YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

THE

HISTORY OF ENGLAND

CHRONOLOGICAL FORM

FREDERICK T. JONES

NEW YORK
THE WORLD 1887

Copyright, 1887.
By Robert James Belford.

3yL 14k

4331

CONTENTS,

Chapter I. Prehistoric Times  9
II. The Dawn of History  17
HE. Roman Britain  ,  21
IV. The English Conquest  34
V. The Danish Conquest  66
VI. The Norman Conquest ,  100
VII. The Angevin or Plantagenet Kings : the
Struggle for Supremacy between the
Crown and the Feudal Aristocracy  135
vhi. The Tudors : the Crown Supreme  215
IX. The Stuarts : the Struggle for Supremacy
BETWEEN THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT  263
X. Constitutional England . /  302
XI. The Reign of Victoria : England a Democ
racy  314

PREFACE,

The present work gives, on a somewhat novel plan, a his
tory of England from the earliest times to the present day.
Besides political matters, there are noted inventions, discov
eries, and leading events in science, art, and literature. One
advantage of a history modelled on the chronological plan is
that it can hardly become antiquated. The date of an event,
once ascertained, is fixed forever. Not being a matter of
opinion, it is not liable to change with the fluctuating results
of historical criticism. Though the greatest care has been
taken to insure, accuracy, it is too much to hope that, in the
multiplicity of events, names, and dates recorded, errors have
not crept in. Should the reader note any such,, the publish
ers will take it as a favor to be informed of them, with a
view to their correction in subsequent editions.
The latest and best authorities have been followed. For
the prehistoric period the works of Prof. Boyd Dawkins and
Mr. Elton have been relied on ; for the Celtic and Koman
periods, those of Rhys, Scarth, and Coote ; for the Saxon
period those of Skene, Green, and ,Grant Allen ; and for
the later history, those of Freeman, Hunt, Green, Froude,
Gardiner, and Bright, with a general reference throughout
to the Annals of England, Low and Pulling's Dictionary of
English History, Leslie Stephen's Dictionary of National
Biography, and Woodward and Cates's Encyclopaedia of
Chronology.
F. T. J.

HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTEE I.
PREHISTOBIC TIMES.

Whetheb or not man existed in Britain before or during
the last glacial era is a question which geologic research has
not yet determined, though the probability is great that he
did. That he existed there soon after the close of that epoch
is a point about which there is no doubt whatever. Between
that date (probably over 200,000 years ago) and the dawn 'of
history Britain was peopled successively by distinct races which,
in the order of chronological sequence, may be thus classified :
1. Early Palaeolithic men, now probably extinct.
2. Late Palaeolithic men, now probably represented by the
Eskimos. 3. Neolithic men, probably Iberians.
4. Bronze-age men, Goidelic or Gaelic Celts and men of
Finnish race.
5. Iron-age men, Brythonic or Kymric Celts.
6. Belgae.
In historic times there followed Romans and tribes of Teu
tonic race — Jutes, Engle or Angles, Saxons^ Northmen, Danes,
and Normans.
1. Early PalcBolitMc or River-Drift Man in Britain. At
the epoch geologically represented by the mid-Pleistocene
strata, Britain was joined to the European continent on the
one side, and to Ireland and the Hebrides, or Western Isles of
Scotland, on the other. The North Sea, the English Channel,
St. George's Channel, and the Irish Sea were dry land, the
coast-line being about fifty miles west of the present west coast
of Ireland and the Hebrides ; and the Thames, Humber, Tyne,
Forth, Tay, and -the other English and Scotch rivers now fall
ing into the North Sea were tributaries of the Ehine. The

10 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
dry land now covered by the North Sea was then separated|
from Norway only by a narrow arm of the sea, from twenty to
fifty miles wide, and about two hundred fathoms deep. At the
same epoch Spain and Italy were joined to Africa, so that the.
Straits of Gibraltar did not exist, and the Mediterranean con
sisted of two inland seas, separated from each other by Italy
and a belt of land connecting its southern end with- 'Tunis in
.Africa. The representatives of the human race who lived in Britain
at this remote epoch were savages as low in the scale of civilfc
zation as the present Australian aborigines. They probable-
roamed naked through the woods ; took refuge in caves from
the inclemency of the seasons ; and, being ignorant of the use
of fire, lived on the raw flesh of such animals as they could
kill with their rude weapons of chipped and unpolished stone.
They had no metals, no pottery, no agriculture, and no do
mestic animals. The fauna bf what is nowBritairi then in
cluded several species of animals which are now extinct, Such
as the Irish elk, cave-bear, sabre-toothed lion(rkacJiairodus
latidens), two extinct species of elephant (the mammoth" and
the straight-tusked elephant), and three extinct species of
rhinoceros ; besides other animals which, ' though still extant,
are no longer to be found in Britain, such as the feinde'erh
wild horse, urus, bison, hippopotamus, brown bear, grisly
bear, wild cat, Caffer cat,' lion, iynx, leopard, spotted hyena,
wolf, musk-sheep, wild' boar, and beaver. ' The palaeolithic
men who then lived in Britain belonged to a race which apparr
ently occupied the* whole of ' Europe as far north as the lati
tude of Derbyshire, also Northern Africa;' Asilf Minor, Palestine,
and India as far south as the latitude of Madras. "'They1 have
not hitherto been identified with any race bf men now existing.
If not extinct, they may possibly be represented at the present
time by some of the savage hill-tribes of India.
2. Late Palceotithic or" Cave Man in* Britain. At a' long
-interval (represented probably by tens of thousands of years)
after the disappearance of the early Palaeolithic men, a new
race appeared in Britain, to Which, on account:' of their' re
mains having been found chiefly in' caves, the rtame CaVe-Bfen
has been given. ' Their range was much less Wide ; than' that
of their predecessors, their remains having been discovered: only
in Britain as far north as Derbyshire, and in 'Belgium^ Frafice,
Switzerland, and central Europe. ! They have left to traces;
south of the Pyrenees and Alps, nor further east than1 Poland
and Styria, and consequentiyprobably never made their way
beyond those limits. Their epoch corresponds geological

MtEHISTORIC TIMES. ll
with the later Pleistocene strata ; and the. geography and
fauna .of Europe were not greatly different from what they had
been during the time of their predecessors, the River-drift
men. Though they were not acquainted with tiie use of
metals, and were destitute of pottery, agriculture, and domestic
animals, they were far more advanced in civilization than the
River-drift men. Besides being hunters, they were also ex
pert fishers and fowlers. The -fish were probably speared or
harpooned ; and the birds either snared, shot with arrows, or
killed with spears thrown from the hand. Their prey included
the salmon, , trout, carp, bream, dace, chub, and pike ; and,
among birds; the. snowy owl, willow-grouse, ptarmigan, caper-
calzie, gray partridge, wild duck, and an extinct species of
crane. Bbnes bf all these animals have been found in their
refuse heaps. They were acquainted with the use of fire,
which they probably procured by rubbing together two pieces
of wood, or by striking together flint and iron pyrites. They
cooked their food either by roasting or by means of hot stones
or "pot-boilers." Their stone implements, though unpolr
ished, were more carefully chipped and better shaped than'
those of the Drift-men. They also used implements of bone,
such as harpoon-heads of antler, bone awls for boring .holes,
notched bones, probably for sawing, and bone needles. They
were clothed in skins sewn together with reindeer sinew,, and
they wore long gloves (probably of fur) with three; or four
fingers. They also wore amulets and necklaces of perforated
shells, bone, ivory, and teeth ; and they probably painted their
faces, red with oxide of iron. Their skulls were dolicocephalic,
or long-headed.
The most remarkable fact about this race of men, however,
is that they were the creators of the fine-arts of drawing,
engraving, and sculpture. Their drawings were incised with
stone,' tools on bones, antlers, teeth, or, stone implements.
Many specimens of their skill, have beeivdispoyered, showing
that these sketches are mostly ¦ representations of the animals
with which they were familiar,, and in a few instances of the
men themselves. , Among animals thus delineated are the horse,
bison, reindeer, mammoth, urns, cave-bear, whale, seal, pike,
and, in one case, a group pf birds, probably ducks, unable to
fly, and scuttling away as fast as possible. ; One drawing is that
of af lohg gloye or gauntlet, incised on.tthe. perforated canine
tooth of a bear. Among sculptures one of tJie, most noteworthy
is a specimen in which the handle pf-a daggejof reindeer ant
ler has-been carved ihtofthe shape of that animal, "with his
hea4," says J'rof , Dawkins, "thrown back, so as to allow the

12 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
aiitlers to rest on the shoulders, the forelegs being folded.
gracefully under the body, and the hind passing gradually into
the blade."
Most of these specimens of prehistoric art have been found
in caves in France. The first discovery of the figure of an
animal in Britain was that of a horse, incised on a fragment of
a rib. It was dug out of the stalagmite floor of the Robin
Hood Cave, on the borders of Nottinghamshire . and Derby
shire, associated with the bones of the leopard and the extinct
sabre-toothed lion (machairodus latidens), the stalagmite floor
being three feet thick, and so hard as to have been blasted only
with extreme difficulty. "The- head," says Prof. Dawkins,.
" with its eyes, mouth, and nostrils, is admirably drawn, and
a series of fine oblique lines stopping at the bend of the back
proves that the animal was hog-maned " — that is, that the
mane stood up in bristles straight from the neck.
It seems probable that in Britain a wide interval of time, prob
ably not less than 100,000 years, separated "the era of the later,
Palaeolithic men from that of the Neolithic race which next
appeared on the scene. During this interval vast changes took
place in the geography of Britain. The. land was slowly sub
merged until the English Channel, the North Sea, the Irish
Sea, and the St. George's Channel were formed, and Britain,
Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Western Isles of Scotland
became islands separated from the Continent of Europe and
from each other. The fauna likewise changed. The cave-
bear, the sabre-toothed lion, the mammoth, the straight-nosed
elephant, and the three species of rhinoceros which existed
during the palaeolithic epoch became extinct, the Irish elk
being the only animal now extinct which survived into the
Neolithic age. The Cave-men also disappeared, and, if Prof.
Dawkins's identification of them with the Eskimos is correct,
betook themselves to Greenland and North America, probably
by way of the Faroe Isles and Iceland.
3. Neolithic Man in Britain. In Neolithic. times Britain
presented much the same geographical appearance that it now
does. The most noteworthy differences were, that the south
ern and western coast-lines extended at some points further
into the ocean than at present, so as to include Anglesey and
the Isle of Wight as a part of the mainland ; and that the-
Wash and the wide estuary of the Thames had not beerr
formed, but were dry land.. The race of men which at this'1!
epoch peopled both Ireland and Great Britain were of short ¦
stature^nd had dolicocephalic. or long-headed skulls. They
were much further advanced in civilization than their ¦prede.-!

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 13
cessors. . Though, like them, they had no knowledge of the
useful metals, their implements and weapons of stone were
finely shaped and beautifully polished. They were no longer
mere huntsmenand fishermen, but were herdsmen and agri
culturists. They had domesticated the horse, dog, sheep,
pig, one race of oxen (the small, delicately shaped, so-called
"Celtic" short-horn), a variety of goat (probably the anceBior
of the Welsh goat), and the goose. Among seeds and fruits
cultivated were several varieties of wheat, two of barley, the
millet, the Italian selaria, peas, poppies, flax, apples, pears,
bullace plums, and caraway seeds. They lived probably in
log-houses, and huts made of wattle-work, though caves were
still sometimes used as habitations.
They were acquainted with the arts of spinning, weaving,
pottery (coarsely made by hand), and mining. They worked
mines of flint with picks made out of stag's antlers. They
made boats or jcanoes, some of them forty feet long, in which
they made voyages between Britain and the continent of
Europe, on the one side, and Ireland, on the other. They
do not seem to have been acquainted with the use of" sails,
and used paddles for propulsion. Trade was carried on by
means of barter ; and that commerce was carried on, frequent
ly from long distances, is shown from the fapt that neolithic
axes have been found made of nephrite or jade, a substance
found only in Turkestan and China.
A family and a, tribal organization presented the earliest
form of government. The population was probably compara
tively large, and between ;the different tribes there seems to
have been frequent warfare, in which art numerous fortified
camps, with ramparts and ditches, show that the people had
made considerable progress. They had also acquired the rudi
ments of religion, so far as to have attained a belief in a future
life. Though they sometimes buried their dead in caves,
they also constructed as burial-places tombs or burrows, some
of imposing grandeur, for the habitation of the dead in the
after-life, when their spirits were supposed to lead a life not
very different from the present. It also seems that it was
among this race that Druidism originated ; that they some
times accompanied their religious rites with human sacrifices ;
and that it was they who erected the huge stone monuments,
remains of which still exist at Stonehenge, Abury or Avebiiry,
and many other places in. Britain. These stone circles vary
in diameter from 30 or 40 feet to 1200 ; and they were proba
bly temples' standing in close relation to the burial-places of
the dead.

1~4 ¦¦• - HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
They had acquired neither the art of alphabetic writing nor
hieroglyphics ; and were ignorant of the arts of drawing, en
graving, and sculpture practised with such singular skill by
their predecessors, the Caye-men. _ _
Some writers contend that Neolithic man was identical with
the Eskimos ; but it seems more probable that his true iden-_
tification is with the Iberians," with whom he presents numerous
and striking points of resemblance. . The Neolithic men were
of short stature, their average height being about 5 ft. 5 in.
for the men, and 4 ft. 10 in. for the women. They, were
long-headed or dolicocephalic, with an oval face, low forehead, _
aquiline nose, and orthognathic — that is, the jaw did not project
forward beyond the facial line. In these respects they corre
spond with the Iberians of history, who, in addition to these
characteristics, had black hair and eyes, and a swarthy skin. t.
Traces of Neolithic civilization have been found in almost
every part of Europe, and in northern Africa., In early his-,
toric times the Iberians inhabited the peninsula (Iberia) of
Spain and Portugal, from' which tbev derived their name.
They also probably peopled the south-west of Gaul, as far as
the. Seine and including Brittany. The Fir-Bolgs of Ireland, ?.
the Silures of south-east Wales, the Aquitani of Gaul, south- '
west of the Loire, and the Lignrians along the coast of. the.
Gulf of Genoa as far west as . the Rhone were probably differ-,
ent tribes of Iberians, cut off from each other as ethnographic
islands by the inundation of Celts from the east. Among
modern representatives of the Iberians are probably the
Welsh ; the so-called " Black Celts " of south-west Ireland,
and Ireland west of the Shannon ; the Basques at the west-.
erly end of the Pyrenees in southrwest France and north-east..
Spain : the natives of Corsica,, Sardinia, and Sicily; and the
Berbers of northern Africa. A strong Iberic infusion also
probably exists in Cornwall, in the midland and fen counties
of England (Derby, Leicester, and Lincoln), and in the High-.,
lands (north of the Grampians) and Western Isles of Scotland,"
where they are scattered among the predominant Caledonian,
population. All these peoples present the same characteristic
Iberian physical marks : short stature; dark hair, eyes, and
skin; and dolicocephalic or long-headed skulls; In Britain
in common with the, rest of Europe, there is an unbroken
ethnical continuity from Neolithic times to the present day.
4. , Men of the Bronze Age. , The Neolithic tribes spread
over the whole of Great Britain and Ireland, and appear to
have been the undisturbed occupants of the country during
several thousand years. Finally, howOver, their possession

PREHISTORIC TIMES. '- 15
wasdisputed by invaders or immigraiits from the Continent of
Europe. These hew:comers, who introduced the use of bronze,
seem, to rhave beeh'of two. distinct Traces, one, Aryan, being
the Goidelic or Gaelic Celts,1 from Gaul;1 the other, rioh- Aryan,
being a Finnish or'TJgrian race from northern Europe. Both
were tall races, the men averaging 5 ft. '8£ in. in height, and
both had,br6ad or round skulls' tfitachy cephalic) . The Celts were
fair-haired,- witHKfierceu 'blue eyes; the Finnish immigrants
probably had straight red hair and ' gray eyes. The Celtic
skulls are strongly prognathic, both" jaws projecting far beyond
the vertical lind'irom the forehead; which was high, broad,
and expanded- . They were in a stage of culture in advance
of their "Neolithic predecessors, ' as is implied in the use of
bronze;" and they also manufactured a pottery of a superior
character. The Finnish" invaders first introduced into Britain
the art'of writing, many inscriptions and other specimens of
which have been discovered in recent times. The language
has not yet been deciphered; but1 the Character is alphabetic,
not hieroglyphic, and is, similar to' that on the so-called Ogam-
stones. The new-comers, whether Celts or Finns, seem to have
finally mingled peaceably and intermarried with the earlier
Neolithic population. Skeletons of both races have been
found buried "together in many 'of the tombs, and skeletons
have also been found intermediate'between the two types.
The Bronze age in Britain is distinctly divisible into two
stages, an eariier. and a later. ' The advance in civilization
which this age shows over the Neolithic is evidenced by the
great variety of articles found in the burial-plaees, hundreds
of which have been examined. These include: stone arrow and
lance heads, poniards,' knives, scrapers, chisels, saws, axes,
axe-hammers, beads, and buttons; shell necklaces; pins, combs,
-beads, and tweezers of bone or teeth ; amber beads, Mttons, and
rings; 'jet.'. buttons, rings, beads, and pendants in large num
bers; glass beads; gold ornaments; bronze axes, knives, -daggers,
drills, pins, awls, bracelets, ear-rings, and beads; and numerous
articles of pottery. In the later Bronze age there were intro
duced bronze swords, scabbards, spears, palstaves, and socketed
celts. During the Bronze age the practise of cremation was
first introduced into Britain. When the Celts first appeared .
in western Europe they were in the stone age; but before
going over into Britain they acquired a knowledge of bronze,
probably from the Etruscan or "Pelasgic races dwelling in
south-east Europe. They were, at all events, well acquainted
with the use of bronze when they first appeared in Britain.

16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
5. The Iron Age. The Goidelic or Gaelic Celts were suc
ceeded in Britain by another wave of Celts, of a different
variety and speaking a different dialect. These were the
Kymric or Brythonic Celts. They brought with them a
knowledge of the use of iron, and displaced their Gaelic prede
cessors from England and Wales. The Gaelic branch of the
Celts is now represented by the Gaelic people of Ireland, north
ern Scotland, and the Isle of Man; the Kymric by the Celts of
Wales and Brittany. The date of the introduction of iron into
Britain cannot be fixed, but it must have been many centuries
before the Christian era. The use of bronze disappeared in
Britain more than 150 years before Christ; and in Gaul prob
ably long before. In the time of Hesiod, 850 B.C., irOn had
already superseded bronze among the Greeks. The introduc
tion of iron into Britain corresponds with a change in the
burial customs. Cremation was still carried on to some extent,
but the novel practice was introduced of burying the dead
at full length in a stone chamber or shallow pit, along with
artiples used in daily life, instead of burying them in a
sitting or crpuching posture, as had been the custom in the
Bronze age.
6. The Belgce. The next invaders or immigrants into
Britain were the Belgae. Some centuries before the Christian
era, they came from the neighboring continent between the
Seine and the Rhine. At the date of the Roman conquest of
Britain, they occupied that portion of the country which lies
south of the Thames, between what are now Dorsetshire and
Sussex. They were a tall race, with light brown hair; but
whether pelts or Teutons or a mixture of both is a point as yet
undetermined by ethnologists. One recent authority, indeed—
Mr., Henry C. Coote— contends that the Belgae were Teutonic
in race and in language; that they occupied all South-east
Britain from Dorset to. the Frith of Forth ; that they are the
main foundation of the modern English people ; and that their
language is the basis of modern English.* These vie^s,
however, have not been generally accepted by English histo
rians. * See his "Komans in Britain," pp. 21-41.

THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 17

CHAPTER H.
THE DAWN OF HISTORY.
1. The Etruscans and Britain. The earliest communica
tion between Britain and the historic races of Europe was made
during the Iron age — that is, when the Kymric Celts had
obtained possession of England and Wales. The historic race
with which communication was first effected was probably the
Etruscans. This remarkable people were apparently a mixed
race, built upon a Pelasgic foundation. As early as the 15th
century before Christ they were a powerful maritime, people,
then dwelling probably in what is now Turkey-in-Europe. . At
that date they joined with the Sardones (a people of Southern
Gaul) in a formidable maritime expedition against Egypt,
bu,t were defeated by Rameses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks.
About 1100 B. C. they crossed the Alps into Italy, and in
process of time made themselves masters of the country as
far as the Gulf of Salerno just south of Naples. Between
396 B.C. and 280 B.C. they were conquered and absorbed by
the Romans. They extended their trade by various overland
routes to the Baltic, Denmark, Sweden, Gaul, Britain, and Ire
land. Their most noteworthy talent was the working of gold,
in which they surpassed any people who have ever lived, before
or since. Works of Etruscan art have been found in graves of
the prehistoric Iron age in England, Wales, and Ireland. One
of the most remarkable is a corselet found in 1832 in a cairn or
burial-mound near Mold, in North Wales. It was made of a
thin plate of gold, 3 ft. 7 in. long and 8 in. wide, weighing
17 oz., the value of the metal alone being over $300. It is
beautifully ornamented in repousse with nail-head and dotted-
line pattern.* Its exact date is unknown, but it may have
been as early as 1000 B. C, or as late as the Roman occu
pation. 2. The Phoenicians and Britain. Contemporaneous with
the Etruscans were the Phoenicians. In the centuries before
and after 1000 B.C. they were the great carriers in the
* It is figured in Prof. Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 432.

18 HISTORY 02 ENGLAND.
Mediterranean. They founded Gadeira or Gades (now Cadiz,
in Spain) about 1100 B.C., and speedily occupied the whole
southern coast of Spain. Not long after their defeat and the
capture of Tyre in 859 B.C. by the Assyrians under Assur-
nasir-habal they shifted the principal seat of their power west
erly, by founding Carthage about 850 B. C. It has been gener
ally thought that at a later date there was direct intercourse
between the Phoenician colonies in Spain and Britain and Ire
land, and that Phoenician traders resorted to Cornwall and
the Scilly Islands for the sake of tin. Pliny, writing about
A.D. 70, states that in B.C. 500 Himilco set out from Gades
and reached the coast of " Insula Sacra" (the Sacred Isle),
inhabited by the races of the Hibernians. It seems certain,
however, that Pliny was mistaken with regard to the island
mentioned by Himilco, which was in reality a small island
on the west coast of Gaul, near the mouth of the Loire, to
which women from the mainland resorted for the purpose of
performing barbarous religious rites. Before arriving any
where near Britain Himilco was driven by a stOrm westerly, as
far as the Sargasso Sea, in the middle of the Atlantic, whence
he returned to Spain, discovering the Azores on the way.
There is no doubt that many centuries before the Christian
era the Phoenicians voyaged to the (Estrymnides, or Cassiterides
or Tin Islands (from the Greek cassiteros, tin), for the sake of
procuring tin, which rare metal was especially valuable in
those^ early times, on account of its entering into the composi
tion of bronze. The Cassiterides, however, were not, as has
been generally supposed, the Scilly Islands, but a group of
islands, ten in number, off Vigo Bay, on the north-west coast
of Spain. On the whole, then, it is very doubtful whether the
Phoenicians, at any time, held direct intercourse with Britain.
No article of Phoenician manufacture has yet been found in
Britain; and the only traces (if any) of such intercourse which
now remain are certain geographical names in Cornwall, such
as Tamar and Uxella, which some authorities believe to be of
Phoenician origin.
¦1.3. The- Greeks and Britain. The next historic people who
came in rcontact with Britain were the Greeks. A work
attributed to Aristotle (and reputed to have been written about
345 B.C.) mentions Albion* and Ierne as the two chief Brit
ish -Isles: ^beyond the Celtae (meaning the Celts of Gaul). It
is now known, however, that this work was not written • by
*Albion was the name by which Britain was known to the Celtic
inhabitants. Its meaning and derivation are unknown ; it is not cer
tain even that the word is Celtic. Albyn, one of the poetical names oi

THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 19
Aristotle* and its exact date is unknown. Massilia (now Mar
seilles), in Gaul, was founded as a Greek colony by the Pho-
cceans about 600 B. C. From this port it was that the earliest
authentic voyage was made from any Mediterranean coun
try to Britain. About the year 325 B.C., Pytheas, a Greek
astronomer and mathematician of that city, set sail with an
expedition to explore the northern seas. Passing between the
Pillars of Hercules, as the Straits of Gibraltar were then called,
he coasted along Lusitania (Portugal), northern Hispania
(Spain), and west Gaul. He then went northwards to Britain,
along which he coasted westerly a short distance, and then
returning, went northerly as far probably as Norfolk. From
this point he, in six days, crossed the North Sea to " Thule "
(Norway), along which he coasted till he got beyond the
Arctic circle into the region of perpetual day. Returning
south he reached the mouth of the Rhine, whence he
voyaged north-easterly along the coast among the Amber Isl
ands as far as Denmark. The principal Amber Islands lay
along the coast between the Rhine and the Elbe. He next
revisited Britain and made his way back to the Mediterranean.'
He wrote (probably about 320 B.C.) a diary of his voyages,
fragments of which are still extant as_ quotations in the works
of a few ancient authors, who have thus preserved notices of
the earliest authentic voyage from the Mediterranean to Brit
ain. Pytheas seems to have had some knowledge of the east
ern coast as far north as the Shetland Isles. He Bpent some
time with the natives in the south-east, near Gaul, and states
that they grew plenty of wheat, which was gathered in sheaves
into large barns where the threshing was done; and that they
drank beer made from barley, and also mead or metheglin, an
intoxicating liquor made from wheat and honey. It seems
probable that at about the date of the visit of Pytheas, or soon
afterwards, Greek or Macedonian coins, of the date of Philip
and Alexander the Great, were introduced into Britain. The
natives of south-east Britain, between the Wash and Dorset,
themselves began to coin unlettered gold pieces, modelled on
those of Greece or Gaul, at least as early as 200-150 B.C.
Britain is referred to by a few other Greek writers before
the date of Caesar's invasion. Polybius, for instance, writing
about 140 B.C., mentions the Britannic Isles and the working
of tin. A half a century later (probably about 100 or 90 B. C. )
Posidonius of Rhodes visited Bolerium or Belerion (as he
Scotland, is another form of the word. The common supposition
that it was derived from the Latin alba, white, in allusioe to the chalk
Cliffs of the south-east coast, is erroneous,

20

HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

named Cornwall) and described the natives and their method
of- working tin. For centuries before Caesar's advent the
natives 'of Britain carried on a considerable trade with their.
continental neighbors, especially with the Veneti, who dwelt
along' the west coast of Gaul, north-west of the Loire, in what
is now Morbiban. *
The next historic people of continental Europe who came
into contact with Britain were the Romans, and it^is with them
that the-real history of Britain, and a continuous chronologi-
"al record, commence. ' ,

ROMAN BRITAIN. 21

CHAPTER III.
ROMAN BRITAIN.
B.C. 55. Late in the summer of this year Julius Caesar
prepares to cross from Gaul to Britain. On hearing of his in
tention several of the tribes send ambassadors to him, to prom
ise hostages and submission to Rome. Caesar sends them home
accompanied by Commius, with instructions for him to exhort
as many tribes as possible to embrace the Roman alliance.
When Commius's mission becomes known he is placed in
bonds, whereupon Caesar embarks (about 24 Aug.) with two
legions (about 12,000 men), in 80 ships and some galleys, and
sails to Britain. After a severe battle with the natives Tie lands,
probably near the site of Deal. The natives sue for peace, re
lease Commius, and give hostages. A storm destroys a part of
Caesar's fleet, and the Britons twice again attack him, but are
repulsed. They again sue for and are granted peace, and
Caesar returns to Gaul (shortly before 21 Sep.), not having
penetrated Britain more than a mile from his landing-place.
54. Caesar, with 5 legions (about 30,000 men) and 2000
cavalry, in oyer 800 vessels, again lands in Britain (about 18
July), marches 12 miles inland, and defeats the natives. His
fleet is damaged by a storm ; "after repairing it he advances
inland, crosses the Thames (probably near the site of Walton,
about 17 miles west of London), and defeats the Catuvelauni,
under Cassivelaunus, whereupon some of the tribes submit, in
cluding the Trinobantes in Essex. The stronghold of Cassive
launus, near Verulamium (now St. Albans, in Hertfordshire), is
taken, and he also submits. Caesar returns to Gaul (probably
early in Sep.), and the Romans make no further attempt to
conquer Britain for nearly a century.
At the date of Caesar's invasion the native Britons with
whom he came in contact were a semi-barbarous race, those in
the interior being less civilized than the people living on the
coast near Gaul. Theycommonly used dressed skins for cloth
ing, though some wore garments made of coarse cloth. They
painted their bodies with woad, a blue dye resembling indigo,

22 . HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
obtained from the root-leaves of the woad plant (isatis tinctoria),
a biennial- belonging to the Cruciferae or mustard family. They
shaved the hair off the face except from the upper lip, but
allowed the hair of the head to grow long. The people in the
interior used but little grain, which was not stored in barns as
in the regions near the coast, but was preserved underground
till wanted. They had abundant cattle,- however, and lived
mostly on flesh and milk. They were itoo ignorant to make
cheese. Before Caesar's landing iron-mines were probably
worked in the weald of Kent and Sussex, and perhaps pig-lead
in the Mendip Hills of Somerset. Bronze, ivory, amber, and
other articles were imported from the continent. The natives
also made rude pottery. They used canoes, hollowed fromthe
trunks, of trees, and also coracles, or small boats made, of
wicker-work covered with hides. They also constructed rude.
fortresses &>r the purpose of defence, and in battle used warn
chariots with great skill. In religion they were polytheists.of
theAryan. type ; every locality had its divinity, and. the rivers ¦
were .specially identified with certain divine beings. Caesar's in
vasion: led to a good deal of indirect intercourse between Britain
and Rome, which resulted in a wider diffusion of some of the
arts of civilization among the natives.
The, name, Britain was derived from the Latin Britannia,
which was taken from the name of the people, Britanni. The,
people called themselves BrittSnes (singular Britto), which in
the, Welsh branch of the language became Brythons. This last
is probably the name by which this branch of. the Celts, as dis
tinguished from the Goidelic or Gaelic, called themselves, while
still on the continent of Europe, before they came to Britain. ,
Its meaning seems to be equivalent to "clothing," thus indi
cating a race which wore garments made of cloth instead of
skin, and distinguishing themselves from, their more savage,
neighbors on the continent, who were still in the, palaeolithic
or neolithic stage of civilization. The jinodern word "braid"
is probably a derivative or cognate form of the same word.
B.C. 30. , About this date, probably, the natives in south
eastern Britain, from Kent to Wilts, begin to, make -lettered
coins — that is, coins with words or other inscriptions on them..
A.D. 40. The principal king or tribal. chief in Britain, is
Cunpbelin (the Cymbeline of Shakspere), who ruled over the
Catuvelauni and the Trinobantes, tribes occupying the country
north of the Thames from Gloucester, to ^the North Sea (npw,
Oxford,. Bucks, Bedford, Herts,'; Middlesex, and ,Ess,ex),' He.
diedrbetween 40 and 43, leaving his kingdom, to, his two sons
Togpdumnus and Qaractacus (Caradoc). i

ROMAN BRITAIN. 23
'43. ; Claudius,'- Emperor of Rome, sends 4 legions (the 2d,
9th, -14th, and 20th) and auxiliaries (probably 50,000 'men)
"under' Aulus ' Plautius to conquer 'Britain. The army sails,
probablyrfrom Gesoriacum (Boulogne), lands either in Kent
or near the site of Southampton', marches towards the Thames,
and' iri ai- series of battles defeats the natives under Caractacus
and Tbgbdummis. The latter is slain, and Caractacus takes
refuge' with'the Silures in south-east Wales. Claudius comes to
Britain, crosses the Thames, and captures Camulodunum (on
the site1 of Lexden, a mile frOm Colchester, in Essex), the capi
tal of the iate' king, Cunobelin. Several tribes submit) and
Claudius^ after remainirigin the island for only seventeen days,
returns to 'ROme' and enjoys a triumph. Plautius, with the^
assistariee'of Vespasian arid Titus (both of whom afterwards
became emperor), corithrues' the war, and in a few years con
quers south-east Britain as far north as the Ouse, and as far west
as the borders of Dorset and Somerset Camulodunum (near
Colchester) l and Glevum (now Gloucester)' become important
stations. 47. Publius Ostorius Scapula is made propraetor or com
mander iri Britain.
50. He extends the Roman conquests as far north as the
Trent. '' The Iceni, or Eceni, a tribe inhabiting what are now
Norfolk, Suffolk, arid Cambridgeshire, revolt, but are defeated
(probably near the site of Daventry, a town about 11 miles
riorth-wCst of- Northampton), though not subdued, by Ostorius.
He then turns his arms successfully against the Cangi (a tribe
occupying what is' now Carnarvon, in north Wales) and the
.Brigantes, a tribe occupying the country between the Trent
and: the1 Tweed.
Caractacus, at the head of the Silures, after having carried
on war against the Romans for eight years, is defeated by
Ostorius, and takes refuge among the Brigantes. The site of
Caractacus's defeat is not determined, but it was probably
either at Goxwall Knoll; on the borders of Herefordshire, or
at Briedden Hill in Shropshire.
,' 51. Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes, delivers him
Up" to1 the Romans, ^by whom he is sent prisoner to Rome,
where his manly bearing procures the emperor's pardon.
^Shortly afterwards and before the Silures are finally sub
dued', Ostorius dies; he.is succeeded as commander in Britain
by Aulus Didius.
r 54. 'Claudius. is poisoned by his wife Agrippina to make
room for her son Nero, who succeeds as emperor.
'57. Veranius succeeds Didius as commander in Britain.

24 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
58. ' Veranius dies, and Nero sends Caius Suetonius
Paulinus to take command in Britain.
59. Suetonius partially conquers Mona (Anglesey), the cen
tre of Druidical influence, and destroys the sacred groves.
60. About this date Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, dies,
leaving his property to the Roman emperor jointly with his
own daughters. He did this for the purpose of propitiating
the Romans, but they make it a pretext for wholly appropri
ating his territory.
61. The Iceni, under their queen, Boudicca (usually but
erroneously called Boadicea), rise in revolt, defeat the 9th
legion, capture the Roman stations at Camulodunum, Veru-
lamium (now St. Albans, in Hertfordshire), and Londinium
(London), and slaughter 70,000 or 80,000 of the inhabitants.
62. . Suetonius marches from north Wales with the 14th
and part of the 20th legions, defeats the Iceni in a pitched
battle (somewhere between London and Colchester), and quells
the revolt. Boudicca dies, either of grief or by poison; and
Suetonius is recalled to Rome.
69. Vespasian becomes Emperor of Rome. He sends to
Britain his general Petilius Cerealis, who partially conquers
the Brigantes (69-70).
75. Vespasian sends to Britain his general, Sextus Julius
Frontinus, and he finally .reduces the Silures. -
78. Vespasian makes Cnaeas Julius Agricola commander
or legate in Britain; Agricola completes the conquest of Wales
and Mona.
79. Vespasian dies; his son Titus succeeds as' emperor.
Agricola captures Isurium (now Aldborough, 16 miles north
west of York, and 5 miles south of Ripon), the capital of the
Brigantes. 80. Agricola completes the conquest of the Brigantes,
extends the Roman ( conquests to the Tyne, and ravages the
country as far as the Tay. He erects a line of forts from the
Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne. A Roman legion is
settled at Eburacum or Eburacon (now York.)
81. Agricola begins the Ntask of reclaiming Britain from its
forests and morasses; he penetrates Caledonia* as far as the
* The name Caledonians, which first occurs in Lucan (about A. D
65), was given by the Romans at first to the people who occupied
what is now central Scotland (the counties' of Argyll and Perth and
the south-west half of Forfar and the north-east half of Fife). It
was taken from Calidones, the name by which the people called
themselves ; their country they called Celyddon (or Calidon), a mu
tilated form of which still remains in the latter half of the name

ROMAN BRITAIN. 25
Forth, and erects a line of forts between the Friths of Forth
and Clyde. Titus dies ; Domitian succeeds as emperor.
83=5. Agricola carries on war for three years north of the
Forth, and also subdues the extreme south-west of Caledonia
(afterwards called Galloway, now Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and
parts of Ayr and Dumfries).
84-5. His fleet sails north, winters at a port called by
Tacitus Trucculensis or Trutulensis (probably in Aberdeen),-
sails through Pentland Frith, circumnavigates Britain, and
thus for the first time demonstrates it to be an island.
85. He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus or Calga-
cps in a great battle (of Mons Granpius or Graupius), fought
probably at the confluence of the Isla and the Tay (about 10
miles north-east of the site of Perth).
86. Domitian recalls him from Britain.
86-117. During this period the natives of Caledonia over
run the northern province between the Forth and the Tyne,
conquered by Agricola, which consequently regains its inde
pendence. 117. Trajan dies; Hadrian is proclaimed Emperor of Rome
(11 Aug.).
120. Hadrian comes to Britain to quell an incipient in
surrection. He brings the 6th legion with him.
121. He commences a continuous line of fortifications,
74 miles long, from Solway Firth to the mouth Of the
Dunkeld. During the Roman period of Britain a vast forest, called
by the Romans Silva Caledonia (Caledonian Forest) and by the
Britons Coed Oelyddon (woo,d of Calidon), stretched across central
Scotland from Loch Lomond to, Dunkeld on the Tay, and the Cale
donians occupied the country from the southern limit of this forest
to the Grampians. The country north of the Grampians and also the
Western Isles were occupied by Ivernians, non-Celtic tribes, probably
non- Aryans, similar to the prehistoric non-Celtic people of Ireland,
where the Ivernian language became extinct in the eighth century
A.D. The country to the south of the forest and north of the Cheviots
was occupied by the Dumnonii and Otadini, tribes of Brythonic or
Kymric Celts. What is now called Galloway (Wigton, Kirkcudbright,
and parts of Ayr and Dumfries), as well as Westmoreland and Cumber
land, were occupied by tribes of Gaelic Celts allied to the Caledonians.
Tacitus describes the Caledonians as having large limbs and red hair,
and he considered them to be of Germanic origin. The red hair
would seem rather to point to a Finnish origin. Possibly they were
Gaelic Celts with a strong Finnish admixture, or possibly a hybrid
race produced by a union between the Gaelic Celts, the Ivernians to
the north of them, and the Brythonic Celts to the south. Their lan
guage was Gaelic. After a time the name Caledonians was applied
by the Romans as a general term to-all the tribes in northern Britain
unconquered by them.

26 HISTORY OF ENGLASD.
Tyne, that is, from Bowness, west of, Carlisle, to Waltfs End,
near Newcastle, connecting Agricola's forts., Its remains still
exist under the name of "the Roman Wall," In. its ..final
shape . its structure was as follows,: On. the' north* side,,
towards the barbarians, was a ditch or trench, 15 feet deep,
10 feet wide at the bottom, and 35 at 'the top, witheartben
ramparts. South of the ditch, and keeping close com-'
pany with it, was a stone wall varying from 12 to 15. feet.inr
height and from 6 to 9 feet in , thickness. South of. this
wall, at an interval varying according to the nature, of the
ground, was a vallum, consisting of three ramparts, formed, of
earth mingled with masses of stone; and between the two most
northerly of these ramparts was a foss or ditch. The remains
of these ramparts at present stand six Or seven ieet above the
level of the neighboring ground. Between this vallumandthe
stone wall was a military road, along which, at intervals,, were
stations, castella or mile castles, and -turrets or watch-towers.
The stations numbered 17 or 18, and were about 4 miles apart j
they were quadrangular, enclosing an area of from 3 to 6 acres,
surrounded by a wall 5 feet thicks an,drhaying a ditch and earth-'
en ramparts outside. The mile castles were placed against
the south side of the stone wall* at intervals of abouta Rqina.n
mile (or 7 furlongs, English measure); jthey were quadrangular,
'about 60 or 70 feet each way. The turrets or watch-towerB
somewhat resembled stone sentry-boxes; they were. about io
feet square, and four of them were placed between each of the
mile castles and its nearest neighbor. This great work seems
to have been mainly constructed "by the 2d, 6th, and 20th'
legions. 138.- Hadrian dies; Antoninus Pius becomes empejuor.,,
139. The Brigantes north of Hadrian's wall having,broken, ,
through that barrier and overrun the country to, the south
of it, Antoninus sends to Britain Lollius Urbicus, who sub
dues the tribes between Hadrian's ;walL and • the Frith' of
Forth. 140. Urinous constructs a turf, wall or earthen: rampart,
about 27 miles long, connecting Agricola's forts between the
Frith of Clyde and the Frith of Forth (from Chapel-hill, near
West Kilpatrick, on the Clyde, to Bridgeness, near Carriden
on the Firth of Forth). The wall was strengthened (A.d!
210) and a ditch added. The ditch was 40 feet- wide and' 20
feet deep ; and the wall, which ran close to its south side was
20 feet high and 24 feet thick, and had a platform, behind for
the soldiers. The forts or larger stations were 19 in number
less than two miles apart, and so placed as to ;be in view of eacbj

SOMAN BRITAIN. 27
other. They were connected from end to end of the barrier
by a military way,. 20 feet wide. The remains of this fortifi
cation, still extant, are known as " Graham's Dyke." Lollius
Urbicus remained in office in Britain for 20years (until 159) ;
he extended the Roman power north to the Moray Frith, and
under him the Roman dominion in Britain reached its greatest
extent. , 161. Antoninus dies; Marcus Aurelius succeeds as emperor.
162. 'The Caledonians break "through the northern wall,
and create trouble, and Calphurnius Agricola is sent to Britain
to subdue iittero*
180. Matcus Aurelius dies; his son Commodus succeeds as
emperor. 182. JtThe JCiaiedoniansjagam break through ; the northern
wall and attack/the Romans. u Marcellus Ulpius is sent against
them, and1 gamsiadvantages1 over them.
' 193. " Severus becomes emperor (14 Ap.). Clodius Albinus
is governor' in -Britaifl^arid Gaius'-Peseennius Nigerin Syria ;
the latter is proclaimed emperor by his troops. In order to
'prevent a simultaneous attack upon him by these generals,
Severus causes Albinus to 'be1' proclaimed Caesar, jointly!with
himself," with Britain asthe Seat of his government.
194. ' Severus defeats* Niger-' at- Issus in Asia Minor, and
captures- arid slays him.
196." Severus quarrels- with Albinus and prepares to attack
him iri Britain.
197. Albinus' thereupon crosses to'Gaul with an army, but
is defeated1 at 'Hugaunum (now Lyons), and kills himself (19
Feb;). Severus becomes undisputed j emperor. He-' makes
Vrrius- Lupus1 proprietor or governor in Britain.
"' 201. 'The -Caledonians' and Maeatae* threaten hostilities
against Roman Britain,- and lLupus purchases peace with
them. 204." Severus divides' -Roman' Britain into two provinces,
Upper and LowerBritain. Their limits cannot now be ascer
tained, but' the^Httmber' -was probably the dividing line. The
northern province was Lower Britain ; and the southern,
Upper. 'The''2d 'legion J was stationed at Isca Silurum, or
Caerleori on Usk (in'Monmouth)-; the 20th at Deva (Chester) ;
and the 6th at Eburacum (York).
' * This is the first mention of this nation. Their tribes probably
rooeupied the plains and marshes immediately north of the wall of
Antoninus (between the Clyde and Forth), whence probably their
name (from magh, a plain). The Caledonians dwelt in the wooded
and mountainous country beyond the Mceataa.

28 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
208. He comes to Britain with his sons Caracalla and Geta.
Leaving Geta to govern southern Britain, and taking Caracalla
with him, he undertakes a campaign against the Caledonians
and the Maeatae. In spite of a loss, it is said, of some 50,000
soldiers, Severus perseveres in his conquest till he reaches the
Moray Frith. He makes roads, builds bridges, clears the
country of jungles, takes observations of the sun, and notes
the length of the day.
210. He finishes the wall of Antoninus between the Clyde
and Forth, repairing it, and strengthening, it by the addition!.
of the ditch and new stations along the wall. He also enacted
a code of laws, and probably established a school of Roman
law at Eburacum (York).
211. He dies at Eburacum (York), 4 Feb. ; his two sons,
Caracalla and Geta, succeed him as joint emperors,
285. The British seas being infested by piratical fleets of the
, Franks, the Romans, about this date, fit out a fleet in Gaiil to
protect, the coast, of which Carausius, a Menapian, '. is made .
commander. 287. Saxon pirates, from the, country between the, Rhine
and the Elbe, first appear on the coast of Gaul. They come
in flat-bottomed boats, some of which are 70 feet long, and
manned by fifty oars. After decimating their captives they
carry off the survivors as slaves. Carausius, having leagued
with the Frankish pirates for the purpose of sharing their
booty, seizes the great naval station of Gesoriacum (now
Boulogne, in France), and in order to save himself from pun
ishment, goes over to Britain, and usurps imperial power
there. He rules for six years. ,
290. Maximian and Diocletian, joint emperors, after an
ineffectual attempt to subdue Carausius, come to terms with
him, and associate him with them in the empire, as ruler in
Gaul and Britain.
292. Maximian and Diocletian invite Galerius and Con
stantius Chlorus to share in the empire as Caesars ; Gaul and
Britain are entrusted to Constantius, who captures Gesoria
cum. 293. Carausius is slain by one of his followers, Allectus,
who also usurps the government of Britain, and, with the sup
port of the Franks, reigns for nearly three years.
296. To reconquer Britain Constantius fits out" an ex
pedition in two divisions, one, under himself, at Gesoriacum •
the other, under Asclepiodotus, at the mouth of the Seine.'
Asclepiodotus -sails first, and lands (in Hampshire) ; Allectus
advances from Londinium to m. et him, but is defeated and

ROMAN BRITAIN. 29
slain (probably near Blackmoor in Hampshire). * His Frankish
soldiers fall back on and plunder Londinium (London),, then
. probably unfortified. Constantius follows, joins Asclepiodotus,
and the united forces push on to Londinium and defeat the
remnant of the Franks.
304. Diocletian and Maximian, joint emperors, appoint
Constantius governor of Britain.
St. Alban, Britain's' protomartyr, suffers death during the
Diocletian persecution about this date.
305. Maximian, as Emperor of the West, resigns in favor
of Constantius (May).
306. Constantius wages successful war against the Picts,f
as the Caledonians and Maeatae now come . to1 be called. He
dies at Eburacum (York), 25 July; and his son Constantine
(afterwards called "the Great") is chosen by the, army in
Britain as Emperor of the West. His title is confirmed, in
307. He divides Britain into four Provinces ; . Britannia
Prima (south of Thames, Severn, and Bristol Channel) ;
Britannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Ccesariensis (between
the Thames and Humber); Maxima Ccesariensis (north, of
the Humber).
314. Three British bishops attend the Council of Aries.
323. Constantine becomes sole emperor.. . ¦"'.
324. He exhorts his subjects to abandon Paganism.
330. He proclaims Christianity as the religion of the Roman
Empire, and orders the heathen temples to be destroyed.
337. .He dies; the empire is divided between his three sons,
Britain falling to the eldest, Constantine II.
340. Constantine II. is slain near Aquileia (now Aquileja,
near Trieste, in Austria, at the head of the Adriatic); Constuns
becomes Emperor of the West, including Britain. The Picts
renew their inroads on the north, and Oonstans comes .to
Britain to repel them.
350. Constans is murdered, and Constantius II. becomes
sole emperor.
359. British bishops attend the Council of Ariminum.
, *In 1873 Lord Selborne dug' up at Blackmoor an enormous find of
29^788 Roman coins, which, it is surmised, were buried there by
Allectus before this battle.
t Towards the end of the 3d century, the fashion of painting the
body had so far fallen into disuse in Roman Britain, that the nations
beyond the northern wall,, by whom the custom was still followed,
came to be known as Picti, Picts, from the Latin word pictus, painted.
The word Picti was thus used for the first time in 296, by Eumenius.
See Rhys, "Celtic Britain," p. 338. ' ,:;

30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
360. Constantius II. dies; Julian the Apostate becomes
emperor. The Scotti or Scots,* from Ireland, cross over to
Wales and the coast: of what are now Cumberland and Lan
cashire, and attack Roman Britain in concert with the Picts.
Lupicinius is sent by Julian to Britain to repel them. v
361. Lupicinius lands at Rutupiae (now RichborougVyn
Kent) and marches to London, then called Londiflram
Augusta. 363. Valentinian I. becomes emperor. The Picts and Scots
are joined by the Atecotti (a brave race dwelling in south-west
Caledonia, between the two Roman walls), and the united bar
barians invade Roman Britain.
364. : Saxon pirates first attack Britain ; from this time
onward their attacks are incessant. Their mark was the
coast between the Isle of Wight and the Wash, which in con
sequence came to be known as Litus Saxonicus ("The Saxon
Shore ") ; and & special officer, called Comes Litoris Sazonici
(" Corint of the Saxon Shore "), was appointed to guard it.
369. The Picts and Atecotti, having leagued themselves
with the Scots and with the Saxon pirates who infest the
British seas, break through the southern wall (Hadrian's), and
attack Roman Britain. The Scots from Ireland again attack
through Wales; Saxon pirates also successfully attack the
south-east* 'shore (the Saxon shore). Valentinian sends to
Britain Theodosius, who drives back the invaders. The Saxons
retreat to the Orkneys^ the Scots to Ireland, and the Picts to
the country north of the wall of Antoninus,, between the Clyde
and Forth. - Theodosius reannexes the country between' the
walls to Roman Britain, names it Vahntia in honor of the
emperor, and enrolls the Atecotti in the Roman armies of the
Continent, where they prove themselves among the bravest of
the Roman soldiers.
370. Theodosius returns to the continent, leaving Marcus
Clemens Maximus in command in Britain^
383. Maximus, commander of the Roman army in Britain,
gets himself proclaimed emperor.
384. He repels the Picts and Scots.
387. With an army drained from Britain he goes to the
continent to contend for the empire, but is defeated?, by
* This word is probably of Celtic origin, and like the Latin Picti,
means painted, or rather; scarred or disfigured. It was probably
given by the Celts of Roman Britain to these new invaders from Ire
land, referring to the disfigurement of their bodies by pahrfifhg.
These latter called themselves Cruithni, Latinized Cruthem or'Gru-
thenii. See Rhys, " Celtic Britain," p. 239 et seq. '¦

ROMAN BRITAIN. 31
Theodosius in Italy. Britain is now almost defenceless against
the Picts and Scots.
388. Maximus,: is captured at Aquileia in Italy-, and
beheaded (28 July).
395. The Roman empire is finally divided into East and
West. Honorius, a boy of ten, succeeds as Emperor of the
West; the famous general, Stilicho, acts as his guardian, r
The semi-mythical St. Patrick, apostle of the Irish Church,
is born at Nemthur. This is a Celtic name, meaning " heavenly
waters." Its site is uncertain, having been variously located in
France, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Its most probably site,
however, was, as the name seems to indicate, near Bath, in
Somersetshire, England, a spot even then famous for its , hot
3prings. Its Roman name was Aquae Solis, " waters of the
sun," almost the exact equivalent of Nemthur.*
396; Stilicho sends, a legion to Britain, which .drives back
the Picts and Scots, and garrisons the northern wall.- . This
was the last serious effort of the Romans to maintain their
power: in rBritain»
402. , The Roman troops are withdrawn from. Britain, and
the Picts andi Soots renew their devastations.
406. Iu answer to an appeal from the Britons for help,
Stilicho again sends Roman troops to Britain. During this one
fear these troops i successively elect Marcus, Gratian, and Conr
jtantine. ("the Usurper") Emperor of the West. Only two
Roman legions are now in Britain, one at "Eburacum (York),
;he other at Rutupiae (Richborough) in Kent. They are suf
ficient only to garrison Hadrian's wall and the Kentish coast ;
;he other stations are neglected or abandoned.
407. Constantine the Usurper, with a large part of the
Roman troops and the flower of the British youth among his
'orces, crosses to the continent, and establishes his power in
3aul, Spain, and at Vienna.
409. Gerontius, a Briton, Constantine's general in Spain,
•evolts against him, and incites the Germans to invade Britain,
vhich they do. Britain is also again harassed by the Picts
tnd Scots.
410. The Britons apply to Honorius for help, and he tells
:hem to help themselves. This they do vigorously ; they also
:end away all the remaining Roman officials, and the Roman
jovernment in Britain practically comes to; an. end.
411. Constantine the Usurper is besieged in Aries by the
Joman,general, Constantius ; made prisoner ; sent to Italy, and
* See Dublin Review, Oct., 1886, pp. 314-334.

32 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
put to death (18 Sep.) before reaching Ravenna, then the
residence of the Roman emperor. Constantius then turns his
forces ¦ against Gerontius, whose own men conspire against
. hjm, and Gerontius, after killing his wife and servant at their
request, Commits suicide. It was probably on the events of
the career of Gerontius that the legendary history of Vorti-
gern, the mythical King of Britain, was founded.
The Romans, though they planted colonies at various places
in Britain, made no attempt to displace the Celtic population.
During their possession of nearly 400 years, they held and
governed it simply as conquerors, much in the same way that
the English hold India to-day. In the geographical names of
places, in their- rnagnificent roads, and in the ruins of their
cities, and villas> however, they have left indelible traces of.
their occupation. Amorig Latin names may be mentioned
those of places ending' with caster, cester, or Chester, such as
Doncaster, Gloucester, Dorchester, the terminatioris in which
are simply, the Latin castrum, a fortified town or city, marking
the site -of ~a Roman fortified station, in the neighborhood of
which a town would naturally spring up. Tbe Roman roads
(or "streets," as they came to be called, from the Latin
via strata) which still traverse the country. are recogniz
able by their straightness. Speedy travel being important
for military purposes, they were made as direct as possi
ble, going straight over obstacles, like a modern railway,
instead of deviating to avOid them. At fixed intervals
along the roads were posting-stations, where relays of horses
were .kept. The foundations of ruined Roman cities and
villas, many of the latter being luxurious and magnificent
dwellings, heated by furriaces with hot air, with beautifully
tessellated pavements, and walls frescoed with paintings of
nymphs, hunting-scenes, and other subjects, have been dis
covered in every part of England, Wales, and southern Scot
land, as far north as the northern wall between the Clyde and
Forth, and as far west as the extremity of Cornwall. The
towns were built with rectangular streets ; and at a late period
of the Roman occupation were usually surrounded with a wall,
to protect them from the attacks of the Picts and Scots, -and
the Frankish and Saxon pirates. v They possessed fine public
buildings, such as baths, theatres*, and temples, remains of
which still exist.
Roman London (Londinium Augusta) extended a mile
along the Thames, from the present site of Ludgate to the
Tower, and was half a mile wide from the wall on the north

William L— P. Ill,

William and his son Robert at Gerberoi.— P. lift

Roman Britain. 33
to the river. The houses were built of brick with red-tiled
roofs, with narrow streets or alleys. It was surrounded with
a wall 20 feet high and 10 feet thick, made of concrete with a
facing of worked-stone bonded with courses of bricks. Many
portions of this wall have been uncovered in recent years in
digging for the foundations of new buildings. It was probably
built by Theodosius, during the reign of Valentinian (A.D.
370). The city soon spread outside of it. A bridge wasi thrown
across the river at an early date, on the site of the present
London bridge ; and a suburb sprang up on the south side of
the river, on the site of the present Southwark.
During the Roman occupation the people enjoyed almost un
broken peace {"Pax Romand," " the Roman Peace "), and under
the tutelage of their masters they made considerable progress
in the arts of civilization, especially in and near the towns ;
and they made a corresponding advance in wealth and luxury.
During or after the time of -Carausius (A.D. 287), mints were
established at Camulodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St.
Albans), Londinium (London), Rutupiae or Ritupiae (Rich-
borough), and Clausentium (now Bitterne, near Southamp
ton) ; but coins struck in Rome were circulated in Britain as
early as the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula. An
extensive commerce was carried on with the continent ; and
in the days of the Emperor Julian (A.D. 360) sufficient corn
was grown in Britain for export to freight 800 vessels, by
which it was carried to the mouth of the Rhine.
Hunting for sport was much, indulged in, the wild ox, stag,
bear, wolf, and beaver being the principal spoil.
The date of the introduction of Christianity is unknown, but
it was probably in the first century. Tertullian, writing in
A.D. 208, alludes to the existence of a Church in Britain; and
"between 386 and 400 there was a settled Church in Britain,
with edifices, altars, scriptures, discipline, holding the Catholic
faith, and having intercourse with Rome and Palestine."* St.
Patrick, the apostle of the Irish Church, was born A.D. 395.
At the age of 16 he was carried off by the Scots of Ireland as
a slave, and kept in slavery for ten years, when he escaped and
returned to his home. A few years later (about 425) he went
back to Ireland as a Christian missionary.
* Scarth's "Roman Britain," p. 211.

34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTER IV.
THE ENGLISH CONQUEST.
After the departure of the Romans in A.D. 407, the Britons,
for about thirty years, managed to defend themselves with more
or less success against the Picts and Scots. About A.D. 440,
however, the British tribe < fell to quarrelling among themselves,
and from that time the Picts and Scots gained ground, carry
ing their incursions far into the southern part of Britain; and
the Britons of Kent finally called in the- Jutes of Denmark to
their aid. The advent of the Jutes marks the beginning of a
new conquest of southern Britain — that is, the English Con
quest. The three principal races who took part in it were the
Jutes, the Saxons, and the Engle or Angles. All three tribes
belonged to trie Low-German branch Of the Teutonic race.
The Jutes came from that part of Denmark which is still
called by their name^Jutland — where they held the country
as far south as the river Sley. The modern Danes of that dis
trict are descended in part from them.
The Saxons came from the shores of the continent between
the Rhine and the Weser (now Holland and western Hanover).
The Engle or Angles Came from what are now Sleswick,
Holstein, eastern Hanover (between the Elbe and the Weser),
and Oldenburg, their land lying between that of the Saxons- on
the west, and that of the Jutes on the north. It seems prob
able that in course of time the whole of the Engle on the
continent emigrated to Britain, leaving their former home
uninhabited and deserted. It was from this people that Eng
land received its name, which was formerly Engla-land — that
is, the Land of the Engle. The word "English," as a general
name for all the Teutonic peoples who inhabited southern Brit
ain after the conque-t, seems to have been first used. in the time
of Bede, about A.D, 700. The name "England," however,.
as denoting the country peopled by the English, does not seem
to have been used or even invented before the time of King
Edgar, about A. D. 960.
The new conquerors brought their families with them, and

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 35
even their cattle, which, being large, and of a white color
with red ear.s,* were easily distinguishable from the small Celtic
shorthorn of the Britons. The bear appears to have been ex
terminated in England during the Roman occupation. The
ass was known there before A.D. 850 ; and the domestic cat
was introduced (from Egypt) during the 10th century, and
was particularly valued in Wales. , The reindeer was hunted
in Caithness, in the extreme north of Scotland, as late as
1159 ; and the beaver was trapped in the river Teivi, in Wales,
also as late as the 12th century. The wolf was exterminated
in England about 1380 ; in Scotland in 1680 ; and in Ireland
in 1710. The wild boar disappeared in England before the
reign of Charles I (1625), but lingered on in Ireland till the
next century.
The new-comers also brought their own language, laws, cus
toms, and religion. They were fishers, and tillers of the soil,
dwelling in rude wooden huts or wicker-work cabins, without
windows, and with a hole in the roof to let out the smoke of
the fire. They had an aversion from living in tow118 °r cities,
and ruthlessly destroyed, usually with fire, all Romano-British
cities which they captured. The present English cities were
not founded for a century or two later than the destruction of
the British ones. The site of Canterbury was a waste from
' the destruction of Durovernum in 454 till iEthelberht's day
(about 580); the first church at Winchester, probably the com
mencement of the new city, was not hallowed till A. D. 648, or
over 130 -years after the destruction of Venta Belgarum, its
predecessor; the new Dover was not begun till the 8th century.
In some cases, as in that of Durovernum (Canterbury), the
destruction of the old city was so complete that its ruins were
wholly covered up, so that the streets of the new town do not
correspond with those of the old one on whose foundations it
was built. ,
Before leaving their home on the continent the English had
already an alphabet of Runic letters, and a literature, which
was marked by a tendency to pathos and melancholy, and a keen
enjoyment of nature. Among old-English works dating from
before the conquest of Britain are "Deor's Complaint," "The
Gleenian's Tale," and " The Song of Beowulf." The last, in
its present form, shows traces of Christian influence, and prob
ably dates from the 8th century. At an early date they also
composed rude annals.
* The present half -wild cattle at Chillingham, in Northumberland,
are descendants of this breed.

36 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Their native religion was polytheistic, with Woden (whose
name still lives in the word " Wednesday ") as the chief- god .of
the race. They had also a priesthood, whose religious influ
ence, however, was but feeble. After their arrival in Britain
they erected rough wooden buildings as temples, in an enclosure
called the frith-geard, or peace-yard, showing probably that it
gave a right of sanctuary. In an inner shrine in the temples
were images or emblems of the gods, with altars before them.
These temples were afterwards changed into Christian
churches. These early English were great lovers of the sea, making ad
venturous voyages in search of the whale, walrus, and sea-lion.
They were also hard-drinkers, having their ale-feasts, at which,
already as early as the 7th century, four different kinds of beer
Weredrunk — bright ale, rhild ale, smooth ale, and beer. They
also drank mead, an intoxicating liquor made from honey and
water, fermented. At their feasts >they used glass goblets and
rude hand- made pottery. The women were fond of personal
adornment, and wore gold, rings, amulets, ear-rings, and neck-
pendants, and fastened their cloaks with golden buckles, some
times inlaid with enamel or set with rough jewels. ~
At 15 the young man became of "age and a full-fledged war
rior. In war, the fighting men wore armor of ringed mail ;
and their arms consisted of a long iron single-edged sword,
with a silver or bronze hilt inscribe^ with mystic runes, the
sword being kept in a wooden scabbard ; also two kinds of
spear, one smaller and slighter than the other, a wooden shield
with an iron boss, and a skull-cap or helmet, with an iron-
wrought figure of a boar above it. Axes and the bow-and-arrow
seem to have been used but rarely.
Socially and politically the people were organized into village
communities, and the principle of representation was already
adopted. The tribes w«re divided into villages and hundreds.
Besides the general muster of the people of the tribe, there '
were village-moots or councils, and hundred-moots. At the
latter each village-community was represented by the village
reeve and by from 4 to 10 villagers elected for the purpose. The
hundreds were probably districts which sent a hundred free
men or warriors to the general muster of the tribe, or folk-
moot, as it was called. Each^of these assemblies— the town-
moot, the hundred -moot, and the folk-moot— was at once a
legislative and executive council, and a court of justice. The
Witenagemote, or meeting of wise men, was originally the coun-
cil-df-war of the army, the gathering of the ealdormen who had
brought the fighting-men of their villages into the field. It

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 37
afterwards became the supreme legislative council and court of
justice of the king, out of which Parliament grew.*
410-446. During these thirty-six years after the departure
of the Roman legions from Britain; the Britons maintain a
fairly successful struggle against the Picts and Scots and the
Saxon pirates; but they finally become involved in civil strife
among themselves, and are consequently unable to withstand
the assaults of their enemies.
429. St. Germanus and St. Lupus of Troyes visit Britain,
and go to Verulamium as missionaries to confute the free-will
or Pelagian heresies which had sprung up among the British
Christians there.
430. They proceed to the valley of the Dee (Cheshire), and
find that part of the country infested, with Picts and Scots,
They baptize many Britons, and the Britons gain over the Picts
and Scots what is known as "the Alleluia Victory" (30
Mar.). The site of this bloodless battle is supposed to be
Maes Garmon (the Field of Germanus), about a mile from
Mold, in Flintshire, north Wales.
446. It is said that in this year the Britons appealed
to ^Etius, the Roman consul in Gaul, for help against the Picts
and Scots, writing as follows: "The groans of the Britons to
^Etius for the third time consul. The savages drive us to the
sea, and the sea casts us back upon the savages; so arise two
kinds of death, and we are either drowned or slaughtered."
The story is doubtful, and if any such appeal was made it was
not responded to.
447 or 448. St. Germanus returns to Britain
449 or 450. In one of these years; — it is uncertain which —
the Britons invite the Jutes to help them against the Picts and
£!cots. Three ships, with Jutes under Hengest and Horsa,
land at Ebbsfleet in the Isle of Thanet, and the Picts are said
to have been defeated in a great battle at Stamford (about 450).
The Isle of Thanet was then separated from the mainland of
'north-east Kent by an arm of the sea called the Wantsum,
about half a mile wide, traversable at only one spot at low water
by a long and dangerous ford. The inlet was guarded by two
fortresses on the mainland, one at each end, now Reculvers at
the west and Richborough at the east. The walls of the latter
were 30 feet high and 12 feet thick.
450-454. Other Jutes come over and make permanent
» As to the customs and mode of life ot the early English, see
Green's "Making of England," pp. 154 et seq.

38 THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
settlements in Thanet. Disputes arise between the Jutes and
the Britons, and war breaks out between them.
454-. The Jutes capture, sack, and burn Durovernum, a
walled town on the site of Canterbury. .
455. The Jutes advance, and defeat the Britons under "V or-
tigern at a ford of the river Medway, at JSglesthrep (on the site
of Aylesford). Horsa is slain: The flint-heap of Horsted
marks the site of this/the first victory of the English over
the Britons. The leadership of the Jutes is given to
Hengest and his son, Mac, or Ash ; Kent is divided between
them, into East and West, corresponding to the present sees
of Rochester and Canterbury. ~
457. The Jutes defeat the Britons at Creccanford (prob
ably Crayford, near the site of Orpington), slaying 4000 of
them ; the Britons flee for refuge to Londinium (London),
and the Jutes become - masters of all Kent, except the fort
resses at Richborough and Reculvers. This defeat leads to a
revolution among the,Britons. Vortigern is defeated by them
uader Aurelius Ambrosianus, a Roman, and driven to the
mountains of the west ; and Aurelius drives the Jutes back
into the Isle of Thanet.
465. The Jutes under Hengest and his son (jEscorAsh)
defeat the British, near Wipped's-fieet (now Ebbsfleet), and
reconquer a large ^>art of Kent.
473. The Jutes capture the fortress of Portus Lemannis
(now Lymne, on the coast, south-west of Dover), and com
plete the conquest of Kent. Further conquest is stopped by
the great forest of Andredsweald, which then occupied -the
Weald of Kent and Sussex, and by the massive fortress of
Anderida (now Pevensey,' in Sussex), the ruins of which still
remain. 477. Saxons, under ^Elle (or Ella) and his three sons,
Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, land on Selsea peninsula ,at
Cymenesora (probably Keynor in Sussex, near Hampshire), «
and defeat the Britons.
477-491. After 14 years' fighting they conquer the coun
try as far east as Beechy Head, It becomes known as the coun
try of the South Saxons, or Sussex. In 485 they defeated the
Britons at Markrede's Burn.
480. About,. this^'date . tribes of Engle or Angles land hi
eastern Britain and begin the conquest, of what was afterwards
known as East .Ahglia .(nowr Norfolk and Suffolk— that is,
North Folk and South Folk— and Cambridgeshire)'.
480-500. About this .date Saxons land in the country north
of the Thames, capture and destroy Camulodunum (now Col-

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 39
Chester), and conquer the country to the west as far as the
river Stort (afterwards called the country of the East Saxons,
or Essex). Further conquest to the west is stopped by the
dense forest afterwards known as Waltham Chace, remnante of
which still exist as Epping and Hainault Forests.
488. Hengest dies, and his son, iEsc or Ash, becomes sole
King of Kent ; he reigns 24 years.
491. After a long and difficult siege the South Saxons
under iElle capture the fortress of Anderida (now Pevensey),
slay "all that were therein," destroy the city, and conquer the
country as far as the river Rother, so that their territory be
comes conterminous with that of the Jutes of Kent. This
completes the conquest of " the" Saxon Shore," from the Wash
to Southampton Water ; and ^Elle, King of the South Saxons,
is made the first Bretwalda.*
495. Saxons of the tribe called the Gewissas, under Cerdic
and his son Cymric, with five ships, land at Cerdic's-Ore (sup
posed to be a headland at the mouth of the Itchen, in Hamp
shire), and defeat the Britons.
498. About this date Scots from Dalriada (now northern
Antrim) in Ireland, settle in Caledonia, in Can tyre,, the island
of Yle (now Islay), and around Loch Linnhe (the upper part
of the Frith of Lorn), and there found another kingdom of
Dalriada. It remains in close connection with the Irish Dal
riada till 575.
500-520. Between these dates the Engle invade what is
now Lincolnshire, capture the Roman fortified towns of Lin-
dum (now Lincoln), and Eboracum (now York), and conquer
what are now Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, and Yorkshire.
They seem to have burnt all the towns they captured, and the
inhabitants who escaped slaughter took refuge in caves, where
their remains have been found in recent years.
500-547. Between these dates other tribes of Engle (prob
ably assisted by Frisians) conquer the eastern part of southern
Scotland, between the Forth and the Tweed, as far west as
* Bretwalda or Brytenwealda was a title given to some of the
English kings in Britain who acquired some sort of power over other
lungs .outside their own territory, or at least, a, moral pre-eminence
due to special ability or achievements. Its meaning was either
" Ruler of Britain," or "Lord of Britain," or simply, "Broad Ruler"
—literally "Broad Wielder." In file's case it was probably the
latter. The title was conferred upon eight kings in all: 1. .fiSlle,
of Sussex ; 2. Ceawlin, of Wessex; 3. uEthelberht, of Kent; 4.Raed-
wald, of East Anglia; 5, 6, 7. Edwin, Oswald, and Oswiu, of
Northumbria ; and 8. Egbert, of Wessex.

40 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND.
Myned Agned (the site of Edinburgh) and the Cattrail and
the Cheviot Hills. , _ ., ,
500 and 513. The principal migrations of the Britons Irom
Britain to Brittany in Gaul are said to have taken place in
these years. St. Samson of Dol is said to have been driven
from the Bishopric of Eboracum in A.D. 500.
501. The Gewissas make another descent in Southampton
Water, at Portus Magnus (now Portchester).
508. The Gewissas, assisted by the Jutes of Kent and the
South Saxons, inflict a serious defeat on the Britons in what is
now Hampshire, slaying their king, Natanleod, and 5000 men.
514. Being joined by Jutes under Stuf and Wihtgar, they
push up the Itcheri and plunder Venta Belgarum (now Win
chester). 519. They defeat the Britons at Cerdic's-Ford (now Char-
ford, on the Avon, a few miles south of Salisbury, in Wilt
shire), conquer the country as far as the Avon, and organise
the Kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex), with Cerdic* aud
his son Cynric as kings. '
520. They invade the valley of the Frome (in Dorset) but
are crushingly defeated by the Britons at Mount Badon (Moris
Badouicus, now Badbury, in Dorset), and further conquest in
a westerly direction is stayed for a long time. The Britons
are said to have been led in this battle by the mythical or
semi-mythical King Arthur. The present south-west border
of Hampshire marks the limits of the West-Saxon kingdom as
settled for a time by this defeat.
527. They defeat the Britons at Cerdic's-Lea (thought to
be Bernwood Forest in Hampshire).
Escwine becomes the first King of the East Saxons.
530. The West Saxons, under Cerdic and Cynric, with then-
allies the Jutes of Kent, defeat the Britons at Wihtgar's-
Burg (now Carisbrobke), in the Isle of Wight, and conquer
the island, which is yielded to and settled by the Jutes.
This is the last conquest made by the Jutes until they reap
pear in England some centuries later as the Danes. The
Jutish line of Stuf and Wihtgar rule in the island till the
slaughter of the sons of King Arvald in A.D. 686.
634. Cerdic dies; his son Cynric beconu s King of the West
Saxons. » All ^sovereigns of England (except Canute, Hardicanute, the
two Harolds, and William the Conqueror), including the presentqueeSi-
trace their descent directly from Cerdic, the genealogy of Queen
Victoria thus running back in an unbroken line of direct ascent for
over 1400 years, to th$ birth Qf Cerdic

THE ENGLISH CONQUES*. H
540-560. Between these dates the East Saxons in Essex
capture and burn Verulamium (now St. Albans, in Hertford
shire), an important city with a Roman amphitheatre and ex
tensive walls. The present Abbey and Abbey Church of St.
Albans were built mainly out of its ruins. Its capture is fol
lowed by the conquest of what is now Hertfordshire.
547. Ida, chief of the Engle beyond the Tweed, captures,
the fortress of Rebban-Buhr (now Bamborough, in Northum
berland, 16 miles S. E. of Berwick), and reigns there till 559,
as King of Bernicia.
647-580. The Bernicians, as the Engle of south-east Cale
donia are now called, conquer Northumberland and Durham.
550-560. The Engle of Lincolnshire capture Rata? (now
Leicester), and conquer central Britain along the Trent valley,
where they become known as the Middle Engle.
552. After remaining in Hampshire for 32 years without
attempting further conquest, the West Saxons, under Cynric,
make a fresh advance to the west. They capture (probably by
famine) the strong fortress of Sorbiodunum (or Searo-burh,
now Old Sarum, near Salisbury, in Wilts), and cOnquer what
is now southern Wiltshire.
556. The West Saxons, under Cynric and his son Ceawlin,
defeat the Britons at Beranburh or Byran-byrig (now Barbury
Hill) in Wilts, a few miles east of Bath), capture Cunetio (now
Marlborough, in Wilts), and conquer what are now northern
Wiltshire and western Berkshire.
559. Ida, King of Bernicia, dies, and is succeeded by six
sons in succession, Adda being the first.
560. JSlla, the first King of the Deiransj as the Engle
of Yorkshire are now called, begins to reign. The Middle
Engle extend their conquests over what are now Staffordshire
and Warwickshire, which becomes known as Mercia — that is,
the " March " or " border " next the' Britons in Wales.
JSthelberht becomes King of Kent, at the age of 8 years.
Cynric dies; his son Ceawlin succeeds as King of the West
Saxons. About this date, Gildas, a Welshman, writes his history of
the conquests in Britain by the Jutes, Engle, and Saxons.
563. Colum, or Columba, an Irish exile, lands (12 May) in
Hii (now Iona), a small island to the south-west of Mull, on the
west coast of Caledonia, and there founds a religious house,
which becomes the centre of the conversion of northern
Britain to Christianity. . .
565. About this date the East Saxons capture Londinium,
and conquer what is now Middlesex (the Middle Saxons).

42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
568. About this date the West Saxons, uuder Ceawlin,
capture and burn Calleva Atrebatum (now Silehester,,<J in
Hampshire), an important fortified city whose walls were
nearly two miles in circuit. They then conquer east Berkshire
and west Surrey.
The Jutes of Kent, after the fall of London, advance west-
wardly into what is now Surrey. Under iEthelberht, their
king (now 16 years old), they meet the West Saxons under
Ceawlin, their king, and his brother Cutha, in battle at Wib-
ban-dun (now Wimbledon), but are defeated ; and the West
Saxons complete the conquest of what is now Surrey. This
was the first battle between Englishmen on English soil.
57-1. The West Saxons, under Cuthwulf, another son of
Cynric, cross the Thames at Wallingford (in Berks, between
Abingdon and Reading), advance along the Iknield or Ikenild
Way, and make a raid through what are now Oxfordshire and
Bucks as far as Bedford. On their return they are intercepted
by the Britons, a battle ensues (near Bedford), and the Britons
are defeated. In a few years the West Saxons conquer what
are now Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and their territory
becomes conterminous with that of the Engle in Warwick
shire, Northamptonshire, and Cambridgeshire; of the East
Saxons in Herts and Middlesex, the Jutes in Kent,' and the
South Saxons in Sussex.
Offa or Uffa becomes the first King of East Anglia, found
ing the dynasty of the Uffings.
574. Golumba consecrates Aedhan or Aidan as King of Dal
riada, the territory on the west of Caledonia (now Argyle-
shire), colonized by Scots from Ireland about A.D. 498.
575. Aidan asserts at Drumceat (in Ireland) the independ
ence of his kingdom from the Irish Dalriada.
577. The West Saxons under Ceawlin and Cuthwine invade
what is now Gloucestershire, and defeat the Britons at Deor-
ham (now Derham or Dereham, a small village in Gloucester
shire, a few miles north of Bath), and capture Bath, Gloucester,
and Cirencester. In a few years they conquer Gloucestershire
east of the Severn, and Somerset east of the Mendip Hills,
where they settle under the name of the Hwiccas. Ceawlin, in
consequence of these conquests, becomes the second Bretwalda.
By this date the English have conquered all that part of
Britain south of the Forth which lies east of what are now
Peebles and Dumfries in Scotland; and east of the Pennine
Cham, the Severn, and the Mendip Hills in Somerset and
the river Stourin. Dorset, in England. FrOm this time their
work is rather that, of settlemenr, than of conquest. The

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 43
Britons have been driven westerly and now occupy only Strath-
clyde (the western country from the Clyde to .the Mersey);
Wales and the adjoining territory west of the Severn; and
Cornwall, Devon, west Somerset, and west Dorset. »The
English came in small isolated bands> each conquering its own
separate tract of country; but by the end of the sixth century
this separate tribal life had for the most part ceased, and the
conquerors had become grouped into 8 or 9 peoples, which begin
to show a tendency to group themselves into three, occupying
northern, central, and southern Anglo-Saxon Britain respect-^
ively. 578. Uffa dies ; Tytillus becomes King of East Anglia.
580-600. Aedhan, King of Dalriada, forms a league Of the
Scots and Britons, from northern Argyll to Morecambe Bay,
and for twenty years makes war against the Engle of Bernicia
and Deira.
583. The West Saxons, - under Ceawlin and his brother
Cutha, push up the Severn valley, and capture, sack, and burn
Uriconium (now Wroxeter, in Shropshire, a few miles S. E. of
Shrewsbury), then a splendid city more than double the size
of Roman London, with wide streets, a forum, theatre, and
amphitheatre. They then burn Pengwyrri (now Shrewsbury),
and march northwards towards Chester.
584. They are defeated by the Britons under Brocmael,
at Fethan-Leag (now Faddiley, a village three miles west of
Nantwich, in Cheshire), Cutha is slain, and Ceawlin re
treats. 585. About this date iEthelberht, King of Kent, marries
Bertha, a Christian, daughter of Charibert, King of the Franks.
iEthelberht brings her to Cantwara-byrig (that is, "Kent-
men's-burg," now Canterbury), the first and oldest English city
in Britain, recently built on the ruins of the Roman city _, of
Durovernum (destroyed in 454). Bertha makes it a condition
that she shall remain a Christian; and she brings her own
Chaplain, Bishop Liudhard, with her. A Roman church, the
now ruined church of St. Martin, Canterbury, is given her for
worship,- being the first Christian church among the English
in Britain.
586. About this date, Gregory (afterwards Pope) meets with
English slaves for sale in the markets of Rome; they were
Engle, probably prisoners taken in the war between Deira and
Bernicia, and sent to Rome for sale.
587. Sledda becomes king of the East Saxons. Theodoric,
"the Flame-bearer," King, of Bernicia,: Ida's fifth son, dies;
iEthelric, Ida's ^ixth son, succeeds him..

44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
About this date Crida becomes chief or king of the West
Engle or Mercians.
588. Mlla, King of Deira, dies, leaving two sons, the elder
apparently grown up, the younger4 Edwin (who becomes King
of Northumbria in 617), a child two years old.
589. ^Ethelric, King of Bernicia (the sixth son of Ida),
conquers Deii-a, and unites it with Bernicia into one kingdom,
Northumbria, stretching from the Forth to the Humber.
iElla's two sons flee for refuge to the Welsh in north Wales,
and probably live in Deva (now Chester). The elder son
(whose name is unknown) marries and has a son named
Hereric, but dies in exile.
590. The Hwiccas (as the West Saxons along the lower
Severn, in Worcester and Gloucester, are called) revolt against
Ceawlin, King of Wessex, and make his nephew Ceol or Ceol-;
ric, a son of Cutha, their king. This marks the beginning of
a struggle for the throne of Wessex between the lines of the
brothers, Ceawlin and Cutha, which lasts for 200 years.
Gregory becomes Pope, as Gregory L, " the Great."
591. The Hwiccas, under Ceolric, are joined by the Brit
ons, and the united forces invade Wessex proper, and defeat
Ceawlin at Wodnes-beorge' (now Wanborough, near Swindon,
in north Wilts); Ceawlin is driven from Wessex into exile,
and Ceolric becomes King of Wessex. Ceawlin dies, or is killed
in battle, two years later (593). The line of Cutha remain
masters of Wessex till 685, when the kingdom is recovered by
Caedwalla and Irie of Ceawlin's line.
591-597. Taking advantage of the strife in and the conse^
quent weakness of Wessex, -iEthelberht, King of Kent, con
quers or becomes overlord of Sussex, the kingdom of the East
Saxons (Herts, Middlesex, and Essex), East Anglia, Mercia
or West Erigle (Northampton, Leicester, Warwick, and Hun
tingdon), and the Lindswara (the Engle of Lincoln). In con
sequence of these conquests he becomes the third Bretwalda.
The East Anglian king was Raedwald.
About this time iEthelberht frames a code, the first English
writing down of customary law ; it consists of 90 clauses, 41
fixing fines for bodily injuries, and nearly all the rest dealing
with violent attacks on person or property.
There are now three principal English kingdoms or over-
lordships in Britain: Northumbria, Wessex, and ^Ethelberht's
overlordship, from the Humber to the English Channel, in
cluding Lindesey (now Lincoln), Mercia, East Anglia, the
country of the East Saxons, Kent, and Sussex. Substan
tially the same division exists for the next 200 years.

Tun JSJNULISH CONQUEST. 45
593. ^Ethelric, King of Northumbria, dies; his son JBthel-
frith"the Cruel " succeeds, and takes up the work of con
quering the Britons with ruthless vigor. The British tribes
in the north had by this date united into the kingdom of
Strathclyde, stretching along the west coast from the Frith of
Clyde to the Mersey.
597. St. Columba dies (9 June) in Hii (now Iona), aged
Ceolric, King of Wessex, dies; his brother Ceolwulf suc
ceeds. His reign seems to have been passed in constant
fighting with the Angles, Britons, Picts, and Scots.
Pope Gregory L, after obtaining a safe-conduct for them
from the Frankish rulers, in Gaul, sends Augustine, a Roman
abbot, at the head of a band of monks, to preach the Gospel
to the English people. They land at Ebbsrfleet, in the Isle
of Thanet, Hengest's landing-place. iEthelberht, the Kentish
king, goes to Thanet to confer with them, his wife, Bertha, no
doubt influencing him to give them a favorable reception. He
refuses to forsake the religion of his fathers, but promises
them shelter and protection. They enter Canterbury, bearing
before them a silver cross with a picture of Christ,' and sing
ing the Litany. After a time -iEthelberht becomes converted,
and at Christmas over 10,000 English are baptized at Bertha's
church of St. Martin. Augustine founds Christ Church,
Canterbury, which, as Canterbury Cathedral, still remains the
metropolitan church of the English communion. Latin is
again introduced into Britain, and in course of time becomes
the language of its worship, its literature, and its correspond
ence, and the new England is admitted into the older com
monwealth of nations on the continent of Europe,
Sledda, King of the East Saxons, dies; his son Saebert
(nephew of iEthelberht, King of Kent) succeeds.
East Anglia is governed by Rsedwald, the Uffing, as under-
king to iEthelberht. Mercia is a number of partially inde
pendent states, not yet fully consolidated into one kingdom.
600. Crida, King of the West Engle, or Mercians, dies; he
is succeeded by Wibba.
601. Gregory I. sends to England fresh missionaries, with
a plan for the ecclesiastical organization of the whole island,
Augustine to be Bishop of London, and to send another as
Bishop of York, each to have 12 suffragan bishops.
603. Augustine, with the aid of King .iEthelberht, makes
a journey to the border between the West Saxons and Hwiccas,
and at "Augustine's Oak" (probably either at- Aust, on the
Severn, in Gloucestershire, or at a spot near Marlborough, in-

46

HJ.BXUKI VI? JSJS GLAND.

Wilts) holds a conference at which British clergy are present.
Disputes arise as to the proper time for celebrating Easter and
other matters, and the British clergy decline to join the Roman
communion. Aedhan, King of Dalriada, with an army of Scots and Britons,
attacks the Northumbrians under their king, iEthelfrith, at
Daegsastan (now.Dawston, in Liddelsdale, Roxburgshire, Scot
land), but is totally defeated and his army is annihilated.
Strathclyde is conquered and becomes tributary to Northumbria,
which now extends from the Irish Channel to the North Sea.
604. Augustine sends Justus as bishop to Rochester ; his
diocese includes Kent west of the Medway. Mellitus is sent as
bishop to the East Saxons. His preaching is successful, and
he converts Sasbert, the ruler. iEthelberht, Saebert's- over
lord, begins building the church of St. Paul's, London, which
has now become the metropolis of the East Saxons.
St. Augustine dies (26 May).
Some time after this date and before 616 Rsedwald, King of
the East Anglians, is summoned to ^Ethelberht's court, and
baptized. 606. Gregory the Great dies.
607. About this date, the East Anglians, under Raedwald
revolt against .Ethelberht's supremacy, and throw off his over-
lordship, and, with it, the Christian religion. Mid-Britain or
Mercia also throws off the supremacy of iEthelberht, and
Jtedwald becomes its overlord.
Ceolwulf, King of Wessex, is engaged in war with the South
baxons. 610. Wibba, King of the West Engle or Mercians, dies ;
Oearl succeeds him, apparently usurping the throne to the
exclusion of Wibba's son, Penda.
611. Ceolwulf King of Wessex, dies; his nephew Cynegils,
a grandson of Cutha, succeeds. J S '
^SI^t^^^H^ of Northumbria, defeats the Britons,
now southern Lancashire and Cheshire; and the Britons in
Strathclyde are cut off from their brethren in Wales
W4. Cynegils, Kyng of Wessex, and Cwichelm defeat the
Britons at Beandun (supposed to be Bampton in Oxfordshire)
615.. Hereric, grandson and heir of Mia, the dead King of
Deira, is murdered by poison while at the court of the British
king Cerdic. As his only children are two daughters ht
brother Edwin becomes the representative of the Endv
stock of Deira. Edwin takes refuge with Cearl/Klng of the
Mercians, and marries his daughter, Quasnburg, S

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 47.
616. -iEthelberht, King of Kent, dies; he is succeeded by
his son Eadbald, who throws off Christianity.
Ssebert, King of the East Anglians, dies; his two sons suc
ceed, and they also throw off Christianity, as well as the over-
lordship of Kent.
Mellitus, the bishop of the East Saxons, at London, and
Justus of Rochester nee to Gaul; but Laurentius, Bishop of
Canterbury, prevails on Eadbald to become reconverted to
Christianity, and to restore the worship throughout Kent.
617. Edwin (son of JElla, former King of Deira), who in
589, when a child, had fled for refuge among the Welsh of
North Wales, and had afterwards sought safety with the Mer
cians, seeks shelter in East Anglia, where Raedwald welcomes
him. ^Ethelfrith, King of Northumbria, makes a demand on
Raedwald to deliver up Edwin, and, on his refusal, makes war
on him, but is defeated at the river Idle (a small tributary of
the Trent, running across the northern part of Nottingham
shire); ^Ethelfrith is slain, and Raedwald becomes the 4th
Bretwalda. He dies shortly afterwards, and Eofpwald suc
ceeds him, but in his hands Raedwald's kingdom falls to
pieces. Edwin becomes King of Northumbria, being now about 31
years old. iEthelfrith's seven sons find refuge among the
Picts north of the Forth, or in the Christian monastery at Hii
(now Iona).
624. Mellitus, third Archbishop of Canterbury, dies of the
gout; Justus of Rochester succeeds to the primacy.
625. Edwin, having obtained supremacy over East Anglia
and Mercia, designs an attack on Wessex. To aid him in this
design, he marries ^Ethelburh or Ethelberga, a Christian,
sister of Eadbald, King of Kent. She takes 'Bishop Paiilinus
with.her to York.
626. Edwin founds Edwin's Burh (now Edinburgh). He
also conquers the British Kingdom of Elmet (which then
corresponded with what is now the West Riding of Yorkshire),
and expels its king, Cerdic, who had poisoned his uncle,
Hereric; and also with his fleet conquers the Isle of Man, and
Mona (thenceforth called Anglesey, that is, " Angle's Isle,"
or the Isle of the English); and becomes the 5th Bretwalda.
Cwichelm (joint-king of Wessex with Cynegils) sends
Eomer or Eumer as an envoy to Edwin, to kill him with a
poisoned dagger; Edwin's life is saved by Lilla, one of his
thanes, who throws himself in front of Edwin and receives the
fatal thrust instead; and Edwin's guards kill Eumer. Edwin
defeats the West Saxons; and Cynegils submits and acknowl-

48 niB'lOKY OF ENGLAND.
edges the supremacy of Edwin, who thus becomes overlord of
all the English kingdoms in Britain except Kent. He rules
so well that it becomes a proverb that "A woman with her
babe might walk scatheless from sea to sea in Eaawmes
days." He establishes his capital at York.
Cearl, King of the Mercians;, dies; Penda succeeds him.
627 Edwin is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, and is
baptized at York on Easter Day (12 Ap.); many of his
nobles are also baptized. He makes Paulmus Bishop of York.
Eorpwald, King of East Anglia, becomes a convert to Chris
tianity soon after Edwin, but is at once slain by one of his
pagan thanes ; East Anglia remains without a ruler for three
years. Justus, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies; Honorius is made
primate. 628. Penda, King of Mercia, defeats the West Saxons under
Cwichelm and Cynegils at Cirencester (in Gloucestershire); a
treaty of peace is made by which the Hwiccas apparently be
come part of Mercia, and Pendabecomes overlord of Wessex.
Between 628 and 631 Eadbald, King of Kent, sends Felix, a
Burgundian bishop, to the East Angles, to attempt their re
conversion to Christianity.
631. Sigeberht, half brother of Eorpwald, and his nearest
heir, has been an exile among the Franks on the continent
of Europe, where he has become a Christian. Edwin, the
Christian King of Northumbria, and overlord of East Anglia,
in order to strengthen his own power by obtaining a Christian
king for East' Anglia, brings Sigeberht from Europe and
instals him as King of East Anglia. This leads to a contest
between Edwin and Penda for supremacy in Anglo-Saxon
Britain. 633* Penda allies himself with Cadwallon or Caedwalla, the
Welsh King of Gwynedd * (north Wales), and the united forces
of Mercians and Welsh defeat Edwin (12 Oct.) at Heathfield
(now Hatfield, a small village ori the Don, in south Yorkshire,
near Doncaster); Edwin is slain, and his wife iEthelburh, her
two children, and Bishop Paulinus take refuge with her broth
er, Eadbald, King of Kent, Northumbria again splits up into
Bernicia and Deira; Osr'ic, a nephew of Edwin, mounts the
throne of Deira; and the Engle of Bernicia recall Earifrith, a
son of iEthelfrith, of the House of Ida, from among the Picts,
to be their king. Both Osric and Eanfrith (who had become
a Christian at Hii, now Iona) renounce Christianity.
* Pronounced Gwyneth.

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 49
634. Penda defeats the East Anglians under Sigeberht, who
is' slain, and East Anglia submits to Penda as overlord.
Egric, a cousin of Sigeberht, becomes its under-king.
The Welsh under Cadwallon harry Deira and capture York,
and Osric, King of Deira, is slain in an attempt to recover it.
Eanfrith, King of Bernicia, while suing for peace with Cad
wallon, is murdered by him.
Pope Honorius I. sends Birinus, a bishop in Gaul, as a mis
sionary to Britain; Birinus lands in Wessex.
635. Oswald, the second son of iEthelfrith and a nephew of
Edwin, who has also become a Christian at Hii, and remains
steadfast to his new faith, puts himself at the head of the
Bernicians, and decisively defeats the Welsh under Cadwallon
at Devisesburn or "Heaven's field" (now St. Oswald's, about
7 miles north of Hexham) ; Cadwallon is slain. Oswald calls
Aidan or Aedhan from Hii as a missionary to convert the Ber
nicians, makes him a bishop, and establishes him in a mon
astery at Lindisfarne or Holy Island, an island-peninsula off
the coast of Northumberland, a little south-east of Berwick,
the first outward sign of Christianity set up in Bernicia.
Holy Island becomes a centre of conversion. Oswald becomes
the 6th Bretwalda. Anna, a Christian, and a brother of
Sigeberht, becomes under-king of East Anglia.
Wessex is converted to Christianity by Birinus, and King
Cynegils is baptized in Oswald's presence.
639. He establishes a bishopric at Dorcic, or Dorchester,
on the Thames (Oxfordshire), Birinus being made first bishop.
640. Heathen temples are formally abolished in Kent.
642. Oswald makes war on Penda, the heathen King of
Mercia, in order to deliver East Anglia from his overlordship,
but is defeated and slain (5 Aug.) at Maserfeld (probably
either Mirfield, near Huddersfield, in Yorkshire, or Os
westry — so named after Oswald — in Shropshire). Penda
becomes supreme in Britain. Northumbria is again broken
up. Oswini, a son of Osric, and a Christian, comes from Hii
as King of Deira in place of Oswald, and acknowledges Penda
as overlord. Oswiu, a third son of iEthelfrith, is called from
Hii to fill the throne of Bernicia. He steadily holds his
ground against Penda's annual raids, and at a later period
strengthens himself by marrying Eanfled, a daughter; of
Edwin, who, had fled to Kent with her mother on Edwin's
death in 633.
643. Cynegils, King of Wessex, dies; his son Cenwealh, or
Cenwalch, becomes king; he reigns till 672. He renounces
Christianity, and marries Penda's sister.

50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
650. St. Birinus, Bishop of Dorchester, dies at Dorchester
(Oxon), and is buried there. His body is subsequently re
moved to Winchester.
651. Oswiu, King of Bernicia, invades Deira; procures the
murder (20 Aug.) of its king, Oswini (his nephew)) and joins it
to Bernicia, thus finally establishing the Kingdom of North
umbria. Many Picts, Scots, and Britons on his borders own him
as overlord, and pay tribute. Bishop Aidan dies of a broken
heart from grief at the murder; Finan succeeds him. Cuth-
bert, on hearing of Aidan's death, leaves his home on the
Lammermoor, and settles at the mission station of Melrose.
After a few years he goes to Ripon.
652. Penda's son Peada, under-king of the Middle Engle (in
Leicester), marries Oswiu's daughter Alchfleda, and becomes a'
Christian, and is baptized by Bishop Finan.
Eanfled, wife of Oswiu, sends Wilfred, then 17 years old
(afterwards bishop), with letters of protection, to her cousin,
King Earconberht of Kent.
The West Saxons, under Cenwealh, defeat the Britons at
Bradford (on the Somersetshire Avon, a few rriiles east of
Bath). 653. Sigeberht, King of the East JSaxons, is converted to
Christianity while on a visit to Oswiu in Northumbria, and
Oswiu despatches Cedd as a missionary to reconvert the East
Saxons. Honorius, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (30 Sep.); the
see is vacant for 18 months.
654. Penda invades East Anglia, and its under-king, Anna,
is defeated and slain. -iEthelhere becomes its under-king and
submits to Penda as overlord.
655. Penda, assisted by ^Ethelhere, invades and. ravages
Northumbria as far as Bamborough, the capital, but is de
feated by Oswiu at Winwidfield, near the river Winwasd (prob
ably the Aire, at Winmoor, near Leeds in Yorkshire). Both
Penda and iEthelhere are slain. Oswiu annexes Lindsey (now
Lincolnshire) and Mercia north of the Trent to Northumbria,
and becomes overlord of East Anglia and Mercia; also the 7th
Bretwalda. Peada (Penda's son) » made under-kine of
SOm£er,n,Merf?ia' and ^therwold under-king of East Anglia.
The West Saxons, under their king, Cenwealh, throw off the
Mercian overlordship.
Frithona is made Archbishop of Canterbury, the first Eng
lishman who fills the office. He changes his name to Deusdt
dit. All the previous archbishops had been foreigners who
being unable to speak English, had been obliged to use Latin'

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 51
> 656. Peada (a son of Penda), under-king of south Mercia,
dies, or is murdered; Oswiu annexes his kingdom to Northum
bria. After this date there are no more Middle-Engle under-
kings. Oswiu founds a monastery at Streonashalh (Whitby).
658. The West Saxons; under Cenwealh, defeat the Britons
at Pens, and conquer west Dorset, that is, all Dorset beyond
the Stour.
Soon after this conquest, Maildulf, or Maidulf, an Irish
monk, sets up his hermitage at " Maildulf 's Burh" (now
Malmesbury, in northern Wilts), and draws around him the
earliest scholars of Wessex. Ealdhelm," better known as St.
Aldhelm or Adelm, becomes one of his, pupils.
659. The Mercians revolt against, Oswiu, and make Wulf-
here, a younger son of Penda, their king.
661. Alchfrid, son of Oswiu and co-ruler of Northumbria
with him, sends Wilfrid as abbot to Ripon ; Wilfrid favors the
Roman communion and expels Cuthbert and the other mis
sionaries of the Irish school as schismatics ; Cuthbert returns
to Melrose, where a pestilence is raging.
The Mercians, under Wulfhere, defeat the West -Saxons,
under Cenwealh, and ravage Wessex as far as Ashdown (in
Berks) ; and Wulfhere makes himself overlord of the East
Saxons, Surrey, and Sussex. iEthelwalch or Ethelwald, King
of Sussex, is baptized in the presence of Wulfhere, who adds
the Isle of Wight and the south-east part of Hants to Ethel-
wald's territory.
664. In Northumbria, a dispute has been going on for some
years between the Irish Christians and the Romanizing Chris
tians with regard to the time of Easter and Other usages (similar
to that which had taken place in 603 between Augustine and
the Welsh clergy in Wessex); and Oswiu summons a Synod,
the first ever held in England, to meet at Streonashalh (how
T^hitby) to settle it. The Synod decides that Northumbria
shall belong to the Roman communion.
Deusdedit, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies of the plague,
(14 July), which rages in Britain this year. Ecgberht, King of
Kent, wishing to have " a bishop of his own race and his own
tongue," joins with Oswiu, King of Northumbria, in selecting
Wighard, another Englishman, as Deusdedit's successor, and
in sending him to Rome for consecration.
666. Cenwealh, King of Wessex, drives Bishop Wini from
his see, and Wessex is left without a bishop. Wini goes to
London as Bishop of the East Saxons.
667. Benedict Biscop (or Baducing), a Northumbrian
monk, goes on a pilgrimage to Rome. He there meets Wigr

52 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
hard, who is seeking consecration from Pope Vitalian as Arch
bishop of Canterbury. Wighard dies of the plague.
668. Pope Vitalian consecrates Theodore, an Eastern
monk, born at Tarsus in Cilicia, Archbishop of Canterbury
(26 Mar.); and appoints Benedict Biscop to conduct him to
Canterbury. .
669. Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, lands m Kent
(May), with his friend Hadrian, an African, and Benedict
Biscop. He is enthroned at Canterbury (27 May), and makes
Biscop Abbot of St. Peter's, Canterbury.
669-672. In company with his friend and fellow-worker
Hadrian, Theodore journeys over the whole English portion
of Britain, and is everywhere received as Primate, thereby
making the Church a national one, and uniting all England
into one spiritual kingdom. Wilfrid is made Bishop of York
(his diocese covering.all Northumbria and Lincoln) ; Leutheriua
is brought from Gaul to be Bishop of Wessex ; Bisi is reconse
crated as bishop over East Anglia, and Ceadda as Bishop of
Mercia; and Putta is made Bishop of Rochester. Theodore
and Hadrian establish a school at Canterbury, where Latin and
Greek are taught ; also the astronomy, arithmetic, and poetry
of the time. It is from this school that English literature.
takes its birth. Ealdhelm of Malmesbury, one of Maildulf's
pupils, becomes one of the scholars.
670. Oswiu, King of Northumbria, dies (15 Feb.) ; his son
Ecgf rith becomes king. Ecgfrith drives the Britons from what
is now northern Lancashire and the Lake district, and captures
Carlisle ; he also defeats the Picts and conquers part of their
territory north of the Forth (670-675).
Bishop Wilfrid restores the church at York, which had
almost fallen into ruins.
671. Benedict Biscop makes another visit to Rome.
672. Cenwealh, King of the West Saxons, dies ; his widow
Sexburh becomes, queen, the only instance (except that of
-lEthelflaeda of Mercia in 912) of a female ruler in England in
Anglo-Saxon times.
Benedict Biscop returns to England, and goes to Northum
bria. where Ecgfrith is king.
673. Ecgberht, King of Kent, dies (July) ; Hlothere or
Lothair succeeds him.
Theodore calls his first Council of Bishops at Hertford (24
Sep.), They meet as bishops of a national Church and form
•the first national gathering of Englishmen for the purpose of
legislation, and by their example lead the way to a national
Parliament, It is enacted that English bishops shall in future

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. .53
keep to their own diocese?, and not wander at will through
the country like the Celtic missionary bishops. Theodore
divides East Anglia into two sees, North-folk and South-folk.
Ba?da (" the Venerable Bede ") is born at Wearmouth (in
Dm ham).
673-685. Between these dates Hlothere (or Lothair) and
Eadric, Kings of Kent, frame a code of laws ; it consists of 16
provisions, about half being fines for crimes of violence.
674. About this date Ealdelm returns to Malmesbury, of
which he afterwards becomes abbot. In course of time he'
establishes monasteries at Bradford, Frome, Sherborne, and
Wareham; his church of St. Lawrence at Bradford* still stands
in almost perfect preservation. He becomes the author of
some of the earliest English poetry.
Escwine and Centwine are made joint kings of the West
Saxons, Queen Sexburh being deposed.
Benedict Biscop builds the monastery of St. Peter's at
Wearmouth '(Durham) introducing the Roman style of
architecture. He brings glass-makers from Gaul, who, rein
troduce their art into Britain ; he also introduces the arts of
gold-work and embroidery. The building of churches and
monasteries gives rise to the introduction of fine architecture.
675. Wulfhere, King of Mercia, attacks Northumbria, but
Ecgfrith defeats him and recovers Lindsay (now Lincolnshire).
Wulfhere dies ; his brother .lEthelred succeeds him ^Ethel-
red defeats Hlothere, King of Kent, and ravages Kent.
Theodore removes Winfred from the bishopric of the Mer
cians, and makes Sexulf bishop.
676. Putta, Bishop of Rochester, flees to Bishop Sexulf,
in Mercia, who gives him a church at Hereford, where he dies.
Osric, under-king of the Hwiccas, founds a monastery at
Bath. Escwine dies, and Centwine, son of Cynegils, becomes sole
king of the West Saxons.
677. A storm drives Bishop Wilfred to the Frisian coast of
Europe, and leads to renewed intercourse between the English
of Britain and their fatherland on the continent.
678. While Theodore is organizing the church in Mercia,
Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria, invites him to make a similar
organization there. Ecgfrith has become jealous of Bishop
Wilfrid, who has become the rival in power and magnificence
of the king himself. Theodore deposes Wilfrid, divides his see
into three, and makes Eata Bishop of the Bernicians, Bosa of
* Built on the site of Cenwealh's victory over the Britons in 653,

54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
the Deirans, and Eadhed of the Lindiswara (of Lincolnshire).
Wilfrid goes to Rome and protests against his deposition as un-
canonical ; Theodore sends an agent ; and the case is tried and
decided in Wilfrid's favor. He returns to Ecgfnth's court
with bulls and letters from the Pope ; but Ecgfrith rejects
them as obtained -by bribery, and puts Wilfrid into prison,
where he remains nine months.
Benedict Biscop again visits Rome.
679. War breaks out between Mercia and Northumbria,
Lindsey (now Lincolnshire) being again the subject of conten
tion, and a battle is fought on the banks of the Trent. Theo
dore intervenes, and peace is made whereby Northumbria
renounces claim to Lindsey. After this date there are no
more under-kings in Lindsey.
680. > Sometime before this date and after 660 (the exact
date is unknown) Caedmon, a monk of the abbey of Streones-
halch (now Whitby), in Northumbria, writes the first great
English poem, a paraphrase of the Biblical story of the Crea
tion. Only fragments of a West Saxon version of it have come
down to us. Cynewulf, another Northumbrian poet, also
wrote about this date; the work known as " the Exeter Book"
is ascribed to him. During the next 50 years Northumbria is
the centre of literary culture for western Europe.
A synod is held (17 Sep.) at Heathfield (now Hatfield in
Hertfordshire), to combat the Monothelite heresy.
The abbey of Glastonbury is founded before this date.
681. Wilfrid, the deposed Bishop of York, after seeking
refuge in vain in Mercia and Kent, finds safety among the
South Saxons, the only English people not yet Christianized.
He converts them; and their king, ^Edilwalch, grants him land
at Selsey.
At this date the South Saxons (Sussex) do not number over
7000 families, and the people are poor and rude.
A. nunnery is founded at Gloucester, the first in England.
682. The West Saxons, under Centwine, defeat the Brit
ons, and conquer middle Somerset as far as the Quantock Hills.
Benedict Biscop returns from Rome to Northumbria, and
introduces ihe Romish ritual and the art of painting. He
founds the monastery of St Paul's at Jarrow, on the Tyne (in
Durham), and begins to form the first library in England.
684. A Northumbrian fleet ravages the Irish sho; e, proba*
bly in revenge for an attack on Northumbria by the Scots of
Ireland. 685. Ecgfrith crosses the Forth to quell a rising of the
Picts, under Bruidi, their king, but hii army is annihilated

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 55
and himself slain at Nectansmere or Dunnichen in Forfarshire
(20 May); only a solitary fugitive escapes the slaughter. Aid-
frith, Ecgfrith's brother, becomes King of Northumbrian
Theodore summons Wilfrid to a conference at London, a
compromise is arranged, and Wilfrid is restored to the see of
York, as Bishop of the Deirans.
Centwine, King of Wessex, dies; Ceadwalla, of Ceawlin's
line, succeeds. Hlothere, King of Kent, dies; Eadric. suc
ceeds him.
686-7. Ceadwalla subdues his rivals of Cutha's line, and
conquers the Isle of Wight and Sussex, but fails in an attempt
on Kent, his brother Mul being killed. From this date there
are no more under-kings in the Isle of Wight.
687. St. Cuthbert, Bishop of Lindisfarne, dies at Lindis-
farne (20 Mar.).
688. Ceadwalla abdicates, goes as a pilgrim to Rome, is bap
tized, and dies (20 Ap., 689). After a civil war Irie or Ina,
also of Ceawlin's line, becomes King of Wessex.
690. Benedict Biscop dies (12 Jan.), aged about 62^ He
is buried: at St. Peters Church, Wearmouth. Theodore, Arch
bishop of Canterbury, dies (19 Sep.), aged 87, having organ
ized the Church of England substantially as it is at present.
The see is vacant for 3 years.
Willibrord of Northumbria and 12 fellow-preachers are wel
comed at the court of the Frankish king, Pippin of Heristal,
and are assured of protection in their mission work among the
Frisians on the North Sea. He fixes his seat at Utrecht, and
labors for 40 years among them, during which he goes to Rome
to be consecrated as Bishop of the Frisians.
About this date Wihtrsed, King of Kent, frames a code of
laws, mostly ecclesiastical.
About this date Ine promulgates a code ("the Laws of
Ine "), the only West Saxon one. It deals largely with agri
culture and police, showing an advance in industry and civ7
ilization. 690-694. Ine, King of Wessex, obtains supremacy over
Kent and the East Saxons.
693. Brihtwald is made Archbishop of Canterbury ; he
holds office for 38 years.
696. Wihtraed ,of Kent prohibits idolatry and Sunday
labor. 697. Osthryth, wife of ^Ethelred, King of Mercia. is put to
death by the " primates " of Southumbria (i.e., Mercia and
Lindsey). 704. iEthelred, King of Mercia, abdicates, and becomes a

56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
monk in the abbey of Bardesey, where he dies (716). His
nephew Coenred, or Cenred. becomes King of Mercia (704). :
704-731. Basda writes his "Ecclesiastical History of the
English People "in Latin. In course of time his school at the
-monastery of Jarrow, in Northumbria, becomes so famous that
600 monks are taught there, besides many foreigners from the
continent of Europe. Libraries begin to be founded at Wear
mouth and York, the first (after that at Jarrow) among the
English in Britain.
705. Ine; King of Wessex, divides the bishopric of Wessex
into two, Winchester on the east, and Sherborne on the west ;
Daniels remains as Bishop of Winchester, and Ealdhelm is
made Bishop of Sherborne.
Ealdhelm holds a synod of West Saxon clergy for. the pur
pose of seeking a junction with the British Church of Dyv-.
naint or Dumnonia (new Devon and Cornwall); he writes a
letter to Geraint, Prince of Dyvnaint, with this object.
Aldfrith, or Alchfrid, King of Northumbria,. dies (14 Dec.) ;
his son Osred succeeds.
709. At or before this date the West Saxons under Ine,
conquer east Devon from the Britons, as far as the Exe, and
capture Isca Damnonium (now Exeter). Its inhabitants are
spared, and the town becomes a double one, the southern half
becoming English, and the northern remaining British or
Welsh. .
At this date cattle are commonly used as the standard of
value in Wessex.
About this date the word "shire" (which is of West Saxon
origin) first comes into use in Wessex. It originally meant a
"shearing," or district "shorn" off from some neighboring
district, at first merely the district surrounding a tun or town.
Thus, Hampshire is simply an abbreviation of Hamptonsnire,
or the shire of Hampton ("home-town," now Southampton) ;
and Wiltshire is Wiltonshire, the "shire" or district round
the "tun " or town on the river Wil or Wiley. Each such
district or shire had its officer or "shire-reeve" (sheriff), whose
duty it was to collect the royal dues therein.*
Cenred, King of Mercia, goes to Rome, and becomes a
monk; his cousin, Ceolred, a son of .(Ethelred, succeeds
him. Offa, King of the East Saxons, also abdicates, goes to Rome,
and becomes a monk.
Ealdhelm (St. Aldhelm), Bishop of Sherborne, or Selwood-
* See Green's " Conquest of England," p. 223.

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 57
shire, dies at Doulting, near WellSj aged about 69. He is
buried at Malmesbury. His saint's day is 25 May.
St. Wilfred, now Bishop of Hexham, dies at Oundle (24 Ap.
.or 12 Oct.), aged 74.
710. Ine, King of Wessex, defeats the Britons under Ge-
raint, conquers south-west Somerset, and on the river Tone
erects the fortress which afterwards grew into Taunton (i.e.,
Town on the Tone). The limit of Ine's conquest here still
marks a line between two dialects. At Glastonbury, already
for several centuries a religious shrine of the, Britons, Ine
builds a stone abbey- church, beside the rude log church of the
Britons, which he carefully preserves.
715. The Mercians, under Ceolred, invade Wessex, but are
repulsed at the battle of Wanborough (in Wilts, near Swin
don). Wessex again becomes the leading power in Britain.
716 CeOlred dies; iEthelbald is chosen King of MerCia,
and proves its greatest ruler.
Osred, King of Northumbria, is slain ; Cenred succeeds.
718. Cenred, King of Northumbria, dies ; Osric succeeds.
718-753. Between these dates Winfrith or St. Boniface, of
Wessex, labors as a "missionary among the Frisians, Thuringi-
ans, Hessians, and other tribes in central Europe. He is mar
tyred in Frisia, 5 June, 755. It was thus that the English
missionaries (Willibrord and Winfrith) became the instruments
for the conversion of their brother Teutons on the continent.
Like Willibrord, Winfrith obtained his authority from Rome;
and the peoples they converted came under the spiritual author
ity of Rome, by which means the Papacy was greatly exalted.
721. In Wessex, claimants of the rival line of Cutha revolt
agam3t Ine, and civil war breaks out.
725- Wihtraed, King of Kent, dies (23 Ap.) ; Eadberht
succeeds. 726. Ine abdicates the throne of Wessex, and goes as a
pilgrim to Rome, where he dies in 728 . On his withdrawal
Wessex falls into anarchy. iEthelheard becomes king.
For many years after this date large numbers of English
men go to Rome as pilgrims.
728. iEthelbald, King of Mercia, invades Wessex, and
begins its conquest.
729. Osric, King of Northumbria, dies; Ceolwulf succeeds
him (9 May).
733. The Mercians capture Somerton in Oxfordshire, and
complete the conquest of Wessex. For 20 years the overlord-
ship of Mercia is recognized by all Britain south of the Humber,
and iEthelbald styles himself "King not of the Mercians only,

58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
but of all the neighboring peoples who are called by the com
mon name Of Southern English." ,,.,,¦, * v™/u
734. Ceolwulf makes his cousin Ecgberht Bishop of ¥ ork.
735. - The Venerable Bede, the first great English scholar
dies at Girvy or Jarrow (26 May), aged 62 ; he is buried at
Ecgberht, Bishop of York, is recognized by the Pope as
archbishop, and the see of Northumbria becomes independent
of and a rival to that of Canterbury. He enlarges and
decorates York Minster, and establishes there the largest
library yet seen iri Britain.
Ealhwine, or Alcuin, the second great English scholar, is
born at York.
737. Ceolwulf resigns the throne of Northumbria, and
becomes a monk at Lindisfarne.
738. Eadberht, a brother of Archbishop Eegberht, be
comes King of Northumbria.
740. He successfully repels an attack by -lEthelbald of
Mercia, and also wars successfully against the Picts on his
northern boundary.
741. The minster at York is burnt (23. Ap.).
743. ^thelheard, King of Wessex, dies ; Cuthred sue-
cceds 748. .Eadberht, King of Kent, dies ; IEthelberht II. sue-
ceeds. 749. iEthelbald, King of Mercia, frees all monasteries and >
churches from taxation and service.
750. Eadberht, King of Northumbria, recovers from tne
Britons of Strathclyde the district of Kyle in Ayrshire (Scot
land). His renown becomes so great that Pippin, the Frankish
king, sends envoys to him with gifts and offers of friendship.
754. The West Saxons, under Cuthred, revolt against the"
supremacy of iEthelbald of Mercia ; he marches against them,
but is defeated at Burford (in Oxfordshire, about 17 miles
west of Oxford), and Wessex regains its independence. This
battle divided English Britain into three equal powers, North
umbria (north of the Humber), Wessex (south of the Thames),
and Mercia (between the other two). Wessex follows up its
success at Burford by completing the conquest of Devon from
the Britons, thus extending the west boundary of Wessex to
the river Tamar.
756. Eadberht, King of Northumbria, allies himself with
the Picts, and captures Alcluyd (now Dumbarton), the capital
of Strathclyde ; but a few days' later, on his return, his army is
destroyed by the Britons.

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 59
Cuthred, King of Wessex, dies ; Sigeberht succeeds.
757. lEthelbald, King of Mercia, is murdered by his own
ealdormen; a year of anarchy follows, during which Beornred
one of the murderers, is nominal ' king. Kent, Essex, and
East Anglia throw off the overlordship of Mercia.
Sigeberht is driven from the throne of Wessex by his sub
jects, and Cynewulf becomes king.
758. Offa avenges the murder of -lEthelbald, and after
slaying Beornred, is made King of Mercia.
Eadberht and his brother, Archbishop Ecgberht, , with
draw from public life and retire to a monastery. Eadberht's
son Oswulf becomes king, but after reigning a few months
he Js slain (25 July) by thanes of his. own household, and for
50 years Northumbria is rent with intestine feuds and anarchy.
759. iEthelwold Moll saizes the throne of Northumbria.
He gains a victory over his opponents at Eildon Hills, near
Melrose ; and Offa, King of Mercia, gives him his daughter to
wife. 764. St. Ceolwulf, who had resigned the throne of Nor
thumbria in 737 and become a monk, dies at Lindisfarne.
His day is 15 Jan.
765. -iEthelwold is defeated at Winchanheale, and de
throned ; Alchred becomes King of Northumbria.
766. Alcuin goes on a pilgrimage to Rome.
767. iEthelberht, head of the school at York, is made
Archbishop of York; Alcuin returns from Rome, and succeeds
iEthelberht as head of the shool.
767-780. Alcuin teaches at York. Scholars from every
part of Britain and from Gaul and Germany crowd to his lec
tures. iEthelberht, Archbishop of York, builds a new and
more sumptuous church at York.
774. Alchred, King of Northumbria, after putting down
two risings under ealdormen, is driven by iEthelred, son of
iEthelwold Moll, to take refuge among the Picts.
775. After a three years' war, Offa, King of Mercia, de
feats iEthelberht II., King of Kent, at Otford, and Kent again
becomes part of Mercia. The East Saxons also submit to
Mercia. 778. iEthelberht resigns the archbishopric of York.
779. Offa defeats the West Saxons at Bensington (in Ox
fordshire), and annexes what are now Oxfordshire and Bucks
to Mercia.
He makes war on the Welsh, and "drives the King of Powys
from his capital, Pengwym, which he names Scrobsbyryg
("the Town of the Scrub," now Shrewsbury). As a line of

60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
demarcation between the English and the Welsh, he makes a
huge earthwork from the mouth of the Wye to that of the
Dee, which is still called Offa's Dyke. He frames a code,-
probably to govern the relations between the two peoples. He
also establishes a coinage, the standard of value of which he
draws from that of the Frankish kings.
iEthelred is driven from Noi thumbria ; he takes refuge with
the Picts, and Alfwold (son of Oswulf ) comes to the throne of
Northumbria. 780. Eanbald is made Archbishop of York. Alcuin goes
(0 Rome -to get the pallium for him. -
781. Alcuin meets Charlemagne, King of the Franks, at
Parma in Italy, and a friendship is formed between them.
782. Alcuin goes to reside at the court of Charlemagne,
at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), and becomes his chief adviser.
786. Cynewulf , King of Wessex, is murdered, and the suc
cession of his son Beorhtric is disputed by Egbert, of Ceawlin's
line. Egbert is defeated, and takes refuge at the court of
Offa, of Mercia.
At Offa's request two Papal legates visit Mercia, and tt
a synod held at Oalchythe (probably Chelsea) in 787 Lichfield is
made an archbishopric, with the Bishops of Mercia and East
Anglia as suffragans. This points to a design on Offa's part
to make the three English kingdoms (Northumbria, Mercia,
and Wessex) permanent, each being now the seat of an arch
bishopric. 787. Offa joins his son Ecgfrith with him in the govern
ment of Mercia.
Three ships with Northmen pirates mate a descent on
Wessex. This was the first coming of the Northmen or Wik-
jngs to England. Their attacks continue for nearly 100 years.
They were Scandinavians from what are now Denmark and
southern Norway. The Swedes took no part in the attack.
They are called "Dena" (Danes) in the Anglo-Saxon annals,
but were of fairer complexion than, and of a different race
from, the Danes proper, who did not appear in Britain till some
70. or 80 years later.
788. Charlemagne seeks the hand of one of Offa's daughters
for his son Charles ; Offa asks in return the hand of a
daughter of Charlemagne for his son Ecgfrith ; this claim of
equality- so incenses Charlemagne that he closes his ports
against English trade until Alcuin reconciles the two sovereigns.
After a stormy reign, Alfwold, King of Northumbria, is
slam by an ealdorman (24 Sep.), and Osred (a son Of Alchred)
becomes king. '

THE ENGLIfJH CONQUEST. 61
789. Beorhtric, King of Wessex, marries Offa's daughter,
Eadburh; and Offa, in recompense, expels Egbert (Beorhtric's
rival to the throne of Wessex) from Mercia. Egbert takes
refuge on the continent, at the court of Charlemagne.
790. Alcuin is sent by Charlemagne to England to arrange
a peace with Offa of Mercia.
The ealdormen of Northumbria revolt against Osred, who
flees, and -lEthelred is recalled to the throne after 11 years'
exile. 792. Alcuin returns to Charlemagne's court, and combats
the Adoptian heresy.
793. Northmen pirates ravage the coast of Northumbria,
plunder the monastery of Lindisfarne, and murder its monks.
794. Offa murders iEthelberht, King of East Anglia, and
annexes that kingdom to Mercia. He founds the abbey of St.
Albans. Northmen pirates destroy the church' at Lindisfarne (8 Jan.)
and enter the Wear (Northumbria), and plunder and burn the
monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow.
x795. The Finn-Gaill or Fingalla (i.e., Fair Gentiles or
Strangers) or Norwegians, coming round by the north of Scot
land, ravage the coast of Ulster, Ireland, These' ravages con
tinue for 30 years, along the north and east coasts. The prin
cipal objects of attack were the religious houses, where the
wealth of the country in gold and silver was stored.
796. Offa dies (29 July); Cenwulf succeeds him as King
of Mercia. ' •
iEthelred, King of Northumbria, is murdered by his thanes
(19 Ap.); Charlemagne threatens to intervene in the affairs of
Northumbria, but Alcuin turns him from his purpose. Eard-
wulf comes to the throne, and maintains order for ten years.
Alcuin settles at Tours, as abbot of the school there, which
soon becomes famous.
798. Cenwulf quells a revolt in Kent, with the help of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, whom he promises to suppress the
archbishopric of Lichfield, a promise which he carries out in
803. London is burnt. t
800. Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of Rome (25 Dec. ).
802. Beorhtric, King of Wessex, is poisoned by his wife
Eadburh (Offa's daughter) ; Egbert returns from exile at the
court of Charlemagne, and becomes king.
804. Alcuin dies at Tours, aged 69.
806. EardWulf, King- of Northumbria, is driven from his
throne by his subjects.

62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
808. He appeals to the Pope and to Charlemagne as em
peror, and they reinstate him on his throne.
8i5-825. After 10 years' fighting, Egbert, King of Wessex,
conquers Cornwall from the Britons, and Wessex now extends
from Kent to Land's End. . .
818-819. Cenwulf, King of Mercia, ravages Gwynedd and
Dyfed (North Wales and South-west. Wales).
820. Before this date Northmen make a permanent settle
ment in Wickfow, Ireland, which they make a base for attacks
on Anglo-Saxon Britain.
821. Cenwulf, King of Mercia, is slain ; Cenelm succeeds
him, but the kingdom is rent by civil war.
824. Beornwulf, King of Mercia, conquers Powys.
825. Beornwulf, King of Mercia, invades Wessex. but is de
feated by Egbert at Ellandun, in Wilts; and Sussex, Kent, and
the East Saxons submit to Egbert as overlord.
826. East Anglia revolts against Mercia, and gains two
victories over the Mercians, and Beornwulf is slain. Ludeca
succeeds as King of Mercia.
Egbert makes Kent, Essex, Surrey, and Sussex an under-
kingdom, calling it "the Eastern Kingdom," and places his
sori iEthelwulf over it as under-king.
828. The. West Saxons, under Egbert, cross the Thames
and invade Mercia ; its king, Wiglaf, flees helplessly, and Mer
cia submits without a struggle to Egbert, who, in 830, restores
Wiglaf as under-king on its throne.
. 829. Egbert marches to attack Northumbria; the North
umbrian thanes meet him at Dore, in Derbyshire, and submit
to him as overlord, and Egbert unites all the English in Brit
ain under his sway, and becomes 8th Bretwalda.
832. The Northmen, under Turgesius, or Thorgils, make
an organized invasion of Ireland, establish themselves in.
Armagh, and levy tribute from the whole north of Ireland.
833. Ceolnoth is elected Archbishop of Canterbury (29
June) ; consecrated (27 Aug.).
834. Northmen pirates push up the Thames, and ravage
the Isle of Sheppey.
836. Northmen pirates land in Dorset, and defeat Egbert
at Charmouth (two miles from Lyme Regis).
837. A raid of Northmen pirates from Ireland, on Hamp
shire, is repulsed by Ealdorman Wulfheard. Northmen from
Ireland land in Dorsetshire, and defeat the English under Eal
dorman iEthelhelm at Portland.
The Britons of Cornwall league with the Northmen in Ire
land, and rise against Egbert, but he defeats the combined

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 63
forces at Hengest-Dun (Hengest Down, or Hingston Down, in
Cornwall, near the Tamar).
837 or 838. The Northmen in Ireland capture Dublin.
838. The common danger from the Northmen (who are
Pagans) draws Church and State together in closer union, and
Egbert promises protection to the see of Canterbury, and
receives from Archbishop Ceolnoth a pledge of friendship for
ever. From this date the Church takes a new and prominent
part in English affairs.
Northmen pirates made descents on Lindsey (Lincolnshire),
East Anglia (Norfolk and. Suffolk), and Kent. iEthelstan, a
son of iEthelwulf, opposes them.
839. Egbert dies ; his son iEthelwulf becomes King of the
English, and confirms the alliance with Archbishop Ceolnoth.
Wiglaf, under- King of Mercia, dies ; Beorhtwulf succeeds.
Northmen pirates make a raid on Canterbury, and push up
the Thames to Rochester and London.
840. Northmen pirates, in 35 ships, land at Char mouth
in Dorset, and defeat King iEthelwulf. They also ravage
Kent, East Anglia, and Lincolnshire. About- this date
iEthelwulf communicates with the Emperor Lewis the Gentle
for the purpose of bringing about common action to meet the
common danger from the Northmen, who have been ravaging
the coast of Gaul as well as that of Britain.
Alfred the Great, the youngest son of iEthelwulf, is born,
about this date,* at Wanating (now Wantage, in Berks).
841 or 842. The Northmen erect a fortress at Dublin.
About this time, or a little later, they plant colonies and raise
forts at Waterford, Cork, and Limerick.
844. Northmen pirates from Jutland, after pushing up"
the Seine and Loire and sacking Rouen and Nantes, reach the
Garonne, and harry the country round Toulouse.
* On the authority of Asser the date usually given for Alfred's
birth is 849, and this is accepted by such authorities as Freeman,
Green, Allibone, and Appletons' and Chambers' Encyclopaedias.
Nevertheless, that the date is certainly wrong, and that some earlier
date (840 or thereabouts) is right, seems to bs shown by two circum--
stances. In 853 Alfred went to Borne, and was consecrated as future
king by the Pope. Now, it is incredible that this could have happened
to a child four years old. But, even more conclusive, his daughter
iEthelfted was married before 880. A charter of that year is still
extant, signed by her husband, iEthelred of Mercia, and by herself as
co-ruler (see Green's "Conquest of England," Harper's edition, p.
138, Note 2). . Assuming that she was then only 18 years old, and
that she must consequently have been begotten in 861, Alfred — had
he been born in 849 — must have been married at 12, and a father
at 13.— F.T.J.

64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
The Pictish royal line comes to- an end, and Kenneth
MacAlpin, under-king of the Scots of Dalriada, ascends the
Pictish throne, in right of maternal descent, and his descend
ants remain sovereigns for 50 years.
845. A large army of Northmen sack Pans.
The men of Somerset and Dorset repulse Northmen pirateB
with heavy loss, at the mouth of the Parret, on the Bristol
Channel. . .
Thorgils is slain in Ireland, in a rising of the native tribes
of the North, and his Northmen followers are, for a time,
driven from the land.
848. Northmen pirates capture Bordeaux.
851. The men of Devon repel an attack of Northmen
pirates with much slaughter, and for 20 years only a single
descent in the West disturbs the peace.
The men of Kent repel a Northmen raid on Sandwich, and
capture 9 of the pirate ships. The Northmen winter in the
Isle of Thanet in Kent.
Northmen pirates, in a fleet of 350 vessels from the island
of Betau, moor at the mouth of the Thames, sack Canterbury,
pillage London, and, in spite of the opposition of Beorhtwulf ,
under-King of Mercia, push through Surrey into the heart of
Britain ; but they are completely defeated by iEthelwulf at
Aclea (now Ockley in Surrey), and they withdraw to their old
field of plunder in Gaul.
851 or 852. Aforce of "Dubh-Gaill" (i.e., Dark Gentiles,
or Strangers) or Danes, under Olaf the Fair, make a descent
on Ireland, but withdraw, after an unsuccessful contest^with
the Finn-Gaill, or White Strangers (Norwegians), who "were
already again in possession.
852. Beorhtwulf, under-King of Mercia, dies; Burhred
succeeds. ,
853. A battle is fought in the Isle of Thanet between the
pirates and the men of Surrey and Kent, whose two ealdormen,
Huda and Ealbere, are slain.
Alfred accompanies an embassy sent by his father, King
iEthelwulf, to Rome.
Taking advantage of the raids of the Northmen, the Welsh,
under Rohdri Mawr (Roderic the Great), revolt against Mer
cia ; the Mercian under-king, Burhred (Beorhtwulf s successor),
appeals to his overlord, iEthelwulf, for aid, and the joint
forces of Wessex and Mercia push through the heart of Wales,
conquer Anglesey and compel Wales to submit and pay tribute
to Mercia.
855. JEthelwuif makes a "Donation "of one-tenth part

Napoleon Eeceived on the Bellerophon,— P. 313.

Queen Victoria.— P. 313.

Tower of London.— P. 121:

Murder op Thomas a Becket.— p. 140.

THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 65
of his private estate for ecclesiastical and charitable purposes.
He also makes a pilgrimage to Rome; and stays there a year.
His youngest son Alfred accompanies him.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is first compiled.
Northmen pirates winter in the Isle of Sheppey in Kent.
856. iEthelwulf, with his son Alfred, goes from Rome to
the court of the Frankish king, Charles the Bald; stays there
three months; and marries Charles's daughter Judith (1 Oct. ), a
child of twelye. On his return to Wessex, his people rise
against him ; he calls his Witan to settle the question ; and
they allot him "the Eastern Kingdom" (Kent, Essex, Surrey,
and Sussex), and give Wessex to his eldest surviving son
iEthelbald. iEthelwulf acquiesees in the arrangement. His
eldest son, iEthelstan, had died while he was abroad.
The Danes, under Olaf the Fair, return to Ireland in over
whelming force, occupy Dublin, and make themselves masters
of the whole eastern coast. Inguar, or Ivar, the Boneless, an
other Danish leader, seems to have been fighting in Munster
at this time.
858. iEthelwulf dies (13 Jan. ) ; his son iEthelbald becomes
sole monarch.
860. iEthelbald dies ; his brother iEthelberht succeeds
him. A raid of Northmen pirates on Winchester is avenged
by the men of Hants and Berks.
. 864. Northmen pirates from Gaul ravage the east coast of
Kent ; they also winter in the Isle, of Thanet in Kent.
866. iEthelberht dies ; his brother iEthelred succeeds him,
and the Eastern Kingdom is consolidated with Wessex. The
king's younger brother Alfred is made " Secondarius."
By this date the Northmen had occupied the Faroes, Shet-
lands, Orkneys, and Hebrides ; had dotted the west coast of
Ireland with their towns; and had settled along nearly the whole
coast of the continent from the Elbe to Bordeaux. In order
to consolidate their territory it becomes necessary to attempt
the conquest of Britain, and that island now becomes the main
point of their attack. Another branch of the Scandinavian
race, the Danes, closely allied to the Northmen, or Norwegians,
but apparently of darker complexion, now appear upon the
scene. About this date they seem to have migrated from
southern Sweden to Jutland and the intervening isles (Zealand, ,
etc.); and toward the end of the ninth century they founded
the Kingdom of Denmark. They had already (856) occupied
the east coast of Ireland.

66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTER V.
THE DANISH CONQUEST.
866. A Danish fleet of 200 vessels frOm Ireland, under
Olaf, attacks Pictavia (now Scotland) nOrth of the Frith- of
Clyde. A Danish host from Scandinavia, under Ivar the Boneless,
land in East Anglia and winter there: .
867. They go north to Northumbria and capture York.
The Northumbrians, under their two rival kings, iElla and
Osberht, who join against the common enemy, attempt its
recapture, but are totally defeated, the two kings are slain,
and Deira becomes tributary to the Danes.
867-875. The; Danes plunder and destroy the religious
houses throughout Northumbria, and Northumbrian learning
and civilization come to, an end. Almost the only edifices left
are Wilfred's church at Ripon, and Archbishop iEthelberht's
minster of York. The religious houses, on account of the
wealth hoarded in them, were their principal objects of attack.
868. A Dane, Bsegsceg, is made King of Bernicia, and the
Danes set up Egbert as under-King of Deira, and prepare for
the conquest of Mercia by seizing the passage of the Irent, at
Nottingham, and forming a winter camp there. -
869. Buhred, undei^King of Mercia, calls for aid from his
overlord, iEthelred of Wessex, who, with his brother Alfred,.
attacks the Danes at Nottingham with partial success, and they
make peace with the Mercians and withdraw to York. At the
close of the year, however, the Danes, under Ivar and his
brother Hubba, attack East Anglia, and sack and burn the
monasteries at Peterborough, Crowland, and Ely.
870. The Danes conquer East Anglia, capture its king,
Eadmund (afterward known as St. Sebastian), bind .him to a
tree, and shoot him to death with arrows (20 Nov.). The
abbey of Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk, was afterward, built
over his relics. Mercia becomes panic-stricken, and owns
Danish supremacy by paying tribute. Wessex alone remains
unconquered.

j-am . DAJN ISH CONQUEST. , 67
St. Ebbe suffers martyrdom, the first instance of the martyr
dom of a woman recorded in Britain.
Ceolnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies ; JEthelred is
made archbishop.
By this date the. Northmen had conquered Caithness, and
made Constantin, King of the Picts, tributary.
871. A Danish force, under Guthrum, or Gorm, and Baegs-
ceg, King of Bernicia, intended for the conquest of Wessex,
sails up the Thames past London, andj pitches camp near
Reading. The West Saxons, under iEthelrecl and Alfred, at
tack the camp, but are repulsed ; and the Danes pushJon to
and encamp at Ashdown, in Berks, where, after a desperate
battle, they are defeated (Feb.) by JEthelred and Alfred, and
Baegsceg and five Danish jarls are killed.
The West Saxons, under iEthelred, attack the Danes at
Merton, in Surrey, but are repulsed, and JEthelred is mortally
wounded. He dies (23 Ap.), and his brother Alfred succeeds
him. The Danes, having been reinforced, advance and encamp at
Wilton (from which Wilton-shire, now Wiltshire, owes its
name). Alfred attacks them, but is repulsed, and he suffers
a succession of small defeats. By a payment of money he
Eurchases their withdrawal from Wessex, and they winter at
iondon. 872. The Archbishop of Canterbury consecrates Cameleac
as Bishop of Llandaff in Wales.
874. ,The Danes invade Mercia; its king, Burhred, flees
over the sea to Rome, where he dies ; they set up Ceolwulf as
a puppet king, sack and burn the great abbey at Lichfield,
which was the burial-place of the Mercian tings, and winter
at Repton (in Derbyshire, about 7 miles S. W. of Derby).
87.5. The Danes divide their forces. One half, under
Half dene, marches north to ravage Bernicia and plunder its
remaining monasteries ; thence through Cumbria,* where it
burns Carlisle ; and thence into Strathclyde, where the Pict
ish king, Constantin, is battling, against the Northmen from
the Orkneys, under Thorstein (a son of Olaf the Fair) and Si
gurd. , The Picts, pressed between these forces and those of
Halfdene, purchase peace by the. cession of Caithness.
The other half of the Danish forces, under Guthrum,
marches from Repton to Cambridge to prepare for a final
attack on Wessex.
* This word is first used about this date to denote the southern
portion of Strathclyde, south of the Solway Frith, now Cumberland,

G8 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
876. Guthrum, baying received large reinforcements, sets
sail with an immense fleet from East Anglia, sails alongthe
east and south coast to Dorset; where he lands and pitches
camp at Wareham, near the mouth of the Frome. Alfred
equips a few vessels, which cut off stragglers.; he then marches
against Wareham, but finding the Danes too strong, he pur
chases their withdrawal. m
A part of Half dene's forces in the north take horse, march
across the country to Devon, and seize Exeter, then half-peo
pled by Britons.
Halfdene retires from Bernicia into Deira, where the
Danes settle and divide the lands amongst them,, becoming
a new territorial aristocracy, many English remaining as
tenants and tillers of the soil, but many others taking refuge
in Cumbria. Traces of the Danish occupation still remain in
local names ending in by, tliwaite, and dale." Bernicia was
not settled by ..them in the same way, but remained wholly
English; no Danish traces remain north of the Tees. The
division of Deira (now Yorkshire) into three Trithings, or Rid
ings, and of the . Ridings into Wapentakes (equivalent to the
Hundreds of the South) probably dates from this time.
877. The Danes divide part of Mercia among themselves.
This portion, called Danish Mercia, included the present shires
of Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, Rutland, and
Northampton, and is still marked by Danish names. The ter
ritory afterward became known as " the District of the Five
Boroughs"* (Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford, and Notting
ham), and wns self-governed, without a king, as a sort of con
federacy, each Borough having its own government. The
port of Grimsby, on the Humber, became a rival of York in
trade and commerce.
The rest of Mercia (Cheshire, Shropshire, Stafford, Worces
ter, Gloucester, Hereford, Oxon, and part of Bucks) remained
under the rule of Ceolwulf, the under-king whom the Danes
had set up, and did not become Danish.
Northumbria remained an organized kingdom, under the
stock of Inguar, or Ivar. with its capital at York.
The West Saxons, under Alfred, aided by a hired fleet out
side, and by the wrecking of Guthrum's fleet in a storm,
besiege Exeter, and starve it into surrender, f
* This title first occurs in 941.
t The 1000th anniversary of this capture, by which the tide of
Danish success was first turned, was commemorated in 1877 by the
unveiling of a statue of Alfred, at "Wantage, his birthplace, by the
Prince of Wales, his lineal descendant.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. • 69
Guthrum, with the remnant of his forces at Wareham,
withdraws across country to winter at Gloucester; and Hubba,
Ivar's brother, with a fleet of Danes, ascends the Bristol
Channel to aid him. Alfred disbands his forces.
At this time the West Saxon and Mercian Kings had no
standing armies, but were dependent for defence upon tempo
rary levies made on an agricultural population, so that their
forces, being needed for Work in the fields, could not be kept
together for longer than a few months at a time. The Danish
forces, on the other hand, were of the nature of standing
armies of professional soldiers or freebooters, subsisting, not
by their own agricultural labors, but by plunder.
Rhodri Mawr (Rhoderic the Great), Prince of Wales, is
killed by the Saxons ; his dominions are divided among his
three sons, who quarrel among themselves.
At this period large numbers of Northmen (Norwegians,
Danes, Swedes, and Flemings) emigrate from Britain to Ice
land, being among the first settlers there.
. About this date the word " Scotti" is first used to designate,
not only the Scots of Dalriada, but inhabitants of ""Pict-land"
proper. 878. Hubba, with 23 ships, makes his way to the coast of
Devon, while Guthrum, with his forces, crosses the Somerset
Avon into Wilts and advances to Chippenham. Wessex is com
pletely surprised, and before Alfred can gather an army, they
ravage the country, and drive part of the English across the
Bristol Channel into Wales. Alfred, with a small band, takes
refuge in the marshes at Sedgemoor, in Somerset, and throws
up a fort at Athelney, at the confluence of the. Tone with the
Parret.* He spends three month-* here preparing for a new
struggle. The men of Devon, under their ealdOrman, Odda,
cut Hubba's squadron to pieces while it is harrying the
coast. By May, the whole West Saxon forces rally under Al
fred, and totally defeat the Danes at Ethandun (probably Ed-
ington, in Wilts, about 15 miles S. E. of Bath), and fourteen
days later capture their camp. By this defeat the spirit of
the Danes is utterly broken; part withdraw to their old quarters
in Gaul, and Guthrum makes peace with Alfred at Wedmore
(a village near Athelney, in Somerset, between Bridgewater
and Yeovil). By this Treaty England is divided between Alfred
and the Danes. Alfred's realm included all England south of
* A memorial of Alfred's heroic stand at this place, in the shape of
a jewel of blue enamel, enclosed in a setting of gold, with the words
round it, " Aelfredmec heht gevvrcan " (".lElfred had me wrought"),
was found here in 1693.

?0 ¦ HlSl'OK? OF ENGLAND.
the Thames, and the portion of' Mercia under the rule of Ceol
wulf. English Mercia was placed under iEthelred as ealdoi>
man, with a separate. Witenagemot. The Danish portion of
¦Britain, or the Danelagh, or Danelaw, as it was called, stretched
from the Tees to the Thames, east of the Pennine and Cots-
wold Hills. It consisted of three parts: Northumbria, Danish
Mercia, and Guthrum's kingdom. This last included East
Anglia, Essex, Middlesex,: and Herts. Guthrum, by the
Treaty, also promises to become a Christian .; and he does
so at Aire, near Athelney, taking the baptismal name of
iEthelstan, Alfred acting as his godfather.- The Danes ob
serve the peace for six years, turning their attention to the
Franks across the channel, and using the Danelaw as a base
879. The Peace of Wedmore had left Wessex almost.
ruined ;. the schools and monasteries, towns and villages, were
in ruins, and large tracts of country lay wasted and without
inhabitants. Alfred begins and carries on the work of resto
ration with characteristic vigor and success. He builds forts
at. places exposed to attack; colonizes wasted lands afresh;
and founds new abbeys at -Winchester and Shaftesbury, and a
religious house at Athelney. In place of the old system of
temporary levies of troops for two months, he creates a new
military- system, on a .semi-feudal basis, Which furnishes a solid
nucleus of a. well-armed permanent ' force in addition to the
levy of all the freemen. This levy he divides into two halves,
each taking its turn in the field, while the other defends its
own locality. He also creates a national fleet to meet the
pirates on their own element, which in a few years is strong
enough to encounter the pirate fleet of East Anglia. He also
reorganizes public justice on the basis that the monarch shall
be the fountain of justice, so converting merely local systems
into a national one. The law becomes the king's law; offences
against it are offences against the king. He establishes mints
at many places, including one in Mercia, at Oksriaforda (the
earliest authentic form of the name Oxford). He fuses the
three codes, of Kent, Wessex, and Mercia into - one, adding
nothing, but rejecting, " with the advice of his Witan," what
seemed not good, thus beginning the conception of a national
law. He begins the restoration of learning, which had been
rooted out by the Danes ; his memory is. full of English songs,
which he teaches to his children.
880. Guthrum, with the remnant of his army, retires from
Cirencester to East Anglia, where the Danes divide the lands
among themselves, as they had done in Deira and Danish

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 71
Mercia. Another band of Danes winter at Fulham, a little west
of London.
882. A Danish pirate.fleet sails from the Loire, and attacks
Wessex^ but is driven off by Alfred's new fleet, four of their
vessels being sunk or captured.
883. Harald Harfager (i. e. Hair-fair, or Fair-hair) wins a
great fight at Hafursfiord (in Norway), and founds the king
dom of Norway.
885. Danish vessels from the Somme push up the. Thames
and attack Rochester, but the town holds out till Alfred comes
to its relief, when the pirates are driven off, with the loss of
their horses. The Danes of Guthrum's kingdom (East Anglia,
Middlesex, Essex, and Herts): having, in breach of the Treaty
of Wedmore, lent assistance in this attack, are punished by
Alfred's fleet.
Guthrum-iEthelstan, in his present contest with Alfredj,
receives aid from Hrolf or Rolf (Latin, Rollo; French,. Rou) of
Norway. The Welsh quarrel amOng themselves, and the Kings of
Demetia and Brecknock own Alfred as overlord, in exchange for
^his pledge to protect them against their enemies, the princes
of the house of Rhodri Mawr (Roderic the Great).
Alfred brings Asser from Wales and makes him Bishop of
Sherborne. 886. Guthrum-iEthelstan and Alfred make a new peace.
By this Alfred acquires London and the country west of the
Lea,, which is now probably first called Middlesex; also part of
Herts.' By the acquisition and fortification of London the
valley of the Thames is closed against the1 Danes, and, they are
placed in a position of defence, instead of attack. This date
marks the real foundation of a national monarchy of England.-
In this year, says the Chronicle, "all the AhgeUcyn [English
race] turned to Alfred, save those that were under bondage
to Danish men."
_ About this date Alfred learns Latin, and begins to translate
Latin books into English. He seeks to have every free-born
youth in his kingdom read English, and sets up a school for the
young nobles at his own court. He founds English prose lit
erature, giving to England a national literature, then without
a parallel, in the western world, so that in the literatures of
modern Europe that of England leads the way.
887. About this date Alfred takes in hand and re-edits
the English Chronicle, the earliest and most venerable monu
ment of English prose. The entries from 858 to 891 are prob
ably Alfred's own compilation. With its appearance, English

72 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND.
i history ceases to be mere local annals, as heretofore, and be
comes national, and the heritage of the whole people, and so
aids in the progress toward national unity.
889. About this date " Pictavia," the Land of the Picts,
is for the first time called Alban.
890. Guthrum-iEthelstan, the Danish king of East Ang
lia and Essex, dies. (iEthelstaii, his baptismal name, is the
only one which appears on his coins.) * Eorhic, or Yorick,
probably his son, succeeds hdm.
Alfred makes Phlegmund, of Mercia, Archbishop of Can
terbury. He brings over Grimbald, of St. Omer, to preside •
over the new abbey of Winchester ; and John (probably from
Westphalia, in Germany) to rule over the new monastery at
Athelney. 893. Before this date, Harold Harfager, of Norway, at the
head of the " Dubh-Gaill " (Black Strangers) or Danes, had
driven the Wikings, or Northmen, from the Orkneys, Shet-
lands, Western Isles of Scotland, and the Isle of Man, and
had founded an earldom in the Orkneys which had become
a base of attack on the kingdom of Alban, whence the Danes
had conquered Caithness and Sutherland, so that Alban- was
little more than the basin of the Tay.
Northmen, in a fleet of 250 vessels, gather at Boulogne,
land at Lymne, in Kent, and establish themselves . in the
Andredsweald (the great forest of the Weald, 112 miles long
and 30 broad) ; and Hasting, with 80 ships, enters the Thames,
ascends the Swale, and forms a winter camp at Milton, in
Kent. Asser begins to write his " Life of Alfred."
894. The Northmen push their raids into Hants and
Berks. Alfred advances, holds them at bay in the Andreds
weald, and Hasting makes peace, gives hostages, and allows
his two sons to be baptized. In breach of the peace, however,
the invaders advance north, cross the Thames into/ Essex,
and form camp on the Colne, where Alfred besieges theni.
On this the whole Danelaw rises to their aid ; the Britons in
Cornwall and in Wales also rise. Edward (Alfred's son) and
iEthelred, of Mercia, attack the camp on the Colne, and sink
part of the Norse fleet. The invaders form a new camp at
Shoebury, then march up the Thames Valley, north of Lon
don, as far as the Severn Valley, and ravage Alercia. Alfred
holds Exeter against the attacks of the Britons of Cornwall
and Devon, who are aided by a Danish fleet from East Ang
lia which moors off the town. Edward and iEthelred march
from Essex to Alfred's aid, and with forces gathered from al\

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 73
Alfred's realm, overtake the pirate army at Buttington, in the
Severn valley, and after a siege of some weeks, force it to fight,
defeat it with great slaughter, and drive the remnant back to
Essex. Hasting, with fresh forces from the Danelaw, crosses
mid-Britain and takes refuge within the ruined walls of
Chester,* where he is besieged through the winter by iEthelred.
895. Hasting abandons Chester, and withdraws across
England to a camp on the River Lea, in Essex, where he is
joined by those who have been beaten back from the siege of
Exeter. The men of London are repulsed in an attack on
the camp, and Alfred comes from the West to prepare for a
decisive blow.
896. Alfred blockades the whole Danish fleet in the Lea,
and forces the Danes to abandon it, and they strike across the
country again for the Severn valley, where they encamp at
Bridgenorth, in Shropshire.
897. The remnant of the Danish forces at Bridgenorth
break up ; part retire to their homes in the Danelaw, and
Hasting's followers return to their former quarters across the
Channel. The house of Roderic, of Wales, submit to Alfred, and all
Wales becomes subject to him. Alfred also forms an alliance
with Eadwulf, of Bamborough, King of Bernicia.
With a view to curb the growing power of the Danes by con
tinental alliances, Alfred gives his third and youngest daughter
iElfthryth (or Elfrith, or Elfrida) in marriage to Baldwin II.,
Count of Flanders.
901. Alfred the Great, probably the noblest monarch that
ever sat on a throne, dies (28 Oct.), aged about 60, and is
buried at Winchester. His son, Edward the Elder, is chosen
king. He styles himself, not King of the West Saxons or
Mercians, but " King of the Anglo-Saxons," or " King of the
English" (Anglorum). His cousin iEthelwald, a son of
Alfred's elder brother iEthelred, claims the throne, but being
without support, is forced to fly, and takes refuge among
the Danes of Deira, who choose him as their king, a step which
marks the beginning of the fusion of the English and the Danes.
902. Edward the Elder is crowned (16 May).
The men of Kent defeat the Danes at the Holm in Kent.
The Irish drive the Danes from Dublin temporarily.
904. iEthelwald goes with a fleet to Essex, and the people
submit to him.
* Chester had remained a waste since its destruction by iEthelfrith
in 613.

74 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
905. iEthelwald goes to East Anglia, and rouses the Danes
there for an attack on Wessex.
906. He is defeated by Edward, and he and Eorhic, King
of East Anglia, are slain ; and Edward and the army of East
Anglia renew the Peace' of Wedmore.
907. iEthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia, and his wife iEthel
flsed,* begin the restoration of Chester (destroyed in 613) and
its walls, as a barrier to prevent the Welsh from uniting with
the Danes.
Edward the Elder, in order to strengthen himself against
the growing power of the Northmen and Danes, gives his
daughter Eadgifu in marriage to the Frankish King, Charles
the Simple.
"910. The Danes from the Danelaw invade Mercia, but are
repulsed at Tottenhale (or Tettenhall in Staffordshire) by the
Mercians and West Saxons under Edward (6 Aug. ), who follows
the invaders across their border, and harries the Danelaw* for
five weeks.
iEthelflsed, of Mercia, fortifies Bramsbury;
A pirate force land at the mouth of the Severn, but are re
pulsed by' levies from the neighboring shires. Edward's fleet
of 100 ships is master of the English Channel.
911. A large force of Danes from Northumbria, under its
kings, Ecwils and Half dene, to avenge Edward's harryings,
invade and ravage Mercia. Edward's forces march north,
overtake them loaded with spoil, and inflict on them a total
defeat at Wodnesfield (or Wednesfield, in Staffordshire), both
kings and thousands of Danes being slain. -
Danes from Dublin ravage South Wales.
912. iEthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia,- dies1;1 his widow
iEthelflsed' becomes sole ruler, with the title of " Lady of the
Mercians. " Edward detaches Oxford, London, and the; lower
valley of the Thames from Mercia, and annexes them to Wessex.
He plants two forts on the site of what is now Hertford, one
on each side of the Lea, near the Danelaw boundary, and
occupies land on the Danish side. In Essex he also occupies
Maldon (on the Blackwater) and Witham, cutting off the
Danes from the Thames and appropriating the whole of
southern Essex.
By the Treaty of St. Clair-on-Epte, Charles the Simple,
King of the West Franks, grants to Hrolf, or Rolf (Latin,
.Rollo ;. French, Rou), the. land at the mouth of the Seine,
from the sea to the Epte (a small stream from the north,
* Daughter of Alfred the Great.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 75
falling into the Seine at Vernon, on the boundary between
Eure and Seine-et-Oise), which becomes known as " the land
of the > Northmen," and afterward as Normandy. Rolf him
self was probably a Norwegian, but the greater part of his
pirate followers were Danes. Rolf is, baptized as Robert-,, and
swears fealty to Charles as his lordi,
913. Edward's sister, iEthelflsed of Mercia, strengthens her
western boundary against the Welsh by erecting forts at Scar-
gate and Bridgenorth, and firmly establishes herself on the line
of Watling Street (the boundary between English, and Danish
Mercia) so as to bar any further Danish raids into English
Mercia, by erecting fortresses at Tamworth and Stafford, the
latter then being the most important strategical point in Midr '
die Britain.
914. iEthelflsed erects a fortress at Warwick to bar access
along the Fosse Road and the Avon Valley.
914-915. She erects fortresses at Cherbury (Shropshire),
Warbury, and Runcorn (Cheshire).
915. Danish pirates try to land at Watchet and Porlock;
(Somerset), but many are killed, and the rest are driven off.
They then invade Ireland.
915 or 918. . A fleet of Danes from' the south, probably
Brittany, under Ohter and Hroald, enter the Severn and ravage
the coast of Wales, but are driven off by the men of Glou
cester and Hereford.
916. iEthelflsed storms the town of Brecknock, in Wales,
and takes the wife of the Welsh king prisoner;
917. She captures Derby (Aug.), one of the Five Bor
oughs. 918. Edward captures Buckingham from the Danes, and
secures his conquest by building, forts on both sides of the
Ouse to guard its passage. Its capture is followed by the
submission of the chief men of Bedford and Nottingham.
iEthelflsed captures Leicester (another of the Five Boroughs).
The people of York send her word of submission, but while
she is treating for its surrender, she dies at Tamworth (12
June), and is buried at Gloucester. Mercia is brought under
the direct rule of Edward.
Shire' divisions were probably not introduced into English
Mercia before its annexation by Edward in this year.
A fleet of Danes from Brittany ravage the coasts of Wales
and the Severn; they are driven off, and then go to Ireland
and re-establish themselves in Dublin. ¦,
919. Edward captures Bedford from the Danes, and builds
a fort there on the south of the.OuseV

76 THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
920. Sihtric, the Danish King of Dublin, is driven thence,
and becomes king at York.
921. Edward seizes and fortifies the site of the ruined Tow-
cester (in Northampton). This capture arouses the Danes of
Mid-Britain to action. He erects fresh fortresses at Maldon
(in Essex), and at Wigmore (in Herefordshire).' An attack by
the Danes of Mercia on Towcester is repulsed, and Northampton
and the surrounding district submits to Edward.
The Danes of East Anglia attack Bedford, but are re
pulsed, and the English capture Tempsford and Colchester.
A counter-raid by, the Danes on Maldon is repulsed. Edward
captures Godmanchester, and the Danes of, all East Anglia
and Essex submit to him.
922. Edward marches on Stamford (in Lincoln^ one of
the Five Boroughs), and it submits; he secures his conquest
by a fort. He captures Northampton (the 4th of the Five
Boroughs) and erects a fort there; and all Danish Mercia
(and no doubt Lincoln, the 5th of the Five Boroughs) sub
mits to him. The Welsh kings also submit to him.
In all his conquests, as well as within Wessex itself and Eng
lish Mercia, Edward enforces the new principle of personal
allegiance, under oath, to himself as supreme lord, and thus
. completes the foundation of the feudal system in England;
923. In order.to cut off the Danes of Northumbria from
succor from their brother Danes or Ostmen in Ireland, Edward
builds a town and fortress at Thelwall, on the Mersey, and
occupies the old Roman town of Mancunium (now Manr
Chester), then in Northumbria, which had been a ruin since
iEthelfrith's day (613).
924. These new additions to his realm he links with Not
tingham and Derby by a fort at Bakewell (in Derby), on the
upper Derwent. He also throws a bridge across the Trent at
Nottingham, and builds a second foist there.
Constantin (King of Alban), the British princes of Strath
clyde, and the lords of Bernicia, league themselves together
to assist Northumbria against Edward's meditated attack.
Edward marches through the Dore (or Door) Pass, in Derby
shire, to attack them, but they submit and own him as
"father and lord." It was upon this submission that
Jinghsh crown-lawyers in after-times based the claim of the
* *Lt « ln$8 t0 the oVerl°rds!>ip of Scotland. The people
of Northumbria who "bowed" to Edward are separately
named—" either English, or Danes, or Northmen "
Rolf having assisted Charles the Simple in his wars,
i.»mriOR 1T) recompense, grants him the district round Bayeux

THR DANISH CONQUEST. 77
(now in C6tes du Nord) as an addition to his former terri
tory. 925. Edward the Elder dies (Jan. ) at Fearndun (or Farn-
don, in Northamptonshire); his sort Athelstan succeeds him,
and adopts the same title, " King of the Angul-Saxons." Sih-
tric, the Danish ruler in Deira, comes to Athelstan's court at
Tamworth (Jan.), and marries one of his sisters. Athelstan
marries another sister, Eadgyth, to Otto (the son of the Ger
man king, Henry)rafterward Emperor as Otto the Great, thus
pursuing the policy of Alfred and Edward, in seeking foreign
alliances as a protection against the growing power of the
Normans and Danes.
926. Sihtric dies, probably by violence ; his son Guthferth,
or Godfrey* succeeds him, and the old confederacy of the
Northumbrians, Picts, Britons of Strathclyde, and the Welsh
is renewed. The Britons in West Wales (Cornwall) also rise.
Athelstan marches into Northumbria, drives out Guthferth
and his brother Aulaf, or Olaf, who take refuge with Constan
tin, -K ing of Alban, who gives his daughter in marriage
to Olaf. Howel, King of the Welsh, Owen of Gwent (Mon
mouthshire), Ealdred, Lord of Bernicia, and the Alban King,
Constantin, meet Athelstan at Eamot (12, July), and submit,
and acknowledge him as King of the Northumbrians. Athel
stan goes to Hereford, summons the Welsh chiefs, and forces
them to own him as overlord as King of Mercia, to pay a
yearly tribute, and to accept the Wye as the boundary between
Mercia and Wales.
Athelstan gives his sister Eadhild in marriage to Hugh the
Great, Duke of Paris, brother-in-law of Rudolf of Burgundy.
Rudolf claims the West Frankish crown, in opposition to
Charles the Simple, and his claim is backed by Hugh. Cnar^es
again falls back on the alliance of Rolf, and the Normans are
thus kept engaged while Athelstan is completing the conquest
of Wales and the Danelaw.
Athelstan marches to Exeter, in Devon, drives out the
British half of its inhabitants, and builds a stone wall round
it ; he then goes into Cornwall, finally defeats the Britons
(or West Welsh as they were called) at Bolleit by St. Buryan's,
and fixes the boundary of the Britons at the river Tamar, the
present boundary between Devon and Cornwall.
About this date Athelstan makes Odo, a Dane, Bishop of
Ramsbury. 927. Athelstan styles himself " Monarch of all Britain."
A great synod meets at Greatanlea (now Greatley, near
Andover, in Hants) and promulgates a code of laws for the

78 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
regulation of public order and the defence of property. A
like code is promulgated at Witenagemots held at Exeter,
Feversham (in Kent), and Thunresfleld (probably in Surrey).
One object, of these codes was to check the growing lawless
ness of, the thegns, or nobles, by bringing them under the
"king's justice" and banishing them from one part of the
realm to another. Stringent laws against theft, which is
made a capital offence, [indicate the growing wealth of the
country. Trade regulations are embodied in these codes.
They provide for " one money all over the king's land," and
prohibit "minting" (i. e., coining) save " within port/' The
places where mints were in existence at this time were London,
with 8 " mbneyers," or coiners ; Canterbury, with 7; Winches
ter, 6; Rochester, 3 ; Lewes, Southampton, Wareham, Exeter,
and Shaftesbury, 2 each ; and Hastings, Chichester, and other
"burns," 1 each. By Athelstan's day, shire-divisions had
become a settled thing all Over Wessex and the land of the
East Saxons. The date of their institution in Mid-Britain is
doubtful. Rolf, Duke of Normandy, abdicates in favor of his son
William Longsword, who vigorously carries on his father's
work of converting and civilizing his people. These give up
their own language and adopt that of the Franks, thus creat
ing Norman-French. The English view their growing power
with uneasiness, because of their consanguinity with the Danes
of the Danelaw, and continue to seek alliances on the continent
to guard against it.
929. In the Witenagemot of Northumbria Danish jarls (or
earls), English ealdormen, and the Archbishops of York and
Canterbury^ sit together, a circumstance which indicates Ath
elstan's desire to fuse the two peoples, and make no distinct
tion between them. He speaks of his realm as " the Kingdom
of all Albion."
Charles the Simple is murdered ; his widow iEldgifu, or
Eadgifu (Athelstan's sister), and her young child Lewis (after
ward King Louis D'Outremer, or " Over-the-sea") take refuge
at the English court. William Longsword is left to contend
alone against Rudolf of Burgundy, who now becomes the
unquestioned master of France. Rudolf combines with the-
Bretons of Brittany in an attack on William.
93 L Rod ward, or Redewald, Archbishop of York, dies ;
Athelstan appoints an archbishop of his own, Wulfstan, and
secures the loyalty of the northern clergy by grants to Beverly
ahd Ripon. Danes, Welsh, and English sit together in a
Witenagemot at Lewtoiaj* and English and Danes and the

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 79
Archbishop of York sit together (Mar.) in a great Witenage
mot at Colchester, in Essex. A t Lewton there were 95 attend
ants, namely, 2 archbishops, 2 Welsh under-kings, 17 bishops,
15 duces, and 59 " ministers."
Alan, award of Edward the Elder, goes over to Brittany to
assist the Bretons against the Normans. William Longsword
defeats the Bretons and conquers Brittany ; Alan flees back to
the English court. :
932. Danes and English sit together (Aug. ) in a Witena
gemot at Middleton (now Milton, in Dorset).
Rolf, ex-Duke of Normandy,, dies probably about this date.
933. Athelstan styles himself " King of the English-folk
and of all nations dwelling with them on every side;" a title
which continues to be used by the English Chancery during
several reigns.
Athelstan's continental alliances having surrounded Wil
liam Longsword with a ring of enemies, William seeks safety
by doing homage to Rudolf, now King of 'France, who for
mally cedes to him his new conquest in Brittany as well as his
old territory.
Ostmen (Danes) from Ireland, under Olaf or Anlaf,* King
of Dublin, make a descent on the west shores of Northumbria;
this awakes symptoms of revolt against Athelstan, and en
courages Constantin, King of Alban, to renew the confed
eracy of Picts, Danes; and Britons against Athelstan.
934. Athelstan marches with an army to the north to
prevent the threatened revolt in Northumbria, and he sends a
fleet to harry the west coast of Constantin's territory (Scot
land). Danes, Welsh, and English sit together in a Witenagemot
at Winchester ; and again in one at Frome.
Athelstan styles himself "King of the Angul-Saxons and of
all Britain;" also, "Angul-Saxon King and Brytenwealda of
all' these islands ;" also "Basileus of the English and at the
same time Emperor of the kings and nations dwelling within
the bounds of Britain." While his claims are thus at their
highest, his realm begins to disintegrate.
935-6. The influence of Olaf and Constantin, and of the
new league against Athelstan, induces the Danish jarls to
withdraw from the English court.
936. Rudolf, King of the Franks, dies ; Duke Hugh, of
Paris, refuses the crown, and the West Franks choose Lewis
* This seems to have been a different person from Sihtric's son,
Anlaf, who had married the Alban Kinggponstantin's daughter.

80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
(" Over-Sea") as king, and send an embassy to England with
an offer of the crown ; they find Athelstan at York, holding
down disaffection in the Danelaw. He goes south, and sends
an embassy to France to prepare the way for the return of
Lewis, his nephew. The embassy visits the court of William
Longsword (the first direct communication between England
and Normandy), who consents to Lewis's accession. Long
sword, in return, stipulates that Alan, the Breton refugee in
England, shall return to' Brittany, and pledge himself to
peace, which he does.
Harold Harfager, King of Norway, dies. After a contest
among his sons for the kingdom, Eric Bloody-axe gets the
mastery over most of it. His younger brother Hakon promises
the Norwegians to restore their old udal rights, and they rise
in his favor, and Eric abandons his country and takes to
piracy. 937. Olaf, King of Dublin, with a fleet of Danes from
Ireland, appears off the Northumbrian coast, and the wholo
league, including'the Picts or Scots under Constantin, the
English of Bernicia, the. Danes of Deira, and the Britons (or
Welsh) of Cumbria and Srathclyde, under Owen, rises against
Athelstan. Athelstan meets the army of confederates at Brunanburh,
and after a battle which lasts the whole day, inflicts on them
a crushing defeat.* Five kings, seven jarls, and Constantin's
son, are among the slain ; and Olaf only saves his life by hastily
putting his boat to sea and steering for Dublin. The site of
this battle is still undetermined ; it has been variously located
in the Lothians, in Northumberland, at Aldborough in York
shire, and at Brunby in Lincolnshire. The victory was cele
brated in a noble war-song — " Song of the Fight at Brunan
burh," which is still extant as embodied in the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle.* 938. Eric Bloody^axe makes a raid on Northumbria.
Athelstan makes a bargain with him in accordance with which
he is baptized and receives the kingdom of Northumbria, in
pledge to guard it against the Danes and other Northmen.
Eric's conversion does not change his habits, and every sum
mer he goes on .plundering cruises to the Shetlands, the
Hebrides, Iceland, and Bretland. >
Athelstan ravages Cornwall and- conquers the Scilly Isles.
Athelstan, in order to weaken the Danelaw still further,
*A spirited modernized version of it is given in Freeman's " Old
English History," p. 155.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 81
creates the Ealdormanry of East Anglia ; it includes, besides
East Anglia proper, southern Lincolnshire, and probably
Northamptonshire. iEthelstan, a noble of royal kin, is made
its ealdorman.
About the same time he creates the Ealdormanry of Essex;
it includes Essex, Herts, Oxford, Buckingham, and possibly
Middlesex, with London. iElfgar (the father of iEthelflsed,
wife of Edmund, afterward king) is made ealdorman.
940. Athelstan dies (27 Oct.) at Gloucester ; his half-
brother Edmund, a youth of 18, succeeds him. Edmund adopts
the title " King of All Britain," but usually signs " King of
the English."
Edmund makes known his intention of setting up another
chief in Northumbria, in place of the piratical Eric. Eric
thereupon sets Off on a new cruise of piracy, adding the Eng
lish coasts to his other fields of prey. On his departure the
whole Danelaw prepares to resist Edmund, and calls for aid
from its brother-Danes in Ireland.
941. Olaf, King of Dublin, responds to the call and ap
peal's in the Humber, whereupon the Danes of Northumbria
and the District of the Five Boroughs (Danish Mercia) throw
off their allegiance to Edmund and make Olaf their king.
942. Edmund makes Odo (Bishop of Ramsbury) Arch
bishop of Canterbury, the first Dane who filled the office.
Olaf, from Dublin, the Danish King of Northumbria, dies ;
Olaf, Sihtric's son, from Alban, succeeds him.
Constantin, King of Alban, retires to a monastery; Malcolm,
son of Donald (Constantin's predecessor), becomes king.
943. Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, falls from his alle
giance to Edmund, adopts the cause of the Danes, and com
mands their forces side by side with Olaf. They invade
Mid-Britain, and capture Tamworth and Leicester. Edmund
recovers Leicester.
Peace is made between Edmund and Olaf, SihtricVson,
who is baptized, and made under-King of Bernicia, while
Ragnald, Guthferth's son, is made under-King of Deira (York
shire). William Longsword, Duke of Normandy, is murdered ; his
son Richard, a boy of ten, succeeds him.
At or before this date Northmen from Ireland and the Isle
of Man settle in part of Cumbria, their territory becoming
known as Westmoringa-land ('-'the land of the men of the
Western Moors," now Westmoreland).
944. Edmund reconquers the Danelaw, and drives out its
two under-kings, Olaf and Ragnald.

82 HISTORY 0E ENGLAND.
Louis IV. (D?Otitre-mer) conquers Normandy.
945 J , Edmund harries all Cumberland, which had been
conquered from Northumbria by the Britons of Strathclyde.
He grants the greater part of it to Malcolm, King of
Alban, on condition that he shall be " his fellow-worker by sea
and land." In this way Edmund disunites the Scots and
.Britons, or Welsh, and sets up a barrier against the invasion
of the Danes from Ireland.
Edmund has a law passed whieh fastens the responsibility
for murder on the person who commits it, and relieves his"
family or kin from the obligation of bearing the penalty, and
protects them from the vengeance of the slain man's kin.
• A fleet under Harald Blaatand (i.e., "Blue-tooth"), King
of Denmark, moors off the Gotentin (the northern part of th«
present department of Manche), calls the Normans to armsj
and with the assistance of Hugh, Duke of Paris, defeats
the Franks under Louis IV., who is taken prisoner and given
up to Hugh. Normandy recovers its independence. Edmund
demands the release of his cousin Louis, but Hugh refuses it.
946. Edmund is murdered at Pucklfechurch (in Glouces
tershire, near Bristol), by Leofa, a robber (26 May) ; his sons
Eadwig ahd Eadgar ¦ being too young to reign, his brother
Eadred is elected king by a Witenagemot at which Britons,
Danes; and English are present, his election being the first
national one; and his coronation (16 Aug. ), jointly by the Arch
bishops of Canterbury and York, the first national one. Dun-
stan, Abbot of Glastonbury, a close friend of Eadred's, becomes,
with the support of Athelstan (Ealdormanof East Anglia), his
chief adviser. Eadred styles himself ? King of the English
and of the. surrounding peoples," and signs himself "King
of the English," The northern Danelaw quietly submits to
him, and the Scots renew the oath of " fellow-workmanship."
947. Northumbria becomes restless, and Eadred advances
to Taddenescylf (Tanshelf, near Pontefract in Yorkshire), and
receives the oath of personal allegiance from the Northum
brian Wi tan.
948. In spite of this oath, the Northumbrians revolt, and
make Eric Hiring (a son of Harald Blue-tooth) their king.
Eadred marches north, burns the minster at Ripon, and rav
ages all Northumberland. On his retreat, the Danes attack
his rear, at Chesterf ord, whereupon he threatens to return
" and wholly ruin the land ; " the Danes then abandon Eric,
make compensation to Eadred, and again submit to his rule.
949. Olaf, Sihtric's son, reappears in Northumbria, and
rules there for three yearns as under-king to Eadred.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 83
952. Olaf is driven out by the Northumbrians, and Eric
Hiring is again made king. Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, ¦
is seized as a rebel, and brought before Eadred at Jedburgh.
iElfgar, Ealdorman of Essex, dies about this date.
954. Northumbria submits to Eadred, and again expels
Eric, who dies shortly afterward. Wulfstan is released.
Eadred reduces Northumbria to an earldom, and makes' Osr
wulf (an Englishman, high-reeve of Bernicia) ruler over both
Bernicia and Deira, as Earl of the Northumbrians, thus final
ly incorporating Northumbria with the rest of his kingdom.
He adopts an imperial title, styling himself "Caesar of the
whole of Britain."
955. In the nine years previous to this date, Dunstan,
from Glastonbury as a centre, had been spreading education • <
throughout the country. In this year, iEthelwold, DunstanV
chief scholar and assistant, is made Abbot of AbingdOn. He
establishes a school there which more than rivals that of
Glastonbury. From these two centres the movement spreads
through Wessex and Mercia, and gives rise to a second old
English literature, which bears the stamp of Wessex as the
first had borne that of Northumbria.
Eadred dies at Frome (Nov.), and is buried at Glastonbury ;
his nephew Eadwig or Edwy (Edmund's eldest sOn), a boy of
15, is chosen king.
956. Eadwig is crowned at Kingston (Jan.) by Archbishop
Odo. He leaves the coronation feast and retires to bis private
apartments to the company of iEthelgifu, a womap of high
lineage, and her daughter iElfgifu (Latin, Elgiva).: The nobles
present resent the slight,, and Dunstan drags the king back to
the feast by force, and threatens iEthelgifu with death. She
has great influence over the king, and later in the year, in
revenge, has Dunstan driven from the realm as an outlaw ; he
takes refuge in Flanders, where its count, Arnulf I., shelters
him at the abbey of Ghent. r
iEthelstan, Ealdorman of East Anglia, retires to a monastery,
and his earldom is divided between his two sons.
iElfhere, the leader of the king's kin, is made Ealdorman of
the Mercians, thus dividing the purely English > portion of
Britain into two nearly equal parts, and tending to its disinte
gration. 957. Eadwig marries iElfgifu (iEthelgifu's daughter),
whereupon his kin leave his court and persuade his younger
brother Eadgar to join them. Eadwig and iElfgifu being
kin, the marriage is against Church law, and Odo, Arch'
bishop of Canterbury, finding his remonstrances against it

84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
disregarded, also retires from court, declaring the marriage
void. Odo's sentence leads to a general revolt against Eadwig ; the
Mercians, under Ealdorman iElfhere, rise and choose Eadgar
for their king. The whole Danelaw joins Mercia in revolt and
acknowledge Eadgar as king ; only Wessex remains to Eadwig.
958. A joint meeting of the Mercian and West Saxoh
Witenagemots agrees upon the Thames as the boundary be
tween the dominions of the two brothers. Eadwig becomes
merely "King of the West Saxons." Eadgar styles himself
" King of the Engle or English " or " King of the Mercians."
He recalls Dunstan from exile (before June), and Odo conse
crates him Bishop of Worcester. Odo, with an armed band,
seizes Eadwig's queen, and carries her out of the realm, thus
enforcing his own sentence of divorce ; he then £hreatens to
depose Eadwig, who thereupon submits to the annulment of
his marriage. Odo dies (2 June).
959. Eadwig dies (1 Oct. ) •; Eadgar, a youth of 16, being
accepted by Wessex as king, becomes sole monarch. Wessex
is divided, and iElfheah (a brother of iElfhere, Ealdorman of
Mercia) is made Ealdorman of central Wessex. or Southampton
as it was sometimes called. In Eadgar's reign the words " Eng
land" and "hundred" first come to be used. Dunstan is
made Archbishop of Canterbury ; he goes to Rome and receives
the pallium from Pope John XII.
960. Dunstan returns from Rome, and takes the main
direction of affairs, becoming. virtually co-ruler with Eadgar.
962. St. Paul's Minster, in London, is burnt.
963. iEthelwold, Abbot of Abingdon, is made Bishop of
Winchester. 964. iEthelwold instals Benedictine monks in place of
"clerks" (clergy) throughout his diocese; the beginning of
the revival of monasticism in England.
965. Eadgar's wife, iEthelflsed the Fair, dies, leaving a son,
Edward (afterwards king). Eadgar marries iElfthryth (or
Elfrida), daughter of Ordgar, one of his nobles. He makes a
friendly alliance with Olaf. or Anlaf, King of the Ostmen
(Danes) in Dublin. He also grants Bernicia north of the Tyne,
including Edinburgh, to the Scottish king, Kenneth, to hold
as his "man."
966. Eadgar divides Northumbria ; Oswulf is retained as
Earl of Bernicia, south of the Tweed (now Northumberland) ;
while Oslac is made Earl of Deira. The two earldoms become
almost independent of Eadgar. In Northumbria the fusion of
Danes and English goes on steadily ; the Danes, beinsr oonmara.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 85
tively few, are absorbed by the more numerous English. Ead
gar promotes the fusion by employing Danes in his service,
and giving them high posts in Church and State.
Thored (Gunner's son), a Northman, harries Westmoringa-
land (Westmoreland).
About this date, Ordgar, Eadgar's father-in-law, is made
Ealdorman of Wealhcyn (i.e., all Wessex west of Wilts).
968. War breaks out between Eadgar and Wales.
The Isle of Thanet is rav.iged by Eadgar's orders, as a pun
ishment for the practice of wreckage by its inhabitants.
About this date Eadgar's fleet begins to make annual voyages
round Britain, to sweep the sea of pirates.
969. Oswald, Bishop of Worcester, introduces monks into
Worcester and the neighborhood, the first reintroduction of*
monasticism into Mercia.
At a Council held by Dunstan the marriage of the clergy
is forbidden under pain of deprivation.
973. Eadgar is crowned at Bath (11 May) by the two arch
bishops as "King of England." He was the first king who
assumed that title.
975. Eadgar dies (8 July), aged 32. He leaves two sons,
half-brothers, Edward (aged 13) by his first wife, and iEthelred
(aged 7) by his second wife, iElfthryth or Elfrida. Edward
"the Martyr" is chosen king, and is crowned by the two
archbishops, Dunstan and Oswald. Strife breaks out among
the great earls, which leads to the disintegration of England.
» iEthelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia, aided by the monastic
party and by iElfthryth (Eadgar's widow), attempts to set up
iEthelred as king in opposition to Edward. Dunstan, iElfhere
(Ealdorman of Mercia), and the anti-monastic party, support
Edward. Oslac, Earl of Deira, is driven into banishment ; and Ber
nicia and Deira are reunited under Waltheof, as Ealdorman of
Northumbria. By this date feudalism has become established throughout
England, the free ceorls having been completely reduced to
Hllenage. During Eadgar's reign a witch was drowned at London
Bridge, the first death for heresy recorded in England.
This is also the first historical proof since the English con
quest of the existence of a bridge at London.
977. A stormy Witenagemot is held at Kirtlington.
978. Another stormy Witenagemot is held at Calne.
Dunstan takes the part of the king against the domination of
the great earls.

86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
979. Edward is murdered (18 Mar.) at Corfes Gate (now,
Corfe Castle in Dorset) at the instigation of, his stepmother.
iElfthryth, iEthelred's mother, iEthelred, ("the Unrsedig,"
that is, not. "the Unready," but "the Uncounselled " or
"Unwise"), a boy of 10, becomes king, and is crowned at
Kingston (4 May), by Archbishop Dunstan, who exacts from
him a stringent coronation oath. Dunstan withdraws to
Canterbury, leaving the government to be assumed by the
king's mother, iElfthryth, and her kinsmen, iEthelwine and
Byrhtnoth, Earls of East Anglia and Essex.
980. iElfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia, removes the remains
of Edward the Martyr from Wareham, and buries them with
much worship at Shaftesbury. -
980-982. Danish pirates raid the coasts of Wessex, Kent,
Wales, and Cheshire.
983. iElfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia, dies ; his son iElfric
is appointed to succeed him. .
984. iEthelwold,' Bishop of Winchester, ' ' father of monks, "
dips (1 Aug.). -
985. The king's counsellors drive iElfric, Ealdorman of
Mercia, into exile, and put an end to his ealdordom.; .;<
986. The king's counsellors quarrel with the Bishop of
Rochester, and by the young king's orders the lands ;of the
see are ravaged,; Dunstan stays the outrage by a threat of
excommunication. , Harald Blaatand, King of Denmark, who has, become a
Christian, is mortally wounded in a battle with his rebel son,
Swein (or Swegen), who lias remained a heathen ; Swein
becomes .King of Denmark. At his succession-feast, before
ascending the throne, he makes a solemn vow . that before
three winters are over he will invade England and either kill
iEthelred or drive him out of the country.
A '¦ great murrain" among cattle visits England ; the first
on record.
988. St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (19 May).
Danish pirates renew their raids on the coast of England ;
and Danes from Ireland levy a tribute on Wales. Since the
beginning of iEthelred's reign (980) they had made raids at
various points— Southampton, Thanet, Cheshire, Portland,
Somerset, and Wales.
991. A body of Norwegian Wikings land on the.east coast,
plunder Ipswich, and march south against Essex ; the men ¦ of
Essex, under their ealdorman, Byrhtnoth, or Brihtnotb^ineet
them at Maldon, but are defeated, and Byrhtnoth is slain. ' By
the advice of Sigeric, Archbishop of Canterbury, iEthelred

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 87
buys for £10,000 * a treaty of alliance with the victors, who
bind themselves to help him against any foes who may attack
England, and not to harbor any enemies of England. iEthel
red" also concludes an alliance with Richard the Fearless, Duke
of Normandy.
About this time Meredydd f makes himself master of. nearly
all Wales, and in this year forms an alliance with the North
men, and makes war against the English.
992. iEthelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia, dies. iEthel
red, now 23, determines to curb the power of the great, earls
and to become king in reality. Hence his title " Unrasdig " or
" Uncounselled," implying his rejection of the counsel of these
nobles. The' Norwegian pirate force still remains on the English
coast, and iEthelred prepares a fleet and a land force to attack
it, the latter being commanded by iElfric, Ealdorman . of
Central Wessex, and by Earl Thored. On the night before
the projected attack, iElfric, perhaps considering it a breach
of the treaty of 991, goes to the pirates' camp^and warns them,
and they escape after a skirmish with the English fleet.
993. The Norwegian pirates sail along the east. coast,
ravage at the mouth of the Humber, and sack Bambofough.
iEthelred orders iElfric's son iElfgar to be blinded,
994. A fleet of Northmen pirates, . under Olaf (Anlaf)
Tryggvason (a Christian), a claimant to the throne of Norway,
and a fleet of Danish pirates, under Swein (a heathen), a son
of Harald Blaatand, unite, and the joint forces of nearly 100
ships sail into the Thames (Sep.) and attack London, but are
beaten back by the burghers (8 Sep.). They then sail along
and harry the southern coast, land at Southampton, take horse,
and march inland to Andover (in Hampshire), where they are
met by an army under iEthelred. _He and, his advisers again
(for £16,000 and a promise of winter supplies) buy a treaty of
peace, and the invaders take up winter-quarters at South
ampton. iElfric returns to England and is restored to office
as Ealdorman of Central Wessex.
iEthelred divides Northumbria, leaving Waltheof as Earl of
Bernicia, and making iElfhelm Earl of Deira* He divides
Mercia, and makes Leofwine Ealdorman of the Hwiccas.
Ulfcytel remains thane in East Anglia. Leofsige, a noble newly
created by iEthelred, is made Ealdorman of Essex ; iEthelweard
and iElfric remain Ealdormen of West Wessex and Central
Wessex. The last, three become iEthelred's principal advisers.
* Equal to one-fourth of the annual revenues of the Crown.
t Pronounced Meredith.

88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Sigeric, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies.
995. News comes that Jarl Hakon, King of Norway, haa
become unpopular, and Olaf Tryggvason is anxious to return
thither and assert his claims to the throne. At the instance
of Bishop iElfheah and iEthelweard, Ealdorman of West
Wessex, he meets iEthelred at Andover, and, in return for
gifts, pledges himself to leave England and never return.
His desertion forces Swein to withdraw also. Two years of
peace follow, but iEthelred makes no attempt to organize a
national defence against future invasions..
iElfric, Bishop of Winchester, is made Archbishop of Can
terbury (21 Ap.).
The city of Durham is founded.
996. Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, dies, after
a reign of 53 years ; his son Richard the Good succeeds him.
997. A band of Danish pirates from Norman harbors enter
the Severn and Tamar, harry Cornwall and Devon, and burn
the monastery at Tavistock.
998. They harry Dorset, take up winter-quarters in the Isle
of Wight, and levy supplies from the coasts of Hants and Sussex.
999. They enter the Medway, attack Rochester, and harry
West Kent. iEthelred at last gathers a force to attack them,
but his delay allows them to withdraw (in 1000) unharmed to
Norman harbors.
1000. iEthelred, having no fleet fit to oppose that of the
pirates, takes into his service a force ,of Danes, including
Pallig, a brother-in-law of Swein. This fleet makes descents
on the Norwegian settlements in Cumberland and the Isle of
Man, probably by way of punishment for having given support
to the pirate fleets ; it then attacks the Normans in the
Cotentin (part of Normandy), but is repulsed.
About this date, Eric, the Swedish king, dies ; Denmark
throws off the Swedish yoke, and recalls Swein to be king.
Swein leagues with the Swedes and Jarl Hakon's son, Eric, and
attacks Olaf Tryggvason, now King of Norway. Olaf is de
feated and slain, and Swein becomes master of Norway as well
as Denmark. In pursuance of his coronation-oath (in 986), he
begins to prepare for a formidable attack on England.
1001. The Danes ravage the western counties, winning
victories at Ethelingdene (probably Alton), and at Penhoe in
Devon. They also ravage the Isle of Wight. There being
neither fleet nor land forces to oppose them they plunder and
destroy at will. " Then was it," says the Chronicle, " in every
wise a heavy time, because they never ceased from their evil
doings."

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 89
iEthelred, finding that his treaty of 991 with the Normans
has not secured their neutrality in his contest with the Danes,
resolves to attempt to secure it by a personal tie, and he negoti
ates with the Norman Duke, Richard the Good, a treaty, by
which Richard agrees to give him his daughter Emma in
marriage. While these negotiations are proceeding, iEthelred sends
Leofsige, Ealdorman of Essex, to the pirate fleet to buy a truce
for £24,000.
1002. iEthelred (in Lent) marries Emma * of Normandy,
and thereby apparently guards against Norman help to the
expected attack of Swein. Emma brings a Norman train with
her, and for the next 50 years, as either queen or queen-
mother, exercises much influence in Anglo-Norman politics.
Exeter is given to her as her "dowry town ; " the command.
of it is given to Hugh, one of her Norman followers, as reeve.
Leofsige, by his "pride and daring," makes himself ob
noxious to iEthelred, who, to curb his pretensions, makes a
new favorite, iEfic, high-reeve of England, an office somewhat
analogous to that of prime minister. Leofsige at once breaks
into iflfic's house and murders him ; and the Witan degrades
and banishes Leofsige. Wulfgeat is made high-reeve in place
of iEfic. The dread of Swein's expected attack leads to a
general panic throughout England and in the mind of iEthel
red, and brings about a general massacre of Danes throughout,
England (St. Brice's Day, 13 Nov.), thousands of whom are
either slain by the sword or burnt in their houses. Swein's
sister Gunhilda is one of the victims. The reason for the
massacre given in the Chronicle is that " it was made known
to the king " that the Danes intended to treacherously murder
him and his Witan.
1003. Swein, apparently with Norman connivance, with a
fleet of Danes, lays siege to Exeter. Its Norman reeve, Hugh,
surrenders it without a blow, and it is sacked and "wholly
ruined." Swein marches through Devon and Dorset into
Wiltshire ; sacks Salisbury ; is met by an English army, which,
however, owing to quarrels among its leaders, breaks up with
out fighting ; and Swein sacks Wilton, and marches unopposed
by Old Sarum to the sea.
1004. Swein . invades East Anglia and sacks and burns
Norwich. Ulfcytel, Thane of East Anglia, buys a truce, during
which the Danes march inland and plunder and burn Thetf ord.
Ulfcytel then gathers an army, but is defeated. . Swein's loss
* The English objected to her Norman-French name Emma, and
christened her iElfgifu, i.e., "Elves' Gift" or " Fairies' Gift."

90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
is great, however, and he does not . pursue his victory, . but
returns (1005) with his fleet to Denmark.
1005. , A great famine desolates England, " such as no man
ever before recollected one so grim."
1006. A revolution breaks out in iEthelred's court. ; his
high- reeve Wulfgeat is displaced arid deprived of all his goods,
and Eadric or Edric (afterwards nicknamed "Streona," i.e.,
"the Acquisitor " or " the Rapacious") is made high-reeve.
Eadric brings a firmer hand to the administration of affairs. . ¦_'
iElfhelm, Ealdorman of Deira, is slain.; Uhtred, a. son: of
Waltheof, Earl of Bernicia, is made Earl of Deira. , .
Majcolm II., King of Scotia, invades Northumbria. Wal
theof shuts himself up in Bamborough, and Malcolm advances
to Durham, but is defeated by Uhtred. iEthelred, gives to
Uhtred his daughter, iElfgifu (Elgiva) in marriage, and makes
him Earl of Northumbria (both Bernicia and ; Deira).
The Danes land at Sandwich and harry. Kent; they "rav
aged, and burned, and destroyed wherever they went." They
then reappear on the southern coasts, but are held in check by
iEthelred through the autumn, and they go into winter-
quarters in the Isle of Wight. iEthelred marches to Shrews
bury to check the turbulence of, the Welsh, and during his
absence the.Danes in the Isle of Wight march. inland as far as
Berkshire and Oxfordshire, and carry a large booty back to
the Isle of Wight.
iElpheah (St. Alphege) becomes Archbishop, of Canterbury.
1007. The Danes being masters at sea, iEthelred finds it
impossible to drive them from the Isle of Wight, and he and
his Witan buy a truce with them for £30,000, which secures
two years of peace, during which iEthelred at last takes
measures for defence. He makes Eadric " Streona " Ealdor
man of all Mercia except the Hwiccas (of. which Leofwine
remains ealdorman), and binds Eadric to him by giving him
one of his daughters (Edith) in marriage. iEthelred exacts a
general oath of allegiance from all his subjects,, and promises
them just laws and mild government. :
1008. iEthelred and his high-reeve Eadric reorganize the
military system by dividing the country into military groups,
every 8 hides of land * to furnish one warrior with helmet and
coat-of-mail ; and by providing'for local contributions (called
* A hide of land was originally the amount allotted for the support
of a single family. In early times the hide seems to have been
about 33 acres ; in later it was 120 acres. jJEthelred's system would
seemingly compel every eight families to furnish one warrior ; and
every 310 families to furnish one war-ship and its crew.

XME DANISH CONQUEST. 91
the Danegeld) for the expenses of defence, for the payment of
Danish tributes, and for building and repairing forts and
bridges. -They also create a new fleet of large war- vessels fitted
to cope with those of the Danes, by providing that the owner
or owners of every 310 hides of land shall build and equip a
war-ship, and that the fleet shall assemble once a year.
This Danegeld and ship-levy were levied by the Witan of all
England for the king's use, and constituted the beginnings of
a national taxation. They were the first forms of that land
tax which constituted the most important element in the
national revenue from this time to the days of the Georges.
These measures of defence came too late, for by this time the
people had become thoroughly cowed by 20 years of piratical
ravages and bar ryings.
1009. iEthelred's new fleet, the largest ever brought
together in England, assembles, at Sandwich in Kent. A
detachment of 80 ships, sent to clear the coast of Sussex of a
pirate fleet of 20 ships under Wulfnoth of Sussex,* is partially
wrecked in a storm, and Wulfnoth burns the vessels which
survive the storm. The main fleet, when the news reaches it,
is so discouraged that it goes to- London and breaks up. *
Thereupon a Danish fleet of 40 ships and 3000 men, under
Thurkill, sent by Swein, comes to Sandwich (Aug.), lays Kent
under tribute, and ravages Sussex, Hampshire, and Berks. A
force under Eadric is "sent by iEthelred to cut off the retreat
of the Danes, but it does not give battle, owing apparently to
Eadric's treachery. The Danes winter on the Thames, make
several unsuccessful attaeks on London; and burn Oxford.
1010. Thurkill's forces land in East Anglia ; defeat its
thane, Ulfcytel, atRingmere (18 May) ; harry East Anglia for
three months ; return to the Thames and raid into Oxfordshire
and Buckinghamshire and thence to Bedford ; burn North
ampton (Nov.) and harry the surrounding country ; and then
cross the Thames and plunder Wessex, returning to their ships .
at midwinter. The rapidity of their movements baffles re
sistance, and the people become so disorganized that one shire
will not help its neighbor. The Daneswithdraw on iEthelred
promising to pay tribute. '
1011. The high-reeve, Eadric Streona of Mercia, repels an
attack of the Welsh, and ravages the Welsh coast as' far as St.
David's. iEthelred fails to pay the Danes the promised tribute, and
Thurkill sacks Canterbury and seizes Archbishop iElfheah as
* Father of Earl Godwine. He had been charged with treason, and
had turned pirate in consequence* ^ ¦•'

92 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
hostage for the payment. iEthelred makes a fresh promise ,
of tribute.
1012. The Witan provides the tribute. Thurkill's Danes,
on the refusal of Archbishop iElfheah to redeem himself,
murder him with circumstances of great brutality (19 Ap.).
His body is carried to London and buried in St. Paul's Min
ster. St. iElfeah or Alphege's day is 19 Ap.
The tribute of £48,000 is paid, and the Danish fleet sails
from England; except 45 ships under Thurkill, who remains
with them as a mercenary in English pay. In Denmark
Swein is preparing a more formidable attack than any pre
vious one.
1013. Swein, with an immense fleet intended not for
merely ravaging, but for conquest, after landing at Sandwich
(in Kent), suddenly enters the Humber and lands his forces.
Uhtred, Earl of Northumbria, at once submits, and joins him
with his forces ; and the District of the Five Boroughs and
East Anglia next submit at Gainsborough. Swein then invades
and ravages English Mercia ; captures Oxford ; crosses the
Thames there and captures Winchester, when central Wessex
submits ; attacks London, where iEthelred and Thurkill have
taken refuge, but is repulsed ; retreats, westerly, crosses the
Thames at Wallingford, and captures Bath, where iEthelmaer,
Ealdorman of West Wessex, and his thanes meet him and
submit. London thereupon sends hostages, and iEthelred
sends (Aug.) his wife Emma and her two sons, Alfred and
Edward (afterwards " the Confessor," now about 9 years
old), to her father, Duke Richard of Normandy. iEthelred
himself takes refuge in Thurkill's fleet, and after hovering off
the coapt for some time, sails to Normandy at Christmas. From
this time his two children are brought up in Normandy, and
become thoroughly Normanized.
1014. Swein dies suddenly near Gainsborough in Lincoln
shire (3 Feb.); the Danish army chooses his son Cnut, a
youth of 19, as king. At the invitation of the Witan, iEthel
red, leaving his wife and sons in Normandy, returns to Eng
land (at Lent) as king, puts himself at the head of his forces,
and marches to attack Cnut at Gainsborough (Ap.). Cnut,
hearing that his elder brother Harald, another son of Swein,
has mounted the throne of Denmark, sails thither. Thurkill
deserts iEthelred and also goes to Denmark. By his advice
the two brothers agree that Harald shall be King of Denmark,
while Cnut shall conquer England.
The Irish, under Brian Boru, defeat the Danes at Clontarf,
near Dublin (Good Friday, 23 Ap.) ; but Brian is slain,

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 93
1015. Cnut, with a fleet even larger than Swein's in 1013,
sails for England, lands in Poole Bay, Dorset, and harries
Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset. iEthelred- is sick at Corsham,
and a quarrel breaks out between Edmund " Ironside" (now
26, the eldest son of iEthelred, by his first wife iElflsed) and
Eadric Streona, Ealdorman of Mercia. Eadric murders Sige-
ferth and Morkere, and attempts the life of Edmund ; the
English army breaks up without fighting ; Eadric goes over
to Cnut with 40 ships ; and Wessex submits to Cnut. Ed
mund marries Sigeferth's widow, Aldgyth, and takes posses
sion of the District of the Five Boroughs.
1016. Cnut arid Eadric cross the Thames at Cricklade
and ravage Mercia. iEthelred takes refuge in London, and
Edmund goes to Northumbria, where his forces are joined by
those of his brother-in-law, Earl Uhtred. Cnut advances to
York ; their joint forces break up ; Uhtred submits to Cnut,
but he and 40 of his followers are, with Cnut's sanction, soon
afterwards murdered at the instigation of his old enemy Thur-
brand. Eric the Norwegian, husband of Cnut's sister Kstrith,
is made Earl of Northumbria, with Eadwulf Cudel (a brother
of the murdered Uhtred) as under- Earl of Bernicia.
Edmund takes refuge in London with his father. Cnut and
Eadric march south to attack London ; before they reach it
iEthelred dies (23 Ap.), and the people of London and part
of the Witan there elect and crown Edmund king. The rest
of the Witan meet at Southampton and elect Cnut king.
It is now that London takes that leading part in English his
tory which it has held ever since. Edmund hurries to Somerset
and Devon, collects a small force, and returns to relieve Lon
don, which had been invested (7 May) by Cnut. Cnut marches
to meet him and fights two indecisive battles on the borders of
Wilts ; Edmund rapidly makes fresh levies, crosses to the
north of the Thames, relieves London, drives the Danes to their
ships, and repels a sally at Brentford. He then retreats west
to gather more troops ; Cnut again besieges London, which
holds out successfully, and the Danes are forced for want of
supplies to -raise the siege. They then ravage Mercia, and
sail back to the Medway. Edmund again advances from the
west, defeats the Danes at Otford in Kent, and drives them to
the Isle of Sheppey. Eadric deserts Cnut and with the Mercian
forces Joins Edmund at Aylesford, and Ulfcytel joins him
with the East Anglian forces. Cnut crosses the Thames into
Essex, and Edmund marches to meet him ; a terrible battle
ensues at Assandun (now Ashington or Ashdon, on the river
Crouch, in Essex), Eadric, with his forces, deserts to Cnut,

94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
and- in consequence Edmund is totally defeated, Ulfcytel and
many other English nobles being among the slain. Edmund
retreats to the Severn, pursued by Cnut ; Eadric acts"as peace
maker, and the two rivals meet on the Isle of Olney, near
Deerhurst, in the Severn (Oct.), and agree to divide England
between them, Edmund being overlord and taking Wessex,
East Anglia, and Essex, with London, and Cnut the rest.
After a reign of only seven months EdmUnd Ironside dies at
London (30 Nov.), either worn out by his exertions, or possibly
murdered by Eadric ; he is buried at Glastonbury beside his
grandfather Eadgar.
.1017. Cnut (now 22) is chosen King of all England and
crowned at London, and the Danish conquest, begun in 866,
• is complete. He divides England into four parts : makes Eadric Ealdor
man of Mercia ; Eric, of Northumbria (with Eadwulf CudeL
a brother of the murdered Uhtred, as under-earlin Bernicia);
Thurkill, of . East Anglia; and holds Wessex himself. He
sets aside his Danish wife, by whom he has had one child
• (Swein), and as an act. of policy marries (July) iEthelred's
widow, Emma of Normandy, a woman ten years older than
; himself. Before the end of the year he summons Eadric Streona to
his court and has him murdered ; arid three other nobles of
high rank are condemned and killed. He makes Leofwine
Ealdorman of Mercia in place of Eadric. He also procures the
murder of Edmund Ironside's brother Eadwig or Edwy, and
sends Edmund's children (Edward and Edmund) to Olaf,
King of the Swedes, to be murdered, but Olaf sends them to
Hungary, where, they are well taken care of by the king,
Stephen I. , Having thus removed all his rivals, he reigns as a
wise, and temperate king. ,
Norway rises in revolt against its Danish . king, Jarl Hakon
{Cnut's nephew), and drives him from" the kingdom ; St. Olaf,
a Norwegian, is made king.
1018. Cnut calls a Witenagemot at Oxford, both English
and Danish, and renews "Eadgar's Law."
Cnut's brother, Harald, King'of Denmark, dies, and Cnut
succeeds him.
, Malcolm II.,- the Soot king, and Eugenius the Bald, King
of the Strathclyde Britons, invade Northumbria, and Eadwulf
Cudel, under- Earl of Bernicia, is defeated at Carham on the
Tweed. Lothian (the country between the Forth and the
Tweed) is annexed to Scotia.
1019. Cnut goes to Denmark with his brother-in-law

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 95
Jarl Ulf, and makes him governor, thus reducing Denmark
practically to a sub-kingdom, ruled from Winchester.
1020. Cnut returns to England ; he makes. Godwine, an
Englishman, Earl of Wessex j and Godwine is thenceforth his
chief adviser. Godwine marries Gytha, a sister of Jarl Ulf.
Cnut commences to build a church at Assahdun, on the site
of his victory; it is finished in 1032.
1021. Cnut banishes Thurkill, Earl of East Anglia.
1023. He banishes Eric, Earl of Northumbria ; Eadwulf
Cudel (under-Earl of Bernicia), a brother of the murdered
Uhtred, is made earl in his place.
He has the body of Archbishop iElfheah (St. Alphege),
murdered in 1012 by Thurkill's followers, carried to Canter
bury, following the remains himself. .
1025. He demands the submission of Norway to his rule ;
its king, St. Olaf, returns a mocking answer; Cnut nego
tiates for the purpose of gaining time for his intended attack.
He sends Harthaenut, his son by Emma of Normandy (a
boy of 7), to Denmark as its ruler, in charge of his brother-
in-law, Jarl Ulf, the governor there.
1026. Richard the Good, Duke of Normandy, dies ; his
son Richard III. succeeds him.
Cnut sets out on a pilgrimage to Rome.
102 7 . He obtains from the Emperor Conrad the restoration
of the land beyond the Eider seized by. Otto II. in 980, and
makes a treaty for the future marriage of Gunhild (a child of
8), his daughter by Emma of Normaridy, to the son of Conrad,
afterwards Emperor Henry III.
Denmark revolts in favor of Harthaenut and the regent Ulf,
and is threatened with attack by Sweden and Norway.
William the Conqueror, an illegitimate son of Robert the
Devil (afterwards Duke of Normandy), is born at Falaise (Dec).
1028. Cnut promulgates a code of laws. He sails' to Den
mark with 50 ships, suppresses the revolt there, and puts Jarl
Ulf to death. He then sails to Norway, drives out King Olaf,
conquers it, and reinstates his nephew Hakon as ruler or jarl.
Richard III., Duke of Normandy, dies ; his brother Robert
the Devil succeeds him.
1029. Cnut speedily puts down a revolt of the Nor
wegians, and they acknowledge his rule till his death. He
returns to England.
1031. The Scots under Malcolm make another raid into
Northumbria ; Cnut marches against them, and Malcolm at
once submits and does homage to Cnut as his overlord ; Cnut,
in return, adds northern Bernicia (i.e.. Bernicia north of thn

96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Tweed) to Malcolm's Bub-kingdom, and this English district
thenceforth remains part of Scotland. It becomes the most
important part of that kingdom, and the centre of power shifts
to it, Edinburgh becoming the capital. The Scotch kings
gradually cease to be Gaelic chieftains of a Gaelic people, and
become Anglicized in language * and to a certain extent in feel
ing, thus paving the way to the ultimate union of England
and Scotland.
1034. About this date Robert the Devil, Duke of Nor
mandy, lays claim to the English crown on behalf of his nephew
Alfred, the eldest son of iEthelred, and fits out a fleet to invade
England, but it is wrecked on the coast of Jersey.
Malcolm II., King of Scotia, f dies (25 Nov.); Duncan I.
succeeds him.
1035. Robert of Normandy goes on a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land. Before setting out he compels his nobles to choose
his illegitimate son William, a boy of 7, as their future ruler.
On returning from Palestine he is poisoned (2 July) at Nicaea,
in Asia Minor, and William becomes Duke of Normandy. The
nobles rise against him, he is compelled to flee from one
refuge to another to save his life, and the dukedom becomes a
scene of anarchy.
Cnut dies at Shaftesbury (12 Nov.), aged about 40 ; his em
pire at once falls to pieces.
During Cnut's peaceful reign of 18 years, England made^
considerable advance in commerce, wealth, and civilization.
The villages and towns increased in population. The three
principal were : London, the largest and wealthiest; York, the
second, with a population of 10,000 and 2000 houses; Norwich,
the principal seaport (pop. 6000 or 7000). Oxford divides with
London the traffic along the Thames, levying tolls on herrings in
barges, among other things. Nottingham, with two churches,
becomes a centre of internal navigation, and has a merchant-
guild. The Severn has at least 65 fisheries along its course,
the principal being at Worcester and Gloucester, where Cnut.
establishes a Benedictine abbey. Chester does a large trade
with the Northmen in Ireland, in cheese, bannock and barley-
bread, fish, and slaves. Bristol also rises into prominence,
becomes the seat of a mint, and does a large trade with Ireland,
* The Scottish dialect of the Lowlands, as seen in Scott's novels and
Burns's poems as well as in the speech of the people, remains to this
i day nearer to the Old-English of Cnut's day than modern classical Eng
lish does.
f This is the first occasion that' the word " Scotia " was applied to
¦the Alban kingdom ; the name being thus finally transferred from
Ireland to Scotland.

pswssissgs

Death of Nelson.— P. 310.

Waterloo.— P. 312.

Richard I. Bidding Farewell to Palestine.— P. 145.

Queen Philippa at the J?5!et of the King. — P. 176.

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 97
especially in slaves, the Danes at this time acting as the slave-
dealers for half Europe. Girls were hired out for prostitution
and often sold in a state of pregnancy. Exeter does a little
trade with the Franks; and Wareham (the shire-town or capi
tal of Dorset) is the principal town on the southern coast.
Portsmouth and Southampton had hardly come into existence.
In Kent, Dover and Sandwich (which had risen beside the
ruins of Richborough) were the principal ports, the latter be
ing, however, little more than a fishing village. The eastern
ports did a large continental trade in iron and steel from Scan
dinavia, and in ropes, skins, ship-masts, silks, gems, gold, gar
ments, pigments, wine, oil, ivory, brass, copper, tin, silver,
and glass. Direct trade was carried on with Mediterranean
ports as far as Constantinople. The fisheries of the North Sea,
particularly the herring, were very lucrative. Among the
principal eastern towns besides York and Norwich were Ips
wich, with 500 houses and 2000 or 3000 people, Dunwich,
Grimsby, Lincoln, and St. Botulfs-town (now shortened into
Boston). London, under Cnut, became the commercial and military
centre ofy England, and soon afterwards the political centre
also. It extended over a mile along the Thames east of the
Fleet River and Ludgate, and was a little over half-a-mile
wide between Moorfields and the Thames. Its principal
port was at Billinsgate, and it did a large trade with Flanders,
Ponthieu, Normandy, France, Liege, and Neville. The lead
ing articles of merchandise were pepper and spices from the
East, gloves and gray cloth (probably from Lombardy), wool,
iron-work from Liege, French wine and vinegar, and the
agricultural exports of England itself —cheese, butter, lard,
eggs, and live swine and fowls. Its wealth is shown by the
fact that when Cnut va. 1018 called for a national tribute or
Danegeld of £82,500 for the whole kingdom, no -less than
£10,500 of it was assessed against London.
Cnut, at his death, leaves four children, Swein by his
first wife, Harald by iElfgifu (or Elgiva) of Northampton,
and Harthaenut (now a youth of 17) and Gunhild by Emma
of Nprmandy. By his will he leaves England and Denmark
to his third son, Harthaenut, who had been trained in Den
mark from early childhood, and was still there. Swein was
already King of Norway, but on Cnut's death Norway throws
off the Danish yoke, expels Swein, and chooses Magnus (a
child,' a son of St. Olaf) as king. Swein then goes to Den
mark to share the kingdom with his half-brother Harthaenut,
but dies a few months later. Harthaenut makes a treaty with

98 , HISTORY OE ENGJUAND.
Magnus that, if either should die childless, his dominions
should go to the other.
Edward, iEthelred's younger son, comes from Normandy
with 40 ships to assert claims to the throne of England, arid
attacks Southampton, but is repulsed.
Godwine, Earl of Wessex, who had been Cnut's chief adviser
for 15 years, becomes the chief political power in England.
He was to some extent Danish in his sympathies, having mar
ried a Danish wife, and christened his two sons with Danish
names, Swein and Harold. Though Harthaenut is more
Danish than English, Godwine favors his succession, but the
English people, headed by Leofric, Earl of Mercia, prefer
Cnut's second son Harald Harefoot (so-.called from his swift
ness of foot),, who was the son of an Englishwoman (iElfgifu or
Elgiva of Northampton), and had been brought up in ^Eng
land. The Witan meets at Oxford and compromises the dis
pute by dividing England between the two haff -brothers,
giving. Wessex to Harthaenut, (who is still, in Denmark) as
under-king, and the rest of England to Harald with the title
of overlord.
1036. Wessex is discontented at Harthacnut's continued
absence, and Alfred (iEthelred's eldest son in Normandy),
thinking the moment opportune to assert, his claims, but
ostensibly to visit his mother Emma (Cnut's widow), lands at
Dover with a train of Normans, and proceeds through Surrey
towards Winchester, He is seized at Guilford, taken over the
Thames to Harald Harefoot, arid, by his orders, is blinded and
left to die at the Ely monastery, and his Norman followers are
killed or sold as slaves. The seizure of Alfred is attributed to
Godwine, and a desire to revenge the murder is awakened
among the Normans, especially against Godwine and his house ;
and Emma herself is converted from a friend of his into an
eriemy. 1037. A Witan assembles whiOh deposes Harthaenut as -
King of Wessex, proclaims Harald Harefoot King of all Eng
land, and banishes Emma. Godwine submits to Harald,
and is continued as Earl of Wessex. Emma takes refuge with
Baldwin V., Count of Flanders, and urges her son Harthaenut %
(who is still in Denmark) to strike a blow for the crown of
England. 1038. Siward the Strong, a man of Danish blood, becomes
Earl of Deira ; Eadwulf (a brother of Ealdred) is Earl of
Bernicia, which, since the cession. of the northern portion to
Malcolm, has consisted only of the district between the Tweed
and the Tees (now Northumberland and Durham).

THE DANISH CONQUEST. -99
Eadwulf devastates Cumbria.
1039. Harthaenut sails to Flanders to devise with his
mother Emma a plan for the conquest of England.
Lanfrahc, a wandering scholar from Pavia in Lombardy, sets
up a school at AvranChes in Normandy/ which soon becomes
famous. 1040. Harthaenut returns to Denmark and prepares a fleet
of 60 vessels for the invasion of England.
Harald Harefoot dies at Oxford (17 Mar.), and is buried at
Westminster ; the Witan chooses Harthaenut as king. He
receives the news at Bruges, and sails with his- fleet to Sand
wich (Kent) and lands peacefully (17 June). One of his first
acts is to order his half-brother Harald Harefoot's body to be
dug up, beheaded, and thrown into a ditch.
Godwine purges himself on oath of the charge of betraying
the murdered Alfred (iEthelred's son), and he is enabled, by
making costly gifts to Harthaenut, to retain his earldom.
Duncan I., King of Scotia, makes a raid into Northumbria,
as far as Durham, but is repulsed by the Durham burghers,
under Eadwulf, Earl of Bernicia.
Macbeth, Mormaer or under-King of Moray, a general of
Duncan I., King of Scotia, against the Norwegians under
Thurkill, turns traitor, murders Duncan near Elgin (14 Aug.),
and divides the kingdom with Thurkill, taking. for himself all
Scotland south-west of the Tay. Duncan's two sons, Malcolm
and Donalbain, take refuge with their uncle Siward, Earl of
Deira. 1041 . Siward, Earl of Deira, with Harthacnut's connivance,
murders Eadwulf, Earl of Bernicia, at Harthacnut's court, and
becomes Earl of all Northumbria.
1042. Harthaenut, in expectation of death, sends to Nor
mandy for his half-brother Edward ("the Confessor"),
jEthelred's surviving son, . and names him his successor ;
Edward returns to Normandy.
Lanfranc leaves his school at Avranches (Normandy) and
becomes a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Bee, which, in a
few years, becomes the most famous school in Christendom.
, Harthaenut, after two years of misgovernment and heavy
taxation, dies (8 June) while standing " at his drink" at the
marriage-feast of his standard-bearer Tovi, in Lambeth ; and
with him Cnut's line and Danish rule in England come to
an end.
Even before Harthacnut's burial the English choose Edward
the Confessor as their king.

100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTER VI.
THE NORMAN CONQUEST.
1043. Edward the Confessor, now about 40 years old,
comes from Normandy to England, and is crowned king at
Winchester (Easter-day, 3 Ap.), by both archbishops. He
had been in Normandy for 30 years, spoke Norman-French,
and had become thoroughly Isforman in feeling and sym
pathies ; and in accepting the crown he relies to a great extent
on Norman support. .. He brings a large Norman train with
him, and two Norman priests as chaplains ; also Robert, Abbot
of Jumieges (in Normandy), who becomes his most trusted
counsellor. Northumbria is in a semi-anarchical and semi-barbarous
condition, infested with robbers, torn with savage feuds, and
the marriage-tie is of the loosest description. Siward, its earl,
rules almost independently ; as also does Leofric, Earl of
Mercia. Godwine, Earl of Wessex, however, becomes so power
ful in the government that' Edward becomes a puppet in his
hands, a state of things which he bitterly resents. Macbeth is
still king of southern Scotland.
1043-45. Godwine creates a new earldom out of the coun
ties Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Gloucester, Oxford, Berk
shire, and Somerset, of which he makes his eldest son Swein
earl. He makes his second son Harold Earl of East Anglia,
and his nephew Beorn earl of a district comprising the shires
of Leicester, Nottingham, and Lincoln. All south-eastern
England, from the Humber and the Severn to the English
Channel, thus passes into the hands of the house of Godwine.
1044. A great famine in England.
Edward makes Robert of JumiegeB Bishop of London.
1044-9. Geoffrey Martel, Count of Anjou, conquers Poitou
and Maine, thereby making his territory conterminous with
Normandy. 1045. King Edward marries Godwine's daughter Eadgyth
or Edith (23 Jan.).
Magnus I., King of Norway, lays claim to the throne of

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 101
England (as the nearest of kin surviving of Cnut), and pre
pares for an invasion ; an English fleet gathers at Sandwich to
meet him. _ The expected attack is postponed on account of
Swein Estrithson, King of Denmark, gaining successes over
Magnus. About this date Edward creates the office of Chancellor,
who has the custody of the great seal, which he also first intro
duces in England.
1046. Godwine's son Swein, Earl of south-west Mercia, ab
ducts the abbess of Leominster and sends her back great with
child ; he is outlawed and driven from England, and takes
refuge at Bruges, with Baldwin V., Count of Flanders.
A very severe winter in England; "even birds and fishes
perished through the great cold and famine."
Lanfranc becomes Prior of the Benedictine Abbey of Bee in
Normandy. 1047. Godwine proposes to send 50 ships to help Swein
Estrithson (his nephew) against Magnus, but the Witan rejects
the proposal. Magnus defeats Swein Estrithson and conquers
Denmark, but dies soon afterwards, which probably saves Eng
land from invasion. Harald Hardrada becomes King of Nor
way, and. Swein Estrithson is welcomed back as King of
Denmark. Guy, a grandson of Richard the Good, lays claim to the
dukedom of Normandy on the ground of William's illegiti
macy, and stirs up a revolt against him. When the plot breaks
out William is hunting in the Cotentin (now La Mane he), and
only saves himself from capture by a hasty flight from
Valognes to Falaise. William (still a youth of 20) seeks and
obtains aid from the French king, Henry I. , and their united
forces defeat the rebels at Val-es-Dunes (a few miles south-east
of Caen, in Calvados), and William thus makes himself undis
puted master of Normandy.
1049. Geoffrey Martel, Count of Anjou, being at war with
Henry I., King of France, William, Duke of Normandy, assists
the latter, and captures Alencon and Domf ront ; peace is made,
and the two fortresses, with the surrounding country, are
added to Normandy.
Edward the Confessor makes Ulf, one of his Norman
chaplains, Bishop of Dorchester (in Oxon), a diocese which
stretched from the Humber to the Thames.
An Irish fleet, assisted by the Welsh, devastates the English
coast along the Bristol Channel (July).
Baldwin V., of Lille, Count of Flanders, has been for some
years in alliance with Godwine, Earl of Wessex. William of

102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Normandy, apparently with an eye to the English crown, and
in order to detach Baldwin from his English alliance and
acquire his support, seeks from him his daughter Matilda in
marriage. A Council, summoned by Pope 'Leo IX., meets at Rheims
(3 Oct.), to which Godwine sends Duduc, Bishop of Wells, and
two abbots to represent England. Instigated probably by
Duduc, the Council prohibits, under pain of excommunication
to Baldwin and William, the proposed marriage between
William and Matilda as incestuous, by reason of being within
the prohibited degrees. Matilda's mother Adela, before her
marriage with Baldwin, had been betrothed tO William's ,
uncle, Richard III., an act which created a. spiritual affinity
between the countess arid the ducal house, and thus gave
grounds for the prohibition. Baldwin declines to submit, and
the Emperor Henry III., as the secular arm of the Church",
marches against him and calls for naval aid from England,
which is at once given, and Baldwin submits without further
struggle. Godwine then obtains from him a renewal of their
former alliance.
Godwine's son, Swein, with some ships, returns and craves
from King Edward pardon and the restoration of his lands ;
Swein, however, has Beorn (to whom part of his territory had
been granted) carried on shipboard and murdered, and he is
again driven from England, and once more takes refuge in
Flanders, then at war with England as above mentioned.
1050. Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester, goes to Flanders, and
on his return brings back Swein, and makes peace for him
with the king, who reverses the sentence of outlawry, and
restores him as Earl of the western shires.
Macbetlr, King of Scotia, goes to Rome, probably to get
absolution for the murder of Duncan.
Eadsige, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies. The Canter
bury monks, no doubt influenced by Godwine, select iElfric, a
kinsman of Godwine, as his successor.
1051. The nomination of the archbishop, however, rests
constitutionally with the king in full Witenagemot, and a
Witenagemot is held at which Edward nominates his counsel
lor, Robert of Jumieges (Bishop of London), a Norman and
a foreigner, as archbishop in place of Godwine's nominee.
Godwine, to counterbalance this appointment, obtains the
election of Spearhafoc, a partisan of his, as Bishop of London.
Robert of Jumieges goes to Rome and obtains from Pope Leo
IX. his pallium as archbishop, and also a condemnation of
Spearhafoc's appointment, and on his return refuses to con-

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 103
secrate the latter. Spearhafoc, however, takes possession of
the bishopric.
To cement the alliance between Godwine and Baldwin,
Count of Flanders, Godwine's third son, Tostig, is married to
Judith, Baldwin's sister.
Eustace, Count of Boulogne, an ally of William of Normandy
and a brother-in-law of King Edward, visits the king's court
at Gloucester, and his visit is viewed with suspicion by God
wine's party. While returning homewards a conflict occurs
between Eustace's armed escort and the men of Dover, over
20 being killed on each side, and Eustace is driven from Dover
and flees to Edward. The king summons Godwine from Tos-
tig*s marriage-feast, and bids him avenge the wrong ; Godwine
refuses to attack his own people on behalf of a foreigner,
and he and his two sons, Earls Swein and Harold, gather a
large force near Gloucester, and demand the surrender of
Eustace and other Normans (Sep.). Leofric, Earl of Mercia,
and Siward, Earl of Northumbria, however, with their forces,
come to the king's aid, and Godwine's demand is refused. The
dispute is left to the Witenagemot, which meets at London
(21 Sep.), declares Swein (Godwine's son) an outlaw, and sum
mons Godwine to appear before it, whereupon Godwine, whose
' forces have in great part deserted him rather than fight against
their king, flees with three of his sons, Swein, Tostig, and
Gyrth, to Baldwin's court in Flanders, and Godwine is outlawed.
HiB other two sons, Harold and Leofwine, take refuge in Dub
lin, with Dermot, a native king of both Danes and Irish. A
reaction in Godwine's favor arises among the English, who
dread that the loss of his experience and counsel will bring
the country into disaster. Edward sends his wife Eadgyth
(Edith), Godwine's daughter, to a monastery (Sep.) ; Swein's
earldom is broken up, part being given to the king's nephew
Ralf, and part, with western Wessex, to Odda, another kinsman
of Edward's ; East Anglia (Harold's earldom) is given to Leo-
f ric's son _<Elfgar ; Spearhafoc is driven out of his see, and '
William/one of Edward's Norman chaplains,- is made Bishop
of London.
1052. William, Duke of Normandy, with a large train of
Normans, taking advantage of Godwine's fall, visits King
Edward (at Easter), who welcomes him and (so it is said)
promises again to bequeath him the crown.
Count Baldwin V. negotiates unsuccessfully with Edward
for Godwine's restoration, and many of Godwine's , English
supporters go to Flanders to share his exile with him. His
son, Swein, goes barefooted on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land

104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

to expiate his crimes, and while returning dies in Lycia, in
Asia Minor. Godwine gathers a fleet in the Yser for the inva-
;-ion of England, and his son Harold gathers another at Dublin."
Edward gathers a fleet at Sandwich to meet them. Godwine's
fleet sails (Aug.), but is driven back to Bruges by a storm.
Edward takes his, fleet to London to refit (Sep.), and while he
is thus absent Harold's fleet of 9 ships sails from Dublin, and
after landing and ravaging at Porlock in Somerset, rounds
Land's End, joins Godwine's fleet at the Isle of Wight, and the
combined forces enter the Thames. As Godwine advances the
Country rises in his favor, and other ships join him, and on
arriving at London his fleet far outnumbers Edward's 50 ships,
and London declares in his favor. Edward's soldiers refuse
to fight against their fellow-countrymen, his Norman nobles
and ecclesiastics desert him, Godwine protests his loyalty to
him, and in a Witenagemot held at London, Edward is forced
to accept Godwine's purgation of the charges against him, and
to restore him and his house to their former possessions and
offices. They regain their earldoms, and Godwine's daughter
Edith is brought back to court and reinstated as queen (Sep.).
Some of Godwine's Norman rivals, including Rebert of Jumi
eges, take refuge in Normandy, and others with Macbeth, the
Scot king ; Robert is deposed as Archbishop of Canterbury
and outlawed, and Stigand, Bishop of Winchester, a supporter
of Godwine, is appointed in his place. Ralf, however, is re
tained' as Earl of Hereford, and Odda is created Earl of the
Hwiccas ; Leofric's earldom of Mercia (Staffordshire, Cheshire,
and Shropshire) is increased by the addition of the shires of
Lincoln, Leicester, Warwick, and Oxford; and Nottingham
is added to Northumbria under Earl Siward, who is also made
Earl of Northampton and Huntington.
Emma of Normandy, widow of , iEthelred and Cnut, and
mother of Edward the Confessor, dies (6 or 14 Mar.): she is
buried at Winchester.
Robert of Jumieges goes to Rome to appeal to the Pope
against his deposition and the appointment of Stigand as arch-
Disnop. •
atA°£?; ^°pe Le,° IX,-. beinS a Prisoner in the hands of the
Jj ormans, who are founding a state in southern Italy, William
l™^7^68 advantage of the circumstance to marry
Matilda daughter of Baldwin V. of Flanders, in defiance of
S^.mProJlbltlT-0f ^e °0Uncil of Rheims> a»d Kome la?s
Normandy under an interdict. Lanfranc, Prior of Bee, also
Ho quits the duchy is reconciled to him, and sends him to

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 105
Rome to secure a dispensation for the marriage. Revolts
against William break out, which he speedily suppresses.
Godwine, Earl of Wessex, the first great lay statesman of
England, is seized with a fit at the king's table (12 Ap.) and
dies (15 Ap.), aged about 63. His son Harold (now 32) be
comes Earl of Wessex, his earldom of East Anglia being
restored to JSlfgar, the son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia.
Henry I. of France invades Normandy, but is defeated at
Arques (near Dieppe).
1054. Henry I. of France allies himself with his old ene
my, Geoffrey Martel of Anjou, and again invades Normandy.
His army marches in two divisions ; one, north of the Seine,
is cut to pieces at Mortemer by the Normans under Robert of
Eu ; the other, south of the Seine, under Henry himself,
which is confronted by the Normans under Willianij breaks
up in panic, and retreats towards Paris.
Edward the Confessor sends Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester,
to the court of the German emperor, Henry III., at Koln
(Cologne) to negotiate with Andrew I., King of Hungary, for
the return to England of Edward "the Outlaw" (the sur
viving son of Edmund Ironside), who had been sent out of
England by Cnut in 1017. The exile is now about 38 years
old. He had married Agatha (daughter of the Emperor
Henry II., and niece of Stephen I., King of Hungary), and
has three children, Edgar, Margaret, and Christina. Edward
wishes to name him as his successor. Hungary, however, is at
war with the Empire, and Ealdred, after waiting at Cologne
for a year, returns unsuccessful to England.
Macbeth, the Scottish king, by allying himself with the
Norse jaris of Orkney, and receiving the Norman refugees
from Edward's court in 1052, has become a source of danger
to England, and Edward orders Siward, Earl of Northumbria,
to attack him. Siward invades Scotland, defeats Macbeth in
a desperate battle (27 July), and places Duncan's son Malcolm
on the Scottish throne ; Macbeth takes refuge with his Norse
allies, and wages war with Malcolm for four years^ when he
and his son are killed, and Malcolm becomes sole king.
There is " a great murrain " among cattle in England this
year. 1055. Siward, Earl of Northumbria, dies at York ; ho is
buried in the church of St. Olaf, built by himself, at Golmanho,
a suburb of York. He leaves only one son, , Waltheof, too
young to govern, and Harold,. Earl of Wessex, has his brother
Tostig made Earl of Northumbria (including Nottingham
shire), and also Earl Of Northampton and Huntingdon, by

106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Edward and the Witan. Tostig, being neither a Dane nor a
Northumbrian, but an Englishman, is- looked upon by the
Danes of his earldom as something of a foreigner. During
Siward's rule Northumbria had been semi-independent> and
the king's writs did not run there ; but under Tostig it be
comes more a part of England, and Edward's writs commence
to run. Tostig enforces order by severe but just penalties.
Leofric, Earl of Mercia, being old and sickly, his son iElf-
gar, Earl of East Anglia, becomes practically the ruler of
Mercia. In order to counterpoise the power of the house of
Godwine, now established to the north of him as well as to
the south> iElfgar forms an alliance with Gruffydd (or Griffith), •
King of Wales. At Harold's instance the Witan banishes. and
outlaws .iElfgar, who goes to Ireland, collects a Danish force
there, joins Gruifydd's forces in Wales, raids Herefordshire,
defeats Ralf, its earl, and sacks and burns Hereford (24 Oct.).
Harold comes into the field, a compromise is made, and iElfgar
is reinstated as Earl of East Anglia.
Henry I. of France makes peace with William of Normandy.
Guy, Count of Ponthieu (the district on the French coast
between Normandy and Flanders), who had been taken pris
oner at Mortemer, is released by William on. condition of
acknowledging him as overlord. William marches against
Geoffrey Martel, and Mayenne abandons Geoffrey and submits
to William as overlord.
1056. Gruffydd, King, of Wales, again invades Hereford ;
he defeats the English at Cleobury (17 June), and Leofgar,
Bishop of Hereford, is slain. Harold again marches against
him, and Gruffydd makes peace and swears allegiance .to King
Edward as his overlord.
Odda or iEthelwine, Earl of the Hwiccas,. who had become
a monk, dies at the monastery which he had built at Deer-
hurst, and Harold adds his domain to his own earldom of
Wessex. 1057. Edmund Ironside's son, Edward the Atheling (now
aged 43), comes from Hungary to England, and. King Edward
names him his successor. He,, dies at London shortly after
wards, and is buried at St." Paul's minster. He leaves his
widow and three children, Edgar the Atheling, Margaret,
and Christina. Edgar is but a boy, and is of feeble intellect,
and Harold now begins to entertain the design of making
himself king.
Leofric, Earl of Mercia,* dies. (30 Sep.), and is buried at
* This is the Earl Leofric of whose wife'Godgifu or Godiva the
story is told of her riding naked through Coventry in order to induce

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 107
Coventry. His son iElfgar becomes earl, with territory much
reduced, and his own earldom of East Anglia is given to
Harold's brother Gyrth, Oxfordshire being afterwards added
to his territory. A new earldom is created for Harold's othtT
brother, Leofwine, consisting of Essex, Middlesex, Herts,
Kent, Surrey, and possibly Bucks.
Ralph, Earl of Hereford, dies, and is buried at Peter
borough. Harold adds his territory to his own earldom of
Wessex, and all England except iElfgar's Mercia is now held
by Harold and his brothers.
1058. About this date Harold goes on a pilgrimage to
Rome, and he probably obtains from Pope Benedict the pallium
for Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury. iElfgar, Earl of Mer
cia, who has been again outlawed, taking advantage most
probably of Harold's absence, comes back, with the help of
Gruffydd, Kirig of Wales, and the crews of some Norse ships,
to his earldom by force. About this date, probably, he gives
his daughter Ealdgyth (or Aldgyth); to Gruffydd in marriage.
Ealdred,. Bishop of Worcester, consecrates the minster at
Gloucester, and then goes On a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, being
the first English bishop who did so.
1060. Harold founds the religious house known later as
Waltham Abbey, in Essex ; it is hallowed (May) by Cynesige
(or Kinsey), Archbishop of York.
Henry I. of France again invades Normandy, but is defeated
by William near Varaville on the Dive, and makes peace with
him by which Tillieres is restored to Normandy. After six
years' negotiations Pope Nicholas II. grants to William a
dispensation allowing the validity of his marriage with Matilda.
Ealdred," Bishop of Worcester, returns from his pilgrimage
to Jerusalem. Cynesige, Archbishop of York, dies, and Eal
dred is made archbishop.
1061. Tostig, in company with. his brother . Gyrth and
Archbishop Ealdred,, makes a pilgrimage to Rome; during
his absence the Scots under Malcolm ravage Northumbria.
1062. About this date iElfgar, Earl of Mercia, dies ; his
son Edwin is made earl.
Gruffydd, King of Wales, haying again harried English
territory, the Witenagemot held as usual at Gloucester (Dec.)
authorizes Harold to invade Wales. Harold marches to
Rhuddlan, but Gruffydd escapes in a ship, and Harold burns
his palace there.
.1063. " Harold sails with a fleet from Bristol (May) round
her husband to repeal a tax jvhich he had imposed on the people.
The story is a mere legend, having no foundation in fact.

108 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Wales and meets his brother Tostig with a land force from
Northumbria, and the joint forces ravage all Wales ; the Welsh
submit, give hostages, and promise to pay tribute ; and, they
themselves kill Gruffydd (15 Aug.) and bring his head to
Harold, who sends it to King Edward. Part of the Welsh
border is added to Wessex and Mercia, and Edward divides
Wales between Gruffydd's two brothers, making Bleddyn (or
Blethgent)- King of North Wales, and Rhiwallon (or Rigwatla)
King of South Wales. The two kings give hostages and swear
fealty to Edward as overlord. Gruffydd was the last Welsh
king who reigned over all Wales.
1064. About this date, probably, Harold, while cruising
in the channel, is wrecked on the coast of Ponthieu (the coun
try between Normandy and Flanders), and, in accordance with
the barbarous practice of the time, Guy, its count, imprisons
him and demands a ransom for his release. Harold sends to
Guy's overlord, William of Normandy, who compels Guy to
deliver Harold up to him ; arid William, as the price of his
release, makes Harold swear to marry one of his daughters,
and possibly also (though this is very doubtful) to support his
claim to succeed Edward as King of England.
1065. Harold has a house commenced (July) at Portskew-
et or Po: th-iscoed, m. Welsh territory near the Severn, as a
hunting-seat for King Edward ; the Welsh under Caradoc
kill Harold's workmen (24 Aug.).
Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, by the imposition of heavy
taxes, and by killing some Northumbrian thanes (possibly in
punishment for their lawlessness or misdeeds), has apparently
become unpopular in his earldom ; an assembly of the thanes
of Nonhumbria meets at York (3 Oct.) while Tostig is absent
at Edward's court, at Britford in Wilts, deposes and out
laws him, and chooses Morkere (or Morcar), a son of iElfgar,
as earl. The thanes also kill about 200 of Tostig's followers,
and plunder his treasury. Morkere collects his forces and
marches south to Northampton, where his brother Edwin,
Earl of Mercia, joins him. Harold meets them there, with a
message from the king, commanding them to desist from re
bellion and to state their grievances peaceably ; they make
their complaints against Tostig, and demand that he be ban
ished or they will hold the king as an enemy. Harold carries
this message to the king, and Tostig charges him with insti
gating the insurrection against him. While Harold is absent,
the Northumbrians plunder and burn in Northamptonshire,
make some hundreds captives, and advance to Oxford. There
Harold again meets them (27 Oct.), and Tostig is outlawed and

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 109
banished, arid Morkere is confirmed as Earl of Northumbria.
Tostig, With his wife and children, takes refuge in Flanders,
with Baldwin V., his wife Judith's brother. Oswulf is made
ruler (probably under Morkere) of Northumberland, as Eng
lish Bernicia now begins to be called.
Westminster Abbey, built by Edward the Confessor, is fin
ished, and consecrated (28 Dec. ). The king is too ill to be
present, and his queen, Edith, goes in his place.
1066. Edward the Confessor dies (5 Jan.), and is buried
at Westminster Abbey (6 Jan."), being the first notable Eng
lishman interred there. Harold is elected king by the Witan
(5 Jan.), and crowned at Westminster Abbey (6 Jan.) by
Ealdred, Archbishop of York.
William of Normandy at once begins immense preparations '
for the invasion of England, for the purpose of vindicating bis
claim to the crown by force.
The Northumbrians refuse to acknowledge Harold. He
goes to York (Jan.) and holds an assembly, when they sub
mit and acknowledge him as king (Ap.). He marries Eald-
gyth, the sister of Earls Edwin and Morkere, and widow of
Gruffydd, King of Wales.
A great comet is seen in England (Ap. 24-30).
Tostig, hearing at Bruges of his brother Harold's election
as king, gets a fleet together, and failing to induce William to
join him, ravages the Isle of Wight and the south-east coast of
England as far as Sandwich in Kent (May), and then sails to
Lincolnshire and plunders there, but is driven off by Earls
Edwin and Morkere, and goes to Scotland to King Malcolm
(May), whence he either goes to Norway or opens negotiations
with its king, Harold Hardrada, for a concerted invasion of
England. After about eight months' labor, William of Normandy
completes his preparations (Aug.), and a fleet of 696 trans
ports, with 60,000 soldiers, assembles at the river Dive, and
waits for a south wind to carry it to England ; but none blows
for over a month.
Harold prepares for William's threatened invasion, and by
May has brought together the largest army and fleet that had
ever been seen in England. He keeps the army together for
over four months (till 8 Sep.), on which day, however, partly
from want of supplies, and partly because the men are needed
for harvest and other work, it is compelled to break up, and
the country is left without special defence, so that William's
fleet being wind-bound was probably a fortunate circumstance
for him.

110 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, -with his fleet, joins
that of Tostig,; at the month of the Tyne (Sep.); the com
bined, fleets sail up the Humber and the Ouse to Riccall (9
miles from, York) ;¦ their forces land there and march towards
York; at Fulford, on the Ouse (2 miles from York), they defeat
the forces of Earls Edwin and Morkere (Wednesday, 20 Sep.) ;
York surrenders (Sunday, 24. Sep. ) .; and the invading army
withdraws to Stamfordbridge,-, oh the Derwent (8 miles north
east of York). . Harold is in London when the news of Tostig's
landing reaches him; he at once collects an army: and marches
"night and day," by the old Roman road, to Yorkshire (as
Deira now begins to be called) ; reaches Tadcaster (24 Sep.);
enters York the next morning; and on the same day (Monday,
25 Sep.) marches to Stamfordbridge and totally defeats the in
vaders, both Tostig and Harold Hardrada being among the
slain. Harold offers peace to Hardrada's son Olaf and the Earls
of Orkney, who are in charge of the Norse fleet at RicGal ;
they accept, give 7h0stag.es,. and swear friendship, to England,
and Harold allows them to return home with .24 ships.
A west wind blows, and William's fleet sails from the Dive
to Saint Valery at the mouth of the Somme in Ponthieu,
where it is nearer to England. At last a south wind comes
up, and during the night of 27-28 Sep. the fleet sails from
St. Valery across the channel. to Fevensey in Sussex, where
William's army lands (28 Sep.). He marches to Hastings, (29
St p.), and from thence as his headquarters he harries the
surrounding country, with a view to force 'Harold to attack
him. While Harold is celebrating his Stamfordbridge victory .by
a feast at York (1 Oct.),-: news of William's landing and har-
ryings reaches him. He at once sets out with part of his army
(his brothers-in-law, Earls Edwin and Morkere, whose territories
he has just saved from Tostig and Harold Hardrada, traitor-
orously refusing to join him with their forces),, marches back
to London,* collects -additional levies (6-12 Oct.), marches
from London (12 Oct.) into Sussex, and fortifies himself (Fri
day, 13 Qct.) on a hill afterwards known as Senlac, 8 miles
™ WriWs camp at Hastings, and awaits his attack,
Ihore William attacks- him, and a terrible battle ensues (Sat
urday, 14 Oct.), lasting from morn till sunset, when. Harold
is killed by an arrow which pierces his right eye; his two
brothers, Leofwme and Gyrth, are also slain ; and the Eng-
\FullfJ'£stic?.,JlaS nev?r yet been done to these two wonderful
marches of Harold's army from London to Stamfordbridge and back
which are equal to anything of the laud recorded in history '

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. Ill
lish; are totally defeated. The spot where Harold fell was
afterwards marked by the high altar of Battle Abbey, com
menced by William in 1067, and consecrated in 1094. The
site of the altar cau still be identified within a few feet.
The story of the battle of Senlac or Hastings, from Harold's
shipwreck on the coast of Ponthieu till the bnd of the battle,
is told in the famous Bayeux tapestry. This was worked, in
part at least, by Matilda, William's queen. It is of wool, is
214 feet long and 20 inches wide ; and is divided into 72 com
partments, each giving an episode of the story, with a Latin
superscription descriptive of the scene delineated. It was
worked for the cathedral of Bayeux. The tapestry is still to
be seen, in excellent preservation in spite of the lapse of 800
years, in the Museum of Bayeux. A complete series of pho
tographs of it was published in 1879 by J. Comte.
Edwin and Morkere, Earls of Mercia and Northumbrian
come to London with their forces. The Witenagemot, on re
ceiving the news of Harold's death, meets and elects Edgar
the Atheling king (15 Oct. ). Edwin and Morkere promise al
legiance to him, but notwithstanding this they withdraw with
their forces to their earldoms (1 Nov.), and send their sister
Ealdgyth, Harold's widow, to Chester. By thus deserting
Edgar they destroy any chance which England might have
had of withstanding William. -
William inarches from Hastings (20 Oct.) into Kent, and
captures Romney (20 Oct.), Dover (21), and Canterbury (29).
After lying ill at Canterbury for a month he sends to Win
chester, the dower City of Edith (Edward, the Confessor's wid
ow and Harold's sister), who- lives there, and it Submits to
pay tribute (1 Dec;). William marches to the Thames and
burns Southwark (Dec.)/ the suburb of London on the south
side of the river; ascends the Thames valley to Wallingford in
Berks, crosses the river there, and advances toward London,
so as to cut it off on the north side. London thereupon sub
mits, and Edgar gives up his claim to the crown. When
William reaches Berkhampstead, Edgar, Ealdred (Archbishop
of York)j and other leading Englishmen, go to him and offer
him the crown. William then goes to Loridon and is crowned
at Westminster Abbey (25 Dec.) by Ealdred, as "King of the
English." He begins the erection of the Tower Of London,
and then withdraws to Barking, in Essex.
1067. Earls Edwin and Morkere come to Barking and
submit to William; Waltheof, Earl of Northamptoh and Hunt
ingdon (Siward's son), probably does the same. Oswulf, Earl
of Bernicia, is deprived of his earldom (Feb.), and William

112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
gives it to Copsige (a lieutenant of Tostig's); but soon after
Copsige takes possession of his earldom he is slain by the par
tisans of Oswulf, who, however, is himself killed by a robber.
William visits Normandy (at Easter) leaving the government
in the hands of his half-brother Bishop Odo and William
Fitz-Osbern, whom he makes Earls of Kent and Hereford. He
takes with him in his train Edgar the Atheling, Stigand,
Archbishop of Canterbury, and Earls Edwin, Morkere, and
Waltheof, and he remains in Normandy till Dec. During his
absence Odo and Fitz-Osbern build castles everywhere and
govern oppressively. Eadric "the Wild," of Hereford, allies
himself with the Welsh kings Bleddyn and Rhiwallon (set up
by Harold in 1063) and they ravage and plunder that part of
the district which has submitted to the Normans. The men
of Kent rise against Odo, and send to Eustace, Count of
Boulogne, to help them. He comes ; their united forces
attack Dover Castle, but are routed, and Eustace returns
home. Other English send to Swein, King of Denmark,
offering the crown to him.
William returns to England (Dec), holds an assembly at
Westminster, which confiscates much land and grants it to
Normans, and outlaws Count Eustace. He sends the English
abbot ^Ethelsige to Swein as ambassador, to win him over,
and sends other embassies to other foreign powers. He makes
Remigius of Fecamp Bishop of Dorchester, and Gospatric
Earl of Northumberland (as Bernicia now begins to be called)
in place of the dead Copsige.
1068. Northern, central, and western England being still
unsubdued, William prepares to complete their conquest.
Exeter (where Harold's mother Gytha and probably his sons
Godwine, Edmund, and Magnus have taken refuge) is becoming
a centre of resistance, and William sends demanding its submis
sion; the inhabitants offer to pay tribute, but refuse to acknow
ledge him otherwise, wishing to be a "free city." William
marches against it with an army of English, harrying Dorset on
the way, and captures it after a siege of 18 days, Gytha and her
grandsons escaping to Ireland. William conquers all western
England (Dorset, Devon, Somerset, Cornwall, and probably
Gloucester and Worcester). Large confiscations of land follow;
nearly all Cornwall is granted to Count Robert, William's
half-brother, besides lands in other shires.
Matilda is consecrated queen at Westminster (at Pentecost,
11 May). A son is born to her (afterwards Henry I.).
The north, under Earls Edwin, Morkere, and Gospatric;
with Edgar the Atheling, rises against William, and seeks help

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 113
from Wales, Scotland, and Denmark, York being the centre of
resistance. William marches with his English forces, and the
two armies meet at Warwick, when Edwin and Morkere sub
mit, and their army disperses, some retiring and holding
Durham. Gospatric, with Edgar and his mother and sisters
Margaret and Christina, takes refuge with Malcolm, the Scot
king. William conquers the country as far as York, building
a castle there and at the other towns which he captures. He
is now master of all England except Northumberland, Dur
ham, and north-west Mercia, with Chester.
Harold's three sons, with a force from Ireland, attack
Bristol, but are driven off ; they then fight a battle with the
men of Somerset under Eadnoth, who is slain. After plun
dering the coast they sail away.
William makes Robert of Comines Earl of Northumber
land (Dec), in place of Gospatric.
1069. Robert of Comines, with a large force, goes to take
possession of his earldom; with the help of ^Ethelwine, Bishop
of Durham, he takes peaceable possession of Durham, but he
allows his men to plunder, and the townsmen kill him and all
his followers, about 900 (29 Jan.). The people of Yorkshire
rise, welcome back Edgar the Atheling and Gospatric, and
besiege York Castle; but William marches norths drives them
off, builds another castle, and leaves William Fitz-Osbern,
Earl of Hereford, in command. As soon as WiUiam leaves,
the English again attack the castles at York, but are re
pulsed by Earl William.
Harold's sons make a descent on and plunder Devonshire,
but are driven off (June).
The west rises, and the English besiege the new castles at
Montacute (in Somerset) and Exeter ; and Eadric the Wild
and the Welsh attack Shrewsbury, but the rising is put down.
Staffordshire also rises.
Swein, King of Denmark, sends a large fleet, under his
brother Osbeorn and his sons Harold and Cnut, to help the
English. After some vain attempts on Dover, Sandwich,
Ipswich, and Norwich, it enters the Humber, and the Danes
are joined by Edgar and Gospatric from Scotland, and by
Earl Waltheof. Ealdred, Archbishop of York, dies (11 Sep.)
as their forces approach York. They capture York, slay
the garrison of 3000 Normans, but after destroying the castles
the English' disperse and the Danes return to their ships.
William marches north, leaves his half-brother Robert in
Lindesey (Lincolnshire) to keep the Danes in check, subdues
Staffordshire, and recaptures York. He then lays waste

114 HISTORY OF. ENGLAND.
Yorkshire, destroying the crops and orchards, . burning the
towns arid villages, and killing the t-heep, cattle, and the
people, their dead bodies lying on the roads and in the fields,.
with no one to bury them. A terrible plague breaks , out
among the survivors, and altogether" over 100,000 people
perish; sixty years later the country still lay waste and bare.
1070. Williarri sets out (Jan.) to subdue Durham and
Northumberland, when Earls Waltheof and Gospatric submit
and. are restored, to their earldoms, and Waltheof marries
William's niece Judith. , Edgar. ; the Atheling returns to
Scotland, where his sister Margaret marries the king,- Malcolm
III. WiUiam then ravages Durham and Northumberland.;
He also .bribes the Danish commander Osbebrn, and. it/ is
agreed that the Danes may plunder the English coast through
the rest of the winter, on condition that they, shall return, to
Denmark in the spring. • , ;.;
, William' next marches (Feb.) from York to Chester, his
troops suffering terrible hardships from the winter weather
and the almost impassable nature of the, country. He cap
tures, Chester, thus completrng the conquest of all England,
except the ; small district heid> by Eadric' the Wild on the
Welsh border, aijd the Isle of Ely (in Cambridgeshire), which
is still unsubdued. He builds pastl.es at. Chester and Stafford,.
and then marches to Salisbury and reviews and dismisses his
army. At Easter two papal legates come .to England and place
William's crown on his head. ,
The Danish fleet, instead of returning to Denmark, comes
to the Wash, and the Danes ascend the Ouse to Ely (May), and
are welcomed by the English under Hereward the Wake, and
the united forces ;plunder the abbey of Peterborough (I June),
before Turold, the new Norman abbot appointed, by William,
gets there with his soldiers. The Danes, return to Denmark
laden with" spoil, but Swein banishes his brother Osbeorn for
haying taken bribes from William and done so little for Eng
land. Hereward holds out at Ely during the rest of the
year. . Malcolm of Scotland, as the ally of Edgar the Atheling
(who still claims the throne of England), invades and cruelly
ravages Northumberland, destroying almost everything that
William fiad left, and carrying large numbers of the people
back to Scotland as slaves. ,
Thomas, a canon .of Bayeux, is made Archbishop of York
(at Pentecost), -vacated by the death; of,.. Ealdred. A, council
is held (Aug.) which deposes Stigand as Archbishop of Can
terbury, and Lanfranc is appointed to the office (15 Aug.).

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 115
Stigand's bishopric of Winchester is given to Walkelin, another
Norman. Stigand takes refuge with Hereward at Ely.
Eadric the Wild, of Hereford, submits to William.
1071. The Earls Edwin and Morkere leave William's
court; Edwin tries to reach Scotland, but is killed on the way;
Morkere goes to the Isle of Ely to assist in its defence.
William marches to attack the isle, and after many months'
fighting, it surrenders (Oct.). Morkere and Stigand surren
der and are imprisoned, but Hereward refuses to submit and
sails away ; his after-career and fate are uncertain. William
builds a castle at Ely, and all England is now subdued.
He puts an end to the earldoms of Edwin and Morkere, but
makes Roger of Montgomery Earl of Shrewsbury, and another
Normari, Hugh of Avranches, Earl of Chester, their duties
being to guard the Welsh border. Ralph de Guader, an
-Englishman who had fought under Williarn in Brittany, is
made Earl of Norfolk, to guard the coast against the Da"nes.
William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford , goes to Flanders to
marry its countess, - Richildis, and win her territory, but is
killed; his son Roger is made Earl of Hereford.
1072. William goes to Normandy, to watch the course of
events in Flanders. He returns to England, and sets put
(Aug.y to invade Scotland by land and sea to punish Mal
colm's harryings in 1070. Malcolm meets him at Aberiiethy,
in Fife, submits,' surrenders his son Duncan as hostage, and
swears fealty t,o him as his overlord, and William becomes lord
of all Britain.
He removes Gospatric from the earldom of Northuiiiber-
land, and makes Waltheof (already Earl of Northatnptori' and
Huntingdon) earl in his place. Waltheof kills the sons' of
Carl, in pursuance of an hereditary feud, their father Carl
having killed his grandfather Ealdred. Gospatric goes to
Scotland, where Malcolm gives him land.
1073. Maine revolts against William's rule ; he goes over
to Normandy with an English army, ravages Maine, and cap
tures its chief city, Le Mans. He makes peace with Fulk,
Count of Anjou, apparently the overlord of Maine ; and Will
iam's eldest son Robert is made Count of Maine, and swears
fealty to Fullras his overlord.
1074. William goes to Normandy; Edgar the Atheling
relinquishes his claims to the crown, and goes over to Nor
mandy, where he is received " with much pomp" by William ;
and he becomes a great friend of William's' eldest son Kobert. '
1075. Contrary to William's commands, Roger, Earl of
Hereford, gives his sister Emma in marriage to Ralph^ Earl

116 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
of Norfolk. The two earls conspire to kill William, and to
divide England between them, and Earl Waltheof joins in the
plot. Waltheof repents and discloses the conspiracy to Lan
franc, on whose advice he goes to Normandy and confesses to
William. The two other earls revolt openly, but receiving
little support from the English, Ralph flees to Denmark,
while his wife holds Norwich Castle. The Danes, under Cnut,
sail up to York and plunder the minster. Norwich Castle
surrenders to William's forces under Lanfranc ; Roger of
Hereford is imprisoned ; and William returns from Normandy
with Waltheof.
Edith, widow of Edward the Confessor, dies (18 Dec), and
is buried beside him at Westminster Abbey.
1076. Waltheof is tried twice for treason, condemned to
death, and beheaded near. Winchester (31 May), being the, only
man put to death by William except in war. The English look
on him as a martyr and a saint, and believed that miracles were
wrought at his tomb at Crowland. Walcher, Bishop of Dur
ham, is made Earl of Northumberland in Waltheof's place.
William goes to Normandy, and besieges Dol in Britanny, but
is repulsed, thus suffering his first defeat.
A great earthquake is felt in England.
1077. London is burnt (14 Aug.).
1079. William's eldest son Robert, because his father will
not grant him the dukedom of Normandy, seeks to gain it by
force, and obtains the help of Philip I., King of France, who
puts him in possession of the castle of Gerberoi; William
lays siege to the castle, but fails, narrowly escaping death at
the hands of his son Robert, and is reconciled to him.;
By William's Orders the New Fqrest in Hampshire is' formed.
1080. Malcolm of Scotland/having made another raid into
Northumberland, William sends his son Robert to avenge it.
Robert does little, but on his way back founds a castle on the
Tyne (now Newcastle). He again quarrels with his father,
and goes to France.
About this date or later William's second son Richard is
killed by a stag in the New Forest, Hampshire.
Bishop Walcher, Earl of Northumberland, rules laxly, and
on his failure to punish the murderers of Ligulf, an English
man of high rank, an Assembly meets to try the case, and the
piople kill Walcher and his followers (14 May). William
sends his half-brother, Odo, Earl of Kent, to punish the slayers
of \\ alcher, but Odo accepts "bribes, puts innocent men to
death, and ravages the land.
1081. William goes on a pilgrimage to St, David's in Wales,

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 117
and also founds a castle at Cardiff in South Wales. He quar
rels with his queen, Matilda, on account of her sending pres
ents to her son Robert in exile.
An earthquake does great damage in England.
1082. William's half-brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and
Earl of Kent, desiring to become pope, collects an army in
England for the purpose of going to Rome and carrying out
his design. William comes from Normandy to England, calls
an Assembly, and formally accuses Odo, and. as all present fear
to arrest him on account of his sacred office, William himself
seizes him, and imprisons him at Rouen, where he remains till
William's death.
1083. Queen Matilda dies (2 Nov. ) ; she is buried at Caen
in Normandy.
A revolt against William breaks out in Maine under Viscount
Hubert. 1083-1086. Viscount Hubert holds the castle of Sainte-
Susanne for three years against William, and in 1086 William
receives him into his favor. >
1085. Cnut (the son of Harold Hardrada), now King of
Denmark, is joined by his father-in-law, Robert of Flanders,
and by his brother Olaf, King of Norway, and collects a large
fleet to invade England ; and William brings over a large
army of mercenaries from Normandy to meet the expected
attack. Cnut, however, quarrels with his brother Olaf, and
(in 1086) is killed in a church by his own men.
At an Assembly held at Gloucester (Dec.) William proposes
a general survey of the whole of England, which is carried
out, and results, after some four or five months' labor, in the
Domesday Book, which gives a record .of the ownership and
value of all the lands in England, both in Edward the Con
fessor's time and in William's, showing that nearly all the
land had passed into the possession of Normans.
1086. Shortly after the completion of the survey, William
calls an Assembly at Salisbury (Aug.) of all the principal1.
landowners, and requires them to take the oath of fealty to>
him. He soon afterwards levies a tax of six shillings on every
hide of land, a grievous burden at that time.
William goes to Rouen, the capital of Normandy, and
undergoes medical treatment to reduce his immense bulk.
1087. The French in Vexin (a disputed territory between
Rouen and Paris) make inroads into Normandy ; William
retaliates by harrying Vexin (Aug.) and burning its chief
town, Mantes (15 Aug.). While riding about the burning town
his horse stumbles, he is thrown forward on the tall bow of

118 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
his saddle, and receives a wound which proves mortal. He. is
taken to the priory of St, Gervase, near Rouen, where, being
told to prepare for death, he bequeaths Normandy to his
eldest son Robert, and England to his third son, William, and
sets free a number of prisoners in Normandy and England,
including his half-brother, Bishop Odo, Earl of Kent, and the
Earl of Morkere. He then dies (9 Sep.), and is buried at
Caen, in his own minster of St. Stephen.
Robert " Courthose " becomes Duke of Normandy.
William, called Rufus from his ruddy complexion, goes to
England and is crowned king at Westminster (26 Sep.) by
Archbishop Lanfranc. He restores his uncle, Bishop Odo,; to
his enrldom of Kent. . -_ ''*
A great fire burns a large part of- London, including St.
Paul's. 1088. The Norman nobles in England, headed by the
king's two uncles, Bishop Odo and Count Robert, rebel against
William ; he throws himself upon the allegiance of his Eng
lish subjects, and 30,000 men respond to the call; they de
feat the rebels, and maintain the king on his throne. This
was the last occasion on which English and Normans fought
against each other on English soil ; and the Norman conquest
is now -practically complete.
. 1089. Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies {24 May),
aged about 84. The king allows the office to remain vacant
for four years, and appropriates its revenues.
A great earthquake is felt in England (13 Aug.).
1090. William II. goes to Normandy and carries on war
against his brother Robert Courthose.
1091. He deprives Edgar, the Atheling, of his lands iri
Normandy, and Edgar goes to Scotland to his brother-in-law
Malcolm, who again takes up arms in his cause, and invades and
harries Northumberland (May.). William returns to England
(Aug.) with his brother Robert, and prepares an army and fleet
to attack Scotland. The fleet is wrecked (Sep. ) ; but William
and his brother march into Lothian ; through the intervention
of Robert and Edgar peace is made, and Malcolm swears fealty
to William as his lord. Edgar returns to Normandy, his lands
being restored.
In London 600 houses are blown down by a whirlwind.
1092. William, with a" large 'force, goes north to Garlisle,
restores the town, builds a castle there, drives out Dolphin
(or Thorfinn), who holds Cumbria from the Solway Firth to the
Derwent and to Stanmore for Malcolm of Scotland, and
annexes Cumbria south of the Solway Firth to England. l Mai-

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 119
colm complains of this as a breach of his rights, and William
summons him to a conference at Gloucester ; he comes, but
they i fail to agree, and part in anger.
Anselm, a native of Aosta in Burgundy (near the border of
Lombardy), now Abbot of Bee, and the most famous ecclesi
astic of western Europe, comes to England (8 Sep.) at the
invitation of Hugh of Avranches, Earl of Chester, who is ill.
A gemot or assembly held at Gloucester (Dec.) resolves to
petition the king that a prayer be offered up in all churches
that God would put it into the king's heart to appoint some
fit person to the see of Canterbury, vacant since 1089.
The greater part of London is destroyed by fire.
1093. William Rufus, being sick and in a pentiential
mood, sends for Anselm and appoints him Archbishop of Can
terbury (6 Mar.). At a special gemot held at Winchester, the
king renews his pledges of good government made at his coro
nation. Malcolm harries Northumberland worse than ever before,
but is drawn into an ambush near the river Alne (either at
Alnwick or Inneraldan), his army is cut to pieces or drowned,
and he :md his eldest son Edward are slain (13 Nov.). His
illegitimate brother Donald Ban, or Donalbain, seizes the
throne of Scotland, and reigns six months. Malcolm's widow
Margaret dies from the shock of her husband's and son's
deaths (17 Nov.).
Anselm is consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury by
Thomas of Bayeux, Archbishop of York (4 Dec).
At a gemot held at Gloucester (Dec.) a hostile message
from Robert of Normandy is considered, and war is decreed.
1094. William Rufus quarrels with Anselm regarding the
smallness of his contribution to the war expenses (Jan).
The troops (20,000) for the invasion of Normandy assemble
at Hastings (4 Feb. ), but are delayed for a month by contrary
winds. Anselm consecrates the church of Battle Abbey
(11 Feb.), begun in 1067 by William the Conqueror. He
preaches against the fashion of long hair for men, extrav
agance in dress, etc.
-The king goes over to Normandy (4 Mar.), leaving the
troops behind. By his instructions his un-crupulous minister
Randolf or Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham, obtains from
the troops ten shillings given to each by his shire to pay his
expenses (£10,000 in all), dismisses the troops, and sends the
money to William, who uses it to buy off the French king
from' -Robert's side. William returns to England (28 Dec).
1095. Anselm asks William's leave to go to Rome for his

120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
? allium (Feb. ) . At this time the papacy is in dispute between
Trban II. and Clement III.; and Anselm has recognized the
former. William denies Anselm's right to recognize a pope
without the king's sanction, refuses him permission to go to
Rome, and sends for the pallium himself. At Anselm's request
the king summons a council at Rockingham (near the bor
ders of Leicestershire and Northamptonshire), which, meets
(11-14 Mar.), and adjourns to 20 May, without settling the
dispute. Cardinal Walter, Bishop of Albano, comes to Eng
land as legate with the pallium, and induces the king to recog-
jiize Urban. The king asks the legate to depose Anselm ;
he refuses, and the king and Anselm meet at Windsor and
are temporarily reconciled (10 June). Anselm refuses to
accept, the pallium from the king (being a layman), and the
legate places it on the altar of Canterbury Cathedral, whence
Anselm takes it himself.
Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland, plunders
some Norwegian merchants, refuses to appear before the
King's Court, and shuts himself in his castle at Bamborough.
This was the outbreak of a widespread conspiracy to dethrone
William and give the crown to Stephen of Aumale, a son of
William the Conqueror's sister Adela. William captures the
earl by a stratagem, and his wife Matilda surrenders Barn-
borough Castle. The earl is imprisoned for the rest of his life,
and his earldom is forfeited, and the others concerned in the
insurrection are punished. During the king's absence in
Northumberland Anselm guards Kent against rebellion and
an expected attack from Normandy.
Pope Urban II. preaches the first crusade at the Council
of Piacenza (Mar.), and again at that of Clermont in Auvergne
(Sep). Robert of Normandy, in order to raise money to pay
his expeifses of joining the crusade, proposes to mortgage Nor
mandy to William Rufus for three years.
Gilbert, Bishop of Lisieux in Normandy, observes a re
markable display of falling stars on the night of 4-5 April.
1096. The proposed mortgage is completed (Sep. ), William
advances 10,000 marks, and takes possession of Normandy,
where he remains till Mar. 1097.
1097. William returns to England and holds a gemot at
Windsor (A p.). He makes a great expedition into Wales,
and compels the country into a nominal submission. He
sends a petulant message to Anselm, complaining of the poor
equipment of the troops sent by him for the Welsh expedition.
Anselm, wishing to lay before the pope charges against the
iking respecting his treatment of the clergy and the Church,

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 121
asks permission of the king to go to Rome (June) ; the king
refuses it; Anselm repeats his request twice (Aug., Oct.),
and the enraged king orders him to pay a fine for his persist
ence. Anselm threatens to go without leave ; the king gives
it, but stipulates that he must not take any of the property of
his see; Anselm blesses the king at Winchester (15 Oct.),
leaves Dover (Nov.), lands at Whitsand (in Normandy), and
spends his Christmas at Cluny (now in Sa6ne-et-Loire). On
his departure, William seizes on the estates of his see.
William Rufus builds a wall round the Tower, a bridge
across the Thames, and Westminster Hall.
1098. Magnus Barefoot, King of Norway, turns pirate, and
conquers the Orkneys, the Western Isles of Scotland, and the
Isle of Man. From the latter place a? his headquarters he
sails to attack Anglesey ; the Earls of Shrewsbury and Chester
oppose his landing, and the former is killed. His brother,
Robert of Belesme, succeeds him, and has to pay £3000 to the
king as feudal succession dues (relief) ; he builds a strong
castle at Bridgenorth to complete the defence of the Severn
valley. Anselm completes his " Cur Deus Homo " (" Why God be
came Man "), a treatise on the Incarnation, written in Latin.
1100. William Rufus, while hunting in the New Forest, is
shot with an arrow, whether purposely or accidentally is un
certain, by Walter Tyrrel, and killed (2 Aug.). His eldest
brother, Robert of Normandy, has not yet returned from Pal
estine, and his younger brother, Henry, who was also hunting
in the Forest, immediately rides to Winchester and gets pos
session of the royal treasure (2 Aug.); goes to London, and
with the assistance of the Earl of Warwick, is chosen king
(3 Aug.), and is crowned at Westminster Abbey (5 Aug.) by
Maurice, Bishop of London. Having been born and brought
up in England he is welcomed by the people as an English
king- One of his first acts is to imprison Ranulf Flambard, the in
strument of Ruf us's despotism, in the Tower (14 Sep.). Henry I.
wishes to marry Edith or Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, King
of Scotland, and of Margaret, the sister of Edgar the Athe
ling. Matilda being a great-granddaughter of Edmund Iron
side, Henry, by marrying her, would unite the Norman and
Saxon lines. Matilda, for the past seven years, has been edu
cated by her aunt Christina (the younger sister of Edgar), at
the Abbeys of Romsey (in Hampshire) and Wilton (in Wilt
shire), and has worn the veil as a protection against the insults
or the addresses of Norman nobles, and there is a doubt

122 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
whether this will not be a bar to her marriage. Henry I. re
calls Anselm from Lyons (Sep.) ; Anselm lands at Dover (23
Sep.), and holds a council at Lambeth (Oct.), which decides
that Matilda is free to marry; and the marriage takes place
and Matilda is crowned queen at Westminster Abbey (Sunday,
11 Nov.).
Robert, Duke of Normandy, Henry's elder brother, returns
to Normandy from the crusade (Sep.).
Henry restores to Anselm the temporalities of his see, de
manding from him the usual homage for them ; this Anselm
refuses, as being contrary to the new law of the Church;
Henry proposes to leave the question open till Easter, 1101,
submitting it to the pope in the meantime, to which Anselm
agrees. 1101. Henry I. grants a charter of liberties, agreeing to put
in force the laws of Edward the Confessor, promising not to
sell or farm benefices, to abolish arbitrary feudal exactions, and
other reforms. It soon becomes partially inoperative.
Ranulf Flambard escapes from the Tower (4 Feb.), goes over
to Normandy, and incites Robert to put forth his claim to the
English throne. Robert sails with an army to England; lands
at Portchester (19 July), and is joined by several Anglo-Norman
nobles. The two armies meet near Alton, in Hampshire (16
miles E. N. E'. of Winchester), when, through the influence
of Anselm and some of the leaders, peace is made between
the two brothers, Robert relinquishing all claim to England,
and Henry yielding Normandy (except Domfret) to Robert,
and agreeing to pay him 3000 marks yearly. Robert remains
a guest at his" brother's court for six months.
Queen Matilda goes to the Abbey of Abingdon (in Berk
shire) before the birth of her son (William the Atheling), to
be under the care of Abbot Faricius, the famous surgeon.
Henry's envoys return from Rome with the pope's decision
refusing to recognize Henry's claim to the right of investiture
and homage. Henry sends another embassy to Rome, includ
ing Gerard, Archbishop of York, who gets his pallium; the
envoys return with a false report that the pope substantially
recognizes Henry's claim, and Henry proceeds to appoint two
or three bishops. Anselm receives a letter from the pope, up
holding his former position, and refusing to recognize Henry's
claim, but the report of the envoys silences him for a time.
1102. Henry I. asks Anselm to consecrate these bishops,
but Anselm refuses.
Henry confiscates the estates of the nobles who had joined his
brother Robert, including those of Robert de Lacy of Yorkshire,

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 123
Robert Malet of -Suffolk, and Ivo of Grantmesnil. He cites
Robert of Belesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, to appear before the
King's Court. The earl refuses, and Henry, with 60,000 men,
marches against him, and captures his castles of Arundel, Tick-
hill, and Bridgenorth. He then marches against Shrewsbury
where Robert is ; the earl surrenders, is banished, and his
estates are confiscated ; he goes to Normandy and stirs up
strife between its duke and Henry.
Henry summons a special council at Westminster for the
reform of abuses (Sep.), which prohibits slavery, the marriage
and concubinage of the clergy, and the gross forms of vice
prevalent during the reign of William Rufiis.
1103. Henry I. demands the submission of Anselm in the
matter of investiture and homage ; he refuses, and Henry asks
him to go to Rome and prevail on the pope to give way
(Feb.); Anselm requests that this proposal be referred to the
gemot, which meets at Westminster (Ap.), and urges him to
go.: He leaves Dover (27 Ap. ), crosses to Whitsand, and stays
at Bee till Aug. At Rome he finds William of Warelwast as
Henry's advocate. The pope, however, remains obdurate, and
Anselm goes to Lyons (Dec), determined not to return to
England till the question is settled. Henry confiscates the
revenues of Canterbury, but appoints two of Anselm's men to
see that the tenants are not oppressed.
Queen Matilda gives birth to a daughter, named at first
Adelais or Alice, but afterwards Matilda (the future empress).
1104. Henry I. sends another embassy to Rome, but the
pope, much as he wishes Henry's support, remains firm, stat
ing that he cannot set aside the canons of a Roman coun
cil. Henry still keeps up . a friendly correspondence with
Anselm. Robert of Normandy visits England with hostile intent, but
is won over and induced to give up his annual pension of
3000. marks.
1105. Henry, in consequence of his brother Robert's mjsgov-
ernment in Normandy, and of Norman nobles stirring up sedi
tion in England, invades it for the purpose of conquest, land
ing at Barfleur or Barbaflot .(Ap..), near Carentan in the Coten-
tin. He and Robert hold a conference at Whitsuntide, but
come to no agreement.
Anselm goes from Lyons to Normandy (July) and threatens
to excommunicate Henry for the wrong done to God by his
conduct towards the Church and clergy, in England dur
ing the past two years. Adela of Blois (Henry's sister) is
lying ill ; Anselm goes to her, and she arranges a meeting

124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
between him and Henry at Laigle (22 July); Henry offers to
restore Anselm the "revenues of his see if he will return and
recognize the bishops invested by Henry ; Anselm declines to
do this without permission from Rome, and another embassy
is sent thither to obtain it.
Henry returns to England and taxes the whole clergy to
raise money for the prosecution of the war in Normandy. The
queen and the court bishops implore Henry to write to Anselm
to return. Anselm writes reproving Henry for punishing the
clergy, a thing which should be done only by their bishops ;
he also orders that the penalties of deprivation and excommu
nication be enforced against any clergy infringing the prohibi
tion against marriage.
Jlenry settles a body of Flemings in Pembrokeshire, Wales.
1106. The, envoys return from Rome with instructions
from the Pope allowing Anselm to pardon the offending
bishops who have acted under Henry's investiture, and allow
ing bishops and abbots to do homage for their temporalities
to the king, as their secular lord.
Robert of Normandy comes to England, and has a fruitless
interview with Henry at Northampton (Lent).
Henry invades Normandy with a larger army. He sees An
selm at Bee (15 Aug.), and pledges the removal of all taxes on
the clergy, and the repayment within three years of those-
already collected ; Anselm thereupon returns to England and
resumes his primacy. Henry remains and defeats Robert at
Tenchenbrai (28 Sep.), conquers Normandy, and makes it a
dependency of the English crown. Thus on the 40th
anniversary of the Conqueror's landing at Pevensey, is the
battle of Senlac avenged. Robert is taken prisoner at Ten
chenbrai, and sent to Cardiff Castle, where he is kept con
fined, but well treated, till his death in 1135. Edgar the
Atheling is also taken prisoner, and lives in England for the
rest of hies life.
1107. A great gemot held at London (1 Aug.) declares in
favor of the compromise agreed to by Anselm and Henry, and
assented to by the pope, that the right of investing bishops and
abbots belongs to the spiritual power alone, but that the king
remains entitled to the homage of the bishop elect. [By a
treaty made at Worms (4 Feb. 1111) a similar compromise is
made by the pope, Paschal II., and the emperor, Henry V.]
Anselm invests and consecrates the bishops who had been ap
pointed by Henry (11 Aug.).
Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham (imprisoned in 1100)
is allowed to return to his see, '

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 125
Henry and his queen introduce the custom of making royal
progresses through different parts of the country.
1108. They hold court for the first time at the recently
completed castle at New Windlesore (so-called from the wind
ing of the Thames there), now Windsor. William the Con
queror had used the place as a hunting-seat, and built a castle
there; but Henry had made great additions and improvements,
and made it a royal residence. Henry goes to Normandy.
1109. Henry returns to England and holds court at Wind
sor, where his daughter Matilda (6 years old) is married by
proxy to the Emperor Henry V., now 45 years old.
Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (21 Ap.), aged
about 76.
1110. Henry levies a tax of three shillings on every hide
of land, by which about £50.000 is raised as a marriage portion
for his daughter Matilda, who is sent to Germany and married
to Henry V. in the cathedral of Mentz, and crowned empress
by the Archbishop of Cologne.
1111. A revolt breaks out in Normandy in favor of Wil
liam Clito, son of the ex-Duke Robert/whose cause is sup
ported by Louis VI., King of France, and Fulk, Count of An
jou, who lays claim to Maine in Opposition to Henry. Henry
goes over to Normandy, and war breaks out.
1112. He again captures Robert of Belesme, and imprisons
him for the rest of his life.
1113. He makes peace with Louis VI. and Fulk of Anjou;
they abandon William Clito, and he takes refuge in Flanders.
Henry returns to England.
1114. The Emperor Henry V. and the Princess Matilda
(now 11 years old) are again married and crowned in Mentz
Cathedral (7 Jan.).
Ralph d'Escures is made Archbishop of Canterbury. Thur-
stan is elected Archbishop of York (15 Aug.), but refuses to
receive consecration from the Archbishop of Canterbury. ~Q.e
was eventually consecrated in Rome by Pope Calixtus II. (19
Oct., 1119).
Stephen of Blois, the third son of Adela, the Conqueror'e
daughter (now a youth of 20), is sent to the court of his uncle,
King Henry I. He becomes a favorite with the people on
account of his pleasant manners and social disposition.
1115. Henry I. takes his son,. William the Atheling (now
13 years old), to Normandy, and the nobles and freemen swear
fealty to him as their future duke.
Henry and Matilda spend Christmas at the abbey of St. Al
bans (in Herts), then just completed, where the queen has her

126 HISTORY OF- ENGLAND. \
portrait painted in miniature. .It is still extant> preserved in
the Golden Book of St. Albans, now in the British Museum.,
1116. Henry I. holds, a gemot at Salisbriry, and appoints
William, the Atheling, his. successor, and requires the chief .
men of the kingdom to swear fealty to himself as king, and to
William as future king.
Peterborough Monastery is burnt (3 Aug.).
About this date Henry completes his new palace and park at
Woodstock (8 miles N. N. W. of, Oxford), and forms there the
first.zoological collection of wild animals ever seen in England.
It includes lions, Jeopards, lynxes, camels, a "stryx" or por
cupine, and Mother curious beasts."
111.7. A fresh revolt breaks out in Normandy, and Henry,
witb-his son William, goes, over to put it. down. Henry .re
turns to .England at Christmas, the queen being in ill-health.
1118. . Henry I. again goes to Normandy to prosecute the
war against Louis VI. of France and Fulk of Anjou, who
have again espoused the cause of. William Clito.
. Queen Matilda dies (1 May), aged about 41, and is buried in
Westminster Abbey by the side of her great-uncle, Edward
the Confessor. She leaves two children, William (the Athel
ing) and Matilda (the empress).
• Fulk of Anjou defeats Henry I. before Alencon (Dec).
The military order of Knights Templars is founded by
Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem.
. 1119. Henry defeats Louis VI. at the almost bloodless.
battle of Noyon or Brenneville (20 Aug.) Peace is made ber
tween them, and Henry's son William marries Alice or Mat
ilda (12 years old), a daughter of Louis's ally Fulk, Earl of
Anjou, at Lisieux, in Burgundy (June).
1120. Henry enters into a contract (16 Ap.) to marry
Adelicia, Adeliza, Adelais, or Alice of Louvaine, a daughter
of 'Godfrey, Duke of Brabant.
Henry sails from Barfleur, in Normandy, for England. (25
Nov.), with his. son's bride Alice. His two sons, William and
Richard, and his daughter Mary, with a large train of nobles,.
also sail, in another vessel, ' ' the White Ship," which strikes
on a . rock, and all on board (about 300), except one, are
drowned (25 Nov.). When Henry receives the news he falls
senseless, arid is never afterwards seen to smile.
His proposed marriage with Adelicia of Louvaine is delayed
by a dispute between Roger le Poer, Bishop of Salisbury, and
Ralph, Archbishop of Canterbury, as to which shall perform
the ceremony, Roger: claiming the righ^ on the ground that'
Windsor ((;wliere it is to take place) is within his diocesev An

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 127
ecclesiastical council is called, which decides that wherever the
king and queen may be in England, they are the parishioners
of the Archbishop of Canterbury.
1121. Henry I. is married to Adelicia of Louvaine, at
Windsor, by the Archbishop of Canterbury (24 Jan.), and the
two are crowned at Westminster Abbey (Sunday, 30 Jan.).
The Welsh invade and ravage Cheshire ; Henry defeats
them, and pursues them far into their country.
1123. Fulk, Count of Anjou, makes war on Normandy in
favor of William Clito, and is joined by several Norman nobles.
Henry goes over to Normandy (June) and defeats Clito at
Terroude, near Rouen.
1124. Queen Adelicia goes to her husband in Normandy.
1125. The Emperor Henry V., husband of Henry's
'daughter Matilda, dies (23 May).
1126. HenTy I. and his queen return to England with his
daughter the Empress Matilda (Sep.j. In order to insure a
peaceable succession to the crown, Henry calls a great council
at London (25 Dec), and alPthe chief men, including Stephen
of Blois, Count of Mortain and Boulogne, swear to receive
Matilda as their "Lady" (i.e., as queen); also Matilda's uncle,
David I. of Scotland, who is on a visit to Henry I.
1127. Matilda goes to Normandy and marries Geoffrey,
a son of Fulk, Count of Anjou (26 Aug.). Her father, King
Henry, is present. The marriage is unpopular with the Nor
mans on account of their enmity with the Angevins. Henry
returns to England.
•1128. Another rebellion against Henry breaks out in Nor
mandy, under William Clito, now Earl of Flanders. Henry
goes over, and William Clito is accidentally killed (27 July). A
rebellion breaks out in England, and Waleran, Count of Meu-
lan, is imprisoned for taking part in it.
The new order of Cistercians (founded in 1098 at Citeaux,
near Dijon, in C6te d'Or, France) establish their first house in
England at Waverley, in Surrey. ^
Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Welshman of Norman descent,
publishe* his Historia Britonum (" History of the Britons"),
in Latin.
1129. Henry of Blois, a younger brother of Stephen, and
a nephew of Henry I., is made Bishop of Winchester (11
Oct.), and consecrated (17 Nov.).
- A great earthquake is felt in England (6 Dec).
1131. A gemot held at Northampton renews the oath of
succession in favor of Matilda (Sep.).
1133. Afire burns down the greater part of London.

128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Henry (afterwards king), a son of Matilda and Geoffrey of
Anjou, is born at Le Mans, in Anjou.
Henry I. summons his last gemot, and the oath of succes
sion of Matilda is renewed, her infant son being included in it.
Robert Pulein or Pulleyn, a Breton, reads lectures on the
Bible, at Oxford, the beginning of its history as a seat of
learning. 1135. A total eclipse of the sun is seen in England, which
is held to presage coming disasters.
Henry's elder brother, Robert Courthose, ex-Duke of Nor
mandy, dies in prison at Bristol (10 Feb.).
Henry I. dies in Normandy (1 Dec), and his body is em
balmed and brought to England, and buried at the abbey of
Reading, in Berkshire, built by himself. Stephen of Blois,
Count of Mortain and Boulogne (Henry's nephew), is present
at Henry's death. Notwithstanding his oath of fealty to Ma
tilda in 1126, he goes to London, and gets himself chosen king
by the citizens and the Witan. After some hesitation; Will
iam de Curbellio, Archbishop of Canterbury, crowns him (26
Dec). He puts forth a charter repeating the promise of good
laws made by Henry L, and being personally popular, his suc
cession is ratified by general consent.
David I. , King of Scotland, declares in favor of his niece
Matilda, but Stephen buys him off by the cession of Carlisle
and the grant, of the earldom of Huntingdon to his son.
1136. Baldwin of Redvers, Earl of Devon, rebels, and
holds Exeter Castle against the king, and Miles of Beauchamp
holds Bedford Castle against him, recognizing Stephen merely
as feudal^ lord and not as national king. Stephen compels
their submission, but weakly compromises and grants terms to
the garrison of Exeter.
1137. Stephen makes a successful expedition to Nor
mandy, and makes peace with Geoffrey of Anjou, Matilda's
husband., Stephen's son Eustace does homage to LouiB VI.,
King of France, for the Duchy of Normandy.
1138. David I., King of Scotland, invades Yorkshire, but
is defeated at "the battle of the Standard," at Northallerton,
in Yorkshire, by the English under Thurston, Archbishop
of. York (22 Aug.).
Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I.
(and therefore a half-brother of Matilda), rebels against the
king. Stephen, instead of relying on his English subjects,
hires Flemish and Breton mercenaries to put down the revolt.
He also foolishly tries to win over the feudal lords by conces
sions and gifts, thereby creating jealousy against himself, and

Massacre at Quibeeon.— P. 308.

Me. Fox and Napoleon Bonaparte.— P. 309.

SDINEL Presented to the Earl op Kildaee.— P. 215.

Landing of Henky VTII. at Calais.— P. 333.

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 129
leading each lord to deem himself a petty monarch. When
he has no more to give, they revolt, build feudal castles all
over the country, and make war on each other and on the
people. Theobald, Abbot of Bee, in Normandy, comes to England
at the invitation of Stephen. He is elected .Archbishop of
CanterburWDec ) .
1139. Theobald is consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury (8
Jan.). Henry, Bishop of Winchester, is appointed papal legate.
Having been falsely informed that Roger le Poef, Bishop
of Salisbury and Justiciary of the kingdom, and the Bishop
of Lincoln are conspiring against him, Stephen seizes them
while at his court at Oxford, and compels them to surrender
their castles (June). He refuses to reinstate them, where
upon the whole clergy, with his brother Heury, Bishop of
Winchester, at their head, fall away from him ; all govern
ment ceases, and the country is giveri over to anarchy and ruin.
Matilda and her Jhalf -brother Robert* Earl of Gloucester,
come from Anjou and land at Portsmouth, in Hants, with a
small force (30 Sep.). Robert goes to his castle at Bristol,
leaving Matilda at Arundel Castle with her stepmother, Ade
licia, the widow of Henry L Stephen besieges the castle, but
in accordance with the chivalry of the time, allows Matilda to
depart, giving her safe-conduct to Bristol Castle under the
escort of his brother Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, and
-Waleran, Earl of Mellerit.
1140. Ranulf, Earl of Chester (a son-in-law of Robert of
Gloucester), though he has received favors from the king,
rebels against him, and goes over to, the Empress Matilda's
side; he captures Lincoln Castle by surprise.
Stephen's queen, Matilda, with her son Eustace (4 years
old), goes to France to make alliances ; and Eustace is married
to Constance, a sister of Louis VII., King of France. Louis,
as overlord of Normandy, invests Eustace with the duchy.
Queen Matilda sends to England bands of foreign mercenaries
from Boulogne and Normandy, whose conduct has an injuri
ous effect on Stephen's cause.
1141. At the request of the citizens of Lincoln Stephen
lays siege to the castle ; Ranulf escapes, and he and Robert,
Earl of Gloucester, advance to its relief, and defeat Stephen at
Lincoln (2 Feb.), make him prisoner, and confine him in
Bristol Castle. The empress wins over Henry of Blois, the
legate, and enters Winchester in triumph (7 Feb.), David I.,
King of Scotland, being with her ; and Henry of Blois excom
municates Stephen's adherents.

330 x HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
Archbishop Theobald visits Stephen in prison and asks per
mission to transfer his allegiance to the empress. <
Henry of Blois (now the principal power in England) calls
a synod of bishops and abbots at Winchester (7 Ap,), which
elects the Empress Matilda "Lady of England." Many of
Stephen's adherents are executed.
Stephen's queen, Matilda, returns from Normandy, and
appeals to the citizens of London to aid her ; they send dele
gates to the synod at Winchester praying the release of
Stephen (9 Ap.); this is refused, and after negotiations, the
delegates acknowledge the empress as "Lady" (24 June),
Stephen's queen also writes to the synod, but Henry of Blois
dissolves it, and declares the empress duly elected.
' On receiving the news of the battle 'of Lincoln Geoffrey of
Anjou persuades the barons in Normandy to transfer their
allegiance from Eustace" to the Empress Matilda and her son
Henry. Stephen's queen sues the empress for Stephen's release, and
her suit is backed by- Henry of Blois ; the empress rejects her
, appeal ;.and also refuses the request of Henry of Blois that
Stephen's son Eustace might be placed in possession of his
father's fiefs of Boulogne and Mortain ; and Henry goes over
again to the side of his brother Stephen. He also, at the -
.entreaty of Stephen's wife, absolves Stephen's followers from
excommunication. The empress obtains possession of Oxford
Castle, and goes to London to get crowned queen, but offends
the people by her pride and her demands for money. An
army of citizens gather in the streets, and she and her adhe
rents flee towards Oxford ; her followers desert her, and she
enters Oxford with only Eobert of Gloucester and David I. of
Scotland. Having collected forces they occupy Winchester,
but Henry of Blois fortifies his castle there and holds it against
them. Stephen's queen, Matilda, who has held Kent for him,
advances to London with a large force ; the citizens welcome
her joyfully, and the united forces advance, and, at "the
rout of Winchester" (14 Sep.), defeat the empress, burn Win
chester, and capture Robert of Gloucester and send him to
Rochester Castle, in Kent. The empress and David of Scot
land flee to Lutgershall, and thence to Devizes (in Wilts) and
Gloucester., The Earl of Gloucester's wife Aimabel, who has
the custody of Stephen at Bristol, exchanges him for her hus
band (1 Novi).
Henry of Blois holds a council at Westminster, and excom
municates the Empress Matilda's adherents '(7 Dec).

X±1JS JNUKilAN CONQUEST. 131
,1142. Stephen resumes hostilities successfully, and the
empress sends to her husband Geoffrey (now in possession of
Normandy) for aid. He refuses it, unless Robert of Glouces
ter will come and ask for it in person. Robert goes to Nor
mandy, leaving Matilda at Oxford Castle. Stephen besieges
her there for three months, but she escapes (20 Dec) in the
night in the snow, clad in white so as not to be seen, walks
six miles to Abingdon, and there takes horse to Wallingford
in Berkshire, where she is welcomed by Robert, who has re
turned from Normandy with her son Henry (now 9 years old).
Geoffrey remains in Normandy with his Other son Geoffrey.
Henry remains in England for four years.
1143. Robert of Gloucester defeats Stephen at Wilton (in
Wiltshire), and Stephen arid his brother, Henry of Blois,
retreat. Stephen gets his nephew William Fitzherbert elected Arch
bishop of York ; the great Cistercian houses of the north
oppose the election as having been procured by undue influ
ence, one of the strongest opponents being Henry Murdach,
Abbot of Fountains. In consequence of this opposition some
of Pitzherbert's kinsmen sack the abbey of Fountains:
Stephen seizes Geoffrey of Mandeville, Earl of Essex, while
at his court at St. Albans, compels him to give up his castles,
and then releases him. Geoffrey raises a band of men, rav
ages the country, takes Cambridge and Ramsey Abbey, and
converts it into a stronghold for his' troops, but is at last slain
by the king's forces.
Pope Innocent III. dies ; Celestine II. becomes pope. Inno
cent had favored Stephen's side, but Celestine reverses this
policy, and, at the instance of Thomas a Becket, a clerk in
Theobald's household (afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury),
appoints Theobald papal legate in place of Henry of Blois,
Bishop of Winchester.
1144-45. The civil war goes on with varying success.
1145. Eugenius III. becomes pope ; he also favors the
cause of the Empress Matilda and her son Henry against
Stephen. 1146._ Geoffrey of Anjou sends for his son Henry, who
returns to Normandy.
1147. Robert, Earl of Gloucester, dies at Gloucester (31
Oct.), and is buried at Bristol. The Empress Matilda retires
to Normandy (Nov.), and sends over her, son Henry (now 14)
to carry on the contest. He. and his cousin Roger of Warwick
hold Worcester and its castle, and repel an attack by ..the
royal forces.

132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Stephen and his queen keep their Christmas at Lincoln, and
several barons take the oath of fealty to Eustace (now 12) as
heir-apparent. The pope deprives William Fitzherbert (Stephen's nominee)
of the see of York, and makes Henry Murdach (Abbot of the
Fountains) archbishop.
1148. Stephen, on account of the pope's adverse action,
forbids the English bishops to attend' the Council of Rheims.
Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, disobeys the injunction,
and- Stephen banishes him. Theobald excommunicates Ste
phen and his adherents, and the pope lays England under an
interdict.^ Stephen gives way, restores Theobald, and recog
nizes Murdach as Archbishop of York.
Stephen and his queen found the royal abbey at Feyersham
in Kent.
1149. The young prince, Henry of Anjou (now 16 years
old), goes from Normandy to Scotland, and is knighted by his
uncle King David I. Stephen gathers an army to meet their
expected invasion, and Henry, not being strong enough to risk
a battle, returns to Normandy, which Geoffrey makes over to
him as its duke.
Theobald brings Vacarius from Rome to iecture on the civil
law at Oxford.
1151. Matilda of Boulogne, Stephen's queen, uies (3 May),
aged about 45, and is buried at her own recently erected
abbey at Feversham. She leaves three children, Eustace,
William, and Mary.
Louis VII., King of France, as overlord of Normandy, con
fers the duchy upon Henry of Anjou (now 18). Geoffrey
Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, dies (7 Sept.) ; his son Henry
succeeds him, becoming Count of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine,
as well as Duke of Normandy.
Stephen sends his son Eustace (how 16) to the court of
Louis VII., who, having quarrelled with Henry of Anjou, re
invests Eustace with the Duchy of Normandy and attacks it ;
Henry successfully defends himself.
Theobald holds a council at London, which adopts the
cause of Henry, as successor to Stephen.
1152. Henry of Anjou marries Eleanor of Aquitaine (18
May), and thereby becomes master of Aquitaine.
Stephen asks Theobald to, crown his. son Eustace as the
acknowledged heir to the throne, but neither he nor any bishop
will perform the ceremony. Theobald produces a letter or
bull from Pope, Eugenius III. forbidding them to allow it.
This bull has been procured by the foresight of Thomas a

jlaiZ iiwniiiAjH Gujn i^u'EST. 133
Becket. Stephen is incensed at the refusal, and Theobald
sends Thomas a Becket to Normandy to invite Henry of An
jou to come to England to assert his right to the succession.
William, eldest son of Henry of Anjou, is born.
1153. Henry, having made a truce with Louis VII., lands
in England (Jan.) with a small force, and being joined by
other troops advances to relieve Wallingford, where Bryan
Fitz-Count (a partisan of Henry's) is being besieged by
Eustace, Stephen having gone to London to raise men and.
supplies. Stephen comes to Wallingford and opens negotia
tions for peace with Henry, but nothing is settled, and the
armies separate. Bigot declares for Henry and holds Ipswich
in Suffolk for him. Stephen goes to besiege the town, rav
aging the country and plundering the monastery of Bury St.
Edmunds on the way. Henry goes by way of Nottingham to
relieve, Ipswich. Eustace dies (18 Aug.), most likely of brain-
fever, and is buried beside his mother at Feversham Abbey.
Through the intervention of Theobald and Henry, Bishop
of Winchester, a formal treaty between Stephen and Henry of
Anjou is signed at Winchester (7 Nov.), Stephen to remain
king as long as he lives, Henry to succeed him, and Stephen's
sole surviving son William to take the countships of Boulogne
and Mortain. Stephen adopts Henry as his son and heir, and
the barons swear fealty to him at Oxford as their future king.
Henry de Pudsey (or Puisey), a nephew of Stephen's, is
made Bishop of Durham. David I., King of Scotland, dies
(24 May) ;. his grandson Malcolm IV. succeeds him.
1154. While riding near Dover, Stephen's son William
attempts to capture Henry of Anjou, but is thrown from his
horse and breaks his leg. Henry escapes to Canterbury, and
then, goes to Normandy. Stephen dies at Dover Priory
(25 Oct.),' aged. about 60, and. is buried beside his wife at
Feversham Abbey. Henry Plantagenet of Anjou succeeds to
the throne without disturbance as Henry II.
With Stephen the Norman line of William the Conqueror
may be said to terminate. During his anarchical reign the
condition of England was more dreadful than it has been at
any other period of its history. A terrible picture of the hor
rors of the time is drawn in the contemporary pages of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. "When the traitors [i.e., the barons]
perceived that he [Stephen] was a mild man, and soft and
good, and did no justice, then did they all wonder. They had
done homage to him, and sworn oaths, but kept no faith ; for
every powerful man made his castles, and held them against
him, and they filled the land full of castles. They cruelly

134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
oppressed the wretched men of the land with castle-works.
When the castles were made they filled them with devils and
evil men. Then they took those men that they thought had
any property, both by night and by day, peasant men and
women, and put them in prisori for their gold and silver, and
tortured thein with unutterable tortures ; for never were mar
tyrs so tortured as they were. They hanged up men by their
feet and smoked them with foul smoke. Some were hanged
up by their thumbs, others by the head, and burning things
were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about
men's heads, and writhed them till they went to the brain.
They put men into dungeons where adders and snakes and
toads were crawling, and killed them so. Some they put into
a chest, short and narrow; and not deep, and that had sharp
stones within, and forced men therein so that they broke all
their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful and grim
things called rachenteges, which two or three men had enough
to do to carry. It was thus made : it was fastened to a beam,
and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat, so
that he might noways sit, or lie, or sleep, but he bore all the
iron. Many thousands they killed With hunger; I cannot and
may not tell all the wounds or all the tortures which they in
flicted on wretched men in this land, and that lasted the nine
teen years while Stephen was king; and ever it was worse and
worse. They laid imposts on the towns continually, and when
the wretched men had no more to giye they robbed and
burned all the towns, so that thou mightest well go all a day's
journey and thou should'st never find a man sitting in a town,
or -the land tilled. Then was corn dear, and flesh,- and
cheese, and butter, for there was none in the land; wretched
men starved with hunger ; some lived on alms who had ere-
while been rich ; some fled the country; never yet had more
wretchedness been in the land, nor never acted heathens
worse than these. At length they spared neither church nor
churchyard, but they took all that was valuable therein,- and
then burned the church and all together. Nor forbore they
a bishop's land, nor an abbot's, nor a priest's, but robbed
monks and clerks, and every man another who anywhere
could. If two or three men came riding to a town, all the
township , fled before them, iriiagining them to be robbers.
The bishops and the clergy constantly cursed them, but noth
ing came of it ; for they were all accursed, and forsworn, and
lost. However a man tilled, the earth bare no corn, for the
land was all foredone by such deeds; and they said openly that
Christ and his saints slept."

±a.m AJNUEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 135

CHAPTER VII.
THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. — THE STRUGGLE EOR
SUPREMACY BETWEEN THE CROWN AND THE
FEUDAL ARISTOCRACY.
1154. Henry Plantagenet of Anjou (now 21), after repress
ing an insurrection in Guienne, and securing the friendship
of Louis VII., comes to England (7 Dec), and is crowned at
Westminster Abbey, as Henry II. (19 Dec). He is now ruler of
England, Normandy, Maine, Touraine, Anjou, and Aquitaine ;
also overlord (in some sort) of Wales and Scotland, and after
1166 of Brittany, and after 1172 of Ireland.
He appoints Thoma's a Bucket (already Archdeacon of Can
terbury and Provost of Beverly) his chancellor, and guardian
of the Tower of London.
Eugenius III. dies, and Nicholas Breakspear, the only Eng
lishman who has ever filled the office, is made pope as Adrian
IV. 1154-6. During these years Henry destroys an immense
number (1150 according to some authorities) of feudal castles
throughout the country, and brings the great feudal lords into
subjection. 1155. He expels Peveril (who had poisoned Ranulf, Earl
of Chester) from his earldom of Nottingham (Feb.).
Malcolm IV., King of Scotland, invades.England and occupies
the three northern counties ; Henry marches against him,
_ compels him to restore them, and makes him do homage as
Earl of Huntingdon, which he had claimed as a descendant of
Waltheof. Prince Henry, the king's second son, is born at London (28
Feb.). Pope Adrian IV. issues a bull authorizing Henry to conquer
Ireland. 1156. Henry II.'s younger brother Geoffrey claims Anjou,
and Benryr leaving the administration of English affairs to
Robert, Earl of Leicester, his justiciary,' goes over and reduces
Anjou by force of arms. On the invitation of the people of

136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Nantes, Geoffrey goes there and becomes their lord. Henry
returns to England and completes the defeat of Malcolm IV. by
recapturing the castles at Bamborough, Newcastle, and Car
lisle ; Malcolm again does homage to him for Huntingdon,
and for several years follows Henry to his wars as a great Eng
lish noble.
Henry IL has fealty sworn to his eldest son William (now 4),
as future king ; but William dies soon after, leaving Prince
Henry as heir-appareht.
1157. Henry leads an expedition into Wales against Owen
Gwynneth at the instigation of Cadwallader, his fugitive
brother, but is unsuccessful. This occasion is noteworthy as
being the first on which money was accepted instead of the
personal service required by feudal custom. - This money-
payment, called "scutage" (or shield-money), did much to
weaken the feudal lords by. enabling their tenants to exempt
themselves from personal service and so cease to be soldiers.
Henry's third son Richard (" the lion-hearted ") is born at
Oxford (13 Sep.).
1158. Henry's brother Geoffrey dies, and Henry .goes to
Normandy to take possession of Nantes as his heir. To effect
this object he sends Becket as ambassador to Louis VII. to
ask his daughter Margaret in marriage for Prince Henry (now
3 years old). King Henry meets Louis on the Epte, returns
with him to Paris, and receives from Louis the young princess,
whom he entrusts to Robert of Neuburg, Judiciary of Nor
mandy. Henry then secures Nantes without difficulty, and
with it a hold on Brittany.
Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II. , is born (23 Sep.).
1159. Henry undertakes "the War of Toulouse," to en
force his wife's claims to the country of Toulouse (the country
along the Mediterranean between Toulouse and the Rhone.)
Malcolm of Scotland joins him with 45 ships ; a Welsh prince
also joins the army, and Becket comes at the head of 700 well-
armed men. The practice of paying scutage in lieu of per
sonal service is now definitively established, the payment
being fixed at two marks for every knight's fee.* Louis VII. of
France goes to the aid of Toulouse, and Henry refrains from
attacking him, but gains his object by ravaging the country
and capturing the castles.
He makes a contract of marriage between his son Richard
* A. mark was 13s. 4d., and as there were at this time about 60,000
knight's fees in England, the total sum which ought to have been
raised was £80,000. The sum actually paid seems not to have been
more than £16,000.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 137
(now 2 years old) and Berengaria, the daughter of Count
Raymond of Barcelona in Spain.
1160. Henry II. and Louis VII. make a treaty of alli
ance (Oct. ), and Prince Henry (now 5 years old) is formally
betrothed to Louis's daughter Margaret, and the marriage
takes place (2 Nov.).
1161. Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (18 Ap. ).
Henry, acting in conjunction with Louis VII. of France, and
with the same object as the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,
has determined to check the growing pretensions ofthe Church,
which has for some time claimed, among other innovation0, that
ecclesiastics are not amenable to secular jurisdiction.* Henry,
deeming Becket a good instrument to effect his intended re
forms, offers him the vacant see, but he declines it.
1162. Becket is prevailed on to accept, and. is ordained
priest and elected archbishop (24 May) and consecrated (27
May). 1163. He attends the Council of Tours (19 May), and
returns filled with high notions as to the power of the Church.
He resigns his chancellorship and other 'secular offices, and
becomes an ambitious and fanatical ecclesiastic. He opposes
a change which Henry proposes in the assessment of a certain
tax (probably the Danegeld), and they quarrel in consequence.
He demands homage from some barons as tenants of the see
of Canterbury and- not of the king, and refuses to pay the
customary tax for the sheriff. An ecclesiastic named Philip
Brois commits a murder, and is found guilty at the Dunstable
assizes. Becket insists on his being withdrawn from the sec
ular jurisdiction, and sentences him to two years' loss of his
benefice. Henry, incensed at this miscarriage of justice, calls
a council at Westminster (Oct.), and demands of the bishops
whether they will accept the ancient customs of the country ;
and they all, including Becket, agree to accept them, adding,
however, by Becket's advice, the words, "saving their order."
' 1164. Henry; so 'as to bind the clergy beyond equivoca
tion, has these customs put into writing, and he calls a coun-
* This and other preposterous claims were based upon the False
Decretals and the Decretal of Gratian. The genuine Decretals are
letters of the early popes answering questions raised by the bishops,
and were first collected in 550 by Dionysius Exiguus. The False or
Isidorian Decretals were similar letters purporting to be written by
the early popes, exaggerating the papal authority, forged between
835 and 845, and interpolated into the collection of genuine decretals ;
they were sanctioned by Pope Nicholas I. about 860. Gratian's Decre
tal was a collection of papal decisions . produced for the first time' in
1151 by Gratian, a Benedictine monk of Tuscany.

138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
cil at Clarendon (25 Jan.), near Marlborough, in Wilts, which'
passes them in the form known as "the Constitutions of
Clarendon," containing 16 clauses. Ecclesiastics guilty of
crimes were to be amenable^ to the civil courts ; questions. as
to land claimed by the clergy were to be tried by a jury ; the
king was to be the ultimate hearer of appeals ; bishops were
not to excommunicate the king's men or to leave the country
without license ; elections of bishops were to be held in the
king's chapel, with the consent of those whom he , should
summon, and the bishop elected, was to swear fealty to the
king. Becket, after much hesitatiori, .seals these constitu
tions (25 Janl ). The pope, Alexander III., refuses to acknowl
edge their validity, whereupon Becket repents of having
accepted them, and gets absolution from the pope for- having
done so.
Henry, apparently determined to compel Becket's submis
sion, calls a council at Northampton (7 Oct.), at which three =
suits are brought against him for lands and money, and he
is also ordered to account for the sum of 30,000 marks received
by him as chancellor from vacant benefices. On resigning
the chancellorship he had been discharged from all liability
on this account by Prince Henry and Richard de Lucy the jus
ticiary, but not by the king. Becket declines to plead to the
charge, places himself and the Church under the protection of
the pope and of God, leaves Northampton at night (13 Oct.),
crosses the Channel, lands at Gravelines in Flanders (2 Novi),
and takes refuge in the abbey of St. Bertin, and afterward
at the Cistercian Abbey at Pontigny in Burgundy. Both par
ties appeal to Pdpe Alexander III., then at Sens in Trance,
who, though leaning to the side of Becket, decides nothing. "
Henry confiscates the revenues of the see of Canterbury, ban
ishes all Becket's adherents, and forbids all intercourse
between England and the pope.
1165. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sends his chan
cellor, ' Reginald of Cologne, to England to ask two of Hen
ry's daughters' in marriage, one for his son, the other for
Henry the Lion, of Saxony. Henry sends an embassy in re^
turn with a view to joint action with Frederick against the
pope. The pope now temporizes with Henry.
Henry again invades Wales without much success. ' '
1166. A treaty of marriage is made between Henry's
fourth son Geoffrey, and Constance, the daughter of Conan
of Brittany and Richmond, who grants Brittany (except
Guingamp) to Henry ; i,he barons of Brittany swear fealty to
Henry at Thouars; •

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 139
A council at Oxford condemns 30 German heretics, who,
being branded and cast out, die of hunger.
Henry, at the Assize; of. Clarendon, establishes a new judi
cial system, formally instituting the jury system in criminal
. trials. The pope returns from Sens to Rome, and Becket, freed
from his moderating influence, goes to Vezelay, and in the
church there excommunicates those who have entered into
possession of his confiscated estates in England, and also the
Archdeacon of Canterbury for not remitting the income of
the see (12 June).
Diarmid or Dermot, King of Leinster, being driven from
Ireland, comes to Henry II. and offers to become his vassal, if
reinstated. Henry refuses the offer, but allows him to apply
to his barons.
1167. The pope, who is in need of all the help he can get
to carry on his contest with Frederick Barbarossa, and conse
quently does not wish to break entirely with Henry, disap
proves of Beckett violent proceedings, and with a view to
thwart him appoints legates to examine into his dispute with
Henry, thus superseding Becket's legatine authority. The leg
ates conditionally remove the excommunications pronounced by
Becket, and the pope suspends him from the exercise of his
office as archbishop. Becket, however, repeats his excommu
nications.
' Louis VII. of France makes war on Henry ; disturbances
break out in Brittany ; and the Counts of Marche, Angouleme,
and Limousin lay waste his dominions in south-west France.
1168. Henry suppresses the disturbances in Brittany.
The pope sends him a commission, and he is compelled
virtually to accept Becket's demands, but the quarrel still
remains open.
1169. vHenry II. makes peace at Montmirail (6 Jan.) with
Louis VII. and his other enemies. He meets Becket at Mont
mirail in the presence of Louis, but Becket refuses to submit
except with the condition, " saving the honor of God," and
nothing is done. Another equally fruitless meeting takes place
at Montmatre. The pope is anxious to end the quarrel, and
absolves the Bishops of London and Salisbury whom Becket
had excommunicated.
At the invitation of Diarmid, or Dermot, King of Leinster,
in Ireland, Robert Fitz-Stephen and his half-brother Maurice
Fitzgerald, with a band of about 600 Welsh and Normans,
cross from Wales to Wexford (24 June), to assist Dermot
against Roderic O'Connor of Connaught.

140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
1170. Henry II. has his eldest surviving son, Henry (now
15), crowned at Westminster as heir-apparent by the Arch
bishop of York and other prelates {14 June). This being
an invasion of the rights of the Archbishop of Canterbury,
produces a great outcry, and Becket threatens to lay Eng
land under an interdict ; Louis Vll. of France is also angry
because his daughter Margaret (Prince Henry's wife) was not
crowned with him. The feeling is so strong that Henry yields
completely, goes over to France, and at Fretheval or Fretaval
(near Blois) meets Becket, and is outwardly reconciled to him
(22 July),.though Henry still refuses the kiss of peace. Henry
remains in France ; but Becket ventures back to England (1
Dec), and continues his obstinate course by excommunicating
the lay occupants of the property of his see, and also the
Archbishop Of York and the Bishops of London and Salis
bury, the last three for having taken part in the coronation of
Prince Henry. When King Henry in Normandy hears of these
proceedings, hecries out in rage : " Will no one deliver meirom
this turbulent priest ? " Four of his knights, William de Tracy,
Hugh de Morville, Richard Brito, and Reginald Fitz-Urse,
take him at his word, cross over to England, demand from the
archbishop the withdrawal of the excommunications against
the bishops, and on his refusal they murder him on the steps
of the altar of Canterbury Cathedral (29 Dec). On 3 Mar.,
1173, he was canonized by Pope Alexander III. as St. Thomas;
and his shrine at Canterbury was for three centuries the favor
ite place of pilgrimage for Englishmen. His saint's day is 29
Dec, the day of his death.
At the invitation of Dermot, King of Leinster, Richard of
Clare, Count of Steigul and Earl of Pembroke (surnamed
Strongbow)', following in the wake of Robert Fitz-Stephen,
sails from Milford" Haven to Wexford with a larger force
(Aug.). He takes Waterford and Dublin, and marries Der-
mot's daughter Eva.
1171. Henry II. sends ambassadors to the pope, to deny
all complicity with Becket's murder. The pope excommuni
cates the murderers, and appoints legates to ascertain the
guilty parties. Henry returns from France to England.
Dermot, King of Leinster, dies, and Strongbow, as his
son-in-law and heir, succeeds him as king. Henry, dread
ing the establishment of an independent Norman power in
Ireland by his own vassal, determines to go thither himself.
Pope Alexander III. grants him a bull (confirming that of
Adrian IV. of 1155) authorizing the conquest of Ireland, in
order that (in the words of the bull itself) ''the barbarous

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 141
people of Ireland, by your means, be recovered from their fil
thy life and abominable conversation ; that, as in name, so in
manners and conversation, they mav be Christians." Henry
reaches Waterford (18 Oct.) with a" fleet of 400 ships and an
army of 4000 or 5000 men, and Strongbow,and several Irish
chiefs swear fealty to him as their lord. Roderic O'Connor,
the overking of the island, receives his envoys.
All the Irish bishops and archbishops take the oath of fealty
to Henry, and at the Synod of Cashel (6 Nov.) the Roman dis
cipline is introduced. Henry goes to Dublin (12 Nov.), and,
in a wooden palace just outside the walls, grants various lands
in Ireland to his vassals ; English colonists are placed in Dub
lin and other towns ; and he makes Hugh de Lacy Earl of
Meath and viceroy.
1172. Henry II. leaves Ireland (17 Ap.). Prince Henry is
recrowned, his wife Margaret, daughter of Louis VII. , being
crowned with him. Henry II.. goes to Normandy (May), and
at Avranches meets the papal legates (21 May) ; he swears
that he had no hand in the murder of Becket, and, among
other things, promises to support Alexander III. against the
anti-pope and to abrogate the Constitutions of Clarendon ;
whereupon the pope becomes reconciled with him. The ques
tion of the supremacy of the civil power was, however, in
reality still left open.
1173. Richard Fitz-Gislebert, Earl of Pembroke, is made
viceroy in Ireland. Eleauof, King Henry's queen, having
become estranged from him, encourages their sons to rebel
against him. For this offence she is imprisoned for 16 years,
till Henry's death in 1189. The king's sons, Henry, Richard,
and Geoffrey, flee to France (8 Mar.).
1174. Henry arranges for a marriage between his young
est son John and the daughter of Count Humbold of Savoy,
promising to give Chinon, Loudon, and Mirabeau to John.
Prince Henry protests against the treaty, goes to Louis VII. at
St. Denis, and they make war on Henry, against whom a gen
eral insurrection breaks out, the outcome of the feeling roused
against him by Becket's death. Aquitaine and Brittany
revolt ; the earls of middle and northern England revolt ; the
Flemings, headed' by the Earl of Leicester, invade Suffolk ;
Philip of Flanders assembles a fleet at Whitsand; Henry's sons
Richard and Geoffrey join the insurgents ; William the Lion,
King of Scotland, invades Northumberland, and after besieg
ing in vain the border castles, advances to Alnwick.
The Flemings are defeated at Farnham, near Bury St.
Edmunds, in Suffolk ; Henry wins a great battle at Dol in

142 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
Brittany, returns to England, and does penance at Becket's
< shrine at Canterbury (12 July) ; Rahulf de Glanvil defeats
the Scotch at Alnwick and takes William the Lion prisoner
(13 July) ; and by July the English nobles return to their alle
giance, and Prince David withdraws the remnant of the Scofc
tise force. Henry returns to Normandy and raises the siege
of Rouen (14 Aug.) ;' the insurrection is finally put down, and
Henry and Louis VII. make peace. Henry, grants to his son
Richard two -castles in Poitou, with half its revenues ; and to
his son Geoffrey two castles in Brittany, with half its revenues.
William the Lion is released (8 Dec.) on condition of swear
ing fealty to Henry.
Bulls from Rome are received and accepted in Ireland,
authorizing Henry's conquest of the country, and the collec
tion of Peter's pence.
Richard, Prior of Dover, is appointed to the see of Canter
bury, vacant since Becket's death in 1170.
1175. Henry 1 1, holds a council at Windsor at which Roderio
O'Connor, the Irish king, makes his submission; a treaty is
made by which he agrees to pay a yearly tribute and is
acknowledged as chief of all the Irish princes save King
Henry and his knights. Outside the small district actually
conquered, and known as the English Pale, the native Irish
laws, known as the Brehon Law, continue to prevail. The
English Pale was at this time nearly coextensive with the
present counties of Louth, Meath, part of Westmeath,
Dublin, Kildare, and Wicklow, occupying about one-tenth
of the island. In consequence of repeated attacks from
the Irish outside it shrank in size, till by the time of Henry ,
VII. (1485) it had become reduced to about half of its original
area. William the Lion of Scotland, his brother, and all his
barons, come to York and swear fealty to Henry, doing hom
age for Scotland, for Galloway, and for their English posses
sions ; and the Scotch clergy acknowledge the supremacy of
the Archbishop of York.
1176. Prince Henry leaves the court of Louis VII. and
becomes reconciled to his father, King Henry II.
A great Assize is held at Northampton, at which judicial
and constitutional changes are made, and the country is
divided into six circuits.
1178. Henry II. restricts the Curia Regis ("King's
Court ") to five persons, reserving final appeals to himself and
the old Curi'a Regis, which • becomes his ordinary council, now
represented by the Privy Council.

THE ANGEV.IN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 143
1179. Louis VII., King of France, makes a pilgrimage to
Becket's tomb at Canterbury (Sep.).
1180. Louis VII., King of France, dies (18 Sep.) ; his
son Philip Augustus (Philip II.) succeeds him, and proves as
inimical to Henry II. as his father had been.
1181. The Assize of Arms revives arid reorganizes the
old national militia, or fyrd of the Anglo-Saxon times ; all
freemen are required to furnish arms suited to their rank and
means. 1183. The barons of Aquitaine, under Bertram de Born,
rise against the rule of Henry's son Richard, and are joined
by Henry's other sons, Prince Henry and Geoffrey of Brittany,
backed by Philip II. King Henry goes to the assistance of
Richard ; Prince Henry dies at Martel, near Limoges (11
June) ; and King Henry and Richard subdue the refractory
barons. 1184. Henry II., as a recompense for his assistance, de
mands from Richard a part of Aquitaine for his favorite son
John ; Richard refuses it, and his brothers John and Geoffivy
make war on him. Henry II. commands them to make peace;
and the three brothers are reconciled at a council held in
London (30 Nov.).
Heraclius, Bishop of Jerusalem, comes to France and Eng
land to urge, the two kings to undertake a new crusade.
1185. Geoffrey demands Anjou from his father Henry II.,
and on being refused, goes to Philip II. , King of France.
1186. Geoffrey is accidentally killed at a tournament in
Paris (19 Aug.), and Philip II., as overlord of Brittany,
claims the guardianship of his young son Arthur. I
1187. War again breaks out between Henry II. and
Philip II.
At the great battle of Hettin or Tiberias (4 July), in Pales
tine, the Christians are defeated by the Mohammedans under
Saladin; Saladin captures Jerusalem (2 Oct.), and a third
crusade for its recovery is decided on.
1188. In order to be free to join in the crusade, Henry II.
and Philip II. meet under an old elm at Gisors (the usual "
place of treaty between the English and French kings) and
make peaee (18 Nov.). Henry imposes a tax ("the Saladin
tax") of a tenth on all property in England, to cover the
expenses of the crusade.
1189. Richard (Henry's^on) attacks Raymond of Toulouse,
a feudatory of Philip II. ; Philip thereupon vows eternal hos^
tility against the Enilish, and has the old elm at Gisors cut
down, Richard quarrels with his father, and, with other

144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
nobles, goes over to the side of Philip II., who attacks Henry
II. successfully, capturing Le Mans and Tours (14 June).
Henry thereupon meets Philip II.. and Richard at Colombieres
and makes. submission, promising to pay Philip 50,000 marks
for the restoration, of the territory conquered by him (28
June). Henry asks for a list of those who had joined Richard
in rebellion, and on finding at the head of it the name of his
favorite son John, he dies of a broken heart (6 July) at Chinon,
aged 56. His rebellious son Richard "the lion-hearted"
succeeds him.
Richard I. liberates his mother Eleanor (July), arrives in
England (13 Aug.), is crowned at Westminister Abbey (3 Sep.).
Jews * are prohibited from attending the consecration of
Richard as king ; some of them attend in spite of the prohi
bition and are attacked by the soldiery, which leads to assaults
upon them in all parts of London and in other places in Eng
land, so that some .purchase safety by conversion.
In order to procure money to pay the expenses of joining
the crusade, Richard puts up for sale all offices, including earl
doms, bishoprics, seats on the judicial bench, and city charters,
and relinquishes the overlordship of Scotland for 10,000
marks (5 Dec). Richard then leaves England (11 Dec.) to
join in the third crusade, -constituting William Longchamp
(Bishop of Ely, chancellor, chief justiciary, and papal legate)
regent during his absence.-
1190. The persecution of the Jews continues, many being
killed in Stamford and Nottingham. In York they take
refuge in the castle, and on being besieged, kill their women
and children, set fire to the tower, and perish in the flames
(17 Mar.).
An English fleet, with troops for the third crusade, sails
from Da tmouth in Devonshire (Ap. ) to the Mediterranean,
reaches Marseilles (22 Aug.), and Messina, in Sicily (14 Sep.).
Richard, I. collects at Tours an army from his possessions in
France, joins Philip II. and the French forces at Vezelay
(1 July), embarks at Marseilles (7 Aug.), and reaches Messina
(23 Sep.).
1191. Philip II. of France sails with his army from Sicily
(30 Mar.), and reaches Acre in Syria (20 Ap.).
* Jews had been admitted into England for the first time during the
reign of William the Conqueror, and had established themselves in
various towns, in separate districts called Jewries. In consequence
of their religion they were viewed by the people with hatred and
contempt, were not admitted to full citizenship, nor under the pro
tection of the common law, but were entirely in the king's power,

- THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 145
The dowager queen, Eleanor (widow of Henry II.), art-ives
at Messina with Princess Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI.,
King of Navarre. The English fleet sails -from Sicily (10 Ap.)
for Palestine, but is scattered by a storm ; Berengaria is driven
to Cyprus ; Richard I. reaches Rhodes (22 Ap.), goes to
Cyprus, and marries Berengaria at Limasol (12' May), and she
is crowned queen (12). Richard arrives at Acre (8 June),
and it surrenders (12 July). The two kings quarrel, and
Philip II. abandons the crusade, and sails from Acre (31 July)
for France. Richard defeats the Saracens at Arsouf (7 Sep.).
During Richard's absence his younger brother John, wish
ing to. promote his own speedy succession to the throne,
seizes the royal castles at Nottingham and Tickill ; William
Longchamp, the regent, instead of upholding Richard's au
thority, supports the claims of Arthur of Brittany, the son of
John's elder brother Geoffrey. Envoys from Richard come to
England, and dismiss the regent from his. office (10 Oct.) ;
he takes refuge, in France ; and Walter, Archbishop of Rouen,
is put in his place.
1192. Philip II. returns from Palestine to Paris (Dec),
and intrigues with John to make him master of England arid
Normandy; the dowager queen, Eleanor (widow of Henry II.),
puts a stop to the plot ; but, nevertheless, affairs in England
fall into disorder.
Richard I. defeats Saladin (Aug.), but falls ill, and- makes
a truce with him for three years and eight months (2 Sep.),
which gives to Christians freedom of pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
Richard sails from Acre (9 Oct.) ; his ship is driven to Corfu
(11 Nov.), and afterwards wrecked in the Adriatic ; he lands
and attempts to make his way through Germany in disguise,
as "Hugh the Merchant." At Vienna he is recognized,
seized by Leopold, Duke of Austria (20 Dec), and by him
sold to the emperor, Henry VI. (28 Dec), who imprisons him
at Diirrenstein, on the Danube, about 50 miles west of Vienna.
1193. John, when the news of his brother Richard's im
prisonment reaches him, goes over to France and makes an
^alliance with Philip II. , and returning to England, gets pos
session of Wallingford and Windsor. Philip co-operates by
invading Normandy, but meets with a shameful repulse before
Rouen. Richard I. is tried before the diet at Hagenau (after Easter,
28 Mar. ) on charges connected with his conduct in Palestine ;
he clears himself on oath from the murder of Conrad ; and
his ransom is fixed at 150,000 marks (equal to about £1,250-
000 in present money), 28 June,

146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
1194. About 70,000 marks having been paid on account
of Richard's ransom, and hostages given for the remainder, he
is liberated (4 Feb.). An English ' fleet - goes to Antwerp for
him, and he lands at Sandwich in Kent (20 Mar.), ;md John's
intrigues against him at once collapse; John's accomplices are
punished at a council held at Northampton. Richard, in
order to remove the stain of his captivity, has himself, re-
crowned at Winchester (17 Ap.). He then goes to Nor-
-mandy (May), and begins a war with Philip II., which Jasts
almost continuously during the remaining 5 years of his reign.
He defeats Philip at Fretaval (15 July); the French retire
from Normandy, Touraine, aud Maine, and beg a year's truce
(23 July). During his absence, Hubert Walter, Archbishop
of Canterbury, justiciary and papal legate, administers well
the affairs of the country sis regent.
1 197. Philip II. is taken prisoner by Richard's ally, Baldwin
IX., Count .of Flanders, but is liberated on promising peace.
1198. Richard I. defeats Philip II. at Gisors (20 Sep.),
Philip narrowly escaping with his life.
1199. Through the influence of the pope, a 5 yearb' truce
is made between Richard and Philip (13 Jan.).
Before disbanding his troops, Richard leads them to sin
attack on the castle of Chaluz,, to recover some treasure
which he claims from the Count of Limoges. Richard is
wounded in, the shoulder by an arrow shot by Bertrand de
Gourdon (28 Mar.), and dies (6 Ap.), aged 41. Richard
is said to have ordered his slayer's life to be spared, but Mer-
cadj, the leader of his mercenaries, has Bertrand flayed and
hanged. Richard had named John as his successor, thus set
ting aside the superior claims of Arthur (now 12 years old),
the son of John's elder brother Geoffrey.
Geoffrey's, widow Constance takes the young Prince Arthur
to Philip II., who invades Normandy; but John, with the as
sistance of his mother Eleanor (ex-queen of Henry IL, now
77 years old), repels the invasion, and is crowned at Rouen (25
Ap.). He had already sent Hubert Walter, Archbishop of
Canterbury, and others to England, where they had compelled
the nobles to take the oath of allegiance to him ; and John
himself1 now follows, and is crowned at Westminster Abbev
(27 May).
1200. Philip II.. marries. Ingelborga of Denmark, but soon
puts her away and marries Agnes de Meranie, whereupon Pope
Innocent III. lays France under an interdict ; under these cir
cumstances Philip is glad to give up the cause of Arthur and
make peace with John (23 May), ,

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 147
John carries off Isabella, the daughter of the Count of An-
goureme, from the Count de la Marche, her betrothed husband,
and marries her ; and a revolt brSaks out in Poitou in conse
quence. John and Isabella are crowned together at Westmin
ster Abbey (8 Oct.).
William the Lion, King of Scotland, comes to Lincoln,
and does homage to John as overlord of Scotland (22 Nov.).
John wants to raise an army to put down the revolt in Poi
tou, but his barons refuse, meet at Leicester, and demand their
rights. 1201. John goes to Paris on the invitation of Philip II.
(July) ; the barons, of Poitou (probably instigated by Philip)
lodge complaints against him ; the feudal Court of Peers gives
judgment against him, declaring all the fiefs held by him from
Philip II. (including Normandy) forfeit ; and Philip again
raises the' claims ofv Arthur.
.1202. Arthur (now 15) invades Poitou and besieges Eleanor
(his grandmother, the ex-queen of Henry II.) in Mirabeau ;
John advances, rescues his mother (31 July), takes Arthur
prisoner, and imprisons him at Falaise in Normandy.
1203. Arthur is removed from Falaise to Rouen, in charge
of Robert de Vipont, and disappears. The commonly accept
ed story was that he was there murdered by John (his uncle),
and that his body was thrown into the Seine^probably in Ap, ).
The Norman barons desert John and go over to Philip, and
John returns to England (Dec).
1204-5. Philip II. conquers Normandy (July) and part
of Poitou.
1205. Hubert Walter; Archbishop of Canterbury, and prin
cipal minister of John, dies (13 July). The younger monks
elect Reginald as his successor ; the elder monks, backed by
John, elect John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich. The bishops,
not having been consulted, object to both elections. All parties
appeal to Pope Innocent III. to settle the question.
1206. John invades France (June), takes Montauban
(1 Aug.), burns Angers (Sep.); makes a two years' peace with
Philip II., giving up all- claim to Normandy and Poitou (Sep.);
and returns to England (Dec).
1207. The pope rules that neither the bishops nor the
king have a voice in the election of the Archbishop of Canter
bury, but that the, election rests solely with the monks. He, how
ever, declares the election of Reginald irregular, and orders the
monks (many of whom have come to Rome) to at once elect
his friend and fellow-student Stephen Langton (Cardinal of
St. Chrysagonus). This they do, and the pope consecrates

148 * HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
him at Viterbo (17 June). John refuses to recognize the
election, and drives the monks of Canterbury from their mon
astery (15 July). *
1208. The pope lays England under an interdict of the
severest form (23 March) ; all services of the Church except
baptism and extreme unction are forbidden, and the dead are not
allowed to be buried in consecrated ground. The interdict is
entrusted by the pope to the Bishops of London, Ely, and Wor
cester, and is published. John thereupon shows such violent
hostility to the Church that all the bishops except those of.
Winchester, Durham, and Norwich flee from England ; the
clergy are put beyond legal protection; and are ordered to be
driven from their benefices.
1209. John advances with an English army to invade Scot
land ; its king, William the Lion, makes complete submission,
pays a large "sum of money, and delivers hostages (including
his daughters Margaret and Isabella) to John (Aug.).
The pope excommunicates John (Nov.), a. blow which
shakes the fidelity even of his ministers. John, however, will
not, give way, and raises money to send to his nephew, the
Emperor Otho, to help him against Philip of Swabia, whom
the pope has set up as a rival emperor.
1210. Hugh de Lacy, the viceroy in Ireland, having as
sumed almost regal rights, John crosses over to Waterford
(June), establishes order, introduces the English form'of admin
istration, makes John de Grey (Bishop of Norwich)r his repre
sentative, and returns to England (Aug.).
1211. In order to put down constant warfare along the
Welsh border, John marches across Wales to Snowdon, where
Llewellyn and other princes submit and give hostages (July).
'The Welsh again rise, and slaughter the castle garrisons ; John
hangs their hostages at Nottingham, and prepares to march
into Wales again. News, however, reaches him of .disaffection
among the northern barons, and he goes to Northumberland,
and seizes fresh hostages from the suspected nobles.
He forms a league with the Emperor Otho and the excom
municated princes of northern Europe (Flanders, Brabant,
and Boulogne) against the pope and Philip II. of France.
In order to carry on the expeditions into Ireland and Wales
John exacts money in the most arbitrary manner ; the clergy
are compelled to pay £100,000 ; the Cistercians, £30,000 or
£40,000 ; and the Jews (many being tortured to. disclose
their wealth), 60,000 marks. These exactions and the em
ployment of foreign mercenaries create universal discontent
throughout England.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 149
1212. Alexander, the son of William the Lion, King of
Scotland, comes to London, is knighted, and swears fealty to
John, as his lord. *
Pope Innocent III. absolves John's subjects from their alle
giance, and Philip II. of France prepares to invade England.
1213. The pope declares John's crown forfeited, and ap
points Philip II. of France to carry out the sentence. John
collects an army at Barhamdown, near Canterbury, to meet
Philip's expected invasion. The pope sends Pandulf to Eng
land a? legate, and John submits, promises to receive Stephen
Langton and the exiled bishops, to restore all Church prop
erty and make good all losses, and at Dover resigns the
crowns of England and Ireland to Pandulf and receives them
from him as the pope's feudatory (15 May). Pandulf goes to
France and forbids Philip to attack John, now that he has
become the pope's vassal. Nicholas of Tusculum comes to
England as legate, and he and John fill vacant benefices with
devoted adherents of John, a proceeding which creates further
discontent. The pope revokes John's excommunication (20
July), takes him under his protection (4 Nov.), and removes
the interdict (6 Dec).
1214. John goes to France (15 Feb.) to make war on
Philip, and at Valenciennes joins' the Count of Flanders and
the Emperor Otho, but the combined forces are decisively
defeated by Philip at Bouvines (27 July). On his return to
England (Oct.) John demands scutage from those barons who
had riot followed him to France, and an insurrection breaks
out. William the Lion, King of Scotland, dies (4 Dec) ; his son
Alexander II. succeeds him.
1215. The barons present their demands to John at the
the New Temple, London (6 Jan.) ; he defers his answer till
Easter. John prepares to resist, and summons troops from
Poitou ; the barons assemble at Brackley, besiege Northamp
ton Castle, are given possession of London (24 May), and
become masters of more than half England. John yields, and
at Runnymede (on the Thames, near Staines, in Surrey) seals
(15 June) the 49 articles prepared by the barons, which were
afterwards embodied into the 63 articles of the Great Charter
(Magna Carta). It guarantees the Church the right to elect
its prelates; tenants against the oppressive enforcement of
feudal obligations ; to cities and towns their ancient fran
chises ; to merchants freedom to buy and sell throughout Eng
land ; to villeins freedom of their wainage from distraint for
fines ; that the Court of Common Pleas shall be held at a fixed

150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
place ; that fines shall be imposed in proportion to the offence
by upright men on oath ; that weights and measures shall be
uniform ; that sheriffs shall not abuse their powers ; and that
no freeman shall be amerced either in person or property
" except through the lawful judgment pf his peers and the
law of the land ; " and the king pledges himself not to sell, re
fuse, or delay justice to any one.
The Charter received numberless confirmations in succeed
ing reigns ; but its final form was fixe/I at its 5th confirma
tion, in 1225, when it was reduced to 37 clauses (9 Hen. HI.,
cap. 29). , y
John, never having intended to .keep the Charter, sends to
Rome to get it annulled (13 Sep.), and the pope disallows it
and orders Stephen Langton to excommunicate the king's ene
mies, which, however, the archbishop declines to do.
John gets a large army of mercenaries from Poitou (Sep.),
and overruns England, burning and slaying everywhere.
1216. The barons, in despair, send for Prince Louis
(Mar.), the Dauphin (the eldest so^ of Philip II., who had
married John's niece), with a view to offer him the crown ; he
arrives with an army (21 May), obtains some successes, and
becomes master of the east and south of England ; but excites
jealousy by granting fiefs to his French followers, and John's
cause again becomes hopeful.
Pope Innocent III. dies (16 or 17 July). Honorius III.
succeeds. The Scotch invade England and advance to Carlisle ; the
Welsh attack the border. John captures Lincoln (22 Sep.)
and crosses the Wash, but the rising tide destroys his train ; he
dies at Newark (19 Oct.), either from grief at his loss, or from
over-eating, or by pofson. His leaders, the Earl of Pembroke
and Gualo, the papal legate, declare John's son Henry (a boy
of 9) king, and he is crowned at Gloucester as Henry III.. (28
Oct.) by Peter, Bishop of Winchester. Pembroke is made
regent, accepts the Charter, and by a policy of conciliation
wins over many of the revolted barons. Hubert de Burgh
successfully def erids Dover against the French.
1217. Pembroke marches against Louis and the insurgent
barons who remain with him, and completely routs them in
a battle fought in the streets of Lincoln, called "the Fair of
Lincoln" (20 May), capturing most of the English leaders.
The English fleet, under Hubert de Burgh and D'Albini, also
defeats the French fleet under, Eustace the Monk, near Dover
(24 Aug.). Louis is granted peace on easy terms, and leaves
England. This peace was signed, at Kingston on Thames (11

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 151
Sep.), and is memorable as the first written treaty between
England and any foreign nation.
1218. Pandulf is elected (but not consecrated) Bishop of
Norwich, and appointed papal legate.
Henry III. abolishes trial by ordeal in England.
1219. The Earl of Pembroke, Regent of England, dies
(Mar.). Pandulf, regarding England as a fief of the papal
see, assumes the government as legate. Henry III. is again
crowned, at Westminster (17 May), by Stephen Langton,
Archbishop of Canterbury. With France Pandulf renews for
four years the Peace of Chinon.
1221. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, goes
to Rome, and procures from the pope the cancellation of
Pandulf's appointment as legate ; and Hubert de Burgh, the
chief justiciary, becomes regent ex-officio. He rules well for 8
years, in spite of the opposition of the foreign party, headed ¦
by Peter des Roches (Bishop of Winchester) and Fa'ukes de
Breaute. This party consisted mostly of foreign mercenaries
whom John had raised to power, and who still occupied the
royal castles. , *
Peace is made with the Scots, and Alexander II. , King of
Scotland, marries Henry's sister Joan, at York (25 June).
Thirteen Dominicans or Black Friars* come to England'
and found their first English house at Oxford. Their second
house in England is soon afterwards established at "Black
Friars " in London. In a few years they found establishments
all over the country.
1223. Philip II., King of France, dies (14 July) ; his son
Louis VIII. succeeds him.
-1224. Faukes de Breaute, one of Hubert de Burgh's oppo
nents, is deprived of.all his offices and banished.
War breaks out between England and France ; it ends in>
Poitou being annexed to France. ¥>
Nine Franciscans \ (or Friars Minor, Minorites, "Lesser
Brethren," or Grey Friars, as they were variously called) land
at Dover (Tuesday, 10 Sep.). Their superior is Brother
Agnellus, of Pisa, appointed by St. Francis himself to be pro-
* Founded in 1215, at Toulouse, by St. Dominic, a Spaniard, a
canon of Osma, for the purpose of preaching against heretics. In
1216 a bull of Pope Honorius III. confirmed their rule, giving them
the distinctive name of Fratres Prcedicantes (" Preaching Friars" or
Brethren, the word friar being simply a modified form of the Latin
f rater, French frdre).
f The Franciscans were founded in 1307 by St. Francis of Assisi.
The order was provisionally sanctioned by Pope Innocent III. in 1209,
and established by Honorius III. in 1223.

152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
vincial minister in England. In 32 years they have 49 houses
in England with 1242 brethren.
1225. The king sends his brother, Earl Richard, to Bor
deaux (Mar.) ; Richard defeats the French, and conquers
Gascony. ' 1226. Louis VIIL, King of France, dies (8 Nov.) ; his son
Louis IX. succeeds him. , •
Otho, the papal legate in England, holds a council at West
minster, and demands, under the pretext of raising money for
the crusade, two benefices in each diocese and each abbey for
the exclusive use of Rome ; Langton opposes the demand and
persuades Pope Honorius III. to withdraw his legate ; and
the clergy declare^ that by the laws of England they are free
from such, exactions.
1227. At a council held at Oxford, Henry III., now 20
years old, is declared of age (Feb.) ; but Hubert de Burgh
continues the government, and is made Earl of Kent, and
justiciary for life. His opponent Peter des Roches withdraws
from England for a time, and goes to the crusade.
1228. Henry III. marches against Llewellyn, Prince of
Wales (Aug.), but concludes a disgraceful peace (Sep.).
Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (9 July).
1229. Richard le Grand, of Wethersted (Chancellor of >
Lincoln), is nominated Archbishop of Canterbury by Pope
Gregory IX., who levies a tithe on all movables in England.
The University of Cambridge receives its first legal recog
nition. 1230. With a, view to recover some of England's former
dominions on the continent, Henry III. invades France (May),
but accomplishes little, and returns home (Oct.), leaving a
small army in France.
1231. Peace for three, years is made with France (5 July).
The people resist the payment of tithes to the pope, and
maltreat his agents.
Richard le Grand, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies.
' Peter des Roches returns from the crusade.
1232. - Through the machinations of Des Roches, charges
are brought against Hubert de Burgh, and he is suspended
from all his offices, which are given to Stephen de Segrave
(July), an ally of Des Roches. Hubert takes refuge in the
priory of Merton in Surrey, but is imprisoned in the Tower,
and afterwards in the castle of Devizes (Oct.).
1233. Under the guidance of Peter des. Roches, Henry
III. fills all offices with foreigners, and brings over foreign
troops ; and civil war breaks out.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 153
Hubert de Burgh escapes from Devizes Castle, and flees to
sanctuary (12 Oct.), and afterwards to Wales, to Richard,
Earl of Pembroke, who defeats the king's troops near Mon
mouth (11 Nov.), and again at Monmouth (25 Nov. and 26
Dec). Edmund Rich (St. Edmund) is elected Archbishop of Can
terbury. 1234. Edmund Rich is consecrated Archbishop of Canter
bury (2 Ap.). The king's troops are defeated (Jan.) ; Arch
bishop Rich threatens to excommunicate him unless he gives
up Des Roches and his other foreign counsellors ; the king
gives way, orders Des Roches to retire to his bishopric of
Winchester, dismisses Stephen Segrave from his office of
justiciary, and rules the country himself. He restores to
Hubert de Burgh his property and his earldom of Kent (28
May). 1235. Robert Grossteste is consecrated Bishop of Lincoln.
Henry III.'s sister Isabel marries the Emperor Frederick II.,
at Worms (20 July).
1236. Henry III. marries Eleanor (14 Jan.), a daughter of
Raymond Berenger, Count of Provence, and a sister of the
French queen. She fills the court with her foreign relations,
and they secure offices, benefices, and estates throughout Eng
land. The favor shown to foreigners creates popular discon
tent. 1237. A madman attempts to murder Henry III. at
Woodstock (9 Sep.).
1238. Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, and ex-
favorite of Henry III., dies (9 June).
1239. The king's eldest son (afterwards Edward I.) is born
at Westminster (lSTJune). •
The Jews, being charged with murder in London (21-22
June), are compelled to surrender one-third of their effects
to the king.
1240. Edmund Rich, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies at
Soissy (16 Nov.), aged about 45 ; in 1246 he is canonized as St.
Edmund by Pope Innocent IV. Boniface of Savoy, the queen's
uncle, is chosen Archbishop of Canterbury ; but is not con
secrated till 1245.
The White Friars or Carmelites (so called from Mount
Carmel, their original abode) first arrive in England.
Henry's personal government becomes worse ; he lavishes
favors on his favorites, one of whom, John Mansell, holds 700
Church livings ; high ecclesiastical offices are given to foreign
ers ; and the pope gives hundreds of benefices to Italian
priests.

154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
1241. The king extorts 20,000 marks from the Jews,
under pain of banishment. David, Prince of Wales; submits
to him (29 Aug.).
The King of France gives Poitou to his brother Alphonso
^(24 June).
1242. Henry III., with the object of regaining Poitou,
lands with an army in Gascony, and begins war against Louis.
IX., Kiug of France, but is defeated by Louis at Taille-
bourg (20 July); Poitou is occupied by the French, and Henry
III. agrees, to a five years' truce.
1243. Henry III. makes peace with France (7 Ap.), giving
up Poitou and the Island of Rhe ; only Gascony now remains to
England of her former continental possessions. Henry returns
to England (25 Sep. ). He extorts more money from the Jews.
1244-7. During these years the heavy exactions of Henry
III. and the pope create great discontent, and Henry's govein!-
ment grows more unpopular.
1248. At a meeting of the council or parliament, in Lon
don (Feb.), the growing discontent is openly expressed, and
charges are made against the king's foreign favorites ; but
Henry continues his course of misgovernment, and demands
tallages from the cities to cover his wasteful expenditure, and
parliament refuses supplies (June).
An insurrection under Gaston of Beam breaks out in Gas
cony, arid Henry sends Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester,
there as governor to put it down.
1249. University College, the first regular college at
Oxford, is founded.
1250. De Montfort puts down the revolt in Gascony,
makes Gaston prisoner, and sends him to England ; but Henry
releases him. De Montfort goes to Paris. Henry again extorts
large sums of money from the Jews.
, The Augustinians or Austin Friars first arrive in England ;
so that by this date what were known as " the Four Orders"
(Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustinians) have
establisht d themselves in the country.
Roger Bacon (now 36) returns from Paris to England, goes
to Oxford, and enters the J/ranciscan Order.
1251. Troubles again break out in Gascony'; Henry III.
recalls De Montfort from Paris, and sends him to restore order
in Gascony. The expenses of the expedition increase Henry's
financial difficulties, and he again raises money by illegal
exactions. Henry's daughter Margaret is married at York to Alexander
III. of Scotland (26 Dec).
There is a famine in England.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 155
1252. De Montfort goes to England to answer charges
made by the Gascons. Henry III. gives Gascony to his son
Prince Edward (now 13), and De Montfort returns thither and
defeats the Gascons.
A council or parliament at London (Oct.) refuses the king's
demand for three years' tithes of the Church to cover the
expenses of his proposed pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Robert Grossteste, Bishop of Lincoln, computes the rev
enues of foreigners intruded by the pope into English bene
fices at 70,000 marks, or more than thrice the revenue of the
king. 1253. Parliament at London (after Easter) grants money
to the king for his pilgrimage, "to be expended at the discre
tion of the nobles ;" the king, in return, confirms Magna
Carta (13 May).
De Montfort resigns the government of Gascony. Alphonso
IV. of Castile claims the country, but Henry III. makes
an alliance with him, and arranges for Prince Edward to
marry Alphonso'^ daughter Eleanor. Henry III. sails from
Portsmouth (6 Aug.) for Bordeaux, and captures some castles
in Gascony, but enrages the people by destroying their vine
yards, whereupon De Montfort goes with troops to his aid,
and the Gascons feign submission.
Robert Grossteste (or Grostete), Bishop of Lincoln, refuses
to induct Pope Innocent IV. 's nephew (an Italian) into a pre
bend at Lincoln, and the pope excommunicates him. He dies
(9 Oct.), aged about 78.
1254. Pope Innocent IV. offers the crown of Sicily to
the king's second son, Edmund (6 Mar.).
Queen Eleanor and her sons join the king in Gascony, and
Prince Edward (now 15) goes to Burgos in Spain, and marries
Eleanor of Castile. The king goes from Gascony to Paris,
where he is splendidly entertained by the French king ; and
he then returns to England.
1255. Henry III: makes further exactions from his sub
jects, and extorts 8000 marks from the Jews. He goes to Scot
land and releases the king and queen (his daughter Margaret)
from the tutelage of the nobles.
The Jews at Lincoln are accused of crucifying a Christian
boy ; 18 are hanged, and over 80 more are sent to the Tower
of London.
Pope Alexander TV. sends Rustand as legate to England,'
who exacts large sums from the English Church.
1256. Pope Alexander IV., to conciliate the clergy, issues
a bull confirming Magna Carta (30 Mar.).

156 iUBXURl UH EJXMjJLJXD.
Henry III. takes Magnus, King of the Isle of Man, under his
protection (21 Ap.).
1257. Henry III. obtains from the clergy a grant of 52,000
marks for his son Edmund, appointed King of Sicily by the
pope in 1254.
The king's brother Richard, Earl of Pembroke, is elected
King of the Romans ; he is crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle (17
May). The Welsh ravage the march or border lands as far as Ches
ter, and war goes on between them and the marchers, the bor
der country being rendered almost a desert.
Peterhouse College, the first regular college at Cambridge,
is founded. Roger Bacon's scientific studies bring him under the suspi
cion of his Franciscan superiors at Oxford ; he is accused of
magic, placed under surveillance, and sent to Paris, where he
is kept in close confinement for the next ten years.
1257-8. The English harvest is destroyed by wet weather,
wheat rises from 2 to 15 and 20 shillings a quarter, and a dread
ful famine occurs throughout the country ; 20,000 are said to
have died in London alone.
1258. The king, instigated by the pope, demands another
52,000 marks for the conquest of Sicily ; and the pope threat
ens an interdict if the sum is not paid at once. This and the
distress caused by the famine bring matters to a crisis. The
barons assemble in council or parliament at Westminster, re
fuse the money asked for, and demand reforms (May) ; the
king promises to grant them, and to hold a parliament at
Oxford at Whitsuntide for that purpose.
The parliament (known as "the Mad Parliament") meets
(11 June) ; 24 commissioners are appointed, 12 named by the
king and 12 by the barons; and the commission proceeds to re
form the government, and compels the foreign favorites of the
king to surrender the royal castles held by them,, which are
then placed in the hands of Englishmen. It also appoints 15
counsellors to carry on the government. These counsellors
promulgate their reforms in "the Provisions of Oxford," the
first public document ever issued. in the English language.
Henry III., with a view to casting off the domination of the
barons> applies to Pope Alexander IV. to absolve him from
the promises which he has given.
1259. The 15 counsellors promulgate " the Provisions of
Westminster " to prevent encroachment on feudal rights; these
provisions were subsequently (1267) embodied in the Statute
of Marlborough. The counsellors make peace with Wales,

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 157
renounce Sicily, and make peace with France ("the Treaty
of Bordeaux"), renouncing all claim to Normandy, Anjou,
Touraine, and Poitou, and agreeing to hold Bayonne and
Gascony (with the bishoprics of Limoges, Cahors, and Peri-
gord) as fiefs of France.
Henry III. goes to France (Nov.), and does homage for
Gascony to the French king.
1260. John Legras, a foreigner, appointed by Pope Alex
ander IV. Prebendary of St. Paul's, London, on attempting to
take forcible possession of his benefice, is murdered (26 Feb.).
Henry III. returns to England from France (Ap.).
1261. Pope Alexander IV. absolves Henry from his vows
(Ap.) ; Henry orders the absolution to be publicly read, gives
some castles into the hands of foreigners, and begins to fortify
the Tower. The barons meet at Kingston, and they and the
king agree to refer their differences to the King of France.
1262. Pope Urban IV. sends a second absolution to Henry
III., who publicly promulgates it. Henry goes to France
(July) ; on his return (Dec.) he again agrees to abide by the
Provisions of Oxford.
1263. The civil war known as "the Barons' War" breaks
out (June). The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, im
prison Peter Aigueblanche, Bishop of Hereford, one of the
king's foreign favorites, and capture Gloucester and other
places. John Mansell, another favorite, flees to Boulogne, in
France, but is seized there. The Londoners join in the dis
turbances, and the queen is insulted by them, and goes to the
continent. Henry III., who has been in the Tower, sur
renders to the barons, and again promises to observe the Pro
visions of Oxford, which are publicly promulgated at a great
council held in London (8 Sep.). Henry III. and Prince
Edward go to France (18 Sep.). Prince Edward returns to
England and assists Mortimer m his warfare against Llewellyn
of Wales, who is assisted by De Montfort. .Henry III. and
the barons formally refer their differences to Louis IX., King
of France (16 Dec).
1264. . Louis IX., of France, at a council at Amiens, makes
his award (23 Jan.), known as " the Mise of Amiens," in favor
of Henry III., annulling the Provisions of Oxford, and declar
ing in favor of the king's right to, make foreigners governors
of his castles ; the award, however, is not to derogate from
the charters and customs of the kingdom.
Henry III. returns to England (14 Feb.) ; and Pope Urban
IV. formally sets aside the Provisions of Ox-ford (23, 25 Mar.).
- The barons offer to accept Louis IX. 's award, except as to

158 H1SXOK* OF EJSOLAJSU.
the employment of aliens ; Henry III. rejects the offer, and civil
war is renewed. Prince Edward captures Northampton (13
" Ap.) and Tutbury ; but the barons under De Montfort, aided
by the Londoners, totally defeat the king at Lewes in Sussex
(14 May),. and he and his brother Earl Richard are taken pris
oners. A truce (known as ''the Mise of Lewes") is made
(15 May), submitting the dispute to the decision of three arbi
trators (two French and one English). Henry and Richard
are released in exchange for their sons Edward and Henry
d'Almeyne. Simon De Montfort, now master of the country,
brings it .into order at: once.
• Simon calls a parliament (June), which appoints a commit
tee of three, who name nine others as a council to administer
the government.
The exiled foreigners and Henry's queen, Eleanor, assemble
at Damme, in .Flanders, and gather an army there to invade
England (Sep.) ; delay is occasioned by contrary winds, and
the army breaks up.
Pope Urban IV. excommunicates all who adhere to the
Provisions of Oxford (Oct. ) ; his legate, Guy Foulquois; Car
dinal-Bishop of Sabina (afterwards Pope Clement IV.), not
being allowed to land in England, entrusts the sentence to
some Anglican bishops whom he summons to Boulogne ; on
their return the document is seized at Dover, and torn to
pieces. De Montfort calls his famous parliament (Dec), to which,
besides the peers and higher clergy and two knights from each
shire, he summons two burghers from each of the chief cities.
This was the first time that representative burghers had been
present at any parliament, and they and the knights of the
shires form the "commons" element in parliament which was
afterwards developed into the House of Commons, separate
and distinct from the peers.
1265. This convention meets at London (28 Jan.); exiles
certain royalist barons for three years ; summons the exiles at
Damme to stand trial by their peers ; and orders the release
of Prince Edward on condition of complete amnesty,, of the
royal castles being placed in trustworthy hands, of the recog
nition of the Great Charter, and of the prince choosing his
council by the advice of the government. Prince Edward
is released at Wallingford (8 Mar.), and sent to Hereford
to reside " in free custody."
William of Valence (one of the exiles at Damme) lands in
Pembroke, south Wales (his -overlordship), and De Montfort
marches against him. Prince Edward escapes from Ludlow

¦¦mis AJNUEVIM OR PLANTAGENET KINGS, 159
Castle, in Shropshire (28 May), gathers an army, and seizes
Gloucester, cutting off De Montfort from his supporters in
England. De Montfort's younger son Simon is at Dover with
troops ; De Montfort summons him to his aid ; he marches,
but delays at Kenilworth and is routed there by Edward (July),
who destroys all the bridges over the Severn to prevent De
Montfort from crossing. De Montfort, however, crosses at
Worcester, and advances in the expectation of meeting his son
with reinforcements. He is surprised by Edward at Eyes-
ham in Worcestershire, and being greatly outnumbered, is,
after an heroic contest, defeated and slain (4 Aug.). Henry
III. is again nominal ruler of England, but the real power
rests with Prince Edward.
1266. The baronial party continues strong/ however, and
an an assembly or parliament held at Coventry, a document
known as the Dictum de Kenilworth (Edict of Kenilworth) is
agreed to (15 Oct.), providing that the king shall observe the
Great Charters, and for the preservation of the liberties' of the
Church. It is embodied inihe Statutes of the Realm.
The Norwegians cede the Hebrides and the Isle of Man to
the Scots.
1267. The rebellious barons finally submit at Ely, and are
granted the terms of the Edict of Kenilworth (25 July), and"
"the Barons' War" comes to an end.
Llewellyn of Wales makes peace and acknowledges the over
lordship of the King of England (29 Sep.).
1267-8. Roger Bacon writes his Opus Majus, Opus Minus,
and Opus Tertium.* He is released from prison in Paris
(1268) and returns to England.
1268. The papal legate holds councils at London (16 Ap.)
and Northampton; Prince Edward and other nobles assume
the cross.
1269. Prince Edward agrees with Louis IX., King of
France, to go on the crusade together. \
A treaty of amity and commerce is made with Magnus VII.,
King of Norway.
1270. Prince Edward, with his wife, Eleanor of Castile,
sails from Dover for the crusade (19 Aug.). Louis IX. dies
at Tunis (25. Aug.), his son, Philip III. ("the Bold"), is
there proclaimed King of France, and the French abandon
the crusade. Edward proceeds to Palestine with the English.
[Louis IX. was canonized at St. Louis by Pope Boniface
Will., 11 Aug., 1297.]
* The Opus Majus is his principal work ; it has been called "the
Encyclopaedia and the Organon of the 13th Century,"

160 HISTORY OF EJNGLA-ND.
The Chester Mysteries are performed. - .
1271. Prince Edward captures Nazareth (May), and de
feats the Saracens in several battles. - .,
Roger Bacon publishes his Compendium Studii Philosophies,
in . which he attacks the clergy as the opponents of true
knowledge. 1272. An attempt is made to assassinate Prince Edward
(17 June); he is wounded but soon recovers,* makes a 10
years' truce with the Saracens, and sails (15 Aug.) for Italy.
Henry III. dies at Bury St. Edmunds (16 Nov.), aged 65,
and is buried at Westminster (20 Nov.).
Edward is still abroad, but an assembly is summoned at
Westminster, which swears fealty to him, and he is proclaimed
king as Edward I. (20 Nov.). Walter Giffard, Archbishop of
York; and the Earls of Cornwall and Gloucester are appointed
regents. 1273. Edward I. goes from Italy to Paris, and does hom
age to Philip III. ("the Bold"), King of France, for Gascony
and Bayonne. He goes to Gascony and reduces it to obe
dience. 1274. Edward I. lands at Dover (2 Aug.), and he and his
queen, Eleanor, are crowned at Westminster (19 Aug.). He
goes to Chester (Sep.), where Llewellyn of Wales declines to
meet him, and he summons Llewellyn to attend his first par^
liament, to be held in 1275. He makes Robert Burnell chan
cellor, and Burnell is his chief minister till 1292.
1275. Edward's first parliament meets at Westminster
(Ap.), and passes "the First Statute of Westminster" (3 Ed.
I.), re-establishing the Charter, securing the rights of the
Church, and improving legal processes. The same parliament
originates the customs by imposing export duties on wool and
leather. • Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, although Edward has offered
him six opportunities of so doing, refuses to swear allegiance
to Edward as his overlord. He is married by proxy to Elea
nor, a daughter of Simon de Montfort; but,. while on her way~
tO Wales,- she is captured off the Scilly Isles (1276), and taken
to Edward. r
Edward's sister Margaret, queen of Alexander III. of Scot
land, dies, aged, 35. i
1276. Llewellyn, acting as an independent prince, still
refuses to come to Edward's parliaments, and demands from
* The story as to his life being saved by his wife Eleanor sucking
poison from the wound is doubtful.

Battle of Bunkes Hill. — P. 306.

Washington's Quarters.— P. 307.

Burning Cranmer.— P. 240.

the Angevin ok plantagenet kings. 161
Edward a treaty, as well as the release of his intended wife.
Par.iament meets (Nov.), and war with Wales is resolved on.
1277. Edward marches into Wales (June) and drives Lle
wellyn to the mountains of Snowdon; a fleet from the Cinque
Ports * cuts off his retreat to Anglesey. Llewellyn submits
(Sep.), and is stripped of his territory except Anglesey and
some baronies around Snowdon (Nov.), but retains his title' of
Prince of Wales. Otherwise he is well treated, and he comes
to England and does homage to Edward at London (Dec).
1278. Alexander III., King of Scotland, comes to West
minster and does homage to Edward I. for ' his kingdom (29,
Sep.).' Llewellyn marries Simon de Montfort's daughter Eleanor
at Worcester (13 Oct.), Edward and his queen attending the
celebration. The Jews are accused of clipping the coin, and all of them
throughout England are arrested (12 Nov.) ; 280 are hanged
in London alone, besides a large number in other places.
Edward I. restores the coinage;
Jerome of Ascoli, General of the Franciscans (afterwards
Pope Nicholas IV.), holds a chapter at Paris, which condemns
Roger jBacon on account of heresy ("suspected innovations"),
and Bacon is imprisoned in Paris for 14 years.
1279. Edward takes possession of Ponthieu in right of his
wife. He obtains the passage (15 Nov.) of the Statute of Mort
main (De Religiosis, 7 Ed. I., oap. 2), providing that no
property shall be transferred to the Church without the king's
special license.
12S0. The Statute de quo Warranto is passed (7 Nov.).
12S2. Another rising takes place in Wales, under Llewel
lyn and his brother David (Mar.) ; Edward marches into
Wales (July) and negotiates for peace fruitlessly (Nov.) ; and
Llewellyn is defeated -and slain (llx Dec.) near Aber Edw, on
the river Wjre. Edward's army crosses into Anglesey by
means of a bridge of boats, and conquers the island, f
1283. After holding out for six months, Llewellyn's
brother David surrenders. A parliament meets at Shrews-
* The Cinque ("five") Ports were Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Eom-
ney, and Sandwich. In 1078, William I. appointed a wardeu of these
ports (then deemed the keys of the kingdom), whose duty was to
guard the south-east coast against invasion from the continent. The
office was abolished in 1855, having long been a sinecure.
f The" story of the massacre of the Welsh bards by Edward I. is
a baseless fiction, without the slightest foundation in fact.

162 HISXOKY OF ENGLAND.
bury by which he is condemned to death ; and he is there exe
cuted (20 Sep.). The parliament then adjourns to Acton
Burnell in Shropshire, and passes (12' Oct.) "the Statute of
Merchants" (11 Ed. I.), providing for the more speedy pay
ment of debts.
1284. Margaret, "the Maid of Norway," daughter of Eric,
King of Norway, and sole grand-daughter of Edward's sister
Margaret (the late queen of Alexander III.), is declared at
Scone heiress of the throne of Scotland (5 Feb.).
Edward T. calls a parliament at Ruddlan in Wales, which
passes (19 Mar.) "the Statute of Wales" (12 Ed. I.), annex
ing that country to England. By it Wales is divided into
counties ; its native laws are preserved in civil matters ; but
the law of inheritance is altered, and the English criminal law
is introduced. Edward brings his queen Eleanor to Carnarvon, and she
there gives birth (25 Ap.) to her son (afterwards Edward II.),
who is presented to 'the Welsh people as " the Prince of
Wales," a -title which is thenceforward given to the eldest son
of the sovereign of England.
1285. The Statute of Winchester is passed, reorganizing
the national force constituted in 1181 by the Assize of Arms,
and making it a means of keeping order. An Act (13 Ed. I.,
c. 30) is passed appointing judges of assize to go on circuit in
every county twice or thrice a year, to expedite justice.
1 1286. Alexander III., King of Scotland, is killed (16
Mar. ) while riding at night, his horse going over a precipice.
Margaret, the Maid of Norway, is declared queen, a regency
of twO bishops and three nobles being appointed during her
absence. Other claimants to the throne appear, and civil war
breaks out.
Edward* I. sails for France (13 May);- and at Paris renews
his homage to the French king for Gascony (5 June). He
goes to Gascony, reduces it to obedience, and acts as mediator
between the Kings of France and Arragon with -regard to the
possession of Sicily. He stays abroad three years, leaving the
government with his brother Edmund. >
The Bishop of Hereford excommunicates some Christians at
Hereford for attending a Jewish marriage feast.
Queen Eleanor, widow of Henry III., becornes a nun at
Amesbury. (She died there 24 June, 1291, aged about 75.)
1287. An outbreak occurs in Wales (June), which is'put .
down by Robert Tiptoft, Edward's justiciary.
1289. Edward returns to England (12 Aug.) and finds the
country in a disturbed state ; he speedily restores order.

• THE ANGETIN OB PLANTAGENET KINGS. 163
He brings about a meeting, at Salisbury (6 Nov.) between
representatives of himself, the Scotch regency, and Eric of
Norway, who agree that Margaret shall be received in Scot
land free from any marriage contract, but pledged not to
marry without the consent of Eric and Edward. Edward then
proposes a marriage between his son Edward, Prince of Wales
(now 5), and Margaret, and produces a dispensation for the
union of the two cousins which he has secretly obtained from
the pope.
The fifteen judges of England are charged with corruption
(13 Oct.), and all of them (except John of Methingham and
Elias de Bockingham) are convicted of bribery and heavily
fined ; one of them, Weyland, Chief-Justice of the Common
Pleas, flees to sanctuary, but is compelled to abjure the realm,
and his property is confiscated.
1290. A Scottish parliament is held at Brigham (14 Mar.),
which accepts the proposed marriage between Queen Margaret
and the son of Edward I., but carefully guards the independ
ence of the kingdom.
Edward, by proclamation dated 27 July, banishes all Jews
from England, probably on account of their defacing the coin
age ; they are to leave by 1 Nov. The number thus exiled is
said to have been 16,511. [Jews continued to be kept out of
England till their return was connived at by Cromwell in 1654.]
The money business in England passes into the hands of bank
ers from northern Italy, whence the bankers' street in Lon
don is called Lombard Street.
At the request of the inhabitants Edward I. takes posses
sion ofthe Isle of Man (Sep.).
Margaret, Queen of Scotland, sails from Norway for Scot
land, but is compelled by the hardships of the voyage to land
in the Orkneys, where she dies (7 Oct.).
Eleanor, Edward's queen, dies (29 Nov.) at Herdeby, near
Grantham, in Lincolnshire, while travelling north to join her
husband on the Scottish border. She is buried in London,
and at every place where the corpse stopped crosses were
erected (13 in all) by the queen's executors, in accordance with
the directions of her will ; those at Northampton and Waltham
still remain.
1291.. Edward, acting on his claim as overlord, summons
a meeting at Norham on the Tweed (May) to settle the. succes
sion to the Scottish throne. Thirteen claimants appear
(10 May), nine of whom acknowledge Edward's authority
(5 June), and put the case into his hands. The royal castles
in Scotland are also, by document, formally put into his hands

164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
(6 June). All the claimants are rejected except three, John
Baliol, John de Hastings, and Robert de Bruce ; and to decide
between them Edward appoints a court consisting of 40 of
Baliol's friends, 40 of Bruce's, and 24 named by himself.
Pending their decision Edward takes possession of the Scotch
castles and appoints the great officers of the kingdom.
1292. The court meets at Berwick (2 Aug.), and decides
(17 Nov. ), in favor of Baliol, who accepts the throne as Ed
ward's vassal, does homage to him at Norham as his overlord
(20 Nov.)> is crowned at Scone (30 Nov.), and renews at New
castle his homage to Edward (26 Dec).
Roger Bacon, after 14 years' confinement, is released from
prison in Paris,, and returns to England.
1293. The Isle of Man is restored to Scotland (5 Jan.).
The Cinque Ports mariners defeat the Normans at SL Mahe,
in Brittany (14 Ap.).
The Gascons also attack the French, and Philip IV. of
France summons Edward to Paris to answer for the acts of his
subjects (Dec).
Acting on the assumption that Baliol is Edward's vassal, sev
eral Scotchmen (including Sir William Douglas and Macduff, „
Earl of Fife) appeal against his judgments to the English courts.
Baliol comes as a vassal to Edward's parliament (Sep.), but
declines to act without the advice of his people. Time is al
lowed him to consult his parliament, which he fails to do, and
Macduff's case is given against him, and a heavy fine is in
flicted on him ; he protests, and a further delay is granted
him. 1294. Philip IV. of France, haying taken possession of
Gascony, and refusing to deliver it up, war becomes necessary.
The Welsh, under Madoc and Morgan, again rise ; they
defeat the Earl of Lincoln at Denbigh (11 Nov.), and also
Prince Edmund. Edward I. marches against them, but fam
ine among his troops compels him to retire. to England. Dan
ger is also dreaded from Scotland, where Baliol isjlisgusted
with his position of vassal king.
Roger Bacon, the great precursor of modern science, and
the father of the modern inductive method, dies at Oxford,
aged 80.*
1295. Baliol forms a secret alliance with Philip IV. of
France against England (23 Oct.).
Edward I., feeling the necessity of throwing himself com
pletely on his subjects in order to obtain their support and
* He was born in 1214, at Ilchester in Somersetshire.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 165
the necessary supplies to combat present and expected dan
gers, summons (Oct.) what is now regarded as the first real
parliament held in England ; it meets (27 Nov.). The three
Estates (Lords Spiritual, Lords Temporal, and Commons) are
all represented ; and each grants supplies as a separate order.
1296. The Scots under Baliol invade England (Feb.), and
ravage Cumberland with savage ferocity, little children, it is
said, being thrown into the air and caught on the lances of
the soldiers. Edward marches north, captures Berwick (30
TVIar.), and there receives a message from Baliol renounc
ing his allegiance (5 Ap.). He then invades Scotland, and
at Dunbar (27 Ap.) completely defeats the Scots, who lose
10,000 men. Edward occupies Edinburgh (June) and Perth ;
and Baliol surrenders at Montrose (10 July), renounces his
throne in favor of Edward as his overlord, and is sent a pris
oner to Hertford.* Edward assumes the crown of Scotland,
and holds a Scotch parliament at Berwick, at which a large
number of the Scotch clergy, barons, and gentry swear alle
giance to him. He makes John de Warrenne (Earl of Surrey)
guardian of Scotland", and Hugh Cressingham treasurer ; and
removes (Aug.) the Scotch coronation stone (called "the.
Stone of Destiny ") from Scone to Westminster Abbey, where
it has ever since been used as the coronation stone of the
English monarchs, and where it still is.
Pope Boniface VIII. issues (24 Feb.) a bull, known as
"Clericis Laicos," forbidding the clergy, under pain of ex
communication, to pay taxes out of church property to their
temporal sovereign.
Edward calls a parliament at Bury St. Edmunds (Oct.), and
asks supplies to carry on the war with France for the recovery
of Gascony. The barons and Commons grant them, but the
clergy (in accordance with the pope's bull) refuse (3 Nov.).
Edward declares the clergy out of the protection of the king's
courts ; whereupon church tenants refuse to pay rent, and
others seize church property. The clergy being without re
dress, many of them submit, but the Archbishop of Canter
bury holds out, and Edward seizes the estates of his see.
1297. Edward summons his barons to meet at Salisbury
(Feb.). He himself intends to go to Flanders and invade
France from thence, and he desires another army to send to
Guienne. The Earls of Hereford and Norfolk, dissatisfied with
* He was removed to the Tower of London, Aug., 1297, and liber
ated, 18 July, 1299. After travelling over the" continent for a time,
he retired to his lands of Bailleul in Normandy (Nov., 1302), and died
at Castle Gaillard in Normandy in 1315, aged about 65.

166 HlSXUKX OF ENGLAND.
the king's arbitrary methods of raising supplies, refuse to con
duct the latter, force, and withdraw from the assembly. The
king raises further supplies arbitrarily ; the refractory barons
complain of breach of the Charters, and of the tax on wool and
other arbitrary exactions, and demand a confirmation of the
Charters. Edward complies, the clergy and the Commons
grant subsidies, and he sails to Flanders (22 Aug.), leaving the
government in the hands of his young son Edward and" his
advisers. Aparliament meets (6 Oct.), at which Princej Ed
ward renews the confirmation of the Charters, with certain
clauses added by the earls and known as the statute " De tal-
lagio non concedendo" (25 Ed. I., caps. 5 and 6), providing,
among other things, that the king shall levy no "aids, tasks,
or prizes but by the common assent of the realm, and for the
common profit thereof." Edward I., at Ghent, renews Prince
Edward's confirmation (5 Nov.). He is unsuccessful in Flan
ders. .-
William Wallace, a Scotch patriot, a man of great courage
and capacity, but also of brutal cruelty, seizes the English
treasure at Scone, attacks the English at Lanark (May), gath
ers an army,, and at Cambuskenneth, near Stirling, completely
defeats them (10 Sep.) under Warrenne (the guardian of Scot
land) and Cressingham, who is slain. He then invades Eng
land and harries the country from Newcastle to Carlisle with
fiendish barbarity, leaving "behind him nothing but blood
and ashes."
1298. Edward I. makes a two years' truce with France, and
returns to England (14 Mar.), invades Scotland (June), and
after an obstinate battle defeats Wallace at Falkirk (22 July) ;
Wallace flees, and resumes his outlaw's life. Southern Scot
land has been so ravaged by him that Edward is unable to
maintain his army there, and he retires to England ; and Scot
land chooses a government of three guardians, two of whom
are John Comyn and Robert Bruce,* the nearest heirs to the
throne after Baliol, Comyn's claim being superior to Bruce's.
1299. Edward I. , by the Treaty of Chartres, makes a truce
(19 June) with Philip IV. of France, who restores Guienne
and gives up his alliance with Scotland. Edward marries
Philip's sister Margaret (12 Sep.).
1300. Edward I. assembles an army at Carlisle (24 June),
invades Scotland (July), and ravages Galloway.
Pope Boniface VIII. publishes a bull (27 June) ordering
Edward to make no further attacks on Scotland, claiming the
* A grandson of the Robert de Bruce who had been a competitor
for the throne with Baliol in 1291-2, and had died in 1295.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 167
country as belonging to the Roman See. The bull is deliv
ered to "Edward in his camp near New Abbey, in Galloway
(26 Aug.); lie grants a truce to the~ Scots (30 Oct.), and
returns to England (Nov.).
1301. Edward calls a parliament at Lincoln (20 Jan.)
which negatives the pope's claim, and declares that Scotland
has never belonged to the Roman See.
Prince Edward (now 17) receives the title of Prince of
Wales (7 Feb.), and is betrothed to Isabella (a child of 6),
daughter of Philip IV. of France.
Edward I. again invades Scotland (July), and winters there.
1302. Edward I. concludes a truce with the Scots (26
Jan.) to last till 30 Nov.
1303. The Scots capture Stirling Castle (18 Feb.), and,
under Comyn, defeat the English under John Segrave
(Edward's governor of Scotland); at Roslin, in Scotland (24
Feb ).
Peace is made with France (20 May), Gascony being restored
to Edward.
Edward levies "New Custom" dues, the origin of import
duties in England. He evades the letter of the Act "De tal-
lagio non concedendo " by getting the consent of the foreign
merchants to the levy. He invades Scotland (June), march
ing as far north as Moray Fri,th, and the whole country sub
mits except Stirling. Edward winters in Scotland.
1304. Comyn and the Scotch nobles formally surrender
the country to Edward at Strathorde (4 Feb.); and after a
siege of three months Stirling is starved into capitulation (24
July). Edward grants a general annesty. arranges for the
union of England and Scotland, places the government of
Scotland in the hands of comriiissioners, including Wishart
(Bishop of Glasgow), John de Mowbray, and Robert Bruce,
allots ten Scotch representatives to the common parliament,
and holds an assembly at Perth to elect them. He returns to
England, Jeaving John de Segrave as governor of Scotlarid.
1305.' Wallace, who had refused to take advantage of the
general annesty offered by Edward, is treacherously betrayed
by John Short, one of his followers, into the hands of Sir John
Menteith (Aug.), who delivers him to the English. He is
tried at Westminster for treason,. s*acrilege, aiid robbery, and is
condemned and executed (23 Aug.).*
* Edward was a merciful prince, and Wallace was the first Scotch
man executed by him up to this time, and he no doubt would have
been also spared but that his horrible atrocities in the north of Eng
land in 1297 had embittered the feeling of the English against him.

168 ' HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
1306. Robert Bruce flees from Edward's court, goes to
Scotland, murders Comyn in the church or convent of the
Minorites at Dumfries (29 Jan. or 10, Feb.), revolts against
Edward, is joined by Wishart, and is twice crowned King of
Scotland at Scone (25, 27 Mar.) by the Countess of Buchan.
After a successful skirmish with Aymer de Valence, Earl of
Pembroke, at Loudon Hill (May), he is defeated by the Earl of
Methven, near Perth (June), and also at Dulay, and he
wanders about the country as a fugitive. Edward I. marches
into Scotland (July). Wishart is captured at Cupar in Fife,
and imprisoned at Nottingham. Bruce, emerging from his
fastnesses (Sep.), inflicts many losses on the English, but an
English force again puts him to flight.
1307. Piers Gaveston, a Gascon or Basque, a favorite of
Edward Prince of Wales, is banished from England (26 Feb.).
Edward I. holds a parliament at Carlisle (12 Mar.).
Bruce defeats the English under Aymer de Valence (Mar.),
and besieges the Earl of Gloucester in Ayr. Edward I. raises
the siege, and Bruce retires. Edward collects an army at Car
lisle (July), marches thence (3 July) to invade Scotland, but
dies at Burgh-by-Sands, near Carlisle (7 July), aged 68, and
is buried at Westminster (27 Oct.). His son Edward II. (now
22) succeeds him (8 July).
Edward II. enters Scotland ; some of the Scotch nobles do
homage to him at Dumfries (Aug.) ; he makes Aymer de
Valence guardian in Scotland (30 Aug.), and returns to Eng
land. He recalls his favorite, Piers Gaveston, and makes him
Earl of Cornwall (6 Aug.) and gives him the property of the
Bishop of Lichfield. Edward II. makes him guardian ("cus-
tos") of the kingdom (26 Dec), and gdes to France.
1308. Edward II.,, at the instigation of Philip. IV. of
France and Pope Clement V., who have resolved on the de
struction of the Templars, imprisons all members of the order
in England (10 Jan.), and has them tortured in order to ex
tort confessions of heresy, blasphemy, and licentiousness ; but
fails to extract any revelations. This was the first time that
torture had been resorted to by the government in England,
and there being no professional "torturer" in the country,
one had to be brought from the continent.
Edward II., at Boulogne, marries Isabella (28 Jan.), daugh
ter of King Philip IV., to whom he had been betrothed in
1301. He returns to England (7 Feb.), and he and his queen
are crowned at Westminster Abbey (25 Feb. ). The barons in
Sarliament demand the dismissal" of Gaveston (3 May), and
Idward promises to comply, but appoints him Lord Deputy in

.THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 169
Ireland (16 June), and grants the county of Cornwall to him
(5 Aug.).
1309. Edward II. recalls Gaveston to England, and his
continued misgovernment produces general discontent. A
parliament meets at Stamford^ (27 July), and compels Edward
to accede to reforms.
Edward makes a truce with Scotland, to last till Aug., 1310,
1310. Edward II. having failed to keep his promises of
reform, the barons meet in London, and (Mar. ) place the gov
ernment in the hands of 21 commissioners, who are to make
" the necessary reforms.
Edward, to divert attention from home affairs, invades
Scotland (Sep.), and winters at Berwick.
1311. Many barons refuse to join Edward II., and he re
tires to England (July), leaving Gaveston with a garrison in
Bamborough Castle, Northumberland. Parliament meets at
London (Aug.), at which the commissioners produce the
" ordinances" of reform prepared by them, the principal being
that no war shall be waged without consent of parliament, all
export duties to be removed, great officers of state to be ap
pointed with the consent of parliament, and parliament to be
held at least once a year ; Gaveston is also ordered to leave
the kingdom before 1 Nov. Edward accepts the ordinances
(5 Oct.), and Gaveston goes to Flanders.
The inquiry into the charges against the Templars is con
cluded ; their heterodoxy is alleged to be established ; and the
Order is suppressed.
1312. Edward recalls Gaveston (18 Jan.), restores his prop
erty to him (20 Jan.), and goes with him to Yorkshire. The
barons, under the Earls of Lancaster and Hereford, besiege
Gaveston at Scarborough, where he surrenders on promise of
his life (19 May). He, however, falls into the hands of the
Earl of Warwick, a personal enemy, who beheads him at
Blacklow Hill, near Warwick (19 June), in presence of the
Earl of Lancaster and other nobles.
Prince Edward (afterwards Edward III. ) is born at Windsor
(13 Nov.).
1313. Robert Bruce,, King of Scotland, having made him
self master of all Scotland save Stirling, invades England,
ravages Cumberland, and then lays siege to Stirling Castle.
1314. Edward II. collects a large army and advances into
Scotland to relieve Stirling Castle, but is overwhelmingly de
feated (24 June) by the Scots under Bruce at Bannockburn
(a small burn or stream near Stirling). Sterling Castle sur
renders the same evening. Edward escapes with difficulty to

170 i HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Dunbar, whence he takes ship to Berwick. He refuses
Bruce's offer of peace, and the Scots renew their ravages in
the northern counties. This defeat destroys what remained
of Edward's authority, and the Earl of Lancaster is the virtual
ruler of England during the next seven years.
The defeat also leads to insurrections in Wales and Ireland.
1315. The Irish offer the crown to Robert Bruce ; he de
clines it, but his brother Edward accepts it, sails for Ireland
with about 6000 men iri a fleet of 300 vessels, lands at Lorne
in Antrim (25 May), defeats the O'Connors and the Red Earl..
of Ulster at the Boyne, lays siege to Carrickfergus, and de
feats the English under Lord Justice Roger Mortimer. The
Scotch ravage Northumberland, and besiege Carlisle (Aug.).
1315-1316. A dreadful famine visits England ; wheat
rises to 40 marks a quarter, or 66 shillingsa bushel.
1316. O'Niell of Tyrone gives up his claim to the Irish
throne to Edward Bruce, who is crowned king (May). Feidlim
O'Connor (fighting in the interest of the Bruces) is defeated
at Athenry (10 Aug. ) by the English under William de Burgh
and Richard de Bermingham, and the O'Connor sept is ex
terminated and disappears from history, 11,000 of them being
slain. Robert Bruce* comes from Scotland to his brother's
assistance (Sep.), captures Carrickfergus, and the two brothers,
at, the head of 20,000 men, advance to Dublin and ravage the
country as far as Limerick, but fail to capture Dublin.
Edward II. proposes another invasion of Scotland (Aug.) ;
many nobles refuse to join him ; and the idea is abandoned.
1317. Robert Bruce returns to Scotland/leaving his forces
in Ireland.' Roger'Mortimer is made viceroy in Ireland, lands
there with a considerable army, and partially restores order. ¦
1318. Robert Bruce captures Berwick (2 Ap.) and ravages
Northumberland and Yorkshire, 84 towns and villages being
burned. The English parliament appoints a council of 16 to " assist
the king" (July).
_ Edward Bruce and the De Lacys (who have gone over to his
side) are defeated at Faughard, near Dundalk (14 Oct. ), by
tlie English under John of Birmingham, and Bruce is slain.
1319. Edward II. makes an unsuccessful attempt to re
cover Berwick. He makes a two years' truce with " Sir Rob
ert de.Brus" (21 Dec).
1320. Edward II. goes to France (June-July), and does
homage for his possessions there. On his return he chooses
Hugh le Despenser as a new favorite, and bestows large es
tates on him.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 171
1321. The Earls of Hereford and Lancaster, with their
joint forces, appear at the parliament at Westminster, and
compel the king to banish his favorites, the Despensers (19
Aug.). The king recalls them (8 Dec), .and ravages the bar
ons' lands. The Earl of Lancaster forms an open alliance with
the Scots. He had long had a secret understanding with them.
There has been more or less famine in England since 1314 ;
and in this year the famine is so dreadful that the people
devour the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin, and multi
tudes die of hunger. The total mortality during the seven
years has been so great as to produce a scarcity of hands, and
: thereby to bring about a considerable and permanent increase
in wages.
1322. Edward II. concerts measures with young Despen-
ser, who was then an admiral on the coast of Kent, collects an
army, marches against the Earls of Lancaster and Hereford,
and defeats them at Boroughbridge, near Carlisle (16 Mar.) ;
Hereford is slain, and Lancaster surrenders. He is condemned
without a hearing as a traitor, and beheaded at Pontef ract (22
Mar.). Roger Mortimer, who has also surrendered, is con
demned to death (2 Aug.), but the sentence is commuted to
imprisonment for life in the Tower.
Edward II. again invades Scotland, but want of supplies
compels him to retire ; the Scots pursue him so closely that
he narrowly escapes capture at Byland, in Blackmoor Forest.
1323. Edward II. makes a truce for 13 years with Robert
Bruce (30 May), whereby he allows him to assume the title of
King of Scotland.
Roger Mortimer escapes from the Tower {Aug.), and flees-
to Paris, where he becomes a centre of conspiracy against Ed-'
ward II.
1324. . War breaks out between Edward and France ; the
French capture Ponthieu and the Agenois, and attempt the
conquest of Gascony.
The lands of the Knights Templars (suppressed in 1311)
are granted to the Knights Hospitallers (17 Ed. II., c 3).
John Wiclif, the precursor of the Protestant Reformation,
is born about this date, probably in Yorkshire.
1325. Edward's queen Isabella goes^to Paris (Mar.) and
makes a treaty (31 May) with her brother, Charles IV., for a
settlement of his dispute with Edward. She falls in love
with Roger Mortimer, who becomes her paramour, and they
conspire together against her husband Edward Hi The king's
half-brother, Edmund, Earl of Kent, joins her.
Edward II. falls ill at Dover, transfers his foreign posses-

172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
sions to his son Edward, Prince of Wales (now 13), and sends
him to Paris (12 Sept.) to do homage for them to Charles IV.
1326. Isabella and her son Edward go to Hainault, where
she makes a contract for him to marry Philippa, a daughter
of William, Count of Holland and Hainault, who agrees to
assist her against her husband. In company with Roger Mor
timer, her son Edward, and the Earl of Kent, and her foreign
levies, she lands at the mouth of the Orwell, near Harwich (24
Sep.), and gaining allies from all classes, marches against the
king, who flees from London. Prince Edward is proclaimed
guardian of the realm (26 Oct.). Edward II., after making a
futile attempt to land on Lundy Isle, in the' Bristol Channel,
is taken prisoner at Neath -in Glamorgan, Wales (16 Nov.).
He is taken to Kenilworth, and put in charge of Henry,. Earl
of Lancaster, brother of Thomas whom he had put to death
at Pontefract in 1322 ; and is hurried from fortress to fortress.
His favorites the Despensers and their friends are all put to
death (Oct.-Nov.). ,
1327. Parliament meets at Westminster (7 Jan.), deposes
Edward II., and swears fealty to Queen Isabella and her
eldest son, Edward. The prince refuses to accept the crown
without his father's consent, and a deputation waits upon Ed
ward II. at Kenilworth, and procures his resignation (20 Jan.).
His ultimate fate is doubtful, but the commonly accepted be
lief is that he was murdered with circumstances of dreadful
cruelty in Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire (21 Sep.).
Edward HI. is crowned at Westminster (1 Feb;) ; as he is
only 15 years old, the government is nominally given to a
regency of 4 bishops, 4 earls, and 6 barons ; but the real power
remains in the hands of Roger Mortimer.
Robert Bruce of Scotland breaks the truce and invades
England. Edward III., while pursuing the Scots, narrowly
escapes capture (4 Aug.).
1328. Edward III. (now 16) marries Philippa of Hainault
(also 16),, Jan.
Mortimer and Edward III. make peace at Edinburgh with
Bruce (17 Mar.), acknowledging his kingship and the inde
pendence of Scotland, and agreeing that his son David (a boy
of 4) shall marry Joan or Jane (now 7), .a daughter of Edward
II. The Scots agree to pay £20,000 in three years. Parliament
meets at Northampton and ratifies the treaty, which is conse
quently known as "the Treaty of Northampton."
Charles IV.; King of France, dies. Edward III. claims to
succeed him; as grandson (through his mother Isabella) of
Philip IV., in opposition to Philip Valois, nephew of Philip

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 173
IV. The question is tried by the peers of France, who decide
in favor of Philip VI. and against Edward III., whose claim
is set aside under the Salic law, which excludes from the throne
all females and their descendants.
1329. Edward III. goes to France (26 May), and does
homage to Philip VI. for Guienne, etc. (6 June), thereby
apparently acquiescing in the decision against his claim to the
French throne.
Prince David of Scotland marries Joan, Edward III.'s sister.
Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, dies (7 June); his son, David
II. (a boy of 5) succeeds him, and the country is governed by
a succession of regents. David is crowned at Scone (23 Nov.).
1330. Edmund, Earl of Kent, half-brother of Edward II.,
is arrested (13 Mar.) at the instance of Mortimer, on a charge
of conspiring to restore Edward II. (who, it is rumored, is still
alive), and is beheaded (19 Mar.).
Edward ("the Black Prince"), the eldest son of Edward III.
and Philippa, is born at Woodstock (15 June).
Edward III., determined to rid himself of Mortimer's, domi
nation, has him arrested during the sitting of parliarnent at
Nottingham (19 Oct.) and taken to the Tower. Mortimer is
charged with the deaths of Edward II. and the Earl of Kent,
and is tried and hanged at Tyburn (29 Nov.). Queen Isa
bella is allowed £3000 a year, and compelled to retire to
Risings Castle, Hertford, where she lives in privacy, for 27
years, till her death (22 Aug., 1358).
1331. Edward III. goes to France (4 Ap.), and again at
Amiens does homage for Guienne to Philip VI. as his lord (13
Ap.). He returns to England (20 Ap.).
1332. Edward Baliol (son of John Baliol, King of Scot
land in 1292-1296) lays claim to the Scottish throne. He is .
supported by a number of Scotch nobles and also secretly by
Edward III. He sails from Ravenspur in Yorkshire, lands at
Kinghorn in Fife (7 Aug.), and defeats the Scotch regent, the
Earl of Mar, at Duplin in Strathearn, near Perth (12 Aug.),
occupies and successfully defends Perth, and is cfiowned at
Scone (27 Sep.), the English fleet having annihilated, that of
the Scotch in a battle iu the river Tay. David II. (now a boy
of 8), with his girl-wife Joan (now 11), takes refuge in Nor
mandy. Baliol makes a treaty with. Edward III., agreeing, in
return for his support, to give up Berwick (23 Nov.) and do
homage to him for Scotland.
The Scotch national party rally, and Sir Archibald Douglas
defeats Baliol at Annan (Dec.) ; he retires to the English
court (Dec. ), and Douglas raids Cumberland.

174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
1333. Edward III. lays siege to Berwick ; the Scotch
under Douglas (now regent) advance to its relief, but are
defeated at Halidon Hill, near Berwick (19 July), with a loss
of 30,000 men, including the regent and four earls; Berwick
surrenders (20 July). Edward conquers southern Scotland,
and reinstates Baliol on the throne, and the Scotch parlia
ment at Perth receives BalioLas king (Oct.).
1335. The English parliament at York passes (May) an
Act (9 Ed. III., c. 1) granting freedom of trading to foreign
merchants. The Scots having again driven Baliol from the throne,
Edward III. invades Scotland (Aug.), ravages the south-east
part of the country, and reinstates Baliol.
1336. The war in Scotland goes on intermittently.
There is a famine in England caused by long rains.
1337. Philip VI., King of France, having openly espoused
the claim of David II. to the throne of Scotland as against
Edward's nominee Baliol, and having also taken possession of-
some towns in the Agenois, Edward's territory, Edward forms
continental alliances, including Flanders, assumes the title of
King of France (7 Oct.), and begins against France what is
known as " the Hundred Years' War."
An Act (11. Ed. III., c. 1) prohibits the exportation of
wool. 1338. The French burn Portsmouth -(June). Edward
sails.from the Orwell, in Suffolk (16 July), with a large army,
and lands in Flanders ; he leaves Prince Edward (now 8) as
regent. ' The French attack Southampton (4 Oct).
1339. Edward III. advances into France (Sep.), but the
French retreat before him, and he fails to bring them to an
engagement. 1340. Edward, being deserted by his allies, retires to
Elanders, and then returns to England for fresh supplies
(21 Feb.).
Parliament meets (29 Mar.) and grants supplies. An Act
(14 Ed. III., c 12) is passed establishing one weight and
measure for the whole kingdom.
Edward III. again sails from the Orwell (22 June), and at
the battle of Sluys (24 J une) defeats and destroys a French
fleet sent to intercept him. - He lands and lays siege to Tour-
nay, but effects nothing ; concludes at Esplechin (25 Sep. ) a
nine months' truce with Philip VI. ; and returns to England,
arriving in London 30 Nov. Suspecting that his ministry have
been defrauding him in the matter of taxes he dismisses
them.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 175
Cannon are first used in England.
Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, is born.
1341. During the truce Edward's German allies desert
hint, and David II. returns to Scotland and resumes the crown
(June). The truce with France is -prolonged till 1342.
1342. The French again burn Portsmouth and attack
Southampton (Sep.). Civil war having broken out in Brittany,
Edward takes advantage Of it to go there (5 Oct.) and renew
his war with France, but he effects little.
1343. Edward III. agrees with France (19 Jan.) to a truce
for 3 years and 8 months, the matters in dispute to be referred
to the pope in the meantime. He returns to England, land
ing at Weymouth (2 Mar.).
1345. Edward III. sails from Sandwich (3 July) to Flan
ders, to obtain the earldom for his son Edward, but fails and
returns to England (26 July).
War with France is renewed. Edward sends the Earl of
Derby (son of Henry, Earl of Lancaster) to Gascony. and he
there, at Auberoche (19 Aug.), defeats the French under
Philip's eldest son, John, Duke of Normandy.
1346. The Duke of Normandy turns the tables on the Earl
of Derby, and besieges him in the fortress of Aiguillon, on the
Garonne. Edward himself, with a view to draw the Duke
of Normandy northward, lands (12 July) at La Hogue in
Normandy, threatens Paris, and defeats the French, under
Philip VI., at Crecy (near Abbeville), 26 Aug., the French
losing over 30,000 men, including 11 princes and 1200 knights,
the English slaying considerably more than their own number.
Edward not being strong enough to advance into France,
lays siege to Calais (Sep.). The victory at Crecy compels the
Duke of Normandy to raise the siege of Aiguillon, and the
Earrbf Derby overruns south-east Fiance.
It is said that Edward had four cannon at Crecy, the first
occasion on which cannon were used by the English in battle.
They are also used at the siege of Calais.
Philip VI. writes to David II. of Scotland, begging him to
make a diversion ; David invades England and ravages Cumber
land and Durham, but is defeated by the English, under the
joint command of Henry Percy and Ralph Neville, at Neville's
Cross, near Durham (17 Oct.), over 15,000 Scots being slain;
David himself is taken prisoner, and is sent to London, where
he is kept in honorable confinement till 1357.
Edward Baliol, at the head of an English army, invades
Scotlandand ravages the Lothiaris.
1347. Calais, after a brave defence for a year, being on the

176 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
verge of famine, surrenders to Edward (4 Aug.), the lives of
the deputation making the surrender being spared at the in
tercession of Queen Philippa. Calais remained in the posses
sion of the English till 1558. The resources of England are
so exhausted that Edward cannot continue the struggle, and
he makes a truce with Philip VI. for a few months, which is
renewed from time to time. Edward returns to England,
landing at Sandwich (12 Oct. ).
1348-1349. The Black Death, the most awful pestilence
that ever visited the human race, after passing from Asia over
Europe, devastates England.* Its first victims were in Dor
set in Aug., 1348 ; and it reached its height from May to Oct.,
1349. In Norwich 60,000 are said to have died ; in London,
100,000 ; and proportionate numbers in other cities. Alto*
gether at least one-third and probably one-half of the population
perished ; so that, as the total population seems to have been
about 4,000,000 or 5,COO,000, the probability is that the total
deaths in England alone were 2,000,000 or 2,500,000. The
plague also visits Scotland and Ireland. In England, by cut
ting off the supply of labor, it brings about a social and
economical revolution. The laborers, being masters of the
situation, combine to force up wages, but "the Statute of
Laborers" (23 Ed. III., c. 1) is passed (1349), directing
them to work for their usual wages for any who will employ
them. 1349. Edward III. goes to Calais (Jan.)j and repels an
attempt by the French to capture it.
1350. Philip VI., King of France, dies (20 Aug.) ; his
son John II. ,succeeds.
Edward III. defeats a Spanish fleet off Winchelsea in Sus
sex (29 Aug.). .
1351. Acts are passed declaring that children of English
subjects born abroad are natural-born subjects (25 Ed. III.,
c. 2) ; and prohibiting papal " provisions " f (c 6).
1352. The Statute of Treasons (25 Ed. III., st. 5, c. 2) is
passed, defining what offences constitute treason.
The English defeat the French at Mauron in Brittany (14
Aug.). 1353. Edward III. negotiates with John II. of France for a
* This is the scourge whose visitation in Florence is described from
personal observation by Boccaccio in his "Decameron." The total
number of victims throughout Europe is estimated to have been
about 25,000,000.
fThis name was given to the induction of foreigners by the pope
into English benefices. ' r *

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 177
permanent peace, offering to relinquish his claim to the French
crown if Aquitaine is given to him in full sovereignty, that is,
free from the claims of the French king as feudal lord ; the
offer is rejected, the French envoys , declining to surrender a
fragment of French, sovereignty.
The Statute of Staples (27 Ed III., st, 2) is passed.
A famine occurs in England.
1354. An Act (28 Ed. III., c. 5) is passed forbidding the
exportation of iron.
1355. Edward, the Black Prince, leads an army from Bor
deaux, and brutally ravages southern France, destroying over
500 towns or villages in seven weeks. Edward III. goes to
Calais and invades northern France (Nov.).
The Scots capture Berwick (6 Nov.) and ravage the Eng
lish border ; and Edward III. returns hastily from Calais, and
checks their depredations.
1356. For a money consideration Edward Baliol assigns
(20 Jan.) to Edward III. his claim to the Scottish throne,
and Edward invades Scotland, captures Berwick, and, in an
expedition which was known as "the Burnt Candlemas," lays
waste the cbuntry for 20 miles from the coast, but is compelled
to return to England for supplies, the Scots following his re
treating forces.
The Black Prince marches towards the north of France
(July), and defeats the French under King John II. at Poi
tiers (19 Sep.) ; John and his younger son Philip are taken
Erisoners. During John's imprisonment his 'eldest son, the
•auphin Charles, acts as regent of France.
1357. A two years' truce with France is made (23 Mar.) ;
the Black Prince lands at Plymouth (5 May) with his royal
prisoners, and enters London in triumph (24 May).
Edward makes peace at Berwick with Scotland (3 Oct.),
and in consideration of 100,000 marks, to be paid in ten yearly
instalments, releases David II. (Nov.), who has been in cap
tivity since 1346 ; David returns to Scotland as king.
An Ordinance (31 Ed. III., st. 4, cc 1-19) is passed, relat
ing to the government of Ireland.
1359. in the absence of King John II., France has fallen
into anarchy ; and the two years' truce having expired,
Edward III., after a vain attempt to make peace, again
invades the country (Nov.). While his general, Sir Walter
Manny, with .an army of German mercenaries, overruns
Picardy and Artois, Edward ravages Champagne, but- fails
in an attemnt to capture Rheims ; he then marches to Paris,
to an engagement, and is

178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
compelled to retreat for want of supplies. A Norman' fleet
meanwhile ravages the English coast near Winchelsea -in
Sussex. 1360. Edward III. and the Dauphin conclude peace at
Bretigny, near Chartres (8 May) ;*Gascony, Guierine, Poitou,
Montreuil, and Porithieu, with Calais and Guisnes, are yielded
to Edward free frOm all feudal claims ; Edward, in return,
relinquishes all; claims to the throne of France, and to Nor
mandy, ;Touraine, Anjou, Maine, Brittany, and Flanders ;
King John II. to be liberated on payment of 3,000,000 marks
or golden crowns (or £2,000,000).
v- King John If. is liberated^on parole (2 July), and gOes to
France to, raise hisown ransom, leaving hostages in his place.
John Wiclif (now about 36), by his* attacks on the mendi
cant orders, first rises into prominence. '- '\
1361. Edward, the Black Prince, marries (10 Oct.) his
cousin Joan ("the Fair Maid of Kent "), daughter of Edmund,
Earl of Kent, a'son of Edward I. The pope afterwards grants
a dispensation for the marriage,- to obviate the objections on
the ground of consanguinity, and of divorce from her second
husband. The "second great pestilence " visits England. -
1362. Edward III. makes the Black Prince Duke of Aqui
taine. An Act (36 Ed. III., c 15) is passed providing that law
pleadings shall,' for the first time, be written in English, in
stead of in Norman-French, as heretofore. English is also
used for the king's opening- address in parliament, and the
debates in the Commons.
1363. , The Black Prince goes to Aquitaine as its duke,
living at Bordeaux as his capital.'
A sumptuary law (37 Ed. III., cc 8-14) is passed regulat
ing the food and dress of each class of the people.
1364. John II. of France, being unable to raise his ran
som, returns to England (1 Jan.), and delivers himself up to
Edward. He dies at Savoy Palace, London (8 Ap.) ; his
son, Charles V., succeeds him. The new king fails to keep
the provisions of the Treaty of Bretigny, and war breaks
out m Brittany, battles being fought at Cocherel (16 May)
and Auray, near Vannes (29 .Sep.) ; at the latter Charles
of Blois is slain, and his rival, De Montfort, gets possession
of Brittany. ' "•
.1366. Richard, the son of the Black Prince and Joan of'
Kent, is born at Bordeaux (3 Ap). <*
Henry Plantagenet (afterwards Henry IV.), the only s<-

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 179
John of Gaunt and his wife Blanche Grismond, is born at
Bolingbroke,* in Lincolnshire.
John Wiclif, in consequence of his teachings, is ejected from
the mastership of Baliol Hall, Oxford.
1367. Pedre I. ("the Cruel','), King of Castile, being
driven from his throne, takes refuge in Bordeaux with, the
Black Prince, who espouses his cause, crosses the Pyrenees at
Roncesvalles, defeats Pedro's, natural brother and rival, Henry
of Trastamare, at Najara or Navarrete, near Logroflo, in Cas
tile (3 Ap.), and reinstates Pedro on the throne. Great
losses in his army frorri sickness compel him to retire to
Aquitaine. 1368. Lionel, Duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III.,
dies in Italy (17 Oct.), aged 30. He leaves an only child,,
Philippa (born 16 Aug., 1355), afterwards married to Edmund
Mortimer, Earl of March, great-grandson of Roger Mortimer,
the paramour of Edward II. 's queen Isabella.; It was through
this child Philippa that the Yorkists subsequently claimed the
throne, in opposition to the Lancastrians.
1369. The Gascons complain to Charles V. of France of
the heavy taxe's imposed on them by the Black Prince, and
Charles summons the prince (1 May) to Paris to answer. The
prince, however, prepares for war, and Edward III. resumes
the title of King of France (3 June).
A 14 years' truce is made with Scotland (18 June). ...
Philippa, "queen of Edward III., dies (15 Aug.). After her
death; Alice Perrers, a ladyof her bedchamber, acquires great
influence over the king, which, in conjunction with John of
Gaunt, f Duke of Lancaster (the fourth son of Edward III.),
she uses corruptly. . .< .¦.-¦..
John of Gauht's first wife Blanche (mother of Henry. IV.)
dies. '- ..;
The "third great pestilence" ravages England (2 July-29
Sep.). - •"'¦'•
Henry of Trastamare defeats Pedro I. at Montiel (14 Mar.),
and kills him in his (Henry's) tent (23 Mar.), and. becomes
King of Castile. The war between England and France con
tinues. 1370. The French invade" Gascony (Jan. ), and Limoges
admits a French garrison. The Black Prince captures it by
assault (Oct.), burns the town, and massacres the inhabitants,
* Hence his. designation, Henry of Bolingbroke.
f Born in 1340, at Ghent (French Gamd, English Gaunt), hence his
designation. He was the foundefof the Lancastrian party, so called
^aftei1 his title, Duke of Lancaster. ...

180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
3000 men, women, and children being ruthlessly slaughtered.
The French garrison are spared.
John of Gaunt marries Constance, a natural daughter of
Pedro the Cruel, and in right of his wife assumes the title of
King of Castile and Leon, as against Henry of Trastamare.
1371. The Black Prince, who has been in feeble health
since the hardships of his Spanish campaign in 1367, returns
to England (Jan.). On recovering his health he places himself
at the head of the constitutional party, in opposition to the
corrupt court party headed by his brother, John of Gaunt,
and Alice Perrers, the king's mistress. ^
With a view to curtail the inordinate power of the Church,
which now owns about one-third of the land in England, the
Commons petition for the removal of the clergy from the
higher offices of state.
1371-4. The French gradually reconquer all the English
possessions in France, except Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne, and
a few towns on the Dordogne.
1372. John of Gaunt's assumption of the title of King of
Castile having led to a war between England and Henry II.
(of Trastamare), the latter defeats and destroys the English
fleet, under the Earl of Pembroke, in a great naval battle off
Rocnelle (23 June), and a truce is made, which is renewed
from time to time.
1374. A truce till 1 May, 1375, is made with France (11
Feb.). Wiclif is sent, as a member of a royal commission, to Bruges
to negotiate with the legate of Pope Gregory XI. with regard
to the "provisions" (July). The insight which he thus
obtains into the claims and methods of the papacy leads him
on his return to denounce the pope as "Antichrist, the
proud, worldly priest of Rome." He is made rector of Lutter
worth in Leicestershire.
1375. The truce with France is extended till 1 Ap., 1377.
1376. The "Good Parliament" meets; Sir Peter de la
Mare takes the lead in the debates, and is hence usually spoken
of as the first Speaker of the House of Commons. The par
liament, backed by the influence of the Black Prince, reforms
the affairs of the government, procures the punishment of
offenders, and compels Alice Perrers to take an oath that she
will cease to intermeddle with state affairs, on pain of banish
ment. The Black Prince dies (8 June), aged nearly 46. His only
child Richard, now heir-apparent, being only 10 years old/
the Good Parliament, fearing that John of Gaunt may lay

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 181
claim to the succession, insists on the immediate recognition
of Richard's heirship.
1377. A parliament meets, which, under the influence of
John of Gaunt and the Lancastrian party, reverses the policy
of the Good Parliament, and withdraws the proceedings against
Alice Perrers.
It passes an Act (50 Ed. III., c. 3) granting pardon to all
offenders on account of the king's jubilee (25 Jan.).
Wiclif, having sided with the Lancastrian party in their oppo
sition to the Church, is arraigned on a charge of heresy before
William Courtenay, Bishop of London, at St. Paul's. He ap
pears (19 Feb.), supported by John of Gaunt, who quarrels
with Courtenay and threatens to drag him out of the church
by his hair. This insult leads to a riot directed against John
of Gaunt, but he escapes.
The pope issues several bulls (May) to the king, the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, and the University of Oxford, directing
that Wiclif be arraigned for heresy. " Before they can be
acted on, Edward III. dies (21 June) at Shene (now Rich
mond), aged 64 ; his grandson Richard II. (the only son of
the Black Prince) succeeds him (22 June). He is crowned
at Westminster. (16 July).
The French ravage the Isle of Wight, attack Southampton
unsuccessfully, and burn Hastings and Rye (July- Aug.).
Parliament meets (13 Oct.), and as the king is only 11 years
old, it forms a Council of Regency of 9 persons drawn from the
three orders represented in parliament. Supplies are granted
for the French war, and Alice Perrers is banished. With the
assent of the Commons, John of Gaunt bocomes practically
chief minister. • ,
The population of England and Wales is about 2,500,000,
Wales having about 240,000.
1378. Charles the Bad, King of Navarre, cedes Cherbourg
to the English.
Parliament meets at Gloucester (Oct. ) ; it refuses to grant a
subsidy till the accounts of the last one are submitted to them.
It passes an Act (2 Rich. II., c 7) recognizing Urban VI. as
pope; persons recognizing Clement VII., the rival pope, to
forfeit their (goods;
Wiclif, in accordance with the papal bulls, is arraigned for
heresy ; but the Londoners, having no great affection for
papal bulls, break up the court. Wiclif publishes his transla
tion of the New Testament into English from the Latin ver
sion of St. Jerome used by the Romish communion, and known
as the Vulgate. His translation, though condemned by the

182 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Church, is eagerly read by the people and becomes a potent
influence in the spread of so-called heretical doctrines. He
also sends out "poor priests" to disseminate his doctrines
among the people.
1380. The French ravage the Sussex and Kentish coasts
(Aug.), and burn Gravesend (Sep.).
Charles V. of France dies (16 Sep.) ; his son Charles VI. (a
youth of 12) succeeds him. The people of Brittany, who had
been friendly to the English, now rise against and expel them,
and war breaks out there. To meet its expenses poll-taxes are
imposed (Nov. ) . Though this tax was graduated, yet it pressed
more severely on the lower than the higher orders.
An Act (3 Rich. II., c. 3) is passed prohibiting foreigners
from holding benefices.
Wiclif publishes a revised or second edition of his transla
tion of the New Testament.
1381. The discontent created by the poll-tax and the
harsh modes of collecting, it leads to open insurrection by the
villeins. Jack Straw leads them in Essex ; Wat Tyler (5 June)
at Dartford in Kent; and at Gravesend. Tyler is made
general leader, and is accompanied by John Ball, a popular
preacher. The insurrection extends from Cornwall to York
shire, much property being destroyed, and several officials put
1 to death. The insurgents pillage Lambeth Palace, enter Lon
don (13 June), destroy John of Gaunt's house, and kill about
60 Flemish merchants. Richard II. (now 15) meets the
Essexmen at Mile End (14 June) and receives their petition
demanding the abolition of villenage, the reduction of rent to
4d. an acre, free access to all markets, and a general pardon.
The king grants all demands. Wat Tyler, however, with his
followers, sacks the Tower (14 June) and murders ^Simbn of
. Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury ; the king meets him and
his followers at Smithfield (15 June) ; Tyler is smitten down
by Lord Mayor Walworth and killed by the king's followers ;
and the insurrection is subsequently suppressed. Commis
sions for the trial of the offenders are issued (10 July), and
about 1500 of them are executed,' including John Ball, who
is hanged at St. Albans (15 July).
Parliament meets ; the Commons refuse to emancipate the
villeins, revoke the general pardon, and declare over 250 per
sons exempt from it. This leads to further risings (July,
Sep.) in Kent, which are also suppressed.
Wiclif, in his lectures at Oxford, attacks the doctrine of
Transubstantiation, and is cited for heresy before a synod at
Greyfriars, London.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 183
The first Act (5 Rich. II., st. 2, c. 5) against the Lollards,*
as Wiclif s followers are called, is passed by the lords and the
king, ordering them to be imprisoned until they shall justify
themselves according to the law of the Church. This severe
measure was passed partly because the Lollards had been sup
porters of the Peasant's Revolt under Wat Tyler and Jack
Straw. 1382. Richard II. (now 16) marries Anne of Bohemia
("Good Queen Anne"), a daughter of the Emperor Charles
IV. (14 Jan.). This connection between England and
Bohemia did much towards making Wiclif 's writings known
on the continent, especially in Bohemia and other parts of
Germany, f
Several of Wiclif s principal adherents are induced to recant,
and his doctrines are condemned by a council held at Black-
friars, London (May). He himself is cited before a council
held at Oxford (Nov. ) ; but while admitting a Real Presence,
he persists in denying Transubstantiation. No sentence is
passed on him, but his opinions are declared heretical, 24 of
his articles are condemned and burnt, and he is debarred from
teaching at the University. The Lollards address a remon
strance to parliament against the Act of 1381.
An Act (6 Rich. II., c 13) is passed, pardoning the recent
insurgents, with some exceptions.
A great earthquake is felt in England (21 May).
The first complete translation of the Bible into English is
finished by the end of this year, and is rapidly disseminated
among the people by itinerant preachers (" poor priests"). It
was the joint work of Wiclif and his friend and follower
Nicholas of Hereford, the latter doing the Old Testament as
far as Baruch, and Wiclif the rest.
1384. Truce is made with France (26 Jan.) ; and with
Scotland. * The origin of this name is uncertain. It seems to have been
first given to a semi-monastic society founded in Antwerp, about
1300, for the burial of the dead. The most probable derivation of
their name is from the Low-German word lollen, or lullen, meaning
to sing slowly or softly, in allusion to their custom of singing dirges
at funerals. The English words "lull" and "lullaby" are cognate.
These "Lollards" of Antwerp came under the reproach of heresy;
hence the name got to be applied to heretics in general. Some
authorities derive the name from Walter Lollard, who is said to have
been burnt in 1322 at Cologne for heresy ; but he was probably a
mythical personage.
fThe Bohemian reformers, John Huss (1 373-141 4) and Jerome of
Prague (1375 ?-1416), both of whom were burnt f 6r heresy, were no
doubt influenced in this way by Wiclif's teachings.

184 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
John Wiclif, "the morning-star of the Reformation," dies
of paralysis at Lutterworth (31 Dec), aged about 60. His
death at this time no doubt saved him from martyrdom.
1385. The Scots, with French assistance, invade England;
Richard II. leads an army against them, burns Edinburgh
(Aug.), and ravages the country.
Richard II., being childless, declares his nephew, Roger
Mortimer, Earl of March (son of Philippa and Edmund Mor
timer, and grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the third
son of Edward III.), heir to the throne.*
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the king's uncle, who
has been the principal power in England during the king's
minority, becoming distrusted, goes to Spain to prosecute his
claim to the throne of Castile as son-in-law of Pedro the Cruel;
Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, another of the king's uncles, f
succeeds to his influence.
1386. The Duke of Gloucester brings charges against the
king's ministry ; the chancellor, Michael de la, Pole, Earl of
Suffolk, is impeached (Oct.) ; and the king is compelled (19
Nov.) to agree to, a Commission of Regency, consisting of
Gloucester and ten other lords and prelates.
1387j Richard II. induces the judges to declare this com
mission illegal (25 Aug.) ; but Gloucester enters London with
an army, defeats an opposing force, under the Duke of Ire
land, at Radcot Bridge in Oxfordshire (20 Dec. ) ; and the
king is forced to allow his chief advisers to be accused of trea
son (Dec).
1388. The " Wonderful " or " Merciless Parliament " meets
(3 Feb.), and condemns a number of the king's ministers
and judges to death (13 Feb.), the sentence being carried out
in five cases (5,12 May). ,
John of Gaunt ends his war in Spain by giving his daugh
ter Catherine to Henry, son of John I., successor to Henry of
Trastamare, King of Castile.
The Scots, under the Earls of Douglas and Murray, invade
England, and lay siege to Otterburn Castle, near Wooler in
Northumberland ; the English, under the Percies (Hotspur
and Ralph), attack them, buJ are defeated (10 Aug.) with a
loss of 2000 men, both Percies being taken prisoners ; Douglas,
however, is slain. This battle was commemorated in the
famous ballad of " Chevy Chase."
•William of Hatfield (born 1336), second son of Edward HI had
died young. The Earl of March's mother Philippa was dead and he
was consequently the real heir-presumptive to the throne
t He was the si^tb son of Edward HI

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 185
Chaucer writes his "Canterbury Tales."
1389. Richard II. (how 23) declares that he is " old enough
to manage his own affairs," dismisses the Council of Regency,
and takes the government into his own hands (3 May).
A truce with France is made till 16 Aug., 1392.
1392. A quarrel between Richard II. and the citizens of
London culminates in a riot ; the quarrel is healed through
the influence of Queen Anne.
The truce with France is extended till Sep., 1393.
1393. The Statute of Provisors or Praemunire (16 Rich.
II., c 5) is passed for the purpose of curbing the pretensions
of the papacy. It declares that the right of presentation to a
benefice belongs to the king's court, condemns the practice of
papal translation, and enacts " that if any purchase, or pur
sue, in the Court of Rome, or elsewhere, such translations,
processes, excommunications, bulls," etc, he and his abettors
shall forfeit their lands and goods to the king, and themselves
be brought before the king and his council, or be proceeded
against by writ of Praemunire * facias, bidding the sheriff to
" forewarn " the offender when and where to appear to answer
the charges against him.
1394. A four-years' truce is made with France (27 May).
Ireland having fallen into disorder, Richard II. goes over in
person (Oct. ), takes some just and moderate measures, holds a
parliament, and induces all the native' princes to swear fealty.
Richard's queen, Anne of Bohemia, dies childless (7 June),
aged 27.
About this date William Langland writes his " Vision and
Creed of Piers Ploughman."
1395. The Lollards have become so strong that they pre
sent a .petition to Parliament, attacking the priests, and de
manding that the Church shall be reformed on Lollard prin
ciples., The Church demands the return and protection of
the king, who comes back from Ireland (July) and expels the
Lollards frOm Oxford. Roger Mortimer, Earl of March (de
clared heir to the throne in 1385), is made viceroy in Ireland.
Sir William Scrope buys the sovereignty of the Isle of Man
from the Earl of Salisbury.
1396. Richard II. goes to Calais, and there marries (31
Oct.) Isabella, a child 8 years old, daughter of Charles VI.
of France ; she is crowned queen in 1397. .A truce for 25
years is made with France.
*The word praemunire is said to be a corruption of prcemonere,
to forewarn. It was in this way that the term praemunire came to
designate the offence of upholding a foreign power against the Crown.

186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
John of Gaunt marries his mistress, Catherine Swynford.
1397. Richard II., having apparently-dissembled, for sev
eral years his desire for vengeance against his former oppo
nents, now, relying probably upon his alliance with France,
causes the arrest of Gloucester (his uncle), Warwick, and
the Earl of Arundel (July) "; Gloucester is sent to Calais,, and
there strangled or smothered by the king's orders (Sep.).
Parliament meets (17 Sep. ) ; the charges against Gloucester
and his associates are there made ; and Arundel (notwith
standing his former pardon) is condemned and beheaded (21
Sep. ) ; and Warwick is exiled to the Isle of Man.
John of Gaunt's four children by Catherine Swynford are
legitimized by patent, by Act of parliament, and by papal
decree ; one of them, John Beaufort (afterwards Earl of Som
erset), was great-grandfather of Henry VII.
1398. Parliament meets at Shrewsbury (27 Jan.), repeals
the acts of the Wonderful Parliament, and grants the king
a tax on wool and hides for life ; and a permanent com
mittee of 12 peers and 6 commoners is appointed to represent
parliament for the future. Richard, having thus done away
with the necessity of calling parliament, and destroyed his old
enemies, becomes practically an absolute monarch. He raises
forced loans, and interferes with the administration of justice ;
he also declares 17 counties outlawed for having supported
Gloucester in 1387. All these things create popular discon
tent. Of Richard's old opponents of 1386 there remain only
the Dukes of Norfolk and Hereford (Henry Bolingbroke,
the only legitimate son of John of Gaunt) ; these two quarrel,,
and Richard bariishes Hereford for 10 years and Norfolk for
life (16 Sept.). Hereford goes to Paris
Roger Mortimer, Earl of March and Viceroy of Ireland (the
king's nephew, whom he declared heir to the throne in 1385), is
killed in a skirmish at Kenlys, in Ossory (20 July). He leaves
two children, Edmund and Anne Mortimer. Edmund suc
ceeds to his father's rights, and becomes hejr-presumptive to
the throne.
1399. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (fourth son of
Edward III ), dies (3 Feb.) ; and Richard II. seizes his estates
(18 Mar. ), John of Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke, having
been banished in 1398. .
Richard II. sails (May) from Milford Haven to Ireland to
exact vengeance for the death of Mortimer, leaving his uncle,
Edmund, Duke of York (the fifth son of Edward III.), in
charge of affairs in England.
Henry Bolingbroke, now Duke of Lancaster, with the in-

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 187
tention of claiming the throne, sails from Rrittany (June)
and lands at Ravenspur,* in Yorkshire (4 July) ; his uncle>
the regent (Duke of York), joins him at Berkeley (27 July),
and he is everywhere received with enthusiasm. Richard II.
returns from Ireland to Wales, lands at Milford (5 Aug.), his
army deserts him, and he takes refuge in Conway Castle, but
is entrapped by Henry into leaving it, captured (20 Aug.),
-and lodged in the Tower (2 Sep.)r Henry calls a parliament,
and induces him to sign his abdication (29 Sep.). Parlia
ment meets at Westminster (30 Sep.), deposes Richard, and
declares his cousin Bolingbroke king, as Henry IV. (30 Sep.).f
Henry is enthroned by both archbishops (30 Sep.). Parlia
ment reassembles (6 Oct.) ; Henry IV. is crowned at West
minster (13 Oct.), and parliament sentences "Richard, late
King of England," to perpetual imprisonment (27 Oct.), and
he is transferred to Pontefract or Porrifret Castle, in York
shire. Edmund Mortimer, a child, next heir to the throne after
Richard II., is kept in custody at Windsor, by Henry IV.
The governments of France and Scotland refuse to recognize
Henry IV. as king, and prepare to invade England.
The Earls of Kent, Huntington, Rutland, and Salisbury,
and others enter into a plot to murder Henry IV. and restore
Richard (Dec).
1400. The Earl of Rutland reveals the plot to restore
Richard (4. Jan.), and it is suppressed at Cirencester, Kent
being killed (6 Jan.). Salisbury is beheaded (7 Jan.), also
Huntingdon (15 or 16 Jan.) ; and about 30 of the conspirators
taken at Cirencester are executed (Jan.), and others at Lon
don (4 Feb.).
The fate of Richard himself is undetermined. One account
states that he was murdered by Sir Piers Exton in Pontefract
Castle ; others state that he starved himself to death. The
most probable view is that, at the time of the plot in his favor,
he escaped from Pontefract, and that when it failed he took
refuge in Scotland, where he became insane through grief,
and where he died at Stirling in 1419.
* This port no longer exists, having been gradually submerged by
the encroachments of the sea about 1550.
f Parliament, in thus declaring Henry IV. king, set aside the
claims of Edmund Mortimer; who, as great-grandson of Lionel, Duke
of Clarence, third son of Edward HI., was the true heir to the throne
according to strict hereditary right. It was this setting aside of the
superior claims of Clarence's descendants which led to the Wars of
Roses. Henry IV., it will be remembered, was son of John of Gaunt,
fourth son of Edward ILL

188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Henry IV. invades Scotland as far as Leith, and demands
homage from the king ; but David, Duke of Rothsay,.the heir-
apparent, holds out in Edinburgh Castle, and want of provis
ions compels the English to retreat.
Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, dies in
London (25 Oct.), aged 60 ; he is buried in Westminster Abbey,
in the portion afterwards known as "Poets' Corner."
1400-15. Owen Glendower (or Glyndwr), a Welsh gentle
man, claims the title of Prince of Wales, and rouses a national
revolt in Wales, which he maintains with more or less success
for fifteen years.
1401. William Sawtre is burnt alive for Lollardy, deny
ing Transubstantiation and refusing to worship the cross (12
Feb.). ,
On petition of the clergy (Arundel, Archbishop of Canter
bury, being the prime mover), parliament passes the statute
De Hceretico C'omburendo ("For the Burning of Heretics,"
2 Hen. IV., c 15). It was directed against the Lollards, and
provided that a person convicted of heresy by a spiritual
court, refusing to recant, should be handed over to the civil
power to be burnt alive.
1402. Henry IV. marries Joanna of Navarre at Eltham
(3 Ap.), she being represented by proxy.
The Scots, under Patrick Hepburn, are defeated at Nisbet
in Northumberland (7 May) by the English.
The Scots, under Archibald, Earl of Douglas, invade Eng
land (July), but are defeated at Homildon Hill, near Wooler
in Northumberland (14 Sep.), by the English, under Harry
Percy (Hotspur) ; Douglas is taken prisoner.
The Percies quarrel with Henry IV., and enter into negotia
tions with Owen Glendower and Douglas ,for concerted opera
tions against him, and to make Edmund Mortimer, Earl of
March, king (Dec).
1403. Henry IV. marries Joanna of Navarre, at West
minster (7 Feb.) ; she is crowned (26 Feb.).
Henry IV. marches north to prevent the Percies from
joining Glendower ; and he defeats them at Hateley-field, near
Shrewsbury (23 July), Hotspur being slain.
A French fleet attacks the Isle of Wight and Plymouth,
but is defeated at Portland.
1404. An Act (5 Hen. IV, c. 4) is passed declaring "the
Craft of multiplying gold or silver " (alchemy) to be felony. '
France makes a treaty of alliance with Glendower, as " Owen,
Prince of Wales " (14 July).
1405. Constance Despenser, Countess of Gloucester, takes.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 189
young Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, from Windsor Cas
tle, and flees (15 Feb.); but they are soon captured and brought
back. Prince Henry, the eldest son of Henry IV., goes to Wales to
conduct the war there.
Another revolt under Richard Scrope (Archbishop of York)
and Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, breaks out in the
north ; and the archbishop excommunicates Henry IV. (9
May). The Earl of Westmoreland marches against them ;
Scrope and Mowbray disband their forces, and are taken and
summarily executed (8 June).
James (a boy of 14), the heir-apparent to the throne of
Scotland, takes ship for France, but is captured by English
cruisers off Flamborough Head (30 Mar.), and brought to
Henry TV. ; he is detained in England for 19 years, till 1424,
1406. Robert III., King of Scotland, dies (4 Ap.) ; James
I. is acknowledged king, but being detained a prisoner in
England, his uncle the Duke of Albany acts as regent.
An Act (7 Hen. IV., c. 2) is passed settling the crown on
Henry IV. and his four sons.
1407. The Duke of Orleans, the eldest son and heir of
Charles VI. of France, having debauched the young wife of
the Duke of Burgundy, the latter causes Orleans to be assassi
nated in the streets of Paris (23 Nov.). This act leads to civil
war in France, and so removes danger to'Henry IV. from that
quarter. Charles VI. has been insane since 1392.
A pestilence rages in England ; 30,000 die in London.
1408. Owen Glendower, being deprived of his French
allies, is driven by Henry IV. to the mountains of north
Wales. The Earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph re
volt in the north, but are defeated at Braham Moor, in York
shire (19 Feb.), by the royal troops under Sir Thomas Roke-
by, Northumberland and Bardolph both being slain.
1410. Henry IV. sends an army to assist the Burgundians
against the Armagnacs (as the Orleanists are called).
Thomas Badby, a Lollard, is executed for heresy in denying
the Real Presence, the first execution under the statute De
Hmretico Comburendo (Ap.).
1411. The Burgundians, assisted by troops sent by Henry
IV., defeat the Armagnacs near St. Cloud, and capture Paris.
Henry Wardlaw, Bishop of St. Andrews, charters the Uni
versity of St. Andrews (27 Feb.), the first in Scotland. It is
sanctioned by a bull of Pope Benedict XII. (25 Aug., 1413).
1412. Henry IV. concludes a six years' truce with Scot
land (7 May).

190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Henry IV., with a view to keep up the conflict in France,
goes over from the Burgundians to the Armagnacs (18 May),
receiving Guienne in return for his support. An English
army, under Thomas, Duke of Clarence (the king's second
son), invades France, ravages Maine and Touraine, and com
pletes the conquest of Guienne* The two French parties
unite against the English, who in return ravage Normandy.
1413. Henry IV. dies of, leprosy and epilepsy (20- Mar.),
aged 46 ; his eldest son, Henry-of Monmouth (so-called from
his place of birth), succeeds him as Henry V. (21 Mar.), and
is crowned at Westminster (9 Ap. ).
Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, the leader of the Lol
lards, is cited before a spiritual court at St. Paul's (23-25
Sep.), and refusing to recant, is :Cohdemned -to be burnt as a
heretic (25 Sep. ), and sent to the Tower, but escapes from
prison and goes to Wales (28 Oct.).
Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, holds a synod
at St. Paul's (20 Nov. -4 Dec), to repress Wiclif 's doctrines.
- 1414. Oldcastle's followers arrange for a meeting to be
held in St. Giles' Fields (7 Jan.), but Henry V. gets warning,
and 39 of them are arrested on their way thither, and are
tried, condemned (10 Jan.), and hanged or burnt (12 Jan.).
An Act (2 Hen. V., st. 1, c 7) is passed extending and making
more stringent the statute De Hceretico Comburendo; it pro
vides that. alL judges- and municipal authorities shall arrest and
try Lollards, and that all persons convicted of heresy shall
have their goods confiscated.
Henry V. claims from France the territories ceded to Ed
ward III. by the peace of Bretigny in 1360; also 1,600,000
crowns as the unpaid portion of the ransom of King John U.,
who had died in England in 1364 ; also the hand of Princess
Catherine of France, with a dowry of .2,000,000 crowns (June).
1415. These preposterous demands are refused, but the
French government offer Henry all Aquitaine south of the
Charente, and 600,000 crowns as the princess's dowry. Henry
prepares to invade France to enforce his. full claims (Ap.).
The French send an embassy offering Limousin in addition to
the territory in Aquitaine, and to increase the dowry to 800,-
000 crowns. This offer is also rejected, and Henry sails from
Southampton (11 Aug.) with an army of 30,000 men in 1500
ships, and lands at the mouth of the Seine (14 Aug.), on the
present site of Havre de Grace'. He captures Harfleur (22
Sep.), but loses nearly half his army by sickness and fighting,
and retires towards Calais (8 Oct.). He is intercepted by a
French army of 50,000 men ; but they are defeated at Agin-

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 191
court (25 Oct.), with a loss of 10,000 .killed and 15,000 pris
oners, the English losing 1600. Among the captives is Charles,
Duke of Orleans, the head of the Orleanists. Henry V. pro
ceeds to Calais (29 Oct.) and thence returns to England (17
Nov.), and makes a triumphant entry into London (25 Nov.).
The Council of Constance condemns 45 articles of Wiclif 's,
and orders his bones to be dug out of consecrated ground, and
cast on a dunghill (5 May).
1416. Sigismund, King of the Romans and champion of
the Church, comes to England with a view to make peace be
tween that country and France. Henry V. gives him a mag
nificent reception, but his offered mediation fails.
The French burn Portland in Dorsetshire (May), and be
siege Harfleur, but it is relieved by the Duke of Bedford (15
Aug.), who captures or destroys nearly 500 French ships ; it is
again relieved by the Earl of Huntingdon (Oct.). John sans
Peur, Duke of Burgundy, allies himself with the English.
1417. Henry V. again invades France, landing a;fc Touque,
near Honfleur (1 Aug.); and he makes himself master of Nor
mandy, except Rouen.
Sir John Oldcastle is recaptured in Wales (Nov.), brought
to London, and hung in chains and burnt (14 Dec,).
1418. Henry V. conquers the country from Artois to Brit
tany, and lays siege to Rouen (July).
Joanna of Navarre, widow of ' Henry IV., is accused of
witchcraft, and imprisoned at Pevensey in Sussex.*
1419. Rouen, after having made an heroic defence for
mariy months, and being in the last extremities of famine,
surrenders to Henry V. (15 Jan.), who holds court there as
Duke of Normandy, and receives the homage of the nobles.
John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy and governor^ of
France, is assassinated at a conference with the , Dauphin
Charles (now 16) at Montereau (10 Sep.) j. his son Philip the
Good succeeds him, and preliminaries of peace. are signed at
Arras (17 Oct.) between the English and Philip,. now the head
of the Burgundian party,- assuming to act in the name of
France, the king, Charles VI., being still imbecile.
1420- In accordance with these preliminaries a formal
treaty of peace is signed at Troyes (21, May) ; Henry V. is to
marry the Princess Catherine, to succeed to the throne of
France on the death of Charles VI., andj on account of that
monarch's imbecility, to administer the affairs of the kingdom
until his death. . Henry V. marries Catherine at Troyes, (2
* She was released, July, 1422, and died at Havering-at-Bower, 9
July, 143,?.

192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
June) ; he and Charles VI. enter Paris together ; and the Par
liament of Paris ratifies the Treaty of Troyes (10 Dec).
Charles the Dauphin (son of Charles VI.), supported by the
party of Armagnacs, repudiates the treaty.
The Spanish fleet defeats the English, and then goes to
Scotland, and takes an army of about 6000 Scots under John
Stewart, Earl of Buchan; to France, to assist the Dauphin.
1421. Henry V. and his bride go to England, land at Dover
(1 Feb.) ; and Catherine is crowned at Westminster Abbey,
by Chicheley, Archbishop of Canterbury (23 Feb,).
The French and Scotch, under the Dauphin and the Earl of
Buchan, defeat the English under Thomas, Duke of Clarence
(brother of Henry V.). at Beauge in Anjou (22 Mar.), Clar
ence being slain. Buchan is made Constable of France.
Henry V. leaves England (10 June), goes to Paris, captures
Rheims, and besieges the castle of Marche, in Meaux (6;
Oct.). Henry VI. is born at Windsor (6 Dec). <
1422. Queen Catherine leaves England for France escorted
by an army of 20,000 men under the Duke of Bedford (brother
of Henry v.), and lands at Harfleur (21 May) ; Henry V.,
with her- father Charles VI. and her mother Isabeau of
Bavaria, meets Catherine at Vincennes, and they enter Paris
(30 May). Henry captures Meaux (5 June), and advances
against the Dauphin's army at Cosne, but falls. ill at Senlis
(about 25 miles N. E. of Paris), and is taken back to Vin
cennes, where he dies (31 Aug.), aged 33. His body is taken
to England (Oct.) and buried in Westminster Abbey. His
son, Henry VI. (a child 9 months old), succeeds him. John,
Duke of Bedford (the eldest surviving brother of Henry V.) is
made Regent of England and France ; Humphrey, Duke of
Gloucester (younger brother of Henry V.) administering
affairs in England Under the title of Defender or Protector of
the Kingdom.
Charles VI., King of France, dies (21 Oct.) ; his son claims
the throne, and is crowned at Poitiers as Charles VII. The
English reject his claim, and recognize him simply as the
Dauphin ; and in Paris Henry VI. is recognized as king.
1423. In order to cement the alliance with Burgundy
against France, Bedford marries Anne, a sister of Philip,-
Duke of Burgundy (13 Ap.). The English and Burgundians,
under the Earl "of Salisbury, defeat a combined force of
French, ScOtch, and levies from Spain and Lombardy, at
Crevant, near Auxerre, in Burgundy (31 July), Buchan, Con
stable of France, being taken prisoner.

William Hogarth. (From a painting by himself.)— P. 304

Death op Wolfe.— P. 305.

Shakspere's Supposed Birthplace (restored).— P. 245.

MARY Stuart about to Sign her Abdication.-?. 249,

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 193
Other recruits come to the aid of. the Dauphin, including
5000 ' Scotch under Archibald Douglas. In order to cut off
aid Jrom Scotland; Bedford agrees to release James I., King of
Scotland, who has been a captive in England for 18 years, on
payment of £40,000 expenses, and on his agreeing to keep
peace with England and marry an Englishwoman (Sep.).
An Act (2 Henry VI. rc- 18) is passed empowering justices
to regulate wages and the price of food.
1424. ' James I. of Scotland marries Joan or Jane Beau-
, fort, daughter of John, Marquis of Somerset, and grarid-
daughter of John of Gaunt (24 Feb.). He is set at liberty
(Ap.), goes to Scotland, and is crowned at Scone (21 May),
as King of Scotland.
The Scotch troops in France advance to the borders of Nor
mandy and capture Ivry, . Bedford lays siege to it, and an
army of 18,000 French,. Scotch, and Italians; under the Duke
of Alencon and the Earl of Buchan, advance to its relief, but
failing in that design capture Verneuil, in Maine, : near
¦Evreux. There they are totally defeated by the English
under Bedford (16 Aug. ), with a loss of 4000 or 5000 slain,
including the Earls of Buchan and Douglas; and the Duke of
Alencon is taken prisoner. This defeat compels the French
to retire south of the Loire.
Edmund Mortimer,. Earl of March, the heir to the throne
who had been set aside on the deposition bf Richard II. in
1399, dies of the plague in the Castle of Trim, Ireland.' He
had submitted to Henry V. in 1415, and accompanied him to
the French wars, and been made Lord-Lieutenant in Ireland
in 1423. His claim to the throne descends to his nephew,
Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, son of his sister Anne
Mortimer, a youth of 14.
1425. Heresy is made punishable in Scotland by burning
alive. v
1426. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, uncle to Henry VI. ,
marries his mistress, Eleanor Oobham, daughter of Reginald;
Lord Oobhatn.
1427. The French, under their famous general Dunois,
"the Bastard of Orleans," defeat the English, under the Earl
of Warwick, at Montargis (in Loiret,, about 40 miles E. N. E,
of Orleans).
1428. ..Under the impression that Catherine (widow of
Henry V.) meditates a marriage beneath her, parliament, at
the instance of the Duke of Gloucester, passes an Act (6
Hen. VI.) imposing severe penalties on "any person who
shall dare to marry a queen dowager, or any lady who held

194 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
lands of the crown, without the consent of the king or his
council." Catherine had already (probably in 1423) secretly
married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman of her household,
the progenitor of the Tudor dynasty.
W ith a view to conquering France south of the Loire, the
Earl of Salisbury lays siege to Orleans (12 Oct.), on that river,
but is wounded (27 Oct.), and dies (3 Nov.). William de la
Pole, Earl of Suffolk, continues the siege.
Richard Flemmyng, Bishop of Lincoln, founds Lincoln Col
lege, Oxford (13 Oct.).
Pope Clement VIII. sends orders to the Bishop of Lincoln
to have the sentence passed by the Council of Constance, on
the 5th May, 1415, against Wiclif, strictly carried out; Wiclif s
remains are consequently exhumed and burnt, and his ashes
are thrown into the Swift, a branch of the Avon.
1429. A French army, sent to relieve Orleans, is defeated
(12 Feb.) at Rouvray or Roveroy (about 10 miles N. N. W. of
Orleans) by the English under Sir John Fastolf, in a skirmish
- known as the battle of the Herrings.
Joan of Arc (or Jeanne Dare), "the Maid of Orleans," a
gii 1 about 1 8 years of age, who is possessed with a belief that
she has a divine mission to deliver France and to procure the
coronation of the Dauphin at Rheims,* goes to the Dauphin
at Chinon ' (between Angers and Tours, south of the Loire);
impresses him with a belief in her mission, and he entrusts
her with the command of an army of 6000 or 7000 men for
the relief of Orleans, Dunois being associated with her in the
command. Having inspired her army with some of her own
enthusiasm, she proceeds from Blois (about 15 miles N. E. of
Tours) up the Loire, and enters Orleans by the river (29 Ap.),
makes several successful attacks on the English lines (6, 7
May), and the English raise the siege (8 May) and retire. She
follows and defeats , them (12 June) at Jai geau or Jergeaux
(about 10 miles E. S. E. of Orleans), and at Patay (about 14 miles
N. W. olOrleans), inflicting a loss of 2000 men (18 June), their
general, Sir John Talbot, being taken prisoner. The Dau-
, phin and Joan then march to Rheims and capture it ; and he
is crowned King of France as Charles VII. (18 July), Joan
* The famous old Gothic cathedral at Rheims was looked upon in
France with the safne veneration as Westminster Abbey in England.
It had been- the coronation-place of all the French kings since Philip
Augustus was consecrated there in 1179. At this date (1429) Rheims
was in possession of the English, having been captured by them in
1421. The town is in the present department of Marne, about 85
miles N. E. of Paris.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 195
standing by his side. Bedford advances in order to bring on
a decisive battle, but fails, and after an indecisive skirmish at
Senlis (about 30 miles N. N. E. of Paris), retires to Paris.
The French, under Joan, attack Paris unsuccessfully, Joan
being wounded ; and they retire beyond the Loire.
Bedford causes Henry VI. (now 8) to be crowned at West
minster Abbey (6 Nov.).
Up to this time cumbrous stone balls had been used , for .
artillery. At this date, however, a Frenchman, called Master
Jean, discovers that iron balls are far more destructive, and
that they allow the use of much smaller and lighter guns,
which can be easily moved from place to place. The use of
this new artillery gives the French a great advantage over the
English, who ascribe its destructive powers to magic, a super
stition which still further demoralizes them.
An Act (8 Hen. VI., c. 7) is passed limiting the suffrage
in counties to resident freeholders of land of the annual
value of 40s. ; it had previously been open to all freehold
ers. The Act gives an aristocratic complexion to the House
of Commons.
1430. The French having retaken Compiegne, Bedford
and the Duke of Burgundy lay siege to it. Joan passes
through the- combined armies and enters the town, but is
captured during a sally (25 May) and taken to-Rouen.
Bedford causes Henry VI. to be brought to France, and
after an unsuccessful attempt to have him crowned at Rheims,
has him crowned at Paris (17 Dec.) as King- of France.
A clergyman in Essex and Jack Sharpe at Oxford are burnt
alive for heresy.
The University of Paris demands that Joan of Arc shall be
tried for sorcery, and solicits from H nry VI. letters-patent
for her trial, which aye reluctantly granted.
1431. After a trial lasting several months, Joan of Arc is
found guilty, the verdict of the University of Paris being that
her acts were diabolical, and merited punishment by fire ; and
she is handed over to the secular arm, and burnt alive as a
wiich (31 May) in the market-place of Rouen, and her ashes
are thrown into the Seine.
The French recapture Harfleur.
Bedford goes to- England, and obtains from parliament leave
to treat for peace with France, and returns thither.
1432. The Duke of Burgundy makes an armistice with
the French. _ Bedford's wife (the Duke of Burgundy's sister)
dies childless (14 .Nov.), whereby the strongest tie between
England and Burgundy is removed. In consequence of the

10g HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
heavy drain caused by the war, the English finances are in
disorder, and tlie garrison of Calais mutinies for pay.
USS Bedford goes to England, takes. measures for econ
omizing expenditure, and manifests a willingness to make
peace with France on honorable terms ; his efforts m this
direction are opposed by his brother, the Duke of Gloucester,
at the head of a war party.
The French capture St. Denis (about 10 miles N. W. of
Paris), and take the Earl of Arundel prisoner ; Bedford re
turns to France. .„,.,,-- ¦, ¦-,
1434 Sir Robert Ogle, with English troops, makes a raid
into the' Scotch .lowlands ; an act pf folly which drives James
I. into an alliance with the French, and he sends over his
daughter Margaret to France, to marry the son of Charles VII.
(afterwards Louis XL). .
1435. The Duke of Burgundy calls a quasi-European
Congress at Arras (14 July), with a view to settle a general
peace ; it meets (20 Aug.)," the French and English represen
tatives fail to come to terms, and the English embassy with
draws (6 Sep.). The Duke of Bedford dies at Rouen (14 Sep.),
whereupon the Duke of Burgundy, who has long been waver- -
ing, renounces the English alliance, and goes over to the side
of Charles VII. and the French (21 Sep.). This defection
makes the. English cause in France hopeless. The war party
in England prevails, however, and it is resolved to continue
the struggle. By Bedford's death, his younger brother, Hum
phrey, Duke of .Gloucester, becomes presumptive heir to the
throne on the Lancastrian side. . Bedford is succeeded as
Regent of France by Eichard Plantagenet, Duke of York (son
of the Earl of Cambridge executed in 1415), and founder of
the House of York, and heir to the throne on the Yorkist side.
1436. The French conquer part of Normandy; and Charles
VII., with Dunois and the Duke of Burgundy, advances on
Paris ; the English evacuate it ; and the citizens admit Charles
(13 Ap.). Richard, Duke of York, goes to France as regent,
repulses the Burgundians from Calais (2 Aug.), and advances
almost to. Paris.
Margaret, daughter of James I. of Scotland, is married to
the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XL), son of Charles VII. of
France (24 June).
The Scots under James I. attaek Roxburgh (1 Aug.).
The marriage of Catherine (widow of Henry V.) With Owen
Tudor is discovered, and in order to avoid persecution by the
Duke of Gloucester, she takes refuge in the Abbey of Ber-
mondsey. Owen Tudor is sent to Newgate.

- THE ANGEVIN. OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 197
1437. Catherine, widow of Henry V., dies at Bermondsey
(3 Jan.), aged 36, and is buried in Westminster Abbey (19
Feb.). Besides Henry VI., she leaves three sons by Owen
Tudor — Edmund of Hadham (afterwards Earl of Richmond,
and father of Henry VII.), Jasper of Hatfield (afterwards Earl
of Pembroke), and Owen.
James I. Of Scotland, having offended his nobles by his re
forms and his attempts to curb their power, is brutally mur
dered in the Blackfriars Abbey at Perth (20 Feb.), by a band
of 300 conspirators headed by Sir Richard Graham. His son
(a boy of 6) is taken by his mother to Holyrood and crowned
king as James II.
The Duke of York is recalled from France (July), and
Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, is sent over as regent
(16 July), but fails to check the advance of the French.
1438. Both England and France are thoroughly exhausted
by the war ; the plague has ravaged England for several years,
and this year's harvest is so bad that no bread is to be had,
and the people have to live on pulse and fern roots.
A nine years' truce is made with Scotland (31 Mar.).
Outbreaks against Catholic ecclesiastical foundations occur
in many parts of England.
1439. The Ea'l of Warwick, regent in France, dies at
Rouen (30 Ap.); John Beaufort, Marquis of Somerset, succeeds
him. A three years' truce is made with Burgundy. The
French capture Meaux (20 miles N. E. of Paris).
The public schools atjOxford are founded.
1440. The title of viscount is created by patent. John,
Lord Beaumont, is the first to receive the new title (22 Feb.).
Somerset recaptures Harfleur. The Duke of- York is again
made regent in France (2 July), in association with Somerset.
Henry VI. founds Eton College (11 Oct.).
Cardinal Beaufort and the peace party in England, in spite of
the opposition of the Duke of Gloucester, procure the liberation
(12 Nov.) of the Duke of Orleans (who has been a prisoner in
England since the battle of Agincourt in 1415), hoping, by his
aid, to secure peace with France; but the design fails of success.
1441. The French attack Guienne. Charles VII. reverse*
the process against Joan of Arc, and pronounces her "a mar
tyr to her religion, her country, and her king."
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the king's uncle, being heir-
presumptive to the throne, his wife (nee Eleanor Cobham)* and
tflree accomplices, acting on the witch superstition of the time,
* He had married her in 1426. See ante, p. 193.

193 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
make a waxen image of Henry VI., and place it before a fire
to melt, expecting that Henry's life will waste simultaneously -
with the melting of his image. Eleanor is arraigned tor trea
son and witchcraft, and the growing mental and bodily weak-
ne s of the king being attributed to her arts, she is found
guilty, and condemned to do public penance barefooted in the
streets of London, and to be imprisoned for life in the Isle of
Man. Her husband never recovers from the blow thus given
to his reputation. Two of her accomplices (Robert Boling
broke, a priest, and Margaret Jourdain, " the witqh of Eye ")
are executed; the third (Thomas Southwell, Canon of St. Ste
phen's) dies in the Tower.
1442. Henry VL comes of age, and Gloucester's protec
torate ends. The war in France continues.
1443. Fresh outbreaks, similar to those in 1438, against
Catholic ecclesiastical foundations occur in many parts of Eng
land. The truce with Burgundy is renewed (23 Ap.).
-Somerset is made duke, but is recalled from France.
Henry VI. founds King's College, Cambridge.
1444. John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, ex-Lieutenant in
France, possibly in despair at his ill-success in the war in
France, kills himself. His brother Edmund Beaufort succeeds
him as Marquis of Somerset. John's only chihi, Margaret
Beaufort (a child of 3), is now heiress-presumptive to the
throne on the Lancastrian sifle, after Humphrey, Duke - of
Gloucester. Her father had appointed William -de la Pole,
Eail pf Suffolk, her guardian.
William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, is sent to France to
negotiate peace, and to promote a marriage between Henry
VI. (now. 22) and Margaret of Anjou (now 15). niece of the
French queen, and daughter of Rene, Count of Guise and
titular King of Naples, Sicily, 'and Jerusalem. He obtains an
armistice from June, 1444, to April, 1446, and a treaty of
marriage, Henry VI. to cede Maine ai d Anjou to Rene (-28
May). These terms are considered humiliating in England,
and create discontent. As a reward for having brought
ab'ut the treaty, however, De la Pole is made Marquis of
Suffolk (14 Sep.) ; and he becomes chief minister in opposition
to Gloucester, heir- presumptive to the 1 hi one.
The Duke of York is recalled from France, and Edmund
Beaufort, Marquis of Somerset, is sent there as Lieutenant.
1445. Henry, VI. marries Margaret of Anjou (22 An. ) ; she«
is crowned (30 Ap.). J V * ''
1446. Truce with France is renewed till 1 Ap., 1450.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 199
Hand-guns or muskets first come into use in England.
They are rude weapons, fired with a lighte 1 match.
1447. At a parliament held at Bury St. Edmunds (10 Feb. ),
Suffolk causes Gloucester to be arrested on a charge of high
treason (11 Feb.). Gloucester is found dead in his bed (24
Feb.) ; but whether he died from natural causes, or was
murdered, as was strongly suspected at the time, has, never
been 'ascertained. His uncle, Cardinal Beaufort, dies (11
Ap.), aged 80. These two deaths leave Suffolk the undis
puted chief minister in England. His leading opponent is
now Richard, Duke of York.
Henry VI. being as yet childless, and his uncle Gloucester,
the heir-presumptive to the throne, being dead, the nearest
heirs are Richard Plantagenet, Duke of Vork, descendant o&
Lionel, Duke of Clarence (3d s m of Edward III.) ; and
Margaret (now 6), daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of
Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (4th
son of Edward HI.). The rival claims of these houses of York
and Lancaster lead to the Wars of the Roses. Henry .VI. him
self, being a great-grandson of John of Gaunt, is a Lancastrian.
1448. Charles VII.,- in order to enforce the provisions of
the marriage treaty of 1445, between Henry VT. and Margaret
of Anjou, which required the cession of Anjou and Maine, sends
an army to enforce the cession of Le Mans, in Maine, thattown
being still held by the English, and it is thereupon surrendered
to him.
Edmund Beaufort, Lieutenant in France, is created J)\ike
of Somerset (31 Mar.).
William de la Pole, Marquis of Suffolk, is made Duke of
Suffolk (2 June).
1449. In violatkn of the truce with France, a body of Eng
lish soldiers from Normandy, mutinous for want of pay, sack
the wealthy town of Fougeres, in Brittany. The Lieutenant
in France, Edmund Beaufort. Duke of Somerset, denies re
sponsibility for the deed, but fails to make satisfaction ; the
Duke of Brittany goes over to the side of France, war again
breaks out, and in two months Dunois conquers a large part
of Normandy, including Rouen (10 Nov.). ^
The Duke of Suffolk, in order to get rid pf so powerful an
opponent as Richard, Duke of York (the presumptive heir to
the throne, on the side of the House of York), sends him to
Ireland as viceroy (5 July). With a view to obtaining the
throne for his own son John, he marries him to Margaret
Beaufort* presumptive heiress to the throne on the Lancas
trian side (now 8), whose guardian he has been since 1444.

200

HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

Queen Margaret founds St. Bernard and St. Margaret's
(^i.SSRriff£52i,b«t a truce is made (15 Nov.)
for an indeterminate period. .
1450 The losses in Normandy create great popular discon
tent in England, which culminates in a riot at Portsmouth,
during which Adam Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester a partisan
of Suffolk, the prime minister, is killed (Jan.). The House
of Commons brings charges against Suffolk (28 Jan.) of treach
ery in France (in 1444-5), misappropriation of revenue, in
terference with the course of justice, and seeking to get the
throne for his descendants ; he denies the charges (3 i eb.), and
puts himself on the king's mercy ; he is brought before parlia
ment (17 Mar.), and Henry VI., without deciding on the
merits of the charges, banishes him for 5 years. He escapes,
takes ship (3 May) at Ipswich for Calais, but by order of the
Duke of Exeter, Constable of the Tower, is, intercepted by an
English squadron, taken on board the Nicholas ofthe Tower,
and after a pretended trialby the seamen, is beheaded (3 May),
and his body is laid on the sand at Dover. His son's marriage
with Margaret Beaufort is pronounced void.
The French capture Harfleur in Normandy (1 Jan.). Sir
Thomas Kyriel is sent to France with troops to reinforce
the Duke of Somerset, but is defeated with a loss of 3000 or
4000 slain at Formigny (15 Ap.), near Bayeux in Normandy,
by the French under Richemont ; Caen surrenders (July) ;
and the last remnant of the English army in Normandy evacu
ates Cherbourg (Aug.) and returns to England; arid the
French, by the occupation of Cherbourg (12 Aug.), complete
the conquest of Normandy. On Somerset's return from France
he is made Constable of England, and^ecomes Henry's chief
adviser in place of Suffolk, and in opposition to the Duke , of
York: While parliament is sitting at Leicester, the men of Kent,
Surrey, Sussex, and Hampshire, provoked by the news of the
disastrous defeat at Formigny, and by the misgovernment,
heavy taxation, and other financial and political evils of the
time, rise in arms (May). The men of Kent, ^ under the
leadership of Jack Cade, "Captain of Kent," assemble at
Blackheath, near London (1 June), and demand a redress of
grievances and a change of the king's advisers. Henry VI.
marches to Blackheath ; Cade falls back, and Henry sends
• against him a part of his army under Sir Humphrey and Wil-
* It was further endowed by Edward IV.'s queen (1465), when the
name was changed to Queen's College.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 201
Ham Stafford, which Cade turns upon and routs at Sevenoaks
in Kent (27 June), both Staffords being killed. Cade returns
to London, occupies Southwark, the Londoners open their
gates, and Cade takes formal possession of the city (2 July).
He takes Lord Say and Sele, one of the obnoxious ministers, out
of the Tower, and tries and beheads him (4 July) ; two others
are also executed. Discipline now gives way, Cade's followers
rob the Londoners, who thereupon attack them, and a desperate
fight ensues (5 July), lasting all night, Cade falling back in
the morning dispirited. Offers of pardon are made and ac
cepted, and- most of his followers return home (6 July).
Cade, in distrust,. raises a new force by opening the gaols, a
price is set upon his head, and he is caught at Heathfield, near
Lewes in Sussex, and resisting^ capture, is killed (13 July).
Public disaffection, however, continues.
* The Duke of York leaves his viceroyalty in Ireland without
leave, and collects an army of 4000 vassals on the Welsh
border. Bishop Turnbull, under the authority of a bull of Pope
Nicholas V., founds the University of Glasgow.
1451. The Duke of York, with his army and a large fol
lowing of nobles, marches to Westminster and demands the
dismissal of Somerset. The demand is refused. It is pro
posed in parliament to declare the Duke of York heir-pre
sumptive to the throne,* but parliament, having been /elected
in the Lancastrian interest, rejects the proposal, and the pro
poser is imprisoned. The country grows more disturbed, and
fighting takes place in Devonshire, Northumberland, and at
Ludlow Castle, on the Welsh border.
The French under Dunois expel the English from Gujenne
(Aug.), the only French territory which . had been left to the
English except Calais.
1452. York appears in Kent at the head of his army ; the
king comes to Blackheath with his forces and promises to
imprison Somerset and to form a new council, whereupon Yo k
disbands his troops ; he finds, however, that he has been
deluded with false promises, and is compelled to swear fealty
to Henry VI. ; and he retires to his castle at Wigmore. '\
The Gascons rise- against the . French, and ask aid from
England. An expedition is sent under Talbot, Earl of
Shrewsbury, who captures Bordeaux (23 Oct.).
1453. The French lay siege to Oastillon on the Dordogne,
in Guienne ; "Talbot, being deceived as to their numbers,
* His nearest rival is Margaret Beaufort, a child of 10, niece of the
Duke of Somerset.

202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
marches to its relief with an inadequate force, and is defeated
and slain (2.3 July). With the loss of this brave soldier, all
hopes of the Engl sli to recover territory in France come to
an end. The French besiege (1 Aug.) and capture (17 Oct.)
Bordeaux. The battle of Castillon was the last of the Hun
dred Years' War.
Henry VI. becomes imbecile (Oct.), and remains in a con
dition of semi-unConsciousness for many months. His son
Edward is born at Westminster (13 Oct.), being heir-apparent-
to the throne on the Lancastrian side, in opposition to the
claims of the Duke of York. The Yorkists, however, assert.
that he is either a bastard or a changeling.- The Duke of
York procures the imprisonment of Somerset (Dec).
1454: The peers in parliament elect the Duke of York
protector (3 Ap; ) ; and Somerset is deprived of his offices.
1455. Henry VI. recovers his sanity (Jan. ) ; York's pro
tectorate ceases, Somerset is released from the Tower (5 Feb.),
and York is deprived of the captainship of Calais (6 Mar.).
York thereupon retires to his estates in the north, collects
an army, and with Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick ("the
kingmaker "), marches on London. The royal troops under
Henry VI. and Somerset march northward.. At Royston,
York writes a letter to the king, declaring his loyalty, and
stating his terms ; the letter is unanswered, and the two armies
meet in the first battle of St. Albans ($2 May), n hen, after a
brief fight of half an hour, the royalists or Lancastrians are
defeated, Somerset is slain, and the king is wounded arid taken
prisoner. York kneels before him, begs his fayor, and goes
with him in apparent harmony to London. Warwick is made
captain of Calais (May). With this battle began the Wars of
the Roses* which desolated England for the next 30 years. The
name was given on account of the badges of the two houses, the
Yorkist being a white rose, and the Lancastrian a red one. .
Margaret Beaufort (now 14), the nearest heir to the throne
on the Lancastrian side after the young prince Edward, mar
ries (Mar.) Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, a son of Sir
Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois (widow of Henry V.).
Henry VI- again becomes insane ; and parliament again
appoints York protector (19 Nov.).
«. i5(V ^enry Tudor (afterwards Henry VII., founder of
the Tudor dynasty), a son of Margaret Beaufort and Edmund
ludor, is born (21 Jan.). His father dies soon after. '
Henry VI. again recovers his sanity (Feb.), York is relieved
of his office of protector (25 Feb.), and the queen assumes
control ot the government.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 203
1457. A meeting of the council is held at Coventry, at
which York and his friends are compelled to renew their
fealty to Henry VI.
The French ravage the English coast, and plunder Sand
wich (28 Aug.)
The truce with Scotland is renewed for four years (31 Dec).
1458. Through the influence of the king, the rivaLieaders
of the Yorkists and Lancastrians are induced to meet in Lon
don (Jan.), and become reconciled (25 Mar.), the Yorkists
agreeing to pay those who had suffered through the battle
of St. Albans. The reconciliation proves only a hollow truce.
William Wayneflete, Bishop of Winchester, founds Magda
len College, Oxford (18 July).
The Earl of Warwick (a Yorkist, who had taken part in
-the battle of St. Albans in 1455), captain of Calais, having
engaged in piracy and attacked a fleet of Hanseatic vessels, is
summoned to England by Henry VI. to render an account of
his doings.,
1459. After his arrival in London a quarrel arises between
his followers and the king's ; Warwick goes west to join York
at Ludlow, in Shropshire; and both sides prepare for war.
Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury (Warwick's father), also
marches south from Yorkshire to join York at Ludlow; Henry
VI. sends Lord -Audley with forces to intercept him, a battle
ensues at Blore Heath"(23 Sep.), about 2 miles from Market
Drayton in Staffordshire, and Audley is defeated and slain ;
Salisbury joins York and Warwick at Ludlow. The veteran
troops brought by Warwick from Calais desert, however (13-
Oct.), and York flees to Ireland, and Warwick and Salisbury
to Calais. Parliament meets at Coventry and attaints the
Yorkist leaders (20 Nov.).
1460. Warwick, having command 'of the sea, goes to Ire
land to concert measures with York ; returns and lands at
Sandwich in Kent (June), and being joined by the people,
marches on London with 30,000 men, captures London,
except the Tower (2 July), advances north, and totally de
feats the royal army near Northampton (10 July) ; Henry VI.
is again taken prisoner, and his queen, Margaret of Anjou,
flees to Scotland with her son Prince Edward. York returns
from Ireland (9 Oct.), and is again master of England.
James II. of Scotland is killed by the bursting of a cannon
at the siege of Roxburgh (3 Aug.) ; his son, a boy of 6, suc
ceeds, as James III. ' , ,,.„
Parliament meets in London (7 Oct.), and (by Act 39 Hen.
VI., c. 1) annuls the Acts of the Parliament of Coventry

204 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
in 1459. York now, for the first time, in a writing sent (16
Oct.) to the House of Lords, claims the throne, pointing out
that. his hereditary right is superior to that of Henry VI.-*
The majority of the peers are Lancastrian in sympathy, but
finding York's claim backed by force, they make a compro
mise (31 Oct.), giving the crown to Henry for his life, and
after his death to York and his heirs; York to be made Prince
of Wales and heir-apparent, and to be the virtual ruler of
the kingdom.
Henry's queen, Margaret of Anjou, rejects this settlement,
as excluding her son, the yoUng Prince Edward ; and she
comes from Scotland and collects an army in Yorkshire. York
rashly advances against her with greatly inferior forces, which
are attacked and destroyed by the queen's army at Wakefield
in Yorkshire (30 Dec). York is taken before the queen,
crowned with a wreath of grass, and beheaded; and his second
son Rutland (a youth of 17), while escaping from the battle
field, is murdered in cold blood by Lord Clifford. York's
eldest son, Edward, Earl of March (a youth of 18), who has
been collecting troops on the Welsh , border, and is now at
Gloucester, becomes Duke of York and heir to his father's
claims. York's third and fourth sons, George and Richard
(now boys of 11 and 10), are taken early in 1461 to Flanders
for safety, f
1460-82. The "Paston Letters'" are written between
these dates.
1461. Edward of York, on hearing of his father's defeat
and death, marches north, and defeats a small Lancastrian
force under Earls Pembroke and Wiltshire at Mortimer's Cross
near Wigmore, in Herefordshire (2 Feb.). Pembroke and.
Wiltshire escape, but Sir Owen Tudor t (Pembroke's father) is
captured, taken to Hereford, and there beheaded. The queen's
army pushes southward, plundering and destroying; the York-
* This was certainly true, the Yorkist claim beimr derived from thP
third son of Edward III., while Henry VI. and thf houll of Lancas
ter weredescended from the fourth son of that king (see ante AT)
1447). Henry's claim, however, was based, not so much on hetedi'
tary right, as upon the settlement made by the par Went of 1399
which deposed Richard II and gave the crown to Henry IV and h^
descendants; under which settlement the house of Lancaster had
been in, undisturbed possession for over 60 vears ^^caster had
t Though the Duke of York did not himself become kinc y,u ,Hoit:
and youngest sons did, as Edward IV. and Richard ITT^Vh^iu?8)
son.'George, became Duke ofdarence K10nard ™- The third
vL™SwXwhoef HTry1^ Wh° " lm had married Catherine of

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 205
ists, under Warwick (who has the custody of Henry VI.) and
Norfolk, march from London against them, but are defeated
in the second battle of St. Albans (17 Feb.), and the queen
recovers possession of Henry -VI. She is prevented from
marching on London by the insubordination of her troops,
who commit devastations everywhere, in consequence of which
the people of London and the neighborhood rise against her.
Edward of York, marching from Mortimer's Cross, effects a
junction with the remnant of Warwick's army at Chipping
Norton, in Oxfordshire ; marches into London (28 Feb. ) ; and,
at a meeting of the people at Clerkenwell, is proclaimed king
(3 Mar.), and solemnly installed at Westminster (4 Mar.) as
Edward IV.
He at once gathers together all available reinforcements,
and with a large army (48,000 rrien) marches north to engage
that of Margaret (60,000), who has retired to York. Edward,
after a wonderfully rapid march, reaches Pontefract in York
shire (12 Mar.); the two armies meet at Towton in Yorkshire
(about 10 miles S\ W. of York) ; and the most terrible Battle
ever fought on English soil ensues (28-29 Mar.). It is fought
in a snow-storm, lasts through part of the night of the 28th
until noon of the 29th, and ends in a total defeat of the Lan
castrians, the pursuit and carnage being kept up all through
the night of the 29th and the following day. No quarter was
given on either side, and about 30,000 men are left dead on
the field, 20,000 of them being Lancastrians. Henry VI. and
Margaret, with their son Prince Edward, flee to Scotland, and
Edward returns in triumph to London, and is crowned in
Westminster Abbey (28 June) by Thomas Bourchier, Arch
bishop of Canterbury. He recalls his brothers, George and
Richard, from Flanders, and makes them Dukes of Clarence
and Gloucester.
Parliament meets in London. (4 Nov.); it' declares (1 Ed.
IV., c. 1) the last three kings usurpers; annuls all the Acts
of their reigns ; and attaints Henry VI. and the other Lan
castrian leaders as traitors, and confiscates their property.
Among those attainted is young Henry Tudor (now 5), son
of Margaret Beaufort and Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond.
He is placed in Raglan Castle, in the custody ~ of Sir William
Herbert (created Earl of Pembroke, 8 Sep., 1468).
1462. Margaret of Anjou goes to France, and with the
help of Louis XL collects forces, sails to the north of England
and captures three fortresses in Northumberland (Bamborough,
Dunstanburg, and Alnwick) ; but Bamborough and Dunstan-
burg are recovered before the end of the year.

206 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Henry VI. is placed in Hardlough Castle, Merionethshire,
and remains there till the spring of 1464. ,,..,,_
1463 Edward IV. 's troops lay siege to Alnwick ; Margaret
attempts its relief, but her -fleet is wrecked, and she returns
to Scotland. She goes to France, gets more troops, and lands
in Northumberland (Oct.), but making no headway, retires to
Scotland. Disturbances in favor of the Lancastrians occur
in various parts of the country.
Acts are passed forbidding the importation of "wares already
wrought" (3 Ed. IV., c. 4) ; andi regulating the dress 'of all
persons according to rank (c 5).
1464. The Lancastrians under Henry VI. and Margaret,
aided by Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset,* and Percy,
renew attempts in the north. Edward's troops under Lord
Montague (Warwick's brother) defeat them at Hedgeley
Moor, some miles sputh of Wooler in Northumberland (25.
Ap.), and Percy is slain ; and again at Hexham in North-'
umberland (15 May), when Somerset is taken and beheaded.
Henry VI. takes refuge in Lancashire, and Margaret and her
son Prince Edward flee to Flanders (May).
Edward IV. (now 22) secretly, marries Lady Elizabeth Grey
(now about 33), widow of Sir John Grey (May). Her maiden
name Was Elizabeth Woodvill», and she was a daughter of.
Jacquetta of Luxembourg (widow of the great Duke of Bed
ford) and her seeond husband, Richard Woodville> Lord
Rivers. The. marriage is publicly declared (29 Sep.). Edward
at once ennobles the members of his queen's family, and con
fers upon them important offices of state. By this misalli
ance and his subsequent favoritism Edward loses much of
his popularity ; and feuds arise between the new nobility thus
created and the old Yorkist nobles through whose support
he. had become king. The Earl of Warwick (the king
maker) is among those who eventually become estranged from
him. A .15 years' truce is made with Scotland (1 June).
1465. Elizabeth, Edward's queen, is crowned at West
minster Abbey (26 May).
1466. The Princess Elizabeth, the eldest child of Edward
IV, is born '(ll Feb.). The Earl ef Warwick stands god
father at her christening.
Henry VI., who has been hiding in the north of England
since the battle of Hexham, is captured in Lancashire (July),
taken to London, and lodged in the Tower.
* Son of the Somerset killed at St. Albans in 1455.

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 207
1467. Edward IV. and Warwick come to an open rupture
over their foreign policy. Louis XI. of France, and his vassal,
Charles the Rold, Duke of Burgundy, are in constant rivalry.
Warwick wishes to make an alliance with France, and goes
thither on a friendly embassy. Edward, however, concludes
an alliance with Burgundy, and a marriage treaty between his
sister Margaret and Charles the Bold. Warwick thereupon
takes up a position of opposition to the king.
1468. Margaret, sister of Edward IV., is married to
Charles the Bold (9 July), and the Burgundian alliance is
completed. 1469. An insurrection, caused by a dispute about tithes,
breaks out in Yorkshire under Robert Hilyard, popularly
known as " Robin of Redesdale ; " it is suppressed by Lord
Montague (Warwick's brother.).
George, Duke of Clarence (brother of Edward IV.), who has
been viceroy in Ireland since 1462, returns to England, and
sides with Warwick against the king. He and Warwick go to
Calais, where, unknown to the king, he marries Warwick's
eldest daughter Isabel (11 July).
Jasper Tudor, ex-Earl of Pembroke, at the head of a rem
nant of Lancastrians in Wales, is defeated by the royal troops
under William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.
Another insurrection (probably instigated by Warwick)
breaks out in the north, urider Sir John Coniers, who adopts
the popular name of " Robin of Redesdale," and marches to
wards London with 60,000 men, demanding a redress of griev
ances, the dismissal. of the king's new counsellors; and declar
ing for Warwick. The royal troops under William Herbert,
Earl of Pembroke, and Humphrey Stafford,, Earl of Devon
shire, advance to meet them, but are defeated at Edsecote
' in Northamptonshire, near Banbury (26 July). Pembroke
and his brother, Sir R. Herbert, are taken .prisoners and be
headed ; soon afterwards Richard Wood ville (Earl Rivers) and
Sir John Woodville, the queen's father and brother, are also
captured and beheaded at Coventry. Edward IV. himself is
taken prisoner by George Neville, Archbishop of York (War
wick's brother) and handed over to Warwick, who, fearing to
promote the interests of the Lancastrians, becomes outwardly
reconciled to him and releases him after a short detention, on
condition of a general pardon.
1470. Another insurrection breaks out in Lincolnshire,
under Sir Robert Welles (Mar.), who declares'in favor of Henry
VI. The king discovers that Welles is seeretly supported by
Warwick and Clarence (the king's brother), and after defeat-

208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
ing the insurgents near Empingham in Rutland, in a battle
known as "Loose-coat Field"* (19 Mar.), beheads Welles (20
Mar.), and marches against Warwick arid Clarence, who. at
once flee to France (Ap.).
Louis XI. brings about a meeting at Amboise between Mar
garet of Anjou and Warwick, who make a compact (15 July)
by which Margaret's son Prince Edward (only son of Henry
VI., now 17) is to marry Warwick's younger daughter Ann
Nevilte, and to succeed to the English throne.; the crown, fail
ing Edward, to' go to Clarence. Clarence, displeased at having
his claims set aside, makes secret overtures to his brother
Edward IV- The marriage between Prince Edward and. Ann
Neville takes place (July or Aug.). Warwick and Clarence
land at Dartmouth in Devonshire (13 Sep.), and collect a
large army ; Montague (Warwick's brother) declares for the
Lancastrians; and Edward IV., after narrowly escaping cap
ture by Montague at Doncaster, flees to Flanders (3 Oct.).
Warwick goes to London (5 Oct), releases Henry VI. from the
Tower (6 Oct.), and has him re-crowned at Westminster Abbey
(9 Oct.). J
Elizabeth Woodville, queen of Edward IV, on his flight to
Flanders, takes sanctuary at Westminster (1 Oct.), and there
gives birth to a son (4 Nov.), afterwards Edward V.
Parliament meets (26 Nov.), declares Edward IV. a usurper,
and annuls all the Acts of his reign.
Henry Tudor (now 14), who has been confined in Raglan
Castle since 1461, is set free.
m.1*?1* 1BdwardIV-> having got pecuniary assistance from
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, collects a force of 2000 men
sails from Zealand £L1 Mar.), lands (14 Mar.) at Ravenspur in
Yorkshire (the landing-place of Henry IV. in .1399), and
pushes southwards, being in secret correspondence with his
brother Clarence. Warwick is at Coventry, but at the re
quest of Clarence, who promises to reinforce him, refrains from
attacking Edward. Clarence, however, treacherously joins
Edward at Coventry (30 Mar.), 'and the combined forces march
to London, and Edward again lodges Henry VI. in the Tower
(11 Ap.) Warwick, finding himself betrayed, follows them,
but is met and defeated at the battle of Barnet in Hertford^
belngSfn ?' P>)' ^ "^ Ms br°ther Mon*i™e
Margaret of Anjou (queen of Henry VI.), with her son
Edward, Prince ofWales (now 18), lands at Weymouth °n
threw off SJrST *" ^^ * ** «** to escaP*-

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 209
Dorset (14 Ap ), intending to push into Wales, where Jasper
. Tudor (the deposed Earl of Pembroke) is collecting troops to
aid her. To prevent the junction, Edward IV. marches towards
Gloucester ; the two armies meet at Tewkesbury, and Margaret
is defeated (4 May). Prince Edward is slain, and Margaret is
captured, and is kept in prison till 1476. Edmund, Duke of
Somerset,* and other nobles are beheaded (6 May).
Among the 2000 troops who landed with Edward at Raven-
spur were about 300 Germans armed with 300 hand-guns,
a new weapon hardly known in England. It is probable that
he owed his success at Barnet and Tewkesbury in great meas
ure to these weapons.
The Bastard of Falconbridge (an illegitimate son of William
Neville, Lord Falconberg) lands in Kent, collects forces, and i
enters London with a view to release Henry VI. from the
Tower ; but after he has burnt Aldgate and London Bridge,
the citizens rise against him and force him to retire.
Edward IV. returns to London (21 May), and on the same
night Henry VI. is secretly murdered in the Tower; and his
dead body is exposed at St. Paul's (22 May). The murder was
popularly attributed, but without much, ground, to Edward's
brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard II I.
Jasper Tudor escapes to Brittany, taking with him his
nephew (now 15), afterwards Henry VII. [Edward IV. vainly
sought (1476) to bribe Francis II., Duke of Brittany, into.
giving up young Henry Tudor.]
A great pestilence rages at Oxford.
1472. Richard, Duke of Gloucester (younger brother of
Edward IV.), marries Anne Neville, the younger daughter of
the Earl of Warwick, and the reputed -widow of Edward,
^Prince of Wa'es, who had been slain at Tewkesbury in 1471.
1473. Richard's elder brother George, Duke of Clarence,
who in- 1469 had married Warwick's elder daughter Isabel,
refuses to divide Warwick's inheritance with Richard, and the
two brothers quarrel in consequence. Parliament afterwards
divided the inheritance between them.
1474. William Caxton (now about 52 f), having in 1471 been
* Brother of the Somerset killed at Hexham in 1464, and son of the
Somerset killed at St. Albans in 1455. With him the male line of
Beauforts expired. He was first cousin' to Margaret Beaufort, who
now, by Prince Edward's death at Tewkesbury, again becomes heir
ess-presumptive to the throne on the Lancastrian side (see ante, A.D.
1447). In 1471 she was the wife of Sir Henry Stafford, having mar
ried him in 1459, three years after the death of her first husband,
Edmund, Tudor, Earl ot Richmond. t
f He was born at Hadlow in Kent about 1433,

OJO HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
invited by Margaret, wife of Charles the Bold Duke of Bur
gundy (a sister of Edward IV), to her court at Bruges m Flan
ders,* there, in conjunction with Colard Manson, pub™s
the first book ever printed, in English. Its title was The
Kecuyell of' the Historyes of Troye," a translation by Caxton.
himself of a French collection of romances concerning the
Trojan War. .
Edward IV. and Charles the Bold of Burgundy enter into
an offensive alliance against France. .
1475. Edward declares war against France, lands at Calais
(July) with a considerable army, and invades France ; but he
receives no support from Charles the Bold, and meets with no
success. Louis XI., by lavishly bribing the English nobles,
brings about an amicable meeting with Edward at Pecquigny
(29 Aug.), and a treaty for a 7 years' truce is arranged between
them. Louis agrees to -pay Edward 75,000 crowns down
(50,000 being for the ransom of Margaret of Anjou), aud an
annual pension of 50,000 crowns, and to betroth the Dauphin
to Edward's eldest daughter Elizabeth (now 9). Edward re
turns to England (28 Sep.). The projected marriage after
wards (in 1482) fell through.
Caxton prints at Bruges his translation entitled " The Game
and Playe of the Chess," the second book printed in English.
1476. Louis XL, liaving, in accordance with the Treaty
of Pecquigny, paid Margaret of Anjou?s ransom of 50.000
crowns, she is handed over to Louis's officers (29 Jan.), on con
dition of renouncing in favor of ( Edward IV. all claims to the
throne of England. She spends the rest of her life in pov
erty and retirement in France, and dies 25 Aug., 1482, aged 53.
William ^Caxton returns to England from Flanders with
new types* and sets up the first printing-press in England
near the western entrance to Westminster Abb y.
1477. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, is killed in
an engagement with the Swiss, at Nancy (5 Jan.) ; his daugh- *
ter Mary (now 20) succeeds as ducbess.
Clarence's wife Isabel (daughter of the Earl of Warwick)
dies, poisoned by persons of his household, in order, prob
ably,' that" he may seek the hand of Mary of Burgundy.
Edward IV. opposes the projected alliance ; the two brothers
have a violent quarrel in consequence ; and Edward deter
mines to rid himself of Clarence.
Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian, son of Ferdinand,
Archduke of Austria (Aug.), and Burgundy and its appanage,
Flanders, fall under the rule of Austria.
* Flanders had been acquired by Burgundy in 1384,

THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS. 211
Caxton publishes " The Dictes and Sayings of the Philoso
phers" (18 Nov.), the first book ever printed in England.*
During the next 14 years he prints many religious works,
chivalrous romances,! and translations.
1478. Edward IV. summons parliament and personally
impeaches his 'brother Clarence before the House ,of Lords on
a charge of interfering with the course of justice ; and Clar
ence is imprisoned in the Tower (16 Jan,), condemned (7
Feb.), and secretly put to death (18 Feb.). The well-known
story that he was drowned in a butt of malmsey, his favorite
wine, is not supported by authentic evidence. No parliament
meets during the remainder of Edward's reign.
The plague is terribly destructive throughout England.
1479. Louis XI. conquers Burgundy and annexes it t^
France (Jan.) ; Flanders remains under the rule of the house
of Austria. •
A pestilence ravages England.
1480-1. There is warfare between England and Scotland.
1482. The Duke of Albany, having quarrelled with his
¦brother, James III. of Scotland, comes to England ; meets
Edward IV. at Fotheringay in Northamptonshire ; and in
return for Edward's promise of support, cedes to him the fort
ress of Berwick (10, 11 June), which has been in Scotch bands
since it was ceded by Henry VI. in 1461. An. English army
under Richard, Duke of Gloucester, invades Scotland, but
effects little, and speedily retires (Aug.). Gloucester.captures
Berwick, which remains in the possession of England from
this date.
Mary of Burgundy, wife of Maximilian of Austria, dies (27
Mar.) ; her daughter Margaret of Austria (2 years old) suc
ceeds to her rights to Burgundy and Flanders. Louis XL of
France, in breach of the Treaty of Pecquigny (in 1475),
arranges by the Treaty of Arras (23 Dec.) for the marriage of
the Dauphin (afterwards Charles VIII. , now 12 years old) to
Margaret, thus breaking off the projected alliance between
the Dauphin and Edward IV. 's daughter Elizabeth.
1483. Edward IV., while meditating an invasion of France
in revenge for this breach of faith, dies (9 Ap.), aged 40. His
*The 400th anniversary of this publication was celebrated in 1877
by a grand festival at St. Paul's Cathedral, London, and a loan ex
hibition of books printed by Caxton.
f In 1485 Caxton wrote to Richard IH. a deplorable account of the
decay of knighthood, and suggested, as means of cure, the reintro
duction -of tournaments and tbe reading of chivalrous romances. It
was no doubt for this purpose that he printed so many romances of
this character.

213 HISTORY Of ENGLAND,
eldest son (a boy of 12) succeeds him, as Edward V. Edward
- IV. leaves also surviving him his widow Elizabeth; his second
son Richard, Duke of York (aged 10) ; his eldest daughter
Elizabeth (aged 17); and four other daughters.
At the time of the death of Edward IV. the young king is
at Ludlow, in Shropshire, under the charge of his uncle, Earl
Rivers (the queen's brother), and other members of her fami
ly. He at once sets out for London, with an escort of 2000
men under Earl Rivers and Lord Richard Grey (the queen's
son by her first husband, and consequently half-brother to the
young king). N - . \
Richard, Duke of Gloucester (the young King's paternal un
cle), with the Duke of Buckingham/ marcbes from the north
with 900 men, takes Rivers and Grey prisoners at Northamp
ton, disperses the escort of Edward V. at Stony Stratford in
Leicester, takes possession of the young king (30 Ap.), carries
him to London (4 May), and lodges him in the Towerv The
ex-queen, with her younger son Richard, Duke of York, and
her other children, flees to sanctuary at Westminster (t May),
The Council appoints Richard Protector (before 14 May); and
he fixes 22 June for the coronation of Edward V. Richard
accuses the ex-queen and Hastings of conspiring against his
life. (13 June), and Hastings is summarily beheaded. The
Archbishop of Canterbury persuades the queen to deliver the
young prince, Richard, Duke of York, into the charge of his
uncle, the Protector, who sends him to the Tower in company
with his brother, the young king. Grey and Rivers are be
headed at Pontefract, whither they have been removed from
Northampton. The Protector,, on a plea that the two princes
are illegitimate, on the alleged ground that Edward IV., be
fore his marriage with Elizabeth Grey, had been engaged
to Lady Eleanor Talbot, makes a coup d'etat, gets himself pro
claimed king (26 June), and is crowned (6 July) as Richard
III., his wife (Anne Neville) being also crowned queen.
Richard III. sets out on a royal progress (23 July), and at
some time between this date and Oct., the two young princes '
Edward V. and his brother Richard,- are murdered in the
Tower by Richard's orders. For this purpose he employs Sir
James Tyrell,whff engages the services of Miles Forest and
John Dighton, by whom the two princes are smothered under
pillows while asleep in bed. Forest and Dighton, after calling
Tyrell to see the bodies, bury them at the foot of a staircase.* '
* This is the substance of a confession made bv Tvrell in 1 in?
when, imprisoned in the Tower on a charge of treason -and £
seems no reason to doubt its accuracy. The story was confirmed by

THE ANGEVIN Or PLANTAGENET KINGS. 21S
A conspiracy in favor of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond,
who now represents the Lancastrian party, breaks out in the
west. The .Duke of Buckingham, who has become alienated
from Richard III., joins it (Sep.), and raises- a force in Wales
(Oct.). Want of supplies causes his forces to desert; he takes
refuge in Shropshire with one Banister, a dependent of his
own, by whom he is delivered up (Oct.); and he is summarily
executed at Salisbury (1 Nov.).
Richmond sails ¦ from Brittany, but his fleet is wrecked, and
after reaching Plymouth and hearing of Buckingham's failure,
he returns to Brittany (Oct.). -
A body of English exiles meet in the cathedral of Rhedon
in Brittany (25 Dec), and swear to place Henry Tudor, Earl
of Richmond, on the throne of England; and he swears to
reconcile parties by wedding Elizabeth, eldest daughter- of
Edward IV., now the nearest heir to the throne on the York
ist side. f
1484, Parliament meets (23 Jan.), exacts an oath of alle
giance to Richard III. from all adults in England, and passes
a bill of attainder and confiscation against over 500 persons.
The members of both houses take an oath to support the suc
cession of Richard's only child Edward (Feb.), a boy of 10.
Edward dies (9 Ap ), and Richard nominates his nephew,
John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln (son of his sister Elizabeth),
heir to the throne.
The Statutes are printed for the first time.
Richard III. obtains from Francis II., Duke of Brittany, the
dismissal pf Henry Tudor from Brittany. Henry goes to the
court of Charles VIII. of France, by whom he is well received.
The Duke of Albany (brother of James III. of Scotland)
invades Scotland with a bodv of English borderers, but is
defeated at Lochmaben, near .Dumfries (22 June), and flees to
France. A three years' truce is made with Scotland (21
Sep.). 1485. Anne Neville, queen of Richard III., dies (16 Mar. ),
aged 31.
Richard III. institutes the office of foreign consul.
Richard's government becomes more and more unpopular,
and libels on it are freely circulated. One of them satirizes
his favorite ministers, Catesby, Ratcliffe, and Lovel, in the
well-known couplet —
the discovery, nearly two centuries later (17 July, 1674), of two skele
tons, agreeing in age with that of the two princes, under the staircase
leading to the chapel in +hc White Tower. See Gairdner s Reign
of Richard HI."

214 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
The Cat, the Rat, and Lovel, that dog,
Rule all England under the Hog.
Its author, William Collingbourne, is executed.
Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, sails from Harfleur in
Normandy (1 Aug.), lands at Milford Haven, in Pembroke
shire, Wales (7 Aug.), and collecting an army, marches
through Shropshire. Richard III. advances against him ;.the
two armies meet between Bosworth and Atherstone, at White-
moors, near the village of Sutton Cheneys, close to Ashby-de-
la-Zouch in Leicestershire, when, at a crisis in the battle, Lord
Stanley,* his brother, Sir William Stanley, and the Earl of
Northumberland desert Richard and go over to Henry with
their forces, and Richard is defeated and slain (22. Aug.).
His body, covered with wounds, is buried in the Grey Friars
Monastery at Leicester (25 Aug.). His crown is picked up on
the field of battle, and placed by Sir W. Stanley on the Jiead
of Henry, who is thereupon saluted as king by the whole army.
Henry enters London (27 Aug.) and has himself crowned (30
Oct.) as Henry VII. f
The famous battle of Bosworth Field terminates the Wars
of the Roses. One result of that 30 years' internecinestruggle
has been the destruction of the old nobility of England, as
well as of the new nobility created by Edward IV. The ismall
remnant left is so weak- as to be unable to withstand the power
of the Crown. The people also have lost the control over
parliament which they had exercised prior to the accession of
Henry VI., and that body now becomes a subservient instru
ment of the king's will. The monarchy consequently becomes
personal and practically absolute, and so remains" throughout
nearly the whole period of the Tudor dynasty.- During the
latter years of Elizabeth, however, the spirit of independence
infused into the people by the Reformation, especially among
the Puritan party then rising into notice, begins to manifest
itself in parliament. The period of the Tudor dynasty (1485-
1603) is that of the spread of the Renaissance in England, of the
Protestant Reformation, and of the transition from Medieval
to Modern times.
_,A* th,e b^J£Tg. of the Period (1485) the population of
England and Wales is still between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000.
TiTdo* nXer!7 WM *" thU'd husband °f Mar^ret Beaufort, Henry
t passingover his mother Margaret Beaufort, who of course had a
better hereditary right. Elizabetfof York, Edward WseldSulh
ter, had, however, a better right than either daugh-

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 215

CHAPTER VIII.
THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME.
1485. Parliament , meets (7 Nov. ), and recognizing the
fact of Henry's kingship, passes an Act (1 Hen. VII., c. 1)
simply declaring that " the inheritance ofthe crown be, rest,
remain, and abide in the most royal person of our now sover
eign lord King Henry VII. and in his heirs."
An Act (1 Hen. VII., c. 8) is passed forbidding the impor
tation of wines from Gascony, except in English, Irish, or
' Welsh vessels. This' was the first legal embodiment of the
principle of the Navigation Act.
Heriry imprisons Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick (a
youth of 10), son of the Duke of Clarence, in the Tower,
where he remains till his execution in 1499.
The sweating-sickness (Sudor Anglicus) makes its first ap
pearance in England.
1486. Henry VII. (now 30) marries Elizabeth of York
(now 20), eldest daughter of Edward IV. (18 Jan.), thereby
uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.
Henry goes north (Ap.), and suppresses a YOrkist insurrec
tion under Lord Lovel and the Staffords ; Lovel escapes to
Flanders, where he is received by Margaret, Duchess of Bur
gundy (a sister of Edward IV.).
A three years' truce is made with Scotland (3 July).
1487. Lambert Simnel (a youth of 12), the son of a
baker, personates Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick,* goes
to Dublin (Feb. ) and is there joined by Thomas Fitzgerald, Earl
of Kildare (the Lord- Deputy). John de la Pole, Earl of Lin
coln, f goes to Flanders, where his aunt. Margaret of Burgundy,
supplies him and Lord Lovel with 2000 "Almains " under Mar
tin Schwartz. These land in Dublin (5 May), and Simnel is
crowned in Dublin Cathedral (Christ Church) as Edward VI.
(14 May). With Kildare, Lovel, Lincoln, and an army, Sim-
* He was tutored for the part by Richard Simon, an Oxford priest,
who went to Ireland with him.
fSon of Elizabeth, sister of Edward IV. He had been proclaimed
heir to the throne by Richard IH. in 1484.

216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
nel lands at Fouldsey in Lancashire (4 June), marches to
York, defeats Lord Clifford at Braham Moor (10 June), and
pushes south towards Newark in Nottinghamshire. In the
meantime Henry VII. takes the real Edward Plantagenet out
of the Tower and parades him through the streets of London
in proof of Simnel's imposture. Henry then marches north
and defeats Simnel at Stoke, near Newark, in Nottingham
shire (16 June). De la Pole and Schwartz are slain. Lovel
probably escapes, takes refuge in a secret chamber in his house
at Minster Lovel, Oxfordshire, is forgotten, and dies of star
vation ; a skeleton supposed to be his was there discovered
some centuries later. Simhel is taken prisoner, and made a
scullion in the royal household, .and afterwards falconer. The
date of his death 'is unknown. Richard Simon, also captured,
is imprisoned for life.
Henry's wife, Elizabeth of York, is crowned queen (25
Nov.). Her mother, Edward IV. 's widow, is still kept in.
confinement in the nunnery at Bermondsey.*
Parliament passes Bills of Attainder against the leaders in
Simnel's insurrection. It also passes an Act (3 Henry VII., c. 1)
establishing or reviving a special court (afterwards known as
the Star Chamber f), consisting of chief men bf the Privy
Council and two chief-justices, for the purpose of suppressing
maintenance, that is, the custom of feudal lords keeping large
bodies of armed retainers ; also to punish murder, robbery, per
jury, and the bribing of jurors ; and to suppress unlawful assem
blies and riots which prevent the administration of justice.
Another Act (c. 2) declares the abduction of women a felony.
Charles VIII. of France attacks Brittany with a view to
annex it to France. Francis II., Duke of Brittany (who had
sheltered Henry VII. when in exile), applies to 'Henry for as
sistance. Henry raises money with the ostensible ODJect of
giving the needed help, but fails to render it, and retains the
money. 1488. Disgust at Henry VII. 's double dealing in the
matter of the subsidy leads to insurrection in the north, and
the Earl of Northumberland, who had collected it there, is
killed (28 Ap.). The insurgents are dispersed by Thomas
Howard, Earl of Surrey. I
* S,he died there (8 June» 1492). aged about 61, and was buried at
Windsor-. t So called because held in a room called the Star Chamber This
chamber received its name, not, as Coke says, because its ceilinir was
« garnished with stars "but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants,
deposited there by Richard I. " ^'
% Created Duke of Norfolk, 1 Feb., 1514.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 217
Charles VIII. of France again invades Brittany, and Henry
VII. raises another subsidy for the war there. Charles de
feats Francis II., Duke of Brittany, and his ally the Duke of
Orleans at St. Aubin (28 July). Francis dies (9 Sep.) ; his
only child Anne (now 12) succeeds to the duchy.
1489. Henry VII. has endeavored to make a truce with
France and retain the subsidy, but the news of the defeat at St.
Aubin causes so great a clamor in England, that he is obliged
to send an army to Brittany to assist Anne (in the spring); but
he secretly instructs it not to fight.
Arthur, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Henry VII. (now two
years old), is betrothed to. Catherine of Aragon (4 years old),
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (Mar. ) .
1491. Henry VII. 's second son (afterwards Henry VIII.)
is born at Greenwich (28 June).
Anne, Duchess of Brittany, finding that no reliance is to be
placed on the support of Henry VII., marries Charles VIII.
(6 Dec), and Brittany is united to France.
A five years' truce is made with Scotland (26 Dec). (
William Caxton, the first English printer, dies, aged about 69.
1492. Perkin Warbeck, another impostor, pretends to be
Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, the younger of the two
princes murdered in the Tpwer in 1483 by Richard III. He
lands in Ireland (Feb.) and receives some support. He. goes
to the court of Charles VIII. of France (Sep. ), and is acknowl
edged by him as King of England.
Sir Edmund Dudley and his partner Sir Richard Empson,
as agents of Henry VI I., commence a system of benevolences
and other illegal or quasi-illegal extortions from the people,
which makes them the objects of universal hatred, The system
is continued throughout the rest of the reign of Henry VII.
Henry VII., for the ostensible purpose of punishing Charles
VIII. for annexing Brittany and receiving Warbeck, raises
money for another French expedition. He sails for France
(2 Oct.), and besieges Boulogne, but in less than a week makes
(3 Nov) with Charles the Treaty of Etaples (15 miles S.
of Boulogne, now in Pas de Calais), Charles paying Henry
£149,000, and agreeing to expel Warbeck from France. Henry
returns to England (Nov.).
1493. Perkin Warbeck takes refuge in Flanders (Aug.),
where Margaret, dowager Duchess of Burgundy (sister of Ed
ward IV.), acknowledges him as her nephew and King of Eng
land, giving him the title of "the White Rose of England."
l494. Prince Henry (second son of Henry VII., now 3
years old), is made nominal viceroy of Ireland. Sir Edward

218 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
Poynings is appointed his deputy (13 Sep.). He goes over,
arrests the Earl of Kildare (who had supported Simnel in 1487
and Warbeck in 1492), and sends him to England, where he
is imprisoned in the Tower. The Irish parliament of the
Pale meets at Drogheda and passes " Poyning's Law " (10 Hen.
VII., c 4), providing that no Act shall be passed without
having been previously sanctioned by the king in council
(Dec. ). This Act was passed in order to curb the domination
of the lords of the Pale, who had hitherto dictated the legis
lation of the Irish parliament.
The truce with Scotland is extended to 30 Ap., 1501.
1495. Sir William Stanley (who deserted Richard III. and
crowned Henry VII. on the field of Bosworth) is executed for
high treason (16 Feb.), on a charge of favoring the claims of
Warbeck.. His large possessions escheat to the Crown.-. i Other
nobles are executed on a similar charge.
Warbeck sails with an army from Flanders, and makes a
descent at Deal, on the~~coast of Kent (3 July) ; it is unsuc
cessful, and 169 of his men are captured by the people of
Sandwich and hanged. Warbeck then goes to Ireland," and
besieges Waterford (July- Aug.), but fails and goes to Scot
land (Nov.).
Parliament meets (14 Oct.) aiyl passes Acts making unpaid
benevolences recoverable by imprisonment (11 Hen. VII., c.
10); allowing suits in forma pauperis (c 12); for punishing
poaching (c. 17); for regulating wages (c -22); and for the
punishment of jurors giving untrue verdicts (c 24). The
royal household is regulated, and the expenses fixed at
£12,059.9.11 (c. 62). "
1496. Henry negotiates (24 Feb.) with Philip, Duke of
Burgundy, a treaty known as " The Great Intercourse " (Mag
nus Inter cur sus). It provides for the expulsion of Warbeck
from Flanders, and for reciprocal free trade between Flanders
and England in all commodities, "without passer license;"
and marks an era in the history of international relations.
The Earl of Kildare is liberated from the Tower, and rein
stated as Lord Deputy in Ireland ; he holds the office till his
death in Sep., 1513.
James IV. of Scotland acknowledges Warbeck as "Prince
of England, and gives him his kinswoman Lady Catherine
Gordon in marriage. James IV. and Warbeck invade Eng
land (Oct ), but meet with no support from the people, and
after ravaging some districts in the north, return to Scotland.
Henry VII. seizes the opportunity to obtain another large
grant from parliament. e

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 219
1497. Under, a patent from Henry VII. for the discovery
of unknown lands, John and Sebastian "Cabot sail from Bristol,
discover the mainland of North America (24 June), calling
the land first seen "Prima Vista" (probably Cape Breton);
and they sail along the coast as far south as Florida. This
was a year before Columbus touchi d the mainland of America.
The people of Cornwall, incited by Thomas Flammock and
Michael-Joseph, revolt against the heavy taxation ; and under
the command of James Touchet, Lord Audley, march to Lon
don, but are defeated by the royal troops under Henry VII.
and bis generals Lords Daubeny, Oxford, arid Suffolk, at
Blackheath (22 June), with a loss of 2000 slain. The three
leaders are taken ; Audley is beheaded on Tower-hill, and
Flammock and Joseph are hanged at Tyburn.
Warbeck goes from Scotland to Ireland, and lands at Cork
(30 July). James IV. again invades England (July), but re
tires before the Earl of Surrey (Aug.), and a seven years'
truce i-t made with Scotland (29 Sep.);
Warbeck, with a few followers, lands at Whitsand Bay, near
Penzance in Cornwall (7 Sep.), collects a force of 6000, and
lays siege to Exeter ; the city holds out, his followers begin
to desert, and on the approach of the royal troops under Lord •
Daubeny, he flees and takes sanctuary (21 Sep.) in the Abbey
of Beaulieu. iri the New Forest, Hampshire (about 10 miles
W. |5. W. of Southampton). Here, on a promise that his life
will be spared", he leaves sanctuary and surrenders (5 Oct.) ;
and is taken to London and allowed to live at large.
1498. Warbeck escapes from London "(9 Jun ), takes sanc
tuary at Shene (now Richmond), leaves sanctuary on a promise
that his life will be spired,- is arrested, and sent to the Tower. .
Some accounts state that he publicly confessed his imposture,
acknowledging that he was a son of John Osbeck, a Jew of
Tournay in Flanders ; but these seem to be doubtful.
1499. Perkin Warbeck and Ed w rd Plantagenet, Earl of
Warwick (who has been a prisoner since 1485) are executed
(23 Nov.) on charges of treason and of concerting measures to
escape from the 'lower. Warwick's death leaves Edmund de
la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, head of the Yorkist party.
1499-1500. The plague is so fatal in London that Henry
VII and his court go to Calais.
1501. Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, leader of the
Yorkist party, leaves England for Flanders, with his brother
Richard (Aug.).
Arthur, Prince of Wales (now 15), is married at St. Paul's
Cathedral, London (14 Nov.), to Catherine of Aragon (now 16).

220 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
1502. Peace is made .between England and Scotland (24
Jan.) ; also a treaty for the marriage of James IV. (now 30)
to Margaret, Henry's eldest dahghter (now 12).
Arthur, Prince of Wales, dies (2 Ap.), aged 15.
About this date gardening is firct introduced into England;
principally from the Netherlands.
1503. Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII., dies (11,
Feb.), aged 37. She leaves one son (afterwards Henry VTII.-),'
and two daughters, Malrgaret (afterwards Queen of Scotland)
and Mary (afterwards queen of Louis XII. of France).
The marriage between James IV. of Scotland, and Margaret,
daughter of Henry VII., is solt-mnized at Edinburgh (8 Aug.).
Pope Julius II. grants a dispensation (26 Dec) authorizing
Prince Henry (now 12) to marry his brother Arthur's widow,
Catherine of Aragoh (now 18) ; and a marriage contract is
entered into.
1505. Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond, Henry
VII.'s mother, founds. Christ's College, Cainbridge.
1506. Archduke Philip of Burgundy is shipwrecked at
Weymouth in Dorsetshire (26 Jan.), and falls into the hands
of Henry VII., who extorts from him the surrender of Edmund
de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk,* who had taken refuge in Flanders
in 1501. Henry commits De la Pole to the Tower,i where he is
confined till his execution by Henry VIH. in 1513. . Pole's
. brother Richard was also to have been given up, but he
escapeu to Hungary.
The sweating-sickness visits England a second time.
1509. Henry YLL dies at Richmond (21 Ap.), aged 53 ;
he is buried in the chapel built by himself at Westminster
Abbey (10 May). His only surviving, son Henry VIII. suc
ceeds (22 Ap.). The young king (now nearly 18) marries
Catherine of Aragon (11 June), his brother Arthur's widow.
They are crowned at Westminster Abbey (24 June).
Margaret Beaufort, Henry VII.'s mother, dies (29 June)
aged 68. ' '
Sir Edmund Dudley, and Sir Richard Empson, who have, long
been objects of popular odium as the agents employed by
Henry VU. to levy his exactions from the people, are arrested
at the instance of Henry VIII. on a baseless charge of con
spiring to '¦ hold guide and govern the king and his, council."
Dudley is tried at London (18 July), and Empson at North-
* A son of Edward IV. 's sister Elizabeth, and a younger brother
of John de Ta Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who had been nroclaimpH h»i, -Z
stokS 1487? Richard «m in 1484> and was ™yffi5£Sr o°f.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPRRME. 221
ampton (1 Oct.) ; and both are found guilty and condemned
to death.
1510. Parliament passes an Act (t Hen. VIII., c. 4) to
prevent a repetition of the illegal extortions of which Empson
and Dudley had been guilty ; and they are executed together
on Tower-hill (18 Aug.).
Thomas Wolsey is introduced to Henry VIII., and soon be
comes a favorite
1511. Louis XII. of France, having quarrelled with Pope
Julius II., summons a schismatic Council at Pisa; the pope
thereupon raises a cry that the Church is in danger, and forms
a "Holy League" for its defence. Henry VI II. and Ferdi
nand of Spain join the League (10 Nov.), and determine on
war against France.
1512. Henry VIII. sends an army under the Marquis of
Dorset to the south of France to co-operate against France
with th it of Ferdinand of Spain. In consequence of Ferdi
nand's delay, the English army remains inactive (June-Dec),
becomes disorganized, and Dorset returns with it to England.
The English fleet, under Sir Edward Howard, defeats that of
the French off the south coast of Brittany (10 Aug.).
James IV. of Scotland makes an alliance with France (22
An Act (3 Hen. VIII., c. 11) is passed forbidding physicians
and surgeons from practising without the license of the bishop
of the diocese.
1513. A new league against France is formed (5 Ap.) be
tween Pope Leo X., the Emperor Maximilian, Henry VIII.,
and Ferdinand of Spain.
Richard Pole having joined the French army, Henry VIII.
has his brother Edmund, Earl of Suffolk, taken from the
Tower and beheaded (30 Ap.).
Henry VIII. , with his generals Lords Shrewsbury and Her
bert, sails to Flanders with 25,000 men (30 June) ; he. is there
joined by Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, and his troops,
and the combined forces lay siege to Terouenne. A French
army of 10,000 men advance to its relief ; but being attacked
at Guinegate by the allies, and seized with sudden panic, put
spurs to their horses, and flee without a blow (16 Aug.).
This " Battle of Spurs," as it was called, is followed by the
surrender of Terouenne (22 Aug.) and Tournay (24 Sep.).
Henry returns to England (24 Nov.).
Urged thereto by the Queen of France, James IV. of Scot
land declares war against England, and invades Northumber
land with.' an army of 30,000 men. The English, 32,000

222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
strong, under the -Earl of Surrey, advance from Pontefract in
Yorkshire, and at Flodden Field,* near Wooler in Northum
berland, James IV. is defeated and slain (9 Sep. ). The Scotch
loss was about 9000 ; the English, 6000 or 7Q00. James's son
(a child a year old) succeeds as James V., his mother Mar
garet (sister of Henry VIII.) being made regent.
1514. Henry VIII., being deserted by his allies Maxi
milian and Ferdinand, and also by Leo. X. , makes peace (7
Aug.) with Scotland and France, Louis XII. agreeing to
marry Henry's sister Mary, and to pay him 100,000 crowns..
The marriage takes place at Abbeville (9 Oct.).
Thomas Wolsey, Bishop of Tournay, is made Bishop pf
Lincoln (6 Feb.), and afterwards Archbishop of York (July).
1515. Louis XII. of France dies (1 Jan.) ; his son-in-law
Francis I. succeeds him.
Louis's widow, Mary Tudor (Henry VIII. 's sister), marries
Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, privately in France (Feb.);
publicly at Greenwich (13 May).
, Pope Leo X. makes Wolsey a cardinal (7 Sep.). Wolsey is
made Bishop of Bath and Wells, and becomes Henry VIII.'s
chief adviser, directing the domestic and foreign policy of the
country. He enters upon an arbitrary career, and no parlia
ment is called from 1515 to 1523, money being collected by
forced loans and benevolences.
1516. Princess Mary (afterwards queen), the only child of
Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon who survived her par
ents, is born at Greenwich (18 Feb.).
.1517. A riot occurs in London against the foreign mer
chants and artisans settled there (1 May), afterwards known as
"evil Mayday." The riot is suppressed, about 300 of the
rioters are arrested, of whom about 12 are executed, the rest
being pardoned. ,,
1518. Pope Leo X. makes Wolsey legate in England (17
thfSJSo^) FrancisL of France make a treatv agamst
Martin Luther makes his famous " Protest " against the sale
of indulgences and other Romish practices, by posting up his
95 theses on the door oi the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg (31
Oct.), and so begins the Protestant Reformation in Germany .
very deadly g"SS ^ EUgland a third time' and is
hand-guns!61'1^ SUperSedes the li^tei match for firing off
* The battle is described in the last canto of Scott's " Marmion." '

THE TUDORS': THE CROWN SUPREME. 223
The Royal College of Physicians, London, is incorporated
by letters-patent (23 Sep.); Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry
'VIII., is elected first president.
• 1519. Maximili in, Emperor of Germany, dies (12 Jan.) ;
Francis I. of Fr.mce and Charles I., King of Spain and the
Netherlands, aspire to the vacant throne. The influence of
England is given in favor of Charles, who is elected emperor
as Charles V.
1520. With a view of becoming supreme in Europe, Francis
I. and Charles V. each seek the English alliance. Charles
comes to England and confers with Henry VIII. at Canter
bury. Francis, under the treaty of 1518, also demands a per
sonal interview with Henry, who goes over in great state to
Calais, and he is received in similar splendor by Francis I., (
on the so-called "Field of the Cloth of Gold," at Ardres,
near Calais (4-25 June). Henry immediately afterward meets
Charles V. at Gravelines in Flanders (10-11 July), and goes
with him to Calais, where a secret alliance is made between
them. Henry returns to England (July).
1521. Henry VIII. publishes in London (July) his anti-
Lutheran treatise, written in Latin, entitled Assertio Septem
Sacramenta ("A Defence of the Seven Sacraments"). In
acknowledgment of its merits, Pope Leo X., by bull, confers
upon Henry (11 Oct.) the title " Fidei Defensor " ("Defender
of the Faith "), which has ever since been retained as one of
the royal titles of the English sovereign.
1522. Henry VIII. declares war against France (Mar.),
and the Emperor Charles V. again visits England (May-July).
An English army lands in northern France (Aug.), and
devastates, Picardy.
At the instigation of Francis I. of France, the Duke of
Albany, regent of Scotland, invades England with a large
army (Sep.), but is hoodwinked by Lord Dacre, the English
Warden, agrees to a month's armistice, and retires to Scot
land. He then goes to France and raises an auxiliary force.
1523. Albany, the Scotch regent, again invades England,
but is compelled by the Earl of Surrey to raise the siege of
Wark Castle, and he again retires to Scotland ; peace for 18
years is made between the two countries.
An English expedition joins the forces of Charles V. in an
invasion of France (Aug.), advancing as far as Mondidier ;
but the English troops are weakened by sickness, withdraw,
and are disbanded ; and a virtual peace is established between
.England and France.
Wolsey obtains from Pope Adrian VI- Dulls for the dissolu-

224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
tion of 40 of the smaller monasteries, and he applies the
revenues to' educational purposes.
1525. Charles V. del'eats Francis I. at Pavia (24 Feb.*),
and Francis is taken prisoner. Henry VIII. and Wolsey for
sake the alliance' of Charles and make a treaty of alliance with
the regent of France (30 Aug.).
Wolsey's magnificent country-seat at Hampton Court is
finished, and he presents it to Henry VIII.
After visits' of inquiry, many of the smaller monasteries are
suppressed (7 June).
. William Tyndale publishes, at Worms in Germany, his
translation of the New Testament into English from the Greek
text of Erasmus.
1526. Sir Thomas More writes the Utopia, iri Latin, one of
the most remarkable political romances iri any language.
Charles V. liberates Francis I. on hard conditions (17 Mar.).
Tyndale's translation of the New Testament is secretly intro
duced into England, and is largely circulated in spite of the
efforts of the bishops to have the copies burnt.
1527. Henry's only surviving chi,ld is the Princess Mary
(now 11), and he is anxious for a male heir ; he has also fallen
in love with Anne Boleyn. For these reasons he determines
to seek a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. He applies: to
Pope Clement VII. for a commission to inquire into the legal
ity of his marriage with her (Aug.).
The army of Charles V., under the Constable Bourbon,*
takes Rome by assault (6 May), and makes Pope Clement VII.
prisoner (7 June), whereby Charles acquires influence over
him. Charles is Catherine's nephew, and upholds her cause
against Henry.
Wolsey goes to France arid makes a new alliance with
Francis I.
1528. Henry VIII. and Francis I. declare war against
Charles V. (22 Jan.); make truce with him (8 June). "
Pope Clement VII. sends Cardinal Campeggio to England,
as a commissioner tO act with Wolsey as legates' on an inquiry ¦'
into the validity of Henry's marriage with Catherine. Cam-"
-peggio arrives in England (7 Oct.), and he and Wolsey seek
Catherine s consent to a divorce, but she refuses it
„ J^eJ^pulation of England and Wales is estimated at about
4,356,000.* H?^729" T,he sweating-sickness visits England for the,
fourth- time, when, it is known as "the. Great Mortality."
Ihere is also scarcity, almost amounting to famine.
* A prominent character in Byron's " peformed Transformed."

John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. (From the original
portrait by Kneller.)— P. 303.

Execution of Lord Derwentwater on Tower Hill.— P. 304.

Gunpowder Conspirators.— P. 264-5.

Exiled Nonconformists.— P.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 225
• 1529. The two cardinals hold a legatine court to try the
question of Henry's marriage (18 June-30 July) ; Catherine
appears (18, 21 June) and protests against the proceedings ;
and the court adjourns (30 July) to 1 Oct. without coming
to a decision. Wolsey's lukewarmness in the matter brings
upon him the enmity of Henry and Anne Boleyn, taking ad
vantage of which his enemies .indict him (9 Oct.). under the
Statute of Prsemunire* for having received bulls from Rome,
and in 1516 accepted the office of papal legate. He is found
guilty, compelled to resign the great seal (17 Oct.), and all
his property is cohfiscated to the crown (28 Oct.). lie retires
in disgrace to Esher in Surrey. Sir Thomas More . is made
chancellor iri his place (25 Oct.).
Thomas Cranmer advises Henry to get the opinions of the
universities on the question, "Do the laws of God allow a
man to marry his brother's widow ? " and Henry sends commis
sioners to the universities at home and aboard.
Parliament meets (3 Nov.), and the Commons' present a pe
tition to the king attacking Church abuses. An Act (21 Hen.
VIII., c. 13) is, passed against excessive probate duties and
burial, fees, enforcing residence, forbidding pluralities, and
prohibiting the clergy from following any trade.
John Skelton, poet-laureate, dies in sanctuary at Westmin
ster (21 June), aged about 69.
1530. Wolsey is pardoned (12 Feb.), and the temporali
ties of his see at York are restored to him (17 Feb.). He
goes there (Feb.) and remains till Oct., when, his growing
popularity in the north arouses the fears of his enemies at
court. He is arrested on a charge of high treason (4 Nov.),
and taken . towards London, but falls ill on the way, and dies
at Leicester Abbey (29 Nov.), aged 59. He is- buried in the
Abbey precincts. .... .'
Many universities give judgment against the validity of
Henry's marriage with Catherine ; their opinions are sent to
Pope Clement VII.
1531. The Convocation of Canterbury meets (Jan.), and
Henry informs if that, by recognizing Wolsey as legate, the
whole clergy have subjected themselves to the penalties of
Praemunire. He offers to accept £180,000. (equal to oyer
£1,000,000 of present money) as commutation for the penalty.
Convocation accepts the offer, and passes a Bill granting the
subsidy (22 Mar. ), in the preamble to which the king is for the
first time styled "Head of the Church," thereby aeknowledg-
* See ante, p. 185, 1393.

226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
ing the supremacy of the civil power over the ecclesiastical.
(See 22 Hen. VIII., o. 15). ¦
The opinions of the universities in favor of the nullity of
Henry's marriage are laid before parliament (30 Mar.), and
he orders Catherine to leave Windsor (July). She retires to-
Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and is no longer treated as queen.
Acts are passed providing that poisoners shall be boiled to
death (22 Hen. VIII., c. 9), and ordering gypsies ("Egyp
tians ") to leave England within 15 days (c. 10).
Henry VIII. sends Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester),
Sir Edward Brian, and Edmund Bonner as ambassadors to
Pope Clement VII. to procure his dispensation for Henry's
divorce from Catherine ; but without result.
1532. The province of York is ordered to pay £18,840
as commutation of the penalties of Praemunire incurred by
submitting to Wolsey's legatine authority (23 Hen. VIIL,
c. 19).
Benefit of cl.irgy having become an intolerable nuisance,
parliament passes an Act (23 Hen. VIII., c. 1) disallowing the
plea in cases of felony to any one lower than a sub-deacon.
Another Act (c. 10) is passed forbidding leases to the clergy
for over 20 years. With the sanction of the clergy another
Act (c. 20) is passed giving Henry conditional power to suspend
payment to the pope of annates or first-fruits, that is, the first
year's income of every see or benefice, which has hitherto been
paid, to him. Henry holds this Act in abeyance as a weapon
against the pope.
Sir Thomas Tilore resigns the chancellorship (16 May).
The clergy give up the position for which they have striven
since Anselm's time, and acknowledge that they cannot legis
late without the consent of parliament. This act makes the
king in reality head of the Church, and makes the Church a
national one, independent of Rome.
Parliament passes the "Act of Appeals" (24 Hen. VIIL,
c. 12), declaring that the Anglican Church has the right to'
settle its own spiritual questions, and forbidding all appeals
to any court higher than the archbishop's,' thus abolishing
appeals to Rome or to any legatine court.
William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (23
Aug.), aged 82. Henry names Thomas Cranmer his successor
(Sep.). Henry VIIL, in order to manifest publicly his determina
tion with regard to his intended divorce and remarriage, takes
Anne Boleyn in regal state as his future queen to Calais (Oct.),
and there meets Francis I. and the Queen of Navarre. Pope

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 227
Clement VII. issues a brief ordering Henry to take back
Catherine, and forbidding him to marry Anne Boleyn. '
1533. Henry VIIL secretly marries Anne Boleyn (25 Jan.).
Thomas Cranmer, by papal bull dated 21 Feb., is made
Archbishop of Canterbury, and consecrated (30 Mar.).
Henry VIIL authorizes Cranmer to proceed with the
-divorce; Cranmer holds his court at Dunstable, and cites
Catherine to attend ; she refuses, and Cranmer declares (23
May) her marriage with Henry void from the beginning, as
having been in defiance of divine prohibition. From this
date Catherine is styled Dowager Princess of Wales. Henry
acknowledges his marriage with Anne Boleyn ; Cranmer pro
nounces it valid (28 May) ; and Anne Boleyn is crowned in
Westminster Abbey (Whit Sunday, 1 June).
Pope Clement VII. reverses Cranmer's decision, and Henry
appeals from the pope to a general council (29 June).
At the palace of Placentia, Greenwich, Anne Boleyn gives
birth to the Princess Elizabeth (7 Sep.), afterwards queen.
1534. Pope Clement VII. (at Easter) declares Henry's
marriage with Catherine lawful, orders him take her back as
his wife, excommunicates him, and authorizes Charles V. to
execute the sentence.
At the instance of Thomas Cromwell, parliament declares
the Annates Bill completed (25 Hen. VIIL, c. 20); and by
another Act (c. 21) abolishes all tributes to Rome ; provides
for the election of bishops without the pope's intervention ;
and decrees that if the pope does riot yield to the king's
wishes in three months, his remaining authority shall be
transferred to the Crown (30 Mar.). This Act makes the
breach with Rome irreconcilable. At Henry's instance parlia
ment passes "the Succession Act" (c. 22), declaring his
marriage with Catherine unlawful, making it treason to ques
tion the legality of his marriage with Anne Boleyn, settling
the succession on the issue of that marriage, and appointing
commissioners to administer an oath to support the Act.
Another Act (c. 14) is passed for the punishment of heresy.
Sir Thomas More and Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, objecting
to take the oath under the Succession Act, and thereby' deny
the pope's authority, are imprisoned in the Tower (15 Ap.).
Elizabeth Barton, the "Nun of Kent" or "Holy Maid of
Kent," as she was called, and several of her associates, are
executed on a charge of treasonable practices (5 May).
Parliament passes "the Act of Supremacy" (26 Hen. VIIL,
c. 1), making the conditional abolition of the papal authority
absolute, and constituting the king "the only supreine head

228 HISTORY1 OF ENGLAND.
in earth of the Church of England, called Anglicana Ecclesia;" '
also another (c. 13) making it high treason to deprive him of
that or any other title or dignity. . ;
Sir Thomas More, Bishop Fisher, and several Carthusians
are indicted under these Acts (Nov.).
1535. Under the Act of Supremacy 'Henry VIIL formally
assumes the title of "on earth the Supreme Head of the
Church of England " (15 Jan.).
Pope Paul III. makes Bishop Fisher a cardinal ; this rouses
Henry's anger, and Fisher is tried, and still refusing to take
the oath of supremacy, is beheaded (22 June). Sir Thomas
More is also condemned for the same offence (1 July), and
-beheaded (6 July).
As the monasteries are the centres of opposition to the new
Acts, Henry VIIL and Thomas Cromwell, his new minister,
issue a commission to visit the lesser monasteries.
Miles Coverdale's Bible is published secretly, probably
at Zurich in Switerland ; it was an English translation from
the Latin Vulgate, revised by comparison with German ver
sions.' 1536. Catherine of Aragon dies at Kimbolton (7 Jan.),
aged 50 ; she is buried at the abbey church of Peterborough
(now the cathedral). On her deathbed she wrote a letter of
forgiveness to Henry, commending their daughter Mary (now
20) to his care.
The first Poor Law (27 Hen. VIIL, c. 25) is passed ; it pro
vides also for the punishment of vagabonds and sturdy beggars.
An Act (c. 26) is passed -uniting Wales with England. -The
coriimission on the lesser monasteries reports the existence of
such wickedness in two-thirds of them, that parliament passes
an Act (c, 28) dissolving all monasteries with incomes of less
than £200 a year, arid confiscating their property to the
Crown. The monks are either pensioned or distributed among
the greater monasteries.
Anne Boleyn and her brother, George Lord Rochford,'are
sent to the Tower (2 May) on_ a charge of treason, adultery,
and incest ; are tried by a commission of 27 peers and con
victed (15 May). Rochford is executed (17 May). 'Four
others of her alleged paramours, Sir Francis Weston, Brereton,
Norris, and Smeaton, are tried. (12 May) and executed (17
May). Cranmer declares Anne's marriage null and void on
the alleged ground of a pre-contract (17 May), and she is
beheaded (19 Jlay).

Henry VIIL marries Jane Seymour (20 May).
The profession of faith of the Lutheran

Church, now

THE TUDORS: THE CROWN SUPREME. 229
known as "the Augsburg Confession," is presented to Charles
, V. at the Diet of Augsburg (June).
Parliament again meets (8 June) ; it passes a new Succession
Act (28 Hen. VIIL, c. 7), declaring both princesses Mary and
Elizabeth illegitimate, and giving the succession to the issue
of the king's new marriage ; also giving to the king power
to alter the succession. The parliament, which has been in
existence seven years, is dissolved.
With the king's sanction Convocation adopts ten Articles
(some taken from the Augsburg Confession) declaring the
Bible and the three Creeds to be the sole authority in mat
ters of faith, and that only three Sacraments are necessary ;
and, it is ordered that the Ten Commandments, the Lord's
Prayer, and the Creeds shall be learnt in English.
In consequence of the 'suppression of the smaller monas
teries, an insurrection breaks out in Lincolnshire (2 Oct.),
under Dr. Mackerel, Prior of Barlings, who calls himself Capt.
Cobler, and collects a force of 20,000 men ; on terms being
offered by the Earl of Shaftesbury, the insurgents disband
(13 Oct.).
A widespread and formidable insurrection, under Robert
Aske and Lord Darcy, known as "the Pilgrimage of Grace,"
breaks out in Yorkshire (8 Oct.), and spreads throughout the
whole north of England. The insurgents, 30,000 or 40,000
strong, capture York (16 Oct.), Pomfret Castle (20 Oct.), and
Hull. The Duke of Norfolk, on behalf of Henry VIIL , meets
them at Doncaster (26 Oct.), and promises to accede to their
demands and to grant a general amnesty ; and they disband
and are pardoned (25 Dec).
At the instigation of Henry VII I. William Tyndale, the
translator of most of the Bible into English, is, by order of
the Emperor Charles V., after an imprisonment of 18 months
at Vilvoorden (about 6 miles N. N. E. of Brussels), in the
Netherlands, there strangled and burnt (6 Oct.). His last
words were : " Lord, open the King of England's eyes."
1537. Disturbances are renewed in Yorkshire under Sir
Francis Bigod (12 Jan.), but are quieted by Aske himself.
Martial law is proclaimed, however ; the insurgent leaders,
Aske, Darcy, Lord Hussey, and Sir Robert Constable, are.
arrested (May) ;'and Aske, Hussey, and Constable, are executed
(28 June) ; also about 70 others. ¦
Henry's queen, Jane Seymour, gives birth to a son (12 Oct.),
afterwards Edward VI., and dies in childbirth (24 Oct.), aged
about 27. , * - n -
Tyndale's translation of the Bible, completed from Cover-

230 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
dale's and revised by John Rogers, is published by Grafton,
an English printer, and receives the king's license. It is
known as " the Matthew Bible." An order in council directs
a copy to be placed in every church, "for every man that Will
to look and read therein."
1538. James V. of Scotland marries Mary of Lorraine,
daughter of the Duke of Guise (9 May.).
Pope Paul III. publishes a bull (17 Dec.) excommunicating
and deposing Henry VIIL and formally delivering his soul to
the devil. Cardinal Reginald Pole (who is living in Italy)
presses the Emperor Charles V. to carry the bull into execu
tion ; Charles declines.
A friar named Forest is burnt for denying the royal suprem
acy (22 May) ; and two German Anabaptists are burnt in
Smithfield (29. Nov.).
1539. Edward Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter (grandson
of Edward IV.), the head of the house of York, and Sir
Edward Nevill are beheaded (9 Jan.) on a charge of conspir
acy to place Cardinal Pole on the throne. Courtenay's son
Edward (a boy of 12) ' is sent to the Tower. Cardinal Pole's
brother, Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, another Yorkist
(grandson of the Duke of Clarence, Edward IV. 's brother), is
also beheaded for high treason (3 Mar.), on a charge Of being
implicated in the conspiracy. The Countess of Salisbury,
mother of the two Poles, is attainted in parliament and sent
Jo the Tower (28 Ap.).
Lord Darcy, one of the leaders in the Pilgrimage of Grace
in 1536, is condemned and executed (20 June).
Parliament subserviently passes an Act (31 Hen. VIIL, c. 8)
giving to the king's proclamations the force of law in certain
cases ; also an Act (c. 13) vesting the property of the larger
monasteries in the king.
' A reaction against the doctrines of the Reformation having
set in, parliament passes "the Statute of Six Articles" (c. 14).
It requires belief m the following doctrines : T. Tran substan
tiation ; 2. Communion in both kinds unnecessary ; 3. Priests
ought not to marry ; 4. Vows of chastity ought to be observed
by both sexes ; 5. Private masses are allowable ; and 6. Auric
ular confession is necessary. Persons rejecting the first are to
be burnt alive ; denial of any of the other five entails confis
cation of property for the first offence, and execution as a
felon for the second.
Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, and. Nicholas Shaxton,
Bishop of Salisbury, resign their sees (1 July), and are im
prisoned as "sacramentarlan heretics."

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 231
Three abbots are executed as traitors (14 Nov., 1 Dec).
1540. Henry VIIL marries Anne of Cleves (6 Jan.), a
Protestant ; he conceives an aversion against her, and is
"divorced (10 July). She is to be treated as the king's adopted
sister, to hold precedence next to the queen' and the king's
daughters, and to receive a pension of £3000 a year. [She
lived in England during the rest of her life ; died at her
palace at Chelsea (17 July, 1557) ; and was buried at West
minster Abbey with regal splendor, 4 Aug.]
Henry's minister, Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, by
whom the marriage had been brought about for political pur
poses, whose foreign policy has also been unsuccessful, and
who has likewise been endeavoring to thwart the operation of
the Statute of Six Articles, falls into Henry's disfavor ; he is
arrested on a charge of high treason (10 June) ; parliament,
without hearing him in his own defence, passes a Bill of
attainder (29 June) ; and he is beheaded (28 July).
Henry VIIL marries Catherine Howard (28 July), daughter
of Lord Edmund Howard, and niece of the Duke of Norfolk.
The Norf oiks being a Catholic family, the marriage leads to
further reaction against Protestantism.
Parliament passes an Act (32 Hen. VIIL, c. 24) completing
the work of the dissolution of the monasteries, and vesting their
property in the Crown. The total number of monasteries,
both large and' small, dissolved in 1536, 1539, and 1540, was
645, with revenues amounting to about £150,000 a year, equal
to about £1,600,000 in present money.*
Surgeons and barbers are united into one company.
Cranmer's Bible ("the Great Bible "), a revision of Tyndale
and Rogers's, is "appointed to be read in churches" by royal
command. About this date, the earliest English comedy, "Ralph
Roister Doister," by Nicholas Udall, is published.
1541. Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (a Yorkist),
niece of Edward IV., after two years' imprisonment in the
Tower, is beheaded for high treason (27 May), aged 72.
The queen, Catherine Howard, is charged with unchastity,
and sent to the Tower (Nov). Two of her alleged paramours,
Culpeper arid Dereham, are executed (10 Dec). -
1542. The queen, Catherine Howard, is convicted of mis
conduct, and beheaded (12 Feb.).
Henry VIIL assumes the title of King of Ireland, instead
* In the reign of Henry VII., out of a total number of knight's fees
of, 96,230, the Church owned 28,015, or about 30 per cent, of all the
land in England.

%%% HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
of Lord (23 Jan.), and several Irish chiefs are made peers of
parliament. An Act (33 Hen. VIIL, c. 6) is passed allowing arms to be
carried for defence.
Scotland and France renew their alliance against England,
and war breaks out (Oct.). The. Scots, 10,000 strong, under
Oliver Sinclair,, invade England, but are ignominiously de
feated at Solway Moss, in, Cumberland, near Solway Frith (25
Nov.), by a small band of English, 500 strong, under Thomas
Dacre and John Musgrave.
Mary Stuart ("Queen of Scots"), daughter of James V
and Mary of Guise, is born (8 Dec). James" V. dies Of grief
at the defeat at Solway Moss (14 Dec), aged 30 ; his infant
daughter, Mary, succeeds to the throne. James Hamilton,
Earl of Arran, is made regent. ,
1543. The Roman Catholic party in England object to
Cranmer's Bible; and parliament, at the instance of Henry
VIIL, passes an Act (34 & 35 Hen. VIIL, c. 1) forbidding
women, laborers, and uneducated persons to read the New
Testament in English. r
Wales is divided into 12 counties (c 2).
Henry VIIL enters into an alliance with the Emperor Charles
V. against France (11 Feb.). He also makes a treaty with
Arran, regent of Scotland, for the marriage of Prince Edward
(now 5) with the infant Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (1 July).
Henry marries Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer (12
July), his sixth wife.
At the instigation of Francis I. of France, Cardinal Beaton
seizes the infant Queen of Scots, has her crowned (Sep.), and
calls a parliament (Dec), which annuls the marriage-treaty
with Henry VIIL (11 Dec), and sets him at defiance.
1544. An English fleet lands 10,000 men, under Lord
Hertford,* at Leith (3 May) ; and Leith and Edinburgh are
taken, sacked, and partially burnt (5 May), and the neighbor
ing country is ravaged. Four thousand cavalry from Berwick
ravage the Scottish border.
In pursuance of Henry's alliance with Charles V., Lord
Hertford's army goes from Scotland to Calais, and Henry
gathers there. an army of 40,000 men (July). Instead of co
operating with Charles by advancing on Paris, he lays siege to
Boulogne, and captures it after a siege of two months (14
Sep.). The town remains in English hands till 1550. Charles
Vi makes a separate peace with Francis I. of France at
* Created Duke of Somerset in 1547, and made Protector.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 233
Crepy (19 Sep.), and Henry is left to continue the war alone.
He returns to England (30 Sep.).
Parliament passes a Succession Act (35 Hen. VIIL, c. 1),
providing that the crown shall go to Henry's son Edward,
and, should he die without issue, to his sister Mary, and
should she die without issue, to her sister Elizabeth, and giv
ing Henry power to limit by will the succession thereafter.
Also an Act (c 3) confirming the title " King of Ireland "
assumed by Henry VIIL in 1542. Also an Act (c 11) fixing the
wages of members of parliament at 4s. a day for knights of
the shire, and 2s. a day for burgesses.
Pistols first come into use in England, by the cavalry.
1545. The Scots, under the Earl of Angus, Scott of Buc-
cleuch, and Norman- Leslie (Master of Rothes), defeat the
English under Sir Ralph Evans and Sir Brian Latour, at
Ancrum Moor in Roxburghshire (17 Feb.).
A French fleet of 150 ships prepares to invade England,
and the French land in the Isle of Wight ; but after an inde
cisive action (18 July), the plague attacks their forces, and
they return to France.
Parliament passes an Act (37 Hen. VIIL, c. 4) suppressing
over 2000 chauntries and chapels, and 110 hospitals, and
confiscating their property to the Crown. In order to raise
more money for the French war, the Council debases the
currency. 1546. At the instigation of Cardinal Beaton, George Wish
art, a Scotch reformer, is tried at St. Andrews for heresy,
and burnt alive (1 Mar.). Cardinal Beaton is murdered (29
May) at his castle at St. Andrews, by Norman Leslie (Master
of Rothes) and 16 other members of the Protestant party of
Scotland ; and Leslie takes possession of the castle. The Earl
of Arran again becomes regent.
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey * (son of the Duke of Nor
folk), is made commander bf Boulogne, but, being defeated
before the city (7 Jan.), is superseded by the Earl of Hertford,
the king's brother-in law, and. imprisoned in the Tower along
with his father Norfolk (7 Dec).
After an unsuccessful effort to retake Boulogne, the French
make peace (7 June), agreeing to pay 2,000,000 crowns to
England within 8 years (arrears of pension promised in 1525),
and a perpetual annuity of 50,000 crowns ; also a life-pensipn
of 100,000 crowns annually to Henry VIIL ; Boulogne to be
* The well-known poet, and the creator of English blank verse,
which he first employed in Jiis translation of the 2d and 4th books of
the Mneft ; he introduced it in imitation of the Italian blank verse.

234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
retained for 8 years as security for the payments. Scotland is
included in the peace.
A Liturgy (known as "the King's Prymer"), consisting of
the Commandments, Lord's Prayer, Creed, Litany, and Morn
ing and Evening Services, is ordered to be read in churches in
place of the Breviary.
At the instigation of Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Win
chester (a Catholic), Anne Askew is convicted of questioning
the Real Presence~in the Sacrament, is tortured in the Tower
ineffectually to extort a disclosure of the names of co-believers,
and burnt alive at Smithfield (16 July), with three other
" Sacramentarians." ;
1547. The Earl of Surrey is beheaded on a charge of trea
son (21 Jan.). , His father, the Duke of Norfolk, is attainted
by Act of parliament (27 Jam), and sentenced to be executed
on 28 Jan., but Henry VIIL dies early in the morning of that
day, aged 55, and Norfolk is reprieved by the Council, but
still kept in prison (till 1553).
Edward VI. (a boy of nine), Henry's only son, succeeds to
the throne (28 Jan.),* aud is crowned (20 Feb.).
His mother, Jane Seymour, had been a Protestant, and he
had been educated as one. • The Earl of Hertford (brother
of Jane Seymour, and consequently uncle to the young king)
is made Duke of Somerset, (16 Feb.) and Protector of England
(13 Mar.)'.
Francis I., King of France, dies (22 Mar.) ; his son Henry
II. succeeds him.
The Scots decline the proposed alliance between Queen
Mary and Edward VI. and betroth her to, the Dauphin Fran
cis, son of Henry II. of France. A French fleet captures and
destroys St. Andrews Castle (Aug.), which since Beaton's
death in 1546 has been held by Norman Leslie and the party
favoring the English alliance. Somerset thereupon invades
Scotland with an army of 18,000 men, imd defeats the Scots,
under the Earl of Arran, at Pinkie Cleugh, near Musselburgh,
on the Frith of Forth (10 Sep.), the Scots losing 10,000 slain
and 1500 prisoners; the English, less than 200. Somerset
then captures Edinburgh and other places.- The victory at
Pinkie is otherwise fruitless, as want of supplies compels the
English army to retreat.
An Act (1 Ed. VI., o. 1) is passed repealing the Acts against
the Lollards (5 Rich. II., stat. 2, c 5; 2 Hen. V., st. 1,-e. 7- 25
* The practice is now first introduced of proclaiming a new king on
the day of the death of his predecessor. It had formerly been the
day after.

THE TUDORS VTHE CROWN SUPREME. 235
Hen. VIIL, c. 14); the Act of the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIIL,
c 14) ; and the Act forbidding the reading of the Bible (34
& 35 Hen. VIIL, c 1). 8 V
The first book of Homilies is published by Cranmer.
1548. Mary Queen of Scots (now 6) is taken to France
(July), escorted by a French fleet, and is betrothed to the
Dauphin Francis, son of Henry II. of France (Aug.).
1549. A "Book of Common Prayer " having, "with the
aid of the Holy Ghost," been framed by commissioners under
the presidency of Archbishop Cranmer, parliament passes (15
Jan.) "the Act of Uniformity" (2 & 3 Ed. VI., c 1), order
ing the book to come into general use on the evening of Whit
Sunday (20 May). It is printed (7 Mar.). An Act (c 21) is
passed allowing priests to marry.
Lord Seymour of Sudeley (the Protector's brother) is, at
the instance of the Protector himself, sent to the Tower (17
Jan.), attainted by parliament for treason, and beheaded (20
or 27 Mar.).
The radical measures of the Protector in the direction of
Protestantism create discontent, and insurrections break out
in Cornwall and Devonshire, and in Norfolk. The western
insurgents, under Humphrey Arundell, besiege Exeter (June),
but are defeated by the royal troops under Lords Russell and
Grey, in a two-days' battle at St. Mary's Clyst, near Topsham
in Devonshire (4-5 Aug.); Exeter is relieved (6 Aug.), and
the insurgents are finally defeated at Stamford Courtenay in
Devonshire (Aug.), and dispersed ; martial law is proclaimed,
and the insurgents are severely punished,
In Norfolk, a force of 16,000 men, under Robert Ket, a
tanner, of Wymondham, captures Norwich (1 Aug.), but is
defeated (Aug.) at Mousehold Hill, near Norwich, by the
royal troops under John Dudley,* late Lord Lisle, now Earl
ofWarwick. Arundell, Ket, and the other leaders are tried at West
minster (26 Nov.); they plead guilty arid are all executed in
Nov. or Dec. save Arundell, who is executed at Tyburn (27
Jan., 1550).
- The French having made continual attempts to -recapture
Boulogne, the English government formally declares war
against France (Sep.).
Somerset's domestic and foreign policy havirig thus led to
. rebellion at home and war with Scotland and France, the
* Son of Sir Edward Dudley, the extortionate minister of Henry
VH., beheaded by Henry VHI. in 1510.

236 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Council, at the instigation of the Earls of Warwick and South
ampton, compel him to resign the Protectorship, and com
mit him to the Tower (11 Oct.); he makes formal submission
before the king and Council (23 Dec).
An Act (3 & 4 Ed. VI., c. 10) is passed, ordering all pictures
of saints and images in churches to be destroyed.
1550. Somerset is released from the Tower (6 Feb.), re
admitted to' the Council (10 Ap.), and his property, is re
stored to him (May).
Peace is made with France and Scotland (24 Mar.), Bou
logne being given up on payment of 400,000 crowns.
Joan Bocher, a woman of Kent, is burnt alive for heresy
(2 May).
In order to raise money, the new government under War
wick put about £150,000 of debased currency into circulation;
prices rise enormously in consequence, and great distress and
discontent are occasioned.
1551. Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester,- being a
Catholic, is deprived of his see (23 Mar..).
George Van Parre, an Anabaptist, is burned alive (24r Ap.).
The inconvenience and disorder occasioned by the debased
currency are so great, that the Council is compelled to reform
the coinage, and to return to a normal standard (1 Aug.).
The Eari of Warwick is made Duke of Northumberland
(11 Oct.). At his instance Somerset, ex-Protector, is arrested,
sent to the Tower ^16 Oct.), tried for treason and felony (1
Dec), acquitted of treason but found guilty of felony, and sen
tenced, to be hanged, r
An order in council is issued to Cranmer, directing him to
frame Articles of Religion.
The sweating-sickness visits England for the fifth and last
time. 1552. Somerset is beheaded (22 Jan.). Four of his al
leged accomplices are also executed (26 Feb.). The principal
charge was a design to murder Northumberland.
The Prayer-Book is revised by a committee under Cranmer,
and published as "the Second Prayer-Book of Edward VI."
The revisions show a greater tendency towards the doctrines
of the continental reformers. Its use is enforced by a new
Act of Uniformity (5 & 6 Ed. VI., c 1).
An Act (c 12) is passed abolishing celibacy and authorizing
the clergy to marry;
Somerset had been very popular, and his death induces par
liament to amend the law of treason, by enacting' (c 16) that
two witnesses, who shall confront the accused, shall be neces-

THE TUDORS: THE CROWN SUPREME. 237
sary to convict. t This law is still in force. For this display of
independence parliament is dissolved, and a new and carefully
chosen one is substituted.
1553. The Articles of Religion prepared by, Cranmer and
Bishop Ridley, after having been submitted to the Council, to
five of the royal chaplains, and to John Knox,* and having
undergone many revisions, are finally issued (May), as " the
Articles of Edward VI.," or "the Forty-two Articles," with a
royal mandate ordering the bishops to call on . all clergy,
schoolmasters, and churchwardens to subscribe them. These
Articles were mainly based on the Lutheran Confessions, par
ticularly the Augsburg.
Edward VI. grants to the citizens of London his palace of
Bridewell for a workhouse (10 Ap.); also St.. Thomas's Hos
pital, in Southwark.
Northumberland, with an eye to obtaining the throne for
his son Guilford Dudley, causes him to marry Lady Jane
Grey (25 May). She is the granddaughter of Henry VII I. 's
younger sister Mary, upon whose heirs, in the event of his
own failing, Henry has settled the throne by his will, passing
over his elder sister Margaret, who had married James IV. of
Scotland. It being evident that the young king cannot live long,
Northumberland persuades him to execute letters-patent ex
cluding his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, as illegitimate,
and bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey,, the next heir
under Henry VIII.'s will. At Northumberland's instigation,
this document is subscribed by the Privy Council (21 June),
some of them doing so very reluctantly.
Edward VI. dies at Greenwich (6 July), aged 15.' North
umberland proclaims Lady Jane Grey queen (10 July), but
the people refuse to recognize the usurpation, and deolare in
favor of Mary, who soon finds herself at the head of a large
force. Northumberland's troops desert or refuse to fight, and
-at Cambridge he proclaims Mary queen (20 July), but is arrested
(21 July) by the Earl of Arundel, tried, condemned, and be
headed on Tower-Hill (22 Aug.), along with Sir Henry Gate
and Sir Thomas Palmer, two of his accomplices. His sons,
the Earl of Warwick and Sir Andrew Dudley, along with the
Earl of Northampton, are also condemned, but were afterwards
pardoned. Nicolas Ridley, Bishop of London, having pub
licly declared for Lady Jane Grey (16 July), is committed to
•Now a minister at Newcastle, and one of Edward VL's chap
lains.

238 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
the Tower (Aug.). Stephen Gardiner, Bishop, of Winchester
(a Catholic), is made chancellor (23 Aug.), and until his death
in 1555 acts as her chief minister in civil matters. John
Hodper, Bishop of Worcester in commendam (a Reformer), is
imprisoned in the Fleet, London (Sep.). Queen Mary releases
Edward Courtenay from the Tower and makes him Earl of
Devon (3 Sep.).
Queen Mary restores Romanism, including the Mass, and
refuses to recognize the marriage of the clergy under the Act
of Edward VI. (5 & 6 Ed. VI., o. 12), on the ground that
all Acts passed during his minority are void. Many clergy are
driven from the country ; and ten bishops are deposed for
being married,, arid their places are filled by Catholics.
Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, is sent to the Fleet (1 Sep.) ;
Latimer and Cranmer are sent to the Tower (13, 15 Sep.).
Mary is crowned at Westminster Abbey (1 Oct.), by Bishop
Gardiner. - Robert Holgate, Archbishop of York, is sent to the Tower
(4 Oct.).
Parliament passes an Act declaring Mary legitimate.
Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord Guilford Dudley are
arraigned for treason (13 Nov.); they plead guilty, are con
demned to death and sent to the Tower ; her father, the Duke
of Suffolk, is also condemned, but pardoned on payment of
a fine. 1554. Queen Mary creates great discontent among the Prot
estant English by refusing to recognize her half-sister Eliza
beth (a Protestant) as her hehvaTid by entering into a con
tract (Jan.) to marry Philip, eldest son of the Emperor Charles
V., the leader of the Catholic powers of Europe. Insur
rections break out (Jan.) in favor of Elizabeth, in Kent under.
Sir Thomas Wyatt, and in the Midlands under the Duke of
Suffolk (Lady Jane Grey's father). Through the personal
courage of the queeri, Wyatt's insurrection is suppressed, and
he is taken prisoner (7 Feb.). This insurrection brings about
the death of Lord Guilford Dudley and Lady Jane Grey, who
are beheaded on Tower-Hill (12 Feb.). The Duke of Suffolk
is defeated near Coventry by the Earl of Huntingdon (Feb.),
betrayed to his pursuers by a retainer named Underwood,
condemned, and beheaded (2 3 Feb. ) . The Princess Elizabeth is
committed to the Tower (18 Mar.) ; and Wyatt is convicted
(15 Mar.) and executed (11 Ap.) ; also over 100 of his fol
lowers. Archbishop Cranmer, Hugh Latimer (Bishop of ^Worcester),
and Nicolas Ridley (Bishop of London) are removed from the

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 239
Tower to Oxford (13 Mar.), where, after a public disputation
on the Mass (16-18 Ap.), they are pronounced "obstinate
heretics" (28 Ap.).
Parliament passes an Aet (Ap.) authorizing Mary's marriage
with Philip' of Spain. Philip comes to England, and the
marriage takes place (25 July), Mary being 38 and Philip 27.
Arran, regent of Scotland, resigns (12 Ap.), and the queen-
mother, Mary of Guise, is made regent ; she opposes Protes
tantism. With a view to the restoration of England to communion with
Rome, Mary calls a carefully elected parliament (12 Nov. ), which
passes a Bill reversing the attainder of Reginald Pole,* cardinal
and legate ; and Pole (after an absence of 23 years) returns to
England (14 Nov.), as papal ambassador. Parliament meets,
and with only one dissenting voice, votes for reconciliation
with Rome ; the members of both Houses assemble (St. An
drew's day, 30 Nov.), and on their knees receive papal absolu
tion from Cardinal Pole, as legate ; and the reconciliation is
complete. Parliament re-enacts (1 & 2 Ph. and Mary, c. 6) the statutes
of Henry IV. and Henry V. for the burning of heretics ; and
also enacts (c. 8) that the statutes of Mortmain shall be sus
pended for 20 years, and repeals all statutes (19 in all) passed
in Henry VIII.'s reign against the see of Rome. Bishop Gar
diner and Cardinal Pole at once put the Acts in force. ,
1555. John Rogers, prebendary of St. Paul's, is burnt alive
at Smithfield (4 Feb.) ; Rowland Taylor, vicar of Hadleigh
in Suffolk, is burnt alive at Hadleigh (8 Feb.) ; Bishop Hooper
is burnt alive at Gloucester (9 Feb.) ; and Lawrence Sandars
is burnt alive (Feb.). Early in March 8 more persoris are
burnt alive ; and 16 in all before the end of April. Mary
issues a letter (May), exciting the bishops to greater energy,
and 50 more persons are burnt alive for heresy.
Philip, Mary's consort, goes to Flanders (Aug.) ; and his
father, the Emperor Charles V., abdicates the throne of the
Netherlands in his favor (25 Oct.), and he becomes king us
Philip II. ,. ± ^
Bishops Latimer and Ridley are burnt alive for heresy,
chained back to back to the same stake, at St. Giles's, Oxford
(16 Oct.). " Play the man, Master Ridley," said Latimer, as
the flames began to ascend ; " we shall this day light such a
candle in England as by the grace of God shall never be put
out." •Passed in 1539, when his brother Henry Pole, Lord Montague,
was beheaded.

240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Many other persons suffer martyrdom, some being starved
to death in prison. 0ranmer> being archbishop, the charge
of heresy against him is tried at Rome, and he is condemned
(4 Dec). - '
Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancel
lor, dies at Whitehall (12 Nov.), aged 72.
1556. CharlesV. resigns the crown of Spain to his son
Philip II. (5 Feb.).
Cranmer is degraded from his office of archbishop by
Thirlby and Bonner (14 Feb.), and is burnt alive (21 Mar.).
Cardinal Pole, papal legate, is made Archbishop of Canter
bury. The persecutions for heresy lead to great discontent among
the Protestants, and a conspiracy is formed, of which Sir
Henry Dudley is leader, to depose Mary and place Elizabeth
on the throne. The plot is discovered, and a. large number
of persons are arrested, condemned, tortured, and executed
(Maf.-Ap.). Dudley, however, escapes abroad. The religious
persecution now goes on more fiercely than ever, and large
numbers of Protestants are burnt alive as heretics, or hanged as
criminals. 1557. Many English have taken refuge in France, where,
with the secret support of the king, Henry II., they plot
against Mary. One of these, Sir Thomas Stafford (a nephew
of Cardinal Pole), lands in Yorkshire (25 Ap.) with 31 follow
ers, with the object "of delivering his country from foreign
tyranny," and takes Scarborough Castle. ' It is retaken by the
Earl of Westmoreland, and Stafford and all his followers ex
cept one are executed (May). In consequence of the French
king's .support of this movement, Queen Mary, instigated by her
husband Philip II. of Spain (who is then at war with France),
and by Pope Paul IV„ declares war against France (7 June)!
She sends troops to the Netherlands, who assist Philip's army
in the pursuit after their victory over the French at St. Quentin
(10 Aug.).
The Protestant and anti-French party in Scotland organize
and their leaders, "the Lords of the Congregation," issue the
First Covenant (Dec).
1558. Calais, the last stronghold of England in France is
captured by the Duke of Guise (7 Jan.). The combined
Spanish and English fleets, under Count Egmont and Lord
flSul } ° the Frendl °fl Gravelines> near Calais
Mary Queen of Scots, who has been in France since 1548
and is now 15, is married to the Dauphin Francis, son of

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 241
Henry II. of France (24 Ap.), and her husband receives" from
the Scotch Commissioners the title of King of Scots.
Queen Mary of England on her deathbed nominates (6 Nov.)
her half-sister Elizabeth as her successor ; she dies (17 Nov.),
aged 42. Elizabeth (now 25) is unanimously proclaimed
queen (17 Nov.) by parliament, which, though dissolved by
the queen's death, is sitting at the time.
Mary Queen of Scots, alleging that Elizabeth is illegitimate,
claims the throne of England, as grand-daughter of Henry
VIII. 's eldest sister Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scotland.
Elizabeth appoints Sir William Cecil (created Lord Burgh-
ley in 1571) Secretary of State and her chief adviser, a posi
tion which he holds throughout the 40 years of the rest of his
life. He was " the oracle she consulted on every emergency,
and whose answers she generally obeyed."
Cardinal Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (18 Nov.),
aged 58.
At the instance of the government of the Scottish regent
(Mary of Guise), Walter Mill, an old man of 80, is burnt alive
for heresy (being a Protestant), an act which rouses the Prot
estants to fury. The regent is inclined to give way, but
under instructions from the Guises in France, determines to
oppose the Reformation with all her power.
John Knox, who has been living in Geneva since 1554, pub
lishes there his "First Blast of the Trumpet against the
Monstrous Regiment [Government] of Women," a work which
gives great offence to Elizabeth.
1559. Many of the bishops fear to crown Elizabeth, but
the ceremony is at last performed by Oglethorpe, Bishop of
Carlisle (15 Jan.).
Parliament meets (25 Jan.) and passes " the Act of Suprem
acy" (1 Eliz., c 1), declaring the queen "Supreme Head of
the Church ; " doing away with all jurisdiction of the Papal
See, and making it punishable to uphold any foreign authority
in the country ;' giving all spiritual jurisdiction to the Grown ;
authorizing the establishment of the Court of High Com
mission ; * and repealing the persecuting Act of the late
reign (1 & 2 Ph. & Mary, c. 6). It also passes " the Act of
Uniformity" (lEliz., c 2), ordering the Prayer-Book (which,
at Cecil's instance, has been secretly revised by a committee of
divines preparatory to introducing it) to be used in every
church ; and ordering all persons to attend church under a
.shilling fine.
•The Court was not actually established tiU 1583. Its powers
were in the meantime exercised by temporary commissions.

242 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Elizabeth makes peace at Cateau-Cambresis with Henry II.
of France (2 Ap.) ; Calais to be restored to England in 8
years or France to pay 500,000 crowns. Philip II. of Spain and
Henry II. make a separate peace (3 Ap.), one of its avowed
objects being the suppression of Protestantism, which is be-
-coming dangerous to both. " Philip marries the French prin
cess Elizabeth. Henry II. is accidentally killed (10 July) by
Montgomery, a Scotchman, at a tournament held in honor of
the marriage. His son, Francis II., succeeds; and Mary
Queen of Scots thus becomes Queen of Fiance also. The
French and Spanish courts also declare her Queen of Eng
land.* Eleven Articles of Religion to be held by all the clergy are
issued by authority, preparatory to the promulgation of a
revision of the 42 Articles of Edward VI.
In Scotland the regent Mary publishes an edict against the
Protestants ; John Knox returns to Scotland (2 May), and
preaches a stirring sermon at Perth (June), against the "idol
atry of the Mass " and of " image-worship," which leads to a
riot. The Lords of the Congregation take up arms against
the regent, capture St. Andrews, clear the French out of Fife,
and occupy Edinburgh (29 June), where Knox is made a
minister. In the expectation that France will support the
regent, the Lords of the Congregation seek an alliance with
Elizabeth. The regent Mary holds and fortifies Leith (close
to Edinburgh).
Elizabeth appoints Matthew Parker Archbishop of Canter
bury ; he is consecrated (17 Dec);
The Index Expurgatorius, a catalogue of books prohibited
by the Church of Rome, is made by the Inquisition, and ap
proved by the Council of Trent. Many works of the great
writers of England, France, Germany, Spain, and other
countries have, between 1559 and the present day, been
" placed on the Index."
1560. Elizabeth makes with the Lords of the Congrega
tion the treaty of Berwick (27 Feb.), agreeing to send an army
to Scotland to assist theim to expel the French. This she
does, and the combined troops lay siege to Leith. The regent,
Mary of Guise, dies (10 June). Through the intervention of
Cecil, peace is made with France by the treaty of Edinburgh
• She was the nearest heir after Elizabeth (supposing -the latter
legitimate), .being the only grandchild of Margaret, Henry VII 's
elder daughter, who had married James IV. of Scotland. If Eliza
beth were deemed illegitimate, Mary would, of course, be rightfully
entitled to supersede her. e '

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 243
(6 July) ; the French to retire from Scotland, to renounce
their claim on behalf of Mary Queen df Scots to the English
throne, and to pay a fine for having made it ; the fortifications
of Dunbar and Leith to be razed ; and the government of
Scotland to be carried on by a council or regency of 12 nobles.
Mary Queen of Scots refuses to ratify this treaty. The Estates
of Scotland, however, meet (25 Aug.), and adopt the Confession
of Faith (according to the formula of the Geneva Church),
repeal all Acts authorizing any other form of worship, abjure
the authority of. the pope, and enact that the celebration of
the Mass shall, on the third offence, be punishable by death.
Protestantism thus becomes the established religion in Scot
land. The Anabaptists are ordered to leave England (22 Sep.).
They rejected the Trinity and baptism, ,and denied, the law
fulness of oaths, of -war, and of magistrates.
«*Francis n. of France dies (5 Dec.) ; his brother Charles
IX. (a boy of 10) succeeds him ; his mother, CatherinW de
Medici, acts as regent.
1561. Lord James Stuart (afterwards Earl of Murray),
an illegitimate brother of Queen Mary, puts himself at the head
of the Scotch national party, and invites her (now a widow) to
return to Scotland, stipulating that no foreign troops shall be
introduced, and that she shall not disturb the established re
ligion. She sails from France, and lands at Leith (19 Aug.);
but still refuses to recognize the Treaty of Edinburgh, or to
give up her claim to the English throne.
1562. The followers of the Duke of Guise (Catholics) kill a
party of Protestants at worship (1 Mar.), "the Massacre of
Vassy." Similar massacres by the Catholics are perpetrated in
other places ; the Reformers, or Huguenots as they are called,
resort to arms ; and the religious war which desolates France
for nearly 40 years begins. Cecil writes that, should the Protes
tants be overthrown, " Philip [King of Spain and tlie Nether
lands] and the Guises would become the dictators of Europe,
Spain would have Ireland, Mary Queen of Scots would marry
Don Carlos [Philip's son and heir], the Council of Trent
would pass a general sentence against all Protestants, and the
English Catholics, directed and supported from abroad, would
rise in universal rebellion." * ,
* This pregnant utterance of the great English statesman is a key
to the foreign policy of England during Elizabeth's reign, and also to
much of her Irish and domestic policy. The triumph of Catholicism
on the Continent meant the conquest and destruction of England as
the great Protestant power. With England and Elizabeth, conse-

244 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
At the solicitation of Conde, the leader of the French Prot-
estaits, Elizabeth sends to France an army, which, occupies
Havre (Sep.). , '
Sir John Hawkins begins the English slave-trade (Oct.).
1563. The 42 Articles of Edward VI., having been re
vised and altered by Archbishop Parker, further altered and
reduced to 39 by Convocation, and still further altered and
curtailed by one (the present 29th) by Elizabeth, are pro
mulgated in Latin, as the "38 Articles of the Church of
England" (29 Jan.); An English translation is soon issued.
Conde makes peace at Amboise (19 Mar.) with the French
Catholics, who besiege Havre (22 May- 28. July) ; the plague
breaks out among the English troops there, under Ambrose
Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and they are forced to surrender
(28 July). Tbe troops carry the plague back to England,
where it commits great ravages, the deaths in London rising
to 2000 a week.
.4aPAct (5 Eliz., c. 16) is passed declaring persons practis
ing " conjurations, enchantments, and witchcrafts " to be fel
ons ; and another, (c. 32) fixing' the expenses- of the royal
household at £40,027 per annum.
quently, that Catholicism should not triumph on the Continent was
a matter of life and death. The great struggle between Romanism
and the Eeformation ' continued in western Europe for nearly 90
years, until the Treaty of Westphalia (1649) closed the Thirty Years'
war of Germany, the most horrible war that ever desolated any
portion of the earth's surface. In this awful struggle of nearly a
century, England and Scotland were found on the side of Protestant
ism and liberty. They were fighting not merely for self-preserva
tion, but for human freedom. Ireland, on the contrary, was found
on the side of Catholicism and despotism ; of physical, mental,
moral, and religious slavery ; of the Inquisition, the rack, the tor
ture-chamber, and the stake. Could Ireland have worked her will,
could the Catholic traitors in England itself have worked their
will ; the liberties of England, and with them the liberties of Europe,
would have been laid at the pope's feet ; and England, with Scotland
and Ireland, would have become an appanage of Spain, then the
leading power in Europe. What Romish despotism meant had been
branded in letters of blood and fire into the memories of English
Protestants during the brief but terrible reign of "Bloody Mary."
To these and similar considerations full weight must be given in
order to arrive at a just estimate of the policy of Elizabeth and Cecil,
of the English Protestant and Puritan parties, and of Oliver Cromwell.
Men fighting for life and liberty cannot pick and choose their
weapons, but have to use the rough-and-ready means which lie near
est to their hands. Least of all should the Protestants of to-day who
are enjoying in peace and security the rich harvest which their Eng
lish forefathers reaped in blood and terror, scrutinize too nicely the
methods by which that harvest was gathered in.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 245
1563-8. A company of 8 prelates and other learned men, un
der the authority of Archbishop Parker, produce "the Bish
ops' Bible," a revision of Cranmer's. It is the foundation of the
present Authorized Version, and was designed to counteract
the Calvinistic tendency of the Geneva Bible published in 1560.
1564. Peace is made with France (1 Ap.).
William Shakspere, the dramatist, is born at Stratford-on-
Avon in Warwickshire (about 23 Ap.).
1565. Mary Queen of Scots, with an eye to the throne of
England, determines to join the European Catholic league,
and marries her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (29 July),
the head of the English Catholic party, a great-grandson
of Henry VII., and next heir to the English throne after
herself. The marriage gives great offence to Lord Murray
(Mary's chief adviser) and the Scotch Protestants, and civil
war breaks out ; the Protestant lords are driven from Scot
land and take refuge in England (Aug.). ,.-
Shan O'Neil defeats the Scots in Antrim.
Sir Henry Sidney is made Lord-Deputy of Ireland (13 Oct.).
O'Neil refuses to restore O'Donnell's lands, raises an' insurrec
tion in Ulster, and ravages the Pale.
There is famine in the British Isles.
1566. David Rizzio, an Italian, private secretary of Mary
Queen of Scots, who conducts her correspondence with the
Catholic powers of Europe, is dragged from her room in Holy-
rood Palace, and murdered (9 Mar.), at the instigation of her
husband, Darnley. Mary gives birth to a son (19 June),
afterwards James I. of England.
Shan O'Neil seeks aid from France, but is defeated by Col.
Randolph (12 Nov.).
The Puritans are becoming numerous, And they publish
books against vestments and ceremonies ; the books' are pro
hibited under heavy penalties. On the publication of Arch
bishop Parker's "Advertisements," 37 out of 140 clergymen
in London are driven from their cures for refusing to wear
the surplice ; this was the first definite secession from the
Church of England.
1567. A house occupied by Darnley at Kirk-of-Field, close
to Edinburgh, is blown up with gunpowder at two o'clock
in the morning (10 Feb.) ; after daybreak his dead body
and that of his page are found strangled in a neighboring
orchard. There is little doubt that he was murdered, with
Queen Mary's connivance, by James Hepburn, Earl of Both-
well, with whom she was in love. Both well is tried for the
murder (12 Ap.), but is acquitted because of the non-appear-

246 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
ance of his accuser. He obtains a divorce from his wife, Lady
Jane Gordon, and marries Queen Mary (15 May). The Scotch
lords again rise, and Mary, finding resistance hopeless, sur
renders (15 June) at Carberry Hill, near Edinburgh, to Sir Wil
liam Kirkcaldy of Grange. Bothwell flees to Borthwick Castle,
thence to Dunbar, and to the Orkneys.* Mary is taken to
Lochleven Castle, forced to sign a deed of abdication (24
July) in favor of her infant son, who is proclaimed king as
James VI., Lord Murray (Mary's illegitimate half-brother)
being summoned from France to act as regent. Queen Eliza
beth intercedes for her with her opponents in vain. The
Scotch parliament, on the evidence of the Casket Letters,!
adjudges Mary guilty (Dec.) of being an accomplice in the
murder of her husband Darnley.
O'Neil is defeated by the O'Donnells near Lifford (May) ;
he takes refuge with the Scots in Antrim, but. is murdered
(2 June) at the instigation of Oge MacCormel in revenge for
the defeat and death of his brother.
A company of over 100 Puritans are seized (19 June) while
at worship in Plumber's Hall, London, and 15 are- impris
oned. This is the first instance of the punishment of Prot
estant dissenters in England.
Rugby Grammar School is founded by Lawrence Sheriff.
1568. Mary Queen of Scots escapes from Lochleven Cas
tle (2 May) ; collects 6000 troops, revokes her abdication,
* Being still pursued, he escapes to sea, but is captured as a pirate
by a Danish war- vessel and taken to Denmark, where he is kept in
prison, in Draxholms Castle in Zealand, becomes insane, and dies (14
Ap.,1578). t The history of these famous letters is as follows : When Both-
well fled from Carberry Hill (15 June) he sent a messenger to get a
casket which he had left in Edinburgh Castle ; the messenger was
intercepted on his returji, and the casket fell into the hands of the
Earl of Morton (20 June). It contained, or was alleged to contain, a
correspondence between Bothwell and Mary, clearly indicating the -
complicity of both in Darnley's murder. The letters, after passing
from one regent to another, came into the custody of the Earl of
Gowrie (Lord Ruthven), and after his execution in 1584 they dis
appeared and have never since been seen. They were then probably
destroyed by James VI. (Mary's son). Mary alleged that the letters
were forgeries, an assertion which may be taken for what it is worth,
which isn't much. Their authenticity is still a moot question. Bur
ton, Froude, Gaedeke, Laing, Mignet, Pauli, and Ranke pronounce
them genuine ; while Caird, Chantelauze, Gauthier, Hosack, Philipp-
son, and Schiern pronounce them forgeries. In the absence of the
documents themselves the question seems hardly susceptible of solu
tion. Their disappearance as soon as they got into hands friendly
to Mary is, however, a strong point in favor of their authenticity

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 247
and seeks aid from France and England ; but is defeated by
the Regent Murray at Langside, near Glasgow (13 May), and
flees to England, landing at Workington in Cumberland (16
May), whence she is escorted to Bolton Castle. A commission
to try the differences between her and her. subjects opens its
sittings at York (Sep.), but removes to Westminster.' The
Casket Letters are produced, and after being compared with
undoubted letters of Mary's, are pronounced genuine (Oct.),
and she is formally charged with the murder of her husband
Darnley (26 Nov.).
About this date a congregation of Separatists, who hold
that congregations should be voluntary and self-governing, is
formed, under Richard Fitz as pastor.
1569. The commission on Queen Mary's case gives judg
ment (10 Jan.) to the effect that Murray has not been proven
guilty of disloyalty, and that nothing has been produced or
shown against Mary. Mary is removed to Tutbury Castle in
Staffordshire (3 Feb.).
A murderous insurrection breaks out (July), in Mun-
ster, Ireland, under the Earl of Clancarty and James Fitz-
Maurice (brother of the Earl of Desmond), who apply to
Philip II. of Spain for help, and offer to hand over Ireland to
him. After a horrible and sanguinary war, in which both
sides spare neither age nor sex, the insurrection is temporarily
suppressed by Sir Henry Sidney.
The division of Ireland into shires is completed by the Irish
Act 11 Eliz., 3d sess. c. 9.
Pope Pius V. sends agents to England, who denounce Eliza
beth as a heretic and "fallen from her usurped authority."
Thereupon the Catholics of the north of England enter into
a plot for the liberation of Mary Queen of Scots from Tutbury,
and her marriage with the Duke of Norfolk ; for the over
throw of Cecil ; and for the restoration of Catholicism. Nor
folk is arrested on suspicion and sent to the Tower (11 Oct.).
The rebels then openly rise (Nov.) and advance towards Tut
bury, but before they reach that place Queen Mary is removed
to Coventry. The royal troops march north to meet the rebels ;
Lords Northumberland and Westmoreland, the leaders of the.
insurgents, flee to Scotland and the Netherlands ; and about
600 or 700 of their followers are executed (Dec).
1570. The Earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, is mur
dered at Linlithgow by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh
(23 Jan.). Matthew Stuart, Earl of Lennox (Darnley's father)
is elected regent (12 July) ; but Mary's party refuse ,to recog
nize him. s

248 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. J
Pope Pius V. excommunicates and deposes Elizabeth (25
Ap.) ; the bull is fastened to the Bishop of Londori's door by
John Felton and Cornelius Irishman, a priest (24 May); Felton
is condemned and executed (8 Aug.).*
On giving a written promise not to pursue his scheme of
marrying Queen Mary, the Duke of Norfolk is released from'
the Tower (4 Aug.) ; and Mary is imprisoned in Sheffield Cas
tle, where she remains till 1585.
James Fitz-Maurice goes from Munster to Spain to seek aid
from Philip II. for the insurrection in Ireland.
Thomas Cartwright, the leader of the Puritan party, is
expelled from Cambridge University (Dec).
1571. The 38 Articles of 1562 are revised by John Jewel,
Bishop of London ; the present 29th is restored ; and " the
39 Articles of the Church of England," in their present form,
are adopted by convocation (Mar.).
Parliament meets (2 Ap.), for the first time in four years,
and passes an Act (13 Eliz., c. 1) making it treason to call
the queen heretic, schismatic, or usurper ; also an Act (c 2)
making it high treason to introduce papal bulls ; also the Act
of Uniformity (c. 12), providing that no one shall be admitted
to a benefice till he subscribes the 39 Articles in presence
of the Ordinary, and publicly reads them in the parish church
with a declaration of his unfeigned assent. Strickland, the
most proininent member of the Puritan party, gives offence to
the queen by his outspokenness, is summoned before her,
reprimanded, and excluded from the House ; but the Com
mons assert their privilege of free speech, and he is reinstated.
James Fitz-Maurice returns from Spain to Ireland, insur-
rectionagain breaks out in Munster, and. an army is sent from
England under Sir John Perrot (Ap.), which ravages Munster ;
Fitz-Maurice submits, but again goes to Spain to induce
Philip II. and France to aid the Irish Catholics.
A, conspiracy, known as the Ridolfi Plot,f is entered into
between Philip IL of Spain, Pope Pius V., Mary Queen of
Scots, and the Catholic party in England for the murder of
Queen Elizabeth, the invasion of England by Philip, the
making of Mary queen, and her marriage with Norfolk. The
* At this time a bull excommunicating and deposing a sovereign
absolved subjects from their allegiance, and made it lawful and
right, according to the doctrines of the Catholic Church, for any sub
ject to. murder the sovereign' so excommunicated.
t So called from Robert Ridolfi, a Florentine banker living in
London, who was employed by Pope Pius V. to act as agent between
the conspirators in England and their allies on the continent.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 249
plot is gradually discovered (May-Sep.), and the leaders, in
cluding Norfolk and Leslie (Bishop of Ross), Mary's agent, are
arrested. Norfolk and Leslie are committed to the Tower (7
Sep.). The Earl of Lennox, Regent of Scotland, is shot in a fray
at Stirling, and dies (4 Sep.) ; John Erskine, Earl of Mar, is
elected regent (5 Sep.).
Harrow School is founded by John Lyon.
1572. Norfolk is tried for high treason, condemned (16
Jan.), arid beheaded (2 June).
The massacre of Protestants by Catholics, known as the
"Massacre of St. Bartholomew," is perpetrated in Paris (24-
27 Aug.), and is followed by similar massacres in Rouen,
Orleans, Bordeaux, Toulon, and other parts of France, about
70,000 Protestants of all ages and both sexes being cruelly
murdered.* The news of the massacre is received with joy
and triumph by the Catholics throughout Europe ; Pope
Gregory Xin. formally approves of it (Sep.) ; orders a Te
Deum laudamus (" We praise thee, 0 God") to be performed;
and has a medal struck in its honor. By the Protestants in
England the news is received with horror, and the people
demand the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, as having' been
a party to the Ridolfi plot. The Earl of Mar, regent of
Scotland, gives his formal sanction to her execution (Oct.).
Queen Elizabeth, however, refuses her eorisentto it.
The Earl of Mar, regent of Scotland, dies (28 Oct.) ; James
Douglas, Earl of Morton, is elected regent (24 Nov.).
The Puritans form their first presbytery- at Wandsworth.
John Field and Thomas Wilcox, two Puritan divines, publish
their "Admonition to Parliament," declaring against dignities
in Church and the Universities. They are sent to prison for a
year. Thomas Cartwright publishes another "Admonition
to Parliament" (Nov.), for relief against the subscription re
quired, by the ecclesiastical commissioners under the Act of
1559. Archbishop Whitgift answers him, and a six years' con
troversy ensues, which leads to Hooker writing his " Ecclesi
astical Polity."
John Knox, the Scotch reformer, dies (24 Nov.), aged 67.,
15.73. Fitz-Maurice returns to Ireland, and Perrot, failing
to receive adequate support from Elizabeth, offers him pardon
on conditions which he accepts. The attempt to introduce
English law has failed, and the Irish chiefs resume their sway.
* The estimates vary from 30,000 to 100,000 ; the most trustworthy
seems to be that pf Sully,. 70,000, as above. In Paris alone over
10,000 were murdered, including 500 persons of rank.

250 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. /
(
Queen Mary's party in Scotland gains the upper hand, and -
Kirkcaldy of Grange, governor of Edinburgh Castle, goes
over to her side and holds the castle againstthe regent Morton.
Elizabeth sends an army under Sir William Drury tcf assist
the Scotch Protestant party, who are upholding the young
king, James 'VI. The army captures Edinburgh Castle
(28 May) ; Morton causes Kirkcaldy to be hung as a traitor
in Edinburgh market-place (3 Aug.) ; and the queen's party
is crushed.Walter Devereux, Earl of Essex, begins an attempt to
establish an English colony in Antrim, Ireland (Sep.) ; the
attempt fails.
1574. The Earl of Essex is made Governor of Ulster (May),
and establishes English authority over the O'Neils.
1575. Sir Henry Sidney is again made Lord Deputy in
Ireland, and is well received there.
A' congregation of 27 Dutch Anabaptists is seized in Lon
don (Easter Sunday, 3 Ap.), 5 recant, 11 are condemned, to ,
be burnt (21 May), but are banished instead; two are burnt
at Smithfield (22 July).
Mathew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies (17 May),
aged 71.
The population of England and Wales is about 5,000,000.
1576. Sidney makes Sir William Drury president in Mun
ster, and Malby president in Connaught ; Drury governs cru
elly, hanging about 100 men on his first circuit.
Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of York, is made Archbishop
of Canterbury (15 Feb.).
1577. An insurrection breaks out in Connaught under
Shan Burke and Ulick Burke, sons of the Earl of Clanrickard
(Jan.) ; it is temporarily suppressed by Malby with ruthless
severity. '
Eight persons are tried at Aylesbury (18 Ap.) as "Egyp
tians" (gypsies),, and hanged.
Elizabeth forbids (7 May) the meetings of Puritans, called
" Prophesyings," and they are discontinued.
Pope Gregory XIII. raises a force to go to Ireland under
Fitz-Maurice and Sir Thomas Stukeley, to assist the mal
contents there ; but at the instance of the King of Por
tugal, Stukeley takes the troops over to Africa to make con
quests. Elizabeth, believing war with Spain inevitable, makes an alli
ance with the Netherlands ; and also (13 Dec.) sends Francis
Drake on a piratical expedition to South America.
A playhouse, called "The Theatre," is builf by James Bur-

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 251
bage outside the walls of London, in Shoreditch.* The prices
of admission were : lords' rooms, Is. / gallery, 2d.
1578. Drake plunders all the Spanish towns on the coasts
of Chili and Peru, capturing an immense booty ; he then
crosses the Pacific Ocean.
The plague rages iri London.
1579. The success of Drake's expedition becoming known
in Spain, the Catholics there send an expedition of 700 men
under Fitz-Maurice and Dr. Nicholas Sanders (as papal
legate) which lands at Dingle (or Smerwick) in Kerry (17
July), and erects a fort there ; the Earl of Desmond (Fitz*
Maurice's brother) rouses Kerry and Limerick to arms ; the
insurgents burn Youghal and march in triumph to Cork.
Fitz-Maurice is slain in battle in Tipperary.
Esme Stuart, Count d'Aubigne,f is sent from France (Sep.)
to Scotland as the agent of the Guises, the European Catholic
party, and the Jesuits,! for the purpose of restoring the old
French and Catholic party in Scotland, and organizing an
invasion of England with the help of France and Spain. He
soon becomes a favorite with James VI. (now a boy of 13).
Philip Sydney § (a young man of 25) writes his famous
letter to Elizabeth, to dissuade her from her contemplated-
marriage with the Duke of Anjou.
Matthew Hamond is burnt at Norwich as a heretic, for
denying the Trinity and the gospel (20 May).
1580. The English, with the aid of Ormond, Desmond's
old enemy, subdue the insurgents in Munster (Jan. -June) ;
the fort at Smerwick still holds out, and Desmond takes refuge
there. Insurrection breaks out in the English Pale in Ire
land ; Lord Arthur Grey de Wilton is sent over as Lord Deputy
(Aug.), but is defeated with great slaughter at Glen Malure,
in the Wicklow Mountains, by the Wicklow septs (Sep.).
With the connivance of Philip II. of Spain, 800 Spanish
and Italian soldiers are sent from Spain to Ireland (Sep.) ;
they go to Smerwick and enlarge the fort there, and the in
surrection in Munster is renewed. The Smerwick garrison is
* Its site is close to the present Standard Theatre.
fSon of John d'Aubigne, captain of the Scots Guard in France,
and nephew of Matthew StuarVEarl of Lennox, regent of Scotland
in 1570-1. He had been brought up in France by his patrons the
Guises, and was now heir to the earldom of Lennox.
t The Society of Jesus was founded in Paris by Ignatius Loyola,
15 Aug., 1534, and confirmed by a bull of Pope Paul m., 27 Sep., 1540.
Loyola died 31 July, 1556, aged 65. He was canonized in 1622 by
Gregory XV. as St. Ignatius, being the third saint of that name.
| Created a knight, 13 Jan., 1583.

252 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
cut off from the sea by the English fleet under Admiral Win
ter, and Grey besieges Smerwick on the land side ; the gar
rison (reduced to 600) being refused all terms,r surrender at
discretion (9 Nov.), and are all put to death (Nov.)/ except
Desmond, who manages to escape. This is a death-blow to
the insurrection, which, however, lingers on fitfully for two or
three years longer.
As part of the general plot to dethrone Elizabeth and re
store Catholicism in England, a Jesuit mission under Edmund
Campian and Robert Parsons is sent from Rome to England
(June). They reach England (July) and immediately set to
work. They are authorized by the Catholic Church to pro
claim, with regard to the bull of excommunication and depo
sition issued against Elizabeth in 1570, that Catholics may
profess loyalty to Elizabeth till the time comes for enforcing
the bull ; in other words, that, while being traitors at heart,
they may rightfully and religiously pretend to be loyal sub
jects. To protect herself against this infamous doctrine,
Elizabeth publishes an address appealing to the loyalty of her
people against her enemies ; and a proclamation is issued
declaring that to harbor Jesuit priests is to support rebels.
Several priests are arrested (Dec), and some are tortured to
extort confession ; but the full extent of the plot is not re
vealed. Francis Drake returns to England (3 Nov.), having in
three years circumnavigated the globe ; he is knighted.
About this date Robert Browne, a clergyman of the Church
of England, ' becomes prominent by opposing episcopacy,
refusing to hold communion with the Church of England as
impure,' and advocating Separatist doctrines. His followers
are called' Brownists, and at a later date -Independents or
Congregationalists ; they soon become numerous, especially in
the eastern counties.
1581. To combat the machinations of the Jesuits and other
Catholics, parliament passes (Jan.) an Act (23 Eliz., c. 1) for
bidding private Masses-; inflicting a fine of £20 a month for
refusing to attend the Established Church; making it high
treason to claim the power of absolving subjects from their
allegiance, or to receive any person into the Church of Rome •
and inflicting severe penalties for harboring Jesuits.
Parsons escapes to the Continent, but Campian is arrested
at Lyfford in Berkshire (17 July), sent to the Tower (22
July), and tortured to extort a confession of the names of
those who have concealed him. He is executed at Tyburn (1
Dec), on a charge of conspiring to compass the queen's death

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 253
Twelve other priests and laymen are also convicted, of whom
9 are executed.
Esme Stuart, having obtained the earldom of Lennox, and
got into favor with the young king James VI. (now 15), pro
cures the execution of the regent Morton (1 June) on a
charge of complicity in the murder of Darnley^ Lennox
becomes the king's favorite, and is made Duke of Lennox (5
Aug.) ; and the French and Catholic party again become
paramount in Scotland. Philip II. of Spain, however, being
engaged in an attempt to cpnquer Portugal, is unable to assist
in the proposed invasion of England, and that part of the
plot falls through. The Scotch Catholics thereupon endeavor
to effect the restoration of Mary as queen.
The United Provinces (now Holland) throw off the yoke
of Philip II. of Spain, and proclaim their independence (26
July). 1582. Esme Stuart, Duke of Lenriox, takes steps towards
the restoration of Catholicism in Scotland. This action leads
to a riot in Edinburgh (July), and to the "Ruthven Raid."
Lord Gowrie and others seize the young king, James VI. (now
16), at Castle Ruthven (12 Aug. ) ; also his other obnoxious favor
ite James Stuart, Earl of Arran, who confesses the plans of the
Jesuits. These are thwarted, arid Lennox is obliged to return
to France (Dec). The Scotch Parliament passes an Act of
Indemnity voting the thanks of the nation to those who took
part in the Raid.
Pope Gregory XIII. publishes a bull (24 Feb.) reforming
the calendar, by making this year consist of only 355 days,
omitting ten days in October by making 5 Oct. the 15 Oct.
The "Gregorian Calendar," or "New Style," is at once
adopted in Italy, Spain, and Portugal ; and in France (10
Dec. -20 Dec):*
1583. Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies
at Croydon (6 July), aged 64. John Whitgift is made arch
bishop. James VI. of Scotland (now 17) escapes from his Prot
estant custodians (7 July), collects troops under Argyll
and Huntley, and defeats the Ruthven party. The Earl of
Mar takes refuge in England, but Gowrie is induped by a
* It was adopted in Catholic Switzerland, Germany, and Neth
erlands, 1583 ; Poland, 1586 ; Hungary, 1587 ; Protestant Germany,
Holland, Denmark, 1700 ; Protestant Switzerland, 1701 ; and in
Great Britain and her colonies, 1752, by an Act (24 Geo. II., c. 23)
passed in 1751. The Old Style is still retained in Russia, Greece, and
throughout the East.

254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
false promise of pardon to confess his guilt to the king ; on
which evidence he is condemned and executed at Stirling (4
May, 1584). James offers to allow Guise to land a French
army in Scotland as a base of operations against England, but
Guise, dreading the power of the Protestant party in Scotland,
adopts other measures.
The Court of High Commission, for the trial of spiritual
offences, is formally established under the Act of 1559. t
Elias Thacker and John Coping (Brownists) are hanged
for. disseminating books written by Robert Browne against
the Prayer-Book (4, 6 June). John Lewis is burnt, at Npr-
wich for denying the divinity of Christ (17 Sep.).
John Somerville is executed (Oct. ) for conspiring to murder
Elizabeth ; and Edward Arden is executed (20 Dec.) as an
accomplice. A plot is arranged in Paris between the agents of Mary
Queen of Scots, the Duke of Guise, and the agent of Philip
II. of Spain, in connection with the English Jesuits and other
Catholics, for. the invasion, of England by a combined French
and Spanish army, sailing from the Netherlands under cover
of a Spanish fleet. Sir Francis Walsingham, one of Eliza
beth's secretaries of State, gets some information of the plot,
and also of a conspiracy to murder the queen (Nov.). Frari-
cis Throgmorton, who has been seen frequently visiting the
house of Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, in London, is
arrested, and makes a full confession under the rack ; which,
however, he afterwards declares to be false.
1584. Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, is ordered to
leave England (Jan.).
Elizabeth's authority is fully re-established in Ireland, and
Sir John Perrot is made Lord-Deputy (7 Jan.).
Thomas Morgan (agent of Mary Queen of Scots in Paris)
and Cardinal Como instigate Dr. Wm. Parry to go over to
England (Jan.) for the purpose of murdering Queen Eliza
beth, with a view to placing Mary Queen of Scots on the
throne. Francis Throgmorton is tried, condemned, and executed (10
July. Many Jesuits and Seminary priests are also executed ;-
and a number of Catholic lords are deprived of their offices.
Since 1572 the Protestants in the Netherlands, headed by
William the Silent, Prince of Orange, have been maintaining
a terrible struggle to throw off the Catholic yoke of Philip II.
of Spain. Philip has set a price on the head of William, and
two or three attempts have been made to murder him", in one
of which he has been desperately wounded. At last/ in this

THE TUDORS : THE CROWN SUPREME. 255
year, one Baltazar Gerard shoots and kills him at his house in
Delft (10 July), thereby earning the promised reward. Gerard
is beheaded (24 July), but Philip II. ennobles his family, and
grants them the confiscated estates of William. The news of
this murder leads Elizabeth and the loyal English to fear that
she may be the next victim of the Catholic assassin, and the
Council and chief nobles of England draw up a " Bond of As
sociation-" to protect the queen. Parliament meets (23 Nov.)
and passes an Act (27 Eliz., c 1) to incorporate the associa
tion, and making "provision for the surety of the queen's
most royal person; " also an Act (c 2) expelling the Jesuits
from the kingdom within 40 days.
By the advice of the Earl of Arran, James VI. determines
to follow the example of Elizabeth, to ignore both Protestant
and Catholic parties, and establish a State Church in Scotland,
with himself as head, and with bishops and an ecclesiastical
hierarchy. A settlement is made in North America, and called Virginia
in honor of the queen (July). It is soon abandoned (Sep.).
1585. James VI. 's design to form a State Church in Scot
land is pleasing to Elizabeth, who, on James agreeing to give
up the cause of his mother Mary, promises to pay him a mod
erate annual pension. Mary, angry at her son's desertion, de
clares Philip II. of Spain heir to her claims to the English
throne. She is removed to closer confinement/ at Tutbury -
Castle in Staffordshire (Jan.), in charge of Sir Amyas Paulet.
Dr. William Parry is arrested and sent to the Tower (8
Feb.); confesses under torture to conspiring with Edmund Ne
ville to murder the queen ; isx tried at Westminster (25 Feb.),
and executed (2 Mar.).
The people of the Netherlands ask Elizabeth to become
their protector against Philip II. of Spain, with whom their
struggle still continues; and she negotiates with them. Philip
detains all English ships in Spanish harbors (29 May), and
imprisons their crews. This act creates great irritation in
England, especially as most of the ships had been sent with
corn to supply a scarcity in Spain ; and Elizabeth makes a
treaty with the Netherlands (July) to assist in the defence of
Antwerp, then besieged by Philip's troops. She agrees to
keep 6000 troops in the Netherlands to assist the people till the
close of the war with Philip.
Sir Francis Drake sails to Spain to demand the release of
the imprisoned English sailors. This is refused, and he plun
ders Vigo, and then sails to the West Indies and captures St.
Iago, St. Domingo, and Carthagena.

256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
John Ballard (alias Capt. Fortescue), a Jesuit priest _ of
Kheims having obtained the sanction of Pope Gregory XIII.
KHitSler of Queen Elizabeth, travels m disgmse through
England organizing disaffection. He returns to the continent
andreports to Mendoza, ex-ambassador from Spain, that the
queen's death is necessaryto the success of an insurrection
Mary Queen of Scots is removed from Tutbury Castle to
Ohartiey M^Sep^. f ^ ^^^ f
Leicester, goes to the Netherlands (Jan), but with orders to
act only on the defensive. An action is fought with the Span- ,
ish cavalry, at Zutphen (2 Oct., N. S ), at which Sir Pbihp
Sidney * is wounded ; he is taken to Arnheim, and there dies
(17 Oct ) aged 32. His body is taken to London (5 Nov.),
and after lying in state in the Minories till 16 Feb., 1587, is,
on that day, buried at St. Paul's Cathedral.
John Ballard, the Jesuit priest, returns to England, and-at
his instigation Anthony Babington, of Dethidk in Derby
shire, "a young man of family and fortune," closely. attached ¦
to the Jesuits, and a number of others undertake to murder
Queen Elizabeth and raise the country for Mary. The con- •
spirators ; choose six of their number— Abington, Barnwell,
Salisbury, Savage, Tichbourne, and Tilney— to commit the
crime. Babington writes to Mary Queen of Scots, informing
her of the plot, and she replies, through one of her secreta
ries, approving it, writing-^" When all is ready, the six gen-;
tlemen must set to work." Walsingham intercepts the cor- ;
respondence; Ballard is arrested (4 Aug.), also Babington.*
and 4 others (14 Aug.) ; , also others. They are tried at West
minster (13 Sep.), and 14 of them are executed at Tyburn,
(20-21 Sep.), Mary and her two secretaries are arrested
while hunting, and she is taken to Fotheringay Castle in -}
Northamptonshire (25 Sep.). She is there tried by a commis,-. ,
ion of peers (11-15 Oct.), found guilty (25 Oct.), and sentenced
to death. Parliament meets (28 Oct.),- and demands the im
mediate execution of the sentence. ¦ .t- -
Henry Barrow, a barrister of Gray's Inn, is brought before
the Court of High Commission (27 Nov.), charged with holding^)
" schismatical and seditious opinions," that is, Separatist opin
ions derogatory to the Church of England, similar to those of j
the Brownists"; he and two of his followers, John Greenwood ,
•The famous author of the "Arcadia." This poem was com
menced in 1580, but was left incomplete at the author's death, and
was published in London in 1590, under the title of "The Countess
of Pembroke's Arcadia."

James at the Battle of the Bqyne,— p, 303.

I

I

1

i'

m

Execution op Charles I.— P. 284

Montrose m Edinburgh.— p. 285.

THE TUDORS : THE CROWX SUPREME. 257
and: John Penry, are sent to the Fleet. His followers are
called Barrowists.
Drake returns to England from the West Indies, bringing
with him the colonists from Eoanoke, Va., who introduce
tobacco and the potato into England.
Christopher Marlowe produces the first part of his " Tam-
burlaine the Great," a work which marks an epoch in the
history of English tragedy.
1587. With much reluctance, and under strong pressure
from her advisers, Elizabeth signs Mary's death-warrant (1
Feb.) ; the Council determine to assume the responsibility
and issue the warrant (3 Feb.) ; and Mary> clad in, a costume
. of scarlet, is beheaded, in the hall of Fotheringay Castle *
(8 Feb.). Her body was buried (July) with great pomp at
Peterborough, whence it was removed in 1612 to Henry VII. 's
chapel in Westminster Abbey, where it still lies, in a tomb
'erected by James I.
Mary having left her claim to the English throne to Philip
H. of Spain (excluding her son James), Philip at once pre
pares to assert his claim by invading England. He begins to
fit out a great fleet at Cadiz, but Drake attacks it (19 Ap.),
and destroys 10,000 tons of shipping, and the projected invasion
is postponed. 1588. Philip II. of Spain fits out "the Invincible Ar
mada" for the invasion and conquest of England. It consists
of 130 vessels, besides caravels, with 2680 cannon, 8450 sailors,'
2088 galley-slaves, 19,295 soldiers, 1355 volunteers, and 180
priests and monks for the re-conyersion of England to
Catholicism, with Martin Alarco, Vicar of the Inquisition, and
a plentiful supply of fetters, whips, thumbscrews, and other
instruments of torture — in all 31,369 souls ; the whole under
the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The plan is
to sail to the Netherlands, where Alexander Farnese, Duke
of Parma (the Spariish governor), has collected an army of
34,000 men and a fleet of transports ; and the combined armies
of- 55,000 men are to sail from Flanders to England under
cover of the Armada. The ' for tunes of the expedition are
anxiously watched by all Europe, for upon its success or fail
ure depends the fate of Protestantism on the Continent as
well as in England.
The English fleet of about 140 vessels, with 15,000 men,
under Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake,
Sir John Hawkins, and Martin Frobisher as subordinate com-
*This castle was demolished by James I. (Mary's son) on his
accession to the English throne in 1603.

258 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
manders; is far inferior" to the Spanish in the size of its ships,
and in weight of metal ; but the vessels are swifter and much
more easily handled. - In consequence of Elizabeth's- parsi
mony, however, it is short of food and ammunition, arid the
food has to be eked out by dividing 2 rations among 3 men.
The Armada assembles in the bay of Feirol, in Galicia,
Spain, and after having received the blessing of Pope Six-
tus V., sets sail (22 July, N. S.). On reaching the English
Channel (29 July), the English fleet, while avoiding elose
quarters, continually harasses it (31 July-6 Aug.) and cuts
off stragglers, inflicting much damage ; and the Armada goes
into Calais harbor to wait for the arrival of the Duke of Par
ma. He, however, has no war-ships; is closely blockaded by
the Dutch, and watched by an English squadron under Lord
Seymour ; and cannot come out. Their shortness of supplies
compels the English to take active measures, and they send
fire-ships towards Calais harbor (Sunday night, 7 Aug.) ; these '
have the. desired effect of driving out the Armada, which sails
N. E. in much disorder towards Dunkirk. At daybreak. (8
Aug.) the English attack it off Gravelines (12 miles E. N. E.
of Calais, and about half-way to Dunkirk) ; the battle rages
till dark, and results in the success of the English, who inflict
terrible damage, and drive the Armada towards Holland. The
total Spanish , loss to this date is about 35 ships sunk or cap
tured, many others badly damaged, and 13,000 men killed and
wounded ; and the Spanish commander, hopeless of success,
seeks to return to Spain by way of the north of Scotland.
Part of the English fleet follows as far as Yorkshire, and cap- .
tures a number of vessels, but can do little for want of ammu
nition. The Armada, however, is practically destroyed by
storms off Flamborough Head in Yorkshire, the Orkneys, the
Hebrides, and (2 Sep.) the west coast of Ireland ; and only 53
shattered vessels^ with 9000 or 10,000 starving men, get back
to Spain (Oct.). The loss of life was so terrible that it was
said that every family in the country lost a member.
At St. Paul's Cathedral Queen Elizabeth attends a solemn
thanksgiving for the defeat of the Armada (24 Nov.).
The insufficient and bad food supplied to the English fleet
leads to an outbreak of disease among the sailors, and thbu-
sands of them fall victims to the pestilence.
Thomas Hobbes, the philosopher, is born at Malmesbury (5
1589. At the instigation of the Guises, Henry III of
France is murdered by Jacques Clement, a monk. Henry IV
(of Navarre); a Protestant, becomes king, and Elizabeth sends

THE TUDORS: THE CROWJff SUPREME. 259
6000 troops, under Lord Willoughby, to France, to help him
against the Catholic League.
' James VI. of Scotland marries Anne of Denmark (24
Nor.) ; an alliance which places Scotland in accord with
the Protestant powers of Europe, rather than with Catholic
France as heretofore.*
1590. Edmund Spenser publishes the first three books of
the "Faerie Queene."
Christopher Marlowe publishes his "Tamburlaine the
Great," having added a second part.
The potato is first cultivated in England, in London, by
Gerarde. 1591. An English force of 3000, under Sir John Norris,
is sent to France (Ap.); and a larger body is sent to Normandy
(July) under Kobert Devereux, Earl, of Essex (the queen's
favorite), to assist Henry IV. against the Catholic party.
Trinity College, Dublin, is founded.
1592. The Presbyterian form of church government is
established in Scotland.
The Irish Catholic clergy, by their machinations and the aid
of forged documents, obtain the recall of the Lord-Deputy,
Sir John Perrot, who is tried for high treason, condemned
(16 June), and committed to the Tower, where he dies of a
broken heart (3 Nov. ).
1593. Parliament passes an Act (35 Eliz., c. 1), directed
against the Brownists and Barrowists (or Separatists), provid
ing that any person over 16 who shall, for one month, neglect
to atterid church shall be imprisoned until he shall openly
submit and make a declaration of conformity. The rigorous
enforcement of this Act drives many Brownists and Barrowists
to seek an asylum in Holland.
Henry Barrow, the founder of the Barrowists, and John
Greenwood are found guilty (21 Mar.) of "writing and pub
lishing sundry seditious books and pamphlets, tending to the
slander- of the queen's government ; ?' and both are executed at
Tyburn (6 Ap.). The " seditious books and pamphlets " com
plained of were simply writings against the Established Church.
John Penry, another Brownist, is executed (29 May).
Christopher Marlowe, the greatest; English dramatist before
Shakspere, is killed (aged 29) in a quarrel with a footman, f
*" This alliance seems to have been an indirect result of the defeat
of the Armada.
t His greatest work, " The Tragical History of the Life and
Death of Dr. John Faustus" (the original of Goethe's "Faust"), was'
not published till 1616.

260 HISTORY 0E ENGLAND.
" William Kempe, William Shakespeare, and Eichard Bur-
bage" show "two several comedies or enteiludes" before
Queen Elizabeth at Christmas, for which they are paid £20.
1594. Boger Loppez, physician to the queen, with two
confederates, are convicted of conspiring with the ministers of
Philip II. of Spain to poison Elizabeth (28 Feb., 14 Mar.);
all three are executed (7 June).
1594-7. Eichard Hooker, the "Judicious Hooker," pub
lishes the first portion of his "Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity."
1595. War breaks out between France and Spain.
Sir Walter Ealeigh voyages to Guiana, South America, in
search of El Dorado, and explores the Orinoco for 400 miles.
The establishment of the Index Expurgatorius is con
firmed by a bull of Pope Clement VIII. .
1596. Archduke Albert (Philip IL's general) invades
France from Flanders, and captures Calais and Amiens. Eliz
abeth thereupon sends 4000 troops to France to help Henry
IV. against Spain. She also creates a diversion in his favor
by sending an expedition to Cadiz harbor, in Spain, under
Essex and Lord Howard of Effingham (June). They defeat
the Spanish fleet in the harbor ; and Essex, with 3000 men,
lands at Puntal and captures and sacks Cadiz (21 June).
Speriser publishes books 4, 5, and 6 of his "Faerie
Queene." Sir Walter Ealeigh, having introduced the potato, from
America, first plants it on his Irish estate.
Three ships sail from England to India, the first direct in
tercourse between the two countries.
1597. Hugh O'Neil, Earl of Tyrone, rises in rebellion
against Elizabeth, and assumes the royal title of "The
O'Neil." 1598. Henry IV. of France issues the Edict of Nantes
(13 Ap.), granting toleration to the Huguenots, and thus end
ing the religious wars which have desolated France since the
massacre of Vassyin 1562.
Lord Burghley dies (4 Aug.), aged 77, having acted as
Elizabeth's chief minister for 40 years.* His son, Sir Eobert
Cecil, becomes chief minister.
The Earl of Tyrone defeats the English under Sir Henry
Bagenal (or Bagnall), at Yellow Ford, near Blackwater in
Tyrone (14 Aug}, the English losing 1500 men, and all their
stores and baggage, Tyrone killing Bagenal (his father-in-law)
with his own hands, Tyrone then captures Blackwater Fort.
*The Marquis of Salisbury, premier of England in 1887, is his
direct descendant.

THE TUDORS: THE CROWN BUPREMB. 261
This victory leads to a general rebellion throughout Ireland.
Edmund Spenser is made sheriff of Cork County (Sep.).
The rebels sack and burn his castle at Kilcolman,* his young-r
est child perishing in the flames ; and he returns to England.
Philip II., King of Spain and the Netherlands, dies (13
Sep.) ; Philip III. succeeds him.
"The Theatre" at Shoreditch is pulled down, and its
materials are sent across the Thames to build the Globe
Theatre. 1599. Edmund Spenser, the poet, dies in penury and
want, heartbroken at the loss of his child and his property (16
Jan.), aged 45. He is buried in poet's corner, Westminster
Abbey, near Chaucer.
Essex is made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland (12 Mar.), and*
sent over (15 Ap.) with 22,000 troops to suppressrthe rebellion.
After some desultory skirmishing, he meets Tyrone (Sep.)
in the middle of the river Lagan, near Ballyclinch in Louth ;
arranges a truce ; and agrees to submit his demands to Eliza
beth. Essex, being suspected of seeking to make himself an
independent ruler in Ireland, is recalled in disgrace (Sep.), and
placed in free custody (2 Oct.). Sir Charles Blount, Lord
Mount joy, f is made commander in Ireland (Oct.).
The Globe Theatre, on Bankside, Southwalk>f Aa built by
Eichard Burbage, Shakspere being one of the " partners in
the profits."
1600. Mountjoy lands in Ireland (24 Feb.).
Essex is confined to his own house (5 June) ; but liberated
(26 Aug.).
The East India Co. is incorporated by royal charter (31
Dec.). 1601. Essex enters into a plot to get possession of the
queen's person, and to remove his opponents fromi the govern
ment by arm,s ; he arrests the queen's messengers (8 Feb. ) ;
inarches into London and attempts to excite insurrection ;
but is arrested, tried for high treason (19 Feb.), condemned,
and beheaded (25 Feb.), aged 33.
For the purpose of assisting Tyrone in his rebellion, 5000
Spaniards, under Don Juan del Aguila, land at Kinsale in
Kerry (23 Sep.), and about 2000 moire at Castlehaven. Ldrcl
Mountjoy and the Earl of ThOmond besiege the Spaniards
* Its ruins are still to be seen about two miles from Doheraile, in
Cork County. - ¦
+ Created Earl of Devon in 1603.
t Its site was about 100 yards west of the Surrey end of London
Bridge, and is now occupied by Barclay's brewery.

262 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
at Kinsale ; Tyrone, reinforced by the 2000 Spaniards from
Castlehaven, advances to raise the siege, but is defeated at
Kinsale (23-24 Dec), with a loss of 1200 slain.
Elizabeth (now 68) summons her last parliament (27 Oct. ).
The Commons complain of the exercise of the royal preroga
tive in the granting of monopolies. The queen sends a mes
sage stating that, having learned that some of the patents
granted are grievous to her people, none shall be acted on save
those which shall first have a trial according to law, for the
good of the people. A deputation of the Commons waits upon
her to thank her for this message. She replies in a noble and
pathetic speech, declaring that "she appealed to the judg
ment of God, but never thought was cherished in her heart
that tended not to her people's good," and closing with these
memorable words, the last she ever addressed to her faithful
Commons : " Though you have had, and may have, many
princes more mighty and wise sitting in this seat, yet you
never had, or shall have, any that will be more careful "and
loving." These words form her own true and best epitaph.
Parliament passes the Poor Law (43 Eliz., c. 2) ; it remains
in force till 1834.
1601-8. Shakspere writes his great tragedies.
1602." The Spaniards, on condition of being allowed to
return to Spain, surrender Kinsale and Castlehaven (2 Jan.).
Tyrone is again defeated (June) at the Blackwater, by Mount
joy, who follows him into Tyrone and ravages his country.
1603. Elizabeth, after nominating James VI. of Scotland
as her successor, dies at Richmond (24 Mar.), aged 69. She
is buried (28 Ap.) in the north aisle of Henry VII. 's chapel,
Westminster Abbey, where a magnificent tomb" still marks her
last resting-place.
Tyrone, at Mellifont, makes submission to Mountjoy (30
Mar.), is pardoned, and reinstated in his earldom.
Though faults many and grievous disfigured the character
of Queen Elizabeth, she yet possessed this greatest quality of
a ruler— she had. her people's good at heart ; and this it is
which constitutes her truest claim to greatness. During the
44 years of her reign, thanks to her stringent economy — not
to %ay parsimony — and the consequent lightness of taxation,
and thanks to the absence of turmoil and strife within the
country itself, England advanced in population, wealth, pros
perity, power, and prestige at a rate which she had never
before known. The defeat of the Spanish Armada settled
forever the question as to England's religion, and placed her
on the side of Protestantism, liberty, and progress.

263

CHAPTEE IX.
THE STUARTS: THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CROWN AND
PARLIAMENT.
1603. James VI. of Scotland is proclaimed King of Eng
land (24 Mar.), as James I. He has three children: Henry*
(aged 10), Elizabeth (aged 6), and Charles (aged 2).
He immediately sets out for London. On his progress the
"Millenary Petition" (so-called as representing the views of
1000 Puritan clergy of the Church Of England), praying the
abolition of ceremonies which the petitioners could not con
scientiously accept, is presented to him (Ap.). He reaches
London (7 May); makes Sir Eobert Cecil Baron of Essingden
(13 May), and continues him as chief minister; and he and
Anne of Denmark are crowned at Westminster Abbey (25 July).
Tyrone makes his submission to James I.
Lord Cobham and possibly also Sir Walter Ealeigh enter
into a correspondence with Aremberg, the Spanish ambassa
dor, to overthrow Cecil, and apparently also to place Arabella
Stuart on the throne, on the ground that, having been born
in England, she has a better right than her cousin, James I.,
an alien. Besides this " Main Plot," as it is called, another,
styled the " Bye Plot " or " Surprise Plot," is entered into by
Watson (a Catholic priest), Sir Griffin Markham, Anthony
Copley, and other Catholics, with Lord Grey of Wilton, George
Brooke (a brother of Lord Cobham's), and other Puritans.
The plan is to seize the king, and compel him to dismiss his
ministers and grant toleration to Catholics and Puritans.
There is no connection between the two plots, but the govern
ment mixes them up. The conspirators are arrested (July),
and tried at Winchester (Nov.); Watson and Clarke are hanged
(29 Nov.); Brooke is beheaded (5 Dec); Copley is ban
ished; but Cobham, Markham, and Grey are reprieved on the
scaffold, Grey being sent to the Tower. Ealeigh is condemned
to death (17 Nov.), but is also reprieved and sent to the Tower,
where he remains for 12 years, during which he writes his
"History of the World."

264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
The plague rages in England.
A theatrical license is granted to William Shakspere and
others. 1604. As a result of the Millenary Petition of 1603, the
"Hampton Court Conference," between Archbishop Whitgift
and 15 other Church dignitaries on the one side, and four repre
sentatives of the Puritan party in the Church on the other, is
held in presence of the king (14-16 Jan.). All concessions to
the Puritans are refused; and they are ordered to subscribe to
the whole Prayer-Book, the 39 Articles, and the king's suprem
acy ; the king threatening to make them conform or " harry
them out of the kingdom, or else worse." Eeynolds, the
Puritan spokesman, makes a proposal that a new translation of
the Bible be made, which James accepts.
John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury, dies at Lambeth
(29 Feb.), aged 73.. Eichard Bancroft, Bishop of London, is
made archbishop (10 Dec).
All Jesuits and seminary priests are ordered to leave Eng
land (22 Feb.). In consequence of this order, and of the gen
eral enforcement of the Acts against the Catholics, the "Gun
powder Plot " is originated, probably by Eobert Catesby, who
is joined by Thomas Winter, John Wright, and other Catholic
gentlemen (Ap.); and preparations are commenced (Dec.) for
blowing up the Houses of Parliament in Feb., 1605.
James I. assumes the title of "King of Great Britain,
France, and Ireland" (20 Oct. )i
1605. Lord Bacon * publishes his "Advancement of Learn
ing." . The " Gunpowder Plot " is matured by Catesby, Thomas Win
ter, John Wright, Thomas Percy, Eobert Winter, Ambrose
Eookwood, Guy Fawkes, and other Catholics. The design is
to blow up the Houses of Parliament at their opening (which
has been postponed till Sep.), when the king, Prince Henry,
and nearly all the members will be present ; and then to seize
Prince Charles and the Princess Elizabeth, and attempt a
rising in the midland counties. Fawkes goes to Flanders to
enlist Eomish refugees in the conspiracy, and to raise troops.
Parliament, however, is prorogued till Oct. ; and Sir E. Bayn-
ham goes to Eome (Sep.) to gain the sanction of Pope Paul
V. ; and Henry Garnet, Provincial of the Jesuits, joins the con
spirators (Oct.). Parliament is further prorogued till 5 Nov.,
and Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham join the conspir-
* This title, by which he is commonly known, is incorrect. His
real title was, first, Sir Francis Bacon, then Baron Verulam (July
1618), and afterwards Viscount St. Albans (Jan., 1621).

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 265
acy. Lord Monteagle receives a letter (26 Oct.) from one of
the conspirators (probably Tresham, his wife's brother) warn
ing him not to be present at the opening of parliament ; this
letter he shows to Cedl and the king (1 Nov.). The vaults
beneath the Houses of Parliament are searched (4 Nov.) ;
Fawkes is there found and arrested, and thirty barrels of
gunpowder are discovered. The other conspirators thereupon
flee, and, under Digby, attempt to make a stand at Holbeach
in Worcestershire, but fail, Catesby, Percy, and the Wrights
being shot> and most of the other leaders captured (8 Nov.).
1606. The Gunpowder Plot conspirators are tried (27 Jan. )
and executed (30, 31 Jan.), except Garnet, who is tried (28
Mar.), and executed (3 May). An annual thanksgiving is
appointed for 5 Nov. (3 Jac I., c. 1).
In the case of John Bate, the Court of Exchequer holds that
all matters of commerce, including customs' duties, come
under the absolute power of the Crown.
The Union Jack, consisting of the crosses of St. George and
St. Andrews, is adopted as the national flag of Great Britain
by royal proclamation (12 Ap.).
The melody of the national anthem, " God Save the King,"
is said to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. Doc, about
this date.
1607. An insurrection of the peasantry in the midland
counties, under John Eeynolds, calling himself Capt. Pouch,
breaks out against the prevalent practice of enclosing com
mons (May); it is suppressed, and a few of the leaders are exe
cuted, but the others are leniently treated.
An Act (4 Jac. I., c. 5) is passed punishing drunkenness
by a fine of 5s. or six hours in the stocks.
The London Company founds Jamestown, in Virginia, the
first permanent English colony in America (14 May).
1608. The preparation of " the Authorized V ersion " of
the Bible is commenced. To perform the task 47 of the most
learned men in the country are selected, and divided into three
companies, to meet at Westminster, Oxford, and Cambridge ;
25 to undertake the Old Testament, 15 the New, and 7 the
Apocrypha; the work of the three committees to be revised
and made uniform by a committee of six. The king directs
that the Bishop's Bible be taken as the basis, to be departed
from only when necessary.
Cecil, now Earl of Salisbury, is made Lord Treasurer (4
May). Belying on the judgment of the Court of Exchequer
in Bate's Case in 1606, he issues a "Book of Eates" raising
considerably all customs' duties.

266 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
A band of Puritans, mostly Brownists and Barrowists, under
John Eobinson and William Brewster, leave England to escape
persecution, and settle in Leyden, Holland. This colony be
comes the father of the Independents or Congregationalists.
1608-14. The Ulster Settlement ox Plantation is made on
forfeited estates in Tyrone, Coleraine, Donegal, Fermanagh,
Cavan, and Armagh.
1609. The House of Commons, on being asked, for sup
plies, complains of "the new impositions" (as the increased
customs' duties under the Book of Eates are called), and states
other grievances ; thereby beginning the struggle against :the
absolute power of the crown and the doctrine of Divine right
claimed by the king, which continues till the revolution of
1688. 1610. The Commons declare that the imposition of cus
toms' duties without the. consent of Parliament is unconstitu
tional, and petition for their removal.
A charter for the colonization of Newfoundland is granted
(2 May).
James's eldest son, Henry, is made Prince of Wales (30
May). The potato is introduced or reintroduced into Ireland.
Tea is first brought to Europe by the Dutch.
Henry Hudson discovers Hudson's Bay.
1611. Arabella Stuart having (in ,1610} secretly married
William Seymour (son of Lord Beauchamp), a descendant of
Henry VII., thereby provokes the suspicions of James I.; and
she is placed in confinement at Lambeth and Durham, and
after an abortive attempt to escape to France, is imprisoned
in the Tower (5 June), where she becomes insane, and dies
(27 Sep., 1615, aged 38). Her husband escapes to the Conti
nent. James I. institutes the order of Baronets (22 May).
The Authorized Version of the Bible is completed and pub
lished. 1612. Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, dies at Marlborough (24
May), aged 62. The king's favorite, Eobert Carr, Viscount
Rochester (afterwards Earl of Somerset), is made chief minis
ter., Henry, Prince of Wales, dies (6 Nov.), aged 19.
The first Irish Parliament representative of the whole
country, and not merely of the English Pale, meets.
1613. Princess Elizabeth (now 16) is married to Frederick
V., Elector Palatine (14 Feb.),
Carr, having formed an adulterous connection with the

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 267
Countess of Essex,* forms the design of marrying her, for
which purpose she is to get a divorce from Essex. Carr's
friend, Sir Thomas Overbury, opposes the design, and to get
him out of the way, he is, through Carr's machinations, com
mitted to the Tower (21 Ap.), where, at the instigation of
Lady Essex, he is poisoned (15 Sep.). The projected divorce
is obtained; Carr, m order that his wife may not lose rank, is
created Earl of Somerset (3 Nov.), and the marriage takes
place (26 Dec). 6
1614. James I., being in want of supplies, calls parlia
ment. It meets (5 Ap.), arid the Commons at once begin the
discussion of the old grievances, and before " the Addled Partial
ment," as it was christeried, has passed a single Act, James
dissolves it (7 June). He calls no other till 1621, and begins
to raise money by benevolences, by the sale of patents, monop
olies, and peerages, and by other unconstitutional means.
Baron. Napier of Merchiston (near Edinburgh) invents log
arithms. 1615. Elwes, lieutenant of the Tower, reveals to Sir
Thomas Winwood, Secretary of State, the suspicious circum
stances attending Overbury's death ; and Winwood discloses
them to James I. Somerset, his wife, and four accomplices
are arrested ; and the four latter are tried and executed.
George Villiers becomes the favorite and chief minister of
James. 1616. Somerset and his wife are tried for the murder of Sir
Thomas Overbury, convicted, and condemned to death (25 May).
The countess confesses her guilt, but Somerset denies his,f
and threatens, if the charge is pressed, to make certain revela
tions affecting the king ; and both are reprieved and sent to
the Tower, from which they are released in 1622.
Ealeigh is released from the Tower (19 Mar. ) for the purpose
of taking an expedition to the Orinoco, to open a gold mine
discovered in 1596 by Captain Keymis. James, however, is
anxious for an alliance with Spain, and treacherously discloses
Ealeigh's plan to Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, by
whom it is sent to Spain and thence to South America.
Coffee is first brought to western Europe from Arabia by
the Dutch.
William Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood about
this date.
* Frances Howard, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk.
f Mr. S. R. Gardiner, the highest authority on this period of Eng
lish history, believes him to have been innocent.

268 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Shakspere dies (23 Ap.), aged 52, at his house in Stratford-
on-Avon, Warwickshire. He had bought this house in 1597,
and it was then the handsomest in the town.
1617. Ealeigh sails for the Orinoco (28 Mar.), but finds
the Spaniards so thoroughly prepared against him, that though
he is successful in an inevitable collision, and captures the
town of St. Thomas, he sees that his expedition is doomed to
ultimate failure, and sails for home.
James I. visits Scotland and restores the bishops in their
supremacy. Baron Napier of Merchiston, the inventor of logarithms,
dies at Merchiston (Ap.), aged 67.
1618. Sir Francis Bacon is made Lord Chancellor (4 Jan. ).
James I. publishes his f ' Book of Sports " (24 May), allow
ing certain sports on Sundays, after divine service.
Ealeigh returns to England (21 June) ; is arrested (July) ;
the old sentence of 1603 is revived against him, and. he is
beheaded (29 Oct.), aged 66.
The General Assembly of the Scotch Church agree to the
" Five Articles of Perth " (25 Aug.).
Ferdinand II., King of Bohemia, oppresses the Protestants
there ; they revolt against him, and thereby originate the
" Thirty Years' War " between the Protestant and Catholic
powers of Germany.
1619. Anne of Denmark, queen of James I., dies (2 Mar.),
aged 44. '
Ferdinand II. of Bohemia is deposed (19 Aug.) by his sub
jects ; he is elected Emperor of Germany (28 Aug.). Fred
erick V., the Elector Palatine (husband of James's daughter
Elizabeth), is elected King of Bohemia (5 Sep.) : relying on
the support of James I. he accepts the throne, and is crowned
(25 Oct.).
1620. Frederick V., the Elector Palatine and King of
Bohemia, is totally defeated at Prague (7 Nov.) by the Span
iards and Imperialists under Spinola and Maximilian, Duke
of Bavaria, who conquer Bohemia and invade the Palatinate;
Frederick takes refuge in HoUarid. This defeat causes great
excitement in England, and the Protestants manifest a general
desire to assist Frederick.
The Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth Bock (11 Dec).
Lord Bacon publishes his "Novum Organum" (Oct.),
written in Latin.
1621. With the hope of obtaining supplies on the pretext
of helping his son-in-law the Elector Palatine, Jarnes I. calls
parliament (30 Jan.), for the first time in nearly 7 years. The

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 269
Commons grant two subsidies,* but at once proceed to the
redress of grievances, especially in the matter of monopolies,
denying the power of the Crown to grant them. They also
impeach Lord Chancellor Bacon (18 Mar.) for taking bribes';
26 charges are made against him, in 22 of which the receipt
of gifts or loans is fully proven. He acknowledges his guilt
(22 Ap.), alleging in excuse that the gifts or loans had not
influenced the course of justice ; and it is shown that in 14 of
the cases the presents were not given till long after the termina
tion of the suits, and that in the others he had given judg
ment against the donOra Or lenders of the money. He is sen
tenced (3 May) to pay a fine of £ 40,000 ; to be removed from
office, and incapacitated from holding office or Sitting in
parliament in future ; to be imprisoned in the Tower during
the king's pleasure ; and to be banished from Court for life.
This sentence proves merely nominal ; he is released from
the Tower after two days' confinement, and allowed to appear
at Court ; his fine is remitted by the king ; and in 1624 his
political disabilities are removed, f
At the instigation of James I. (who is probably influenced
by his chaplain, William Laud), the Scotch Estates ratify the
"Five Articles" passed in 1618 by the General Assembly at
Perth. These articles are: 1. The Lord's Supper must be re
ceived on the knees, instead of sitting ; 2. It may be given in
private houses ; 3. Private baptism is allowed ; 4. Episcopal
confirmation is ordered; and 5. Five church holidays are
established. These innovations give great offence' to the
majority of the Scotch Protestants.
William Laud is made Bishop of St. Davids (Nov. ).
Parliament reassembles (20 Nov. ), and a dispute takes place
between the king and the Commons. They send him a pro-
»A subsidy was 4s. in the pound on real property, and 2s. Sd. on
personal property of £3 and upwards. AUens and popish recusants
paid double these sums.
f Mr. S. R. Gardiner, the highest authority on this period of Eng
lish history, says : " The charge that Bacon knowingly and corrupt
ly sold or delayed justice falls entirely to the ground. The only
possible explanation of his conduct is that, with his usual careless
ness of forms, he contented himself with knowing that the imme
diate reception of the money, which he believed himself to have fairly
earned, would not influence his decision ; in other words, that
without a corrupt motive he accepted money corruptly tendered."
History of England, vol. iv., p. 81. Commenting on this, Mr.
Ashley says: "Bacon saw that the attack was due to political
animosity, and that no defence would save him ; by complete sub
mission he might escape with a more lenient sentence." — Low and
Pulling's Dictionary of English History, p. 904.

270 HISTORY 0E ENGLAND.
test declaring that their ~ privileges are not the gift of the
Crown, but the birthright of English subjects, and that mat
ters of public interest are within their provirice. '1 he king,
in anger, tears the protest from the journal, adjourns the
House (19 Dec), and imprisons the opposition leaders, Lords
Oxford and Southampton, and, Sir E. Coke, Malary, Philip,
andPym(27Dec). 1622. James I. dissolves Parliament (8 Feb.). .Coke and
others are released from the Tower (6 Aug.).
1623. Prince Charles (now 22) and the king's favorite,
George Villiers, now Earl of Buckingham, are sent to Spain
^(17 Feb.) to negotiate a marriage between Charles and the InT
fanta. Villiers is made Duke of Buckingham (May). Through
his instrumentality the treaty falls through (Dec); he thereby
acquires great popularity, as the proposed match had been
highly obnoxious to the Protestants in England.
John Webster publishes his drama, "The Duchess of
Malfi.", 1624. James I. declares war against Spain (10 Mar.),
and allows Count Mansfeldt, the Protestant general in Ger
many, to enlist 12,000 soldiers in England for service on
the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War. Nearly half
die from overcrowding on shipboard, and the rest are of
little use.
An Act (21 Jac I., c. 3) is passed, declaring grants of
monopolies illegal and void, except for- patents of inventions
for 14 years.
A treaty for the marriage of Prince Charles to the Princess
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France, is ratified
by James I. (12 Dec).
Eichard Burton publishes his "Anatomy of Melancholy."
1625. James dies of the ague (27 Mar.), aged 58; his
only surviving son (now 24) succeeds him as Charles I. The
young king marries the Princess Henrietta in Paris by proxy
(1 May), Buckingham acting as proxy.
Charles calls his first parliament (17 May) ; an outbreak of
the plague compels it to adjourn to Oxford; 35,417 die ki
London alone. The Commons pharge Buckingham with mal
administration, and refuse to grant supplies till grievances
are redressed, and Charles dissolves it (12 Aug.).
An expedition to Spain (Oct.) is unsuccessful, and the
troops bring back the plague, which rages in England.
1626. Charles I. is crowned (2 Feb.). ' He calls his second
parliament (6 Feb.). It complains of illegal taxation and
other grievances, again refuses supplies till these are redressed,

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 271
and impeaches Buckingham (8 May) for mismanaging the
revenue and buying and selling offices. Charles arrests two of
the chief speakers, Sir Dudley Diggs and Sir John Eliot (10
May), and then, in order to save his favorite Buckingham, dis
solves parliament (15 June), and calls no other for two years.
He raises a forced loan (Aug.).
Lord Bacon dies at Highgate, near London (9 Ap.), aged 65.
1627. Many persons refuse to pay the forced loan, and are
imprisoned, one of them being the famous John Hampden.
Five of them obtain a writ of Habeas Corpus, and the question
of the legality of their imprisonment on the mere command of
the king is tried, and the Chief -Justice, Sir Nicholas Hyde,
gives judgment for the Crown (28 Nov.); a decision which vir
tually repeals the 29th section of Magna Carta, that " no free
man shall be taken and imprisoned unless by lawful judgment
of his peers, or the law of the land."
At the instance of the Huguenots Charles I. declares war
against France, and sends an expedition under, Buckingham
to attack the Island of Ehe. After a disastrously unsuccess
ful siege of 13 weeks (12 July-12 Oct.), the expedition
returns home.
1628. Money being absolutely necessary to carry on the
wa~r against France, Charles is obliged to call his third parlia
ment (17 Mar.). The Commons promise five subsidies, but
refuse to pass the bill till grievances are redressed, the recent
Habeas Corpus decision being a new one. Charles demands the
appointment of a day for the completion of supplies, when, on
the motion of Sir Thomas Wentworth (afterwards Lord Straf
ford), the House resolves that " grievances and supplies shall
go hand in hand;" and presents the " Petition of Eight" (28
May), embodying four points: 1. No forced loans, benevo
lences, or taxes to be levied without the consent of parliament.
2. No one to be imprisoned without cause shown. 3. Soldiers
and sailors not to be billeted on the people without their will.
4. No one to be tried by martial law in time of peace. After
an attempt at evasion (2 June), and a stormy and exciting
scene in the House (5 June), the king signs the petition (7
June), which then becomes an Act (3 Car. I., c. 1); whereupon
the House at once completes the grant of the five subsidies.
It then proceeds to act upon the Petition of Eight by remedy
ing grievances, and also demands the dismissal of Buckingham,
when Charles prorogues it (26 June).
While engaged at Portsmouth in preparing an expedition
for the relief of Eochelle, where the Huguenots are being
besieged, Buckingham is stabbed to the heart (23 Aug.) by

272 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
John Felton, a discontented office r who had served under him.
Felton is hanged at Tyburn (28 Nov.). He claimed that in
committing the crime he was inspired only by religious and
patriotic zeal. In Felton's case torture was declared by the
judges to be unlawful.
' Charles determines to be his own minister ; but Wentworth,.
who has deserted the popular cause and been made a peer,*
soon becomes his chief adviser. Taxes are raised illegally by
tonnage and poundage, and by increased customs' duties.
Charles also gives offence to the Puritan party by favoring
Arminianism, which is being fostered by the Jesuits as a step
towards Bomanism. i
William, Harvey publishes his " Exercitatio anatomica de
motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus," announcing his dis
covery of the circulation of the blood.
1629. Parliament reassembles (20 Jan.), and at once
begins to discuss the religious grievances and the question of
arbitrary taxation. . Sir John Finch, f the Speaker, a partisan of
the king's, declares (2 Mar.) that the king has ordered him to
adjourn the House ; but fearing that a dissolution is intended,
two members, Denzil Holies and Valentine, hold the Speaker
down in his chair, and, after the doors are locked, Holies
reads a protest declaring that any one who shall countenance
Popery or Arminianism, or advise the levying of subsidies not
granted by parliament, or voluntarily pay any such subsidy,
shall be reputed a capital enemy to the kingdom and common
wealth. The House then adjourns and disperses; Charles
immediately dissolves parliament (10 Mar. J), and Holies,
Valentine, Eliot, and Selden are arrested (5 Mar.), and the
first three are sent to the Tower.
Charles now determines to rule without a parliament, and
none is called for 11 years. To defray the expenses of govern
ment, he raises money by every species of legal or illegal
device. Heavy fines and rents are imposed on the owners of
lands which had formerly been Crown forests; about £100,000
is raised from £40 holders who have not taken up their
knighthood; the Act (31 Eliz., c 7) providing that cottages
shall not be erected on less than four acres of land is so en
forced as to mflict heavy fines on the peasant holders; " ship-
money," that is money assessed on the counties for the supply
* Baron Wentworth (22 July, 1628) ; Viscount Wentworth (10 Dec.
1628) ; Earl of Strafford (1639). " v '
•f Made Chief-Justice of the Common Pleas in 1634.
{The proclamation of dissolution, though not issued till 10 Mar.
was signed on the 2d.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 273
of shipping, nominally for the national defence, is raised
everywhere, the total sum being about £220,000 a year;
" tonnage and poundage " are also levied ; and large sums are
raised by the sale of monopolies, the list of articles prohibited
from sale, except by monopolists, including beer, butter, but
tons, coal, hops, iron, leather, linen, salt, soap, and tobacco,
the patentees of a new soap, for instance, agreeing to pay
£30,000 for two years, and £40,000 a year in perpetuity. But
the most prolific source of revenue was through the Star Cham
ber, where men were summoned for all sorts of offences, includ
ing some unknown to the law, such as private quarrelling and
speaking ill of the government, and subjected to enormous
fines, Lord Morley, for example, being on one occasion fined
£20,000. In this way it is said that during 11 years not less
than £6,000,000 (equal to £30,000,000 in present money) was
raised in fines alone.
1630. Charles I. makes peace with France (14 Ap.) and
Spain (15 Nov.).
Alexander Leighton, a clergyman, having (in 1629) written
a book against the bishops and the queen (a Catholic), entitled
"Sion's Plea against Prelacy," is brought before the Star
Chamber, fined £10,000, publicly whipped, pilloried, branded,
slit in the nostrils, and sent to prison for life (26 Nov.).
1632. William Prynne, a lawyer, publishes his " Histrio-
Mastix," attacking the immorality of the stage, and contain
ing words supposing to reflect on the queen for taking part in
the Court theatricals or masks, as they were called. He is
taken before the Star Chamber (1633), degraded from his pror
fession, fined £5000, pilloried, deprived of both his ears, and
sentenced to imprisonment for life.
1633. Charles I. visits Scotland, is crowned there (18
June), quarrels with its parliament,* and offends the Presby
terians by ordering the clergy to wear the white clerical dress
or surplice. He makes Wentworth Lord-Deputy of Ireland (3
July), and William Laud (Bishop of London) Archbishop of
Canterbury (16 Aug.). Laud's Arminian and High Church
tendencies make the appointment obnoxious to the Protestant
and Puritan parties.
1634. Charles I. imposes "ship-money," in accordance
with a scheme devised by Noy, a renegade lawyer. It is col
lected only in maritime counties. Sir John Finch, the subser-
* The Scotch parliament consisted of only one House, all orders
sitting and voting together. It had no power of amendment, the
vote being a simple Yea or Nay to the measures introduced by the
Lords of the Articles.

274 HISTORY OP ENGLAND.
vient Speaker of the Commons in, 1629, is made Chief- Justice
of the Common Pleas (14 Oct.).
1635. Charles L issues a proclamation against quitting the
realm (21 July).
The Puritans begin to oppose theatrical performances.
Wentworth attempts to enforce his policy of "Thorough"
in Ireland. He enforces conformity with the Church of Eng
land, thereby offending the Presbyterians and Puritans of
Ulster,; as well as the Catholics.
1636. The imposition of ship-money is extended to the
inland counties. John Hampden, of Buckinghamshire, being
assessed in 20s., refuses to pay the tax as illegal, and brings
the question of its legality before a court of law.
Laud, as archbishop, claims supremacy over : the Scotch
Church, and introduces Canons which are regarded as illegal.
Wentworth attempts to colonize Connaught.
1637. William Prynhe, while in prison, publishes his book,
"News from Ipswich," in which the bishops are spoken of as
"Luciferian Lords; " John Bastwick publishes his "New Lit
any," and Henry Burton his "Apology," in both of which the
bishops are denounced. The three authors are brought before
the Star Chamber (14 June); Prynne is sentenced to be brand
ed,* and Bastwick and Burton to the loss of their ears; and all
three are fined £5000 each, pilloried (30 June), and banished
for life, Prynne and Burton to the Channel Isles, and Bastwick
to the Scilly Isles (Aug.). Sympathizing, crowds, estimated at
100,000, line the roads to witness their departure.
Laud introduces into Scotland a new Seivice Book, the use
of which is first ordered for Easter^ but postponed till 23 July.
The attempt to read it leads to riots in Edinburgh (18 Oct;),
and it is opposed all over the country. To punish Edinburgh
the government is removed to Linlithgow, a measure which
leads to further rioting. The opponents of the changes in
the Church government and ritual in Scotland organize them
selves into a body called "The Tables" (Oct.).
Hampdenis case is tried in the Exchequer Chamber before
12 judges, with Finch at their head (Nov.).
1638. Charles causes a proclamation to be published in
Edinburgh (15 Feb.). forbidding assemblies of the people for
petitioning; thereupon, the Tables issue (1 Mar.) the "golemn
League and Covenant " (drawn up in 1557), and it is signed
by multitudes all over the country. The Covenanters, as they
are now called, demand a free parliament and a General As-
* He had already, in 1632, been deprived of his ears. The remains
of them were now pared off.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 275
sembly, and the abolition of the Court of High Commission,
-the Service Book, and the Canons. Charles I. pretends to sur
render (9 Sep.), and summons a General Assembly, which meets
at Glasgow (21 Nov.), under James, Marquis of Hamilton, as
Commissioner. Charles's apparent surrender is merely a ruse
to gain time to prepare for war against Scotland, and when the
Assembly begins its real work by preparing to hear charges
against the bishops, Hamilton dissolves it (28 Nov.). The
Assembly, however, continues its work ; declares the bishops
guilty of popish practices and immorality ; annuls all acts of
previous Assemblies since 1606, including the Five Articles
of Perth, the Service Book, and the Canons ; and declares
Episcopacy and the Five Articles contrary to the Confession
of Faith.
The judges give judgment in Hampden's ship-money case ;
7 rule in favor of the Ciown, 5 against (12 June). "No Act
of parliament," said Finch> "can bar the king of his regality."
The decision virtually makes the king supreme above parlia
ment. 1639. War being inevitable, the Covenanters prepare a
splendid army of over 22,000 men, mostly veteran soldiers
from the Thirty Years' War ; Alexander Leslie is made com
mander. They also gain the support of the French minister,
Eichelieu ; and issue a declaration (7 Feb.) stating that they
have taken up arms against the "meditated introduction of
popery." Charles I. orders an English army to assemble at York; and
directs Hamilton, with a fleet of 19 vessels, conveying 5000
troops, to join the Marquis of Huntley at Aberdeen. The
English Puritans- and Protestants, however, are in sympathy
with the Covenanters, and Charles, finding himself weakly
supported, negotiates the Treaty of Berwick (18 June),
granting to the Covenanters a free parliament and a General
Assembly. The Parliament and Assembly meet (Aug.), and
the Acts of the Assembly of 1638 are ratified. These pro
ceedings displease Charles, and he again resolves on war.
Wentworth is made Earl of Strafford and Lord-Lieutenant
of Ireland. • He is summoned to England (Sep.) as the king's
chief adviser.
1640. To raise money for his projected war against Scot
land, Charles is driven to call a parliament, for the first time
since 1629. It meets (13 Ap.), and Pym at once begins the
. old tale of grievances ; supplies are refused ; and Charles, dis
solves " the Short Parliament " (5 May).
Laud compels Convocation to sit illegally- (up till 29 May)

276 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
after the dissolution Of parliament, and to pass new Canons
ordering the clergy to instruct the people as to the sin of
resisting the government, and to take a sweeping oath to
uphold the doctrine and discipline of the English Church.
Laud's palace is attacked (11 May), and a man named
Archer, who took part in it, is racked. This was the last
instance of the use of torture in England. It had been
declared illegal in 1628. ,
Charles's army assembles at York, under Lord Northumber
land; also about 12,000 men at Newcastle under Lord Conway.
He finds difficulty in raising supplies ; the ship-money is col
lected with difficulty ; London refuses to pay a forced loan ;
and the troops become mutinous, kill some of their officers,
and desert in large numbers. The army in consequence is too
weak to oppose that of the Scotch, which enters England (20
Aug.), defeats Conway (28 Aug.) at Newburn, on the Tyne (4
miles above Newcastle), and takes possession of Northumber
land and Durham.
Charles I. summons a great council of peers at York (24
Sep.), which advises him to call a parliament; and feeling
the absolute necessity of so doing, he issues writs for one.
The peers, on their own security, raise £200,000, for immediate
purposes, and make a^ truce with Scotland at Eipon (1-26
Oct.), agreeing to pay its army £40,000 a month; the army
to remain in England till peace is concluded.
The Court of High Commission meets at St. Paul's (22
Oct.) ; it is broken up by the people and never sits agajn.
"The Long Parliament," the most memorable in English
history, meets (3 Nov.). [It sits for over 12 years, till 20 Ap.,
1653, when it is forcibly dissolved by Cromwell.]
One of the first acts of the Commons is to impeach Strafford
(11 Nov.), the real offence as distinct from the merely techni
cal charges of treason being, that "he had endeavored to
subvert the ancient and fundamental laws of the realm, and
to introduce an arbitrary and tyrannical form of government."
He is arrested (11 Nov. ) and sent to the Tower (25 Nov. ). The
Commons declare ship-money illegal (7 Dec), and the Acts of
the recent Convocation also illegal (16 Dec). They impeach
Archbishop Laud (18 Dec.) for attempting to subvert the laws
and overthrow the Protestant religion ; and he is committed
to custody. They impeach Chief -Justice Finch* for having
decided against Hampden in the ship-money case in 1638 ; he
escapes to Holland (21 Dec). They impeach Sir Francis
?Speaker of the Commons in 1629.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 277
Windebank, Secretary of State, for Corruptly favoring Eoman-
ists ; he escapes to France (Dec).
An Act is passed abolishing torture in England.
1641. The House of Lords declares ship-money illegal (20
Jan.). The Commons impeach Sir Eobert Berkeley, Justice of the
King's Bench, and the remaining five judges who had decided
gainst Hampden in the ship-money case ; and all six are
arrested (13 Feb.).
The " Triennial Bill " (16 Car. I., o. 1) is passed (15 Feb.),
providing that parliament shall be called at least once in three
years; * also acts abolishing the Star Chamber (c 10), the
Court of High Commission (c 11), and the Council of the
North. Articles of impeachment against Archbishop Laud are unan
imously passed in the Commons (26 Fpb.) ; he is sent to the
Tower (1 Mar.), his revenues are confiscated and his goods
Bold. Strafford is tried in Westminster Hall before the House of
Lords (22 Mar. -13 Ap.).
In the meantime, with the connivance of Charles I., plots
(called collectively "the Army Plot") have been entered into
by Percy Wilmot, Sir John Suckling,f Henry Jermyn, the
Earl of Newcastle, George Goring, and others, to overawe par
liament by the army, ana to release Strafford from the Tower.
Pymgets a knowledge of the plots (1 Ap.), and introduces a
Bill of Attainder (16 Car. L, c 38) against Strafford in the
Commons (10 Ap.). It is passed (21 Ap.); also a bill (c. 7) to
prevent the dissolution of parliament without its own consent
(5 May). Both bills pass the Lords (29 Ap., 8 May), and are
assented to by the king (10 May), the Attainder Bill with
much grief and reluctance, with the words, "the Earl of
Strafford is a happier man than I; " and Strafford is beheaded
on Tower-Hill (12 May). Wilmot, Jermyn, Suckling, and
others flee to France, and are declared guilty of high treason.
Charles I. engages with one Daniel O'Neill in another plot
(June) to bring the army to London to overawe parliament.
This plot is also discovered by Pym, and O'Neill flees to the
Continent. The English and Scotch armies are disbanded
(6 Aug.).
An Act declaring ship-money illegal (16 Car. I., c. 14), and
* The Act was violated by the Long Parliament itself, and was
repealed in 1664.
} The well-known lyric poet, author of the " Ballad on a Wed
ding," etc.

278 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
cancelling the records in Hampden's case in 1637-8, is passed,
and assented to by Charles (7 Aug.).
The Commons impeach 13 bishops for voting for the Canons
of 1640 (13 Aug.).
The Massacre of St. Ignatius (the Irish St. Bartholomew)^
a dreadful massacre of Protestants by Catholics, is begun in
Ireland (St. Ignatius dayj 23 Oct.). During the next few
months from 12,000 to 40,000 Protestants (men, women, and
children) are estimated to have been butchered or hunted to
death.* The Commons, by a vote of 159 to 148, pass "the Grand
Eemonsti ance " (22 Nov. )-. It contains 206 clauses, and recites
the history of Charles's misgovernment ; describes the abuses
abolished and the reforms made by parliament ; refers to ob
structions to reform in the shape of evil counsellors, army
plots, and the Irish rebellion ; and specifies the reforms still
demanded. It is presented to the king -(l; Dec), and he
replies to it (23 Dec).
> Coffee is first brought to England by Nathaniel Canopus, a
Cretan, a student at Baliol College, Oxford.
1642. Charles, fearing that; the parliamentary leaders in
tend to impeach the queen, impeaehes " the Five Members "
of the Commons (John Pym, John Hampden> Denzil Holies,
Sir Arthur Haselrig, and William Strode), and Lord Kimbol-
ton, of the Lords, for treason (3 Jan.). With a guard of 400
he goes to Westminster (4 Jan.) to arrest them, but they. have
been warned by Lady Carlisle, and have taken refuge in Lon
don. The Commons adjourn till the 11th, appointing a com
mittee to meet at Grocers' Hall, London, in the meantime;
and the committee declares the king's proceedings illegal.
Charles, baffled, leaves London (10 Jan.) and prepares for war.
He sends the queen to Holland with the crown jewels, to raise
money on them for supplies and arms (Feb.). Parliament
passes a bill conferring on itself the, control of the militia ;
Charles, at Newmarket, refuses his assent (1 Mar.). Charles
goes to Hull, where the arms and ammunition of the northern
army are stored, and demands their delivery up to him. At
the instance of parliament, the commander, Sir John Hotham,
refuses (23 Ap.). Charles rejects proposals of peace (2 June),
arid parliament puts the Militia Bill into force, and both sides
raise troops. Charles raises his standard at Nottingham (22
a,*S'hi!1Ir?sh massacr? °\ st- Ignatius, like the French massacre of
St. Bartholomew, received the papal blessing. In 1643 Pope Urban
VIII issued a buH promising absolution to all who joined in rootimr
out the English heretics. . f

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 2 79
Aug. The parliamentary army, under Eobert Devereux,
Earl of Essex, leaves London (9 Sep.) Charles makes
Shrewsbury his headquarters (20 Sep).
The Civil War is commenced by the capture of Worcester
(23 Sep.) by Prince Eupert.*
The first battle of the Civil War is fought at Edgehill (23
Oct.), near Kineton in Warwickshire, the royalists under the
king and Prince Eupert, the parliamentarians under Essex:
The result is indecisive; but the advantage is with the royal
ists, who capture Banbury, and occupy Oxford (26 Oct.) with
out Opposition. Essex retires to Warwick.
The royalists under Eupert defeat the parliamentarians
under Denzil Holies at Brentford (12 Nov.), and capture 1500
prisoners and 11 cannon ; Holies receives reinforcements, and
the royalists retire into winter-quarte.s at Oxford (29 Nov.).
Sir Thomas Browne publishes his " Eeligio Medici."
1643. The Cornish royalists, under Sir Ealph Hopton,
defeat the parliamentarians at Bradock Down (19 Jan.).
Negotiations for peace are carried on (30 Jan. -15 Ap.), but
without success. Charles's queen, Henrietta Maria, lands at
Burlington in Yorkshire (22 Feb.), with arms obtained by
means of the crown jewels.
James Compton, Earl of Northampton, defeats the parlia
mentarians at Hopton Heath> near Stafford (19 Mar.).
John Hampden is wounded (18 June) in a skirmish with
Eupert's cavalry at Chalgfove Field (about 22 miles E. of
Oxford), and dies (24 June).
Sir. John Hotham, commander of Hull, and his son are
arrested (29 June) on a charge of plottirig to give up Hull to
the royalists. Lord Fairfax is made commander of Hull.
The parliamentarians under Fairfax are defeated at Ather-
ton Moor or Adwalton in Laneashire (30 June), by the royal
ists under the Earl of Newcastle, who captures Bradford, 4
miles from Atherton. Fairfax retires to Hull, and is there
besieged by Newcastle (2 Sep. -10 Oct.); Fairfax breaks out
. of Hull (10 Oct.), and defeats Newcastle. His son, Sir Thomas
Fairfax, having left Hull with some cavalry and joined Crom
well in Lincolnshire, the combined forces defeat the royalists
at Winceby (12 Oct.).
In the west the parliamentarians under Lord Stamford are
defeated at Stratton Hill in Cornwall (16 May), by the Cornish
royalists under Sir Ealph Hopton, 1700 prisoners, 13 guns,
and all the baggage and stores being captured. Parliament
* Third son of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth,
daughter of James I. He was born in 1619.

280 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
sends Sir William Waller thither to re-establish affairs, but he
' is defeated at Lansdown, near Bath (5 July), by Hopton and
Prince Maurice ; and again at Eoundway Down, near Devizes
(13 July), by Lord Wilmot, and his whole army is destroyed.
Eupert captures Bristol (27 July). Charles I., instead of
marching on London with his victorious army, lays siege to
Gloucester (10 Aug.) ; Essex, with 12,000 men, marches from
London, relieves Gloucester (6 Sep.), returns towards London,
but is met by Charles at Newbury in Berkshire (20 Sep.), and
after a hard but indecisive battle, marches on to Beading (21 .
Sep.), and the king retires to Oxford. Many Irish Catholics
come to England to assist Charles I.
Parliament enters into an alliance with the Scotch (23 Sep.),
who, on condition of parliament accepting the Solemn League
and Covenant, agree to come to its aid. The condition is per
formed (25 Sept.); the Scotch set on foot an army of 22,000
men under Lord Leven; and the management of the war is
entrusted to a " Committee of the Two Nations."
Parliament convokes the Westminster Assembly of divines (12
June), to consider the condition of the Church, and the reform
of its liturgy, discipline, and government. It is prohibited by
proclamation of Charles I. (22 June), but meets (I July).
It consists of 120 divines and. 30 lay assessors. The majority
are Presbyterians ; and their influence is increased after the
acceptance of the Covenant; when a number of commissioners
ofthe General Assembly of the Scotch Church are admitted
to it (25 Sep.). It sits till 1647. ...
John Pym, statesman, dies in London (8 Dec), aged 59.
1644. A royalist army of Catholics from Ireland, under
Lord Byron, lands in Wales, but is defeated by the parliament
arians, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, at Nantwich in Cheshire
(Jan.). The Scotch army enters England (25 Jan.), and the
royalists, under Newcastle, fall back on York, which is then
besieged by the parliamentarians.
The parliamentarians, under Sir Wm. Waller, obtain an
advantage over the royalists under the Earl of Brentford and
Hopton at Alresford or Cheriton Downs in Hampshire (27
Mar.), but Waller's losses prevent him from following it up.
Charles I. defeats Waller at Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury
in Oxfordshire (29 June), and goes to Oxford. Waller's army
disbands, and he returns to London.
Eupert relieves York and effects a junction with Newcastle ;
Manchester and Cromwell also effect a junction in Yorkshire
with Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas. The two armies
meet at Marston Moor, near York (2 July), and the royalists

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 281
are completely defeated ; Eupert is left with only 4000 or
5000 troops, and Newcastle retires to the continent. The
parliamentarians capture York and Newcastle, and complete
the conquest of the North of England.
Essex, being hemmed in by the king's troops in Cornwall,
escapes by sea to Plymouth ; but his infantry under Philip
Skippon surrender (1 Sep.). Charles marches towards Ox
fordshire, but is met by the parliamentarians, under Manches
ter, Waller, and Cromwell, rh the second battle of Newbury
in Berkshire (27 Oct.), which proves as indecisive as the first.
The king is worsted, but marches off unmolested to Walling
ford and Oxford ; and 12 days later carries off without moles
tation his artillery and baggage frorh Donnington Castle.
Cromwell blames Manchester for his supineness, and they quar
rel in consequence. Cromwell is an Independent and Man
chester a Presbyterian, and their quarrel is the commencement
of a struggle between these two parties.
John Milton (now 36) publishes his famous "Areopagtica.
The Commons pass (19 Dec) a " Self-denying Ordinance,"
prohibiting members of either House from# holding commands
m the army ; it is rejected by the Lords.
1645. Archbishop Laud is beheaded (10 Jan.), aged 71.
The Commons pass a scheme for remodelling the army (28
Jan.) ; this "New Model," as it is called, passes the Lords
(15 Feb.). The Commons then pass a second Self-denying
Ordinance, providing that all members of parliament shall
vacate office, whether civil or military, within 40 days, but
not prohibiting them from re-election ; it passes the Lords (3
Ap.). Its passage is a triumph for the Independents. Essex
has already resigned his command ; and Sir Thomas Fairfax
has been appointed in his stead (21 Jan.). Cromwell is
re-appointed at the expiration of each 40 days, as Lieutenant-
General to Fairfax. __
Fruitless negotiations for peace are made with the king
at Uxbridge (30 Jan. -22 Feb.). Charles relieves Chester (15
May), and captures Leicester (31 May).
The newly-modelled parliamentary army, under Sir Thomas
Fairfax and Cromwell, takes the field (May), and completely
defeats the royalists, under Charles and Eupert, near Naseby
in Leicestershire (14 June), capturing 5000 prisoners, all
their guns and baggage, and Charles's private correspondence.
Charles takes refuge in Wales, and tries to raise another
army. Fairfax twice raises the siege of Taunton in Somerset
(11 May, 3 July) ; defeats George Goring * at Langport (10
*Afterwards Earl of Norwich.

282 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
July), and captures Bridgewater, Bristol, Tiverton, and other
royalist strongholds.
Charles I., having raised forces, advances to relieve Chester,
but his troops, under Sir Marmaduke Langdale, are defeated
near that city, at Eowton Heath (23 Sep.), by the parliament
arians under Sir W. Breretonand Col. Poyntz, with a loss of
1000 prisoners. Charles shuts himself up in Oxford (5 Nov.).
The Scotch royalists under Montrose are crushingly defeated*
at PhiliphaUgh, near Selkirk (13 Sep.), by the Covenanters
under David Leslie ; Montrose escapes with a small force ; the
rest are cut to pieces. This defeat and that at Naseby practi
cally end the Civil War in favor of the Parliamentarians and
Covenanters. 1646. Chester surrenders to the parliamentarians (3 Feb.).
Fairfax defeats the royalists under Hopton at Torrington in
Devon (16 Feb.), and completes the conquest of the West.
Charles I. leaves Oxford in disguise (26 Ap.), and delivers
himself up to the Scots near Newark in Nottinghamshire (5
May). The royalists surrender Oxford (24 June) and Bag-
Ian Castle (19 Aug.), and the Civil War comes to an end.
1647. The Scotch deliver up Charles I. at Newcastle to the
parliamentary commissioners (30 Jan.), receiving in. return
£400,000 as payment for their expenses in the war. The
Scotch army retires beyond the Tweed (3 Feb.). Charles is
taken to Holmby in Northamptonshire.
The Presbyterian leaders in parliament wish to impose uni
formity in religion, and require the army to disband without
payment of its arears. The army is mainly Independent, and
having fought for religious as well as civil liberty, objects to
both proposals ; in consequence a dispute arises between
parliament and the army. Joyce, a cornet in the army, with
500 troopers, seizes Charles at Holrriby House (4 June), and
takes him to Childersley, near Cambridge. The army then
marches on London, and' expels 11 of the Presbyterian leaders
from parliament (7 Aug.). Charles is taken to Hampton
Court (16 AugJ, but escapes (11 Nov.), goes to Carisbrook
in the Isle of Wight (14 Nov.), and opens negotiations with
parliament. The Scotch members of the Westminster Assembly retire,
and its main business comes to an end. It has framed the
Westminster Confession of Faith, and the Longer and Shorter
Catechisms, which have ever since been the authoritative ex
positions of British Presbyterianism. It has also superseded the
Prayer-Book by the "Directory of Public Worship/' A few
members continue to meet for business until 1653, when, on.

STUARTS : STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 283
Cromwell's dissolution of the Long Parliament they cease
attending without formal dissolution.
About this date, George Fox, a young man of 23, begins
preaching, and originates the Society of Friends or Quakers.*
1648. A reaction takes place in Charles's favor; the royal
ists, Presbyterians, and the Scotch side with him against the
Independents and the army, under Fairfax and Cromwell. A
rising takes place in Kent (23 May), under Lord Arthur
Capel and George Goring, but Fairfax defeats the royalists
under Capel at Maidstone in Kent (1 June), and captures Col
chester in Essex from them (28 Aug.). Capel and Goring
surrender and are sent to the Tower.
Col. Poyer, a Presbyterian, declares for Charles I. at Pem
broke in south Wales (Mar.), but is defeated by Cromwell,
who captures Pembroke (11 July). The Scotch, under the
Duke of Hamilton, invade England. (5 July) ; but Cromwell
defeats them at Preston in Lancashire (17 Aug.), at Wigan
(18 Aug.), and at Warrington (19 Aug.); and Hamilton is
taken prisoner at Uttoxeter (20 or 25 Aug.). Cromwell
enters Scotland (20 Sep:), makes peace with Argyll (22 Sep.),
and occupies Berwick (30 Sep.) and Carlisle.
The Earl of Holland appears in arms for Charles (July),
but is taken prisoner at St. Neots in Huntingdon (lO
July). By direction of the army Charles I. is seized at Carisbrooke
and removed to Hurst Castle (30 Nov.). The army occupies
London (2 Dec). Parliament decides (5 Dec.) that the
king's answers to their proposals offer a foundation for peace.
The army, however, has determined to bring the king to trial,
and the regiments of Col. Thomas Pride, Hewson, and Hard-
ress Waller surround the House of Commons (6, 7 Dec), and
by what is known as "Pride's Purge," exclude 96 Presby
terians from entering, 47 of them being arrested for resisting*
The House, now reduced to 78 members, and christened " the
Eump Parliament," votes (23 Dec.) that the king shall be
tried on a charge of treason against thepeople.
1649. Charles I. is tried publicly at Westminster Hall(20-27
Jan.) before a special court, nominated by the " Eump," com^-
posed of about 80 members or judges, including Cromwell and
Ireton. John Bradshaw, Cromwell's cousin, presides. Charles
is found guilty of having endeavored to overturn the liberties
of the people, and of being a tyrant, traitor, and murderer ;
* The name Quakers was given to the Society in 1650 by Justice
Bennet, of Derby, because Fox admonished him and the others
present to "quake" at the word of the Lord;

284 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
condemned to death (27 Jan.) ; and beheaded (30 Jan.) at
Whitehall. He is buried at Windsor (8 Feb.).
The Duke of Hamilton escapes (30 Jan.), but is retaken.
Prince Charles, the late king's eldest son, who is at the
Hague in Holland, assumes the title of king, and is proclaimed
at Edinburgh as King of Scotland (3 Feb.).
The Bump votes (6 Feb.) that the House of Peers "is
useless, dangerous, and ought to be abolished ;" and (7 Feb.)
that the office of king ought to be abolished : and it passes
Acts (17 Mar.) abolishing both, and declaring the House of
Commons to be the supreme power of the nation. The ex
ecutive power is placed in a Council of State of 41 members,
to hohLpfnce for a year. The House of Commons, by the re-
admission of some of the excluded members, and the filling of
vacancies, is raised to about 150 members. The council ap
points Milton (15 Mar.) its secretary for foreign tongues ; he
holds office for ten years.
The Duke of Hamilton and Lords Holland and Capel are
tried and executed (9 Man) for complicity in the second' Civil
War. Goring is also found guilty by the Commons, but saved
from , execution by the casting vote of the Speaker, and
pardoned (Mar.).
Fairfax and Cromwell suppress mutinies of Levellers in Lon
don, under Lockyer, who is shot (25 Ap.) ; and at Burford in
Oxfordshire, where Cornet Thompson and two corporals are
shot (14 May).
The Commons pass an Act (19 May) declaring and constitu
ting the people of England a Commonwealth and free State.
Cromwell, having been appointed (15 Mar.) commander of
the army destined for the conquest of the royalists of Ireland,
who have declared for 'Prince Charles, and also to exact
vengeance for the Massacre of St. Ignatius (see 1641), leaves
London (10 July) ; lands in Dublin with about 16,000 men
(15 Aug.); storms Drogheda (10-11 Sep.) and massacres the
garrison (12 Sep.); captures Trim, Dundalk, Arklow, and
Enniscorthy ; storms Wexford (9 Oct) and massacres the gar
rison ; captures Boss (19 Oct.), and completes the conquest of
Leinster, and nearly all the south of Ireland except Waterford.
The acting of plays is prohibited. The prohibition remains
in force till the Bestoration (1660).
1650. Cromwell captures Kilkenny (28 Mar.) and Clon-
mell (9 May) ; but is recalled to London, Ireton being left as
Lord-Deputy. Cromwell arrives in London (31 May).
The Scotch royalists under the Marquis of Montrose are
defeated by the Covenanters at Corbiesdale in Boss-shire

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 285
(27 ApA and Montrose is taken prisoner, brought to Edin
burgh (May), and executed (21 May), Prince Charles
comes to Scotland (16 June), is proclaimed king (15 July), and
and takes the Covenant (16 Aug.). ;
Cromwell, having been made Captain-General (26 June),
enters Scotland with 16,000 men (16 July), and defeats the
Scots under David Leslie at Dunbar (3 Sep.), inflicting a loss
of 3000 slain and 10,000 prisoners ; he then takes Edinburgh
and Leith, and conquers the country south of the Forth.
The first coffee-house in England is opened in Oxford, by
Jacobs, a Jew.
1651. Prince Charles is crowned at Scone as King of Scot
land (1 Jan.).
Admiral Eobert Blake destroys the royalist fleet under Prince
Eupert in Malaga harbor, Spain (Jan.).
Prince Charles invades England, takes Carlisle, is there
proclaimed king (Aug.), and advances south. Cromwell,
leaving George Monk with 5000 men in* Scotland, follows
Charles and completely defeats him at Worcester (3 Sep) ;
David Leslie, Charles's general, is taken prisoner and sent to
the Tower, where he is confined till the ^Restoration in 1660.
Charles escapes to France (Oct.). Monk storms Dundee
(1 Sep.), and completes the conquest of Scotland.
Friendly relations having been broken off with Holland,
parliament, with a view to striking a blow at the Dutch carry
ing trade, passes the Navigation Act (9 Oct.), forbidding the
importation of goods into England except in English ships, or
those of the nation producing the goods.
Ireton captures Limerick in Ireland (23 Oct.), but dies
there of the plague (15 Nov.), aged 41. He is succeeded in
the command by Edmund Ludlow (Nov.).
Under Cromwell's pressure the Long Parliament fixes Nov.,
1654, as the date of its own dissolution (18 Nov. ).
, Thomas Hobbes (now 63) publishes his " Leviathan."
William Harvey publishes his " Exercitationes de genera-
tione animalium."
1652. Ireton is buried at Westminster Abbey (6 Feb.).
While negotiations for a settlement of differences are pend
ing between England and Holland, the English fleet under
Blake meets a Dutch fleet under Martin Van Tromp in the
Straits of Dover, a battle ensues, and the Dutch are defeated
(19 May) ; this action leads to a declaration of war (8 July).
Blake again defeats Van Tromp in the Downs (18 Sep.). A
Dutch fleet of 80 ships, under Van Tromp, defeats an English
fleet of 40 in the Downs, after a terrible battle (29 Nov.).

286 history or England.
1653. Blake defeats Van Tromp off Portsmouth (18-20
Feb*), capturing 11 men-of-war and 30 merchantmen.
Cromwell, with a body of soldiers, enters the House of Com
mons, and pointing to the mace with the words, " Take away
that bauble,"' forcibly dissolves the Long Parliament (20 Ap.);
he forms a Council of- State of 13 persons (30 Ap.').
Blake again defeats Van Tromp, off North Foreland in
Kent (3-4 June), sinking 11 ships and capturing 7. Blake
falls ill, and temporarily retires from command. -The English
fleet under GeorgeMonk defeats Van Tromp off the coast of
Holland (31 July), Van Tromp being slain and 30 men-of-war
taken or sunk.
Cromwell and his council call (6 June)an Assembly of
Nominees, 139 in number (England 122, Wales 6, Scotland
5, and Ireland 6). It is called " the Little Parliament," or
" Barebone's Parliament," after a prominent member named
Praise-God Barbon, or Barebones, a leatherseller of London.
It sits (4 July-12 .Dec.) ; reforms the administration of the
law, relaxes imprisonment for debt, passes a Civil Marriage
Act and an Act for the registration of births, marriages, and
deaths, begins to codify the law and to abolish the Court of
Chancery^ and decides to abolish tithes and the power of pat
rons to present to benefices. The country becomes alarmed at
its reforming zeal, and finally, dissentients being excluded by
a company of soldiers, the remnant resign their power into the
hands of Cromwell (12 Dec). The council then installs
Cromwell as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England,
Scotland, and Ireland (16 Dec), to govern with the aid of a
permanent council, and a parliament of 400 members, to be
summoned every three years, and not to be dissolved until it
lias sat five months.
1654. Peace is made with Holland (5 Ap.) ;~and England,
Holland, Denmark, the* Hanseatic towns, and the Swiss
provirices are included in a general Protestant alliance.
A royalist plot, headed by Vowell and Gerard, for the .as
sassination of the Protector is discovered, and Vowell and
Gerard are tried and hanged (10 July).
Cromwell's first parliament meets (3 Sep.) ; it claims to
revise the constitution and to limit the Protector's powers. .
The return of Jews to England is connived at by Cromwell ;
they had been banished since 1290.
1655. Cromwell's parliament proving recalcitrant, and
doing no real worky he dissolves it (22 Jan.) after it has sat
for 20 weeks, or 5 lunar months.
Anabaptist and royalists plots are hatched against Cromwell.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 287
During the assizes at Salisbury the royalists, under Col. John
Penruddock and Sir Joseph Wagstaff, rise in arms (11 Mar.),
seize the judges, proclaim Charles II., and withdraw towards
Cornwall. They are defeated at South Molton, Penruddock
and Grove are beheaded, and others are sent to Barbadoes.
To prevent similar plots in future, Cromwell divides England
into 12 military districts (Aug.), governed by major-generals,
the expenses being paid by a tax levied on the royalists.
An English fleet under Sir William Penn * and Venables
conquers Jamaica (3 May) from the Spaniards.
Cromwell forces Savoy to restore the privileges of the Vau-
dois a Beformed sect, (19 Aug.) He makes a treaty of com
merce with France (24 Oct.); and open war-is declared against
Spain. He suppresses the public service of the Church of
England (Nov. ). He appoints a Board of Trade (the first in
England) to promote, trade and navigation;
1656. At Cadiz Blake captures 2 galleons (Sep.) with
treasure valued at 2,000,000 pieces of eightf (about £400,000);
it is brought from Portsmouth to London iri 38 wagons.
' Cromwell calls another parliament (17 Sep. ), which, after the
exclusion of about 100 of the most violent of his enemies, pro
ceeds to do real work in the way of framing a constitution ;
and Cromwell withdraws the arbitrary government of his
major-generals. 1657. Plots are hatched (Jan.) between Col. Sexby, an
Anabaptist and a Leveller, and Miles Sindercomb to as
sassinate the Protector by means of an infernal machine, or
that failing, by setting fire to Whitehall, Cromwell's residence.
Sindercomb is tried and condemned (9 Feb.), but dies in prison
(13 Feb.).
Parliament passes the "Petition and Advice" (Mar.), con
sisting of 18 articles, and virtually restoring the old constitu
tion by re-establishing a House of Lords and making Cromwell
king. It is presented to him for acceptance (31 Mar.); after
consideration, he rejects the title of king (8 May), but accepts
the new constitution, and is installed as Protector (26 June),
with legally defined powers.
Cromwell makes an alliance with Louis XIV. against Spain
(Mar.), and sends an army of 6000 men to the Spanish Nether
lands, where they capture Mardyke (Sep.).
Blake captures or destroys the whole Spanish fleet in the
harbor of Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, one of the Canary Islands
* Father of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania.
" t A- piece of eight was a piastre, a coin of variable value, usually
about a- dollar.

288 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
(20 Ap-). On his way home he dies at sea (17 Aug.), while,
entering Pymouth Sound, and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Col. Sexby circulates throughput England a pamphlet en
titled "Killing no Murder,"* inciting people to rebellion and
to kill the Protector ; he is arrested when on the point of
leaving England (Oct.); he dies soon afterwards in the Tower.'
Tea begins to be used in England ; the price is from £6 to
£10 per pound.
William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the
blood, dies (3 June), aged 79.
1658. Cromwell summons the reconstructed parliament,
the House of Lords consisting of 62 members nominated by
himself. It meets (20 Jan.) ; the Commons include many of
his enemies, who at once renew their old attacks upon him,
and he dissolves parliament in anger (4 Feb.). During the
short remainder of his life he governs absolutely.
The French and English armies, under Turenrie, besiege
Dunkirk in the Netherlands (May) ; defeat a Spanish reliev
ing army under Don John and the Duke of York f (4 June) ;
and Dunkirk surrenders (17 June), and is delivered up to the
English in accordance with the treaty made with Louis XIV.
in 1657. They hold it till 1662. .
Cromwell falls ill of a fever (Aug.) ; his eldest and favorite
daughter, Lady Claypole, dies (6 Aug.); and he dies (3 Sep.),
aged 59 ; he is buried in Westminster Abbey (23 Nov.).
It is almost certain that he nominated no successor ; but his
secretary Thurloe and other officers spread a report that he
had named his third but eldest surviving son Eichard; and
, he is proclaimed Protector by the council (3 Sep.).
1659. Parliament assembles (29 Jan.), but under the
pressure of force from Lambert, Fleetwood, Desborough, and
other officers of the army, Eichard is compelled to dissolve it
(22 Ap.). The army then puts an end to Oliver Cromwell's
constitution, and recalls the old republican remnant of the Long
Parliament dissolved by Cromwell in 1653. Forty-two mem
bers assemble in triumph under Lenthall, their old Speaker
(7 May) ; the authority of the new parliament is generally
acknowledged ; and Eichard signs his abdication (25 May).
Parliament and the army quarrel ; and the royalists in
Cheshire, under Sir George Booth and Sir ThOmas Middle-
ton, rise against the new government, but are defeated by
Lambert at Nantwich (19 Aug.). Lambert returns to Lon
don and ejects the parliament (13 Oct.). George Monk, com-
* Probably written by Captain Titus, a royalist.
t Charles L's second son, afterwards James IL

Oliver Cromwell.— P. 286.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 289
mander of the English army in Scotland, refuses to acknowl
edge the government set up by the army in London, and
enters England at the head of 7000 men (8 Dec), crossing the
Tweed at Coldstream. Lambert marches to Newcastle against
him> but his troops desert, and he is made prisoner. The
fleet, under Lawson, declares against the army and sails up
the Thames ; »the London apprentices rise ; and the army
allows parliament to reassemble (26 Dec).
John Bradshaw, President of the Court which tried Charles
I., and Cromwell's cousin, dies- (22 Nov.), aged 57; and is
buried in Westminster Abbey.
1660. Monk, being joined by Lord Fairfax at York,
marches to London; enters the city (3 Feb-) ; declares for a
free parliament (10 Feb.); recalls the Long Parliament, includ
ing all the Presbyterian and other excluded members {21 Feb. ),
which resolves (22 Feb.) that a new. parliament shall, be sum
moned for the 25 Ap., passes the necessary Bill, and then
dissolves itself (16 Mar,), thus finally coming constitution
ally to an end.
Lambert is sent to the Tower (6 Mar.) ; he escapes (11
Ap.), but is defeated at Daventry and, retaken (21 Ap.).
Monk, knowing the royalist feeling of the country, enters
into negotiations (Ap.) with Prince Charles for his restoration
on certain conditions ; and Charles, in the "Declaration of
Breda" (14 Ap.), evasively gives the required promises.
The Convention Parliament meets (25 Ap.), the Lords
resuming their old seats ; the Declaration of Breda is laid
before both Houses (1 May), and accepted ; and Charles II.
is proclaimed king in London (8 May). He lands at Dover
(25 May), is everywhere received with, the greatest joy, and
enters London in triumph (29 May) on his 30th birthday.
Monk is made Duke of Albemarle (7 July). Eichard Crom
well * and Edmund Ludlow f escape to the continent.
The regicides of Charles I. having been excepted from the
Amnesty Act (12 Car. II . c. 11), 10 of them are executed
(13-19 Oct.), 19 are imprisoned for life, and 19 take refuge in
foreign countries. The legislation passed since the execution
of Charles I. is annulled. The feudal tenure of land, however,
which had been abolished during the Commonwealth, is re-
abolished (c. 24), the year 1560 being counted as the 12th of
Charles II. 's reign. Parliament also re-establishes the Church
of England. ' Charles dissolves parliament (29 Dec).
* He remained in exile till 1680, when he returned to England,
where he died in 1712, aged 86. ~
f He died at Vevay in Switzerland, 1693, aged 73.

290 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
John Bunyan is imprisoned (12 Nov.) in Bedford gaol for
nonconformity; be remains there till Jan., 1672, writing his
" Pilgrim's Prdgress" while in prison.
Thomas Betterton (now 25), the first great tragic actor in
England, begins to act about this date, when the performance
of plays is again permitted,
1661. The remains of CromWell, Ireton, "and Bradshaw
are removed from Westminster Abbey, hanged at Tyburn,
beheaded, and burnt (30 Jan.). Admiral Blake's body is re
moved from Westinriister Abbey to St. Margaret's Church.
Charles II. is crowned at Westminster Abbey (23 Ap:).
Charles calls (8 May) a new parliament (" The Pensionary
Parliament "), which proves even more royalist than the pre
ceding. It confirms the Acts of that parliament, and passes
a series of' strong reactionary measures, including the Corpor
ation Act (13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1), directed against Dissenters,
providing that all officers of corporations shall take the oaths of
supremacy, allegiance, and non-resistance; abjure the Covenant;
arid take the sacrament according to the Church of England.
The Duke of Argyll, the head of the Scotch Covenanters,
is executed for treason (27 May).
1662. The Eoyal Society is incorporated (22 Ap.).
An Act (14 Car. II., c. I) is passed against the Quakers.
The third Act of Uniformity (c. 4) is passed (19 May), order
ing the Book of Common Prayer to be used in all churches,
the clergy to assent to the same by St. Bartholomew's day
(24 Aug. ) ; and over 2000 ministers resign their preferments.
Charles II. marries Catharine of Braganza (20 May), daugh-.
ter of John IV., late King of Portugal.
Lambert is brought to trial and condemned to death, but his
sentence is commuted (June) to imprisonment for life.* Sir
Henry Vane, after being kept a prisoner in the Scilly Isles for
nearly two years, is sent to the Tower, tried as a regicide (2-6
June), and beheaded in London (14 June), aged about 50.
Charles II. sells Dunkirk and Mardyke to Louis XIV. for
5,000,000 livres (27 Oct.).
The plague ravages England and Wales ; before its outbreak
the population was estimated at 6,500,000.
1663. Charles II. having manifested a tendency towards
Catholicism, parliament passes stronger laws against Popery.
Drury Lane Theatre, London, is opened (8 Ap.), the play
being "The. Humovrous Lievtenant;" the first play- bill
printed in England is issued. The performance began at 3.
* He died in Plymouth, 1683, aged 64.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 291
The PubKc Intelligencer, the first newspaper published in
England, is started by Sir Eoger L'Estrange.
1663-4. Samuel Butler publishes " Hudibras," first part.
1664. The Conventicle Act (16 Car. II., c 4) is passed,
providing that any person over 16 present at any conventicle
shall be liable to fine and imprisonment. A conventicle is
defined as an assembly of more than five persons besides the
family, meeting for worship not according to the Church of
England. The " Great Plague" breaks out in London (Dec).
. 1665. The plague continues its ravages in London through
the whole of this year, the deaths rising to 10,0C0 a week in
Sep. ; and it spreads to other parts of the country.- The clergy
of the Established Church and the physicians flee panic-stricken
to the country, and the Nonconformist ministers undertake the
duties of the absent clergy, preaching' and visiting the sick.
War is declared_ against Holland (22 Feb.). The English
fleet, under the Duke of York (the king's brother, afterwards
James II.), defeats that of the Dutch, under Opdam, off Har
wich in Essex (3 June), Opdam being blown up in his own
vessel, with all his crew, and 32 of his ships taken or destroyedi
The Earl of Sandwich attacks the Dutch fleet off Bergen in
Holland (12 Aug.), and captures 12 men-of-war.
On account of the plague parliament is held at Oxford. It
passes (Oct.) "the Five Mile Act" (17 Car. II., c 2), provid
ing that no Nonconforming clergyman shall' (except when
travelling) come within five miles of any corporate town or
any place where he once ministered, or act as schoolmaster,
unless he first takes the oath of non-resistance, and swears not
to attempt any alteration in Church or .State.
1666. Louis XIV. declares war against England (16 Jan.}.
A three days' battle is fought in the Downs between the
English fleet of 54 vessels, under Albemarle,. and the Dutch
fleet of 80 vessels under De Witt and De Buyter (1-3 June) ;
the English are defeated, and Monk retires with the remnant
of his fleet (3 June). The English fleet, however, decisively
defeats that of the Dutch, at the mouth -of the Thames (25,
26 July), the Dutch losing 24 men-of-war and 4000 men.
The Great Plague nearly wears itself out by' Sep., having
slain from 68,000 to 100,000 victims in London alone.
London is almost destroyed by a great fire which rages for
five days (2-6 Sep.). It' began in a baker's house in Pudding
Lane, and destroyed 89 churches, including St. Paul's
Cathedral, a large number of public buildings, and 13,200
houses, laying waste 400 streets ; the ruins covered 438 acres.

292 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
About 200,000 people, being rendered homeless, encamped in
Islington and Highgate fields. The fire put a complete stop
to the plague. An Act (18 & 19 Car. II. c. 8) is passed for the
orderly rebuilding Of London.
Mrs. Coleman, the earliest female performer on the English
stage, makes her first appearance, as Ianthe, in Davenant's
"Siege of Ehodes." Shortly afterwards Nell Gwynne also
makes her debut on the stage, at Drury Lane Theatre.
1667. Owirig to the lavish extravagance of Charles II. and
his government, the finances are exhausted, and there is no
money to equip the fleet. The coast is consequently unpro
tected, and the Dutch fleet, under De Euyter, sails up the
Thames (June-July), burns the dockyard and shipping at
Chatham, and blockades London.
The Peace of Breda is signed (21 July) between England,
France, and Holland. The Earl Of Clarendon, Charles's chief
minister, is disgraced, resigns the great seal (30 Aug.), is im
peached by the Commons (12 Nov.), and banished (29 Nov.).*
A new ministry is formed. (Sep.), consisting of Clifford,
Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley-Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury),
and Lauderdale, called afterwards the " Cabal," from the
initials of the five ministers.
Milton publishes his " Paradise Lost."
Charles II. establishes horse-races at Newmarket, the first
in England.
Christopher Wren builds the Boyal Exchange.
1668. Sir William Temple, the English ambassador at
Brussels, brings about " the Triple Alliance " (13 Jan., 25 Ap.)
between England, France, and Sweden, against Louis XIV.
John Dryden is made poet-laureate. ~
1670. Charles II. charters the Hudson Bay Co. (2 May). "
Charles II. signs with Louis XIV. the infamous secret -
Treaty of Dover (22 May), the two^owers agreeing to declare
war against Holland, Charles to help Louis to make good his
claim to the Spanish succession, and to receive a pension from
him of £300,000 a year. By the secret clauses (known only
to Charles, Clifford, Arlington, and Arundel) Charles agrees
to re-establish the Catholic religion in England, for which
purpose Louis will supply him with an additional £200,000
a year and 6000 French troops.
Christopher Wren builds Temple Bar.
rr*F!i "iISstory,nfiheG^d ReDeMon" was published in 1702
He died at Rouen (9 Dec., 1704), aged 66. His daughter Ann HvdV
married (3 Sep., 1660) the Duke of York, afterward! James H.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 293
1671. An English squadron, under Sir Edward Spragge.
(or Sprague), destroys 12 Algerine ships-of-war (10 May).
1671-7. Wren builds the Monument of London, erected
to commemorate the great fire,' at the spot where it broke out.
1672. Charles II. publishes his " Declaration of Indul
gence " (15 Mar. ), granting toleration to Boman Catholics
against the various Acts of Uniformity.
England and France declare war against Holland (17 Mar.).
The English fleet, under the Duke of York, after a terrible
battle, defeats the Dutch fleet, under De Euyter, off Solebay,
or Sputhwold Bay, in Suffolk (28 May).
The National Debt begins by the closing of the Exchequer.
1673. Parliament passes an address (27 Feb. ) begging the
king to recall his Declaration of Indulgence ; he complies (8
May.) It passes (29 Mar.) the Test Act (25 Car. II., c. 2),
directing all government officers, military and civil, to receive
the sacrament according to the Church of England, and to
take oath against Transubstantiation. * This act completes the
triumph of the opposition, or Country Party, and Clifford and
Arlington (as Catholics) are compelled to retire from the min
istry, and the Duke of York has to resign his office of High
Admiral. The other members of the Cabal also retire, except
Lauderdale, who continues to rule in Scotland. Sir Thomas
Osborne (afterwards Lord Danby) becomes chief minister.
The English fleet, under Prince Bupert, twice defeats that of
the Dutch, under D'Estrees and De Euyter, off the coast of
Holland (28 May, 4 June) ; but is driven off (11 Aug.).
1674. By threatening, to withhold supplies the Commons
compel Charles II. to make peace with Holland (9 Feb.).
Milton dies in London (8 Nov.), aged 65. He had been
blind since 1652.
1675. Parliament desires Charles I. to join the Protestant
League in Europe against France ; and in order to silence par
liament, Louis XIV., by a bribe of 500,000 crowns, induces
Charles to prorogue parliament (22 Nov.) till Feb., 1677.
Danby attempts to govern despotically. The coffee-houses
are much resorted to for political discussions, and in order to
prevent the free and sometimes seditious language used there,
they are ordered to be closed (29 Dec.). This raises a great
outcry, and they are allowed to be reopened under restrictions.
Charles II. founds Greenwich Observatory (10 Aug.).
Sir Christopher Wren begins the erection of St. Paul's
Cathedral, London ; it is finished in 1710.
* Not repealed till 9 May, 1838 (9 Geo. IV., -c. 17).

294 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
1676. In return for a pension paid him by Louis XIV.,
Charles II., with the connivance of Danby and Lauderdale,
makes a secret treaty with Louis (17 Feb.), agreeing not to en
ter into any treaty with any other power without his consent,
and to prorogue parliament if it should desire such a treaty.
1677. Parliament meets (15 Feb. ), and the Duke of Buck
ingham and Lords Shaftesbury, Salisbury, and Wharton de
nounce the long prorogation as illegal; whereupon they are
sent to the Tower (17 Feb.), and kept there for over a year.
Parliament demands that, in order to save the Netherlands,
war be declared against France ; but Charles II., in consider
ation of the promise of a further bribe of 2,000,000 crowns
from Louis XIV., prorogues parliament till Ap., 1678.
Mary (afterwards queen), the eldest daughter of the Duke
of York (afterwards James II.), and niece 'of Charles II., is
married (4 Nov.) to William, Prince of Orange, the head of
the Protestant interest in Europe. Louis XIV., deeming this
an act of treachery towards him, refuses the promised subsidy
to Charles, who, in revenge, at once summons parliament to
meet in Feb. instead of Ap. Louis thereupon intrigues with
the opposition or Country Party, some of whom receive sums
of money (between £300 and £500) from him.
An Act (29 Car. II. , c. 7) is passed for the better observance
of the Lord's Day; also one (c. 9) abolishing the death penalty
for heresy.
1678. Charles II. collects an army of 20,000, ostensibly
to help Holland against France ; but parliament, when it meets
(Feb.), dreading that it may be used for purposes of despot
ism, demands that it be disbanded. Charles thereupon makes
a secret treaty with Louis (17 May), agreeing, on receipt -of
6,000,000 livres, to remain neutral - if Holland refuses reason
able terms of peace. He thereupon mediates, and Holland, by
the treaty of Nimeguen, makes peace with France (10 Aug.).
Titus Oates, an English clergyman who has been forced to
give up his living on account of a charge of perjury, informs
Charles II. of an alleged "Popish Plot" (13 Aug.). He de
poses (28 Sep.) before a magistrate that the Catholics have
entered into a plot to rise, and with the assistance of
a .French army, to perpetrate a general massacre of
Protestants, murder the king, and invade Ireland'. .Sir Ed
mund Berry Godfrey, the magistrate who took the deposition,
is murdered at Primrose Hill, near London (12 Oct.),
and a universal panic seizes the nation. Parliament: meets
(21 Oct.),- and the Commons resolve "that there hath been,
and still is, a damnable and hellish plot, carried on by papist

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND 'PARLIAMENT. 295
recusants for assassinating the king, the subverting the gov
ernment, and for rooting out the Protestant religion." An
Act (30 Car. II., st. 2, c. 1) is passed (30 Nov.) " for disabling
papists from sitting in either House of Parliament." On the
evidence of Oates, Bedloe, and others, many leading Catholics,
including 5 peers, are convicted and executed or imprisoned,
Chief-Justice Scroggs shamelessly upholding the false stories
of the informers. Oates is rewarded with a pension of £900
a year and lodgings at Whitehall. He dresses like a bishop,
and styles himself " the Saviour of the Nation."
Louis XIV., having no further need of Charles II., refuses
to pay the subsidy promised, by the secret treaty, and makes
the treaty known. Parliament thereupon impeaches Danby
(21 Dec), who pleads that he acted by the king's direct order ;
and Charles prorogues parliament (30 Dec).
John Bunyan publishes "Pilgrim's Progress," first part.
1679. In order to save Danby, Charles II. dissolves par
liament (24 Jan.), which has been in existence for 18 years.
The new parliament meets (6 Mar.). The impeachment of
Danby is resumed ; the king pardons him, but the Com
mons hold that the pardon is invalid, and the modern con
stitutional theory is established that a minister is responsible
for his acts ; and Danby is sent to the Tower (16 Ap.). The
Habeas Corpus Act (31 Car. IL, c. 2) is passed (27 May), a
statute next in importance to Magna Carta. It provides that
any judge, at any time, shall be obliged to issue the Old com
mon law Writ of Habeas Corpus, in favor of any one impris
oned, ordering the gaoler or other person detaining the
prisoner to bring him before the court, for the purpose of
trying the question whether his imprisonment or deten
tion is lawful. The Act also forbids ¦ imprisonment out of
England. The Commons bring in the Exclusion Bill (Mar. ),
excluding Charles's brother James from the throne as a Cath
olic. Before it passes, Charles dissolves parliament (12 July).
The Covenanters or Conventiclers of Scotland, having risen
in arms against Charles II., are defeated at Bothwell Bridge in
Lanarkshire (22 June), by the royal troops under Monmouth.*
Prosecutions arising out of the pretended Popish Plot are
continued throughout the year, and 8 priests, 5 Jesuits, and
one lawyer are condemned on the flimsiest evidence, and
executed (June). Four others die in prison.
The new parliament meets (17 Oct.), but before doing
any business it is prorogued by Charles for a year. In the
*A natural son of Charles H. by Lucy "Walters, born at Rotter
dam in 1649.

296 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
meantime party spirit runs high. The opposition or Country
Farty (now called Whigs, a name applied to the western Cov-
enariters of Scotland), instigated by Shaftesbury, their leader,
send petitions from all parts of the country praying the king
to assemble parliament. The loyalists, or Tories as they are
now called (a name taken from the Irish outlaws), or Abhor-
rer's (so named from the word used in their addresses) send in
counter-addresses, expressing " abhorrence " of the petitions.
Thomas Dangerfield, in imitation of Oates and Bedloe, re
veals (23 Oct.) an alleged plot to murder the Duke of York. As
some papers relating to it were discovered in a meal-tub, the
affair is known as the " Meal- Tub Plot." The persons ac
cused by Dangerfield are tried buf acquitted.
Thomas Hobbes, the philosopher, dies (4 Dec), aged 91.
1680. Sir GeOrge Wakeman, the queen's physician, is ac
cused by Oates of complicity in the Popish plot, but the judges,
rendered cautious by the high station of the accused, intimate
that the evidence is unworthy of credit ; "and he and three
others are acquitted (18 July). A reaction sets in against
Oates and the other informers.
Parliament meets (21 Oct.) ; the Commons pass the Exclu
sion Bill (11 Nov.), but it is thrown out in the Lords (Nov.).
The Commons refuse to grant supplies till it is passed.
William Howard, Viscount Stafford, an old man of 68, is
impeached by the Commons before the Lords for treason as
an accomplice in the alleged Popish Plot, is tried (30 Nov. -7
Dec), condemned on the perjured evidence of Oates and
his accomplices (7 Dec. ), and beheaded (29 Dec. ). He protests
his innocence on the scaffold, the people believe him, and the
tide finally turns against Oates, Shaftesbury, and the other
upholders of the Popish plot.
Henry Purcell,* father of the English school of music, com
poses his cantata, " Dido and iEneas."
1681. The Commons still proving recalcitrant, Charles II.
dissolves Parliament (18 Jan. ). The new parliament (Charles's
fifth) is summoned to meet at Oxford (21 Mar.), but proving
no more tractable than the last, is also dissolved (28 Mar.),
and during the rest of his reign Charles governs without one!
He charges Shaftesbury with treason, and sends him to the
Tower (2 July), but the London sheriffs and jury are strong
Whigs, and throw out the indictment (24 Nov.), and Shaftes
bury is released (1-Dec). Charles then procures the confisca
tion of the charters of London and other corporations under
* ?oriiu? 1®584«™ Westminster; appointed organist in West
minster Abbey in 1676, when only 18 years old,

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 297
writs of Quo Warranto, and issues new charters framed in a
Tory spirit. He also rigorously enforces the laws against the"
Nonconformists. These proceedings, though strictly legal,
drive the Whig party to fury, and lead to the Bye-House Plot.
1682. A plot to effect a change of government, in which
Shaftesbury* is implicated, is discovered, and Shaftesbury flees
from London (19 Oct.), and goes to Holland (18 Nov.), where
he dies at Amsterdam (21 Jan., 1683), aged 61.
1682-90. Sir Christopher Wren builds the Chelsea Hos
pital for pensioned soldiers.
1683. Eichard Eumbold, formerly an officer in Cromwell's
regiment, and other violent Whigs form a plot (Mar.) to mur
der Charles II. and his brother, the Duke of York, at Bye
House, at Broxbourne, near Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire, the
residence of Eumbold, and thus secure the succession of the
Duke of Monmouth to the throne. The plot is revealed by
some of the conspirators (12 June) ; Eumbold flees ; and Lord
William Bussell, Algernon Sidney, and Arther Capel, Earl of
Essex, are arrested for complicity (June), and sent to the,
Tower. Essex is found dead in the Tower (13 July), prob
ably by his own hand. Bussell is tried at the Old Bailey (13
July), convicted on the evidence of one witness f . (13 July),
and beheaded at Lincoln's Inn Fields (21 July), aged
43. Sidney is tried (21 Nov.) before Chief- Justice Jeffreys ;
the evidence of one witness being insufficient, it is supple
mented by an unpublished MS. work of Sidney's advocating
republicanism; and he is condemned and beheaded (7 Dec),
aged about 61. His attainder was reversed in 1689.
1684. The Earl of Danby, who has been imprisoned in
the Tower since 1679, is released on bail (12 Feb.).
Titus Oates is convicted of libelling the Duke of York,
fined, and imprisoned.
1685. Charles II. dies at St. James (6 Feb.), aged 54 ; his
brother James II. (a Catholic) succeeds him.
Isaac Newton announces his discovery of the law of gravita
tion (23 Feb.).
James II. appoints as lord treasurer and his chief minister
his brother-in-law Lawrence. Hyde, Earl of Eochester (son of
the Earl of Clarendon). James collects customs without par
liament, and accepts a subsidy of £37,000 from Louis XIV.
of France. He publicly celebrates mass (Easter); opens nego
tiations with Pope Innocent XI.; and is crowned (23 Ap.).
* Satirized by Dryden under the name of Achitophel.
f The Act 23 Ed. HI., st. 5, c. 2 (1352), made two witnesses necessary
to convict in cases of treason.

298 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
His first parliament meets (19 May), proves strongly Tory, and
passes an act (1 Jac. II. , c. 1) granting him a revenue for life.
Titus Oates and Thomas Dangerfield are tried before Jeffreys.
Oates is convicted of perjury, and is flogged from Newgate to
Tyburn twice in two days, 1700 lashes being, it is said, inflicted
on him on the second Occasion, and he is sentenced to imprison
ment for life (9 May). Dangerfield is convicted of libel in con
nection with the Meal-Tub Plot (30 May), and is pilloried and
whipped (1 June). On his way back to prison he is brutally
assaulted by a Catholic named Eobert Francis, one of his eyes
be'ing knocked out, and he dies a few days later; Francis is
hanged for the crime, Bichard Baxter,* now 70 years old, is
convicted before Jeffreys (30 May) on account of some words
complaining of the persecution of Dissenters, and sentenced
(29 June) to a fine of 500 marks and 18 months' imprisonment.
The Duke of Monmouth, the_Earl of Argyll, and other ex
iled malcontents in Holland plan an invasion of England in
order to remove James from the throne. Argyll sails (2 May),
lands in Argyleshire, but owing to divisions among them, his
followers disperse without striking a blow, and Argyll is ar
rested in the disguise of a carter., taken to Edinburgh, and
beheaded under his former sentence (30 June).
Monmouth lands at Lyme Begis in Dorsetshire (11 June),
issues a proclamation asserting his legitimacy; marches to, and
is proclaimed king at, Taunton, Bridgewater, Wells, and
Frome; but is defeated at Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater "(6
July), by the royal troops under Feversham and Churchill,
captured near Holtbridge in Dorsetshire (8 July), and executed.
on Tower-Hill (15 July). The rebellion is crushed with brutal
cruelty by the troops" under Col. Kirke— " Kirke's Lambs,"
as they were called from their regimental emblem. The
"Bloody Assizes" follow (July-Sep.), conducted by Judge
Jeffreys. In Dorchester 300 persons are tried, 292 sentenced
to death, 74 being hanged; in Somersetshire 233 are hanged,
drawn, and quartered; and 841 other prisoners are sent to the
West Indies and the American colonies, to be sold as slaves or
indented servants, their value being from £10 to £15 each. In
reward for his bloody work Jeffreys is made chancellor (28 Sep.).
James II. claims the right to keep Catholics in his service,
parliament opposes the claim as illegal, and James prorogues
parliament (20 Nov.).
The Dublin News Letter, the first Irish newspaper, is started
by Joseph Bay.
* The famous Nonconformist divine, author of " The Saints'
Everlasting Rest," published in 1650.

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 299
iAfiftPOpUTati011 °f EnSland and Wales is about 5,500,000.
Ib8b. James II. sends Castlemaine as ambassador to
Kome. He claims the right to dispense with the action of
penal statutes in iridividual cases, and grants dispensations to
converts to Eomanism. In a sham case against Sir Edward
Hales, , a packed court of judges, headed by Chief -Justice Sir
Edward Herbert, upholds his claim to the dispensing power
(21 June); and the king at once fills a large number of offices
and benefices with Catholics. He also forms a camp at
Hounslow Heath (July), the officers being principally Catho
lics ; receives a Papal nuncio (July) ; and restores the public
profession of Eomanism. He also restores the Ecclesiastical
Commission (14 July), with Jeffreys at its head.
1687. James II. publishes a " Declaration of Indulgence "
in Scotland (12 Feb,) and in England (4, 27 Ap.),. suspending
all penal laws against the Catholics. He again forms a camp at
Hourislow Heath (June); dissolves parliament (2 July); receives
the Papal nuncio at Windsor (3 July) ; and admits Father
Petre to the council (Nov.).
Isaac Newton publishes the first part of his " Principia."
1688. James II. republishes his Declaration of Indul
gence (25 Ap.), and orders the bishops to direct the clergy to
read it from their pulpits during divine service on 20 and 27
May. Seven of the bishops draw up at Lambeth a petition
against this order, and are arrested, tried for seditious libel
before venal judges and a packed jury, but are nevertheless
acquitted (30 June) amid great popular rejoicings. On the
same day an invitation is sent to William, Prince of Orange,
husband of James's eldest daughter Mary, to invade England.
James IL, being warned (Sep.) of the intended invasion of
William of Orange, seeks the advice of the bishops (Oct.),
restores the charter of London, dissolves the Ecclesiastical
Commission (8 Oct.), and dismisses his ministers, Father
Petre and' Sunderland. William of Orange lands at Torbay
in Devon (5 Nov.), enters Exeter (8 Nov.), and is joined by
many influential persons. James advances against him, but at
Salisbury his army deserts him. William opens negotiations
with him; James flees from Whitehall in disguise (ll Dec),
but is seized at Faversham in Kent by some sailors, and
brought back to London (16 Dec). William enters London
(18 Dec), James escapes to France (23 Dec), and William
summons a Convention (28 Dec).
1689. William of Orange summons a meeting of the
Estates of Scotland (7 Jan.). The English Convention meets
(22 Jan.), declares the throne vacant, and passes the Declara-

300 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
tion of Eights (13 Feb.) ; this is accepted by William and
Mary, and the crown is tendered to them, and they are
proclaimed king and queen (13 Feb.) as William III. and
Mary; and crowned (11 Ap.). The Scotch Estates proclaim
therii king and queen of Scotland (11 Ap.), and they accept
the crown from the Scotch Commissioners (11 May).
The Irish Catholics, however, headed by Eichard Talbot,
Earl of Tyrconnel (the Lord-Deputy), declare in favor of
James II. Tyrconnel raises a force of 100,000 men (Jan.),
and becomes master of all Ireland, except Londonderry and
Enniskillen, which declare for William III. James II. , sup
ported by Louis XIV., sails from France ; lands at Kinsale, in
Ireland (14 Mar.) ; is received by Tyrconnel at Cork ; and
' the two enter Dublin in triumph (24 Mar. ). James lays siege
to Londonderry (19 Ap.), but failing to capture it, entrusts
the siege to Maumont (a French general) and Eichard Ham-.
ilton, and returns to Dublin and holds a parliament (4 May),
consisting entirely of Catholics. This parliament, among
its other infamies, passes an Act of Attainder, whereby
nearly 3000 Protestants * are in cold blood condemned to death
without a hearing, "a law," says Macaulay, "without a par
allel in ciyilized countries."
The people of Londonderry, though they have devoured
everything eatable — salt hides, horse-flesh, and rats — and are
dying of hunger, still heroically holdout. At last, after the
siege has lasted 105 days, an English squadron of 3 ships, un
der Col. Percy Kirke, sent by William, succeeds in getting
supplies into the town (30 July), and the enemy burn their
camp and raise the siege (1 Aug.), which Macaulay speaks of
as "the most memorable in the annals of the British Isles."
Col. Wolseley, having been sent by Kirke to take command in
Enniskillen, defeats the Irish Catholics under Macarthy.at
Newtown Butler (2 Aug.), inflicting upon them a loss of 2000
men. Schomberg is sent by William to Ireland with troops
to help the Protestants, and lands at Carrickfergus (13 Aug.).
William declares war against France (May).
* The list of those condemned to death included the great majority
of the members of both Houses of Parliament, and comprised 2
archbishops, 7 bishops, 64 temporal peers, 83 clergymen, 85 knisrhts
and baronets, 2182 esquires, 22 ladies, etc. "In fact," says Dr
Ingram, " the whole Protestant peerage and gentry of Ireland were
at one sweep condemned to death." By the terms of the Act the
king was precluded from pardoning any one mentioned in it: and
the Act was concealed for some months, till the time limited for
surrender had expired, so that there should be no possibilitv of
7nd ^el^Tw™^ °f ^ Le9i8lmVe Vni0n °f ^^tavn

STUARTS: STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 301
In Scotland, John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dun
dee, declares for James II., raises troops in the Highlands, arid
defeats Hugh Mackay (William's general) at the Pass of Killie-
crankie in Perthshire (27 July), but is himself slain. Mac
kay defeats the Highlanders at St. Johnstone's, near Perth
(Aug.), and at Dunkeld (21 Aug.), and finishes the war.
Parliament meets (19 Oct.), and passes (Dec.) the Bill of
Eights (1 W. & M., st. 2, c. 2), embodying the Declaration
of Bights. It declares that the suspending and dispensing
powers claimed by James are illegal ; that the High .Commis
sion Court' and all similar courts are illegal and pernicious ;
that the levying of money by the Crown without grant of par
liament is illegal ; that subjects have a right to petition the
king, and that punishment for the same is illegal ; that raising
a standing army without the consent of parliament is against
law ; that the election of members of parliament ought to be
free ; that freedom of debate in parliament ought not to be
questioned outside parliament itself ; that excessive bail ought
not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and
unusual punishments inflicted ; that juries ought to be im
panelled, and that in cases of treason they ought to be free
holders ; and that parliament ought to be held frequently, for
the redress of grievances and the amendment arid preservation
of the law. It allows arms to be carried for defence. The
Act also limits the crown to the heirs of William III. and Mary,
and in default of such heirs, then to the Princess Anne and her
issue. The* 9th section excludes all Catholics, and all persons
who shall marry a papist, from the throne, which shall descend
to the next Protestant heir, every king and queen on the first
day of .their first parliament being required to take the Dec
laration provided by the Test Act (25 Car. II. , c 2), against
transubstantiation, the adoration of the Virgin, and" the mass.
John Locke publishes his " Letters oh Toleration."
Thomas Sydenham, the first great English physician, dies
in London (29 Dec), aged 65. His " Opera Medica" were
published posthumously in 1716.
The population of England and Wales is about 5,600,000;
of which 1,600,000 belong to the towns, and 4,000,000 to the
country. The yearly crop is about 80,000,000 bushels of
cereals, of which only about 16,000,000 are wheat. The
average weight of a sheep is about 28 pounds, and of an ox
about 370 ,pounds. The horses are equally poor, the worst
Arab being superior to the best English.
The population of Scotland is about 1,000,000, and of Ire
land about 1,500,000.

302 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.

CHAPTEE X.
CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND.
1690.' Louis XIV. of France sends 7000 troop's to Ireland
to assist James II. William III. lands at Carrickfergus with
30,000 men (14 June), defeats James at the Boyne (1 JuM,
enters Dublin (6 July), and returns to England (6 Sep.).
James and Tyrconnel escape to France.
1691. The English, under Godart van Ginkel, defeat the
Irish Catholics, under St. Euth, at Aughrim (12 July); Lime
rick surrenders (3 Oct.). Ginkel and the Irish general, Sars-
field, agree to certain " Articles of Limerick," covering politi
cal matters as well as military.*
1692. The " massacre of Glencoe" takes place (13 Feb.).
The French* defeat William III. at Steenkirk (3 Aug.).
At the instance of James IL, Louis XIV. of France pre
pares to invade England, but an Anglo-Dutch fleet defeats the
French fleet off Cape.La Hogue (19 May), and the invasion is
abandoned. 1693. The French defeat William at Landen (19 July).
William III. and Mary convert the Placentia palace at
Greenwich into a Eoyal Hospital for retired Seamen; Wren
builds additions in 1696.
Queen Mary dies of small-pox (28 Dec), aged 32 ; William
III. becomes sole monarch.
1696. James II., at the French court, authorizes (Jan.)
"the Assassination Plot" to murder William III. on 15 Feb.
* Irish historians call these Articles " The Treaty of Limerick,"
and Limerick "the City of the Violated Treaty." Ginkel was a mere
general in the field, and had no authority to make a treaty dealing
with the political affairs of Ireland and her relations with England ;
nor had Sarsfield any such authority on behalf of either Irish Catho
lics or Irish Protestants. Ginkel was a foreigner, unacquainted with
constitutional parliamentary government, and these Articles would
have repealed several statutes of the Irish and English parliaments
a thing which the king himself had no power to do. As a matter of
course, therefore, the political provisions of this pretended treaty
were at once formally repudiated by the Irish and English parlia
ments. The military part was strictly observed.

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 303
The plot is disclosed, and the conspirators are condemned (24
Mar.) and executed.
"Berwick's Plot" is discovered and frustrated.
Ihomas Aikenhead (aged 17) is hanged in Edinburgh for
heresy, the last execution for heresy in Britain. .
T£niJ>OPmation of England and Wales is about 5,500,000.
1697. The Peace of Eyswick is signed (10 Sep.).
1698. The first expedition of the Darien Co. sails from
Leith (26 July) to Darien (2 Nov.), and founds "New Cale
donia." 1699. The Darien colonists nearly all die of disease and
famine ; the survivors sail for New York (June). Two other
expeditions sail from Scotland (May, Aug.), and reach Darien
(July, Nov.).
1700. Spain claims Darien ; a Spanish squadron blockades
the Scotch settlement (Feb.) ; the settlers surrender (30
Mar.), and sail to New York (11 Ap.).
The population of England and Wales is about 5,000,000.
1701. The Emperor Leopold I. declares war against France,
and the War of the Spanish Succession begins.
The Act of Settlement (12 & 13 Will. III., c 2) settles the
throne, in default of heirs of William III. or of the Princess
Anne, upon the -Electress Sophia of Hanover (grand-daughter
of James I. ) and her heirs, being Protestants.
* 1702. William III. dies (8 Mar.), aged 51. Anne, second
daughter of James II. , is proclaimed queen (8 Mar.).
In alliance with Holland and the Emperor Leopold I., war is
declared against France and Spain (4 May).
1704. Marlborough defeats the Bavarians at Schellenberg
(2 July), and the French at Blenheim in Bavaria (13 Aug.).
A British fleet under Booke captures Gibraltar (23 July).
1706. The' commissioners for the union of England and
Scotland meet at Westminster (16 Ap.-22 July), and agree
(22 July) to 25 Articles of Union.
Marlborough defeats the French at Eamilies (12 May).
1707. The "Scotch -parliament, by 110 to 69, passes the
Act of Union with England (16 Jan.). The English parlia
ment passes it (6 Anne, c 11), 6 Mar.
Berwick defeats the. British at Almanza (14 Ap.) ; Marl
borough defeats the French at Oudenarde (11 July).
1709. Torture is abolished in Scotland (7 Anne, o. 21).
Marlborough and Eugene defeat the French at Malplaquet in
the Netherlands (11 Sep.).
1711. Marlborough is charged with peculation (21 Dec),
and deprived of -all his offices.

304 HISTORY 0E ENGLAND.
1713. Peace is made with France at Utrecht (31 Mar., '2
July). 1714. Queen Anne dies (1 Aug,), aged 50 ; George I.,
eldest son of the Electress Sophia, becomes king.
1715. The Eiot Act (1 Geo. I., st. 2, c. 5) is passed (20
July). The Earl of Mar declares for the Pretender and raises 12,000
troops in Scotland. Mackintosh, with 1500, invades England,
but is defeated at Preston (13 Nov.). An indecisive battle is
fought at Sheriffmuir in Perthshire (13 Nov.).
1716. The Pretender comes to Scotland (Jan.), but fails
and returns to France (30 Jan.). Lords Derwentwater and
Kenmure are executed for complicity in the rebellion (24 Feb. ) .
The Septennial Act (1 Geo. I., st. 2, c. 38) provides for the
election of a new parliament every seven years.
1720. The " South Sea Bubble " bursts ; a panic ensues ;
and multitudes are ruined.
The population of England and Wales is about 5,350,000.
1727. George I. dies (10 June) ; his son George II. is
proclaimed king (26 June).
1739. Britain declares war against Spain (19 Oct.). Ad
miral Vernon captures Portobello (22 Nov. ) and Chagre.
William Hogarth establishes " the Society of Incorporated
Artists," the germ of the Boyal Academy.
1740. The "War of the Austrian Succession," or the
" Silesian War," or rt King George's War " begins (Dec).
The population of England and Wales is about 5,800,000.
1741. A British expedition of 35,000 men besieges Car-
thagena, South America (Mar.-Ap.), but is attacked by fever,
and returns to Jamaica (Nov.), having lost 20,000 men.
1742. Sir Eobert Walpole, premier for 20 years, resigns
(11 Feb.). Lord Wilmington is made premier (17 Feb.):
1 743. George II. defeats the French at Dettingen (27 June).
Wilmington dies (26 July) ; Sir Henry Pelham is made
premier (12 Aug.) ; he holds office for over ten years.
1744. France declares war against Britain (31 Mar.).
1745. The British and allies, under the Duke of Cumber
land, are defeated at Fontenoy (11 May).
Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, lands in Inverness
shire (25 July), defeats the royal troops at Coltbrigg, and
Preston Pans (21 Sep.), invades England (8 Nov. )f enters
Derby (4 Dec), but retreats to Scotland.
/nH*6\ Prince Charles defeats the royal troops at Falkirk
(23 Jan. ) ; but is defeated by Cumberland at Culloden (16 Ap )
and the Jacobite rising is over. Charles escapes to France

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 305
xx.17**8*. -The Treat7 of Aix-la,Chapelle closes the War of
the Austrian Succession (18 Ap.).
I75*/ ?he Act 24 Geo- IL> c 23 introduces the "New
\?l 'o year to beSin on ! Jan- instead of 25 Mar. ;
the 3 Sep., 1752, to be reckoned 14 Sep., losing 11 'days by
which the calendar was in error.
1754. Pelham dies (6 Mar.) ; Newcastle becomes premier.
1756. Suraj-ud-Dowlah, Nawab of Bengal, captures Cal
cutta and Fort William, and puts 146 British prisoners in the
"Black Hole," Calcutta (20 June), where 123 die in raving
madness during the night, from heat, suffocation, and thirst.
The "Seven Years' War" begins (24 Aug.).
The Duke of Newcastle resigns (Nov.); the Duke of Devon-
•shire is made premier.
1757. Eobert Clive captures Fort William (Jan.), and
defeats Suraj-ud-Dowlah at Plassy (23 June).
In Hanover the British agree to capitulate under the Con
vention of Kloster-Seven (26 July). The government repu
diates the convention, and the British, under Ferdinand of
Brunswick, drive the French back.
1758. The British defeat the French at Creveld (23
June). 1759. SFerdinand defeats the French at Minden (1 AugA
Wolfe defeats the French under Montcalm, at Quebec (13 Sep. ),
both being slain ; Quebec surrenders to the British (18 Sep.).
George II. dies (25 Oct.) ; his grandson George III. succeeds.
1761. Pitt resigns (5 Oct.), leaving Bute as premier.
1763. The Treaty of Paris is signed (10 Feb.) between
France, Spain, Portugal, and Britain. Canada and Florida
are ceded to Britain.
Bute resigns (8 Ap.) ; George Grenville becomes premier.
No.-45 of the North Briton, a paper started in 1762 by
John Wilkes, M.P., and Churchill, the poet, contains a scur
rilous attack on the government ; Wilkes is sent to the Tower
(Ap.), but released on habeas corpus (6 May)'. The Lords order
his prosecution on account of an indecent book, " An Essay
on Woman ; " he goes to France, and is declared an outlaw.
1764. Wilkes is expelled from the Commons (19 Jan.).
Grenville proposes to tax the American Colonies (Mar.); the
Sugar Act (4 Geo. III., c 15.) is passed. The Colonies protest
against the scheme.
1765. The American Stamp Act (5 Geo. III., c. 12) is passed
(22 Mar.). The king dismisses Grenville (June), and makes
the Marquis of Bockingham premier (10 July).
1766. The stamp and sugar duties are repealed (20 Mar.).

306 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
Bockingham retires (22 July); Pitt is made premier (30 July).
1767. Townshend's Act (7 Geo. III., c. 46) for raising
£400,000 in America by duties on tea, glass, and paper is passed
(29 June). It produces great discontent in the Colonies.
1768.' John Wilkes returns from France (Feb.), and is
elected M.P. for Middlesex (Mar.). He is inlawed, but fined
and imprisoned, which causes a riot in London (10. May).
Chatham resigns (12 Oct.), and Grafton becomes premier.
1769. Wilkes is expelled from the Commons (17 Feb.),
but is re-elected for Middlesex a second and third time.
1770. Grafton resigns ; Lord North is made premier (28
Jan.). His Act (10 Geo. III., c 17) repeals all the "American
duties except that on tea.
Wilkes is released from prison (Ap.).
1771. Eeporting the debates in parliament is allowed.
1772. The Act 12 Geo. III., c 7 grants a drawback of Is.
per lb. on tea exported to the Colonies (3 June). The
Colonial tea duty is 3d. per lb., the Colonists gaining 9d.
In the case of James Somersett, an American slave, Lord
Mansfield decides (22 June) that slavery is not " allowed by
the laws of England," so liberating 14,000 or 15,000 negroes
in England who had been deemed slaves.
1773. The colonists in Boston, Mass., empty the cargoes
of three tea-ships into the harbor (16 Dec).
1774. North's "Boston Port Bill" is passed (28 Mar.-).
The Quebec Act (14 Geo., III., c. 83) gives a constitution to
Canada. The first Continental Congress, at Philadelphia (5 Sep. -26
Oct.), adopts a "Declaration of Colonial Bights," and orders
military preparations to resist the British government.
1775. The first battle of the American War is fought at
Lexington (19 Ap.) ; the British lose 270, the Colonists less
than 100. At Bunker's Hill, near Boston (17 June), the
British loss is over 1000 ; the Colonial about 450.
1776. The Third Continental Congress, after a tie vote,
resolves (7 June) by a majority of one *^thato"the United
Colonies are and ought to be free, and independent States ;"
and "the Declaration of Independence " is signed (4 July).
1777. Gen. Burgoyne, with about 5000 British, surrenders
to Gen. Gates at Saratoga (17 Oct.).
1778. France signs a defensive alliance with the U. S. (6
Feb.), and declares war against Britain (10 July).
•In order to present an appearance of unanimity to the outside
world, the sessions of Congress were held in secret, only the j-esulls
bemg made public. J "JC-*cou"&

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 307
The repeal of some of the penal laws against the Catholics
offends the Scotch Protestants, who form Protestant Associa
tions, with Lord George Gordon as leader. The agitation
spreads to England.
1779. Spain declares war against Britain (16 June), and
lays siege to Gibraltar.
1780. Bodney defeats a Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent
(16 Jan.).
The Protestant agitation of 1778 culminates in the "No-
Popery" or "Gordon Biots" in London, which isinthehands
of a mob for five days (3-7 June). The riots are put down
and the city saved from total destruction by the personal res
olution of George III., who orders the military to act (7-8
June)-; and over 500 of the rioters are killed or wounded.
Lord Gordon is sent to the Tower (9 June).
The first " Armed Neutrality," between Bussia, Denmark,
and Sweden (9 July, 1 Aug.), resists the right of search
claimed by Britain. Holland negotiates (Sep.) with the U- S.
for an alliance ; Britain declares war against Holland (20
Dec.) ; and Holland joins the Armed Neutrality (24 Dec).
1781. Lord Gordon is tried (5-6 Feb.) and acquitted.
Prussia (8 May) and Germany (9 Oct.) join the Armed'
Neutrality against Britain.
Lord Cornwallis, with 7000 British, surrenders to the com
bined American and French armies under Washington and
Kochambeau, aided by a French fleet under De Grasse, at
Yorktown, Va. (19 Oct. ) ; this surrender virtually ends the war.
1782. North resigns (20 Mar.) ; Lord Bockingham is
made premier (22 Mar.).
The Act 22 Geo., III. c. 53 grants independence to the Irish
parliament (May).
Bockingham dies (1 July) ; Lord Shelburne (afterward
Marquis of Lansdowne) is made premier (July).
The three years' siege of Gibraltar is raised by Gen. Elliott
and Lord Howe (13 Sep.).
1783. Shelburne resigns (21 Feb.); the Duke of Portland
is made premier (5 Ap.).
The Treaty of Versailles is signed between Britain, oil the one
side, and theU. S., France, Spain, and Holland, on the other
(3 Sep.); Britain acknowledges -the independence of the U. S.
George III. dismisses the Portland ministry (18 Dec), and
makes Pitt (now 24) premier.
1784. Pitt's Bill to establish commercial equality between
Ireland and Britain is passed.
1785. At the instigatkm of Grattan, the Irish parliament

308 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
rejects Pitt's Act to establish commercial equality between
Ireland and Britain (Aug.). . .
1787. Warren Hastings is impeached for maladministra
tion and corrupt practices in India (May).
1788. An Act (28 Geo. III., c. 54) is passed to mitigate
the horrors of the slave-trade.
Australia is first colonized, and Sidney founded.
1788-95. The trial of Warren Hastings goes on.
1789. The French Eevolution begins (14 July).
1791. Pitt's "Canada Bill" (31 Geo. III., c 31) divides
Upper Canada from Lower, with separate constitutions (May}.
1792. The French convention abolishes royalty (22 Sep.),
and issues a " Decree of Fraternity" (19 Nov.), promising
help to all nations desirous of liberty, which was virtually a
declaration of war against the monarchies of Europe ; it also
issues orders to disregard all treaty obligations. _
Eevolutionary societies are formed, and riots break out
(Nov.) in various places in Britain.
1793. Louis XVI. is guillotined (21 Jan.), an act which
fills England with horror. The French ambassador is ordered
to leave England (24 Jan.); France declares war against Brit
ain, Spain, and Holland (1 Feb.), and invades Holland (Feb.).
Marie Antoinette is guillotined (16 Oct.).
Bussia and the U. S. make treaties with Britain, recogniz
ing "the right of search."
1795. Warren Hastings is acquitted (23 Ap.).
An expedition of French emigres sail from England (10
June) and land at Quiberon Bay in France (29 June), but
are defeated by Hoche (20-21 July), and 700 prisoners are
massacred in cold blood. Holland joins France.
1796. Spain joins France (July), and places her fleet at
France's disposal. The French arrange with the Irish mal
contents, under Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the conquest of
Ireland and the invasion of England. A French expedition
sails (15 Dec.) for Ireland, but is dispersed by a storm.
1797. A plan is formed for the invasion of England under
cover of the combined French, Spanish, and Dutch fleets ; but
the British fleet, under Jervis and Nelson, defeats the Spanish
off Cape St. Vincent (14 Feb.).
A Dutch fleet/prepared for the purpose of co-operating with
the French in an invasion of Ireland, is defeated by Duncan,
off Camperdown (11 Oct.).
Austria makes peace with France (17 Oct.); Britain is left
without allies against France, Spain, and Holland.
1798. A horrible civil war breaks out in Ireland (23 May).

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 309
The insurgents are defeated at Vinegar Hill, Wexford (21
June). A French force lands in Mayo and defeats Lake at
Castlebar (26 Aug.), but surrenders to Cornwallis at Ballina-
muck (8 Sep.). A French fleet with reinforcements, is de
feated by Warren off the Irish coast (11 Oct.); Wolfe Tone is
captured on board, taken to Ireland, tried, and condemned ;
but commits suicide (19 Nov.).
Napoleon conquers Egypt (July) . Nelson defeats th e French
fleet in "the battle of the Nile" (2-3 Aug.). Pitt induces
Austria and Bussia to join Britain against France.
1799. The French conquer Italy. Napoleon invades Syria
(17 Feb.), but is forced by Sir Sidney Smith to raise the
siege of Acre (21 May), and returns to Egypt. Italy joins the
coalition against France. Napoleon secretly leaves Egypt (22
Aug.), arrives in Paris (16 Oct.), abolishes the Directory (9
Nov.), and is elected First Consul (24 Dec).
1800. The majority of the Irish people, both Catholic and
Protestant, are in favor of union with Britain ; and the Irish
House of Commons, by 152 to 108, votes for it (21 Feb. ) . The
British parliament passes (2 July) the "Act of Union" (39
& 40 Geo. III., c 67), to take effect 1 Jan., 1801.
Bussia deserts the coalition against Prance, and renews the
Armed Neutrality against Britain (16 Dec).
1801. Austria and France make peace at Luneville (9
Feb.) ; Britain is again left without allies against France and
the Armed Neutrality.
Pitt prepares to bring in a Catholic Belief Bill ; George III.
declares that he " should hold any one who supported it as his
personal enemy;" Pitt resigns (Mar.), and Henry Addington
is made premier.
The British, under Abercromby, defeat the French at Alexan
dria (21 Mar. ) ; Abercromby is mortally wounded. The French
surrender (27 Aug.), and are allowed to return to France.
A British fleet under Parker and Nelson attacks the Danish
fleet and batteries at Copenhagen (2 Ap. ), and captures sev
eral prizes. Eussia makes peace with Britain (June), and
abandons the Armed Neutrality.
1802. The Treaty of Amiens is signed (25 Mar.) between
Britain and France; Britain retains Ceylon and Trinidad. Fox
goes to Paris, and has a political interview with Napoleon.
Eobert Emmett sees Napoleon in Paris for the purpose of
raising a rebellion in Ireland.
1803. Napoleon endeavors to stir up rebellion in Ireland ;
Britain sends an ultimatum to him ; his answer is unsatisfac
tory ; and Britain declares war (18 May). Napoleon arrests

310 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
about 12,000 English in France, and keeps them in priori for
. 11 years, till the peace.
• Emmett returns to Ireland and instigates a rising; riots
break out in Dublin, and Chief-Justice'Kilwarden is brutally
murdered (23 July) ; the riot is put down ; Emmett, in dis
guise, is captured, tried, convicted, and hanged (20 Sep.).
1804. Addington resigns (26 Ap. ) ; Pitt is made premier
(12 May).
Napoleon proclaims himself emperor (18 May). Spain joins
France, and Biitain declares war against her (Dec).
1805. Bussia and Austria join Britain against Napoleon
(Sep.). Napoleon prepares an immense armament at Boulogne
to invade England and Ireland; but the covering Franco-Span
ish fleet is intercepted by the British (23 July), and Napoleon
breaks up camp, and invades Austria (Oct.). The British fleet,
under Nelson, defeats the combined French and Spanish fleets,
under Villeneuve, at Trafalgar (21 Oct.), Nelson being slain.
1806. The British capture Cape Colony from the Dutch
(Jan.). William Pitt dies (23 Jan.), aged 46 ; Lord Grenville be
comes premier (Feb.).
The British defeat theFrench at Maida, Italy (4 July).
Napoleon defeais the Prussians at Jena (14 Oct.), enters
Berlin in triumph (27 Oct.), and issues the " Berlin Decree"
against Britain (21 Nov.).
1807. In reply to the Berlin Decree, Britain issues four
Orders in Council (Jan.-Nov.).
George -III., rather than concede Catholic emancipation,
dismisses his ministry (18 Mar.), and makes the Duke of
Portland premier (Ap.).
An Act (47 Geo. III., c 36) ispas?ed (25 Mar.), prohibiting
the slave-trade.
Napoleon makes peace with Alexander I. at Tilsit (7 July).
By secret articles they agree to divide Europe between, them.
These articles become known to the British government,, and
to prevent the Danish fleet from falling into the hands of
Napoleon, a British fleet goes to Copenhagen (July), and
demands its surrender till the close of the war. The demand.
is refused,., Copenhagen is bombarded (2-5 Sep.), and the
Danish fleet is sui rendered (5 Sep.). -
- A French army occupies Spain (Oct.) and Portugal (Nov.).
1808. Napoleon makes his bi other Joseph king of Spain
(15 June) ; the Spaniards rise against the French, and make
an alliance with England (July). British troops land. iri '
Portugal (1 Aug.), and "the Peninsular War" begins Sir

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 311
Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) defeats the
French at Eonca or Eolica (17 Aug.), and at Vimeira ^(21
Aug.). Wellesley is superseded by Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who
agrees to the " Convention of Cintra " (30 Aug.), allowing the
French army to return to France. Sir John Moore is made
commander (6 Oct.), and advances to Salamanca (13 Nov.),
but is forced to retreat (Dec.) before superior numbers under
Napoleon. 1809. Napoleon returns to Paris (Jan.), leaving Soult in
command in Spain ; Soult is repulsed at Corunna (16 Jan.) by
Sir John Moore, who is slain. The British troops return to
England. Another British expedition is sent to Portugal, under
Wellesley (Ap.), who defeats the French at Talavera in Spain
(27-8 July). He constructs the lines of Torres Vedras.
A British expedition to Walcheren in Holland is unsuccess
ful (July-Dec), thousands dying of malaria.
The Duke of Portland dies (30 Oct. ) ; Spencer Perceval is
made premier (31 Oct.).
1810. Wellington repulses the French at Busaco (29 Sep.),
and retires behind the Torres Ve'dras lines (8 Oct.).
George III. becomes hopelessly insane (Nov.) ; George,
Prince of Wales, is made regent.
1811. Graham defeats Soult at Barossa (5 Mar.). Masse-
na, having for 5 months vainly tried to force the Torres Vedras
lines, and lost 30,000 men, retreats (1 Mar.). Wellington fol
lows and defeats him at Sabugal (3 Ap.) and Fuentes d'Onore
(5 May). Beresford defeats Soult at Albuera (16 May).
Low wages and the high price of wheat (15s to 20s. a bushel)
give rise to Luddite riots at Nottingham and other places.
1812. In Spain Wellington storms Ciudad Eodrigo (19
Jan.) and Badajos (6 Ap.).
Perceval is shot and killed by Bellingham, a lunatic (11
May) ; the Earl of Liverpool is made premier (June).
The U. S. declare war against Britain (-18 June).
Wellington defeats the French at Salamanca (22 July).
1813. Wellington totally defeats the French at Vitioria
(21 June) ; the French evacuate Madrid (27 June) ; and Wel
lington defeats Soult in a series of "battles of the Pyrenees"
(25 July-2 Aug.), drives him across the Pyrenees, invades
France (7 Oct.),and defeats him at the Nivelle (10 Nov.). Na
poleon is defeated by the Austrians, Eussians, and Prussians at
Leipsic (16., 18, 19 Oct.) ; and the allies invade France (Nov.).
1814. Britain; offers to treat for peace with the U. S.
(6 Jan.); American commissioners go to Europe to nego
tiate (Feb.)/

312 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Wellington defeats Soult at Orthes (27 Feb.), Tarbes
(20 Mar.), and Toulouse (10 Ap.). The allies enter Paris
(31 Mar.); Napoleon abdicates (4 Ap.), and is sent to Elba
(May). Louis XVIII. becomes King of France (3 May); and
the Treaty of Paris is signed between France and the allies
(30 May).
The Peace of Ghent is signed between Britain and the U. S.
(24 Dec).
1815. News of the Treaty of Ghent not having, reached
America,, the' British attack New Orleans (8 Jan.), but are re
pulsed with great loss by the Americans under Gen., Jackson.
Napoleon leaves Elba (26 Feb.), and enters Paris (20 Mar.).
The allied powers sign a treaty against him (Mar.), and war
begins in Belgium. Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Char-
leroi and Ligny (15, 16 June); the British under Picton re
pulse the French at Quatre Bias (16 June). The British and
allies, under Wellington, and the Prussians, under Blucher,
totally defeat Napoleon at Waterloo (Sunday, 18 June). He
returns to Prris, abdicates (22 June), surrenders to Capt.
Maitland, of H. M. S. Bellerophon (15 July), and is sent to
St. Helena (8 Aug.). Louis XVI II. returns to Paris (8 July),
and the Treaty of' Paris is signed (20 Nov.).
1816. A British fleet under Lord Exmouth, as a punish
ment for piracy, bombards Algiers (27 Aug.), and the Dey
-makes terms.
1819. The Act 59 Geo. III., c. 78 provides for the resump
tion of specie payment, suspended since 1797.
A great reform meeting of over 50,000 people, held in Man
chester (the "Peterloo Eiot" or the "Manchester Massacre"),
is dispersed by the military, 16 being killed and about 600
wounded (16 Aug.).
1820. George III. dies (29 Jan.), aged 81; his son George
IV. succeeds.
The " Cato Street Conspiracy " to murder the ministers, set
fire to London, seize the Bank, and proclaim a provisional
government, is revealed ; the conspirators are arrested (24, 25
Feb.), 5 are executed (1 May), and 5 transported for life.
Queen Caroline is tried for adultery before the lords (17
Aug. -10 Nov.), and virtually acquitted (10 Nov.)-.
1827. Lord . Liverpool resigns through illness (Ap.);
George Canning is made premier. He dies (8 Aug.); Lord
Goderich (afterward Earl of Eipon) is made premier (Aug.). '
A British, French, and Eussian fleet, under Codrington;
defeats the Turkish-Egyptian fleets at Navarino (20 Oct.).
1828. Goderich resigns (8 Jan.), and Wellington is made

CONSTITUTIONAL ENGLAND. 313
premier (8 Jan.). The Act 9 Geo. IV., c. 17 repeals the
Corporation and Test. Acts (13 Car. IL, st. 2, c 1, 1661; and
25 Car. LL, c. 2, 1673), and so permits Catholics and Dissent
ers to hold office. " Peel's Sliding-scale " of corn-duties is
enacted (c. 60).
Daniel O'Connell is elected member for Clare (July), the
first Catholic since 1690. Not being able to take the oaths,
he cannot take his seat.
1829. The Catholic Emancipation Act (10. Geo. IV., c. 7),
admitting Catholics to both Houses of Parliament and nearly
all offices, is passed (13 Ap.). Daniel O'Connell is re-elected
for Clare (30 July), and takes the new oath and his seat.
1830. George IV. dies (26 June), aged 67; his brother
William IV. succeeds.
Wellington resigns (16 Nov.); the Whigs take office, with
Lord Grey as premier (Nov.).
1832. The Eeform Bills for England (2 & 3 Wm. IV., c 45),
Scotland (c 65), and Ireland (c 88) effect a great redistribution
of seats, and greatly extend* the franchise. Ireland gets 4 mem
bers in addition to the 100 fixed by the Act of Union. These
Acts make the United Kingdom a really democratic country.
1833. The reformed parliament meets (29 Jan.). It
passes an Act (3 & 4 Wm. IV., c 73)- for the emancipation
of the slaves in the Colonies, taking effect 1 Aug. , 1834, free
ing 770,280 slaves, and granting £20,000,000 as compensation
to their owners; also Lord Althorp's Factory Act (c. 103),
introducing "half-time" for factory children, and making
their education compulsory.
1834. O'Connell's motion for the repeal of the Union is
rejected in the Commons by 485 majority (23 Ap.).
Grey resigns (9 July); Lord Melbourne is made premier (16
July). The Poor-Law (4 & 5 Wm. IV., c. 76) is passed. It
greatly reduces pauperism, but leads to discontent, which
soon takes the form of Chartism. Trades-unions greatly
increase in number.
William IV. dismisses the Melbourne ministry (16 Nov.),
and makes Wellington premier. Wellington sends for Sir Eob
ert Peel, who is in Borne, and Peel is made premier (Dec).
1835. Peel resigns (8 Ap.) ; Melbourne becomes premier.
1836. The Orange Clubs are dissolved ; there were
145,000 Orangemen in England and 125,000 in Ireland.
1837. William IV. dies (20 June); Victoria- becomes queen.

314 HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTEE XL
THE REIGN OE QUEEN VICTORIA : ENGLAND A DEMOCRACY.
1838. Slavery is abolished in India (1 Aug.).
The Chartists hold a great meeting at Birmingham (6
Aug.), and demand the "Six Points" of "the People's Char
ter" — Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia
ments, Payment of Members, the Abolition of the Property
Qualification of Members, and Equal Electoral Districts.
The liability for tithes in Ireland is transferred from the
tenant to the landlord (1 & 2 Vic, c 109).
The Anti-Corn-Law Association is formed (24 Sep.).
1839. The first war with China begins (Ap.).
The Chartists' petition, with 1,250,000 signatures, is pre
sented to the- Commons (14 June). Chartist riots take place
(15 July, 4 Nov.).
The first English settlements in New Zealand are made,
and Wellington is founded.
1840. New Zealand is made a colony (Jan.).
Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert (10 Feb.).
1841. Melbourne resigns (30 Aug.) ; the Conservatives
take office, with Peel as premier.
O'Connell renews his repeal agitation;
1842. The Afghans treacherously massacre 3849 British
soldiers, and about 12,000 camp-followers in the Khoord-
Cabul Pass (6-13 Jan.). The British, under Pollock and
England, enter Afghanistan (Ap.), defeat the Afghans, enter
Cabul (16 Sep.), make peace, and return to India (Oct.).
The Ashburton. Treaty between Britain and the U. S. is
signed (9 Aug.).
The peace of Nankin is signed with China (Dec).
1843. O'Connell is arrested for sedition (14 Oct.).
1844. O'Connell is convicted (12 Feb.), and sentenced
(24 May) to a year's, imprisonment ; on appeal the House of
Lords reverses the judgment (4 Sep.).
1845. Maynooth College is endowed (8 & 9 Vic. c. 25).
The "Oregon Boundary" dispute leads to irritation between
Britain and the U. S.

QUEEN VICTORIA : ENGLAND A DEMOCRACY. 315
The Anti-Corn-Law agitation goes on; and Peel reforms the
tariff in the direction of Free Trade.
1846. Peel's " Corn Law Importation Bill" (9 & 10 Vic,
c. 22) almost extinguishes the duty on wheat (26 June) ; and
the Anti-Corn-Law League dissolves (2 July).
On account of Peel's free-trade policy, the protectionist
Conservatives, headed by Benjamin Disraeli, desert him ; he
is defeated, ami resigns (29 June). The Whigs take office
(July), with Lord John Bussell as premier.
The rot almost destroys the potato-crop throughout Ireland,
and leads to a terrible famine.
1847. The Irish famine continues ; altogether about
200,000 * die of famine or famine-fever, Piobably 15 times
that number would have perished but for outside help. The
British parliament voted £10,000,000 as Belief Funds ; and
£434,784 was raised in Britain by subscription, f The efforts
of the British government were described as " the grandest
attempt ever made to grapple with famine over a whole
country. Neither ancient nor modern history can furnish a
. parallel to the fact that upwa; ds of 3,000,000 persons were fed
every day, in the neighborhood of their own homes, by admin
istrative arrangements emanating from and controlled by one
central office." J
1848. A projected monster Chartist demonstration, at
Kennington Common, London, is thwarted by the government
(10 Ap.), 170,000 special constables being sworn in.
. An Irish Landlord and Tenant Act (11 & 12 Vic^ c 7)
t provides that eviction by unroofing the evicted dwelling shall
' be a misdemeanor ; that evictions must be made within certain
hours in the daytime ; and that, under a penalty of £20, the
landlord, before evicting, shall give 48 hours' notice to the
' relieving officer, who shall provide shelter for the evicted fam
ily. § The Irish Encumbered Estates Act (0. 48) provides for
' the compulsory sale of the lands of impoverished landlords. %
* This is the undoubtedly accurate estimate of Mr. "W. 8. Trench,
who lived through it. See " Realities of Irish Life," ch. viii.
t The total sum spent in charity in Ireland during the five years,
1846-50, was over £15,000,000 ($75,000,000).
t Edinburgh Review,, vol. 87, p. 269 (1848), " The Irish Crisis," by
Sir Charles Trevelyan.
8 The law is still in force. No such merciful provisions exist to
this hour in the eviction law of any country save Ireland.
UThe total- sales under the Act up to 1 Jan., 1881, amounted to
£54,000,000, comprising over one-fourth of the whole agricultural
land of Ireland. " In no country in Europe has so much land been
sold in the same time, or sold so cheap." The purchasers numbered
, about 20,000, over 19,000 being Irish.

316 HISTORY OE ENGLAND.
1849. The Navigation laws are repealed (12 & 13 Vic, c
29), and the principle of free-trade is applied to navigation.. .
The cholera rages in England (17 June-13 Oct.).
1850. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between Britain and
the U. S. is signed (19 Ap.).
The so-called "Papal Aggression" creates a strong anti-
Catholic excitement throughout England (Nov.).
1851. The first International Exhibition is opened in the
Crystal Palace, London (1 May).
Gold is discovered in Australia; the first shipments arrive
in England (Dec.).
The 6th census of the U. K. gives 27,637,761.
1852. Lord John Eussell resigns (21 Feb.) ; the Conser
vatives take office, with Lord Derby as premier (27 Feb.)
He is defeated, and. resigns (17 Dec ) ; Lord Aberdeen forms
a Coalition ministry.
.1854, The Crimean War begins (28 Mar.). The British
and French defeat the Eussians at the Alma in the Crimea
(20 Sep. ), and lay siege to Sebastopol (17 Oct.). The " charge
of the Light Brigade" at Balaclava takes place (25 Oct.);
and the battle of Inkerman (5 Nov.). .
1855. Aberdeen resigns (30 Jan.) ; Lord Palmerston is
made premier (1 Feb.).
The Eussians evacuate Sebastopol and the southern forts (8-
9 Sep.), and, after destroying their fleet, retire to the forts
north of the harbor.
1856. Peace is made at Paris (30 Mar.) between Bussia
and Britain, France, Turkey, arid Sardinia.
War breaks out between Britain and China (23 Oct.), and
Britain and Persia (1 Nov.), which has seized Herat.
1857. Persia is defeated, makes peace (14 Ap.), and re
stores Herat to the Afghans (27 July).
The Indian mutiny breaks out (Mar.).
A great commercial panic takes place (Nov.).
1858.. Palmerston resigns (22 Feb.) ; the Conservatives
take office, with Lord Derby as premier (25 Feb.).
The Treaty of Tien-tsen (26-9 June) ends the war with
China. The Jewish Disabilities Bill (21 & 22 Vic, c. 49) allows
Jews to sit in Parliament. The government of India is trans
ferred (c. 106) from the East India Co. to the Crown. The
property quMlification of members of parliament is abolished.
1859. After a terrible struggle of two years the Indian
Mutiny is finally suppressed (Ap.).
The "National Volunteer Association " is organized (May).

QUEEN VICTORIA : ENGLAND A DEMOCRACY. 317
[In 1887 the number of volunteers enrolled was over 200,000.1
Lord Derby resigns (11 June) ; and a Palmerston-Bussell
Liberal ministry is formed (18 June).
The Chinese repulse Admiral Hope in the Pei-ho; an action
which (in 1860) leads to war with China.
1860. The British and French defeat the Chinese (Aug.,
Sep.), capture Pekin (12 Oct.), and peace is made (24 Oct.).
A commercial treaty with France is signed (23 Jan. ).
Lord Cardwell's Irish Land and Landlord and Tenant's
Acts (23 & 24 Vic, cc 153, 154) provide that the tenant
may take away all removable improvements made by him;
give him compensation, payable by the landlord, for all his
other improvements; allow him to work open mines and quarries
and cut turf ; and prohibit distraint for over one year's rent.
1861. The seizure by Capt. Wilkes (of the U. S. Navy) of
Mason and Slidell, on board the Trent (8 Nov.), causes excite
ment in Britain. The U. S. government releases them (28 Dec. ).
The 7th census of the U. K. gives 29,192,419.
1862. The civil war in the U. S. causes great distress
among the Lancashire cotton operatives; £644,756 is raised by
Belief Funds.
1863. The Prince of Wales marries Princess Alexandra of
Denmark (10 Mar.).
1864. Britain cedes the Ionian Isles to Greece (1 June).
1865. Lord Palmerston dies (18 Oct.), aged nearly 81.
Earl Bussell becomes premier (3 Nov.).
A commercial treaty with Austria is signed (16 Dec).
1866. A commercial panic occurs in London (11 May).
Eussell resigns (26 June) ; the Conservatives take office, with
Derby as premier (6 July).
1867. A projected Fenian attack on Chester is prevented
(11, 12 Feb.).
. The Canadian Confederation Act is passed (30 & 31 Vic,c 3) ; ,
also the Beform Act (c 102), greatly extending the franchise.
The Abyssinian expedition lands in Abyssinia (Sep., Oct.).
By the Fenian explosion at the Clerkenwell House of Deten
tion, London (13 Dec), 6 persons are killed outright, 11
others die afterwards, 120 others are wounded (15 permanent
ly, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, etc.), 40 mothers are prema
turely confined, 20 of their babies dying in consequence, and
two women become maniacs.
1868. Lord Derby resigns from ill-health (25 Feb.) ; Dis
raeli becomes premier (29 Feb.)*
The Anglo-Indian army, under Sir Eobert Napier, defeats
the Abyssinians, under King Theodore (10 Ap.), releases the

318 HISTORY OE ENGLAND-
captives (12 Ap.), and storms Magdala (13 Ap.). The Brit
ish troops arrive at Portsmouth (21 June).
Scotch and Irish Eeform Acts (31 & 32 Vic, cc. 48, 49)
are passed (13 July) .
Disraeli resigns (2 Dec), and the Liberals take office, with
Gladstone as premier (9 Dec).
Thomas D'Arcy McGee, M.P.P., is shot dead by a Fenian at
Ottawa, Canada (7 Ap.).
1869. The Act 32 & 33 Vic, o. 42 disestablishes and dis
endows the Anglican Church in Ireland.
1870. Gladstone's first Irish Land Act (33 & 34 Vic, c.
46) converts all tenants-at-will into tenants from year-to-year;
legalizes the Ulster tenant-right; gives tenants "compensation
for disturbance," payable by the landlord, varying from one to
seven years' rent, whether evicted on title or for non-payment
of an " exorbitant rent; " also compensation in cash for all
tenants' improvements ; and provides that tenants shall have
"all reasonable facilities" to purchase their holdings, the
government advancing two-thirds of the purchase-money.
1871. The Washington Treaty between Britain and the
U. S., signed 8 May, refers the Alabama claims to arbitration.
Gladstone issues (20 July) a royal warrant abolishing the
purchase system in the army.
The 8th census of theU. K. shows 31,817,108.
1872. The Geneva tribunal awards (14 Sep.) £3,196,874
to the U. S. in satisfaction of the Alabama claims; Britain
pays the amount (29 Sep.).
A new commercial treaty is made with France (5 Nov.).
1873. - The Judicature Act (36 & 37 Vic, o. 66) establishes.
the High Court of Justice, with 5 divisions.
The Ashantee expedition, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, sails
from England (12 Sep.).
1874. The British defeat the Ashantees, capture Coo-
massie (4 Feb.), make peace (13 Feb.), leave Africa (19'Feb.),
and arrive in England (21_ Mar.).
Gladstone resigns (17 Feb.) ; the Conservatives take office
(26 Feb.), with Disraeli as premier.
Addresses, with about 12,000,000 signatures, conveying the
thanks of the French people to Britain for relief to their
wounded, etc., during their war with Prussia, are presented
to the queen by M. D'Agiout and the Comte de Serurier.
1875. The British government purchases (1 Nov.) for
£4,080,000 the Khedive's shares in the Suez Canal (176 602,
of £20 each, out of 400,000).
1876. The queen is proclaimed Empress of India (1 May)..

QUEEN VICTORIA : ENGLAND A DEMOCRACY. 319
The Irish Ejectment Act (39 & 40 Vic, c. 68) requires the
landlord to give the tenant a year's notice to quit, instead of
6 months, as heretofore.
1877. The Transvaal is annexed-to the empire (12 Ap.).
1878. The Treaty of San Stephano between Bussia and
Turkey js signed (3 Mar.) ; Lord Salisbury (Foreign Secretary)
issues his famous circular to the powers (2 Ap.) showing its
objectionable character ; and war with Bussia being imminent,
the reserves are called out (2 Ap.), and Indian troops are
ordered to Malta (17 Ap.). A European conference thereupon
meets (13 June), and agrees to the Berlin -Treaty (13 July),
settling the Eastern Question.
War with Afghanistan breaks out (Nov.).
1879. War breaks out with the Zulus (12 Jan.), who an
nihilate a British force of 837 at Isandhlwana (22 Jan. ), but
are repulsed at Eorke's Drift (22-23 Jan.). The Zulus are de
feated at Gingholova (2 Ap.) and Ulundi (4 July), Cetewayo
is captured (28 Aug.), and peace is made (1 Sep.).
The Afghans and British make peace at Gandamak (26
May) ; but the British resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, and his
escort (about 80) are massacred in Cabul (3-4 Sep.), and the
war is renewed (6 Sep.).
Lord Cairns's Act (42 & 43 Vic, c. 65) abolishes Queeri's Uni
versity, and establishes " the University of Ireland " (Catholic).
1880. Beaeonsfield resigns (22 Ap.); the Liberals take
office (28 Ap,), with Gladstone as premier.
The Afghans are defeated at Mazra or Baba Wali, near
Candahar (1 Sep.), and peace is made (Nov.).
The Transvaal Boers proclaim the " South African Eepublic"*
(17 Dec), and kill some British troops (20 Dec.) ; Gladstone
sends troops from England, under Sir G. P. Colley (Dec).
1881. The Boers defeat "the British at Laing's Neck (28
Jan.), Ingogo Eiver (8 Feb.), and Majuba Hill (27 Feb.),
where Gen. Colley is killed. An armistice (6 Mar.) and
peace (3 Aug.) are signed, Britain acknowledging the inde
pendence of "the Transvaal State."
Gladstone's second Irish Land Act (44 & 45 Vic, c. 49)
makes the tenant co-owner of his holding ; allows him " free
sale " of his interest or tenant-right ; debars a landlord who
raises his rent from again raising it for 15 years ; allows a
tenant whose rent is raised either to sell his tenant-right, the
landlord to pay him the depreciation caused by the increase
of rent, or to compel the landlord to pay him " compensation
for disturbance" on a scale considerably higher" than that
fixed by the Act of 1870. It allows the tenant to apply'to the

320 HISTORY 0E ENGLAND.
Land Court to fix a fair rent, which then holds for 15 years ;
gives him fuller compensation for his improvements ; provides
that no rent is to be charged on the tenant's improvements ;
and allows a tenant evicted for non-payment of rent to redeem
his holding within six months. A tenant purchasing his hold
ing may borrow from the government three-fourths of the pur
chase-money, instead of two-thirds as under the Act of 1870.
The 9th census of the U. K. shows 35,246,633 ; London
having 3,834,354.
1882. Lord Frederick Cavendish and Thomas H- Burke
are murdered by Fenians in Phoenix Park, Dublin (6 May).
1883. The Phoenix Park murderers are tried (Ap.), found
guilty, and hanged. O'Donnell is found guilty of the murder
of Carey, the informer (1 Dec), and hanged (17 Dec).
Charles S. Parnell is presented with £37,000 (11 Dec).
1884. The Gladstone government send. Gen. Gordon (18
Jan.) to the Soudan to effect the release of the Egyptian gar
risons there ; he reaches Khartoum (18 Feb.). Being besieged
there by the Mahdi, a British expedition sets out from Cairo
(Oct.) to ascend the Nile to effect his release.
1885. The Mahdi takes Khartoum (26 Jan.), Gen. Gordon
being slain. British troops, under Wilson,, reach Khartoum
(28 Jan.), but find it in the hands of the enemy ; and the
British expedition returns to Egypt.
The Act 48 & 49 Vic, c 3 greatly lowers the franchise ;
another Act (c. 23) effects a redistribution of seats. Lord
Ashbourne's Irish Land Act (c 73) provides that a tenant
purchasing his holding may borrow the whole purchase-money
from the government.
By the defection of the Parnellites, Gladstone is defeated on
the budget and resigns (9 June); the Conservatives take office,
with Salisbury as premier.
BeChuanaland is annexed to the empire (12 June).
War is declared against King Theebaw of Burmah (13 Nov.).
1886. Burmah is annexed to the empire (1 Jan. ).
Salisbury is defeated by a combination of Liberals and Par
nellites (25 Jan.), and resigns ; the Liberals take office (3
Feb.), with Gladstone as premier. Gladstone is defeated on
his Irish Home Eule Bill (7 June), and dissolves parliament
(26 June). The new elections show (17 July) about 100
majority against him, and he resigns (20 July). The Con
servatives take office, with Salisbury as premier.
.1887. The Queen's Jubilee is celebrated in London (21
June) with imposing ceremonies ; also throughout the empire.
The' Irish Crimes Act is passed (19 July).

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