect for merit
or demerit. The i in 'i?'^o!Ji, is infe
rential, indicating that this verse
contains the inference drawn from
tbe anecdote related in verses 14
and 1 5 ; whilst the i in npsm, as
frequently, introduces tbe apodosis
(compare viii. 17, ix. 3. 16, x, 10).
The participles rni^, despised, and
D'sn^:, listened to, describe what is
generally and permanently done (com
pare Ewald, § 168). Desvoeux's
rendering, " the wisdom of this
experienced man is despised, and
bis deeds are not mentioned," is
contrary to the signification of japn
(see iv. 3), and D'sptoa.
17. Though the words of the wise.
Sec Having remarked, in the pre
ceding verse, that wisdom is generally
despised, Coheleth concedes that
there a.re particular cases which form
an exception. There are times when
tbe words of the wise are listened to
with greater satisfaction than is the
behest of a foolish ruler; as he him
self has shewn (verses 14 and 15) in
the instance adduced to set forth the
power of wisdom. This verse, there
fore, and the flrst part of the follow
ing verse, take up the momentary
respect paid to wisdom, indirectly
noticed in the anecdote which Co
heleth related, shewing, as we shall
see in the sequel, tbat it does not at
all militate against his position, but,
on the contrary, confirms it. Failing
to see this, commentators have been
greatly perplexed to account for the
apparent contradiction between this
and the preceding verse. Of course
the Hagadio mode of interpretation,
as seen in the Midrash and the
Chaldee paraphrase, finds no dis
crepancy whatever, inasmuch as this
verse simply means Njp'snn Nnibsn 'bn
bp nbapn n'p; Nnbs 'ip Dnp^.j'bappn -Ntona
n'bi j':Bn -"toto'bB cbto Ninn NS'ton Nna:
¦,((,-, t:- - ¦- ' T.- T.-

bagp, the words of prayer of the wise,
offered in silence, are accepted before
the Lord of the world, above the vo
ciferations of the wicked rulers over
fools, who speak much and are not
accepted. Similarly Rasbi, and St.
Jerome, who as usual Christianises it
by applying it to wise and foolish
preaeliers in the Church. " Whatever
declaimer," says the Father, " thou
seest in the Church exciting applause,
moving laughter, or stirring up the
feelings of mirth among the people
by inciting and elegant words, know
that it is a sign of folly botb in the
speaker and in the hearer, for the
words of a wise man are beard in
quiet and moderate silence." Those,
however, who adhere more closely to
the text have tried to reconcile the
discrepancy by torturing every word,
making a distinction between d:'n
i?BniB: in tbe preceding verse, wbich
they say means are not lieard at once,
and D'snto: in the verse before us,
which, according to them, signifies
they are heard ultimately, or hing
ing it upon tbe difference between
the singular (jappn nnan) in the pre
ceding verse, and the plural (D'pan)
in this verse, viz., the words of one
wise man are not listened to, but
when uttered by many are listened
to ; or, by laying stress upon the word
japn, referring the preceding verse to
poor wise men, who are not obeyed
because of their poverty. These opi
nions are mentioned and rightly re
jected by Ibn Ezra, which has never
theless not prevented some modem
commentators espousing them. Ibn
Ezra himself tries to remove the
difficulty by supplying on before
npan in tbe foregoing verse, making
it the protasis, and this verse the
apodosis, which is followed by Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, " a wise
man's counsel that is followed in
silence, is far above the crying of a
captain among fools," Philippson
(163 unb tbirb au^ bie Seigbeit beg

422

coheleth.

[CHAP. X,

18 foolish ruler, and wisdom is better than instruments of war,
X. 1 yet one fool destroyeth much good ; a dead fly maketh sweet

aitmen Oixat^tit, unb toetben feine
aSotte ni^t gebott, (li^ bte 2Botte
bet SBeifen, in 3iube angebott, ftnb
beifet otg, U. g. tt». But this expla
nation — 1. Harshly and unwarrant
ably supplies D'aiio before npsip ; 2. It
violates the idiomatic construction
p nn:, as is evident from vi. 5 ; and,
3. Is at variance with the scope of
tbe passage, which is not to shew tbe
vcdue of wisdom, but, on the contrary,
to set forth its utter inability to cope
with an arbitrary Providence, and
how entirely it is even under the
subjection of folly, as will be seen in
the next verse. Le Clerc, Desvoeux,
&c., who render it " the words of tbe
wise are more minded among men of
quiet dispositions," &c., incur the
additional censure of taking most
arbitrarily and unnaturally the word
nn:a, the abstract for the concrete
plural, in the sense of men of quiet
dispositions; so also Bishop Reynolds,
Durell, Hodgson, Spohn, Knobel,
Herzfeld, &c., who render D'snip: by
ought to be heard, or merit attention,
besides the above-named objections,
are guilty of taking the same word
in two different senses. All these
difficulties are avoided by identifying
the obedience spoken of in this verse
with the instance of obedience nar
rated in verse 15. ^yi, the words of,
is opposed to npsi, the vociferous com
mand, and D'nan, the wise, to btoin
D'b'paa, a foolish ruler. -The a pre
fixed to nouns gives them sometimes
the force of adjectives (comp. ':nN
'top: '.atioa, the Lord is among my sup
porters, i. e., is my supporter, Ps. liv. 5 ;
'nisa nirr, the Eternal is among my
helpers, i.e,is my helper, ibid, cxviii.
7; Job xxiv. 13). Hence the Sep
tuagint rightly translates D'b'paa btoin
by E^ovffial^ovratv ev afpoa-vvaig, those who
rule in folly; so Geier, Patrick,
Knobel, Noyes, Heiligstedt, &c. nn:a
qualifies D'Spto:, and is the point of
comparison. 18. And wisdom is better tlian. See.

Coheleth, moreover, refers to the
other point in which wisdom shewed
itself very powerful in the anecdote
which he related. Not only didtbis
poor man's wise counsel inspire more
confidence than the command of a
martial chief, but bis wisdom shewed
itself superior to all the weapons of
war and the bulwarks raised against
the defenceless city. Yet all this
does not enable the wise man to
overrule the destiny common to all
men, and render him more distin
guished than the fool; on the con
trary, his very wisdom is subject to
folly, and a single fool may entirely
destroy all the good which wisdom
bas effected. As tbe first part of tbis
verse continues the concession, the
concessive particle, or the simple con
junction, must be expressed in the
translation to give tbe force of the
original. Npn (from Npn, to miss, to
err, in point of knowledge or virtue),
one who is in error, intellectually or
morally, a,fool, a sinner. That tbe err
ing is here intellectual and not moral,
is clearly indicated by tbe context.
The Vulgate, et qui in uno peoca-
VERIT MULTA BONA PERDET, and he
who shall offend in one, shall lose
many good things, alters nriN Mpim
into nnM? MOini, and is at variance
with the context. The reading Npn,
which the Syriac and nine of Kenni
cott's MSS. have, and is adopted by
Doderlein, Spohn, Schmidt, Men
delssohn, Friedlander, &c., is rightly
rejected by Knobel, De Wette, Herz
feld, Hitzig, Elster, Vaihinger, &c.,
as incompatible with tbe context.
How Preston could say tbat " the
Rabbinical commentators are in
clined to take it to be a noun ab
stract., signifying defect," when the
Sept., the Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, &c., explain it by sinner, or
fool, is most unaccountable.
1. A dead fly. Sec. This verse
illustrates and confirms the allega
tion in the immediately preceding

CHAP. X.J

COHELETH.

423

ointment stinkingly to ferment ; a little folly is more mighty

clause, and ought not to have been
interrupted by the separation of
chapters. To shew more strikingly
the subjection of wisdom to folly,
Coheleth alludes to an every-day
occurrence which has passed into a
proverb. Just as tbe insignificant
fetid fly bas the power of corrupting
a quantity of precious perfume by
imparting unto it its offensive smell,
so a little folly has often shewn itself
more weighty and powerful than
glorious wisdom. From tbe dis
agreeable effect which the presence
of dead flies in precious mixtures
produces in the sultry climate of the
East, arose the Arabic proverb, " A
fly is nothing, yet it produces loath
someness." This will shew the force
which the illustration here used has
to an Oriental. Tbe genitive being
used to describe tbe operation as
well as the quality of a noun, 'aiai
rm, flies of death may either mean
death-working or deadly flies, accord
ing to the analogy of nip 'ba, instru
ments of death, i. e., deadly instru
ments (Ps. vii. 14, xviii. 5, cxvi. 3),
and n ffXiyii TOU ^avarou, deadly-wounds
(Rev xiii 3. 12), so tbe Septuagint,
the Chaldee, Luther, Geier, Schmidt,
Nachtigal, Dathe, Knobel, Herzfeld,
Fiirst (Lex, s. v. aiai), Vaihinger, Sec;
or it may denote dead flies, according
to the analogy of jn jaN, a precious
stone (Prov. xvii. 8), jn nbs;, a graceful
ibex (ibid. v. 19), so Symmachus, the
Vulg., the Syriac, St. Jerome, Rashi,
Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva Bible,
the Auth. Ver., Desvoeux, Hodgson,
Durell, Mendelssohn, Friedlauder,
De Wette, Ewald, Gesenius, Hitzig,
Preston, Heiligstedt, Noyes, Stuart,
Philippson, Elster, Hengstenberg,
cfec. ; tbe latter is more compatible
with the context, inasmuch as the
simple settling down of poisonous
flies upon perfume would not corrupt
its odour, whereas dead flies cor
rupt it. As to the singular verb
to'N?; following the plural nonn 'aiai
Ibn Ezra rightly remarks that i3':s

nitt) 'bs nnss ni:a ina loipna «'Ma' aiai ba
npni nmpna nnMi nnM ba nnss na ba
nnN ba n:DS i:osni D'«):Mn ':ic nN muNn
.... D'noon nN in'pin np'i loipna nnNi
mab nnNi nnN ba Nnp iniano'i, it is used
distributively, referring to each fly
separately, as is often the case (comp.
nito 'bs rrws ni:a, each branch sepa
rately spreads over the wall. Gen.
xlix. 22 ; i3Bsni D'to:Nn ':to"nN ntoMn npni,
and the woman took the two men and
hid each of them. Josh. ii. 4 ; np;i
inisnB'i .... D'-iGsn-nM injpin, and
Hezekiah took the letters and read
tJiem . . . and spread each of tHem,
2 Kings xix. 14 ; see also supra,
iv. 10; in/ra, verses 13. 15; Gesen.
§ 146, 4 ; Ewald, § 319). to'Ma; is
used adverbially, to qualify S'a;, i. e.,
makes it stinkingly to ferment; for
examples of this construction, see
viii. 3. The absence of S'a; in the ¦
Septuagint, tbe Vulg., Symmachus,
and the Syriac, does not prove that
it was originally a marginal gloss,
and was afterwards inserted in tbe
text, but only shews that those trans
lators thought that the omission of
it in the translation would give-more
faithfully the force of the original.
npin jn-to, ointment of the perfumer,
i.e., ointment prepared or spiced by
the perfumer, which is expressed
more clearly in Exod. xxx. 35,
xxxvii. 29, by npin ntosn npn, i.e.,
perfumed ointment ; hence the Sep
tuagint appropriately renders it
c-KEvaa-iav Ixaiou hiva-fjt-aroq , a preparation
of sweet ointment, sweetly prepared
ointment, and tbe Vulg., suavitatbm
UNGUENTi, the sweetness of oil, or
sweet oil. The assertion, therefore,
of Desvoeux (p. 185) and others,
that the Septuagint read npn instead
of npin, and the Vulgate sian, exhala
tion, instead of S'a;, is gratuitous.
A little folly. Sec. The great power
wbich the insignificant fly has over
the precious ointment, a little folly
has over honourable wisdom. The
great difficulty which commentators
have experienced in interpreting this
verse is chiefly confined to this clause,

424

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

and to its connection with the pre
ceding hemistich. The Septuagint
has, rifjitov o}..iyov c-o^iagvirEp^o^av&^poffvwg
fiEyoKm, a little wisdom is more honour
than the great glory of folly, dropping
the o from nnann, connecting the
latter with losp, and construing the
clause nibap niaao lasn npan np^. The
Vulgate — PBETiosioE est sapientia
ET GLORIA PARVA BT AD TEMPUS STUL-
titia, wisdom and glory are more
precious than small and short-lived
.folly, taking the o from nnpnn and
niaan, and prefixing it to nibsp,.
assigning to lasn a double sense,
viz., little, insignificant, and short,
short-lived, and construing the text
as if it were iQsn nibapn nia3i nnan ng'^;
and St. Jerome's version, pretiosa
EST SUPER sapientiam ET OLORIAM
stultitia PARVA, preoious above wis
dom and glory is a little folly, taking
the iDSn nibpp, a little folly, as some
thing recommendable either as pos
sessing few faults, or having sim
plicity, wbich, this Father says, is to
be preferred to wisdom, because tbe
latter is frequently connected with
craftiness, and is to be chosen rather
than glory, which is accompanied by
pride — proceed as usual from the
Hagadic interpretation, as may be
seen from the Chaldee, n'p;i 'm; Nnai
naa j'n.'ns nnis-i J'p'an Nnn-jin jn n'n;
b'bp-i n'Si a'nitoBp-n, and how much more
beautiful and precious than the wisdom
of the loise, and the riches of the rich,
is the man whose folly is slight and
insignificant ! and from tbe Midrash :
hence also Luther's translation, batum
iji jumeiten beifet SEbotbeit benn
SBetgbeit unb <S^xt, therefore folly is
sometimes better than wisdom and
honour, which the Reformer says is
intended as a consolation for those
who are sometimes obliged to choose
the position of fools, and keep back
their good counsel in the presence of
cunning statesmen, who have been
raised to posts of honour. Coverdale's
strange version, " dead flies that cor
rupt sweet ointment and make it to
stink, are something more worth than
the wisdom and honour of a fool," is
a literal translation of the Zurich

Bible. Passing over these emeuda-
tions, wbich are botb arbitrary and
contrary to the scope of the passage,
we come to Ibn Ezra, who explains
it jnicn jnn WNa' D'nnn D'aiain loa j":sm
niaaoi nnann np' Nina DnNb id' ja npinn
n'niB' D3nb losn nibao '3 tosn nibao'ia ¦vm
i:«'Na'i inai, as dead flies make the
sweet ointment to stink, so is it with
the man who is in estimation for wis
dom and for glory that has a little
folly, since the little folly of the wise
man destroys his reputation, and makes
it to stink, taking the verb to'Ma;,
causes to stink, from the first clause
to govern the second member, re
garding np;. as its subject, in the sens©
of estimation, renown, and the n in
nnann and niaap as causative ; and is
followed by the Bishops' Bible, " a
dead fly doeth corrupt sweet oint
ment, and maketh it to stink : even
so ofttimes he that hath been had in
estimation for wisdom and honour, is
abhorred because of a little foolish
ness ; " the Geneva Bible, " dead flies
cause to stink and putrefy the oint
ment of the apothecary; so doth a
little folly him that is in estimation
for wisdom and for glory," the Autho
rised Version, Grotius, Le Clerc,
Mendelssohn, Friedlander, Michaelis,
Holden, Rosenmiiller, Preston, Phi
lippson, Hengstenberg, &c. But we
submit — 1. 'That this interpretation
is at variance with tbe argument,
which is to shew bow completely the
wise man is subject to the folly of
others, how " one fool " may subvert
all his wise plans, and not to demon
strate how a little folly, or a slight
oversight on the part of the wise man,
will destroy his reputation ; 2. That
it unwarrantably separates tbe as
sy ndic S'a; to'Na;, and makes np; depend
upon to'Na; only ; 3. That it is
thereby necessitated to resort to a
very harsh ellipsis ; and 4. That it
departs from tbe natural sense of
the construction o njr;, which all the
ancient versions, however strange
their explanations, rightly take to ex
press the comparative. 'The easiest
rendering, and the most compatible
with tbe context, is that of the Syriac

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

425

2 than honourable wisdom. Still the mind of the wise man
3 is at his right hand, but the mind of the fool at his left ; and
even 'when the fool walketh on the road he lacketh his mind.

ijVli mn '^»1jlSDJ ]l]Vn\
VI « ^O as the dead flies make to stin k
z
the vessel of sweet ointment, so a little
folly is more weighty than wisdom and
great glory ; so also Rasbi, Rashbam,
Knobel, De Wette, Ewald, Noyes,
Heiligstedt, Hitzig, Stuart, Elster,
Vaihinger, &c. nj;, as is rightly ex
plained by Rashi and Rashbam,
nnann p nnv bip«i naa Nin niaa jieb,
retains here its original signification,
weighty, heavy, and is construed with
JP, comparison, i. e., it is heavier and
weighs more than wisdom ; it is mas-
euline, though referring to refn'D,fem.,
because it is placed at the beginning
of the sentence {vide supra, vii 7).
niaap is in apposition to nnann, which
it qualifies, so that niasn rinann, lite-
rally/com wisdomjrom honour, meai \ s
from honourable wisdom (comp. D'na]
D'oW, sacrifices, eucharists, i. e.,
eueharistic sacrifices, Exod. xxiv. 5 ;
1 Sara. xi. 15 ; npN D'-noN, words,
truth, i. e., truthful words, JProv. xxii.
21 ; Gesen. § 113 ; Ewald, § 287, c).
This is more in accordance with the
scope of the passage than the com
mon rendering, " wisdom and glory,"
supplying the copula, as Coheleth
does not treat upon glory or renown,
but wisdom exclusively.
2. Still the mind of the wise man.
Sec The utter inutility and inabi
lity of wisdom to exempt the wise
from the destiny common to all men,
hitherto demonstrated, does by no
means imply that it is absolutely
powerless and useless. If wisdom
can do as little as folly to affect an
arbitrary Providence which has no

regard for merit or demerit, yet it
has a great advantage over folly in
many other respects. The mind of
tbe wise man is at his right band,
ready to guard and defend him from
a thousand dangers, whilst tbat of
tbe fool is out of its proper place,
and is useless in cases of emergency.
Here again, as in ii. 13, Ooheleth,
after having shewn tbe powerlessness
of wisdom retowZ?/, guards us against
taking bis assertion absolutely. 'To
indicate this in the translation, we
must supply the expression never
theless, still, or yet. ab, heart, also
mind, see i. 13. The use of tbe
phrase to he at one's right, for to stand
by one, to be ready to assist, to defend
(comp. P'P'P ^'^,for He is at my right
hand, i. e., to defend me, Ps. xvi. 8 ;
^]?'p;-bs ':nN, the Lord is at thy right
hand, i.e., to protect thee, Ps. ex. 5),
shews that to be at the left hand
means the reverse, to be out of its
place, missing. That this is tho
sense is moreover evident from npn
iab, he misses his mind, it is absent,
which is used in the following verse to
describe the condition of a fool; thus
shewing beyond doubt that we are to
understand by ibtiniob, at his left hand,
to be absent from its proper place.
8 And even when. Sec Nor oan
tbis want of wisdom be concealed ;
it is so glaring that everybody sees
it as soon as the fool leaves his house
and sets his foot on the street to go
somewhere, iniismuch as he is bewil
dered and ignorant of the commonest
roads, in the very place where be has
spent all his life, '^n-ia, on the way,
is not used figuratively tor his under
takings and intercourse with mm
(vnani vpDS,, Ibn Ezra; fein Sbun/
Luther;Coverdale, Reynolds, Patrick,
Kuobel, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster:,
Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c.), but
is used in its literal sense, on the
road, when he has to walk to any
place (Rashi, Rashbam, Grotius, Le

3 I

426 COHELETH. . [CHAP. X.
4 and yet he saith of every one. He is a fool ! If the anger of
the ruler is kindled against thee, quit not thy place, for

Clerc, Herzfeld, Hitzig, &c.), as is
evident from verse 15, where the
same phraseology is used to illustrate
great stupidity; it depends upon tjbn,
and is placed flrst for the sake of
emphasis; the regular construction
would be ^na -qbin bapn ntoN3-D:i.
For to3 -=ntoM3, used as a particle of
time, i.e., when, see viii. 7; and for
the Massoretic remark, that the
article in ^sontos is redundant ("n n>n')
because of itoMS, which precedes it,
see vi. 10. iab is generally taken as
the subject of npn, and is rendered
his heart or understanding fails, or is
lacking. Against this, however, Herz
feld and Philippson rightly urge that
ab npn is a phrase of frequent occur
rence, and tbat npn is, in tbis phrase,
the epithet of the man, and not of
tlie heart. Accordingly iab must be
taken as tbe object, ion as the predi
cate, and bap as the subject. noN, to
speak, to speak inwardly, to wish, to
think (comp. Exod. ii 14; supra,
vii. 23). bsb, as frequently, to every
one. Min bap, he is a fool, is the
purport of his thoughts about, or
his address to, every one. So Sym
machus, as mentioned by St. Jerome
{in loco), SUSPICATUR DE omnibds
QUOD STULTI SUNT, he suspccts all
men that they are fools ; the Vulgate,
OMNES STOLTOS .ESTIMAT, he thinks
all men fools; Luther, Coverdale, tbe
Bishops' Bible, Desvoeux, Knobel,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster,
Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c., and
tbis seems also to be the sense of the
Septuagint's strange version, xai a
¦KoyaXrai mavra a^poffv\ti 'zo-r'iv, and all
that he will think is folly, which is
followed by tbe Syriac version ^20
which bas given rise to the ren
dering of bap by i1)6xi!l)t, foolish, i.e.,
et fpti^t 3u Siltem ; eg i|l tboticbt
(Knobel, Ewald, Vaihinger, Heng
stenberg, &c.), contrary to the uni

form signiflcation of bap, which is
always used of persons (comp. ii. 19.
vii. 17, X. 14; Jer. iv. 22, v. 21).
The Chaldee paraphrase jhP" *^^,
Min N;pto7, and all say that he is a
fool, cannot be reconciled with the
words of the text. The explanation
of Bashi, Rashbam, and Ibn Ezra,
B'nini i:ibp riNnni wd: bs Nmp Nin ^b>M
b3b i:inDn, he, as it were, proclaims
against himself, displays his folly,
and makes known his shortcomings to
all, taking it as oratio obliqua, which
is followed by tbe Geneva Bible, the
Authorised Version, Reynolds, Hodg
son, Herzfeld, De Wette, Noyes,
Philippson, &c., is inadmissible, in
asmuch as it would require either
Nin b3D '3 or 'aM ban.
TT . "^ .-. TT*
4. If the anger of the ruler. Sec.
Another lesson which Coheleth de
duced from the awful absence of
retributive justice — wherewith this
resume begins, 'viii. 16, 17 — was
patiently and submissively to bear
the anger of a tyrannical ruler, since
gentleness will effect tbat wbich the
existence of retribution would have
done, viz., prevent the despot from
committing still greater^ outrages.
nm, like its equivalent spirit in Eng
lish, also signifies excitement of mind.,
temper, anger (comp. Isa. xxv. 4,
xxxiii. 11; Zech. vi. 8, and espe
cially Judg. viii. 3, where the oppo
site phrase nm nan is used for anger
subsiding), nbs, with bs, or a. expresses
the rising of the passion against any
one (comp, Dna nbs D'ribN F|m, the anger
of the Lord rose against them, Ps.
Ixxviii. 21. 81). That n:n-bM ?|pipn,
do not leave thy place, is not to be
taken figuratively for la^ bi^ nid^t
enttuftcn, lose not thy self-possession
(Luther, Knobel, Hitzig, Stuart,
Elster, Vaihinger, &c.), but means a.
sudden surrendering of one's post or
office, thus i.tculcating the idea of
self-possession, but not making it
the exclusive one, is evident irom
the phrase '^bn i':Bp bnan-bM, do not

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

427

5 gentleness preventeth greater outrages. There is an evil
which I have seen under the sun ; an outrage as that which

hastily leave his presence, in viii. 3.
There is no necessity for taking
NB-in as standing for nenn (Ibn Ezra,
Grotius, Le Clerc, Knobel, Herzfeld,
Fiirst, &c.), as the regular root yields
tbe required sense. Mon, to mend, to
cure, to assuage pain of body, like
solor, consolor, healing, solacing,
in Latin, for solus, h'xog, and ndn in
Cbaldee, signifies also to allay pain
of mind, to quiet, to soothe ; hence
Ngnn, what is allaying, quieting, or
soothing, i e., quietness, gentleness.
fS, will leave at rest, will not stir up,
wiU not provoke, will prevent. It is
therefore evident that D'bin? b'Npn,
greater errors or outrages, dices not
refer 40 offences of the subject, but is
the same as sn na-j in viii. 3, and
characterises tbe ill-treatment from
the ruler. Tbe several Hagadic in
terpretations of this verse contained
in tbe Midrash, one of which is
adopted in the Chaldee paraphrase,
and espoused by. St. Jerome and
other fathers, viz., " ' the spirit of the
ruler,' i. e., the prince of this world,
the spirit that now worketh in the
children of disobedience, ' riseth up
against thee,' i e., enters into our
heart and inflicts the wound of evil
thought ; ' do not leave thy place,'
i. e., we must not easily give place,
but must fight against this evil
thought, strive to be freed from this
sin, so tbat tbe thought does not be
come an action;" and tbe other which
was entertained by St. Jerome's
teacher, and is followed by Ibn Ezra,
viz. : nb«nnn nbsn ns "jnnana n'bs dm
i:':s IN nm nbom j':sm n:n bN "joipo
nb'nna rrnm loa n'nn nnana d: pDsn'ic
WTbs nannob nbs Nbi mipnn n Nb ib'M3
naan j'aano bsis NSnn • DnMn ':a n::a
bs f]b"N3 N'n Dipoa fjV'Nni nb nsnn i:onm
'3 j':sm nasn j':ann Minis Nono Min ja
D'bma D'Mton aiis' nbisoon aiisn, '-if the
spirit," i. e., if thou hast risen, through
thy wisdom, to the dignity of a ruler,
" leave not thy place," i. e, thy humi
lity, or cease not to be always occupied

with wisdom, just as thou didst prior
to the removal from thy place, and
elevation to that high position. Nsno
is part. Hiphil, from nsn, to leave
(comp. nVnB-in, leave lier, 2 Kings
iv. 27), and tlie n stands for n, as in
the Piel, NB.np (Jer. xxxviii. 4), and
the meaning is, for whoso leaves ruling
leaves great sins — as well as the
strange renderingof the Zurich Bible,
literally adopted by Coverdale, " if
a principal spirit be given thee to
bear rule, be not negligent then in
thine office ; for so shall great wicked
ness be put down, as it were, with
medicine," and the alteration of the
last clause in the Bishops' Bible,
" for he that can take care of himself
avoideth great offence," are as curious
as tbey are irreconcileable with the
text and context. Equally curious
is Desvoeux's translation of tbe last
clause, " for power kept in thy hands
will make an atonement for great
offences." 5. There is an evil. Sec. The dis-
¦ pleasure of the monarch, summarily
mentioned in tbe foregoing verse, is
now illustrated by the manifestation
of it in such an outrage of justice as
can only proceed from a despot. ntoN
is omitted before 'n'Nn, as in vi. i.
'The ? in n::toa is not Sag i-xov^m,
QUASI NON SPONTANEOM, as if done
unwillingly ; quasi per erbohem, as
if through an error ; quasi igno-
RANTiA, as if it were ignorance (the
Septuagint, Aquila, 'Theodotion, the
Vulgate, St. Jerome, &c.) i. e., it
appears to people as if it were an
error, but it is not so ; trying to ex
tenuate it (Ibn Ezra, Mendelssohn,
Preston, Hengstenberg, Sec) ; or being
so flagrant and outrageous tbat it
appears more as if it were an error
than intentional; trying to enhance
it (Herzfeld, &c.) ; nor as if it were
owing to an error. Sec (Rashbam) ; nor
is it namely (Luther, Coverdale ; the
Bishops' Bible, Spohn, Ewald, Sec) ;
nor is it caph veritatis (Bishop Rey-

428

COHELETH.

[CHAP. X.

6 proceedeth from a ruler ; a great fool is placed in many high

nolds, Noyes, Hitzig, Elster, &c.) ;
nor can it signifv according to ; X^a(^
5Kaa?gabe, in gotge eineg SSetfebng,
wag Bom gutffen auggebt, gibt eg
einen Uebel|lanb im Seben (Doderlein,
Holden, Knobel, De Wette, Heilig
stedt, Vaihinger, Sec) ; but means an
error or outrage like that which. Sec ;
such an outrage as despots only can
commit, njato being implied before
n::-to3, as is evident from tbe signifi
cation of the 3 when preceding sub
stantives (compare ii. 15). ms* is
doubly anomalous, it stands for nNSi',
which again is pointed as tbe part.
fem. of verbs n"b (compare Ewald,
§ 189, f). The allegorisers see no
inconsistency in making the ruler
here spoken of to be both God and
tbe devil. Thus St. Jerome was
told by his Rabbi, Hebr^us poten-
tem et principem a oujus faoie^
IGNORATIO VIDEATOR BGREUI, DeUM
BXPOSUIT, QUOD POTENT HOMINES IN
HAO INjEQUALITATE RERUM ILLUM NON
JUSTE ET UT jEQUUM EST JUDICARE,
that the Jews explain this ruler to be
God, from whose presence error seems
to go forth, since men think that there
is no justice in these inequalities ; this
Hagadic interpretation is also given
by tbe Chaldee paraphrast and Rasbi,
and is pronounced by Hengstenberg
to be tbe true one. Others, however,
according to the same Father, take
the ruler to be the devil, who rules
under the sun, and hence derive
from it this comfort, ne simus itaque
TRISTES si in HOC SJECULO HUMILES
vidbamur, scientbs a facie dia-
bolt stultos sublbvarl, et divites
DEJICT, SERVOS INSIGNIA HABERE
DOMINORUM et PRINCIPES SERVORUM
iNGREDi viLiTATB, let US therefore
not be sad, if we have to appear low
in this world, knowing that it is from
the devil that fools are exalted and
the rich degraded, that servants have
the distinctions of master, and princes
walk in the degradation of servants.
6. A great fool is placed. Sec. Tbe
outrage committed by the despot
consists iu his elevating consummate

fools to high positions, and degrading
the wise and the noble, jn:, to give,
also to place (comp. Deut. xvii 1& ;
Esth. vi. 8). b'yg is not a concrete
according to the analogy of nb;, as
Ibn Ezra explains it, ban nrri J3m
nb' ina nMnn dw, but is the abstract,
as Rashi rightly has it (rmwTf), used
instead of the concrete "op, to inten
sify the idea, and is tantamount to
extremely or intensely foolish (vide
supra, ii. 23) : the Septuagint, Aquila,
Symmachus, the Vulgate, the Syriac,
St. Jerome, tbe Chaldee, Sec, rightly
give the concrete in their versions.
Dinn, altitude, height, metaphorically,
high station, high condition (comp.
Job V. 11); tbe article in Diainpa
indicates the well-known high offices
of state, just as it points in batoa to
tbe acknowledged opposite extreme
established by society. The absence
of the article in D'a-i shews that it is
an adverbial addition to D'pinpa (vide
supra, vi. 3), intimating that many
oiBces of responsibility are conferred
upon tbe fool; whereas D'a-in D'pinp?,
as Herzfeld rightly remarks, would
denote in the many high places, thus
introducing a complaint about the
large number and great revenue of
these offices, which is foreign to the
design of tbe passage. Less appro
priate and forcible is the rendering
of the Septuagint (sv v-f,Ent ficya'Koig),
the Vulgate (in dignitate sublimi),
Rashi (naia 'omna), and Ibn Ezra,
which is followed by Lutber, Cover-
dale, tbe Bishops' Bible, the Geneva
Bible, the Authorised Version, &c.,
assigning to D'a-j the secondary sense
of great. D'n'tos, as opposed to ^jsn,
folly = the foolish, are the spiritually
rich, QUI DIVITES SUNT SERMONE ET
SAPIENTIA, the rich in eloquence and
wisdom, as St. Jerome remarks,
hence the wise, the noble; just as
sito denotes both rich and noble (Job
xxxvi. 19 ; Isa. xxxii. 5), and in,
noble, also signifies elevated in mind,
wise (vide infra, verse 16). There is
therefore no necessity for resorting
to any violent means, in order to

CHAP. X.J

COHELETH.

429

7 positions, and the noble sit in degradation, I have seen
servants upon horses, and masters walking on tbe ground
8 as servants. Tet he who diggeth a pit shall fall into it,

produce the antithesis between the
two clauses; such, for example, as
adopted by those mentioned by Ibn
Ezra, f'oa nvrrb 'iNn rprris moM o'wnBn
can D'omna naicb Dnwn bawn 'bsat: j'asni
¦pna D'n'sjsm, who maintain that tbe
D stands for «?, and submit that the
contrast is between the b3iB, the wise
and tbe rich (so also Kimchi, s.v),
or taking D'a-n over to the second
hemistich, and translating it, " while
the noble and the rich sit in low
places " (Doderlein, Bauer, Van der
Palm, Boothroyd, Sec)
7. I have seen servants. See. A
further description of the tyrannical
and outrageous proceedings of the
despot. Riding on horses bas been,
and still is, a mark of distinction and
honour among the Eastern as well as
other nations (comp. Esth. vi. 8, 9 ;
2 Chron. xxv. 28; Jer. xv. 25). Justin
tells us that among the Parthians,
HOC DENIQUE DISCRIMEN INTER SER
VOS LIBBROSQUE EST, QUOD SERVI
PEDIBUS, LIBERT NON NISI EQUIS IN-
OEDUNT, the difference between slaves
and freemen is, that the former go on
foot, and the latter ride on horseback
(xii. 3). Maillet and Pocock record
in their travels, that Europeans gene
rally are obliged to ride on asses or
mules, and that the cnsuls alone
are permitted to ride on horseback.
And Maundrell, speaking of his
trip to see the beautiful gardens at
Damascus, says, " on visiting these
gardens Franks are obliged either to
walk on foot, or else to ride upon
asses,, the insolence of the Turks not
allowing them to mount on horse
back " (Journey from Aleppo to Jeru
salem, Bohn's ed. of Early Travels in
Palestine, p. 492 ; Harmer, Observa-
tioDS, &c., ii., p. 410; Rosenmiiller,
Orient, iv., p. 172). This being the
custom, we can see how great is the
outrage, and subversion of all de
cency and law, committed by the
tyrant in tbe cases before us. As

these extraordinary changes and vio
lations proceed from (la'bto) a ruler,
D'nto cannot mean jprirece* in the sbict
sense of the word, but as frequently
simply denotes prefects, leaders, mas
ters (comp. Exod. i. 1 1 ,' 1 Sam. xxii.
2; 2 Sam. xxiii 19).
8. Yet he who diggeth. Sec. The
twelfth verse, which concludes with
the counsel given in verse 4, viz.,
the advantage of submitting patiently
to and of conciliating the anger of
the ruler, shews, beyond doubt, that
the intervening adages in vv. 8-11,
are designed to set forth the dangers
to which the opposite conduct might
expose the suffering subjects. The
metaphor from the digging of a pit
must have been very striking to those
who were familiar with the fact that
huntsmen, to secure tbeir prey, dug
deep ditches, covered them over with
foliage, and put some alluring meats
on the covering, and when the ani
mals stepped on them to get the food
the cover gave way and they fell in,
and that it frequently happened that
those who were engaged in this
dangerous digging were themselves
buried by the falling in of the earth.
Hence the admonition, that by trying
to undermine the despot for the sut
ferings he inflicts upon us, we may
be utterly ruined in this hazardous
process, by bringing upon ourselves
the whole weight of the tyrant's
anger; whereas "gentle submission
will prevent greater outrages" (comp.
Prov. :xxvi. 27 ; Fs. vii. 16, Ivii. 7).
The second adage originated from
the well-known habit of serpents to
make their abodes in walls. Hence
it not unfrequently happened that
when a man " went into a house, and
leaned his hand on the wall, a serpent
bit him " (Amos v. 19). The danger
was infinitely greater when a man
inadvertently tried to pull down the
wall and disturbed the nest of these
venomous reptiles. Thus, by attempt-

430

COHELETH.

[CHAP. X.

9 and whoso breaketh down a wall a serpent shall bite him ;
he who breaketh up stones shall be hurt therewith ; whoso

ing to destroy tbe fabric of despotism,
we may provoke the deadly poison of
tbe tyrant, whereas " gentle submis
sion will prevent greater outrages."
ypia, a pit, is awaf ¦KEyift.ivov, from ypa,
to dig, a root of frequent occurrence
in Syriac and Cbaldee ; it is a parti
cipial noun of Pual, standing for
ynian ; the prefix p is not unfrequently
dropped in the participle of this con
jugation, as well as of the Piel, in
which case it is distinguished by the
Quametx in tbe final syllable (comp.
nbi' for nbvn, Judg. xiii. 8 ; npm for
npnno, Hos! i 6. 8; Gesen. § 52, 2, 6 ;
Ewald, § 169, d). 'The warning which
the Massoretic note gives us, tbat
(pniffl nnN wan) there is a Dagesh after
a Shurek, is unnecessary, since the =i
is not a proper Shurek, but merely
orthographic, and is short, as in nbv,
Judg. xiii. 8 ; and top^i', supra, ix. 12.
Tbat n-13 here is not a hedge (the
Sept. and the Vulg., followed by
Lutber, Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
the Geneva Bible, Desvoeux, Hodg
son, Noyes, &c,) but a stone wall, is
evident from npnn: T:aN n-nai, and the
stone wall thereof was broken down,
Prov. xxiv. 31 ; yns n-ia, repairer of
the breach, Isa. Iviii'. 12 ; nii:a 'a-in n-ia,
he hath enclosed my ways with hewn
stones, Lam. iii. 9; and especially
from the following verse, where the
illustration of plucking up stones has
undoubtedly been suggested by, and
is connected with, the breaking down
of stone walls.
9. And whoso breaketh down. Sec
The illustrations adduced in this
verse are taken from the same em
ployment, mentioned in the second
part of the foregoing verse. With
the breaking down of walls are con
nected the pulling out of stones and
tbe cutting down of timber, both of
which are dangerous occupations,
and sometimes cripple for life those
who are thus engaged. When it is
borne in mind that the appliances
with which art and science have so

profusely enriched us for pulling
down huge stone buildings did not
exist iu tbe times here spoken of,
and that the dangers of this employ
ment were consequently far greater,
and the accidents far more numerous,
than we can now imagine, the beauty
and force of tbe metaphor, borrowed
therefrom to set forth the peril of
attempting to subvert the structure
of a despotic government, will be
obvious. As sp:, which primarily
means to pull up, to pluck up, any
thing fast, has, from its being fre
quently used in connection with the
pulling up of tent-pins or stakes to
take down and remove the tents, also
come to signify to remove, exposi
tors are divided about the meaning
of S'pp here; the Sept. (Ifai'pw UBovg),
Symmachus {(/.ErExpSv \iBovg), Hodg
son, Gesenius, Ewald, Hitzig, Heilig
stedt, Stuart, Elster, Fiirst, Vaihinger,
Hengstenberg, &c., adhere to the
primary meaning of breaking up,
pulling out, whilst Aquila (juetutiSSv
^iBovg), the Vulgate (qui transfert
0* 7
1 aV*), Rasbi,
Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Luther, Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, tbe Geneva
Bible, the Auth. Version, Desvoeux,
De Wette, Noyes, &c., take it in the
secondary sense of removing. The
former sense, however, is warranted
by tbe phrase D':aN S'pn, to pull up
stones, in 1 Kings v. 31, and is more
consonant with the scope of the pas
sage, inasmuch as breaking up agrees
better with the parallelism cleaving.
For Dna, masc, referring to the fem.
jaN, see ii. 6. There is no necessity,
with Gesenius, Hitzig, Elster, &c.,
for taking jap; as a denominative from
j'3to, coulter (Prov. xxiii. 2), in order
to obtain tbe meaning shall be cut,
or tvounded, which tbe Vulgate
(vulnerabitur), Luther (tt)itb betle^t
tbetben), Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible (shall be hurt), Desvoeux,
Spohn, &o., rightly give, since ja.p

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

431

10 cleaveth wood shall be cut thereby. If the axe be blunt,

itself denotes cutting in Aramsean
(comp. Fiirst, Lex. s. v) Less appro
priate is the rendering shall be endan
gered (tbe Septuagint, Ibn Ezra, tbe
GenevaBible,theAuthorisedVersion,
Knobel, Herzfeld, :^iwald, De Wette,
Noyes, Stuart, Vaihinger, &c), which,
as Hitzig rightly remarks, is too
general and indefinite, when com
pared with the other predicates. Still
more objectionable is the rendering
shall be burned (the Chaldee n'ns
s-ii::^ NnpinMb), heated or warmed,
Rashi (Dnnri'), and Rashbam, wbich
is followed by Broughton, deducing
it from n:ab in 1 Kings i. 2, to which
the meaning of warming, heating, is
wrongly assigned, as will be seen
from a comparison of it with Isa.
zxiL 15.
10. If the axe be blunt. Sec. To
shew more forcibly the folly of
attempting to raise a feeble arm
against the mighty trunk of despot
ism, Coheleth takes up, from an
other point of view, the illustration
used in the second hemistich of the
foregoing verse. If one will go to
work with a blunt axe, and does not
take due precaution to sharpen the
instrument before using it, he will
only make the tyrant increase his
army, and thereby augment his suf
ferings. But it is the prerogative of
wisdom to repair the mischief which
such precipitate folly occasions. The
different renderings of this verse are
very numerous and most conflicting.
The Septuagint has lav Ixma-n t3
o-(5«piov, xal avrog trpoa-eoirov krap^sv, Kal
il/vafAEtq ivvaf^aia-st, xal orepia-iTEla rov avSpEiou
o-oifia, if the axe should fall, and it
troubled his face, and he shall
strengthen the forces ; and the advan
tage of man is wisdom, altering nnp
into bpi, omitting >ib before D':b, as
signing to bbp. the Chaldee sense of
hurting, and changing 'vtd'^r! for to'N.
The Vulgate, si betusom fuerit
FERRUM, et HOC NON UT PRIUS, SED
hbbetatum fuerit, multo labore
exaouetub ; et post industriam
SEQUETUR SAPIENTIA, if the iron be

blunt, and it be not as before, but if
it be dull, it may be sharpened with
much labour, and after industry shall
follow wisdom, doubly translating
'^yp., -viz., light, smooth, edgeless, and
to make smooth, sharpen, assigning
to ia:; the sense of imparting strength,
sharpening, altering Q'bnni into D'Vna,
taking Jinp; to denote after, and
n'toan, industry. St. Jerome translates
it, SI RETUSUM FUEBlT FERRUM ET
HOO NON UT PRIUS, SED CONTUR-
BATUM FUERIT, VIRTUTIBUS CORRO-
BORABITtJR, ET RELIQUUM FORTITU-
niNis SAPIENTIA EST, if the iron be
blunt, and it be not as before, but is
troubled, it shall be strengthened by
virtues, and the remainder of strength
is wisdom ; wbich he explains, " if
any one finds that, through negli
gence, he bas lost the knowledge of
the Scriptures, has become dull, and
does not continue as he began, — for
it frequently happens that when one
gets a smack of knowledge he be
comes elated with pride, leaves off
to learn, — his knowledge gradually
decreases, and tbe mind gradually
becomes empty, tlie iron is dulled,
sloth and idleness being as it were
a rust of wisdom ; if this be the
case with any one, let him not be
troubled, but go to his teacher and
be instructed again, and after labour,
and industry, and much sweat —
for this is meant by the Hebrew
(naa' D'Vna), 'he shall be strengthened
by forces,' i. e., by toil, industry, and
sweat, and daily readings — be shall
obtain wisdom, and his strength shall
have tbis end, that he shall get wis
dom." The source of this interpre
tation may be seen in the Midrash
and the Chaldee. The Syriac Version
vKiAj ^1 OOIO ]]l^£3 1<TLD X
lALDIijo Ij'i anN, if the axe be
blunt, and it troubles the face and
increases the slain, and the advantage

432

COHELETH.

[chap. Xi

and he do not isharpan it beforehand, he Bhall only increase

(/f the upright or diligent is wisdom,
omits, like the Septuagint, Nb before
D':s, and takes ''P)p to denote trouble ;
but, unlike any other version, mis
takes D'lwii for D'bbni. Passing on
from these arbitrary alterations of
tbe text and meaningless versions,
we eome to the Rabbinic expositors
of the middle ages, who, though more
literal, are not less divergent in their
opinions as to the meaning of the
verse. According to Rashi and
Rashbam, D'nis niann • bnan nnp dm
d:'mi • bpbp d':b Mb Nini ! Dninni DrrQ in'pic
aD"SN pna nnb nvn jsnb D'lamoi D'iDiiDb
'ma: nN nonbna Nin n'aan naa' D'b"m
jinwa nbsoi nosn n'lusn jinn'i i ns:b D'b"nn
binanjn nnv noanb nis is'; the meaning
is, " though the sword, even if it be
blunt, and have not its edge shar
pened, is vanquishing armies, yet
has wisdom a greater advantage,""
making it substantially the same as
the assertion, " wisdom is better .
than weapons of war," in ix. 18.
According to Ibn Ezra again, '3 r|M
rprr Nbis j':sm i':d bpbp »bi binan rmp
Nini biB3 Nini bD3n 'bSDn Nin bpbpi laninn
naa' nboi spian na is'n' in bbp nisn: j':so
D'b"ni nmn' n'a nN 'nna:i ina ns:' io3
• b'n 'id:n 'b'n 'n D'nbM j':s3 na ina na:'
Jinn' nnanb ib'ib j'asni nnan n'is3n jmn'i
jiasB Mba i:nffl"ni DnMn n'lsan 13 ass ba bs
bpn j':an jn nois bsis nann nisai ns nisnni
V]Ci:n naan j':an jn nsv bsio ntoani, it
ovight to be rendered, " if the axe
be blunt, and he do whet the edge,
then it will overcome his strength
(i. e., the cleavers), but wisdom has
an advantage (i. e., over all labour)
for securing success." Neither are
the Reformers less discordant in
their renderings. Luther has, tt>enn
ein Sifen jlumtjf witb unb an bet
©cbneibe ungeftbtiffen bleibt, ntuf man
eg mit SKacbt wiebet fcbatfen; olfo
fotgt aud^ ffieigbeit bem Slcig, which
is literally adopted by Coverdale,
"when an iron is blunt, and the
point not sharpened, it must be whet
again, and tbat with might; even so
doth wisdom follow diligence," and
followed by tbe Bishops' Bible ;

whereas the Geneva Bible translates
it, "if the iron be blunt, and one
hath not whet tbe edge, he must
then put to more strength ; but the
excellency to direct a thing is wis
dom," which, with very little varia
tion, is adopted in the Authorised
Version. Nor has this difference
of opinion been diminished hy the
progress of modem criticism, as may
be seen from the following speci
mens : Desvoeux renders it, " if an
iron instrument be blunt, though
the edge is not quite off, and he who
wauteth to make use of it increaseth
his strength, skill is more profitable
to succeed;" Spohn, ibenn eine 2Irt
ilumpf ift, unb man fibleift lie, fo
Jann man befto mebt bamit augtiibten.
Slbet xioij beffet gliidtg bet SGSeigbett,
if an axe be blunt, and is sharpened,
much more can be done therewith;
yet wisdom has still greater success ;
Jlodgson again has, " if iron be
rusty and its edge blunt, no strength
will avail to make it cut; yet still
vrisdom will find out how to make it
execute its office ; " whilst Hitzig,
who is followed by Stuart and Elster,
renders it, wenn et bag Sifen abges
jlumpft bot, unb eg obne ©cbneibe ift,
fo fcbibingt et unb fttengt bie Stafie an.
Seffet iftg, ttiftig SSeigbeit bcmbjaben,
if he has blunted the iron, and it is
without edge, he swings it and exerts
his strength ; it is better dexterously
to use wisdom. Against all these
interpretations we urge — 1. That if
the connection of these adages with
tbe general argument is as we have
stated at tbe beginning of tbis verse,
tbey are totally at variance with tbe
scope of the passage; and 2. That
they all more or less force meanings
upon the words which are contrary
to the usus loquendi, as will be seen
from tbe following analysis of the
text. That nnp, the Piel, like the
Kal, is used intransitively is estab
lished beyond doubt, from the kindred
nn3, wbich bas an intransitive sense
(comp. nin-ba nnnai, and every spirit
became faint, Ezeli. xxi. 12), and is

CHAP. X.J

COHELETH.

433

the army ; but the advantage of repairing hath wisdom.

rightly rendered so by tbe Vulgate,
St. Jerome, Rasbi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Auth.
Version, and most modern commen
tators. The Piel, nnp, which only
occurs here, has evidently been
chosen in preference to the Kal,
nnp, because of its forming a para
nomasia with Spia, which Hitzig,
Stuart, Elster, &c., who take it
actively, have failed to see, and hence
have also been driven to give a forced
explanation to the following words,
as will be seen in the sequel. The
Septuagint's rendering of it by Exvin,
shall fall, is simply arbitrary, as is
evident from the fact that all the
other ancient versions have the word
as it is in the Hebrew. The quadri
literal bna, iron, an iron, an iron tool,
an axe (2 Kings vi. 5 ; Isa. x. 34),
is not derived from ina, to pierce, with
the b annexed at the end (Gesenius,
&c.), as transfixing does not describe
the property of the metal, but is
from bia, i q., bra in Aramsean, to be
hard, solid (withCiXnserted after the
first radical, according to tbe analogy
of *isb; from ^?i), whence the Greek
$aa-aKr>iq, iron-marblc, of which Pliny
says, quem vacant baselten, ferrei
coloris atque duritiei, unde et nomen
ei dedit (vide Fiirst, Lex. s.v. bja).
The pronoun Nin-i, and he, refers to
D'ss spia, the cleaver of wood, men
tioned in the preceding verse, and
would have been useless if nnp bad
been transitive, inasmuch as the
latter would express the subject, viz.,
" if he blunted the axe." The omis
sion of the negative >Sb by the Sept,
and the Syriac is owing to tbeir
peculiar interpretation of this clause.
D':s here is an adverb of time, being
an abbreviation for D':Db (compare
Ewald, § 220, a), and is well ren
dered before, beforehand, by the Vul
gate, St. Jerome, Ewald, Philipp
son, &c. ; the b is omitted because of
its close connection with ti'i. The
meaning, edge, which is assigned to
it by Rashi; Rashbam, and Ibn Ezra,

and wbich is followed by Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, the
Geneva Bible, the Auth, Version,
and most modern commentators, is
contrary to the sense in which this
word is uniformly employed in Scrip
ture, na, mouth, which lacerates and
destroys, is figuratively used for a
destructive edge, and not d':b, the face,
this being no symbol of destruction.
To appeal to the prosopopoeia in
Ezek. xxi. 21, as those do who main
tain that D':b here denotes edge, is
most unjustifiable. We quote the
passage — •
Collect thyself I turn to the right I
Attend t tum to the left !
¦Whither is thy face directed?
And 1 also -will clasp my hands together.
And cause my fury to rest upon thee j
1, the Eternal, have spoken it.
The fearful sword, described in verses
19 and 20, which is to make the de
vastations, seems, as it were, still to
slumber, and is therefore summoned,
in verse 21, by a bold apostrophe, to
rouse itself, to collect, to unite all its
powers, to dash to its right hand and
to its left, and is rebuked for its
drowsy face or appearance. We ask
whether we can legitimately appeal
to this highly figurative passage,
where hands, and feet, and face, and
powers of action are ascribed to the
sword, for proof tbat D>:B signifies
edge in tbe prosaic and calm language
of our text? bpbp (the Pilpel of bbp^,
to be light) is to set in motion {xii^i^ai,
CALLo), to turn (Ezek. xxi. 26), to
turn quickly so as to produce bril
liancy (comp. nasnnn. Gen. iii. 24), to
polish (comp. bbp^, to polish, Ezek.
i. 7 ; Dan. x. 6), hence to sharpen.
TheChaldee signification of trouWiH^,
hurting, which is assigned to it by
the Septuagint and Syriac, as well
as the meaning smooth, blunt, which
the Vulgate and St. Jerome give it,
are contrary to tbe usus loquendi and
the scope of the passage; whilst the
meaning to swing in the air so as to
increase the force of the blow, which.
is given to it by Hitzig.and Elster,
proceeds from a misunderstanding of

3K

434

COHELETH.

[CHAP. X.

11 if the serpent bite without enchantment, there is no advan-

the design of this verse, and involves
an unnecessary violation of the pause-
accent over tiie next clause. The
rendering of D'bTi hy physical power,
strength, force, is contrary to its uni
form signification. When Hengsten
berg declares that " D'b;n occurs also
elsewhere in tbe sense of strength,
force fommt autb fonft in bet 95ebeu=
tung .Srdfte bor," we submit that
neither he, nor Gesenius in his
Thesaurus and Lexicon, nor any one
else has been ableto adduce a single
instance lo substantiate the assertion.
Besides here the plural D'b;n occurs
twenty times more (1 Kings xv. aO ;
2 Kings xxv. 23. 26 ; 1 Chron. vii.
5. 7. 11, xi. 26; 2 Chron. xvi 4;
Isa. xxx. 6 ; Jerem, xl. 7. 13, xii.
11.13. 16, xliii. 8, xliii 4. 5; Dan.
xi. 10), and, with the exception of
the disputed passage in Isa. xxx. 6,
invariably denotes military hosts,
armies, and is so rendered in all ver
sions of the Bible and by all lexi
cographers. We have therefore no
right to depart from this meaning
here, especially when its regular
signification yields excellent sense.
Coheleth tries to expose the folly of
raising a blunt and ineffective weapon
against a monstrous despotism, and,
to render this exposure more striking
and efl'ectual, he reminds the feeble
sufferer that, by attempting to sub
vert this tyrannical power with
inefficient means, be would only
cause the tyrant to increase and
strengthen his armies, and thereby
also augment his own sufferings.
For the 1 before D'bri, introducing
the apodosis, see viii. 17. na:;, tbe
Piel of na:, to be strong, is to make
strong, to strengthen, to increase the
strength. Sec. (comp. Zech. x, 6. 12).
The signification to strengthen, to
sharpen, which is assigned to it by
the Vulgate and St. Jerome, followed
by Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, &c., regarding bna as its object,
and D'Vni as used adverbially, does
violation botb to tbe text and con
text. As ntoa, to be right, is also

used to denote the result of being
rigbt, i.e., success (vide supra, ii. 21).
Rashi, Rashbam, and Ibn Ezra, who
are followed by Gesenius, De Wette,
Knobel, Noyes, Preston, Vaihinger,
&c,, take it in its secondary sense,
i.e., success; whilst Herzfeld, Phi
lippson, Hengstenberg, &c., retain
the primary meaning right, which
yields excellent sense, and is there
fore preferable, not however in the
shade of meaning which they give
it. n'tosn, Hiphil infinit. absolute,
accordingly signifies making right,
repairing, mending ; it is in the geni
tive, depending upon Jinn;, i.e., the
advantage of repairing ; it is the
prerogative of wisdom to repair the
mischief which the folly of raising
a feeble arm against deeply-rooted
tyranny brings about. The Septua
gint's rendering of it by man, the
Vulgate's and St. Jerome's rendering
diligence, 'vihich is followed by Luther,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, &c., as
well OS Hitzig's alteration of it into
n'toan, the infinitive construct, are in
admissible and arbitrary.
\l. If the serpent bite. Sec. As the
preceding verse concluded with the
remark that it is the prerogative of
wisdom to repair the mischief caused
by the precipitate conduct of the
foolish, Coheleth now urges upon
the wise tbat unless their wisdom is
exerted for the good of the sufferers,
unless the serpeut provoked to come
from its habitation to sting the
assailants, is prevented by the supe
rior skill of the wise from infusing
its deadly poison, their wisdom will
be useless. Just as the illustration
used in the preceding verse was
suggested by the second clause of
verse 9, so the one in this verse has
been suggested by the second clause
of verse 8, the second suggestion
being taken up flrst, and the flrst.
second. For similar inversions, see
vii. 7. From the remotest antiquity
to the present day we flnd throughout
the East a large number of itinerant
serpent charmers. These charmers

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

435

travel about towns and villages to
tame serpents, which tbey effect
either by cantillating certain forms
of exorcism, or by some other mys
terious adjuration, alluring them to
come forth from the fissures iu the
walls of houses, and rendering them
incapable of darting at any one.
" As the serpent seeks the darkest
place in which to bide itself," says a
modern traveller, " the charmer has
in most cases to exercise his skill in
an obscure chamber, where he might
easily take a serpent from his bosom,
bring it to the people without tbe
door, and affirm that he bad found
it in the apartment, for no one would
venture to enter with him after
having been assured of tbe presence
of one of these reptiles within ; but
he is often required to perform, in
the full light of day, surrounded by
spectators, and incredulous persons
have searched him beforehand, and
even stripped him naked, yet his
success has been complete. Ho
assumes an air of mystery, strikes
the wall with a short palm-stick,
whistles, makes a clucking noise
with his tongue, and spits upon the
ground, and generally says, ' I ad
jure you by God, if ye be above, or
if ye be below, that ye come forth ;
I adjure you by the most great
name, if ye be obedient, come forth ;
and if ye be disobedient, die, die,
die ! ' 'Ihe serpent is generally dis
lodged by his stick from a fissure in
the wall, or drops from the ceiling
of the room. I have often heard it
asserted tbat the serpent-charmer,
before he enters a house in which bo
is to try his skill, alwayg employs a
servant of that house to introduce
one or more serpents ; but I have
known instances in which this could
not be the case, and am inclined to
believe tbat the durweeshes above
mentioned are generally acquainted
with some real physical means of
discovering the presence of serpents
without seeingthem, and of attracting
them from their lurking places"
(Lane, Modern Egyptians, ii. p. 106).
" I haveseen many serpent-charmers."

says Dr. Thomson, "who do really ex
ercise some extraordinary power over
these reptiles. They carry enormous
snakes, generally black, about them,
allow them to crawl all over their per
sons and into tbeir bosoms, always,
however, with certain precautions,
either necessary or pretended to be
so. They repeatedly breathe strongly
iuto the face of the serpent, and
occasionally blow spittle, or some
medicated composition upon them "
(The Land and the Book, London,
1859, p. 154). The Psalmist, speak
ing of the malignity of tbe incorri
gibly wicked, compares it to tbe
venomous serpent which is proof to
all the efforts of the charmer (Ps.
Iviii. 5) ; and God declares that he
will send serpents against his peo
ple " which are not to be charmed"
(Jer. viii. 17; compare also Sirach
xii 13; Bochart. Hieroz., part ii. lib.
3, c. 6, where this subject is most
elaborately treated ; Hengstenberg,
Egypt, and tbe Books of Moses,
p. 100, English ed, ; SBinet, dieaU
tt>6ttetbu$, s.v. 3aubetei). The wis
dom and skill of such a charmer
will be useless, if they are not exerted
to prevent the reptile from darting
upon the people. The article in
tonsn, the serpent, refers to the serpent
mentioned in verse 8. Nba, literally
in not, not in, i. e., without (comp.
nonn 'npii) Mba 'nbDn n:'iMn, give ear to
my prayer, with no feigned lips, Ps.
xvii. 1 ; 1 Chron. xii. 33 ; 2 Chron.
xxx 18). tonb, from tonb, to whisper,
to mutter magic formulas, to charm, is
incantation, charm, as is evident from
Jer. viii. 17, where, as here, it is used
with regard to the charming of ser
pents; so Aquila, imic-nq E?rwS-t;, and
Symmachus, Iv o'vx ivaotis, without
contentm.ent. The ) in J'ni, as in the
foregoing verse, introduces the apo
dosis. JiiiJbn bsa, master of the tongue,
i.e., one who has such a mastery of
bis tongue as to deprive by its mys
terious murmurings the venom of
serpents, hence an enchanter, a
charmer. Durell's suggestion, that
jltobn may be a mistake for Jiwnb,
caused by a transposition of letters.

436

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

12 tage to the charmer. The words from the mouth of the
wise man gain him favour, but those from the lips of the

is as unnecessary as it is gratuitous.
The verse is well rendered by tbe
Septuagint lav }/«» o<t>is Iv ou ^'Supi'o-pJ,
xal olx eVtiV •JlEpitj-CTEta rS Efra^ovri, and the
Syr, lZLa_ii!!.Q^ P? XloZ, AoJ ^'
^^aj^liS v^Zcu Aj^, if the
serpent bites, being unenchanted, there
is no advantage to the enchanter; and
beautifully explained by Rashbam,
ffinibnii) b'ama DnNn nN "[iBi: s)n:n dn
bsab Jinn' ib j'ni -jidi: Nin wnb vbs inn'b Mb
icn'b Mbi winbb snviD pmbn, if the ser
pent bites one because the charmer
has not charmed it, there is no advan
tage to the charmer who knows how
to charm, and does not do it, who
rightly remarks that (wmn bs bsi: «nb)
ton: and tonb form a paranomasia.
The rendering of the Vulgate, si
MOBDEAT SERPENS IN SILENTIO, NIHIL
EO MINUS HABET QUI OCOULTB DE-
IB AUIT, if a serpent bite secretly, he
is nothing better who backbites slily,
wbich St. Jerome explains, serpens
ET DETRACTOR SUNT ^QUALES ; QUO
MODO ENIM ILLE SECRBTO MOHDENS
VENENOM INSEBIT, SIO ILLE CLAM
DETRAHENS, VIRUS PECTORIS SUI IN-
FUNDiT IN ERATREM, « serpent and
a slanderer are alike, for just as the
serpent stealthily infuses its poison, so
he who is secretly slandering instils the
venom of his breast into his brother ;
and the explanation of Ibn Ezra,
Nbia ':iSD2n iBn:n 'n jiiubn bsab jmn' j'm
n:n' Mbi p'l'ii) innb sniu', if the unen
chanted serpent bites and has no
advantage, no more has the backbiter;
which are followed by Luther (ein
aSafibet ift ni^tg beffet benn eine
©(btange, bie unbefi^woten ftiibt, a
babbler is nothing better than a ser
pent which bites without enchantment),
misrepresented by Holden (p. 149),
wbo affirms that Luther renders it
" without provocation ; " Coverdale
and the Bishops' Bible (" a babbler
of his tongue, or a backbiter, is no
better than a serpent that stingeth

without hissing ") ; the Geneva Bible
(" if the serpent bite when he is not
charmed, no better is a babbler");
the Authorised Version (" surely the
serpent will bite without enchant
ment, and a babbler, or the master
of the tongue, is no better"), Hodgson
(" though the serpent sting without
hissing, yet doth not he who bath a
double tongue bite still more cun
ningly?") &c., owe their origin, as
usual, to the Hagadic interpretation
of this verse (comp. the Talmud,
Erchin, 15, b; Tanith, 8, a; the
chaldee paraphrase, and the Midrash,
in loco), and are both against tbe
genius of the language and contrary
to the scope of the passage.
12. The words from the mouth. Sec.
Having exposed the folly of attempt
ing to raise a feeble opposition
against a powerful despot, Coheleth
recurs to the remark he has made in
verse 4, that it is the part of the wise
man patiently to bear that wbich
cannot be removed, and to use con
ciliatory language, which will, after
all, secure favour, whilst the words
wbich the fool employs will bring
him into ruin, jn is not grace in the
sense of graceful, the abstract for tbe
adjective (Luther, Coverdale, the
Bishop's Bible, the Geneva Bible,
the Authorised Version in tbe text,
Holden, Knobel, Ewald, De Wette,
Heiligstedt, &c.), but favour, i. e.,
favour procuring ; his words are such
as conciliate or procure favour or ac
ceptance (Rashbam, Hodgson, Herz
feld, Noyes, Hitzig, Stuart,Vaihinger,
Hengstenberg, &c.), as is evident
from the antithesis. Tbe construct
'¦l?n, from the first clause, is to be
supplied before ninDip in the second
hemistich, i.e., ninaia '-la-n-i, and the
words of the lips of. Sec ; cases in
which words are taken over from one
hemistich into the other are ot fre
quent occurrence (comp. tbe follow
ing verse; xi. 5, xii. 11,13; Ps. xx. 7;
Prov. iii. 12), and inattention to this

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

437

13 fool destroy him ; the beginning of the words of his mouth
is folly, and the end of the words of his mouth is mischievous

fact, on the part of translators, bas
produced inextricable confusion in
the translations of different passages
of Scripture ; as, for instance, Isa.
xxxi. 5, niNas nin; j.:; ja niDS D'nssa
Dbtoin;-bs, as birds protect their chickens,
so Jehovah of Hosts protects Jerusa
lem, to which tbe tender expressions
of our Saviour in Matt, xxiii, 37 seem
to allude, but which yields no sense
in the common renderings. Failing
to see this in the passage before us,
commentators are not only compelled
to take ninato metonymically for
speech, but to make th^jnasculine verity
i3Bbafi the predicate of the femimne
Koun ninato. The^Zura? const, ninato,
instead of the dual 'npia, wbich also
occurs in Ps. xlv. 3, Iix 8; Song of
Songs iv. 3. 11, V. 13 ; Isa. Iix, 3, is
owing to tbe fact tbat the dual form
is gradually dropped in the later
phases of development in the lan
guage (comp, Gesen. § 88, 2 ; Ewald,
§ 180). The pronoun in issban does
not refer to the wise man, or any one
else, as the Hagadic interpretation
will have it (comp. tbe Midrash, the
Chaldee,and Rashi), which is adopted
by St. Jerome, who remarks, et be-
VERA PRjECIPITATOR SAPIENS QUANDO
IN AUREM LOQUITUR IMPRUDBNTIS, ET
VERBA EJUS IN PROFUNDO UT ITA
DIOAM GURGITE PEREONT. a wisc man
is as if he were thrown down when he
speaks in the liearing of a fool, and
his words perish, if I may say so, in
a deep gulf, and followed by Luther,
Bishop Patrick, Schmidt, Umbreit,
&o., but refers to the fool himself.
For tbe verb singular i3»|an, referring
to the plural noun d'w, see verse 1.
Mendelssohn's renderingof this verse,
" the words of a wise man's mouth
are, ' Shew mercy,' but of tbe lips of
the fool, ' Destroy him ! ' " taking
issban as the second person, and re
garding it as the expression used by
the fool, which is followed by Fried-
la^nder and Preston, is simply pre
posterous, and is completely set aside

by tbe similar construction in the
following verse.
13. The beginning of. Sec. Tbe
reason why the words of the fool are
bis ruin, is, that they are replete with
folly and mischief from beginning to
end. nbnri and n'nriM, like our phrase
" from beginning to end," denote the
whole, altogether (vide supra, iii. 11),
and are tersely explained by IbnEzra
F|iDi nbnn vnanb dsb J'n, there is no sense
in his words from beginning to end.
Accordingly 'na-n, as in the foregoing
verse, is to be supplied before m'B in
the second clause from tbe first hemi
stich, which is rightly done by the
Sept. (apX'^ \6yaiv crOfjLarog airov a<^poa-vVTi,
xal Itrp^aTT o-rofAarog avroZ TrepiipepEla
iTovripi), the Chaldee (a'DiB 'bn 'm'to
Nto'a Nnbnbin nniB nn'n moi Nniioto),
Rashbam, Luther Cbet Slnfciug feinet
SlBotte ift "Raxx^eii, unb bag (gnbe ift
f^iibli^e Sbotbeit}, who, like Ibn
Ezra, gives the same sense, by omit
ting the second irPB, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible ("tbe beginning of his
talking is foolishness, and the last
word of bis mouth is stark mad
ness"), Ewald, &c. This shews be
yond doubt that our construction of
the preceding verse is the legitimate
one. The inconsistency of taking
in'B, in tbe second clause, metonymi
cally for his talk (the Auth. Version,
Desvoeux, Knobel, De Wette, Noyes,
Heiligstedt, &c.), or of applying
n'-iriN to in'B, i. e., the end of his mouth,
that is, the end which his mouth makes
of its discourse (the Vulg., the Geneva
Bible, Herzfeld, Hitzig, Stuart Elster,
Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c.), is
evident from the parallel construction
in the first clause. Still more objec
tionable are the renderings, "the
consequence of his words is mis
chievous madness" (Mendelssohn,
Schmidt, Friedlander, Preston, Ac),
" the beginning of the words of his
mouth is folly, but tbe end of his
discourse is absurdity tbat bringeth
mischief" (Hodgson), &c.

438

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

14 madness. The fool also speaketh much, though no man

14, The fool also, Sed. Another
characteristic of tbe fool is, that he
talks much upon everything, and
about the most profound and myste
rious subjects, though no man knows,
nor can get to know, what events
will transpire here, and what will be
hereafter. The i in ''joni introduces
an additional feature, and, as fre
quently elsewhere, signifies moreover,
also. D'nan na-i;, literally he multi
plies words, i. e., speaks much ; the
subject upon which tbe fool here
exercises his loquaciousness cannot
be mistaken from tbe remainder of
the verse ; it is about ntoMi n;n;to-nn
I'-iriMD n;n;, what will take place here
and hereafter,v/hich no man, however
wise, can know, much less such a
fool. The particle although, or yet,
which is not unfrequentiy omitted,
must be supplied before tib. The
phrase D-iNn sn;."Mb means no man
knows or can know (comp, ix. 1. 12 ;
and D-iMn Nsn;"Nb, no man finds or
can fincl, iii. 11, vii. 14, viii. 17).
'^^)?~!,. from after him, i. e., from tlie
time when he will be no more, after
his death; the phrase 'nriN n.;n; is of
frequent occurrence in this book, and
invariably signifies what shall be after
life is finished, after death, hereafter;
whilst n;.n; by itself denotes thefuture;
so that n.;n;to~nn means what a day or
the morrow may bring forth, and
'nnMn n.;n; ntoN, what shall be hereafter,
after death. The additional clause
ib Til 'n, which is used as an emphatic
denial, is to shew the total impossi
bility of knowing these things about
which the fool prattles; men of far
greatercapacities than he not only can
not get to know these things by their
own cogitations {^^.), but are unable
to ascertain them from others (t?1).
The difticulty wbich commentators
have felt in developing the sense of
this verse, and in tracing its connec
tion with tbe foregoing verse, it will, we
believe, appear groundless, from this
simple analysis of tho text, and has
evidently arisen from the loose and
discordant paraphrases of the ancient

versions and mediaeval expositors.
Thus the Septuagint has Kal S a^pm
wXnfluVEt \6yovg- ovx Eyvao o avBpaoTrog ri ro
yevofJiBVOY xal ri ro Iff-ifxEVov ' o n oTpiaoo auTDU
riq ivayyE'Ki'i aiirS ; and a fool multi
plies words ; man knows not what has
been and what shall be; what is after
him who can tell him? altering the
future n.;n;to into rpnto, regarding the
n in vnnMD as a pronoun, and con
necting it with tbe last clause. 'The
Vulg., STULTUS VERBA MULTIPLICAT ;
IGNOKAT HOMO, QUID ANTE SE FUERIT;
ET QUID POST SE FUTURUM SIT, QUIS EI
poTBBiT iNDicARE ? a fool multiplies
words; man does not know what was
before him, and what shall be after
him who can tell him ? and St. Jerome,
BT STULTUS VERBA MULTIPLICAT ; IG-
NORAT HOMO QUID SIT, QUOD FACTUM
EST, ET QUOD FUTURUM EST POST EUM,
QUIS ANNUNCIABII EI? and a fool
multiplies words; man knows not ivhat
has been, what is, and what shall be
after him ; who shall declare it unto
him? also alter n;n;to-nn into n^p-nn;
the latter, moreover, inserts nintoTra
and explains it quum stultus nbo
PR/ETERITORUM MBMINEBIT, NBO FU-
TURA AGNOSOAT, ET IGNORANTIiE
TENEBRIS VOLUTETUR, FALSAM SIBI
SOIENTIAM REPROMITTBNS, IN EO DOC-
TOM SE PUTAT BT SAPIENTEM, SI
VERBA MULTIPLICAT, when a fool
neither remembers the things which are
past, nor knows the things which are
to come, and stumbles in the darkness
of ignorance, he assures himself of a
false knowledge, and thinks himself
learned and wise if he only multiplies
viords. But, apart from the arbitrary
alteration of the text, this inter
pretation makes DnMn, man, identi
cal with baen, the fool, mentioned
in the first clause, which is both con
trary to the uniform meaning of D-iNn
in such constructions, and clogs the
whole sentence. If tbe sacred writer
had intended to convey tbis idea, he
would undoubtedly have omitted
DiMn altogether. The explanations
of Rashi, nnn nniNi nn: D'nan nan' beam
niBNi ! nnn frrr no sm' i:'ni ':ibBb j3 ncSN

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

439

knoweth what shall be here nor what shall be hereafter ;
15 who can tell him it? The work of a fool wearieth him,

WNia nan f|iD Mb nmba ib n'a' 'n vnnMn rrrr
T»as nnnn f^n NbN jm nnNb n'n' hn snv
pimn lans 'mnNn NbM i':'S n::3 Mbia vnnNn
lb t:' 'n Nn'ia Nin -j'ns, " and the fool
multiplies words," i. e., he fixes and
declares I shall do so and so to this
and that one tomorrow, and does not
knoiv what may be tomorrow. "And
what shall be," Sc, i. a., he not only
does not know what may happen after
tlie lapse of a little time, but does not
even know what is taking place behind
his back at this preseent moment ; and
Rashbam, nib'D3 bo D'nan nann b'oan
iBioa lb S':ni Nan niDN nsnn j'ani snv i:'ni
niBNa vnnMn DiNna vbs Man niCN nsnn d:i
lb t:' 'n '3 snv i:'n i3nna -jb', the fool
talks much foolishness, and does not
know nor understand the evil which
will come upon him at his end ; and
even the evil which may be close behind
his back, when walking on the road,
he does not know, for who can tell him
it? according to which the verse
ought to be translated "-and the fool
talks much ; tbe foolish man knows
not what the future will be, yea, not
even what is now going on behind
bim," which are followed by Men
delssohn and Friedlander, incur the
additional censure of taking vnnMn as
a preposition of place, i.e., behind
one's back, contrary to the sense
which it invariably has in this book,
as will be seen from the above-cited
passages. The Cbaldee paraphrase,
ns iiins jina n'b-n j'p'np juaina 'apn N^otoi
nni 'nini'a' 'irrab n'nsn nn to:N s-n:; Nbn
n*^ '.^C! J**P n'B'jaa 'innb n'ns-n, and the
fool multiplies empty and useless words,
so much so, that no man can know
what will be in his days, and what
will become of him-at the end who can
tell him ? which is followed by Pres
ton, Hitzig, Stuart, &c., is contra
dicted by the indisputable significa
tion of the same expressions in the
passages already quoted. Ibn Ezra's
explanation, '3 nniCMi baiM nnN' b3Dn,
'nioai "na rrrrw nn snN Nb, and the fool
says, I will eat and drink, for I know

not what will happen here or hereafter,
taking "i:i n;ri;to-nn as a mines'is or
representation of what the fool says,
which is followed by_ the Geneva
Bible ("for the fool multiplieth words,
saying, man' knoweth not what shall
be," &c.), and others, is sufficientiy
refuted by iii. 22, vi. 12, viii. 17,
where it is evident that it is tbe sen
timent of Coheleth himself, and not
of the fool. Coverdale, " a fool is so
full of words, that a man cannot tell
what end he will make ; who will then
warn bim to make a conclusion?"
the Bishops' Bible, " a fool is full
of words; and a man cannot tell what
shall come to pass; who will then
warn him of it that shall follow after
him ?" Geier and Hodgson, " though
the fool use many words, no man can
tell what they mean, and to what
purpose they tend no man can inform
him," are as curious as they are irre
concileable with tbe text.
15. The work of a Jbol, Sec As in
his sayings, so in his doings, the folly
of the fool manifests itself, to his
detriment. The duties of a life
spent under a tyrannical govern
ment, which the wise man contrives
to discharge with comparative ease
by conciliatory words and deeds,
thoroughly weary the fool, because
of his utter ignorance of the things
easily come-at-able and familiar to
everybody. Cities being capitals of
all the adjacent country, are much
talked of and well kuown by the
surrounding inhabitants. As one
who does not know the high road
to the capital must be extremely
ignorant, tbe phrase not to be able
to discover the beaten and much-
frequented track to tbe town became
a proverbial expression to denote a
fool who is ignorant of the most
ordinary things appertaining to the
journey of hfe, just as we say, " He
has not wit enough to travel on a
broad open highway.'' We have had
similar language in verse 3. The

440

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

16 because he knoweth not how to go to the city. Woe to thee,
O land, when thy king is childish, and thy princes feast

Chaldee paraphrase bi'nb fj'bN Nb-n bs
NiBbiM n'3.n sannb ai:a '-i.to N;:n'3nn Nnnpb,
because he will not learn to go to the
city where the wise dwell to seek
instruction, which takes " the city "
as the seat of ivisdom where know
ledge might be obtained ; as well as
its offsprings, viz , " the work of the
fool wearies him who does not under
stand to go to the city, i. e , who does
not know ' to bribe the great lords in
the city where justice is exposed for
sale (Ewald), and " he does not know
to help himself in the right way,
since the city is the seat of the
government of the place, and it is
there that the countryman may hope
to find redress for his complaints "
(Elster), are too artificial. Still more
objectionable is tbe explanation of
Rashbam and Ibn Ezra, b'oan nnn
Mb Mini i:Dn niMban mnia: lapab n»s'\B
n'S bM nabb nam DnNa nism'ni niMnan sn'
i3an nMT Nbi s:"i "pnn st Nbi, the fool
who attempts to search into things
which are too sublime and mysterious
for him, whilst he does know Hie things
which are obvious and well known, is
like a man wishing to go to the city
and does not know the way, and thus
wearies himself without seeing his
desire, taking ntoN in the sense of
1^^?, which is followed by Mendels
sohn, Friedlander, Hodgson, Preston,
who translates it, " the work of the
fool wearies him ; he is like one who
does not know the way to the city."
The construction of i:Sji;n, the third
pers./«m. with bns, a masculine noun,
shews the inattention to the agree
ment of genders, numbers. Sec, men
tioned in i. 10. The sing, suffix is-
in i3S|;n, as well as the sing, verb
S-i;, referring to the plural noun D'b'pa,
as frequently, ai-e used distributively
(vide verse 1), and in such a case
the sentence may either be rendered
in the singular, as the Septuagint
and the Chaldee have it, or plural,
as the Vulgate, St. Jerome, and the
Syriac have it. It is therefore pre

posterous to maintain, as Houbigant,
Spohn, and others do, that these
versions had different renderings,
and accordingly alter the text.
1&. Woe to thee, O land, Sec Having
strongly urged the policy of not en
gaging in any feeble acts of rebellion,
but of patiently submitting to a
tyrannical and degraded govern
ment, Coheleth takes care that his
counsels should not be misunder
stood, and perchance be taken as if he
approved of outrages from the powers
that be. In shewing, however, bis
utter disapprobation of such abuses,
the sacred writer adroitly describes
the woeful plight of the land whose
princes and governors are despotic
and sensuous, instead of denouncing
the prince and the rulers themselves,
which might have been attended with
serious consequences to himself,
living as he did under such depraved
and grinding despotism. Dissipa
tion and intemperance, the concomi
tants of infatuated despotism, are
described hy feasting in the morning,
because indalging iu sumptuous fare
at tbis early part of the day was
regarded as the height of sensuality
and depravity, and was therefore
abhorred by tbe Hebrews as well as
by other nations. Hence the prophet
Isaiah, in denouncing the woful
degradation of Israel, mentions their
feasting at an early hour (v. 11),
and St. Peter, standing up to repu
diate the charge of drunkenness
against the disciples, pointed to the
fact that it was " the third hour of
the day" (Acts ii. 15), i.e., about
nine o'clock in the morning, when
none but the most dissolute would
be Ibund in such a state. Cicero,
describing the scenes of revelling
into which the place of Marcus Varro
was converted, says, ab hcra tertia
BiBBTATUR, &c., there was drinking
from the third hour — nine o'clock in
the morning (Philipp, ii 41 ; comp,
also CatuU, Carm, xlvii 5, 6 ; Juven,

chap. X.]

COHELETH.

441

17 in tlie morning ! Happy thou, O land, when thy king is
"noble, and thy princes eat in proper time, for strength and

Sat. i. 49, 50). St. Jerome thinks
that there is something very sacred
concealed in the latter clause of this
verse, and therefore takes "tbe king"
to be the devil, who, in respect to
God, " the ancient of days," as Daniel
calls him (vii. 9), is a child in under
standing ; " the princes " are the fol
lowers of the prince of this world,,
who revel in earthly pleasures and
say. Let us eat and drink, for to-mor
row we shall die. Vae terkjE oujus
EST DIABOLUS REX, QUI SEMPER NO-
VARUM RERUM CUPlDUS, ETIAM IN
Absalon ADVERSUS PARENTEM RE-
BELLAT, &c., woe to the land where
the king is the devil, who, always
desiring something neiv, rebelled in
Absalom against his father. Sec. This
is one of the two solitary places
where tbe interjection 'N is used in
Biblical Hebrew (vide supra, iv. 10).
ns: is not slave (Doderlein, Desvoeux,
Dathe, Van der Palm, Spohn, Nach
tigal, &c.), which despicable sense it
never bas ; but, as is evident from
the context, describes one who is
inexperienced, childish, foolish (Rash
bam, Mendelssohn, Knobel, Heilig
stedt, &c.), just as D'to:, women, is
used for effeminate and weak-minded
men (comp. Isa. iii. 4. 12, xix. 16 ;
Jer. i. 6, 7). That baN here means
feasting, immoderate indulgence, is
evident from the antithesis in the
next verse, where the good princes
are described as eating to live, and
not living to eat.
17. Happy thou, O land. Sec To
render the side-blow to despotism
more heavy, Coheleth refers, on tbe
other hand, to the happy state of a
country whose prince and rulers are
benign and moderate. Failing to
see this, Spohn and others arbitrarily
transpose whole sentences, whilst
Vaihinger regards tbis verse as an
interpolation, having made its way
into the text from a marginal gloss.
According to St. Jerome, " the king,
the son of nobles,"' is the Saviour,

the son of the noble patriarchs, Abra
ham, Isaac, and Jacob, the descendant
of the prophets and holy men ; " the
princes" are the apostles and the
saints, whose king is the son of the
nobles ; these " do not eat in the
morning," i.e.. do not run after the
pleasures of this ivorld, " but eat in
due season," i. e., shall eat at the
time of retribution, " in strength and
not in confusion," i.e., every good
thing of this world is confusion, but
the good of the world to come is per
petual strength. It need hardly be
said that this is the Hagadic in
terpretation Christianised (compare
Midrash Yalkut, in loco, and Talmud,
Tanith, 6). 'ItoM, the plmal const, of
¦itoN, from ntoM, kindred with ntoa, nto;,
to be right, physically or mentally
(vide ii. 21) is the abstract, according
to the usage of plural nouns for
abstracts (vide ix. 31, and signifies
blessedness, happiness ; it occurs only
in this plural construct (irn.toM in
Prov. xxix. 18, stands for iri'ntoM),
aud has its exact correspondence in
the Aramsean "i 'aiiQ, which has also
the force of an interjection. Hup-
feld's assertion, that ''-;.i|)m never has
an exclamatory sense (Comment.
Ps. i. 1), is completely set aside by
the fact that it stands here in paral
lelism with the interjection 'M. In
-^'-itoN, wbich has a\iuasc3din£Ji>xono-an,
and refers to the feminine noun yn.M,
we have another instance of collo
quial inattention (vide i. 10), D'nin-ja
is not the son of, or come from, a
noble (St, Jerome, the Chaldee, Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva
Bible, the Autb. Ver., Grotius, Le
Clerc, Doderlein, Desvoeux, Hodg
son, &c,), which in itself would by
no means secure the happiness here
spoken of, as those of noble blood
may be of ignoble deeds, and a curse
to the country, but one who is of a
noble character (the Vulgate, cujus
rex nobilis est ; Rashbam. oani awn ;
Ibn Ezra, ja "jam D'bin;n n-osn ntDS"o

3L

442 COHELETH. [CHAP. X.
18 not for feasting ! Through slothful hands the roof falleth

bS'ba ; Luther, Knobel, Noyes, Heilig
stedt, Vaihinger, &c.) ja, according
to a common idiom, when followed
by a genitive of aquality or condition,
denotes one who possesses it (comp.
''lU'JI, son of strength, i e., a hero,
2 Sam. xiii. 28; nb-jS-ja, son of wicked
ness, i.e., a icicked man, 2 Sam. vii. 10 ;
Ps. Ixxxix. 23; Song of Songs vii. 2,
infra, xii. 4; John xii. 36; Eph.
ii. 2; Col, iii, 6; Gesen § lOH, 2, a;
Ewald, § 287, f). 'The jjlural D'nin,
like 'niEM in this verse, is used for
the abstract nsa, which corresponds
to the Latin in tempore, means proper
time or season (vide vii. 17), and
stands in apposition to npaa. The
a in nnia;a and 'ntoa denotes the
cau,^e or object of the eating iu ques
tion (comp. Ps, v. 11, vii. 7, xxxi. 10 ;
Jonah i. 14=,- supra, ii. 24; Ewald,
§ 217, f, 3, a), 'nto, from nn-to, ac
cording to the analogy of 'b-n from
nbn, 'n? from nnB, 'np from nnp,'is not
drunkenness (the Geneva Bible, the
Auth. Version, Desvoeux, Noyes,
Vaihinger, &o.), since it is most
incongruous to say " princes eat for
drunkenness," but means a feast,
feasting inordinately, revelry (the
Vulgate, the Syriac, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra,Luther, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, Hodgson, Knobel, De Wette,
Herzfeld, Heiligstedt, Hitzig, Stuart,
Elster, &c.), like nntota from the same
roof (Esth. i. 3 ; Isa v. 12), and the
Greek a-vfimo-iov. The Septuagint's
rendering of it by yal ovx alcr^wBha-o\rai,
and they shall not be ashamed, taking
it for itoia, from tola, which is followed
by St. Jerome (et non in confusione),
and the Chaldee nitobm. in weakness,
deriving it from nto:, failing in
. strength, are owing to their allegoiical
explanation of this verse, and are
plainly against the form of tbe word
and the scope of the passage. n-iia:a
'n'ija Nbi are added to the verb ibaM',
to qualify it, marking the difference
between its signification here and in
the foregoing verse.
18. Through slothful hands. Sec
The woe pronounced upon the land

whose king and princes are given to
folly and dissipation (verse 16) is
here continued. Through devoting
the time to inordinate pleasures and
profligacy, which ought to be given
to the maintenance of justice and
order of the body politic, the com
munity becomes disorganised, and
the whole state is dilapidated and
ruined. Ibn Ezra, and after him
most modern commentators, rightly
take this verse to represent, under
the figure of a crumbling and leaky
building, the ruined and deplorable
condition of a community neglected
iu the adjustment ot its interests,
and drained of its resources by pro
fligate rulers. Those who maintain
that it simply contains " a dissuasive
from idleness generally" (Le Clerc,
Sebastian Schmidt, Michaelis, Rosen
miiller, Holden, &c.) are obliged to
sever this verse from the preceding
verses and verse 20, which is mani
festly connected with it, without
being able properly to join it to any
thing else. D;n'jss is not the dual of
nbss (Gesenius, Lex.- s.v., Preston,
&c,), which would be D'.nbss, but of
nbss or nbss (vide Fiirst, Lex. s.v),
and may either be regarded with Ibn
Ezra (nibss D'n'a noN ibNa D'n'b ninnn),
as referring to D.'-v, as if the writer
bad said through slothful hands, or
may be taken as an epitheton perpe-
tuum for hands (compare Ewald,
§ 180, a). The rendering of it by
double hands, i. e., great or much sloth-
fulness (the Auth. Version, Knobel,
Gesenius, Noyes, Elster, Hengsten
berg, &c,) is both incompatible with
tbe second hemistich, which would
decrease in force from great slothful
ness to simple idleness, instead of
rising, and unnecessarily assigns an
abnormal sense to the dual, n-ipn,
beam, like nnip, beam, also means
roof (comp. Gen. xix. 8 ; Song of
Songs i. 17). d;-i; mb?to, literally
tlie letting down of hnuds, i. e, letting
them hang down instead of keeping
them at work, is the same as d;t pan,
iv. 5, and is well rendered by the

CHAP. X.]

COHELETH.

443

19 in, and through lazy hands the house leaketh. They turn

Septuagint Iv apyia ;^£ip5v, through the
laziness of= lazy hands.
19. TJiey tum bread. Sec. These
lazy rulers convert the blessings of
God, bread which sustains and wine
which cheers life, into means of
revelry and profligacy, and the
money which is extorted from the
people is made to supply all this.
For the use of bread and wine to
represent the comforts of life, see
ix. 7. pinto is laughter, mirth, revelry
(vide ii.'2), the ) before it, construed
with ntos, a verb of making, denotes
the result or effect, thus marking
that which anything has been made
or is converted into ; j;;i, Dnb are the
accusative of the object, both being
governed by ntos, as the Septuagint,
the Vulgate, the Syriac, St. Jerome,
&c., rightly have it (compare in'nMto
ntos bsb, the residue thereof he made
into a god, Isa, xliv. 17). The pro
noun ntoN, which isfrequently omitted,
is to be supplied before nnto;, as is
evident from the parallel passage,
toi:N"aab nnto; p, wine which maketh
glad the heart of man, Ps. civ. 15.
D';n may either 'be taken as a noun,
i.e., life, or as an adjective, i.e , the
living ; the former seems preferable,
since it corresponds better to aab in
the parallel passage, fjparr], and the
money, stands for Dsn F|Da-|, and the
people's money ; Dsn, the people, like
the subject of D'ips, they make, being
designedly suppressed, because of
the danger of speaking plainly to
despots, and is in accordance with
the caution given on this subject ^n
the following verse, n:s, to answer,
also to yield, to grant (comp, Hos,
ii. 23, 24), and tbe sense is the same
whether we take T^ssl as Kal or
Hiphil ; in the former case it is
yields, in the latter, is made to yield.
^an, as frequently, when following
two things spoken of, means both
(vide ii. 14), and refers to j;;i. Dnb, the
bread and wine. The conflicting
opinions about tbe meaning of the
verse are almost innumerable, and,
as usual, have been largely promoted

by tbe different renderings of the
ancient versions. 'Thus the Septua
gint has Elf yE},oora TTotova-tv aprov xal
oTvoq xal l\aiov rov Ev^pavBiivai l^Zvrag, xal
rov apyvpiov ra'JTElvxtrEt, eiFaxova-Erai avv ra
•nkvra, for joy they make bread, and
wine, and oil, that the living should
rejoice, and to money all things will
humble themselves, they will respond,
adding jnto, oil, after j;;, wine, taking
nnic;, the well-known epithet of j;;,
which cannot be predicated of onb,
for inpi|);to, referring it to both bread
and wine, regarding D';n as the sub
ject of the three nouns jntoi j;; Dnb,
doubly translating n», and making
bsn'nM the nominative ; substantially
tbe same is the Syriao Version
Px^O .^."^^^^^ |gimnn (j_K>.\.
¦ 'i^n ^Ol,^, for joy they make
bread, and wine, and oil, that they
may rejoice the living, and money
oppresses and leads them astray in
all ; and the Vulgate, in risum
faciunt panbm et VINUM, UT EPU-
LENIUR VIVENTES ; ET PECUNIjE
obediunt omnia ; the clue to these
versions will be found iu the Chaldee,
which paraphrases it N;p'-is j'nas M3inb
J"n?l'? J'ainn Nniani j':'b3 j';:s Mpinab Dnb
'nMn Mnbsb ' nmrib ' jinb 'n; ( j'swnb ' m"d)
Nnbsb Nniai j'iri'bs n'nc; ' jin'.:pniB tjpai
Nbii: 'MNa 'nM-j, in joy do the righteous
make bread to feed the hungry poor ;
and the wine which they mix for the
thirsty (or the sufferers) will be a
rejoicing to them in the world to come,
and tlie redemption money will pro
claim their merit in the world to come,
in the face of all. Compare also the
Midrash, in loco, where the Septua
gint's double rendering of n:s will be
found. Passing over these Hagadic
explanations, the object of which was
not to give the literal meaning of the
text, but to obtain some profound
and mysterious doctrine from every

444

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

bread and wine, which cheereth life, into revelry, and the

detached sentence and word, we come
to the Rabbins of the middle ages.
According to Rashi, Rashbam, and
Ibn Ezra, the meaning is, " a banquet
is prepared for enjoyment, and wine
tbat cheers the living ; but money
procures it all ;" hence the necessity
of labouring to acquire it, and not
indulging in the laziness described
ill tbe foregoing verse. Against tbis
explanation is to be urged — 1. That
pinia, being simply another expres
sion for 'nto in verse 17, cannot be
taken in agood sense. 2. That though
Dnb ntos, by itself, may mean prepare
a feast, like Dnb n;s in Chaldee (Dan.
V. 1), to which Rashi appeals, yet its
connection here with j;;i precludes
the idea of giving an entertainment.
3. To take this verse as holding forth
the consequence of being able to give
entertainments as a bait for industry,
is utterly at variance with verse 18,
and with the whole scope of the
passage. The versions of the Re
formers are more discordant and far
fetched than those of the Rabbins.
Luther in his commentary translates
it benn fte erlangen ibt Stot ntit
Sai|en, unb bet 255ein muf bie Seben=
btgen etfteuen. unb baf @etb muf ibt
fein, U. g. W.,for they gain their bread
by laughing ; and wine must rejoice
the living, and money must be theirs.
Sec. ; which he explains, there are a
large number of dangerous nobility in
the courts of princes who have not the
fear of Ood nor true wisdom, and gain
their bread by fiattering, by eating
and drinking with the debased. So.,
they think of nothing but eating and
drinking, and are of no use te kings
but to empty the purse and the cup ;
these look for money, and think of
nothing but money. Sec. But this is
at variance with the words of tbe
text. In the last edition of his
translation of the Bible, however,
it is rendered bag ntatbt, fte tnaiben
SSrot jum Sadden, unb bet SBein muf
bie Sebenbigen etfteuen, unb bag @etb
muf ibnen alleg jumege bitngen, hence
they make bread for laughter, and

wine must rejoice the living, and money
must procure everything, which seems
to favour the interpretation we de
fend. The rendering of the Zurich
Bible, ©pepf ma^et bie ntenfcben
la^en ; »nnb weipn matbet fp frtiiiib ;
bent gctt abet finb alte bing gbotfam,
which is literally adopted by Cover-
dale and tbe Bishops' Bible, " meat
maketh men to laugh, and wine
maketh them merry; but unto money
are all things obedient ;" the Geneva
Bible (" they prepare bread for
laughter, and wine comforteth tbe
living, but silver answereth to all"),
and the Authorised Version (" a feast
is made for laughter, and wine maketh
merry — marg., glad the life — but
money answereth all things"), being
substantially the same ; and which is
explained by Poole.Hodgson, Holden,
Noyes, &c., as commending that which
is procured by diligence, i. e., money,
affirming that whilst other things,
even the best of them, such as bread
and wine, have a limited use, one
making us laugh, the other merry,
money procures all, is simply a modifi
cation of the Rabbinic view; and 1. Is
guilty of taking pinto in a good sense,
in common with the Babbins ; 2. Is
contrary to the genius of the lan
guage, inasmuch as D'tos p^niab can
never have tbis sense in connection
with Dnb : bad the sacred writer in
tended to convey tbis idea he would
undoubtedly have written toi:.M-aab
nsp;, which is the established descrip
tion of Dnb, just as toi:.M~aab nnia; or
D'».n nnip; is of p (comp. JPs civ. 15) ;
and 3. 'The preceding verses, as well
as the following verse, shew that it
is not " a detached and isolated
apophthegm, teaching the extensive
sway and predominating power of
wealth." Other explanations, which
connect this verse with tbe preceding
one by supplying wlio, while, where,
or some other expression, as, for
instance, " through idleness of the
hands of those men the bouse diop-
peth through, who make feasts for
laughter, and prepare wine to make

CHAP. X.J

COHELETH.

445

20 money of

is made to supply both. Still do not

their life merry,and whose money doth
readily answer all these greedy lusts"
(mentioned by Reynolds) ; " through
idleness of hands the house will drop,
while they make feasts to divert
themselves, and spend tbeir life in
making themselves merry with wine
and oil, money supplying with them
the want of everything else " (Des
voeux) ; " through negligence the
house bursts, where feasting is made
for revelry, where wine cheers tbe
living, and all the money is spent
for it" (Doderlein); "those 'who
give entertainments from sheer sen
suality, and cheer their carousing
comrades with wine,witb these money
answers all things" (Mendelssohn and
Friedlander) ; " through remissness
of the bands a house drops through,
to the derision of those who acquire
by industry bread and wine that
cheers the people, and money that
furnishes everything" (Preston); &c.,
&c,, are too far-fetched, and have
deservedly been left to tbeir respec
tive authors. We have now to
mention tbe interpretation generally
adopted by tbe most respectable
critics of the present day, viz., " for
luxury they (i. e., the lazy rulers)
make feasts; and wine cheers the
living (i.e., these living ones), and
their motto is. Money supplies all."
To tbis effect, Nachtigal, Knobel,
Herzfeld, De Wette, Hitzig, Heilig
stedt, Stuart, Philippson, Elster,
Vaihinger, &c. But against this is
to be urged — 1. That- the rendering
of pintob ntos by to make for luxury,
is unnatural ; 2. That it violently
separates J'J from Dnb, its usual con
comitant, as is evident from the
adjunct P';n nnto; (comp. tbe above-
quoted, passage from Ps. civ. 15);
and 3. Tbat to say " wine cheers
the hearts of these living ones"
amounts to nothing, inasmuch as it
predicates nothing wrong, since this
is the proper object of wine, whereas
the sacred writer evidently intends
thereby something bad.
20. Still do not revile the king. Sec.

However, the very depravity and
tyranny of the sovereign and rulers
ought to make us very cautious in
speaking against them, as no mercy
can be expected from such an ad
ministration. This is the reason why
Coheleth himself has spoken all along
so covertly about the abuses in high
places. To be plain is dangerous.
No matter how hidden and safe we
may think tbe place where we speak,
the secret will escape ; there are spies
in our families, in our innermost
room, who will report; it will creep
out in some unforeseen and surpris
ing way, as if the bird which settles
upon the window listened to what we
said, and conveyed it to the despot.
The phrase " the bird of air shall
convey the report," is evidently pro
verbial, and corresponds to the many
similar sayings of tbe same import,
botb in the Scriptures and classics.
Thus, the stones of the wall, and the
brick'from the timber, are represented
as declaring injustice perpetrated
(Hag. ii. 11) ; and the stones, we are
told, would forthwith proclaim the
blessings of the King Messiah (Luke
xi. 40). So also Juvenal : — -
O Corydon, Corydon, secretum di-vitis ullum
Esse putas ? Servi ut taeeant, jumenta lo
quentur
Et canis et postes et mannora ; " Claude
fenestras
Vela tegant rimas, junge ostia, toUite lumen
E medio (clamant omnes) prope nemo recum-
bat ;
Quod tamen ad cantnim gaUi facit iUe secundi
Proximus ante diem cauposi cet."
'.' And dost thou seriously believe, fond swain.
The actions of the great unknown remam ?
Poor Corydon I even beasts would silence
break.
And stocks and stones, if servants did not,
speak.
Bolt every door, stop every cranny tight.
Close every window, put out every Ught ;
Let not a whisper reach the listening ear.
No noise, no motion ; let no soul be near ;
Yet all that passed at the cock's second crow.
The neighbouring vintner shall, ere day
break, know," Sat, ix, 102-108.
Comp. also Cicero pro Marcello -3 ;
the Hebrew proverb, bnaa d;:im, the
wall has ears, quoted in the Midrash
on this passage ; which also exists in
German, bte SGBdnbe baten D^xen;

446

COHELETH.

[chap. X.

revile the king even in thy thoughts, and do not revile the
prince even in thy bed-chamber, for the bird of the air
conveyeth the report, and the winged creature telleth the

and the similar sayings in our lan
guage, hedges have ears, the walls will
speak. Sec, Sec. Others, however,
think that allusion is here made to
the cranes of Ibycus (tbe Midrash,
Grotius, Le Clerc, Schmidt, &c.), or
to the custom of employing carrier-
pjgeons to convey despatches (Pax-
ton, Illustrations ii. ; Kitto, Daily
Bible Illustrations, Poetical Books,
p. 384, &c., &c.) ; but there is no ne
cessity to depart from this common
proverbial phrase. Tbe accessory
particle d:, as frequently, serves to
mark the gradation of the idea ; we
are not only to abstain from reviling
the great in veiled language before
the public, as in the preceding verse,
but also, or even, in private it is best
to guard against it. Snn is a word of
later Hebrew, and only occurs in
2 Chron. i. 10, 11, 12; and Dan. i.
4. 17 ; in which passages it denotes
knowledge. The signification under
standing, mind, thought, however, as
signed to it here by the Septuagint
(iruvEi'S-iiiri;), tbeVulgate (co^itatio), the
Cbaldee (Tjab 'ji'ana ijsnpna), Bashi
(•]'niafflnna), Rashbam (-[ib ampa), Ibn
Ezra Ci'maiannai -jaba), Luther, the
Zurich Bible, Coverdale, the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Autho
rised Version, and most modern com
mentators, is fully established by tbe
usage of this word in the Chaldee and
Syriac, to which alone we must ap
peal for the meaning of a doubtful
word in tbe later books of the Hebrew
Bible; the renderings, t% kinsfolk,
acquaintance, confidant (Le Clerc,
Nachtigal, &c,), in confidential talk
(T>'6dex\ein), although thou knowest it,
on account of thy knowledge (Bauer,
Desvoeux, &c,). in loco concubitus tui
(Van der Palm), in thy study (Heng
stenberg), &c., &c., are contrary to
the genius of the language. The as
sertion that bip, which denotes lan
guage audibly uttered, precludes the
rendering of s-ro by thought, is gra

tuitous, since both bip and na-n are used
hyperbolically, as is evident from the
whole tenor of the verse, which is
highly figurative. Equally untenable
is the objection, that this rendering
is contrary to the parallelism, for
thoughts are represented by the
Hebrews as occupying the innermost
recesses of the heart, and forms a
suitable parallelism with the inner
chamber of the house used as the
dormitory. For b'jp, to revile, to speak
evil, see vii. 21, and n'tos, noble, see
verse 6 of this chapter, bip. voice,
also report (comp. Gen. xlv. 16; Jer.
iii. 9) ; so also nan, word, means
rumour, report (comp. Job xii. 4. [12]).
The Massoretic remark, that the n
in D;E:an is redundant, is as little to
be regarded as in verse 6, or in vi. 10,
since bsa, like f|is, is a generic term,
and, being in the construct state, has
the article transferred to the noun in
the genitive (comp. Gesen. § 111, 1 ;
Ewald, § 277, d, 2). We expected
that the Hagadic interpretation of
tbis verse, which takes " the king "
to be the Lord of the heavens, and
" the winged tribe," tlie angel Raziel
(comp. the Midrash and the Chaldee
paraphi-ase), would be christianised
by St. Jerome and applied to better
purpose, making "the king" to be
Ohrist the King of the Church; " the
rich," the saints enriched with wisdom
and heavenly virtues ; and " the birds
of tbe air," tlie angels; but we are
surprised at the remark of Bishop
Patrick, wbo says, " I am not satisfied
whether Solomon had not respect to
something else, and intimated that
some prophet might make the dis
covery, as Elisha did of many things
spoken of in the king's own chamber
(2 Kings vi. 9). The Chaldee para
phrase, by ' that which bath wings,'
understands tbe heavenly ministers ;
and so many of the Hebrews, about
which though they talk many fabu
lous things, yet the meaning may be

chap. XI.]

COHELETH.

447

xi. 1 story. Cast thy bread upon the surface of the water, for in

the angels shall one way or other
bring it to light, and give occasion to
the discovery," and quotes Bishop
Taylor as being of the same opinion.
We have here another proof of the
fact that men may be very learned,,
and yet not know the principles of
historico-grammatical exegesis.
1. Cast thy bread. Sec. Having
shewn the evil wbich we shall escape
by the exercise of wisdom in our
conduct towards those tcho are above
us, towards perverse kings and go
vernors, Coheleth now adverts, on
tbe other hand, to tbe good wbich will
accrue to us from our wise and kind
dealings with those who are below us,
with our apparently ungrateful fellow-
creatures. Hospitality, so universally
practised in tbe East, is here recom
mended under seemingly the most
unpromising circumstances. Bread
in the East is made in cakelike
shape; it is very thin, and more like
what we should call flaps. The pass-
over-bread, to the present day, is not
thicker than tbe blade of a knife,
round or oval, and about nine or ten
inches in diameter (Jahn, Biblical
Antiq. § 140 ; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.,
under Bread), so that, when put into
a stream, it would float for a time
and be carried away by the current.
Hence tbe force of the allusion in
this admonition. We are to be
charitable to thankless people, when
the bread we have bestowed seems
as if cast upon the surface of the
water, where it is irrecoverably borne
away by the rapidly flowing stream,
since we cannot tell whether in the
process of time we may not reap the
benefit of it. The Arabs have a simi
lar proverb. Do good, cast tliy bread
into the water, thou shalt be repaid
some day (comp. Diez, ©enftt>lttbig=
feiten bon Stften, i. 106). The com
parison of that which swiftly and
irreclaimably disappears, with float
ing matter impetuously carried away
upon tbe surface of water, is also to
be found iu other parts of tbe Scrip
tures. Thus the prophet Hosea com

pares the perishing king of Samaria
to a cJiip irresistibly carried away
upon the surface of the water (x. 7) ;
and Job speaks of the wicked as being
suddenly carried off, likefloating upon
the surface of ihe water (xxiv. 18).
The verse is therefore tersely ex
plained by Rashi DnNb noni naiio nias
1'biuniB DnNa nis i:Nnn bN vbs nab -ib nnM'ia
D'nn ':b bs i'm:iin, be benevolent and
charitable, even to men respecting whom
thy heart tells thee thou shalt never
see again, just as if one had cast his
benevolence upon the surface of the
water; so also Rashbam, Ibn Ezra,
Grotius, Le Clerc, Patrick, Durell,
Umbreit,Rosenmiiller, Knobel, Herz
feld, Heiligstedt, Noyes, Philippson,
Elster, &c. The Chaldee paraphrase,
bs ja'Btaa j'biMn '»:sb -^jniDmB Dnb lO'toiN
KJ" '5^, give thy nourishing bread to
the poori who go in ships upon the
surface of tlie water, apart from re
stricting the charity to navigators,
assumes an ellipsis which is inad
missible. The offshoot of tbis inter
pretation, viz. , the view that merchants
are here encouraged to send their
goods by sea to distant lands (Geier,
Mendelssohn, Michaelis, Doderlein,
Spohn, Preston, &c.), is still more
untenable, since Dnb can never mean
merchandise, and since tbe following
verse, with which it is intimately
connected, undoubtedly shews that
charity is here intended. For the
same reasons we must also reject the
opinion of those who, though regard
ing it as an admonition to be chari
table, maintain that tbe language is
borrowed from maritime trade (Heng
stenberg, &c.) Neither can tbe ex
planation of those be admitted who
take it as commending agricultural
pursuits, with special reference to the
practice in Egypt of sowing tbe seed
previous to the complete recession of
tbe waters of the Nile, &c., thus ren
dering it sow thy seed by the water.
Sec. (Van der Palm, Bauer, &c.) ; or
sow thy corn before the waters, i. e.,
before the rainy season (Desvoeux,
Nachtigal, Boothroyd, &c.) ; or, sow

448

COHELETH.

[CHAP. XI.

2 the process of time thou mayest find the profit of it ; give a
portion thereof to seven and even to eight, for thou knowest

thy seed when showers approach (Hodg
son), because — 1 . To rerider-fjipnb nbto
by sow thy seed, is contrary to the
usus loquendi ; this is expressed in
Hebrew by the established phrase
¦FjB-^i"nN snj, which is used in verse 6.
2. ':b bs can neither mean by, before,
nor when. 3. 'The following verse
shews that charity is here spoken of,
and not the pursuit of agriculture.
Those, therefore, who, whilst admit
ting that it refers to charity, take it as
a proverbial form of speech drawn
from the manner of husbandmen
(Bishops Reynolds and Lowth, The
Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Lect.
X., p. 108, ed. 1835; Holden, &c.),
incur the first and second objec
tions, an, multitude, greatness, length,
process. D'n;, days, also time, as con
sisting of a succession of days (com]).
Gen. xlvii. 8; 1 Sam. xxvii] 1; 1 Kings
ii. 11). The pronoun in iSMSipn, re
ferring to Dnb, stands synecdoohioally
for the produce or the benefit of the
noun to which it refers (compare
nsbatin jiassa -rjniasa nn-iN.n n-iinN, cursed
he ihe ground for thy sake ; in sorrow
shalt thou eat it, i. e., the product of
it. Gen. iii. 17; Isa. i. 7, xxxvi. 16;
Jer. V. 17.
2. Give a portion, Sec. This charity
is not to be restricted to these appa
rently unpromising circumstances;
it should be of a general character.
We are to help, by our diffusive
liberality, as many as wei possibly
can, since we know not what a day
may bring forth; reverses may come
upon us, and we may then be re
lieved by the objects of our former
benevolence, pbn, portion, refers to
^nrt, thy bread, in the foregoing verse,
and must be supplied here (so Rashi,
Rashbam, Heiligstedt, &c.) To seven,
and also to eight, is an idiomatic
phrase, denoting many. Two nume
rals are frequently coupled together,
the latter rising in the scale above
tbe former, to express an indefinite
number, some, several, many, e.g..

"once and tviice," i.e., several times
(Job xxxiii. 14 ; Ps, Ixii. 12) ; " twice
and thrice," i.e., often (Job xxxiii. 29;
Isa. xvii. 6) ; " three and four," i. e.,
frequently, many (Exod. xx, 5, xxxiv.
7; Prov. xxx. 15. 18. 21; Amos i.
3. 6, 9, 11, 13, ii. 1. 4. 6) ; "four and
five " (Isa. xvii. 6) ; " six and seven,"
i e., raun!/(Jobv.l9; "seven and eight"
Micah V. 4). Similar idioms exist in
Greek and Latin ; comp. the rpU xal
TETpaxic of Homer; bis et ter, bis terque
(Cicero. Quint. Fr. iii. 8 ; Cels. de re
Med. iv.l2); terquaterque, teretquater,
ter aut quater (Herat. Od. i. 31, 13 ;
Sat. ii. 7. 76 ; Virg. Georg. i. 410 ;
Ovid. Metam. i. 179). The persons,
as often, are implied in the numerals
(vide supra, vi. 3 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 7 ;
Isa. xxxvii. 36 ; Ps. xci. 7) ; so Rashi
(non 'a'na) needy persons, Rashbam
(DnNn ':a nnab) to many men, and most
modern commentators. TheChaldee
paraphrase and Ibn Ezra, however,
regard these numbers as referring to
time, the former to the seventh and
eighth month, when we are to sow
our portion of seed, and the latter to
the sacred number seven, and the
eight days of the week ; but this is
contrary to the context and the genius
of the language, as this would require
ns:?to3 and mintoa. Still more arti
ficial and objectionable is the opinion
tbat these numbers refer to vessels,
thus cautioning those who trade by
sea not to stow all their property in
one ship, but to divide it among seven
or eight vessels (Mendelssohn, Fried
lander, Preston, &c.), or^ which is
substantially the same, divide or con
stitute thy portion into seven or eight
portions (Nachtigal, Hitzig, Stuart,
&c,); beteinige bt^ mit ftcben obet
Oibten, unite thyself to seven or eight,
which Spohn explains, tteibil bu bein
©ettietbe attein, fo biji bu in ©efabt,
baf beip einttetenbeni Unglud bein
ganjeg 5Betmbgen bettobtcn gebe.
Sititii bu abet mit mcbtetn in @efell=
fcbaft, fo bettiebtft bu bann nut ben

CHAP. XI.J

COHELETH.

449

3 not what misfortune there may be upon the earth. When

einen cbet ben anbetn 3;beil, if thou
¦ carriest on business alone, thou art-.
in danger of losing the whole of thy
property when misfortune oomes ; but
if thou enterest into partnership with
several others, thou ivilt only lose a
part, thus cautioning us against
risking all in one adventure. n;n;-nn
Wn stands for n;n; nsynn ; it not
unfrequently happens that the accu
sative, which defines more closely
tbe thing intended, is separated by
intermediate words, especially from
nn, ichat, and ntoN, which (compare
2 Kings viii, 12, x'ii. 6 ; Esth. vi. 3 ;
Ewald, § 287, h). To take this clause
as an admonition to be benevolent
because impending calamities may
deprive us of the means of doing good
(Rashi, Reynolds, &c.), or because
thou little knowest what misery there
exists upon earth, i.e., "being rich,
thou art ignorant to what degree
poverty and misery prevail upon the
earth" (Holden), is against the scope
of the passage, which propounds
precepts of worldly wisdom, the ob
servance of which will yield temporal
advantages. St. Jerome's explana
tion of this verse is really marvellous.
He finds in the two numbers the
two Testaments composing the Holy
Scriptures ; the number " seven "
being the Old Testament, because of
the Jewish Sabbath which is therein
enjoined to be celebrated on the
seventh day, the number "eight" the
New Testament, because the Saviour
rose on the eighth day; " the evil "
the tortures of the wicked after death,
and " upon earth " meaning the
Jieretics living upon the earth. And
after expatiating upon the fact that
the Jews restrict their faith to the
Old Testament, the number seven,
and Marcion, the Manichees, and
other heretics to the New, the num
ber eight, the sainted Father deduces
from it the solemn lesson, nos utri-
QUE CKEDAMUS INSIRUMENTO ; NON
ENIM POSSUMDS DIGNOS CROOlATUS,
DIGNAMQOE PjENAM JAM NUNC MENTE
COMPEEHENDERE, QVM EEPOSITA EST

HIS QUI VERSANTUR IN TERRA JDD.EIS
ATQUE HJSRETICIS E DUOBUS ALTE-
BDM DENEGANTiBus, let US therefore
believe both instruments, for indeed
we cannot now comprehend the merited
tortures and punishment reserved for
those who are upon earth, for the Jews
and heretics who deny either of them.
3. When the clouds. Sec From
acts of benevolence Coheleth passes
over to the common work of life ;
aud just as he recommends general ¦
liberality in the former case, be
cause our shortsightedness might
sometimes lead us to withhold our
gifts, which, if bestowed, would per
chance yield an ample return, so he
tells, with regard to our every-day
employment, that we are to be gene
rally active. Our ignorance of the
circumstances connected with our
labours (verse 3) must not keep us
from putting forth our exertions (4),
inasmuch as they can never be
known to us (5), but, on tbe contrary,
ought to make us always active,
since, for aught we know, one or tho
other effort may produce the desired
effect (6). According to his usual
manner, the sacred writer begins
with stating facts, and then deduces
from them the maxim he wishes to
propound. Here then are the pheno
mena of nature; the rain and the
wind, both at times neutralising our
efforts ; the former is detrimental to
the harvest, the latter to the sowing;
we see the one taking place when the
clouds are filled with rain, and tho
other when the trees are blown down ;
all that we know about it beforehand,
Coheleth ironically remarks, is that
the tree will lie on the spot where it
falls ; we know as little about the
phenomena of nature as we know
about the objects of cur charity.
The perplexity which commentators
have experienced in the interpreta
tion of this verse is owing, we believe,
to their attempts to connect it with
the preceding verse. Thus Rashi
regards it as still enforcing the lesson
of charity by a reference to the objects
M

450

COHELETH.

[chap. XI.

the clouds are full of rain they empty, it upon the earth,
and when the tree falleth in the south or north, in the
4 place where the tree falleth there it lieth ; whoso therefore
watcheth the wind shall not sow, and he who looketh at the

of nature, which freely communicate
tbeir blessings to those who stand in
need of them, dib: D'Nbn D'as n'Mn dn
Dipna ynMn bs Dn'nia: ip'n' dbidid nsn'
ni:b nsiD Die nna':i nnnis naiianiB, when
thou seest the clouds filled with rain
thou knowest that they are destined to
pour down their rain upon the earth ;
in the place where the good fiourishes
and is cut down there it is destined to
ab'ide,i.e., for the beneflt of others; so
should the rich man, whom God has
filled with blessings, pour them forth
to others : substantially the same
are Ibn Ezra, Bishop Reynolds, Gro
tius, Knobel, Elster, Vaihinger, Sec
Others, again,whilst adopting Rashi's
explanation of the first clause, regard
the second as referring to death, when
we are unable to do good, just as
the tree, when cut down, bears no
more fruit (Bishop Patrick, Rosen
miiller, &c.) ; or explain it as describ
ing the uncertainty of riches, thus
giving a reason for tbe admonition
to be benevolent whilst we have the
means (Schmidt, <fec.). Rashbam,
again, takes it to set forth disinte
rested benevolence, iNbn' dn-o Diaa
Diaai ynMn bs inaiB'i ip'T Dnia o-a: o'asn
DIB biB'ia Dipn pasa in Dinna ys biB' dm«
jniNn n:n'n Nbia niasN 'm ¦ip Nin ''n'
-jbicn D'pbn nnb jnnia, just as the
clouds that are filled with rain empty
their contents upon the earth, and as
the tree which falls in the south or
north remains in the place, so it may
be that thou wilt have no advantage
from those to whom thou impartest a
portion of what thou hast; whilst
Michaelis, Spohn, Umbreit, &c.,
maintain that the whole verse de
scribes the impossibility of preventing
misfortunes. Without entering into
the particulars of each of these inter
pretations severally, we submit —
1. That all of them give a most
unnatural sense to the second hemi

stich ; and 2. That tbe repetition of
D'as in tbe following verse, and indeed
the whole tenor of it, shew beyond
doubt that verses 3 and 4 are inti
mately and inseparably connected.
All the diflSculties vanish if we
regard ys bis; as descriptive of the
trees uprooted and prostrated by the
wind, the approach of which we can
not foretell,justas we cannotprognos-
tioate when it will rain, thus forming
the basis of the statement in tbe
following verse. Dipp, the accusative
of place, bas here the force of Dipna,
as in iii. 16, and in Esth. iv. 3, viii.
17 ; Ezek. vi. 13, where it is also in
the construct state before ntoM, for
which see i 7, and Ewald, § 3.32, c.
Nin; is the apocopated future of nin,
with otiaut n (comp, Niabn for labn.
Josh. X. 24 ; NiaM for laN, Isa. xxviii. 12 ;
Gesen. § 44, Rem. 4 ; Ewald, § 84, c).
4. Whoso therefore watcheth. Sec.
Inference from the fact stated in
the foregoing verse. This then
being tbe case, since we cannot fore
tell these phenomena; since all we
know of them is when we see them
marshaling their strength and com
mitting their ravages upon the ob
jects around us, the husbandman
who watches tbe wind and clouds
before he ventures to sow and reap,
will never engage in agrioultural
pursuits, and have no return at all ;
just as in the case of charity men
tioned in verses 1 and 2, he who is
over-scrupulous in tbe distribution of
alms may frequently lose a profitable
return. As often, the second part of
the preceding verse is taken up first,
and the first part is beie the second,
for which see vii. 7. How this fact
could have been so generally over
looked, when the uprooting the tree so
manifestly answers to the wind, and
when the very expression D'as of the
preceding verse is here repeated, is

chap. XI.]

COHELETH.

451

5 clouds shall not reap. As thou knowest as little the course
of the wind as the formation in the womb of the pregnant,
so thou knowest not the work of God who worketh all

really surprising, especially as inter
preters have ever been puzzled to
explain this verse when detached
from the ibregoing one, aod are
obliged to regard it as an imperfect
comparison, as a, protasis without the
apodosis, wbich we are told to supply.
5. As thou knowest. Sec. Having
adverted in verse 3 to the impossi
bility of knowing beforehand tbe
state of the weather, and shewn in
verse 4 what we ought not to do under
these circumstances, Coheleth now
submits that, great as our ignorance
is of the course of the wind, and it
is as great as that of the foetus, this
ignorance extends to all the works
of God, and then shews us in tbe
following verse what we ought to do
in such a state of shortsightedness.
The reason why tbe sacred writer
mentions tbe course of the wind
alone, and does not also allude to
the formation of the clouds, which
we might be led to expect at first
sight, when comparing this verse
with the preceding one, will be found
upon a more close investigation of
the context. Now, though the clouds
as well as the wind were referred to
in the preceding verse (4), yet were
the clouds alone expressly mentioned
in verse 3, the wind being described
only by its effects. It is therefore to
be expected that Coheleth, in ex
posing our ignorance of that which
the husbandman allows to influence
his work, would also distinctly men
tion tbe wind, and thus, with the
clouds of verse 3, give by name the
two objects quoted in verse 4. The
comparison of our ignorance about
the course of the wipd with that of
the foetus is most striking, aod ex
presses the intensity of this ignorance.
A similar comparison is' used in vi.
3 to convey a thorough absence of
happiness. D'nss, bones, constituting
the principal part of the body, is
used metonymically for the body

itself, the bodily form (comp. Lam.
iv. 7; Ezek.' xxxii. 27), the fcetus,
and is here evidentiy chosen for its
assonance with ys in verse 3 ; it is the
subject, and the predicate D'sni' dj'n
is to be mentally supplied from the
preceding clause, as is frequently the
case (vide x. 12). The Septuagint
connects the first clause with the
preceding verse, Iv o7c ovx sa-nv yivdtrxm
rig h oSo; rou orvevf.oarog, among whom
(i. e., those who watch the wind, &c.)
there is none knowing ivhat is the way
of the wind, arbitrarily altering tbe
text. The Vulg., quomodo ignoras,
QU.E SIT VIA SPIRITUS ET QUA RA
TIONE COMPlNQANTUR OSSA IN VENIRE
PE^GNANTIS : SIC, &C., fls thou Icnowcst
not what is the way of the spirit, and
in what manner the bones are joined
together in the womb of the pregnant,
so. Sec, which St. Jerome explains
as describing the- mysterious entrance
of the soul into the body of the fcetus,
as well as the formation of the latter,
and wbich is followed by the Bishops'
Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Autho
rised Version, Holden, Gesenius,
Fiirst, &c., proceeds as usual from
the Hagadic interpretation of this
verse, and may he seen in the
Chaldee, nm Tj'bn; j'-ia'N s-i; i|n'.bn Nna'n
N:;s.na '-n-ton Nb'bto Nn'.biB ni:a '?.nn Nnnto:
iN na"! iN s-|!:'n Nb-n nna'ni Nnasn n'nMn
T^riMn jni ns Mapi:, 'as thou knowest
not how the spirit of the breath of
life enters into the body of an infant
which rests in the womb of its preg
nant mother, and as thou knowest
not whether it is a male or female
until it is born. Sec, Sec, and the
Midrash. But this interpretation —
1. Severs the manifest connection
between this verse and the preceding
one, by assigning, contrary to the
laws of exegesis, different senses to
nm in these two verses ; 2. Most
unjustifiably paraphrases joaa D'nssa
nN^an as if it were J-aaa vn; D'ossn ?|'n
nNbn or D'nssn -^^^^ rn 'm, no instance

452

COHELETH.

[chap. XI.

6 things. Sow, then, thy seed in the morning, and withhold
not thine hand therefrom in the evening, since thou knowest
not which shall prosper, this or that, or whether both shall
7 be alike good ; and the light shall be sweet, and it shall be

having been adduced by Gesenius
and Fiirst m tbeir lexicons, where a
is used in such a sense, and the a by
which it is preceded plainly shewing
that it is the Caph comparison ; and
3. It introduces a new subject, viz.,
our ignorance of the formation and
animation of the human body, which
is foreign to the scope of the passage.
The rendering, " as thou knowest
not what is the way of the wind, just
as [thou knowest not] the bones in
the womb of her who is with child,
so thou knowest," &c., now generally
given of this verse, puts an exceed
ingly forced construction upon the
words, which is by no means obviated
by Rashi, who takes ? . . . 1^*^? a,s
inverted (comp. Gen. xiii. 10 ; Isa.
xxiv. 2), i. e., "just as thou knowest
not the formation in tbe womb . . .
so thou knowest not what is the way
of the wind, and so also thou knowest
not the work of God," &c.
6. Sow, then, thy seed. Sec. 'The
lesson deduced from our ignorance
of the operations of God is that we
are to be always diligent. Since we
know not the course of things, and
cannot foretell whether our labours
of the former or latter part, or botb
parts of the day, will be opportune,
it is safest to be constantly at work,
in which case we shall be sure to
labour at tbe proper time. The in
ferential particle, as frequently, is
omitted at the beginning of the verse,
and must be supplied in the transla
tion. For morning and evening, the
two ends of the day, denoting the
whole of it, constantly, vide iii. 11 ;
X. 13. The b in ansb stands for nsb,
and has therefore the same meaning
as the usual a-nsa (comp. Gen. xlix.
27; Ps. xc. 6, with Gen. viii. 11).
^snrnM s'lin, from sowing thy seed,
jnust be mentally supplied after
^¦1^ n:n"bN, withhold not thirie hfind.

vn 'N, which of the two, refers to both
the morning and evening sowing here
recommended; to which alsonriN nin,
this or that (comp. Job. i. 16; Ps.
Ixxv. 8), and Dn':to, both, refer. For
ntoa;, see ii. 2 1. "inNa, properly as one,
is used for alike, because when two
or more things do or suffer the same
thing, they may be regarded as iden
tical in this respect (comp. nbm aM]
nnMa wn;, the wolf and the h,mb shalt
feed like one, i e., alike, Isa, Ixv. 25 ;
Ezra ii. 64). The Vulgate's render
ing of the last clause by ei si
UIRUMQUE SIMUL, MELIUS ERIT, and
if both together, it shall be better,
which is followed by Luther, Cover-
dale, the Bishops' Bible, &c., making
nrtN? Drr'jtoTaNi depend upon ntoa; and
D'aiiD, a separate clause, is contrary
to the word D'aiio, which is the plural.
7. And the light. Sec If we will
act in accordance with tbe foregoing
advice ; if we will be benevolent to
all our fellow-creatures, and ever dili
gent in our business, we shall find life
sweet, and have pleasure iu living.
The light and the sun are designedly
used for life, in harmony with the
clouds, wind, and especially the day
spoken of in the foregoing verses. In
addition to what bas been said in
explanation of the phrase to see light,
for to live, in vi. 5, we quote a passage
from Euripides, which is a striking
parallel to the words in question —
M^ fjo airoXEc-riq atapov , rjSu yap ro sjjajj
Aeuo-ffElv Ta 5-' uTTo y>iq fA,n f/.' UeTv avayxairn^
Destroy not my youth, to see the light
Is sweet, oh do not hurl me into the realm '
of darkness I
IPHiaiK. iH AuLis, 1219-19.
The b in D.':'Sb has retained tbe short
vowel Pattach, because theguttural *,
which, like n and n, allows a sharpeor
ing of the syllable, though orthogra,-
pbically excluding the Dagesh forte
(cotnp. 1 Sam. xvi. 7; Ezek. xii. 12;

CHAP. XI.]

COHELETH.

453

8 cl leering to the eyes to see the sun. For even if a man
should live many years, he ought to rejoice in them all, and
to remember that there will be many dark days, that all

Ewald, § 50, b). To make this verse
begin a new paragraph, commending
the enjoyment of life (Mendelssohn,
Knobel, Herzfeld, &c.), or to take it
as giving a reason why the preceding
verses urge that man should indus
triously provide for life, viz., since
notwithstanding all tbe evils con
nected with it, life has many enjoy
ments (Hitzig, Stuart, Hengstenberg,
&c.), or to regard it as furnishing
" another argument in favour of
charity, to tbis effect : However great
may be the sweets and pleasures of
life, and whatever delights a man
may enjoy, yet seasons of pain, and
sickness, and sorrow will occur ; and
the experience of human frailty
should melt his heart to active be
nevolence towards every suffering
child of the dust" (Holden), is doing
violence to the text and context un
necessarily. The explanation we
have given leaves to the words their
natural meaning, and is in harmony
with the scope of the passage. The
Syriac version, " light is sweet, and is
pleasant to the eyes, and especially
to those who see the sun," is non
sense : for those who cannot see tbe
sun have no pleasure in light.
8. For even if a man. Sec The
reason why man should put forth all
those exertions to make life comfort
able is, that tbis is the only scene of
enjoyment; we ought therefore to
make of it an uninterrupted holiday,
however long our earthly existence,
since we must remember the many
dark and joyless days tbat will suc
ceed it, when we shall moulder in the
dust. The Egyptians, too, urged
death as a reason for enjoying life.
Herodotus tells us that at their feasts
" a servant carries round to the seve
ral guests a coffin, in which there is
the image of a dead body carved in
wood, and painted to resemble nature
as nearly as possible, about a cubit
or two cubits in length; and, shewing

tbis to each of tbe company, he says,
' Gaze here; then drink and be merry,
for when you die, such will you be "
(ii, 78). This is the natural result, if
a future state is denied. Compare
Sirach ii. 24; Book of Wisdom ii. 1,
Sec; 1 Cor. xv. 32 ; Hor. Od. lib. ii,
od, iii. 13. ''3, as usual, is causal, and
assigns a reason why every exertion
should be made to procure enjoyment.
For Dbaa, masculine, instead of Jbaa,
feminine, referring to D':to, a feminine
noun, see ii. 6. nnip; and nai; are not
to be rendered indicatively, as Doder
lein, Rosenmiiller, De Wette, Noyes,
&c., will have it, who regard this
verse as giving a reason why life is
called sweet in the preceding verse
(viz., because if a man live many years
he r^oices in them all, &c), as this
contradicts the frequent complaints
made in this book about the unne
cessary anxieties and trouble which _
men create for themselves, and the
constant admonition to enjoy life, and
is based upon a misunderstanding of
the preceding verse, but are to be
rendered obligatory ; and the -) in nari
is also causal, and introduces the
principal reason, i.e., life must he
enjoyed, since we must bear in mind
tbat this is the only scene of enjoy
ment, tbat a protracted, dreary, and
joyless state is to follow it, 'n'.'PM n3i;i
I'n; na'irr'a tjtonn is, again, an attrac
tion for Tjtonn 'n; vn; na-in"'? n'ari, for
wbich see ii. 24. Mato'ba is dependent
upon '3 nav;, he must remember that
all which is coming is vanity, i. b., that
the hereafter is all nothing. 'The
different interpretations of this verse
are as confiicting as they are nume
rous. The Vulgate, si annis multis
VIXERIT HOMO, et IN HIS OMNIBUS
LjETAIUS FUERIT, MEMINISSB DEBET
TBNEBROSl TEMPORIS, ET DIERUM MUL-
TORUM, QUI CUM VENEEINT, VANITATIS
aeguentur^pbjEterita, if a man live
many years, and have rejoiced in them
all, he ought to remember the dark-

454

COHELETH.

[chap. xr.

9 which is coming is vanity ! Rejoice, O young man, in thy
youth, and let thy heart cheer thee in thy youthful days,
and pursue the ways of thine heart, and the things which
are seen by the eyes, and know that, respecting all these.

time, and the many days wherein, when
they shall come, the things passed shall
be accused of vanity, is utterly at
variance with the text and context,
and evidently proceeds from the
Hagadic interpretation of this verse,
which converts it into an orthodox
remark cautioning us against sin
(comp. tbe Chaldee and tbe Midrash).
Hence also the explanation of Rashi,
" if a man live many years he will
rejoice in all good things, for he will
remember that the days of darkness
for the sinner shall be many ; all tbat
shall come upon him will be distress;''
and substantially tbe same Rashbam.
Ibn Ezra, again, submits that the
meaning of the verse is " even if a
man knew that he would live many
years, and rejoice in them all, yet
when be remembers the days of dark
ness in the grave that they will be
many, every one that comes into the
world is vanity to him," which is
substantially followed by Desvoeux,
. &c. These far-fetched explanations
are fully equalled by the rendering of
Luther, wenn ein SRenfib lange 3(it
lebt, unb tjl ftobli^ in atten ©ingen,
fo gcbenfet et bO(^ nut bet bofen
2;age baf ibtet fo biel ifi ; benn otteg
wag ibm begegnet ifi, ifi eitel, if a
man live a long time and rejoice in all
things, he still only remembers the evil
days that they are many, for all which
happened to him is vanity ; and Cover-
dale, " if a man live many years and
be glad in them all, let him remem
ber tbe days of darkness, which shall
be many; and when tbey come, all
things shall be but vain." Equally
inadmissible is the interpretation of
those who regard tbis verse as ad
monishing those who enjoy life never
to forget that we must also suffer
(Holden, Stuart, &c.), since — 1. Co
heleth could not BO deflnitely affirm
that every man will suffer, and that,

too, many years; 2. It is most in
congruous to admonish a man to
rejoice every year of his life (Dbaa),
and yet in the same breath tell him
tbat be will have many a long year
of afflictions, when he will be unable
to enjoy himself; and 3. The terms
light and sun, used in the preceding
verse for life, plainly shew' that the
phrase the days of darkness is used
antithetically for death (comp. also
Ps. Ixxxviii. 12, 13, cxliii. 3 ; Job
X. 21).
9. Rejoice, O young man. Sec The
appalling conclusion stated in the
foregoing verse, to which Coheleth
was driven again and again by rea
soning upon tbe current view about
the destiny of man, and the fact that
there can be no true enjoyment here
with the prospect of annihilation
before us, which chills and mars our
earthly pleasures, leaves the cravings
of the soul unsatisfied, and wrings
from the agonising heart, panting
after something higher and impe-.
risbable, tbe desponding and repeated
cry, " Vanity of vanities ; all is
vanity ! " leads bim at last to tbe true
way of happiness. To be really h appy,
we must not only lead o cheerful life,
and enjoy the earthly pleasures and
blessings wherewith a benign Creator
has so largely blessed us, but look
forward to a future bar of judgment,
which will regulate our conduct, re
strain our enjoyments within lawful
hounds, and make them consistent
with our thoughts of a righteous
retribution from a holy God. Tbis
enjoyment is to commence in that
period of life when pleasures are most
innocent, easily attainable, and un
alloyed by cares and anxieties. It is
to begin at tbat age which influences
the whole of our after life ; a cheerful
and happy disposition cultivated in
our youth will yield its rich harvest

chap. XI.J

COHELETH.

455

10 God will bring thee into judgment. Banish, therefore,
sorrow from thy mind, and put away sadness from thy body.

in old age. For similar reasons is
piety urged upon the young espe
cially, in xii. 1. The a in inm'3;a does
not mark the object at which one is
to rejoice (Doderlein, Schmidt, &c.),
but denotes the time, and stands for
'n;a (comp. Isa. ix. 2), as is evident
from the parallelism. As the heart
is regarded as the source of happiness,
whence joy, as it were, gushes forth
upon the whole body (Prov. xiv. 30,
XV. 13), hence it is here represented
as making man cheerful. For tbe
passive signification of nMnn, see vi.
9. The Massoretic reading nNnn,
singular, instead of 'Mnn, plural,
which is also to be found in forty-one
of Kennicott's MSS., has evidently
arisen from a desire of making tbis
passage uniform with vi. 9, as well
as from taking it as an abstract, or
for tbe act of seeing, which also
accounts for the Septuagint, the
Vulg., the Syriac, and the Chaldee ren
derings. Herzfeld justly remarks that
the abnormal Quametz under the n
in s-i;, instead of tbe normal Pattach,
is owing to the accent Sakefgadol,
which not unfrequently lengthens
the Segol into Pattach (comp. nnti'i.
Gen. xliii 29, xlvii. 30), and more
especially to the sense, drawing our
attention to the very momentous
doctrine propounded in this clause,
and constituting it, as it were, a
separate clause calling for a pause
and reflection (comp.Ewald,§ 100, c).
Thinking that the former part of this
verse speaks too much about present
enjoyment, tbe Hagada tried to
modify tbe words of the text, ex
plaining ^^':'S 'M-iMi J^ab 'anna ':|.bni by
I'nj 'nni -nab 'nnM ds Mni':ni.:Ba b'lMi
ifraa banpn Mbi ^:'S '.:i'ina, and walk in
meekness with the ways of thine heart,
and be careful as to the seeing of thine
eyes, and do not look upon evil. (comp.
also the Midrash, in loco). Hence
the rendering of the Septuagint,
xal TTEptircirEi Iv oSgT^ xap^iag cov afji.Ufjt,og xal
fjin EV opaa-EL o<p6a\fjiMv a-ou, and walk in

the ways of thine heart blamelessly,
and not after the sight of thine eyes,
which the Vulgate, the Syriac, and
St. Jerome rightly reject. Rashi,
Rashbam, and Ibn Ezra, wbo are
also dissatisfied with such arbitrary
treatment of the text, try to explain
away tbis recommendation to enjoy
life, by regarding it as ironical. But
against this are — 1. All the parallel
passages (ii 10. 24, iii. 12, 13. 22,
V. 18, vi 9, vii. 14, viii. 15, ix. 7-9),
in which present enjoyment is seri
ously recommended ; 2. The intimate
connection of this verse with the
immediately following one, where
the same idea is expressed in a dif
ferent form ; and 3. 'The design of
the whole book, which is to cure the
melancholy state into which the
people had at that time fallen, and
to subvert tbe systems of ascetic life
which many had reared in conse
quence of their temporal sufferings,
and their limiting retributive justice
to this side of the grave. The ap
parent contradiction between this
recommendation and tbe prohibition
in Numb. xv. 39, mentioned in the
Midrash (see also supra, p. 56), which
has given rise to this unnatural inter
pretation, is removed by the fact that
two different kinds of pleasure are
spoken of in these two places. Moses
prohibits illicit gratifications, whilst
Coheleth recommends innocent plea
sures, which pleasures are to be in
harmony with our preparation for
a future account of all our doings
at tbe bar of judgment.
10. Banish, therefore, sorrow. Sec.
Having shewn, in the foregoing verse,
that true happiness consists in both
enjoying the present and looking for
ward to a future state, Coheleth now
submits tbat we ought to regulate
our life accordingly. The first re
mark contained in the flrst clause,
viz., about enjoying tbe present, is
taken up flrst. Here it is expressed
in a negative form, that we are to

456

COHELETH.

[chap. XII.

xii.l for youth and manhood are vanity; and remember thy

banish all sorrow and sadness from
our minds and bodies; there it is
stated in a positive form, that we are
to enjoy all earthly happiness. The
additional reason here given for en
joying this life is strikingly different
from the one given in verse 8. In
verse 8, starting from the view that
there is no hereafter, the vanity of
the future is urged as an argument
for enjoying the present; here, after
having asserted that there is a final
day of judgment, the vanity of the
present life is given as a reason for
not leading a life of anxiety and care.
That DSa and nsn denote care and
trouble, is evident from the context,
and from i. 18, vii. 3. St. Jerome's
explanation, in iba omnes pertub-
bationes animi oomprehendit; in
cabnis malitia unlversas signifioai
CORPORIS voLUPTATEs, in anger (the
Preacher) comprehends all the pas
sions of the mind, and by wickedness
of the flesh he indicates all the plea
sures of the body, which is followed
by the Geneva Bible, the Authorised
Version, Reynolds, Patrick, Hodgson,
Holden, &c , is preposterous, and is
rightly rejected by Luther, the Zurich
Bible, Desvoeux, Knobel, Herzfeld,
and most modern commentators.
ninnto is not from nnto, to dawn
(Gesenius, Knobel, &c.), as tbis would
describe early childhood, which can
not be meant here, being incom
patible with cares and anxieties, but
from "V^, to be black, and accordingly
denotes the age when the hair of man
is black = manhood, as opposed to
na'to, which describes the time of life
when the hair is white or grey = old
age. The Chaldee has therefore ap
propriately rendered it by nmaiM 'ni'
nsto, the days of black hair ; so also
St. Jerome, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, Herzfeld, and Philippson ; the
latter rightly appeal to the Talmudic
phrase ffiMnn 'mnia, black-haired heads
(Nedarim 30, b), to denote manhood.
This derivation shews more definitely
the distinction between ninb; and
ninnto; the former means ^outA, the

latter manhood. The Septuagint's
rendering of it by avoia, folly ; the
Vulgate voluptas ; and the Syriac
|Aii,_» (Jo, and not knowledge, are
¦ X
unwarrantable departures from the
signification of the word. Hodgson's
rendering, " for youth and its lusts
are vanity," surpasses these versions.
1. And remember. Sec. The second
retnark, contained in the second
clause of xi. 9, is now taken up.
Since God will one day hold us ac
countable for all the works done in
the body, we are to set the Lord
always before our eyes ; we are to re
member tbat he made us, and not we
ourselves, and hence the lives which
he bas given us are to be spent in
accordance with the laws he has in
stituted. The youth especially is
warned to remember his Creator, be
cause at this period of life the pas
sions are strong, and the powers of
discretion and restraint are feeble ;
and nothing is so sure to save bim
from turning the innocent pleasures
recommended to him into voluptuous
ness and sensuality, as constantly
bearing in mind that there is a right
eous Judge, who holds us accountable
for every action, from our very youth
to tbe last moment of our existence.
Moreover, the same reason which
Ooheleth used in urging cheerfulness
upon the youth (xi. 9), also holds
good with regard to religion. The
youthful heart is more impressible,
and the impressionsreceived in tender
age are hardly ever obliterated, and
frequentiy influence the whole of
one's after life. The i in naii is not
inferential, but is the regular copula,
shewing the intimate connection of
this verse with' the preceding one ;
both resuming and elaborating upon
the two remarks made in xi. 9.
D'Mnia, like D'nbN, Ood, D'tonp, the
Holy One (Prov. ix. 10, xxx. 3 ; Hos.
xii. 1), and several tities of man
(Gen. xii,, xiii. 30 ; Isa. xix. 4,
xxxvii 0) is plural ; the ancients

CHAP. XII.]

COHELETH.

457

Creator in the days of thy youth, before the days of evil
come, and the years arrive of which thou shalt say, I have
2 no pleasure in them : before the sun becometh dark, and

from time immemorial conceived
might, power, and dominion as some
thing distributed and manifold, see
V. 10. The assertion of Holden and
others, that " the employment of a
plural appellation of God, in this
and other passages of Scripture, was
designed to indicate, though ob
scurely, a plurality of persons in the
Divine Essence," greatly injures tbe
true faith, and works into tbe bands
of the enemies of this doctrine. The
reading "JNna, in tbe singular, which
is found in one hundred and forty-
two of Kennicott's MSS., and is
adojited by Houbigant, Spohn, &c.,
is contrary to the general usage of
the appellations, and has evidently
arisen either from a desire to do
away with an apparent anomaly, or
from an inadvertent dropping ot the
insignificant ', than which nothing is
more easy and frequent. The appeal
to tbe ancient versions, which, we are
told (Houbigant, Spohn, Davidson,
the Hebrew Text Revised from Criti
cal Sources, p. 195), have all the
8ingular,is preposterous. Who would
ever think of appealing to Luther,
Coverdale, the Geneva Bible, the
Authorised Version, all of which
have the singular, to prove that the
original from which they were made
had the singular? These languages
have not the same idiom, and to
express it literally would represent
the Hebrews as polytheists. Schmidt
and Nachtigal's rendering, fteue bi(b
betneg ©afeing, rejoice at thy existence,
i.e., do not overlook that thou art cre
ated, comparing 'fMnia with fEWnSheg,
which stands for SicarivrEq (Wisdom v.
13), or deriving it from the Arabic Nna,
sanitas, and making it denote bte
Sabte bet S3Iiitbe bet ®efunbbeit( the
years of blossoming health, only shews
what learned blunders learned men
"may commit.
Before the days of evil. Sec. We
are to "remember our Creator before

the "vigour of life is wasted in carnal
pleasures and sensuous gratifica
tions ; before we have contracted
the penalties of excess, and become
weary of our merited sufferings;
before we are constrained, in a
miserable old age, despondingly to
exclaim, " I have no pleasure in life !"
ns is frequently used as a conjunc
tion, whilst, joined to to =: ntoN it
denotes whilst that (Song of Songs
i. 12), and to rfb it means while not
(Prov. viii, 26), so that >ib ntoN ns sig
nifies while that not, i. e., before, and
is well rendered by Symmachus iipiv,
the Vulgate antequam, the Syriao
M A,andtheChald,»b-nns,thelatter
exactly corresponds to the Hebrew.
It is to be observed tbat tbis combi
nation i<b ntoM ns is repeated three
times in this description, viz., here,
in the following verse, and in verse 6,
to mark the transition from one sub
ject to another nsnn 'n;, the days
of evil do not refer to the ordinary
infirmities of old age, the ills that
flesh is heir to, but characterise a
suffering old age brought about by
excess and lewdness, the result of
baviiig spent the youth of one's life
in carnal gratifications, in forgetful
ness of the Creator. For natin ntoN,
see i. 10, and for Dna, masculine,
instead of jna, feminine, referring to
'2'?'$i a feminine noun, see ii. 6.
2. 'Before the sun, Sec From this
miserable old age Coheleth passeg
over to the approach ofdeath,which
he describes, under the figure of a
gathering storm, when the splendour
of the heavenly lights (the whole
day, i: e., twenty-four hours) is ob
scured by the ever-returning clouds
charged with fresh rain. Nothing
could be more fitly compared with the
approach of death to seize its victim,
striking terror into all the inmates
of tbe house, and defying all efforts of
power and skill.than tbe threatening
N

458 COHELETH. [chap. XII.
the light, and the moon, and the stars, and the clouds
3 return after the rain ; when the keepers of the house shall

tempest, which makes masters and
servants, men and women, quake
alike, and puts a stop to all business.
Modern commentators, having im-
plioitiy followed the Hagadio opinion
that this is an allegorical description
of old age, have experienced the
greatest difficulty, and advanced the
most contradictory statements, in
their expositions of tbis and the
three following verses. The uniform
calmness of diction which prevails
throughout the book ; the absence
of even the slightest indication, on
the part of the sacred writer, that he
here intends to give us an allegory ;
the violation done to the text, to
carry it through, which cannot be
done after all, as will be seen ih tbe
sequel ; the perfect confusion of opi
nions as to what the different parts
of this supposed allegory mean ; the
tastelessness and obscenity palmed
upon the beautiful and graphic de
scription; and, above all, the fact
that a gathering tempest is here
depicted, shew the mistake which
modern commentators have com
mitted in not rejecting the Hagadic
exposition here, which they have
rightly rejected throughout the book.
The best refutation, however, of this
allegorical exposition is, we believe,
to give in every place the tone and
character of these conflicting views.
'(4b ntoM ns, before, marks the transition
from old age to tbe day of death.
¦liMn is not the dawn (j^bs'ia nnv5n niN
.'::i ns® iNia nnN nips'i ^njan mm oni?,
Ibn Ezra), nor the light shining
between the setting of the sun and the
rising of the moon, called the evening
red, Michaelis), nor is it inserted
simply for the sake cf accumulation
(Knobel); but is the light which,
according to the Bible and many na-
,tions of antiquity, and some modern
philosophers, exists independently of
tlie sun (comp. Kalisch on Genesis,
p. 61). 'The Syriac wrongly takes
jt as the construct to the following

words, i e., the light of the moon and
the stars, whilst Spohn expunges it
from the text altogether. The Tal
mud (Shabbath, 152, a) and Rashi
take the darkening of the sun, the
light, the moon and the stars, for
the darkening of the forehead, the
nose, the soul, and the teeth ; the
Chaldee for the obscuring of the face,
the eyes, the cheeks, and the apples of
the eyes, whilst Dr. Smith ('The
Portraiture of Old Age, pp. 27-47), for
the decay of all the mental faculties.
And the clouds return. Sec Ordi
narily the clouds depart, and tbe sky
clears up after tbe rain, but in the
threatening storm here described
they return with fresh rain after
having discharged their contents,
thus obscuring the sun, light, moon,
and stars. According to the Chaldee
and Rashi, this refers to the dist'illing
of tears ; according to Rashbam,
Bishop Reynolds, Grotius, Knobel,
and others, it denotes a perpetual
succession of sufferings ; according to
Ibn Ezra, it means the constant dim
ness of the eyes ; according to Le
Clerc and others, it means a bad infiu-
enza, accompanied with never-ceasing
snuffling. 3. tVlien the keepers of the house,
Sec In that portentous day every one
shall be seized with consternation,
men and women, menials and supe
riors, shall quake alike. Di'a, in the
day, as frequently, is used as a con
junction of time, denoting when
(comp. Gen. ii. 4, iii. 5, v. 1, 2 ; 2 Sam.
xxii. 1), and refers to the four-and-
twenty hours during which tbe
darkness described in the preceding
verse shall prevail, sii, to tremble,
to quake, only occurs twice more in
Biblical Hebrew (Esth. v. 9; Habak.
ii 7), but is frequently used in
Aramffian. .n;ari '-jnto, the keepers of
the house, are menial servants, whose
business it is to guard the premises
against robbers or marauders, whilst
b;nn 'tojM, the men cf power, are supe-

chap. XII.]

coheleth.

459

quake, and the men of power writhe, and the grinding-
maids shall stop because they have greatly diminished, and
the women who look out of the windows shall be shrouded
4 in darkness ; and the door shall be closed in the street ;

riors. nis, to bend (vide supra, i. 15)
in tbe Hithpael, to bend one's-self, to
twist, to writhe. According to the
Talmud (Z.c.) and Rashi," the keepeis
of the house" are the ribs and the
-loins ; according to the Cbaldee, the
knees; according to Ibn Ezra, Grotius,
Knobel, &c., tlie hands and arms ; ac
cording to Bishop Reynolds, the
head, the arms, and the ribs. " Tbe
-men of power," again, we are told
by tbe Talmud (I. c), Rasbi, Rash
bam, Ibn Ezra, mean the thighs, by
tbe Chaldee paraphrast we are as
sured that they signify the arms, by
Reynolds that they denote the legs and
thighs, or the back, and by Holden
and Knobel that tbey represent the
knees and hgs, or tlie legs alone.
And the grinding maids. Sec Tbe
allusion here made to mills and
grinding -maids will appear very
striking, if we bear in mind the
ancient customs connected therewith.
A mill formed a most important
and indispensable utensil in Eastern
housekeeping, as there were no public
mills or bakers except the king's
(Gen. xl. 2; Hos, vii. 4-8), ond as
the warm climate, drying up the
bread and rendering it insipid, made
it necessary botb to grind and bake
daily. Hence the benevolent enact
ment of the Law to take no mill or
millstone in pledge (Deut. xxiv. 6).
The grinding was generally done in
the evening, and tbe noise arising
from the simultaneous performance
in a large number of houses or tents
was very great, so much so that
allusion is made to it in the Scrip
tures (Jerem. xxv. 10 ; Rev. xviii.
22, 23), as indicative of an active
and happy population. A stoppage
of the mills, occasioned by a storm as
described in the text, would be as ter
rible as a cessation of business in our
towns under similar circumstances.

Itwas generally the custom to employ
women at these mills'; the laboiir
was very bard, and menial female
slaves, and sometimes captives taken
in war, were made to perform it
(comp. Exod. xi. 5 ; Job xxxi. 10,
il; Isa. xlvii. 2; Matt. xxiv. 41;
Jahn, Bib. Antiq. § 139 ; Kitto,
Cyclopsedia of Bib. Lit. under MVl).
" The women who look out of the
windows" are women of a higher
class, not engaged in rude labour, but
who amuse themselves in this way,
as is still done in the East. The
wives and daughters, not having the
liberty of going into the streets, find
it a great source of amusement to
look through the latticed windows
inthe housesof their confinement, to
see what is going on outside. Hence
we find tbat, under alarming circum--
stances, when fear would make West
ern women rush into the streets, "the
mother of Sisera " is reirresented as
" looking out at the window, and
crying through the lattice" (Judg.
V. 28). Thus the two classes of
women mentioned in this clause, viz.,
tlie grinding slaves and the ladies of
the house, exactly correspond to the
two classes of men described in tbe
former hemistich, viz., the outdoor
watches and tlie men of power. bEa,
to pause, to rest, to stop, only occurs
here, but is frequently used in Ara
maean. '? is causal, giving a reason
why the women stopped grinding.
iiDSn, the Piel, is the intensive cf
Kal, and mciins they have greatly
diminished. " The female-grinders,"
the allegorisers tell us, mean tbe
teeth, and " the women looking out
of the windows" are tbe eyes; but
this is a very coarse and unpoetical
name for teeth, and breaks down the
allegory, inasmuch as the expression
grinders vulgarly denotes teeth.
i. And the door. Sec Out of terroV

460

coheleth.

[chap* XIl.

when the noise of the mill shall grow faint, and the swallow
shall rise to shriek, and all the singing birds shall retire ;

every door shall be barred, and tbe
great noise of the mills, arising
from simultaneous grinding in every
house, shall grow very feeble, because
tbe grinders shall hide themselves,
frightened at this gathering storm.
" The door shall be closed," we are
assured with equal confldence, means
the most opposite and contradictory
things, the pores of the body (the
'Talmud, I. c, Rashi, Rashbam, Dr.
Smith, &c.), the fettering of the feet
(the Chaldee), the lips (Ibn Ezra),
the eyes (Hengstenberg) ; whereas
"the sound of the mills shall be low"
denotes the mastication and the
grinding of the food in the stomach
(Talmud, I.e., Rasbi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, Dr. Smith, Holden, &c.), tlte
appetite for food shall depart (the
Cbaldee), the human voice shall grow
feeble, or the enunciation shall become
difficult (Geier, Grotius, Doderlein,
. &c.) The a in pitoa has here its
natural local meaning, denoting the
place where tbe closing of the doors
takes place, i. e., in the street, beto
is the infinitive construct, according
to the analogy of aato, with the pre
position a denoting time (compare
Gesen, § 132, 2), n:nQ is not grinding-
maid or miller (the Septuagint, the
Vulgate, Luther, the Zurich Bible,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, Des
voeux, &c.), nor grinding (the Geneva
Bible, tbe Auth, Version, Ewald,
Noyes, &c,), but mill (Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, Hodgson, Spohn, Knobel, De
Wette, Gesenius, Herzfeld, Heilig
stedt, Hitzig, Stuart, Elster, Vai
hinger, Philippson, Fiirst, and almost
all modern critics and lexicographers,
Hengstenberg not excepted, for he,
too, renders it bie SDJlibte, only that
his English translator has mistaken
it for bag SUabten, and translates it
" grinding "). Though the word
occurs nowhere else in Biblical
Hebrew its sense is indubitable,
inasmuch as it is the common expres
sion for miU amongst the Hebrews.

And the swallow. Sec Exceedingly
beautiful and characteristic is the
description of the change of birds in
the gloomy atm.ospbere. The porten
tous swallows, in anticipation of the
storm, quit their nests with shrieks
to fly about; whilst tbe singing birds,
which mount the air with their war
bling songs, for tbe same reason de
scend and retire. That niBsn is the
subject of Dipn is evident from the
following clause, where the parallel
n'ton ni:a is the subject of inton, and
from tbe whole tenor of the descrip
tion. As the Hebrews use the generic
term liBSn. the bird, in descriptions,
the particular bird intended must be
gathered from the tone of the passage^
and expressed in tbe translation.
Here the swallow is most probably
meant, wbich flies about shriekiug
before the approach of the storm.
bipb Dip, to arise for a noise, i. e., to
arise to make a noise, just as laetonb Dip,
to rise for judgment, means to rise to
execute jOdgment (Ps. Ixxvi. 10);
nni:nb Dip, to rise for rest, is to rise to
take rest (Ps, cxxxii, 8) ; nnnteb Dip,
to rise for war, is to rise to wage war
(Jer. xlix. 14). into;, the Niphal of
nnto, to be brought low, is they lower
themselves, they descend (the reflexive
being the primary signification of
tbis conjugation, comp. Gesen. § 51,
2 ; Ewald, § 123, b), and forms a
beautiful contrast to Dip;, one class of
birds rising, the other retiring. For
the masculine into;, instead of tbe
feminine inton, referring to the femi
nine noun ni:a, see vii. 7. n'ton ni:a,
iiteraWy the daughters of song, denotes,
according to a common idiom, song
stresses (vide supra, x. 17), here sing
ing birds, as is evident from the
parallelism and tbe whole scope of
the passage. In Syriac, too, Mn'pi na,
is a singing bird (comp. ©ie gabetn
beg ©opbo^/ betauggegeben bon Suliug
Sanbgbetget, ©. a). As this simple
and natural construction, represent
ing the commotion of the birds in

chap, xii.]

coheleth.

4,6il

5 yea the people shall be frightened at that which is coming

anticipation of the storm, is fatal to
the allegorical interpretation, wbich
regards the whole description as " a
portraiture of old age," the defenders
of the allegory have been driven to
force the most unnatural construc
tions upon this part of tho verse.
Thus tbe Hagadic explanation, as
contained in the Talmud {I. c), the
Midrash, and the Chaldee, and fol
lowed by the Septuagint, the Vulgate,
tbe Syriac, St. Jerome, Rashi, Rash
bam, Ibn Ezra, Luther, the Zurich
Bible, Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
the Geneva Bible, the Autb. Version,
and almost all modern critics, takes
the aged man as the subject of Di;y;,
ani he shall rise, wbich St. Jerome
explains frigescente jam sanguine,
ET HUMORE SICCATO QUIBUS MATERtlS
SOPOR ALITOR, AD LEVEM SONlTUM
EVIGILAI, NOOTISQUE MEDIO QDUM
CALLUS CECINERII EXUBGIT, NEQUA-
QUAM VALENS STRAIO S^PIUS MEMBRA
CONVERTERE, the biood now growing
cold, and the moisture being dried up
whereby sleep is nourished, he aivakens
at the slightest sound, and in the middle
of tlie night wlien the cock crows he
rises quickly, not being able frequently
io turn his limbs in bed, and which
is espoused by almost all the allego
risers of tbe present day. But against
this interpretation is to be urged —r-
1. That though aged people may
easily be awakened by a slight noise,
yet they do not rise up at the sound
of a bird; if simple awaking were
intended, Coheleth would undoubt
edly have used nis; and not Dip;.
Ewald, Hitzig, Stuart, and Philipp
son saw tbis, but, adhering to
the allegory, were constrained to .re
sort to a still more unnatural expla
nation, and to refer Dip; to n:rTEn bip,
eg fi^ jut ©petlinggflimme antdft,
i. e., the noise of the mill rises to the
voice of a sparrow, which is against
the parallelism, and contrary to
the expression Dip;, rises, inasmuch as
it is preposterous to characterise the
greater noise of tbe mill, when reduced
Io that of a sparrow, as rising, and

whichwouldhavebeen conveyed tous
without Dip;, viz., niBsn bipb n:nian botoa,
when the noise of the mill is lowered io
the voice of a bird. 2. The plural
IN-}'; in the following verse shews that
Dip;, the singular, and tho plural in-;';,
do not refer to the same subject, the
aged man; and, 3. That it is con
tradicted by the following clause,
where nnfin ni:a, which answers to
ni£2 in the first clause, is the subject.
But, apart from the violence done to
the text, the deathblow to the alle
gory is the fact that it falls through
in this clause, and that its defenders
are obliged to give to the passage
before us a literal interpretation, vizi,
that the voice of the bird is literally
the voice of the bird, and that rising
means rising up; whilst the immedi
ately following clause is again ex
plained allegorically, and the words
n'ton niarba into;-) are made to signify
music and songs shall be a bore to him
(Talmud, l.c); the lips shall relax,
so that he shall not be able to sing (the
Chaldee) ; his ears shall be heavy (St.
Jerome, Grotius, Bishop Patrick); he
shall despise all singers and song
stresses (Rashi, Rashbam, &c.) ; hts
throat sliaU be disabled (ihn Ezra)';
all the organs employed in ihe produc
tion and enjoyment of music are ren
dered powerless to afford delight (Dr.
Smith, Holden, Ac) ; all iong-singing
is Zom; (Hitzig, Stuart, (fee.)
5, Yea thepeople shall befrightened.
Sec. All this consternation will arise
from the dread wbich people shall
have of the awful storm gathering
over tbeir heads, and of the terrors
which are on their way. ca, as fre
quently, is used by way of emphasis,
and can hardly be translated; tbe
nearest approach to it is our word
yea (comp. Gesen. Lex: s.i;.). naa, the
height, because there storms gather.
For iN-n';, the third person plural used
impersonally, see i. 10. nnnn is not
an adjective (Gesenius, Lex. s. v. ;
Herzfeld, See), as'tbis is contrary to
tbe analogous form ^aba, but is a noun
.(see EvCald, :§ 168, b), -from nn^, to

462

COHELETH.

[chap. xii.

from on high, and at the terrors which are on their way ; and
the almond shall be despised, and the locust shall be loathed.,

fear, denoting/ear, terror, and is de
pendent upon the verb im-;'; ; the n
from na:n, is to be mentally supplied
before it. Here, again, most commen
tators have been compelled lo aban
don the allegory, and take it as refer
ring to the incapacity of aged people
to ascend high places, owing to weak
ness shortness of sight and breath, and
to tlie timidity of old people to walk
in public ways, arising eitiier from
apprehension lest anything should
happen to them, or from the weak
ness of their limbs ; so the Talmud
(/. c), St. Jerome, Bishop Reynolds,
Holden, Knobel; or, as Ibn Ezra
will have it, naiain ninnia vniavann iMn"
.na: Dipn bM nabini nsDi: N'n<a, he shall
be afraid of his thoughts, which dwell
upon the fact that his spiiit will soon
depart and go to the high heaven.
And the almonik Sec In tbe midst
of such a confusing and terrifying
scene the most delicate and inviting
fruit will have no charm, but only
create disgust and be left untouched.
It is well known that the delicious
almond is a highly prized fruit in
tbe East, and great indeed must be
the consternation of an Orientol
which makes bim disgusted with
this delicacy. y-M.:; a contraction of
the ajiocopated yM:;, from y-'N:; (com
pare Gesen. § 73, 2, Rem. 4) is, as
Ibn Elzra has already remarked, from
yN:, to deride, to despise, to disgust,
and in the Hiphil signiRes causes dis
gust ; so also the Zurich Bible, Cover-
dale, Michaelis, Desvoeux, Hodgson,
Gesenius, Knobel, De Wette, Herz
feld, Noyes, Hitzig, Stuart, Elster,
&c. The rendering, and the almond
tree shall blossom (the Septuagint,
the Vulgate, the Syriac, Rashi, bash-
bam, Luther, the Geneva Bible, the
Authorised Version, and many mo
dern commentators), deriving it from
y« or ys:, to flourish, has entirely
arisen from tbe allegorical interpre
tation, and is contrary to the form
of tbe word, ns yN?; for y.?; has no

parallel in Hebrew. Besides, the
predicates of the other two nouns,
which express the inability to enjoy
that which has been highly esteemed,
as well as the scope of the passage,
are utterly at variance with this
7
derivation. Tbe Syriac, ^iiUO
*,0 P 7 7 y.^ 7 7.
and the watch shall rush upon him,
and the almond shaU flourish, doubly
translates n|5ton yN.:;i, taking yN.:; from
yi: in the twofold sense of to fly,
rush, i.q., Di:, and to ^flourish, and
assigning to npto, from npto, to watch
(comp. Ps. cxxvii 1; Jer. v. 6;
Ezra viii. 29), the meaning of watch,
fteeper (so also Symmachus, according
to St. Jerome and Ibn Ezra), as well
as of almond. As for the allegorical
meaning of tbis clause, we are told
that it denotes the haunch bone sliall
come out from leanness (the 'Talmud,
(I. c) the Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam,
Sec), tlie hoary hair which comes
quickly upon a man, jiiU as tlie
almond tree thrusts out her blossoms
before any other trees (Bishop Rey
nolds, Mendelssohn, &c.) Others,
again, mentioned by Ibn Ezra and
Salomon ben Melech, hffirm that
ip,'$ is JPim fflMnn nnM ina'iaia naNn,
membrum gentila, and translate it
reprobabitur coitus, which is followed
by Dr. Mead (Medica Sacra, p. 44),
Desvoeux, Hitzig, and Fiirst. We
shall give the words of the latter in
the original, as we forbear translating
them. npto, ifi bie Sicbel, glans
viiilis, wag bie fiibtbate Sufi in bem
3eugungggef(bdft botflellen fott, fo
baf autb ""E^n yN.:;i, unb bte Cmannli^e)
ettbet betfiJpmabe'tCbie batgebotene Sufi)
itbetfe^t roetbenfonn; bob- bie cigcntb»
iimt. ©cbteibung, um Sitb u. Slbbitb
jugteicb 3" bejcicbnen. But let those
who are shocked with tbis explana
tion remember that, if it be once
conceded that we have here an alle
gory, the defenders of tbis obscene

CHAP. XII.]

COHELETH.

463

and the caper-berry shall be powerless ; for man goeth to

exposition have as much right to
maintain this to be its meaning, as
those have who make the text declare
a host of other most far-fetcbed and
diametrically opposite things.
And the locust. Sec 'This locust
(a:n) is one of the four kinds which
the Jews were permitted by the Law
to eat (comp. Levit, xi. 22). Locusts
have been from all antiquity, and
still are to the present day, very
agreeable, wholesome, and nutritious
food both in tbe East and in other
countries. They are prepared in
different ways ; either boiled in salt
water, head, feet, and wings taken
ott', and dried in the sun, or ground
into flour and made into bread. We
are told in the Talmud (Aboda Sara,
39, b) that after wine was poured
upon them they were put into baskets
and formed an extensive article of
commerce. Diodorus Siculus says
ft a people of Ethiopia were called
idoi)liagi, eaters of locusts, because
y were so fond of them (xxiv. 3),
and Aristotle describes them as deli-
cticies (Hist. Anim. v. 30). Modern
travellers, too, testify to the agree-
ableness of this food. Dr. Shaw
observes, that when the locusts are
sprinkled with salt and fried, they
are not unlike in taste to our fresh
water cray fish ; and Russell says,
"the Arabs salt them and eat them
as a delicacy" (compare Harmer,
Observations, ii. p. 58; Kitto, Cyclop.
Bib. Lit. ; SBtnet, 3?ealrocetteibu^ ;
Sebpfobn, Sie 3ooIogie beg Satmub,
s.v) This will suffice to shew that
the locust is mentioned in conjunc
tion with the almond as a delicate
viand, ''anp;, the Hithpael of bao, to
bear a heavy burden, signifies to mdlce
itself a burden, to become burdensome,
loathsome. Accordingto the Hagadic
interpretation, "'anc;; to become a
burden, signifies to become big either
with fat or swelling, and tbe meaning
of the passage is Tl^^n 'ninpN JinB:n;i,
and the ankles cf ihe feet shall be
swelled (the Chaldee) ; so also St.
Jerome, senum crura tumentia, et

podagra tumoribus pregravata, refer
ring it to the swelled legs of old men,
oppressed with the swellings of the
gout. Hence the renderings of the
Septuagint, xal itaxtnSn n ixpig, and the
locust shall be made fat, the Vulgate
impinguabitur locusta, the Syriac
l^Vao I^CDJO, and others. Then,
again, we are assured tbat it sig
nifies the stomach, swelled with undi
gested humours (De Lyra, Le Clerc,
&c.) ; it denotes the shoulders, hips,
and back, all bunching out (Bishop
Patrick, &c ) ; it means the dry,
shrunk, shrivelled, crumpling, scraggy
old man (Dr. Smith, Holden, Vai
hinger, &c.) ; it is the powers hostile
to life which destroy it in old "age
(Hengstenberg). 'Then, again, Rasbi,
Rashbam, and the commentators
mentioned by Ibn Ezra, who are
followed by Dr. Mead, Desvoeux,
Hitzig, and Fiirst, maintain that it
means ntonb laian'© D'laiann or n"'nn '3
Y's Dipna, unb tafttg ifi bet ©^tau$,
alg Sejeicbnung beg mannl. ©tiebeg.
And the caper-berry. Sec Tbe
caper-plant belongs to, a tribe of
plants, the species of wbich grow
abundantly in Asia, Africa, and
Southern Europe, out of the crevices
of walls, in the rubbish of ruins, and
in barren places, producing a striking
effect, as it is a showy and ornamental
plant. " It forms a much-branched,
diffuse shrub, which annually loses
its leaves. Tbe branches are long
and trailing ; smooth, but armed with
double curved stipulary spines. 'The
leaves are alternate, roundish or ob
long-oval, a little fleshy, smooth, of a
green colour, but sometimes a little
reddish The flowers are large and
showy, produced singly in tbe axils of
tbe leaves, on stalks which are larger
than tbe leaves. The calyx is four-
leaved, coriaceous: tbe petals are also
four in number, white, and of an oval
roundish form. The stamens are
very numerous and long, and their
filaments being tinged with purple,
and terminated by tbeyellow anthers.

464

COHELETH.

[chap. XII.'

his eternal home, and the mourners walk about the street :
nns, to break, to abolish, signifies to
cause its power to cease, i. e., to pro
duce no effect, to be powerless. The
Syriac ^^^Lo jAo 'Ipllo.
\LC[ ) ¦ I O, and the caper shdU
burst, and desire shall cease, also
translates n:i»aM npn-i doubly, taking
nns both for breaking, bursting, and
destroying, ceasing, and n:i'aH for
oapev, and want = ji'aN. Here again
all the allegorisers have been obliged
to drop the allegory, except Rosen-
muller, who says, " the veteran who
has reached tbe end of bis days, and
daily must expect to sink into bia
grave, is compared to such an over
ripe caper-berry, which is nearly
falling off" (Biblical Mineralogy and
Botany, Clark's edition, p. 107, &c.)
Doderlein's rendering of this clause,
ba bag Suttettdub^eng Stagegetoit
betfi^mabt witb, when the plaintive
notes >of the turtle-dove are despised,
which is followed by Schmidt, deriv
ing nai'aM from n:i', dove, and 'aM. ah!
is as curious as it is preposterous.
For man goeth. Sec. The cause of
all this is, that death is on his way
to seize his victim, and the profes
sional mourners, who are hired to
bemoan the departed, like sharks;
are seen to follow closely at the heels
of death, impatiently preparing them
selves for the' employment, before
the sufferer has breathed his last.
¦¦a is causal, giving tbe cause of this
consternation. The participle -^bh
expresses the approaching future, i.e.,
lie is about to go, or is in the act of
going (comp. Gen. xvii. 19, xviii 18,
xix. 13; Gesenius, § 134, 2; Ewald,
§ 335; b). Dbis n'a, the house of
eternity, i.e., eternal or everlasting
house or home, is the common expres
sion in later Hebrew for the grave
or graveyard, and tbe Jews use it to
the present day. The same phrase
exists in theCbaldee, and the Targum
which takes sbD 'ato' i:n; (Isa. xiii. 11)
as referring to the inhabitants of tbe
grave, renders it Jips; na N;n'o inati;

give the flower a very agreeable ap
pearance. The ov-ary is borne upon
a straight stalk, which is a little
longer than the stamens, and which,
as it ripens, droops and forms an
oval or pear-shaped berry, enclosing
within its pulp numerous small.
seeds." Almost every part of tbis
shrub has been used by the ancients
as a condiment. Tbe stalk and the
seed were salted or preserved in
vinegar or wine, and the buds or
unexpanded flowers are esteemed at
our tables as a pickle or sauce of a
delicate flavour. Tbe berries possess
some irritant properties, and were
taken as a provocative of appetite
(comp. Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. under
Abiyonah; SSinet, SReatTOoettetbucb,
s. v. Maf)fex). Hence the caper-
berry was called nai'aM (from naN, to
desire; for the form, see Ewald, §
163, e), literally desire, appetite, and
metonymically that which creates
desire or appetite, incentive, stimu
lant. The mention of the caper-
berry is exceedingly striking. Having
stated that all desire for food, however
tempting, shall vanish in tbis awful
scene, Coheleth says that even the
caper-berry, with all its provocative
properties, will fail to excite appetite.
Thatn:i»aN, which in Biblical Hebrew
only occurs hero, means the caper-
berry, and. D'nDp, the covering or peel
of the fruit of fjbs, the caper-shrub, 'is
evident from the Septuagint, the
Vulgate, the Syriac, St. Jerome, and
the uniform signification of it in the
Talmud (comp. Berachoth, 36, a;
Buxtorf, Lex. Rabb. et Talm., pp.
1,2. 2098), Moreover, tbe. parallels
npto and ian,,shew, beyond doubt, that
it is a fruit. Hence Gesenius,
Knobel, Ewald, De Wette, Noyes,
Heiligstedt, Hitzig, Stuart, Fiirst,
Elster, Vaihinger, &o., rightly de
fend the signification of caper-berry,
though their untenable explanation
of tbe whole passage has led them
wrongly to restrict it to a provoca
tive ad appetitum rei venera, ad
irritandam venerem. ipni, Hiphil of

CHAP. XII.J

COHELETH.

465

6 before the silver cord goetli asunder, and the golden bowl

jin'pbs 'nan, the dead shall praise thee
when they shall quit their eternal
homes. It also occurs iu Tobit iii. 6,
" command that I may be delivered
from this distress (ei; toV alimov rimv)
into the everlasting place. Knobel's
assertion, ewige SBobnung nennt Sobe=
tetb bag ©tab, njeit et feine SBefteiung
bataug annimmt, that Colieleth calls
the grave the everlasting abode, because
he did not believe in a liberation there
from, is both contrary to the design
of the book and to fact. Had this
phrase been used in the early por
tions of the Old Testament such an
assertion would have some force ;
but, as it is, Dbis n'a originated at a
time when the belief in a resurrec
tion was general, so much so that it
became the great question of the
day ; and the above-quoted passage
from tbe Chaldee shews that the
paraphrast used it not ttJetl et feine
Seftetung bataug annimmt, because he
did not believe in a liberation there
from, but IN CONNECTION with a libe
ration from tbe grave. The true
explanation is given by Ibn Ezra,
who remarks, napn Nin inbis n'a bN
ina yisp Dbis la'i Dbisb Dia nm'© n'an Mini
Dbisb masi obis ns Die aia'i, his ever
lasting home means the grave, for it
is the abode where man dwells ever
lastingly. The word " everlasting,"
however, must here be taken in a
restricted sense, just as in the phrases
"he shall abideeverlastingly"(l Sam.
i. 22), and " be shall serve him ever
lastingly " (Exod. xxi. 6, &c.) The
Syriac's rendering of inbis n'a by
Ol^Loik A-i-d, his house of labour,
changes Dbs into '"as, by transposing
the b and n according to the Hagadic
rules of interpretation (vide supra, p,
31); thus giving a reason why all
want shall cease, as its rendering of
nai'aM npni in the preceding clause ;
it is because man goes to his place of
labour, whence all his wants will be
supplied. The phrase pitoa laap, walk
ing up and down, or going about the
street, characteristically describes

these (D'nQiD) mercenary mourners
(comp. Jer. ix. 17; Mishna, Moed
Katon, iii. 8 ; Joseph. De Bell. Jud.
iii. 9, 5 ; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.,
under mourning ; 2Binet, dtealwoex'
tctbucb, s.v. ?eid^en) who loiter about
the house before the sufferer has ex
pired, anxiously waiting to be em
ployed. This accounts for the parti
ciple ^b'n being used with D-ron, marl
is about to die, is in the act of dying,
whilst the praterite laap is used with
D'noiBn, the mourners already go or
loiter about (pitoa) in the street, not
after the funeral.
6, Before the silver cord. Sec. Hav
ing described the approach of death,
Coheleth now passes on to its arrival.
To impress upon our miuds more
deeply the awfulness of that encoun
ter, and the necessity of remembering
the Creator before death strikes the
final blow, the sacred writer describes
the dissolution of man under two
different metaphors. In the first
part of the verse the breaking up of
the human machine and extinction
of life are compared to the snapping
asunder of the silver cord by which
a burning lamp is suspended from
the ceiling, dashing into pieces the
golden reservoir of oil which im
parts the vital fluid to the branches
where the wicks are placed, and
extinguishing tbe light, ><b ntoM ns,
before, is used fortbe third time iu this
description, and, as in the two for
mer instances, marks a new period ;
it indicates here the transition from
the approach of death to its arrival, and
is depending upon "i:i. ?|'Mnia-nN nSi,
remember thy Creator, Sec, in the first
verse, pnn, to go asunder, to snap,
beautifully describes the separating
of the strands. The reading pn;;;.
proposed by the Massorites, wbich
is found in twenty-one cf Kennicott's
MSS,, and perhaps five more, and is
adopted by Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn
Ezra, Spohn, Sec, is both unneces
sary and untenable, because — 1. A
Niphal of pn'n nowhere occurs; 2.
E ven if th is conj ugation be ad mitted ,

30

466

COHELETH.

[chap. xii.

the Niphal of prn, to bind, to chain,
can never mean to be unbound, un
chained ; and 3. The verb ym in the
corresponding clause shews beyond a
doubt that pn^ is the proper reading.
For the last mentioned reason, as
well as for all want of authority, we
must reject the reading pn:;, suggested
by Pfannkuche, Herzfeld, Gesenius,
&c., or p'n!?;, as Hitzig will have it,
who is followed by Stuart, trans
posing the letters n and n. We
must add tbat the vowel-points of
pfja; belong to pnn; in the Keri, and
that tbe proper reading is pnn;, as
tbe vowels of the Ketib always belong
in such cases to the marginal reading.
r|pan ban, the cord of silver, i. e., the
cord composed of silvered strands for
the sake of ornament; just as we have
the chains silvered or gilt by wbich
our chandeliers are suspended. As
the derivation of yin from y?-;, to
break (the Septuagint, Rashi, Rash
bam, Ibn Ezra, the Zurich Bible,
Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, the
Geneva Bible, the Authorised Ver
sion, Hodgson, Knobel, Gesenius,
De Wette, Ewald, Noyes, Hitzig,
Heiligstedt, Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger,
&c.), creates two inadmissible ano
malies, making, in the first place,
ymn, the regular future of ym, the
abnormal future of y?-;, thus mixing
up the verbs ys'i and ym, which are
always distinct both in form and
sense (Isa. xiii. 4 not excepted, see
Hengstenberg, Christology, in loco) ;
and secondly, assigning to ys-i, which
invariably signifies to break, an
intransitive meaning, to be broken ;
it is better to regard it as the regular
future of ym, to run (tbe ,Vulgate,
Luther, Desvoeux, Hengstenberg,
&c.), to escape. The idea of escaping
forms an excellent parallelism with
pn-;, to go asunder, just as nato:, to be
broken, and yn^, to be dashed, corre
spond to each other in tbe second
part of this verse, and preserves the
evenness of the construction, nba
(from ''^a, to roll on, to swell), properly
that which sends forth water, a spring,
a fountain (Josh, xv, 19; Judg. i. 15),
a reservoir or bowl of oil, which sends

forth tbe oil into the bratiches con
taining the wicks. Hence tbe wick
is called naNito, the drawer (Mishna,
Sabbath, xxix. 9), Gesenius' remark,
that it is so called from its round
form (Lex. s. v) is rightly rejected
by Herzfeld, on the ground that an
oil vessel is not necessarily round,
and tbat it may assume any shape.
The renderings of the Septuagint,
ivBifMov, flower, and the Vulgate,
\ 111 A, fillet, are both contrary to the
signiflcation of nb:, and at variance
with the context. Hitzig, Stuart,
and others take anin to mean oil
which is of a golden colour, and
appeal to Zech. iv. 12 in corrobora
tion of this explanation. But though
it is true that am is tropically used
in the passage alluded to, yet, as the
genitive flDan, silver, connected with
ban, cord, is used in tbe former clause
to describe the material, consistency
demands that the genitive anin, gold,
connected with nba, bowl, in the cor
responding clause, should also be
taken as descriptive of the mate
rial. Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra,
Bishop Reynolds. Desvoeux (p. 193),
Mendelssohn, Holden, Preston, and
others, take the imagery here as part
of tbat contained in the remainder
of this verse, and maintain that tbe
whole verse alludes to a water appa
ratus, viz., tbe cord or line Cjan), the
cistern (nb:) into wbich the water is
emptied, the bucket or pail (na) in
which the water is brought up, and
the wheel (baba) by which it is got up.
But against tbis is to be urged —
1. 'That nb: never means cistern ;
2. That the adjectives silver and gold
are most inappropriate to a water
apparatus ; and 3. That tbe marked
distinction drawn between tbis part
of tbe verse and the following, by
the use of adjectives hero, and the
entire absence of them in the next
hemistich, indicates most clearly that
two distinct metaphors are intended.
As to the allegorical meaning of this
clause, we are told that " the silver
cord and golden bowl" mean the
tongue and the skull of the head (the
Chaldee), spina dobsi, the backbone

chap, xii.]

COHELETH.

467

escapeth, or the bucket breaketh upon the fountain, and the
7 wheel is shattered at the well, and. the body returneth to

or the marrow of it, and pia mater,
the brain (Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Dr.
Smith, Bishop Patrick, Clarke, Hol
den, (fee), "the urine, whose stream
resembles a silver thread, wbich is
then broken, when it distils by drops,
as it frequently doth in old men"
(Gasper Sanctius, quoted by Bishop
Patrick, in loco).
Or the bucket. Sec The second
metaphor, under which the breaking
up of the human machine is described,
is taken from tbe working of a well.
One of the methods most employed
for drawing up water from wells or
reservoirs is a wheel, which has a
line and a bucket appended to it,
and is turned by a man or an ox.
Robinson, in his description of tbe
water apparatus he saw, says that
" a platform of very large stones
was built up around the well, and
there were many drinking troughs.
On the platform was fixed a small
reel for the rope, wbich a man, seated
on a level with the axis, wound up
by pulling the upper part of the reel
towards him with bis bands, while
he at tbe same time pushed the lower
part from him with the feet " (Pales
tine, ii. 22). And just as when the
bucket or wheel is broken, the
machine is incapable of service and
useless, so man may be unable to
draw comforts from tbe remem
brance of the Creator, when tbe
inroads of death have shattered his
frame and impaired his faculties.
Just as two verbs were used in the
first part of this verse, prn and ym,
which denote separation, departure,
so there are two verbs employed in
tbis clause, nato and y?n, which signify
to break, to dash in pieces. The
Septuagint's rendering of yin:-] by
xal rvvrpoxaa-K, and shall run together,
arises from confounding it with ynw,
which immediately precedes it. The
two prepositions bs and bM, are not
promiscuously used for at (the Sept.,
the Vulgate, the Syriac, Luther, the

Geneva Bible, the Auth. Version,
Hodgson, Herzfeld, De Wette, Noyes,
Hitzig, Stuart, Hengstenberg, &c.),
but are designedly employed to de
scribe tbe different positions occupied
by tbe subjects with which they are re
spectively connected; tbe bucket (na)
generally stands upon the enclosure
of the well, thus being, as it were,
over or above it, hence it is sianrrbs,
whilst the wheel (''?/'?n) is contiguous
or joined to it, hence lian'bN. Hence
the Zurich Bible, Coverdale, the
Bishops' Bible, Knobel, Heiligstedt,
Elster, Vaihinger, ifec, rightly trans
late the former upon, and the latter
at. The reading bN, which is to be
found in twenty one of Kennicott's
MSS., is plainly a mistake. Accord
ing to the allegorisers, " the bucket
being broken over the fountain "
means the gall at the liver being
broken (the Chaldee, Ibn Ezra, &c.),
the veins at the right ventricle of the
heart shall cease to act (Dr. Smith,
Bishop Patrick, Dr. Gill, &c.), the
individual and general life shall ter
minate, when the drawing of water-
breath ceases (Hengstenberg, &c,)
7, And the body. Sec We are to
remember the Creator, and strive to
do bia will before he summons us,
through death, to tbe bar of judg
ment. The -J in ato;i. is not causal,
assigning a reason for what has
hitherto been said (Luther, ifec.) ; nor
is it tlien, introducing tbe apodosis
(tbe Bishops' Bible, the Authorised
Version, Stuart, &o); nor does it
denote or, or ever (the Zurich Bible,
Coverdale, Hodgson, Spohn, &c.); but
it is the regular copula (the Septua
gint, tbe Vulgate, the Geneva Bible,
Knobel, De Wette, Noyes, &c.) In
stead of tbe normal future aito;, the
apocopated form aip; is used, to make
it conform in vowel-points to yn: in
the preceding verse. Such instances
of uniformity, being deemed an orna
ment in the style, were frequently
effected at tbe expense of altering

468 COHELETH. [CHAP. XII,
the earth as it was, and the spirit goeth back to God who
gave it.

regular forms (comp. Main, entrance,
instead of Nian, to correspond with
NSin, Ezek. xliii. 11 ; nj'NS instead
of n:NS, to correspond with ^'N-n,
Song of Songs iii. 11 ; see also infra,
verse 11, and Gesen. § 59, Rem. 3;
Ewald, § 118, d). i?», dust, is meto
nymically used for tbe lifeless body,
because it is formed of dust. Gen.
ii. 7, iii. 19 (comp. nps ^ni'n, shall the
corpse praise thee ? Ps. xxx. 10) ;
hence the Chaldee has appropriately
paraphrased it Mnps jn 'nariNn ijnpa,
thy flesh, or body, which was formed
of dust. Most commentators take
bs, again, as synonymous with bN, and
appeal to the phrases nnnNn-bN ^4ito
and aiton nos-bNi, in Gen. iii. 1 9 aiid
Ps. civ. 29, to corroborate this ex
planation. But the very fact that
Coheleth deviates here from the
well-known phrases which he him
self has used elsewhere (iii. 20),
shews that he intends to convey
thereby a different shade of meaning,
wbich is here called forth by his
speaking of the spirit as well as of
the body ; whilst, in the passages
alluded to, the body only is men
tioned. As Coheleth tells us in the
next clause that the spirit goes to
God, ascending, as it were, on high
(vide iii. 21), the body is beautifully
contrasted therewith, by being de
scribed as thrown upon (bs) the earth.
The Septuagint (Im . . . vpog), the
Syriac, the Chaldee, &o., have there
fore rightly distinguished between bs
and bN in this verse. n;ntoa, as it
(i. e., the body) was, that is to say,
prior to its animation; the body shall
go back to remain upon the earth in
tbe state wherein it was before the
soul occupied it, hence lifeless.
And the spirit. Sec Le Clerc tells
us that by tbe returning of the spirit
to God is meant its reabsorption into
Ood, the original principle from
which it was torn off, just as the body
turns into earth again, becomes amal
gamated with the earth, the original

element from which it was taken, at-
qdl ot corpus reversom in lerbam
desinii esse corpus hum..num, et
dissolvitur; ita spiritus, rediens
AD Deum eam pati mutationem,
CREDERE POTUIT SaLOMO,' QUA DE-
SINEBAI ESSE SPIRITUS HUMANOS,
thus making tbe passage to enunciate
tbe doctrine of tbe theistical philo
sophers of Greece, who denied the
future personality of tbe soul, and
held the refusion of it into the ri tv,
or tbe ANIMA MUNDI, the worldrsoul ;
he quotes, in illustration of our verse,
the parallel words of Epicharmus,
2vVExpiBtl xal iiEXpiBti, xal airr.Btiv oBsv fl'iBi
WaXiv ya, iq y'av, imvfyta 5' ami, they were
huddled together, and they were
separated, and they returned again
to the place whence they came ; the
earth in earth, the spirit above; and
Euripides —
'Zaa-ar JiSn yri xa},vipBnvat vexpovg,
"oBev y EXas-rav If to <pSig a^ixero,
'ErravB' airE\Beiv , irvEufxa fxEv vpog alBspa,
To a-oifjia 5"' 'Eq yr.v ' ovri yap XExrfifjiEBa
'HfAErspov aiiro, <jT\r,v Ivoixna-ai fA.ovov
KaiCEira rr.v Bpi^aaav avro ^e7 XaQsTv,
Let the corpses be burled in tlie earth,
-Whence each part comes into existence;
thither
They return, the spirit to the ether.
And the body to the earth. Not as our own
Do we hold it, but only as a sojourner, and
in fief.
The mother -which nourishes it must receive
it back. SuPFi.. 529-534.
This interpretation is followed by
Warburton (Divine Legation, lib. v.
§ 6), Knobel, Hitzig, Heiligstedt,
Noyes, &c., wbo also quote Lucre
tius —
Cedit item retro, de terra quod fuit ante,
In terras ; et, quod missum est ex setheris oris.
Id rursum coeli relatum templa receptant.
" Thus all things rise, thus aU again return :
Eai-th takes -what earth bestowed ; and back
to heaven
Remount the ethereal dews from heaven
that feU."— De Nat. Eeb. ii. 998, &o.
But we submit that this doctrine is
thoroughly heathenish, and, though
largely believed by the Greeks and

CHAP. XII.J

COHELETH.

469

Romans, is utterly at variance with
the tenor of the Bible, as well as
with the usage of the same language
in other parts of this book. 1. The
fact that God is uniformly described
throughout the Bible as a personal
and super-mundane Being, separated
from, independent of, and infinitely
above all matter — to the ignorance
or denial of which, on the part of tbe
Heathen philosophers, the emana
tion-theory in question is to be
ascribed — is utterly subversive of the
said absorption of the human spirit
into tbe world-soul. 2. Nothing can
be more plain than the description
which the Bible gives of the radical
and essential difference between the
Creator and the creature, and wbich
tbe sacred writer of tbis book repeat
edly sets forth. To make therefore
a Hebrew writer, who believes in this
essential difference between tbe onto-
logical natures of God and man,
enunciate tbe amalgamation of tbe
human spirit with the Godhead, is
most unjustifiable. 3. The abhor
rence of sin, and the approbation of
holiness, manifested throughout the
Scriptures, the curse denounced
against tbe sinner (Deut. xxvii. 26),
stamping tbe polluted soul with a
character indelibilis, precludes the
possibility of a Hebrew writer teach
ing that this awful distinction will
at once and for ever be destroyed,
as soon as man dies and tbe guilt-
laden soul is absorbed in a holy
Deity, wbo hates iniquity and sin.
4. We said tbat this explanation is
also at variance with the same phrase
ology used by Coheleth elsewhere. It
is admitted by all parties that the
words nbsnb nbi> run, the spirit going
upwards, i.e., to heaven, in iii. 21,
mean immortality, just as the con
trary phrase yiNb ncnb n-i-i; nm, the
spirit going downwards to the earth,
denotes mortality; and those espe
cially who are anxious to shew that
Coheleth denies the immortality of
the soul triumphantly appeal to this

very phrase. Now we submit that
the phrases the spirit going upwards
to heaven, and the spirit returning to
Ood, i.e., to heaven, the habitation
of God, are essentially the same;
and, if the former means immortality
of the soul, it is an outrage to the
laws of language to deny the meaning
to the latter. 5. Finally, this reab
sorption -theory makes tbe sacred
writer utter the greatest nonsense
imaginable. Coheleth started with
the problems and mysteries in tbe
moral government of God, wherein
the god-fearing are allowed to suffer
and the godless to prosper, and the
comfort he bas now to give to these
afflicted saints, as well as the admo
nition to all, is, " Remember thy
Creator, fear the Lord, keep his com
mandments, begin it in early life,
before decrepit old age sets in and
deprives you of your powers, and
before your spirit, in common with
all other spirits, the sin-polluted and
the pure, is merged in the world-
soul ! " What a solution of the grand
problem I What a comfort to the
afflicted saints ! what a reason to
fear God ! what an inducement to
do good I But how apposite, how
solemn, how consoling is the obvious
interpretation ; we are to fear God
in spite of the seeming incongruities
in his present moral government ;
we are to keep his commandments,
beginning in early life, whilst we
are able to do it, before old age creeps
upon us and impairs our faculties,
and death summons our souls before
the tribunal of the Creator, when it
will be TOO LATE I Then every deed
done in the body shall be judged,
every mystery explained, and every
wrong redressed. Tbis, then, is the
momentous and all-important con
clusion to which Coheleth brings us,
after having led us through the
various perplexities and conflicts of
this world to tbe sure and certain
hope of victory in the world to
come.

470

COHELETH.

[CHAP. XIT,

THE EPILOGTDE.

CHAPTER XIL 8—14.

Thus all human efforts to obtain real happiness are vain (xii. 8) ; this is
tbe experience of tbe wisest and most painstaking Coheleth (9, 10) ;
the Sacred Writings alone are the way to it (11, 12); there is a
righteous Judge who marks, and will, in the great day of judgment,
judge, everything we do ; we must therefore fear him, and keep his
.commandments (13, 14).
8, 9 Vanity of vanities, saith Coheleth ; all is vanity ! And

8. Vanity of vanities. Sec Having
concluded bis demonstration that all
human efforts to adjust the destinies
of man are vain, and that the righte
ous Judge will in the great day of
judgment rectify all, by rewarding
tbe righteous and punishing the
wicked, Coheleth resumes, in tbis
Epilogue, the scope of his argument,
beginniiig with the very words of the
Prolog:ue. Ibn Ezra, Luther, the
Zurich Bible, Coverdale, Spohn, De
Wette, Knobel, Rosenmiiller, Ewald,
Herzfeld, Noyes, Hitzig, Heiligstedt,
Stuart, Philippson, Elster, &c., con
nect this verse with the preceding
section. But against this is to be
urged — 1. That this formula is never
used at the end of a sentence or sec
tion, as maybe seen from the eighteen
passages where the declaration of
vanity is made ; 2. That the only
other place where this full formula
occurs is at the beginning of the pro
logue, and it is therefore most natural
that it should be also at the beginning
of the epilogue; 3. Tbat the doctrine
of immortality and a future judgment,
when all that is now conflicting shall
be rectified, wherewith Coheleth con
cluded in the preceding verse, cannot
be characterised as utter vanity; and
4. That the following verse, which
begins with a copula, shews that this
verse belongs to it. As to tbe asser
tion tbat verses 9 - 1 4 are not genuine,
and have been added by a later hand

(Doderlein, Schmidt, Berthold, Um
breit, Knobel, ifec), it is most arbi
trary, and to be repudiated. Nothing
can be more weak than the argu
ments brought to support this alle
gation. We shall examine them in
tbe same order as they are advanced
by Knobel —
1. " The whole addition is super
fluous, and altogether without an
object in such a book as Coheleth.
It is incomprehensible why the writer,
who pursued a purely didactic ten
dency in tbe composition of tbis book,
should have added this unimportant
notice. He began simply with the
theme of the whole (i. 2), he con
cludes simply therewith (xii. 8), after
having worked it out. No one ex
pects anything else wbich might dis
turb the winding up of the whole."
But we submit that the words " All
is utter vanity," do not contain tbe
theme of tho book, and that nothing
can be more appropriate, after having
led us through all the intricacies of
the argument, than to set forth, in a
striking and solemn manner in this
epilogue, the grand solution, to cor
respond to the prologue, which con
tains the great problem. So striking
a prologue, without a correspondingly
striking epilogue, would have left the
book unfinished.
2. " Coheleth speaks in tbe third
person in this supplement, whilst in
the book itself, and iu places where

CHAP. XII.]

COHELETH.

471

he simply referred to himself, he used
theflrst person. Let tbis not be ob
jected to on tbe score- that in the
book he addresses himself to others
as teaching and admonishing, and
therefore speaks of himself appropri
ately in the first person, for he also
does the same in the epilogue (verse
12), without, however, speaking in
the flrst person. This difference of
treatment can only be satisfactorily
explained on tbe assumption that it
proceeds from different authors." But
this very fact, so far from being
against its genuineness, corroborates
it, inasmuch as it shews that the pro
logue and the epilogue proceed from
tbe same band, for both are in the
third person. The cause of this is
simple and obvious. Coheleth is re
presented as belonging to the past
(vide p. 247), and the description of
liis bare problem and solution must
necessarily be given in the third
person ; whereas the narrative of the
various futile efforts to satisfy tbe
cravings of bis soul in any other way
would have materially diminished its
power if it bad also been in the third
person. To render the scene life-like
and effectual, Coheleth is most beauti
fully represented as living, moving,
and having bis being in the midst
of us.
3. " It must also be noticed tbat
tbe epilogist urges the fear of God
and piety as the end of all wisdom
(ver. 13) ; but this Coheleth could
hardly predicate of his wise lessons.
It is true that he, too, recommends
tbe fear of God; but tbis is by no
means tbe sum of bis wisdom, it is
not the end to which his doctrine is
directed. His tendency, on tbe con
trary, is to shew that all is vanity,
that it is therefore best cheerfully to
enjoy life." But this objection is
based on a false view of the design
of tbe book.
4. "Tbe notion of a future judg
ment, to be held strictly by God,
which the epilogist propounds (verse
14) as the view of Coheleth, is
equally against its genuineness." No
thing can be more preposterous than

this objection. A comparison of the
proposition contained in tbe pro
logue with tbe sentiments expressed
in the epilogue, will shew that it is
the very conclusion which Coheleth
was driving at, and tbat he, as a, god
fearing Jew — not an atheistic or
pantheistic heathen philosopher —
could come to no other, starting, as
he does, with that solemn proposi
tion. We submit tbat, if Knobel
and his fellow objectors to tbe genu-
iness of this epilogue had rightly
understood the import of tbe pro
logue, they would never have made
these gratuitous objections. Besides,
the seventh verse of this very chapter,
which is admitted to be genuine, pro
pounds the immortality of the soul.
5. " Finally, the remark that the
making of many books has no end
(verse 12), can hardly proceed from
the mouth of Coheleth, who most
probably lived in the time of the
Persians." But this is purely ima
ginary, as neither Knobel nor any
one else can adduce any solid reason
why this allusion to the existence of
many books does not tally with that
period. We know from Diodorus
(i. 49) and others, that large libraries
existed in Egypt and elsewhere, aud
we cannot suppose that the Jewish
mind, which was highly cultivated, as
is evident from the sublime poetry
of the Old Testament, would be less
active than the heathen. Besides,
the large wreck of Midrashic litera
ture we still possess — for time has de
stroyed this prodigious work — shews
beyond doubt that the Hebrews were
actively prosecuting the sciences and
arts of the day. We have given
Knobel's arguments verbatim, be
lieving tbat, by looking at them in
full, the reader will better perceive
their feebleness. This is the only
instance where ri.)np has the article,
evidently to shew that the Coheleth
wbo commenced the prologue with
" Vanity of vanities! " is the identical
one that concludes the epilogue with
the same assertion, thus inseparably
connecting the beginning with the
end.

472

COHELETH.

[CHAP. XII.

besides that Coheleth was a wise man, he also taught the
people wisdom, and carefully and studiously composed niany
10 parables. Coheleth sought to find words of comfort, and he

9. And besides that. Sec. To give
additional weight to the solemn doc
trine repeated in tbis epilogue, Co
heleth, in accordance with tbe custom
of Eastern authors, mentions his fit
ness for undertaking this work, that
be was a sage, a public teacher, and
a profound author. One possessing
such qualifications for investigation
and passing judgment on things,
ought therefore to elicit adequate
attention and obedience from the
reader (comp. i. 2). As nni' signifies
1. Thatwhichremains (ISam.xv. 15);
2. Further; 3. More (vide supra, ii.
15); and 4. Besides (Esth. vi. 6),
Ewald, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Elster, Fiirst, Hengstenberg, &c.
translate this clause it remains (i e.,
to be said) that Coheleth was a wise
man, moreover he taught. Sec, the
Vulgate, Luther, the Auth. Version,
Rosenmiiller, Noyes, &c., and more
over the Preacher was wise, he still
taught. Sec ; the Geneva Bible, Men
delssohn, Boothroyd, Preston, &c.,
and the more wise the Preacher was,
the more he taught. Sec. ; whilst Rash
bam, Coverdale, Gesenius, Knobel,
De Wette, Vaihinger, Philippson, <fec.,
render it and besides tliat Coheleth
was wise, he also taught the people
knowledge ; the latter rendering is to
be preferred, because it needs not the
harsh ellipsis of the first ; it does not
leave n!> to clog the sentence as the
second does, and avoids tbe artificial
construction of the third. The
Hagadic explanation of this clause,
as found in the Cbaldee, '.:a ba jn nni'i
O'an nbnp) '-ipnn 'n rifibto nin 'stow, and
Solomon, who was called Coheleth, was
abundantly wise above all the children
of men, construing the Hebrew nritoi
ban nn' nan nbnp, will account for the
otherwise meaningless rendering of
tbe Septuagint, xa! WSflcnrw on 'lyivEro o
Exx\na-iag-rrtq a-oipog. Commentators are
also divided as to the meaning of
J-TN, some deriving it from Jim, to hear.

render the Piel to give ear, to heed
(Aquila, the Syriac, the Ohaldee,
Rashbam, Luther, Coverdale, the
Auth. Version, Michaelis, Spohn,
Hengstenberg, &c.) ; or he made hear,
he taught (the Vulgate, Rashi, the
Geneva Bible, Le Clerc, &c.) ; whilst
others, deriving it from Jin, to weigh,
translate the Piel to weigh well, to
consider (Ibn Ganach, Gesenius,
Knobel, De Wette, Rosenmiiller,
Herzfeld, Noyes, Heiligstedt, Hitzig,
Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, Philippson,
&c.), which is more compatible with
the immediately following ngn. The
meaningless rendering of the Sept.
xal ovq E^txviaiTBrai xoTfjtov TTtfpa^oXSv, and
the ear found out ordinary parables,
taking jin for jin, is to be traced 1;p
Hagadic influence (comp. Tsdmud,
Erubin, 21 ; Midrash Yalkut in loco).
Herzfeld rightly remarks, that as
il?,n) J-wi have no object, and Jj?!? has no
copula, tbe two verbs are best taken
adverbially, as qualifying JPin, which
is of frequent occurrence (vide supra,
viii. 3). For the adverbial use of
nann see i. 16. The Septuagint con
nects it with the following verse.
10. Coheleth sought, ifec. 'The great
labour and care which he bestowed
upon the writing of tbe manyparables
mentioned in the foregoing- verse,
Coheleth tells us be did not diminish
in composing this book. His su
preme anxiety was to discover truth
which should comfort and cheer the
hearts of those wbo were perplexed
with the mysteries of God's moral
government and tbe destinies of man,
and he frankly wrote down the words
of truth, yon-'-ia-n, words of comfort,
does not stand in apposition to 'nan
niaN, xvords of truth, the former refer
ring to gracefulness of diction, and
the latter to propriety of sentiments
(Mendelssohn, Michaelis, Holden,
Rosenmiiller, Umbreit, Herzfeld,
Noyes, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Philippson, Elster, &e.), as a graceful

CHAP. XII.]

COHELETH.

473

11 wrote down frankly the words of truth. The words of the

style would be unworthy of such
research and mentioning (Nsnb to]5a) in
so solemn a description, and would
not be placed before the all-important
object of the book; but is identical
with nnN 'w, words of truth, accord
ing to the general rule of parallelisms
in this book, and is therefore desig
nated as words of delight (comp. Ps.
xi,x. 10; Prov. viii. 6-10). Ibn
Ezra's explanation of it by analogy
is preposterous, aina, the participle
passive, like the infinitive, being pre
ceded by a flnite verb, has the
distinction of that verb implied
(comp. viii. 9) ; hence Aquila, the
Vulgate, and tbe Syriac rightiy render
it he wrote, which led some errone
ously to think that they read anai or
ana;i. Hitzig's alteration of it into
ain|, which is followed by Stuart, is
simply arbitrary. The abstract nto',
uprightness, frankness, like na-n?, will
ingness (Hos. xiv. 5), and other nouns,
is used adverbially for uprightly,
frankly (compare Ewald, § 279, c) ;
the clause is well rendered by the
Syriac IZC^Ofin ,^£d\o, and
Lutber unb et f(^rieb ret^t bie SBotte
ber fSSa^x^iit. The rendering of the
Septuagint yeypaf^fAsvov svB6r»rog, which
is followed hy Coverdale, tbe Bishops'
Bible (right scripture), tbe Geneva
Bible (upright writing). Sec, making
it depend upon ^snb toga, is contrary
to the word aina, which never means
a writing ; this is expressed by ana.
Tbe Vulgate, sermones reotissimos
Ao veritate plenos, words most
right and full of truth, is utterly at
variance with tbe words of the text ;
Rashbam's construction, nn.Mi nto' '-la-n,
words of uprightness and truth, arbi
trarily transposes nto' and nng, and
supplies the copula before tbe latter.
Ibn Ezra's strange opinion that
n* aina is the name of a book, Catub
Jasher, a commentary upon the book
ofJasher, which is no more extant
(labsN i::'Ni niD'n neon bs ininai min'O Nin)
is only equalled by his explanation
of the former clause. The Autho

rised Version, and that which was
written was upright, even words of
truth, besides supplying most unwar
rantably so many words, is extremely
awkward. Desvoeux's translation,
and one that could well write down
this true discourse, wbich he explains,
" Solomon took pains, not only to
compose well, but likewise to have a
good copyist'' (pp. 231. 486), is most
preposterous. It only remains to be
added that the Syriac, though leaving
na-in at the end of the foregoing
verse, like the Septuagint, also begins
this verse with na-;n.
11. The words of the wise. Sec.
From his general abilities and pro
ductions (verse 9), and the labour
bestowed upon tbis work especially
(10), Coheleth, as is to be expected,
passes on to tbe great object and
original source of this treatise. And
as this work is one of a large collec
tion, all composed by different people,
all having the same great end in
view, though striking out various
ways to reach it, and all being de
rived from the same fountain-head,
the sacred writer shews, by a meta
phor from pastoral life, how the
employment of apparently opposite
methods by the different writers of
the sacred volume harmonises with
tbe fact that they all derive their
knowledge from one source, to effect
one great result, viz., the happiness
of man. Just as the goad and the
stake, apparently opposite in tbeir
tendencies, tbe one driving onward
to fresh pastures, the other keeping
back to the old ones, are employed
by tbe same shepherd to subserve
one great object; so the words of
the wise, wbich lead onward, pro
pounding new things, and the words
of the masters of the assemblies,
which keep back to, and establish in
tbe old things, proceed from one
source, and have one common object
in view. That Coheleth is comprised
among (D'nan), the wise here men
tioned, whose words drive onward
like goads, is evident from tbe fact

3P

474

COHELETH.

[chap. xii.

wise are like goads, and those of the masters of the assem
blies are like fixed stakes, given by the same shepherd.

that be is characterised as (nan) a
wise man in verse 9. jan-j, i.q.. jann,
1 Sam. xiii. 21, like jnto'and j;nto, is
from a-i-n, to prick, with Dagesh line
omitted (comp. jnaN. janp^, Esth. viii.
6 ; Ezek. xl. 43 ;' Gesen. § 21, 2, c ;
Ewald, § 1 63, d), and denotes a goad,
commonly used by shepherds in the
East to stimulate cattle to go on
quickly, and hence is a striking
metaphor to express what urges for
ward, and tends to the opening of
new spheres. 'The figure is well ex
plained by Ibn Ezra D':innpn 'nana »'
la'npsni D'nD'niD nnnab ni:ianna uma D'nan
s)D:n, among the words of tlie ancients
there are some which are like goads
to cattle, correcting and opening new
things to the mind; so also Herz
feld, and substantially tbe same the
Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Holden,
Knobel, Noyes, Vaihinger, Ewald,
ifec, who, however, fail by confining
themselves exclusively to the idea of
teaching, and ignoring tbut the prin
cipal object of the goad is to drive on
ward. 'The explanation of Gesenius,
aculeorum instar alte de'scendunt in
pectora hominum iisque manent infixa
(Thesaurus, S:v), taking the point
of comparison to be the pricking,
the vivid impression, which is fol
lowed by Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart,
Elster, &c., is totally at variance
with the use of the goad, which is
not to prick but to drive forward,
the pricking being made subservient
to this primary object.
And those of the masters. Sec. The
stakes here referred to play a most
important part in nomadic life, inas
much as they are the supporters and
keepers of the shepherds' abodes.
To them, when driven into the
ground, is the tent fastened, to enable
the workmen to spread it, and to
them, also, are the cords tied by
which the tent is extended. Hence
a stake became a metaphor for one
upon whom the care and mainte
nance of the state depended (Zech.

X. 4), and a firmly fixed stake is used
for an immovably established posi
tion of such a state supporter (Isa.
xxii. 23). It is therefore obvious,
tbat when Coheleth compares the
teachings of the masters of the assem
blies to fixed stakes he thereby means
that they propound^rm?^ established
notions ; these masters are, as it
were, conservatives, whilst the wise
men are liberals, nnton, i.q., nnnn,
the ti and the o, as frequentiy, being
interchanged, is from nnp, to stand
erect, to be pointed, to be sharp, and
hence signifies a nail, a spike, a stake
to fasten tents (comp. 2 Chron. iii. 9 ;
Jer. X. 4), and, like its synonym nir,
is of common gender, which accounts
for its being construed with the
masculine d'biid:. It is moreover to
be remarked that the feminine termi
nation ni_ is here designedly used
instead of the masculine d'._, to cor
respond with ni:a-in (comp. verse 7).
That nnton here is not a nail driven
into the wall, as some will have it,
is evident from J'la-n, by wbich it is
preceded, and nsn, which follows it,
shewing that the whole is a pastoral
scene occupied by tents, wbich have
no walls to drive nails in. so:, to
stick in, is also used in Dan. xi. 45
for driving in tent-spikes. The sub
ject 'na-n, which, according to a well-
known omission, is not repeated,
must be supplied before the genitive
'^S?i from the first clause. For an
exactly parallel case, see x. 12, 13.
The Syriac |/J<^nm| ^•^, master
of the thresholds, has evidently arisen
from the carelessness of the tran
scriber, who has inadvertently in
serted a D after the £0.
Given by the same. Sec Though
these teachings are apparently oppo
site in their tendencies, yet they are
communicated by the same shepherd
to his different servants, and conduce
to one great object. i:n: refers both

CHAP. XII.] COHELETH. 475
12 And beyond these, my son, beware ! to make many books
tn O'nan tltp. ^rnr/Jji nnrl tn Wnn iin/1 cfntliov tliA eavintvo r,f +1,q nr;.-r.» pys..*

to D'na-=|, the words, and to jan-n and
nnto, the goad and stake, and is
iollowed by jn, which is not unfre
quently taken by the efficient cause
after a passive verb (comp. Gen. ix.
11 ; Job xxiv. ] ; Song of Songs
iii. 10 ; Gesen. § 143, 2 ; Ewald,
§ 295, c). nsn, shepherd, le., God,
who alone imparts these different
lessons of heavenly wisdom to bis
inspired servants. Very significant
and emphatic is the expression nnN,
the same {vide ii. 14), shewing the
unity of the fountain-bead from which
all these various streams derive their
existence. With tbis simple expla
nation, which leaves to every word
its natural meaning, and violates no
points or accents, we shall give some
of the multifarious renderings, leav
ing the reader to decide which is tbe
preferable translation. The Septua
gint, the Vulgate, and the Syriac
translate it, " tbe words of the wise
are as goads and as nails firmly fixed,
wbich have been given by those of
tbe counsel from one shepherd ; "
Luther renders it, biefe SSSorte ber
aSetfen finb ®)5ie5e unb JJaget,
geft^ricben buti$ bie SWeifier bet
Serfammtungeti, unb t>on ©inent
^irten gegeben, these words of the
wise are spears and nails written by
the masters of assemblies, and given
by one shepherd; the Zurich Bible
bas bann weipfer tftten tnott ftnb als
flacte mit benen man fitupffet, Bnnb
nogel bie bnri^tringenb, mit benenn
[bie nienfd;en] semen gefjalten roetbenb,
bonn f9 wetbenb »onn einem einigen
^ittenn gcgeben, which is literally
adopted by Coverdale, " for the
words of the wise are like pricks and
nails that go through, wherewith
men are kept together ; for they are
given of one sliepberd only ; " the
Bishops' Bible again bas, "for the
words of the wise are like pricks and
nails that go through, of the authors
of gatherings, [which] are given of
one shepherd," remarking, in tbe
margin, " authors of gatherings he
calleth wise men," because tbey

gather the sayings of the wiser sort
of men in their books." 'The Geneva
Bible, which is followed by the Auth.
Version, renders it, " tbe words of
the wise are like goads and like nails
fastened by the masters of the assem
blies, which are given by one pastor; "
according to ' Broughton it means,
"the words of the wise, as goads and
as nails fastened in the sheepfolds,
being given from one shepherd ; "
according to Lightfoot (Works, ii.
675), it ought to be, " the words of
the wise are as goads, and as nails
fastened by those that gather tbe
flock into the fold, which are fur
nished by the chief shepherd ; " and,
according to Desvoeux, it means,
" one shepherd gave the words of the
wise like goads, and appointed the
masters of collections, like planted
repositories." Hodgson, again, with
equal certainty, tells us that it rneans,
" like goads or like points that pierce,
are tbe sayings of the wise ; the
persons employed to collect them
were appointed by none but the
teacher;" whilst Mendelssohn, Fried
lander, and Preston assure us that
it ought to be rendered, " the words
of the wise are like points of goads,
and the sayings of tbe gatlierers
cleave to the soul like nails implanted,
agreeing together as if they proceeded
from one thinking mind."
12, And beyond these. Sec Having
adverted, in tbe foregoing verse, to
the variety and suflaciency of tbe
teachings in the sacred writings, and
to the Divine source from which
they emanate, Coheleth now warns
his readers against seeking satisfac
tion in profane books, tbe making
and perusal of which will only yield
endless trouble and pain; just as be
found it by experience, when acquir
ing knowledge in order to fathom the
mysteries of Providence, and to find
repose for his soul (vide supra, i. 18).
The importance of this caution, not
to seek peace of-mind in the multi
tude of books, will be more obvious
if we bear in mind the an-ogant

476

COHELETH.

[chap. XII.

there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh.

pretensions of some of tbe ancient
writings, and that the library at
Thebes had the inscription ^vx>i!
larpE^iov, pharmacy of the soul (comp.
Diodorus, i. 49). Hence also the
similar advice of Horace to " listen
to the words of the wise " —
Inter cuncta leges et percontabere doctos.
Qua ratione queas traducere leniter sevum."
" Consult -with care the learned page.
Inquire of every scienced sage.
How you may glide with gentle ease
Adown the current of your days.
Epist. lib. i. epist. xviii. 96, 97.
The Vulgate, the Cbaldee, Rasbi,
Rashbam, Luther, the Zurich Bible,
Coverdale, tbe Bishops' Bible, the
Geneva Bible, Grotius, Michaelis,
Mendelssohn, Gesenius, De Wette,
Philippson, &c., rightly construe nn'
with jn, more than, beyond, besides, as
is evident from '3nn, more than, or
besides me, in Esth. vi. 6, and from
the usage of this phrase in post-
biblical Hebrew. The construction
nnnn with nnin, by these be admonished,
which is adopted by tbe Authorised
Version, Desvoeux, Hodgson, Holden,
Knobel, Noyes, Hitzig, Heiligstedt,
Stuart, Elster, Vaihinger, Hengsten
berg, &c., is both contrary to the
usage of jn nn', and is contradicted by
Ps. xix. 2, where it is evident that
nnin is construed with a, and not with
n. 'The pronoun nnn refers to the
immediate antecedent, i. e., the words
of the wise and of the masters of as
semblies, by which the whole of the
sacred Scriptures was characterised
in the foregoing verse, '5a, my son,
is not Rehoboam, wbo is here pro
phetically or otherwise cautioned
(Gill, Preston, &c,), but is an affec
tionate term by which teachers gene
rally addressed their disciples or
readers (comp. Prov. i. 8. 10. 15;
ii. 1 ; iii. 1 ; iv. 1, &c.), because
teachers and disciples are regarded
as sustaining the relationship of spi
ritual parents and children (comp.
Judges xvii. 10; I Sam.x. 12; 2Kings
ii. 15, V. 13). For nnin, to be warned,
to take care, which Ibn Ezra rightly

explains by no-ton, see iv. 13. Pres
ton's objection to tbis rendering, that
" the expression of so illiberal a sen
timent cannot have been intended by
Solomon," is obviated by the fact
that Coheleth does not caution against
using profane books absolutely, but
warns us not to attempt to flnd in
them tbat satisfaction for the cravings
of our immortal souls which tbe
sacred Scriptures alone can yield.
Equally untenable is the objection
of Vaihinger, that this rendering an
ticipates the next clause, wherein is
contained the caution against other
books, inasmuch as this clause does
not give the warning, but the reason
for it. Rashbam's explanation, nn'i
'nniB nnin ':a nniN D'n'nio D'nanma nnn
ba ainab nann'D'noD nimsb nbia'i yp j'n
oaina ninana, and more than these wise
men ban teach thee, teach thyself, be
cause it would be endless trouble to
make the many books required for
writing down all the necessary wisdom,
which is followed by Herzfeld, who
accordingly fills out the sentence
nnin 'aa iin.'n-inb nnn ibav ntoNn nn'i, but
more than tliese can teach thee, my son,
teach thyself; and Philippson, wbo,
without supplying tbe supposed ellip
sis, renders it obex nte|t aW biefe,
mein @oI;n, bete^re bii^ felbjl, will not
be entertained by any one who believes
the inspired writings to contain the
best lessons, and to be able, above
all other teachings, to make men wise
unto salvation. Still more unnatural
is the fresh conclusion at wbich
Ewald has arrived in his Jahrbiicher
(iii. 124), that the meaning of this is
unb wag aug tl;nen Cben ©^jriit^en)
etiibrigt Cb. i. wag aug i^ncn fotgt,
fi(^ etgibtD bat»on taf bi^ toarnen !
Cbem fotge nad)X ('•"d what remains
of them (i. e., that which results from
these maxims,which they teach) thereby
he admonished (follow it). Hitzig's
translation of 'iai D'nap nitos by to
make many books, without end, and
much exertion of mind, are a weariness
of the fiesh, which is followed by
Stuart, regarding ys J'n as synony-

CHAP. XII.]

COHELETH.

477

13 In conclusion, everything is -noticed ; fear God, and keep

mous with nl*p, and as added to na-in
for the sake of intensity, thus making
this clause and na-nn anbi. two subjects
or nominatives of the sentence — pro
ceeds from the Chaldee paraphrase,
and is contrary to the rhythm aod
evenness of tbe construction, inas
much as it assigns to D'nEp ni»s too
many adjuncts, aud leaves anb with
the solitary na-in. Besides, the close
relationship between yp J'N, endless
task, and ntoa ns:;, weariness of the
flesh, shews that they are both
predicates. For the omission of
the b before the infinitive niios, see
iii. 4. ,
13. In conclusion. Sec. The epi
logue, like the treatise (vide verse 7),
concludes with the awful but con
soling doctrine of a final retribution.
The fate of the godly and ungodly,
which is now so perplexing (vide
supra, i. 11), will not be tbe same.
'There is a righteous Judge who takes
cognizance of everything we do; we
must therefore fear him and keep his
commandments, tbis being tbe duty
of every man. na-n fjio, literally the
end of the matter, though occurring
nowhere else in tbe Hebrew Bible, is
frequently employed by post-biblical
writers for in conclusion, flnally. The
phrase snip: b^n exactly corresponds
in construction to naip: ban in ii. 16,
and must therefore be translated
everything is heard or noticed; the
passive snto: ban, everything is noticed,
is used instead of the active Snto ban
D'ribNn, God noticeth everything, be
cause of the immediately following
NT D'libNn-nN, fear Ood, which pre
cludes the latter mode of expression.
Tbis explanation is moreover cor
roborated by tbe words D^sj-ba bs,
concerning every secret thing, in the
following verse, which is simply an
explanation of sgto? ban, shewing, be
yond doubt, that tbe latter refers to
God, who notices all our doings, and
hence will judge even ovtx secret deeds.
'That this plain sense of the words
should have been overlooked, and
such a variety of forced explanations

should have been resorted to, as is to
be found in the ancient versions and
modern commentaries, is most re
markable. Thus tbe Septuagint
(texo; xo'j/oi/ to wav ixovt, the end of the
discourse the whole hear) takes '»n
as apposition to or epexegetical of
na-nf|iDj and altering snto: into snto,
the imperative. 'This construction,
not tbe alteration, is followed by
Knobel, Herzfeld, De Wette, Ewald,
Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Stuart, Philipp
son, Vaihinger, Hengstenberg, &c. ;
some of these, however, differ in their
renderings, as, for instance, " the
sum of the discourse, the whole, let
us hear" (Knobel and De Wette);
" let us listen to tbe end of tbe thing,
or rather tbe whole" (Herzfeld) ; " the
end of the discourse, of the whole, has
been beard" (Ewald), &c. But this
explanation — 1. Unnecessarily vio
lates the accents; 2. Assigns to the
words a very unnatural construction;
and 3. Would, to say the least, re
quire na-n to have the article. Still
more forced are the Vulgate, finem
LOQUENDI PARITEB OMNES AUDIAMUS,
the conclusion of the discourse let us
all hear togetlier, taking blan for all
and the Syriac, CTiAj^jo]

wvn« ^^ Ol

the end of the discourse, in total is hear
all, doubly translating ban, viz., in
total and all; and likewise the Septu
agint, altering Snto; into snto. Whilst
Luther CtalTet uns bie -^ou))tfumme
atlet ii^xe ptenD, who is followed
by Coverdale (" let us hear the con
clusion of all thihgs ") ; tbe Geneva
Bible (" let us hear the end of all ") ;
Authorised Version (" let us hear the
conclusion of the whole matter");
Desvoeux, Hodgson, Noyes, &c., mis
take nan, the absolute, for the con
struct. o^«n"ba is not the whole of
man, i. e., the sum and substance,
the end of man's existence (the Vulg.,
Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, the Geneva
Bible, the Authorised Version, Hodg-

478

COHELETH.

[chap. xii.

14 his commandments, for this every man should do ; for God

son, Ewald, Herzfeld, Heiligstedt,
Preston, Elster, Philippson, &c.), in
asmuch as this phrase uniformly de
notes all men, every man, nor since
for this are all men, the b being sup
plied before ni (Rashi) ; nor ihis be-
longeth to, is for, every man, supplying
b before ba (Geier, Le Clerc, Holden,
&c.), which requires too hard and
unwarrantable an ellipsis, but this
every man should do; ntito; is to be
taken over to it, in accordance with
a well-established fact, that when tbe
same verb, though of a different
tense, gender, or number, is to be em
ployed in two or more clauses of the
verse, it is not unfrequently omitted
in one clause, and must be supplied
from the other (vide supra, x. 12).
The Syriac, ^? oJcTI? '"^^
. IB {\n\ »i2(7LiZl j_" U^O].
for this is given to all men by one
master, is evidently a corruption ;
»lDaT_.Z.| ,jj (jLk30| ^? was
undoubtedly a marginal gloss upon
nnN nsnn i:m in verse 11, and bas here
been inserted by mistake.
14. For Ood will bring. Sec The
admonition to fear God and to keep
his commandments, which was en
forced in the foregoing verse, by the
declaration that he takes cognisance
of everything (S'^iS? ''an), is here
further urged by the fact, that tbis
observing of everything is not all ;
that there is a future judgment ap
pointed over all the secrets of men,
when God shall bring before bis
tribunal every hunJan action which
he has noticed, whether good or bad.
The declaration that every deed will
be brought into judgment, which
connot possibly refer to an earthly
tribunal (comp. v. 7), and the fact
that this judgment is to be over
every secret thing, i.e., is to extend
over every action of ours, which is
concealed from our fellow-creatures,
and can therefore not take place in

ordinary courts of justice, shew in
contestably that Coheleth speaks
of a future judgment, when God,
the righteous Judge, shall reward
every man according to bis deeds,
whether they be good or evil. So
plain and convincing are the words
of the text, that even Knobel, who
labours to prove that Coheleth denies
the immortality of the soul, is con
strained to say, betra^tet mon bie
©telte unbefongen, fo muf man ben
©ebonfen on ein formlic^e^ ®ixi^t,
wii mon eg ftc^ att noi^ bem Sobe
eintteten benft, borin onettennen.
Sarouf fitjtt 1) fij^on ber 3lugbtuf, baf
@ott jebe SEJot in bog ©ert^t b. ^,
»or feinen 9?ic^terfm^t jut ti^terlii^en
Seutt^eitung btingen twerbe, fomie 2)
bet Slu^btuf, baf biefeg @ertct)t fiber
otteg SBetborgene it»etbe obge^olten
ttjerben. ®ie legte Jotmel wito immet
bo gebroud;t, wo bon einem formlii^en
©etic^fe j. S. bem nod; bem Sobe bie
3{ebe i)i ; bergl., Rom. ii. 10 ; 1 Cor.
iv. 5 ; 1 'Tim. v. 24, 25, if one con
siders this passage impartially, he
must admit that it speaks of a formal
judgment, which, as is believed, will
take place after death. This is evi
dent — 1. From the expression, God
will bring evert wore into judgment,
i. e., will bring it before his judgment-
seat for judicial examination ; and
2. From the statement that this judg
ment will be over evert secret
THING. The latter phrase is always
used when a formal judgment, a judg
ment after death, is spoken of (comp.
Rom. ii 16 ; 1 Cor. iv. 5 ; 1 'Tim. v.
24, 25). The absence of tbe article
in iDBtopa shews that it belongs to
'ajyr''? ''?. *^ . the judgment over or
concerning every secret thing, the judg
ment extending over or appointed
respecting every secret thing ; so that
bs marks the object of the judgment
(vide supra, ii. 20, iii. 18). The
Septuagint's rendering of it by with,
which is followed by tbe Geneva
Bible, Authorised Version, Noyes,
&c., and wbich has given rise to the
rendering as well as,dnd (the Zurich

CHAP. XII.J

COHELETH.

479

will bring every work to the judgment appointed over every
secret thing, whether it be good or evil.

Bible, Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible,
Hodgson, &c.), is therefore inadmis
sible. The Vulgate, et ouncta, Qn,ffi;
FIUNT, ADDUCE! DeUS IN JUDICIUM
PRO OMNI ERRATO, Ood will bring
into judgment all things tliat are done
for every error, is a tame paraphrase.
The Syriac ^^^ Uni? ^ ^,
respecting all things secret and re
vealed, adds nb::-) after Dbs:. Ibn
Ezra's explanation of bs by 'oa, i. e.,
sn DN1 alio DN abn naia'sa, according to
the intention of the heart, whether it
be good or evil, which is followed by
many modern commentators, is pre
cluded by "ja before Dbw ; Luther's
version entirely ignores tho word ¦>?.
The Massorites repeat verse 13 after
verse 14, because of the word sn,

evil, being anxious that the inspired
book should not terminate with so
harsh an expression, and that the
reader should leave off with words
of comfort. For tbis reason the last
verse but one is also -repeated at tbe
end of Isaiah, Malachi, and Lamen
tations. To shew, however, that tbe
verse thus repeated does not belong
to the text, the Massorites have
not pointed it, and added in each of
these books PP"n' jn'o, mark It-Kak,
i. e., note tbat tbis is one of the four
books indicated by tbe initials pp"n',
the ' standing for msiD', Isaiah ; the
n for ntt)S 'nn, twelve Minor Prophets,
of which Malachi is tbe last; the
first p for n:'p, Lamentations, and the
second p for Coheleth— which have
the penultimate verse Ev^nfuag x'^f
repeated.

THE
WOEDS OF COHELETH,
SON OF DAVID, KING IN JEEUSALEM.

2 Vanity of vanities, saith Coheleth, vanity of vanities, all is
3 vanity : man hath no advantage from all his toil where-
4 with he toileth under the sun; for generation passeth
away and generation cometh on ; while the earth abideth
5 for ever. The sun also riseth and the sun setteth, and,
though it pantingly goeth to its place, it riseth there again.
6 The wind goeth to the south, and turneth to the north ; it
goeth round and round, yet the wind returneth to its course.
7 All the streams run into the sea, and the sea doth not
overflow; the place where the streams go to, thence they
8 return again. All words are feeble. Men could never utter,
the eye could never be satisfied with seeing, and the ear
9 could never be filled with hearing all. What hath been still is,
and what hath been done is still done, and there is nothing
10 new under the sun. If there be anything of whicli it
is said, Behold this is new ! it hath been long ago, in
11 the time of old, which was before us. But there is no
remembrance of former men, nor will there be any re
membrance of future men among those who will live
hereafter.
12, 13 I, Coheleth, was king over Israel in Jerusalem. And
I gave my heart to enquire diligently into wisdom
respecting all that is done under heaven ; this is a grievous

CHAP. II.j COHELETH. 481
business which God hath given to the children of men
14 to busy themselves therewith. I considered all the
works that are done under the sun, and behold they are all
15 vanity and striving after the wind ; for the desponding
cannot be set right, since he that is gone cannot be num-
16 bered again. I therefore spake to my heart, saying, " I, lo !
I have acquired far greater wisdom than any one who was
before me over Jerusalem — my heart having seen much
17 wisdom and knowledge, for I have given my heart to
know wisdom and knowledge — I know that even this is
18 striving after the wind. For, in much wisdom is much
sadness, and multiplying knowledge is multiplying sorrow.
ii. I then spake to my heart, Come, now, let me try thee
with mirth, and thou shalt see pleasure ! And, lo ! this
2 too is vanity. To mirth I said, Thou actest foolishly !
3 and to pleasure, What doeth she? I resolved with my
heart to entice my body with pleasure, my mind guiding
with wisdom, and to lay hold on folly, till I should see
what is good for the sons of men which they should do
4 under heaven, the numbered days of their lives ; I therefore
increased my possessions, I builded me houses, I planted
5 me vineyards, I made me gardens and pleasure-grounds,
6 and I planted in them trees of all sorts of fruit. I made
me pools of water, to water therefrom the gTOve yielding
7 trees; I bought me men-servants and maid- servants,
and had house-born servants ; I had also many herds of
oxen and sheep, above all who were before me in Jeru-
8 salem ; I amassed me also silver and gold, and the treasures
of kings and kingdoms ; I got me men-singers and women-
singers, and the. delight of men — a large number of wives;
9. so that I greatly increased above ail that were before me in
10 Jerusalem, my wisdom also aiding me therein ; and nothing
that my eyes desired did I wil;hhold from them ; I did not
keep back my heart from any pleasure, as my heart was to
receive happiness from all my toil ; and tliis was to be my
3 Q

482 COHELETH. [chap. II.
11 portion from all my toil. But when I looked at all my
works which my hands worked, and at the toil wherewith
I toiled to accomplish them, behold, all was vanity and striv
ing after the wind, since there is no advantage under the
12 sun. I then turned to consider wisdom, and madness, and
folly ; — for what is the man tliat will succeed the king, who
13 was made king long ago? — and I saw that there is an advan
tage to wisdom over folly, as is the advantage of light over
14 darkness. As for the wise man, his eyes are in his head,
while the fool walketh in blindness ; and yet I knew that the
15 same fate will meet both. I therefore spake with my
heart, A fate like that of the fool must also meet me, even
me, and why am I then wiser? and I said to my heart
16 that this too is vanity; since there is no remembrance of
the wise man as of the fool for ever, for, as in time
past, both will be forgotten in days to come. And, alas! how
17 like the fool dieth the wise man ! Therefore I hated life,
for the work which is worked under the sun pressed heavily
upon me, as all is vanity and striving after the wind;
18 and I hated all my gain which I gained under the sun,
as I must leave it to the man who shall come after me, and
19 no one knoweth whether he will be a wise man or a fool,
and yet he shall have power over all my gain which I have
20 wisely gained under the sun ; this, too, is vanity. Thus I
turned to cause my heart to despair of all the gain which I
21 gained under the sun ; for here is a man who hath laboured
wisely, and prudently, and skilfully, and must leave it
as a portion to a man who hath not worked at it at all ;
22 this, too, is vanity and a great evil. For man hath nothing
from all his labour and the striving of his heart that he
23 laboureth under the sun, since his business grieveth and
irritateth him all his days, and his mind doth not rest even
24 at night ; this also is vanity. Tliere is nothing better for
man than to eat and drink, and let his soul enjoy pleasure
25 in his labour; even this I saw cometh from God: for who

chap. III.] coheleth. 483
should eat, and who should hasten thereunto, except I ?
26 For to the man who is good before Him He giveth wis
dom, and knowledge, and joy '; but to the sinner He giveth
the business to gather and to amass, that he may give
it to him who is good before God. This, too, is vanity,
and striving after the wind.
iii. There is a fixed time for all things, and an appointed
2 season for all undertakings under heaven ; a time to be
born, and a time to die ; a time to plant, and a time to pluck
3 up that which is planted ; a time to kill, and a time to save ;
4 a time to break down, and a time to build up houses ; a time
to weep, and a time to laugh ; a time to mourn, and a time
5 to rejoice ; a time to cast away stones, and a time to gather
up stones ; a time to embrace, and a time to refrain from
6 embracing; a time to seek, and a time to lose; a time to
7 keep, and a time to cast away ; a time to rend garments, and
a time to sew them together ; a time, to be silent, and a time
8 to speak ; a time to love, and a time to hate ; a time of war,
9 and a time of peace. He who laboureth hath therefore no
10 advantage from that wherein he laboureth. I have considered
the business which God hath given to the sons of men to
11 busy themselves therewith; he hath made it all beautiful
in its season ; he hath also put eternity into their heart, only
that man understandeth not the work which God hath made
12 from beginning to end; I knew, then, that there was no
good for them but to rejoice and do themselves good all
13 their life ; and also that if a man eat and drink, and enjoy
14 pleasure in all his labour, it is a gift of God. I knew
that whatever God hath made, the same continueth for
ever; to it nothing can be added, and from it nothing
can be taken ; and God hath so done it that men may fear
15 before him. What hath been was long ago, and what is
16 to be was long ago, for God recalleth what is past. And,
moreover, I saw under the sun, that in the place of justice
there was iniquity, and in the place of equity there was

484 coheleth. [chap. iv.
1 7 iniquity. I said to my heart, God will judge the righteous
and the wicked, for there is a time of judgment with Him,
18 for every thing and deed. Yet I said to my heart respecting
the children of men, God hath chosen them to shew that
19 they, even they, are like beasts. For man is mere chance,
and the beast is mere chance, and they are both subject to
the same chance; as is the death of one, so is the death of
the other, and both have the same spirit ; and the advantage
20 of man over the beast is nothing, for both are vanity : both
go to the same place, both were made of dust, and both turn
21 into dust again : no one knoweth whether the spirit of man
goeth upward, and whether the spirit of the beast goeth down-
22 ward to the earth. Wherefore I saw that there is nothing-
better for man than to rejoice in his labours, for this is his
portion, since no one can bring him to see what will be here-
iv. after. Then I saw again all the oppressed who are sufi'ering
under the sun, and beheld the tears of the oppressed, and
they had no comforter, and with their oppressors there was
2 violence, and they had no comforter ; and I esteemed the dead
happy who have died long ago, more than the living who
3 are still alive ; and happier than both, him who hath not
been born, who hath not seen these evil doings which are
4 done under the sun. Then I saw that all the toil, and
all the skill in work, are from jealousy of one toward
the other, this also is vanity and striving after the wind ;
5 the sluggard foldeth his hands and yet eateth his meat ;
6 better a handful of enjoyment than two handsful of labour
7 and striving after the wind. And again I saw a vanity under
8 the sun ; here is one who hath no one with him, hath not
even a son or a brother, and yet there is no end to all his
labour ; even his eyes are not satisfied with riches ; and for
whom do I labour and deny my soul any of my riches ? this,
9 too, is vanity, and a grievous business. Happier are two than
10 one, because they have a good reward for their labour; for if
one fall, the other will lift up his fellow; but woe to the

chap. V.J coheleth. 485
solitary one who falleth and hath no fellow to help him up.
11 Moreover, if two sleep together they are warm ; but a solitary
12 one, how can he be warm? And if an enemy overpower the
solitary one, two surely will withstand him, and a threefold
13 cord is not easily broken. Happier is a poor and wise youth
than an old and foolish king Who knoweth no one to counsel
14 him. For a prisoner may go from prison to a throne,
wliilst a king may become a beggar in his own kingdom.
15 I see all the living who walk under the sum, associating
16 with the youth who succeedeth him ; there is no end to
all the people, to all over whom he ruleth. Yet those who
will live afterwards shall not rejoice in him, for even this
17 is vanity and striving after the wind. Keep thy feet when
thou goest to the house of God, for to obey is a nearer way
to Him than to offer the sacrifice of the disobedient, as
V. they who obey know not to do evil. Do not hasten thy
mouth, and do not urge thy heart to utter words before God,
for God is in heaven and thou art upon earth, therefore let
2 thy words be -few ; moreover, dreaming cometh through the
multitude of things, and foolish talk through the multitude
3 of words. When thou vowest a vow to God, hesitate not to
pay it, for fools have no fixed will ; pay that which thou hast
4 vowed. Better that thou shouldst not vow than that thou
5 shouldst vow and not pay. Do not suffer thy mouth to
cause thy flesh to sin, and do not say before the angel that it
was an error : why should God be angry on account of thy idle
6 talk, and destroy the work of thine hands ? For all this is
through the multitude of idle thoughts, and vanities, and
7 much talking ; but fear thou the Lord. If thou seest oppres
sion of the poor, and perverting of justice and equity in the
land, be not alarmed at the matter ; for there is a superior
8 watching the superior, and superiors again over them ; and
the advantage for the people is, that it extendeth to all ; even
9 the king himself is subject to the field. Whoso loveth money
is never satisfied with money, nor he who loveth riches

486 COHELETH. [chap. VI.
10 with what they yield ; this, too, is vanity. For when riches
increase, those that consume them increase ; what advantage,
therefore, hath the owner thereof, except the looking thereon
11 with his eyes ? Sweet is the sleep of the husbandman,
whether he eat little or much ; whilst abundance doth not
12 suffer the rich to sleep. There is a sore evil which I have
seen under the sun — riches hath been hoarded up by the
13 rich for the owner thereof to his hurt. For the riches
perish in some unfortunate business, and he begetteth a
14 son when he hath nothing in his possession. As he cometh
forth from the womb of his mother, even as he cometh
naked, he retm'neth again, and taketh nothing from his work
15 which he may carry away as his possession. And even this
is a sore evil, just as he cometh sp must he go, and what
16 advantage hath he' who laboureth for the wind? Yet he
eateth all his days in darkness, and is much disturbed, and
17 hath grief and vexation. Behold, that which I have seen is
good, that it is well for man to eat and to drink, and to
enjoy the good in all his labours which he laboureth under
the sun, the numbered days of his life which God hath
18 given him; for this is his portion; and also, that. if a man
to whom God hath given riches and wealth is enabled
to eat thereof, and to take his portion, and to rejoice in
19 his labour, this is a gift of God. He should remember that
the days of his life are not many, that God causeth him to
work for the enjoyment of his heart.
vi. There is an evil which I have seen under the sun, and it
2 weigheth heavily upon man. Here is a man to whom God
hath given riches, and wealth, and abundance, so that his
soul lacketh nothing of all that it desireth, and God hath
not given him the power to eat thereof, but a stranger eateth
3 it; this is vanity, and a sore evil. Though one beget a
hundred children, and live many years, yea, numerous as
may be the days of his years, yet if his soul is not satisfied
with good, and even if the grave did not wait. for him, I say.

CHAP. VII.J COHELETH. 487
4 Better than he is an untimely birth ; for this cometh in
nothingness and goeth in darkness, and with darkness is its
5 memory covered ; it doth not even see, and doth not know
6 the sun ; it hath more rest than he. And if he live twice a
thousand years and see no good, do not both go to the same
7 place ? All the labour of this man is for his mouth, and yet
8 the soul cannot be satisfied ; for what advantage hath the
wise man over the fool ? what the poor man over him who
9 knoweth to walk before the living? Better, indeed, is that
which is seen by the eyes, than that which is pursued by the
soul ; yet this, too, is vanity and striving after the wind.
10 What hath been was long ago called by name ; moreover, it
is known that he is a man, and cannot contend with Him
who is mightier than he ; what advantage then hath man ?
11 Moreover, there are many things which increase vanity ;
12 and who knoweth what is good for man in life, the numbered
days of his vain life, which he spendeth as a shadow ? and
who can tell man what shall be after him under the sun?
vii. A good name is better than sweet perfume, and the day of
2 death than the day of his birth. It is better to go to the
house of mourning than to go to the house of feasting,
because this is the end of all men, and the living will lay it
3 to heart. Better is thoughtful sadness than wanton mirth,
4 for by a serious countenance the heart is improved. The
heart of the wise, therefore, is in the house of mourning, and
5 the heart of fools in the house of mirth. It is better for a
man to listen to the reproof of a wise man, than to hear the
6 song of fools ; for as the crackling of thorns is under the pot,
7 so. is the laughter of a fool ; this, also, is vanity ; for extor
tion maketh the wise man foolish, and bribery corrupteth the
8 heart. The end of a reproof is better than its beginning,
9 forbearance is better than haughtiness. Do not, therefore,
hasten on thy spirit to be angry, for anger is cherished in
10 the bosom of fools. Do not say why was it that former
days were better than' these ; for thou wouldst not, from

488 COHELETH. [CHAP. VII.
11 wisdom, ask after them. Wisdom is as good as riches, and
moreover hath an advantage over them for those who see the
12 sun. For to be in the shelter of wisdom is to be under the
shelter of riches, and the advantage of wisdom is, that
13 wisdom enliveneth the possessor thereof. Consider, more
over, the work of God, since no man can straighten that
14 which he hath made cropked. In the day of prosperity live
therefore as in prosperity, and in the day of adversity consider
that God hath also made this as well as that, to the end that
man should not discover anything which will be after him.
15 I have seen in my fleeting days, both the righteous die in
his righteousness, and the wicked live long in his -wickedness.
16 Be not therefore very righteous, and make not thyself too
17 wise, for thou wilt only make thyself .to be forsaken. Be not
very wicked, and be not foolish, lest thou die before thy
18 time. It is better that thou shouldst lay hold of this, and
also not let go thy hand from that, for whoso feareth God
19 will make his way with both. Wisdom alone is greater
strength to the wise, than many mighty men who have been
20 in the city ; for there is not a righteous man upon earth who
21 doeth good and sinneth not. Moreover, give not thy heart
to all the words which are uttered, lest thou hear thy servant
22 speak evil against thee ; for thy heart knoweth that oftentimes
23 thou also hast spoken evil of others. All this have I tried
by wisdom ; I wished to be wiser, but it was far from me.
24 Far remaineth what was far, and deep, deep ! who can find
25 it out ? I and my heart turned to know and diligently to
examine practical wisdom, in order to know the cause of
26 wickedness, vice, and mad folly, and I found woman more
bitter than death ; she is a net, her heart a snare, and her
hands are chains ; whoso is good before God shall escape from
27 her ; bnt the sinner shall be caught by her. Behold what I
have found, saith Coheleth — taking one thing after another
28 to find the result — and what my soul is still seeking, and I
have not found ; one man among a thousand I have found.

.CHAP. VIII.J COHELETH. 489
29 but a woman among all that number I have not found : only
behold this have I found, that God made man upright, but
¦viii. 1 .they seek out many devices. Who is like the wise
man ? and who like him that understandeth the meaning of
the thing? The wisdom of this man enlighteneth his
2 countenance, and his stern visage is changed. I say, then,
obey the king's command, and especially because of the oath
3 of God. Do not go away hastily from his presence, do not
even stand up because of an evil word, for he doth whatsoever
4 pleaseth him ; inasmuch as the word of a king is powerful,
5 and who shall say unto him. What doest thou? Whoso
keepeth the commandment knoweth not an evil word. More
over the heart of the wise man knoweth a time of judgment;
6 for there is a time . of judgment for everything, when the
7 tyranny of a man is heavy upon him. Because he knoweth
not what will be, and because no one can tell him when it
8 will be. No man is ruler over his spirit to retain the spirit,
and there is no power over the day of death ; and there is no
furlough in this battle, and no cunning will save the wicked ;
9 all this I have seen, having given my heart to all the doing
that is done under the sun. There is a time when a man
10 ruleth over men to their injury ; and thus I have seen wicked
men buried and come again, and those who did right depart
from the place of the holy, and be forgotten in the city ;
11 also this is vanity. Because sentence is not forthwith
executed for evil work, the heart of the sons of men is full
12 in them to do evil, and because a sinner doeth evil a hundred
years and is perpetuated. But I also knew that it shall be
well with those who fear God, who truly fear before Him ;
13 and it shall not be well to the wicked, and, like a shadow,
he shall not prolong his existence, because he doth not fear
14 before God. Still there is this vanity happening upon the
earth, that there are righteous men who have wages like
that of the wicked, and there are wicked who have wages
like that of the righteous ; I said that this, too, is vanity.
3 R

490 COHELETH. [CHAP. IX.
15 And I praised mirth, because there is nothing better for
man under the sun than to eat, and drink, and rejoice, and
this will follow him in his work during the days of his life
which God giveth him under the sun.
16 As I gave my heart to know wisdom, and to see the work
which is done under the sun, how that one doth not see
17 sleep with his eyes by day and by night, I then saw that
man cannot find out all the doing of God which is done
under the sun; wherefore man laboureth to search it, and
cannot find it out ; and even if the wise man saith he under-
ix. 1 standeth it, he cannot find it out. For all this have I taken
to heart, and proved all this, that the righteous and the wise,
and their labours, are in the hand of God ; these men know
2 neither love nor hatred, both are before them, both just as
before all others ; the same fate happeneth to the righteous
and the wicked ; to the good and pure and to the impure ;
to him who sacrificeth and to him who doth not sacrifice ; as
is the good so is the sinner, he that sweareth as he who
3 feareth an oath. This is the greatest evil of all that is done
under the sun, that there is the same fate for all, and that,
although the heart of the sons of men is full of evil, and
madness is in their hearts during their life, yet, after it, they
4 go to the dead; for who is excepted ? To all the living there
5 is hope, for a living dog is better than a dead lion ; since the
living know that they shall die, but the dead know not
anything ; and there is no more any advantage to them, for
6 their. memory ceaseth to be ; also their love as well as their
hatred and their zeal have long perished, and there is no
more any portion for them for ever in all that is done under
7 the sun. Go, then, eat with gladness thy bread, and drink
thy wine with cheerful heart, as God hath long since been
8 pleased with thy works ; let thy garments be white at all
9 times, and let no perfume be lacking upon thy head ; enjoy
life with the woman whom thou lovest, all the days of thy
vain life which He giveth thee under the sun, all thy vain

CHAP. X.J COHELETH. 491
days, for this is thy portion in life, and in the labour where-
10 with thou labourest under the sun: whatever thine hand
findeth to do, whilst thou art able, do it ; for there is no
work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in Hades,
11 whereunto thou art going. Then again I saw under the
sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the
strong, nor yet bread to the wise, nor riches to the intelligent,
nor favour to the learned ; that the time of misfortune cometh
12 upon all, and that man doth not even know his time ; like fish
which are taken in a destructive net, and like sparrows which
are caught in a snare, like these are the sons of men ensnared
in the time of misfortune, when it suddenly cometh upon them.
13 Even this wisdom have I seen, and it seemed great to me :
14 There was a little city, and few men in it ; and a powerful
king came against it, and besieged it, and built great towers
15 over it. And there was found in it a poor wise man, and he
saved the city by his wisdom ; and yet no one remembered
16 that poor man. Therefore I say, wisdom is indeed better
than force, yet the wisdom of the poor is despised, and his
17 words are not listened to. Though the words of the wise
are listened to with greater pleasure than the shouting of a
18 foolish ruler, and wisdom is better than instruments of war,
X. 1 yet one fool destroyeth much good ; a dead fly maketh sweet
ointment stinkingly to ferment ; a little folly is more mighty
2 than honourable wisdom. Still the mind of the wise man
3 is at his right hand, but the mind of the fool at his left ; and
even when the fool walketh on the road he lacketh his mind,
4 and yet he saith of every one. He is a fool ! If the anger of
the ruler is kindled against thee, quit not thy place, for
5 gentleness preventeth greater outrages. There is an evil
which I have seen under the sun — an outrage as that which
6 proceedeth from a ruler ; a great fool is placed in many high
7 positions, and the noble sit in degradation: I have seen
servants upon horses, and masters walking on the ground
8 as servants. Yet he who diggeth a pit shall fall into it,

492 COHELETH. [CHAP. XI.
9 and whoso breaketh down a wall a serpent shall bite him ;
he who breaketh up stones shall be hurt therewith ; whoso
10 cleaveth wood shall be cut thereby. If the axe be blunt,
and he do not sharpen it beforehand, he shall only increase
the army ; but the advantage of repairing hath wisdom.
1 1 if the serpent bite without enchantment, there is no advan-
12 tage to the charmer. The words from the mouth of the
wise man gain him favour, but those from the lips of the
13 fool destroy him ; the beginning of the words of his mouth
is folly, and the end of the words of his mouth is mischievous
14 madness. The fool also speaketh much, though no man
knoweth what shall be here nor what shall be hereafter ;
15 who can tell him it? The work of a fool wearieth him,
16 because he knoweth not how to go to the city. Woe to thee,
0 land, when thy king is childish, and thy princes feast
17 in the morning ! Happy thou, O land, when thy king is
noble, and thy princes eat in proper time, for strength and
18 not for feasting ! Through slothful hands the roof falleth
19 in, and through lazy hands the house leaketh. They turn
bread and wine, which cheereth life, into revelry, and the
20 money of  is made to supply both. Still do not
revile the king even in thy thoughts, and do not revile the
prince even in thy bed-chamber, for the bird of the air
conveyeth the report, and the winged creature telleth the
xi. 1 story. Cast thy bread upon the surface of the water, for in
2 the process of time thou mayest find the profit of it ; give a
portion thereof to seven and even to eight, for thou knowest
3 not what misfortune there may be upon the earth. When
the clouds are full of rain they empty it upon the earth,
and when the tree falleth in the south or north, in the
4 place where the tree falleth there it lieth ; whoso therefore
watcheth the wind shall not sow, and he who looketh at the
5 clouds shall not reap. As thou knowest as little the course
of the wind as the formation in the womb of the pregnant,
so thou knowest not the work of God who worketh all

CHAP. XII.J COHELETH. 493
6 things. Sow, then, thy seed in the morning, and withhold
not thine hand therefrom in the evening, since thou knowest
not which shall prosper, this or that, or whether both shall
7 be alike good ; and the light shall be sweet, and it shall be
8 cheering to the eyes to see the sun. For even if a man
should live many years, he ought to rejoice in them all, and
to remember that there will be many dark days, that all
9 which is coming is vanity ! Rejoice, O young man, in thy
youth, and let thy heart cheer thee in thy youthful days,
and pursue the ways of thine heart, and the things which
are seen by the eyes, and know that, respecting all these,
10 God -will bring thee into judgment. Banish, therefore,
sorrow from thy mind, and put away sadness from thy body,
xii. 1 for youth and manhood are vanity ; and remember thy
Creator in the days of thy youth, before the days of evil
come, and the years arrive of which thou shalt say, I have
2 no pleasure in them : before the sun becometh dark, and
the light, and the moon, and the stars, and the clouds
3 return after the rain ; when the keepers of the house shall
quake, and the men of power writhe, and the grinding-
maids shall stop because they have greatly diminished, and
the women who look out of the -windows shall be shrouded
4 in darkness ; and the doors shall be closed in the street :
when the noise of the mill shall grow faint, and the swallow
shall rise to shriek, and all the singing birds shall retire ;
5 yea the people shall be frightened at that which is coming
from on high, and at the terrors which are on their way ; and
the almond shall be despised, and the locust shall be loathed,
and the caper-berry shall be powerless ; for man goeth to
his eternal home, and the mourners walk about the street :
6 before the silver cord goeth asunder, and the golden bowl
escapeth, or the bucket breaketh upon the fountain, and the
7 wheel is shattered at the well, and the body returneth to
the earth as it was, and the spirit goeth back to God who
gave it.

494 COHELETH. [CHAP. XII.
8 Vanity of vanities, saith Coheleth ; all is vanity !
9 And besides that Coheleth was a wise man, he also taught
the people wisdom, and carefully and studiously composed
10 many parables. Coheleth sought to find words of comfort,
11 and he wrote down frankly the words of truth. The words
of the wise are like goads, and those of the masters of the
assemblies are like fixed stakes, given by the same shepherd.
12 And beyond these, my son, beware ! to make many books
there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh.
13 In conclusion, everything is noticed; fear God, and keep
14 his commandments, for this every man should do ; for God
will bring every work to the judgment appointed over every
secret thing, whether it be good or evil.

APPENDICES.

I.
ANCIENT VERSIONS.
Tbe comparison of tbe ancient versions with the original, instituted
throughout the Commentary, has shewn us that there are considerable
discrepancies between them and the Hebrew. Many and various have
been the attempts made by critics to account for these divergences. Some
have supposed that the translators bad a different text to what we now
have; others that they had a meagre knowledge of tbe Hebrew, and mis
understood its meaning; some have maintained that they have designedly
deviated from the original, and that no heed is to be paid to tbeir false
renderings; whilst others, again, have assured us that the Jews have since
wilfully corrupted the text, that the unadulterated readings are to be found
in the ancient versions, and that the Hebrew text must be corrected by
them. These extreme opinions, however, proceed from the erroneous suppo
sition that the ancient translators had tbe scientific and well-defined rules
of exegesis, as well as the critical apparatus, which we now possess, and that
the genius of tbe Greek and Latin languages admits of a literal and ver
batim translation of tbe Hebrew; so that by turning the Greek or Latin
version again into Hebrew, we obtain tbe words, tbe gender, number, and
tense of the original. Thus, we are gravely assured, by eminent critics, that
the Septuagint's rendering of nbnp nnipN by eIvev i EXK\ric^iasrl)g shews the incor
rect separation of the words in the Hebrew ; o Ixxxniriao-Tnt being a masculine
noun in Greek, tbe Hebrew word nbnp, for wbich it stands, must also be
masct;line, and hence cannot be construed with nni?N, a feminine verb (vide
supra, p. 388). Tbe folly of this mode of proceeding will appear all the
more glaring when we bear in mind that, apart from tbe difference of idioms,
which frequently necessitated the addition or omission of words or the solu
tion of tropes, and the ioadverterices, inconsistencies, and mistakes which
are to be found in all human productions, the translators, having been
Jews, or impregnated with Jewish opinions, followed the Hagadic mode of
interpretation, and frequently explained the text according to the rules
described in the Introduction (p. 30), thus giving us rafber the views of others
about the meaning of passages than that which the words themselves signify.
Every repetition of a word or sentence in the Scriptures, every figure of
speech, parallelism, and synonymous expression, word, syllable, letter — nay,
the very shape and ornaments, or titles, tbe similarity of appearance or
sound of one letter or word to another Hebrew or foreign letter or word,
are regarded by the Hagadic interpreters as furnishing a clue to unlock tbe
recondite and mysterious treasure concealed in the Bible. Hence tbe

496 APPENDIX I.
various senses assigned to the same word or phrase when repeated ; hence
the alteration of letters or words according to the exigencies of the place ;
hence the interchange of assonances, or of letters and expressions resembling
each other; hence the different separations of the same word; hence the
reduction of letters and words to their numerical value, and their explanation
by other letters and words of the same quantity, and many other modes of
dealing with the text, most of which have been pointed out in the Commen
tary as having been practised by the ancient translators. Tbe extent, however,
of the Hagadic influence on the ancient versions can only be ascertained
by a careful comparison of these versions with the Midrashim, the Talmud,
and the Chaldee paraphrases. It will then be seen that many of the dis
crepancies between the ancient versions and the Hebrew text are neither
owing to ignorance on tbe part of the translators, nor to different readings,
nor to a wilful corruption of the text, but are simply the result of the
application of one or other of the Hagadic rules of interpretation, exam
ples of which have been given in p. 30, Sec, and throughout the Commentary.
All that remains to be done now, is to classify some of the deviations of
those versions. The Septuagint, being the oldest version, claims our atten
tion first. A. The Septuagint.
The Hagadic influence on this version manifests itself in various ways,
and accounts for, as well as explains, many renderings wbich are otherwise
inexplicable and unintelligible. Thus —
1. The particle nN, the sign of the accusative, which occurs as such
seventy-one times in Coheleth, is in forty-two instances — i. 13; ii. 3. 10. 12.
14. 20. 24 ; iii. 11.15; iv. 3. 5. (twice) 8. 10 ; v. 3. 5. (thrice) 18. 19 ; vii. 7. 13.
(twice) 14. 18. (twice) 21; viii 8. 9. 16, (twice); ix, 7, 11,12. 15; x. 20; xi 5.6.
8; xii. 1. 13. (twice) — -regarded as the accusative; whereas in the other twenty-
nine instances — i 14; ii. 17. 18; iii. 10. 11. (twice) 17. (twice); iv. 1. 2. 3. 4.
(twice) lo; v. 6 ; vii. 15. 26; viii. 8. 9. 15. 17. (twice); ix. 1. (twice) 15;
X. 19; xi 7; xii. 9. 14 — it is rendered by a-lv = with. Commentators have
been perplexed to account for this barbarism and violation of grammatical
propriety ; but a reference to the Hagadic exegesis will shew that this Hebrew
particle was looked up to as having a mystical significance, because the two
letters, n and n, of which it is composed, are tbe alpha and omega of the
Hebrew alphabet (comp, Midrash Kabba, Yalkut, and Rashi, on Numb, vi.
13,), Hence tbe anxiety of the translator to indicate this particle in Greek,
when a passage appeared to him to be fraught with special mysteries.
2. The Hagadic influence is still more evident iu the peculiar renderings
and paraphrases of ii. 12. 17; iii. 15; iv. 17; v. 1; vi. 8; vii. 6. 12. 21 ;
viii. 1; X. 17. 19 ; xi. 9 ; xii. 9, where whole phrases and sentiments of the
Hagada have been introduced into the Greek version, as has been shewn
in the Commentary, many of which can only be understood by comparing
them with the Midrashim or Chaldee paraphrase.
3. As the object of this mode of interpretation is more to shew the
recondite and spiritual meaning of every detached verse and clause than
to elucidate the design of the inspired book, such sentences as apparently
savoured of heterodoxy are made orthodox by adding or explaining away
some words (comp. ii. 15. 17; xi. 9).
4. Changing letters or words for those which are similar in appearance
or sound, is one of the rules whereby the many meanings of the text are
obtained (comp. i. 18; ii 3; v. 16. 17; vii. 22; viii 6, 9. 12; ix. 2, with
Introduction, p. 31).
5. Such exegesis can have no regard for tbe recurrence of some phrases;

APPENDIX I. 497
and hence tbe same sentences are rendered according to the will of the trans
later (comp. i. 9 with iii. 15), who frequently adds words (i. 1-vii 2
X. 19), or alters them (vii. 18; viii. 10; x. 10), or changes them (i. 13
u. 3 ; viii. 18), when it is deemed necessary to obtain a particulor sense.
£. When the translator has no recondite meaning to evolve, and adheres
to the text, his renderings sometimes follow the very order of the words in
the Hebrew and are exceedingly obscure (comp. viii. 11.), but sometimes
are happy, and are a valuable contribution to modern criticism, e.g. v. 15 ;
viii 5. 9. 15; ix. 17, and many other passages duly noticed in the Commen
tary. B. Aquila.
The disrepute into which the Septuagint had fallen among the Jews
induced Aquila, a Jewish proselyte who flourished about a d. 150, to under
take a new translation, which he e.iecuted with slavish literality, as is
evident from the surviving portion of it. He, too, translated the mysterious
particle "nN by tr-jv.i The Talmud speaks in high terms of this version.''
And though it is to be greatly regretted that the fragments of it which have
escaped destruction are too small to shew us what sense the translator
attached to the diflBcult portions of Coheleth, yet they frequently indicate
the old-readings of the text. C. Theodotion.
Whether it was the servile, and at times unintelligible, version of Aquila,
or some other cause, which made it necessary that another translation of the
Hebrew verity should be made, it is now difficult to say; all tbat we know
is, that Theodotion, also a Jewish proselyte, a native of Ephesus and a con
temporary of Aquila, published a fresh translation shortly after the former
appeared. The fragments which have come down to us of his version of
Coheleth are too insignificant to enable us to .judge what mode he adopted
in translating this difficult book. It appears, however, from his transla
tion of tbis (comp. i. 13; iii, 19; viii. 6), and other portions of Scripture.
that he made both tbe Septuagint and Aquila the basis of his translation,
and that be followed tbe Hagadic exegesis, as is evident from Gen. iv. 4.,
where he trsnslotes nin; 9«i».i by xal Evempia-Ev o SrsSg, and Ood set on fire, of
which St. Jerome highly approves, and remarks, unde scire poterat Cain, quod
fratris munera suscepisset Deus et sua repudiasset, nisi ilia interpretatio vera
esset, quam Theodotion posuit : Et infiammavit Dominus super Abel, et super
sacrifioium ejus, Sc. Ignem autem ad sncrificium devorandvm solitum venire
de ccelo.^ Rashi, who gives us the Hagadic explanations, says, nsnbi u)n nnn'
innao, afire descended and consumed his sacrifice. 'Theodotion also renders
'^.''IVP y?.?? '*?'liP.'~'.?? '''J D'^Oni by WEfiWraiJoVTE? is avE^nirav ol viol ItrpanX Ix Tn; yf,q
' Aquila autem proselytus et contentiosus interpres, qui non solum verba, sed
etymologias quoque verborum transferre conatus est, jure projicitur a nobis.
Quis enim pro fruraento, et vino, et oleo possit, vel legere vel ictelligere, x^'^f^f'
aieaipiirf^m, Tn'K'itvorma (Deut. vii. 13.), quod nos possumus dicere fusionem poma-
tionemque et splendentiam. Aut quia Hebrsei non solum habent apBpa, sed et
irpoapBpa ; ille xawJiiXM; et syllabas interpretatur et litteras, dicitque ahv tov ovpavh
xal a-vv rhv yriv, quod Grasca et Latina Lingua omnino non recipit. — Hieronym. Ep.
ad Pammach. de opt. gen. interpretandi. Comp. Henry Owen, An Enquiry into
the present state of tbe Septuagint version of the Old Testament, p. 102 ;
Davidson, Biblical Criticism, p. 216.
2 Sabbath, 8, b ; Yoma, 41, a. ; Megilla, 73, b.
' Hieronym. qutestion. Heb. in Genesin ad h. versum.
3 S

498 APPENDIX I.
Alyiimv, and one of five did the children of Israel go out of the land of,
Egypt (Exod, xiii. 18); according to the Midrash (in hco), which explains
D'lSpm by INS' nfflono nnw, which is also mentioned by Rashi, who remarks,
nbDN'n'nicbicainDO'pbnnsanNiiNS' iDnno nnN '-'woino ''wnn nnN nm, that D'lmon
is also explained by one of five, i.e., one from five went out, and four portions
died during the three days of darkness. It is also owing to Hagadic influ
ence tbat Theodotion frequently retains Hebrew words without translating
them (comp. Exod. xii. 11; Levit. xiii. 6. 19), fearing lest he might not
succeed in giving the correct equivalent in Greek.

D. Symmachus.
Shortly after the appearance of tbe above two versions, Symoiachus, who
is represented by Eusebius and St. Jerome as an Ebionite, published a third
translation, which is greatly superior to its predecessors, and has been justly
held in high estimation by the most judicious of the Esthers. The fragments
which remain of this shew that Symmachus aimed more at giving the sense of
the Hebrew in intelligent, perspicuous, and elegant Greek, than at being
slavishly literal (comp. i 13 ; ii 25 ; vi. 21). He was master of the Hebrew
and Greek, and has given us some happy renderings (comp. i. 13; iii. 1;
iv. 1. 12; ix. 4; x. 3. 9; xii. 1); yet he also sometimes follows the Septua
gint (v. 8; ix. 2 ; x. 9), even in its, Hagadic interpretations (iii. 15) ; he also
mistook words (v. 2), and adopted the mistakes of Aquila and Theodotion
(viii 12). E. The Sybiao Version.
The best version that antiquity has produced is tbe Syriac. This precious
relic, which has been preserved to us entire, is of inestimable value for
tbe criticism and interpretation of the Old Testament; the Syriac being
a cognate language, the translator has frequently been able to give in the
version the very roots of the original, and to follow the very order of the
words and construction of the Hebrew. That this version was made direct
from the Hebrew is evident —
1. From the several mistakes into which the translator bas fallen. Thus,
for instance, he mistook D'nbwn xr&b for r'nbNn c:Nni >3 (iii. 18), Dna and i3Nni
having tbe same pronunciation in Hebrew, which could only be done by
the translator having the Hebrew before him. The same is the case with
his mistaking nbnj, an inheritance, for nb'n:, an instrument (vii. 11) ; D'b'n, the
army, for D'bbn, the slain (x. 10) ; and changing obs? into bD», by a transposi
tion of tbe second and third radicals, which is effected directly from the
Hebrew. 2. From the translation following the very order of the words in the
original, e.g.
S'rch ^'N iJODi *]'t3inb ]'n vbs? abwb n'n' Min D'nbNn n»S' niBN ba 'a 'nsn'
nsaob n'b nmi isoirab n'b 'nib» Db»b N:n3 in N'nn nasn ban n»n'
... vjaboiNT'iB niDS D'nbNni
chap. 111. 14. j,jQ p^n.,3., nas'N'nni
piB'b lb n'M i23'N n'ffl»b »aicni bas' nann i^ni idsd tjN nasn n:ir) npinn
¦jonob nb paic Nb Nn'nsb Nsani baN 'ao jn nisi jn Nnbon vrnya N'bn
chap. V. 11.
iius ja nws n'sa inanm'i labn' itmp Dipnoi iNai D'nap D'Stun 'n'Nn pai
mas N:ann Nni'nna isianNi ibiN Ntunipn NnnN joi j'nNi j'n'apn NS'-^n n'ln p'ni
chap. viii. 10.

APPENDIX I.

499

The parallels require no comment, and are an irrefragable proof that the
Syriac version was made directly from the Hebrew. As this invaluable
translation has been greatly neglected, I have collated it with the Hebrew,
the result of which may be seen in the following columns : —

THE SYEIAC.
bsn-o' Tbn nm ji nnbiB N'n nbnp noD
\D'N sa-o' Nb
bs' nn
'lb nN WN'b ':n 'naoi
D'nas 'b 'n':p
nann n'l 'm
nmiDi nns) 'b 'n'»s
bos baai
iniDSc DS pa
nann nan baon »3
luniD
iBpab nsi naNb ns
pn"na
f^-nn nN tjinnb
D'nbNn DNna '3
tanb s'j'
Dba nN nnp'
Dna ara
n'n'© baa
nno aiiD
aiiD niiDSb nnn
D'nbN
nsnn nann
IQBlBal
naiion bsab
baa pnn' no
baNi »bm F|Spi DS3
nbnp ':n 'n'Nn
lb njSD
vnnN i3b3N'
Nin 'bni
[imn'n] no b'D3n p D3nb jmn' »' 'a
'lai '»n '3
aiiQ D»
aiiQ mnn Qi'i
iab bN alio jn'
anp 'baa bsa
¦TIDD3 nNn
nann njw nob nann snjnn bN
SDion Nb -iab mn bN D'swn man' niDN
pirn n'niB p nnv
niBpa niBN
noiD "jbD 'D
nWN3

THE HEBBEW.

i. 8

ID'S bav Nb

ii2

bbino

3

7
D'nas 'n'jp
n'a ':ai
8
ninmi nniB
11
bosii
12
iniics naa nwN hn
16
25
'300
iii.l
D'taiB
6
naNb nsi icpab ns
12
vna
15
fjnnjn nN
18
D'nbNn Dnab
19
'3
Dnb
22
alia
n'n'ia nna
IV. 17
nnn
sn nwsb
v. 3
•^12 nnn
5
"(Nbn
6
nann
7
pnsi iQDinn
10
n'bsab
15
lb pnn' nta
16
fjspi vbni DS3
17
'3N 'n'Nn
19
n:Bn
vi.3
¦ubaN'
Nin sn 'bni
8
'iji '3Sb nta
b'oan p Danb nnv nn '3
vii. 1
DU)
mnn dvi
2
la bN p
11
nnan ds
12
bsa
14
nNn
17
nannsfflnnbN
21
sown Nb
n«M "^ab jnn bN man' niuN
24
rvnw nn pinn
28
nmpa ms niON
viii. 2
nniD ^bn 'D '3N
4
n«)Na
500 APPENDIX I.

THE SYEIAC.

THE HEBBEW.

lb n'n"i) nm n'n-i) nnb snvsj j'n '3

viii. 7

'o n'n' nfflNa 'a n'n'ia nn sn' i33's '3

'n vnnN

nnnbn ova
8
nnnbna
'DN sn'i
12
»:n snv DJ '3
pbs
16
niBM3
m ba nN nNn 'ab-v
ix,l
ni b3 nN niabi
ban Dn'iDb ba
Dn'Kb ban
Nniabi n'niob snbi aiiab
2
Nniabi mnabi aiiDb
Daaba sn nibbim
3
Daaba mbbim
D'nbNn nsn '3
7
D'nbNn nsn naa '3
ba innffln nnn -p p:
1 niBN -]ban "n 'n' ba
¦jban -"n 'n' ba
9
¦Jban 'o'
D'nisn
14
D'bma n'niso
ponn Nin labm
15
Nin labm
nann niaan
X. 1
niaan
D'3D Nini
10
D'3B Nb Nim
nai' D'bbni
naa' D'b'n>
D'b'oan 'bns
15
D'b'oan bns
n:'non bN nabb
•vv bw nabb
jniBi J" Dnb
19
j"i Dnb
baa DniN^nsio'i nw Fjcani
ban
nN n:s' Fjoani
¦[bp n.M -^'bv
20
bipn nN i'bv
1'nan n'j'
•
nan Ta'
nn snn Nb 'a n:inffib f]N nsawb pbn ]n
xii
D'n'n ana '3 D'nn
'H
bs -pnb nbin
pNn bs n'n' nsn
laNsnn
D'n'n ana '3 cnn ':d bs -[nnb nbia
2
"W
1 nsafflb pbn jn
ijNSnn
JIBS ynNa
3
jiBsa
ntBN
5
niDN3
sni npa ba
6
sm npaa
-onisn 'Nnb nnvi C'vsb avDi
7
iDninn nN niNnb WTsb aioi
-jab p'lD'i
9
-['mnina
'n'a -jab -ja'c'i
nsn Nbi
10
mnnicni
nn'n niNi
xii, 2
m'm niMni
npmn yivi npiun vbs yi3i
5
npinn yNj'i
navaNn noni njvaNn nnoni
navaMn nam
ibns n'a
inbs n'a
nnb^ij
6
nnb ms
nbnp iDpa nann
nbnp lapa
niDD 'bsa
11
niDDN 'bsa
sniu ba
13
sniBa ban
Dns bab jn: nnN nsnn ni '3
DnNn ba ni '3
nbjji Dbs: ba bs
14
Dbs: ba bs
Now a careful analysis of these variations between the Syriac and the
Hebrew will shew that they may be traced to the following sources ; —
1. Hagadic influence (ii. 12. 15. 16; iii 16. 19 ; iv. 17 ; v. 1 ; vi 8; vii.
21; X. 19; xii. 5).
2. Carelessness of transcribers (iii. 6; xi. 1. 2 ; xii 11. 13); mistaking
letters that resemble one another (vii. 12 ; viii. 4).
3. Later additions, e.g., the superscription, &c.
4. A desire to have the same verb as a similar phrase in the corre
sponding clauses of the verses i. 8 ; ii. 2.
APPENDIX I. 501
5. Glaring mistakes, which arose from inadvertency (ii. 7 ; viii. 8) ; from
marginal glosses (viii. 17 ; x. 19 ; xii. 5) ; from joining clauses
(ii. 7 ; vii. 2).
6. The translator mistook the roots (iii. 18 ; vii. 11 ; s. 10).
7. Bad renderings on the part of tbe translator (vii. 24; viii. 7. 16 ; xi.
7 ; xii 2) ; or made by another band (xi 10 ; xii 6, 13).
8. Omissions (v. 3. 7; vi 12; vii. 28; viii 2. 12; ix. 7. 9. 14; x. 10;
xi 9).
9. Additions by way of explanation, some good (v. 3. 10. 15. 17; vi. 12;
vii. 1.3; ix. 15 ; x. 1, 15 ; xi. 3. 6; xii. 14) ; some bad (v. 6. 16.
19; vii 4; ix. 2 ; x. 19).
10. Better readings than the Hebrew (ii. 7. 11 ; viii. 8).
It must also be added that a comparison of i. 10. 13 ; ii, 3. 15 ; v, 6. 16 ;
vii 2. 21 ; viii 4; ix. 1, 2. 9 ; x. 19 ; xi 10. 13, with the Septuagint's ren
derings of these passages, will convince the most cursory reader that a later
and unskilful hand has been tampering with the Syriac, trying to make
it agree with the Septuagint. Chapter xi. 10, where the boa-barous and
non-Syriac |A^^_ po is put in for tbe Hebrew nmniSm, to answer to the
Septuagint's » avoia, shews that the masterly Syrian who translated Coheleth
had nothing to do with it. F. The Old Italic.
The Old Italic Version forms the basis of the one on which St. Jerome
wrote the Commentarium nd Paulam et Eustochium. St. Jerome indeed
declares, in the preface to this commentary, " I followed nobody's authority;
but though I translated from the Hebrew, I at tbe same time adapted my
translation to the manner of tbe Septuagint in such things as did not differ
much from tbe Hebrew;" yet a careful analysis of it will sbew that the
words of the Father must not be interpreted strictly, and tbat his version is
a patchwork of tbe Hebrew, tbe Septuagint, the Old Italic, Aquila, Theodo
tion, Symmachus, and the Midrash. That it is largely made up of Jewish
traditions, we have seen in tbe Introduction (p. 3, &c.), and throughout
the Commentary. A few instances will suffice to shew how St. Jerome
drew upon tbe Greek versions, whether they were right or wrong, nibbin (i. 17)
is rendered by Aquila w^iva;, by St. Jerome errores; nn: (iv. 6), Symmachus
fiEra avairava-eoiq, St. Jorome cum rcquie ; JiisJ'b ib n'jn 13.:'n n'ltisb naten-i (v. 11),
Symmachus S 5e wxnirjttovn rot wXouo-i'ou ovx ia xaflEuJsiv,. St, Jerome et saturitas
divitis non sinit eum dormine; nip' aina^ (xii. 10), Aquila and Symmachus
vvvEypa-^Ev opflajj, St. Jerome scriberet recte. 'the fact, however, that St.
Jerome has thoroughly espoused the Hagadic mode of interpretation, and
incorporated in bis commentary so many of tbe Hagadic expositions, ren
ders his writings important for historical purposes, inasmuch as the Jewish
traditions preserved by him frequently furnish us with the clue to the
sources whence tbe Septuagint derived its renderings.
G. The Vulgate.
Three years after tbe publication of the above commentary, St. Jerome
finished the translation of Coheleth contained in the Vulgate. When we
add to what has already been said about his approving the Hagadic expla
nations and drawing upon the different Greek versions, that he only took
three days to translate the three reputed books of Solomon, viz,,. Proverbs,

502 APPENDIX I.
Coheleth, and the Song of Songs, as he informs Bishops Cbromatius and
Heliodorus,' we shall not wonder that the Vulgate on Coheleth —
1. Has largely copied the Hagadic explanations (i. 15 ; ii. 12. 17 ; iv. 1 ;
vi 8; vii. 3. 6, 12, 14: ix. 3. 6 ; x. 17. 19 ; xi. o) ; and also taken
words in a double sense (viii. 18 ; x. 10), according to the same
mode of interpretation.
2. Misunderstood the usage of phrases (i 16, 17).
3. Altered words and whole sentences (i 10 ; ii. 12; viii. 10; x. 10, 18),
sometimes to avoid apparent discrepancies (viii. 13), and sometimes
omitting them altogether (i 5; ii. 12; iv. 2; viii. 4).
4. Abounds in inconsistencies (i. 9 with iii. 15 ; iv. 7), and loose and
unaccountable paraphrases (ii 3. 16; iii 9; vii 12).
5. Has largely copied Symmachus, whose version St. Jerome greatly
admired. Comp. lio nj-'N . . . nnana ari: 'abi . ¦ . '?>? ''n'ii?(ii. 3)
Symmachus Kal IvofiBm ev tw xapiia foou . . . i'va riiV xapiiav fAOU fj.erayaya3
slg cro<fiav . . . oToTov to criiftifopov, the Vulgate cogitavi in corde meo . . .
. . . ut animum meum transferrem ad sapientiam . . . quid esset
utile; 'aN 'n'Nn"niSN nsn (v. 17), Symmachus l/ttol oZv l^ivn, the Vulgate
hoc itaque visum est mihi; ip^n-nN nNtpbi (v. 18), Symmachus Kal
airoXaDs-ai rtig f^Eplhg auxSv, tbOiVulgato et fruatur parte sua ; Dan bbin;
(vii. 7), Symmachus SopuKo-Ei iro<p6v, the Vulgate conturbat sapientem;
s>T. «'' (viii. 5), Symmachus ov mipaBwirai, the Vulgate non experie
tur; ab Nbo j5"bs (viii. 11), Symmachus afotx xapiia, the Vulgate
absque timore. It will he seen tbat all these are instances of
departure from the literal meaning of the text, and that there is,
therefore, no other way of accounting for this extraordinary agree
ment in the loose renderings, than that the later paraphrast copied
the earlier one. St. Jerome has also adopted many of Symmachus'
good renderings. Comp. ^'Ti?? (vii. 21), Symmachus woiSopoDvTof a-i,
the Vulgate maledicentem tibi; lies-js n^N (viii. 10), Symmachus
ij iixaia vpa^ayrEq, the Vulgato quasi justorum operum.
Eor further strictures upon the Vulgate we must refer to the Commentary,
where its peculiarities have been noticed in tbeir respective places. We
would only add, that too much stress cannot be laid upon the necessity of
tracing tbe sources of the Vulgate, and of forming a true estimate of its,
merits and demerits, inasmuch as the Reformers, in tbeir translations, have
drawn largely upon tbis version.
H. The Chaldee Paeaphrase.
The importance of this paraphrase to historical exegesis is incalculable,
inasmuch as it contains the Hagadic interpretation of Coheleth, and gives
us the sources of all the preceding versions. Through it, many of the
obscure passages in tbe Septuagint, Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus, the
Vulgate, the Syriac, &c., become intelligible, as has been shewn in different
parts of the Commentary. Convinced that a more extensive comparison
of it with the ancient versions than the limits of our Commentary have
permitted us to institute, will greatly contribute to tbe criticism of these
versions, we subjoin a literal translation of the whole Cbaldee paraphrase,
and only wish that we could also give a translation of tbe Midrashim on
' Itaque segrotatione fraotu3,ne penitus hoc anno reticerem, et apud vos mutus
essem, tridui opus nomini vestro oonsecravi, interpretationem videlicet trium
Salominis voluminum, Masloth . . . Cohelet . . . Sirhassirim. Prsef. in libb.
Salomonis.

APPENDIX I. 503
Coheleth, which would have shewn to a still greater extent how much the
old translations and the modern versions which follow them are indebted to
tbe Hagada —
i. 1 The words of prophecy which Coheleth, that is, the son of David the
2 King, wbo was in Jemsalem, prophesied. When Solomon the King of
Israel foresaw, by the spirit of prophecy, the kingdom of Rehoboam his son,
which will be divided with Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and that Jerusalem
and the holy temple will be destroyed, and that the people of Israel will be
led into captivity, he said by the divine word. Vanity of vanities is this
world I vanity of vanities is all which I and my father David have laboured
3 for, all of it is vanity ! What advantage is there to a man, after his death,
from all bis labour which he laboured under the sun in this world, except
he studied the word of God, in order to receive a good reward in the
4 world to come from before tbe Lord of the world? King Solomon said,
by the spirit of prophecy, The good generation of tbe righteous depi>irt3
from tbe world because of the sins of tbe wicked generation that is to
follow them, but tbe earth abides for ever and ever, to reserve the
punishment which is to come upon tbe world, on account of the sins of
5 the children of men. And the sun rises in the day from the east, and
the sun goes down in the west by night, and hastens to its place, and
goes through the path under the sea, and rises the following day from
6 tbe place where it rested yesterday ; it goes all tbe side of tbe south in
the day, and goes round to the side of the north by night, through the
path under the sea; it turns round and round to tbe wind of the
south corner in the revolution of Nisan and Tamuz, and returns on its
circuits to the wind Of the north corner in tbe revolution of Tishri and
Tebeth ; it comes through the windows of the east in the morning, and
7 goes into tbe windows of the west in tbe evening. All the rivers and
streams of water go and flow into the waters of the ocean which surround
tbe world like a ring, and the ocean is not full, and to the place where
the streams go and flow there they go again through tbe channels of the
8 sea. The ancient prophets have exerted themselves in all the things
which will take place in the world, and they could not find out
their end; therefore, a man has no power to declare what will be
after him, neither can the eye see all that is to be in the world, nor can
the ear be filled with hearing all the words of the inhabitants of tbe
9 earth. What was aforetime, the same will be afterwards again, and
what was done aforetime tbe same will be done again to the end of all
generations, and there is no new thing in tbe world under the sun.
10 There may be something of wbich a man says. Behold, this is a new
thing, hut it has been long ago, in the generations which were before us.
11 There is no remembrance of former generations, and also of the coming
ones that will be, there will be no remembrance of them among the
12 generations which will be in tbe days of tbe King Messiah. When King
Solomon was sitting upon tbe throne of his kingdom, his heart became
very proud of bis riches, and he transgressed the word of God, and he
gathered many horses, and chariots, and riders, and he amassed much
gold and silver, and he married from foreign nations, whereupon the
anger of the Lord was kindled against him, and he sent to him Ashmoda
the king of the demons, who drove him from the throne of bis kingdom,
and took oway tbe ring from his hand, in order that he should roam and
wander about in the world to reprove it ; and he went about in the pro
vincial towns and the cities of the land of Israel, weeping and lamenting,
and saying, I am Coheleth, whose name was formerly called Solomon,
13 who was king over Israel in Jerusalem : and I gave my heart to ask

504 APPENDIX I.
instruction from God at the time when he appeared unto me in Gibeon,^
to try me, and to ask me what I desire of him, and I asked nothing of
him except wisdom, to know the difference between good and evil, and
knowledge of whatsoever was done under the sun in this world, and I
saw all tbe works of the wicked children of men, — a bad business which
14: God gave to the children of men to be afflicted by it : I saw all tbe
works of the children of men which were done under the sun in this
15 world; behold, all is vanity and breaking of the spirit. A man whose
ways are perverted in this world, and who dies therein and does not
repent, has no power to become right after his death ; and whoso
departs from the law and the precepts in his life, has no power to be
16 numbered with the righteous in paradise after his death. I spake with
the thoughts of my heart, saying: I, behold! I have increased and
multiplied wisdom above all the wise who were before me in Jerusalem,
17 and my heart bas seen much wisdom and knowledge; and I gave my
heart to know wisdom, and the fear of tbe Kingdom, and knowledge and
discretion, I know it by experience tbat even tbis is a breaking of tbe
18 spirit to the man who is employed to find them out. Because a man
who increases his knowledge when he is guilty, and does not repent,
increases the anger of God ; and he who accumulates wisdom and dies
in his youth, increases the sadness of heart to his relations.
ii. 1 I said in my heart, I will go now and try mirth, and behold the good of
this world ; and when pain and affliction befell me, I said by tbe divine
2 word. Also this is vanity. To laughter I said, in time of affliction, It is
mockery; and to mirth. What proflt is it to the man who indulges in it?
3 I tried in my heart to enrapture my flesh in tbe house of the feast of wine,
and my heart conducted with wisdom, and to seize the folly of youth, until
I examined and saw which of them was good for tbe children of men, that
they may do while they abide in tbis world under tbe heavens, the num-
4 ber of the days of their life. I multiplied good works in Jerusalem.
I built houses, viz., the temple, to make atonement for Israel, and a royal
palace, and tbe conclave, and the porch, and a bouse of judgment of
hewn stones, where tbe wise men sit, and the judges, to give judgment ;
I made a throne of ivory for the sitting of royalty ; I planted vineyards
in Jabne, that I and the Rabbis of the Sanhedrin might drink wine, and
5 also to make libations of wine, new and old, upon the altar; I made
watered gardens and parks, and I sowed there all kinds of herbs, some
for food, some for drink, and some for medicine, and all kinds of aro
matics; 1 planted therein sterile trees, and aromatic trees, which the
spectres and evil spirits brought me from India, and all kinds of fruit-
bearing trees ; and its boundary was from the wall of the city of Jeru-
6 salem to the margin of the river Siloah ; I made receptacles of water,
whence to water the trees and the herbs; I made pools of water, to water
7 from them even the thicket which produces fine wood; I bought bond
men and bond-women from the children of Ham, and other foreign
nations; and I had officers placed over the eatables of my house, to
provide for me and tbe people of my house food twelve months of the
year, and one to provide for me during the leap-year; I had also cattle
8 and sheep more than all generations before me in Jerusalem ; I gathered
also treasures of silver and gold; even rigbt weights and measures I
made from good gold; and the treasures of kings and provinces were
given to me as tribute; I made for the temple musical instruments, that
the Levites might play them at the sacrifices, and citherns and flutes
that tbe male and female singers might play them in the wine house,
and the delights of the children of men ; and warm springs, and baths,

APPENDIX I. 505
channels pouring out cold water, and channels pouring out warm water;
9 and I multiplied goods and increased riches more than all generations
before me in Jerusalem, because my wisdom stood with me and assisted
10 me ; and whatsoever the Rabbis of tbe Sanhedrin asked of me respecting
pure and impure, innocent and guilty, I did not withhold from them any
explanation -of these things; and I did not keep my heart from the joy of
the law, because I had the inclination of heart to enjoy the wisdom given
me by God more than any man, and rejoiced in it more than in all my
labour; and this was my good portion which was assigned to me, so that
I might receive for it a good reward in the world to come, more than for
11 all my labour. And I considered all my works which my hands bad
worked, and my labours which I bad laboured to do, and behold ! it was
all vanity and breaking of spirit; and there is no profit in them under
the sun in this world ; but I shall have full reward for good work in the
12 world to come. And I gave attention to consider wisdom, and the fear
of the kingdom and understanding, because what use is there to a
man to pray after the decree of tbe King, and after retribution ? behold !
13 it is then already decreed about him and executed on him. And I saw
by the spirit of prophecy that there is an advantage to wisdom over folly,
above the advantage of the light of the day over the darkness of
14 night. The wise man reflects in the beginning what there will be at
last, and prays and averts the evil decree from the world ; while the fool
walks in darkness; and I also know that if the wise man does not pray,
and avert the evil decree from tbe world, when retribution shall como
15 upon the world, the same destiny shall befall them all. And I said in
my heart, a destiny like tbat of Saul, the son of Kish, the king, who
turned aside, and did not keep the commandment given to him about
Amalek, and tbe kingdom was taken from him, will also befall me ; and
why then am I wiser than he? And I said in my heart, that also this
16 is vanity, and there is nothing except the decree of the Lord. For the
remembrance of the wise man is not with tho fool in the world to come,
for after the death of a man, tbat which happened long ago in his life
time, when the days come which are to follow him after bis death, every
thing will be disclosed ; and why, then, say the children of men that the
17 end of tbe righteous is like that of the wicked ? And I hated all evil life,
because the evil work which is done against the children of men under
the sun in this world displeased me, for it is all vanity, and breaking of
18 spirit. And I hated all my labour which I laboured under tbe sun in
this world, for I must leave it to Rehoboam my son, who comes after me,
and Jeroboam his servant will come and take away out of his bands ten
19 tribes, and will possess half of the kingdom. And who knows whether
wise or foolish will be the king who is to be after me, and reign over all
my labour which I laboured in this world, and over all which I accom
plish in my wisdom under tbe sun in this world? and I was confounded
20 in my heart, and again snid: This, too, is vanity. And I turned about
to despair respecting all my labour which 1 laboured to acquire, and
21 was wise to accomplish under the sun in tbis world. Because there is
a man whose labour is in wisdom, reason, and justice, and be dies with
out issue ; and to a man wbo did not labour for it, he is to give it, that
22 it may be his portion ; also this is vanity, and a great evil. For what
pleasure has this man for all his labour and breaking of his heart,
23 wherewith he laboured under the sun in this world? For all his days
are sorrowful, and his business kindles bis anger, even in tbe night he
sleeps not on account of the thoughts of his heart ; this too is vanity.
24 There is nothing comely for a man but tbat he eat, drink, and make his
3 T

506 APPENDIX I.
soul see good before the sons of men, in order to do the commandments,
to walk in the straight path before him, so that it may be well with him
from bis labour; also tliis I saw, that if a man prospers in this world, it
25 is from the hand of the Lord, who decrees it so for him. For who is
occupied with the words of the law, and wbo is tbe man that bas anxiety
26 about the great day of judgment which is to come, besides me? For to
the man whose works are straight before God, he gave wisdom and
knowledge in this world, and joy with the righteous in the world to
come ; and to the wicked he gave all evil employment, to gather money
and to heap up much wealtli, to be taken away from him, and to be
given to him who pleases the Lord ; this, too, is vanity for the wicked,
and breaking of spirit.
iii. 1 To every man comes a time, and to every thing an opportune
2 season under the sun. There is a special time to beget sons and
daughters, and a special time for killing disobedient and perverse
children, to kill them with stones according to the decree of the judges;
and an opportune time for planting a tree, and an opportune time
3 for rooting up a planted tree : an opportune time for killing in war,
and an opportune time for healing the sick; an opportune time to
4 destroy a building, and an opportune time to build up a ruin : a time
to beweep the dead, and an opportune time to be joyful with laughter ;
an opportune time to mourn over the slain, and an opportune time to
5 dance at nuptials : an opportune time to throw away a heap of stones,
and an opportune time to gather stones for a building; an opportune
time to embrace a wife, and an opportune time to abstain from embrac-
6 log ber, in the seven days of mourning: an opportune time to wish for
riches, and an opportune time to lose, riches; an opportune time to
keep merchandise, and an opportune time to throw merchandise into
7 tbe sea, during a great storm: an opportune time to tear tbe garment
for the dead, and an opportune time to sew together the torn pieces:
an opportune time to be silent and not to rebuke, and an opportune
8 time to speak words of reproof: an opportune time to love each other,
and an opportune time to hate the wicked: an opportune time to make
9 war, and an opportune time to restore peace. What advantage has
tbe toiling man, wbo labours to make treasures, and to gather mammon,
10 unless he is helped by Providence from above? I saw the painful
business and punishment which the Lord gave to the children of men
11 who are wicked, to afflict them therewith. King Solomon said by tbe
spirit of prophecy, God made evei7thing beautiful in its time ; for it was
opportune that there should be the strife which was in tbe days of Jero
boam, son of Neboth ; it was to have been in tbe days of Sheba, son of
Bichri, and it was delayed, and came to pass in tbe days of Jeroboam, son
of Nebat ; for if it had been in the days of Sheba, son of Bichri, the
temple would not have been built, because of tbe golden calves which
the wicked Jeroboam made, and placed one in Beth-el and one iu Dan,
and put watches on tbe road, and they stopped the pilgrims to the feasts;
and therefore it was delayed up to tbe time when the temple was built,
in order not to binder Israel to build it. He concealed from them also
the great Name written and expressed on the foundation-stone, the
evil inclinations in their hearts being known to Him ; for if it had been
delivered into the hands of men, they would have used it, and found by
it what will come to pass in the latter days, world without end : and
He also hid from them the day of death, in order that it should not be
known to man from the beginning what -wUl come to pass at the end.
12 King Solomon said by the spirit of prophecy, I know that there, is

APPENDIX I. 507
nothing good among the children of men, but tbat they rejoice in the
13 joy of the Law, and do good in tbe days of their life. And also that if any
man eats and drinks and sees good in bis days, and causes his children
to inherit all his labour in the time of his death, this is a gift given to
14 hini from the Lord. I know by the spirit of prophecy, that every thing
wbich the Lord does in the world, whether good or evil, whatsoever is
decreed from His mouth, will be for ever; toit man has no power to add,
nor has any one power to take from it ; and at the same time, when
punishment comes into the world, it is tbe Lord who does it, that tbe
15 children of man may fear before Him. What has been from tbe begin
ning has come to pass; and what will be at tbe end of days has already
happened; and at the great day of judgment the Lord will demand the
poor and the needy from the hands of the wicked who persecuted him.
16 And further, I saw under tbe sun in tbis world, the place of judgment,
in which false judges condemn the innocent, in his judgment, in order
to acquit the guilty; and the place where the innocent is found, there the
guilty is to tyrannise over bim, because of tbe guilt of the wicked gene-
17 ration. I said in my heart, that God will judge in tbe great day of
judgment tbe righteous and tbe guilty, because a time is appointed for
every thing, and for every work done in this world they will be judged
18 there. I said in my heart concerning the children of men, as to the
chastisements and evil events which come upon them, God sends these to
try and to prove them, to see whether tbey will return in repentance and
be forgiven and healed ; but the wicked who are like beasts do not repent,
19 therefore tbey are reproved thereby to their own condemnation. For as to
the destiny of the wicked, and the destiny of the unclean beast, it is one
destiny for both of them ; and as the unclean beast dies, so he dies who
does not return in repentance before bis death ; and the breath of life of
both is judged alike in every manner, and the advantage of a sinner over
20 the unclean beast is nothing but the burial place; for all is vanity. All
go to one place ; all the inhabitants of tbe earth are made of dust, and
21 when they die, all return to the dust. Who is wise to know tbe breath
ing spirit of tbe children of men, whether it goes upward to heaven, and
22 tbe breathing spirit of cattle, whether it goes down to tbe earth ? I saw,
therefore, that there is no good in this world, but that man should rejoice
in his good works, and eat and drink, and do good to his heart; because
this is bis good part in this world, to acquire thereby the world to come,
so that no man should say in his heart, " Why am I distributing money
to do charity ? I bad better leave it to my son after me, or be nursed for
it in my old age ;" because who can bring him to see what will be after
him?
iv. 1 And I turned and saw all the oppressions which are done to
the righteous in this world under the sun, from the hand of their
oppressors ; and there is none that should speak consolation to them ;
and there is none to deliver them from the hand of their oppressors with
2 strong band and power, and none comforts them. And I praised the
dead who have long since died, and do not see the punishment which
comes into the world after their death, more than the living, who live in
3 this world in so much misery, till now. And better than botb of them
is he who has not lived till now, and has not been created, who does not
4 see the bad doings which are done in this world under the sun. And I
saw all the trouble and every good work which the children of men do, to
be nothing but jealousy, man emulating bis neighbour, to do like him;
he wbo emulates his neighbour to do good like him, the word of heaven
will do him good; and if he emulate him in evil, to do like bis badness,

508 APPENDIX I.
the word of heaven will do him evil; and also these things are vanity for
5 the wicked, and breaking of spirit. The fool goes and folds his hands in
summer, and will not labour; and in winter eats all be has, even the
6 garment from the skin of his flesh. Better for a man one handful of
food with comfort of so'ul, and without rapine and violence, than two
handsful of eating with rapine and violence, which in future will be
7 requited in tbe jiidgment in labour and breaking of spirit. And I
turned and saw the vanity which is destined to be in this world under
8 tbe sun. There is a solitary man, and no second besides him, he bas
even no son nor brother to inherit his property, and there is no end to
all bis labour, and even his eye cannot be satisfied with his riches, and
he does not say to his heart, -'Why am I labouring and restraining my
soul from good? I will arise now, and will do charity therefrom, and
will be joyful in this world with the children of men, and with the
righteous in the world to come ;" this, too, is vanity, and an evil work.
9 Better two righteous in a generation than one, and it is they wbo lead
successfully, and cause their words to be beard ; tbey have a good
reward in the world to come for their labours which they laboured to
10 sustain their generation. For if one of them falls upon the bed and lies
sick, the other will cause his friend to rise by bis prayer; but if there is
only one innocent man in a generation, it he falls upon the bed and lies
sick, he has no companion in his generation to pray for bim, yet shall he
1 1 rise by bis own merit from his sickness. Also if two sleep together — a man
and his wife, they will be warm in the winter; but one, how can he be
12 warm ? And if a wicked and strong man rises in a generation, and his
works are injurious, and cause punishments to come in the world, two
righteous shall stand up against him, and abolish the punishment by
tbeir merits; and how much more useful are three righteous wbo are in
a generation, and peace is among them, like a chain that is woven of
13 threefold cords, which does not easily break. Better, i. e., Abraham —
who is the poor youth, and in whom was the spirit of prophecy from the
Lord, and to whom the Lord was known when three years old, and
wbo would not worship an idol — than the wicked Nimrod, who was an old
and foolish king. And because Abraham would not worship an idol, be
threw him into tbe burning furnace, and a miracle was performed for
him from the Lord of the world, and be delivered him from it; and even
after this, Nimrod had no sense to be admonished not to worship the idol
14 which he worshipped before. For Abraham went out from the family of
idolaters, and reigned over the land of Canaan, for even in the reign of
15 Abraham, Nimrod became poor in tbe world. King Solomon said. By
tbe spirit of prophecy from the Lord, I foresaw all the living who walk
in tbeir folly rebel against Rehoboam, my son, under heaven, and
divide bis kingdom to give it to Jeroboam, son of Nebat — except the
tribes of Benjamin and Judah, whose heart was faithful with tbe boy,
tbat is, Rehoboam my son, who, second in my kingdom, is to rise and
16 reign in Jerusalem, the place of bis inheritance. There was no end to
all the houFe of Israel, to all the righteous before whom he ruled ; but
they advised him in their wisdom to lighten their yoke, and he in his
folly went and took counsel with the youth, and they in tbeir folly,
advised bim to make heavier the yoke of his kingdom ujon the people
of the bouse of Israel, and he left the advice of the aged, and followed
the advice of the latter; but these latter ones were afterwards confounded
and displeased with him, and they caused bim to fiee, so that the ten
tribes should separate from him ; and tbe wicked Jeroboam ruled over
them ; I said this too is vanity for Rehoboam my son, and breaking of

APPENDIX I. 509
17 spirit to him. Thou son of man, guard thy feet when thou goest to the
sanctuary of the Lord to pray, so tbat thou goest not there full of sin
before thou has repented, and incline thine ear to receive the teaching
of the Law from the priests and sages, and be not like fools, who bring
sacrifices for their sins, and do not leave off their evil works which they
hold in their hands, and they have no acceptance, for they know not
whether they do good or evil therewith.
V. 1 Do not hurry on thy language so as to make a mistake in the
words of thy mouth, and let not thy heart make a vow, resolving
to do something at tbe time when thou prayest before the Lord, for
the Lord rules over all the world, and sits upon the throne of glory
in the high heavens, and thou sittest on earth, therefore let tbe words
2 of thy mouth be few. For as a dream comes through tbe thoughts
of the heart engaged in a multitude of business, so the noise of
3 the fool through the multitude of empty words. When thou vowest a
vow before the Lord, do not defer to pay it, for the Lord hath no
pleasure in fools, because tbey defer their vows and do not pay, but
4 thou, whatsoever thou vowest, pay. It is better for thee that thou
5 vowest not, than that thou vowest and pay not. Do not degrade the
words of thy mouth to cause judgments of Gehenna upon thy flesh ; and
in the day of the great judgment thou wilt not be able to say before the
avenging angel who exercises dominion over thee, that it is an error;
why then shall the anger of tbe Lord be kindled against the voice of thy
6 shamefully uttered language, and destroy the works of thine hand ? For
in the multitude of tbe dreams of the false prophets, and in the vanities
of sorcerers, and in the many words of the wicked, believe not, but serve
tbe wise and the just; from them seek instruction, and fear before the
7 Lord. When thou seest tbe oppression of the poor, robbery, and justice
in the city, be not astonished in thy heart, saying. How can the will of
the Lord be with all this ? for the mighty God from on high watches the
works of the children of men, whether good or evil, and from bis presence
are sent forth proud and powerful men to rule over the wicked, and to be
8 appointed masters over them. And the great advantage of cultivating
the land is above all, for when tbe subjects of a country revolt, and the
king flies from them into tbe country, if he has no more to eat, this very
9 king becomes subject to a labourer in tbe field. A merchant who loves
to acquire money, and men of business, shall not be satisfied in amassing
money ; and be who loves to heap up great mammon, has no praise in
the world to come, unless be has done charity with it, because he has not
10 deserved to eat fruit; this, too, is vanity. When good is multiplied in
the world, tbe children of men who eat it are also multiplied ; and what
advantage is there to the owner who gathers it unless be does good with
it, that he may see in tbe world to come the reward given with his eyes.
11 Sweet is the sleep of a man wbo serves the Lord of tbe world with all
his heart ; and he has rest in his grave, whether he lives few years or
many years ; after having served the Lord of the world in this world, be
will inherit in tbe world to come a reward for the works of his hand.
And the wisdom of the Law of God belongs to the man who is rich in
wisdom ; in the same manner as he occupies himself with it in this world,
and exerts himself in learning, so will it rest with him in the grave, and
not leave him alone; just as a woman does not leave ber husband to
12 sleep alone. There is a sore evil which I saw in this world under the
sun, and there is no remedy for it ; a man who gathers riches and does
no good with them, and at the end of days these riches are kept for him for
13 his condemnation iu the world to come. And tbe riches, wbich he leaves

510 APPENDIX I.
to his son after his death, shall perish, because he got them in an evil em
ployment, and they shall not abide in the band of the son whom he has
14 begotten, and nothing whatever shall remain in his hand. As he came
out of his mother's womb naked, without a covering, and without any
good, so shall he return to his grave, void of merit, just as he came into
this world ; and he shall receive no good reward whatever for his labour,
to carry with him into the world whither he goes, to be a merit in his band.
15 And this also is a sore evil, and there is no remedy for it, as he came
into this world void of merit, so he shall depart into that world; and
16 what advantage has be that he laboured for his spirit? Also all his days
be dwells in darkness, that be may eat bis bread alone, and be sees in
17 much indignation, and his life is in sickness and vexation. And behold
tbat which I have seen good for the children of men, and that which is
comely for them to do in this world, that they eat and drink frota their
labours, in order not to put forth the hand to oppression and rapine, and
to keep the words of tbe law, and to have compassion on the poor, so
that they may see good in all tbeir labours wherewith they labour in this
world under tbe sun, the number of the days of a man's life, which God
in his providence gives to him ; for this is his portion, and none's beside
18 bim. Also every man to whom the Lord has given riches and wealth, and
if the Lord gave bim power to eat of it in this world, and to do good with
it, and to receive a full reward in the world to come, and to rejoice in his
work with the righteous, behold ! this is a gift which is given to him in
19 providence, it is from the Lord. For not many are the days of man's
life ; .who tries to find out the days of his life, bow many of them will be
good, and how many of them will be evil ? because it is not in the power
of the children of men ; but it is flxed about bim irom the *Loid, how
many days he shall suffer, and how many days he shall be in tbe joy of
his heart.
vi. 1 There is an evil which I saw in tbis world under the sun, and it
2 is great upon the children of man, A man to whom God gave in his
providence riches, honour, and wealth, and his soul lacks nothing of
all which he desires, and the Lord has not given him power, on account
of his sins, to enjoy it; but he dies without issue, and his kinsman would
not take possession of his inheritance, wherefore his wife will be married
to a stranger, and he will take away the inheritance and consume it; all
this his sins have brought upon bim, because he did therewith no good
whatever, and his riches .turned out to be to him vanity and a sore evil.
3 If a man should beget a hundred children, and live many years, and be
in power and dominion all the days of his life, and his soul has not
enjoyed the good which he has, because be loved his riches, and has not
acquired therewith a good name, nor even prepared himself a grave, I say
by the divine word, better than he an untimely birth, wbich has not seen
4 this world. For jn vanity he came into this world, and departs in dark
ness into that world ; and in darkness is his name covered, because he
has no merit, and has not acquired a good name worthy of remembrance.
5 And even the light of tbe sun he saw not, and did not know good from
6 evil, to discern between this world and the world to come. And if tbe
days of the life of this man were two thousand years, and he had not
studied the Law, and bad not done judgment and justice by the oath
of the word of the Lord, in the day of his death bis soul will go to
7 Gehenna, to the same place whither all sinners go. As for all the
labours of man, he labours for the food of his mouth ; and by the word
of tbe mouth of the Lord he is sustained, and even the soul of man is not
8 satisfied with eating and drinking. For what advantage has the wise

APPENDIX I. 511
man in this world over tbe fool, because of tbe wicked generation by
which be is not accepted; and what is this poor man to do but to study
the law of the Lord, that he may know how he will have to walk in the
9 presence of the righteous in paradise. It is better for a man to rejoice
about the world to come, and to do righteousness, and to see a good
reward for his labours in tbe day of tbe great judgment, than to go into
that world with an afflicted soul ; for this is vanity, and a breaking of
10 spirit to a guilty man. Tbat wbich has been in the world, behold! its
name bas long been called, aud bas been made known to the children of
men from the day that the flrst Adam existed, and all is the decree of the
Lord ; and men cannot starid in judgment with the Lord of tbe world,
11 who is stronger than he. For there are many things which multiply
vanity in the world, what advantage has the man who is occupied with
12 them? For who is he tbat knows what will do men good in tbis world,
but to study the Law, which is the life of tbe world ; and all the number
of the days of his vain life which be lives, are in the time of his death
considered like a shadow ; for who is he tbat can tell man what there is
before him in this world under tbe sun ?
.vii 1 Better the good name which the righteous acquire in this world,
than the anointing oil which was poured upon the heads of kings and
priests; and the day wherein a man dies and departs to the grave
with a good name and merits, than the day wherein the wicked is
2 born into the world. It is better to go to a mourning man to com
fort bim, than to go to the house of a feast of wine of the scorners;
for into the bouse of mourning thither is the end of all men to go,
for upon all is decreed the decree of death, and by going into the
house of mourning the righteous man sits down and takes to heart
the words of death ; and if there be any evil in his hand he will leave it,
3 and return in repentance before the Lord of the world. Better is the
anger wherewith the Lord of the world is angry with the righteous in
this world, than the laughter wherewith he laughs at the wicked ; for by
the displeasure of the face of the Shecbinah come famine and punish
ment into the world to improve the heart of the righteous, and tbey pray
4 before the Lord of the world, who has mercy upon them. 'The heart of
the wise mourns over the destruction of the temple, and grieves over the
captivity of the house of Israel ; and the heart of fools is in the joy of
the bouse of their scoffings; tbey eat and drink and fare sumptuously,
5 and do not take to heart the affliction of tbeir brethren. Better to sit at
the teaching of the house of instruction, and to hear the reproof of the
wise in the Law, than for a man to go to hear the sound of a musical
6 instrument of a fool. For as the sound of the crackling of thorns which
burn under a pot, so is the noisy laughter of the fool; this also is vanity.
7 For tbe robber mocks at tbe wise man because he goes not in his way,
and destroys with his evil speech tbe prudent heart of the wise, which
8 was given to him as a gift from heaven. Better the end of a thing than
the beginning thereof, for in its beginning man knows not what its end
will be, but tlie end of a good thing is known to a good man; and better
before the Lord is a man who rules over his spirit and subdues his
9 carnal thoughts, than a man who walks in the pride of his spirit. And
when chastisements from heaven come upon thee, do not hasten thy
heart to anger, and to utter words of rebellion against heaven, for if
thou bearest them patiently, they will depart from thee ; and if thou art
rebellious and angry, know tbat anger rests in the lap of fools till it has
10 destroyed them. In tbe time of oppression, say not what was before
now was good in the world; for the former days were better, and the

512 APPENDIX I.
men of that generation had better doings than these, therefore good came
11 to them; and thou askest not according to wisdom about this. Good is
the wisdom of the law, along with the inheritance of money, and better
still for a man to humbly conduct himself with men, the dwellers of the
12 earth, who see good and evil under the sun in this world. For as a m,an
is sheltered under the shadow of wisdom, so he is sheltered under the
shadow of money, when he does alms with it ; and the advantage of
knowing the wisdom of the law is that it raises its possessor from tbe
13 grave for the world to come. Consider the work of the Lord, and his
strength, who made the blind, tbe hunchback, and tbe lame, to be
wonders in the world ; for who is be that can make straight one of these,
14 but the Lord of the world who made him crooked? In tbe day when
the Lord is doing good, be thou also happy and do good to all the world ;
that the evil day may not come upon thee, see and behold ! and also
God has made this against that to reprove the men of the world, so that
15 man should not find after him any evil in the world to come. All this
I saw in the days of my vanity, that from the Lord are decreed good and
evil to be in tbe world, according to the planets under which the children
of men are created; for there is a righteous man perishing in his right
eousness in this world, and bis merit is kept for him for the world to
come; and there is a wicked man wbo prolongs his days in his guilt, and
the account of his evil doings is kept for him for the world to come, to be
16 requited for it in the day of the great judgment. Be not over-righteous
when tbe guilty is found guilty of death in thy court of judgment, so as
to have compassion on him and not to kill him; and do not thus become
over- wise with tbe wisdom of the wicked who stand in . tbe way, and do
1 7 not learn their ways ; why, then, wilt thou destroy thy way ? Go not
after the thought of thy heart to sin much, and do not make thy way far
from the teaching of the law of God to become a fool; why shouldst
thou cause death to thy soul, and the years of thy life -be shortened to
18 die, before thy time comes to die ? It is good thou shouldst combine
the affairs of this world, namely, to do good to thyself in the way of
merchants, and also that thou hold fast thy portion in tbe Book of the
19 Law, for a man fearing before the Lord performs the duty of both. And ,
the wisdom of Joseph, son of Jacob, helped him to make him wise before
bis ten righteous brethren, who ruled in the fear of the Lord ; aod the
evil spirit did not rule in them when they were in the metropolis of
Egypt, and did not kill their brother Joseph who annoyed them at that
20 time with the voice of his words. For there is no righteous man in the
land, who does good all his days, and sins not before the Lord ; but the
man who sins before the Lord, it behoves him to return in repentance
21 before he dies. Moreover give not thy heart to accept all the words
which the wicked speak to thee, that the days may not come when thou
shalt hear thy servant curse thee, and thou hast not the power to be
22 delivered from bis bands. Then see to it, adjudicate thy cause when a
man curses thee who is not like thyself; for also many times thy heart
23 knows that thou too hast cursed other men. All that I said I have
tried by wisdom: I said by my word, I shall also be wise in all the
24 wisdom of tbe Law, but it was far from me. Behold, long has it been far
from tbe children of men to know all tbat has been from the days of old;
and who is he that will find out by bis wisdom the secret of the day of
death, and the secret of the day when the King Messiah will come ?
26 I turned to think in my heart, and to know and to examine and to seek
wisdom, and the estimate of the reward of tbe works of the righteous,
and to know the punishment of the guilt of the fool, and the understand-

APPENDIX I. 513
26 ing of the fear of tbe Kingdom. And I found a thing more bitter to man
than the bitterness of tbe day of death, namely, a woman who causes
much tribulation to her husband, and entangles bim ; in whose heart are
snares, and whose bands are bound that she might not work with them ¦
the righteous before God is the man who gets rid of her by a bill of divorce
ment, and relieves himself of her; but the guilty before God is the man
27 who abides with ber, and is ensnared with her adultery. Behold, this is
the work which I have found, said Coheleth, who is called Solomon, King
of Israel, I have examined the planets ofie in connection with the other,
to find out tbe account of the children of men, what will be in their end!
28- There is another thing which my soul is still seeking, and I have not
found, namely, a perfect and just man, without any corruption, as Abra
ham; from the days of the first Adam till the righteous Abraham was
born, who was found faithful and just among the thousand kings that
gathered together to build tbe tower of Babel? and a woman, as Sarah,
29 among all the wives of those kings, I have not found. Only, behold !
this I found, that God made the flrst Adam upright before him and just;
and tbe serpent and Eve seduced bim to eat of the fruit of the tree,
because those who eat its fruit would be wise to discern between good
and evU, and they brought upon him and all the inhabitants of the earth
the day of death ; and they sought to flnd many accounts in order to
bring terror upon the inhabitants of the earth.
viii. 1 Who is as a wise man, that he can stand before the wisdom of
the Lord, and know the interpretations of his words, like the prophets?
The wisdom of a wise man enlightens the brightness of his face among
the righteous, and as for the impudent, all his ways are changed from
2 good to bad. Guard thy mouth about the commands of tbe King to
keep whatsoever he commands, and be also on thy guard about tbe
matter of an oath of tbe Lord, tbat thou swear not by the name of
3 his word in vain. And in tbe time of the anger of the Lord do not
cease to 'pray before him, tremble before him, go and pray and seek
mercy fi:om him, because thou canst not stand in an evil matter; for
4 the. Lord of all worlds, the Lord, will do what he pleases. In the
place where the word of the King wbo rules over all the world is
gone forth, it is done immediately, and who is the man that would
5 restrain bis band, and say unto him. What doest thou? Tbe man
who keeps the commandments of tbe Lord shall not know any evil
in the world to come ; and the time of prayer, and judgment, and truth,
6 is known in the heart of the wise. For to every business there is
a good and an evil time, and by a true judgment is the whole world
judged; and when it is decreed from the Lord that punishment should
be in the world, it is because of the guilt of evil doers which is heavy
7 upon them. For no wise man knows what will be with him at the end,
for when it shall be the pleasure before the Lord to afflict him, who is he
8 that will tell him it? There is no man wbo has power over his breath
ing soul to retain the soul of life, that it should not depart from tbe
human body ; and there is no power in the day of death for a man to save
bis companion, and no instruments of war to help in tbe battle, and guilt
9 will not save its master in the great day of judgment. All this I saw
which has happened in tbis world, and 1 gave my heart to know all the
work which is worked in this world under the sun, at the time when
10 man rules over man to afflict bim. And indeed I have seen sinners who
are buried and blotted out of the world, from the holy place where the
righteous dwell, and went to be burned in Gehenna, and are forgotten
from among the inhabitants of the city, and as they have done to others,
,"! D

514 APPENDIX I.
11 so it is done to them ; also tbis is vanity. And because the evil thing,
the punishment of the wicked, is not quickly executed upon their evil
works, therefore the heart of the children of men is full in them to do
12 evil in this world. And when a sinner does evil a hundred years, and
space is given him from the Lord in order that he may repent, yet is it
revealed to him by the Holy Spirit, and I know that it will be well in
tbe world to come with those that fear the Lord, that fear before him,
13 and do his will; and tbat it shall not be well with the wicked, and
there shall be no space for him in the world to come ; and in this world
the days of his life shall be cut off, they shall fly and pass away like a
14 shadow, because he feared not before the Lord. There is a vanity that
is decreed to be done upon the face of tbe earth ; there are righteous to
whom evil happens as if they had done like the deeds of the wicked, and
there are wicked to whom it happens as if tbey had done like the works
of tbe righteous; and I saw by the Holy Spirit tbat the evil which hap
pens to the righteous in this world is not for their guilt, but to free thera
from a slight transgression, that their reward may be perfect in the
world to come; and the good that comes to the sinners in this world is
not for their merits, but to render them a reward for their small merit
they have acquired, so that they may eat their reward in this world, and
to destroy their portion in the world to come ; I said, by my word, this
15- also is vanity. And I praised the joy of the Law, since there is no good
for man in this world under the sun, but to eat and drink and rejoice in
bis labour and in his portion, which is given to him from heaven, and
not stretch out his hands in violence and rapine ; and this will lead him
to peace in that world, and be shall receive a perfect reward for his
labours wherewith be sincerely laboured all the days of his life, which
16 the Lord gave bim in this world under tbe sun. As I gave my heart to
know the wisdom of the Law, and to see the business which is done upon
the earth, for even tbe wise who desires to be occupied with the Law and
to find wisdom must' toil, since he has no rest in the day, and sees no
17 sleep with his eyes in the night. And I saw every mighty work of the
Lord, for it is awful; and man cannot find out tbe mighty work. of tbe
Lord which is done in this world under the sun ; when man labours to
seek what will be, be shall not flnd it : and even if a wise man says by
his word, that he will know what will be at the end of days, he cannot
find it.
ix. 1 For all this I have taken to heart, and to examine all this that
tbe righteous and the wise, and their disciples who are under them,
studying the law, are in the hand of the Lord, whatsoever will take place
in the world in their day is decreed by him ; tbe love wherewith a man
loves, and the hatred wherewith Jie bates, there is no prophet in the
world who knows it; whatever happens to man has been decreed before-
2 hand, according to the planet, to take place. Everything depends upon
the planets, whatever happens to anyone is fixed in heaven ; the same
destiny is to tbe innocent and to the guilty, to bim who amends his ways
and purifies his soul, and to him who defiles his soul, to him who brings
a holy sacrifice, and to him who does not bring holy sacrifices, alike to
the righteous and tbe sinner, to the man who peijures himself, and the
3 man who fears an oath.. This is a great misfortune in all tbe world,
which occurs under the sun, some one fate is for all, for every inhabitant
of the earth ; and also the heart of the children of men is full of evil on
account of it, and fear is in tbeir hearts all the days of their lives, and
after the end of man it is reserved for him to be reproved with the dead
4 in the judgment of the guilty. For who is the man tbat adheres to all

APPENDIX I. 515
the words of tbe law, and bas hope to acquire the life of the world to
5 come? for a living dog is better than a dead lion. For tbe righteous
know that if tbey sin, tbey shall be regarded as dead men in the worid
to come, therefore they keep their ways and sin not ; and if tbey sin they
return in repentance ; but the wicked do not know any good, for they
do not make good their works in their life, and do not know any good
in the world to come, and they have no good reward after their death,
6 for their remembrances are forgotten from among the righteous. After
tbe death of tbe wicked tbey are useless; their love, as well as tbeir
hatred and jealousy, behold, they have perished long ago from tbe
world ! and they have no more a good part with the righteous in tbe
world to come, and tbey have no enjoyment from all tbat is done in tbis
7 world under tbe sun. Solomon said, by the spirit of prophecy from tbe
Lord, The Lord of tbe world will say to all tbe righteous in their face, go
eat_ with joy tbe bread which has been laid up for thee for the bread
which thou bast- given to the poor and needy that were hungry, and
drink with a good heart the wine which has been preserved for thee in
paradise for the wine which thou has mingled to tbe poor and needy that
were thirsty ; for behold, thy good work has long been acceptable liefore
8 the Lord. At all times let thy garment be white from all pollution of
sin, and acquire a good name, which is likened to anointing oil, for the
which a blessing will come down upon thy head, and thy goodness will
9 not fail. See good life with the wife thou lovest, all tbe days of thy vain
life, which the Lord, through destiny, bas given thee in this world
under the sun, for this is thy portion in life, and in the labour wherewith
10 thou labourest in this world under the sun. Whatever good and charity
thy hand finds to do, do it with all thy power, for after death there is no
work for man, nor account, knowledge, or wisdom, in the grave whither
thou goest; and nothing will help thee except good works and alms
11 alone. King Solomon said, When I sat upon the throne of my kingdom,
I considered and saw in tbis world under the sun that men who are
swift as eagles are not helped by running to escape from death in battle,
and tbat the mighty are not helped by carrying on war in their strength,
nor are the wise helped by their wisdom to find bread in the time of
famine, nor are the intelligent helped by their intelligence to gather
riches, nor are tbe prudent helped by their prudence to find favour in
tbe eyes of a king, for time and fate befall all according to their planets.
12 For man knows not his time; whether that which will be in the world
and come upon him will be good or evil ; like fish of the sea which are
caught in a net, and birds of heaven which are caught in a snare, so are
the children of men taken in an evil time, which is appointed to fall
13 upon them in a moment from heaven. Also this I saw, which is wisdom
14 in this world under the sun, and^it is great to me. The body of a man,
which is like a small town ; and in it are a few mighty men, just as the
merits in the heart of man are few ; and the evil spirit, who is like a
great and powerful king, enters into the body to seduce it, and besieges
the body to seduce it, and builds around it a place to lie in wait, because
he wishes to cause bim to depart from the way wbich is straight before
tbe Lord, to catch him in tbe great snares of Gehenna, in order to burn
15 him seven times for bis sins. And there is found in the body a good
spirit, humble and wise, and he prevails over him, and subdues him by
his wisdom, saves the body from the judgment of Gehenna by his power
and wisdom, like a nian who makes war and delivers the inhabitants of
tbe city by the wisdom of bis heart; and man does not remember after
wards the good spirit who saved him, but says in his heart, I ara

516 APPENDIX I.
innocent; just as tbe inhabitants of that town do not remember the poor
16 man who delivered them. And I said by my word. Better tbe wisdom
of the righteous, than the force of tbe strength of the wicked; for the
wisdom of the righteous and bis merit save both bim and the men of his
generation ; whilst the power of the wicked wbo persists in the stubborn
ness of bis heart not to return in repentance, only destroys himself
alone ; and tbe wisdom of tbe righteous poor is despised in the ages of
the wicked of bis generation ; and when he reproves them for their evil
1 7 works, they do not receive his words of reproof The words of prayer of
the wise, offered in silence, are accepted before the Lord of tlie world,
above the exclamations of the wicked wbo rules over fools, that speak
18 much, and are not accepted. Better is tbe wisdom of tbe wise in time
of oppression, than instruments of war in tbe time of waging war,
and one sinner in a generation causes much good to perish from the
world.
X. 1 And the evil spirit which dwells at the gate of the heart is as a fiy,
causing death in the world by betraying the wise when he sins, and
destroying the good name wbich was before like anointing oil, perfumed
with aromatics ; and bow much more beautiful and precious than the
wisdom of the wise and tbe riches of the rich is the man whose folly is
2 slight and insignificant ? The heart of the wise is to acquire the Law
which was given by the hand of tbe Lord, and the heart of the fool is to
3 acquire riches of silver and gold. And also when the fool walks in an
offensive way, his heart lacks wisdom, and he does things which are not
4 rigbt to do, and all say that he is a fool. If the evil spirit rules over
thee, and strives to overcome thee, leave not tbe good place wherein
thou usest to stand, for the words of the law were made to be remedies
in the world, to remit and blot out great sins from before the Lord.
5 There is an evil which I saw in this world under tbe sun, and what
injury is it in the world! just as an error hastily uttered against a man,
6 and that by a ruler ! The Lord from the high heavens makes the
wicked and foolish king to be strong in his good star, and to minister
prosperously, and his armies to be excellent and numerous; whilst thy
people, tbe house of Israel, are subject to him in exile ; and because of
the multitude of their sins the rich in goods became poor, and dwelt in
7 humiliation among the nations. King Solomon said by the spirit of
prophecy, I saw nations wbo were before subject to tbe people of the
house of Israel, now prosperous, and riding on horses like princes,
whilst the people of the house of Israel and their nobles walk on the
8 ground like slaves. Justice answered and said thus : They brought all
this upon themselves; as a man who digs a pit upon the high road falls
into it, so the people which transgresses the decrees of the word of
the Lord, and destroys the fences of the world, falls into tbe hand of a
9 wicked king, who bites them like a serpent. King Solomon the prophet
said. It is revealed to me tbat Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, wUl sin
and worship idols of stone, wherefore be will be delivered into the hand
of the King of Assyria, and be will fasten him with halters ; because he
made void the words of the law which are written on the tables of stone
from the beginning, therefore he will suffer for it; and Rabsbakeh, his
brother, will worship an image of wood and forsake the words of the Law
which are laid in the ark of shittim wood : therefore he shall be burned
10 in a fire by tbe angel of the Lord. And when the people of the house
of Israel sin, and the heavens are made strong «s iron to keep back the
rain, and that generation does not pray before the Lord, all the
world is afflicted with famine on tbeir account; and when the multitude

APPENDIX I. 517
- gather themselves together and overcome their evil spirit, and appoint
their superiors to ask mercy from the Lord of heaven, there is acceptance
1 1 for them, because of the abundance of tbeir true wisdom. When the
fiery serpents are roused to devour and to injure the world, it is because
of tbe sins of tbe bouse of Israel, for not having been occupied with the
words of the Law in quietness ; and there will also be no advantage to
tbe slanderer who talks with a threefold tongue, because he will be
12 burned in tbe fire of Gehenna. The words of the mouth of a wise man
tbat is found in a generation pray when punishment comes u))on the
world, and be removes the punishment and finds mercy before tbe Lord ;
but the lips of the fool are full of reproach, and therefore all the world
13 is destroyed. Tbe beginning of tbe words of bis mouth is folly, and the
14 end of the word of his mouth is evil agitation. And the fool multiplies
empty words wherein there is no use, so much so that no man knows
what will be in his days ; and what will become of him at the end, wbo
15 can tell him ? Tbe labour of a fool wbo labours in folly wearies him,
because he will not. learn to go to the city where the wise dwell to seek
16 instruction. Woe to thee, 0 land of Israel ! when wicked Jeroboam
shall reign over thee, and remove from thee the morning sacrifices, and
thy princes shall eat bread before offering the daily morning sacrifice.
17 Hail thee, 0 land of Israel, when Hezekiah son of Ahaz, from the family
of tbe bouse of David, King of Israel, who is mighty in the law, shall
reign over thee, and shall perform tbe obligations of the commandments;
and thy nobles, after having brought thee daily sacrifice, shall eat bread
at four [i.e., ten o'clock in the morning,] from the work of their hands in
18 the strength of tbe Law, and not in weakness and blindness of eyes. By
weakness of tbe study of the Law and the commandments, man becomes
poor in children, and by despising the commandment which commands
the woman to observe the time of uncleanness of blood and she did not
19 observe it, she is always in a menstrual state in her house. The
righteous joyfully make bread to nourish the hungry poor; and tbe
wine wbich they mix for the thirsty will be pleasure to them in the
world to come ; and the redemption money will proclaim their merit in
20 the world to come in the face of all. Even in thy mind, in the inner
most recesses of thy heart, curse not the king, and in thy bed-chamber
revile not a wise man, for the angel Raziel proclaims every day from
heaven upon Mount Horeb, and the sound thereof goes into all the
world, and Elijah the high priest continually hovers in tbe air like an
angel, tbe king of the winged tribe, and discloses the things that are
done in secret to all the inhabitants of the earth.
xi. 1 Give thy nourishing bread to the poor who go in ships upon the
surface of the water, for after a period of many days thou wilt find
2 its reward in tbe world to come. Give a good portion of tbe seed
to thy field in Tishri, and do not cease from sowing even in Kislev,
for thou knowest not what evil will be upon the earth, whether the
3 early or latter will succeed. If the clouds are full of rain, they will
pour the water upon the earth, because of the merit of the righteous ;
and if there is no merit in that generation, they will pour it into
the sea and desert, so that tbe children of men should not enjoy it;
and if it is once decreed from heaven that the king should fall and
be removed from his dominion, it is by the word of heaven; or that
plenty or famine is to be in tbe south or north, in the place where
4 this counsel has. been decreed there it will certainly be. A man who
regards sorcerers and charmers will never do good, and he who watches
the planets will riot reap a reward, for sorcerers are like the wind, not to

518 APPENDIX I.
be seized by human hands ; and planets are like the clouds of heaven,
5 which pass away and do not return. As thou knowest not how the spirit
of the breath of life goes into the body of an infant which rests in tbe
womb of its pregnant mother, and as thou knowest not whether it is a
male or female until it is born, so thou understandest not the work of
6 tbe Lord, who made all in wisdom. In the days of thy youth take a wife
to beget children, and in the time of thy old age do not leave the wife of
thy portion so as not to bear children, for thou knowest not which
of them is destined to be good, one or tbe other, or whether both will be
7, alike good. And sweet is tbe light of the Law, and fitted to enlighten
the dark eyes to behold the glorious face of the Shechinah, wbich will
brighten from her splendour the face of the righteous, that tbeir beauty
8 may be like the suu. For if the life of man is many days, it becomes
bim to rejoice in all of them, and to study tbe Law of the Lord ; let him
remember the days of the darkness of death, and not sin, for many are
the days wherein he shall lie dead in the grave to receive the judgment
from heaven for the life he loved, all the time punishment comes upon
9 him for the vanity he has done. Rejoice, O young man, in the days of
thy youth, and let thy heart be cheerful in the days of thy childhood,
and walk in meekness with the ways of thy heart, and be careful as to
the seeing of thy eyes, and do not look upon evil, and know that for all
10 this the Lord will bring thee into judgment. And put away anger from
thy heart, and bring no evil upon thy flesh, for youth and the days of
black hair are vanity.
xii. 1 And remember thy Creator to honour him in the days of thy youth,
before the evil days draw nigh to thee, and tbe years come upon thee
2 when thou wilt say, I have no pleasure in them. Before tbe glorious
brightness which is like the sun be changed, and before the light
of thy eyes be darkened, and before the comeliness of thy cheeks
becomes black, and before the apples of thy eyes, which are like stars,
3 be dim, thy eyelids drop down tears like clouds after rain. In the
day when thy knees tremble, and thy arms shake, and the grinders of
thy mouth cease till they cannot chew food, and thy eyes which look
4 through the openings of thy head darken, and thy feet be fettered from
going into the street, and the appetite for food shall depart from thee,
and thou shalt awake from thy sleej) at the sound of a bird, as at thieves
tbat go about during the night, and thy lips shall relax from saying a
5 song. Thou shalt even be afraid to remember the works whicli have
been before now, and a little rising will be in the face of thy soul, like a
great mountain when thou walkest on tbe road; and the top of thy hip
bone shall come out from leanness like the almond, and the ancles of
thy fee't shall be swelled, and thou shalt be hindered from rest, for man
tarries to go to tbe place of his burial ; and the angels that seek thy
judgment walk about like mourners, walking about the street, to write
6 the account of the judgment. Before thy tongue is dumb from speaking,
and the skull of thy head dashed in pieces, and thy gall at the liver
7 broken, and thy body hastens into the grave, and thy flesh which is
created of dust will return again into the earth as it was before, and thy
breathing spirit will return to stand in judgment before the Lord who
8 gave it thee. When Solomon, king of Israel, refiected upon the vanity
of this world, and upon the vanities which the children of men do,
9 Coheleth said by his word. All is vanity. And Solomon, who was called
Coheleth, was abundantly wise above all the children of men, and
further, be taught the people of tho bouse of Israel wisdom; and be
attended to the voice of the wise, and searched the books of wisdom, and

APPENDIX II. 519
by the spirit of prophecy from the Lord composed many wise books, and
10 very many prudential maxims. King Solomon, who was called Coheleth,
desired by his wisdom to pronounce judgment upon the thoughts of "the
heart of man without witnesses, therefore be was told by the spirit of
prophecy from tbe Lord, Behold, it bas long been written in the Book of
the Law through Moses, rabbi of Israel, rigbt and faithful words, that by
11 the word of witnesses shall every thing be established. The words of the
wise are like inciting goads and forks, which incite those wbo are
destitute of knowledge to learn wisdom, as tbe goad teaches the ox;
and so are the words of the rabbins of the Sanhedrin, the masters of the
Halachas and Midrashim which were given through Moses the prophet,
who alone fed the people of the bouse of Israel iu the wilderness with
12 manna and delicacies. And more than these, my son, take care, to
make many books of wisdom without an end ; to study much the words
13 of the Law, and to consider the weariness of the flesh. In tbe end,
a thing which was done in this world in secret will altogether be made
manifest, and known to all the children of men ; therefore fear the word
of the Lord, and keep bis commandments, that thou sin not in secret ; and
if thou sinnost, be admonished to repent; for behold, this ought to be
14 the way of every man. For the Lord will bring every work before tbe
great day of judgment, and make public the thing which is hid from the
children of men, whether good or evil.

II.
VERSIONS OF THE REFORMERS.
A. Luther's Version.
As soon as tbe Reformation began in Germany, Luther felt that its
extension and maintenance could only be accomplished by enabling the
people at large to possess and read the Bible in their vernacular language,
which be at once determined to do. Considering that up to that time the
knowledge of Hebrew was hardly ever cultivated to any great extent among
Christians, and tbat tbey had no scientific grammars and lexicons, except
those written in Hebrew, to assist them in the acquisition of this language,
it will be obvious tbat Luther could not have made his translation of the
Old Testament without the aid of the Vulgate, which he had diligently
studied prior to the commencement of tbe Reformation. How much
Luther's Version is indebted to the Vulgate, may be seen from the following
comparison : —
THE VULGATE. LUTHEE.
Quid est quod fuit? Ipsum i9 mag iji eg, bag gefile^en iji?
quod futurum est? Quid est &m i>ag ^etnoc^ geft^c^en Wix'o.
quod factum est? Ipsum quod SSag tfi eg, bag man get^an ^ot?
faciendum est Sben bag man ^etnacj) wubex tjun
wixb.
Investigare sapienter. 13 3u fOT^en tt)ei«i(|.
Magnus effectus sum . . . et 16 3* t>m |crrlic| gwcrben . . .
mens mea contemplata est multa mb mem &erj ^at OXel geletnct
RBnientpr fit didici ""^^ erfa|ten.
'e qui addlt sientiam, addit 18 Unb wex oiel leftten muf, Ux
etlaborem. tttuf meUeiben.

520

APPENDIX II.

THE VULGATE.
Cogitavi in corde meo abstra- ii. 3
here a vino carnem meam, ut
animum meum transferrem ad
sapientiam devitaremque stulti-
tiam. Possedi servos et ancillas, mul- 7
tamque farniliam habui.
Omits nimsb. 11,
Et futura tempora oblivione 16
cuncta pariter operient.
Cum requie . . cum labore iv. 6
et affiiotione animi,
Et appropinqua ut audias. 17
Mutas curas sequuntur somnia, v. 2
et in multis sermonibus invent- ,
entur stultitia.

Ubi multa sunt somnia, plu-
rimse sunt vanitates et sermones
innumeri Fructum non capiet ex eis.
Pereunt enim in afflictione
pessima ; generavit filium, qui
in summa egestate erit.

6

9
13

16

Et in curls multis, et in serumna
atque tristitia
Non enim satis recordabitur 19
dierum vitse suee, eo quod Deus
occupet deliciis cor ejus.
Et quidem frequens apud ho- vi. 1
mines. De hoc ego pronuncio, quod. 3
Sicut enim protegit sapientia, vii. 12
sic protegit pecunia; hoc autem
plus habet eruditio et sapientia,
quod vitam tribuunt possessori
suo. Ego OS regis observe, et prse- viii. 2
ceptajuramenti Dei
Renders the future n;.n'ia~np 7
prseterita. Et quanto plus laboraverit ad 17
quaerendum,tantominusinveniat. Multo labore exacuetur. x. 10
Si mordeat serpens in silentio, 11
nihil eo minus habet qui occulte
detrahit. Renders tbe future n;n',ia-no 14
quid ante se fuerit.
Et in bono sit cor tuum. xi. 9

LUTHEB.
©a ba^te t(^ in meinem ^erjen,
meinen Seib »om ffiein ju jiefen,
unb mein f)erj "pr SBei^^eit ju
jie^en, baf xi) ergriffe, wag
25ort>ett if}.
5(^ ^atte ^neifte unb aWagbe,
unb ©cftnbe.
The same.
Unb bie fitnftigen Sage »cr=
geJTen alte^. ,
mit 3iu^e ... mit 2Uit^e unb
3ammer. Unb fomme' baf bu Jorejl.
®enn wo »iet @orge ifi, ba
fommen Srdumc ; unb wo biele
3Botte ftnb, ba ^ott man ben
^fatten. SBo btele SEraume ftnb, ba ifi
Sitelfeit unb »iele SBorte.
SBitb feinen 9Ju|cn babon $aben.
Senn ber FRei^t^um fommt um
mit gro^em Sammer ; unb fo ct
einen ©o^n ctjeuget \)at, bem bleibt
xiiijtg in ber $anb.
Unb in gtoifem @romen unb
.Sranf^eit unb Srourtgfeit.
®enn er benft mi)i »iel an baS
elenbe Seben, n>eil @ott fein ^ex%
ctfreuet. Unb if} gemetn bet ben SKenft^en.
SSon bem fpte^e \6), baf.
Scnn bie SBeigJctt befc^irmet,
fo bcfi^itmet @elb a\x^, ober bie
aSeigJeit gibt ba^ Seben bem, bet
fte bat.
3c& balte bag 2iSott beg ^ontg«,
unb ben ®tb ©otteg.
The same, xoag gewefen if}.
Unb je mebt bet SUenfe^ otbeitet
JU \v.ijtn, ie tveniger er ftnbet.
iKuf man eg mit ma^i wiebex
fc^otfen. ©in aSafi^^et ifi ni^tg beffet benn
eine ©flange, bie uubft^tBorcn
flicbt. The same, wag gcwcfen if}.
Unb laf bein $etj gutet Singe
fein.

APPENDIX II. 521
In all the examples where Luther agrees with tbe Vulgate, be it remem
bered, the Vulgate deviates from the Hebrew. The following i 11 • iii 9
10.11. 15. 18. 19; iv. 1,9. 16; v, 5.8. 14. 18; vi. 5. 6. 7.8. 10 11 i2- vii'
7. 12, 14. 24. 25, 26 ; i.-s,, 11, 15, 17 ; x, 1, 3, 5 ; xi, 1 ; xii 3, are instances
of Luther's own loose paraphrases and deviations from the original. We
dwell upon this subject more pai-ticularly, because Luther's version, as we
shall see, has been made the basis of some of our English translations ; and
it is only by forming a right estimate of tbe former tbat we can judge of
the latter. B. The Swiss, or Zurich Version.
Stimulated by tbe example of Luther, the ministers of tbe Church at
Zurich undertook to render tbe Scriptures into the Swiss dialect. After
elaborately descanting upon the propriety of translating the Bible into the
vernacular languages of the people, tbe translators tell us in tbe Preface
that they have adopted Luther's version of the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges,
Kings, and Chronicles, which had been printed previously in this dialect,
altering it, however, so as to make it both more in accordance with their
dialect and more literal ; and that they had made an original translation from
the Hebrew of the Prophets, Job, the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
the Song of Songs. How they could obtain from the Hebrew that which
they frequently make Coheleth say, will, I believe, puzzle tbe reader quite as
much as it puzzles me, when he shall have perused the extracts given under
Coverdale, The first edition of the Bible was published at Zurich in 1531,
by the famous Christopher Froschover, wbo received many of the English
Reformers who were exiled in tbe reign of Queen Mary.' Mine is tbe
second edition, published in 1536 ; it is a splendid folio, printed upon
excellent paper; the title-page is richly decorated with woodcuts representing
the creation of man, his temptation, fall, redemption, &c., printed with red
and black ink ; woodcuts as well as ornamental letters are profusely intro
duced throughout the book, and tbe illustrations in the Apocalypse are
after Holbein ; the execution of the whole would be an honour to any
printing establishment in England, It is greatly to be regretted that this
important edition is so extremely rare.
0. Coverdale's Version.
The first published English version of Coheleth, made, as is generally ,
asserted, from the Hebrew, is that of Myles Coverdale, who published tbe
flrst English translation of tbe entire Bible. Coverdale himself, so far
from claiming to have made it from the original, distinctly tells us in the
very title-page tbat he has " faithfully and truly translated out of Douche
and Latyn in to Englishe," and again honourably acknowledges, in the
Prologue to the Christian Reader, " I haue had sundrye translacions, not
only in Latyn, but also of the Douche interpreters, whom, because of theyr
syngular gyftes and special} diligence in the Bible, I haue bene the more
glad to follow for the most parte, accordynge as I was requyred." How
closely Coverdale has followed these Douche = Deutsche, i. e., German or
German-Swiss interpreters, of " singular gifts and special diligence in the
Bible," may be seen from tbe following parallel columns, where he has not
' Comp. Strype, Memor. iii i. 232; The Zurich Letters, 1558-1579, the
Parker Society's ed. p. 11. 3 X

522

APPENDIX II.

only literally translated tbe Swiss Version, but even inserted its parenthetical
marks : —

THE ZUBICH OB SWISS BIBLE.
eg ift niitg bait e^tefleit Cfpti(|t i- 2
ber ''^xebigex') fa e^telfeit otteg.
San tt)3 bleibt bem mefs^en iibet 3
bon attet feinet attest.
Set winb but^wo^et mittag .... 6
fumpt et tDibet in ft^ felbfi.
Sann ba bie fittf bintauffenb, '!'
bannen bat f cmmenb fp auc^ wibct.
Sie bing bie gewefen ftnb, bie 9
wetbenb i»ibet ; »nnb bie bing bie
gefci^ebcn finb gefcbe^enb twibct.
5$ ber ^rebiget ein Jliintg 12
3fraetg »nnb Serufalem, ^aii ftepf
an'geroenbt wie icb etfiire »nb bur(^=
grfinbte bag njiiffen attet bingen
bie bnbet bem bimmel gewotben
ftnb. ©dli^e mill) bnb atbcit bat ®ott 13
ben menftben geben, bag f9 botinn
gefefliget njurbinb.
Sann wo Bit we^ffjeit if}, ba 18
ifi au$ bit angf} »nnb fotg.
Sltfo, bag i($ jnm gelatbtct ii 2
fpxa^. S(b bouwet bettti^f fibiine wetfe. 4
Soum attettep ftucbten. 6

COVERDALE'S BIBLE.
All is but vanitie (saieth the
Preacher), all is but playnevanitie.
For what els hath a ma, of all
the labours.
The wynde goeth towarde the
south . . . turneth in to himself
agayne. For loke vnto what place the
waters runne, thence they come
agayne. The tbinge tbat bath bene
done, coiiieth to passe agayne;
and the thinge that hath bene
done, is done agayne.
I myself the Preacher, beynge
Kynge of Israel and Jerusale,
applyed my mynde to seke out
and search for the knowledge of
all thiges that are done vnder
lieaue. Soch trouayle and laboure hath
God geue vnto the childre of me,
to exercyse the selues then.
For where moch wyszdome is
there is also greats trouayle and
disquietnes. In so moch that I sayde vnto
laughter. I made gorgious fayre workes.
Trees of all manner frutes.

It will be seen that in the last two instances Coverdale has even followed
tbe Swiss construction, at the expense of tbe English idiom, making
"manner" an adjective, to imitate ottettep ftit($tcn by all manner frutes.
We cannot institute this comparison any further, as we should have to give
by far tbe greater portion of the book, the instances in which Coverdale
follows the Vulgate and Luther being comparatively few. The above
examples are most decisive, inasmuch as they shew that Coverdale agrees
with the Swiss Bible where the Swiss Bible deviates from the Hebrew. If,
however, any one should still be so ci-edulous as to believe that Coverdale,
in translating from the Hebrew, hit exactly upon the same loose paraphrases
and errors as tbe Swiss Bible, his credulity will vanish when he reads
through the headings of the chapters, wbich we subjoin entire —

THE ZUBICH OB SWISS BIBLE.
Itte bing TOie fp etmift tonb
bettatbtet, ftnb f? cptet, »nbet atten
bingen nicbtg abet fi^wecberg Bunb
Bnflaterg bann bet menfcf).

COVERDALE'S VERSION.
All thinges (yf a ma wyl c6-
sidre thera wel) are but vanite.
Neuerlheles amoge thera all there
is nothige weaker and more vn-
stedfast, then man him self.

APPENDIX II.

523

THE ZURICH OR SWISS BIBLE.
®t bitbet in bifem cabitel »nb
anbcten offt an bie teb »nb fttten
bie bie gotttofen tte^benb, bamit er
beffet fomtitber jit Berfi^md^t attet
cteatute, ben menf4)e attein Bff
@ott fiite.

Seett bag atte bing jt gelagne
;es)t babenb; fummet Bunb miip set
in attenn bingen iff, gibt @ott bem
tnenfiben jut iibung. Sag bet
tnenfcb bon feinet atbcit neiift, if}
ein gaab ©otteg, bicnet batjii bag
wxx jn »ot augen b^binb.
3)fangetle9 bingenn ttai^tung.
Stem bag nit^tg fo bO(b ff9/
Beraibtet eg fein pfliibt bnnb ampt,
fo njitbt eg oiub betacbtet.

aSibet bie torecbten »n ftoften v.
gliibb. 1}lan fol fi^ nit ttetmun
beten bag »it »nbittg geftbii^t, bann
bet f^atden finb oil. SBibet
bie reipcben Bnb tei^^tagen.
SSibet bie teipdjen bie jt tcpcbtagen vi.
nit nieffen getbotenb, t»ie toiec^t f^
fpginb. JJiman weifb wag giit »nnb vii.
fittiff}ig fe9, wie fof}li$ ein gittet
nam fep. 5Bon nu^atfeit bet
ttsepfbeit. 3}on gebotfame bie man Oott viii.
bnb feinen obeten pflicbtig ift. Son
epbg bfliibt : wie man bie butbmitt
©otteg nit Betacijtcn fot: bag eg
Bnmilgli(^ fep bem- mcnf^cn bie
wexd bie in bet wett finb jtt
etbuten. ©og eg atten menft^en gtep^ ix.
gange, bcfbalb bet menfcb mit
ftouben bn banifbatteit nieffen fot
bie gaabcn ©otteg : toepfbeit iibet=
ttifft atte bing.
§ietiTi finb Bil wepfet fptttiben x., xi.
bnb nu^batet leeten, bef gtepc^en
im epifften.
3n bifem capitel jciget bet xii.
ftebiget fein meinung gtuntlicb
on, alg njolte et fpteiben, wie itb
iocb Bon atten binge bie snbet bet

COVERDALE'S VERSION.
In tbis chapter (and in tbe
other also) he maketh oft tymes
mesion of the wordes and cQuer-
saoio of the vngodly ; that by
this meanes he maye the better
cause men to despyse all crea
tures, in respecte of the only
euerlastinge God.
_ Euery thinge hath a tyme.
There is no thige, but God hath
put tedyousnesse and trauayle in
it, to exercise men withall. What
so euer a man enioyeth of his
laboure, the same is a gift of God,
geuen to tbe intent that 'men
shulde feare him.
A cosideracion of diuerse
thinges. 'There is nothinge so
excellent and bye, but yf it do
not tbe deuty and office where
vnto it is ordered, it shalbe
brought lowe.
Agaynst foolish and temerarious
vowes. Let no man maruayle
that so moch euell is done, for
the wicked are many. Agaynst
the riche and agaynst riches.
Agaynst those riche me that
darre not enioye their riches :
bow mad and foolish tbey be.
No man knoweth what is for
to come. How worthy a thIge it
is to haue a good name. The
profit of wyszdome.
Of the obediece which men
owe vnto God and to their heades.
The logo suft'eraunce of God is not
to be despised. It is not possible
for eny ma to coprebende the
workes that be in the worlde.
Like thinges happen vnto all
men ; therfore with myrth and
thankfulnesse shulde men enioye
the giftes of God. Wyszdome
passeth all thinges
In these two chapters are many
wyse and profitable sentences,
wel worthy to be considered of
euery man.
In this chapter the preacher
sheweth his whole meanynge, as
though he wolde saye : As for all
the thinges that be vnder the

524 APPENDIX II.
THE ZURICH OE SWISS BIBLE. COVERDALE'S VERSION.
©onnen finb etfaten, bettacbtet, xii Sonne (wher of I haue spoken), I
Bnb getebt 1)ab, fo if} bot^ bag bet haue cosidered them, and proued
befiltuff , Sag nil^ltg fiepff Bh bef} them metely wel by experience.
if} ban ©ott, Bnb fein geriibt bon And this is. the conclucion, that
jugent auf bnb attTOcg BOt angen there is notbynge stedfast and
baben. durable but God himself, who
men ought to feare, and to haue
his comanndements before tbeir
eyes euen from their youth vp.
With these facts before us, we are amazed at tbe ignorance prevalent
upon the sources of our flrst published English Bible, wbich has been made
tbe basis of succeeding versions, and that the editor of the reprint of
Coverdale's Bible should characterise it as " a faithful version of the
original Scriptures," ^ and assert that the mention of its being translated
" out of tbe Douche and Latyn," which Coverdale was in conscience bound
to make, " was no doubt a bookselling artifice of the time, to make the
work circulate better, as being intimately connected with tbe Reformed
doctrines, which were then equally well known by the term German or
. Dutch doctrines . . . that Coverdale did not follow Luther's version, it only
requires a very slight comparison of the text to prove ; but be no doubt
availed himself, where there occurred any difficult reading, of all tbe different
means of assistance within his power." '^ More unpardonable is Anderson's
'ignorance upon this version. He who would taunt Bishop Marsh with
baving committed blunders respecting the sources of Tyndal's translation,
and with very bad taste triumphdikltly assert, " it is singular enough that no
English prelate should have ever made himself acquainted with the history,
character, and acquirements of William Tyndale,^" ought, in writing such
bulky volumes upon the Annals of the English Bible, to have been better
acquainted with the origin and merits of Coverdale's version than to assert,
with reference to " Coverdale's qualifications as a translator from the
original, there can be little or rather no question, after what Mr. Whittaker
has so ably written respecting his acquaintance with Hebrew, — though, at
the same time, his leaning to the Vulgate and German versions has been
' made equally apparent by Professor Walter ; " — or to assure us, in a foot-note,
that " tbe interpreters themselves cannot now be positively fixed," and then
confidently to tell us that Coverdale " certainly does not appear to have
venerated 'these interpreters' as authority; he regarded their translations
with ' gladness,' and therefore could not, upon all occasions, be free from
some degree of bias."-* Had Anderson compared a single chapter in
' Coverdale's Bible with the Swiss Version, be would not have committed
such egregious blunders. It is to be regretted that Mr. Pearson, tbe
editor of "Remains of Myles Coverdale," should have so positively declared,
in his biographical notice, that Coverdale's Version " throughout bears
marks of a close attention to the Original," ^ and that Mr. Bastow should
1 The Holy Scriptures Faithfully and Truly Translated, by Myles Coverdale,
Bishop of Exeter, 1535 ; reprinted by Samuel Bagster, 1838; Preface, p. iv.
¦^ Ibid., Bibliographical Description.
3 The Annals of the English Bible, by Christopher Anderson, London, 1845,
vol. i. p. 285.
* The Annals of the English Bible, vol. i. p. 564.
-¦¦' Remains of Myles Coverdale, edited for the Parker Society, by the Eev.
George Pearson, B. D., Rector of Castle Camps, p. xvi.

APPENDIX III. 525
Diltiona?'"'"^ ""^'^^ *^'^ hlunders in his very excellent and useful Bible
As the Appendices are already larger than I anticipated, I must reserve
the examination of the remaining English translations, including the
Authorised Version, for the next volume, when it will be shewn that thev
are all morg or less based upon tbe versions of antiquity.

III.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.
Page 58.
We have said, in the Introduction (p. 58), that Mr. Preston's mis
translation of Maimonides' vindication of Coheleth (i 4), against the
imputation that it propounds the eternity of the world, obliged us to make
a new translation, which we subjoin, together with Mr. Preston's version,
and the original.
'wiNO Nimr mm iqt -pM Nbs nn ¦ mmpn ^'o«' tt's nobiu '3 lamn i:'niin 'icwn nnn
• mn 'Ipso n«'2'i minn nwio uao rria: niia i:i« nian' qmi • monpi ^'on'ic n"B-in niin
103 ' inio -insb im:3 «bi u i'b3> ipbn sbi ?'osnm'D'x'n^n ni iioo inibnp tn • D'nbNb nb'bm
iDt: ii::ib iinpi ''D3nn iono • vb5 ni ninnb N'an D30ni • onbin nvi33 ?'oai inin"niH nsojib
'':":» Ninn ied bin iidiibdiib b"i • poo Nba ]"3»n mn pi ' nii'o 'laib D'idi: viniB ':dq nbnp
b» mv piDB lb )'Ni ' DbbDo moipn ]'ni • iDii'Db laiias' n-iinn msin nm msi isb d'idu
imns: bs D'lio Q'?idd ib ii)' d:dn • tnbisn monpa iniid piDo Q':d diibi lb nso' Nbi monpn
]"i!>n J'NI lomno 'nba Ninir J'dno Ninm laian imns: b» D'nn C3'aina ini iiun31 • noN Nim
annn nia ¦^s^o Nbin 'o ¦psinia is • mow Dbisb yiNm • iion Nin mns:a ijiiab d:dn • p
':ni • nb D'n:3n 'o' ba Ninii) ¦ yiNn 'O' ba ns • nbsn' iioNa iion' p-< • nb isiiBon join ion'w
nsi Dbis HON a": rrn' dni • isi Dbis iDion ba n'jiao bs y-iN id' • m lONoa iidn' nn n'nn
•pa 'n • nbsn' 'mnsia ion ainan 'a nnN jm mo ib «' 2"n nbsn' bNn n'n> • mns:n a"n' Nb
IN TSi Dbis noNa vinN dn • is la lain'ma NbN mns:n a"n' Nb DbiBnm insin iicni • isi Dbis
• 1B1 Dbis iQion ba • ni lONnn ntanb • nims nbisb • nnbiB in»o 3"n • nbis is noNa nob
Dbisb niniD' Nb j":s bs onaiB no bai Dn'pn mnnm ''nisn nins: nb:i Dibinn I'bs m iNa laai
'31S1 • nas' Nbi jn: pn nbisb isb Di'nS'i iNia:i ms Nin 'a 'lai D'ninn p '" nN ibbn • noNi
NbN • Diai Dnpn yiMi t^'om nipnb ini pnn m 'a • nsjb i:niu' Nb Dppn iicn D'pnn ibNio 'mb
m' mpn Dor iiNb sjniB |ni: n"B n'oT ioni • iNia:i ms Nin '3 idni D'Niaa Dnm iN'a Ninin
a": nb: laa • 'u nvno ina©' bNiiB' biidj '" era 'lobn nbNn D'pnn imin' dn nb'b iiNb D'aaai
nnbiD 'iai nbiia nso' m lapia'iBai • isjio' Nb nn D'pnn ibN loib ':i2i D'Niai vnii) 'C'sn onio
Dmn EfSNi ns3b asaio bs d'iois la® noi nbisn y'l bNn 'lasn ibNia nnbin a"j i3i laai • n'-s
laa mn • snjb )'n imm fi'Dinb J'n i'bs obisb mn' Nin D'nbNn nius' iibn ba '3 ion • d"iibs
I'bs ' HON Nim imnsia p t33 nbsn jn^i • 'ns: NiniDi bNn nicsnn obisnio piDon nia I'jn
mniD' DmN mnw iidm lain '3 ion ibN3 • Dbisb invnb nbs iniiu • siub ]'n unni Fj'Dinb j'n
nbiss DmN • N'nn nsDinn lonni mbN -pis j'n ia noDin in • Db-ari la ib'id D'3 jnon 'jdo
no '3a HOS' on p dn • onn ponn Nbi Dna nooinn n"ni moban mbana Dnin inN '"ion
• D"i:iBb N'ao iai NSon n"nib niana i'bs Dnia
' A Bible Dictionary, by the Eev. James Austin Bastow, London, 1859; -
Introduction, p. 37.

526

APPENDIX III.

MR, PRESTON'S TRANSLATION.
Many men who hold our law
think that Solomon believed in the
existence of our world from all eter
nity. But it is wonderful that any
one holding tbe law of Moses should
believe in this doctrine. And if it
had come into the mind of one who
did not believe the statements of our
law, it would not be wonderful ; but
God has shown that this cannot
have been the case with Solomon, be
cause all the prophets and wise men
received his writings as canonical,
and never called them in question,
nor even after his death spoke at all
disparagingly of him on this ground,
as we find that they did with respect
to certain " strange women," and
several other matters; but what has
led men to think so is the fact, that
" our wise men sought to hide the
book of Ecclesiastes, because of the
apparent inconsistencies of many of
its expressions ;" and there can be no
doubt that that book, taken in its
obvious sense, contains expressions
apparently repugnant to belief in the
law. But as to the existence of the
world from eternity, there is no pas
sage to indicate that such was his
belief, though there is one, it is true,
which shows that he believed that the
world will not perish, but last for
ever. Because, then, they saw that
there was a verse proving the sta
bility of the world, they thought
erroneously that be believed that
the world was not created. Now the
verse which speaks of the future
eternal duration of the world is this:
" The earth abides for ever." Some
have interpreted tbe expression Dbis^
as signifying only for a " definite "
time. But I should like to know
what they will make of the passage
wbich we flnd in David, (Psalm x.
4, 5.) " He has founded tbe earth
on its basis, that it should not be
removed for ever and ever," isi Dbis.
But if you should say that tbe ex
pression is-j Dbis does not demon
strate its eternal duration, but only
its duration for a definite time, you
will necessarily say at the same time.

NEW TRANSLATION.
Mant who adhere to our law
thought that Solomon, peace be upon
him, believed in the eternity of the
world; but tbis is very strange. How
could they suppose that one who
adheres to the law of Moses, peace
be upon him, can at the same time
believe in the eternity of the world ?
But if one should think that in this
Solomon deviated from the teachings
of tbe law, and departed from the
articles of our religion, and God for
bid this, how could the great prophets
and sages receive this from bim with
out contradicting or blaming him
after his death, just as we find that
they have condemned bim for bis
strange women, and for some other
things? This suspicion, however,
arose from the fact that our sages
wanted to make Coheleth apocry
phal, because its sentiments incline
to heresy. And indeed it is ttue
that the obvious sense of tbe book
inclines to doctrines foreign to our
law, and requires explanation, but
the eternity of the world is not
amongst them ; and there is not a
single passage either propounding
tbe eternity of the world, or even
touching this subject, though there
are passages in it setting forth its
perpetuity, wbich forsooth is true.
And when they saw that there were
verses which show its perpetuity,
tbey concluded that be also believed
in its non-creation, which is not true.
The passage which speaks of perpe
tuity is " the earth abideth for ever,"
(Coheleth i. 4.) and there are some
even who, not being able to find in
it the subject in question, take these
words to denote a limited period, just
as, they say, the words of the Most
High, " while the earth remaineth."
(Genesis vii. 18.) But I wonder
what these persons will say to the
declaration of David, " He has fixed
the earth upon ber foundations, she
shall not be moved, (isi Dbis) for
ever and ever." (Psalm civ. 6.) If
the phrase isi Dbis does not denote
perpetuity, then must the existence
of the most high God himself have

APPENDIX III.

527

MR. PRESTON'S TRANSLATION,
that the Creator will only reign for
a definite time, as we find in Psalm
X. 16 : " The Lord is King isi obis
for ever and ever." Now it is'gene-
rally allowed that Dbis does not de
note eternity of duration except when
joined with is. Solomon, therefore,
speaks less strongly than David ;
but David furthermore, in the 148th
Psalm, assures us that the heavens
and all things they contain will last
for ever, and will suffer no change ;
where he say s, " Pr aise tbe Lord in the
heavens, &c." to where he says, " he
hath established them for ever and
ever," nbisb isb DTnB'_i and he adds,
liasi Nbi )ni pn, i. e.',' "because the
precepts which he has given will not
be changed;" where by "precepts"
be intends " tbe laws of nature," i. e.,
" tbe laws of tbe constitution of hea
ven and earth ordained before they
were created." But that they were
created, is clear from what he says,
" he commanded, and they were
created." Jeremiah also says, " Thus
saith the Lord, wbo maketh the sun
for a light by day, and the ordinances
of the moon aud the starsfor a
light by night; if those ordinances
depart from before me, saith the
Lord, then the seed of Israel also
shall cease from being a nation be
fore me for ever." Here he informs
us that those laws are never to be
abrogated, though tbey were at first
put into operation by supreme power.
Solomon says, too, that " All things
wbich God has made," (viz., the
world and all things in it) " are
stable in their nature, although all
are created things;" for be has these
words, " all things which God has
made shall be for ever; no one can
diminish from them or add to them ;"

NEW TRANSLATION.
a definite period, since we find that
tbe Scripture describes the perpetuity
of the Most High by, " the Lord is
King (i»iDbis) for ever and ever."
(Ps. X. 16.) And what thou shouldst
know is that the word Dbis does not
denote perpetuity, except when is is
added to it, either after it as in the
passage i.si Dbis or before it, as in the
phrase Dbis is. This being the case,
tbe phrase of Solomon, niois Dbisb,
abideth for ever, (Coheleth i. 3,] is
not even so strong as that of David,
IS! Dbis iDion ba (Psalm civ. 5,) shall
not be moved for ever and ever.
Now David, peace be upon him, has
already declared tbat the heavens
aud tbeir ordinances will last' for
ever, and undergo no change, when
be says, " Praise the Lord from the
heavens, . . for he commanded
and they were created, he bath also
established them for ever and ever,
he hath made a decree wbich shall
not p8,ss;" (Psalm cxlviii, 1 - 6.H e.,
tbe ordinances which he has esta
blished will never be changed, for the
word pn here denotes the ordinances
of heaven and earth described in the
preceding part of the psalm, although
he declares t'oat they were created,
when he says " be commanded and
they were created," (lb. v. 5). So
also Jeremiah, in the passage, " thus
saith the Lord which giveth the sun
for a light by day, and the ordinances
of the moon and of the stars for a
light by night  if those ordi
nances depart from before me, saith
the Lord, then the seed of Israel
shall also cease from being a nation
before me for ever," (xxxi. 35, 36.)
bas already declared that the ordi
nances, though created, will never
be abrogated. And if thou wilt e.-!-
amine it, thou wilt find the same in
other passages of Solomon, peace be
upon him ; inasmuch as Solomon
also affirms that these works of God,
i. e., the world and all things therein,
are perpetual in their nature, though
they were created, since he says, "all
things which God bath made shall
exist for ever, nothing can be added

528

APPENDIX III.

MR. PRESTON'S TRANSLATION,
and he thus at the same time states
that the world and all that is in it is
the work of God, and assigns the
reason of their eternal duration in
the words, " There is no adding to
them or diminishing from them ;" as
if he had said, " everything which
suffers change, suffers it either in
consequence of some defect in it,
where there is a want of perfection,
or of some superabundance of some
thing not necessary to its perfection ;
but since the works of the Creator
are absolutely perfect, and no addi
tion or diminution can be made in
them, they will necessarily remain
as they are, because there is nothing
to induce change in them,"

NEW TRANSLATION.
to them, nor can anything be taken
away from them;" (Coheleth iii 14.)
thus declaring here that the world is
created by God, and yet is perpetual.
He moreover gives the cause of its
perpetual duration, when he says,
" nothing can be added to it or taken
away from it," (Ibid) aud herein lies
the cause of its perpetual existence ;
as if be had said. Every thing wbich
suffers change, suffers it either be
cause it has some defect, and hence
must be perfected, or because it has
something redundant and useless,
and this must be removed! But
since the works of the blessed God
are absolutely perfect, as it is impos
sible that they should have anything
redundant, or be defective, therefore
they must necessarily remain as they
are, because it is impossible that any
thing could be found to induce a
change.

Page 11.
]'3ii p is to be rendered the son of Zonin, or ben Zonin.
Page 66.
The point in which they are all alike is tliat they were all obliged to alter
the literal sense of the book into palatable sentiments, and none of them gave a
plausible reason how he could draw wholesome food, or elicit sweetness from
this rock, is a more correct rendering of Aramah's words, DnaiB rrwn isn
D'p'DDo D'osioa naiBb dsid la pi Dna inN Nbi n'pino ''laia msQ nN m:ii)b D'pni: nbaic
D'pnnn ns' isni nN'ia bSNo n'si: sbon ]o.
Page 293, Chap. ii. 16.
It is not Ibn Ezra himself, but one quoted by him, who takes laaina in the
sense of laaiBa, as in time past. The passage quoted (p. 293) is to be trans
lated one of the interpreters said that laaica denotes time past, but when he
saw that the words D'Nan D'O'n stood in his way, he said it ought to be laaiaa.

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