YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY OF THE
DIVINITY SCHOOL

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE:
STUDIES IN OLD TESTAMENT CEITICISM.

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THE

FOIMDATIONS OF THE BIBLE :

STUDIES IN OLD TESTAMENT CRITICISM.

E. B. GIEDLE STONE, M.A.,
Hon. Canon of Christ Churoh ; late 'Principal of WycUffe HaU, Oxford ;
Author of Old Testament Synonyms, ^c.

SECOND EDITION.

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EYRE AND SPOTTISWOODE,
LONDON— GREAT NEW STEBET, FLEET STKEET, E.O.
EDINBUKGH, GLASHO-VT, MELBOUENB, & SSVT YORK.

1891.

q-so.

PEEFACE.

rpHIS book is not intended to be an eirenicon bet-ween the
-¦- advanced critic and the student -who stands in the old
paths ; but it may prepare the way for some better mutual
understanding by recalling both parties to a consideration
of the first principles of sound Biblical criticism. An at
tempt, at least, is here made to set forth the literary claims
of the Pentateuch and the later Historical Books of the Old
Testament in the light of such critical principles as we
should naturally apply to all other ancient historical litera
ture. The result is a modification of the old view — some
what in the direction of the new — but also a vindication of
the literary fidelity of the writers, and of the substantial
integrity of the Books. On the one hand, marks of com
pilation and of editorship, together with the use of docu
ments, have been observed throughout ; on the other, cause
is shown for believing that the Law preceded the Prophets,
and that we still have, in the main, the original works of
Moses and those that followed after. The foundations of
the Bible have thus been re-examined and proved to be
historical and trustworthy.
It would be beside the purpose of such a book to follow
in detail, the analytical and destructive criticism which has
travelled from the Continent to England, and which has
been popularised by men of note occupying Professorial
Chairs in our country. For such criticism of critics and

iv PSEFACE.
discussion of minutias it will be enough to refer to Bissell's
work on the Pentateuch (Clark), to Vos on the Mosaic
Origin of the Pentateuchal Codes (Hodder), or to the more
critical examination of the sacred text which is being carried
on by Dr. Green, of Princeton, U.S. It has seemed wiser
in the present enterprise to take salient points, and so to
clear the path; the object being to present something posi
tive rather than negative, and to construct rather than to
criticise : to give, in fact, a view of the Sacred Books which
might reassure any reader whose mind had been disturbed
or perplexed by the popular accounts of biblical criticism
to be found in our ordinary periodical literature.
The lines of literary evidence which have in the main
satisfied the scholars of old time have been set forth afresh
in the following pages, but the results of special enquiries
ihto some comparatively untrodden departments of the sub
ject have been added, being based on a fairly wide and
long- sustained sfudy of the books under discussion.
It may, perhaps, be asked, What has called forth such a .
torrent of destructive criticism on the Old Testament nar
ratives during the past half-century ?
Is it that fresh investigations into Hebrew and cognate
languages have proved Biblical Hebrew to be later than
was formerly supposed ?
Is it that some old MSS. have been discovered which
have tended to shake men's faith in the trustworthiness of
the Sacred Books ?
Is it that some ancient monuments have been brought to
light which have caused men to doubt the accuracy of the
history contained in the Old Testament ?
No; it is none of these things. If we must go down to

PSEFACE. V
the root of the matter we are compelled to affirm that 
wittingly or unwittingly — critics have been influenced by a
growing disincHnation to regard the Bible as unique. They
desire to associate it with the Sacred Books of the East.
They wish to economise in the domain of the supernatural,
to bring down all that is professedly extraordinary in the
sacred records to a level with the rest of the history of
mankind, to minimise the objective in theology and life,
thus ascribing to man or to nature that which in Scripture
is assigned to God. This unconscious unwillingness to let
God act — this reduction of the Divine Being to an im
personal impassive Force — is to be met with in various
branches of thought, and now it has infected the Biblical
student, even the Christian student.
But if such principles as these are to actuate and influence
the Biblical critic, the term " criticism " will become almost
a bye-word, and a critic will be no longer respected as a
scholar. Our business as Biblical critics is to take into
consideration all the phenomena of the text, of the language,
of the contents, and of their legitimate bearing on the history
and literature that sprang out of them, i.e. on Christianity
and the New Testament. Anything less than this is un
scientific. Literary phenomena, for example, must not be
explained away because they involve a belief in miracles,
in prophecy, or in a long-projected scheme of Divine
Eedemption, traceable through centuries of history, and
culminating in the manifestation of Christ, If the critic
clearly detects what Prof. Margoliouth described at the
Hull Church Congress as " unconscious co-operation on the
part of the writers," together with Providential care of the
books, and the guiding hand of God in the history which
they contain, then he must hold fast to these things, and
b

vi PSEFACE.
must let materialism, drift past him while he stands on the .
Eock of Truth.
Many of the popular difficulties about the Bible spring
from the fact that different branches of the subject are
confused in the mind. It is of the A B C of criticism
that we should carefully distinguish between certain ques
tions. Let us look at them for a moment.
I. There is the question of authorship. It is not easy to
tell when or by whom a book was written unless the author
gives his name, and unless the date can be gathered clearly
from the contents. Moreover,, after all, name and date may
be forged. We need, consequently, the voucher of early
tradition, if it can be secured, in order to make sure of a
writer's name. But vouchers for ancient books are difficult
to attain ; besides, who is to vouch for the books of a later
date which bear witness to the earlier ? For example : the
Book of Joshua testifies to the Mosaic origin of Israelite
legislation ; but what of the Book of Joshua ? Can it be
shown to have been written, say, before the time of Samuel ?
and are we sure of the trustworthiness of the records con
cerning Samuel ? and so on. It is evident that in order to
make sure of our ground we must begin at the very bottom,
and build up step by step from the present to the past.
This is the method adopted in the following pages.
II, There is the question of compilation. The materials
from -which a book is composed may be early, yet the com
piler may have lived centuries later. Who shall decide in
such a case where the ancient extracts begin and end, and
what is the comparative value of the several parts ? Here
comes in the importance of the Book of Chronicles as com
pared with the Books of Samuel and Kings, numerous
sections of the former ha-ving been borrowed from an early

PSEFACE. vii
copy of the latter. Attention has been called in the present
volume to this remarkable literary phenomenon, for it pre
sents a precedent and a guide in determining the analogous
compilation of other books.
III. There is the question of editorial worh. This is
involved in the previous one. How far had a compiler to
assume the functions of a modern editor ? Had he to
translate ? to modernise the dialect or spelling ? to revise ?
to add notes ? Besides, it is possible that he had more than
one document before him. Did he in such cases blend his
materials into one ? or did he make a sort of patchwork from
these materials ? Each of these plans would be practicable,
and perhaps we have specimens of both processes in the
Bible. All these matters have been borne in mind by the
writer of the following pages, but, after all, he honestly con
fesses that he must plead ignorance about many of them.
IV. There is the question of integrity. Granted that
we have in a certain book old materials put together by a
later hand, may there not be still later interpolations ? and
how will they affect the character of the book as a whole ?
We judge of the age of a book to a large extent by the use '
made of it,- in the way of quotations or references, by later
writers. But how far does a quotation from a book carry
with it the certainty that the work was then just what it
is now ? Circumstances will alter our judgment on such a
matter'. When we come across what is apparently an inter
polation, as in the case of part of Gen. 36, our attention is
arrested, and we ask. What is the date of the interpolation ?
and what inferences are we to draw concerning the date and
character of the book as a whole ? The case just .cited is
interesting, both from its rarity and because the interpolated
passage, though comparatively late, is not so late as the
b 2

viii PSEFACE.
age in which the genealogies contained in the First Book of
Chronicles were prepared.
V. There is the question of the contents. May we trust
them wholly, or only in part, or not at all ? Much will de
pend on the authority of the writer. Had he opportunities
of knowing the facts ? Was he observant, honest, candid ?
.Was he in any sense commissioned, whether from below or
from above? Here comes to our aid the ancient Jewish
belief that the writers of the Old Testament histories were
Prophets. The truth of the contents of a book is not done
away with by the fact that the work is anonymous. We
accept the record as true if it bears internal marks of credi
bility, and all the more if we have reason to believe that
the -writer belonged to a responsible and trustworthy class,
and that there were no literary difficulties standing in the
way of his having composed the work.
Confirmatory evidence is always desirable, but we cannot
expect additional vouchers for all the minutise of ancient
history. If a writer can be shown to be trustworthy in the
leading outlines of his work, we are prepared to trust the
filling -in of his story, unless there is definite reason to
the contrary. The speeches and dialogues contained in the
Old Testament histories would be covered by this rule.
On the contrary, the credit of an author would suffer if he
were clearly found to be mistaken in some particulars of
his narrative ; and if he could be proved guilty of a series
of deliberate misstatements, his other assertions would com
mand but little respect. Fortunately, the books we are
discussing have no such evil reputation.
It will be observed that in conducting this enquiry the
writer has not sheltered himself under the authority of

PSEFACE. ix
Christ^-though that authority cannot easily be dismissed
from the mind. When I affirm that Jesus is the Christ,
I assert that He is the Person whose advent was promised
in the Old Testament, and I imply my belief in a series
of detailed predictions or forecasts, which run through many
of the books. In fact, a thread of hope may clearly be
detected from Genesis onwards throughout. It narrows and
yet developes as the ages pass on ; and we are left at the
end of the OH Testament firmly impressed with the con
viction that one of the Seed of David was to be expected,
and that he should not only restore the kingdom to Israel,
but should be a light to lighten the Gentiles. Thus, by
believing in Jesus as the Messiah, I set my seal on the
Old Testament as a record of the. doings and counsels of
the unseen Father.
It is a moot point at the present day whether we may go
beyond this, and claim the authority of Christ in support
of the traditional views of the Pentateuch and the books
which follow. He evidently vouches for the authority of
the Scriptures as a whole, for Moses as a law-giver, for
David as a Psalmist, and for the Prophets as sacred teachers
and writers; but does He affirm that the Pentateuch, as
He had it (i.e. as we have it), is the work of Moses, and
that the traditional yiew of the other books which was
current in His time was wholly true ? It seemed wisest
to carry on the following enquiries without discussing this
grave question. At the same time the present writer does
not wish to hide his conviction that the traditional view is
immensely strengthened by having been tacitly accepted by
Christ,— and that, both before and after his resurrection.
To ignore this fact seems to be not only irreverent on the
part of a Christian, but also irrational on the part of a critic.

X PSEFACE.
If, however, criticism disregards the utterances of Jesus
Christ altogether, and proceeds to give up the old view of
the Hebrew Scriptures all along the line, assigning them,
with a greater or less degree of confidence, to the period
between the Captivity and the era of the Maccabees, then
the foundations of our Bible, and consequently of our
beliefs and hopes, would be rudely shaken.
What should we do in such a case ? Should we comfort
ourselves with the reflection that if the books are frauds,
at any rate they are pious frauds ? By uo means. The
student . of mediseval history knows enough about pious
frauds. An honest man cannot sustain his soul on pious
frauds. When he strikes out of his New Testament all
references to the pious frauds of the Old, and all the the
ology which hangs upon them, he will find but little left
with which to battle against evil and to face the day of
death and that which is beyond.
No ; we will carry on the war with the critic's own wea
pons. The Maccabean hypothesis has been conjured with
enough. The farce is over. There is absolutely nothing
which can certainly be called Maccabean either in the con
tents or in the language of the Hebrew Bible. As for the
contents, every English student can judge for himself. And
as for the language, there is no acknowledged Maccabean
Hebrew known to be in existence. We have Bibhcal He
brew and we have Talmudical Hebrew. Which of these was
the language of the Maccabean era ? The investigations of
Prof. Margoliouth supply us with the only answer at present
available.* He has shown by a process of reconstruction
* An Essay on The Place of EoclesiasUcus in Semitic Literature.
{Oxford Press.)

PSEFACE. xi
from three versions what class of Hebrew was in vogue
when the Apocryphal Book of Ecclesiasticus was written.
It proves to be not the Hebrew of the Bible, but the later
degraded or middle Hebrew, which grew up after the Cap
tivity, and was the colloquial language of the Jews tiU the
downfall of Jerusalem, and which included " the Hebrew
tongue " spoken by our Lord and His Apostles. The infer
ence is plain, and there is no rebutting evidence ; thus the
last shred of hope for destructive criticism, the linguistic
hope, is torn away by the linguist himself.
To conclude. We may still read our Bible as in the
ancient days. When it tells us of the dealings and mani
festations of God in Creation, in Providence, and in His
tory, we may still take its record as true. We may still rest
upon its exceeding great and precious promises, and believe
that they are " Yea and Amen in Christ." The Word of
God has been tried to the uttermost, ' but we may still
love it.
It only remains to be said that the greater part of the
following pages originally appeared as a series of papers in
the Record newspaper ; but the whole has been re-examined,
re-arranged, and in part re-written.
It is possible that there may be some errata amongst the
950 references to the Scriptures contained in the book,
but pains have been taken to reduce them to a minimum.
The arguments adduced will not commend themselves
equally to all minds, and the author may be accused of
shutting his eyes to the difficulties of his position, or of
failing to appreciate the force of opposing criticism. He
has not, however, wittingly passed over any critical con-

xu , PSEFACE.
siderations of a linguistic character which needed to be
brought forward, though he has purposely abstained from
enumerating imaginary objections. Each chapter is com
plete in itself, and produces its own evidence ; and after
due deduction is made for possible bias and over-statement,
it -will be found that the arguments converge and are
cumulative, and it is hoped conclusive.
E. B. G.
Hampstead, 1890.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I.
The Question Stated.
Pages
1. Christianity and literature. — 2. The Old Testament pre
supposed by the 'S.ew. — 3. The Je-wish Bible. — 4. Melito's list.
— 6.' Josephus' list ; Council of Jamnia ; Jerome's list. — 6. The
Apocrypha. — 7. Traditional vie-w of the Old Testament ; Sir
Isaac Ne-wton's vie-w. — 8. Modern criticism. — 9. Proposed method
of discussion 1-9

CHAPTEE II.
What do the Books say of themselves ? and -what
; do othbes say op them?
1. Limits of the discussion. — 2. Personality of the historians
kept out of sight. — 3. Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. — 4. Con
trast -with the Prophetic Books. — 5. Verdict of the Ne-w Testa
ment on the Old ; Christ and Moses. — 6. Jewish -vie-w. —
7. Maccabean vie-w. — 8. Testimony of Ecclesiasticus. — 9. Early
traditions concerning Nehemiah and Ezra ; the traditional vie-w
rational. — 10. The -writers of the Old Testament prophetic. —
11. Summary - 10-18
CHAPTEE III.
HiSTOET OF Wkitino FBOM THE Dats OF Nehemiah
upwakds.
1. Writing in the age of Nehemiah. — 2. The form of books;
sealing. — 3. Eeference to -writing in Ezra. — 4. The age of
Jeremiah ; of Hezekiah. — 5. The period of the Judges ; the
age of Joshua. — 6. The age of Moses. — 7. The Shoterim. —
8. Antiquity, of the art of -writing ; in Egypt ; in Mesopotamia.
—9. Summary - - - - 19-26

xiv CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE IV.
MateeiaI/S feom which the Books of Samubl and
Kings aee Composed. Pages
1. Materials for David's history. — 2. Eecorders and official
-writers. — 3. Materials for Solomon's history. — 4. For Eeho-
boam's history. — 51 The history of the later kings. — 6. The
kings of Israel. — 7. Summary - 27-34

CHAPTEE V.
Indications of a Compilee's Hand in the Later
HisTOBicAL Books.
1. Completion of the Book of Kings. — 2. Possibly Jeremiah's
¦work. — 3. Compilation of the Chropicles ; relation of Chroniftles to
Ezra; the T-wo Parts of Ezra. — 4. Nehemiah. — 5. Summary 36-39

CHAPTEE VI.
Maeks of Compilation in the Eaeliest Books.
1. Materials for the Books of Joshua and Judges. — 2. Eelation-
ship bet-ween Judges and Joshua. — 3. Eecapltulations. — 4. The
Pentateuch.. — 5. Materials for Deuteronomy. — 6. For Numbers.
¦ — 7. For Leviticus. — 8. For Exodus. — 9. The Book of Genesis ;
its main characteristic. Divine revelation and intervention ;
A rational hypothesis. — ro. The pre-Patriarehal Age.— 11. Trans
mission of primaeval truth. — 12. Summary - 40-48
CHAPTEE VII.
What was Nehemiah's Bible ?
1. Tests of age and integrity needed. — 2. Analogy of the
Ne-w Testament ; difficulty in case of the Old Testament. —
3. Quotations. — 4. Quotations and references in Ezra 1-6. —
5. In-EzTa-7-10. — 6. In Nehemiah; Neh. 9; further quotations
and references. — 7. Summary - - 49-55'

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE vin;

Quotations and Eefeeences teaced back feom the Times
of the Kings to the Peeiod of the Judges.

1. Quotations and references in the Chronicles. — 2. In the
Kings. — 3. In Samuel. — 4. Eecapitulation.- — 5. Quotations and
references in the Judges - - 56-61

CHAPTEE IX.
The Case op Joshua and the Pentateuch.
1. Interlocking of the first six Books. — 2. Exodus related to
the later Books. — 3. Further relationships. — 4. The brazen
serpent ... . 62-65
CHAPTEE X.
Notes Inteoduced into the Eaely Books.
1. Notes and parentheses. — 2. Passages in. Genesis. — 3. In
Exodus. — 4. In Numbers.- 5. In , Deuteronomy. — 6. Theological
notes. — 7. Note in Judges - - - 66-74
CHAPTEE XI.
Othee Notes in the Histoeical Books.
1. "Unto this day." — 2. Archaic names. — 3. Ancient customs.
— 4. Historical notes. — 5. Monumental notes. — 6. Literary
Notes. — 7. Explanations of local names. — 8. Summary 75-81
CHAPTEE XII.
Fidelity of the Weitees and Compilees.
1. Questions concerning- editorship. — 2. Fidelity of Moses. —
3. Eeports of speeches,^4. Eeports of conversations. — 5. Analogy
of the Ne-w Testament - - - 82-88

svi CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE Xin.
Some Peculiaeities in the Style of the Weitees. Pages
1. Was translation necessary? — or modernisation? — 2. Intro-
troductions and summaries. — 3. " These are the generations " ;
Gen. 5. 1. — 4. Fondness for repetitions. — S. Variations in use of
proper names. — 6. Ways of reckoning. — 7. Skill of writers. —
8. Theological style of the vrriters. — 9. Biblical idioms - 89-98
CHAPTEE XIV.
Histoeical Chaeactee of the Books.
1. Further tests proposed. — 2. Internal. — 3. External. —
4. Eesults of discoveries - - 99-102
CHAPTEE XV.
Cheonologioal Element in Biblical Hxstoey.
1. Biblical chronology. — 2. Pre-Patriarchal eras. — 3. Patri
archal chronology. — 4. Era of the Exodus.-^S. Chronology of
the Judges; 1 Kings 6. I.- — 6. Eegal period; Babylonian and
Persian eras; later Jewish chronology. — 7. Summary. — 8. Hebrew
di-visions of time. — 9. The months 103-109
CHAPTEE XVI.
The Peimitive Genealogies of Iseael.
1. Genealogies in the Old Testament ; Pedigrees ; Ezra's
pedigree. — 2. Forms of pedigree.— 3. Omissions in pedigrees ;
Double names. — 4. Other peculiarities. — 5. Zerubbabel's '
pedigree. — 6. Genesis pre-supposed throughout ; Jacob's sons. —
7. Pedigrees in the age of Moses ; tribal sub-divisions. —
8. Pedigrees in the Book of Nuinbers - - - 110-117
CHAPTEE XVII.
Genealogies in the Latee Books.
1. Genealogies in the Chronicles.— 2. Eevision of pedigrees
in David's time.— 3. In the days of Jotham and Hezekiah. —
4. The latest of the Biblical pedigrees. — 5. 1 Chron. 9 in
relation to Neh. 2. — 6. Other pedigrees in Ezra and Nehemiah. —
7. Summary - - 118-123

CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE XVIII.
Topogeaphical Element in Eaely Biblical Histoey.
1. Topographical details in the Old Testament. — 2. Wealth
of Hebrew language ; descriptive names ; special words. —
3. Monuments; sepulchres. — 4. Stages in topography; Eden;
Ararat. — 5. Gen. 10. — 6. Ancient names of places 124-129
CHAPTEE XIX.
The Topogeaphy of the Latee Books.
1. Topography in Exodus. — 2. Boundaries of Canaan. —
3. Points of compass. — 4. Topography in Joshua. — 5. In the
later books. — 6. Topography of Jerusalem. — 7. Summary 130-134
CHAPTEE XX.
Legislative Codes in the Pentateuch.
1. Origin of Biblical legislation.^ — 2. The Mosaic Law ; Ten
Commandments ; Exod. 21-23 ; Exod. 34 ; the Levitical code ;
Camp regulations.' — 3. Speeches in Deuteronomy ; special features
of the book. — 4. Difficulty in Mosaic legislation. — 5. A further
difficulty. — 6. Analogy with Christian legislation. — 7. Origin
and use of ceremonial laws. — 8. Ar6 these interpolations ? 136-141
CHAPTEE XXI.
Special Offices and Oedinances.
1. Names of officials in Old Testament. — 2. Titles of rulers.
3. Office of priest. — 4. " The priests the Levites." — 6. Land
tenure of priests. — 6. High places. — 7- Altars. — 8. Hebrew
feasts - '- 1 - 142-149
CHAPTEE XXII.
Names of God in the Old Testament.
1. Discussion of the Divine names.— 2. Variety in the names.
— 3. Tendencies in writers. — A. The name Jehovah ; English
version ; usage of the name. — 6. Its origin ; Exod. 3 ; Exod. 6 ;
possible solution of difficulty. — 6. Names of God in Genesis. —
7. The question re-stated ; analogy -with names of Christ.
— 8. Use of name Jehovah in Genesis. — 9. Are there different
documents; difficulty of this theory. — 10. Conclusion- - 160-158

xviii ' CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE XXIII.
Peculiaeities in Biblical Teeminology.
1. Origin of language ; Hebrew dialects.— 2. Foreign words.
— 3. Specialities in Hebrew; sacred and ceremonial words. —
4. Distinctions in Hebrew. — 5. Agricultural words. — 6. Com
mercial.— 7. Military.— 8. Structural - - 159-164
CHAPTEE XXIV.
The Beaeing of Teeminology on the Age of the Books.
1. Books grouped by their language. — -2. Peculiar words in
different ages. — 3. Ancient money; the shekel, talent, dram. —
4. Weights and measures. — 5. Musical instruments. — 6. Classes
of idols in the Old Testament; the grove ; foreign idola,try. —
7. Summary - . - - 165-170
CHAPTEE XXV.
Poetical Poetions op the Histoeical Books.
1. Early poetry. — 2. Hebrew lays. — 3. Modern critical yier^.
— 4. Ancient heathen poetry . i - - . 171-175
CHAPTEE XXVI.
Notes on the Spelling of Hebeew Woeds.
1. Varieties in spelling. — 2. Names of things. — 3. Of places.
— 4. Proper names. — 5. Origin of names. — 6. Abbreviations. —
7. Older and later forms. — 8. Foreign names ; foreign gods - 176-182
CHAPTEE XXVn.
Notes on the State op the Hebeew Text.
1. Hebrew MSS. — 2. Their age. — 3. Variations and pecu
liarities in MSS. — 4. Various readings. — 5. Age of variations.
— 6. Their origin. — 7. The Masorah. — 8, State of the text in
our Lord's time ; the Septuagint. — 9. Old Testament variations.
— 10. Divergencies between Hebrew and LXX. — 11. Can we
obtain a purer text ? - ... - - 183-190

CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE XXVin.
Sdmmaey and Conclusion.
1. Object aimed at. — 2. Line of argument foUo-wed. — 3. Con
cessions and convictions. — 4. Dangers to critics; first principles
of criticism.— 8. Anachronisms and inconsistencies. — 6. Faults
on both sides. — 7. Theology and criticism. — 8. Spiritual value
of the books.— 9. They are to be trusted ... 191-199

Appendix - , - - - 203
Index of Subjects ' 205
Index of Texts - 209

THE
FOUNDATIONS, OF THE BIBLE.

-tt_j;^=««a>w^toa_«>—

CHAPTEE I.

THE QUESTION STATED,
THE Christian Faith, whilst eminently practical in its Christianity
character, is to some extent literary in its origin, ture.
A man may believe in Christ and yet be unable to read ;
but probably his teacher is a reader ; and certainly Chris
tians have a strong tendency to become readers. There
can be Uttle doubt that a great impetus was given to the
copying trade through the issue of the books of the New
Testament towards the close of the first century of our
era, and that Christianity was speedily established as a
literary religion ; its adherents, however lowly, regarding
the possession of a Gospel or some other sacred book as a
very high privilege.
2, But Christianity sprang: out of an older Faith ; and ^^ Old
rri, ? n -r i -n- ¦ -.¦ Testament
that, too, was literary. JLhe Lord Jesus and His immediate presup-
followers were not only Israelites nationally, but they were the Neio.
possessors of certain sacred books which had come down
to them from ancient times and were regarded as of the
highest authority. " The Law," " the Law and the Pro
phets," " the Scriptures," " the Holy Scriptures," " the
Old Testament or Covenant," " the Psalms " — these are
constantly referred to as the common property and sacred
A

2 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
heritage of all Israel. They are regarded as containing
Di-^ine utterances, whether of the nature of promise or
warning, history or prophecy, law or doctrine. These old
books are quoted about six hundred times in the New
Testament ; the mission of Christ is regarded as the fulfil
ment, in every detail, of utterances which they contain ; thfe
teaching of Christ claims to be judged by them ; and the
Christian views of God, of sin, of judgment, of righteous
ness, and of the Incarnation, Death and Resurrection of
God's Son, presuppose such a theological foundation as is
laid in the Old Testament. AU adherents of the Israelite
or (to use the more popular word) the Jewish creed were
professedly at one with the founders of the Christian Faith
in this respect. However much they might differ in ques
tions of interpretation, however distant their hearts might
be from the God whom they professedly followed, however
vexed and angry they might be with Jesus of Nazareth for
the authority and simplicity with which He set forth the
great central truths contained in the Law and the Prophets,
yet the books to which He referred were indubitably the
books which they held sacred. To these books they appealed
when asked by Herod where the Messiah should be born,
and to these they referred when challenging Nicodemus to
show whether any prophet was to arise out of Nazareth.
The Jewish 3. What, then, are the books which thus appear to be the
common property of Jew and Christian ? and what is their
value and authority ?
The simple answer which comes to every Christian's li^s
in answer to the first question is that they are the books
contained in our Old Testament. About this there is very
little discussion amongst modern critics, as the e-vidence^
though simple, is sure. The second question calls for more
patient examination.
Our first business, then, is to show the grounds for
affirming that the books of the Old Testament constituted
the Jewish Scriptures — neither more nor less — in our

THE QUESTION STATED. 3
Lord's time. That our Old Testament exactly answers to
the Jewish Bible at the present day any English student
can find out for himself by examining a Jewish Bible, such
as that published by Triibner in 5625 (1865), translated
by Isaac Leeser. The title-page of this book runs thus : —
" D''nn3"l D^X''li rrrin («-e. the Law, the' Prophets, and ¦
the Writings). The Twenty-four Books of the Holy Scrip
tures : carefully translated according to the Massoretic text,
after the best Jewish authorities." In the Preface the
translator refers to other versions, and then proceeds to
explain the three-fold division of the books. The first is
the Pentateuch ; the second contains Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, Kings, and all the prophets except Daniel ; whilst
the third contains Psalms, Proverbs, Job, the five Megilloth
or rolls (Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Eeclesiastes,
and Esther), Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles. The
reader may not at once see how these make up twenty-four
books,; but the twelve minor prophets are counted as one,
and the five rolls were all counted as one, these small books
being written or associated together so that they might not
be lost or overlooked. All modern Hebrew Bibles have the
same contents and arrangement.
4. It may be interesting to compare this list of the books MeiUo't
of the Old Testament with two very ancient catalogues, one
coming to us from Christian sources and one from Jewish.
In the fourth book of the Ecclesiastical History by
Eusebius (written about a.d. 325), he gives an account' of
a certain Melito, Bishop of Sardis, who flourished about
A.D. 170. He was a learned man, and wrote various works,
e.g. on the Passover, on the Lord's Day, on Psychology,
and on Baptism. In a letter to one Onesimus, whom he
calls Brother, he says, "You were desirous of ha-sdng an
exact statement of the Old Testament, how many in number
and. in what order the books were written. When, there
fore, I went to the East, I accurately ascertained the books
of tl^e Old Testament, and send them to you here below."
A2

4 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
He then gives " of Moses five books, Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
four books of Kings, two of Chronicles, Psalms, Proverbs of
Solomon (which is also called Wisdom), Eeclesiastes, Song
of Songs, Job, Isaiah, Jeremiah, the twelve (minor) pre
phets, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Esdras {i.e. Ezra)." It will be
observed that the order of the books here is more like ours
than like the Jewish, and some of the lesser books are not
noticed, e.g. Lamentations, which would be written with
Jeremiah, and Nehemiah with Ezra.
Josephus' 5. The Jewish writer Josephus was about contemporary
with St. Paul. He wrote a book " against Apion," in which,
amongst other things, he contrasts the Sacred Books of the
Jews with those of the Egyptians. He says (I. 8), "We
have not a countless number of books, but only two-and-
twenty, which are rightly accredited. Of these five are the
Books of Moses, containing the Law and the history of the
generations of men up to his death. From the death of
Moses to that of Artaxerxes" (j'.ei the age of Nehemiah)
" the prophets who followed Moses described the things
which were done during the age of each one respectively
in thirteen books. The remaining four contain hymns to
God and rules of life for men." He adds that " from the
time of Artaxerxes until the present period all occurrences
have been written down, but they are not regarded as
entitled to the like credit with those which precede them,
because there was no certain succession of prophets." He
further observes that " the confidence we place in our own
Scriptures {ypaiiiutTo) is shown by the fact that, although
so many ages have passed away, no one has dared to add
to them, or to take away, or to alter. In all Jews it is
implanted, even from their birth, to regard them as being
the instructions of God and to abide steadfastly by them,
and, if it be necessary, to die gladly for therii."
This passage from the controversial writings of Josephus
is of importance for many reasons. It gives us the Jewish
view of the authenticity, trustworthiness, authority, and

THE QUESTION STATED. . 5
inspiration of the Old Testament, and indicates the tenacity
with which the people were prepared to defend the books
which they so justly held to be sacred. It will be seen that
Josephus enumerates twenty-two books in the Old Testa
ment. He probably reckoned them according to the number
of the letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The question has
sometimes been raised whether Josephus' enumeration in
cluded the Book of Esther, but we need not discuss this.
An assembly of Jews, held at Jamnia some time after Council of
the destruction of Jerusalem, reckoned the number of the "'"""¦
Sacred Books as twenty-four, viz., five of the Law ; eight of
the Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah,
EzCkiel, Isaiah, and the Twelve) ; eleven other books or
writings (Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Eeclesiastes, Can
ticles, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, Chronicles).
Jerome (a.d. 380), in his celebrated Prologus Galeatus, Jerome's
gives this as the regular traditional Jewish reckoning, -viz.,
five Books of Moses, Joshua, Judges (with Ruth), Samuel,
Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve, Job, Psalms,
Proverbs, Eeclesiastes, Canticles, Daniel, Chronicles, Ezra
(with Nehemiah), Esther.
6. It may now be taken for granted^in fact there has
seldom been any serious doubt about the matter— that our
Old Testament is practically the same as the collection of
books which the Jews in our Lord's time held sacred. But
some one will say. What about the Apocrypha ? This is The Apo-
certainly a perplexing question. The Apocrypha consists
of various books and parts of books of uncertain date and
origin, which have been incorporated, no one knows when
or by whom, into the ancient Greek translation of the Old
Testament commonly called the Septuagint (LXX.). It is
clear that Josephus knew them and used some of them in
the preparation of his "Antiquities"; it is equally certain
from the passage cited above that he did not rank them as
of co-ordinate authority with the Sacred Books. In this
judgment he appears to be at one with the Jewish leaders

6 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
and Christian teachers of the Apostolic age. It -will there
fore be unnecessary for our present inquiry that we should
discuss them at all.

Traditional
view oftlie
Old Testa
ment.

Sir Isaac
'Newton's

7. We now revert to the second question, which will have
to be discussed more at large, viz.. Whence came the Jewish
Sacred Books ? What is their age ? Who wrote them ? On
what authority have they been received by Jew and Christiaii
alike ? To say that they are of God is a true but an in
complete answer. They are manifestly regarded as God-
breathed, or inspired in some sense, by Jew and Christian.
They teach the things of God, and are imbued with His
Spirit. All who believe in God at all recognise this, though
they would differ ¦ exceedingly from one another in their
estimate of the religious va-lue of different books and parts
of books. But whilst the spirit of the books is of God, the
body is of man, and their literary position must be judged
from a man's point of view. They must be dealt with as
ancient Semitic literature, and may be subjected to the same
class of criticism as any other ancient documents of about
the same age and style, if such are to be found.
Perhaps the traditional belief concerning the age and
authorship of the books has never been set forth more
simply and sensibly than by that great layman to whom
Cambridge, England, and the world owe so much — Sir
Isaac Newton. In the first chapter of his work on Daniel,
he starts with the finding of the Law in the age of Josiah.
" This," he adds, " is the Book of the Law now extant." He
traces it back to the time of Asa and Jehoshaphat, and
points -out that the Pentateuch was received both by the
two tribes and by the ten, the Samaritan Pentateuch being
a lineal descendant of the old Law. He is thus led back to
the days of the undivided kingdom, and shows that the Law
was recognised by David. He proceeds to examine the
Pentateuch itself, and shows that it is composed of various
histories, e.g. the History of the Creation, composed by
Moses, the Book of the Generations of Adam, and the Book

THE QUESTION STATED. 7
of the Wars of the Lord, which was begun by Moses. These,
he says, were public books, and therefore not written without ¦
the authority of Moses and Joshua ; and he concludes that
the Prophet Samuel had leisure, in the reign of Saul, to put
them into the form of the Books of Moses and Joshua, now
extant, inserting into the Book of Genesis the genealogy of
the kings of Edom, until there reigned a king in Israel (Gen.
36. 3 1) . The Book of the Judges, he continues, was compiled
^fter the death of Sampson out of the Acts of the Judges, 
also by Samuel, who had full authority for the work. The
same was the case, he considers, -with the Book of Ruth.
The rest of the Historical Books were jbrought into their
present form by Ezra and Nehemiah, who had in their
hands the materials left by contemporary writers.
This, -view is in general agreement -with such a work as
Graves on the Pentateuch, which our fathers regarded as
almost a classic on the subject. It makes due allowance
for compilation and for editorial revision ; and it sufficiently
recognises both the human and the divine side of these
ancient compositions. Now, however, the whole question is
reopened. 8. The critical inquiry into the age, authorship, and com- Modem
pilation of the books of the Old Testament has occupied " ;
some minds for a considerable period, and though no finality
or agreement has been reached by critical students there is
a decided "tendency" in the minds of many in a certain
direction. Some critics, e.g. Kuenen and Welhausen, have
propounded very extreme views, totally antagonistic to old-
fashioned notions about the Mosaic authorship of the Pen
tateuch, a work which they regard as having Jieen elaborated
by many hands and completed subsequent to the Captivity.
Others, notably the venerable Dr. Delitzsch,* though far
more moderate, are drifting slowly from their old moorings ;
whilst there are not wanting men in our own country of such
* This lover of sacred truth and friend of Israel has passed away since these
pages -were written.

8 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
weight and learning as the Dean of Canterbury and Pro
fessor Stanley Leathes, whose published utterances indicate
that they see no reason to depart in the main from the
traditional and prima facie view of the age and authorship
of the books as a whole.
Proposed 9. It is quite clear that Christian students are not all of
method of .,, -r-iiii-
discussion, one mind on the matter. It is also clear that there is no
one definite view of the books which can be set up as " the
assured result of criticism." The way is still open ; it is
still possible for the student to return to the old path, if
truth demands it. We propose in the following chapters
to investigate the matter afresh, as fully as circumstances
permit, from a literary and critical point of view, and to ask
ourselves as we go afong. What does the truth demand ?
In undertaking such a work we have two possible courses
before us. We may take the ultra-sceptical position that
nothing is to be accepted which cannot be proved ; that
every difference is a discrepancy ; that prophecy and mira
cles are equally impossible, and brand the books which con
tain them as myths ; that selfish motives animated the
writers ; and that literature generally is to be brought down
as low (morally and chronologically) as possible. Or we
may adopt the charitable and rational hypothesis that the
writers of a series of religious books, which have come to us
on the highest authority, are to be trusted ; that their words-
call for a careful and not unfavourable construction ; that
the historical and literary foundations on which they stand
should be fully estimated apart from the question of their
supernatural contents ; that their language and contents
should nevertheless be studied together ; and that linguistic
and literary difficulties should be viewed in the light of the
age and circumstances of the writers. This last is the line
which we propose to take ; at the same time we must hide
nothing which appears to have a real bearing on the great
questions at issue, even though it seem to militate against
the view to which we are inclined to assent.

THE QUESTION STATED. 9
It is no light matter to open this subject in a popular way,
and to , raise questions which may seem to some almost a
profanation. Critical points, involving sometimes references
to the Hebrew language, will have to be brought in some
intelhgible way before EngUsh readers; and, whilst each
chapter will aim at a certain completeness, the force of none
can be fully estimated till the whole discussion is over. The
attempt will doubtless be regarded by some as unwise, and
by others as vain ; but it has been made in the interest of
English Bible students, who need help and guidance in this
difficult matter, and many of whom have neither the time
nor the -will to read abstruse books. It will be impossible to
go over the whole Old Testament. The books mainly dealt
with will be the Pentateuch and the Historical Books, which
constitute the backbone of the Jewish Scriptures, and which
give glimpses of the origin, history, and purpose of that
nation of whom Christ came according to the flesh.

10

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER II.

Limits of
the discus
sion.

Thefirst
question.

¦WHAT DO THE BOOKS SAY OF THEMSELVES? AND WHAT
DO OTHERS SAT OF THEM ?
1. The books which we propose to discuss are the Pen
tateuch, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra,
and Nehemiah. Others may occasionally be referred -to
for illustration, but those now named will occupy us suffi
ciently. There are many problems to be dealt with when
we subject a single ancient book to what is called " higher
criticism," and after all has been said that can fairly be
advanced we shall have to confess our hopeless ign6rance
on many questions; still we hope to find our way to a
position which is trustworthy and secure, if not absolutely
impregnable ; and we -will never let go our hold of what we
know because there are a great many things which we do
not know.
Our first inquiry is this. What do the books say of
themselves ? This is always the right question to start
with when examining any literary production. Other
questions follow, e.g. What do other authorities say of
these books? Afterwards "we have to ask. How far do
the contents and language of the books fall in with the
answers given to these two questions ?

Personality of the histo
rians hept
out of sight.

2. We open our Bible for the answer to our first question,
and we confess to a feeling of disappointment at finding that
the books at first sight say next to nothing about themselves.
Genesis has not a word of preface or postscript as to its author.
There is not the slightest indication in it that it is the work
of Moses. The other four books of the Pentateuch, though
full of narratives about Moses, and containing several refer
ences to writing which we shall have to discuss later, do not
in so many words claim Moses as their author. Nor is Joshua

WHAT DO THE BOOKS SAY? 11
spoken of as the writer of the book which bears his name.
There is not a word to indicate that any one person was the
writer or compiler of the Book of Judges. The same is the
case with Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. In all these books
the writer, if he introduces himself at all, speaks of himself
in the third person. Moreover, though a large proportion
of the materials used in these books bears the mark, or at
least has the appearance, of being more or less contemporary
with the events recorded, the writer hardly ever associates
himself with the rest of the people spoken of by using the
first person plural. We do, indeed, find this in Josh. 5. 1,
where -we read that " the kings of the Canaanites heard that
the Lord had dried up the waters of Jordan until we were
passed over." The verse startles us as we read it from the
very rarity of an expression which to alny Englishman would
be the most ordinary one to use. The style of the books, or
the genius of the language, or some peculiar feeling in the
mind of the writers evidently led them to use the third
person singular or plural, even though they themselves
might be the chief actors or participators in the events
recorded. It reminds us of the talk of childhood. Years
sometimes pass away before children get rid of the habit of
talking of themselves in the third- person.
Other ancient writings may be found to exhibit this
remarkable phenomenon in style ; and the Gospels them
selves illustrate the same thing, being all anonymous, and
almost wholly devoid of the use of the first person, except
in conversations. No argument can be drawn from it con
cerning authorship. It cannot be affirmed, e.g. that Moses
wrote none of the Pentateuch because he is only spoken of
in the third person.
3. But we have yet to deal with the Books of Ezra and Books of
o -r-. • p Ezra and
Nehemiah. The Book of Ezra consists of two parts, the Nehemiah.
first six chapters referring to things which happened sixty
years before the later record. -There is no preface or post
script to the book to indicate its author. In the seventh

12 THE, FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
chapter, however, Ezra is introduced in the third person,
and an account of his lineage and early proceedings is given ;
but in the twenty-seventh verse he breaks out into praise
and drops the third person, saying, " Blessed be the Lord
God of our fathers, who hath extended mercy unto me," &c.
The first person runs on through the eighth and ninth chap
ters, but the third person is reverted to in the tenth, though
there is no break in the narrative. Thus we have what may ,
be called in modern fashion " a new departure," though it is
introduced with some degree of hesitation.
How does the case stand with Nehemiah ? Here, for the
first time, we have a preliminary line which seems to denote
the author of the book. It runs thus : — " The words of
Nehemiah the son of Hachaliah.". The book runs in the
first person throughout, except, of course, where lists and
extracts are given. It is Nehemiah's record of his own
words and deeds. If the title were translated "the deeds
of Nehemiah" instead of "the words," this would not
interfere with the conclusion that at last we have got
what we have searched for in vain all through the BibKcal
histories — a book the greater part of which is confessedly
written by one man, who writes in the first person and gives
his name.
C<!»|™«* 4. It is interesting to compare the historical writings
Prophetic with the prophetic in this matter. It seems to have been
thought far more necessary to prefix the names in the latter
case than in the former. Consequently all the Prophets give
their names in the first verse of their writings. The Book
of Daniel is partly historical and partly prophetical. Daniel
is introduced in the third person in the historical part, and
in the first person in the prophetical part. It remained for
Nehemiah, the contemporary of Malachi, to put his name on
the close of the Historical Books of the Old Testament.
tUNel}"'^ 5. Before critically examining the books themselves, it
^aTow. ^"^ ^® ¦"'^1^' i'^ *^® second place, to ask what ancient

WHAT DO THE BOOKS SAY? 13
tradition and external authority say on the question of the
authorship of the books' under discussion. For this purpose
we turn in the first place to the New Testament, which we
here refer to not as an inspired book, but as a collection of
ancient Jewish literature of high character.
In the New Testament we find the general division of the
Hebrew Scriptures into the Law, the Prophets, and the
Psalms ; answering to the ordinary Jewish arrangement of
the Law, the Prophets, and the " Writings," of which last
the Psalms constituted the first and most important part.
The passage in St. Luke to which we specially refer (34. 44)
is an important one. The risen Lord is here represented
as addressing His personal followers, and is recurring to
His former teaching. He Says : — " These are the words
which I spake unto you, while I was yet with you, that all
things must be fulfilled, which were written in the law of
Moses, and in the prophets, and in the Psalms, concern
ing Me." The Lord thus manifestly appeals to the Old
Testament as containing Messianic hints and prophecies
which must necessarily be fulfilled; the necessity lying in
the authority of the books, which were in some sense from
God. Nothing is here said of the authorship of the greater part
of the Old Testament, but David is elsewhere quoted as the
writer of certain Psalms, e.g. the second (Acts 4, 25), the
sixteenth (Acts 3. 25), and the 110th (Acts 2. 34); whilst,
the names of the prophets are occasionally given, e.g. Isaiah
(Acts 8. 28), and Joel (Acts 3. 16). The names of the
prophetic writers or compilers of the Historical Books are
nowhere mentioned.
The case, however, is different in regard to the authorship
of the Pentateuch. Great stress is laid upon the position of
Moses. His name is freely used — not, indeed, as having
written Genesis, or even the Pentateuch as a whole, but as
leader, legislator, writer. " The Law was given by Moses "
(John 1. 17). " Did not Moses give you the Law ? " (7. 19).
" Moses wrote of Me " (5. 46).

14 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Christ and If a tradition were already existing in the time of Christ
°*^*' that the Pentateuch as a whole claimed Moses as writer,
compiler, or authorizer, our Lord's words did not run coun
ter to it, but rather tended to stamp it with renewed
authority. Three classes c(f passages illustrate this point
inore clearly. The Pentateuch may be divided into the
historical part, the legislative, and the pre-Mosaic. The
first would include the account of the burning bush. This
is quoted by our Lord as from " the Book of Moses " (Mark
12. 26). The second would include the rule concerning
divorce. This is definitely stated by our Lord to be a
precept written by Moses (Mark 10. 6). The third would
include the ordinance of circumcision, of which our Lord
says (John 7.22), "Moses gave you circumcision, not that- it
was of Moses, but of the fathers" {i.e. the Patriarchs). Thus
there can hardly be any serious doubt that Moses was spoken
of and regarded by Christ as answerable in some sense for
the substance of the Law as we have it now, and that Genesis
is taken as a faithful record of the Patriarchal age.
Jeioishview. 6. The Jews in our Lord's time assigned the Pentateuch
unhesitatingly to Moses. This is shown by the testimony of
Josephus, in a passage already cited ; it is affirmed in the
Talmud {e.g. in Baba Bathra, circ. a.d. 500 ; compare also
the opening sentences of Pirke Aboth, the most ancient of
Talmudical Treatises, which is to be found in every Jewish
Prayer Book). The same belief is implied by such Jewish
utterances as we find in Matt. 19. 7 ; Mark 10. 3 ; John
1. 45 ; 7. 19 ; Acts 6. 14. It must be acknowledged, more
over, that the Scribes of that age were not critics in the
modern sense, and were generally more inclined to conserve,
than to invent. There were parties amongst them who
would keep a strict watch over one another, some being very
jealous over the written Law, and others holding an oral
interpretation of it to be of almost equal value. It certainly
never seems to have occurred to anyone in those days that
the Pentateuch was not the work of Moses.

WHAT DO THE BOOKS SAY? 15
7. But let us get back to an earlier period. How did the Maccabean
matter stand in the days of the Maccabees, who were in
power 150 years further back ? We find that there was the
same certainty about the Prophets, the same reticence, about
The names of the prophetico-historic writers, the same be
lief about Moses. The books are freely used as true and
authoritative. The names of the great men from Abraharn
to Daniel Were in men's mouths (see 1 Mac. 3. 52-60) ;
" the holy books of , the Scripture " were their comfort
(1 Mac. 13. 9) ; copies of the Book of the Law were not rare
(1 Mac. 1. 56, 57) ; the Law in all its leading parts was
recognized as " of Moses" (1 Esdr. 1. 6, 11 ; 5. 49; Tobit
7. 13 ; Ecclus. 34. 23 ; Baruch 1. 20 ; 2 Mac. 1. 29 ; 7. 30),
and the celebrated " Song of Moses " is quoted verbatim as
his (2 Mac. 7. 6).
8. One of the most interesting of the Apocryphal Books is Testimony
Ecclesiasticus, which must have been composed some time siasticus.
(perhaps a century) before the Books of the Maccabees. Let
anyone read chapters 44-49, and note what is said of Adam,
Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, the twelve tribes,
Moses, Aaron, Joshua, Caleb, the Judges, Samuel, Nathan,
David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Hezekiah, Josiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, the twelve prophets, Zorobabel, Nehemiah. Let
him ask himself. What was the Bible in the writer's days ?
Did it not contain the Historical Books with which we have
tp do ? Was it not substantially the same as our Old
Testament ?
There is not an atom of ground for the supposition that
any of the books or parts of books which constitute our
Old Testament were the work of men of that age. The
contrary is the case. It is very noticeable that in the Pre
face to the Book of Ecclesiasticus by the original writer's
grandson we have the identical division into the Law, the
Prophets, and the other Books, which we have already seen
to have been the ordinary division of the Old Testament in
later days.

16

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

The words are as follows : — " Whereas many and great
things have been delivered unto us by the Law and the
Prophets, and by others that have followed in their steps
. . . my grandfather Jesus having given himself much to the
reading of the Law and the Prophets, and the other ancestral
books (tSi/ &KKaiv -rarplav ;8i/8XiW) . . . not only these things,.
but the Law itself, and the Prophecies, and the rest of the
books have no small difference (or excellence) when read in
their own language," There can be very little doubt that
the grouping thrice repeated in this brief preface testifies
to the completeness of the Old Testament scriptures, as the
Law, the Prophets, and the Writings, forming a sacred
Hebrew canon in those early days.

Early tra
ditions con-

Nehemiah
and Szra.

The tradi
tional view
rational.

9, Before going farther back we must not forget the
celebrated passage about Nehemiah in 2 Mac' 3. 13. This
second Book of the Maccabees is professedly compiled in
part from a historical work of Jason, of Cyrene, but it opens
with various traditional statements of doubtful origin, some
of which, he tells us, " were reported in the writings and
commentaries of Neemias, who founded a library, gathering
together the Acts of the Kings, and the Prophets, and of
David, and the Epistles of the Kings {i.e. Cyrus, &e.) con
cerning 'the holy gifts." This tradition — itself recorded
perhaps B.C. 150 — ^points to the then existing belief that
Nehemiah put together the Sacred Writings which now con
stitute the Old Testament. The Law of Moses, indeed, is
not specified, possibly because that was universally known
and its origin taken for granted. How far this tradition is
true, and if so, on what principles Nehemiah proceeded in
arranging the library or collection of Sacred Books, we
cannot certainly tell. Another - Jewish tradition points to
Ezra rather than Nehemiah as the chief collector or editor
of the O. T., and attributes a prophetic character to him.
{See Eusebius' quotation of Irenseus, Church History, v. 8.)
These two, Ezra and Nehemiah, were, men of high posi
tion, one of the tribe of Levi, and the other possibly of

WHAT DO THE BOOKS SAY? 17
Judah ; one a ready scribe, the other a Pasha. They were both
men of piety and prayer, and were associated for the purpose
of actively promoting the spiritual welfare of Israel at the
close of the Old Testament period. They both clearly saw the
moral dangers and difficulties which beset the people, and
the culpable weakness of the priestly order ; they both felt
themselves to be under the special guidance and influence of
the Spirit of God, and were acknowledged afterwards as
prophets. Nothing seems more , reasonable, from a literary
as well as from a religious point of view, than that in their
time the books which had been preserved and regarded as
sacred in bygone ages should be brought together, and that
arrangements should be made for their safe keeping in time
to come.
Of course this is only a theory, but it fits fairly -with the
facts all round ; if any one has a better theory to propose he
must see how it fits all the facts. Even if this hypothesis
is accepted, it manifestly leaves a great deal of room for the
modification and compilation of documents before Nehemiah's
time, but hardly for the incorporation of other considerable
documents afterwards, for this would not lightly be per
mitted in such a class of literature and -with people of such
a character as the Jews.
10. Of one thing we may be quite certain ; nothing would The writers
be introduced into the " Sacred Library " which was not be- Testament
lieved to be " prophetic," and therefore in some sense Divine, ^"^
and although there were occasionally men after Nehemiah's
time who had semi-prophetic gifts, the Jews do not acknow
ledge them a's prophets in the full sense of the word. This
may be illustrated by three well-known passages in the First
Book of Maccabees. In chap. 4. 46 we are told that in the
days of Judas Maccabasus the defiled stones of the altar were
laid up in a convenient place " until there should come a
prophet to show what should be done with them." In
chap. 9. 27 we read that "there was great affliction in
Israel, the like whereof was not since the time that a
B

18 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
prophet was not seen among them." And in chap. 14. 41
we are told that the Jews and priests were " well pleased
that Simon should be their governor and high priest for
ever, until there should arise a faithful prophet." The
second of these passages puts the prophets in the far past,
whilst the first and last give a prospect that prophets might
arise in the future (with a possible reference to such a
passage as DeUt. 18. 15); but all three imply that the
Maccabeean priest-kings, though heroes and patriots raised
up by God, were not regarded as prophetic men. If they
were not prophets, who were ? We look in vain down the
remains and traditions of Hebrew history between the age
of Nehemiah and the Christian era for the appearance of
any men who would venture to add to or take from the
Sacred Library or Canon which existed in Nehemiah's
days.
Summary. 11. Thus far we have seen, first, that only the two latest
authors of the Historical Books write in the first person, and
give their names ; secondly, that there is a consensus of
Jewish and Christian testimony leading to the conclusion
that the Canon of the Old Testament was practically closed
in the age of Nehemiah ; thirdly, that the Pentateuch was
thenceforward regarded as the work of Moses, and the
Historical Books as the work of prophetic men, about
whose names we are left in the dark.
The case of the Old Testament is in this and many other
respects analogous with that of the New. The one was the
work of Moses and the prophets ; the other was from the
hands of Apostles and prophets ; and the prophetic office was
regarded as carrying with it a certain authority and com
mission to write and a certain inspiration which would make
the writings profitable for future ages.

HISTOSY OF WSITING, FSOM NEHEMIAH. 19

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THE- ART OF WRITING, FROM THE DAYS
OF NEHEMIAH UPWAKDS.
1. We have now traced the Old Testament back to the Writing in
days of Nehemiah (400 B.C.) ; but there is a period of Nehemiah.
about a thousand years between his age and that of
Moses ; yet Moses is claimed as the writer of some of the
scriptures which Nehemiah possessed. If it could be shoiyn
that the art of writing was not known in Moses' days, his
claim would fare badly indeed. Our next business must
therefore be to trace the history of writing upwards from
the last books of the Old Testament, and see where. we
are landed; we must then look elsewhere for confirmation
of our position.
Writing was common enough in the days of Nehemiah.
We find him in the seventh chapter of his book and the
fifth verse referring to " a register of the genealogy of them
which came up at the first," i.e. in the days of Zorobabel.
The word here translated register is the Old 'iSD {sepher),
and means a book, but the word translated register in the
64th verse means " writing " , OHD), as in Ezra 3. 62.
Neither of these words denotes the shape of the book or
the material of which it was composed. The word here trans
lated "genealogy" (KTl^) is quite peculiar, being one of a
list of words only to be found in Chronicles, Ezra, and
Nehemiah, and tending to show that these books are about
coeval. It is always translated in the same way, so that
the English student can trace its usage with a concord
ance, and he will be led to the conclusion that almost
every family in Israel had its written archives or family
papers. In other words, they were a literary people.
In Nehemiah 8 we find reference to another class of
B 2

20 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
literature. Ezra "the scribe" brings out "the book of
the, law of Moses," and it is read from morning light till
midday. The next day the reading is continued, and brings
the hearers on to Le-viticus 33, where they found -written
that they should dwell in booths. The reading is pursued
for several days from " the book of the law of God," which
must evidently have been a considerable volume.
The form of 2. It may be observed in passing that this book is said to
"'' *' have been " opened " (verse 5), not " unrolled," so that it
was possibly book-shaped. In later days the Pentateuch
was always written as a roll. It is much more easy to
introduce notes or alterations into a book than into a roll,
and when once the roll form was adopted the text would be
practically fixed. The Book of Isaiah is said to have been
folded up, and unfolded in the days of our Lord, the Greek
word (i7Tuo-o-i») being used of folding tablets or books rather
than rolls. We cannot, however, lay stress on the words
used in either of these cases, as they may have been the
ordinary Jewish terms for opening or unrolling any kind of
document. Probably the Ethiopian eunuch's copy of Isaiah
was in the form of a book.
Sealing. There was more reading in the Book of, the Law in
Neh. 9. 8, and at the end of the chapter there is a
covenant written and made sure (the Hebrew idioms are
quite peculiar), and a considerable number of leading men
put their seal to it, the seal being engraved with the name,
like one found in Jerusalem by the Palestine explorers with
the name of Haggai on it.
The system of engraving names on seal-rings is very
ancient indeed. It may be traced back in the Bible to the
time of Moses and Aaron, if not to the time of Joseph, who
wore Pharaoh's ring (Gen. 41. 42). The word for a ring
is always the same, and is supposed to be Egyptian, while
the word for a seal is a true Semitic one. There is a
peculiar term used for the engra-ving of signets all through
the Old Testament, from Exod. 38. 9 and onwards. It is

HISTOSY OF WSITING, FSOM NEHEMIAH. 21 -
now considered an Egyptian word, or at any rate of Egyptian
origin, though it has assumed the form of the verb nn£>
which simply means " to open."
3, There are frequent references in the Book of Ezra to Beferences
, , . -I • -, -, to writing
writings, such as proclamations, genealogies, decrees, letters, in jEzra.
copies, rolls, commissions. There are three different words
translated " letter " in the book ; also quite a peculiar word,
translated " copy," found nowhere else but in Esther, and
then spelt differently. In chap. 6. 1 and 2 we read that
there was found at Achmetha (Ecbatana) " a roll in the house
of the rolls, containing a record thus written," &c. Here is
a Megillah (roll) in the house of Sepharim (books) con
taining a memoir or memorandum on which a decree is sub
sequently based. These books may have been tablets or
cylinders, or they may have been papyrus or parchment
scrolls ; probably they were of different kinds. Thanks to
the patience and ingenuity of explorers and decipherers, we
know a good deal now about the special places in which
books were stored up in the old Oriental cities. Many
ancient records have perished, but those made of baked
clay have to a large extent survived.
The word translated " scribe " in Ezra and elsewhere is Scribes.
always the same, and is to be found all through the Old
Testament from Judges 5. 14 onward, being the same rjDot
as the word translated "book " {sepher) in Genesis 5. 1, &c.
The verb means to recount 6r reckon rather than to write,
and the scribe might be clerk, copyist, accountant, registrar,
or any other literary official. Ezra himself was a " ready
scribe in the law of Moses" (7. 6), and "a scribe of the
words of the commandments of the Lord and of His statutes
to Israel " (verse 1 1) .
4. We now take a step further back, to the period of the The age of
Captivity, which may be conveniently illustrated from the
prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel. We read of Jeremiah
dictating whilst Baruch his scribe writes " with ink in the
book" (Jer. 36. 18). This book is in the form of a roll

22 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
{Megillah), and the "leaves" (verse 23) are the columns
(hterally, " doors ") in which the writing of rolls is usually
I arranged, as may be seen in any Hebrew MS. of the Penta^
teuch or the Book of Etether. The prophet Ezekiel (chap.
4. 1) is told to take a tile or brick (n ^^'7) and lay it before ,
him and portray (lit., engrave) on it a plan of the city. This
would be done -with a graving-tool, and the brick would be
subsequently burnt,
B^ek&h^ Earlier, in Isaiah's time (chap. 8. 1), we read of the
writing on a great roll, or cylinder, or tablet with a man's
pen, or, rather, graving-tool (£3"in) ; the prophet is also
directed to take a tablet (chap. 30. 8) and a book, in which
certain things were to be noted (lit., decreed or engraved,
ppn) for the time to come, or, rather, as it is in the margin,
for the latter day. The letter which Hezekiah spread before
the Lord was probably written on papyrus. The Hebrew
word for this letter is simply sepher, and the same is used of
Merodach-baladan's letter (comp. Isa. 37. 14, and 39. 1).
We may gather from these passages that the writers of
Hezekiah's age were familiar with two classes of writing,
that which was effected with a reed on paper and skin, and
that wbich was produced with a graving-tool on unbaked
clay, whether in the cylinder or tabljet form.
Theperiod 5. There are plenty of references to books and letters in
earlier times, and to shorten our inquiry we may now go
back as far as Judges 5. 14, where we read that the tribe of
Zebulun contained them that handle the pen of the writer,
whilst in chap. 8. 14 one of the young men of Succoth' is
said to have written down (A. V. " described ") the names of
seventy-seven headmen of the -village. Writing was evidently
not a rare gift in those days. It is true that the Revisers
have altered the first of these passages, and read " out of
Machir came down governors, and out of Zebulun they
that handle the marshal's staff." But the word translated
governor properly signifies an engraver {ppT\) ; " staff "
is better than " pen," but " marshal " is a vague word. The

HISTOSY OF WSITING, FSOM NFHEMIAH. 23
Hebrew is Sopher, which we have already referred to as
signifying "scribe" or "registrar," and which sets forth
some literary office. The scribe's staff of office may have
been of the kind familiar to Egyptologists.
We now step back into what is professedly an earlier The age of
state of things, namely to the old boundary lists which were
written down in the days of Joshua. It was no easy task
which was to be performed, but picked men were selected
from certain tribes, " and they went and passed through the
land and described it (fit., wrote it) by cities into seven parts
in a book" (Josh. 18. 9). Where such a survey was pos
sible, literary powers were surely not in their infancy.
6. Another backward step brings us to the age of Moses. In The age of
his extreme old age he is instructed to write the song which
all Israel was to learn. Dent. 31. 19 ; but the Book of the Law
had been previously written (Dent. 29. 27 ; 30. 10 ; 31. 9).
The journeyings of Israel through the wilderness were
written by Divine command (Num. 33. 2). We are also
told that lists of officials were written down (Num. 1.17 and
11. 26). In the first of these passages the word translated
" expressed " might be rendered " notched " or " pierced,"
and refers to some particular method of obtaining the names,
possibly similar to that in which the sheriffs are " pricked"
by the Queen. This word (^pj) is also used in Gen. ,30. 28
{^^ appoint me thy wages"), and in some of the later books
of the Bible, having been retained as an old idiom (see
1 Chron. 13. 31 ; Ezra 8. 20; Amos 6. 1). The pedigrees
named at the period of the Exodus were probably written
documents, as in later days, though the word for "gene
alogy," which we found so freely used in Chronicles, Ezra,
and Nehemiah, is conspicuous by its absence where we
should naturally expect it, in Num. 1. 18. This is one of
many instances of the linguistic accuracy of the Biblical
writers, to which attention will be directed later on.
We thus get back to the first distinct mention of writing
in the Bible, viz., Exod. 17. 14, where, after describing the

nm.

24 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLH.
war with the Amalekites, we are told that the Lord said
onto Moses, " Write this for a memorial in a book (or the
book), and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua," Thus it was
both to be written in the itinerary which would already
have been commenced, and was to be rehearsed orally, so as
never to. be forgotten. Compare the later references to this
particular incident in Deut, 25. 17 and 1 Sam. 15. 2, both
of which passages presuppose the narrative preserved in
Exodus,
The Shate- 7, There is a word used twenty-five times in the Hebrew
Bible, and translated officer, ruler, or overseer. It is found
as late as the Chronicles and as early as Exod, 5. 6. This
word shoter ("1E32J') is almost always translated in the LXX,
by the ordinary word for a scribe {ypaiAi^osTeJi;). Gesenius
' considers that it means to cut, as with a aword, then to
inscribe, and then to order or superintend. Those who are
familiar with the walls of ancient Egyptian temples and
tombs will remember the frequent appearance of the scribe
taking notes of all the things being done, e.g. the tale or
tally of the bricks, and will understand how easily an
inscribing-tool might become the symbol of an official. The
root of the word is Semitic, and is found in Arabic and
Syriac, and is apparently not traceable to an Egyptian
origin. Too much stress must not be laid upon this word,
but it may be taken along with the other indications in
the Book of Exodus as indicating that the Israelites were
not quite such an illiterate people as some have supposed.
Antiquity of 8. We have now traced the history of writing back from
writing". the days of Nehemiah to the age of Moses, some fourteen
or fifteen centuries before the Christian era. We proceed
to ask whether there is any inherent impossibility in the
points ehcited. It might have been thought so once. There
have been times when the art of writing would be regarded
as unknown in the days of Moses, or even of Joshua and
the Judges, but we know better now.

HISTOSY OF WSITING, FSOM NEHEMIAH. 25
If we look at Egyptian literature, the matter becomes In Egypt.
clear. We have not only the semi-religious and semi-
biographical inscriptions on the walls of the temples and
tombs and on the obelisks of Egypt, but we have papyrus
rolls of an exceedingly early date. It has been thought that
there are indications of alphabetical writing as early as the
time of the Patriarchs ; at any rate, there are in the British
Museum papyrus documents which have come down from
that age, so that if it had happened that writing should
have been referred to as in use in the days of Abraham,
there would have been nothing in such a statement to shake
our faith in the trustworthiness of the book which contained
it. In truth, there is considerable reason to suppose that
there were such documents, both genealogical and bio
graphical : see, for example, the opening words of Gen. 5. 1 —
" This is the book of the generations of Adam." Nor need
one hesitate to come to the conclusion that some system of
writing on clay, rock, or other less durable substance came
into existence in a very early stage of human history, being
probably about coeval with the dispersion of the families of
the human race.
, Putting aside all reference to the Hittite inscriptions, inMesopo-
there have been brought to light in Mesopotamia complete
libraries of books, lists, treatises, contracts, and other docu
ments which take us back towards the period of the Judges ;
and before them we get back to the old Babylonian empire
and the Accadian inscriptions, some of which are far older
than the days of Moses, and take us back to the age of
Abraham. Professor Sayce tells us that an Assyrian library was
established at Calah about 1 300 B.C., but he points out that
their learning was borrowed from Babylon, and that the
oldest Babylonian literature is translated from Accadian, the
knowledge of which was kept up by the learned in those
ancient times long after it had become practically dead.
Certainly these Accadians were a wonderful people, " They
were the earliest ci-yihzers of Western Asia; to them the

26 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
arts and sciences, the philosophy, and many of the religious
traditions not only of the Babylonians and Assyrians, but
also of the Phoenicians and Syrians, have to be traced ; from
them the germs of Greek art and a great part of the Greek
pantheon and mythology originally came ; both Jerusalem
and Athens were profoundly influenced by their ideas ; and
much of our present culture had its first starting-point in
primseval Accad," (Sayce's Assyrian Life and History,
p. 50.)
The celebrated Deluge Tablets claim to be an Assyrian
translation of part of an Accadian epic in twelve books,
arranged according to the signs of the Zodiac, and dating
from more than 2000 B.C. " Like most epics (says Professor
Sayce), it was probably of slow growth, and in its final forrd
was pieced together out of earlier materials ; and for the first
origin of the lays we must go back to a past already half-
forgotten in the days of Abraham."
Summary. g_ ^^ need not determine dates, but leave these facts to
speak for themselves, being content with the conclusion
already arrived at, viz., that froin the Exodus and onwards
there were writers as well as readers amongst the Israehtes, as
amongst their neighbours east and west, and that there is no
reason, so far as the history of writing is concerned, why
Moses should not be regarded as having committed in writ
ing to his successors such a body of literature as we possess
, in the Pentateuch. It then becomes simply a question of
evidence, or if evidence fails us when dealing with matters
of such exceeding antiquity, we must be content with the
balance of probabilities, in which must be included linguistic
and other considerations.

MATESIALS FOB SAMUEL AND KINGS.

CHAPTER IV.

materials FROM -WHICH THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL AND
KINGS AEE COMPOSED.
1, The last chapter has cleared the way for further dis
cussion. We are evidently in a literary age all the way
back from Nehemiah to Moses, and we may proceed to
examine the books with care. It is e-vident that a con
siderable portion of them were compiled from older sources.
This is manifestly the case with the history of the kingly
period, to which we must confine ourselves in the present
chapter. The series of historical documents referred to during this Materials^
period commences with the age of David, nothing being re- history^
ported as to previous annals. We are told (1 Chron. 29. 29)
that "the acts of David the king, first and last, . , ,
are written in the book of Samuel the seer, and in the book
of Nathan the prophet, and in the book of Gad the seer,
with all his reign and his might, and the times that went
over him, and over Israel, and over all the kingdoms of the
countries," There are many things in this passage which
call for our attention. The Book of Chronicles is generally
acknowledged to be comparatively late, and it gives only
a selection of historical , events, some of which agree almost
word for word with the accounts in Samuel and Kings,
whilst the rest must have been obtained from other sources.
Do the three books enumerated above contain all the
historical materials from which the chronicler composed his
history of David's times ? This seems highly probable.
Were they still extant in the chronicler's time ? Apparently
they were. Are they included, partially or wholly, in our
Books of Samuel and Kings, or were they official acts and
documents of a semi-secular character ? This is not so
easily answered.

28 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
It seems clear that the three books were all of the same
stamp, being all described by the term D'''l31 (A,V, book),
which literally means "words," but which stands for a
record of deeds or " transactions," and so is rightly rendered
history in the margin, whilst at the beginning of our verse
it is translated acts. Now were these three writers, Sarduel,
Nathan, and Gad, in a position to contribute three con
secutive sections to a contemporary record of Da-pid's life ?
Certainly they were. Samuel the seer could contribute the
early chapter concerning the anointing. Gad the prophet
could tell about the period of persecution, for we find him in
communication with David at the very time (see 1 Sam.
23. 5), He comes again on the scene in 2 Sam, 34. 11, where
he is described as " the prophet Gad, David's seer," and is
apparently adviser, monitor, and almost private chaplain to
the king. He also assisted David, in conjunction with
Nathan, in arranging the musical services of the Temple
(2 Chron, 39. 25). The third contributor is Nathan, who
is called, not seer (PlNI). but visionary (nTH)- He appears
later in the history than Gad, It was after David had
fought his battles that he ' tells Nathan his feeling about
building a House for God, Guided by a vision in the night,
Nathan stays his hand, and at the same time utters the great
promise which is the true basis of all Messianic prophecy
(2 Sam, 7. 4-16). Nathan's next recorded mission to
David was in connection -with Bathsheba ; and it is inter
esting that one of Bathsheba's children was named Nathan,
and that our Lord sprang really not from Solomon but from
the namesake of the prophet. We need not pursue Nathan's
history further ; he outlived David ; and we can readily see
that he, in conjunction Avith the other two prophets, was
of all men the most suitable to contribute chapters to the
history of David.
Beeorders 2. These men were not, however, official recorders. If we
Zritefs"'"''' turn to 2 Sam, 8. 16, 17, and 1 Chron, 18. 15, we find that
Jehoshaphat, the son of Ahilud, was the recorder, and

MATESIALS FOS SAMUEL AND KINGS. 29
Seraiah (or Shavsha) was the scribe. In the margin we
find the recorder called a remembrancer, i.e. a writer of
chronicles. The recording may also include the writing or
registering of David's own compositions (see I'Chron, 16.4),
Thus there may have been both sacred and secular recorders
' and scribes. The administration of the kingdom in David's
days was very complete, and there must have been some
thing answering to our Home Office, with an army of clerks
in it, to carry out the system so methodically described in
the First Book of Chronicles.
If any student will take the trouble to compare the history
of David's times as given in Chronicles with that given in
Samuel and Kings, he will find that, putting aside genea
logical and other official lists, the chronicler could have
found all his materials in an early recension of Samuel
and Kings, with the exception of some sections which seem
to be traceable to certain officials, such as Samuel's grand
son Heman, and his partners, Asaph and Jeduthun. Heman
was the king's seer in respect to the words (? deeds)
of God (1 Chron. 35. 5), and was the leader in matters
of worship, whilst the descendants of Moses were at the
head of the financial department (1 Chron. 33. 14-16;
26. 24),
To sum up this part of our discussion, it may be said,
first, that we have not the whole of what Samuel, Nathan,
and Gad wrote; secondly, that there were other writers,
sacred and secular, in those days ; and, thirdly, that our two
extant histories of David's times were compiled from first-
class historical materials, and were mainly, if not wholly, the
compositions of prophetic men,
3, We pass now to the time of Solomon, During his Materials
reign the sons of Shisha (? Shavsha) were scribes ; Jehosha- man's his-
phat, the son of Ahilud, was still recorder; and Nathan's *"''*'•
sons, Azariah and Abud, were in high position (1 Kings
4. 3-5). Thus continuity was secured; and this would
probably be the case to some extent all through the history.

30 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE^ BIBLE.
At the end of Solomon's hfe -we are told (1 Kings 11. 41)
that " the rest of the acts of Solomon, and all that he did^
and his wisdom, are they not written in the book of the acts-
of Solomon ? " This is the first appearance of the familiar
formula. We have already commented on the word D^I^T,
" acts," which signifies " transactions," whether by word or
deed. It is noticeable that the Book of Kings does not pro
fess to give the secular annals. The writer uses what he
thinks needful, and refers the purely historical investigator
to other sources. It cannot be too clearly affirmed that the
Bible, first and last, gives us no annals, properly speaking,
but fragments, extracts, selections, put together by inspired
men on some special principle.
The chronicler, says, " Now the rest of the acts of Solo
mon, first and last, are they not written in the book of
Nathan the prophet, and in the prophecy of Ahijah the
Shilonite, and in the visions of Iddo the seer against Jero
boam the son of Nebat " (2 Chron. 9. 29). Have we, then,
here the names of the contributors to the Book of Kings, or
of annalists to whom the writer of the Kings refers ? Before
answering let us inquire, what do we know of these writers ?
Something has already been said about Nathan. It was he
who anointed Solomon king (1 Kings 1. 10-38), so that
he could contribute at any rate the earlier chapters of Solo
mon's history. Ahijah the prophet, whose head-quarters
were at Shiloh, is here said to have written a prophecy.
This we still possess in whole or in part in 1 Kings 11.
31-39, where we have a great promise made to Jeroboam
during the lifetime of Solomon. We have another remark
able utterance of his when he was an old man and blind, in
the later days of Jeroboam (1 Kings 14. 6-16). He must
have been familiar with the last period of Solomon's life.
Iddo's work was of the nature of visions, and he himself is
called a visionary. What he had to do with Solomon we
cannot tell; but he was a genealogist (see 2 Chron. 12, 15)
and a historian (13, 22), There is an old tradition that he
was the man of God sent to Befhel, and this would account

MATESIALS FOS SAMUEL AND KINGS. 31
for the fact that his -vdsion is said to concern Jeroboam the
son of Nebat,
If we survey the narrative of Solomon's life in the Book
of Kings, we shall see that there is nothing in it which could
not have been ascertained by one or other of these three
prophets. The history in the Chronicles is almost wholly
abstracted from the Kings— perhaps from an enlarged recen
sion of it ; but there are slight additions, which probably
came from the records of the houses of Asaph, Heman, and
Jeduthun. We see no reason to doubt that the authorities
cited by the chronicler are those to whom we owe this part
of the Kings. They were all prophets, and all had access
to Solomon and to his state annals. Their work would
dovetail in with that already done for the life of David, one
of the authorities for the latter contributing also to the
former. We thus see the beginning of a history of the
Davidic kingdom, issuing from the hands of a chain of pro
phetic men whose evidence would be of what we should call
first-class value, being contemporary and authoritative.
4, In 1 Kings 14. 29, we read, " The rest of the acts of Materiaif
Rehoboam, and all that he did, are they not written in the beam's Ms-
hook of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?" Here a '"'^'
new expression meets us. The kingdom is divided, and
Judah has its special chroniclers. The words translated
" chronicles " (D''D\"1 ^^^H) signify " daily acts," or, in one
word, " journals," It is the Hebrew name of our Book of
Chronicles, but of course this is not the book referred to
here. There must have been official annals to which the
writer in the Kings refers. In 2 Chron. 13. 15, we read,
" Now the acts of Rehoboam, first and last, are they not
written in the book (transactions) of Shemaiah the prophet,
and of Iddo the seer concerning genealogies ? " What do
we know of Shemaiah the prophet ? We find him occupying
the same sort of position in the days of Rehoboam that
Isaiah did in the age of Hezekiah. In 2 Chron. 11, 2 he
is called " the man of God," and he forbids Rehoboam,

32 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
in the Lord's name, to go up against Jeroboam; also, in
chap. 13. 2 and 7, he expresses the Divine counsel concern
ing Shishak. Iddo the seer survived Rehoboam, so that he
and Shemaiah together were competent to write the history
of the reign, and in so doing to continue the work already
carried on by Iddo himself in conjunction with Nathan and
' Ahijah. On examining the materials used by the chronicler
we find that he gives a fuller account of some of Rehoboam's
proceedings than we possess in our present copies of the
Kings ; and though the additional matter lies in the compass
of twenty verses, it indicates either that the Book of Kings
. in its original form was a larger work than we have now,
or that there were some additional materials still accessible
in the chronicler's time.
'The history 5, The materials for the history of the succeeding kings may
kings. " ^^ be put together thus : — In the Book of Kings '' the chroni
cles or annals of the kings of Judah " are referred to in con
nection with the reigns of Abijam, Asa, Jehoram, Amaziah,
Azariah, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, and
Jehoiakim, no reference being made to these annals in the
case of Jehoshaphat, Aiaziah, Athahah, Joash, Jotham,
Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah. In the Book of
Chronicles the story {midrash) or history of the prophet
Iddo is cited as the authority for Abijam's reign, so that
this prophet had to do with at least three successive kings
of Judah (see above) , The acts of Asa are said to be writ
ten " in the book of the kings of Judah and Israel "
(2 Chron, 16. 11). What book can this be? Not a volume
of official annals, as that would not combine the history of
two independent kingdoms, but some such work as we
possess in our Book of Kings, only longer than the book
is now.In the case of Jehoshaphat we read that his acts were
" written in the book (transactions) of Jehu, the son of
Hanani, who is mentioned in the book of the kings of
Israel " (2 Chron. 20. 34). Hanani, the seer, is referred to

MATESIALS FOB SAMUEL AND KINGS. 33
in the times of Asa (2 Chron. 16. 7), and his remarkable
words are preserved to us. Jehu, his son, rebukes Jehosha
phat in the same tone as Hanani had adopted towards Asa,
and regardless of the consequence which had ensued in his
father's case (2 Chron. 19, 2). But is he mentioned in the
Book of Kings ? There is a Jehu, the son of Hanani, men
tioned as prophesying against Baasha, Asa's contemporary,
in 1 Kings 16. 1, 7, 12. There cannot be any doubt that
he is the same man ; so that he and his father were prophets
together; and if Jehu was answerable for the reign of
Jehoshaphat, he may well have been the authority for the
reign of Asa also, though the fact is not mentioned. We
take it, therefore, that " the book of the kings of Israel "
referred to in 2 Chron. 20. 34 is our Book of Kings in its
original form, and that Jehu was one of the chain of pro
phets who composed it.
The next notice is at the end of the reign of Joash,
concerning whom We are told that matters relating to his
sons, and the greatness of the burdens on him, and the
repairing (Heb. "founding") of the House of God were to
be found written in the story or history {m,idrash) of the
Book of the Kings (2 Chron. 34. 27), There is certainly
plenty in our Book of Kings about the burden laid on Joash
by Hazael, and concerning his repairing of the Temple, but
nothing special about his sons. The LXX. suggests a different
reading, in which there would be no reference to his sons.
For Amaziah' s reign, as also for the reigns of Jotham,
¦ Ahaz, Josiah, and Jehoiakim, we are referi-ed to " the book
of the kings of Judah and Israel " ; for Uzziah's, to " the
historical work of Isaiah"; whilst with regard to the rest
of the acts of Hezekiah and his mercies {i.e. the mercies
shown to him), we are told that they are written in "the
vision of Isaiah, the prophet, in the book (^Sb'/^) of the
kings of Judah and Israel." Thus Isaiah is one of the
goodly band of historico-prophetic writers to whom we owe
the Book of Kings in its original form. Who took up the
pen between the prophet Jehu and Isaiah we are not told,
C

34 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Some things in Manasseh's history are said to be written
"among (^y) the sayings of the seers" (2 Chron, 33. 19),
The word translated "sayings" is the ordinary one for
tran.sactions, and the word rendered " seers " is rightly
translated as a proper name in the Revised Version (Hozai),
though the interpretation of the Authorized Version is de
fensible on the supposition of a different reading, Manas
seh's reign is given in one single chapter in the Kings, yet
it records in outline all that seems referred to in Chronicles,
though we evidently have it only in a condensed form.
The kings g. ^s for the kingdom of Israel, after it split off from
that of Judah, it must have had its own annalists, and we
judge partly from the analogy of Judah, and partly from
what we know concerning the " sons of the prophets " in
the days of Elijah and Elisha, that there must have been a
chain of prophetic writers, who would record such facts as
seemed needful to be preserved from a religious point of
-view. Their records must have drifted into the possession
of the Jewish prophets after the captivity of the Ten Tribes,
and were amalgamated with the rest of the work by the final
composer of the Book of Kings, This, at least, is a probable
theory, but we have no materials for attaining certainty.
Summary. 7. We have thus come to the end of this examination, and '
we are led to the conclusion that the Books of Samuel and
Kings, as we now possess them, are the work of a series of
prophets, who were contemporary with the kings whose
histories they record ; that they were originally longer than
they are now, and that they refer to civil annals of the
kingdom as having been kept throughout the regal period.
With regard to the Chronicles, the writer must have had
before him the Book of Kings in its original form, in which
there were retained the names of most, if not all, its pro
phetic composers, ' There is no sign that the civil annals of
the kingdom were preserved when the chronicler did his
work, but he apparently had access to certain Levitical docu
ments in addition to the works of the prophetic historians.

COMPILEB'S HAND IN DATES HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 35

CHAPTER V.

INDICATIONS OF A COMPILER S HAND IN THE LATER
HISTORICAL BOOKS.
1. The point we have reached is, that we have con
temporary materials from the hands of prophetic or com
missioned writers covering the ground between the age of
Samuel and that of the Captivity, i.e.' above four centuries.
We must now pursue our investigations in two opposite
directions, first completing the period from the Capti-vity
to the age of Nehemiah, and then starting back from the
period of Samuel to the books which stand earlier in our
Bibles. We do not know when the Books of Samuel and Kinsrs Completion
-, , . ,> -, , -. oftlieBook
attained their present form, but we have no reason to doubt of Kings.
that the last chief contributor to them was the prophet
Jeremiah ; and he may have been the compiler of the
whole. If the student will read attentively 2 Kings 34.
18 to 85. 30, and will compare it verse by verse with
Jer. 53. 1-34, he will not have any doubt that he has
two copies of the same document b.efore him.* There is,
indeed, one section of seven verses omitted in the latter
document, and there are several minute variations ; but
otherwise both the substance and the words are the same.
The case is somewhat similar to that of Isaiah, who was
an earlier contributor to the Book of Kings. We find
incorporated in his Book of Visions certain parts of his
biographical or historical works, especially those which bear
on the great scheme of his prophecy. And just as the story
of the Di-vine intervention on behalf of Hezekiah furnishes
an admirable historical foreground for Jsaiah's prophecies
' It is not, however, certain that the last chapter of Jeremiah is from the
prophet's pen. See chap, Si Jin, C 2

Jeremiah's

36 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
of the great salvation, so Jeremiah's own narrative of the
Captivity seems a fitting close to the pathetic appeals which
make up the great part of his prophecies.
2. On the whole, we feel justified in supposing — though
"workT""' " it is only an hypothesis — ^that Jeremiah took with him to
Egypt the series of historical documents which he had
inherited from the sons of the prophets, and that he com
piled the whole work in Egypt with the aid of Baruch and
other scribes. Still certain questions rise in our mind. How,
for example, did the compiler get the last sentences which
concern the thirty-seventh year of the captivity of Jehoia
chin ? This must have been added by a later hand. Againj
how did his compilation get into the hands of the author of
the Chronicles, or of the composer of Ezra, or of the prophet
Daniel ? The answer is a very simple one. There was free
intercourse between Egypt and the East all through this
period. The Jews in Babylon and those in Egypt would
have frequent communications with each other ; and not
only letters but books could safely be conveyed from country
to country.

^. - .^, 3, We now pass on to the Book of Chronicles, which
ticmofthe ¦ . . „
Chronicles, must have been compiled during or after the Capti-\dty, In
the last portion of the book we find extracts freely made
from the Kings, as in the earlier parts ; also, Jeremiah is
referred to, both as lamenting over Josiah, as warning
Zedekiah, and as prophesying concerning the Seventy years ;
so that the chronicler knew both the historical and the pro-
¦, phetical works of Jeremiah,
Relation cf There is a curious phenomenon at the close of the Second
to Ezra. ' Book of Chronicles, It would seem naturally to have ended
at the twenty-first verse of the thirty- sixth chapter, where
we are told that the land enjoyed her Sabbaths for seventy
years. The writer, however, or some later editor, appends
the first sentences of the Book of Ezra, actually breaking off
iu the middle of a verse. Perhaps this appendage was not

COMPILEB'S HAND IN DATES HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 37
part of the original document. It presupposes not only that
Cyrus' edict had been issued, but that the particular account
of it with which Ezra begins his book was in existence.
Some critics jump to the conclusion that whoever -wrote
Ezra must have written the Chronicles, But this by no
means follows. Many books may have had a few words
added by a later hand in order to give completeness to
them, or even so as to suggest what book should be read '
next in historical order. It might even be that some copyist
in very early times, having Chronicles and Ezra before him
written as one work, overran the true end of the Chronicles,
The passage, however, looks like a deliberate insertion,
intended to show the fulfilment of God's word uttered by
Isdiah and Jeremiah ; and in that case it needs no further
comment. As to the actual authorship of the Chronicles, it will be
best to leave it open, but certainly there are strong reasons
for attributing it to Ezra. We should expect by the analogy
of the earlier Historical Books, and from some . peculiarities
in the contentSj that it is the work of one who combined in
himself the position of a prophet, the lineage of a Levite or
priest, and perhaps the office of a genealogist. All these
things point to such an one as Ezra, but they are not
absolutely conclusive. There are reasons why it is im
probable that Daniel, Haggai, or Zechariah wrote the book.
Some of these would equally militate against the hypothesis The Two
that the compiler of the First Part of the Book of Ezra was Ezra.
the author. This First Part is in the main a series of
official documents threaded together with a slight personal
narrative, and was probably put together by order of Jeshua
{i.e. Joshua), the High Priest. Ezra himself is personally
answerable only for the Second Part of the book which bears
his name {i.e. chaps. 7-10). He included in it various lists
of names which were written out for him by subordinates,
e.g. the lists of those who had taken strange wives (chap.
10. 18-24), He also prefixed what we may call the Jeshua-
narrative, and made the two into one book.

'38 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Nehemiah. 4, The Book of Nehemiah is to that of Ezra very much
-what the work of Nathan may have been to that of Gad in
composing the history of David. Nehemiah was a vigorous,
practical man, and, we imagine, not much of a writer, but
he kept a narrative of God's dealings with him and through
him, and of his own heart's aspirations towards God ; and
this narrative we possess. The book contains some docu
ments, e.g. the list of repairers of the Temple, and — most
important of all — an extract (chap. 7. 6-73) from the Jeshua-
narrative contained in the Book of Ezra. At first sight we
should be inclined to think that Jeshua and Nehemiah had
two independent copies made from one Temple document.
We cannot account, on any theory, for the numerous textual
variations which we observe on comparing the two. These
we must look at when discussing the state of the text. But
it is clear that Nehemiah's scribe or clerk used what we call
the Jeshua-narrative rather than the materials from which it
-was composed as his authority ; for in copying he overran
the list which he was ordered to copy, possibly owing to the
similarity of certain words. The second chapter of Ezra
ends thus : — " and the Nethinims dwelt in their cities, and
all Israel in their cities." The third chapter begins thus : —
" And when the seventh month was come, and the children
of Israel were in their cities." Nehemiah's copyist would
naturally have ended where Ezra's second chapter ends ; but
the student will see, if he turns to Neh. 7. 73, that the copy
ist ran on into the first sentence of the next section.
Other materials may be detected in Nehemiah. Thus the
remarkable address to God in the ninth chapter is one of
a large class of addresses and prayers which must have been
committed to paper by qualified hearers. The lists of names
in the later chapters are also copied from official documents,
some (see, e.g., the reference to Jaddua, chap. 13. 11, 22)
, being probably added at a later time.
We need not go further into details. Many points are
' left unsettled, but we see that the Books of Ezra and Ne
hemiah are partly extracts- from contemporary works and

COMPILEB'S HAND IN DATES HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 39
partly autobiographical. They are thus first-class authorities
for the history of the period, and form a fitting appendix to
the earlier Historical Books.
We have omitted all questions relating to the genealogies,
which must be returned to in a later part of our discussion.
5. We have now attained a sure critical and historical Summary.
standing-ground, consisting of a series of historical docu
ments reaching back from the days of Nehemiah to the
inception of the kingdom of Israel under Samuel. Although
they present but a sketch of the history, and that mainly for
a religious purpose, yet they are unequalled for the insight
they give us into the inner and outer life of an ancient
people during a period of six centuries. We must not pause
at present to consider their contents, but must stand on
their furthest edge and gaze back into the pre-existing state
of things. Here we are primarily confronted with the
Books of Joshua and Judges, and our business must be to
inquire whether they show signs of compilation like those
which we have been already considering.

40 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER VI.

marks of compilation in the earliest books.
Materials 1. The Book of Joshua is larg-ely autobiographical,
fm- the Book , , . . , , . , rni ,. ^ . /. •,!
of Joshua, though written m the third person. Ine first part ot it
covers but a few years, and is vivid, and abounding with
topographical details of proved accuracy. The later chap
ters, containing the boundary-lists, &c., are largely compiled
from documents which -we may have to discuss later on.
The speeches towards the end must have been preserved in
substance, if not verbally, by the sopherim, or scribes, who
were specially appointed and qualified for this class of work.
Who finally compiled the book we know not. The greater
part may have been put together by order of Joshua and
preserved in the Tabernacle archives, and Phinehas, the son
of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, may have completed the
history. This is in the main the old view of the book.
Materials The case of the Judges is very different from that of
for the Book •'
Joshua. It covers a period of some four centuries, so that
no one person could be answerable for the whole. Here we
see the advantage of having the analogy of the later His
torical Books to help us. In the light which they afford, it
seems most probable that the leading sketches preserved in
the Book of Judges were recorded by a series of officials,
priestly or other-wise, the book itself being compiled at the
close of the period, possibly by Samuel. It is fairly open to
discussion whether this theory fits the facts as a whole, or
whether it must give way to something newer and better.
Whoever compiled the book must have had access not only
to the Shiloh archives, but to family memorials, and to the
collection of songs and folk-lore which may have gone under
the title of "the Book of Jasher" (see Josh. 10. 13 and
2 Sam, 1. 18), This last-named book may have included such
sections as the Song of Deborah and Barak, and the fable or

MASKS OF COMPILATION IN EASLIEST BOOKS. 41
parable of Jotham. The Book of Judges is not in complete
chronological order. The last five chapters refer to events of
a comparatively early date, when Phinehas the son of Eleazar,
the son of Aaron, was stiU ministering before the Ark,
2, The relationship of the Book of Judges to that of. Relation-
Joshua is specially to be noted. There is a modern theory Judges and
that Joshua is much the later of the two. Whether this be
so or not we need not now discuss, for it is evidently an
abstruse question. But there is this remarkable phenome
non, that tjie first two chapters of the .Judges make free use
of certain materials which are to be found verbatim, though
not always in the same order, in Joshua, (See Judg. 1,
10-15, ,20, 21, 27, 28, and 2. 6-9 ; and compare the refer
ences to chaps. 15, 16, 19, 23, and 24 of Joshua through
out.) We thus get a case of the overlapping of books
somewhat similar to others that we have already observed.
It is not only that the facts recorded are the same, but that
the language is the same. We have indubitable quotations
in Judges, either from Joshua or from the materials in the
hands of the compiler of Joshua, These passages are all of
the same class ; they point to the existence of archives at
Shechem, Mizpeh, or Shiloh, at which a record of the leading
facts in the history of Israel were preserved.
3, Once more we shall have to step back, and this time it is Reeapituia-
from the Books of Joshua and Judges to the ancient docu
ments which preceded them, our object being, as before,
simply to look for indications of materials out of which the
history might be composed. It must be borne in mind that
we are at present dealing with the substance of the books,
not with the minutise. We are not - discussing the use of
particular Hebrew words, or the names of God, or questions
of style. These must be dealt with later on. We began
-with the unquestionable fact that the central body of the
Historical Books claims to be of the nature of a compilation
from contemporary prophetic sources ; we then saw that the

42 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Books of Ezra and Nehemiah bore the marks of compilation;
that the Book of Judges, if historical, as we hold it to be,
must from the nature of the case be a compilation, covering
as it does a period of several centuries ; and that Joshua
contains indications of having been composed partly from
autobiographical records, and partly from official documents.
We ought to add that there is no way whereby the Hebrew
vsrriters mark quotations or extracts. No brackets, no in
verted commas, are used in the Sacred Books ; and it is com
paratively seldom, except in cases which we have already
fully discussed, that the writers mention their authorities.
It is quite clear, however, as anyone can see for himself if
he will make a full collation of the Chronicles with Samuel
and Kings, that the chronicler felt himself at liberty to make
free use of the older documents which lay before him. Nor
did he hesitate to alter, whether in the way of modification,
compression, or expansion, the older documents which lay
before him, or to blend into one account the materials which
he obtained from two or more sources. Thus the value of
the Book of Chronicles to the modern critic is immense.
Without it we should be at a loss concerning many points of
literary and historic interest. It establishes an important
precedent, and throws light backward on the earlier books,
and forward as far as the Gospels.
teuch"^*'^' ^' ¦"-* ^® "^^^ business now, in the light of the results .
already attained, to go back to the Pentateuch. We are
not ashamed of the name. We treat it — ^as venerable tra
dition invites us to treat it— as one work, which has travelled
down through, the ages from the period in which Israel
entered Canaan. If it is not so to be treated ; if the tra
ditional view is to be wholly set aside ; if large portions of
the Pentateuch are to be brought down centuries later than
the age of Moses, as some critics affirm — well. We are pre
pared to examine the evidence. The burden of proof will
manifestly lie -with the critic who seeks to disintegrate ; it
must be strong ; it must be overwhelming.

MASKS OF COMPILATION IN EASLIEST BOOKS. 43
The last four books of which the Pentateuch is composed
are manifestly of a different character from the first. They
give us the transactions of one man and the history of one
age ; whilst Genesis gives us an outline of the history of the
world in general, and of the Abrahamic family in particular,
up to the time when Exodus begins. Each book, however,
may be considered separately, and, according to our usual
method, we will begin with the last.
5. The Book of Deuteronomy is mainly compiled from Materials
the speeches or sermons delivered by Moses at the end of nomyT ^™
his life to the generation of Israelites who had risen up
during the Wanderings in the Desert. The time and the
place in which these addresses were given are exactly speci
fied in the first verses of the book. They would be taken
down by the qualified scribes of the period, and by the order
of Moses, who felt that whilst he was speaking God was
speaking through him. Their contents are partly historical,
partly legislative, and, being delivered orally, they were speci
ally adapted to the hearts and circumstances of the people
whom he addressed. At the close of the book we have the
song which all Israel was to learn by heart, and which is
more frequently referred to in later books of the Bible than
any other section of the Pentateuch,, We also have the
blessing of the Tribes and the death of Moses, The compi
lation of the book must have been an easy task. With Deut.
32. 44 before us, we naturally look to Joshua as taking
authority from Moses for producing such a book, though its
actual compilation would have been the work of scribes.
6. The Book of Numbers has a prefatory notice of time Materials
for Num-
and place in the first verse, and a postscript at the close, bers.
Its narrative starts from the beginning of the second year of
the Wanderings, when the people were in Sinai, and it leaves
off at the close of the forty years, in the plain of Moab, just
where Deuteronomy begins. Thirty-eight years are passed
over without a word between the 19th and 20th chapters.

44 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
The book is mainly compiled from lists, standing orders, and
other documents, interspersed with fragments of history and
song, and with records of legislative acts which professedly
were revealed by God to Moses. The references to " The
Book of the Wars of the Lord " and to " The Proverbs " in
the 21st chapter, remind us that there was growing up
amongst the people a literature of their own, alongside of
the Sacred Books, probably poetical in its structure, partly of
the same class as the works of the celebrated Egyptian poet
Pentaur, and partly to be compared with the adventures of
the Mohar, with whom Egyptologists have made us familiar.
This fact helps us to understand better what a wealth of
materials may have been in the hands of the compiler of the
Book of Judges in -later times. Even as far down in time
as the age of Jeremiah, these songs may still have been
current among the people, though he may have got his
extracts solely from the Book of Numbers (comp. Num. 21.
28, 29, with Jer. 48. 45, 46). Some think that the inser
tions in the Book of Numbers are borrowed from Jeremiah !
Such an assertion might be swallowed, but hardly digested.
Let the student put the documents side by side and read
them attentively, and draw his own conclusions.
The real puzzle in the Book of Numbers is the narrative
concerning Balaam. How were his utterances obtained by
the compiler of Numbers ? There are linguistic peculiarities
in these chapters which may be touched upon in a later
stage of our inquiry, and for the present we must rest
content with two suppositions drawn from analogy: first,
that Balaam's utterances were recorded by himself or his
scribes ; secondly, that they were obtained by Moses before
or during the overthrow of the Midianites, when Balaam
was slain (Num. 31, 8).
fo?L^riti ^- '^^^ ^""^ °^ Leviticus is professedly made up of the
cus. series of decrees and statutes revealed to Moses, The first
half of the book has formulse concerning the authorship of
the materials, with postscripts at the close of each class of

MASKS OF COMPILATION IN EASLIEST BOOKS. 45
ordinance. These will readily be detected by the student.
Thus, let him trace the formula " The Lord spake to Moses,
saying," There are also two summaries at the close of the
book (chaps. 26, 46 and 27, 34), which show that the period
covered by the book closes just where the Book of Numbers
begins. All the rubrical directions and ordinances contained in Le
viticus must have been written by scribes at the command of
Moses. The few historical episodes in the book would be the
work of the recorders. The greater part, if not the whole, of
the materials would thus be prepared under the authorization
of Moses, who may fairly be credited with the book itself.
8, The Book of, Exodus, ends where Le-viticus begins. Materials
The first parts consists of family and autobiographical
records, including the whole story of the Exodus. There
is a certain amount of legislation which finds its natural
place in the narrative. There is also the specification of
the Tabernacle and its furniture, together with the report
of its construction in almost identical language, whilst the
episode of the Golden Calf lies embedded amidst these
documents. On reviewing the book we see no substantial
part which could not have been either written or authorized
by Moses, from materials of the same class as those which
we find in later books,
9, Only the Book of Genesis remains, and that stands at The Book of
the head of the Old Testament, as the most venerable of
Bibhcal documents. How can we deal with this ancient
book ? Who can have composed it ? and from what mate
rials ? We have already, earlier in this chapter, called
attention to the fact that we must not look for external
marks of a compiler's hand, whether mechanical or literary.
It would indeed have made our researches a very easy
matter if we had been told at the end of Genesis that the
volume was written by such and such a person and at such
a time ; or if we had been told at the beginning of Exodus
that Moses wrote or compiled Genesis from previous sources;

46

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE-

Its main
character
istic.

revelation and inter-

hut we have no such help. We must therefore examine the
contents of the books, and judge them by the analogy of those
which we have already discussed.
Genesis contains fifty chapters. All but the first eleven of
these form a fairly consecutive though fragmentary history
of Abraham, , his son, his grandson, and that grandson's
family. They abound in vivid personal detail. They are
old-world stories now; and they were old-world stories in
the days of the Exodus. They are threaded to one another
as some of the later narratives are, e.g. Nehemiah's book.
They are all religious in their tone and character, and are
professedly a story not so much of a family as of God's
dealings with the family. And this, it may be noticed in
passing, is the case with all the later Historical Books.
They all tell of what purport to be Divine promises, ex
pressions of, a Divine purpose, towards the individual, the
family, the nation, the world. This is essentially the
characteristic of the whole, and it at once suggests the
secret of the compilation.
Let us suppose, what is at least a possible hypothesis,
that God did indeed form a plan (to use human -words con
cerning infinite mysteries) whereby the greatest needs of the
human race should be satisfied, and that with a view to the
carrying out of that plan it should be deemed wise to choose
a particular land wherein certain great deeds should be done,
and a particular nation amongst whom primarily the Divine
method of intervention should be reahzed. Let us suppose,
what is equally possible, that this same Di-wne Being should
prepare the way for the great event, through a long period,
by means of a series of lesser interventions, self-manifesta
tions, and utterances, all more or less related to each other,
as proceeding from a common source, and all tending to
produce distinct impressions on the mind concerning God's
nature, moral government, and willingness to enter into close
and helpful relations with His children. Lastly, let us sup
pose, what -will be most natural under the circumstances,
and what we have already shown to be possible from a

MASKS OF COMPILATION IN EASLIEST BOOKS. 47
literary point of -vfew, viz., that the heads of the family with
whom God thus came into special relation should preserve
accounts of His dealings with them, stage by stage. Then,
if those documents could be preserved, we should have the
materials from which the Book of Genesis (from the twelfth
chapter and onwards) might be compiled.
This, then, is our hypothesis. Is , it not a good working a rational
hypothesis ? Is it not a fair and reasonable one ? Has any ''vpothesis.
one axtj prima facie objection to it ? If so, on what grounds
is that objection raised ?
10. There remain the first eleven chapters of Genesis to Thepre-
be dealt with. They contain the narratives of the Creation, ageP"'^" "*
the Fall, the Deluge, and the Dispersion. We are now in
pre-Patriarchal times, when the art of writing was in its
infancy; we have ascended the stream of history to its
mysterious source. Yet here We have the same style of
document as in the later books, e.g. vivid details, some
honourable, some shameful, concerning Noah and his family ;
and genealogies, taking us back like stepping-stones through
the centuries, till we find ourselves standing outside the
misty gates of Paradise in company -with the first parents
of our race. These primaeval people speak — we know not
in what tongue — they hold communion with their Creator ;
they have Law, Punishment, Covenant, Light, Hope. All
of these come to them through the self-manifestation of
Him in Whom they lived and moved and had their being..
From Him may have come direct to them the story — told
as one might tell it to a child — of the origin of all things ;
a bare outline but strictly theistic. From Him they may
have drawn not only the gift of speech but the instinct
which led them to pass on to others the story of their
creation and of their shame, together with the sure Promise
of Redemption, 11. When writing became possible, which may have been Transmis-
in antediluvian times, the story, which was oral, would be primeval
sketched in few and simple words on tablets or on bricks, *""**•

48 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
From Noah in Accadian or some other primseval tongue. In course of
' time Abraham was selected to be the head of the family
in which all , the nations of the earth should be blessed ;
and there would be no difficulty in his becoming possessor
of trustworthy copies or ti^anslations of these documents,
-which would thenceforward be handed down to his posterity,
and from these, or such as these, the early part of Genesis
would be composed, the whole series being welded into one
by some qualified person, into whose keeping the documents
would come on the death of Joseph. Who would this person
be ? Can there be any doubt ?
From When Israel came out of Egypt they carried the embalmed
Moses. body of Joseph with them, and with that precious historical
relic would naturally be deposited the archives of his house.
Thus the whole materials for Genesis would come into the
hands of Moses, and from his hands it is reasonable to
believe they passed — probably more or less in their present
form — into the safe keeping of Joshua.
This is all hypothesis. But, we ask again, is it not reason
able ? It presupposes, indeed, one thing all the way through,
viz., the existence of a living God, with feelings, and mind,
and power, and wisdom, capable of planning and of carrying
out His plans, capable of intervening in behalf of His
children, capable also of communicating such parts of His
purposes as He thought fit to certain selected persons. If
this is granted, the literary difficulties that lie before us will
be easily overcome. On any non-theistic hypothesis the
critic and the historian will be alike nonplussed.
Summary. 12. We take it, then, as possible — nay, as probable — that
whilst the Books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu
teronomy were compiled either by Moses or from official
materials which Moses authorized, the Book of Genesis is
based upon contemporary materials, which had accumulated
in the hands of the Patriarchs from the beginning, and
which were threaded together, under Divine enlightenment,
by the most capable man of ancient times.

WHAT WAS NEHEMIAH S BIBLE? 49

CHAPTER VII.

what -was nehemiah s bible .''
1. We have now secured a standing-ground which justifies Tests of
usinproceedingtofurther and more exact investigations. We integrity
have found a body of literature which may not unreasonably "*^ ^ '
be regarded as based in the main on the records of con
temporaries, extending back from the days of Nehemiah to
those of Samuel, and, with less certain evidence, , from the
time of Samuel to that of the Exodus, whilst further back
still stands the Book of Genesis. How can we further test
the age and integrity of such ancient books ?
2. It may be well to ask what course is taken -with regard Analogy of
the New
to the somewhat analogous case of the New Testament. Testament.
If we wish to examine the age and integrity of any book
in this " Christian Library," what course do we adopt ?
We first investigate the age of the manuscripts, then we
study the antiquity and contents of the oldest versions, and
finally we examine with the. greatest care the quotations
in early Christian writings. It is these on which we are
specially dependent. Anyone can see this for himself by
studying Dr. Westcott's work on The Canon, or Dr. Sanday's
Gospels in the Second Century.
The same course may fairly be adopted with regard to mfflcuity
the Old Testament, so far as it is practicable. But here the Old
we find ourselves in a far more difficult position. We have ^* '"^" '
absolutely no pre-Christian MSS. of these ancient books.
The only pre-Christian versions are the Septuagint and the
Samaritan Pentateuch, to which may be appended, though
doubtfully,- the earliest of the Chaldee Targums or Para
phrases on the Pentateuch and some other books. But
with the possible exception of the Samaritan documents,
whose age and authority are not well established, and which
it is customary now to ignore, none of these go back beyond

50 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the age of Nehemiah, which is our starting-point. We are
thus thrown chiefiy, if not wholly, on the third method of
testing ancient books, viz., the use made of them by the
succeeding writers. Accordingly, starting from the period
of Nehemiah, we have to inquire how far a more ancient
literature is presupposed in his time ; then we go further
back and renew the question again and again until we find
ourselves landed in the earliest of all the books.
Quotations. 3_ The Study of quotations is quite a science. We have
to be on our guard against mistaking resemblances for
references. Some expressions may be common property
to several Hebrew writers; they may have almost become
idioms in the language ; and we cannot say that the writers
borrowed them from one another. Also, there are proyerbial
expressions common to two writers which cannot fairly be
called quotations. Again, it is not always possible to de
monstrate in some cases which of two writers quotes from
the other. Lastly, the English version often misleads ; it
translates different Hebrew words in the same way, and the
same Hebrew word in different ways, so that every supposed
or possible quotation has to be determined in the light of
the original. Even when all these safeguards have been
attended to it remains to be inquired how far quotations
from a book are tests of its integrity {i.e. entirety) at the
time in which the quotation is made. It is generally ac
knowledged, however, that in the case of books of authority
and of a religious character two or three quotations go a
long way to establish the position of the book as a whole.
And now we must-embark on this difficult but interesting
task. We take the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah in our
hands, and ask ourselves if they presuppose or refer to any
earlier literature ; if so, of what class is it ? and to what
extent is it referred to ?
a^^rep-' 4. The first part of the Book of Ezra, which we have
Sjrai-6, cahed the Jeshua-narrative, opens with a reference to the

WHAT WAS NEHEMIAH S BIBLE? 51
prophecy of Jeremiah. It deals with a state of things, and
with tribes, families, and genealogies, which all presuppose
some such accounts as are given in Samuel, Kings, and
Chronicles, Thus, we have not only references to the
Captivity which took place in the age of Nebuchadnezzar,
but also to the system of worship established in the time
of David, whose ordinances and whose formulae of praise
are specifically referred to (see Ezra 3, 10, 11), whilst the
references to the family of Barzillai the Gileadite and to the
descendants of Asaph take us back genealogically to the same
period. The writings of Moses, the man of God, are also
referred to (Ezra 3, 2 and 6. 18) as the authority for the re-
establishment of the altar, the morning and evening burnt
offerings, the feast of tabernacles, and various other set feasts.
When we look at the brevity of the narrative, which is
almost made up of official documents, this is as much as
we could reasonably expect ; but we also find a reference in
Ezra 5, 1 and 6. 14 to the prophets Haggai and Zechariah,
whose writings may therefore be included in the evidence of
this period. In Haggai 1, 6 we read, " Ye have sown much
and bring in little ; ye eat, but ye have not enough." Here
we have manifest quotations from Deut. 28, 38 and Lev.
26. 26, whilst in Zech, 2. 8 we., have strong reason to
recognize a quotation from the Memorial Song (Deut. 32,
10), "He kept him as the apple of his eye," Zechariah
also refers to the ancient and oft-repeated promise which
originates in Exod, 6. 7, where we read, " I will take you
to Me for a people, and I will be to you for a God "
(Zech, 8. 8), Passing over minor references {e.g. Zech.
8. 12), and those about which there might be fair difference
of opinion, it is important to notice the three references to
the words of " the former prophets " as having been uttered
under the influence of God's Spirit, and having been fulfilled
in the punishment of the people (Zech, 1. 4 ; 7. 7, 12),
Putting all this together, we see that when Israel returned
from captivity {circ. B.C. 536-521) the leaders of the people
not only had amongst them prophets of God, but were
D 2

52

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

Quotations
and refer
ences in
Ezra 7-10.

Quotationsand refer-

Nehemiah.

apparently familiar with at least some of the writings which
are contained in the Pentateuch and which claimed Moses
as the author, as well as with the ordinances which date
back only as far as David.
5, The next period (70 years later) is that of Ezra and
Nehemiah, Here we find ourselyes in company -tvith a
ready scribe in the Law of Moses, who was famihar with the
words of the Commandments of the Lord and His statutes.
He had a most difficult task to perform ; for "the holy seed"
had mingled itself with the people of the land. In his
prayer over the matter (Ezra 9) he refers to the injunctions
given by " God's servants the prophets," and summarizes
them in words which may be illustrated from such passages
as Exod. 34, 16 and Deut, 7. 3. He uses one remarkable
expression in the course of this prayer, when he says that
the Canaanites had filled the land "from one end to another"
with their uncleanness. Literally, the words are "from
mouth to mouth," It may have been a common idiom, but
it is only to be found elsewhere in 2 Kings 21, 16, where
"God's servants the prophets" are referred to (verse 10),
and Manasseh is reported as having filled Jerusalem (with
blood) " from one end to another." There is nothing im
probable in' the idea that Ezra, being a ready scribe, had
this passage in his mind whilst praying.
6. Nehemiah's prayer (Neh, 1) is remarkable not only for
its adaptation of words which though springing from Exodus
are to be found verbatim in Daniel (compare Neh. 1. 5 with
Dan. 9. 4), but also for its deliberate quotation from "the
word commanded by God to His servant Moses," and it
illustrates a tendency which we find in the New Testament
writers, as also in Justin Martyr and others, which led them
td combine two or three passages into one. The extract
from Moses given in Nehemiah runs thus : — " If ye trans
gress, I will scatter you among the nations : But if ye return
unto Me, and keep My commandments, and do them; though
there were of you cast but unto the uttermost part of the

WHAT WAS NEHEMIAH'S BIBLE? 53
heaven, yet I will gather them from thence, and will bring
them unto the place that I have chosen to set My name
there. Now these are thy servants and thy people, whom
thou hast redeemed by thy great power, and by thy strong
hand." This is how the words stand in what we take to be
' Nehemiah's own record. There is no doubt' that Nehemiah
confidently referred, to the words, first, as having come down
from Moses, and, secondly, as having been put into Moses'
mouth by God. Whence are they taken ? In Deut. 30. 1-4
we read : — " When all these things are come upon thee . . ,
and thou shalt call them to mind among all the nations
whither the Lord thy God hath driven thee, and shalt return
unto the Lord thy God, and shalt obey His voice according
to all that I command th^e this day, then , . , the Lord will
turn thy captivity , . , and will return and gather thee from
all the nations whither the Lord thy God hath scattered thee.
If any of thine be driven out unto the outmost parts of hea
ven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather thee," The
earlier words, " I will scatter thee among the nations " are
from Lev, 26, 33, and the expression " the place which I
have chosen to put My narne there " may be illustrated from
Deut, 12, 21; 16. 11, and other passages.
In Nehemiah 8, Ezra is called upon to bring the Book of
the Law of Moses which the Lord commanded to Israel, In
accordance with what the people read in it, they kept the
feast of tabernacles, as had been done ninety years before
(Ezra 3. 4), The particular passage which they must have
read is Lev. 23. 39-43, on the strength of which they pub
lished in the cities that the people should fetch olive, pine,
myrtle, and palm branches, with the branches of thick trees,
and they had such a dwelling in booths as had not been
observed " since the days of Jeshua {i.e. Joshua) the son of
Nun" (Neh. 8. 17).
We now reach Nehemiah 9, in which we find a prayer or Neh. 9.
address to God worthy of our most careful study. God is
approached as the Maker and Preserver of heaven and earth,
-with all that is therein. It is He that chose Abram, called '

54 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
him Abraham, found him faithful, made a covenant with
him, promised the land of Canaan to his seed, saw the afflic
tion of the people in Egypt, heard their cry by the Red Sea,
' showed signs and wonders on Pharaoh and his servants,
divided the sea so that the people went through on dry land,
while the enemy sank as a stone ; led Israel in the day by
a cloudy pillar, and in the night by a pillar of fire ; came
down on Mount Sinai and gave judgments and statutes and
the holy Sabbath, by the hand of Moses ; gave bread from
heaven, and water out of the rock, for forty years, during
which time the people's clothes waxed not old and their feet
swelled not; exercised His attributes of grace, mercy, and
slowness to anger, even though they made a molten calf
and said. This is thy god that brought thee up out of Egypt.
Finally, He brought them into Canaan, giving them houses,
wells, -vineyards, and olive grounds, so they did eat, and
were filled, and became fat. So far we have a sketch of the
Pentateuch, with a number of verbal quotations from Genesis,
. Exodus, and Deuteronomy. The prayer goes on to refer to
the numerous troubles which befell the people through their
sins, to the warnings given by God's Spirit in the Prophets, ¦
and to the saviours raised up by God from time to time to
deliver the people from their enemies.
The more attentively we analyse the words of the prayer
conta.ined in this chapter, the more clearly we see the answer
to the important question. What was Nehemiah's Bible ? He
must have had very much the same Scriptures as the Jews
had in our Lord's time, and as we have in the Old Testament.
Further Later in the book we have references to God's Law given
quotations ,--,, n^-,-, ^
and refer- by Moses the servant of God, and to various rites; offices,
and duties, such as the Sabbath, the Sabbatical year, the
shewbread, the meat offering, the burnt offering, the sin
offering, the dedication of the firstfruits, the firstborn, and
tithes. We also find mention of the descendants of Asaph
and Jeduthun, -with whose names we are familiar in the
Book of Chronicles ; and the particular duties of the singers
are mentioned as being to praise and give thanks " according

WHAT WAS NEHEMIAH'S BIBLE? 55
to the commandment of David the man of God," where we
seem to have a reference to 1 Chron. 23, 25, and 26.
There is a " Book of Chronicles " named in Neh. 12. 23.
The words run thus : — " The sons of Levi, even the chief of
the fathers, (were) written in the book of the Chronicles,
also on to the days of Johanan the son of Eliashib." The refer
ence may have been to oUr Book of Chronicles (see 1 Chron.
9. 14-34) ; if so, the passage indicates that the genealogies
were continued after the completion of the Book of Chronicles
by some authorized person up to the time of Eliashib.
There is one other important passage to be noticed, viz.,
the beginning of the 13th chapter, where we find that, in the
course of reading " the Book of Moses," the people came
to the 23rd chapter of Deuteronomy, and found that " the
Ammonite and Moabite should not come into the congrega
tion of God for ever, because they met not the children of
Israel with bread and with water, but turned Balaam against
them that he should curse them, howbeit our God turned the
curse into a blessing." The passage is a full and clear
instance of a quotation. The effect produced by the reading
of it was remarkable. It caused a great separation to be made
between Israel and all the mixed multitude, the passage being
manifestly regarded as the expression of the mind of God.
' 7. There are other references, e.g. to king Solomon, who Summary.
was "beloved of God," but entangled by " outlandish women "
(Neh. 13. 26) ; but the student has sufficient materials be
fore him to lead to the conclusion that Nehemiah firmly
believed — in company- with Ezra and the writer of the
Jeshua-narrative — that the various branches of legislation
contained in the Pentateuch came from God by the hand of
Moses, A record of the leading outlines of the history of
the people from Abraham on-wards was in their hands. In a
word, either the Historical Books which we possess, or docu- ,
ments very like them, were in existence at the period of the
Return and the Restoration, and were regarded as trust
worthy and authoritative.

66 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE, BIBLE.

CHAPTER VIII,

quotations and references traced back from the times
of the kings to the period op the judges,
1. The materials from which the Books of Chronicles
and refer- ¦.-,¦, t r< -i i i -r;- ¦
ences in the are compiled presuppose, not only Samuel and the Kings,
but almost all the earlier books of the -Bible. The first chap
ter might have been composed from Genesis, The genealogi
cal lists which follow bristle with references to the preceding -
books. Thus we read of " Achar the troubler of Israel "
(1 Chron. 2, 7), Jehoshuah the son of Non (7. 27), Bezaleel
the son of Uri (2. 20), Gershom and Eliezer the sons of
Moses (23. 15), Othniel the son of Kenaz (4. 13), Caleb the
son of Jephunneh (4. 15), Shelah the son of Judah (4. 21),
Ehud (7. 10), Reuben the firstborn, who defiled his father's
bed, and whose birthright was given to the sons of Joseph,
while Judah prevailed above his brethren (5. 1, 2 ; compare
28. 4, which shows how Da-vid interpreted and applied
Jacob's blessing of Judah). So we read of the service of
the Aaronic priesthood, the leading outlines of which are
specified in 1 Chron. 6. 49 as being carried out " in accord
ance with all that Moses, the servant of God, commanded"
(compare chap. 23. 28-32). The dwelHng-places of the
priests (1 Chron, 6. 54-81) are taken from a copy of
, Josh, 31, or from the materials on which tha,t chapter was
based. Again, we find a reference to the old promise that
God would multiply Israel like the stars of heaven (37. 23) ;
and David encourages Solomon in words taken from the first
chapter of Joshua : " Be strong and of good courage , . .
fear not nor be dismayed, for the Lord God is with thee ; He
will not fail thee nor forsake thee" (compare 1 Chron, 38. 20
with Josh. 1. 5 and 9).
The Ta)3ernacle of the Congregation is described as made

QUOTATIONS AND BEFESENCES TEACED BACK. 57
by Moses, the servant of the Lord, in the wilderness
(2 Chron, 1. 3); the brazen altar as having being con
structed by Bezaleel the son of Uri (1. 5) ; the Temple is
planned on hues which presuppose the Tabernacle ; some of
the Tabernacle furniture is used, notably the Ark containing
"the t-Wo tables which Moses put therein at Horeb, when
the Lord made a covenant with the children of Israel, when
they came out of Egypt" (5. 10). Solomon's offerings are
presented in accordance with the ritual prescribed" by Moses
(8. 13, &c,). The Book of the Law of the Lord, i.e. copies
of it, were taken about the country by the Le-vites under
Jehoshaphat's direction ; and one Le-rite at least in those
days was well read in the story of the Exodus, for he
exhorts Judah at a critical period of their history, in words
borrowed from the Exodus, " Stand still and see the salvation
of -the Lord" (compare 2 Chron. 30, 17 with Exod, 14, 13,),
The " collection " which Moses, the servant of God, laid
upon Israel in the wilderness is referred to in 2 Chron, 34.
6, 9 ; and when Amaziah refrained from killing the children
of his father's murderers we are told that this was " in
accordance with what is written in the law in the book of
Moses, where the Lord commanded, saying. The fathers shall
not die for the children, neither shall the children die for the
fathers, but every man shall die for his own sin " (compare
2 Chron, 25, 4 with Deut. 34, 6),
The Passover is ordered to be kept " as it was written,''
as also the feast of Unleavened bread, in Hezekiah's times
(2 Chron. 30. 5, 13, 16, 18), and in the touching address sent
by the king to all the tribes (30. 6-9), God is not only de
scribed as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, i.e. as the
God of the Patriarchs, but also as " gracious and merciful "
— words taken from Exod. 34. 6,
The punishment due to the utter negligence of the people
in the days of king Manasseh, when " the law, the statutes,
and the ordinances by the hand of Moses " were wholly dis
regarded (33. 8), is temporarily warded off in the time of
Josiah, half a century later, when the Law is discovered as a

and refer-

58 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
new thing ; the writings of Moses, David, and Solomon ar6
revived and acted upon (see chap. 35. 4, 6, 12) ; and the
Passover was once more kept as it had not been since the
days of Samuel the prophet.
It may be said, however, that Chronicles is a late book,
and that all these references only illustrate the chronicler's
way of putting things. To this we answer, first, that many
of the passages are not ways of putting things, but are pro
fessedly history ; and, secondly, that many of them will be
found to be in the old pre-existing materials which we still
possess in the Book of Kings, and which we have seen reason
to accept as mainly the works of contemporary writers,
2. Let us look at a few further illustrations of our present
ences inihe subject from the KiNGS. David's parting w6rds to Solomon,
given in 1 Kings 3, 2-4, are not the same as those we have
cited from the Chronicles, but they show his famiharity -with
Deuteronomy and Joshua (compare 1 Kings 3. 2 with Josh.
33. 14, and verse 3 with Deut. 39. 9). The Book of Joshua
is specially referred to in 1 Kings 16. 34, where we read,
" In his (Ahab's) days did Hiel the Bethehte build Jericho :
he laid the foundation thereof in Abiram his firstborn, and
set up the gates thereof in his youngest son Segub, according
to the word of the Lord, which He spake by Joshua the son
of Nun " (see Josh. 6. 26).
In the striking account of Elijah's offering (1 Kings 18)
which " ascended " at the time of the evening " Minchah,"
Elijah took twelve stones, according to the number of the
tribes of Jacob, unto whom the word of the Lord came, say
ing, " Israel shall be thy name" (see Gen. 33. 28). After
wards he pleads to have his life taken away, in words he may
have read in the Pentateuch (compare 1 Kings 19. 4 with
Num. 11. 16); he comes to "Horeb, the Mount of God"
(see Exod, 3. 1); and he is there "forty days and forty
nights," as Moses was. There is cumulative force in these
references. Elijah and the people of his time were not un
acquainted with the facts recorded in the Books of Moses.

QUOTATIONS AND BEFESENCES TSACED BACK. 69
3. Going back to the Books of Samuel, we find Shiloh a Quotations
[, I . 1 , , , , T- -. and refer-
centre of worship at the beginning (compare Josh, 18. 1; ences in
Judg. 18. 31). Hannah's words of thanksgiving show that
she, at least, had learnt the old Memorial Song (compare
1 Sam, 2, 2, 6 with Deut, 33. 31, 39), The priestly system
is reqpgnized throughout the book — the sacrifices are going
on, the fat is burnt, the Tabernacle of the Congregation is in
use, the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord who dwelleth be
tween the Cherubim, the Sabbath, the feast of the new moon,
the yearly sacrifice, the shewbread, the ephod, the various
methods of inquiring of the Lord by prophets, dreams, and
Urim, are all well known.* We also find references to the
plagues of Egypt (1 Sam, 4. 8), to the hardening of Pha
raoh's heart (6, 6), and to Rachel's sepulchre (10. 2),
In Samuel's speech (12, 6-17) we have an outline of the
old Israelite history, including Jacob's entrance into Egypt,
and the mission of Moses, Aaron, and some of the Judges.
In chapter 15, God reminds the people of what Amalek had
done when Israel came out of Egypt. The case of Abime-
lech the son of Jerubbesheth, who died at Thebez, is cited
by Joab, 2 Sam. 11. 21.
4. What is the result so far attained ? Is it not that from Recapitu- lation.
the days of Samuel and onwards the people were in posses
sion of the early books of our Bible ? Are not there plain
indications that the contents of the Pentateuch, Joshua, or
the Judges were more or less known by the people ? Does
not the testimony so far imply that certain documents, an
swering in the main to these books as we now possess them,
wpre in the safe keeping of those whose special duty it
was to preserve them — i.e. the priestly families and other
officials ?

• It has been objected that sin-offerings are not noticed in the days of Samuel.
But let the reader consider Lev. 10. 16-20, and ask himself whether it is pro
bable, or even possible, that the story of Moses' search for the sin-oliering, his
anger against Aaron, and his subsequent acceptance of Aaron's explanation, was
an invention of later days.

60 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
\
Quotations 5. We UOW go back to the Book of Judges, which we take
and refer- , ip, • •, p , ,. ^ .
ences inthe to be the Work ot the writers m the age ot the earhest kings,
^^^' and to be based on older documents, mainly contemporary
with the events recorded. It contains twenty-one chapters,
which cover a period of about four centuries, and it supphes
fuU pictorial narratives of a few events threaded together on
a very slight chronological system. We must not expect too
much under these circumstances. The book hangs upon
Joshua, just as the Books of Kings hang upon those of
Samuel, taking up the history were the preceding book
stops. After formally referring to Joshua's death, it freely
refers to things recorded both in the preceding book and in
. the Pentateuch. It has already been pointed out that some
portions of the first two chapters of the Judges are borrowed
verbatim from Joshua 15, 16, 17, and 34. If the book
contained no other evidence this would be considered suffi
cient, unless there were overwhelming reaspns to the con
trary, to justify us in affirming that the Book of Judges
presupposes not only the facts recorded in Joshua, but the
^ book itself. See Appendix, p. 203, for the chief parallel
passages. But there are other connecting links between the Judges
' and the older books ; examine, e.g., the references to Moses'
father-in-la-w (chap. 1. 16; 4. 11), the gift of Hebron to
Caleb by Moses (1. 20; compare Deut. 1. 36), God's oath
to the Patriarchs concerning the land (3. 1), the penalties
consequent on idolatry (2. 11-15, compare Lev. 36 and
Deut. 28)i and God's repentance on the sight of their trouble
(2. 18; compare Deut. 32. 36). There are frequent refer
ences to Egyptian bondage and to the miracles connected
with the Exodus {e.g. 6. 8-13), whilst Jephthah's speech
refers to Israel's early successes (11. 14-24), Nor must we
omit to notice the casual reference, to " the plain [or rather
' oak '] of the pillar in Shechem " (compare 9. 6 with Josh.
24. 26).
The precious words uttered to Gideon (6. 16), " Certainly
I will be with thee," are an echo of the promise made under

QUOTATIONS AND BEFESENCES TSACED BACK. 61
similar circumstances by God to Moses (Exod. 3. 12), The
request of Manoah to know the name of the angel, of the
Lord (13, 18) is answered in terms which bear a marked
resemblance to those which we find in Gen. 32. 29.
The Book of Judges is military rather than civil in its
character. We should hardly expect to find in it any records
of the Levitical ritual. There are, indeed, indications that
there was such ritual. Thus, in chap. 30. 27 we read of the
Ark of the Covenant, and Phinehas the son of Eleazar, the
son of Aaron, is described as standing before the Lord (com
pare Josh, 24, 33). The reference to the Nazarite vow is
also to be noticed (compare 13. 4, 5 with Num. 6. 2-8).
Bearing in mind the nature of the book and of its con
tents, and the strong reasons already pointed out for believ
ing that the prophet Samuel and the men of his age knew
the earlier books, we ask, is there or is there not sufficient
evidence in the Book of Judges .that it was preceded by some
such events and institutions as are described in the first six
books of the Old Testament ? The evidence is slender, we
must confess, and we should be glad to have more ; but
what there is must take its stand alongside of that we find
in the Book of Samuel, and on the whole it seems to be
sufficient.

' boolcs.

62 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER IX.

THE CASE OF JOSHUA AND THE PENTATEUCH.
Interlock- 1. The relationship between the Book of Joshua and the
first six Pentateuch is so marked that it is the habit of some critics
to regard them as one compilation, and to call them " the
Hexateuch." The Book of Joshua may certainly be re
garded as a continuation of the Pentateuch, but it is by
another hand. It implies the pre-existence of the earlier
books throughout. Its theology and history are the outcome
of the revelations and promises contained in the Pentateuch,
and the references are too numerous and well-defined to be
ignored. These six books are a growth. The earlier elements re
appear in the later developments of history, promise, and
intervention. We may illustrate this from the first chapter
of Genesis. The account of the making of man in the
image of God (verse 27) is not only referred to in chap, 9. 6,
but is quoted verbatim in chap. 5, 1, 2. The Sabbath rest
(2. 2) is the basis of the Fourth Commandment (Exod,
20, 11), The Garden of Eden (2. 8) is regarded as the
perfection of beauty, and is referred to in this sense in
chap, 13. 10, The curse on the ground (3, 17) is reported
to have been known by Lamech (5. 29), and is cited in the
covenant made with Noah (8. 21), The blessing promised
to Abraham and his seed (12. 2, &c,) appears to have been
known to Balaam (Num. 34, 9), The co-venant concerning
the land (15, 18 ; 17. 7, 8) and the oath which God sware to
Abraham (33. 15-18) are not only referred to through the
rest of the Patriarchal period, but form the basis of the
series of interventions which spring therefrom. See, for
example, Exod, 3. 24, " God heard their groaning, and God
remembered His covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and
with Jacob"; and compare Deut. 7. 7, 8, "Because the

JOSHUA AND THE PENTATEUCH. 63
Lord loved you, and because He would keep the oath which
He sware unto your fathers, hath the Lord brought you
out," &c. The passages of this class are legion. One might
as well stand on London Bridge and affirm that the Thames
does not flow from above, as suggest that the dealings of
God -with Israel did not spring from the promises made in
Patriarchal times and recorded in Genesis.
The overthrow of Sodom (Gen. 19, 24, 25) is fully referred
to in Deut. 39, 23, some peculiar expressions specially linking
the passages together, as we shall see later. The purchase
of Machpelah by Abraham (chap, 33) is referred to long
afterwards in the parting instructions of Jacob (49, 29-32),
The violent deeds of Simeon and Levi (34, 25, &c,) and the
sin of Reuben (35. 22) are not only faithfully recorded in
their place, but are remembered in later years and incorpo
rated in Jacob's dying utterances concerning his sons. It is
inconceivable that either the earlier record or the later utter
ance could have been invented in later days. The purchase
of an estate by Jacob from the sons of Hamor (Gen. 33, 19)
is referred to by the writer of the last part of Joshua
(24, 32), and the price paid, the terminology of which is
peculiar, is specified in the latter as in the former passage.
2. The "bones of Joseph" {i.e. his mu-mmy) may be called Exodus
the material connecting link between the Patriarchal history the later
contained in Genesis and the Israelite history which begins
in Exodus (see Exod. 13, 19, and compare Gen. 50, 25 ; see
also Heb, 11. 22), The God of the Exodus is the God of
Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, the
same ever-living, ever-present, covenant-keeping God. His
name Jehovah now became " known " in the fulness of
its meaning. This could not have been -the case until the
promises made to the Patriarchs were fulfilled hundreds
of years afterwards in the multiplication of Israel, in their
redemption from Egypt, in the judgment on Egypt, and in
the possession of the inheritance of Canaan (see Gen. 15.
13-16). There is the same sort of relationship between

64 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Genesis and the rest of the Pentateuch that there is be
tween the Old Testament and the New. One is the book
of Promise, the other is the book of Performance,
The " mixed multitude " (Exod, 12. 38) reappear in
Numbers (11. 4), though the Hebrew words used are not
the same. The manna first mentioned in Exod. 16 is re
ferred to in Num. 11 as causing dissatisfaction ; and there
are verbal links between the passages. It reappears in
Moses'- speeches {e.g. Deut. 8. 3, 16), and the reason which
led God to bestow it is so important that it afterwards
became a shield in the hand of the. Lord Jesus against
the fiery dart of Satan (see Matt. 4. 4). The record of
the cessation of manna is recorded as a matter of history
in Josh. 5. 12.
Further re- 3. What need be added? Time would fail were we to
attempt a full and detailed account of the relationship,
theological, historical, legislative, and linguistic, between the
various parts of the Pentateuch. Let the student, instead
of beginning by noticing apparent inconsistencies, begin,
as must be accounted the fair critical method, by observing
and marking the points of connection, the coincidences,
designed and undesigned, between the books. Let him
notice, for example, how the attributes of God enumerated
formally in Exod. 34 are boldly cited by Moses in Num. 14;
how the warning voice of Lev. 26 is heard again in
Deut. 28 ; how the blessing of the tribes in Gen. 49 is
delicately linked with that contained in Deut. 33 ; how
the history and legislation primarily affecting the people
who were brought out of Egypt are detailed in their lead
ing outline in the addresses which were given by the aged
leaders to the next generation, and which bear the same sort
of relation to the earlier history as the Epistles of St, Paul
do to the Acts of the Apostles; how the references to
Joshua in the Pentateuch fit in with the full account of
his proceedings recorded in the book which bears his name ;
how Phinehas, who was the priest when some of the events

JOSHUA AND THE PENTATEUCH. 65
mentioned in the Book of Judges took place, is referred
to, almost casually, as coming to the front -when his father
succeeded to the priesthood (see Num. 25, 10; 31. 6),
4. Lastly, attention may be called to one small incident. The brazen
We read in 2 Kings 18 . 4, that Hezekiah broke in pieces'
the brazen serpent which Moses had made. Why did Moses
make it ? Where had it been kept ? Why had it not been
mentioned between the time of Moses and that of Hezekiah ?
The first question is easy to answer in the light of Num.
21. 9, The second cannot be answered ; but the fact remains
that, just as the bones of Joseph linked the departure of
Israel out of Egypt -with the whole of the Patriarchal history,
so this brazen serpent was a material link between the days
when Israel was knocking at the door of Canaan and the
times of Hezekiah, And ;what shall we say to the third
question ? Simply that there was no reason why it should
have been mentioned in the intervening period. The argu
ment from silence is a perilous one. This serpent was a
" relic " for seven centuries, yet it was never referred to.
Suddenly we learn that it had become the object of super
stitious adoration, so it is destroyed. Even if the Law of
Moses had never been referred to between the time of
Joshua and that of Josiah, it might yet have been in
existence. But with the facts before us which have been
now brought out, every shadow of doubt must disappear.
If there can be any stability in historical literature which
is debarred through its antiquity from confirmation from
external sources, we have got it in the precious documents
which we have been examining in these three chapters.

66 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER X.

notes introduced into the eaely books.
Notes and \. 'So attentive reader of the Historical Books of the Old
paren eses. rpgg^g^j^gjj^ ga,n fail to observe that they contain a consider
able number of notes. These notes are not printed as such
in our Bibles, nor are they marked in any special way in the
Hebrew MSS., but most of them can be detected without
any such help, because they are all manifestly interruptions
in the course of the narrative. We have, however, to draw
a distinction at the outset between parentheses, which may
have been the work of the original writers, and annotations,
which have been added by later compilers and editors;
though it may not always be clear to which class certain
passages beloug,
Gere. 2. 10-14. 2, An instance of a parenthesis rather than a note may be
given, in the first place. In the second of Genesis, we have
an account of the four rivers which started from the great
watershed in which our first parents are reported to have
lived. A description is given of the course of three of the
rivers, but not of the fourth, which is supposed to be well
known to the reader. If the description is part of the origi
nal document, we are evidently led to the conclusion tha,t the
writer lived near the Euphrates ; and that seems the natural
conclusion. At any rate, the earliest readers of the docu
ment must have lived in the Euphrates valley, for even the
Hiddekel {i.e. the Tigris) needed a word of explanation.
Gen. II. 3, In Gen. 11. 3 we find a note which cannot spring from a
-writer on the Euphrates. We read, " They had brick for
stone, and slime had they for mortar." These words must
have been written in a land where stone and mortar were in

NOTES INTSODUCED INTO EABLY BOOKS. 67
common use, and where brick and slime were comparatively
rare. Can there be any doubt as to the birthplace of this
note ? Babylon is the land of brick, baked or sunburnt ;
whereas comparatively few bricks are to be seen in Pales
tine, which is a land of limestone. The piece of clay ground
near Zaretan, in which Solomon's castings were prepared,
seems to 'have been regarded as quite a rarity (see 1 Kings
7. 42; 2 Chron. 4. 17). What clay there was in the land was
chiefly needed for making pottery, and it is thought from
the name (^/bH) to have been of reddish tint, though this is
doubtful. The .play from which the old Babylonian bricks
are made is a yellowish white, and the name of a brick
(n3^7) indicates its colour. This same name is given to
the blackish bricks of Egypt in the Book of Exodus — a clear
proof that the name had originated in the Babylonian region,
had travelled -with the Patriarchs to Canaan, and had gone
on with them to Egypt, where it had to do duty for a very
different-looking material. It may seem strange to us, who
live in a land rich in brick and mortar, that after the
Exodus bricks are not so much as named in the Bible till
the days of Isaiah, though a brick-kiln, or, as we might
translate it, bakery, is mentioned in 2 Sam. 13. 31.
Passing on to Gen. 18, 6, and 13, 7, we have short paren- Gen. 12. b.
thetic notes — " The Canaanite was then in the land," and
" The Canaanite and the Perizzite dwelled then in the land."
These words would hardly be part of the original record
kept by the Patriarchs. Who wrote them ? and with what
object ? The first of them gives force to the great promise
introduced in the next verse — " Unto thy seed will I give
this land "; and the other adds point to the offer made by
Abraham to Lot^ — " Is not the whole land before thee ? "
Whoever it was that welded the original records into one
continuous narrative may well have inserted these words,
or they may have been added by a later hand.
We have found a Euphratean note and a Canaanite note ; Gen. u. 10.
let us now look at an Egyptian note. In Gen. 13. 10 we
are told that " Lot lifted up his eyes, and saw the plain of
E 2 .

68 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere, before the
Lord overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the garden
of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, as thou comest unto
Zoar." First we have the fact, recorded at the time, that
Lot viewed the plain or 'Arabah of the Jordan ; secondly,
the compiler's note that it was a well-watered region before
the overthrow ; thirdly, there is a comparison with the gar
den of the Lord, and so we have a reminiscence of Eden,
which seems to have been the standard of perfection in old
times (compare Isa. 51. 3 — " He will make her wilderness like
Eden, and her desert like the garden of the Lord " ; so Joel
3. 3, and Ezek. 38. 13 ; and compare the old Babylonian ex
pression Gan-Dunia) ; fourthly, the region is compared with ,
the land of Egypt, i.e. the well-watered territory of Goshen,
especially its eastern part. It has been pointed out by the
Rev. H. Tompkins that the word written " Zoar " may have
been Zar or Zal, the north-eastern boundary of Egypt, where
it joins the Philistine territory. Others think that the word
was originally written Zoan. At any rate, this description
looks as if it came from the hand of Moses, and was an
illustration designed for the benefit of his contemporaries,
who knew Egypt but not Sodom.
Gen. 14. The 14th of Genesis contains a series of topographical
notes, evidently not part of the original document, but pro
ceeding from a later hand. Thus we have Bela, which is
Zoar (verse 2) ; the vale of Siddim, which is the Salt Sea
(verse 3) ; En-mishpat, which is Kadesh (verse 7) ; Hobah,
which is on the left of Damascus (verse 15) ; the valley of
Shaveh, which is the King's dale (verse 17).' Those notes
look as if they were written for the benefit of Israel after
they had settled in Canaan. In each case the old name had
passed away, and a descriptive note was needed. If we could
tell the date of any of the later expressions we might get a
key to the age of the annotator ; but any one of them might
have been written by Moses, though they are probably later.
The " King's dale" is referred to in 2 Sam. 18. 18, as con
taining Absalom's pillar, but the dale probably received its

NOTES_ INTSODUCED INTO EABLY BOOKS. 69
name from the fact that it was the meeting-place between the
king of Sodom, Abraham, and Melchizedek.
Gen. 36. 1 reads thus — "And there was a famine in the Gere. 26. i.
land, beside the first famine that was in the days of Abra
ham." The last clause seems to be an explanatory note by
the compiler — whom we take to be Moses — to prevent any
confusion as to the two famines. There are similar explana
tory expressions running through the books, but it is not
easy to tell how many of them are part of the original
history, and how many are the work of a subsequent anno
tator. Part of Gen. 36. 31 must have been a late addition ; that Gere. 36. 3i-
39
is to say, it could not have been included in its present form
in the documents which had passed, through Joseph, into
the hands of Moses. It seems impossible that Moses could
have found or written the words — ^" These are the kings that
reigned in the land of Edom before there reigned any king
over the children of Israel." The words in italics cannot
well have been added till the time of Samuel. It is to
be noticed that the chronicler extracted the whole passage
with these words in it (1 Chron. 1. 43), so that the chapter
in Genesis must have stood in his time very much as it
stands now.
We pass on now to Gen. 43. 32, where we have an ex- Gen. 43. 32.
planatory note of considerable importance. A separate table
was prepared for the Hebrews "because the Egyptians
might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an
abomination unto the Egyptians." It is usual to connect
this passage with the fact that the Egyptians were at this
time under the dominion of the Shepherd kings, but this
is uncertain, though highly probable. A somewhat similar
note is to be found in Gen. 46. 34, where we are told that
every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians.
On turning to Exod. 8. 26 we read concerning the -victims
of Sacrifice that " they are the abomination of the Egyp
tians"; and here we probably get the key to the earher
annotation, Moses evidently used the word " abomina-

70 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
tion" (n^yin) iu Deut, 7. 25 and other passages for an
idol, or something hateful to God, and to be avoided by
Israel. We may therefore gather that what was sacred to
the Egyptians in 'connection with their idolatrous rites was
hateful in the sight of God. The Egyptians did not hate
sheep and oxen ; they deified the bull ; and this superstition
was an abomination to the Lord. So it may be that the
shepherds and the Hebrews (who were evidently identified
with shepherds) were not hated by the Egyptians, but their
calhng was connected with certain rites which were sacred
to them, and to be abominated by the Israelites. Perhaps
they were tabooed. It would not be safe to indicate any
relationship between the South Sea Taboo and the word
Toabah, which we translate abomination, but the one custom
may possibly illustrate the other. Whatever interpretation
we give to the note, it cannot well be brought down to a
later time than that of Moses,
Exod. 16, 36, 3, In Exod. 16, 35 we are told that Israel ate the manna
forty years, until they came to a land inhabited ; they did
eat manna until they came unto the borders of the land of
Canaan, This is evidently a note added after the event, and
probably by the compiler of the Book of Joshua (compare
Josh. 5. 12). The next verse contains a note also, to show
the proportion which an omer bears to an ephah. There
are other notes bearing on weights and measures, which we
may have to refer to later on.
A*«m, is, 22, 4.. In Num. 13, 22 the spies are said to have ascended
by the south and come to Hebron, and it is added, " Now
Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt." This
refers to a very ancient piece of history indeed. Zoan is
old, but Hebron is seven years older. Why should Zoan,
of all places, be taken as a standard of antiquity ? The
answer is an interesting one. Zoan had not been so much
as named before, and yet every Israelite knew it, for it was
a sort of metropolis to Goshen, and it is here and in the
neighbourhood that the mighty works of God had been done

NOTES INTSODUCED INTO EABLY BOOKS. 71
(see Ps. 78. 12, 43). Moses may well have known the age
of Zoan ; but who knew the age of Hebron ? That must
. have been learnt on the spot or in the neighbourhood.
Thus this little note must have proceeded from one who
knew personally or by hearsay concerning the respective
ages of Zoan and Hebron. Was it Moses ? Was it Joshua
or Caleb ? Or was it Phinehas ? We cannot well go later
than their time. In any case, the "building" may not have
been the first settlement of the place, but its estabhshment
as a walled city, as in other passages.
The note on the character of Moses (Num. 12. 3) was, of -^»'™- 12. 3.
course, not written by himself; at least, it is not likely that
he would write it ; yet it bears the marks of a contemporary
writer or of a very early annotator, and would be of the age
of the preceding one.
In Nutn. 32. 41 we read that Jair the son of Manasseh iV«m. 32.41.
went and took the small towns of Gilead, and called them
Havoth-jair, It is generally supposed that this must have
been inserted in later times, and it may have been so, We
have it again in a corresponding passage (Deut, 3, 14), with
rather fuUer particulars ; also in Josh, 13, 10. It appears
again in 1 Chron. 2, 22, where we find that Jair was the
descendant of Segub, who sprang from Judah on his father's
side, and from Gilead the Manassite on his mother's side,
and that the villages or towns were sixty in number. So far
there is no difficulty in ascribing the passages in Numbers
and Deuteronomy to the age of Moses, But apparently
Jair lived some time afterwards, for in Judges 10, 3, 4 he
is introduced as judging Israel after the period of Abimelech
— " And he had thirty sons, and they had thirty cities,
which are called Havoth-jair {i.e. towns of Jair) unto this
day." Were there two Gileadite Jairs, one in the age of
Jcshiia, and one considerably later ? This is quite possible.
Did the first call a group of villages Havoth-jair, and did the
second revive the name owing to the fact that he had sway
over part of his ancestor's territory, and was rich in sons ?
We see no difficulty in this supposition.

72 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Notes in 5. In the second and third chapters of Deuteronomy there
reom^!'^'^ are some important parentheses of an ethnological character
which call for attention. Moses is reviewing the history of
the past, and after describing the compassing of Mount Seir
" many days " {i.e. thirty-eight years) proceeds to speak of
Moab. Then comes a note on the original inhabitants of
these regions, -vdz., the Horim of Seir and the Emim
of Moab (2. 10-12). The aborigines of the Ammonite and
Philistine territories, viz., the Zamzummim and the Avim,
are mentioned just below (verses 20-23). If these passages
were not part 'of the original speech they must be very
ancient notes. There seems no reason for bringing them
lower than the age of Phinehas. The reference to Og's
bedstead of iron (? basalt) in chap. 3. 1 1 is probably a note,
and so is the ninth verse, which gives the Amorite and
Sidonian ways of spelling the old name of Hermon.
There are short historical parentheses in these old speeches
which form quite a peculiar feature in them ; see, for ex
ample, the severance of the refuge cities (4. 41-43) ; the
reference to the sins committed at Taberah, Massah, and
other places (9. 22-24) ; also, a section of the journeyings
(10. 6, 7) taken from Num. 33. 30-33. The first and third
of these passages look to us like intrusions on the text, but
they may have been inserted by the original compiler of the
book in the days of Joshua. The last sentences of the book
tell us that there arose not a prophet since in Israel like
unto Moses, This must be a reflection on the part of a
historian of later times. It can hardly have been written
before the age of Samuel, and it may well have been later.
The words seem to have special reference to the_ promise in
the 18th chapter, where provision was made for the future
raising up of a prophet like unto Moses,
Theological 6, Most of the notes referred to above are of an archae
ological or historical character. But our attention is now
called to a comment on the text which is of the nature of
a theological reflection. In Josh, 11. 20, after referring to

NOTES INTSODUCED INTO EABLY BOOKS. 73
Joshua's annexation of all the Canaanite territories except
that of the Hivites of Gibeon, the writer adds — " For it was
of the Lord to harden their hearts that they should come
against Israel in battle that he might destroy them utterly."
Compare with this the comment on Samson's case in
Judg. 14, 4 — " His father and his mother knew not that
it was of the Lord that he sought an occasion against the
Philistines " ; also 1 Sam. 2. 25, where we are told that the
sons of Eli " hearkened not unto the voice of their father
because the Lord would slay them," and 2 Sam. 17. 14 —
" For the Lord had appointed to defeat the good counsel
of Ahithophel, to the intent that the Lord might bring evil
upon Absalom." This last passage is part of the work of
either Nathan or Gad, and there seems considerable likeli
hood that these writers, in conjunction with their elder
coadjutor Samuel, would review the writings of the past,
and that they, under Divine guidance, might point to the
hand of Providence in the previous history of their people,
by some such comments as we have called attention to. To
them also, or to the prophetic scribes of a later day, might
be attributed such a reflection as we find recorded in Josh.
10. 14 — " There was no day like that before it or after it,
that the Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man."
7. In the later chapters of the Judges we are introduced Judg. is.
to a very ancient series of historical events which might well
be placed much earlier in the book. In the course of the
narrative we are told (18. 30) that certain persons were
" priests to. the tribe of Dan until the day of the captivity of
the land." This is manifestly a note ; but what is its date ?
The word translated " captivity" (n^j) is used here in this
sense for the first time. It is one of many words which have
a double significance, being sometimes used of " uncovering "
in the sense of " revelation," and sometimes of " stripping "
or " carrying captive." The next place where it is used is
in connection with the Srk in 1 Sam. 4. 21, 22, where we
read that the glory is " departed " — ^taken captive — from

74 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Israel. The well-known incident is referred to in Ps. 78.
59-61, where we read that God was provoked with the
graven images and high places of Israel —
So that He forsook the tabernacle of Shiloh,
The tent which He placed among men ;
And delivered His strength into captivity,
And His glory into the enemy's hand.
Some critics consider that " the captivity of the land " was
the great stripping and desolation of the land under the iron
rule of Philistia. It might well be so described, even if we
declined to follow the suggestion of some that the word
" land " (T*"1X) is a misreading for " ark " (JI^X). One sees
no reason, however, why the semi-idolatrous priesthood over
Dan should be affected by the Philistine tyranny. The
probabilities are rather in favour of the note being added by
a later historian. The fact might well have been recorded
in the age of Hezekiah, who, as we know, sent commis
sioners through all the tribes of Israel as far north as Dan
(see 2 Chron, 30),

OTHES NOTES IN HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 75

CHAPTER XL

other notes in the historical books,
1, There is a brief note frequently to be found in the "Unto this
Historical Books of the Old Testament to which we must '^'
now call attention. Some event, custom, or local object is
spoken of as remaining up to the time of the writer, i.e. the
annotator or compiler. The first time these words occur is
with respect to the origin of Moab and Ammon, who were
the fathers of the Moabites and of the children of Ammon
" unto this day."

^2. Some of these notes bear on the origin of well-known Archaic
local names. Thus, after the oath made between Isaac and
the officers of Abimelech (itself a renewal of a more ancient
agreement, as may be seen by comparing Gen, 21. 31 with
chap. 26. 33), we read, " Therefore the name of the city is
Beer-sheba unto this day," Similar local notes will be found
on Succoth (Gen, 33. 17), Abel-mizraim, which is beyond
Jordan (Gen. 50. 11), Havoth-jair (Deut 3. 14), Gilgal (Josh.
5. 9), the valley of Achor (Josh. 7. 26), Luz (Judg. 1. 26),
En-hakkore (Judg. 15. 19), Mahaneh-Dan (Judg. 18. 12),
Perez-uzzah (2 Sam, 6. 8), Absalom's place (2 Sam. 18. 18).
3. Others relate to the permanence of old customs, the ¦^"f^^t
origin of which has been described in the text. Thus, in
Gen. 32. 32 we read, " Therefore the children of Israel eat
not of the sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of
the thigh, unto this day." This is the first appearance of
the familiar expression " the children of Israel," or, as an
Oriental would say, Beni-Israel. The note might have been
inserted at any time, for the custom is even now prevalent
among strict Jews. Again, in Gen. 47. 26, we are told that

76 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE. .
" Joseph made it a law over the land of Egypt unto this
day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth part." Was this a
Mosaic note ? or was it the testimony of much later times ?
Both of these notes may have proceeded from Moses.
In Josh. 9. 27 Joshua is said to have " made (or appointed)
the Gibeonites to be hewers of wood and drawers of water for
the congregation, and for the altar of the Lord, even unto this
day, in the place which he should choose." It is generally
believed that these Gibeonites were the people afterwards
called Nethinim, of whom we read (Ezra 8. 20) that David and
the princes had appointed them for the service of the Levites.
The word Nethinim is one of several words peculiar to
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and is derived from the
word |nj {nathan) translated " made " in the verse quoted
above from Joshua. The Gibeonites held a special position
" by appointment," and whilst they on their part were bound
to render yeoman's service, Israel was bound to protect them,
as Saul's family found to their cost (see the parenthesis in
2 Sam. 21. 2). It may be that David, amongst his other
labours, reviewed the position of these Gibeonites and re
newed the covenant made withthem. In the days of Nehe
miah they had their own chief, and a locality on Ophel was
assigned to them (Neh. 11. 21).
In 1 Sam. 5. 5 we are told that the priests of Dagon do
not tread on the threshold of Dagon in Ashdod " unto this
day." Some think that this custom is referred to in Zeph.
1. 9, but this is very doubtful. There were Ashdodites in
the days of Nehemiah, and the note may have been added at
any time. In 1 Sam. 30. 26 David is said to have made a
certain ordinance concerning the division of spoil " unto this
day." This note may be of any age, but the note on 1 Sam.
37. 6 (Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah unto this
day) can hardly have been written later than the Captivity.
It looks more like a note of the age of Hezekiah, as may
have been the case with the two preceding. The last words
of 2 Sam, 5. 8 may be a note, but their meaning is not quite
certain.

OTHES NOTES IN HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 77
4. Other notes of a historical or local character may be Historical
grouped together. Thus, Hebron became the inheritance of
Caleb unto this day (Josh, 14. 14) ; the Geshurites and the
Maachathites dwell among the Israelites unto this day
(Josh, 13. 13) — hence the connection of both with David
(2 Sam. 3, 3) ; the Jebusites dwell with the children of
Judah at Jerusalem unto this day (Josh, 15. 63) ; the
Canaanites dwell among the Ephraimites unto this day, and
serve under tribute (Josh. 16, 10). With these passages
may be compared 1 Kings 9. 21, " All the people left of the
Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites . . ,
upon those did Solomon levy a tribute of bondservice unto
this day." -Hence they were called " the children of Solo-
nion's servants" (Ezra 3. 55). Many of them went into
captivity, and many of them came Out again. These notes
may have been as late as Nehemiah's time, though, of course,
they may have been of Hezekiah's time. A uote of a similar
character, relating to the Beerothites, is to be found in
2 Sam. 4. 3.
In 2 Kings 8. 22 we read that Edom revolted from under
the hand of Judah unto this day ; and in chap. 16. 6 the
Syrians are said to have come to Elath and dwelt there
unto this day. In 1 Chron. 5. 22 the Reubenites and others
are described as conquering the Hagarites and dwelling in
their steads " until the Captivity " ; whilst immediately
below, Pul and Tiglath-pileser are said to have carried away
the two and a half tribes, and settled them elsewhere " unto
this day." These notes may also date from the age of
Hezekiah. In the case of Simeon's descendants (1 Chron. 4. 41, 43)
we read of certain movements which happened in the days
of Hezekiah, in consequence of which the Hamites and
Amalekites were dispossessed unto this day. These may be
the chronicler's own notes, or they may have been copied by
him from earlier documents, as in the case of several extracts
from Kings, -Where the expression " there they are unto this
day," or some kindred expression, was mechanically repeated

78 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
by the recorder, even when inapplicable to his own time.
See, for instances, 1 Chron. 13. 11 ; 2 Chron. 5. 9 (with
reference to the ark) ; 10. 19 ; 31. 10,
Only one other note which strictly belongs to this class
need be mentioned, viz., 2 Kings 17. 34, 41. It has to do
with the ways of the people who were introduced into the
land of Israel by the Assyrian conquerors. " Unto this
day," says the writer, " they do after the former manners . . ,
as did their fathers, so do they unto this day." This para
graph might have been written by Jeremiah, whom we take
to be the last substantial contributor to the Kings ; but it
may have been of the post-Capti-vity period, when the line
of religious demarcation between Samaria and* Judah was
so strongly emphasized,
Monumen- 5. Another dass of notes refers to certain monuments still
existing in the time of the annotator. Thus, the twelve
stones put by Joshua in the midst of Jordan are there unto
this day (Josh. 4, 9). Ai stands as a heap (still called Et-
Tell, " the heap ") unto this day, and a cairn or heap of
stones raised over the king's dead body remaineth unto this
day (Josh, 8. 28), The great stones remain at the mouth
of the cave of Makkedah unto this day (Josh. 10, 27), and
the stone of Abel is said to remain on the estate of the Beth-
shemite unto this day (1 Sam, 6. 18) ; also the temple of
Baal at Samaria was made a draught-house by Jehu unto
this day (2 Kings 10. 27), None of these notes are hkely
to have been latter than the Captivity, and it would appear
probable that they were of the age of Hezekiah, in whose
time there may also have been added such notes as we find
in 1 Kings 8, 8, on the staves ; in chap. 12. 19, on the
secession ; in 2 Kings 2. 22, on the fountain of Jericho ;
in chap. 8. 22, on Edom ; in chap. 14. 7, on Joktheel ; and
in chap. 16. 6, on Elath.
Literary 6. Another class of notes may be called literary. They
record sayings, or give a reference to some writing. Thug^

OTHES NOTES IN HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 79
in Gen, 22, 14 we read, "Abraham called the name of that
place Jehovah-jireh [the Lord will provide], as it is said to
this day, In the mountain of the Lord it shall be pro-vided,"
Here was a strange saying with reference to " the mountain
of the Lord," Can there be any doubt as to the locality of
the mountain, or as to the spirit of the saying ? It is almost
a prophecy of " the great provision," The two references
to the Book of Jasher would come under this head (Josh,
10. 13 ; 2 Sam. 1. 18) ; also the reference to the Book of
the Wars of the Lord (Num. 21. 14), and to them " that
speak in proverbs" (verse 27). In 1 Sam. 9. 9 we have the
noteworthy remark on the change of the word " seer " to the
later form " prophet," and in chap. 10. 12 we are told that it
became a proverbial expression (as it is still) to say. Is Saul
also among the prophets? (Compare chap. 19. 23, 24.)
With these we may put the reference to the lamentations
made over Josiah in 2 Chron. 34. 25.
7, The only other notes to which we have to call attention Expiana-
are the archaeological comments on names. Many Biblical cainamel'.
names of places are more or less monumental in their
character, and they originated in various ways. There were
the old Canaanitish names, which were changed to a con
siderable extent when Israel entered upon their inheritance.
There were names which originated in the family names of
the possessors of various estates. Some were descriptive,
such as the Carmels, the Jeshimons, the Gibeahs or Gebahs,
and the Ramahs, Others were derived from certain events
in the Patriarchal or later ages, many of these being con
nected with supernatural or providential circumstg,nces.
We have already called attention to the notes on the
names in Gen. 14. Let us look at a few more of the
same class.
Gen. 13. 18, Abram dwelt in the plain of Mamre (which
is in Hebron) ; chap. 16. 14, Wherefore the well was called
Beer-lahai-roi (behold, it is between Kadesh and Bered) —
was not this note written by Moses in the wilderness?

80 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
— chap. 19. 20, 22, Behold now, this city is near to flee
unto, and it is a little one. . . . Therefore the name of
the city was called Zoar ; chap. 23. 2, 19, Sarah died in
Kirjath-arba (the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan) ;
chap. 28. 19, Jacob called the name of that place Bethel (but
the name of that city was Luz at the first) ; chap. 35. 19,
Ephrath (which is Bethlehem).
A later series of the same character are to be found in
Joshua and Judges. Thus, Josh. 15. 8, The south side of
the Jebusite (the same is Jerusalem) ; verse 9, Baalah
(which is Kirjath-jearim) ; verse 16, And he went up to the
inhabitants of Debir (and the name of Debir before was
Kirjath-sepher) ; verse 25, Hezron (which is Hazor) ; chap.
18, 13, Luz (which is Bethel) ; verse 28, Jebusi (-vyhich is
Jerusalem) ; chap. 20, 7, They appointed Kedesh in Galilee
(in Mount Naphtali), and Shechem (in Mount Ephraim),
and Kirjath-arba (which is Hebron).
A few notes from Judges may be added. Chap. 1. 10, Now
the name of Hebron before was Kirjath-arba ; chap, 6. 24,
Then G;ideon built an altar there unto the Lord, and called it
Jehovah-shalom (unto this day it is yet in Ophrah of the
Abi-ezrites) ; chap. 7. 1, Jerubbaal (who is Gideon) — com
pare Acts 13, 9, "Saul, who is also called Paul"; chap.
15. 19, He called the name thereof En-hakkore (which is in
Lehi) unto this day ; chap. 19. 10, Jebus (which is Jerusa
lem) ; chap. 21. 12, They brought them unto the camp to
Shiloh (which is in the land of Canaan). This last seems
the strangest of all notes, but the words must be read with
their context. Jabesh-Gilead, from which the damsels were
brought, was out of the land of Canaan ; hence the reason
and the force of the note. Compare similar cases in Gen.
33. 18; 48. 3; 49. 30. Notes of this class get fewer as
the reason for them diminishes. The case of Berachah in
2 Chron. 20. 26 is one of the latest.
In 1 Sam. 23. 28 we read, " Therefore they called that
place Sela-hammahlekoth " ; 2 Sam. 2. 16, " Wherefore that
place was called Helkath-hazzurim, which is in Gibeon " ;

OTHES NOTES IN HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 81
chap. 5. 20, " Therefore he called the name of that place
Baal-perazim," These are not necessarily notes by a later
hand ; they form part of the original document, and may be
compared -with Matt, 27. 8, where we are told that the field
was called the fleld of blood " unto this day," i.e. till the
time when the Gospel was written.
In 2 Sam. 5. 6 we are told that the king went to Jerusa
lem, The chronicler in extracting the passage adds, " which
is Jebus " (1 Chron. 11, 4). Why did he add this ? It
seems to be a final record of the old name before it passed
away for ever. Thus, whilst in the earlier books we have
" Jebus, which is Jerusalem," in the later we have " Jerusa
lem, which is Jebus." The change is significant. The
ancient name of Kirjath-jearim (viz., Baalah) is still pre
served with its more modern representative in 1 Chron.
13. 6, just as the parallel names "the city of Da-vid, which
is Zion," stand together in 2 Chron. 5. 2. Compare also the
names Hazezon-Tamar and Engedi (chap. 20. 2).
8. It is time now to draw this somewhat minute branch of Summary.
our discussion to a close. It is the duty of critics to look
into these things, and it demands patience, attention, and
honesty, especially when we seek to draw conclusions. Still
the conclusions in this case are very clear. We find many
archaeological, explanatory, and illustrative notes in the
earher books, and few in the later. By far the most are
in the books which profess to be the oldest. The notes
themselves are ancient, and they throw back the text into
far more ancient times. None of the notes seem later than
Nehemiah's time ; many are before the Captivity. Some of
these are from the hand of Moses ; others, probably, from
Phinehas, Samuel, the prophets of Hezekiah's age {e.g.
Isaiah), and Jeremiah. Those in the Pentateuch must
probably have been introduced before it was written in the
roll-form. They are all silent witnesses to the antiquity of
the text on which they comment.

82, THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XII.

fidelity of the writers and compilers. ¦
1. We now go back from the ancient notes to the still more
editorship, ancient substance of the Historical Books, which we regard
as having been compiled by a succession of prophetic men
from the age of Moses to that of Nehemiah. Fresh ques
tions now present themselves for discussion. We ask, for
example, how far did the compilers feel themselves at liberty
to " compound " their materials ? Would Moses feel it his
duty simply to string together the Patriarchal documents
which fell into his hands when he took charge of the
national archives, or would he allow himself to adjust them
to one another by a certain amount of editorial work ?
We may safely reply that he would. take the latter course.
And if parallel accounts of some of the events had been
handed down from primseval times, would he be justified
in blending them into one narrative, as the chronicler did in
later times ? Au affirmative answer may certainly be given
to this question. Again, the oldest accounts of all would
not be originally in Hebrew but in the pre-Babel tongue,
or in some such language as the Accadian. In process of
transmission some of the narratives might need to be trans
lated. Who would be answerable for the fidelity of the
translation ? We should have to go back to the Patriarchal
age for a reply. Once more, the •original race must have
had a common tradition, say, concerning the Creation, the
Fall, and the Deluge ; this tradition would assume a very
different colouring amongst the various nationalities which
sprang up after the scattering of mankind, Moses mani
festly adopted the old Patriarchal or Euphratean tradition;
though he must have been conscious that the Egyptians
amongst whom he lived saw and taught things very differ-

FIDELITY OF WSITESS AND COMPILEBS. 83
ently. Probably the tendency to differentiation was much
more strong, both in physiology and in literature, during the
first ages than in after times. Another tendency subse
quently set in, viz., iU the direction of fixity, crystallization,
or incrustation. This may account for many things which
are at present a puzzle to us.
2. We must, however, assign limits to the editorial liberty Fidelity of
3Toses
assumed by Moses in preparing Genesis. If he had a con-
¦viction — and that he had is clearly to be shown from his
recorded addresses — that the Genesis documents set forth
the dealings and purposes and laws of the Living and
True God, then we may be sure that he would regard the
archives committed to him as a sacred trust ; he would look
upon them as the title-deeds of the nation and of the race ;
and he would respect their very letter to the uttermost,
not tampering with their contents, but restricting what
we moderns call editorial work to very narrow, limits. He
would, indeed, do what in him lay to make the records
intelligible to the ordinary reader of his time, and to put
them in chronological order; and if— which is quite pos
sible — he had parallel accounts of some events, he would
doubtless harmonize and combine them as best he could,
looking upward to the ever-present God for guidance and
direction. And when we thus speak of Moses, whom we
have been led to consider the final authority, under God,
for the earliest part of the Biblical literature, we include .
any persons whom he employed as scribes or copyists.
We should add that it would not be needful in Moses'
time to translate oi(t of Accadian or any other primseval
language. This was already done, in the post-Babel age.
Nor is there anything in Genesis which could not have
come to Moses through Joseph's line, except the Edomite
genealogy (Gen. 36. 31, &c.), and some few ethnological
particulars, which may have been appended in later times.
The fact that there is a gulf of above a century (to say
the very least) between the end of Genesis and the beginning P 2

84 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
of Exodus is no slight testimony to Moses' faithfulness in
restricting himself to his plain duty as a conserver of the
Patriarchal documents. It would have been so easy for him
to give an account of the intermediate period, with stories
of the Shepherd kings, and an account of the rise of the
18th Egyptian dynasty, together with details of the ways
of the Egyptians, and the fortunes of the children of Israel,
But he abstained, presenting thereby a favourable contrast
-with the late Je-wish writer Josephus.
Another testimony to Moses' faithfulness is to be seen in
the theology of his writings. The books which passed under
his hands possess, indeed, a slight — a very slight — ^Egyptian
colouring; but neither the Patriarchal narratives nor the
beliefs impressed upon Israel savoured of Egyptianism,
The stream of Truth which issued from the Euphrates
valley and passed through Canaan made its way through
the land of Egypt and the period of bondage absolutely
untainted, so far as we can judge.
Moses thus set an example of literary fidelity which must
have impressed itself upon his followers; and, without going
further into details, we shall take it for granted that the
prophetic compilers of later ages were not slow to follow
his example. They did full justice to the materials which
they had access to, reproducing them faithfully, modernizing
their language where necessary, introducing notes to illus
trate the older text, and blending parallel narratives into one
account if they were fortunate enough to possess them.
^ports of 3. One of the peculiarities of the books which we are
discussing is that they abound in speeches, dialogues, and
conversations. Again and again the question rises in one's
mind, How can these words have been reported ? How
did the sacred writer get hold of them ? We doubt if any
complete answer could be given to this inquiry. It would
be an interesting problem to take the sacred history page
by page and investigate the possible source of each narrative.
But such a work, after all, would be an idle speculation, so

FIDELITY OF WSITESS AND COMPILEBS. 85
much would be left to the imagination of the investigator.
Can we, however, get any light on the matter ?
We may divide the utterances in question into three Messages
classes. First come those which are professedly from God,
We are told that God spoke to Moses face to face, as a man
speaks to his friend (Exod. 33. 11 ; Num. 12. 8), whilst He
spoke to prophets in a vision or a dream, presenting truth
to the eye under symbols, or to the ear in articulate words,
such as those which made Samuel run to Eli. Sometimes
the Divine utterance seemed to come from heaven itself;
sometimes through the medium of an angel or spiritual
messenger who might appear in human form. In these and
kindred methods, it seemed good to the Most High to com
municate with select members of the human family ; and we
can readily understand that such communications would make
a deep and abiding impression on the heart and memory of
the favoured prophet, so that he would be able to reproduce
them with great exactness, whether by word of mouth or in
writing. The prophet Jeremiah was instructed to commit to
writing all that God had spoken to him from the days of Josiah
to the fourth year of Jehoiakim (Jer. 36, 2), and it seems to
have been no difficulty to him to do so. In the case of the legis
lative utterances, and the directions for the Tabernacle, which
God is represented as making known to Moses, there seems
to have been plenty of time allowed between one communica
tion and another for the recording of the laws and regulations
and ordinances which were to be afterwards promulgated. A
series of visions indelibly impressed on the inner man during
a period of forty days, with supplementary revelations in later
times, would supply ample materials for the legislative and
ceremonial parts of Exodus and Le-viticus and Numbers.
So far there is really no difficulty, if we allow with all
due reverence that the one living and true God, the Foun
tain of all human and superhuman wit and wisdom, has
come into touch -with mankind and has made known His
will, not only in ordinary ways through the universal con
science and reason, but in special or extraordinary ways as

86 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
well. He who is not prepared to allow this must deal with
the phenomena presented in the manifestation of Jesus
Christ, and with many other phenomena, before he can
negative this preliminary position.
Let us say, then, that thanks to the peculiar nature of
the impressions made by the Spirit of God on the spirit of
man, we have an adequate and faithful representation in
these books of certain utterances of God, e.g. the promises
and threats made to Adam, Noah, Abraham, and other
favoured individuals, through a course of many centuries.
But these utterances have human surroundings ; they are in
a terrestrial framework. We have long speeches, e.g. those
of Moses, of Joshua,, of Jephthah, of Samuel, of the Wise
Woman of Tekoah, of David ; we -have long prayers, e.g.
those of Abraham's servant, and of Ezra ; we have long
hymns, e.g. those of Moses, of Hannah, of Deborah and
Barak, of David ; we have long blessings, e.g. of Jacob and
of Moses. Are these trustworthy ? We have already seen
that the books are composed from contemporary sources, and
by men who claim, and have a right to be, trusted. And
so, whilst ready to admit that the invention of imaginary
speeches is a very old art — much older than the days of
Thucydides — we give the sacred writers the credit of reporting
and not inventing these speeches and hymns. Many of the
addresses in question, e.g. those of Moses and Jephthah,
were of an official character, and in such cases the scribes
and recorders of the day would be busy with their pens.
Others, e.g. the utterances of Jacob on his deathbed, would
be stamped upon the memory of the many hearers, all of
whom were personally interested in -what was said, and so
they would be preserved from the day of their utterance.
In other cases the tenor of the address may have been
publicly known, and the speech, as we have it, would be a
record of the substance of what was said.
Reports of 4. Again, there are endless varieties of conversation and
dialogue — public, domestic, and private. These make up the

FIDELITY OF WSITESS AND COMPILEBS. 87
clothing of the bones of history, and add much to the fresh
ness and -vigour of the Bible, Have we any reason to doubt
the substantial accuracy of the record which contains them ?
Many of them must have been hearsay. But we are dealing
with the writings of the most gifted people in the world ; we
are dealing with narratives indited by men whose memories
— much stronger by nature than ours — were stimulated and
quickened by a Power greater than their own ; we are deal
ing with men thus capable of working out what we should
call a hint, and of clothing passing events in appropriate
language. Thus we have before us in these endless bits of
conversation a picture of the things as they really happened.
Our faith does not hang on the recorded utterances of Sarah,
Leah, Reuben, Judah, Pharaoh, Jethro, Ahab, Jezebel, and
the rest ; but their utterances are related to the surrounding
history, and this we accept as true, and important to be
received and believed. The words and the deeds fit together ;
each helps us to understand the other ; all are links in a long
chain of history which is being slowly elaborated by an
unseen Hand ; and all are written for our instruction,
5, We cannot forget that the point now before us has an Analogy of
. the New
important bearing on the composition of the New Testa- Testament.
ment. The Gospels and Acts are largely made up of con
versations and addresses. Some of them were of a pubHc
character; others were quite private. Who reported our
Lord's conversation with Nicodemus, or with the woman of
Samaria ? Who preserved to us the utterances of the priests
concerning the price of blood, or the conversation of Pilate
and our Lord in the Judgment-hall? How did anyone get
hold of the chief captain's letter to Felix, or of the speech
made by the orator Tertullus ? We should have to put aside
many sections of the Gospels and Acts as hearsay or inven- '
tion were it not for one thing. We believe the books to
have been the work of Apostles and Prophets ; we believe
that these Apostles and Prophets were under the all-sufficient
influence of the Holy Spirit, who brought all things to their

88 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
remembrance, guiding them into all truth, giving them
access to all needful materials, and supplying them with the
necessary skill and wisdom which should enable them to
present the truth in suitable language. There may often
have been persons listening to conversations whose presence
is not referred to in Scripture. Some disciple, e.g. St, John,
may have been present when our Lord talked with Nicodemus
or the Samaritan woman. Officials, such as Cornelius j. may
have been in Pilate's company when he questioned the
Lord. The letter of Lysias may have come from archives,
or may have been read out in Paul's hearing. So also it
may have been with regard to the numerous conversations
and addresses in the Old Testament,

PECULIABITIES IN STYLE OF THE WSITESS. 89

CHAPTER XIII,

some peculiaeities in the style of the writers,
1, We have been led to the conclusion that the substance Was trans-
of the early books is to a large extent preserved to us in the ^a^?"*"^*"
style and condition in which the original writers left it, and
that this accounts for the presence of numerous compara
tively late (though really ancient) notes which would not
have been needed if the materials had been largely remodelled
after the Captivity, It has also been pointed out that some
parts are presented in translations from foreign languages,
e.g. possibly some of the very earliest documents in
Genesis. The same is the case -with some of the latest
decrees and letters in Ezra. An interesting illustration of
this process may be seen elsewhere ; for students of Assy
rian tell us that numerous tablets present translations of
works dating from a much earlier period, ^ and in some
cases from a totally different language. We are familiar
¦with analogous processes in the New Testament, for it is
generally believed that the Gospels frequently give us a
Greek reproduction of our Lord's Hebrew addresses. Other
documents may have been modernized in their form and
language when passing through the hands of the prophetic
compilers. It is exceedingly difficult to tell how far there was any need Or modem-
of modernization of Hebrew between the days of Moses and
the period of the Captivity. The language seems to have
been in a fairly stationary condition, though it had its
tribal peculiarities from the time of the Judges onwards;
and the presence of people speaking kindred tongues,
both in and out of Caanan, would tend to introduce many
provincialisms, . and perhaps a few barbarisms. The chief

90 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
men of Hezekiah's age knew Syrian {i.e. Assyrian), but
their own language was not much affected by it. After
the long sojourn in Babylonia, however, the case was
different. The people's language must have been much
affected with Chaldean expressions, hence the late forms
in the books of this period, and the Chaldee sections in
Ezra and Daniel ; hence also we are told that when the
Scribes read out of the Pentateuch in the days of Ezra
they had to " give the sense" ; in other words, to paraphrase
the old text in more modern Hebrew, or, as it is usually
called, Chaldee, Many a Scribe thus became a walking
Targum ; he was a diglot, if not a polyglot, and translation
into another dialect would become a habit to him, as it was
in later days to St, Peter and St, Paul.
Putting aside any further discussion of the characteristics
of peculiar ages or writers, "we wish to point out some pecu
liarities to be noted in the writing of Hebrew historians as
a class,
tSnsaad ^' '^^® writers frequently opened or clenched what they
summdries. had to say with a few words of introduction at the beginning
or of summary at the end. Sometimes they adopt both
methods. This may be seen specially in the legislative
parts of the Pentateuch, Thus in Lev. 8. 5 Moses says
to the congregation, " This is the thing which the Lord
commanded to be done." He then describes the whole
series of ceremonies connected with Aaron's investiture.
Again, in Lev. 6, 9, Moses is told to command Aaron and
his sons, saying, "This is the law [ritual] of the burnt-
offering"; details then follow. In Lev, 7, 37 we have a
summary of all the preceding chapters, "This is the law
of the burnt-offering, of the meat-offering, and of the sin-
offering, and of the trespass-offering, and of the consecra
tions, and of the sacrifice of the peace-offerings, which the
Lord commanded Moses in Mount Sinai," The same
method is adopted in some historical portions of the
books.

PECULIABITIES IN STYLE OF THE WSITESS. 91
3, There is an expression which frequently occurs in "TJiese are
Genesis^" These are the generations," There are two tions."
quite distinct words translated " generation " in the Old
Testament, The one ('^")"7) seems to mark the course of
time, as when we say, " from generation to generation." The
other, Toldoth (nn^lD)' ^^ ™ ^^^ plural number, and is
used in a special sense. Literally, it signifies offspring or
descendants, and is introduced in such prefatory sentences
as Gen. 11, 10, 27, " These are the generations of Shem,"
and " These are the generations of Terah," These two
Hebrew words for generation are to be found together in
Gen, 6, 9. The word Toldoth, however, does not exactly
stand for a genealogy ; for this another word is used, and
the two stand in juxtaposition in 1 Chron, 5, 7 and 7. 9.
It rather marks order of birth, and hence gives a title to
precedence and chieftainship, which is regarded as of high
importance in Eastern life, ' This seems plainly the sense of
the word in Exod. 28. 10, where the stones of the breast
plate are ordered to be engraved with the names of the
twelve sons of Jacob "according to their birth'' (lit., after
their generations). Compare Gen. 44. 32. This sense may
be illustrated by such passages as 1 Chron. 8. 28, " These
were heads of the fathers, by their generations, chiefs,"
i.e. they were chief men according to the order of their
birth. See also 1 Chron. 26, 31, In accordance with this
¦view of the word we should interpret Gen, 25, 12, 13,
" Now these are the generations of Ishmael , . , and these
are the names of the sons of Ishmael, by their names,
according to their generations." See also Gen. 36, 1, 9,
The expression " These are the generations " usually
stands first and introduces certain names, as may be seen
in the instances already cited, and in Ruth 4, 18 ; but
sometimes this or some similar expression may be found
both at the beginning and the end of a list. Thus in
1 Chron, 1, 29, 31, we read, "These are their genera
tions , . , These are the sons of Ishmael," So in Gen, 10.
1, 32, "These are the generations of the sons of Noah , , .

92 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
These are the famihes of the sons of Noah after their genera
tions"; and Exod, 6. 16, 19, "These are the names of the
sons of Levi according to their generations . , . These are
the families of Levi according to their generations,"
Sometimes this word goes further and signifies a family
history. In this senf5e we should probably interpret it in
Gen. 6. 9 ; 25. 19 ; and 37. 2, where we read, " These are the
generations [i.e. the family history] of Noah — of Isaac — of
Jacob" respectively.
Gere. 6.1. In Geu. 5. 1 we find the notable expression, "This is
the book of the generations of Adam, In the day that God
created man, in the likeness of God made He him; male
and female created He them ; and blessed them and called
their name Adam, in the day when they were created,"
The word here translated " book " ("iSD) might be rendered
"list," but the Greek rendering is "book" (/3('/3Ao;), and
St. Matthew so gives it, with apparent reference to this
passage, at the beginning of his Gospel, The reference
from the passage before us to Gen. 1. 26-28 is very plain,
so that the verse looks both backwards and forwards —
backwards to the day of the creation of man, and forwards
to the order of descent from Adam onwards to Noah, and
to certain particulars of faraily history connected therewith.
In Num, 3. 1 we have a somewhat similar expression — " Now
these are the generations of Aaron and Moses in the day
that the Lord spake with Moses in Mount Sinai,'' A list
of the descendants of Aaron follows, but Moses' descendants
are not given ; and it has been observed as a singular fact
that the descendants of Moses are passed over in the
Pentateuch, which would certainly not have been the case
if the book were a late production. His name, however, is
introduced into this verse because his family history had
already been given when God spoke with him at Horeb
(see Elxod, 6, 16, &c.). There is one other notable passage
where the expression occurs, viz.. Gen, 2, 4 : " These are the
generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were
created, in the day that the Lord God made the earth and

PECULIABITIES IN STYLE OF THE WSITESS. 93
the heavens." In this passage, as in the other two, we have
the words " in the day," and they seem to refer to the
pre-vious piece of history, as in the other two cases. They
seem to point backwards and prepare the reader to go
forwards to a detailed account of some particulars included
under the general sketch already given. They bind into one
the " order of birth " of heaven and earth (chap, 1) the
"family history" of man (chaps, 2—4), and they may have
been introduced by Moses in his capacity of compiler.
4. Another peculiarity of Hebrew historic style is the Fondness
fondness for repetitions. This may be seen on a large scale tions.
by comparing the two accounts of the Tabernacle, one being
the order for its construction, the other the report on its
completion, the latter going strictly through the details
given in the former (see Exod. 25-40), It may be seen
again in the seventh of Numbers, which contains no less
than eighty-nine verses, because the historian thought it
due to each tribe that all their offerings should be recorded,
though all the twelve princes offered identically the same.
It may be gathered also from the frequent repetition of
certain legislative enactments, ceremonial and social, e.g.
orders relating to the Passover, to blood, to the Sabbath,
to gleaning, and such-like.
This delight in repetition may be seen also in the structure
of the sentences. There was a semi-poetic tendency to
parallelism of thought and utterance in all old language,
and this clung to the descendants of Abraham through all
their literary history, down at least to the times of St. James
and St. John. This may account for such double sentences
as the following : — " And it came to pass . . . that two
of the sons of Jacob, Simeon and Levi . . took each
man his sword and came upon the city boldly, and slew all
the males. . . . The sons of Jacob came upon the slain,
and spoiled the city . . . they took their sheep, and their
oxen, and their asses, and that which was in the city, and
that which was in the field, and all their wealth, and all

94 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
their little ones, and their wives took they captive, and
spoiled even all that was in the house" (Gen. 34. 25-29).
"The children of Israel did eat manna forty years, until
they came to a land inhabited; they did eat manna until
they came unto the borders of the land of Canaan " (Exod.
16. 35). " The sons of Rimmon, Rechab, and Baanah, went,
and came about the heat of the day to the house of Ish-
bosheth, who lay on a bed at noon. And they came thither
into the midst of the house . . . and they smote him under
the fifth rib, and Rechab and Baanah his brother escaped.
And they went into the house, and he lay on ' his bed in
his bedchamber, and they smote him, and slew him, and
beheaded him," &c. (2 Sam. 4. 5-7).
A style which seems to us cumbrous was natural to these
ancient recorders. They delighted in reiterating names and
in reaffirming events. Sometimes there was a special reason
for this reiteration. In Lev. 7. 29 we read, " He that offereth ¦
the sacrifice of his peace-offerings unto the Lord shall bring
his oblation to the Lord of the sacrifice of his peace-offerings."
This seems tautology to us, but the strong reaffirmation pre
pared the way for what was coming. Thus it is plain that
the tendency to. reiterate in the same or in varied words was
innate in the Hebrew writer. It does not of itself show
double authorship or the blending of two narratives into

Variations 5. A. fourth peculiarity has to do with proper names.
proper Various persons and places had more naimes than one, and
names. .i • . . , ,
the writers sometimes varied them strangely. Thus in
Judg. 8. 29 we read, "And Jerubbaal the son of Joash
went and dwelt in his own house," but the next verse pro
ceeds, " And Gideon had threescore and ten sons," and the
32nd verse tells us that " Gideon the son of Joash died," &c.
Some names are used consistently throughout, e.g. Abram
and Abraham, but in the case of certain places the new
names are introduced into the narrative before they were
really given. In Gen, 13, 8 Abraham is said to have pitched

PECULIABITIES IN STYLE OF THE WSITESS. 95
his tent near -Bethel, but Bethel was in those days called
Luz, So in the case of Gilgal (Josh; 4, 19 ; compare 6, 9),
Bochim (Judg. 3, 1 and 5), Lehi (15, 9 and 17), Ebenezer
(1 Sam. 4, 1 and 7. 12), It is only in the first of these cases
any real difficulty arises, and the introduction of the word
" Bethel " for " Luz " must be due to the hand of Moses and
not to that of Abraham, from whose brief record or instruc-^
tion the history of Gen, 13 must have been compiled.
6, Attention might also be called to Hebrew ways of Ways of
reckoning days and years, which are so different from our
own ; also to the tendency to round numbers, as seen in the
seventy souls which went down to Egypt, and the forty
years' period of rest in the Book of Judges, and the three
sets of fourteen generations in St. Matthew.
7, We must not forget to point out that the Hebrew histo- SiAii of
... ,, writers.
nan s method of arranging materials is not always like ours.
This is notably the case in the Books of Kings, where the
compiler had to carry on two concurrent streams of history,
passing from one to the other as best he could. We can
not but marvel at the skill with which he accomplished this
difficult task,, condensing so much into a small compass with
out losing sight of pictorial details. Nor can we withhold
our admiration from the Chronicler, who repeated so much
that was already written, whilst adding some striking scenes
from other sources, and who blends the whole so well that
we should never know that we were reading a compilation
had we not the Book of Kings before us.
These may seem small matters, but they have sometimes
proved stumbling-blocks to critics, who have not always
made due allowance for the ancient way of putting things
which is so characteristic in these books.
Two important points have to be added, not so much of a
literary as of a theological character.
8. First, the way of putting things all the way through ^Mf''fP^^
from Moses to Nehemiah is essentially religious. Even in writers.

96 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE. '
the Book of Esther, where the name of God is not to be
found in the Hebrew text, there is a profound sense of
Providence which seems to be longing for an utterance, and
to which the Septuagint has given free expression. Oriental
writings and conversations, even where the subject is quite
secular or trivial, are strongly tinged with theological ex
pressions ; but the Old Testament gives us something more
than this, God is the chief actor throughout. All that is
done upon earth. He doeth it. The Lord works salvation ;
the Lord hardens the heart ; the Lord speaks the word ; the
Lord raises up generals, and brings rain, and sends locusts,
and punishes the disobedient. Not only the writers but
the actors , recognize the Divine immanence all the way
through, even though in many cases their deeds belie their
professions.
Anthropo- These theological convictions frequently find their expres
sion in strongly anthropomorphic language. How else could
they be expressed ? If the Most High had not condescended
to speak in human language, to adopt human analogies, and
to make known His will and His ways i;i terms borrowed
from the human mind and body, we do not see how revela
tion could have been accomplished. At the same time, the
writers call our attention to the Lord's deeds as much as to
His words. The two claim to be studied together, and each
throws light on the other ; but of the two, deeds are most
intelligible, for they are plain to the meanest understanding,
and they need no translation.
Biblical 9. Every attentive reader of the Bible is familiar with the
fact that it abounds in expressions, idioms, figures, and
groups of words, which constantly recur. They are of
various classes. Some may be called simply Hebrew idioms,
such as might be found in any non-religious book written in
the language in early ages — had such existed — e.g. to be old
and well stricken in years, to draw a bow at a venture, to
dwell under one's own vine and figtree, to your tents {i.e.
prepare for war), sheep without a shepherd, former rain and

PECULIABITIES IN STYLE OF THE WSITESS. 97
latter rain, latter days, a double portion, to speak comfort
ably, to smite under the fifth rib. Some of these expressions
have a more forcible appearance in Hebrew than in English
.{e.g. an hairy man, with one consent, &c.). Another class
leads one into greater depths of thought connected with the
history and the hopes of the people. These may be taken as
instances : — A stranger and a sojourner, to set one's house
in order, to sleep with one's fathers, to be gathered to one's
people, to give up the ghost, to go the way of all the earth,
to walk with a perfect heart, to prepare the heart. A third
class takes us to the verge of morals, providence, and
theology, which, in fact, they presuppose ; e.g. the cry went
up to heaven, thy blood be on thy head, he shall die in his
iniquity, he shall bear his iniquity, the sons of the prophets,
" fear not " (an expression occurring more than eighty times),
man of God, land flowing with milk and honey ; or they
have a history, e.g. to trouble Israel (see 1 Kings 18. 17),
a remnant that escapeth, mercy and truth, gracious and
merciful, to dwell in the land saifely, the land which I sware
to give to your fathers.
We now come to those to which we desire specially to call Sacred
^ •' idioms.
attention, which include or directly imply the name of the
Lord. The following are the most notable instances : — To
profane God's holy name, holiness to the Lord, the Lord be
witness, as the Lord liveth, the Lord do so to me and more
also, the Lord be with thee, to find grace in God's sight, the
Lord establish His Word, the Lord thundered, the Lord hath
visited His people, the Lord raised up judges, the Lord
appeared, the glory of the Lord appeared, I will be their
God, the angel of the Lord, ye shall know that I am the
Lord, the hand of the Lord was with him, blessed of the
Lord, inquire of the word of the Lord, the Lord wrought
salvation, the battle is the Lord's, the anger of the Lord was
kindled, the fear of the Lord fell, the Spirit of the Lord fell
upon a man, to seek the Lord, to inquire of the Lord, the
Lord's hand is not waxed short, none like Me, no God hke
Me, the Word of the Lord came to a man, thus saith the

98 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Lord, the Lord spake unto Moses saying, to tempt the Lord,
the earth is the Lord's, in the name of the Lord, the cause
was from the Lord,
These and similar expressions deserve careful study ; their
history is worth tracing. Some are characteristic of par
ticular writers ; most of them have their origin in the
Pentateuch. They show how the Divine interventions con
nected with the Patriarchal history and the Exodus stamped
themselves upon the thought and language of the people.
History creates language. Expressions such as those cited
tend to lose their force as the centuries roll on, and we find
many of them used by semi-idolaters in the period of the
Kings; but they sprang out of realities. What theology
there is in the title twice given to God by Moses, " the God
of the spirits of all flesh " ; what reminiscences in Solomon's
words concerning the Lord that He dwelt in thick darkness ;
what force in the title given to God by Elijah and Elisha,
" the Lord before whom I stand " ; what pathos in Jacob's
formula, " the angel that redeemed me from all evil bless
the lads " ; or David's " as the Lord liveth who hath
redeemed my soul out of all distress " (1 Kings 1. 29) ; and
What good sense in the way in which Abraham's servant
approaches God as " the God of my master Abraham."
Summary. We may say of all such expressions that they are a
linguistic and theological inheritance. They indicate deep
convictions concerning the existence of the one hving and
true God, to Whom heaven and earth belong. Who orders aU
things according to His own pleasure, and carried out His
purposes of good through the special instrumentality of the
descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. In a word, they
are a linguistic protest against naturalism and in favour of
supra-naturalism.

HISTOBICAL CHABACTEB OF THE BOOKS. 99

CHAPTER XIV.

historical character of the books,
1, The Old Testament is to a large extent professedly Further
and confes.sedly historical ; and we have shown reason posed^"'
for assuming that the materials from which it is compiled
are of a first-class character, being in the main contem
porary and authoritative. The books in question have this
peculiarity in them, that they are not confined to a purely
internal history of the Hebrew family and people in its
religious and social aspect, but they touch on external
matters all the way through. The things which are re
corded " were not done in a corner." Moreover they cover
a great deal of ground. There are in round numbers 2,000
years between the age of Noah and that of Nehemiah.
These facts taken together help us to test the character
of the writings, and to find out if they are what we assume
them to be.
2, There are two simple tests to which such works as Internal.
those which we are discussing might be subjected. First,
we may study the internal history of the whole period, and
ask ourselves if it is a consistent narrative throughout. We
say " consistent " not " continuous." There is manifestly
no attempt at a continuous history. We have sketches.
Antediluvian, Patriarchal, and Israelite ; that is all. The
more unsystematic and fragmentary they are, the less likely
does it become that they are the products of a, late age, and
the easier would it be for the critic to detect imposture.
Moreover, if these sketches are really ancient they wUl give
details, whilst if the materials from which they are com
posed were late, details would be avoided as dangerous if
not impossible to invent. G 2

100 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
It is generally acknowledged that there are no rnaterial
inconsistencies in the narrative as a whole. What apparent
inconsistencies have been pointed out are usually considered
as proofs that the compilers had before them different docu
ments which regarded tilings from slightly different points of
view — as in the similar case of the Four Gospels; others
might prove to be no inconsistencies at all if we knew more
of the circumstances of the times, and if -we examined the
language more minutely. More need not be said at present
on this point, as it is practically passed over by modern
critics. It should be added, however, that the vivid details
of the Patriarchal narrative are strong evidences of the anti
quity of the documents from which they are composed.
External. 3, The second test is of great importance. It arises out
of the fact that Biblical history presents so many points of
contact with the doings of outside nations. We ask how far
these references are borne out by external evidence.
It is instructive to note the change which the discoveries
of the last halE-century have produced on the discussion of
this question. If we look back to the old standard book
on " The Connection between Sacred and. Profane . His
tory," by Prideaux and Shuckford, we find that Herodotus,
Manetho, Josephus, and a few other writers supply the chief
materials for comparison with the Sacred Histories. But it
is not so now.
We may di-vide the references in the Hebrew books . to
external matters thus : —
i. There is the Antediluvian period, partly cosmic and
partly Adamite, reaching to the Deluge,
ii. There is the Patriarchal age, covering the whole period
between the Deluge and the death of Joseph.
iii. There is the Israelite period, reaching on to the time
of Nehemiah.
What have we now got in the way of illustration of the
Biblical narrative through these three periods ?

HISTOBICAL CHASACTES OF THE BOOKS. 101
For the first, we have the Chaldean " Genesis," i.e. the
Creation Tablets, and the Deluge Tablets, with which we
may perhaps associate the tablets relating to Babel.
For the second, we have the old Babylonian bricks and
records on the one hand, and the papyri, , stelse, and other
monuments of Egypt.
For the third, we have the later Egyptian remains, and
the Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persian slabs, tablets,
and cylinders.
These treasures are daily accumulating. We are becom
ing familiar with the Egyptian dolls, go-carts, and tops
which Joseph's children may have played with. Older and
yet older papyri are brought to light ; depth beneath depth
of literary treasure is brought forth from Mesopotamia.
Meanwhile, Jerusalem itself has been riddled with shafts
and tunnels at the hand of our explorers, and the surround
ing regions are beginning to yield up their spoil. Dibon in
the east, and Gezer in the west, and now Lachish also,
speaking, as from the dust, concerning the days of the
Judges and Kings.
4. The results are now in all men's hands. Thanks to Results of
such men as the Rawlinsons and Professor Schrader, and to
the more popular writings of Sayce, Tomkins, and Budge,
the secrets of antiquity are no longer veiled. Many things
still remain unknown. We cannot, for example, yet decide
who was the Pharaoh of the Exodus.- But light of a trust
worthy character is thrown on the Biblical history all the
way through, and the conviction has become deep and wide
spread that we are not following cunningly-devised fables of
a late, date when trusting ourselves to Moses and his fol
lowers, but that we have records of real events from the
hands of contemporary writers.
The noteworthy fact is that the evidence brought to light
in the last half-century has all gone one way. Palestine
exploration, the disinterring of Egyptian remains, and the
opening out of the ruinous heaps of Assyria, Babylonia, and

102 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Persia, have spoken -with consentient voice. They utter
their joint testimony to the historical character of the
Hebrew writings.
Would this have been the case, however, if the materials
from which these books were written had been late fabrica
tions ? Certainly not. The illustrations are often of that
class called " undesigned coincidences," and are of too subtle
a character to accommodate themselves to the theory of a
late origin of the books. At any rate, possessing as we do
such stvong prima facie grounds for holding the antiquity
and trustworthiness of the books, we hail with thankfulness
the strong confirmation which God has in His providence
afforded us by the discovery, and decipherment of these
records of the past.
We now proceed to examine three special elements in the
books which largely contribute to their historical character,
viz., their chronology, their genealogies, and their topo
graphy.

CHBONOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 103

CHAPTER XV.

chronological element in biblical history.
1. The history contained in the Old Testament covers a BibUcai
great deal of time. It reaches from the beginning of all """ °^^'
things to the age of the Persian Empire. It does not,
however, include annals, nor is there one fixed chrono
logical scheme running through the books, as would have
been the case if the work had been compiled throughout
by one hand or in one age. It will be worth our -vjrhile to
illustrate this point in some detail.
2. The fifth of Genesis traces the human history from Pre-
Adam to Noah; and whether we take the shorter period eras.
given in the Hebrew text, or the longer supplied by the
Septuagint, still we feel that we possess the ancient tra
ditional line of the Antediluvian fathers, with their ages ;
the year being, no doubt, the Babylonian one. The record
of the Deluge is thoroughly chronological. We are told that
on the seventeenth day of the second month in Noah's
600th year the Flood began, and we have enumerations
of days and weeks till we get to the twenty- seventh day
of the second month in the foUo-wing year, when the earth
was dry — the additional ten dalys turning the lunar year into
a solar. 3, The twelfth of Genesis gives us the chronology of the Patriarchal
Patriarchal line from Noah to Abram ; and from that point
and onward we get to personal narrative, and there is no
further need of a chain of lives , There are plenty of
indications, however, that the rest of the Patriarchs kept
their reckoning Carefully ; in fact, we have a series of

104 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
undesigned chronological coincidences which may be briefly
pointed out. Taking Abram's birth as, in round numbers,
2000 B.C., we find that he left Charran when he was 75 ;
Isaac was born when Abraham was 100 (b.C, 1900) ; Jacob
and Esau were bom when he was 160 ; so that when he
died, aged 175, his twin grandsons were 15 years old, A
hundred years after the birth of Abraham Esau married
Judith and Bashemath; 37 years later Jacob became a
fugitive, being 77 years old. Isaac did uot die for another
43 years, though we need not imagine him lying on his
deathbed all these years, as a late critic grotesquely supposes.
Still less need we magnify them into 80, as this critic does
{Contemp. Rev., Feb,, 1890), Three hundred and sixty
years (a year of years) after Abraham's birth Joseph died,
say about 1640 b,c,, and here the ancient family records
come to an end. The chronology they contain is consistent
throughout, though it is only introduced incidentally, and
without any fixed era, such as the annus mundi which the
Jews now adopt.
Era of the 4, We now pass on to Exodus, and we gather from
chap, 12, 40 that a record of time had been kept since
the Patriarchal age. The Hebrew text runs thus — " The
sojourning of the children of Israel which they sojourned
in Egypt was 430 years." The Samaritan Pentateuch and
the LXX. add after the word Egypt " and in the land, of
Canaan " ; this gloss seems intended to show that the so
journing was reckoned from some particular point in the
Patriarchal history ; and so Josephus {Ant. ii. 15. 2) says :
"430 years after Abraham came into Canaan, but 215 only
after Jacob removed into Egypt." It will be found oh
pursuing the details indicated in the chronologicah skeleton
given above that between the time when Abram settled in
Palestine (when he was 75) and the time when Jacob
settled in Egypt there was a period of 215 years. It thus
seems highly probable that the gloss is right, and that the
writer of Exodus begins his chronology with the period of

CHBONOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 105
Abram's becoming a sojourner in Canaan and Egypt (see
Gen, 12. 10). But what of Gen, 15. 13, where we read of Ge».i6.i3.
four centuries of affliction ? The period here recorded pro
bably starts from the time when the revelation was made.
This at least is implied in the accentuation of the Hebrew,
which introduces a pause (") under the word " afflict-them "
so as to separate it from the words " 400 years," which are
thus made to cover the whole verse. It is strange that the
Revisers have not indicated this in their translation or
punctuation of the passage.
The Exodus inaugurated a fixed era for Israel, and the
Exodus-month began what we may call the ecclesiastical
year (Exod. 12. 2). The fourteenth day of that month
initiated the Paschal Feast, which has been kept ever since
at the same time. Various notes of time fbllow through the
Pentateuch. Thus in Exod. 40. 17 we are told that "in the
first month in the second year, on the first day of the month,
the Tabernacle was reared up." In Num. 9, 1, " The Lord
. spake to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai in the first month
of the second year, after they were come out of the land of
Egypt, saying. Let the children of Israel keep the Passover at
its appointed season," Num, 10, 11, " On the twentieth day
of the second month, in the second year, the cloud was taken ¦
up from off the Tabernacle of the testimony, and the children
of Israel took their journeys." In Deut. 1. 3 we have come
to " the fortieth year, the eleventh month, and the first day
of the month," the period of thirty-eight years having been
spent in the region of Kadesh-barnea.
5. When Israel came into Canaan it would probably be Chronology
the business of the priest to keep the calendar, but we do Judges.
not find the Exodus era often referred to. There are,
indeed, some important chronological coincidences and notes
of time, e.g. in the words of Caleb (Josh, 14. 7, 10), and in
the speech of Jephthah (Judg, 11. 26) ; but generally we
have periods referred to in round numbers, e.g. in the well-
known expression "the land had rest forty years," The

106 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Books of Samuel chiefly comprise personal narratives. They
have their chronology, as when we are told that the Ark was
absent twenty years (1 Sam. 7. 2) ; but the compilers of
Joshua, Judges, and Samuel do not give us an exact system
of dates starting from the Exodus,
1 Kings 6. 1. When, however, we reach 1 Kings 6, 1 we find an indica
tion that the Exodus era had been retained all through. The
verse runs thus : " And it came to pass in the 480th year
after the children of Israel were come out of the land of
Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in
the month Zif (which is the second month), that he began
to build the house of the Lord." The LXX. reads 440
instead of 480, possibly reckoning from the end of the forty
years of wilderness-wandering instead of the beginning. It
is the custom of some critics to regard this verse as spurious,
but there is no MS. authority for such a course. The verse
must be taken — hable to the variation of reading-^as part
of the book, and with the aid of the passage in Exod. 12. 40,
it incidentally supplies us with the materials for completing
a system of Biblical chronology. It is clear that the num
bers are not arrived at by putting together the figures as
they appear at first glance in the earlier books, for this would
imply at least another hundred years, as Josephus seems to
have found out,
rioif'^^' ^- During the Regal period we hear no more of the
Exodus era. Dates are arranged by the accession of the
kings, and when the history of the two kingdoms is being
recorded, the accession of a king in one country is set against
the year of the king in the other. It is not very easy
for us to keep count of the actual chronology, though the
people themselves could do so through means ' of the
priestly Feast Calendar, and we occasionally have refer
ences to long periods — notably in the case of the 390 year-
days of Ezek. 4. 5,
S Per"" IP 2 Kings 25. 8 we meet for the first time with a foreign
sirni eras, chronological era, namely, the accession-year of Nebuchad-

CHBONOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 107
nezzar; whilst the later books of Ezra, Esther, Neheniiah,
and also Haggai and Zechariah, date from the accession of
the Persian monarchs.
In subsequent ages we find the era of the Seleucidas Later Jew-
. 1,-r-n • I. n '*" chrono-
(312 B.C.) adopted by Je-wish writers; see, tor example, logy.
1 Mac. 1, 10, where we read that Antiochus " reigned in the
137th year of the kingdom of the Greeks." This era was
also used for monumental inscriptions. (For instances, see
Proceedings of the Biblical Archaeological Society, June,
1886.) Another era wa^ used for a short time, viz., the
Maccabean. Thus we read in 1 Mac. 13. 42, " Then the
people of Israel began to write in their instruments and con
tracts ' in the first year of Simeon the high priest, the
governor and les^der of the Jews.' " This was used for
coinage in that age (see 1 Mac. 15. 6), but was of course
temporary. All those eras passed away, and the Jews
finally resorted to the annus mundi, which they still retain
as their era,
7, To what conclusion does this review of Biblical Summary.
chronology lead us ? We find it to be a growth, and a
natural growth. Each stage is adapted to the surrounding
history ; a bare outline for the earliest period, exact details
for the Diluvian era, family dates for the Patriarchal age.
Exodus dates for wilderness life, an outline for the Judicial
period, regal dates for the kings, and foreign dates for the
Captivity and post-Captivity period. This falls in with the
conviction already arrived at, -viz,, that the books are the
bona fide work of the periods to which they respectively
profess to belong.
8, A few words may be added on the divisions of time Hebrew
•' 1 1 • divisions
amongst the Hebrews, The Patriarchs brought their of time.
reckoning and division of time from Chaldaea, the original
birthplace of astronomy and chronology. It is true that the
subdivision of the day into twelve or twenty-four hours is
not so much as hinted at in the Old Testament ; but there

108 THE FOUNDATION^ OF THE BIBLE.
were certain periods, as day, night, morning, evening, yester
day, to-morrow ; together with peculiar forms of expression
for noon, dawn, "between the two evenings," twilight,
" cool of the day," &c. They had their week of seven days
as the Chaldaeans had, the seventh day in each case being
named Sabbath (Chald, Sabattu), i.C: Rest-day, They also
had their month of thirty days, and their year of twelve
. months or 360 days, an intercalary month being introduced
once in three years so as to bring the lunar and solar years
into fair harmony.
The months. 9, The months are usually designated by their order,
without being named. Thus we read of the second month
in Gen, 7. 11, and the tenth month in Gen. 8, 5, The
Hebrew word usually translated month means "new"
(JJ'^n)) and is sometimes rendered " new moon." The
other and less frequent word (HI*) is supposed by some to
refer to the pale yellow colour of the moon.
The months, however, are occasionally named, and it is
interesting to compare their names with those used by the
Babylonians and Assyrians, They run thus : —
Babylonian, Je-wish.
1. Nisannu. Nisan — the first (Esther 3. 7).
2. Aim. Zif — the second (1 Kings 6. 1).
3, Sivanu. Sivan — the third (Esther 8. 9),
4, Duzu,
5, Abu.
6, Ululu, Elul (Neh. 6. 15).
7. Tasritu. Ethanim — the seventh (1 Kings 8.2).
8. Arah-Samna. Bui — the eighth (1 Kings 6. 38),
9. Kislimu. Chisleu (Neh. 1. 1),
10, Tabitu, Tebeth— the tenth (Esther 2. 16).
11, Sabatu, Sebat — the eleventh (Zech, 1. 7),
12, Addaru. Adar — ^the twelfth' (Esther 3. 13).
It will be seen on examining this list that all the months
that agree in name with the Babylonian list are in post-

CHBONOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 109
Captivity -writings, whilst the months mentioned in the Book
of Kings have non-Babylonian names. The inference is
obvious, -viz,, that the Israelites had their own names for the
months up to the period of the Capti-vity, and afterwards
they took the calendar of their conquerors. To this must be
added that the month Nisan was called Abib in the law of
Moses (see Exod, 13.4). The word Abib means "green
ears " ; at least so it is rendered in Lev, 2. 14, the only place
where it occurs except as the name of a month. It is
thought by some that the word is of Egyptian origin, and
this seems highly probable.
Here again, then, we have an interesting e-vidence of what
may be called the stratification of the books. If the writings
which profess to be early were not reaUy so, there would not
have been these changes in the names of the months.

110 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XVI.

the primitive genealogies of ISRAEL,
Genealogies 1, Few Subjects connected with Old Testament criticism
Testament, are more interesting, and at the same time more perplexing,
than the study of the genealogical system which pervades the
books. Almost everyone who comes upon the scene is intro
duced as the son of someone else. We are all familiar with
such groups as the following : — ^Bezaleel the son of Uri,
Jeroboam the son of Nebat, Micaiah the son of Imlah,
Jehonadab the son of Rechab, Zedekiah the son of Che-
naanah, Elisha the son of Shaphat, Jehu the son of Jehosha
phat, the son of Nimshi, or (as it is usually put for brevity's
sake) Jehu the son of Nimshi. The earlier and later books
agree in this method of identifying persons by their fathei^s,
gi-ving, so to speak, a surname with a personal name.
Pedigrees. We are also familiar with the plan of introducing persons
of considerable importance with a. longer list of ancestors,
who are frequently traced back to some very ancient Head.
Thus Achan is designated (Josh. 7. 18) as the son of Carmi,
the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah,
Elkanah is introduced (1 Sam, 1, 1) as the son of Jeroham,
the son of Elihu, the son of Tohu, the son of Zuph, an
Ephrathite, Kish is described (1 Sam, 9, 1) as the son of
Abiel, the son of Zeror, the son of Bechorath, the son of
Aphiah, a Benjamite, Ahiah the priest is called (1 Sam,
14, 3) the son of Ahitub (Ichabod's brother), the son of
Phinehas, the son of Eli, the Lord's priest in Shiloh, When
David is first mentioned in the First Book of Samuel (chaps.
16. 1 ; 17. 12), we are only told that he was one of the eight
sons of Jesse the Ephrathite of Bethlehem- Judah ; but the
Book of Ruth contains his genealogy in a form which re
minds us of the genealogy of our Lord given by St. Matthew,

THE PBIMITIVE GENEALOGIES OF ISBAEL. Ill
It runs thus : — " Now these are the generations of Pharez :
Pharez begat Hezron, and Hezron begat Ram, and Ram
begat Amminadab, and Amminadab begat Nahshon, and
JsTahshon begat Salmon, and Salmon begat Boaz, and Boaz
begat Obed, and Obed begat Jesse, and Jesse begat David "
(Ruth 4. 18-22).
Ezra the scribe introduces himself (chap. 7. 1-5) as the Ezra'spedi-
son of Seraiah, the son of Azariah, the son of Hilkiah, the son ^""'
of Shallum, the son of Zadok, the son of Ahitub, the son
of Amariah, the son of Azariah, the son of Meraioth, the
son of Zerahiah, the son of Uzzi, the son of Bukki, the
son of Abishua, the son of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar,
the son of Aaron the chief priest. This is a grand genealogy ;
but probably not an exceptional one, though we possess few
such pedigrees except in the Book of Chronicles,
Enough has now been advanced to illustrate the point with
which we start, -viz., that the Old Testament is pervaded with
genealogies. The importance of these genealogies to their
possessors was very great indeed. They were the title-deeds
of each family, giving them a claim on the inheritance of
their fathers (see 1 Kings 21, 3), To us their interest is
mainly historical. They are the backbone of the sacred
history. By a careful study of them we get some ideas of
the tribal and intertribal life of Israel, By comparing
them with one another we also obtain confirmation of the
chronological system of the Old Testament, Moreover,
they have a bearing on the respective ages of the books
which contain them.
It is to this last point to which we now desire specially to
call attention. But before doing so it is necessary to mark
some of the peculiarities of the Hebrew genealogical system
as a whole,
2. These pedigrees seem to have been kept in two forms, ^°™*jj
Some started from the head of a tribe or family and traced
down through a certain Hne, disregarding all accessory
branches, and reaching a particular person. These are the

112 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
most formal. Our Lord's genealogy given in St. Matthew
is the most familiar instance. Others began at the bottom,
with the person who is to be spoken about, and traces his
pedigree back to an early and well-known ancestor. Such
is the genealogy of our Lord given by St, Luke, The former
may be called family pedigrees, which would be constantly
added to ; the latter are personal pedigrees, and are based on
the former. It is a curious thing that in 1 Chron, 6 we
have two pedigrees of Samuel's family : the 'first starts -with
Kohath the son of Levi, and reaches down to Samuel's sons
(verses 22-28) ; the second starts with Heman the singer,
the grandson of Samuel, and traces up to Kohath the son of
Levi, the son of Israel. Any student who writes the two
lists in parallel columns and compares them will be at once
introduced to some of the puzzles of the Hebrew genealogist.
3, It seems to have been part of the Hebrew system to
leave out subsidiary names in certain lines when not of im
portance, or not needed for' the purpose of identification.
Hence, as we have already pointed out, Jehu is called the
son of Nimshi, though he was really his grandson ; Zechariah
the prophet was called the son of Iddo by his contemporaries
(see Ezra 6. 14), though he was really the son of Berechiah,
the son of Iddo (Zech, 1. 1), The Hebrews had no word for
grandfather or grandchild, and the words father, mother,
son, daughter, frequently indicated the line of ancestry rather
than the particular step in the line, Maachah, the daughter of
Abishalom, is called the mother of Abijam (1 Kings 15. 2),
and also the mother of Abijam's son Asa (1 Kings 15. 10),
where we must understand — as in the margin — " grand
mother." The Babylonian queen, or queen-mother, speaks
to Belshazzar of Iiis father Nebuchadnezzar (Dan, 5. 11),
but Belshazzar was three, or perhaps four, steps removed
from Nebuchadnezzar. In the list of Ezra's ancestry which
we have given above there are two, if not three, omissions,
as will be seen by comparing the pedigree as given more
fully in 1 Chron. 6. 1-15.

THE PBIMITIVE GENEALOGIES OF ISBAEL. 113
A further point to be observed is that not only were names Double
pronounced, - and consequently spelt, differently by different "'"^*-
writers — a matter which we must discuss further on — but
also that the same person sometimes had two names, the
second being either entirely different, and given owing to
some family whim or personal peculiarity, or having a cer
tain resemblance which is unrecognizable at first sight. It
was the doing of a particular deed that turned Gideon into
Jerubbaal ; it was an oft-repeated Hebrew fancy that turned
Jerubbaal into Jerubbesheth ; but why should Samuel's an
cestor, who had the name of Uriel (God is light) be also
called Zephaniah (the Lord is darkness) ?
4. Leaving, however, this topic for the present, we have other pecu-
to call attention to other peculiarities in the Hebrew pedi- "" *^*'
grees, A man might have several wives at the same time.
Then there would be several families, and the mother's name
becomes a matter of importance. In David's case we have
two lists of his sons, one set born at Hebron, and one set
born at Jerusalem ; in the first of these lists the names of
the mothers are carefully given (compare 2 Sam. 3, 2-6, and
chap, 5. 13-16), Occasionally we have long lists of the
children of various wives and concubines, as in the case of
the elder Caleb (1 Chron, 2. 18, &c.). Again, the genealo
gist sometimes enumerates the sons. Thus, whilst in 1 Sam.
17. 12 Jesse is said to have eight sons, in 1 Chron. 2. 13-15
we find them named and enumerated as the first, the second,
and so on, David being the seventh. Thus one of the sons
had disappeared from the list, for reasons which we need not
now discuss.
5. Some of the persons named in the pedigrees died child- Zerubba-
- / ct i- o belspedi-
less {e.g. Seled, 1 Chron, 2. 30), This point may have been gree.
mentioned for family reasons, or to indicate where adoption
came in. The line from which Zerubbabel sprang is a very
remarkable one in this connection, Josiah is said to have
had four sous (1 Chron, 3. 16), namely, Johanan, Jehoiakifu, '
n

114 THE FOUNDATIONS OF -THE BIBLE.
Zedekiah, Shallum, But when he died the people of the
land took his son Jehoahaz and made him king. This
Jehoahaz will be seen by reference to Jer. 22. 11 to be
the fourth of Josiah's sons, viz,, Shallum. After a reign of
three months his brother Jehoiakim is put in his place. He
is succeeded by his own son Jehoiachin or Coniah, of whom
Jeremiah says (22, 30), " Write ye this man childless,"
which he explains as meaning that " none of his seed shall
prosper, sitting upon the throne of David and ruling any
more in Judah," By whom was Coniah succeeded ? By
his uncle Zedekiah, the third of Josiah's sons, who became
a king. The chronicler (2 Chron, 36. 10) calls Zedekiah
" brother " to his predecessor, but the writer of the Kings
(2 Kings 24. 17) uses the more accurate, but cumbrous,
expression "father's brother."
How was Zerubbabel related to these last kings ? Was he
the son of Pedaiah (according to 1 Chron. 3, 19) ; or the son
of Shealtiel (Salathiel) (according to Ezra 3. 2, and Matt.
1. 12)? And whose son was Salathiel? Was he a hteral
or adopted son or grandson of Coniah (1 Chron. 3. 17, and
Matt. 1. 12), or the son of Neri (Luke 3. 27) ? Adoption
niust evidently come in here. Salathiel was by blood pro
bably son of Neri, of Nathan's line, but by adoption he stood
as the son or lineal representative of the house of Solomonj
Genesispre- Q, We need not pursue this particular point, but what we
supposed . '-If.
througiMut. Wish to call attention to is the fact that the Hebrew gene
alogists had methods of their own, and that the writer of the
Chronicles gives the documents as they stood, without any
attempt to make all the ' lists dovetail into one another.
The lists are monumental rather than methodical, and yet
beneath all the network of names in the Old Testament we
may detect not only a scheme but also a growth ; and that
growth is absolutely dependent on the Book of Genesis for
its existence. The whole genealogical system presupposes
the Patriarchal history. Let us look into this matter more
closely.

THE PBIMITIVE GENEALOGIES OF ISBAEL. 115
The story of the birth of Jacob's twelve sons is given Jacob's
piecemeal in Gen. 39, 30, and 35, being interwoven with
contemporaneous narrative. There is no indication^ of the
future of any of the sons, but the reason why each got his
peculiar name is given — this reason not always being based
on etymology, but often springing out of a play on words.
We take these chapters to be the original contemporary
record to which the nation in all future time would look
for information on this important subject. In Gen, 35.
22-26 we have the complete list of the sons, and the only
children of the next generation referred to at that stage are
connected with a narrative of shame (Gen, 38). Joseph's
children are introduced in their natural place (Gen, 41.
50-62). In chap. 46 we have a list of those who entered
Egypt. The list is a very simple one, but of great historical
importance. It consists of Jacob's children and grandchil
dren, -with a very few great-grandchildren, who are confined
to two or at most three out of the twelve families,
7. We now pass on to. the Book of Exodus. It opens Pedigrees
with a summary, which includes a verbal reference to the Moses.
hst given in Gen. 46. 26, 27. In the sixth chapter the list
is more fully referred to, in order to show the genealogy of
Aaron and Moses (who for genealogical purposes are put in
this order; contrast Exod. 6. 13 and 26). We now reach
the interesting point that instead of having to do with
individuals we have to do with families. The word so
translated (nnSJJ'fi) i® used in Genesis of the families of
mankind generally, but not of Jacob's family. Now, how
ever, at the period of the Exodus the original sons of Jacob
are regarded as heads of families, or, as we might call them,
clans, and the word is used constantly for the same purpose
q.U the way through the Historical Books to the end of the
lists in 1 Chron. 7.
These families were regarded as subdivisions of the Tribes ; Tribal sub- '
° ,_, divisions.
but whence did the word " tribe " take its origm ? There
are two words translated "tribe" in the Old Testament, H 2

116 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
The one (ntJ/b) means a rod or staff. It is used of Judah's
staff (Gen. 38. 18), and of Moses' rod (Exod. 4. 2), and first
appe£!,rs as signifying a tribe in Exod. 31. 2, 6. It is used
down to 2 Chron, 5. 2 in this sense (though very seldom in
Samuel and Kings), The other word {^'2,\if)< which also
means rod or staff, is first used in Gen. 49. 10, the " sceptre
shall not depart," and is appropriated as the designation of
the twelve tribes in the 28th verse. From this point on
wards it is freely used through the Old Testament. We.
gather that the historical origin of the tribal life of the sons
of Jacob is traceable to the time of his death, whilst the
subdivision into families appears later, viz., at the period,
of the Exodus. The families, again, were naturally sub
divided into houses or households.
On examining the list given in Exod. 6. 14r-26, we
observe, first, that it only gives the outline of the first three
tribes of Israel, the purpose being to reach as far as the
line of Moses and Aaron ; and, secondly, that it adds a few
particulars which could not be given when Gen. 46 was
written, viz., the ages of Levi, Kohath, and Amram at their
respective deaths. Also, whilst in Genesis we have only
Levi's three sons — Gershon, Kohath, and Merari — in Exodus
we have the two next generations, which include Amram
and his family, do-wn to his great-grandson Phiuehas, who
is the connecting link between the period of the Exodus and
the days of the Judges.
Pedigrees 8. Passing on to the Book of Numbers, we have the
in fjie Book .n,,f.-i- • -i ., -ii-
qf Numbers, actual state of things concerning the tribes and their
families at the tirne of the Exodus. In the first chapter
we find that the twelve tribes are an organized body,
under a certain amount of military discipline, subdivided
into families, according to the houses of the fathers, with
regular pedigrees, and with heads to the tribes. These
princes were eminent men, and their names are quite a
study in theology. They arei answerable for the numeration
of the people in the first chapter, and for their organizatiorl

THE PBIMITIVE GENEALOGIES OF ISBAEL. 117
in the second chapter, and they bring their special offerings,
all alike, in the seventh chapter. Their names were not
forgotten in after times. Thus the prince of Judah is
Nahshon the son of Amminadab; and in the pedigree of
Judah's family in 1 "Chron. 2. 10 we read " Amminadab
begat Nahshon, the prince of the children of Judah " {i.e.
the prince referred to in the Book of Numbers).
Another thing to be noticed in these chapters is that for
the first time Joseph's sons figure among th6 tribes, the
Levites being accounted for separately. The same is the
case in chap, 13, where the spies are enumerated.
We now pass over the period of Wandering, or desert-
life, and find ourselves at its close. In Num, 26 a second
census is taken, and here we have an enumeration of the
families of Israel, Let the list be carefully Compared with
that in Gen, 46. The individuals are now heads of clans.
They are the same as before, though there are some varia
tions of spelling, and a few omissions through the extirpation
of families ; but no new families are introduced. The people
are organically the same.' There is one other list in the
book containing the names of the responsible persons ap
pointed to divide out Canaan, in conjunction with Eleazar
and Joshua. Only one of the original princes of the Exodus
is found in this list forty years later, viz,, Caleb the son of
Jephunneh.

in the Chro
nicles,

118 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XVII,

GENEALOGIES IN THE LATER BOOKS.
1. In the last chapter -we traced the tribal genealogies
down from their source in the Patriarchal age to the close
of the Desert period. Our business now is to examine the
later books, and inquire how the genealogies which they
contain stand towards the earlier lists.
The Books of Chronicles are related to Samuel and Kings
in very much the same way as Numbers and Deuteronomy
are related to Exodus and Leviticus, The first part of the
Chronicles is genealogical. It is put together on a peculiar
plan ; and however deeply we study it, the key to its system
frequently slips from our hand.
There cannot be any doubt that the division of the land
amongst the families of which each tribe was composed led
to the careful keeping of family pedigrees, copies of which
would be preserved in tribal or national archives, under the
safe keeping of scribes, priests, or recorders, . Headship was
hereditary ; but it had to be proved from time to time.
Villages were colonies, and every colony had its hereditary
prince or sheikh (see, for example, 1 Chron, 4, 33 and 38),
Revision of 2, From time to time there seems to have been a public
m David's revision of these lists of headmen, and an examination of
the pedigrees. Notably this was the case in the time of
David, and probably the period in which he took the census
was a very busy one. There was an " account of the chro
nicles of king David " (1 Chron, 27, 24), in which such
things were recocded. In fact, he was as systematic as a
Roman emperor in his method of administration, and it is
one of the objects of the Book of Chronicles to set this forth.
Thus we have in 1 Chron, 11 a hst of his mighty men, which

time.

GENEALOGIES IN THE BATES BOOKS. 119
should be read alongside of the list in 2 Sam. 23. In
chap. 12 we have the names of his early helpers, " men of
war, who could keep rank, and who came to him with a
perfect heart" out of every tribe. This is a remarkable list,
bearing the marks of bping contemporary, and secured for
all time through its being incorporated in the Book of
Chronicles, Then we come to the divisions of the descend
ants of Aaron into twenty -four courses, concerning which
we read that " Shemaiah the son of Nathanael the scribe,
one of the Levites, wrote them before the king " (1 Chron.
34. 6).
In the following chapter we have the families of Asaph,
Heman, and Jeduthun, the heads of the musical and choral
body ; in chap. 26 we have the subdivisions of the porters or
gatekeepers, and also of the treasurers, who were descendants
of Moses, and who had charge of all the dedicated things.
Military and civil headships are enumerated in chap. 27.
A twelve-fold or tribal division is to be seen in most of
David's arrangements, whilst in others we see his wisdom in
securing experienced men for taking charge of civil depart
ments (see, e.g., 1 Chron, 27. 26-31).
Now, all these arrangements were not the work of a mo
ment. As we read these chapters we feel two things — one
is, that we are studying contemporary documents ; the other
is, that the civil, political, and religious constitutions which
David stamped upon Israel, and which tended, humanly
speaking, to weld them into a model kingdom, were a
growth, and sprang out of certain pre-existing elements
which he found ready to his baud, and for which the pre
vious history, legislation, and tribal arrangements of the
people prepared the way. '
3, We know not what genealogical works were prepared £^^™^*
by Iddo the seer (see 2 Chron. 12, 15), but we pass on to of Jotham
•' ^ -1 ¦ • T. andHeze-
another great period of revising the genealogies, viz., the kiah.
days of Jotham and Hezekiah. In 1 Chron, 5, 17 we read :
"All these were reckoned by genealogies in the days of

120 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE. .
. Jotham king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboani king
of Israel." Who are the persons referred to as " all these"?
They appear to be certain Gadites dwelling in Bashan.
There is a Reubenite list somewhat later, i.e. in the time of
the Captivity by Tiglath-pileser (chap. 5. 4). The Hst in the
half- tribe of Manasseh is of this period also (chap. 5. 23-26).
These lists are sadly brief, and when we compare them with
the original descendants of Jacob, we find it almost impossi
ble to trace the connection.
The family of Simeon is much less obscure. Their -pil
lages are given as in the time of David, and their princes as
in the time of Hezekiah (chap. 4. 31 and 41). The seventh
chapter gives us the Hne of Issachar, Benjamin, Naphtali,
Manasseh (the western half), Ephraim, and Asher, In all
these cases the families are linked on to the old Hne of
Jacob, and the numbers given appear to be the fighting men
of the time of Da-dd, The eighth chapter sepms to be added
so that the names of the Benjamite inhabitants of Jerusalem
might be preserved. It is to be noticed that this list in
cludes the descendants of Meribaal (Mephibosheth), the son
of Jonathan, for several generations, wMch would take pro
bably to the period of the Captivity,
The genealogies were kept up to that time -with some de
gree of accuracy, and were apparently attached to the book
of the kings of Israel and Judah (1 Chron, 9. 1), which we
take to be the original and comprehensive work from' which
our Books of Kings were condensed, and from which large
portions of the Chronicles were extracted.
The latest 4:. Some of the Hsts in the book extend through a very
caipedi- lohg period. Whilst the first two chapters take us from the,
grees. beginning of all things to the period of David, the third
carries on his line to the grandchildren of Zerubbabel, and
possibly much further. This depends upon the date of
Rephaiah (verse 21), If the Shemaiah son of Shecaniah
mentioned in this verse is "the keeper of the east gate"
(Neh, 3. 29), then the chronicler takes us three generations

GENEALOGIES IN THE LATES BOOKS. 121
after the time of Nehemiah. It will be observed that
David's representative in the days of Ezra is Hattush (Ezra
8. 2). Possibly he is the Hattush of 1 Chron. 3. 22, The
family of Aaron is also traced down to the time of the
Captivity (chap, 6. 15).
5, We have now only one more list in the Chronicles i Chron. 9
,,T 1 •-! ,,.,,, m relation
which we need comment on, viz., -that contained m the ninth to Neh. 2.
chapter. The second verse, which seems properly to begin
the chapter, runs thus : " Now the first inhabitants that
dwelt in their possessions in their cities were Israel, the
priests, the Levites, and the Nethinim. And in Jerusalem
dwelt of the children of Judah, and of the children of Benja
min, and of the children of Ephraim and Manasseh." On
turning to the opening verses of Neh. 11 we read (verses 3
and 4) : "In the cities of Judah dwelt every one in his /
possession in their cities, Israel, the priests, the Levites,
and the Nethinim, and the children of Solomon's servants.
And at Jerusalem dwelt of the children of Judah, and of
the children of Benjamin." The resemblance between the
passages is striking, and the omission of the reference to
Ephraim and Manasseh in the latter passage equally so. If
the Chronicler is giving an account of the inhabitants of
Jerusalem' in the age of Nehemiah it is curious that he
should introduce, or that the other account should omit,
the descendants of Joseph.
When we proceed to compare the chapters minutely we
find that we have either the same persons or at any rate the
same lines. First we have the descendants of Pharez, the
son of Judah, David's ancestor, represented by Uthai in one
list, and by Athaiah (which is practically the same name) in
the other. Next come the Shilonites {i.e. the descendants
of Shelah, see Num, 26. 20), represented in each list by
Asaiah (or Maaseiah), Then the sqns of Zerah, whom
the chronicler reckons at 690, but whom the writer of
Neh, 11 omits (see, however, verse 24^ where one of the
Hne is mentioned) , -

122 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE,
The sons of Benjamin follow in both accounts, the names
being nearly related, but not altogether parallel.
Then come in each account Hsts of priests, of Levites, and
of porters {i.e. the hereditary gatekeepers of the Temple).
, After this the lists seem to drift apart, the chronicler going
off into the specific duties of the Le-pites, and Nehemiah's list
going into further particulars concerning the dwelHng-places
of the people in his time.
Anyone who will take the trouble to write out the lists
contained in these chapters in parallel lines -will appreciate
the perplexities which they cause to the critical genealogist.
On the one hand there is such an intimate relationship, on
the other there are such bewildering variations. It is not
our present business to deal with these difficulties, but rather
to point out that- there was a vital continuity between the
dwellers in Jerusalem before and after the Captivity. The
old Davidic arrangements were kept up as far as possible,
the old families renewed their hereditary offices, and the
lines of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi retained their position,
carrying on the traditions and preserving some of the sacred
deposits which had travelled down from past ages. Thus
there is a " succession " all the way down through the ages
from the Patriarchs to the Restoration — a period of about
sixteen centuries. Is not this succession unique ? Can we
over-estimate its historical value ?
Other pedi- 6, We must not, however, omit to notice certain other
^Ezra^and Hsts in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah,
Nehemiah. When Jeshua and Zerubbabel led back the first company
of people into their old land they recorded the names of
the heads of the families (see Ezra 2), They begin,, as
other lists did, with Parosh (? Pharez) ; then follow a
number of headmen representing the city and village
families who had been deported by Nebuchadnezzar. Then
come the priests, the Levites, the porters, the Nethinims,
and the children of Solomon's servants ; the Nethinims
being probably Gibeonites (see Ezra 8. 20), and the servants

GENEALOGIES IN THE LATES BOOKS. 123
of Solomon being the descendants of the original Canaanites
(see 1 Kings 9. 21).
Ezra also gives us the names of those who accompanied
hirii on his return (chap. 8). Almost all the family names
are to be found in Zerubbabel's list just referred to,
A third list is given us at the end of the book, enumerating
the names of those who had taken strange wives ; and on
examining the names we find the same family lines for the
third time,
Nehemiah gives us in his 10th chapter a list of the princes
and heads, with the priests and Levites, Here again we
have to a very large extent the same family names. We
are thus able to form a fair idea of the true Jemsalemite
families of that time.
If we try to get later down in history the materials fail Neh. 12.
us. The first half of the 12th of Nehemiah contains the
latest names in Old Testament history (except, perhaps,
those referred to in 1 Chron, 3. 23, &c., which we have
already pointed out). We are told (verse 11), that Joiada
begat Jonathan and Jonathan begat Jaddua, but this verse
does not take us much further down in time (if at all) than
chap, 13. 28, where Nehemiah says that he chased away
one of Joiada's sons. In the 22nd and 23rd verses we are
told that the list of the priests was kept to the reign of
Darius the Persian {i.e. probably Darius Nothus, B.C. 424),
and a Hst of the chief Levites was kept "in the book of
the Chronicles " up to the time of Eliashib's son, who was
Nehemiah's contemporary, '
7i These facts, which can easily be verified, lead to a very Summary.
definite conclusion. The books which we have been study
ing cannot well have been compiled later than the time of
Nehemiah. There may have been a few notes of later date,
but to bring down the book to B.C. 300, as some propose, is
uncritical and irrational. So fa,r our researches justify the
old tradition — that while Moses began the Canon, Nehemiah
practically closed it.

124 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XVIII,

TOPOGRAPHICAL ELEMENT IN EARLY BIBLICAL HISTORY,
Topograph- 1. Considering the limited proportions of the books which
^ntheoid .^^ ^^e discussing, and the small extent of the land of
Testament. Canaan, the number of places named in the Old Testament
is truly surprising. We may take it as a characteristic of
the Hebrew writers that they are detailed and graphic in
their topography. Not that they attempt anything in the
way of formal description — the topography is strictly sub
ordinate to the history ; but it is sufficiently fuU and clear
to supply a realistic groundwork for the events recorded ;
and, above all, it is accurate. Whatever opinion critics
hold about the dates and authorship of the books, there is
a general acknowledgment that the writers knew their own
country well. Its hills and valleys, streams and fountains,
wells and cisterns, cliffs and shoulders, eminences and watch-
towers, standing stones and conspicuous trees — all these
were familiar to the writers, and play their part in the story.
Our belief in the fidelity of a writer would be rudely shaken
if we found his topography to be at variance with the facts ;
but how is it with the Historical Books of the Old Testa
ment ? The microscope of criticism and of exploration has
been brought to bear on their pages, and it would be a poor
tribute to say they have come forth from the investigation
without a flaw having been discovered ; let us say, rather,
that the critic has received an increasing conviction of their
absolute fidehty. The Bible is still regarded as the most
trustworthy handbook to Palestine.
Wealth of , 2. We must here call attention to a fact well known to
H ffliffiijli Hebrew students, viz., that the Hebrew language is very
rich in topographical expressions. A few illustrations of

TOPOGSAPHICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 125
this point may be given. The ordinary name for a city (/}•)
is used hundreds of times in the Old Testament. Another
word {Kiriah) is rarer, occurring only four times in prose
and about thirty times in the Poetic and semi- Poetic Books,
But in the Chaldee letters contained in Ezra 4 it occurs no
less than eight times. The cities in each case were very
small, as may be gathered from the fact that there were
124 of them in Judah, A third word is used to mark the
fortified or fenced cities. Villages were designated by four
distinct words. There was the "daughter," e.g. Num.
21. 25, to signify that they were offshoots from mother-
cities; there was the "compound" ('^^fpl)' * word as old
as Gen. 25, 16, and applicable to any temporary coUec- ¦
tion of dwellings ; there was the " shelter " {Kaphar), or,
as the modern Arabs call it, Kefr, familiar to us as the
first part of the name Capernaum ; and there was the
''hamlet," or "unwalled -village" (T^S), from which some
think the Perizzites got their name. The word translated
"suburbs" (except in 2 Kings 33. 11) is supposed to
indicate pasture-land (^^JJ3)> ^'^^ i® used of the Levitical
possessions in the Pentateuch, Joshua, the Chronicles, and
Ezekiel, The term used for the refuge cities is quite a
peculiar one (J37pJt3), and is used consistently for this pur
pose in the Pentateuch, Joshua, and the Chronicles,
Many Hebrew names of places are descriptive if not DescriptiveNfCL'})zes
pictorial, and this accounts for t-wo or more places having
the same name. Thus, there are various Ramahs, Gebas,
Gibeahs, Mizpehs ; also two Carmels, Bethlehems, Ophrahs,
Bphraims, Abels, and Morehs, For the same reason some
places have in. the Hebrew a deflnite article before them, as
Sharon, Jeshimon, and Millo, There are also peculiar words
for special districts. Thus we read of the Region (lit.,
"cord," h^n) o^ Argob, the Plain (lit., "circle," ^^p) of
the valley of Jericho. So we meet -with the Shephelah,
or lowlands, between the hill country and the shore of
the Mediterranean, and the Negeb in Southern Judah, and

words.

126 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the 'Arabah, or Jordan valley. The " plains of Mamre "
(Gen, 18. 1) are supposed to be oak-woods, Mamre itself
being never named after the Book of Genesis.
There are other topographical distinctions in Hebrew
which often escape our notice in English, All such dis
tinctions come naturally to the writer who is living at the
time and in the place concerning which he is writing; but
they would be pitfalls to a later inventor. Their number is
legion. Thus the ordinary word for the . bank of a river is
" Hp " (nS^J*)' ^"* when Jordan overflows its banks a differ
ent word is used (mj, Josh. 3. 15 ; 4. 18 ; 1 Chron. 12. 15) ;
a well is Beer, e.g. in Gen, 21. 30 ; but in 2 Sam. 23. 16,
David is said to long for water, not out of a well (as the
E,A,V, and R.V.), but out of a cistern or pit, with which he
was familiar, at the gate of Bethlehem ; whilst in Exod.
15, 27, the twelve wells are properly twelve springs.
The ordinary word for a tree CPJJ) is used in Gen. 18. 4, 8,
where Abraham is described as showing hospitality to the
angels ; but the tree in Ramah under which Saul abode
(1 Sam, 22, 6) is one of a special kind, perhaps a tamarisk
W^a)- The same is the ease with the tree of Jabesh-
gilead, where the remains of Saul's family were deposited
(1 Sam, 31. 13), The oak which was by Shechem, men
tioned in Gen. 35. 4, and referred to again, though with
sHghtly different pronunciation, in Josh. 24. 26, is Elah
(H/IS}) ; but the oak under which Deborah, Rebekah's nursCj
was buried (Gen. 35. 8) is Allon (fPN).
Monuments. 3". Trees sometimes became monumental, owing to their
age and history, as in the case just mentioned ; and the same
must be said of certain stones and pillars, which were both
, memorials and centres of worship from the Patriarchal age
onwards. All are familiar -with Jacob's stone (Gen, 28. 18),
which he set up as a pillar, and which he revisited after
many years (Gen. 35. 14), On the latter occasion he poured
a drink-offering and oil on it — an incident which shows that

TOPOGSAPHICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 127
it was what is now called a cup-stone, -with a hoUow at the
top, The stone of Bohan (Josh, 15. 6 and 18. 17), which
was a boundary mark between Judah and Benjamin, is sup
posed to be named from its standing out in the form of a
thumb (jni)- It is a natural eminence, and has been de
tected by M, Ganneau in the hadjar el asbah {i.e. finger-
stone). In Judg, 9, 6 we are told that all the men of
Shechem gathered together and went and made Abimelech
king by the plain of the pillar that was in Shechem, Why
is this place so carefully specified ? Because it was historic ;
in fact, it was a sacred place. We read in Josh. 24. 26 that
" Joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of God,
and took a great stone, and set it up there under an oak, that
was by the sanctuary of Jehovah. And Joshua said unto all
the people. Behold, this stone shall be a witness unto us; for
it hath heard all the words of Jehovah which He spake unto
us." This passage is important for many reasons. It is not
only the key to the verse in Judges cited above, but also (as
we have seen already) takes us back to the Patriarchal age
when the Shechem oak first appears (see Gen. 35. 4).
There are other stones, notably 'Eben-ezer (the stone of Sepulchres.
help), which stood as memorials for future ages. The same
is the case with sepulchres ; those who " slept with their
fathers " were naturally " buried with their fathers," and this
was the system from the time of the Patriarchs onwards ;
though in the case of some of the kings this method was
deliberately departed from. The story of the purchase of the
burial-place of Abraham is told with great detail in Gen, 23,
and referred to in later sections of the book (see Gen. 49,
29-32). The tomb of Rachel, whose sad death is recorded
in Gen, 35. 20, is referred to again in 1 Sam, 10, 2, Neither
of these were forgotten in later days, and the sepulchre of
Da-pid was equally honoured and preserved (see Acts 2, 29),
4, We have pointed out in a previous chapter that there stages in
were certain stages of chronology answering to the supposed "^"^"^
ages of the books ; and the notes given above suggest that

128

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

Garden of
Eden.

Ararat.

something in the way of confirmation of our view may be
gathered from a study of Biblical topography. Let us pur
sue this topic a little further. The Historical Books are
based on three sets of materials, viz,, the work of the Patri
archs, the writings of the Exodus period, and those of the
age which begins with the settlement of Israel in the land of
Canaan, We will examine them in this order.
The description of the position of Eden (Gen, 3. 8-14) is
evidently a very ancient piece Of geography. Some years
ago Sir H, RawHnson read a paper on " The Site of the
Terrestrial Paradise," in which he discussed the passage. He
suggested that Gan-eden (Garden of Eden) answered to the
old Babylonian Gan-duniya, and that the four rivers of
Eden answer to the four which are associated with Baby
lonia in the oldest inscriptions. If this is the case we must
go a step further, for the Eden of the Bible is very high,
having watershed in four directions ; and we are led to the
conclusion that the Babylonians had travelled down from a
mountainous region to the comparative level in whicli they
lived in later ages. The younger Delitzsch has entered at
length into the geography , of the passage before us in his
treatise called " Wo lag das Paradies," and Schrader has
followed in his steps. Our present business is simply to call
attention to the antiquity of the descrirition as we have it.
The next geographical reference is to " the mountains of
Ararat " (not Mount Ararat), where the ark rested (Gen,
8. 4), They were probably in the south-western region of
Armenia, from which the stream of population would sub
sequently tend towards Mesopotamia.

Gere, 10. 5. The 10th of Genesis is regarded by all critics as of
high importance. Kalisch justly says with regard to it that
" this list is without a parallel in the whole range of ancient
literature," and adds that it " forms an organic part of the
composition of Genesis, being a direct continuation of the
preceding section, and alluding to the Deluge which had
just (?) taken place." Whilst referring to Prof. Rawlinson's

¦ TOPOGSAPHICAL ELEMENT IN BIBLICAL HISTOSY. 129
Origin of , the Nations (Religious Tract Society) for an
elementary treatment of the contents of the chapter, it is
sufficient here to say that it does not profess to be a gazetteer
of the world, but gives an outline of the relationship which
existed between certain heads of families and tribes, partly
ethnological, partly commercial, and partly geographical,
from a Chaldean or Babylonian point of -view. Its date may
partly be fixed by the 19th verse, where the borders of
Canaan are given as from Sidon to Gerar and Gaza, and so
round by Sodom, Gomorrah, Adonah, and Zeboim, to Lasha.
This must be a description given before the destruction of
the cities of the plain, and of course before the change of the
name Lasha (Laish) into Dan ; and we may regard Abraham
as the authority for it as it stands. In Schrader's note on
this chapter, he points out that there is extant an ancient
Babylonian geographical list (IV, Rawl, 38, No, 1), contain
ing a reCord of sixty-eight towns and districts, and that it
may be compared for general structure with the Biblical Hst ;
but the Biblical list is of a far more comprehensive character,
and contains notes of great importance, e.g. the account of
the building of Nineveh, and the proverbial expression con
cerning Nimrod, " the mighty hunter before Jehovah,"
6. Attention might be directed to the names Babel, Ur, Ancient
and Charran ; also to EUasar (Larsa) and Gutium (where our places.
text reads Goim, or " nations," Gen. 14. 1) ; but we must
advance with the Patriarchs into Canaan. The records be
fore us give the origin of many names, e.g. Bethel, Maha-
naim, Zoar, Beer-sheba, Penuel, Succoth, Beer-lahai-roi ; and
notes supply the later name for some places, e.g. Ephrath
(that is to say, Bethlehem), Gen. 35. 19. If anyone will be
at the pains to examine the whole evidence in Genesis, he
will find that all is consistent with the view that the book is
older than the time when Israel re-entered Canaan, a few
notes only being of a later date ; and that its contents are
not consistent with the theory — if, indeed, there be any that
hold it— 'that the book was an invention of a later period. I

130 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE,

CHAPTER XIX.

THE TOPOGEAPHY OE THE LATEE BOOKS.
Topography 1. When we reach the Book of Exodus we flnd ourselves
m Exodus. , , . - , __. , . , „ _
breathing another air. We are no longer in the tar East
or in Canaan, but in the Delta and its neighbourhood.
There is a river, but its name is not given — though a
special Hebrew word is used for it ; and there is a sea — not,
indeed, described geographically, but named after something
which grows in it. Very few Egyptian places are named,
but special local details are furnished in connection with
the crossing of the Red Sea, The outlines of the Sinaitic
Wanderings can be followed by the present-day traveller,
provided he can escape out of the hands of the modern
Amalekites, We would refer to Major Palmer's work on
Sinai (S,P,C.K.), and to Mr. Hull's papers, and to the pro
ceedings of the Egyptian Exploration Society, for full par
ticulars on the accuracy of this part of the Mosaic narrative.
We find ourselves at the end of the Pentateuch in the
territory of Moab, the exact position being given in Deut.
1. 1, It may be mentioned here that the nationaHties of
Canaan whom the Israelites were to dispossess are enume
rated over and over again in Genesis, Deuteronoipy, and
.elsewhere ; not always in the same order, and with some
slight variations. And it is noteworthy that the oldest list
(Gen. 10, 16, &c.) contains some names which subsequently
disappeared from view.
2. The boundaries of the Promised Land are sketched
very shortly in Gen. 15. 18 as from the River of Egypt
(El-arish) to the Euphrates. In Exod. 23. 31 they are
described as destined to extend from the Red Sea {i.e. itsi
eastern fork) to the Sea of the Philistines (the Mediter^
ranean), and from the desert (in the south) to the river,
i.e. the Euphrates. Of these regions Israel must haye had

of , Canaan.

THE. TOPOGSAPHY OF THE DATES BOOKS. 131
a very vague idea, and in Deut. 2. 24 they are expressed
somewhat differently. But the great passage is Num. 34.
2-12, Here Moses gives the people a fairly complete out
line, which they were to fill in, beginning at the south-east
with the Salt Sea and coming out at the River of Egypt
(El-arish), then up the western border till they could descry
Mount Hor (apparently Hermon), and so across to Hazar-
enan, and down by the Sea of Chinneroth to the Salt Sea.
Compare throughout the border-lines presented in vision to
Ezekiel (chap, 47. 15-21),
3. There has been some discussion as to the names for the Points of
points of the compass amongst the Hebrews, Some useful ""'"*"'"•
notes on the subject will be found in the Proceedings of
the Biblical Archasological Society, February 6th, 1883. It
would appear from this paper that the Egyptians had the
true points, which were named : — N., mer-t-meh ; S., mer-
t-res ; E., Bech; W,, am-urt. The Assyrian N, was
really N,W., and the other points were located accordingly,
their names being : — N,, iltanu ; S., sutu ; E., sadu ;
W., acharru. In each case, however, it is supposed that a
region rather than a point is indicated. It also appears that
in Assyria the person is sometimes supposed to be going
west, the east is at his back, north at his right, and south
at his left. How was it with the Israelite ? He appears
to have looked towards the east, for which he had two
words, the sun-rising (HITD)) and that which is "before"
one (Dip)- The west is the sun-set (Xl323)> the evening
(ny;!3)I tl^e sea (D'*). THc north is the dark (jlS^). The
south is represented by six words, of which the chief signify
the Wilderness, and the right hand { Teman) . None of the
words are those adopted in Assyria or in Egypt. They look
Patriarchal. Perhaps further light wiU yet be thrown on
the subject through Accadian research,
4, The Book of Joshua has all the geographical marks of Topography
contemporary writing. See, for example, the local details
connected with the crossing of the Jordan (Josh. 1. 14—16);
I 2

132 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the origin of the name Gilgal (5. 9) ; the local description of
Ai, which was subsequently destroyed (7. 2) ; the origin of
the designation of the valley of Achor (7. 26 ; see Isa.
65. 10; Hos. 2. 15) ; the positions of the northern kings,
some of whom ard never heard of again (11. 1-5), and the
list of the Canaanitish iings and their territories (chap, 12),
We are thus introduced to the partition of the land among
the tribes, contained in chapters 13 to 21, which have
afforded so much guidance to the explorer. It wiU be
enough here to refer for particulars to Conder's Tent-work
in Palestine, and to the other works of the Palestine
Exploration Fund, It should be added that old names are
still found in Joshua, such as Geshuri, Jebusi, Baalah, and
Luz ; and that the town-names of that age can be illustrated
from Egyptian sources, such as the record of the victories of
Tothmes III, and the adventures of the Egyptian Mohar.
In the later 5. The Historical Books that follow proceed in the main
books. . .
on the lines laid down in Joshua, and are highly pictorial.
See, for example, Judg. 7. 1; 9. 37; 20.31; 21. 19;
1 Sam. 14. 4; 2 Sam. 3. 24. We must refer for full
details as to the topographical accuracy of these books to
Mr. Harper's Bible and Modern Discoveries. We here
find valuable confirmatory evidence of the position which
we had reached by independent investigations, viz., that
the books bear the marks of being compiled from trust
worthy materials. They are not myth, but history.
Topography Q. Another method by which we may test the ages of the
nfjerusa- , , . ^ , , . , -,. , . , .
lem.. books IS to take one city or locality and trace its history
through the narrative. Let us do this with Jeeusalem.
This city is not actually named until we reach Joshua, but
we find indications of its existence much earher. In
Gen, 14 Melchizedek, king of Salem, suddenly comes on
the scene and brings forth bread and -wine. The locality
is marked " as the valley of Shaveh, i.e. the King's dale,"
The word translated by the two terms, "valley" and
" dale," is 'Emek, which Signifies an open valley rather

THE TOPOGSAPHY OF THE LATEE BOCKS. 133
than a gorge ; and the same word is used in 2 Sam, 18, 18,
where the King's dale is again referred to. There cannot
be a doubt that the note in Gen, 14. 17 identifies the place-
with that in which Absalom's pillar was set up, and which
must probably have been near Jerusalem. There were two
'Emeks in this neighbourhood, viz,, the valley of Rephaim
or the Giants (mentioned in the Historical Books), and the
valley of Jehoshaphat, only named in the Book of Joel
(3, 2, 12), The first of these is usually placed west of
the city, and the other east ; and this last would be in all
probability the King's dale, Jerusalem is called Salem in
Ps, 76, 2, and thus tradition and the circumstances of
the case seem to fix Melchizedek' s city as in this locality,
although there have been writers of eminence who have
been attracted to another site near Shechem.
In Gen, ^3 Abraham is ordered to the land of Moriah, to
a specific spot on a mountain, where he is to present his son
as an offering to God, We read of the mountain of Moriah
again in 2 Chron, 3. 1 as the site of the Temple ; and in
each case the Hebrew word has a definite article before it,
sho-wing that the name had a special meaning. What is this
meaning ? Not high-land or table-land, as the Septuagint ;
nor the " land of worship " according to the old Jewish
paraphrase ; but the land of Vision, or rather Provision,
In each case there was a special vision or provision of God
for a particular purpose ; and the old proverb of Gen. 33. 14
(" in the mountain of Jehovah there shall be provision ") is
a connecting link between the two incidents. Here, as in
the case of Salem, there has been a tendency to move the
Abrahamic Moriah to the plains of Moreh, but on very
slender grounds.(see Smith's Bib. Diet., s.v. Moriah). i
In Gen. 10. 16 we find the Jebusite among the descend
ants of Canaan, in company -with the Hittite and the
Amorite ; and in Num, 13. 29 and Josh, 11. 3 this clan is
described as inhabiting part of the mountain or hill-country.
Jebus is plainly , identified with Jerusalem in a note in
Josh, 15, 8, though the latter name is introduced instead of

134 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the earher in Josh. 10. 1, &c. Thus we have apparently
four names for one locality, viz., Salem, Moriah, Jebus,
Jerusalem ; the last of the four having possibly grown out
of the roots of the first two, and perhaps signifying Pro
vision of Peace (see Ps. 122. 6). Whether this be so or
not, the point specially to be noticed is, that if the Penta
teuch and Joshua had been late productions, we should not
have had any of the existing perplexities a.nd diversities of
opinion as to these names.
After David's time all becomes clearer. The Jebusite for
tress is taken and becomes the stronghold of Zion, and is
called David's city, its inhabitants being absorbed in the
larger Benjamite and Judean population which had grown
up on the neighbouring eminences (see 1 Sam, 17, 54). It
thus becomes the Royal city and the centre of worship, and
with its history the fate of Israel has been bound up ever
since. The Books of Kings and Chronicles tell us much con^
cerning the architectural work and fortifications with which
the city was beautified and strengthened by various kings;
and the Book of Nehemiah supplies full topographical de^
tails concerning the walls. ,
Summary. 7, On surveying the Biblical story of Jerusalem, we cannot
fail to be struck with the incidental way in which the city
grows upon us. Would it be so if the early books were late
inventions ? Another point is noteworthy. Every reader of
the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund
is familiar with the controversy on Jerusalem topography.
The disputants are all keen students of the Bible and of the
locality. They are set on labelling every hill, valley, edifice,
aud watercourse with its Biblical name. Why is it that they
cannot agree ? Simply because the Scripture gives scattered
hints concerning localities familiar to the writers, but sup-
.plies no formal description such as can be found in Josephus,
Any such description would be foreign to the purpose of the
Sacred Books,

LEGISLATIVE CODES IN THE PENTATEUCH. 135

CHAPTER XX,

LEGISLATIVE CODES IN THE PENTATEUCH,
1, The question of the composition of the Pentateuch is Origin of
usually discussed in connection with two subjects — the legis- legislation.
lative enactments which pass under the name of Moses, and
the use of the name Jehovah. We have now to consider the
first of these subjects.
Taking the Pentateuch as it stands, we find that it con
tains stages of law or regulation answering to the develop
ment of social and national life. There was law, in its
fundamental and initial stage, in Paradise, It consisted of
the principle of obedience " to the voice of the Creator, in
Whose image man had been formed, and Who had the right
to demand submission from his children. Along with this
principle we find indications of a marriage law, an industrial
law, and a Sabbath law. After the Fall, through the breach
of a specific regulation, human passion was let loose, and
evil culminated at the period of the Flood i some additional
elementary legislation, bearing on the preservation of life,
being subsequently introduced. All law in these early stages
is regarded as from God, and is accompanied vrith promises
and penalties. During the Patriarchal age we find custom
growing up into law, e.g. with reference to the purchase of
property and of personal service, the claim of the firstborn,
the binding nature of oaths and covenants, the rule of
betrothal, and the raising up of seed to a brother (commonly
caUed the levirate law, from an old Latin word levir, which
signifies brother-in-law),
2, We pass from the Patriarchal to the Mosaic age, when The Mosaic
Israel became a redeemed people, and thus in a new sense
bound to obey God, This principle lies at the root of all

136 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
further legislation, and is traceable throughout the Penta
teuch, no motive of a later date being set forth.
Modern criticism has done good service in calHng atten-
, tion to the fact that the last four Books of Moses contain
different codes. These may be taken ip the order in which
they occur. It may be mentioned in passing that the -word
Torah, usually translated Law, means guidance rather than
legislation, and indicates that the principles of Divine legis
lation are like a father's voice, intended to guide his children
into the right way. It first occurs in Gen, 26. 5, and is
generally used of the whole Mosaic legislation, ceremonial
or otherwise, whether uttered by mouth (e.g. Deut. 1. 5), or
written (Deut. 29. 21 ; 1 Kings 2. 3), or expounded by the
priests (2 Chron. 15. 3 ; Hag. 2. 11 ; Mai. 2. 7).
Ten Com- First come the Ten Commandments, which constituted
^mandments. , . . , ^
the original Covenant between God and Israel.
Exod.2\-2Z. The second series of legal enactments — or, as they are
called, " judgments " — will be found in Exod. 21-23.
They have to do with the rights of persons and property,
which are dealt with, from a religious point of view. Some
of them were prospective, but the larger number were
applicable to the wilderness life. They are preceded by a
rule for building altars (Exod. 20. 22-26), which was for
immediate and general observance ; apd they are foUbwed
by a promise and a warning concerning life in Canaan,
which the people were supposed to be entering shortly.
Exod. 34. A few weeks later bring us to another code, very much
shorter than the first, emphasizing the religious rather than
the social enactments (Exod. 34).
TULeviti- The directions for the structure of the Tabernacle in
eta code. -n -i -i • ¦¦
Jixodus are rubrical and symbolical, and a considerable part
of Leviticus is ceremonial and preparatory, being based on
old sacrificial custom, and abounding in ritual details, which
would tend, if obeyed, to keep ' the religious observances of
Israel free from heathen superstitions. When, however, we
get to the 19th and six following chapters of Leviticus, we
find the social element re-appearing. The 26th chapter con-

LEGISLATIVE CODES IN THE PENTATEUCH. 137
tains highly developed promises and threats, and the chapter
closes with a summary which indicates that the whole is
regarded as one code or body of legislation. It professedly
dates from Sinai and from the beginning of the second year
of -wilderness life, and was arranged with a view to the im
mediate occupation of Palestine, There is nothing which in
itself bears the mark of a late date in this department of law.
Forty (or, strictly speaking, thirty-eight) years of wilder- Cte'wjp regu-
ness seclusion followed, and during this time the various
codes, which must have been recorded at the time of their
being issued, lay in the priests' keeping, together with the
Patriarchal documents. The earlier part of the Book of
Numbers consists of camp regulations, and the few enact
ments which are found in the" middle and at the close of the
Book of Numbers grew up in the course of this period,
and are developments and re-adjustments of the earlier laws,
3, The speeches in the Book of Deuteronomy, in which Speeches
-I 1 • 1 • I! 1 inDeuter- .
the aged leader reviews the history and legislation ot the onomy.
past, are in fair accordance with the contents of the three
preceding books. The Ten Words re-appear with homiletic
insertions, and Moses points out that they were followed
by certain statutes ' and judgments, though he does not
enumerate them (Deut. 5. 31, 32). It is only when we get
to the 12th chapter that Moses begins to repeat the actual
laws of past days, and we gather from the eighth verse that
they had been to a great extent, ignored by the people
hitherto, Moses is not at this stage making laws but
preaching, pointing out the original principles which were
laid down at the Exodus, giving verbal extracts from the
early bye-laws, and illustrating by instances with which
the Wanderings had made the people familiar, as when
he adds to the list of clean and unclean creatures some
names with which they had only become acquainted in
the wilderness.
The variations and additions which may be noted on com
paring Deuteronomy with the previous books are chiefly in

138 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE,
the way of modification, adaptation, and growth. They
intimate that we have not to do -with a cast-iron code, but
with rules for Hfe ; and it is important to observe that they
are all from the lips of Moses himself ; so that the person
who was appointed to begin the work of legislation was
enabled to finish it. They present us with a strong proof of
the antiquity of the books; for later writers would have
given us a systematic code, such as Josephus attempted to
draw up. As the books stand, history is interwoven with
legislation, and episodes are mingled with enactments, so that
we have a natural growth, not an artificial compound.
It is important to notice how Moses, in this last book,
the book. made provision for the future. He contemplated the time
when the people would be settled in Canaan, when there
would be a fixed habitation of God in the land, and when
there would be a king over Israel. He pointed to the
priests and judges as the expounders of the mind of God
and of the book which was in their charge. He predicted
that at some future time another Prophet should rise whose
Word must be strictly attended to. Lastly, he re-affirms the
promises and threats of Lev. 26 (see Deut. 28-30) ; teaches
the people the great song which contained an outline of the
future (Deut. 32) ; blesses the tribes in terms very different
from those of Jacob, and yet with a marked reference to
Jacob's blessing in the case of Joseph (Deut. 33) ; commits
the charge of Israel to his faithful follower Joshua ; and
. resigns his spirit to God.
Difficulty 4. It is allowed by most critics that the variations in
m Mosaic , , •'
the laws as given in the earlier and later Mosaic books do
not present insuperable difficulties. But what they have
specially felt about the Mosaic legislation is, that it seems
inconsistent with the subsequent history of the people. It
seems to a large extent ideal, and to have been practically
ignored, not only by the people, but even by the early
prophets, and it came upon everybody quite as a surprise in
the days of Josiah ; consequently the more advanced critics

LEGISLATIVE CODES IN THE PENTATEUCH. 139
regard it as an invention of different ages and parties, intended
to bolster up priestcraft ; whilst the more moderate consider
that it is a growth, having originated orally (and to some
extent perhaps in writing) in the days of Moses, and having
been added to in the time of Jeremiah, and in a later period.
There appears, however, to be no necessity for adopting
either of these views. We have shown in previous papers
that there are references to Mosaic laws and institutions all
the way through the Historical Books, and that Deuteronomy
is quoted verbatim in the Book of Kings. What more is
needed ? We could hardly expect such brief sketches of long
periods as we possess in the Judges to bristle with quota
tions from the Law,
6. Still, , it is answered, if the Pentateuch had been in AfuHher
existence in the days of the judges and early kings the
course of things would have been different ; the Levitical
system would have been more carefully adhered to ; and the
prophets would have set themselves more carefully to the
task of rebuking the people for the breach of definite laws.
, This last is a matter of some importance, It would seem
that the prophets had direct messages from God, beyond
¦which they did not often go, and that the priests shut their
eyes and ears to what was unpleasant. Politics overshadowed
religion. Heathenism overwhelmed Mosaic ceremonial. The
written records were kept, but not acted upon as a whole.
Certain portions were familiar to the priest, and still more
¦modest extracts were known to the people, but the rest was
practically a dead letter. Incense might be offered to the
brazen serpent; high-places dedicated by king Solomon to
Ashtoreth, Chemosh, and Milcom ; horses might be given to
the Sun by the kings of Judah, and placed at the entering in
of the House of the Lord ; and either no one protested, or, if
they did, they were silenced and slain. None of these things
prove the non-existence of the Law, but they reflect gross
discredit on the priesthood ; and they make it impossible for
us to believe that the later priests could have invented any of

140 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the Pentateuch codes and attributed them to Moses, stamping
thereby their own predecessors with everlasting disgrace.
'^%'f°r^ ¦ ' 6' '^^^ '^^^^ ^^ somewhat, though not altogether, similar
tian legisia- to that of the New Testament, Ouf Lord legislated for
the future, A large part of His legislation, e.g. the Ser-
nion on the Mount, contemplated a state of things which
we have never yet seen carried out. Much of the New
Testament teaching was gradually ignored and finally super
seded by a debased religion. The finding of the Law by,
Hilkiah is Hke the reading of the Bible by Martin Luther,
and a Reformation followed in each case, tending to bring
men back to the study of the earlier documents. It cannot
be denied that the Mosaic legislation was practically to a
large extent a failure, but theologically it gives us a hopeful
ideal. The same is true of Christianity to some extent.
The adherents of this religion of peace keep millions Of sol--
diers ready for war, and the professed followers of One Who
impoverished Himself and sacrificed Himself, accumulate
wealth and live selfish, luxurious lives. It is not to be
forgotten, however, that in each case downfall follows on
neglect of law, whilst prosperity is granted to those who
return to God and abide by His written law. This may
be illustrated both from the prophetic chapters of the Pen
tateuch and from all the histories which follow.
Origin 7. It is unnecessary for our present purpose to inquire
ceremonial how far the laws given by Moses were of Patriarchal origin,
or what Egyptian or Arab elements they incorporated.
National habits, whether religious or social, cannot easily
be broken down, and the Law had fo be adapted to the
hardness of the people's hearts, both in what it permitted
and in what it forbade. We are all indebted to Moses for
his setting forth of moral and social laws, and even for his
ceremonial legislation, much of which is in accordance with
the very latest discoveries of science.*
* This -was pointed out in a paper in the Contemporary Review by the late
Mr, G. S. Drew some years ago j see also Nineteenth Century, September, 1889,

laws.

LEGISLATIVE CODES IN THE PENTATEUCH. 141
It is a question, however, whether the people ever obeyed
the letter of the Law or put in force the penalties which are
imposed therein, many of which, it should be observed, are
far more stringent than would have been admitted in a later
legislation, whilst others were only adapted to camp life.
8. A question may fairly be raised whether reformers, Are there
such as existed in the days of David, Josiah, and Nehemiah, UmsT^"'
have incorporated later la-^vs into the Books of Moses. We
know that David made numerous regulations, bye-laws, and
Ordinances, bearing not only on the ci-vil interests of the
people but also on the work of the priests and Le-rftes,
and that he committed these new rules to writing. (See
1 Chron. 23. 27 ; 2 Chron. 23. 18 ; 35. 4.) But they appear
to have been matters of administration rather than of legis
lation, and were doubtless kept within Mosaic lines. When
Moses ordered that no one should add to or take from the
words of the Law -(Deut. 4. 2; 12. 32), he was specially
referring to the danger of compromise with heathenism, and
some students think that the statute book was not absolutely
closed by these utterances. If so we could readily under
stand, from the analogous history of the Christian Liturgy,
how the substance of a legislation might remain unchanged,
yet rubrical directions issued under proper authority might
accumulate. But we have no record of such a thing having
been done in the case of the Pentateuch, and to Suppose that
it was done surreptitiously in the days of Josiah, Nehemiah,
or later, is to create a moral difficulty, and that without due
reason. There are no marks of late legal insertions in the
Pentateuch, whether literary or historical. As the Dean
of Canterbury has lately pointed out {Churchman, June,
1890), the codes are all in the same old Hebrew style, and
to make them the creation of various ages is to create fresh
linguistic as well as moral difficulties. The presumption is
thus strongly in favour of the whole being the work of
Moses.

142 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XXI.

SPECIAL OFFICES AND OEDINANCES.
Names of 1, There is a strong official element in the Old Testament,
OW Testa- partly civil and partly religious. It gathers to a large
'^'^*' extent round two central names, Moses and David, It
involves the use of a great many terms, some of which
are quite peculiar, their origin being at present unknown,
though further research -will probably bring them to light.
The English language is not adapted to reproduce all these
peculiarities, but the critic is bound to examine them. He
will inquire whether the Hebrew writers are consistent in
their use of certain terms for certain things, and will consider
their bearing on the age and condition of the books. A few
instances will illustrate the class of words referred to.
Titles of 2. Whilst only one word stands for " king " all through
the Old Testament (^7/!3), whether he be an emperor or a
sheikh, there is a peculiar word for " queen " in certain
passages (n'1''iJl); which is never used till the Book of
Kings, while the masculine form of it (H^iJ) is only used
of Jacob's lordship over Esau (Gen. 27. 29, 37). There
are sixteen Hebrew words translated " prince " in the Old
Testament, the most ordinary being the word Sar {^^),
the root of which is found in the name Israel ; but the femi
nine form Sarah occurs for the first time (except as the
name of Abraham's wife) in Judg. 5, 29, .where it is used
of the Canaanite ladies ; and in the four other passages
where the word is found there is a foreign air about it (see
1 Kings 11, 3 ; Esth. 1, 18 ; Isa. 49. 23 ; Lam. 1. 1). Thir
teen Hebrew words are translated " governor." One of
them (ppn) occurs in Judg. 5. 9 and 14 only in this sense,

SPECIAL OFFICES AND OBDINANCES. 143
being usually rendered " lawgiver," and originally meaning
one who depicts or engraves (a decree). It is curious that
the same word in a slightly different form is found in the
15th verse, where the A, V. translates " thoughts (marg.
impressions^ of heart." The English word " duke " stands
for Nasic (1]''DJ) in Josh. 13. 21 with respect to the asso
ciated chiefs under Sihon, king of the Amorites, and is only
used elsewhere for foreign princes, unless Mic. 5. 5 be an
exception ; in other passages the word " duke " stands for
Aluph Ww^)i which is only applied to the' rulers of Edom
(Gen. 36; Exod. 15 ; 1 Chron. 1), until we reach Zechariah,
where it is used of governors of Judah (Zech, 9. 7 ; 12. 5, 6).
A special word (pD) is used of the " lords ", of the Philis
tines wherever they are referred to, i.e. in Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, and Chronicles, The word " chief " does duty for
sixteen Hebrew words, including the remarkable -word (Hi^J)
translated " chief musician," and some peculiar words in
Samuel, such as the feminine word nJSj which originally
means " corner," and is used of influential Isrfeelites in
Judg, 20, 2, and 1 Sam. 14. 38. Under the EngHsh word
" officer " we find the Saris (DHD), or eunuch, a word used
both of Egyptian and Oriental officers froni Genesis to
Daniel. A special word (3^f J) is used in 1 Kings 4. 7, and
in 2 Chron. 8. 10, with respect to some of Solomon's officials,
who are regarded as " pillars " of the state. It is also used
of the " deputy " over Edom, 1 Kings 28. 47, and of the
servant set over the reapers in Ruth 2. 5, 6 ; but never
before, though the root itself is common enough. Another
word translated " officer " is familiar to us in the form
" sultan." It is fairly frequent in the later books, but never
used in the early books except of Joseph's governorship
over Egypt (Gen. 42. 6). Another peculiar word is used in
Exodus, Deuteronomy, Joshua, and Chronicles only (and in
Prov. 6. 7), viz., Shotar (ItDSJ') • I* may possibly be of Egypt
ian origin, but is only used of Israelite officials. See p. 29.
We need not refer to the titles of officers in the different
departments established by Da-vid and Solomon, but must

144 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
point out that a number of official titles are used in the later'
books, such as pasha, noble, satrap, chancellor, the tirshatha,
sheshbazzar, which are never found in the earlier books.
It will be seen from this brief notice that the subject is
not a trifling one, and that there was plenty of room for a
later editor to make a slip in composing or revising books
professedly of an early date ; but we do not find such slips,
and the evidence goes in favour of the traditional view.
Office of 3. Turning from secular to sacred titles our attention is
*"** ' called to the word cohen (pD), which is translated " priest"
in almost all places in the Old Testament. It is of uncertain
origin,* and was not always used of a minister in things
pertaining to God. It is consistently used of heathen priests
as well as of the Israelite priesthood, except in 2 Kings
23. 5, and Hos. 10. 6. The office was a growth from Patri
archal and pre-Patriarchal times, and lay with the head of a
family or his representative. Even after the Exodus each
tribe had its own priests (Exod. 29. 22^24), and it is not
Hkely that this ancient system of tribal priests was entirely
done away with even when a special family was singled out
by God for the performance of religious functions. The
selection of the tribe of Levi as a sacred hereditary caste,
and of the family of Aaron as the ministers of the Sanctuary,
caused offence among the people, and brought about the
circumstances narrated in Num. 16-18. The Appendix to
the Book of Judges, chaps. 17-21, reveals a strange state of
things. Some of the people were still in a semi-heathenish
condition, and clung to their old debased religious system,
even though they had the Ark of the Covenant, and Phinehas
ministering at it (Judg. 20. 27, 28).
"Thepriests 4. Attention has been frequently directed to an expression
which we find in certain books. A distinction is drawn in
the time of Ezekiel (chap. 44, 10-16) between the Levitps
who were to minister and " the priests the Levites " who
* See tbe discussion on the word in Old Testament Synonyms.

SPECIAL OFFICES AND OBDINANCES. 145
were to offer. Some have imagined that this is a late
distinction ; but is this supposition necessary ? In the
rubrical directions of Le-viticus and in Numbers we read of
the priest, the anointed priest, and Aaron's sons the priests.
In Deuteronomy, and once in Joshua, we come across the
expression " the priests the Levites," Why is this used ?
Is it not to distinguish the Levitical priests from the Tribal
priests spoken of above ? This seerus natural enough.
There is no reason and no need for bringing down either the
expression or the books that use it to the age of Ezekiel.
Books cannot be shifted to and fro on such a slender hypo
thesis as this. In 1 Kings 8, 4, which is comparatively early,
we read of "the priests and the Levites," In Isa, 66, 21,
which we take to be written in the time of Manasseh, but
which some critics take to be much later, we read of some
being taken " for priests for Levites," the and in the A. V.
and R. V. being in italics. In the Chronicles, which is com
paratively late, we have both expressions used close together
(2 Chron. 30. 25, 27). In 1 Kings 12. 31 we are told
(R. V.) that Jeroboam " made priests from among all the
people which were not of the sons of Levi," thus returning to
the Tribal priesthood which Moses, under Di-vine direction,
had sought to curtail.
It seems clear, on the whole, that the expression "the
priests the Levites " simply means " the Levitical priests ''
as opposed to the non-Levitical or Tribal priests, and that it
has no bearing whatever on the dates of the books.
6. The land tenure of the priestly family was totally Land tenure
. M ^ .J J .1 of 'priests.
different from that of the other tribes. It is referred to
again and again in the Pentateuch, Joshua, and the Chro
nicles. Although, however, the priests and Le-vites had
special lands allotted to them, there was no law forbidding
them to live and acquire territory in other parts of the
country. In Josh. 24. 33 we are told that Eleazar died, and
they buried him in a hill which pertaineth to Phinehas his
son, which was given him in Mount Ephraim. He was of
K

146 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
course a Kohathite, and we find in Josh. 21 that the Koha-
thites had cities in Ephraim ; yet, being of Aaron's family, his
proper locaUty was not in Ephraim but further south (com
pare Josh. 21. 4, 5). Samuel was a Kohathite, according
to the two genealogies which we have of him in 1 Chron. 6,
but not an Aaronite ; so that his family were rightly
located in Mount Ephraim (1 Sam. 1. 1). But the Eph-
raimite cities allotted to the Kohathites in Josh. 21. 20-22
do not include Ramah, where Samuel and his father lived.
It seems strange that anyone should doubt Samuel's descent
merely because his father or one of his forefathers is called
an Ephrathite {i.e. according to the usual interpretation, an
Ephraimite). He was, strictly speaking, an Ephrathite Ko
hathite, the one word marking his locality and the other his
descent. Strange to say. Professor Driver, in his useful and
painstaking work on the text of Samuel, departs from his
usual caution, and creates a " discrepancy " between the Book
of Samuel (which we doubtless have from Samuel himself)
and the Books of Chronicles (which we possibly owe in part
to Samuel's descendants), and suggests that " Samuel was
really of Ephraimite descent, and was only in later times
reckoned as a Levite." He thus throws overboard, -with
out the slightest necessity, the two semi-independent gene
alogies of Samuel's family in 1 Chron. 6, makes Heman
the grandson of Samuel a genealogical impostor, and casts
doubt on the honesty of the genealogies generally as far
back as the days of the Exodus, where we are first
introduced to the name Elkanah in the family of Korah
(Exod. 6. 24).
Sigh- 6. Much has been written about the High-places in
places. ,
Palestine, We must e-vidently draw, a distinction between
two classes which originally existed' side by side. The
Patriarchs set up altars wherever they worshipped God, and
probably they were on the hills, worship being then con
ducted in the open air. When Israel re-entered Canaan it
would be natural that they should have numerous centres

SPECIAL OFFICES AND OEDINANCES. 147
of worship, and that they should feel specially attached to
the sacred places of their ancestors at Shechem, Bethel,
Hebron, and elsewhere. But the Canaanites also had their
altars and high-places, and the danger would be that Israel
should worship at these, and so be led into adopting heathen
ish rites. Accordingly, the Law ordered that all Canaanite
high-places should be destroyed (Num. 33, 62). But did it
forbid all worship whatsoever except at one place ? That
would be a strange regulation. It is clear, on the one hand,
that Moses predicts the establishment of a great religious
centre where God's Name should be specially honoured; and
Solomon refers to this fact when he dedicates the Temple ;
but it is not equally clear that all local worship was for
bidden. 7. There are, indeed, no special orders in the Law con- Altars.
cerning the setting up of local sanctuaries ; in fact there
are no orders about prayer at all. The allusions to " sanc
tuaries " in Lev. 26. 31 and 21. 23 are not sufficient to found
any argument upon. But there can hardly be any doubt
that not only in the Le-vitical cities, but also wherever there
was a gathering of people, some kind of worship would be
carried on. The remarkable narrative concerning the altar
constructed on the east of the Jordan (Josh. 22) does not
militate agaiilst this conclusion. There was fear lest it
should be a centre of worship in the same sense that the
Tabernacle was, and this was not to be allowed. Any such
rival system would have been destructive of Israelitish unity.
Altars were tacitly sanctioned in the age of the Judges
(Judg. 6. 24) ; and in the time of Samuel, who did so much
to put down Baal-worship, altars are freely referred to, and
high-places also (see 1 Sam. 7. 17; 9. 12; 13. 10; 14. 35).
Some of these high-places had some edifices connected with
them, which could serve as hiding-places (1 Sam. 13. 6).
The altars of Samaria which were thrown down by Ahab
and others (1 Kings 19. 10) were not heathen altars; and
the altar on Carmel which EHjah rebuilt was not a Heathen K. 2

148 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
one. These were relics of ancient days, and had been a
natural provision for local worship all through Israel's
history.
^aZr' ^' ^® cannot close the discussion of legislation without
referring to the feasts and ritual solemnities ordained by
Moses. Some of these, as the Sabbath, marriage, and cir
cumcision, were old ordinances. Other religious customs
connected with sacrifice, the priesthood, prayer, washings,
blessing and cursing, oaths, tithes, and burial, seem to have
been a common inheritance amongst ancient nations. Cer
tain great, ordinances sprang out of incidents in Israelite
history, e.g. the Passover, the Feast of Tabernacles, aud
possibly the Pentecost, which may have been connected with
the giving of the Law. The origin of these feasts and
solemnities is given in the early books. It has been observed
that the references to them in the later books are few and
far between, and sometimes doubtful. The argument from
silence in such a case is a very unsafe one. This may
be illustrated from the fact that the custom concerning
the sinew (Gen. 32. 32), the fringe (Num. 15. 39), and the
lamentation over Jephthah's daughter (Judg. 11, 40), are
never named after the account of their origin. Even the
Passover is only once referred to in the second half of
the Old Testament. Again, it must not be forgotten that the
Israelites were peculiarly tenacious in matters of custom.
Can it be imagined that a series of solemnities would have
been sprung upon them in the days of Josiah or Ezra as of
Mosaic origin ? Or can it be imagined that some priest
devised them (as Jeroboam is said to have invented a feast,
1 Kings 12. 32), and persuaded the people th^t they were
ancient ?
Some critics have suggested that there was only one feast
originally, viz., " the yearly feast in Shiloh " (Judg. 21. 19 ;
1 Sam. 1. 3, 21), so that the orders in Exod. 23. 14 and
Deut. 16. 16, commanding the people to go up three times a
year, were of later origin. But apply this hypothesis to the

SPECIAL OFFICES AND OBDINANCES. 149
New Testament. We are told in Luke 3. 41 that our Lord's
parents went up yearly to the Feast of the Passover, Are
we to gather from this that the Pentecost and Tabernacle
Feasts had not yet been ordained ? The truth is that the
word translated " yearly " in Judges and Sarnuel simply
means "periodical," and does not specify how often the
festive occasions would arise ; and probably, as a matter of
fact, during the dead period which followed Joshua's decease,
the people did very much what was right in their own eyes,
foUo-wing Moses in part and yielding to other traditional and
heathenish influences where it was most convenient. That
this was the case in the matter of the Sabbatical year we are
plainly told in 2 Chron. 36. 21 ; and this is only a sample of
that negligence which is to be seen all through the Je-wish
history, and which can be sadly paralleled in the records of
Christendoin.

150 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XXII.

names of GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT,
Discussion 1. The Old Testament is the nursery-ground of New Tes-
names. tameut theology. The mission of Christ is a mission from
God, and is intended to bring men back to God, The
revelation of God contained in the Old Testament is pre
supposed throughout the New. The invisible Father of our
spirits. Himself a Spirit, Who cannot He, the blessed and
only Potentate, the Father of lights, from Whom all good
gifts come. Who spoke in times past by the prophets, hath
now spoken by His Son. There is a continuity of spiritual
impressions and spiritual actions all through the Bible, and
the spring of them all is the Hving God.
In discussing the use of the names of God in the Old
Testament the student is conscious of a certain painful
hesitation. If we had to criticize books in which the titles
and work of our own parents were discussed, we should
shrink from a free bandying about of their revered names.
The Biblical critic is in danger of regarding the titles of
his God and Father as if they were so many counters. May
we be preserved from a barren and irreverent spirit of criti
cism whilst inquiring into the facts concerning the sacred
names of Him in Whom we live, and move, and have our
being.
Variety in 2. It must be noticed, in the first place, that we find
several distinct though related titles given to God in the
Old Testament, Some are very general in their meaning, e.g.
the word Lord CiJIX; Adonai), which signifies " master "
or "owner," exactly answering to the Greek KVfuoi;, and
applicable to man as well as to God, The word generally
translated God is Etohim (D\'n'7N)' which occurs 2,555

NAMES OF GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151
times in the Old Testament; in 2,310 places it is used of
the true God, and in the other passages it has secondary or
heathen applications.*
Other titles are somewhat more specific in the idea which
they convey, e.g. the name Shaddai (t'lJJ'), usually found
vdth El, and generally translated, after Jerome, Almighty.
Another title to be ranked with it is the Most High
(?") vS?' 'Elion'). Whilst one of these marks God's bounti-
fulness and all-sufficiency, the other indicates His exalta
tion. 3, Secondly, we find tendencies in certain writers to use 'Tendencies
one of these titles rather than another. Thus Shaddai is
speciaUy used in Job ; the same is the case with Eloah,
which is usually reckoned an Aramaic form. Elah is
found no less than thirty-seven times in the short Book of
Ezra, and forty-six times in Daniel, being only found in
one other passage ; it is thus associated with Chaldee. The
short word El is specially to be found in Job, the Psalms,
and Isaiah, being used (as Elah, Eloah, and Elohim are)
not only of the One living and true God, but also of the
gods of the heathen.
4. We must now concentrate our attention on one title The name
. of God, which is recognized as the most national of all —
the name Jehovah. The origin of this name is lost in
mystery. How was it originally pronounced ? What does
it mean ? Who first used it or heard it uttered ? The
subject on which we are engaged does not make it neces
sary for us to discuss the first of these questions. Out of
deference to ancient custom we propose to adhere to the old
pronunciation, as given above, rather than to the more critical
Jahveh. We take Jehovah, or its shorter form Jah, to
be the personal name of the God of Israel from the time
* Imay be pennitted to refer for full details on this subject to a work on Old
Testament Synonyms, published some years ago by Messrs. Longman.

1,52

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

Usage of
the name.

of the Exodus onwards. It stands alone in its glory; it
permits of no definite article in front of it, nor of any sulRx
after it ; it is never used of any false god, nor in the plural
number. We lose some of the force of this title by having followed
the LXX. in translating it the Lord. Thus when Moses
and Aaron went to Pharaoh they said, " Thus saith Jehovah
tlie God of Israel," and Pharaoh answered, " Who is Jehovah
that I should obey His voice ? " (see Exod. 5.1,2), Jehovah
is the chief Speaker and Actor all through the rest of the
history of Israel, He is not regarded as one of a pantheon,
but as the living and eternal Being to Whom all creation
owes existence, and Who had chosen Israel to Himself as
a special people. Although the word Lord is printed in
small capitals ' in our Authorized Old Testament when it
stands for the name " Jehovah,'' yet readers do not always
observe it, and of course hearers cannot tell when this name
is used and when the word " Lord " stands for the title
Adonai. The change between the titles is frequent and
subtle. Thus, in Exod, 5. 22 we read, "Moses returned
unto the Lord, and said. Lord, wherefore hast Thou evil
intreated this people?" Here the printing in the A, V.
shows that Moses returned to Jehovah and appealed to Him
as his Master. (Compare 1 Kings 3. 5, " Jehovah appeared
to Solomon, and God said" — also verses 10, 11, See also
Isa. 6. 1, 3, 5, 8.)
After the first few chapters in Exodus, Jehovah is the
name specially used for the Deliverer. In Leviticus hardly
any other word is used, except in relation to Jehovah, as in
the expression " Jehovah your God." The same is true of
Numbers, except in the episode concerning Balaam. We
find the same mode of expression in the rest of the Historical
Books down to the time of Nehemiah.

Its origin. 5. We now "wish to get back to the origin of the word.
Two passages in Exodus are of special importance. It is,
of course, useless to look at them unless we can trust them.

NAMES OF GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 153
but critics of all schools seem to have regarded them as a
trustworthy basis for discussion.
In Exod. 3 Moses gives us his own account of the vision Exod. 3.
of the burning bush, and — as the narrator — uses the title -
Jehovah freely. He tells how the angel of Jehovah appeared
(verse 2) ; how when Jehovah saw him turn aside God called
(verse 4), and revealed Himself as the Elohim of the Patri
archs. Thus Moses was conscious that he was in a visionary
condition, the spiritual sense of hearing having been specially
quickened, so that he was brought into communion with the
God of his ancestors ; and he hid his face, for he was afraid
to look upon God (verse 6). After receiving his commission
he puts this important question : " When I come to the
children of Israel, and say. The God of your fathers hath
sent me unto you ; and they shall say. What is His name ?
what shaU I say unto them ? " Does this imply that Israel
had no specific name ftor their God ? or that they had more
than one ? Let us see the answer. " God said to Moses, I
am that I AM: and He said. Thus shall ye say to the
children of Israel, I am hath sent me unto you. And God
said further unto Moses, Thus shalt thou say to the children
of Israel, Jehovah the God of your fathers, the God of
Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob, hath appeared to me."
This last sentence seems to imply that Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob were familiar names to Israel, and that their God
was named Jehovah. There would be no doubt of this
conclusion in any mind were it not for the existence of
another passage, which seems at first sight to lead to an
opposite view. On turning to Exod, 6. 3 we find God Exod.i.z.
speaking again to Moses, and saying, " I am Jehovah, and
I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by
(the name of) El Shaddai; but (as regards) my name
Jehovah, I was not known to them." What can this
mean ? Does it really signify that the name Jehovah had
never been heard by the Patriarchs ? that it was never used
tiU the Exodus? and that on the strength of this honest
account of Moses' interview with God we are to conclude

solution of

154 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
that the name Jehovah when it occurs in Genesis must be
a Mosaic or post-Mosaic insertion ? This would at first
be a natural conclusion ; but it is not a certain one, being
in flat contradiction to that already drawn from Exod, 3.
Besides, Moses must have known the name of his own
mother. How could he calmly tell us that his mother's
name was Jochebed {i.e. the glory of Jah) if the name
Jah or Jehovah was not uttered until her son was eighty
years old ?
Another case may help us out of the difficulty. In 1 Sam,
3. 7 we read, "Now Samuel did not yet know , Jehovah,
neither was the word of Jehovah yet revealed unto him,"
This cannot mean that Samuel had never heard the name
Jehovah, -with which, indeed, he must have been quite fami
liar; but it must signify some special knowledge of Him,
Now let us suppose that in the days of the Patriarchs the
name of Jehovah was specially associated with covenants
and promises, and that the name itself signifles primarily
One Who is, and hence One Who is eternal and true to
His word;, then we can readily understand how much
greater significance would be attached to this name in
consequence of the events connected with the Exodus,
since this was itself a fulfilment of the promise made to
the Patriarchs,
We do not, however, -wish to press this solution. The
difficulty has been felt in past ages quite as much as to-day.
Theoretically it is quite possible that Moses, whom we take
to be the authorizer, if not the editor, of Genesis, may have
substituted the name Jehovah for other titles in the Patri
archal narrative, just as the writer of Chronicles has taken
the opposite course, frequently substituting the name Elohim
for Jehovah in the narratives which he extracts from Samuel
and Kings. It will be well, however, before deciding the
matter, to look back a little further.
Names of Q. The Book of Genesis is the true and original birthplace
of all theology. It contains those ideas of God and man, of

NAMES OF GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 155
righteousneiss and judgment, of responsibility and moral
government, of failure and hope, which are presupposed
through the rest of the Old Testament, and -which prepare
the way for the mission of Christ. Most of the names and
titles of God are to be found in its pages, though some few
are later, as the Chaldean Elah, and the striking title " the
Lord of Hosts," which does not appear till Samuel. We
find the most general of all names, Elohim, in the first verse
of the Bible associated with creation. The form of the word
is plural, though it governs a verb which is in the singular
number. The singular form, Eloah, does not appear till
Deut. 32. 15, Again we find El introduced in the Patriarchal
age (Gen. 14. 18, Ac), and El is found in composition with
Elohim in Gen, 32, 30 (El-Elohe-Israel). So we find
Shaddai formally revealed as a title of God, in connection
with El, in Gen. 17. 1, " I am the Almighty God ; walk
before Me, and be thou perfect." It is here associated with
a special promise of the multiplication of seed, as also in the
next two passages where it occurs (Gen. 38. 3 and 35. 11).
There are two other passages where it is found in Genesis,
¦riz., chap. 43. 14 and 49. 25, both of which awaken the
thought of God's bounty and grace. The familiar title
Adonai, " Lord," is first found in Gen, 15. 2, 8. If anyone
will trace its usage through the early books of the Bible, he
will find that it is almost, if not quite, confined to prayers
or addresses to God, Who is regarded as the Owner, Master,
and Governor of the world. It is associated where it first
occurs, and in several later passages, with the name Jehovah.
The title 'Elion, "Most High," is first found in Gen. 14, 18,
in the account of Melchizedek. It does not occur again till
the time of Balaam, and afterwards it is confined to poetry,
being specially found in the Psalms.
It wiU be observed that all these names are threaded
together. El with Shaddai and 'Elion, Jehovah with
Elohim and -with Adonai, Elohim with El. We have no
pantheon here, but aspects of One self -revealing God, "the
living God," as Joshua and others called Him ; " the God

156

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE,

of the spiritsof all flesh," as Moses called Him ; " the Pos
sessor of heaven and earth," as Melchizedek called Him.

The ques
tion re
stated.

Analogy
with names
of Christ.

7. So much in illustration of what has been pointed out
above, -viz., that Genesis is the true spring-head of the Divine
titles and of the ideas which they embody. Have we, how
ever, any reason for drawing a line round the name Je
hovah wherever it occurs in Genesis, so as to indicate that
either the name or the passages which contain it are post-
Mosaic ?
There seems to be a reason, at any rate in the older books,
for the use of one name ' rather than another for God, even
though in later days it may not have been so. The com
parative usage of " Jesus " and " Christ " in the New Testa
ment affords us a convenient analogy, and there is no more
reason in the nature of things for dividing out the Book of
Genesis amongst several writers according to their use of
one or other name for God than for parcelling out various
sections of St, Paul's Epistles on a similar ground.

Use of name 8. The name Jehovah first comes on the scene in Genesis
Jehovah m „ , , • -n t •
Genesis. 3, 4, when the creative Elohim enters into definite commu
nication with man. The keynote is thus given to Biblical
theology. Such expressions as " the word of Jehovah " and
" the angel of Jehovah " spring out of the fact recorded in
the second of Genesis that the Lord of heaven and earth has
laid a peculiar responsibility on man, and has made special
provisions for his welfare. The first Jehovah-section, runs
from Gen, 3, 4 to chap. 3. 24 ; but it is noticeable that the
serpent does not use this name. In Gen. 4, 1-26 the writer
uses the name Jehovah without adding Elohim (which is
found -with it in the pre-yious section), and special attention
is given to the name in the last verse, where we read, " Then
began men to caH upon the name of Jehovah." The time
referred to is when Seth's son Enos was born. The Revisers
have not altered the translation, but they have struck out
the alternative rendering contained in our margins (" or to

NAMES OF GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 157
call themselves by the name of," &c.). This decision is
important, as it bears upon many passages in the Old and
New Testament. The passage cited looks Hke a piece of
pre-Mosaic traditional history. It would imply that in this
early stage of human history there was an idea of God
which the Hebrew Jehovah best expresses, and this idea
was the basis of prayer. In other words, people prayed not
to Elohim as such, but to Elohim as revealed in the faithful
Promisor, Who all through the later Hebrew line of tradition
was known as Jehovah.
It is needless to analyse the whole of Genesis. Speaking
shortly, we find the name Elohim in Gen. 5. 1-32, variations
in chaps. 6-9, Jehovah in chaps, 11-14, and variations
between the two names in the later chapters. It seems as
unreasonable as it is unnecessary to suppose that either
the name Jehovah was inserted in the old documents by
Moses, or that the documents themselves were post- Mosaic.
9. The theory that there were different narratives, tradi- Are there
, , . ,. , . ' different
tional and written, some tending to emphasise the name documents?
Jehovah, and others content with the title Elohim, is in
itself quite unobjectionable, and commends itself to many
minds. But it has led to so many unnatural splittings-up
of the text that it must be received with great reserve. If,
as we have attempted to show in earlier pages, Moses is the
compiler or authorizer of the main body of Genesis, then
the various documents out of which he composed the book
may have represented various theological impressions, and
may have contained various titles, some, perhaps, Accadian,
or even pre-Babel, and he may have been led to use the
mysterious name Jehovah as a translation or substitute for
some more ancient title found in the primaeval materials -with
which he had to deal. This is, however, pure speculation.
It is doubtful if there were collateral documents in those Difficulty of
ancient days analogous with those from which the Chronicles
were compiled. There may have been some ; but the mul
tiplication of imaginary documents will often lead to the

158 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
multiplication of real difficulties. Have we, for example,
two documents in Gen. 31. 1-6, where we read that
"Jehovah visited Sarah, as He had said, and Sarah said,
Elohim hath made me to laugh " ? ^ Have we not, rather,
Jehovah introduced as thei faithful Promisor, and Elohim
as the forceful Worker ? Again, in verse 33, " Abraham
called on the name of Jehovah, the eternal El " : did one
document use the one expression, and another give the
second? In the 22nd chapter Elohim tempts Abraham,
and, when questioned by his son, the Patriarch replies,
" Elohim will provide," but the place is called " Jehovah
-will provide.'' In chap. 34, 7 Abraham calls Jehovah the
Elohim of heaven and earth, manifestly referring to crea
tion, and then describes the Divine Promise, which accounts
for the name Jehovah being subsequently introduced. In
chap, 26. 24 Jehovah appears to Isaac, and says, "I am the
Elohim of Abraham thy father," and proceeds to give him
a further promise. Is it necessary, is it critical, to invent
two or three semi-independent writers in order to produce
such a verse as this ? Is it not far simpler and more reason
able to take the view that Elohim sets forth God as the
putter forth of force, whilst Jehovah sets Him forth as the
speaker to the spirit and the faithful Promisor ?
Conclusion. 10, There are many perplexities still remaining which
will occur to every student. Why, for example, did Jacob
so rarely use the name Jehovah, and Joseph not at all?
The reason may . be discernible, but we must be content
with a general conclusion, namely, that either the name
Jehovah was in use in primaeval times, or it has replaced
some other word which was then in use. Whilst the Patri
archs regarded God as the faithful Promiser, Moses and his
contemporaries found Him to be a faithful Performer ; and
in this sense they knew Him as He could not be known
to their fathers. May one reflection be added ? We are all
children. We none of us know God fully. The wisest
only knows in part.

PECULIABITIES IN BIBLICAL TESMINOLOGY. 159

CHAPTER XXIII,

peculiarities in biblical teeminology.
1. The origin of language is a mystery; so is the origin Origin of
of each particular word when neither compounded nor imita- ""^"*^^'
tive. Words are the expression of ideas, and perhaps in the
earliest stage of human history they were spontaneous (see
Gen. 3, 19), What really took place at Babel must have
been confusion of the mind causing differeiitiation of speech.
"We have now to do with post-Babel language only; and
whilst a growing light is being thrown on its earliest forms
as spoken in the region of Accad, we still know but little of
the age and origin of the Hebrew of the Old Testament.
It must never be forgotten that we have no Hebrew litera
ture contemporaneous with even its latest books. Conse- Hebrew
quently we have no external means of studying the age
and uSage of any particular word except by means of the
Sacred Books themselves, unless, indeed, we can find it in
the inscriptions and records of Assyria, Babylon, or Egypt.
Experience shows us that new words are introduced into all
languages as time goes on, but they are to a large extent
borrowed from neighbours ; and some words which critics
are inclined to caU late are really provincial, if not introduced
from foreign sources. Thus, in the second Psalm we have
two words translated " Son," the ordinary Hebrew Ben
(verse 7) and the Aramaic Bar (verse 12). It would be
very hazardous to found an argument as to the date of the
Psalm on the appearance of this second word. The truth
is, Hebrew poetic writings affect foreign words more than
prose -writings do. This accounts for various words in the
Song of Deborah and Barak, and elsewhere. Much has
been written about the names of the musical instruments in

160 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Daniel. It is the fashion to call them Greek, and therefore
of a date later than Daniel's time, but they probably spring
from Asia Minor, and can be seen in use on the bas-reliefs
of Eastern potentates.
Foreign 2. The " ivory, apes, and peacocks " sent to king Solomon
(1 Kings 10, 22) have foreign names, possibly of TarQil
origin ; but who could say when they first came into being,
or even when they were first used in Canaan ? There are
Egyptian words in the Egyptian part of the Bible, and
words of Eastern origin in the Midianite part, e.g. the
word (iip) translated " curse " in Num. 23, and the
name of the "bracelet" in Num. 31. 50 and 2 Sam. 1. 10.
So we get Chaldean language during the period of the
Captivity, and Persian words after the Return. In these
and in other cases foreign words were used naturally by
the writers of the time, because the circumstances ^nd the
subject-matter called for them. They thus silently bear
their testimony to the veracity of the writers.
Specialities 3_ Many peculiar words are to be found in special portions
tn Hebrew. ^ >- r r
of the Bible for the same reason. They are called for by
the subject-matter. The Pentateuch, being partly legal,
contains some rare, if not obsolete, law terms, which haye
been discussed by Michaelis in his work on The Laws of
Moses. Being written whilst the people were on the move,
it also uses " camp-language," which naturally went out of
use as the people got more and more settled. We may lay
it down as a rule that where circumstances are similar, similar
words will be used ; where circumstances are special we look
for special words. In what book could " tasks " and " task
masters " be spoken of except in Exodus ? or " left-handed "
people except in Judges? So with "coriander" (Exodus
and Numbers) ; and the " hornet " (Exodus, Deuteronomy,
and Joshua) ; Azazel or thp scapegoat (Le-viticus) ; quarries
(Judges). Other words cannot be so accounted for ; e.g. the
special word for " appointing " wages (Gen. 30. 28), which

PECULIABITIES IN BIBLICAL TESMINOLOGY. 161
indicates something of the nature of a tally ; and the special
word for multiplication of seed, in Gen, 48, 16, a term
borrowed from the spawning of fish. In these and nume
rous other cases an ordinary word might easily have been
used. There are certain characteristic words generally springing
out of the Pentateuch, and used consistently, if not solely,
for the Deluge and the Ark, for the overthrow of Sodom, for
the inundation of the Nile, for the religious warfare against
the Canaanites, for casting lots, for blasphemy, for making
and confirming covenants, for the proclamation of liberty,
for the special visitation of blindness, for thick darkness as
opposed to ordinary dusk, for being stiff-heoked, &c. These
words became an inheritance, and were generally used in a
restricted sense.
The same is true of the numerous sacrificial, ritual, and Sacred and
-i-i'i • it T -r. -, ceremonial
ceremonial words which spring out ot the Pentateuch, words.
Many of these sacrificial words are pre-Mosaic, but they
were re-issued from the mint of the great lawgiver. This
class of words would include the names for the Tabernacle
of the Congregation, the altar, the Ark of the Covenant, the
mercy-seat, the various offerings, the technical words for
" burning," which the A.V. and the R. V. so unfortunately
fail to distinguish, the ephod, the Urim, the lamp, conse
cration, the Nazarite vow, the words for purity, sanctifica-
tion, and uncleanness of different kinds. It is rarely that
. any of these Hebrew wOrds are altered through the Old
Testament. An exception, however, must ,be made in the
case of the shewbread, which is described in the early books
as " bread of faces," i.e. persons, the bread representing
the person of the offerer, whilst in the Chronicles and
Nehemiah the word used (Jl^iyib) means something " set in
a row," marking the orderly arrangement of the bread. It
is interesting that we can here trace the growth of the new
expression in the Book of Chronicles, which contains both
the old term (only once, 2 Chron. 4. 19) and the new (six
times).

tions in

162 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BlilE.
What is true of the ceremonial words of the Old Testa-^
ment is true of the psychological, moral, and theological
words also.*
4. A great many of the delicate distinctions of the
"Hebrew. Hebrew are lost in the -English Bible. It seems strange
that three Hebrew words should be translated "window"
in the account of the Flood, three translated " congregation "
in Lev. 4. 14, 15, and three translated " trespass " in Lev.
5. 15. The " veil " of the Tabernacle is a very different
thing from that worn by Ruth, and the " cord " of a tent is
not the kind which was used to bind a man .with. The
king's crown was distinct from the priest's, even though an
Amalekite should not be able to denote the difference (see
2 Sam. 1. 10). The " cheese" of 1 Sam. 17. 18 is not the
, same kind as that in 2 Sam. 17- 29 ; and the heart-shaped cake
(queen- cake) of 2 Sam. 13 is not the same as that of 2 Sam,
6. 1 9, which was a sacred one. The knife used by Abraham
(Gen. 22. 6) is quite a different one from that of Ezra 1. 9 ;
if the two words had changed places critics might weU have
.been puzzled. The -word for " champion " in 1 Sam. 17. 4, 23,
is not the same as that used in verse 51, and neither ex
pression appears elsewhere, siinply because it was not
needed.
Agricuitur 5. Generally speaking agricultural words are the same
throughout the Bible, as would be expected ; thus plough
ing, reaping, threshing, are always represented by the
same word; yet the sickle of Deuteronomy is not the
sickle of Joel and Jeremiah (which it would have been
if Deuteronomy was written in Jeremiah's time), and the
word Used of "old corn " in Josh. 5. 11, 12 is never used
before or after. The ordinary words for flocks and herds
run through the Bible, but one word translated "flocks"
is only used in Deuteronomy.
* See Old Testament Synonyms, passim.

PECULIABITIES IN BIBLICAL TESMINOLOGY. 163
6. Commercial words are very much the same through- Commercial
out. Six different words are translated "merchant," the
most singular being the name Canaan or Canaanite, which
is so rendered in Job 41, 6; Hos. 12. 7 ; and Zeph. 1. 11.
The word used for the purchase of corn in Gen. 42 and
Deut. 2. 6 is never used again for this purpose except in
Isa. 55. 1 ; Amos 8. 5, .6 ; and Prov. 11. 26. The curious
thing about it is that the word itself ("l^JJ') means" corn,"
which was, no doubt, one of the first objects of traffic.
7. We find a marked development of military words in Military
a words.
the age of David. There is a distinction in Hebrew between
an army in camp and an army in ' array. We find special
words growing up for companies and troops, for joining
battle, and for the trench or barricade. But there are some
special military terms in the earlier books which afterwards
become obsolete, e.g. the word translated " harnessed " in
Exod. 13. 18, and " armed " in Josh. 1. 14 ; 4. 13 ; and
Judg, 7, 11, The arrangement of the ranks in fives, which
the word indicates, probably died out in later years,
8. Perhaps the most interesting study of words, as bear- Structural
ing on the ages of the books, is to be found in what may
, be called the structural language of the Old Testament.
In Exodus we have detailed provision for a movable
Sacred Tabernacle ; and in Kings a permanent edifice is
set up, retaining many of the outlines and peculiarities
of the earlier structure. Exod. 25 begins with an
enumeration of various materials, including the kind of
wood to be used for all Tabernacle purposes. This is
called Shittim wood, being probably acacia. It is never
mentioned after the Pentateuch, though the Shittah tree
is once referred to amongst a group in Isa, 41, 19. Cedar
was substituted for acacia when the Temple was built.
.The ark is the first thing ordered to be made. It stood
unchanged through the ups and downs of Israel's history
till the Captivity. Its crown, or rim, is marked by a word
peculiar to the Pentateuch. Its lid, or mercy-seat, is only
' , L 2

164 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
named in the Pentateuch and in 1 Chron. 28. 11, which
verse should be compared with the 18th, where this
sacred object is apparently described as "the chariot of
the cherubim." Next comes the table with its border
of a hand-breadth. It is curious that the word translated
"hand-breadth" is used of a "coping" in 1 Kings 7.9.
The canrjlestich, or lamp-stand, follows in Exodus, with
its base, shaft, cups, knops, and flowers. The word for a
knop is dropped in Kings, and the " gourd " is substituted
for it. We now reach the mishcan, or dwelling-place of
curtains, the word being used in the Pentateuch, Joshua,
Samuel, Chronicles, and other books. The "boards," or
palings, were not wanted ih Solomon's Temple, and the
word for them is only once used after the Pentateuch, viz.,
in Ezek. 27. 6, of the rowers' benches. The vail was hung
on posts (distinct from door-posts) . It is only named once
after the Pentateuch, viz., in the chronicler's account of
the Temple-structure (2, Chron. 3. 14), which is in some
respects different from that in the Kings. Directions for
the altar and the court follow. We then reach the account
of the priest's dress, containing several peculiar words.
When we turn to 1 Kings 6 we find ourselves in the thick
of mason's work, with technical builder's words never used
elsewhere. Some of the structures were carried out on the
old lines, only on a larger scale ; others, e.g. the porch,
having been needless before ; whilst others have almost a
foreign air about them.
The Book of Chronicles gives us both the provision made
by David (1 Chron. 28) and the work executed under
Solomon (2 Chron. 2, &c.). It is by no means either a
copy or a condensation of the Kin^s, and it contains
several peculiar words.
On reviewing the structural language in the Pentateuch,
the Kings, and the Chronicles, we have the conviction that
each narrative is in its place and in its natural order. It is
inconceivable that the Exodus narrative could be substituted
for or superseded by either of the other accounts.

BEABING OF TESMINOLOGY ON AGE OF BOOKS. 165

CHAPTER XXIV.

the bearing of teeminology on the age of
the books.
1. We have pointed out that various reasons preclude us ,Books
from fixing the date of books by means of the appearance of iy''Sir
particular words in them. They may have been in current ''"^'"'^^•
use for ages before a sacred writer happened to want them,
or they may have been familiar in one tribe or neighbour
hood rather than in another. At the same time it is clear
that the age of books may be determined to some extent,
and books may be grouped, by peculiarities of language.
Thus the Books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther
form a decided group, and are distinctly separate linguisti
cally from the earlier books. Every Hebrew student would
have his attention drawn to such expressions as " set office "
(1 Chron. 9. 22), "clothed" (1 Chron. 15. 27), "purple"
(2 Chron. 2. 7), " establishment " (2 Chron, 32. 1), " suf
ficiently" (2 Chron, 30, 3), "grant" (Ezra 3, 7), "inter
pret " (4, 7), " dram " (2. 69), " treasurer " (1. 8), " bason " '
(1 Chron, 28, 17), " charger and knife " (Ezra 1,9)," copy "
(4. 11), " seal " (Neh. 9. 38), " palace " (1. 1), " province "
(1. 3), " letters " (2. 7), " joy " (8. 10), " children of the
Captivity" (Ezra 6. 16), "appointed times" (Neh. 10.34),
&c. These are samples of many others constituting the
books a distinct group.
2. There are, as a matter of fact, peculiar words in almost ^^^^^^
every book in the Old Testament. We find them notably different
in Job, in each book of the Pentateuch separately, and in
the Pentateuch as a whole; in Judges, Samuel, Kings,
Psalms, Proverbs, and most of the Prophets ; but we cannot
draw an absolute line round the earlier books as we do round
the latest. The terminology enables us to decide with com-

166

THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

paratively little hesitation whether a book is of pre-Gaptivity
or post-Captivity date ; but it ip not so easy to decide from
terminology alone whether a book is before the age of
Samuel and Da-vid or after — the amount of common
property in the language is so very large in proportion to
the peculiarities of any particular age or person. No writer
uses all the words he possesses, nor does he possess all the
words that belong to his age. Hebrew was to a great extent
a stationary language, and it is not easy to detect the marks
of time, i.e. of decay and of foreign intercourse, upon it.
Still, there are one or two tests which we can apply, and
which may help us to decide whether the traditional view of
the age of the Pentateuch and Joshua may be adhered to, or
whether it must be discarded. We refer specially to the
words bearing on money and measures, and also to the
names of certain idolatrous objects. To these we must next
call attention.

Ancient money.

The shekel.

3. Although we read of money transactions all through
the Old Testament, we must not forget that there was no
Hebrew coinage until the time of the Maccabees. . To
" pay " is in Hebrew to " weigh," and the Hebrew shekel
answers to the Chaldee tehel, which Daniel expounded to
Belshazzar. Abraham had to weigh money when he bought
the cave of Machpelah, and Jeremiah had to do the same
when he redeemed a piece of land, and Zechariah (11. 12)
speaks of the weighing of the price at which he was
estinlated. So it comes to pass that the word " shekel "
does not fix a value unless we know what the metal is which
is weighed, or what is the standard of weight. The 400
shekels of silver weighed by Abraham (Gen. 23. 16) were
" current " or "/transferable " (^^5?), whether in the form of
ingots or ring-money. The golden nose-ring, or ear-ring, pi
Gen. 24. 22 is called a half-shekel weight. The word (yp3)
here translated " half -shekel " is only found in one other
place, -viz., Exod. 38. 26, where we have the word itself
-Anglicised {bekah) , It properly means something cleft or

BEABING OF TESMINOLOGY ON AGE OF BOOKS. 167
divided, and is defined as " half a shekel after the shekel of
the Sanctuary." The " Sanctuary shekel " is never so
named after the Pentateuch ; and we find a third of a shekel
substituted for the half in Neh. 10. 32. We are told iu
Exodi 30. 13 that the shekel contained twenty gerahs.
What, then, was a gerah ? It was evidently some small
object (? a cowry) with which Israel was acquainted in
Egypt, It is only referred to in the Pentateuch and in
Ezek. 45. 12, which is a quotation. Another standard of
shekel is given us in 2 Sam. 14. 26, where we read of 200
shekels "after the king's weight," This indicates that
David appointed standard weights for the country. The
word translated " weight " here is " stone," as in Lev. 19. 36,
and in passages quoted from it. We still retain the " stone "
among our weights, and explorers have found old stone
weights in plenty in the East.
The word translated " talent " l^'2'2) first appears as a Tne talent.
weight in Exod. 25. 39. It is used of gold, silver, brass,
iron, and lead, and is equal to 3,000 shekels, a talent of
silver being worth about 360/., and of gold about 5,000Z.
There was no opportunity for using the word in Genesis,
and we cannot fix its date, but it is a Semitic word, and may
have come from the ikv East with Abraham. The. money
used for the purchase of Jacob's ground is called kesitah,
and this word is only used elsewhere in Josh. 24. 32, which
is a quotation, and in Job 42. 11. No one knows the real
meaning of the word, which dropped out of use in Israel,
even if retained among Arabs. The discussion on Egyptian
money transactions in Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians,
chap, vii., gives interesting illustrations of the dealing with
precious metals in Patriarchal and Mosaic times.
The " dram," which is referred to in Chronicles, Ezra, and The dram.
Nehemiah, was thought till quite lately to get its name from
Darius, but it is iiow found to be older than his time. Still
it is much later than all the words which we have been
dealing with, and if we had found it in the Pentateuch or
Joshua we should at once have recognized a late hand.

168 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
4, It would be tedious to subject all the weights and
sures. measures of the Bible to a full review, but we find the same
testimony throughout. Different words are introduced from
different countries and at various stages of history. The
ephah, which is a dry measure, and which is referred to
frequently from Exod, 16, 36 onwards, begins to be asso
ciated with the bath, a liquid measure, in 1 Kings 7. 26,
the one being probably Egyptian and the other Eastern.*
The 'omer, or handful, was a tenth of an ephah, while the
chomer, or heap (Lev. 37. 16, &c.), was ten ephahs, and
(later) ten baths (Ezek. 45. 14). The tenth deal of Exod.
29. 40, &c., was probably a definite measure also. Thus a
decimal system was in fuU swing amongst the Israelites.
The cubit was a Chaldean measure, and occurs in the
measurements of Noah's ark. The cor, and the maneh or
pound, are Assyrian, and do not appear till the time of
the Kings.
Thus the testimony of this class of words falls in with
what we have found in other departments of inquiry.
strumenis"' ^' ^® might pursue the same class of investigation into
the history of the musical instruments of the Bible. We have
the early Chaldean h9,rp and organ (Gen. 4. 21), the Egyp
tian timbrel (Exod. 15. 20), the ram's horn and the straight
trumpet of Exodus and Numbers ; then in the days of David
a great development of musical instruments, including the
pipe (7''7fl)j the cymbals, the psaltery ('^J^j), and another
stringed instrument used as an accompaniment to the song
{neginoth) and distinct from the harp of Genesis. The
absence of these Davidic and post-Da-vidic instruments from
the earlier books is noteworthy.
Classes of g. The references to heathen religions and superstitions
idols m Old ^ ^
Testament, are SO numerous m the Old Testament that they constitute
* Dr. Oppert claims the Ap as an Assyrian measure, and identifies it with
the ephah, whilst he identifies the imer with the homer ; but the proportions
are not the same. (Proceedings Bib. Arch., April 6, 1886.)

BEABING OF TESMINOLOGY ON AGE OF BOOKS. 169
a study in themselves. No less than twelve Hebrew words
are -translated " idol " ; some of them run more or less
through the books ; others are peculiar, e.g. the word used
in 1 Kings 15, 13, We have very scanty information about
the gods whom Terah's family worshipped on the Euphrates
(Josh. 24, 2, 16), and we have to look for information on
this subject to archjeological discoveries in Mesopotamia.
Laban's family worshipped Teraphim (Gen, 31. 19, 34).
These must have been of Syrian or Chaldee origin, not
Egyptian, though probably akin to the little images so fre
quently found with mummies in Egypt.
The chapters of Leviticus and other books of the Penta
teuch which warn against idolatry deal solely with Egyptian
and Canaanitish rites, and not with anything Assyrian or
Babylonian — a marked proof that these books are not inven
tions of later times. The idols of Egypt are called by a
peculiar word (7''7J<), which perhaps means nonentity.*
They are also called by a word (7J7J) which is probably
intended to caricature their form, and is used in Leviticus,
Deuteronomy, Kings, and Ezekiel. Canaanitish objects of
worship and superstition include the Mascith, i.e. the bas-
relief, or intaglio, still to be seen on the walls of the
Egyptian temples as well as in Assyria, and may have
been of the nature of the Hittite remains (see Lev. 26. 1,
&.C.). There were also discs or sun-images (D^JOIl) Lev.
26. 30), objects common to Eastern and Egyptian worship.
The Asherah with which the R, V. has made us familiar The grove.
was not a grove, as the A, V. following the LXX. translated
it, but a wooden image connected with Baal-worship, and
probably representing the reproductive powers of Nature,
It first appears in Exod, 34. 13 in connection with the
statues, pillars, or standing imaged of the Canaanites, and is
used in the same sense all through the books.
Baal was the sun-god of Midian, Canaan, Phcenicia, and
its colonies. The Hebrew form of the word (75?^) means
* See Old Testament Synonyms on the various words for idols in the Bible,

170 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
master or lord, and it is usually supposed to be related to the
Chaldean Bel. Baal-worship is associatpd with Ashtaroth-
worship in Judg. 2. 11, 13, as representing the male and
female principles in Nature.
Although the plural form Ashtaroth is in the Book of
Judges, the singular Ashtoreth is not found till the time of
Solomon, who introduced it from Sidon (1 Kings 11. 5, 33).
It is the same as Ishtar, and is a well-known Phoenician
and Babylonian deity, answering to Astarte, or Venus.
Foreign Chemosh-worship was Moabite, and -is referred to on the
idolatry. '
Moabite Stone (.see Num, 21, 29; Judg. 11,24), It was
introduced by Solomon into Jerusalem (1 Kings 11, 7), If
the Levitical ordinances had been late they would have
doubtless referred to it. Molech or Molocli worship was
both Ammonite and Canaanite. The fire-god probably
stands for the sun-god, and the abominations connected with
this worship amongst the Canaanites are prohibited in Lev.
18. 21 and 20. 3,
Calf -worship was, of course, Egyptian, and was naturally
re-introduced by Jeroboam after his sojourn in Egypt.
So far we see that the references to idolatry in the early
books are of an early stamp and bear on Egyptian and
Canaanitish superstitions, the Assyrian and later Babylonian
worship not being referred to till the times of the Kings,
and then very slightly.
Summary. 7, A review of this discussion on Biblical terminology will
tend to re-assure our minds. It is strong, cumulative, and
conclusive, indicating by many instances that the books are . ,
of the age which they profess, and that they have come
do*n in the main unchanged from the times of Moses and '
Samuel,

POETICAL POETIONS OF HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 171

CHAPTER XXV,

POETICAL POETIONS OF THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
Ij Although the books we have been considering are Early prose
mainly prose, there is a strongly marked poetic ele'taient in "" *°^ ^^'
them. Indeed, in the most ancient literatures it is hard to
tell where prose ends and poetry begins ; there is in the one
a balancing or parallelism of thought and a condensation of
utterance which are the characteristic features of the other.
We see this in the first recorded utterances of God and of
man in- the early chapters of Genesis, and notably in the
words of Lamech to his wives- (Gen. 4. 23, 24), which run
thus : — Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ;
Ye -wives of Lamech, hearken unto my speech :
For I have slain a man to my wounding,
A young man to my hurt.
If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,
Truly Lamech seventy and seven.
All proverbial sayings, if more than a few words, are semi-
poetic ; see, for example, the riddle and the answer (Judg,
14, 14, 18). So it is with prophetic blessings and previsions
of the destiny of nations and individuals. The first example
of these predictions is to be found in the words of Noah
concerning his sons (Gen. 9. 25-27) ; another early instance
is the oracular answer to Rebekah concerning Esau and
Jacob (Gen, 25, 23), which reads thus : —
-Two nations are in thy womb ; and two peoples shall be
parted from thy bowels :
One people shall be stronger than the other ; and the greater
shall serve the less.

172 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
We next meet with the celebrated benedictions bestowed
by Isaac on these same sons (Gen. 27), whereby the earlier
oracular response was un-wittingly confirmed. The blessing
of Jacob's twelve sons (Gen. 49), and the blessing of Israel
by Moses (Deut. 33) are other notable instances.
Hebrew 2. In all these cases the poetry is imbedded in the prose
narrative, and its age and history are traditionally, if not
securely, fixed thereby. The same is the case -with the Songs,
nine in number, which are found in the Historical Books,
and which are distinctly poetic in character, as well as struc
ture. It is natural to suppose that these Songs were dictated
and written down at the time of their composition, and that
many people committed them to memory. This was no hard
matter in the early days of which we speak, especially in the
case of the Hebrews, who are peculiarly gifted in the matter
of memory. And that this was the case is shown most/
clearly by the fact that almOst every one of these compo
sitions is quoted in subsequent books of the Old Testament.
Thus, the Song of Moses (Exod. 15), which well illustrates
the normal features of Israelite poetry, is quoted in Isaiah,
Micah, Nehemiah, and the Psalms; the Song of Israel
(Deut. 32) is quoted in Samuel, the Kings, the Psalms,
Isaiah, and Zechariah ; the Song of Deborah and Barak
(Judg. 5) is quoted in the Psalms- the Song of Hannah
(1 Sam. 2) is quoted in the Psalms and Proverbs; the
Lament of David over Saul (2 Sam. 1) is quoted in Micah ;
David's Song of Deliverance (2 Sam. 22) is reproduced in
the Book of Psalms ; David's Songs of Dedication (1 Chron.
16) are given in their expanded form in the Book of
Psalms. The other two of the nine are Da-sdd's last words
(2 Sam. 23), and Isaiah's message to Hezekiah, (2 Kings
19), With these we may associate the snatches of old
poetry in Num. 21 and the utterances of Balaam in
Num. 23 and 24, together with some shorter prophetic
and poetic utterances which are found here and there in
the Historical Books.

POETICAL POSTIONS OF HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 173
It must not be supposed that all prophecy is of poetic
structure, or that all poetry was prophetic. The utterances
of Moses concerning the Sanctuary of the Future (Deut. 12),
concerning the King (Deut. 17), and concerning the Prophet
(Deut. 18) are quite prosaic, and in what may be called the
formal legislative style. The same is true of the great pro
phetic chapters in Leviticus (26) and Deuteronomy (28-30),
which the prophets of later days used so freely. Generally
speaking, however, there was a strong association between
poetry and prophecy, as can be illustrated both from the
distinctively Prophetic Books and from some parts of the
New Testament.
3. It is strange that some scholars, on critical grounds, Modern cri-
° ' „ ticalfieiv.
have sought to detach many of these utterances from their
historical position. When we come to examine the grounds
of this proposal, they appear to involve two misapprehen
sions. The critics have framed to themselves an artificial
standard of literature, failing to recognize that poetry out
strips prose in its style and use of words.* They have also
framed for themselves an artificial standard of prophecy,
some of them going so far as to affirm that no prophet,
however enlightened, can have uttered anything beyond the
needs, or at least the experiences, of his own age. But the
phenomena of literature and prophecy refuse to be bent and
curtailed and fitted into any such schemes as these. We must
face the facts and give credit, not only to the editors, and
writers of the Sacred Books, but to Him who spoke by the
prophets concerning things to happen in distant a!ges. We
are not dealing with everyday books, but -with the words of
men whose spiritual instincts were quickened, intensified,
and enlightened by God Himself, Are there thoughts in
the prophecies attributed to Moses, which no ordinary man
in his times could have conceived ? Why should it not be
so when we read that God says concerning him, " With him
* See chap, xziii., sect, 1, on this point.

174 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in
dark speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he
behold " (Num. 12, 8) ? Was not Deborah a prophetess ?
Does anyone deny that the Spirit of God breathed in
Hannah, as in one who quoted her hymn long afterwards
(see Luke 1, 46) ? Does not Da-pid say of himself, " The
Spirit of the Lord spake by me, and his word was in my
tongue " ? What do these and kindred utterances mean ?
Do they not imply that the speakers and writers -with whom
we have to do were lifted out of themselves, so as to become
the mouth-pieces of the Eternal, and the exponents of the
outlines of his counsels ?
Ancienthea- 4. Modern discovery has pushed back the age of semi-
poetic language into the far distance.
When Moses was a child he might have heard the echoes of
such words as these when passing by a temple of the sun : —
" Thou, 0 God, in truth art the living one,
, Standing before the two eyes.
Thou hast created -what had no existfince ;
Thou hast formed all and art in all.
"We also have come into being
Through the word of thy mouth."*
When Joseph was a youth he might have heard this ode'
to the Egyptian king, Usertasen III. : —
Hail ! Khu Kau Ea, most divine of beings ;
Protecting the land of Egypt,
Extending its boundaries ;
'Whose arms reach to the nations,
The ends of his kingdom reach up to heaven ;
The tongue of his Majesty bridles the South,
His utterances repel the Sati ;
He is the sluice regulating the river flood,
A refuge protecting the timorous from his foes ;
A corner that warms the shivering in -winter,
A rock that shields from the stormy tempest.f
* Brugsch's Egypt, i. 449.
t Recovered by Mr. Hinders Petrie from near the Fayum,

POETICAL POSTIONS OF HISTOBICAL BOOKS. 175
' And when Abraham was yet young he may have heard
sung to the moon-god of Ur, in Chaldsea, some such words
as these : — Thou thy wiU in heaven revealest ;
Thee celestial spirits praise ;
Thou thy will on earth revealest ;
Thou earth's spirits dost subdue.
Thou through heaven and earth extendest
Goodness, not remembering -wrong.
Lord, thy -wih what mortal knoweth ?
'Who with aught can it compare ?
Lord, in heaven and earth thou rulest ;
Of the gods none equals thee.*
If early idolaters could write such hymns as these, it
would be strange indeed if their contemporaries, the en
lightened agents of the true God, were to be debarred from
using poetry as the medium for expressing the mind of the
Eternal. Nor is there any sound reason, linguistic or other
wise, for dislodging any of the prophetic utterances referred
to in this chapter from their place in the Historical Books,
* Tomkins' Life of Abraham.

176 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER XXVI,

NOTES ON THE SPELLING OP HEBREW WORDS,
Variations \_ Jx might be thought that the age and authorship of
in spelling, o o o
the Hebrew Books could be tested to some degree by their
orthography. We English have seen great changes of
spelling during the few hundred years in which our lan
guage has been written down, and in spite of authorized or
unauthorized manipulation our English Bible contains such
words as vail, sope, astonied, wroth, strawed. Moreover,
we find varieties of spelling in the same age, Wycliffe's
name was spelt in several ways in his own lifetime, and his
Bible illustrates the fact that spelling was exceedingly un
settled in his days. Even now our own Bible and Prayer
Book spell words differently; thus whilst the Bible writes
"judgment" the Prayer Book writes "judgement." How
does the case stand in the Hebrew Bible ?
Names of 2. The question subdivides itself according as it relates
to names of places, persons, and things. To take the last
first, we find but few remains of old variations such as must
have existed in early times. Editors and copyists have
doubtless harmonized the old spelling to a very large extent.
We can indeed detect some variations in the form of words,
as in the four forms of the Hebrew word for a kingdom,
the three forms of the words translated garrison and ephod,
the two ways of spelling the ordinary words for a village,
a throne, a helmet, a pledge, parched corn, an ephah, a pit.
But no argument can be founded on them, for some of the
variations are not only in the same book, but even in the
same chapter. The case -of the word translated " helmet "
illustrates this, Saul's helmet is spelt y^ip and Goliath's
yii3- The difEerence between these is very delicate indeed.

NOTES ON SPELLING OF HEBSEW WOEDS. 177
yet it can hardly be accidental (see 1 Sam. 17. 5 and 38) ;
both spellings are found in Ezekiel also. The case of the
word dram (or daric) is curious. In the first part of Ezra
(the Jeshua-narrative) it is spelt in one way ; but in the last
part, which is Ezra's own narrative, the -writer has added the
initial a (see Ezra 2. 69 and 8, 27), Nehemiah adopts the
former spelling, and the Chronicles the latter. There are
two spellings of the word translated " sheaf," which probably
indicate a really different pronunciation, one being pro
nounced omer and the other amir. The former is found
in the Pentateuch, Ruth, and Job ; the latter in Amos,
Micah, and Zechariah, There is nothing, however, of real
importance so far as bearing on the history of the books
or the language,
3, Passing to the spelling of names of places, we find a Names of
large and perplexing study open before us. The variations
are numerous and remarkable. If we compare the old
county maps of England with the modern, we shall see
what our own local names have gone through in a hundred
years. The English Bible does not give us materials for a
complete judgment on the facts of the case as exhibited in
the Hebrew text. Thus, in Gen. 37. 17 we read (Heb.) of
Dothain, but in 2 Kings 6. 13, where next the place is
named, it is spelt Dothan. Some words were shortened in
the course of time. Thus Ephes-dammim (1 Sam. 17. 1)
becomes Pas-dammim (1 Chron. 11. 13), but then it has
the definite article prefixed. OccasionaUy the same place
is spelt in two ways in one chapter, e.g. Jabesh in Judg.
21. The case of Jericho is interesting. When it occurs in
the Pentateuch it is Jerecho ; in Joshua, Jericho ; in Kings,
Jerichoh ; and the chronicler gives an extract from a docu
ment which retains the oldest spelling. Occasionally the
Authorized Version adds confusion, as when it gives us
Gaza and Azzah as two ways of spelHng the same place.
Other changes are owing to diversities of reading, as Diphath
and Riphath in 1 Chron. 1. 6. We can make a comparison

178 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
on a larger scale by comparing the Levitical cities as given
in Josh. 21 with the names recorded in 1 Chron. 6. 54-81.
In this list we find Holon turned to Hilen, Ain to Ashan,
Almon to Alemeth, Kishon to Kedesh, Dabarah to Daberath,
Jarmuth to Ramoth, En-gannim to Anem, Helketh to
Hukok, Hammoth Dor to Hamon, Kartan to Kirjathaim,
&c. Many of these changes are various readings, and others
are corruptions. Another list of towns is in Neh. 11. 25-35,
which may be compared with the names as given in Josh,
15 and 18, In the first of these we find the spelling almost
the same, but in the latter there are not suflScient materials
for any conclusion.
It is curious in some cases to find differences between
Joshua and Judges in the matter of spelling. In Judg,
1, 30, 31, 35 we have Kitron, Nahalol, Heres, Aijelon,
Shaalbim, These names stand in Josh, 19 thus : Kattah,
Nahallal, Irshemesh (?), Ajalon, Shaalabbin,
The name Ephrath of Gen, 35 and 48 becomes Ephratah
in Ruth, The inhabitants of Bethlehem are called Ephrathites
in Ruth, 1, 2, whilst the " Ephrathite " of 1 Sam. 1. 1 is
generally supposed to mean an Ephraimite. Some think
that Joseph gave his second son the name of Ephraim, in
remembrance of the fact that Ms own mother died at
Ephrath. Again, Joshua was buried at Timnath-serach
(Josh, 24, 30; compare 19, 50). But the writer of Judges,
in quoting the passage, gives it as Timnath-cheres, trans
posing the letters and giving the word a distinct sense, the
word cheres being an old name for the sun, and only used
in Judg. 8, 13; 14, 18; and Job 9, 2, It should be noted
that the word is differently spelt from that used in Isa. 19,
18, where our translators' note should be corrected in accord
ance with that of the Revisers, Timneh, or Timnath, pro
bably means a portion measured out, and serach would mean
something remaining over and above. There is some un
certainty about the exact locaHty, whether Keir-charis,
nine miles south of Shechem, or Tibnah, west of Bethshe-
mesh.

NOTES ON SPELLING OF HEBSEW WOBDS. 179
In Josh. 3, 16 we read of a place called Zaretan in the
Jordan valley. This becomes Zarthan in 1 Kings 7. 46,
and Zartanah in 1 Kings 4. 12. The R. V. has Zaretan
throughout. It is thought by some that this is the place
called Zererath in Judg. 7. 22, and it is certainly the same
as Zeredathah in 2 Chron. 4. 17,
The familiar word Kirjath means city, the Phoenician
form of it (Kereth) re- appearing in the name Carthage,
The Kirjath of Josh. 14. 16 is thought to be short for
Kirjath-jearim (Josh, 18, 28), which is also called Kirjath-
baal or simply Baaleh.
Some of the changes, of which these are illustrations, are
simply corruptions, others had theological reasons ; but we
fail to find in them any systematic changes or any tendency
which might help us to decide about the age or authorship
of the books.
4. We pass on to the consideration of the proper names. Proper
In Genesis we find the name Abram consistently used up
to a certain point, and then Abraham always. The case of
Joshua (Heb. Jehoshua) is different. He has this name in
Exod. 17, but is called Oshea (Heb. Hoshea) in Num. 13,
8, and the fact of his name being changed by Moses is
mentioned a few verses later. It is a pity that our trans
lators have not represented this and some other names more
accurately. The High Priest of the Return is called Jeshua
(a later form) in Ezra 2. 2, and so is Joshua himself in
Neh. 8, 17 ; but in Zechariah and Haggai this same High
Priest is called by the true Hebrew word Jehoshua. Other
Priests and Levites with this name are referred to elsewhere,
e.g. Jeshuah (Heb. Jeshua) in 1 Chron. 24, 11, and Jeshua
in 2 Chron. 31. 15. We thus get a distinct tendency in the
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah to introduce the e sound, ,
while Zechariah and Haggai, the- High Priest's contempo
raries, stuck to the true Hebrew pronunciation and retained
the o sound.
The attention of critics has hardly been sufficiently directed
M 2

180 : THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
to the fact that the name of David is systematically spelt in
one way (Til) in Samuel and Kings, and in another way
(T'll) in the Chronicles. This affords a means for testing
the dates and relationships of other books or passages in
which the name occurs.
Origin of 5. Proper names are almost the only compound words in
names. .,_,.,_, , . ,
Hebrew. Every one has a meaning, and some preserve roots
which would otherwise be lost, as, for example, the name
Abraham. Many are historic in their origin, as Jembb^l ;
others prophetic, as Noah; others theological, as Elijah,
Adonijah, and Zurishaddai.
The Hebrews were fond of making a play on words, as
in the case of the names of Jacob's sons. This may be
illustrated from Micah and other Prophets. They were
, also fond of alliterations, such as Huppim and Muppim,
Huz and Buz, Banni and Bunni. They sometimes changed
a portion of a name ; thus Uzziah becomes Azariah, and
Eliakim becomes Jehoiakim, whilst Jerubbaal, Ishbaal, and
Meribbaal re-appear in the forms of Jerubbesheth, Ish-bosh-
eth, and Mephibosheth, " shame " taking the place of " Baal."
It was a strange fancy to change Uriel into Zephaniah,
thus turning light into darkness ;* stranger stiU to turn Abiel
into Baal, or vice versa (1 Sam. 14, 51 ; 1 Chron. 8, 30),
Some names were t-wisted round. Possibly Abdon was
turned into Bedan ; certainly Ammiel was also called Eliam,
and Ahaziah becomes Jehoahaz, Harhas becomes Hasrah,
and Betah becomes Tibhath. Certain names run through
endless variations. We have Shammuah, Shammoth, Shi-
mea, Shimeah, Shimeam, Shema, Shimmah, Shimhi, all
doing duty for , one another.
Abbrevitt- 6, Abbre-viations and contractions were frequent. Thus
we ha;ve Phalti-el and Phalti, Jeconiah and Coniah, Jedu
thun and Ethan, Eliphelet and Eliphal, Abialbon and Abiel,
? Authorities, however, differ iu the interpretation of this word.

NOTES ON SPELLING OF HEBSEW WOBDS. 181
Ahijah and Abi, Abiezer and Jeezer. Benjamites were;
usually called Yaminites for a similar reason. Micah is
short for Micaiah, Adoniram becomes Adoram (Kings) and
Hadoram (Chronicles), Meshelemiah is called Shelemiah
in the same chapter (1 Chron. 26. 1 and 14). Many
changes are apparently due to copyists, others to dialectic
tendencies, others to laws of euphony. To one or other
of these reasons we owe such variations as Bathshuah and
Bathsheba, Merodach and Berodach, Amana and Abana,
Hadad and , Hadar, Dodanim and Rodanim, Jehoadah and
Jarah, Amram and Hemdan, Zabdi, Zimri, and Zichri,
Zaibad and Zachar. There is a tendency in the later
writers to substitute i for u, as Aliah for Aluah, Pai for
Pau ; but we find Hiiram in Chronicles and Hiram in
Kings, being spelt Hirom in 1 Kings 7. 40 and Hirani five
verses later. The difiiculty in dra-wing any conclusions
from these is added to by the fact that writers did not
adhere to one consistent spelling ; thus Hazael is spelt differ
ently in two adjoining verses (2 Kings 8. 8, 9). Geshem
the Arabian (Neh. 6. 1), becomes Gashmu five verses later.
Amnbn (2 Sam. 13. 1) becomes Aminon in the 20th verse.
Nebuchadnezzar is spelt in two ways by Jeremiah; and
the chronicler in the same chapter (1' Chron. 6) gives
Us Adaiah and Iddo, Zophai and Zuph, Gershom and
Gershon, 7, One thing is clear. No editor has attempted to har- Older and
® , ^ later forms.
monize the spelling. We have old materials in very old
forms. It also appears that there was a tendency in later
days to soften and contract the old pronunciation ; thus
Araunah (Araniah) becomes Oman ; and Micaiah, Micah ;
and Obadiah, Abda. Again, numbers of names ending in
-jah have in Hebrew a final u ; e.g. EHjahu, There is a
strong tendency in the later books to drop this last letter, as
may be seen by comparing the names in Nehemiah with
those in Kings. Again, there is a tendency amongst later
writers to substitute a final a for h. This may be seen in

182 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
1 Chron. 1. 9, where we have Sabta and Sabtecha for the
Sabtah and Sabtechah of Genesis.
Unfortunately the Authorized Version is not accurate in
Httle things, otherwise it would not have given Abidah in
Gen, 25, 4, and Abida in 1 Chron, 1, 33; as also Sidon in
Gen, 10, 15, and Zidon in 1 Chron. 1 ; Pharez in Gen,
38. 29 and Perez in 1 Chron, 9. 4 ; Salathiel in 1 Chron.
3. 17 and Shealtiel in Ezra 3. 2.
Foreign 8. Turning for a moment to the foreign names in the
Bible, we find them considerably Hebraized in form and
spelling, as Goim (nations) for Gutium in Gen. 14, 1, whilst
our English translations of them are Grecized or otherwise
toned down. The Egyptian names Potiphar, Potipherah,
Puti-el, and Phichol are fairly reproduced. Zaphnath
Paaneah is much more like Egyptian in the Hebrew
Bible than in thie EngHsh. " So," the king of Ethiopia,
is a two-syllabled word in Hebrew and in Egyptian. We
have occasional variations, such as Tilgath and Tiglath,
Pileser and Pilneser, which are usually indicated in the
margin of the Bible. The classical form of a foreign name
is often very different from the Hebrew. Ahasuerus is a
better form than Xerxes, but Asnapper (Ezra 4. 10) looks
small in comparison with Sardanapalus.
No attempt was made by the Hebrews to transliterate the.
names of heathen gods very exactly, e.g. in 2 Kings 17. 30 ;
some may have been deliberately changed, e.g'. Nego for
Nebo in Daniel. An examination of the foreign names in
the Hebrew Bible inclines us to the conclusion that they
have come down in their present form from very ancient
times — the Egyptian mainly from the Exodus period, and
the Assyrian, Babylonian, and -Persian from later ages. The
evidence, indeed, is slender, but what there is confirms the
view that the writings are in the main contemporary, and
that they have not been manipulated to any very great extent
by later writers,

gods.

NOTES ON STATE OF THE HEBSEW TEXT. 183

CHAPTER XXVII,

NOTES ON THE STATE OE THE HEBREW TEXT,
1 . Before bringing this work to a close it seems needful Hebrew MSS
to give some account of the state of the Hebrew text. The
first printed Hebrew Bible was published at Soncino in 1488,
the text being very much the same as that now found in our
ordinary Hebrew Bibles, At the beginning of this century
there was an examination into the age and number of the
then known and accessible Hebrew MSS, by Dr, Kennicott,
of Oxford, and de Rossi, of Parma. They were all European,
being of Spanish, Italian, French, and German origin, and
the oldest were about a.d, 1000, though some of de Rossi's
fragments were two centuries older. The variations of text
which were thus exhibited proved to be trivial though
numerous. Other MSS. have come to light in later days,
in Russia, in Damascus, in Rhodes, in Cairo, in Southern
India, and even as far off as China.
Attention has been specially drawn to a MS. which exists
at Aleppo, which is reported to be the actual MS, of Rabbi
Aaron Ben Asher of Tiberias, to whom, in conjunction with
Jacob Ben Naphtali of Babylon, we are supposed to owe
our- present text. This MS. is referred to by the celebrated
Jewish scholar Maimonides (a.d. 1135-1204), who adopted
it as his authority in the matter of accents and paragraphs.
It is preserved in a cave under the synagogue. At the end
of it there is a note saying that it was written by R. Solomon,
a skilful scribe, and was punctuated and furnished with the
Masorah by R. Aaron Ben Asher. A photograph of three
columns of it is prefixed to Dr. Wickes' Treatise on the
Prose-accents (Oxford, 1887). Dr. Wickes, however, from
internal reasons, doubts if the note is trustworthy.

a/nd pecu
liarities ii
MSS.

184 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Their age. 2. So far as Can be learnt at present there are no Hebrew
MSS. older than the Christian era, unless we include some
Samaritan MSS., whose claims are regarded by many critics
with suspicion. What has happened to all the older Hebrew
MSS, ? Some may yet be brought to Hght, but critics have
burnt their fingers by accepting fabrications, and they will
be slo-w to acknowledge anything very ancient now. Many
have been destroyed in- the various persecutions which have
befallen the Jews from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes
onwards (1 Mac. 1. 66). It is reported that the Crusaders
cut up a great many to make boots of, but this is doubtful.
It is probable, however, that most have been buried, when
considered to be worn out, and so they have passed away.
, 3. All known Hebrew MSS. seem to belong to one family,
and even to one section of a family. At first sight this may
seem satisfactory. We have a text which is studiously fol
lowed from century to century, and which we may consider
900 years old at least. These MSS., where carefully written,
are found to contain a limited number of marks, indicative
of peculiarities or doubts concerning the true text. Thus
there are fifteen " extraordinary points " in the Hebrew
Bible. An instance will be found in Num. 21, 30 (" which
reacheth unto Medeba"), where there is a point on the last
letter of ("l^X) the word translated " which," and if we
remove that letter the word signifies " fire," Accordingly
our Revisers have put a marginal note to that effect. (See
also the LXX.) There are sixteen or eighteen " corrections
of scribes," ^.g. Gen. 18, 22, where the Hebrew now reads,
" Abraham stood yet before the Lord," instead of a more
ancient text in which the Lord was represented as standiug
before Abraham, There are five " omissions of scribes,"
where a single letter answering to our word " and " has been
omitted as needless. There are thirteen words to be " read
and not written," and five or eight to be " written and not
read," There are final letters occasionally where we should
expect ordinary ones, and vice versa. There are large

NOTES ON STATE OF THE HEBEEW TEXT. 185
letters to indicate some peculiarities and Httle letters to
mark others ; e.g.. in Gen. 23, 2, where the word translated
" and to weep for her," has a small letter in the middle.
The reasons for these are obscure, and sometimes the Rabbis
hit upon a silly one, as in the last case, where they say a
small letter was introduced because Sarah -was so old, and
it was, therefore, unnecessary to weep much ! Then there
are " hanging " and " inverted " letters, such as the celebrated
n in the word Manasseh in Judg. 18, 30, The list of these
and other peculiarities may be seen in Walton's Preface
to the Polyglot Bible. , They show us that our Hebrew
Bibles really contain an apparatus criticus at least nine
centuries old.
4, But besides these peculiarities we have a large number Various
of various readings, which are inserted at the foot of the
page in most Hebrew Bibles. It is needless for our present
purpose to analyse them. Walton, quoting from Elias
Levita, gives them as 848, of which only 65 are in the
Pentateuch, while there are 133 in Samuel. Other critics
bring the total up to 1,171. After all the number seems
exceedingly small, especially as compared with the Greek
Testament and its 50,000 various readings. Every precau
tion has been made against variations which could be made,
even the letters being counted; e.g. there are 77,'77H m's
in the Hebrew Bible, and 815,280 letters altogether.
5. But we wish to get further back. We should like to Ageofvari
know who collected these various readings ; from what
sources ; and why are there so many or , so few ? Some
Jewish authorities trace the present state of things back to
the age of Ezra. But this opinion is untrustworthy ; for the
notes are generally better than the text, and there seems no
reason why Ezra should not have incorporated the best
readings in the text itself. Why, for example, should the
word (niyj) " damsel " be -written without its last letters in
about twenty passages in the Pentateuch, and be corrected

186 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
throughout in the notes ? Other more abstruse and mystical
theories are upheld by various Jewish authorities, but none
of them carry conviction.
It has been generally believed, from the days of Capellus
and onwards, that we must ascribe the present condition of
the text and its various readings to the Masoretic school
circa 500 a.d., and that they secured in black and white
the traditional text and the traditional variations then extant.
In Whittaker's Historical Enquiry into the InterpretU'
tion of the Hebrew Scriptures, published many years ago,
the case is admirably treated. He concludes that the textual
irregularities are not all of the same date, and the marginal
corrections were not all made at the same time. The whole
work was the growth of ages.
, Origin of Q, We must now inquire into the causes of the variations
variations. -,., -i.«- p, -, ij.
which we thus possess. Many ot them are due to the tact
that certain letters look very similar to one another, espe
cially in the square character which has been used since the
age of the Captivity. Thus it became very easy to put i
(') for u C)) and d (T) for r {^. Others are owing to the
similarity of sound in words which are quite different, as in
the well-known instances of lo (^7) " not," and lo (p)
" to him." Some may be caused by an old habit of not
dividing words, or of spreading them out so as to fill up a
line, or of abbreviating familiar words and running two
letters into one. The adoption of final letters, vowels, and
accents tended to reduce this class of variations to a
minimum. It is hard to know how it is that numbers vary so much,
even if they were formerly expressed in letters, which is
doubtful. Some ascribe the variations to deliberate corrup
tion, but we should be slow to accept this solution.
The absence of vowel points in old times must have
caused many variations. These points were not found in
, Paradise, as an old Je-wish mystical book afiirms, but
gradually grew up between the second century B.C. and

NOTES ON STATE OF THE HEBEEW TEXT. 187
the fifth or sixth a.d. For a long time the Eastern and
Western schools followed different systems of punctuation,
but an agreement was at length attained in the tenth
century a.d.
7, The word " Masorah," whence the Jewish literati are ^he Maso
rah.
called " Masoretes," means tradition. All that they sought
to do was to conserve the words, pauses, and sounds which
had been handed down to them from old time.' They col
lected, collated, corrected, marked the sections, divided the
verses, and enlarged and systematized the vowel punctuation
and accentuation. It is impossible to fix an exact date for
all their work. Dr. Ginsburg considers that the initial steps
were taken two or three centuries before the time of Christ,
but that the whole was committed to writing at the close of
- the sixth century a.d., further notes' of a critical character,
and almost taking the place of a concordance, being accumu
lated up to the eleventh or twelfth century. .
8. We have by no means got to the root of our subject, state of the
1 -I • ft 1 1 -I 1 • -I 1 -n T ^^^^ ^™ °^^
however, as we desire to get further back behind the Maso- Lord's time,
retic school. There are three methods by which we can
question the state of the text as it existed before and during
our Lord's ministry. , First, there are the quotations from
the Old Testament which exist in the New, After making
every deduction and accommodation possible in view of our
Lord having usually spoken in Hebrew, and in view of the
strong influence of the LXX. on New Testament Greek, we
must conclude that the Hebrew Scriptures in current use in
those days did not present the text which we now possess.
Secondly, we have the LXX. itself. Here, again, we may TiieSeptua-
make a great deal of deduction owing to the fact that read
ings have been corrupted, the sense has been paraphrased,
double renderings have been introduced, the force of the '
original has been misunderstood and toned down, and glosses
and traditional interpretations have been inserted. But, after
aU, the fact is evident that the Hebrew Scriptures current

188 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
among the Jews of Alexandria two or three centuries b,c.
were very different from those current in Palestine some
centuries later.
Old Testa- g Qnce more, we have materials in the Old Testament
-ment varia- '
tions. itself whereby we can test the condition of things at a much
earlier time. Let any one compare the second chapter of
Ezra with the copy of it extracted from the archives by
Nehemiah (Neh. 7. 6-73), or compare numerous historical
sections, as they appear in Samuel and Kings, and as they
re-appear in Chronicles, To what conclusions will the
student come ? He will at first feel great disappointment
and dissatisfaction. He will be led to the conviction that
there was not that care of the sacred text in those early
days which there was afterwards. He will not only find
idioms and words deliberately modernized, but letters
changed, e.g. in proper names, and mistaken readings
growing up into a new sense, hundreds turned into thou
sands, and numerous other omissions, additions, and vari
ations affecting the sense. Further investigation will show
him that some of these variations may not be of the nature
of textual corruptions. There is method in them. We'
have indicated this already in the matter of proper names.
The Hebrew composer had a tendency in the direction of
variation where he conceived it legitimate, i.e. where he
Was not a mere copyist; and this is true, perhaps, in the
case of poetry more than in that of prose. If we compare
Jer, 52 with the corresponding sections in the Kings, we
shall see numerous explanatory additions over and above
those which are strictly supplementary or of the nature of
textual corruptions; whilst in the Psalms the Jehovah of
Judg, 5. 4, 5 is turned into Elohim in Ps, 68, 7, 8; the
same is the case in Ps. 70 as compared with Ps. 40.
13-17, and in Ps. 53 as compared with Ps. 14, whilst
other changes in these quotations are idiomatic or textual.
We may illustrate this point from our modern hymnals, as
many people know to their grief. We thus see three pro-

NOTES ON STATE OF THE HEBEEW TEXT. 189
cesses at work on the text in very early days, viz., deliberate
variation, unconscious idiomatic modification, textual cor
ruption. Moreover, we should find on full examination that
these forces were more in operation in the later than in the
earlier stages, of Hebrew literature. Taken together they
-will account for most of the variations in the text.
to. And so it came to pass that the Masoretic school of Divergen-
later days found a Hebrew text which was so imperfect that Hebrew and
they could easily have improved it, and yet so venerable that
it was only to be altered by means of the artifices enumerated
in an earlier part of this paper. How is it that this vene
rable text diverged so considerably from the pre-Christian
text, as exhibited in the LXX, and in the passages quoted in
the N. T. ? No critic, Je.wish or Christian, seems to be
prepared with full answer ; but the most probable solution
is that, while the Septuagint gives us a Western or Alexan
drian recension, the Masoretic supplies us with the Jerusalem
text, or perhaps we should say Babylonian, for it is supposed
by ancient tradition to have been brought into its present
condition by Ezra. Which of them is likely to be the right
one ? Clearly neither is faultless. We may learn from
each, and due weight must be given to the readings of each.
But special honour is due to the Jerusalem text, which
Josephus refers to as " the Scriptures laid up in the Temple "
{Ant. iii. 1. 7 and v. 1. 17), which Jewish translators —
Aquila, Synimachus, and Theodotion — seem to have used in
the second century a.d., and which the Masoretic school
have handed down to us as the received text.
11. A more important question now rises. Is it possible Canweob-
^ ^ , ^ tain a purer
to correct the received Hebrew text to any large extent ,' text?
Probably much may be done, and the marginal readings of
our Revised Version indicate the method to be adopted,
though they are very moderate and conservative in character.
Ere many years are passed we may have (i.) a more com
plete collation of Hebrew MSS.; (u.) a more trustworthy

190 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
text of the LXX, ; (Hi.) a re-exa;mination of the claims of
the Samaritan Scriptures, which professedly conserve a pre-
Captivity text, but which agree to a large extent with the
LXX. ; (iv.) a more exact use of the materials preservfed to us
in the writings of early Christian critics, notably Origen and
Jerome, together with the Syriac Old Testament and the
early Jewish writings, which often supply important testi
mony, though it is frequently lost amid trivialities. The
highest respect should be paid all the way through to the
received text and its ancient various readings. There -will
always be numerous cases about which critics will remain in
doubt. On these some light may be thrown by conjectural
emendations based on the analogy of similar cases existing
in the " repeated passages " in the Old Testament, Our
Authorized Version does not hesitate to use these in some
cases, as when it inserts the words "and Ahaz" into the text
of 1 Chron. 9, 41 on the strength of chap. 8, 35, and " the
brother of " in 2 Sam. 21, 19 on the strength of 1 Chron.
20, 6. Much more might be done in this direction, provided
only that some mark were added to indicate the source of
the emendation.

SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION. 191

CHAPTER XXVIII,

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION,
1, There cannot be a doubt that a vague feeling of Object
disquietude has been aroused by recent inquiries into the """^"^ ""*'
age and compilation of the books of the Old Testament.
Opinions have been advanced which tend to shake our faith
in the traditional view concerning certain books, notably,
those which are professedly the oldest; and the historical
character of the writings, as well as the moral probity of the
writers, have suffered in proportion. The foregoing pages
deal chiefly with one department of the Old Testament, viz.,
the Historical Books. If these fall, the rest will fall with
them, and the position both of Jew and of Christian will
be seriously and materially affected thereby. We have
attempted to present the evidence for the traditional view,
and to test it by an examination of the language and con
tents of the book. This has been done in a series of semi-
independent inquiries ; and after deducting whatever is due
to a natural tendency to put a case in its most favourable
Hght, there will be found a strong cumulative argument in
favour of the traditional date and order of the books' being
substantially the true one; and the limits of uncertainty
have been proportionately reduced.
2, The course of the argument may be recapitulated thus : Line of
The reader was led back from the present time to the period followed..
when Jew and Christian diverged from one another ; the'y
have the same Old Testament now, therefore they must have
had it then. The books were next traced back, by means of
such sHght evidence as was attainable, to the period of Ezra
and Nehemiah, to whom tradition reasonably ascribes the

192 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE. .
final authorization of the main body of the Hebrew Scrip
tures, After observing the fact that the art of writing was
as old as the Patriarchs, our attention was called to the struc
ture of the Historical Books. They evidently bear the marks
of being compilations, and the materials from which they
were composed are of a first-class character, being in the
main from contemporary and official or prophetic sources.
In order to test the integrity of the books, the quotations
from the earlier Scriptures contained in the later parts of the
Old Testament were examined, and it was shown that the
later pre-suppose the earlier all the way up to the beginning
of Genesis. The notes and parentheses in the books were
next examined and classified, and they enabled us to dis
tinguish in some measure between the writers of the original
documents and the final compilers or editors of the books at
each stage.
Having thus secured the antiquity and integrity of the
main body of these documents— regarded as so much Hebrew
literature^ — our next business was to consider how far they
may be regarded as historical, and for this- purpose we
discussed the indications of the fidelity of the writers and
some peculiarities in their method of composition. The
internal and external tests of their trustworthiness were
exhibited, and the historic character of the works was
further illustrated from their chronology, genealogies, and
topography. It then became necessary to deal with two subjects which
are much discussed by the critics, viz., the various stages of
legislation attributed to Moses, and the use of the name
Jehovah in the earliest books. This led us into an interest
ing but comparatively untrodden field, -nz., the terminology
of the Hebrew writings, and the question how far any purely
linguistic tests might be de-pised whereby we might approxi
mately fix the order and dates of the books.
It only then remained to point out the peculiar position
which poetry holds in the prose portions of the Old Testa-

SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION. 193
ment, and to investigate the condition of the spelling and
the state of the text in the Hebrew Bible as we now have it,
3, In working out this discussion we have sought to be Concessions
rational but reverential. We see no danger, but rather the tions.
contrary, in granting many things which critics demand.
We must always take into consideration such possibilities
as faulty translatipn, a degenerate text, chronological mis
placement, condensations, expansions, editorial revisions.
Oriental ways of expression and reckoning, combination
of accounts from different sources, and such like. Thus,
we allow that Genesis is a compilation, and that the writers
of the original materials from which it was composed may
have presented the traditional information that came into their
hands in different ways, with different names for God, and
from different points of view, but we believe that all these
variations were Patriarchal, and that the book as we now
have it is in the main as Moses and his immediate followers
left it. Again, we allow that there are different codes in
cluded in the legislation of the Pentateuch, but we believe
that they were all delivered to Israel through Moses fn
various stages of the Wilderness Wanderings, and we see no
reason, literary or otherwise, for regarding any of them as
fabrications of a later age.
Similarly we regard the Book of Joshua as a compilation,
issued in all probability under the authorization of Phinehas
and the elders of his time, and we believe that it presents an
authoritative account of the way and degree in which God'
fulfilled the promises made to the Patriarchs and to Israel.
The rest of the Historical Books we take to be compilations
from contemporary accounts, mainly from the works of pro
phetic writers, such as Samuel, the compilers themselves
being persons whose authority must have been recognized
when the books were issued, the final authorization of the
whole being probably due to Ezra. This is the old tradi
tional view, and to it we adhere. N

194 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
Judging from the language and contents of the books, we
see no reason for doubting, but every reason for accept
ing, the old view, especially if we give f uU recognition to the
plain fact that they contain many annotations and some
additions from comparatively late times, such as the days,
of Samuel, Hezekiah, and Ezra.
Dangers to 4. We believe that many modern speculations which pass
ei'ities. •' ...... , ,
under the name ot modern criticism will pass away, being
proved and found wanting. We do not wish to discuss the
various motives which have led some English scholars to
take them up, still less do we desire to ignore the fact that
there are abundant diflaculties in the way of every theory,
the traditional one included ; we apprehend that there is a
danger lest the critical school should be carried away by
the current of modern materialistic and positive philoso
phy — that, instead of saying omne ignotum pro magni-
fico, they may be induced to sa,y omne ignotum pro falso.
There has been a tendency to fashion inconsistencies and
discrepancies out of diversities, to bring down the date
of a whole book to that of its latest utterance, to doubt
the truth of a narrative if we have it in two varying ac
counts, to create new writers wherever new words or views
are detected.
First prin- Critics are sometimes liable to forget or neglect the first
criticism, principles of their art, viz,, that we should give due respect
to what an author says of himself, and to what his earhest
followers say of him, and to what his object is, and to the
spirit with which he carries it out. Many of our difficulties
will be removed if we bear in mind that the books are in
the main records of spiritual phenomena, that they are
written in a style and language with which we have nothing
paraUel and contemporary, that they are not annals but
extracts, being pieced together to a great extent from older
materials, oral and written. It would be strange if books
written at such sundry times and in such divers manners,

SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION. 195
and dealing with such ancient and often abstruse subjects,
presented no difiiculty to the modern student. It is evident
that no attempt has been made by the Hebrew writers to
remove apparent inconsistencies, which would strike the
mind even of a child, e.g. in the chronology of the Kings,
or the question of God's repentance, or the number of
creatures that entered thp Ark. The Conciliator, by
Manassah-ben-Israel, translated by Lindo, gives us the
Jewish interpretation of such things. Its very weakness
is in its favour, and reminds us that the Hebrews were
recorders, not inventors.
5. It seems very clear that some of the so-called ana- Anachron-
chronisms {e.g. in Gen. 36) are really of the nature of notes, inconsis-
and can easily be detached from the text; whilst other
passages, which seem at first sight to be anachronisms, are
sometimes i capable of a simple explanation, as when the
Temple of the Lord mentioned in 1 Sam. 1. 9 proves to be
the Tabernacle of the Congregation (1 Sam. 2, 22), Others
occur in prophetic utterances, and must be taken in con
nection with the predictive phenomena generally; see, for
example, the references to the Lord's anointed in 1 Sam,
2. 10 and 35. Some difficulties may have arisen through
accidental misplacement or corruption of the text, as in
the case of David's two introductions to Saul. Some narra
tives, which seem so like one another as to be regarded by
critics as two accounts of one event, are really distinct
incidents. Take, for example of this, Abraham's plan of
passing Sarah off as his sister twice over, on which a
German commentator has justly remarked that nothing is
incredible except that the -writer should have inserted both
narratives unless he was certain they were true. In these
and other cases critics have hardly made enough of the
peculiar characteristics of Hebrew writing. They wjite as
if they expect everything to be brought up to the critical
style of the present century, regardless alike of the age of
N 2

196 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
the books, of the genius of the people, and of the spiritual
intent of the writers.
Faults on 6. We freely acknowledge that those who hold the tra
ditional view have not been free from fault. We have been
afraid of allowing textual corruption, late editorial work, the
use of ordinary materials, and human ways of putting things.
We have confused inspiration with omniscience, and have
forgotten that the treasure of Sacred Truth is conimitted to
earthen vessels. We have minimized inconsistencies and
have' refused to face difficulties. We have imported modern
science into ancient books, and have sought to shut up those
questions about age a;id authorship which God in His
providence has left open.
Theology ij_ Thus the merits of the case have had scant justice from
cism. both sides. But it need not be so. The critic and the
theologian ought to go hand in hand. Each needs the
otber; each ought to respect the other. The Christian
critic cannot but acknowledge that the Scriptures of the Old
Testament are in some sense inspired. The writers, and in
many cases the speakers, are lifted out of themselves, re
strained and yet impelled, by the Spirit of God. Some
special direction and help was manifestly needed if they
were to give a clear account of the manifestations, purposes,
covenants, and dealings of the unseen- God. It was no
ordinary work which they had to do, and it was no ordinary
Spirit which enabled them to do it. The prophetic speakers
and writers were God's pioneers preparing the way for One
Who was to come, and His Spirit spoke through them and
commissioned them to write.
On the other hand the writers were men, and the critical
Christian must study the human side of their work. Things
human and divine are interwoven throughout. We have
natural phenomena and national polity and history from a
Divine point of -view, and we must throw all the side-lights

SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION. 197
we can on the physics and metaphysics, on the history and
biography, of Scripture. We have God set forth in anthro
pomorphic language, and we are bound to seek and sift every
human analogy by which the Hebrew writers express the
Divine nature and operations.

8. The ethical con-victions that accompany Biblical the- Spiritual
ology are deep and far-reaching. They made Abraham say, books.
" Shall not the Judge of aU the earth do judgment ? " They
made Joseph say, " How can I do this thing, and sin against
God ? " They made Jonathan say, " There is no restraint
to the Lord to save by many or by few." They made
Samuel say, " To obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken
than the fat of rams " ; and again, " Man looketh on the
outward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart."
They made Solomon say, " The heaven and the heaven of
heavens cannot contain Thee." These and other funda
mental convictions are an inheritance to the world at large,
and we owe them to the practical education which God gave
to holy men of old. Is there a book in the Old Testament
which may not in truth be called a theological educator ? Is
there one that fails in some way or other to illustrate God's
way or to convey His mind ? We know not any. The
world would be the poorer if a single book of Scripture were
allowed to perish. At the same time the critic has a right
to look for a growth, a development throughout, and to
investigate each section by itself in ordet to find out what it
really contains and whence it is derived, without forgetting
its relationship to the rest. In doing this, however, he must
not bend facts to theories, but must be continually readjust
ing his theories in the light of facts.

9 The words " modern criticism " are freely used to con- They are to
... „ , be trusted.
jure with, but the modern criticism ot one age becomes
ancient in the next, and we must be prepared all through

198 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE BIBLE.
time for new hypotheses and new onslaughts -on the old. It
is so in the world of natural science, and it must be so in the
realm of sacred Hterslture, The common sense of Christian
men, learned and unlearned, will stand them in good stead
in the future as in the past. They will rest on the experi
mental argument, and wiU say, " God speaks to me and
saves me through these books " ; and that is the chief thing.
They -will point to the manifest honesty of the writers, and
will ask convincingly whether any Jewish fabricators would
have invented certain narratives concerning Noah, Abraham,
Sarah, Lot, Jacob, Judah, Moses, Aaron, Miriam, Gideon,
Samson, and Da-vid. They will point to the transparent
candour of the historians in -dealing -with their own nation,
of whom hardly a good word is to be found in the Scripture,
. If more is needed they will remind the critic of the side
lights thrown on the historic narrative all the way through,
and sometimes in the lUost casual and incidental way, by the
tablets, cylinders, and monuments of the East, and by the
treasures recovered from the dust of Egypt. In a word,
what main characteristic of historical and literary honesty
is missing from these time-honoured documents ,?
The burden of discrediting the integri<ejr of the Old Testa
ment lies on the hostile critic. He will find it no Hght
matter to throw overboard a large portion of the best and
purest literature the world has ever seen. The task is both
thankless and hopeless.
If any books bear the mark of fidelity, these do. If any
are on the side of truth and rightousness, of God and Spirit,
these are. They have always had enemies, but no weapon
fashioned against them has prospered. Whilst some are
stumbling over the literary difficulties which lie on the
surface, and which may well be expected in these ancient
documents, others are daily drawing encouragement and
guidance from their study, for they bring the receptive
reader face to face with the grandest of truths concern
ing God.

SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION. 199
The difficulties which are at the bottom of much of the
bewilderment of the present day largely spring from our
increased sense of the magnitude and fixity of creation :
the affairs of man are so small, and are under such a cast-
iron rule. But if the ordinary is linked with the extra
ordinary, and the hum^in with the superhuman, as these
books testify, and if all through the ages there has been a
line of Divine intervention in the affairs of man, then the
mind of the student who foUows the history down the
centuries is prepared for some greater thing. The Old
Testament points him forward, and awakens in his heart
longings and expectations which are only satisfied in the
Gospel of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.

( 201 )

APPENDIX.

INDEX OP SUBJECTS.

INDEX OP TEXTS.

( 203 )

APPENDIX.
(See page 60.)

Parallel Passages in Joshua and Judges,

JOSHUA 15, 15-19,
And , lie -went up thence against
the inhahitauts of Debir. TSow the
name of Debir beforetime -was Ki-
riath-sepher. And Caleb said, He
that smiteth Kiriath - sepher, and
taketh it, to him will I give Achsah
my daughter to -wife. And Othniel
the son of Kenaz, the brother, of
Caleb, took it : and he , gave him
Achsah his daughter to -mfe. And
, it came to pass, "when she came unto
him, that she moved him to ask of
her father a field : and- she lighted
down from off her ass ; and Caleb
said unto her, "WTiat wouldest thou ?
And she said. Give me a blessing;
for that thou hast set me in the
land of the South, give me also
springs of water. And he gave her
the upper springs and the nether
springs.

JUDGES 1, 11-15.
And from thence he went against
the inhabitants of Debir. Now the
name of Debir beforetime was Ki-
riath-sepher. And Caleb said, He
that smiteth Kiriath - sepher, and
taketh it, to him will I give Achsah
my daughter to wife. And Othniel
the son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger
brother, took it : and he gave Mm
Achsah his daughter to -wife. And
it came to pass, when she came unto
him, that she moved him to ask of
her father a field : and she Kghted
down from off her ass; and Caleb
said unto her, Whiat wouldest thou ?
And she said, unto him, Give me a
blessing ; for that thou hast set .me
in the land of the South, give me
also springs of water. And Caleb
gave her the upper springs and the
nether springs.

Joshua 15, 63.
Aud as for the Jebusites, the in
habitants of Jerusalem, the children
of Judah could not drive them out :
but the Jebusites dwelt with the
children of Judah at Jerusalem, un
to this day.

Judges 1, 21.
And' the children of Benjamin did
not drive out the Jebusites that in
habited Jerusalem : bat the Jebu
sites dwelt -with the children of
Benjamin in Jerusalem, unto 'this
day.

Joshua 16, 10.
And they drave, not out the, Ca
naanites that dwelt in Gezer : but
the Canaanites dwelt iu the midst
of Ephraim, unto this day, and be
came servants to do taskwork.

Judges 1. 29.
And Ephraim drave not out the
Canaanites that dwelt in Gezer ;
but the Canaanites dwelt in Gezer
among them.

204

APPENDIX.

Parallel Passages in Joshua and Judges— oowf.

JOSHUA 17, 11-13,
And Manasseh had in Issachar
and in Asher Beth-shean and her
towns, and Ibleam and her towns,
and the inhabitants of Dor and her
to"wns, and the inhabitants of En-
dor and her to-wns, and the inhabit
ants of Taanach and her towns, and
the, inhabitants of Megiddo and her
to-wns, even the three heights. Yet
the children of Manasseh could not
drive out the inhabitants of those
cities ; but the Canaanites would
dwell in that land. And it came to
pass, when the children of Israel
were waxen strong, that they put
the Canaanites to taskwork, and did
not utterly drive them out.

JUDGES 1, 27, 28,
Aud Manasseh did not drive out
the inhabitants of Beth-shean and
her towns, nor of Taanach and her ,
towns, nor the inhabitants of Dor
and her to-wns, nor the inhabitants
of Ibleam and her towns, nor the
inhabitants of Megiddo and her
towns : but the Canaanites would
dwell in that laud. And it came
to pass, when Israel was waxen
strong, that they put the Canaan
ites to taskwork, and did not ut
terly drive them out.

Joshua 24, 28-81,
So Joshua sent the people away,
every man unto his inherita,noe.
And it came to pass after these
things, that Joshua the sou of Nun,
the servant of the Lord, died, being
an hundred aud ten years old. And
they buried him iu the border of his
inheritance in Timuath-serah, which
is in the hill country of Ephraim, on
the north of the mountain of Gaash.
Aud Israel served the Lord aU the
days of Joshua, and all the days of
the elders that outlived Joshua, and
had kno-wn all the work of the LoAd,
that he had wrought for Israel.

Judges 2, 6-9,
Now when Joshua had sent the
pbople away, the children of Israel
went every man unto his inheritance
to possess the land. And the peo
ple served the Lord all the days of
Joshua, and all the days of the elders
that outlived Joshua, who had seen
all the great work of the Lord, that
he had wrought for Israel. And
Joshua the son of Nun, the servant
of the Lord, died, being an hundred
and ten years old. And they buried
him in the border of his inheritance
in Timnath-heres, in the hill country
of Ephraim, on the north of the
mountain of Gaash,

(205 )

INDEX OE SUBJECTS.

Page
Age of Books, how to be Tested 49
Altars, Local - - 147
Anthropomorphism 96
Apocrypha, its Nature - 5
 its Testimony to the 0. T. 15
Authors of the Historical Books :
 Anonymous 10
 Prophetic - 17

Bible, . Jewish

2

 iu Jeshua's time

50

 in Ezra's time

- 52

 in Nehemiah's time

52

Book of the Law

20

Books, Form of

20

Canaan, Borders of - 129,130
Christ, His testimony to Moses 14
Chronicles, Compilation of the
Book -
,  r its Relation to Samuel and
' Kitags
— ^ — Genealogies in
Chronology, Biblical
Compass,-Points of
Conder, Tentwork in Palestine- 1 32
Criticism, Modern - - 194

- 36

42
118103131

David, his Era 27
Delitzsch, his Views - - 7
Deuteronomy, Compilation of
the Book - - - 43
 Speeches in, compared
with Exodus - 157

Ecclesiasticus, its Testimony to
theO.T. , 15
Eden, Garden of - 128
Editorship of Hebrew Books, its
Peculiarities - 42, 82
Egypt, "Writing in - - 25
Exodus, Compilation of the
Book - . - . 45
 The Era of - ' - 104
Ezra and the 0. T. Canon - 16
 Did he complete the
Chronicles ? - 36, 37
 the two Parts of his Book 37

Feasts, Hebrew

148

Genealogy, The word - 19
Genealogies in the 0. T, - 110
 their Importance to Israel 111

their Peculiarities
Generations
Genesis, Compilation of
Book -
God, Names of
Groves

the

111 9145
150169

Harper, Bible and Modern Dis
coveries - - - - 132
Hebrew, "Wealth in Topographi
cal Terms - 124
^— Dialects of - 159
 Foreign "Words in - 160
 Peculiar Terms - 160,162
 Stages in Language 165
High Places - - - - 146
Historical Books, their Contents
Tested - 100

206

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Page
Idols, Kinds of - t - 168
Inconsistencies in Text of O.T. 195
Inspiration - 6, 18, 196

Jair, two of the same Name - 71
Jamnia, Council of - - 5
Jehovah, its Pronunciation 151
 English Rendering - 152
 Origin - - l52
 Use of it in Genesis - 156
Jeremiah, his Share in the
Compilation of the Kings 35, 36
Jerome, his Old Testament 5
Jerusalem, its Name and Topo
graphy - - - 132
Jews, their Bible - - 2
 their View of the Penta
teuch- - 14
Josephus, his Bible - 4
Joshua, Compilation of the Book 40
Judges.CompilationoftheBook 40
 its Relation to Joshua 41,200

Kings, Compilation of the Book 29
Kuenen _ - 7

Law of Moses, referred to in
later Books - 51-61 135 139

 its Stages
 not kept by Israel -
 are tliere Interpolations
in it?
Leviticus, Compilation of the
Book -
Literature, the most Ancient,
its Transmission -

141

44

47

Maccabees, Books of, their Tes
timony to the 0. T. - 15, 16
Manuscripts, Hebrew 183
 their Peculiarities - 184
 their various Readings - 185

Page
¦ 187
• 168 3
25
101166

Masorah, the -
MeasuresMelito, his Bible ¦
Mesopotamia, early "Writing in
Modern Discoveries
Money, Kinds of -
Months, Jewish and Babylonian ,108
Monuments referred to in 0. T. 126
Moses, his Fidelity - 83
Musical Instruments 168

Names of Places explained 79
 Variations in - - 94
 Origin of ' 180
 Abbreviated - - - 180
Nehemiah and the 0. T. Canon 16
 his own Book 37
Nethinim - 76
New Testament, its "Verdict on
the Old - - ' - - 13
Ne-svtou, Sir Isaac, his View of
the 0. T. - - 6
Notes in the early Books ¦ 66-81
Numbers, Compilation of the
Book - - 43

Officials, Civil, Titles, of - - 142
Old Testament, its Spiritual
Value - - 197
 its Trustworthiness - 197
 prepares the Way for
Christ - - 199

Palestine Exploration Fund 132
Pentateuch, Compilation of the 42
 connected throughout - 62
Poetry in the Bible 171
 mixed with Prose - 172
 its Tendency to peculiar
Words ¦ - - - 173
 its Relation to Prophecy - 173
 Specimens of Egyptian
and Chaldsean - - 174
Priests, their Name - - 144

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

207

Priests distinct from Levites - 144
 Tribal and Levitical 144
 their Land Tenure - 145

Quotations of earlier Books in
later - - 50
 their Bearing on the State
of the Text - 188,189

Reckoning, Ways of - 95
Recorders 28
, Repetition, Tendency to - 93
Revelation - 46

Samuel, Compilation of theBook 27
 to what Tribe did he be
long? - 146
Scribes - - 21, 24
Seals - 20
Septuagint, its Text 187
Serpent, the Brazen 65
Shewbread - - - 161
Speeches, Reports of - 84

Page
Spelling, Variations in 176
 of Names of Things 1 7 6
 of Names of Places 177
 of Proper Names - 179
 of Foreign Names - 182
Tabernacle compared with the
Temple - - 163
Text, Hebrew, its Condition 183
 Variations in 188
Time, Hebrew Divisions of 107
Topography, its Prominence in
the 0. T. -124
 Stages in - 127
Torah, a Law - - 136
Transmission of earliest Litera
ture - 47
Tribes, the Twelve - 115

Weights 166
Welhausen - - - - 7
Writers, the Sacred, their Skill 95
 their Theology - 95
 their Idioms - - 96
Writing, its History 19-26

Zerubbabel, his Pedigree

113

( 209 )

INDEX OE TEXTS.

GENESI!

3,

Chap

, Ver.

Page

, Chap. Ver.

Page

12 -

10-

105
27 29, 37
- 142
Chap. Ver.
Page
13 -
7, 10
67
28 r 3 -
155
1 -
93
13
10-
62
28 18-
126
1 - 26-28
- 92
13 -
18- -
79
28 19 -
80
^ 1 27 - -
62
14 -
68,
79
1*32
29
115
2 2 - -
62
14 -
1
129
182
30 -
- 115
2 - 4 -
92, 156
14 -
17- -
133
30 - 28 -
- 23, 160
2 - 8 -
62
14 -
18- -
156
31 19, 34
- 169
2 - 8-14
128
15 -
2,8 -
-
155
32 28-
- - 58
2 19-
- 159
15
13-16 -
63,
105
32 - 29 -
60
2-4 -
93
15
18- -
62
32 - 30 -
156
3 17
- 62
16 -
14-
79
32 - 32 -
- 75, 148
3 24- -
156
17
1 -
155
33
63
4 - 1-26 -
156
17
7,8 -
62
33-17-
76
4 - 21 - -
168
18
1
126
33 - 19 -
63
4 - 23, 24 -
171
18
4, 8
.
126
34 - 26-29
- 94
5 - 1 - 21
, 25, 92
18 -
22- -
184
34 - 26 -
63
5-1,2
62
19 -
20, 22
80
35 -
178
5 - 1-32
157
19
24, 25 -
63
35 - 4 -
- 126, 127
5 29-
62
21
1-6, 33
_
158
36-8
126
6-9 -
- 167
21 -
30- -
126
36 14-
- 126
7 11- -
- 108
21
31 - -
75
35 19-
80, 129
8 - 4
128
22 -
168
35 - 20 -
- 127
8 - 5
108
22
6
-
162
35 - 22 -
63
8 - 21 -
62
22
14- -
79
133
35 - 22-26
- 116
9 - 6 - -
- 62
22 -
15-18
62
36 -
- 143, 195
9 - 25-27
171
23 -
-
127
36 1, 9
¦ 91
10 - -
128
23
2, 19 -
80
36 - 31 -
- 7, 69, 83
10 - 1, 32
¦ 91
23
2
185
37-2
92
10-15-
¦ 182
23 -
16- -
166
37 17-
177
10 15, 18 -
130
24 -
7 -
158
38
115
10-16- -
133
24 -
22- -
166
38 - 18 -
116
10 - 19 - -
- 129
25
12, 13
91
38 29-
182
11-3
66
26 -
16-
.
125
41 - 42 -
20
11 - 10, 27
91
26 -
19-
92
41 - 60-62
116
11-14
157
25 -
23 -
171
42
- 163
12 - - -
- 96
26
1
69
42 6
143
12 - 2 - -
62
26
24- -
158
43 14-
- 165
12 6
67
26 -
33- -
75
43 - 32 -
69
12 - 8 -
94
27
172
44 - 32 -
- 91
2J0

INDEX OF TEXTS.

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page.

Chap. Ver.

pase

46 - 26, 27

„

- 115

23

- 31

.

- 130

6-2-8 -

- 61

46 -34-

.

69, 115.

26

_

-,

163

7 - - -

- 93

47 - 26 -

75

25

- 39-

-

167

9 - 1 -

105

48 -

_

- 178

25

- 40-

-

93

10 11- -

105

48-3-

-

- 80

28

- 9 -

-

- 20

11 - 4 - -

- 64

48 - 16 -

-

- 161

28

10-

-

91

11-15- -

- 68

49

_

64, 172

29

- 22-24

-

144

11-26-

- 23

49 - 10, 28

_

¦- 116

29

- 40-

168
12 - 3 -
- 71
49 - 26 -
.
- 155
30
- 13-
-
- 167
12 - 8 - -
85, 174
49 - 29-32
63, 137
31
- 2, 6
-
- 116
13
- 117
49 - 30 -
_
- 80
33
- 11 -
-
- 85
13-8
- 179
50 11 -
- 75
34
-
-
64, 136
13 - 22 -
70
60 - 25 -
.
63
34
- 6 -
.
- 67
13 - 29-
- 133
34
- 13-
- 169
14 - - -
64
34
- 16-
-
- 62
15-39-
148'
EXODUS.
38
- 26-
166
16-18-
- 144
40
17-
105
19 -
- 43
2 24-
.
62
20 -
- 43
3 - 1
-
- 68
21 - - -
44, 172
3 - 2, 4, 6
-
163,154
LEVITICUS,
21 - 9
66
3 12-
60
21 -14- -
- 79
4 - 2 -
_
116
2
14-
.
- 109
21 - 25 -
126
6 1, 2, 22
152
4
14, 15
162
21 - 28, 29 -
- 44
5 - 6
_
24
6
- 15-
162
21 29 - -
170
6 - 3 -
_
163
6
9
- 90
21 30-
- 184
6 - 7 -
_
51
7
- 29-
94
23 - -
160, 172
6 - 13, 26
-
- 115
7
- 37-
90
24 -
172
6 - 14-26
, - 116
8
- 6 -
90
24 - 9 -
62
6 16, 19
-
92
18
21-
- ,170
25 - 10 -
65
6-24-
_
146
19
,
- 136
26
- 117
8-26-
.
- 69
19
- 36-
167
26 - 20 -
- 121
12 - 2
106
20
- 3 -
-
- 170
31 - 6
65
12-38-
64
21
- 23-
-
- 147
31 - 8 -
44
12 - 40 -
-
104, 106
23
-
-
19
31-60-
160
13 - 4 -
¦ 109
23
- 39-43
-
- 63
32 - 41 -
- 71
13 - 18 -
_
- 163
26
- 60,
64, 136,
33 - 2 -
- 23
13 - 19 -
63
138, 173
33 - 30-33
- 72
14-13-
- 57
26
- 26-
-
61
33 - 52 -
- 147
15 - -
_
143, 172
26
- 31 -
.
- 147
34 - 2-12
- 131
15 - 20 -
- 168
26
- 33-
-
53
15-27-
-
- 126
26
- 46-
- .45
16 -
- 64
27
- 16-
-
¦ 168
DEUTERONOMY.
16 - 35 -
-
94,97
27
- 34 -
-
-' 45
,
16 - 36 -
-
- 168
1-1
- 130
17
-
, - 179
1 - 3
- 105
17-14-
.
- 23
NUMBERS.
1 36 - -
- 60
20 11 -
_
62
2 - 6 ¦ -
- 163
20 - 22-26
_
- 136
1
- 17-
- 23
2 - 10-12, 20
-23 72
21 - 23 -
>
- 136
1
- 18-
- 23
2 - 24 - -
131
23 - 14 -
-
- 148
3
- 1
92
3 - li
72
INDEX OF TEXTS.

211

Chap. Ver. Page
3 ¦ 14 - - 71, 75
'4-2 -, 141
4 - 41-43 7 72
5 - 31, 32 - 137
7 - 3 - 52
7 - 7i 8 62
7 - 25 - - 70
8 3, 16 - 64
9 - 22-24 - 72
10 - 6, 7 - 72
12 - - - 137, 173
12 21 - - 63
12 - 32 - - 141
16 11 - - - 63
16-16- - 148
17 ¦ - 173
18 - • - 72, 173
18 15- - 18
23 - . - 65
24-6 - 57
25 17- - - 24
28 60, 64, 138
28 38 - - 51
28-30 - 173
29 - 9 - -' 58
29 - 23 - 63
29 - 27 - 23
30 1-4 63
30 - 10 - 23
31-9 - 23
31 19- - 23
32 - 138, 172
32 - 10 - 61
32 - 16 - - 166
32 - 31, 39 59
32 - 36 - 60
32 - 44 - -. - 43
33 - - 64, 138, 172

JOSHUA.
1 5, 9 - 66
1-14-- 163
1 - 14, 16 - 131
3 - 16 - - 126
3-16- 179
4 - 3 - - - 163
4 - 9 ' - 78
4- - 18 - - 126

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

4-19-

95

21 - 20 -

146

5 - 1 -

- - 11

22

- 147

5-9 ¦

76, 96, 132

23 14-

68

5 - 11, 12

- - 162

24 - - -

- 60

5 12-

64,70

24 - 2, 15 -

- 169

6-26-

- - 58

24 - 26 - 69,

126, 127

7 - 2

- 132

24 - 30 -

- 178

7 17-

- 110

24 - 32 -

63, 167

7-26-

75, 132

24 - 33 -

61, 146

8-28-

78

9-27-

- - 76

10 1
134
JUDGES,
10-13-
40,79
10 - 14 -
- 73
1-10-
- 80
10 27-
78
1 - 10-15,20,21,
11 3 -
- 133
27, 28
41
11 - 1-5
- - 132
1 16,20 -
60
11 - 20,-
72
1 - 26 -
- 75
12 -
132
1 - 30, 31, 35 - 178
13 -
132
2 - 1, 11-16
60, 96
13-10-
tl
2-6-9
- 41
13 - 21 -
143
2 11, 13
169
13 - .28 -
80
2 18-
60
14 -
132
4 - 11 -
60
14 - 7, 10
- 105
5
- 172
14 - 14, 15
- 77, 179
6 4, 5 -
188
15
60
5 - 9, 14
142
15 6
127
5-14- -
21
16 8
- - 133
5-16-
143
16 - 8, 9, ll
, 26 - 80
6-29-
142
15 - 63 -
77
6 - 8-13
- 60
16-17 -
60
6 - 16-
- 60
15-18
- 178
6 24- -
80, 147
16
60, 132
7 1
80, 132
16 10-
- 77
7 11-
- 163
17
60,132
7 22-
- 179
18 -
132
8 13- -
.- 178
18 1
59
8 14-
- 22
18 - 9 -
- - 23
8 29, 32 -
- 94
18 13-
- 77, 80
9 6 -
60, 127
18-17-
127
9 37-
132
18 - 28 -
, 179
10 - 3, 4 -
- 71
18 - 31 -
- - 59
11 - 14-24
- 60
19 -
- 132, 178
11 - 24-
- 172
19 - 50 -
- - 178
ll - 26 - -
- 105
20 -
- - 132
11-40- -
- 148
20 - 7 -
- 80
13 - 4, 5
- 61
21 - -66
132, 146,
13 -- 18 -
- 60
178
14-4
- 73
21 4,5
- - 146
14 - 14, 18 -
- 171
212

INDEX OF TEXTS.

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

14 - 18 -

- 178

9 1

110

12 -

- 119

16 ¦

- 41

9 9

79

12 31 -

- 67

16 - 9, 17 -

- 95

9 12-

- 147

13 -

- 162
16-19-
75,80
10 - 2
69, 127
13 1
181
16 -
41
10 12-
- 79
14 - 26 -
.
- 167
17-21
144
12 6-17
- 59
17 - 14 -
- 73
18-12-
- 75
13 - 6, 10
147
17-29-
-
162
18-30-
73, 185
14 - 3
110
18 18-
68
75, 133
19 - - .
- 41
14 - 4
132
21 - 2
- 76
19-10-
80
14 - 35-
147
21-19-
190
20 - 2
143
14 - 38 -
143
22 -
.
- 172
20 - 27 - -
61
14 - 61 -
180
23 -
_
119, 172
20 - 27, 28
144
15 -
59
23 16-
- 126
20 31 -
132
16 - 2
24
24 - 11 -
- 28
21 - -
- 177
16 - 1
110
21 12 -
- 80
17 - 1 -
177
21 - 19 - -
132, 148
17 - 4, 23,
51 - 162
23
- 41
17 - 5, 38
-• - 177
1. KINGS,
24
- 41
17 12 -
-110,113
17 18-
162
1 10-38
30
17 - 54 -
- 134
1-29-
98
,RUTJ-1
19 - 23, 24
79
2 - 2, 3
58
22 - 6 -
- 28
2 2-4
- 58
1 - 2 -
- 178
22 - 6
- - 126
3-5, 10,
11
- 152
2 - 5, 6
- 143
23 28 -
80
4 - 3-6
-
29
4-18-
- 91
27-6
- 76
4 - 7
143
4 - 18-22 -
111
30 26-
76
4-12-
-
- 179
31 13 -
126
66 - 1 -
.
- 164
106, 108
1. SAMUEL.
n. SAMUEL,
6 38-
7 - 9
-
- 108164
7-26-
- 168
1 1 110,146,178
1 -
- 172
7-40-
181
1 - 9 -
195
1 10-
- 160, 162
7-42-
.
- 67
1 - 3, 21
- 148
1-18-
-- 40, 79
7-46-
.
- 179
2
- 172
2 16-
- - 80
8 - 2
.
- 108
2 2; 6
- 59
2 ~ 24i
- - 132
8 - 4
- 146
2 - 10, 35
196
3 - 2-6
- 113
8 - 8
_
- 78
2 22-
195
3 3 •
77
9 - 21 -
.
77, 123
2 - 25 - -
- 73
4 - 3 -
77
10 - 22 -
- 160
3-7
164
4 - 5-7
- 94
11 - 3
.
- 142
4 - 1 -
95
6 - 6 -
81
11,- 5,33
_
170
4.8- -
- 69
5-8
76
11 - 7 ¦
- 170
4 - 21, 22
- 73
6 13-16
- - 113
11 - 31-39
_
- 30
5 5
- 76
6-20-
81
11 - 41 -
30
6 - 6 - -
69
6 8 -
- 76
12 19-
_
- 78
6-18- -
78
6 - 19 -
162
12 - 31 -
_
- 145
7-2
- 106
7 - 4-16
28
12 32-
.
- 148
7 12-
- 95
8 16, 17
28
14 - 6-16
_
30
7-17-
- 147
11-21-
- - 69
14 - 29 -
-
- 31
ZKDSX OF TEXTS.

213

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

15 - 2, 10

- 112

3 16-

113

24 - 11 -

179

16 ^ 13 - ¦

- 168

3 - 17, 19

114

25 5 -

29

16 - 1, 7, 12

33

3 17-

182

26

119

16 34-

58

3-21 -

118

26 1,14 -

181

18 -

68

3-22-

121

26 24-

29

19 4

68

3 - 23 - -

123

26 31 -

- 91

19 10-

147

4 - 13, 16, 21

- 66

27

119

21 3 -

111

4 - 17 - -

- 67

27 23-

56

22 - 47 -

143

4'- 31,41

120

27 24-

29

4 33, 38

118

27 25-31

119

4 - 41,43
- 77
28
164
II. KINGS.
6 1,2
66
28 4, 20
66
5 7 - -
112
28 - 11,18
164
2-22-6 13-
- 78
177
5 4 - -
120
28 17 -
- 166
6-17- -
6 - 23-26 -
119
- 120
29 - 29 -
27
8 8, 9
- 181
6 - - 112.146
8 22-
77,78
6 1,15
112
•' II. CHRON.
10 - 27 -
78
6-15- -
121
14-7
78"
6 49, 54-81
- 66
1 3,6
57
16-6
77,78
6 - 64-81 -
- 178
2 - 7
166
17 - 30 -
- 182
7 -
115
2 8
¦ 164
17 - 34,41 -,
76
7 9
- 91
3 1 -
¦ 133
18 - 4 - -
- 65
7 10-
- 56
3-14-
164
19 -
172
7 - 27-
56
4 , .17 -
179
21 lo, 16
- 52
8 - 28 -
- 91
4 19-
161
23 6 - -
144
8 - 30 -
180
5-2
81
23 11-
125
8 - 36 -
190
6 - 9
78
24 17 -
- 114
9-1
120
5 10-
67
24 - 18--
35
9 - 4 -
182
8 10-
143
25 - 8 -
- 106
9 14-3i
65
8 - 13-,
67
26 - 30 -
35
9 22- -
166
9 - 29 - -
30
9-41-
190
10 lo
78
11 4 -
81
ll - 2 -
- 31
1. CHRON.
11 13-
- 177
12 - 2-7 -
- 32
12-15-
- 126
12 16- 30,
31, 119
1 - - -
143
12-31-
- 23
13 - 22 - -
30
1-6
- 177
13 6
81
16 7
- 33
1 - 9 - -
- 181
13 11- -
- 78
16 - 11-
32
1 - 29, 31
- 91
15 - 27 - -
- 166
19 - 2 -
32
1 - 43 - -
- 69
16
- 172
20 - 2 - -
81
2
- 182
16 - 4 - -
- 29
20 - 17 -
- 56
2 - 7, 20
56
18-15- -
- 28
20 - 26 -
- 80
2-10- -
- 117
20 - 5 -
- 190
20 - 34 -
32
2 - 13-15 -
113
23 - 14-16 -
20
21-10-
78
2-18-
113
23 - 15 -
66
23 - 18 - -
141
2 - 22 - -
71
23 - 25, 26 -
- 56
24 - 6, 9 -
57
2 - 30 - -
113
23 - 27 -
141
24 - 27 -
- 33
3
114
23 - 28-32
56
25-4
- 57
3 - 11 - -
- 123
24 - 6 - -
- 119
29 - 26 -
- 28
214

INDEX OF TEXTS.

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap

.Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

30

- 74

1 -

6 -

62

40 - 13-17

- 188

30 - 3 - -

- 165

2 -

7

166

63 - - -

- 188

30 - 6,13,16,18- 57 1

3 -

29-

120

68 7, 8

- 188

30 - 6-9

57

6 -

1

- 181

70

188

30 - 25, 27

146

6

16- -

108

76-2

- 133

31-15- -

179

7

6-73

188

78 12, 43

71

32-1

166

7 -

6-73

38

78 - 69-61

74

33 - 8

67

8

19,53

122- 6 - -

134

33-19- -

34

8 -

6

20

34 - 25 - -

79

8

10-

166

35-4
141
8-
17-
^ 179
PROVERBS,
36 - 10 -
114
9
- 63
36 21 - -
149
9
8
- 20
9 -
38-
- 165
6 - 7 - -
- 143
10 -
123
11 26-
163
EZRA
1010
32- 34-
167
- 165
1 9 -
- 162
11 -
3, 4
121
ISAIAH.
1 - 8 -
165
11 -
21
- 76
2
.2 - 2
2 66- -
2 62-
2 - 69 - -
122 179
- 77
- 19
165,177
1111.1212 -
12
24- 25-35 -
11,22
23-
--121 178123 38
55
6 1, 3, 5, 8
8 - 1 -
19 18- -
30 - 8 - -
37 - 14 - -
152 22
- 178
- 22
3 2 51,
3 - 4
114,182 - 53
1313 -
22,23
56
- 123
39 1 -
41 19 -
22
- 163
3 - 7 - -
3 10, 11
166
- 51
1313 -
26-
28-
55
123
49 - 23 -
51 3
- 142 68
4 - 7, 11
165
66-1
163
4 - 10 -
6 - 1 -
182 51
ESTHER
66 - 10 -
66 21
132
- 145
6 1,2
21
6 14- -
112
1
18- -
- 142
6 - 14, 18
51
2 -
16-
- 108
6-16- -
165
3
7
- 108
JEREMIAH.
7 1-5
111
3
13-
- 108
7 - 6, 11 -
21
8 -
9 - -
- 108
22 11-
- 114
7-10 - -
- 37
22 - 30 -
114
8
123
36-2
85
8 - 2 - -
- 121
JOB.
36 - 18 -
- 21
8 20-23
, 76, 122
36 - 23 - -
- 22
8-27-
177
9
2- -
178
48 - 45, 46
- .44
9 -
- 52
41
6 - -
163
52 -
- 188
10 - 18-24 -
- 37
42 -
11 - '¦ -
167
52 - 1-34
- 36
NEHEMIAH.
PSALMS
LAMENTATIONS.
1 1 - -
108, 165
2 ¦
7, 12 -
- 159
1 - 3 -
- 165
14 ¦
- -
- 188
1 - 1 - -
- 142
INDEX OF TEXTS.

215

EZEKIEL.

MICAH.

MARK,

Chap. Ver.

Page

Chap. Ver. Page

Chap. Ver.

Page

4 - 1 -

22

.6 - 6 - - - 143

10 - 3

- 14

4-5

- 106

10 - 6 -

14

27 - 6 - -

¦ 164

12 - 26 - -
14
28 - 13 - - -
68
ZEPHANIAH,
44 - 10-16 -
144
45 12 -
167
1 - 9 - . - 76
LUKE,
47 - 15-21
131
•1 11- - 163
1-46-
^ 174
DANIEL.
HAGGAI,'
2-49-3 27-
24 44-
- 149114 13
5 -, 11 -
112
1-6 - 51
9 - 4 -
52
ZECHARIAH.
JOHN.
HOSEA.
1-17- -
13
1 1 - 112
1-45-
13
2-16-
132
1-4 51^
6-46-
- 13
1.0 5 -
144
1 - 7 - - 108
7 19-
13,14
12-7
163
2 8 51
7 7, 12 - 61
8 - 8, 12 51
7 22-
14
JOEL,
9 7 - -143
11 12- - 166
ACTS,
2 - 3 -
68
12 - 5, 6 - 143
2-16-
13
3 - 2,12
133
2-25-
2 - 29 - -
13
- 127
MATTHEW.
2 34- -,
13
AMOS,
4-25-
13
1-12- 114
6 14 -
14
6 - 1 -
23
19-7 14
8-28-
- 13
8 - 6, 6 - -
163
27-8 81
13-9
80
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God's testimony thereto.

2 CHRONIC

Before
CHRIST 1004.
\ Or, right.
t Heb. io
the prayer
of thit place.
I Fs. 132. 8,
9, 10, 16.
( 1 Chr. 28.
S,
u Neh. 9. 25.

their H cause, and forgive thy people
which, have sinned against thee.
40 Now, my God, let, I beseech thee,
thine _eyes be open, and let thine ears
he attent funto the prayer that ia made
in this place.
41 Now '^therefore arise, O Lord God,
into thy ' resting plftce, thou, and the
ark of thy strength : let thy priests, O
Lord God, be clothed with salvation, and'
let thy saints « rejoice in goodness.
42 O Lord God, turn not away the face
of thine anointed : * remember the ^ mer-i
cies 7 of David thy servant.

Var. Rend.— fi F. 42. loving-Mndneeses (Ps.
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A BIBLE for PREACHERS, TEACHERS, & STUDENTS.
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The Akoheibhop ot Toek:—
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The Dean of St. Paui's:—
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Thb Bishop Op Exeter (De. Biokeesteth) :—
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The Bishop op Gtioucestek :—
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The Late Bishop op Manchester (De. Feasee) :—
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The Bishop op Liverpooi.:—
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I shall be glad to recommend your work."
' The Eev. De. Edeesheim:—
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The Eev. Joseph Paeker, D.D. :—
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*' I cannot imagine how this Bible can be improved in any important particular."
The Eev. J. H. Vincent, of Chautauqua.
" The book is indeed a marvel, a library of learning, a book of books, concerning * The
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The Bishop op Ontario:—
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""We trust to see a copy in the hands of every Clergyman."
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best authorities, and with the Aids from the Bible for Bible Teachers."
Chuech Eeview':—
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a Preacher's Bible, capitally adapte,d for being taken into the pulpit."
Chuech Quaeteelt Review:—
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small a space. A monument of well-intentioned zeal, aud well-directed skill."
EocK ;—
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to offer such assistance.
" Supersedes all other One- Volume Bibles."
Academy :—
" The Queen's Printers have gone the right way to produce a valuable hook. They -
have selected for treatment important subjects, aud then entrusted them to the hands
of always trustworthy, aud sometimes eminent specialists. Thus we have admirable
papers. " The price of the book brings it within the reach of all persons."
Expositor :—
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compilations by unknown hands, but original papers written by scholars acknowledged
to be in the front rank Of their several departments ... It would be impos
sible to select scholars more competent ... It would not be easy to match them ;
and their work is not only accurate and reliable, but singularly thorough and
comprehensive." Baptist :—
"Quite a wonderful compendium of Biblical information. No Sunday School
Teacher should be without it,
Peesetteeian Chueohman :—
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results of a careful criticism of the Sacred Texts, and of philological and antiquarian
research in the departments of Biblical literature, were only accessible tc Oriental
scholars ; now they are within the reach of the entire Christian public."

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EYBE Sf SPOTTISWOODE'S TEAGEEB'S BIBLES.
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LrviNd Waters:—
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Church Union Gazette:—
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British and Colonial Stationer:—
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School Guardian :—
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"TheGlossary in the ' Aids ' further seives to trace a familiar expression, or state-
mept with context, or to trace the varying usages of words.
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scholar might flnd great assistance. The whole historical materials, for example,
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North British Mail:—
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Wesletan Methodist Sunday School Magazine :—
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Standard :—
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Queen :—
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The Christian:—
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Glasgow News :—
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AlJEEDEEN FEEE PEESS :—
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Contempoeaet Eeview:—
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results of research in the most concise form."
Belpast News Letter-:-
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"Westeen Moening News :—
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Birmingham Daily Post; —
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of more solid value than pages of comment.
¦" They are fullest and of highest value in the New Testament, but there is not a page
that is not illuminated by them." ,
Literary VV"orld :—
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acquainted with the originals. The general reader having mastered the marvellously
clear and full notes will in many cases be independent of commentators. Passages
full of perplexity grow luminous in their altered form, eg. Ps. 110.3; Isa. 9. 1;
Heb. 2. 9. Suitable for general use in the Christian home as well as by professional
students. This handy volume will save hours of icareful research."
"No minister's or Teacher's library, and no intelligent English home, ought to be
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People's Journal: —
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Cheistian:—
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Sui^DAY School Chronicle :—
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many minds.
""When such names as Cheyne and Sayce are associated with a work there is no
need to enlarge upon its value and completeness.
" The Variorum supersedes all other Teacher's Bibles."
Beitish Quaeteely Review:—
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. " It does more perhaps for the elucidation' of the obscurities and difficulties than
anything yet published.
"Both in design and execution a work of singular ingenuity and ability, the fruit
of ripe scholarship and much literary versatility. The names of the editors are a
sufficient guarantee of this. The volume is the result of many lines of life-long labour.
"Reverent and conservative in feeling .... freely uses all the lights of the
most advanced scholarship.
" Only Mr. Sayce could have so threaded on one string the arohieological allusions
and difficulties of the Bible narrative. The article on The Bible and the Monurnents
is singularly able and valuable."
Contempoeary Review: —
THE QUEEN'S PRINTERS' VARIORUM BIBLE AND THE "WESTMINSTER
EEVISION.
By Eeginald Stuart Poole, F.E.S., of the British Museum, Correspondent
of the Institute of France, t&c, <&c.
"The scholars who have undertaken the new edition of the English Bible,, produced
by the Queen's Printers, have exactly met the want of the time. Thoroughly ac
quainted with the Hebrew and Greek text as well as the ancient versions, and with
the position of criticism, they have combined in the most concise form the leading \
results of research. Commentary. they have not given beyond the occasional short
explanation of a phrase or word, for they have judged rightly that a work of the kind
to be lasting should leave each reader to be his own commentator. Thus the edition
has no tincture of theological opinion. It belongs to no school nor even to any Church.
Everyone may draw his own deductions. Here are simply the first elements. It may
be added that the results of criticism, as here fairly presented, dissipate instead of
causing difficulty, and strengthen faith instead of suggesting doubt, so that the least
learned reader who knows enough to master a statement in English wins the flower ot
long study without the thorns of controversy, which have torn many in the search.
" It may be well to point out in more detail the degree of change which has been
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have the support of the generality of scholars. In one respect there is a consistent
advance throughout the work. • It shows a thorough acquaintance with the principles
of Hebrew and Greek grammar. Competent Greek grammatical knowledge we ex-
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would have been found had not Mr. Driver been one of the editors. This is said in no
disparagement of his brilliant colleague, Mr. Cheyne ; and it may be well to explain
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knowledge' of the niceties of Hebrew grammar, and especially of the tenses, which are
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SELECTION

OF ACTS OF PARLIAMENT.

Archdeaconries Acts.

/7

6 & 7 Will. 4. 0. 77

s. d.
0 6

13 & 14 Vict. 0. 94

o'

a.6

3 & 4 Vict. c. lis

0 114

31 & 32 Vict. c. 114

0

34

4 & 6 Vict. c. 39

0 64

37 & 38 Vict. c. 63

0

2

Provisions as

to Archdeaconries in certain Dioceses.

London, Winchester, EocHESTEK, |
Chester, Durham, Lichfield,
and St. Alean's :
Lincoln, Liverpool,. Man
chester, Newcastle, Ripon,
38 & 39 Vict. 0. 34 -
- 0 6
Southwell, Wakeeield, and
41 & 42 Vict. c. 68 -
0 6
York:
41 & 42 Vict. c. 68 -
0
6
Exeter and Truro :
Wales (Annexation of certain
39 & 40 Vict. c. 64 -
0 34
Canonries to Archdeaconries) :
41 & 42 Vict. c. 44 -
0 34
6 & 7 Vict. c. 77 -
0
2
Cathedral Acts.
3 & 4 Vict. c. 113
- 0 114 81 & 32 Vict. c. 114
0
34
4 & 5 Vict. c. 39
- 0 64 41 & 42 Vict. 0. 68
Bishopric Acts.
0
5
6 & 7 "Will. 4. c. 77
0 5
26 & 27 Vict. 0. 36 -
0
2
5 & 6 Vict. 0. 26
0 34
29 & 30 Vict. c. Ill -
0
6
13 & 14 Vict. c. 94
0 5
61 & 62 Vict. c. 66 (Suffragan's Nomi
23 & 24 Vict. c. 124
0' 8
nation) ...
0
1
Special Bishopric Acts.
SoDOK AND Man- 1 & 2 Vict. o. 30 0 2
Liverpool, Newcastle, South
Manchester— 10 & ll Vict
C.108- 0 2
well, & "Wakefield -41 & 42
Vict. c. 68 
Newcastle (Dean and Chapter)—
0
6
St. Alban's— 38 & 39 Vict, c
.34 - 0 6
Truro— 39 & 40 Vict. u. 64
0 34
47 & 48 Vict. c. 33
0
34
60 & 51 Vict. c. 12
- 0 14
Bribtol-^7 & 48 Vict. c. 66
0
2
Burial Acts (England and "Wales).
Cemeteries Clauses Aci>— 10 & ll
Burial Grounds (Sites)— 36 & 37
Vict. c. 65 -
0 64
Vict. c. 60
0
2
Burial (Metropohs)— 16&16Vict.
c. 86 0 10
,„ „ (Open Spaces)—
44 & 46 "9^10^0.34
0
6
(General)— 16 & 17 Vict.
Nonconformists— 43 .& 44
c. 134
0 2
Vict. c. 41
0
34
(Boroughs)— 17 & 18 Vict.
44 & 45
0.87
- 0 34
Vict. c. 2
0
2
(General)— 18 & 19 Vict.
c. 128 - - 0 Si
20&2lVict.c.81 0 5
23 &MVict. C.64 0 2
Disused Burial Grounds (Erec
tion of Buildings)— 47 & 48 Vict.
e. 72 -
Public Health (Interment) Act
42 4 43 Vict. c. 31
0 0
2 2
34&35Vict.c.3S 0 2
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0
2
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Church Building Acts.

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1 1

3 & 4 Vict. 0. 60

69 Geo. 3. o. 134

0 8

6 & 7 Vict. c. 37

3Geo.4. 0. 72 -

0 10

8 & 9 Vict. c. 70

5 Geo. 4. c. 103 -

0 34

11 &12 Vict. c. 37

7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 72

0 2

14 & 16 Vict. c. 97

1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 38

0 64

19 & 20 Vict. c. 65

1 & 2 Vict. c. 107

0 6

19 & 20 Vict. c. 104

2 & 3 Vict. 0. 49

- 0 6

32 & 33 Vict. u. 94

s.

d.

0

5

0

5

0

64

0

2

0

64

0

2

0

6

0

34

•,* These Acts set forth the powers of the Commissioners for building and enlarging
churches; and for the formation of distinct and separate parishes, district parishes,
district chapelries, and consolidated chapelries. They also relate to Patronage, Endow
ments, &c. By the Act of 1866 (19 & 20 Vict. c. 66) their powers are transferred to the
Ecclesiastical Commissioners.

Church Estates Commission Acts.

13 & 14 Vict. c. 94
22 & 23 Vict. c. 46
Annual

6&7"Will.4.c. 77
13 & 14 Vict. c. 94
29 & 30 Vict. c. Ill

23 & 24 Vict. c. 124
29 & 30 Vict. 0. Ill

are made by the Church Estates Commissioners, average cost
Id. post free.
Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts.
0 5 36 & 37 Vict. c. 64 0
0 6 38 & 39 Vict. c. 71 -0
- 0 6 47&48Vict.c. 65 (Church Building) 0
Annual Reports are made by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners at an average
cost of 9d. post free.

Marriage Acts.

4 Geo. 4. c. 76 -
6 & 7 Will. 4. 0. 86 -
7 Will. 4. & 1 Vict. c. 22

19 & 20 Vict. c. 119 - - 0 64
49 & 60 Vict. c. 14 (Extension of Hours) 0 2
61 & 52 Vict. c. 28 (Validation) - - 0 1

Registration of Births, Deaths, and Marriages Acts.
1836-6 & 7 "Will. 4. c. 86 - -081 1874—37 & 38 Vict. o. 88 -
1837-7Will.4. &lVict. c. 22- - 0 6 |
Tithe Rentcharge, Commutation, and Redemption Acts.

6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 71 -

. 1 24

14 & 15 Vict. c. 63 - 0

2

7 Will. 4. & 1 Vict. c. 69

0 34

23 & 24 Vict. c. 93 - 0

64

1 & 2 Vict. 0. 64

0 2

31 & 32 Vict. c. 89 - 0

a

2 & 3 Vict. c. 62

0 64

36 & 37 Vict. c. 42 0

2

3 & 4 Vict. c. 15

0 64

41 & 42 Vict. c. 42 - 0

2

6 & 6 Vict. c. 54

0 6

46 & 46 Vict. 0. 37 (Com. Returns) - 0

5

9 & 10 Vict. c. 73

0 6

48 & 49 Vict. c. 32 - - - 0

2

10 & 11 Vict. c. 104 -

0 2

49 & 50 Vict. 0. 64 - - - 0

34

Reverts by Tithe Commissioners are contained in Annual Report of Land
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Sundry Acts relating to Ecclesiastical Matters, &c.

Clergy, Resignation— 34 & 35 Vict.
c. 44-
„ „ of Holy Orders—
33&34Viot.c.91
„ Sequestration — 34 & 35
"Vict. c. 46 - -
„ Fees on Induction- 30 & 31
Vict. c. 135
„ Sale of Livings by Lord
Chancellor- 26 Vict.o.l20
Ecclesiastical Dilapidations— 34
& 35 Vict. c. 43
„ 35 & 36 Vict. c. 96
Glebe Lands- 51 & 62 Vict. c. 20 -
Incumbents in certain cases to he
Vicars— 31 & 32 Vict. c. 117
Pluralities Act, 1838—1 & 2 Vict.
c. 106 ¦
„ 1886 — 48 & 49
Vict. c. 54 -
„ 1887-60 & 51
Vict. c. 68 -
Private Chapels— 34 &. 35 Vict.
0.66
„ Patronage— 1 & 2 VTill. 4.
0. 38 -
Public "Worship REeuLATioN—
37 & 38 Vict. 0. 85
Sermons not to be copied without
consent— 6 & 6 "Will. 4. c. 65
Uniformty Act — l Ehz. c. 2
,. 14 Car. II. c. 14
Uniformity Amendment— 36 & 36
Vict. c. 36 -

Benefices Resionation— 34 & 35
Vict. 0. 44

s. 0

d.
34

„ 1887—50 & 61
Vict. c. 23

0

1

Chapel (Certifying)— 18 & 19 Vict.
C.81

0

34

Church, Breaking into— 24 & 25
Vict. c. 96 -

1

54

Brawling in — 23 & 24
Vict. 0.32 -

0

2

„ Setting fire to, or riotous
demolition of— 24 & 25
Vict. 0.97 -

0 114

Church Discipline— 3 & 4Vict.c.86

0

34

Churchyards, Consecration of—
30 & 31 Vict.
c. 133 -

0

34

„ 30 & 31 Vict.
- c. 135

0

2

Churchwardens' Act— 8 & 9 Vict.
c. 70 - - - . . .

0

64

Curate, Fees on Induction— 30 &
31 Vict. c. 136

0

2

„ Stipend during Sequestra
tion of Living— 1 & 2Vict.
c. 106

1 104

Compulsory Church Rates Abo
lition -31 & 32 Vict. c. 109

0

2

Clerical Disabilities— 33 & 34 Vict.
c.91

0

2

„ Subscription — 28 & 29
Vict. c. 122 -

0

34

jf.

d.

Q

34

0

2

0

2

0

2

0

8

0 0
0

9422

0

2

1104

0

34

0

1

0

2

0

64

0

6

0
00

2
34
64

- 0 34

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